ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell Untversity Library 
 SF 279.H4 
 
 Points of the horse; a treatise or* the co 
 
 3 1 
 
 924 003 167 685 
 
POINTS OF THE HORSE 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED HORSE^BREAKLNG, Second Edition. 
 
 Re- written and greatly enlarged. Crown 8vo., buckram, ^is. 
 
 *' The best work on Horse-Breaking under a new system we have seen."— T^^^ Field. 
 
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 FRIEDBERGER AND FRCEHNEES VETERINARY 
 I* A T'HOLOGY. Translated from the original German of the recently- 
 published Fourth Edition, and annotated by Capt. M. H. Hayes, 
 F.R.C.V.S., author of •* Points of the Horse," etc. Royal 8vo., cloth. 
 
 \In the Press. 
 
Dixon & Sons. 
 
 The Duke of Westminster's Ormonde. 
 
 Clarence HaiLey, Neivmarket. 
 
 Mr. C. G. Duff's Cloister. 
 
 Frontispiece. 
 
POINTS OF THE HORSE 
 
 A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON EQUINE 
 CON FORMA TION 
 
 BY 
 
 M. HORACE HAYES, FR.CVS., 
 
 LaU Capkiin " The Buffs ^ 
 
 AUrHOk Oh ** VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE OWNERS,' 
 
 " RIDING ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY, ' 
 
 ** ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING,'* ETC 
 
 209 REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS, AND 200 DRAWINGS 
 Chiefly by J H OSWALD BROWN 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 Ktoiicd ani I f2 RLp^oiuchous of Photograj)h'^ xiied 
 
 LONDON 
 1 HACKER <k CO, 2, CREED LANE, LUDGATE HILL, F.C 
 CALCUTTA THACKER, SPIiNiK AND CO. 
 
 1897 
 
 [4// nghis reserved ] 
 
LONDON 
 POINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, Limited, 
 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CH-VRING CROSS. 
 
 (o) tbods 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 During the years I spent trying to get illustrations for 
 the first edition of this book, I laboured under the great 
 disadvantage — as regards my readers in England — of 
 living abroad in countries where it was difficult or 
 impossible to find many of the types of horseflesh, the photo- 
 graphic reproduction of which I knew was necessary for 
 the attainment of the best result Not being able to afford, 
 from a monetary point of view, the luxury of a further post- 
 ponement of publication, I issued the work, which was so 
 kindly accepted by the public that the entire edition was 
 exhausted within six months. Having by that time settled 
 down in Melton Mowbray, I became aware that not alone 
 were the illustrations in the book far from complete ; but 
 that, to do the subject justice, I required to renew my 
 acquaintance with certain classes of English horses, and 
 especially with hunters. Hence, instead of meeting the 
 demands of the literary market by an immediate reprint, I 
 continued my studies among horses for two years in 
 Leicestershire and one year in Cheshire ; hunting, breaking, 
 training, and practising as a veterinary surgeon. All that 
 time I kept the needs of a new edition in view, and received 
 such great kindness from owners of horses and from owners 
 of photographs of horses, that I am now able to present to 
 my readers 142 new reproductions of photographs out of the 
 209 contained in the present edition. I trust that the new 
 material I have been able to put in the letterpress will prove 
 as useful as the additions to the illustrations. 
 
VI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 I have enlarged the size of this book, and have re-arranged 
 the photographs, so as to faciUtate reference. The pictures 
 of horses and other animals have been done, as nearly as 
 possible, on a scale of 2^. 
 
 For allowing me to photograph, or to use photographs 
 of, their horses for this book, I have the honour to thank 
 H.R.H the Prince of Wales, Prince Henry of Pless, 
 H.H. the Maharajah of Patiala, H.H. the Maharajah of 
 Kooch Behar, Lady Sybil Tollemache, Lord Londonderry, 
 Lord Belper, Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil, Lord Marcus 
 Beresford, the Hon. W. Anson, Sir Walter Gilbey, Captain 
 Powell, Captain G. S. Williams, Mr. H. T. Barclay, Mr. 
 Buckmaster, Mr. P. Crawford, Mr. C. G. Duff, Mr. John 
 Gilmour, Mr. Helgesen, Mr. E. D. Miller, Mr. Tom Mitchell, 
 Mr. E. Mucklow, junr., Mr. Muntz, M.P., Mr. John Parnell, 
 Mr. J. E. Peat, Mr. H. C. Stephens, M.P., Mr. Joseph 
 Wainwright, Mr. R. H. Walker, Mr. W. H.Walker, Messrs. 
 John and James White, Mr. Horace Wolton, and other 
 gentlemen. I beg to thank Professor Wallace (for the photo- 
 graph of Queen of Trumps, which has appeared in his 
 Farm Live Stock of Great Britain), the Shire Horse Society 
 (for the photographs of Bury Victor Chief, Rokeby Harold, 
 and Rokeby Fuchsia), the Suffolk Horse Society (for the 
 photograph of Chieftain s Champion), Mr. Frank Haes, Mr. 
 J. Cowell, Mr. R. Hotz, Messrs. Dixon & Sons, Mr. C. Reid, 
 Mr. Clarence Hailey, Mr. W. A. Rouch, Messrs. Barrauds, 
 Messrs. Schreiber, Mr. C. Tadman, and Mr. H. R. Gibbs, 
 for the photographs they have allowed me to use. A group 
 in which the mare and foal in Fig. 352 is included, has been 
 published in the Badminton Magazine. Figs. 237, 361, 362, 
 402 and 403 have appeared in Modern Polo. 
 
 JX7NI0R Army and Navy Club, 
 
 St, James's Street,! S.W. 
 
 1st December, i8g6. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Much as Englishmen pride themselves on being good " judges '' of a 
 horse, the fact remains that exact ideas on the important subject of 
 Conformation are current neither in the traditions of our "horsey ^^ 
 people, nor in our literature. The few English authors who have 
 written on it, have done so in a fragmentary manner, and have 
 contented themselves for the most part with laying down rule-of- 
 thumb maxims for the blind acceptance of their readers. The 
 French, on the contrary, have written on rextirieur, several elaborate 
 books upon which they have expended an amount of scientific 
 knowledge that does them infinite credit. It must be admitted that 
 although they have proved themselves, in this respect, much superior 
 in scientific research to our countrymen, their works seem to show that 
 their experience has been gained more in the study and dissecting 
 room, than in the stable and in the field. Both classes of authors, I 
 venture to submit, have erred in trying to make general rules suitable 
 to all kinds of horses, instead of pointing out that the standard of 
 shape should, to a great extent, vary according to the work demanded. 
 I may mention that illustrations of horses or of special " points ** of 
 these animals drawn without the aid of photography, having a bias 
 difficult to be repressed, render the ideas of the artist more 
 accurately than they portray the realities of nature. 
 
 In the attempt to conform to the requirements of truth, I have, as 
 far as practicable, relied on photography for illustration. This art 
 not alone gives exact representations, with marvellous minuteness of 
 detail, but has completed the solution (begun hy Professor Marey) of 
 the once vexed question of the action of the horse's limbs during the 
 various forms of movement, and has accordingly afforded us, in our 
 present study, data which are as instructive as they are reliable. As 
 I have written this book for non-scientific readers^ as well as for those 
 who desire to thoroughly master the subject ; I have placed in small 
 print the few chapters which I have devoted to the anatomical and 
 mechanical details which were necessary to render the work complete. 
 A perusal of the large print chapters will give a good general view of 
 
viii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION, 
 
 the practical side of the subject, and, in most cases, the reasons for the 
 opinions advanced. The information contained in the small print 
 ones is, however, indispensable for the full comprehension of all the 
 principles discussed, and, as it is of a very elementary character, I 
 trust it will not be neglected. We must here remember that the 
 horse is a living machine, the capabilities of which cannot be accurately 
 gauged without a knowledge of its construction, and of the principles 
 of its working. Having treated on Soundness and Age of Horses in 
 another book, I have omitted these subjects entirely from the present 
 one. I must, however, state that as they are directly connected with 
 the question of a hoise " standmg '* work, it is impossible to judge his 
 capabilities with a near approach to correctness without a knowledge 
 of vetennary science. 
 
 Besides the new features in this book to which I have already 
 drawn notice, I may mention that I have tried to arrive at a know- 
 ledge of the respective " points " of speed and strength in the horse, 
 by examining the conformation of other animals that are distinguished 
 by the possession of one or other of these " gifts " in a high state 
 of perfection. Also, I have made a more exhaustive enquiry into 
 the nature of the paces and of the leap of the horse than has 
 previously been attempted ; my object being to obtain from it 
 exact deductions as to the best kind of conformation for various 
 forms of work. 
 
 At the suggestion of my friend, Veterinary Colonel Anderson, 
 I began, about fifteen years ago, to write a book on the Points of 
 the Horse, which subject I resolved to treat according to the 
 time-honoured methods of my literary predecessors. I worked at it 
 while studying to become a veterinary surgeon, and after that at 
 Newmarket, where I went to reside in order to increase my know- 
 ledge of English thoroughbreds. For this, every facility was given 
 me by my kind friends, Mr. John Hammond, Edwin Martin, 
 Jarvis, Tom. Jennings, Junr., Alf. Sadler, R. Sherwood, and others, 
 who were always glad to show me their horses, and discuss their 
 various points. When the book was completed in 1883, I despatched 
 the manuscript to my publishei's by the hand of a friend, who, by 
 an extraordinary piece of good luck, lost it so effectually that I 
 have not seen it since. While suffering from the shock caused by 
 the loss of the results of seven years' toil, I happened to read Professor 
 Marey's Machine Animale (Animal Mechanics), and before I got 
 half through it, I gi-asped the fact that I had been working in an 
 entirely wrong groove, and that my careless friend had, most 
 fortunately, saved me from publishing a book which would not have 
 satisfied my more matured judgment. In 1884 I gave in London 
 a short course of private lectures on the conformation of the horse 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix 
 
 to some of the best known English artists. While endeavouring to 
 convey instruction, I found great help from the use of a few photo- 
 graphs I had by me as illustrations, and accordingly determined to 
 learn photography, and to utilise it in the preparation of the new book 
 on the " shape and make " of horses which I had already begun, though 
 on different "lines" to those on which the lost volume had been 
 completed. On the following year I went abroad on a horse-breaking 
 tour, and have spent the eight years which have elapsed since then 
 in hard practical work (breaking, trainmg for racing and chasing, and 
 horse dealing) among horses in India, Burma, Ceylon, China, Japan, 
 Egypt, South Africa, England and elsewheie. The facilities afforded 
 by such an active and public life have enabled me to procure for 
 this book a number of illustrations which it would have been 
 impossible for me to have obtained under less favoui'able circum- 
 stances. No one who has not made the attempt oneself, can form 
 an idea of the difficulty there often is in getting horses which have 
 the required " points " (bad or good). For instance, I once examined 
 600 horses belonging to a dealer, and only obtained one specimen 
 for my camera. Another time, a search through the troopers of two 
 cavaliy regiments was fruitless of results. For the photographs in 
 this book, I have "run my eye*' over certainly more than 10,000 
 horses ! From this statement my readers will be able to form some 
 idea of the extreme kindness and forbearance with which I have 
 been treated by my horse-owning friends. Having obtained an 
 animal with a required " point," the next thing to do was to photo- 
 graph him, which frequently involved the expenditure of much time 
 and trouble on account of the special character of the work. 
 
 Among the gentlemen to whom I am indebted for having granted 
 me permission to have their horses photographed, I have the honour 
 to number : His Grace the Duke of Westminster, Colonel Anderson, 
 Captain Woolmer, Captain Mowbray of the Black Watch, Mr. W. H. 
 Walker, Mr. A. A. Apcar, Mr. Tom. Jennings, Junr., Mr. Spooner 
 Hart, Messrs. Milton and Co., Messrs. Ralli and Co. of Sydney 
 and Calcutta, Messrs. Cook and Co., Mr. Oscar Dignam, Mr. E- 
 Gregory, Mr. Vansittart, Mr. Steve Margarett of Melbourne, Mr, 
 John Stevens of New Zealand, and Colonel Simpson. I am greatly 
 obliged to Major Nott, Mr. Frank Haes, and Mr. Dixon, 112 Albany 
 Street, N.W., for the negatives they have lent me ; to Sir William 
 Flower for allowing me to take photographs of Figs. 379, 380 and 
 381, in the South Kensington Museum; to Professor C. Stewart for 
 similar permission with respect to Figs. 375, 3^3. 388 and 392, in 
 the Museum of the R. C. S. ; and to the Zoological Society for the 
 loan of Figs. 363, 366 and 367. The action shown in the figures 
 of the paces and of the leap has been adopted from the admirable 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 photographs done by Mr. E. Muybridge, and published in his Animal 
 Locomotion; although the artistic "treatment" of the horses is 
 original. This matchless American work is solely a collection of 
 photographs, and does not contain any analysis of the movements of 
 the horse. I may also mention that the photographs of Anschutz, 
 on the same subject, are excellent. 
 
 In order to facilitate comparison, I have tried, as far as I have 
 been able, to get the portraits of the horses, asses and zebras which 
 are in this book, done to a uniform scale, namely, i to 20. I have 
 added an index, which I have tried to make as easy of reference 
 and as exhaustive as possible. 
 
 While strictly confining myself to the limits which bound the 
 subject of Equine Conformation, I have had, while writing this book, 
 the fortunate opportunity of throwing light on many points of 
 horse knowledge which T have been, hitherto, unable to discuss in 
 print. I therefore hope that the appearance of this work will help 
 to complete what I have already written, in my books on veterinary 
 science, riding, breaking, training and stable management ; and that 
 they and it will now form a useful horseman's library. 
 
 Without the skilful aid and kindly sympathy of the late Mr. 
 J. H. Oswald Brown, I would not have been able to have finished 
 this book, even in its present imperfect form. Since the year 1884 
 we laboured together on this subject The pleasure in knowing 
 that the work, after innumerable corrections and revisions, is at last 
 done, has lost more than half its charm, from the fact that I cannot 
 share it with him. He had finished the most of the illustrations 
 before his sad and untimely death last autumn. The sketches which 
 he left were completed by Mr. Frank Hobden, to whom I tender 
 my best thanks. 
 
 Junior Army and Navy Club, 
 
 Si. James's Street, S.W. 
 
 24/A May, 1893. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength— Comparative Conformation 
 
 — Marey's Law *........ 1-4 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 Bones — Caitilage — Muscles and Tendons — Ligaments — Connective 
 
 Tissue — The Nervous System . . . . . • 5"i4 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Head — Neck — Breast and Chest — Shoulders — Withers — Elbow — Fore 
 Arm — Knee— Cannon — Fetlock — Pastern — Hoof — Back — Loins 
 — Ribs — Flank — Belly — Brisket — Croup — Thigh — Gaskin — Hock 
 — Dock — Height of a Horse — Length of the Body of a Horse — 
 Depth of Chest at Withers — Depth of Body — ^Height at Cioup 15-23 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE* 
 
 Definitions — Bones — Joints and Ligaments — Muscles — Heart and Lungs 
 
 — Nervous System of the Horse ..... 24-36 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Mechanism of breathing 37-39 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 distribution of WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY. 
 
 Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs— Centre 
 
 of Gravity ......••• 40-41 
 
xii CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LEVERS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Definition — First Order — Second Order — Third Order — Relations be- 
 tween the Power and Weight in Levers— Comparisons between 
 Power and Weight in Mnscnlar Levers — Directions in which the 
 Power and Weight respectively Act . , . . . 42-45 
 
 CHAPTER Vin. 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 Displacement of the Centre of Gravity — Manner in which Propulsion is 
 effected by the Limbs — Direction of Propulsion, and Distance 
 through which the Centre of Gravity of the Body is moved — 
 Comparative Speed in the Action of the Limbs — ^Action of the 
 Muscles which extend the Vertebrae — Width between each 
 respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed — Effect of Insecurity 
 of Equilibrium on Speed — Fatigue from the various Paces — Action 
 of the Head and Neck in Locomotion — Mechanism of the Fetlock 
 Joint-^Mechanism of the Hock Joint .... 46-58 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Mechanism of draught 59-61 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Standing at Attention — Standing Collectedly — Standing at Ease — 
 
 Carriage of the Head and Neck ..... 62-73 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Lying Down and Getting Up — Rearing — Kicking — ^The Piaffer . 74-79 
 
 C/Jbixxir J. Ji/JK. Jxll. 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Definitions— The Trot— The Amble— The Walk— The Canter— The 
 Gallop — The Passage — The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot — ^The 
 Rein Back — Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces . 80-104 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Definition of the Leap — Varieties of the Leap — Difference between 
 the Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the 
 Canter or Gallop — Manner in which the Horse takes off— Period 
 of Stride at which the Take Off is effected — Effect of Pace and 
 Speed on the Leap — Clearing a Fence— Landing over a Jump — 
 Influence of Blood in Jumping ..... 105-119 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Notation of the paces of the horse .... 120-123 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 comparative shape of horses. 
 
 General Remarks — Relations between Height and Length of Body — 
 Comparative Height at Withers and Croup — Points in Common — 
 Limit of Height — Thickness of Limb — Length of Neck — Length 
 of Head — ^Width between the Fore Legs — Comparative Weight 
 of Body — Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs — Differ- 
 ences of Conformation between the Two Sexes , . . 124-139 
 
 CHAPTER XVL 
 
 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Size of Head — Leanness of Head — Profile of Face — Front View of 
 Face — Size of Brain— Top of the Head — Ears — Eyes — Hollows 
 above the Eyes— Nostrils — Lips — Lower Jaw — Setting-on of the 
 Head — Neck— Throat ....... 140-158 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 General View of the Trunk — Chest and Ribs — Abdomen — Withers 
 — Breast — Back and Loins — Points of the Hips — Flank — Croup — 
 
 Anus-Tail r59-78 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 General View pf the Fore Limb — Chief Duties of the Fore Limb — Fore 
 Legs in Saddle and Draught — ^The Shoulder — Humerus — Elbow^ — 
 Fore Arm — Knee — From Knee to Fetlock — ^Fetlock— Pastern — 
 Hoof .....*.... 179-204 
 
XIV CONTENTS, 
 
 v-'JriAJr JL JiK. -?x,iJ\.» 
 
 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Hind Limb — The Pelvis — Thigh and Stifle — Tibia 
 
 — ^Hock — Canon and Fetlock — Pastern and Hoof . . 205-213 
 
 pXJ A PHfTTT? "VV 
 
 SKIN, HAIR AND COLOUR. 
 
 Skin — Colour — Colour in relation to Heat and Cold — Hair^ — Hair on 
 
 the Legs of Cart-horses — Markings ..... 214-222 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Action, handiness and cleverness ..... 223-227 
 
 L^xlAJr 1 Jiix -A.-A.xI* 
 
 Condition, and good looks .... . 228-233 
 
 Weight-carrying and staying power ..... 234-236 
 
 V^XlAJr X ilJK. AAX V . 
 
 Blood, symmetry and compensations ... . 237-240 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 special points of various classes of horses. 
 
 The Race-horse — The Racing Pony — The Hunter and Steeplechaser 
 — The Heavy Cart-horse — The Harness-horse — The Hack — The 
 Lady's Horse — The Cavalry Trooper — The Officer's Charger — The 
 Artillery Horse — The Light Vanner — ^The Polo Pony . . 241-252 
 
 CHAPTER XXVL 
 
 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 The English Thoroughbred — The English Half-bred Horse — The Shire 
 Horse — The Suffolk Horse or Suffolk Punch — The Cleveland Bay 
 — The Yorkshire Coach Horse — The Hackney — The Exmoor 
 Pony — ^The New Forest Pony— The Dartmoor Pony — The Clydes- 
 dale — The Shetland Pony — The West Highland Pony — The Welsh 
 Pony — Australasian Horses — The Norwegian Pony — ^The Iceland 
 Pony — American Ponies — American Trotters — South African 
 Horses — South American Horses — ^Arab Horses — East Indian 
 Horses — Burma and Manipuri Ponies — Sumatra and Java Ponies 
 —Mongolian Ponies — Corean Ponies — Japanese Ponies . 253-271 
 
CONTENTS, XV 
 
 * CxiAPTER XXVII, 
 
 WILD HORSES. 
 
 Wild Horses in Australia and America — Tarpans — Piejevalsky's Hor&e 
 
 272-273 
 
 ♦ CHAPTER XXVIIL 
 
 ASSES. 
 
 Differences between the Ass and the Horse — Hybrids between the 
 Horse and Ass — Varieties of Asses — The Domestic and Abyssinian 
 Wild Ass — The Onager — The Kiang — The Mountain Zebra — 
 Burchell's Zebra — Chapman's Zebra — The Grevy or Somaliland 
 Zebia — The Quagga — Points of the Ass .... 274-285 
 
 * v^Jtixxir i iiiJx. ^J\.i^« 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Ancestry of the Horse — Immediate Ancestors of the Horse — Conditions 
 which modified the Form of the Horse — Points of Speed and 
 Strength in the Fossil Horse — The Horse of the Future . 286-304 
 
 r'tj A T>'T'T?I> "VVV 
 
 Photographing horses ....... 305-306 
 
 r^TJTAPT'Tr'D "VVYT 
 v^XlAJr 1 JtLJtS. A.A.AJ.. 
 
 Proportions of the horse . 307-309 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI L 
 The painter's horse . . . . . .310-317 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 N,B,-^The Illustrations marked with an asterisk (*) are reproductions from 
 Photographs, Those preceded by " n " are new. 
 
 *The Duke of Westminster's Ormonde 
 n *Mr. C. G. DuflTs Cloister 
 
 *' 
 
 Fig. I. Indian Black Buck 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 J? 
 
 >> 
 
 » 
 
 >> 
 
 ?? 
 
 ?) 
 
 j> 
 
 * 
 
 >7 
 
 ?J 
 
 >> 
 
 y? 
 
 >? 
 
 j> 
 
 j> 
 
 jj 
 
 }> 
 
 n 
 
 >? 
 
 )? 
 
 2. Indian Buffalo ...... 
 
 3. Cheetah ....... 
 
 4>* JLynx »...,,, 
 5- Tiger 
 
 6. Indian Trotting Bullock .... 
 
 7. Indian Heavy Draught Bull 
 
 8. Mr. G. F. Pawcetf s Fabulous Fortune (Winner 
 
 of the Waterloo Cup, 1896) and his trainer, 
 T. Wright ...... 
 
 9. The Duke of Portland's St Simon 
 
 10. External Parts of Horse .... 
 
 11. Measurements of Horse .... 
 
 12. Skeleton of Horse ..... 
 
 13. Internal Organs of Horse .... 
 
 14. Position of Centre of Gravity 
 
 15. First Order of Lever . .... 
 
 16. Second 
 
 17. Third 
 
 18. Lever with Forces obliquely applied 
 
 19. 20 and 21. Displacement of Centre of Gravity by 
 
 Man when Walking ..... 
 22 and 23. Shove-off from Side of Swimming Bath 
 24, 25 and 2(i, Forward Propulsion of Man when Running 
 27 to 30. „ „ „ in Standing Leap 
 
 31 to 35. Running High Leap of Man 
 36. Angle of Projection of Centre of Gravity 
 
 . Frontispiece 
 
 n 
 
 77 
 
 ?7 
 
 ?3 
 
 77 
 77 
 77 
 
 J7 
 
 77 
 
 731 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 23 
 25 
 37 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 43 
 
 4S 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 48 
 
 50 
 
XVlll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 Fig. 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 n 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 91 
 
 n 
 
 J? 
 >j 
 )> 
 
 7J 
 
 11 
 
 JJ 
 3) 
 JJ 
 5J 
 JJ 
 J) 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 
 ^* ,J 
 71' ,j 
 
 JJ 
 ft ,, 
 
 ^* JJ 
 
 n 
 
 * 
 
 JJ 
 JJ 
 >j 
 
 37, Lateral Displacement of Body 
 
 38. Mechanism of Fetlock Joint 
 39j 40 and 41. Levers of the Hock 
 
 42. Mechanism of Draught 
 
 43. Le Placer 
 
 44. Standing at Attention 
 
 45. „ Collectedly 
 
 46. Well-shaped Fore Legs 
 
 47. Tumed-in Toes 
 
 48. Turned-out Toes 
 
 49. Well-shaped Hind Legs 
 JO. Turned-in Hocks . 
 
 51. Foal getting up off Ground 
 
 52. Hollow Back from Old Age 
 
 53. Rearing .... 
 
 54. Kicking .... 
 55 to 58. Ordmary Trot 
 59 to 63. Fast or Flying Trot. 
 64 to 69. Phases of the Trot of a Hunter 
 70 to 74. Fast or Flying Amble 
 75 to 82. Ordinary Walk 
 83 to ZZ. Long Striding Walk 
 89 to 95. Short Stepping Walk in Draught 
 96 to 106. Phases of the Ordinary Walk of a 
 
 High-caste Arab 
 107 to 113. "Typical" Canter 
 114 to 122. Ordinary Canter 
 123 to 132. Phases of the Hand Gallop of a 
 
 caste Arab 
 133 to 148. Fast Gallop . 
 
 149. The Passage .... 
 
 150. The Spanish Trot . 
 151 to 158. Foot-prints of Various Paces 
 159 to 165. Gallop of the Greyhound 
 166 to 171. „ „ Cat . 
 172 to 177. „ „ Heavy Dog 
 178 to 180. " Take Off" of Leap . 
 181 to 194. The Horse's Leap 
 195 to 199. Phases of the Leap 
 200. Cloister and Horizon 
 201 and 202. Landing over a Jump . 
 203 to 206, Jumping 
 207 and 208. Trotting . 
 209 to 211. Getting away after Landing 
 212 to 227. Notation of Paces . 
 228. Camel ..... 
 
 High 
 
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XIX 
 
 *Fig. 
 
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 The Duke of Portland's St. Simon 
 Baron de Hirsch's La Fleche . 
 Mr. Joseph Wainwright's Bury Victor Chief 
 Mr. A. B. Freeman-Mitford's Chance . 
 Foal ....... 
 
 Sir Walter Gilbey's Norman Conqueror and 
 
 Good Friday ..... 
 Colonel Simpson's Mike .... 
 H.H. the Maharajah of Kooch Behar's 
 
 Predominant ..... 
 Mr. J. E. Peat's Dynamite 
 Mr. W. H. Walker's Montana Bill 
 Fore Foot Held Up ... • 
 Mr. Lefbvre's Tristan .... 
 Head of High-caste Ai-ab 
 
 J? 
 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 
 Coffin Shape of Head .... 
 Head of English Thoroughbred 
 Prominent Forehead .... 
 Roman Nose 
 
 J? j; • • 
 
 Broad Forehead ..... 
 Stripe and Snip ..... 
 Prominent Forehead .... 
 Head of Well-bred Horse 
 Head of Under-bred Horse 
 Turned-in Ears . . . . . 
 High Occipital Crest .... 
 Mr. W. H. Walker's Specs 
 Lop-eared Thoroughbred Mare 
 Mountain Zebra . . . • • 
 Burchell's Zebra ..... 
 Mr. Swan's Gamecock .... 
 Captain Powell's Midshipmite . 
 Semi-circle ...••• 
 Arc of a Circle . . - . • 
 Gulf Arab ...••• 
 Cabuli Horse . • • * . * 
 
 266 and 267. Diagrams showing Expansion 
 
 of Chest 
 
 Thoroughbred "Weed" . . . . 
 Captain Woolmer's East Indian Horse, 
 
 Minden ...••• 
 Mr. Vansittaxt's Australian Horse, Romance 
 Underbred Australian Horse . 
 Abyssinian Ass , . . • • 
 
 facing ; 
 
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XX 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
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 *Fig. 273. 
 * 274. 
 
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 Onager. .... 
 Breast of Well-shaped Thoroughbred 
 Broad Breast of Thoroughbred 
 Breast of Well-shaped Hunter 
 
 JJ 
 
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 Sections of Loins . 
 
 Breast of Harness Horse 
 
 Roach-back and Goose-rumped Horse 
 
 Mrs. Hayes's Arab Pony, Freddie 
 
 ,5 „ Irish Hunter, Salary 
 
 Thoroughbred Mare 
 
 Well-bred Hunter . 
 
 Sections through Shoulders 
 
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 Direction of Section through Shoulders 
 
 Rear View of Well-shaped 15-stone Hunter 
 ,, „ Ormonde . 
 
 Off Fore with Two Digits 
 
 Long Castor on Hind Leg 
 
 Clean Fore Legs of Thoroughbred 
 
 Good Fore Legs of Thoroughbred Yearling 
 
 Hunter 
 
 Well-bred Horse . 
 Common-bred Horse 
 
 Fore Leg Tied in below the Knee and Larg 
 Fetlocks , 
 
 Good Fore Legs and Sloping Pasterns of 
 AraD . , . 
 
 Calf Knees . 
 
 Tied in below the Knee, and Large Fetlocks 
 
 Small Development of Trapezium 
 
 Tied in below the Knee . 
 
 Over at the Knees . 
 
 Slightly Over at the Knees 
 
 Bones of Pasterns too Slight 
 
 Upright Pasterns . 
 
 Iceland Pony 
 
 Heavy-topped Hunter 
 
 A Finish at Kempton Park 
 
 Upright Shoulders and Poor Gaskins . 
 
 Large " Bone " below the Hock 
 ,, ,, J, JJ and- jproad. 
 
 Gaskins .... 
 
 Large " Bone" below the Hock 
 
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxi 
 
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 It 
 
 *Fig. 316. Sickle Hocks 
 
 *„ 317. Tied-in below the Hock .... 
 // * „ 318. Fairly-good "Bone" below the Hock. 
 n -*• „ 319. Small " Bone " below the Hock. 
 /^ * J, 320. Captain G. S. Williams' Joseph . 
 n ^' „ 321. Weight-carrying Hunter, property of Prince 
 Henry of Pless ..... 
 /I ^' „ 322. H.R.H. the Prince of Wales' Persimmon . 
 ^ '^ 5> 3^3* v 5j 5j Florizel IL . 
 
 324. Baron Rothschild's Favonius 
 35* J? 3j iniannan . . • 
 
 „ 326. Mr. H. Savile's Cremorne 
 ,j 327. Mr. A. A. Apcar's Australian Horse, Bravo . 
 ^i "'" „ 328. Mr. H. T. Barclay's Franciscan. 
 n *"* „ 329. „ ,, Lord Arthur 
 
 ^ *" » 330. Mr. W. H. Walker's Touchstone 
 ^^ * ?> 33^' Weight-carrying Hunter, the property of 
 
 Mr. Muntz, M.P 
 
 ^^ „ 332. Mr. W. H. Walker's Water Lily 
 
 "' „ 333. Mr. Gregory's Stepaside .... 
 
 /I '' „ 334. Lord Belper's Rokeby Harold . 
 
 ^^ '^ 7? 335* Mr. John Parnell's Rokeby Fuchsia . 
 
 ^^ '"' n 33^' Mr. Horace Wolton's Chieftain's Champion. 
 
 ^^ '^' jj 337' The Duke of Hamilton's Queen of Trumps. 
 
 '^ '^ jj 33^' Mr. Stephen's Luck's All . 
 
 ^^ "^ >j 339- J? ?> Madam .... 
 
 n '' „ 340. Mr. John White's Captain Sykes 
 n '"' „ 341. „ „ „ Ainsty Queen 
 
 ;/ * „ 342. Sir Walter Gilbey's Danegelt 
 ^^ '' J. 343- y> ,> ,> Lady Keyingham . 
 
 n '** „ 344. Mr. Tom Mitchell's Ganymede . 
 ^^ '^' J? 345- Hackney Mare and Foal, the property of Sir 
 Walter Gilbey .... * 
 
 „ 346. Old-fashioned Roadster .... 
 
 ^^ "' J? 347* Roadster ...... 
 
 ;/ * ,, 348. Mr. E. Mucklow, Junr.'s, Royal Oak . 
 ^^ ''' ,, 349' ;; V n Gladys 
 
 3? 350. The China Pony, Teen Kwang. 
 ?i * „ 351. New Forest Pony Stallion, the Property of 
 
 Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil . . facing „ 270 
 ?i * „ 352. New Forest Pony Mare and Foal, the 
 
 Property of Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil „ „ 270 
 „ ZS3' Mr. P. Crawford's Prince of Carruchan . ,, „ 27^ 
 „ 354. Mr. R. H. Walker's Zeynab - . . „ „ 272 
 „ 355. Lord Londonderry's Holyrood . . * », >? ^74 
 „ 356. Mr. John Gilmoufs Moss Rose . . „ „ 274 
 
 n * 
 
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XXll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 71 * Fig. 357. Lord Londonderry's Laird of Noss 
 
 facing '^AG^ 276 
 
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 358. Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil's Highland 
 
 J^aoiciie • . * . • 
 
 359. Mr. Helgesen's Norwegian Pony 
 
 360. „ „ Half-Bred Swedish Hunter 
 
 361. The Gulf Arab Polo Pony, Spec . 
 
 362. The Hon. W. Anson's Pony, Rondo . 
 l^l, Maud S. . . . 
 
 364. Sunol .... 
 
 365. The GreVy Zebra . 
 
 366. Skin of Somali-land Zebra 
 
 367. „ Burchell's 
 
 368. Nancy Hanks 
 
 369. John R. Gentry 
 
 370. H.H. the Maharajah of Patiala's Arab Pony 
 
 371. Colonel Anderson's Arab Pony, The Brat 
 
 372. Abnormal Left Fore Leg of Horse 
 
 373. Mr- Dignam's Magistrate . 
 
 374. Kremlin ..... 
 
 375. Fore Foot of Pig .... 
 
 376. Hipparion Gracile .... 
 
 377. Kathiawar Mare .... 
 
 378. Burma Pony ..... 
 
 379. Left Fore Foot of H. Gracile . 
 380 and 381. Left Fore and Right Hind Foot of 
 
 same H. Gracile 
 
 382. Front and Side View of Left Fore Foot of 
 
 H. Gracile ..... 
 
 383. Front View of Left Fore Foot of Horse 
 
 384. Kiang . .... 
 
 385. Quagga 
 
 iZd. Left Fore Foot of Anchitherium 
 387. Fore Foot of Paloplotherium . 
 iZZ, Left Fore Foot of Orohippus Agilis . 
 
 389. Hyracotherium .... 
 
 390. Fore Foot of Rhinoceros. 
 
 391. Left Fore Foot of Acerotherium 
 
 392. „ „ Brontotherium 
 
 393. Left Hind Foot of Brontotherium 
 
 394. Phenacodus Primsevus 
 
 395. Foot of Steinbok .... 
 
 396. Proportions of Horse 
 
 397. Le Piaffer d'aprh Parrocel 
 
 398. Horse, by Aiken .... 
 
 399. Horse and Rider in the Parthenon . 
 
 i1 
 
 
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 XXlll 
 
 .er 
 
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 ft 
 
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 Fig. 400. Meissonier's Napoleon i' 
 
 401. ;j X014 • 
 
 402. Mr. E. D. Miller on Peter 
 
 403. Mr. Buckmaster on Sunshine 
 
 404. Ganymede Walking. 
 
 405. „ Trotting. 
 
 406. Riding a Gallop 
 
 407. Marengo 
 
 408. Horse Leaping, by Aiken 
 
 409. Water Jump at Sandown Park 
 
 5? 
 
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 Z^l 
 
POINTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 1 IKST PRINCIPLES Ot CONFORMAflON. 
 
 Animals of Speed and Animals of Stiength— Comparative Conformation — 
 Maiey's La\A 
 
 Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength, — When 
 we speak of the conformation of a horse, we refer to the 
 adaptability of his body for general or special work. We 
 all know, without the aid of science to tell us, that a light- 
 boned thoroughbred would be as unsuitable to carry a 
 fifteen-stone man, as a thick-set cob would be to win a five- 
 furlong race. The *^weed'' would not fail, necessarily, from 
 deficiency in weight of bone and muscle , for there are 
 many ponies of thirteen hands or under, which would weigh 
 no more than the slender T. Y. C. performer, and yet could 
 bear the welter burden through a long day*s journey, with 
 ease to themselves and comfort to their rider. The failure 
 to carry weight m the one case, and the inability to display 
 a high degree of speed in the other, would obviously be due 
 (in the absence of any particular defect) to the fact of the 
 conformation of the animal not being suitable to the kind of 
 work to which he was put. In our study of the '*make and 
 shape" of horses, we may profitably begin by taking a 
 comparative view of animals of great speed and those of 
 
 B 
 
fijRst principles of conformation. 
 
 immense strength, so as to arrive at a knowledge of the 
 principles by which their special characteristics are developed 
 to a high degree of excellence. As the conformation best 
 adapted for the one is different from that for - the other, we 
 cannot find both united in the same animal. I need hardly 
 say that the manner in which the proportions of speed and 
 strength are varied in each particular horse, is the measure 
 of the suitability of the animal to the kind of work it is 
 called upon to perform. Thus, a dray-horse which can trot 
 a mile in eight minutes with 3,000 lbs. behind it, may be 
 quite as useful, in its own way, as a match-trotter which, with 
 a sulky and driver weighing together 200 lbs., can do a mile 
 in two minutes twenty seconds. 
 
 Comparative Conformation, — In this proposed re- 
 search, we shall find that the two classes (those of speed and 
 those of strength) to which I have just alluded, differ 
 essentially in shape from each other, and that individuals 
 of each respective class have a similar kind of conformation. 
 As an example of the gallopers, let us take the Indian black 
 buck (Fig. i), which, for half a mile, could give five hands 
 and a beating to the fastest horse that ever looked through 
 a bridle. Then there is the cheetah (Fig. 3), which can 
 give the antelope 100 yards start and catch him in a 
 furlong. It is true that the spotted cat effects his purpose 
 a good deal by surprise ; but it is equally certain that for 
 a couple of hundred yards he can travel with the velocity 
 of an express train. Also, there is the greyhound (Fig. 8), 
 with whose speed we are all familiar. In comparison with 
 these fleet of foot animals, let us note the '' make and 
 shape ^' of the buffalo (Fig. 2) and rhinoceros, both of which 
 are endowed with vast muscular power. And as the 
 opposite of the ** long- tailed dog," let us take the bulldog or 
 dachshund. On examining these animals we shall observe 
 that the limbs (especially the hind ones, from which is 
 derived the greater part of the forward propulsion) of the 
 gallopers are much longer in proportion to the animal's 
 
Dixon ^^ Sons. 
 
 Fig I.— Indian Black Buck. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Indian Buffalo. 
 
 To face p. 2. 
 
SPEED AND STRENGTH. 
 
 height than those of the representatives of strength. We 
 see this fact best illustrated when we compare individuals of 
 the same species or family, like the greyhound and bulldog, 
 or the cheetah and tiger (Fig. 5), which is the strongest 
 member of the cat tribe. A greyhound and a typical race- 
 horse (compare Fig. 8 with Fig. 9) possess many points in 
 common. We also obtain good examples among horned 
 cattle, in the Indian trotting bullock (Fig. 6), and the Indian 
 heavy draught bull (Fig. 7), whose sex is indicated by the 
 large size of his hump. Special length of hind limb is well 
 shown in the hare and in the lynx (Fig. 4), both of which are 
 animals of great speed. As it is not the custom to breed 
 men with reference to their physical development, we do not 
 find the difference in question so well marked in them as in 
 the lower animals. Yet, for all that, we may note among 
 ** sprinters" and wrestlers the working of this principle. I 
 may explain that the muscles of the limbs of the horse, ox, 
 buffalo and antelope do not, practically, extend below the 
 knees and hocks (being continued by tendons from these 
 joints) ; but in the dog and cat tribe, they go down to the foot 
 
 From the examples cited of animals of great strength and 
 those of high speed, we may conclude that the former are 
 distinguished by a long body and short legs ; and the latter, 
 by a short trunk and long extremities. I am here assuming 
 that the length of the body is taken comparatively with 
 that of the legs, and without reference to the proportions 
 of the body itself. 
 
 We may also observe from the photographs before us, 
 that the limbs of speedy quadrupeds are proportionately as 
 slender as they are long, and that those exhibiting strength 
 are as thick as they are short. 
 
 I may explain that muscles are the active and essential 
 part of the machinery used by animals in locomotion, bones 
 being merely passive agents. In fact, there are myriads of 
 the lower animals which move about with considerable 
 speed by means of their muscles, but which have no bones 
 of any kind. 
 
 B 2 
 
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION. 
 
 Marey's Law. — The foregoing observations will prepare 
 us for the law cited by Marey in his book, La Machine 
 Animale, which states that muscles of speed are long and 
 slender, and those of strengdi are short and thick. This 
 distinguished Frenchman gives as instances the long breast- 
 bones of birds — such as snipe and partridge — which can 
 move their wings with great rapidity, and the short ones of 
 hovering birds — such as the eagle and albatross — which can 
 overcome the immense resistance of the air upon which the 
 large area of their pinions presses, only with slow, but very 
 powerful strokes. The expanse of the outspread wings of 
 birds of quick stroke - such as wild pigeon and partridge — is 
 of far less comparative size than is that of those of hovering 
 birds. The relative speed with which these birds can cleave 
 the air does not, of course, affect the question of the form 
 and action of their muscles. 
 
 I may remark that the foregoing principles govern the 
 conformation of horses as closely as they do that of other 
 annuals. I shall, however, defer* their application to horses 
 till further on, when we shall have acquired a certain amount 
 ol exact knowledge of the physical conditions of the horse, 
 which will greatly aid us m drawing accurate conclusions as 
 to his "shape and make." 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Cheetah. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Lynx. 
 
 Dixon ^' Sons, 
 
 Fig 5. — Tiger. 
 
 To face p. 4. 
 
( 5 ) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 Bones — Cartilage — Muscles and Tendons — Ligaments — Connective Tissue 
 — The Nervous System. 
 
 The frame-work of the body consists of the skeleton (Fig, 
 12), which is composed of a large number of connected 
 bones that are moved by muscles. We should, generally, 
 regard differences of length in the limbs, as those of muscles, 
 rather than of bones ; for the former are the producers of all 
 movements of progression, the latter aiding only in the 
 application of the force exerted. 
 
 Bones. — The chief duties of bones in the act of pro- 
 gression are — (i) to "bear weight ; (2) to resist the effects of 
 concussion ; and (3) to act as levers. Capability for per- 
 forming (i) and (2) is dependent on conditions of texture 
 (** quality '*), size (" substance''), and arrangement. 
 
 Quality and substance of bone. — Whether the animal be 
 intended to carry heavy burdens, or to gallop over hard 
 ground, it is always a matter of the greatest importance 
 that his bones, especially those below his knees and hocks, 
 should be of strong and compact texture. It has been 
 customary to state, in a vague way, that the bones of Arab 
 horses and English thoroughbreds are denser than those of 
 other breeds. It would, however, be more exact to say that 
 the drier the soil on which a horse has been bred and 
 brought up, and the ^'harder'' the food upon which he has 
 
STRUCTURES OF THE BODY 
 
 been fed, the better will be the quality of his bone ; for we 
 iind that in dry, hot climates in the East, native ponies, which 
 can have little or no admixture of Arab blood, have legs as 
 clean and hard as any that are to be met with in the Desert. 
 We need not test our theories on this subject by the micro- 
 scope, or by determining the specific gravity of various 
 sections of bone taken from different animals ; for we can 
 obtain a far more reliable and practical proof from the fact 
 that, other things being equal, the more porous are bones, 
 the more liable are they to bony deposits, such as splints, 
 spavins, and ringbones. I here purposely omit to add ^'sore 
 shins ; " for this disease is more or less peculiar to immature 
 thoroughbreds that are put into training at an age much 
 earlier than that at which ordinary horses are broken. The 
 nature of a horse's hoofs, which can always be determined 
 by inspection, or by using the '* drawing knife," will generally 
 afford us a safe guide by which to judge of the quality of his 
 bone. Thus we find that animals which have been reared 
 amid damp surroundings and on succulent food, will, as a rule, 
 be prone to bony enlargements, and will have flat feet of soft 
 horn. We cannot fail to notice this if we compare the horses 
 of the English itn counties with those bred on high, dry land ; 
 or animals raised in the arid plains of the Punjab and 
 Deccan, with those of swampy Lower Bengal. Hence, if, 
 when judging an animal about the history of which we know 
 nothing, and which does not appear to have undergone 
 enough work to test the soundness of his legs, we find that 
 he has weak, flat hoofs, we shall not err, in the large majority 
 of cases, by concluding that his bone is of inferior quality. 
 Although dryness of climate is always a favourable condition 
 for horses ; excessive heat diminishes the size of the bone 
 of the indigenous animals : a circumstance which may, to a 
 great extent, account for the fact that horses bred in tropical 
 climates, however hardy and wiry they may be, are very 
 rarely of a weight-carrying type. 
 
 The popular term ^^bone" refers to the size of the bones 
 below the knees and hocks, as compared to the weight they 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Indian Trotting Bullock. 
 
 M, H, H. 
 
 Fig. 7.— Indian Heavy Draught Bull. 
 
 To face p, 6i 
 
ST. GATIEN, 
 
 have to carry. As the limbs of the domestic horse, especially 
 when used at fast paces and when jumping, have far more 
 strain put upon them, than li the animal were in a wild 
 state ; the judicious breeder will try to obtain as much 
 ''bone" as possible. This necessity is inculcated by the 
 proverbial saying that " a horse is as old as his legs/* The 
 bones of the limbs, like tendons and ligaments, may b^ 
 looked upon as adjuncts to, or component parts of, their 
 muscles, which are the active organs of movement. All 
 these structures are dependent for their development 
 on the blood supply, which is increased by exercise. 
 Thus, continued idleness causes the bones, tendons 
 and ligaments of the legs to become abnormally liable 
 to injury. Also, in cases of paralysis of a limb, the 
 bones, as well as the muscles, waste. Hence, when 
 judging of a horse's capacity for standing work, we must not 
 confine our attention to his ''bone," without also considering 
 the condition of his muscles, tendons and ligaments. In 
 making practical observations on horses, we may often be 
 greatly assisted in our investigations by judging of the 
 muscles by the bones, and vice versa. Thus, if we see an 
 animal in poor condition which has been brought on by hard- 
 ship or want of food, we may, by the appearance of his 
 " bone,'' form a good idea of what his muscles will be when he 
 *' fills out." Even when a horse is " fit and well,'' a display of 
 large, well-shaped bone (of the body as well as of the limbs) 
 should dispose us to consider that his muscles are more 
 powerful than they appear at first glance. I was much struck 
 by this fact when I had the pleasure of closely inspecting the 
 celebrated St. Gatien, whom Mr, John Hammond very kindly 
 showed me in his box, some time before he ran his dead heat 
 with Harvester for the Derby of 1884 ; for I was greatly 
 '' taken " with the sight of the large, symmetrically formed 
 bones of his legs, his long back ribs, and his well-developed 
 pelvis, the inner angle of which was so prominent as to make 
 a distinct *' rise " in the outline of his croup ; not to mention 
 his long, sloping shoulders, and immense gaskins. On the 
 
S STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 Other hand, if we observe that an animal which is in ''dealers 
 condition " is light of bone, we may, as a rule, conclude that 
 there is not very much muscle in the load of meat which 
 he carries. Among sound, good horses, ''Mr. Morton's" 
 Dalmeny was one of the lightest below the knee I have 
 ever seen ; but no exception could have been taken to him on 
 that account, for his legs had no superfluous weight to carry, 
 and his muscles were of the long slender type, which is 
 generally characteristic of the possession of speed. I need 
 hardly say that the bones and muscles of the limbs are not 
 always in keeping with those of the body ; for we daily see 
 instances of animals that are too heavily "topped'' for their 
 legs. 
 
 Men of experience know that a horse should have plenty 
 of "bone" in order to be able to carry weight with ease to 
 himself for long distances and at comparatively fast paces — 
 as, for example, when hunting. If we take two horses that 
 can perform about equally well in a long run with a similar 
 welter weight up, one having the '^puU" in speed, the other 
 in bone and muscle, we shall usually find that the latter will 
 not feel the effects of the work so much as the former. I 
 may explain this on the reasonable supposition that the 
 weight-bearing muscles of the lighter-built horse, not being 
 so strong as those of the "heavier" animal, will naturally 
 become more fatigued. The objection sometimes advanced 
 against thoroughbreds for hunting, that they cannot "come 
 out again " as quickly as half-bred animals, is valid only when 
 the former are lighter built than the latter ; for, if blood 
 horses of equal bone and muscle were obtained, the difference 
 would be all the other way. 
 
 Large muscles, as we have seen, require large bones. It 
 also goes without saying that the more are bones exposed to 
 the effects of concussion, the denser and stronger should they 
 be. Consequently, we may conclude that the lighter an 
 animaFs body is, in comparison to the strength of its com- 
 ponent parts and the amount of its muscular force, the 
 greater will be its powers of rapid progression. Hence we 
 
Barraicds, Liverpool. 
 Fig. 8.— Mr. G. F. Fawcett's Fabulous Fortune (Winner of the Waterloo Cup, 1896) 
 
 AND HIS trainer, T. WrIGHT. 
 
 Fig. 9. — The Duke of Portland's St. Simon. 
 
 To face p. 8. 
 
MUSCLES AND TENDONS, 9 
 
 find that the race-horse, Hke all quadrupeds of which speed is 
 the chief characteristic, has comparatively slender bones of 
 extremely dense texture, and that his muscles are par- 
 ticularly strong for their thickness. Owing to the law of 
 compensation, which governs the conditions of animal life, it 
 is almost impossible to obtain bone of great volume, and, at 
 the same time, of the finest quality. On this account, as size 
 is indispensable with the cart-horse, we endeavour, with him, 
 to obtain large bone of sufficient strength to meet his 
 requirements. In the intermediate classes of horses, the 
 relations between volume and quality should be judged 
 according to the nature of the work in view. 
 
 Arrangement of bones. — The relative position which 
 bones occupy with respect to each other affect their leverage, 
 weight-carrying, and concussion-resisting powers — conditions 
 which will be treated in detail when we consider the various 
 points which they affect 
 
 Cartilage, — Cartilage or grisde is a strong, flexible;, 
 bluish-white substance which is found in connection with 
 bone, and of which there are various kinds* Articular 
 cartilage covers the ends of bones that form movable joints. 
 Temporary cartilage is bone in a transition form. The ribs are 
 connected to the breastbone by cartilages which form elastic 
 prolongations. Cartilages also are interposed between the 
 bones of various joints in order to connect or protect them. 
 The cartilage of prolongation forms an elastic continuation 
 of the top of the shoulder-blade. 
 
 Muscles and Tendons.— The animal's moving power 
 is derived from muscles^ which form the lean of meat, and 
 which, as a rule, are attached to bones. Muscles act by 
 virtue of the property they possess of being able to shorten 
 themselves on being stimulated by the nervous system. 
 Thus, if we wish to raise, say, our right hand to the shoulder, 
 our brain telegraphs, so to speak, the order, by means of the 
 
lo STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 nerves, to the biceps muscle, which is attached at one end to 
 the shoulder-blade, close to the shoulder-joint, and, at the 
 other, to the bones of the fore arm, a little below the elbow. 
 Hence this muscle, on contracting, draws the hand up in the 
 required direction. 
 
 As muscles are built up of contractile fibres, their 
 strength, other things being equal, is proportionate to their 
 thickness. 
 
 In order to economise space, muscles are generally- 
 attached to bones by means of tendons (sinews), which are 
 hard, fibrous cords of great toughness. The tendon at one 
 extremity is firmly united -to the end of the muscle, and, 
 at the other, to the bone. 
 
 We find from experiment that a muscle can contract to 
 about two-thirds of its ordinary length, which is, therefore, 
 proportionate to the extent of movement it is capable of 
 producing. If the muscles which move the limbs be com- 
 paratively short, .he stride will also be short, and the 
 horse will be slower than he would otherwise be, no matter 
 how thick and powerful are his muscles. We may, there- 
 fore, conclude that speed is associated 'with length of 
 muscle, as has been stated on page 4. 
 
 As length of muscle is necessarily accompanied by 
 length of bone, we may judge of the former by the latter, 
 which can usually be readily estimated. 
 
 The *'give and take" principle, which applies more or 
 less to all created things, holds good with muscles. Hence, 
 in the race-horse, for which the possession of speed is the 
 chief essential of success, we should seek the greatest 
 possible length of muscle, with just sufficient strength to meet 
 his requirements for carrying weight and for sustaining the 
 exertion he may be called upon to undergo. In the cart-horse, 
 on the contrary, thickness of muscle is the great desideratum, 
 always supposing that he has sufficient activity to walk well 
 and on occasion to trot at a moderately brisk rate. As a thin 
 muscle will contract at least as quickly as a thick one of the 
 same length, it follows that an increase in the thickness of 
 
MUSCLES. 1 1 
 
 muscles is useful only in making the work more easy, and 
 that it does not otherwise add to the speed. Massive 
 muscles, compared to slight ones, have two disadvantages, 
 namely — they add to the weight to be carried, both in muscle 
 and bone ; and they necessitate the possession of large 
 joints, which, from increased friction, are not so easily bent 
 and extended as smaller ones ; besides this, it has been 
 proved that they do not respond as quickly to nervous 
 stimulus. Although it is impossible to lay down any exact 
 rules on this subject, we may say, speaking generally, that the 
 thickness of muscle which would be commendable in a weight- 
 carrying hunter, would be quite out of place in a race-horse, 
 as we may see by comparing Fig. 288 with Fig. 289. We 
 may often observe that race-horses which were very smart 
 as two-year-olds, lose their - form " after that age without 
 any assignable reason except that as they '' thickened," they 
 got slow. I may remark that those speedy animals, the 
 cheetah, greyhound, and antelope, like the race-horse, are 
 comparatively narrow behind, and that the hind-quarters of 
 the cart-horse are very wide. The muscular development to be 
 sought for in the race-horse, in order to enable him to carry 
 weight (within racing limits) and to stay, should be obtained 
 with a minimum increase to the burden the animal has got to 
 move ; and is to be looked for chiefly in the loins, gaskins, 
 and fore arms, with great rotundity and comparative length 
 of the back ribs, and comparative thickness of bone just below 
 the hocks. In this respect, Ormonde, St. Gatien, Bendigo, 
 Isonomy, Barcaldine, and Carbine (the New Zealand son of 
 Musket), for example, were all muscular horses. St. Simon 
 (Fig. 9) was a notable example of a horse of the highest 
 class being of remarkably light build. He had, however, 
 marvellously good shoulders and loins. 
 
 We know from experiment that muscles of the same 
 thickness are stronger in animals of one species than they 
 are in those of another kind ; and we may reasonably infer 
 that even among individual horses the same rule holds good. 
 In fact, we may take for granted that the *' quality'* of 
 
13 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 muscle, tendon and ligament, as well as of bone, is better in 
 some horses than in others ; the great factors in producing 
 strong tissue appearing to be : heredity ; residence in a 
 dry, warm climate; ''hard'' food; exercise; and Eastern 
 blood. 
 
 Ligaments. — The ends of the bones that form joints 
 are held together by white ligaments, which are similar in 
 structure to tendons ; but, unlike them, they serve to connect 
 bones with bones, and, in a few cases, bones with tendons. 
 They have no direct connection with muscles. There are, 
 also, yellow ligaments, which, being elastic, aid in supporting 
 weight without fatigue to the animal. 
 
 Connective Tissue. — The skin, which covers and 
 protects the body, is largely composed of a strong, fibrous 
 structure called connective tissue, which, proceeding inwards 
 from the skin in the form of, more or less, thick layers and 
 bands, furnishes a supporting network for the component parts 
 of the other tissues. Thus, if we compare a slice from the 
 under-cut of a sirloin of beef with one from a round of beef, 
 we shall see that the relative coarseness of grain of the latter 
 is due to the thickness of the layers of connective tissue 
 which run through it As connective tissue has only the 
 passive action of support, I need hardly say, that the coarser 
 in grain a muscle is, the less powerful will it be ; although it 
 will be better able to resist the effects of external violence 
 than one of finer grain. The protective duty of connective 
 tissue, as regards muscles, may be readily inferred from the 
 fact that the less exposed muscles are to injury from with- 
 out, by reason of their position, the less connective tissue do 
 they contain. This tissue, also, forms ligaments and ten- 
 dons, and ensheathes bones, cartilages, nerves, etc. There is 
 always a large amount of it immediately underneath the skin, 
 in the form of loose fibrous sheets, as we may see in the dead 
 animal The presence of a great quantity of it in this 
 position will, naturally, cause the underlying parts to be ill- 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 13 
 
 defined, a fact which will be especially noticeable about the 
 tendons and ligaments below the knees and hocks^ owing to 
 the absence of muscle about these parts. We may, therefore, 
 draw the following deductions : ( i ) That, as the thickness of 
 the skin is a measure of the amount of connective tissue it 
 contains ; the thicker the hide, other things being equal, the 
 more connective tissue will there be in and about the muscles. 
 (2) That, as its action is only passive, the more of it a 
 muscle contains, the slower will be the movements of the 
 muscle. Hence, we may reasonably conclude that the fact 
 of a horse having a thick skin, and, for instance, ill-defined 
 suspensory ligaments, owing to natural ''fleshiness,'' would 
 warrant us in supposing that he was deficient in speed, I 
 may remark that, with age, the amount of connective tissue 
 in the body greatly increases. As Gu^rin states : '^ In the 
 old man, the tendon seems to invade the muscle, so that 
 the portion of the calf of the leg which remains is placed 
 very high, and is much reduced in length. The muscles of 
 the loins and back present the same character. In old age 
 they are poorer in red fibre, but richer in tendon." 
 
 The component parts of the body which, respectively, 
 have the same structure, are called iissues. Thus we have 
 bony tissue, consisting of bone ; muscular tissue, of muscle ; 
 nervous tissue, of nerve substance ; connective tissue, of 
 white fibrous material ; and so on. 
 
 The Nervous System. — While considering the form of 
 the horse from a mechanical point of view, we must not lose 
 sight of the marked differences which exist in the nervous 
 system of various animals, and which greatly heighten, or 
 may altogether nullify, advantages obtained from good con- 
 formation. We are aware, speaking within reasonable limits, 
 that the amount of contraction — i.e. force — exhibited by a 
 muscle is proportional to the degree of stimulation given by 
 its nerves. As the nervous system of some animals acts far 
 more energetically than that of others, it follows that the 
 former, other things being equal, will be stronger than the 
 
14 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY. 
 
 latter ; although no difiference in conformation, or in develop- 
 ment of muscle, may be perceptible. Not alone does the 
 amount of nervous force differ much among animals of the 
 same kind ; but some individuals of the same species can 
 stimulate their muscles by means of their nerves quicker than 
 their fellows. We see this well exemplified in adepts at 
 fencing, cricket, boxing, and other kindred sports ; at which, 
 so-called quickness of eye is all-essential. I may mention 
 that the brilliant bat, or accomplished mattre d'armes, apart 
 from the possession of the necessary amount of knowledge, 
 judgment, and physique, excels because he has the gift of 
 moving his muscles, in response to the stimulus received 
 by the nerves of his eyes, quicker, as well as in more 
 accurately regulated style, than ordinary men. This asser- 
 tion is in no way based on mere theory ; for we find that 
 among men whose duty it is to record (as in observatories) 
 the exact moment at which they see certain phenomena 
 occur, it is necessary, in order to avoid error, to allow for the 
 difference in time these men, respectively, take ; although 
 it may only be a fraction of a second. To do this, it is 
 requisite to obtain, for each man, his '* personal equation,'' 
 as it is termed. We can, therefore, conclude that speed and 
 strength are as dependent on the nature and quality of the 
 nervous system as they are on conformation and muscular 
 development. It also goes without saying that a horse may 
 possess every physical excellence, and yet be worthless on 
 account of having a '*soft heart," or bad temper. 
 
( 15 ) 
 
 CoAJriJiK 111. 
 
 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Head — Neck — Breast and Chest — Shoulders — ^Withers — Elbow — Fore Arm 
 — Knee — Cannon — Fetlock — Pastern — Hoof—Back — Loins — R.ibs — 
 Flank — Belly— Brisket — Croup — Thigh — Gaskin — Hock — Dock — 
 Height of a Horse — Length of the Body of a Horse — Depth of Chest 
 at Withers— Depth of Body— Height at Croup. 
 
 As the external parts and regions of the body do not, in 
 many cases, admit of very accurate definition, I crave the 
 indulgence of my readers in this attempt to mark out their 
 positions and boundaries. I have omitted mention of some 
 parts which, being known to every one, require no expla- 
 nation. The figures and letters employed in the following 
 list have reference to those on Fig. lo. 
 
 Head (i). — Looking at the horse in profile, we may 
 regard the head as being divided from the neck by a line 
 proceeding from the back of the ear, along the rear edge of 
 the lower jaw to its angle. 
 
 The forehead (a) forms the upper part of the face. It 
 extends down to a line joining the inner angle {canthus) of 
 each eye, and reaches as high as the fore-lock and the base 
 of the ears. 
 
 The fore-lock is a tuft of hair which lies between the ears, 
 and is a continuation of the mane. 
 
 The temples are those portions of the head, on each side 
 of the forehead, which He between the ear and eye. 
 
 The nose (5) is a continuation of the forehead, and ends 
 opposite the nostrils at the angle (c) formed by the line of 
 the face and the line of the muzzle. 
 
x6 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS, 
 
 The mttzzle is the lower end of the head, and includes 
 the nostrils, upper (a) and lower lip {e), and the bones and 
 teeth covered by them. 
 
 The bars of the mouth are the bare portions of the gums 
 of the lower jaw which lie on each side, between the back 
 teeth and the tushes, or the place usually occupied by the 
 tushes. 
 
 The chin-groove {/) is just under the bars of the mouth. 
 
 Fig. 10.— External Parts of Horse. 
 
 It is the smooth and rounded under part of the lower jaw, in 
 which the curb chain should rest when a curb bit is used. 
 
 The angles of the lower jaw (g) are the bony angles 
 between which the upper end of the wind-pipe lies. 
 
 The branches of the lower jaw run from the chin»groove 
 to the angles of the lower jaw. 
 
 The occipital crest is the bony prominence which con- 
 stitutes the top of the head, and which more or less rises 
 between the ears. It is particularly high in the head shown 
 in Fig. 254. 
 
THE WITHERS. 17 
 
 The Neck (2) is separated from the shoulders by a line 
 which goes from the dip that is just in front of the withers, 
 to the depression which is made by the union of the neck and 
 breast. 
 
 The poll (v) is the part which is on the top of the neck 
 and is immediately behind the ears. 
 
 The cresl (l) is the upper part of the neck, extending from 
 the withers to the ears. 
 
 T\i^ jugular groove [u) is the groove which is on each side 
 of the neck, just above the wind-pipe. It is well shown in 
 Fig. 230. 
 
 Breast and Chest. — Among horsemen who are un- 
 acquainted with anatomy, the latter of these two terms is 
 frequently used to express the former. At the risk of 
 employinpf a word contrary to colloquial custom, I would 
 suggest that the tenn "ch/sf be applied exdusively to the 
 cavity which occupies nearly the front third of the trunk, and 
 in which the lungs and heart are situated. It is divided from 
 the belly (abdomen) by the diaphragm (Fig. 13). 
 
 Shoulders (3). — The line of union between the 
 shoulders and the neck is well shown in the majority of 
 harness and draught horses ; there being, in such cases, a 
 distinct depression immediately in front of the shoulder. In 
 well-shaped saddle horses, this dip between shoulder and 
 neck will be more or less difficult to find. The withers form 
 the upper boundary of the shoulder. The rear border of the 
 shoulder may be taken from behind the '* swell" of the 
 muscle which is just below the withers, to the elbow. 
 
 The point of the shoulder [h) is the prominent bony angle, 
 on each side of the chest, a little below the junction of the 
 neck and shoulder. 
 
 The Withers (4) are the bony ridge which is the for- 
 ward continuation of the back. Its posterior limit is, as a 
 rule, ill-defined ; for the curve made by the withers usually 
 runs into that of the back in a gradual manner. Its anterior 
 
 c 
 
i8 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS, 
 
 termination can generally be easily felt by the fingers ; as 
 this bony ridge ends abruptly in the crest. 
 
 The Elbow, which is a portion of the fore arm, is the 
 large bony projection at the upper and posterior part of the 
 fore arm. The point of the elbow (z) is the top of this 
 bony projection. 
 
 The Fore Arm (5) is placed between the shoulder and 
 knee. Its upper boundary may be taken as a horizontal 
 line drawn across the fore limb, just below the lump of muscle 
 which is at the bottom of the shoulder. 
 
 The castors, corns, or chesnuts [k) are the horny growths 
 which are, respectively, above the knees, and just below the 
 hocks, on the inside of the legs. 
 
 Knee (6). — The upper boundary of the knee may be 
 regarded as a line drawn at right angles to the direction of 
 the leg, above the knee joint, and just clear of the bony pro- 
 minence that is on the side of the knee. The lower boundary 
 of the knee may be taken as a line joining the point where 
 the line of the cannon-bone meets that of the knee, with that 
 Adhere the line of the back tendons is terminated by the bone 
 (the trapezium, /) which is at the back of the knee. 
 
 The Cannon (7). — A suitable designation for the part 
 of the leg which is situated between the knee and fetlock is 
 much required. The term *' cannon " is apt to give one the 
 impression that only the cannon-bone is meant : it would be 
 more convenient if the back tendons and suspensory ligament 
 were also included. The line dividing the cannon from the 
 fetlock is one drawn across the leg immediately above the 
 prominence caused by the fetlock joint. 
 
 The back tendons {m) or back sinews are the fibrous cord 
 which runs down the back of the leg between the knee and 
 the fetlock- This cord consists of two tendons which lie 
 closely together. 
 
 The suspensory ligament is a fibrous cord which lies 
 
THE HOOK 19 
 
 between the cannon-bone and the back tendons, and which 
 can be seen in a well-formed leg that is not unduly covered 
 with hair (Fig. 292). 
 
 The cannon-bone (j) is the bone which lies between the 
 knee and the fetlock. It has two small bones (outside and 
 inside splint bone) at its back. 
 
 Fetlock (8). — The fetlock joint is the joint which the 
 cannon-bone makes with the pastern. The term fetlock 
 {i.e. foot-lock) signifies the tuft of hair that usually grows 
 behind this joint, and also the joint itself and the enlargement 
 made by the bones which form it. 
 
 Pastern (9). — This is the short column of bones which is 
 placed between the fetlock and the hoof. 
 
 The hollow of the pastern is the hollow at the back and 
 lower part of the pastern. 
 
 The coronet is the comparatively soft lower portion of 
 the pastern which is immediately above the hoof. 
 
 The Hoof (10) Is the horny box which encloses the 
 lower part of the limb. The front part of the hoof, near 
 the ground surface, is called the toe; the side portions, the 
 quarters ; and the rear parts, on the ground surface, the 
 heels. The outer portion of the hoof is termed the wall, 
 which is divided into a hard, fibrous outer covering called 
 the crusty and a soft inner layer of non-fibrous horn. The 
 designations ''wair' and ** crust" are often used indis- 
 criminately. 
 
 The frog is the triangular buffer which is in the centre 
 of the ground surface of the hoof- 
 
 The cleft of the frog is the division in the middle line 
 of the frog. In healthy feet, it consists of only a slight 
 depression. 
 
 The bars of the hoof are the portions of the wall of the 
 hoof which are turned inwards at the heels, and run more or 
 less parallel to the sides of the frog. The sole is that portion 
 
 c 2 
 
20 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS, 
 
 of the ground surface of the foot which is included between 
 the wall, bars, and frog. 
 
 Back (ii). — Anatomically speaking, the back consists 
 of that portion of the spinal column to which the ribs are 
 attached, and it consequently includes the withers ; but not 
 the loins. The term *' back " is, in common parlance, an ill- 
 defined region. Some regard It as consisting of the whole of 
 the upper line of the body, from the front of the withers to 
 the root of the tail Others would exclude from this the 
 croup. Probably, the majority of horsemen would say the 
 back of a horse is included between the highest point of 
 the croup and the commencement of the withers. For con- 
 venience sake I shall adopt the anatomical definition, with 
 the omission of the withers, which have separate functions, 
 and which I shall consider by themselves. I may, therefore, 
 state that the back is bounded in front by the withers ; behind^ 
 by the loins ; and on each side, by the ribs. 
 
 The Loins (12) are placed between the back and croup, 
 at front and rear, with the flanks on each side. We may 
 regard the loins as that portion of the spinal column which is 
 devoid of ribs, and which is in front of the highest point 
 {posterior iliac spine, Fig. 12) of the pelvis 
 
 The Ribs (13) are bounded by the shoulders in front, 
 by the flanks behind, by the back above, and by the belly 
 and brisket {sternum) below* 
 
 The Flank (14) is that part of the side of the horse 
 which is free from bone and which thinly covers the in- 
 testines. It is placed between the loins above, the ribs to 
 the front, the thigh and point of the hip to the rear, and the 
 belly below. 
 
 The hollow of the flank Is the upper portion of the flank, 
 which is bounded above by the loins, and below by a line 
 joining the end of the last rib with the lower edge of the 
 point of the hip. 
 
THE GASKIN. 21 
 
 The Belly (15) or abdomen is the large cavity (Fig. 13) 
 which contains the stomach, liver, spleen, intestines, kidneys, 
 bladder, etc. The term "belly" is applied, in common 
 phraseology, to the underneath portion of the body which 
 is not covered by bone. 
 
 The Briskpt (16) is the lower part of the horses chest. 
 
 The girth place is the rear portion of the sternum 
 (breast-bone) which is just behind the fore legs, and under- 
 neath which the girths pass when the horse is saddled. 
 
 The Croup (17) is that portion of the upper part of 
 the body which is situated between the loins in front and 
 the tail behind. Roughly speaking, it may be said to 
 extend down, on each side, to a line drawn from the lower 
 edge of the point of the hip, to the point of the buttock. 
 
 The point of the hip {s) is the bony surface, more or 
 less prominent, which is a little to the rear of the last rib. 
 It is the anterior point of the pelvis. 
 
 The point of the buttock (0) is the bony prominence 
 which is the rearmost point of the pelvis. It is a few 
 inches below the root of the tail 
 
 The Thigh (18) is bordered by the stifle, flank, 
 croup, buttock, and gaskin. from which it is separated by a 
 horizontal line drawn from the upper end of the straight 
 line made by the hamstring or tendo A chillis (/), which 
 proceeds towards the thigh from the point of the hock (g), 
 1 am aware that this definition is far from being ana- 
 tomically correct, but it is one which fairly represents the 
 acceptation of the term among horsemen. 
 
 The Stifle {%) is the joint of the hind leg which is at 
 the lower part of the flank. 
 
 The Gaskin (19) is situated between the thigh and 
 the hock, from which it is divided by a line drawn from 
 the point of the hock, clear of the bony prominences of 
 the joint 
 
22 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS, 
 
 The Hock (20) is placed between the gaskin and the 
 hind cannon-bone, from which we may separate it by a 
 line drawn across this bone at the point at which its head 
 begins to enlarge in order to form a jomt with the lower 
 bones of the hock. 
 
 The poznt of the hock {q) is the bony projection at the 
 back and top of the hock. 
 
 The parts of the hind leg below the hock are similarly 
 named to those of the fore leg below the knee. 
 
 The Dock {r) is the solid part of the tail 
 
 N.B. — The following definitions have reference to 
 Fig. II : — 
 
 The Height of a Horse (a b) is the vertical distance 
 of the highest pomt of his withers from the ground, when 
 he is standing with his fore legs nearly vertical and with 
 the pomts of his hocks in a vertical line with the points 
 of his buttocks I have qualified ^Wertical" with '* nearly" 
 when referring to the fore legs , for when the hind legs 
 are placed as in Fig. 11, the weight of the head and 
 neck, which are in front of the fore legs, would cause the 
 animal to stand somewhat *'over." I may mention that 
 this figure was drawn from a photograph of a well-shaped 
 race-horse, Tristan, who was standmg, if I may use the 
 expression, '' at attention." When a pony is being measured 
 for racing, his legs should be placed in the position I 
 have described. 
 
 The Length of the Body of a Horse {d e) is the 
 
 horizontal distance from the front of the chest to a line 
 dropped vertically from the point of the buttock. I must 
 explain that this measurement is a somewhat arbitrary one ; 
 but It is, as far as I can see, the best for the purpose 
 
 Colonel Duhousset, in his book, Le Cheval, takes the 
 length of a horse as the distance from the point of the 
 
DEPTH OF THE CHEST AT THE WITHERS 
 
 2^ 
 
 shoulder to the point of the buttock. As this is not a 
 horizontal measurement, I prefer to it the one I have 
 just given 
 
 The Depth of the Chest at the Withers {a c) is 
 
 the vertical distance from the top of the withers to the 
 
 Fig I r —Measurements of Horse. 
 
 bottom of the chest. This measurement, being taken for 
 convenience sake, is an arbitrary one ; for the chest is 
 lower between the fore legs than behind the elbow, which 
 is the spot I have selected. Besides this, the actual height 
 of the withers above the roof of the chest has no fixed 
 relation to the depth of the chest. 
 
 Depth of the Body (/^).— The best and most uniform 
 point to take this is, I think, the lowest point of the back. 
 
 Height at the Croup {h i) is measured from the 
 highest point of the hmd-quarters. 
 
24 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE, 
 
 Definitions— Bones— Joints and Ligaments— Muscles— Heart and Lungs- 
 Nervous System of the Horse. 
 
 Definitions.— When one bone unites with another bone, or with a 
 piece of cartilage, to form a joint, it is said to mticulate with it The 
 ternx arhadafion is used as a synonym ioT Joint, 
 
 A ball and socket joint is formed by the head of one bone resting in 
 a cavity of another bone. The more shallow the cavity, the more ex- 
 tensive will be the power of movement. The horse's shoulder joint and 
 hip joint are good examples of this kind of articulation. A hinge joint is 
 one which works only by extension and flexion, like the horse's knee. 
 
 "A limb," as Professor Huxley states, " is /«f^<?^ when it is bent; 
 extended, when it is stiaightened out." We may adopt this definition, with 
 the exception that the fetlock joint becomes bent when it is extended, and 
 •straightened out when it is partly flexed. 
 
 The word dorsal is used with reference to things of, or belonging to, 
 the back, which, anatomically, is limited to that portion of the spine 
 which is connected with the ribs. 
 
 If a muscle is attached, by one end, to a bone which it can move, and, 
 by the other end, to one which is fixed, the former is called the insertion of 
 the muscle ; the latter, the origin. Thus, the origin of the biceps in man 
 {p. lo) is near the shoulder joint ; and its insertion is on the bone of the 
 fore arm. When a muscle, on contracting, can move the bones at both its 
 ends, the points of connection are called attachments ; an expression which is 
 also apphed collectively to the origin and insertion. I may mention that 
 muscles are not invariably attached to bones, but may, on the contrary, be 
 connected to cartilages, ligaments, to the fibrous covering of muscles, or even 
 to the skin. 
 
 Bones. — ^The skeleton is composed of the hmbs and spinal column, 
 which consists of the head, vertebrae, ribs, and breast-bone (Fig. 12). A 
 vertebra is one of the short bones which, when united, form the column 
 of bones that extends from the head to the end of the tail. There are seven 
 vertebra of the neck, eighteen of the back, six of the loins, five of the croup 
 
BONES. 
 
 25 
 
 (or sacrum), and from thiiteen to twenty of the tail. All the vertebrae, except 
 those of the tail, have a canal in which the spmal cord lies. They are united 
 one to another with more or less power of movement, except those of the 
 croup, which, in the grown-up horse, form one solid bony mass. The head 
 may be said to be composed of vertebrae m a peculiarly altered shape. 
 
 The withers are the long spines of the seven or eight dorsal vertebrae 
 which come after the first. Generally speaking, the better bred a horse is, 
 the further to the rear do the witheis extend. The spine of the fifth dorsal 
 vertebra forms the summit of the withers. 
 
 There are eighteen rihs — eight true and ten false — attached to the dorsal 
 vertebrae. Both kinds have pieces of cartilage attached to their lower ends. 
 
 Jbint C^JiXMK 
 
 ^ V<,r U hi at of nc^ck 
 
 Hip mnt 
 
 TrocfiMrUer mtycir 
 
 PoinC of 
 hutloch 
 
 jLoTW-pasterrt bone^^^ 
 
 SJurr -pastern' bona 
 PcdaZ bone -. 
 
 Fig. 12.— Skeleton of Horse. 
 
 The true ribs are connected by their lespective cartilages with the breast 
 bone; but the false ones are only indirectly connected to it, the cartilage 
 of the first false rib resting on that of the last true one, that of the second 
 false rib on the first false one, and so on. 
 
 Tht fore lunb consists of the shoulder blade, humerus, bones of the fore 
 arm, bones of the knee, cannon-bone, splint bones, long pastern bone, 
 short pastern bone, pedal (or coffin) bone, two small bones at the back of 
 the fetlock, and the navicular bone, which lies at the back of the joint formed 
 by the small pastern bone and the pedal bone. 
 
 The shoulder blade (or scaj)ula) is a broad, thin bone, which is fiat ,on its 
 inside surface and has a narrow ndge of bone (the spine of the scapula) on 
 its outer surface. This spme serves as a partition to divide the muscles 
 which extend the shoulder joint from those that flex it 
 
26 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE, 
 
 There are two bones of the fore arm, namely, the radius, which makes a 
 joint with the humerus and with the bones of the knee ; and the uhia, which 
 is united to the back and upper part of the radius, above which it projects. 
 The free part of the ulna is called the olecranon, the top of which is termed 
 ^tfomf of the elbow. 
 
 There are two rows of bones of the knee, at the back of which a bone (the 
 tf'opezijm) is placed. It is curved inwards so as to form a groove for the 
 passage of the back tendons of the fore leg. 
 
 The two sjplmt bones are placed at the back of the cannon4om, one on the 
 outside, the other on the inside. They form a groove in which lies the upper 
 portion of the suspensory ligament ^ 
 
 There is a joint between the cannon-bone and the long pastern bone, 
 between the two pastern bones, and between the short pastern boneBxA the 
 pedal (or coffin) bone. The navicular bone articulates with both the short 
 pastern bone and the pedal bone. It and the two bones behind the fetlock 
 (the sesamoid bo?ies) serve as pulleys for one of the back tendons. 
 
 The pedal bone is surrounded by a membrane, which secretes the horn 
 of the wall of the hoof, sole and frog, in somewhat the same manner as the 
 skin which covers the bones of the head secretes the hair of that part. 
 
 Tht pelvis, which rests on, and is firmly attached to, the sacrum, appears 
 as a single bone in the adult animal, although it really consists of two halves, 
 which we may regard as the respective shoulder blades of the hind-quarters. 
 Each half furnishes a socket for the head of its respective thigh bone. The 
 point of the hip, on either side, is the front and outer corner of the pelvis. 
 The two inner corners of the pelvis are firmly connected with the sacrum, 
 upon which they rest. They form the highest point of the bony framework 
 of the croup. In the absence of a recognised popular term, we may call the 
 rearmost points of the pelvis ^t points of the buttock. 
 
 The head of the thigh bone makes a ball and socket joint with the pelvis ; 
 while its lower end articulates with the tibia to form the stifle joint, in front 
 of which the pattlla (knee cap) is placed. The patella serves for the attach- 
 ment of muscles which extend the stifle joint It is kept in position by 
 strong ligaments. A portion of the thigh bone projects, from the outside, 
 above the hip joint. The tibia articulates, at one end, with the thigh bone ; 
 and, at the other, with the astragalus, which is one of the bones of the hock. 
 The part of the astragalus which makes a joint with the tibia, is formed 
 like a pulley, the grooves of which have an outward and forward direction. 
 The OS calcis is placed behind the astragalus, and projects above it; its 
 summit being called the point of the hock. The small bones of the hock are 
 interposed between the astragalus and os calcis, and the cannon-bone and the 
 two splint bones. Tht fibula is a rudimentary bone, which is attached to the 
 tibia, and which corresponds to the ulna. According to Chauveau, the 
 patella has no analogue m the fore extremity. The bones below the hock 
 are similar to those below the knee. 
 
 Analogies between the bones of man and the horse* — The horse possesses no 
 collar bone, consequently there is no bony connection between his fore 
 
yOINTS AND LIGAMENTS. 27 
 
 extremity and trunk. The humerus, elbow and fore arm are the same in 
 both, except that the ulna is, compai-atively, far more developed in man 
 than in the horse. The knee of the latter corresponds to the wrist of the 
 former. The five bones between the wrist and the first row of knuckles are 
 represented by the cannon and splint bones ; two of these bones having dis- 
 appeared in the evolution of the horse (Chap. XXIX.). The fetlock is 
 analogous to the first row of knuckles of our hand. The long pastern bone 
 corresponds to the first row of bones of the fingers : the short one, to the 
 second row ; the cofiin bone, to the third row ; and the hoof, to our nails. 
 The navicular bone is a detached bone which has no counterpart in our 
 frame. In the hind limb, the stifle represents our knee; the tibia, the 
 shin; the hock, the ankle; the point of the hock, the heel; and so on. In 
 man, the fibula is a fully developed bone. We may thus see that the 
 horse is an animal which moves on the tips of his fingers and toes (unguli- 
 grade) ; and that he has only one toe (or finger) to each leg. 
 
 Joints and Ligaments. — Joints may be divided into those which 
 admit of more or less motion, and those which are immovable. The ends 
 of the bones which form them are, in both cases, held together by strong 
 inelastic ligaments, of which there are various kinds. Capsular ligaments, 
 for instance, loosely encircle their joints in order to protect the apparatus 
 which lubricates the ends of the bones. Lateral ligaments are placed on 
 each side of the joint, and, being attached both above and below it, keep 
 the bones together, while admitting often of considerable play. Annular 
 ligaments form protecting sheaths for the passage of tendons; and interassmm 
 ligaments bind bones closely together. Besides these, we have susj>ensmy 
 and check ligaments, which, as far as we are at present concerned, are 
 respectively represented by the structures, bearing these names, which are 
 found in the legs, below the knees and hocks. 
 
 The ligaments to which I have referred are, like tendons, composed of 
 white fibrous tissue (a variety of connective tissue, see p. 12), which is 
 hard, strong, and inelastic. YeJow ligaments are, without going into minute 
 differences, to be distinguished by the fact of their yellow colour, and by the 
 possession of considerable elasticity, which enables them to passively bear 
 weights which would otherwise fall on the muscles. A familiar instance of 
 the manner in which elastic ligaments mechanically save the expenditure of 
 muscular force, is afforded by the arrangement which keeps the claws of a 
 cat retracted without entailing exertion on the animal ; for each claw is kept 
 back by a small elastic ligament, which becomes stretched when the digits 
 of the paw are extended by their muscles. As soon as these muscles 
 cease to act, the ligaments, by their power of contraction, regain their 
 natural length and retract the claws. An enormously powerful elastic hga- 
 ment is attached to the withers, and goes straight from them, in the form 
 of a cord, to the top of the head (the bony prominence between the ears), to 
 which it is inserted. At about a third of the distance from the head to the 
 withers, a broad sheet of elastic tissue is given off from the corded portion, 
 
28 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and is united to all the spines of the neck vertebrre, except the first. This 
 sheet accordingly acts as a partition between the muscles on the respective 
 sides of the upper part of the neck. The entire ligament, therefore, by its 
 strength and elasticity greatly aids the muscles in supporting the weight of 
 the head and neck. The amount of stretching which it can undergo in 
 ordinary circumstances may be approximately estimated by comparing the 
 length of the neck, when the head is held up in its usual position, to that 
 when it is lowered to allow the animal to feed off the ground. In the first 
 case, with a horse 15.3 high, it will probably not exceed 28 inches in 
 length; but in the latter it must be over a yard long, supposing that the 
 animal does not unduly bend his knees. Any depression or elevation 
 beyond the position occupied by the head when the horse is asleep standing, 
 has to be obtained by muscular force. This ligament is popularly called the 
 J}ackwax. Without being pedantic, we might, I think, more appropriately 
 term it the suspensory ligament of the head and neck I may add that it is 
 continuous with the strong, white fibrous ligament which commences on the 
 spine of the sacrum and runs along the top of the spines of the vertebrse of 
 the loins and back, binding them together, until it nearly reaches the summit 
 of the withers, where its fibres assume the character of yellow elastic tissue. 
 On the top of this large ligament there is a layer of fat, which in entires 
 (especially if they be coarsely bred) often increases to a great size, and 
 consequently gives them a high and thick crest (Fig. 263). The intestines of 
 the horse are supported by the abdommal tunic^ which covers the muscles 
 of the lower part of the belly, and consists of a broad, strong sheet of 
 yellow elastic tissue. It acts like an elastic abdominal belt. 
 
 There is considerable power of movement between the head and the first 
 vertebra of the neck (the atlas), and between the diiferent neck vertehrce 
 themselves; but hardly any between the dorsal vert:brce. The loin vertebrm 
 can be flexed and extended to a slight degree on each other; but are 
 capable of only very little motion from side to side. The sacrum, as before 
 mentioned, forms in the adult horse a single bone, on which the pelvis rests, 
 and with which it is connected by powerful ligaments that greatly restrict its 
 movements on the spine. We have also seen that the thigh bones articulate 
 with the pelvis. The bones of the tail possess considerable mobility. The 
 solid connection thus afforded to the hind limbs, with the trunk, enables the 
 former to transmit to the latter the forward impetus given during progression 
 with the least possible loss of power. The capability of the loins to be flexed 
 and extended is necessary in order to facilitate the action of the loin muscles, 
 which are important agents in locomotion (p. 52). The mobility of the 
 head, neck, and, to a much lesser degree, of the tail, acting as they do 
 as balancing poles, is extremely useful in enabling the animal to perform with 
 ease and precision many of the varied and difficult movements demanded of 
 him. We may see that any power of lateral motion which the trunk (not 
 counting the head, neck and tail) may possess, however much it may make 
 the horse quick and " handy " at turnnig, will militate against his speed in a 
 forward direction. 
 
THE RIBS. 29 
 
 The respective ends of the fiist eight ribs iorm movable joints with the 
 spine and breast bone ; the first articulating with the last neck vertebra and 
 first dorsal vertebra ; the second with the first and second dorsal vertebras, 
 and so on. They are rigidly connected to their cartilages, of which those of 
 the first eight, or true, ribs form movable joints with the breast bone. 
 Commencing from the spine, "the ribs pass outwards and backwards, and 
 then in an arched direction downwards, their cartilages inclining inwards and 
 forwards" {Strangeways), Owing to the peculiar manner in which the ribs 
 are curved, and to the fact that the ends of the true ribs can pivot round in 
 the joints which they foim with the spine and breast bone, while the false 
 ribs also form movable joints with the spine ; the capacity of the chest is 
 capable of becoming much enlarged when the middle portion of the 
 ribs are pulled forward by muscles that are attached to them. The 
 mobility of the ribs, which is all but absent in the first one, gradually 
 increases as they go backwards. They also increase in rotundity in the same 
 manner, the first one being the fattest The first rib is the shortest, and 
 each succeeding one is longer than the one next in front of it, till the eighth 
 or ninth rib, the ribs behind which gradually decrease in length up to the 
 last one, which is nearly as short as the first rib. Owing to the direct 
 connection which the first eight ribs have with the breast bone, their power 
 of movement and, consequently, their action in increasing the capacity of the 
 chest is less than that of the false ribs. Hence, when seeking for signs of 
 good breathing power in a horse, we should attach far more importance to 
 rotundity of the rear portion of the chest than of the front part. As a 
 practical guide I might say that the former region might, in the saddled horse, 
 be regarded roughly as the portion of the ribs behind the saddle flaps, and the 
 latter as that covered by them. " It can be proved by observation, that the 
 middle false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being drawn 
 forwards and outwards. The ribs behind them successively lose more and 
 more their power of displacement up to the last one, the lower end of which 
 can be raised and lowered a little, without appreciably altering its distance 
 from the point of the hip " {Colin). 
 
 The fore limb is connected to the trunk by muscles, to which I shall 
 allude on page 31. 
 
 The shoulder joint is a ball and socket articulation, which possesses 
 considerable power of motion. 
 
 The elbow is a hinge joint, which can be bent and extended. 
 
 In the knee w^e have three hinge joints, of which that between the radius 
 and first row of bones is capable of a large amount of motion ; that between 
 the two rows of much less ; while that between the second row and cannon- 
 bones possesses hardly any powder of movement 
 
 The bones at the back of the knee are united together by an extremely 
 strong ligament, one of the bands of which closes up the gap left between 
 the point of the trapezium and the inside of the knee, so as to form a channel 
 for the "back tendons" to pass through. 
 
 The sesamoid bones are fixed immovably to the back of the fetiock joint 
 
30 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The fetlocky pastern^ and coffin joints are hinge joints, which possess 
 more or less play. 
 
 The hind limb is connected to the trunk, as we have already seen, by 
 the pelvis. 
 
 The hip Joint, formed by the head of the thigh bone and cavity in the 
 pelvis, is a ball and socket joint 
 
 In the stifie we find two articulations — one with the thigh bone and tibia, 
 the other with the thigh bone and patella, which is firmly attached to the 
 tibia by ligaments in order to enable it to resist the action of those muscles 
 of the thigh which are inserted on it. 
 
 The tnie hock joint is formed by the tibia and astragalus. It is a 
 hinge joint, which, owing to the oblique manner in which its grooves are 
 placed, causes the foot to be turned slightly outward when the joint is 
 either flexed or extended. The other joints of the hock possess hardly 
 any power of movement 
 
 The astragalus, os calcis, small hones of the hock, hi?id cannon, and splint 
 hones are firmly connected together by ligaments. 
 
 The joints below the hock are similar to those below the knee. 
 
 Muscles.— I shall now consider, in the briefest possible manner, the 
 principal muscles which are used in locomotion. 
 
 A broad sheet of muscle (the pajiniculus) lies immediately underneath 
 the skin that covers the neck, sides of the chest, and abdomen. In thin 
 horses, its rear border is usually defined by an irregular line (p. 229) 
 which runs along the side downwards and backwards towards the 
 groin. This muscle is attached, round its borders, to the skin and 
 superficial muscles by sheets of fibrous tissue. By quickly contracting and 
 relaxing alternately, it causes the skin to twitch, and thus gets lid of flies, etc., 
 that may have alighted on the surface underneath which a portion of this 
 muscle lies. It is principally found on those parts which the horse has 
 diflfiiculty in reaching with his lips, tail, or mane. As the process of training 
 for racing purposes appears to largely develop this muscle, I cannot help 
 thinking that it aids in forced expiration — expelling the air from the lungs — 
 during the quickened breathing entailed by fast work ; although anatomists 
 do not ascribe such action to it 
 
 The neck, back, and loins are flexed by muscles which lie immediately 
 underneath the spine. The head is bent by muscles that proceed — one on 
 each side — from the breast bone to the lower jaw, and by others which 
 copnect the neck and head together. The head is extended by muscles that 
 are attached to the poll and bones of the neck and by others that proceed 
 from the poll to the withers. The neck is extended by tlie last mentioned 
 muscles, and by those which connect the spine of one vetebra with the 
 body of the one in front of it. The back and loins are extended by muscles 
 which are similar in action to the one just alluded to, and by the longissimus 
 dorsi, which is the most powerful muscle of the body, and is the chief 
 extensor of the spine. It forms the principal portion of the fleshy mass 
 
CONNECTION OF FORE LIMB WITH BODY, 31 
 
 which lies over the loins and back. It is attached to the pelvis, sacrum, all 
 the loin and dorsal vertebrae, the last four bones of the neck, and to the 
 ribs. As the spines of the vertebrae (including the withers) form a part of its 
 attachments, it follows that the more they are developed, the more powerful 
 will be the extension of the loins and back. 
 
 Muscles which connect the fore limb to tlie body, — The shoulder blade is 
 connected to the trunk principally by a very strong, fan-shaped muscle, 
 which is attached at its middle to the inside of the shoulder blade. Its 
 front end is connected to the last five bones of the neck ; and its other end 
 to the first eight ribs. When the front portion contracts, the shoulder blade 
 is drawn forward ; when the rear portion contracts, this bone is pulled back. 
 This muscle, from the manner of its attachment, acts as a sling for the fore 
 limb. The upper pari of the shoulder blade is connected to the trunks from its 
 inner extremity by a muscle which has one end attached to the suspensory 
 ligament of the head and neck, and the other to the withers. Hence, on 
 contracting, it draws the shoulder blade forwards and upwards. The outside 
 •of the shoulder blade is connected to the trunk, at about its upper third, by a 
 muscle which has one branch going to the withers, and the other to the 
 supensory ligament of the head and neck. It can thus raise the shoulder 
 blade, or work it backwards or forwards. The fore limb is drawn forward 
 chiefly, however, by the action of a muscle which is attached, at one end, to 
 the top of the head and first four neck vertebrse, and by the other to the 
 middle of the humerus. We may see from the foregoing remarks, that 
 length of neck and height of withers are favourable conditions for the firm 
 attachment of the shoulder blade to the trunk and for the free action of the 
 shoulder. 
 
 The fore limb is connected to tJie breast bom by a muscle which is attached 
 to the breast bone and humerus. 
 
 The fare limb is drawn back, principally, by two muscles, one of which is 
 attached, at one end, to the abdominal tunic {see p. 28) and breast bone ; 
 and at the other, to the humerus and shoulder blade, close to the shoulder 
 joint. The other muscle (the latissimus dorsi) has its origin on the vertebrae 
 of the loins and back, and is inserted on the humerus, which it consequently 
 draws backwards and upwards when it contracts. The first mentioned 
 muscle tends to draw it backwards and downwards. 
 
 Muscles of the fore limk —When the fore leg is advanced, the shoulder 
 joint is extended and the elbow joint flexed. When it is drawn back, the 
 opposite to this takes place. Agreeably to these actions, we find a powerful 
 muscle attached, by one end, to the front part of the shoulder blade, just 
 above the joint ; and by the other end to the front of the radius immediately 
 below the elbow joint, so that, when it contracts, it extends the shoulder and 
 flexes the elbow. Another muscle, being attached to the rearmost comer of 
 the shoulder blade and to the point of the elbow, flexes the shoulder and 
 extends the elbow. Besides these muscles, there are various others which 
 respectively aid in the flexion and extension of these joints. The chief 
 muscle that extends the knee has its origin on the front part of the humerus, 
 
32 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE, 
 
 just above the elbow joint, and running down the fore arm, is joined to its 
 tendon, which passes over the knee, and which is inseited on the head of the 
 cannon-bone. The three muscles which bend the knee take their origin on 
 the back part of the humerus, just above the elbow joint, and are inserted on 
 the trapezium and splint bones. The two muscles which extend the fetlock, 
 pastern and coffin joints, lun down the front of the fore arm. One of them has 
 its origin at the head of the radius, and is inserted on the front part of the 
 long pastern bone. The other commences on the humerus, just above 
 the elbow joint, and ends on the front and upper part of the coffin bone. 
 The muscles which flex the fetlock, pa^tern^ and coffin joints {the flexor muscles of 
 the foot) and aid in bending the knee, take their origin on the back part of 
 the humerus, just above the elbow joint, and proceed down the back of the 
 fore arm. A little above the knee they are joined to their tendons {the hack 
 tendons), which pass through the sheath formed by the trapezium and the 
 annular ligament at the back of the knee. From theilce they run down the 
 back of the cannon bone. The front one, which lies next the suspensory 
 ligament, goes over the sesamoid bones, which form a pulley for it ; down 
 the back of the pastern; over the navicular bone, which also acts as a 
 pulley ; and is finally inserted on the base of the coffin-bone. The rearmost 
 tendon, which lies between the front one and the skin, forms a sheath for 
 Its fellow at the back of the fetlock, and, dividing in two, is inserted on 
 the short pastern bone. There are two short muscles which assist the front 
 one of these two muscles, but which I need not further allude to. As the 
 action of the suspensory and check ligament is closely connected with that 
 of the flexor muscles of the foot, I may appropriately describe them here. 
 The suspensory ligament lies at the back of the cannon-bone and between the 
 two splint bones. It has its origin at the head of the cannon-bone and lower 
 row of the small bones of the knee. At about two-thirds of the distance 
 from the knee to the fetlock, it divides into two branches, which are 
 respectively inserted on the summits of the sesamoid bones. They then 
 extend downwards and forwards, and unite together, at the front and about 
 the middle of the pastern, with the tendon of the muscle which extends 
 the foot. The suspensory ligament is composed of white fibrous tissue, with 
 a few muscular fibres in it, and acts in supporting the fetlock. It is 
 generally considered to be inelastic, although Goubaux and Barrier 
 entertain the opposite opinion. They remark that " its obscurely muscular 
 structure, and the manner in which its fibres inter-cross, render it a true 
 elastic brace, which counteracts the effects of weight, as long as they do not 
 overcome the resistance and strength of the tissues." In omnivorous 
 and carnivorous animals this ligament is replaced by a muscle which 
 has similar functions. The check ligament has nearly the same origin 
 as the suspensory ligament and joins the front back tendon, at a point 
 about half-way down the cannon-bone. Its office is to aid in supporting 
 the fetlock and to relieve the muscles of the tendon, with which it is con- 
 nected, of weight. 
 
 Muscles of the hind limb, — The hip is extended by the great croup 
 
MUSCLES OF THE HIND LIMB. 33 
 
 muscle, and also by some of the muscles which lie at the back of the 
 thigh bone. Out end of the great croup muscle is attached to the upper 
 surface of the front portion of the pelvis, and, proceeding along the side of 
 the sacrum, reaches as far as the last rib. The other end is inserted to the 
 summit of the portion of the thigh bone which projects above the hip joint 
 The muscles at the back of the thigh bone have their origin, chiefly, on the 
 under surface of the pelvis, from behind the hip joint to the point of the 
 buttock ; and are inserted principally to the lower part of the thigh bone 
 or to the upper portion of the tibia. 
 
 The hij^ is flexed by muscles that have their origin on the under 
 surface of the lorn vertebra, and are inserted on the thigh bone ; and also 
 by muscles which are attached to the under surface of the pelvis in front of 
 the hip joint, and to the thigh bone, patella, or tibia. 
 
 The stifle is extended by one muscle which has its origin on the under 
 surface of the pelvis, just in front of the hip joint, and is inserted on the 
 patella, and by two others which are attached to the upper part of the thigh 
 bone and to the patella. The first mentioned muscle flexes the hip at the 
 same time that it extends the stifle. 
 
 The stifle is flexed chiefly by a muscle which is attached to the portion 
 of the pelvis behind the hip joint, and to the tibia. 
 
 The hock is extended, for the most part, by muscles which form the reaf- 
 most portion of the gaskin (** second thigh "). They have their origin on the 
 lower end of the thigh bone, and are inserted to the point of the hock by 
 their tendons, which lie one over the other, and constitute the tendo Achillis- 
 The underneath tendon terminates at the point of the hock; but the 
 other is continued down the back of the leg as the rearmost one of the 
 two back tendons, and is inserted on the short pastern bone, as in the 
 fore limb. Owing to the double insertion of this tendon, the hock can- 
 not be extended without the fetlock being flexed at the same time ; hence 
 the success of the expedient, for the prevention of kicking, of securely 
 fixing in the hollow of the pastern some hard object of suitable shape, 
 so as to prevent the joint between the two pastern bones from becoming 
 
 The joints below the kock are extended by muscles which take their 
 origin near the stifle joint, run down the front of the hind leg, are con- 
 tinued as tendons down the front of the cannon-bone, and are inserted on 
 the bones of the pastern, and to the front and highest point of the coffin 
 bone. 
 
 The joints Mow the hock are flexed by a muscle of the gaskin, which 
 muscle originates at the back of the upper portion of the tibia, behind which 
 it runs down to a little above the hock joint, when it is continued as a 
 tendon that passes over the groove formed on the os cakis. It then proceeds 
 down the back of the cannon-bone, as the front one of the two back tendons, 
 and terminates in the same manner as in the fore limb. The muscle of the 
 rear back tendon, as we have already seen, also aids in flexing the fetlock 
 and pastern joints. 
 
 B 
 
34 SA'ETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Heart and Lungs. — The heart is a hollow muscle which acts as a 
 force pump in sending the blood through the arteries to the various parts 
 of the body. The arteries commence on the left side of the heart, by 
 one large trunk, which splits up, as it goes on, into an innumerable number 
 of small branches, that, as a rule, terminate in a microscopic network of 
 minute canals called capillaries. These canals, which probably do not 
 exceed a fortieth of an inch in length, gradually enlarge on the side away 
 from the arteries, and open out into small veins^ which, uniting with each 
 other as they approach the heart, enter its right side by two large branches 
 and a few small ones. The heart now forces this venous blood through 
 the pulmonaiy artery to the lungs, which return it by a system of capillaries 
 and veins to the heart. We must remember that the network of capillaries 
 runs through eveiy tissue which contains blood. Thus, for instance, the 
 blood which goes to the foot of the horse, and that which proceeds to the 
 substance of the heart itself, flow to their respective parts through certain 
 aiteiies, pass through a very short network of capillaries, and return to the 
 heart by the veins ; a long circuit being made in the first case ; a short 
 one, in the second. 
 
 The necessary amount of nutiitive matter and water is taken up from the 
 food and drink contained in the stomach and intestines by small vessels 
 which carry it into the veins, and is thus finally brought into the capillaries, 
 the walls of which- are so thin that it exudes through them, and in this 
 manner nourishes the various tissues. I may mention that, before food 
 can be taken up by the system, it is necessaiy that it should be thoroughly 
 dissolved. As the tissues are being constantly broken up as well as 
 repaired, the capillaries also serve to take up the waste matters and carry 
 them into the veins. When this impure or venous blood is pumped by the 
 right side of the heart into the lungs, it is acted upon, there, by the oxygen of 
 the air that is taken into the chest at each breath, and is returned from the 
 lungs to the left side" of the heart in a comparatively high state of purity. 
 When the blood leaves the lungs, it carries with it a certain amount of 
 oxygen, which, uniting with the broken-up mateiial in the various tissues, 
 converts it into products which can be readily removed. I need not dwell 
 longer on this subject ; for it is fully explained in every elementary book 
 on physiology, as, for instance, that by Huxley. 
 
 In order that a muscle may work — /.<?., contract on being stimulated by its 
 nerves — it is necessary that it should be supplied with oxygen. Also, the 
 severer the labour, the more oxygen is used up in the muscles and the larger 
 is the supply required. As the blood has a shorter distance to travel in order 
 to make a complete circuit in the blood vessels of a small an,imal, than in that 
 of a large one of the same kind j we might infer that the blood of the former 
 passes more frequently during a given space of time through the lungs, than 
 that of the latter. The truth of this supposition is fully borne out in 
 practice; for we may observe, on an aveiage, that the pulse of a heavy 
 cait-horse beats about thirty-five times a mmute; that of a small pony, 
 about forty-five times. Hence we find that^ speaking generally, small horses 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE HORSEL 35 
 
 can " stay" better than large ones ; for the power of " staying " is dependent 
 on the capability, possessed by muscles, of retaining for a long time their 
 contractile power. Also, they recover quicker than big horses from the 
 effects of severe work, owing to the fact that repair of worn-out tissue 
 and removal of waste matters from the system is carried on at a faster rate. 
 In fact, they possess more "vitality." Again, the larger the lungs — other 
 things being equal — ^the greater will be the amount of oxygen taken into the 
 blood, and of impurities given off from the blood into the air. 
 
 Nervous System of the Horse. — The nervous system of the horse is 
 the power which stimulates and directs the action of his muscles in locomo- 
 tion, and is the source of his mental capacity. We may regard it as divided 
 into nerve centres and conducting nerves. To employ a well-worn simile, we 
 may look upon a nerve centre as a telegraph station to which and from which 
 messages are sent and despatched. The nerves (the sensory nerves) hj which 
 the horse sees, feels, hears, smells, and tastes, conduct the impressions they 
 receive to some nerve centre, which may do one of three things, (i) It may, 
 in lesponse to the message received, send, on its own authority, by another 
 line of nerves (the motor nerves), an order (or stimulus) to certain muscles to- 
 move. Such a movement will be by reflex action — that is, the impulse will 
 be immediately reflected back. (2) Instead of acting on its own account, it 
 may merely transmit the message on to another and more important nerve 
 centre to decide what answer will be given. (3) It may use a portion of its 
 transmitting power in reflex action, and a part of it in reporting the matter 
 to head-quarters. 
 
 Besides the power which nerve centres have of exciting the muscles to 
 move in response to a stimulus received from the sensory nerves, they can, 
 by their own initiative, make their motor nerves stimulate to movement the 
 muscles which are supplied with these particular motor nerves. 
 
 The chief nerve centres that are connected with the muscles of 
 locomotion, are grouped together in a long column which fills that brain 
 cavity, and spinal canal, and may be divided into the brain and spinal cord. 
 
 The spinal cord^ though it is formed of a number of nerve centres, is the 
 chief conducting medium by which impressions received hj the senses are 
 conveyed to the brain, and is the means by which orders from the brain 
 are transmitted to the muscles of the limbs. 
 
 We may divide the brain into the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, 
 and the cerebrum. 
 
 The medulla oblongata connects the other two portions of the brain with 
 the spinal cord. It is the nervous centre of the function of breathing. 
 Animals, for purposes of experiment, have had their spinal cord, and the 
 whole of their brain, except the medulla, removed, and yet they have 
 continued to breathe and live. But were the meduUa injured, death from 
 inability to breathe would at once ensue. 
 
 The cerebellum appears to be the organ of musmhr sense and of combined 
 muscular effort By its muscular sense the animal can tell, from experience, 
 
 B 2 
 
36 
 
 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE, 
 
 the amount of muscular force required in performing its various voluntary- 
 movements. We cannot, by an effort of will, move any one particular muscle 
 of our body; but we can cause our limbs to perfoim definite movements 
 which will require the combined action of vaiious muscles, and which are 
 under the control of the cerebellum. 
 
 The cerebrum is the organ of intellect, thought, and will. '' Removal of 
 the cerebrum in the lower animals appears to reduce them to a condition of 
 a mechanism without spontaneity. A pigeon from which the cerebrum has 
 been removed will remain motionless and apparently unconscious unless 
 distuibed. When disturbed in any way, it soon recovers its former position. 
 When thrown into the air it ilies" {Kirke's Physiology). The cerebrum 
 appears to be the organ in which a conclusion or thought is formed from a 
 message or number of messages proceeding from the senses. If, for instance, 
 a man standing near a horse's hind-quarters touches him with a stick, and 
 if the animal kicks the stick, he will perform, more or less, a reflex action. 
 If, however, the horse recognises who the real offending paity is, and kicks 
 the man, he will have drawn a conclusion from the message received from 
 his sense of feeling and of sight, and will have acted on such conclusion, 
 which would be, more or less, an effort of reason. 
 
 Among the intellectual faculties, of which the ceiebrum is the special 
 organ, we have, prominently, reason and memory. Although the horse is 
 greatly deficient in the former, which is by far the higher faculty of the two, 
 he possesses the latter in special excellence. 
 
 The cerebium is placed immediately underneath the forehead, at the 
 centre of which it is covered by only a thin plate of bone. The cerebellum, 
 which, in the horse, is a great deal smaller than the cerebrum, lies below the 
 {occipital crest) top of the head, when the face is held at an angle of about 
 45° with the giound. 
 
 The pioportion which the weight of the brain bears to that of the 
 spinal cord, is regarded by many as a fair guide to the intellectual 
 capacity of an animal. The following is a list of a few examples of the 
 average number of times the brain is heavier than the spinal cord in certain 
 animals \~ 
 
 Ln man » 
 
 
 
 • 33 
 
 » dog » 
 
 
 
 . 5.14 
 
 „ cat . 
 
 
 
 • 3.7s 
 
 „ ass 
 
 
 
 2.40 
 
 » pig • 
 
 
 
 2.30 
 
 „ hoise . 
 
 
 
 2.27 
 
 „ ox . 
 
 
 
 . 2.18 
 
 The order of intellectual capacity given in the above table agrees fairly 
 well with the conclusions drawn from experience. 
 
( 37 ) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING. 
 
 The body of the horse (Fig. 13), viewed apart from his 
 head, neck, limbs, and tail, may be divided into chest and 
 abdomen (belly), the former containing the lungs and 
 
 » Cnillet 
 
 Fosterlar aortO' 
 
 Lungs 
 
 i Stmt^Bt 
 
 Mditeys ^ 
 
 / H ^'Ureter 
 
 Recium> 
 
 Lcaye Intestine — 
 
 FxG 13.— Internal Organs of the Horse. 
 
 heart ; the latter, the stomach, intestines, liver, bladder, 
 and other vital organs. This division is effected by a 
 broad and someVirhat bell-shaped muscle, the diaphragm or 
 midriff, which is attached, round its margin, to the ends 
 
38 MECHANISM OF BREATHING, 
 
 of the last twelve ribs, to the rearmost extremity of the 
 breast-bone, and to the spine under the loins , while its 
 apex or centre projects forwards. When it contracts, it 
 tends to become flat, and thus enlarges the capacity of the 
 chest by pushing back the contents of the abdomen. Its 
 action, especially during forced breathing, is aided by that 
 of another muscle, which is attached by one end to the 
 last four neck vertebrae, and by the other to the first rib, 
 which It pulls forward on contracting, and m this manner 
 helps to increase the size of the chest. 
 
 Air is taken into, and expelled from, the lungs by 
 means of the alternate increase and diminution of the 
 capacity of the chest. When the former act occurs, the 
 air contained in the lungs becomes rarefied, and con- 
 sequently the external air rushes in through the animal's 
 nostrils to restore the balance of pressure. When the 
 latter takes place, a portion of the air which is already in 
 the lungs is forced out. It is evident, therefore, that the 
 power of taking a large volume of air into the lungs at 
 each breath, is more dependent on the difference between 
 the respective capacities of the chest when expanded, and 
 contracted, than on the actual size of the chest itself 
 
 The act of breathing is called respiration; that of ex- 
 pelling: air from the lungs, expiration; and that of draw- 
 mg \x. \r., tnspration. 
 
 The chest is enlarged by the diaphragm, as we have 
 seen ; and also by muscles which pull the middle pieces 
 of the ribs forward, so as to make_ the cavity wider from 
 side to side, and consequently to increase its size. The 
 ribs are drawn forward by muscles which cover them, and 
 by others which are situated between the successive pairs 
 of ribs. The lower ends of some of the ribs are also 
 drawn up during the act of inspiration. On page 29, I 
 have remarked on the power the ribs have of pivotting 
 on their ends. I may point out that when the air which 
 is within the chest, becomes rarefied at the commencement 
 of the act of inspiration, the lungs themselves passively 
 
FORCED BREATBING 39 
 
 dilate, and thus allow the incoming air to gain ready- 
 access to the bronchial tubes and air-cells. 
 
 When the animal is at rest, the elastic recoil of the 
 ribs and lungs is sufficient to expel the iidal air, as the 
 amount changed at each breath is called. The volume of 
 air which remains in the lungs after expiration, greatly 
 exceeds — perhaps five or six times — that of the tidal air. 
 
 In forced breathing, as during active movement, several 
 muscles which are not employed for tranquil respiration 
 are called into play, particularly those used in forced ex- 
 piration, as we may see by the heaving flanks of an 
 animal which is ^' blown/' The muscles that cover the 
 ribs and belly, aid in forced expiration by compressing 
 these parts, and thereby causing the walls of the chest to 
 **fall in,'* and the contents of the abdomen to project 
 forward into that cavity. Quick work naturally develops 
 the muscles of forced respiration. 
 
 I may point out that the muscles of the flank (known 
 to anatomists as the great and small oblique, and the 
 transverse) aid in respiration. Consequently, when they 
 are well developed, the flank is not so hollow as it would 
 be if they were wanting in size. 
 
 I may mention that no hard and fast line can be 
 drawn between tranquil and forced breathing, although 
 the broad differences between them are clearly marked. 
 
 In order that the horse may have his breathing power 
 fully developed, it is necessary that the capacity of the 
 chest at the end of an act of expiration should differ as 
 much as possible from what it will be at the termination 
 of the act of inspiration. For this reason the chest should 
 be deep, the ribs well arched, and, at the same time, 
 they should have a good inclination to the rear. The 
 back ribs should be long, so as to augment the size of 
 the chest ; and the muscles which move the ribs, as well 
 as the muscles of the belly, should be largely developed. 
 I shall further allude, in Chapter XVI L, to the shape of 
 the chest and ribs. 
 
40 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY. 
 Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hmd Limbs— Centre of Gravity, 
 
 Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs.— 
 
 General Morris, of the French Army, appears to have been the first to make 
 experiments as to the [distribution of weight between the fore and hind limbs 
 of the horse. He found that, taking one animal with another, it is as five is 
 to four; and that the fact of the neck being long, as in the thoroughbred, 
 causes more weight »to be thrown on the fore hand, than when that part is 
 short and massive, as in the heavy cart-horse. The proportion which he 
 obtained from an average of eleven horses that had light heads and necks — 
 the latter being presumably long — was as four is to three. Colin puts the 
 average at fully three to two. Goubaux and Barrier have proved by a 
 number of careful trials, that the lower the withers are, as compared to the 
 croup, the greater is the proportion of weight supported by the fore limbs ; 
 and vice versL This is agreeable to what we might have inferred from the 
 manner in which the horse raises his croup to kick, or his withers to rear. 
 As the hind half of the trunk is, in all classes, heavier than the fore half, it 
 follows that the extra weight in front is mainly due to the fact of the head and 
 neck being in advance of the fore legs. The longer the body, and the heavier 
 the belly, the more will this distiibution of weight be equalised. 
 
 Centre of Gravity, — The centre of gravity of a body is an imaginary 
 point in that body, so placed that if the body be supported immediately 
 underneath the centre of gravity, it will be in equilibrium (or rest). Con- 
 sequently, if a body be balanced at a point on its surface, a perpendicular 
 line drawn from that point will pass through the centre of gravity ; and the 
 intersection of two or more such lines will determine the position of the centre 
 of gravity. If the body be of uniform density, the position of the centre of 
 gravity will be the same as that of the centre of the figure; but if it be 
 heavier at one side than at the other, the centre of gravity will be nearer 
 the former than the lattei*. For instance, in ships, with the view of 
 obtaining increased security from an upset, the centie of gravity is placed 
 below the centre of the hull. If, for example, we want to ascertain the 
 position of the centre of gravity of a loaded club, we may take one line 
 through its axis, and another across it, at the point where it balances, when 
 
POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRA VITK 
 
 41 
 
 placed horizontally. The lower the centre of gravity of a body, the more 
 stable will be its equihbrixitn, as we may see by experimenting with a loaded 
 stick of uniform thickness ; firstly, balanced on its light end, and, secondly, 
 on its heavy extremity. 
 
 In the living animal, the position of the centre of gravity is constantly 
 changing,* on account of the manner in which the respective positions of the 
 various parts alter, especially during movements of the head and neck, 
 
 Colin, the well-known author of Fhysiologie Compark des Animaux 
 Bomestiques, remarks that ^^ the centre of gravity, the exact position of 
 
 Fig. 14.— Position of Centre of Gravity. 
 
 which has never been determined, nearly corresponds, in the horse, to the 
 intersection of two lines — one, vertical, falling behind the xiphoid appendage 
 [cartilage at rearmost point of the breast bone] of the sternum ; the other, 
 horizontal, dividing the middle third from the lower third of the body." 
 Fig. 14, which I have taken from Goubaux and Barrier's EExterimr du 
 Cheval, is drawn in conformity with Colin's remarks. The point of inter- 
 section of the two dotted lines in this figure, shows the position of the 
 supposed centre of gravity. 
 
 We may readily see that the less deep is a horse's body, compared to his 
 length of leg-*-in other words, the more " daylight " he has under him — the 
 higher and more unstable will be his centre of gravity ; and vice versL Taking 
 the foregoing remarks with those on the effect which instability of equilibrium 
 has on speed (p. 54), we may conclude that the faster the horse, other 
 things being equal, the greater will be the proportion of weight on his 
 lore nanci. 
 
42 LEVERS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LEVERS. 
 
 Definition—First Order— Second Order— Third Order— Relations between the 
 Power and Weight in Levers — Comparisons between Power and Weight in 
 Muscular Levers — Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively 
 Act. 
 
 The movements of the limbs are due to the working of various levers, formed 
 by the bones and acted upon by the muscles. 
 
 Definition.— A lever is a rigid bar which has a fulcrum, or fixed point, 
 so arranged that movement can be communicated to a imglit at another 
 point on it, by a power acting on a third point on the bar. Agreeably to the 
 relative positions of the fulcrum (F), weight (W), and power (P), we have the 
 three following orders of levers. 
 
 First Order. — P.F.W. (Fig. 15), as when two persons make a fee-saw 
 by sitting on the opposite ends of a plank which rests on some convenient 
 
 W F 
 
 Fig. 15.— First Order of Lever. 
 
 fulcrum. We have this order of lever in the bones from the point of the 
 hock to the foot, when a horse kicks out with a hind leg (Fig. 39). 
 
 Second Order. — P.W.F. (Fig. 16). A wheel-barrow, when lifted in the 
 usual manner, furnishes us with an instance of this lever; the ground on 
 which the wheel rests being the fulcrum j the baiTow, the weight ; and the 
 arms of the person who hfts the handles, the force. We have another example 
 in an oar employed to row a boat ; the water being the unstable fulcrum, 
 and the rowlock being the point through which the weight (the boat) is 
 pushed forward. The bones and muscles which I have taken to illustrate 
 
POWER AND WEIGHT. 43 
 
 the Lfirst order of lever "will serve onr turn here, if we imagine the power to 
 be exerted in propelling the body to the front, through the tibia (the bone 
 
 -TV 
 
 F 
 
 1"^ 
 
 Fig. i6.— -Second Order of Lever. 
 
 that is situated between the hock and stifle), while the toe rests dn the 
 fulcrum formed by the ground (Fig. 40). 
 
 Third Order.— W.P.F. (Fig. 17). This form of lever occurs in a fishing 
 rod, with which a man tries to lift a heavy trout out of the water. The 
 weight is at the point of the rod ; the fulcrum, at the butt, is formed by one 
 hand; and the power is suppHed by the other hand, a little above the butt 
 We have this lever in the bones below the hock, when the horse bends that 
 
 F 
 
 7;^ 
 
 g 
 
 / F 
 
 Fig. 17.— Third Order of Lever. 
 
 joint hj lifting his foot off the ground (Fig. 41)- Here, the power is 
 derived from the muscle which is placed in front of the tibia ; the weight is 
 that of the limb below the hock ; and the fulcrum is formed by the iibia. I 
 may remark in passing that the os caicis does not come into this lever, except 
 in counterbalancing, to some slight extent, the weight of the leg below the 
 hock. 
 
 Relations between the Power and Weight in Levers.— 
 
 The farther the power is from the fulcrum, the greater will be the mechanical 
 advantage at which it will act; and vice versL Thus, if one arm of a 
 see-saw is longer than the other, a comparatively light weight at the 
 end of the former will counterbalance a heavy one at the extremity of the 
 latter. Also, the longer an oar is " in-board," as in an outrigger, the greater 
 will be the power which a rower wiH have. If we apply this principle to the 
 horse, we shall see that the longer is the os mkis (Figs- 39 and 40), the 
 greater wiU be the mechanical advantage at which the muscles of the 
 gaskin will act in kicking or propelling the body forward. As length of m 
 
44 LEVERS. 
 
 calcis gives increased leverage in the hind limb, so does length of trapezium 
 afford it in the fore leg. 
 
 If we wish to express these relations mathematically, we have the 
 following proportions for the three orders of levers :- 
 
 P -zy F 
 
 P : W : : ^ F : ^ F, or— =---— 
 
 Here, w'F is the distance of the point of application of the weight from 
 the fulcrum ; and f F, the distance of the power from the fulcrum. 
 
 Comparisons between Power and Weight in Muscular 
 Levers. — We may observe that the power always acts at a mechanical 
 disadvantage in levers of the third order. As the majority of the levers 
 which are used in animal locomotion, act at a mechanical disadvantage ; I 
 shall now investigate the cause of this apparent anomaly. I may first remark 
 that the measure of work done by a force is found by multiplying the 
 weight by the distance through which it has been moved. Thus, suppose 
 two men are engaged in raising weights, one having a single block pulley 
 to lift a weight of 25 lbs., while the other, to raise 100 lbs,, uses a multiplying 
 block which increases the power fourfold; the former will raise his 25 lbs. 
 4 ft. off the ground in the same time and with the same expenditure of force 
 as the latter will lift his 100 lbs. to a height of i ft. In fact, what is gained 
 in power is lost in distance. This law holds equally good with levers, as 
 we may see from the fact, for instance, that a small amount of contraction of 
 the muscle which bends the hock, causes the hind foot to move through a 
 considerable space. Were the hock bent, for example, by a muscle that had 
 its two points of attachment at the stifle and fetlock (instead, as is actually 
 the case, at the stifle and a little below the hock), such muscle would act at 
 far greater mechanical advantage than the present flexor of the hock ; but 
 it could not bend that joint to anything like the same extent, because 
 muscles cannot contract to more than about two-thirds of their normal length. 
 Besides, such an arrangement would be extremely inconvenient for every- 
 day work, and would increase the liability of the limb to injury. Although 
 there is, therefore, a very large expenditure of muscular force in the action 
 of the levers of the limbs; there is an equally large gain in flexion and 
 extension, and consequently in speed. Their arrangement, also, enables the 
 body to be made of a compact form, and to be suited to its surroundings. 
 
 Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively 
 Act. — In the theoretical levers which I have given (Figs. 15, 16, and 17), I 
 have assumed that the power and weight acted at right angles to the lever, 
 and that they weie consequently parallel to each other. In the actual levers 
 (those of the hock) which I have taken into consideration, we may see that 
 this is not the case. I may mention that the nearer a force is to being at 
 right angles with its lever, the greater is the mechanical advantage at which 
 
POWER AND WEIGHT. 45 
 
 it will work. If, in a lever of the first order, for instance, we have the power 
 and weight, as in Fig. i8, acting in directions which are not parallel to each 
 other, such forces (if the lever be in equilibrium) will then be inversely pro- 
 portionate to the length of the perpendiculars drawn, fiom the fulcrum, to 
 their respective directions. Thus in Fig. i8 we have P : W : : F^: F^. We 
 therefore see that W, which is nearly at right angles to a b, acts much more 
 advantageously than P, which is in a much more oblique direction to it 
 This would be equally true in the other two kinds of levers. I nttdt not stop 
 to prove the foregoing well-known mechanical law; as its solution can be 
 found in any book on elementary statics. 
 
 Acting on the principle just enunciated, the cart-horse, with the view of 
 obtaining the utmost mechanical advantage, when trying to draw a heavy 
 load, will naturally endeavour to move the levers of his limbs (\-\hen 
 straightening them out) with the power, as nearly as possible, at right angles 
 
 I 
 
 "n. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 **^ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ■-^^ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^-. 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ; 
 
 
 N, 
 
 
 / 
 
 '~"^»«. 
 
 . F, 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 
 w p 
 
 Fig. i8.— Lever of First Order with Directions of Power and Weight 
 
 Oblique to each Other. 
 
 to each respective lever. Hence he will obtain his results by only slight 
 bending of the joints, and consequently his steps will be short. We may see 
 this action of the levers of the hind limbs well shown by the manner in which 
 he will crouch down behind when he makes a strong effort with his hind 
 legs while exerting the fore legs but little, as may occur when the roadway is 
 slippery. The galloper, on the contrary, will require the power of straighten- 
 ing out his limbs to their utmost extent (p. 51), and will thus obtain speed 
 at a lavish expenditure of muscular effort. This is especially well shown in 
 the action of the fetlock joint (Fig. 3%) ; for if the pastern be long and 
 sloping, the mechanical disadvantage will be great, but the gain in speed 
 will be equally large. If the pastern be upright, the fetlock will work 
 advantageously as far as the weight to be moved is concerned; but it wiU 
 contribute little to the attainment of speed. 
 
46 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 Displacement of the Centre of Gravity — Manner in which Propulsion is effected 
 by the Limbs — Direction of Propulsion, and Distance through which the 
 Centre of Gravity of the Body is moved~-Comparative Speed in the Action 
 of the Lmibs — Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae — Width 
 between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed — Effect of Insecurity 
 of Equilibrium on Speed — Fatigue from the various Paces — Action of the 
 Head and Neck in Locomotion — Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint — Mechanism 
 of the Hock Joint. 
 
 The remarks made undei: this heading should be taken in connection with 
 those in the following five chapters. Some which are here given are necessary 
 for the proper comprehension of the movements of the horse in his various 
 paces ; but others, in order that they may be understood, have been kept 
 back, until the paces and draught have been discussed. 
 
 Displacement of the Centre of Gravity.~The actions which 
 give rise to locomotion in the horse may be summed up as follows : — 
 Advancement of a limb in order to bring a new base of support under the 
 centre of gravity. Let us suppose that the man represented in Fig. 19 is 
 standing with one foot advanced more than the other. His base of support 
 {a b) will then be the area bounded by his feet and the lines joining them at 
 each side. As long as the perpendicular (/) dropped from the centre of 
 gravity falls within the base of support, the equilibrium of the body will be 
 maintained. If the man, in this example, brings the centre of gravity of 
 his body forward by straightening his left ankle joint, so that the perpen- 
 dicular from the centre of gravity shall fall beyond the base of support 
 (Fig. 20) ; it will be evident that iix order to prevent the body from failing, 
 he will have to bring the rear leg (which in this case is the left one) beyond 
 the perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity (Fig. 21). Precisely 
 the same actions take place when the horse starts from the halt into the 
 walk ; for by the straightening of one or both hind legs, he brings the centre 
 of gravity of his body beyond the toe of the most advanced fore foot, with 
 the result that the other fore leg has to be carried forward in order to restore 
 the equilibrium. In doing this, the first foot to quit the ground will usually 
 
PROPULSION BY THE LIMBS, 
 
 47 
 
 be a fore one. I may remark that a succession of these displacements and 
 recoveries will constitute the walk, run, or other pace. The same movements 
 
 
 ""*"*'*wH«-ioBt" ■*** «* 
 
 — ^*JaB=*'"*^ 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig, 19, 
 
 DiSPLACEMENr OF CENTRE OF GRWITY BY MAN WHEN WALKING. 
 
 occur when leaping, except w hen the spring is made vertically upwards from 
 a state of jest, in which case the centre of gravity is not displaced beyond 
 the base of suppoit. 
 
 Manner in which Propulsion is Effected by the Limbs,— The 
 
 displacement of the centre of gravity, in the propulsion of the body, is 
 accomplished by the straightening out of the limb or limbs, as the case may 
 be. We can readily see how this gives the required impetus, if we consider 
 the manner in which the shove-off is done by an expert swimmer in a bath, 
 w^hen he comes to the end of it, and wishes to touch, turn, and strike off 
 without loss of time. He, as we all know, will, as much as possible, draw 
 up the leg with which he is going to give the shove off, and having applied 
 it to the side of the bath (Fig. 22), will suddenly straighten it out, with 
 the result that his body will be shot forward (Fig. 23), Here the drawn- 
 up leg, which acts as a spring, is placed between two objects : one (the 
 body) movable, the other (the side of the bath) immovable. When the 
 leg is extended, the movable object is naturally the one to be displaced. 
 Indentically the same action occurs in the various progressive movements ot 
 the horse. We may see it, also, in the run of the pedestrian, which is depicted 
 in Figs. 24, 25 and 26 ; for the right leg, which is a good deal bent in Fig. 24, 
 is nearly straight in Fig. 25, The straightening of the limb or limbs, in 
 effecting the forward propulsion of the body, is even better shown in Figs. 27, 
 28, 29 and 30, which depict the standing leap. 
 
 I may mention that the propulsion of the hind limb of the horse takes 
 place through the hip joint and pelvis. The impetus from the fore leg at the 
 various paces may be regaided as through the elbow jojnt and humerus. 
 
48 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION 
 
 
 
 rtc 
 
 
 Fig 22. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 SHOVE-OFr FROM SiDE OF SWIMMING-BaTH. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Forward Propulsion of Man when Running. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 28. Fig. 29. 
 
 Forward Propulsion of Man in Standing Leap. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
DIRECTION OF PROPULSION, 
 
 49 
 
 Direction of Propulsion and Distance through which the 
 Centre of Gravity of the Body is Moved. — The direction of the 
 piopulsion given by a limb is necessarily through its column of bones. 
 If we examine all the illustrations of the progressive movements of the 
 horse, from Fig. 55 to Fig. 190, we shall see that in every case, just before 
 a limb leaves the ground, it is directed backward and downward, as, for 
 instance, the near hind in Fig. 105, and the off fore in Fig. 130. Hence the 
 direction of propulsion in these cases must be forward and upward. The 
 
 Fig. 3l 
 
 Fig. 3: 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 Running High Leap of Man. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 speed at which the body is moving will greatly influence the direction of 
 the propulsion. Thus in Fig. 32, which is one of the series (Fig. 31 to 
 Fig. 35) that shows the running high leap of a man, the impetus from the 
 right leg is given vertically ; yet the centre of gravity is projected forward at 
 about an angle of 45° to the ground. The reason for this is, that in this 
 case there are two forces of projection, namely, that derived from the 
 extension of the right leg, and that due to the speed at which the pedestrian 
 ran up to the jump before he " took off." We have here the operation of 
 
50 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION 
 
 " the parallelogram of forces." Thus, if the line a b in Fig. 36 represents the 
 horizontal force (derived from the speed) and ac the vertical one (obtained 
 from the right leg), and if we draw ^^ parallel to ab, and ^^ parallel to ac, 
 we shall have the resultant force represented by the line a d, and the angle 
 of elevation equal to the angle dab. 
 
 The upward motion given by the limb to the body is necessary to keep up 
 the centre of gravity, which, if we wish the labour to be accomplished with a 
 minimum amount of muscular effort, should be maintained as nearly as 
 possible at one uniform height from the ground; for the distance through 
 which the centre of gravity is moved will be a measure of the work done. 
 Let us suppose at each step of a yard long by a horse, that the centre of 
 gravity falls 4 inches, and that the animal has to go a distance of 1000 yards 
 on a horizontal plane. It is evident that, in this case, the muscles of the 
 horse's limbs would not alone have to carry the weight of the body 1000 
 yards, but would also have to raise it 333^ feet (1000 X -3), which would be 
 approximately equivalent to going over a hill that was 333I feet high and 
 
 a & 
 
 Fig. 36.— Angle of Projection of Centre of Gravity. 
 
 had a base 1000 yards broad. I need hardly say that the less the fall and 
 rise at each step, the lower this suppositious hill would be, and, conse- 
 -quently, the easier it would be to walk over. 
 
 Although the duty of forward propulsion is chiefly performed by the hind 
 limbs ; the greater part of the work of adjusting the position of the centre of 
 gravity during ordinary locomotion, falls on the fore limbs. When a horse, 
 for instance, performs the high-school feat of cantering to the rear, the 
 respective rdles would obviously be reversed. The question of the adjustment 
 of the centre of gravity of the body, so that the muscles of locomotion may 
 act to the best possible advantage, will be considered further on. 
 
 Comparative Speed in the Action of the Limbs.— The speed 
 with which the body is projected forward, is directly proportionate to th^ 
 speed with which the limb or limbs are straightened out, and has nothing to 
 do with the strength of the muscles that move the parts. Hence, any excess 
 of muscular development beyond that required for the due working of the 
 limbs, will tend to diminish the speed by unnecessarily adding to the weight 
 to be carried. For this reason, we never see great race-horses of the weight- 
 carrying hunter build. Some of the best (St. Simon and Tim Whififler, for 
 
STRAIGHTENING OF THE LIMBS IN LOCOMOTION 51 
 
 instance) have been slight horses. In fact, the son of Galopin and St Angela 
 (Figs. 9 and 229) had singularly light hind-quarters. Even Ormonde, who 
 was very nauscular for a race-horse, was anything but broad when viewed from 
 behind. 
 
 The question of the speed of muscular contraction is an abstruse one 
 which still remains unsettled. We know that if a muscle be stimulated by a 
 shock of electricity, it will contract throughout its entire length at (practically) 
 the same moment. Hence, under this condition, a long muscle would 
 contract very nearly in the same time as a short one. When, however, a 
 muscle is stimulated by the nerves which act in obedience to the will, the 
 contraction of its various parts does not take place simultaneously, though 
 at such a brief interval that we may regard the delay as unappreciable. 
 Hence, in two limbs which resemble each other in every particular, except 
 that one is short and the other long, the respective extension of both will be 
 accomplished in very nearly the same time, and consequently the speed of 
 the propulsion derived from the long leg will exceed that from the short 
 one in nearly the proportion which their lengths bear to each other. This 
 conclusion is in accordance with Marey's statement (p. 4), that muscles 
 of speed are long muscles. Besides this, physiology teaches us that the 
 thicker muscles are, the slower, other things being equal, do they contract 
 on becoming stimulated. We should content ourselves with taking a broad 
 view of this subject ; for conditions vary so much in individual cases, that it 
 is not safe to dogmatise on it. 
 
 I need hardly say to those of my readers who have followed me so far, 
 that the greater the ability to straighten the leg, the higher will be the speed 
 of propulsion, and vice versL Hence, if a horse is, for instance, unable 
 from peculiarity of conformation to straighten his hocks (a condition called 
 "sickle-hocks," p. 210), he will not be so fast as he would have been, had 
 he greater freedom in these joints. We may test the truth of this principle in 
 our own selves ; for if, when swimming in a bath (p. 47), we wanted to touch 
 and turn, but were unable to straighten our knee on account of an injury 
 or from some other cause, we would be capable of giving only a comparatively 
 poor kick-off. The great beauty of a "straight-dropped hind leg" in the 
 horse, as a conformation favourable to speed, will again be alluded to on 
 
 p. 210. 
 
 The action of the fore limb in raising the fore hand, which is essential for 
 the regulation of the position of the centre of gravity in locomotion, is also 
 dependent on its difference of length when bent and when straightened out. 
 It is manifest that this difference is mainly due to the action of the shoulder 
 joint and of the fetlock. Hence, oblique shoulders and sloping pasterns are 
 " points " of speed and of leaping power. If the shoulder-blade and pastern 
 be upright, the limb will be capable of but slight extension. 
 
 In heavy draught, full straightening out of the limbs is not desirable ; for 
 the last part of this action is accomplished at a great mechanical disadvan- 
 tage, to which I have alluded on page 45. At present it is sufficient to 
 compare the action of the limbs to that of the oars of a boat, in which the 
 
 E 2 
 
52 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION. 
 
 practically useful work is finished after the oais have passed the line at right 
 angles to the length of the boat ; the remainder of the propulsive efifect being 
 obtained by a wasteful expenditure of force. Consequently, an increase of 
 speed is procured by an amount of work that is greatly out of proportion to 
 the result. Thus, to double the speed during a certain period of time, it may 
 be necessary for the horse to do five or six times the amount of muscular 
 exertion. For instance, it may be more fatiguing for a horse to go twenty 
 miles in one hour, than fifty miles in fiYt hours. The cart-horse, when in 
 heavy draught, moves his load with his hind limbs in a moie or less bent 
 condition (Fig. 91), which will give his hind-quarters the crouching appear- 
 ance which must be familiar to us all. Sloping pasterns from a load-pulling 
 point of view are objectionable in the cart-horse ; for the more oblique they 
 are, the greater is the mechanical disadvantage at which they work (p. 57). 
 Sloping shoulders, also, from the same point of view, aie undesu'able. 
 
 Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae.— When 
 
 a horse prepares to kick, he, as a general rule, lowers his head and arches 
 his loins (" puts his back up "), by doing which he relieves his hind-quarters 
 of weight and puts it on his foie hand. When, on the contrary, he prepares 
 to rear, he raises his head and neck and more or less hollows his loins, so as 
 to lighten his fore hand and put more weight on his hind-quarters. If we 
 examine Figs. 123 and 124 of the canter, Figs, 133 to 137 of the gallop, and 
 Figs. 195 to 199 of the leap, we shall see that the muscles which enable a 
 horse to rear, greatly aid the forward reach of the fore legs in the canter and 
 gallop. Also, the heavier the fore hand, the greater difficulty will they have 
 to raise it. In the leap, they assist the leading fore leg in raising the 
 fore hand. If the horse carries a rider, these muscles will have an increased 
 amount of work to do on account of extra weight being put in front, and will 
 tire in a proportionately rapid rate. On examining the drawings of horses in 
 Chapter XII. at the various paces, we shall see that the faster the movement, 
 the more will these muscles be taxed, on account of the greater distance of 
 the centre of gravity from the hind feet, during the period one or both of the 
 hind limbs support and propel forward the weight of the body. Hence we 
 find that to gallop fast or to jump "big," a horse must have good "rearing 
 muscles" which consist principally of those that straighten the hock, draw 
 back the thigh, and extend the vertebrae of the loins. These muscles also 
 help to "lighten" the fore hand in the flying trot and fast " pacing," in both 
 of which there is a period of suspension, which will vary in length according 
 to the weight that is on the fore hand. From these considerations I may lay 
 down the law that the faster the speed required, the stronger should the 
 " rearing muscles " be. The pair of them (one on each side) that is most 
 readily noticed, is the loin muscles, which in the ox constitute the upper cut 
 of a sirloin, and which, in the horse, we may see just behind the cantle of the 
 saddle, I need hardly say that the heavier the shoulder, the sooner will these 
 muscles become tired ; the shorter will be the stride ; and the slower will be 
 the pace. Consequently, horses for fast work ought to have light shoulders. 
 
WIDTH BETWEEN THE LEGS, 53 
 
 Carrying out the same train of reasoning, we may see that the longer a horse's 
 body, the greater will be the mechanical disadvantage at which these muscles 
 will woik ; hence, a short body is a desirable point in the race-horse and 
 jumper. 
 
 The combined working of oblique shouldeis, well-sloped pasterns and 
 strong rearing muscles, by preventing the fore hand going down at each 
 stride, aids in obtaining the much admired " level " action in the race-horse. 
 An animal which has a long body, heavy shoulders, upright pasterns, and 
 weak loins (showing deficiency in the points just advocated), will, if he be 
 put to a gallop, go in an up-and-down style; because his rearing muscles 
 will be over-taxed by the weight of the fore hand at the end of the long lever 
 made by his body, and because his fetlock joints will have deficient "play/' 
 
 I may remark that, although the loin muscles appear to be almost 
 quiescent during easy walking and gentle trotting, they may be observed to 
 act energetically in flexing and extending the loins when the animal is 
 leaping and galloping, and when his powers are taxed in drawing a heavy 
 load. Any one who has ridden races or gallops on speedy thoroughbreds, 
 will know from experience the immense power behind the saddle possessed 
 by animals of this class; for the rider cannot fail to feel the vigorous "lift" 
 given by the loins at each stride. 
 
 It is a popular fallacy to imagine that the muscles over the loins are 
 propellers. They have no propelling power at all; for they are not 
 connected either with the thigh bone, or with any of the bones of the limb 
 below it ; their office in locomotion being merely to regulate the weight on 
 the fore hand. I may mention that the muscles (those which constitute the 
 under-cut in a saddle of mutton, or in sirloin of beef) under the loins, draw 
 the thigh foiward. 
 
 Width between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting 
 Speed. — Let us suppose that the rectangle abed (Fig. 37) diagram- 
 matically represents the body of the horse; that the fore limbs are placed 
 at the angles a and ^; that the hind limbs are at d and e-, and that 
 the centre of gravity is at c Were both fore legs and both hind legs to 
 act respectively at the same moment, we would have the centre of gravity 
 moved in a straight hne, and in the direction in which the animal's body 
 was placed. In the amble (p. 85), the propulsion is given through a and 
 d, and through b and e alternately, with the result, in the former case, that 
 the centre of gravity is displaced to the right, and in the latter to the left 
 In the trot (p. 82), the alternate strokes are through a and <?, and b and d. If 
 these respective propulsions, in the trot, were equal to each other, and if the 
 centre of gravity were midway between the fore and hind legs, there would 
 be no displacement of it from side to side. As however the impetus derived 
 from the hind limb is greater than that from the fore leg, and as the centre 
 of gravity is nearer the latter than the former, there is a certain tendency to 
 lateral displacement, which has to be corrected by muscular efifort This 
 tendency to a rocking movement from side to side is naturally greater in the 
 
54 
 
 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION 
 
 amble than it is in the trot. In the gallop there is a strong tendency to lateral 
 displacement ; for at this pace each leg gives its own separate stroke (pp. 95 
 and 96). When either of the near ones act, the centre of gravity is canted to 
 the right; when the off ones make their respective effort, it is thrown to the 
 left The retention of the centre of gravity ni a more or less straight line, 
 entails a certain expenditure of muscular work, and consequent fatigue. 
 
 It is evident that the nearer (Fig. 37) ^x is to by and d to e, the less 
 will be the lateral displacement of the centre of gravity, and the smaller 
 the loss of speed from this cause. Hence we fmd that in animals of great 
 speed, like the cheetah, antelope, greyhound, and race-horse, both the fore 
 and hind legs are respectively placed much closer together than in animals of 
 comparatively greater strength, but of slower movement. The faster the 
 
 €Cr 
 
 cLl 
 
 Fig. 37.— Lateral Displacemeni of Body. 
 
 pace (p. 103), the moxe do the footprints of the horse tend to come into 
 the line of the direction in which movement is taking place. This principle 
 is well exemplified in man; for all fast walkers, lunners and skaters try to 
 place the feet, at each step, as nearly as possible, in one straight line. 
 
 As I have already said, the tendency to lateral displacement of weight 
 is corrected to a certain extent, in his various paces, by the horse, who has, 
 however, to do it by a muscular effort, which is a lost force as regards 
 propulsion. 
 
 Effect of Instability of Equilibrium on Speed-^The more un^ 
 stable the equilibrium is, during each step of the horse at any paiticular 
 pace, the greater will be the speed which can be developed at that pace, 
 whatever it may be. This follows from the fact that the more insecure is the 
 equilibrium, the quicker, when it is disturbed, will the new base of support 
 have to be formed. Thus, in the walk of the horse (p. 87) there are never 
 less than two feet on the ground ; three as often as two ; and sometimes 
 even four. In the canter (p. 90), we have respectively m three steps, a 
 support of one foot, of two (or of three) feet, and of one foot. In the trot 
 
FATIGUE FROM THE VARIOUS PACES. 55 
 
 and amble, two feet touch the ground during each step. From this we may 
 conclude that the canter is a faster pace, naturally, than the trot or amble. 
 I am aware that this is not the case with many horses which have been 
 specially trained for match-trotting and match-pacing; but that fact does 
 not bear b^n the subject in question. Of all paces, the gallop is the one in 
 which the equilibrium is most unstable ; for during each stride of it, the 
 centre of gravity is carried farther beyond the base of support (Fig. 144) 
 than at any other pace. Besides, at each step in it, there are fewer feet 
 together on the ground than at any other pace. 
 
 As it is imperative that the body of an animal intended for speed should 
 be as light as possible, provided he has sufficient bone and muscle to meet 
 his requirements ; the preponderance of weight on the fore hand should be 
 obtained by conformation, and not by any approach to "heaviness'* in 
 that part. 
 
 Fatigue from the various Paces.— In comparing the fatigue 
 undergone during certain paces, we must be guided by the consideration of 
 the respective distances through which the centre of gravity of the body has 
 to be moved. Let us first of all consider its vertical, and afterwards its 
 horizontal, displacement out of the straight line of the direction in which it 
 has to travel. In the walk and at all other paces in which there is no 
 period of suspension (p. 80), it is carried nearly parallel to the ground, 
 with only a slight fall when each fore leg is taken up. At paces in which 
 there is a period of suspension, the centre of gravity will have to be raised 
 just as much as it will fall during that time. This fact is best marked in 
 jumping ; for in making even a long leap, the centre of gravity will have to 
 be raised a considerable height Thus, when Howard of Bradford, the 
 famous jumper and sprinter, leaped over a full-sized billiard-table lengthwise, 
 he was computed to have cleared a height of five feet four inches. Hence, 
 animals like the antelope and cheetah, which adopt, when going at full 
 speed, a leaping style of gallop (p. 106), can keep it up only for a short 
 time. This fact is particularly well marked in the case of the kangaroo. 
 For the same reason, a horse can go a distance with more ease to himself 
 at a slow trot (which has no period of suspension), than at the iSying trot 
 (p. 83) or gallop (p. 94), in both of which there is a period of suspension. 
 Not alone does the consideration of the comparative rise and fall of the 
 centre of gravity give us an idea of the relative fatigue undergone during 
 the various paces ; but it also furnishes us with a guide to judge of the 
 comparative ease with which different horses move at the same pace. Con- 
 sequently, we may conclude that the more " level " a horse goes, whether at 
 the fast trot, gallop, or other pace, the less will he fatigue himself: a fact 
 which proves how thoroughly reasonable is the admiration every good judge 
 has for a " level" style of movement — ^that is, one in which there is the least 
 possible^rise and fall of the fore hand at each stride. I have purposely used 
 the word '' fore hand " here. When noting whether the action of a horse is 
 level or not, we are usually guided by the presence or absence of up-and-down 
 
56 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION 
 
 motion in the fore hand ) for the special prominence of the head and neck 
 will more or less rivet the attention of the eyes. Besides this, the centre of 
 gravity of the horse's body is nearer his fore legs than his hind ones. 
 
 I may mention that as soon as fast antelopes, like the Indian Black Buck 
 and South African Spnngbok, get tired in their bounding kind of gallop, they 
 "settle down" to one resembling that of the horse (Figs. 133 to 148), 
 When the cheetah — ^who, as far as I can make out, gallops like the cat 
 (Figs. 166 to J 71), in a succession of leaps — becomes tired of that pace, 
 he drops into a walk or trot. 
 
 On pages ^i ^^^ 54 ^ ^^"^e alluded to the effects of the lateral displacement 
 of the centie of gravity in causing fatigue. 
 
 The pace which is the speediest, is also the most fatiguing ; for, as in fast 
 paces the centre of gravity will be carried further beyond its base of support 
 than at slow ones, a greater muscular effort will be required in them to form 
 a new base of support. We may see this if we compare, one with another, 
 Figs. 58, 61, 77, 1X2, and 144. 
 
 Action of the Head and Neck in Locomotion. — During move- 
 ment, the head and neck act as a balancing pole in changing the position 
 of the centie of gravity from one side to the other, and in raising or 
 depressing it. Certain muscles of the neck draw the fore limb forward 
 and upward ; other muscles of the neck straighten out the head and neck, 
 and a third group bend them. 
 
 Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint. — As Lecoq explains, " the weight 
 of the body, transmitted by the cannon-bone upon the upper articulating 
 surface of the long pastern bone, is the resistance to be overcome. The 
 fulcrum is the ground at the toe of the foot, and the power acts upon the 
 
 Fig. 38.— Mechanism of Fetlock: Joini. 
 
 sesamoid bones, which are at the back of the pastern ; the shortening of the 
 flexor muscles being the cause of the straightening of the angle formed by 
 their tendons." The diagram given in Figa 38 will show how this lever (one 
 of the second order) acts. In it we see that the distance between the power 
 and weight remains constant ; but their respective distances from the fulcrum 
 
MECHANISM OF THE FETLOCK JOINT, 
 
 57 
 
 vary according to the slope of the pastern and hoof, and according to the 
 length from the fetlock to the toe. Hence (pp. 42 to 44), the shorter 
 is the distance of the toe from the direction of the cannon-bone, or from 
 that of the back tendons, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at 
 which the back tendons will act; and vice versL On the other hand, we 
 may see that the more is the mechanical gain, the worse will the fetlock 
 act as a spring, which function is all-important in saving the limb (especially 
 the fore one) from the injurious effects of concussion. It is evident that 
 the distance of the weight (or power) from the fulcrum (F) is influenced 
 by the length and slope of the pastern; it being greatest when the pastern 
 is long and oblique, and least when that part is short and upright. I may 
 point out that increased growth of hoof, either at the toe or heel, will 
 
 Fig. 39.— 1ST Order. 
 
 Fig. 40.— 2ND Order. Fig. 41.— 3RD Order. 
 Levers of the Hock. 
 
 affect the slope in question, and that the thickness of horn at the toe will, 
 of course, influence the length from the fetlock to the toe. As a practical 
 point I may remark that the toe (except in the treatment of some forms 
 of disease) should always be kept low, and that shoes should be no 
 thicker at the toes than what would be sufficient to enable them to stand 
 " wear." I have alluded to this subject furtlier in my Veterinary Notes for 
 Horse Owners. 
 
58 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION 
 
 Mechanism of the Hock Joint. Figs. 39, 40, and 41 show the 
 three actions of this joint as a lever. 
 
 Besides flexion and extension, this joint has an outwaid motion, due to 
 the outward and forward direction of the pulley formed by the astragalus. 
 
 We find, contrary to what we might have expected from an inspection 
 of this bone, that this oblique play of the hock joint does not affect the 
 direction m which the hind foot is carried; its object being, as explained 
 by H. Bouley, to allow the *stifle to clear the belly, when the hind foot 
 IS brought foiward. 
 
( 59 "> 
 
 XmX ^ JLi Jm Jw JL JL. Ill— </ JL ^W JL wi** JJht # 
 
 MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. 
 
 Draught in the collar or breast-harness is, as explained by Colin, an act 
 of pushing, and not one of pulling. The only kind of draught I have ever 
 heard of, which could be put under the latter heading, is that of making a 
 horse draw by attaching the weight to his tail, like what farmers in some 
 countries used to do long ago, when they wanted to plough ! 
 
 Propulsion in draught, like in other forms of locomotion, is effected by 
 placing a series of levers, bent on one another, between a fixed point and a 
 movable one. In locomotion of the body itself, the series of levers are those 
 only of the limbs. The movable point, in the hmd limb, is the portion of 
 the pelvis against which the head of the thigh bone rests ; and in the fore 
 extremity, the lower end of the humerus. In harness, on the contrary, 
 the series of levers is that between the spot against which the foot rests and 
 the centre of pressure on the inner surface of the collar, which, in this case, 
 is the movable point. 
 
 In Fig. 42, the line A B represents the direction of the propelling force 
 given by the hind leg which is on the ground ; and E B, that by the fore 
 limb : B being the assumed centre of pressure. The resultant of these two 
 forces must pass somewhere between the points A and E, and through the 
 point B. It is, however, impossible to fix its exact direction ; as we cannot 
 determine the respective amounts of these two forces, and as the proportion 
 they bear to each other continually varies. If two hind feet, as in Fig. 92, 
 were engaged in pushing against the collar at the same time, the direction of 
 their resultant would naturally pass between them and between the two points 
 occupied by the respective centres of pressure on each side of the collar. 
 From a practical point of view, we may assume that this centre of pressure, 
 on each side, is on a level with that portion of the harness to which each 
 respective trace is attached. This would place it somewhere between the 
 middle and lower third of the bearing surface of the collar. 
 
 The force applied to the collar by the animal is obtained in two different 
 ways : first, by the weight of the animal, and second, hj the force of propulsion 
 to which I have just alluded. 
 
 The weight of the animal acts on the collar by reason of the centre of 
 gravity being placed in front of the base of support (p. 46), the anterior 
 limit ot which is marked by the position of the toe of the fore foot which is 
 on the ground. It is evident that the further a perpendicular dropped from 
 the centre of gravity falls in front of the base of support, the more effectively 
 will the weight of the body act m propulsion. This forward translation of 
 
6o MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT, 
 
 the centre of gravity with leference to the position of the base of support, is 
 influencedj first, by the degree of slope which the foie leg makes with the 
 ground immediately before it quits it, and before the other fore leg is brought 
 down ; and, second, by the loweiing of the head and neck. I need hardly 
 say that horses with toe-pieces to their fore shoes can, while retaining their 
 foothold, biing the centie of giavity faither beyond the base of support, by 
 the slope of the fore leg which rests on the ground, than they could do with 
 flat shoes ; supposing, of couise, that the surface of the ground was not 
 abnormally smooth and hard, like wood or asphalt. From the foregoing 
 considerations we may draw, with respect to cart-horses that are required to 
 exert their strength to the utmost, the following deductions, which are fairly 
 self-evident to practical men. 
 
 I. Bodily weight, especially in the fore hand, is an advantage m draught; 
 
 Fig. 42.— Mechanism of Draught. (From Colm's Physiologk Comparie?^ 
 
 for the greater it is, the more effective will be the push against the collar 
 caused by the centre of gravity falling beyond the base of support. Agreeably 
 to this fact, the experienced driver of a heavily-laden two- wheeled cart will 
 endeavour to place a fair share of the burden on the animal's back, so that 
 the horse may pull to the best advantage. The experiment of a man 
 succeeding in pulling along a stronger man than himself, by trying to do so, 
 while carrying a heavy weight on his back, is another familiar instance of 
 this principle. The gain in power from increased weight on the fore hand is, 
 also, well illustrated by the practice, which is not very uncommon among 
 drivers of one-horse carts, of the driver mounting his animal and getting well 
 forward on its back, when he finds that it is unable to pull its load up a hill 
 
PROP ULSION IN DRA UGHT, 6 r 
 
 2. The cart-horse ought to have a heavy neck as well as massive shoulders. 
 As a natural corollary to this proposition, which infers the lowering of the 
 head and neck, we must condemn the use of bearing reins with the class of 
 horse which we are now considering. 
 
 3. The shoes of the horse should have toe-pieces when the ground is 
 favourable to their employment. 
 
 On the other hand, when the horse, on account of the slippery nature of 
 the ground, is unable to use his fore legs, except to a very slight degree, as 
 propellers, the fore hand should be light and the head carried high. Thus, 
 the weight has to be kept almost entirely off the shafts of London hansom 
 cab-horses, which would be rendered very liable to fall down on the greasy 
 wood pavement and glass-like asphalt, if a fair proportion of the load were 
 to be put on their backs. Not alone is weight kept off their backs, but as a 
 rule it is so distributed as to cause the back-band to exert on the " girth- 
 place" an upward pressure, which, naturally, will more or less aid in "lighten- 
 ing" the fore hand. 
 
 The force of propulsion given by the hind limb is dependent on a series of 
 levers which extends from the toe of the hind foot, along the bones of the 
 hind leg, pelvis, spinal column, up to the centre of pressure on the inner side 
 of the collar. It is manifest that the flatter this irregular line of levers is 
 with reference to the line of propulsion from the toe of the hind foot to the 
 collar, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the hind limb 
 will act. Consequently, we may infer that the cart-horse should be long 
 in the body, as compared to his height ; that he should be lower over the 
 croup than he is at the withers j and that he should not have a horizontal 
 croup. We should not, however, desire his hind-quarters to be so drooping 
 as to cause him to be actually " goose-rumped " (p. 208). 
 
 The amount of forward propulsion given by the fore limb varies according 
 to the position of the humerus ; for the more horizontal is this bone, the 
 more effective will be the push. As its degree of slope with the ground is 
 directly affected by that of the shoulder-blade, it follows that the shoulders of 
 the cart-horse which has to fully exert the powers of his fore legs in propulsion, 
 should be more upright than sloping. 
 
 It is a well-known mathematical fact that the most advantageous direction 
 for the pull in draught to be, is one which makes an angle with the ground 
 equal to the angle of friction, I may explain that if, for instance, 10° was the 
 greatest slope of ground upon which a body could rest without sliding down, 
 its angle of friction would be equal to 10". The best direction then of the 
 traces would be at an angle to the ground equal to the angle of friction. In 
 many cases the pull of the traces is not at a sufficient angle to the ground, 
 and the work is consequently performed at a mechanical disadvantage, which 
 might be remedied by the employment of a taller horse than the one used, 
 by having smaller wheels, or by a change in the harnessing arrangement. 
 For instance, in such a case, instead of attaching the traces to the hooks on 
 the shafts of a dog-cart, they might be connected, as is sometimes done, 
 to the axletree. 
 
62 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ATTITUDES OF THP HORSE. 
 
 Standing at Attention — Standing Collectedly — Standing at Ease — Caniage 
 of the Head and Neck. 
 
 Standing at Attention. — When a well-shaped and sound 
 horse stands at attention, if I may use the term, he has his 
 head and neck raised, ears pricked forward, the profile of the 
 face at an angle of about 45° to the ground, and at about a 
 right angle to the upper line of the neck (the crest) ; the 
 weight distributed in due proportion on all four limbs ; and, 
 as a rule, the fore foot of one side not so far advanced as its 
 fellow, and its hind foot more to the front than the other 
 hind foot (Fig. 229). If the hind feet be equally advanced, a 
 perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock will, 
 on the respective sides, about touch the point of the hock. 
 If one hind foot be placed in front of the other hind foot, 
 the vertical line will, more or less, divide the interval be- 
 tween the points of the two hocks. As the weight of the 
 horse's head and neck is beyond the base of support formed 
 on the ground by his feet ; he would '' stand over " on his 
 fore legs— that is, their direction would be downward and 
 backward — if they were equally advanced (Fig. 321), and if 
 each of the limbs was bearing its share of weight I need 
 hardly say that when one fore leg is advanced more than 
 its fellow, and when it is vertical, the animal will be some- 
 what over on the other fore leg. 
 
 French writers consider that when a horse stands with 
 the weight properly distributed on all his limbs, a line 
 dropped from each point of his buttock will coincide with the 
 
STANDING AT ATTENTION 
 
 63 
 
 posterior edge of his hind leg, from the point of the hock to 
 the fetlock ; and that the direction of the front legs will be 
 vertical, as in Fig. 43, which I have taken from Goubaux 
 
 Fig. 43.— Le Placer 
 
 and Barrier's UExUrieur du Cke'i^aL It may be possible to 
 make a horse assume this attitude (Fr. le placer) ; but I must 
 say I have never seen a horse adopt it. Fig. 44 is the 
 
 Fig. 44 •—Standing at Attention 
 
 nearest approach in a well-bred horse to this position that I 
 have been able to get in a photograph, of which this 
 illustration is an exact copy. 
 
64 
 
 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE, 
 
 In the froni view of the horse — when he is standing in an 
 unconstrained position, with his feet equally advanced and a 
 little distance apart — the fore arms will slightly* converge, and 
 the cannon-bones will be about parallel to each other (Fig. 46). 
 A vertical and longitudinal plane passing through the centre 
 of the knee and fedock of each leg will cut the centre of the 
 toe. In Fig. 47 the toes are turned in, and in Fig. 48 they 
 are turned out. 
 
 The rear view of the horse in Fig. 50 illustrates the 
 condition known as *^ cow-hocks," in which the points of 
 the hocks are more or less turned in. Figs. 49 and 289 
 
 Fig. 45 —Standing Collectedly. 
 
 show symmetrically shaped hind legs, viewed from behind. 
 Although I have devoted much careful study to this 
 subject, I can apply no geometrical rules to determine, 
 as some writers have tried to do, the correct shape of the 
 legs from this aspect It can, in my opinion, be judged only 
 by the trained eye of the observer— I mean in deciding 
 whether the hocks are correcdy placed, turned in, or turned out 
 
 Standing "Collectedly.'" — This is the position (Fig. 
 45) a horse assumes when he makes ready to move quickly 
 away from the place in which he is standing. His hind feet 
 will be well in front of a perpendicular line dropped from the 
 
STANDING AT EASE, 65 
 
 points of the buttocks, his fore feet will be brought back 
 more than usual, and he will stand more or less over on 
 them. His head and neck will be raised, and he will be 
 looking to his front, with his ears pricked forward, if he be 
 one of the quick, observant class. 
 
 Many persons who hold decided views on horse con- 
 formation, maintain that a true shaped horse will, when he 
 stands, have his hind legs *' well under him," as in Fig. 45 , 
 such a position being regarded by them as a point of con- 
 formation, and not as an attitude. To prove the fallacy of this 
 idea, I may mention that the same mare, photographed on 
 the same day, is shown in Figs. 45 and 333. In the former, 
 her hind legs are well under her, in the latter they are a little 
 behind her ; the difference being merely one of position or 
 attitude. With reference to this subject, I need hardly 
 say that a horse may assume many attitudes, but he has 
 only one kind of conformation. On the other hand, 
 however, we must not ignore the fact that if a horse is 
 unable to bend the joints (the hocks, fetlocks and pastern 
 joints are the ones which are usually affected) of his hind 
 limbs properly, he will naturally refrain from bringing his 
 hind feet forward, when standing or moving to the front,^ as 
 freely as he would do were his hind limbs in good working 
 order. In judging of this, we should form our opinion more 
 from the action of the animal during movement, than from 
 the position he takes up when standing; although both 
 should of course be considered. 
 
 Standing at Ease. — The sound horse will, almost 
 always, when standing at ease, have both fore feet equally 
 advanced, and with his weight chiefly on them ; for he can 
 obtain this support in front, without muscular effort on his 
 part (to which fact I shall presently again refer), and 
 consequently without fatigue. His head will be lowered, 
 and will be supported by the suspensory ligament of the 
 neck, the action of which is also accomplished without 
 fatigue (p. 28). As the hind limbs are unprovided with an 
 
66 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 apparatus by which they can bear weight without fatigue; 
 their muscles have to obey the law which requires, for the 
 health of muscular tissue, alternate periods of rest and 
 work. Hence, one hind limb is rested by its joints being 
 bent and its heel raised, while its fellow supports the 
 weight of the hind-quarters. When the working hind limb 
 becomes tired, the other one takes its turn of work; and so on. 
 
 When a couple of long-tailed horses are in the open 
 at liberty, they will sometimes elect to stand head and 
 tail together, so that each one by the action of its tail 
 can keep flies off its own hind-quarters, and off the chest 
 and shoulders of its fellow. 
 
 If, while standing still, horses are exposed to inclement 
 weather, they will generally try to turn their hind-quarters 
 towards the direction from which the rain or wind 
 proceeds. 
 
 The fore limbs of the horse are furnished with special 
 fibrous bands (ligaments), which, during rest, take the weight 
 off the muscles that straighten the various joints. I may 
 here remind my readers that these ligaments are composed of 
 hard, inelastic, fibrous tissue, and act simply as strong cords 
 in connecting the parts together. The work they do being 
 entirely of a passive nature , they do not get tired, like mus^ 
 cles, the work of which is of an active form, and cannot be 
 continued without suitable intervals of rest. As an instance 
 of this ''bracing" function of ligaments, I may mention that 
 the fetlock is passively supported during rest (taken in a 
 standing position) by an inelastic fibrous cord, which goes 
 behind the fetlock point, and is attached by one end to the 
 head of the cannon-bone, and by the other to the base of the 
 pedal bone. Not alone are the fore legs provided with these 
 special ligaments, to prevent the limbs from '' doubling up ; " 
 but most of the muscles which straighten these limbs duringf 
 work are composed of a large amount of ligamentous fibres. 
 Such muscles, therefore, during their periods of rest, can 
 assume to some extent the functions of ligaments. In fact, 
 one powerful muscle in the fore leg of the dog is represented 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 46. — Well-shaped Fore Legs. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 47. — TuRNED-iN Toes. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 48.— Turned-out Toes. 
 
 M. H. H 
 Fig. 49.— Well-shaped Hind Legs. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 66. 
 
 Fig. 50. — TuRNED-iN Hocks. 
 
CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD. 67 
 
 in the horse by a ligament. Besides this, the muscles which 
 straighten the fore limb are not single, but multiple muscles, 
 one of which can take its turn at work, while its fellows rest. 
 This mechanism enables the horse to sleep standing 
 without extraneous support. It is clearly and exhaustively 
 described in Colin's Physiologic ComparSe. 
 
 Carriage of the Head and Neck.— The attitude 
 which the head and neck assume is determined by the 
 following considerations : (i) For the horse to be able to see 
 in. the required direction. If we regard a horse that is 
 standing at attention (p. 62), and is looking straight in front 
 of him, we shall, as a rule, note that his neck is held in an 
 easy position, being neither stretched out nor drawn back, 
 and his head is placed so that the line of his face will make 
 an angle of about 45° to the ground. We may, therefore, 
 consider that the axis of each eye is at about that angle 
 to the line of the face. In man, the angle is about 90", 
 the difference between the two being chiefly one of brain 
 capacity. In the horse, the occipital crest, which is the 
 highest point of the horse's head, may be regarded as a 
 continuation of his forehead. In man, owing to the bulging- 
 out condition of the brain, it is placed at the back of the 
 head. When a horse wishes to take a good view of the 
 ground in front of him, he will, by the adjustment of his 
 neck, adopt a lofty carriage of the head, while keeping the line 
 of the face at an angle of about 45° to the ground. If he 
 requires his line of vision to be at about that angle to the 
 ground in order to see, for instance, an object six or seven 
 feet in front of his feet, he will bring the line of his face 
 perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground. Of course, the 
 axes of the eyes can be altered, more or less, without the 
 head being moved ; but the horse possesses such mobility 
 of head and neck that, when he is free, he will adjust his 
 line of vision principally by the movement of these parts. 
 
 It is therefore evident that if we want a horse, when 
 riding or driving him, to have a good look at the ground 
 
68 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE, 
 
 over which he is about to go, we should allow him, or 
 endeavour to induce him, to carry his head at an angle of 
 about 45'' to it. A more perpendicular carriage of the head 
 would be permissible only for school work, or for evolutions 
 in which freedom of movement has, to some extent, to 
 be sacrificed for obtaining thorough power of control. If 
 the angle which the face makes with the ground be much 
 less than 45°, the animal will not be able to see where he 
 is going. 
 
 (2) To permit of free movement of the fore limbs. — My 
 readers will remember that the shoulder-blade of the horse, 
 on each side, is connected to the body by muscles which 
 allow it to work backward and forward on the chest. The 
 shoulder-blade and humerus (Fig. 12) being drawn forward and 
 upward by muscles of the neck ; it follows that the direction of 
 this pull will be regulated, to a great extent, by the direction 
 in which the horse carries his head. Hence, if we require 
 ** lofty " shoulder action, we must get him to carry his head 
 comparatively high. If he carries it low, only a slight 
 uwpard lift can be given to the shoulders. In such a 
 case, to make up for want of shoulder action, the horse 
 will probably increase his knee action, which is obtained 
 by muscles that have no power to move the shoulders. 
 Thus, we may see a horse who has free shoulder action and 
 gallops with a straight knee when he carries his head fairly 
 high, go in a ** round *' and cramped style, if he be permitted 
 or induced to carry his head low down. I may here explain 
 (as we may see by reference to the figures in Chapter XII.) 
 that in all paces, and especially in fast ones, in order to obtain 
 good forward reach, it is requisite that the fore limb should be 
 drawn upwards as well as forwards. The defect, as regards 
 want of safety, in the fore feet not being lifted sufficiently 
 off the ground by the play of the shoulder, may be con^- 
 pensated for by increased knee action, which, however, 
 will have no effect in lengthening the stride ; but will, in 
 causing loss of time in putting down the fore feet, tend to 
 diminish the speed. As practical points directly connected 
 
CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD, 69 
 
 with this subject, I may mention that the use of the curb 
 bit has been found to injuriously affect the action of race- 
 horses by, as a rule, making them carry their heads low 
 down, and consequently to gallop *' round." Trainers of 
 match-trotters employ an ''over-draw check-rein" (bearing 
 rein) to improve the action of horses which do not carry 
 their heads high enough, and which, on that account, have 
 too low action. The bearing rein is, in many cases, neces- 
 sary for the attainment of that '' extravagant" action which 
 is greatly sought for among fashionable carriage horses : a 
 fact which accounts for its retention in the stables of the 
 rich, despite the adverse criticism that is being constantly 
 directed against its use. As a rough guide to the direction 
 of the neck (supposing it to be straight or only slightly 
 bent) when the line of the face is at an angle of about 45"^ 
 to the ground, I may say that, at ordinary paces, the upper 
 part of the nostril should not be lower, or only slightly so, 
 than the top of the withers. In the fast gallop, the horse 
 will carry his head lower down than this, so as to bring his 
 weight forward, and thus to increase his speed (p. 54). 
 This difference in the carriage of the head will be evident, 
 if we compare Figs. 114 to 122 with Figs. 133 to 148. A 
 fairly high carriage of the head, with the face at the angle , 
 just mentioned, is a most desirable point in the cross-country 
 horse, who requires to obtain a good view of the ground or 
 obstacles in front of him, and to have free shoulder action ; 
 in other words, to be ''light in front," which implies that his 
 hind legs are well "under him." If, on the contrary, we 
 want a horse to rein back (p. 99), we should make him 
 lower his head and bring it perpendicular, or nearly so, to 
 the ground, in order to put weight on his fore legs and 
 lighten his hind ones. Those of my readers who have 
 studied high school riding, will remember that, according to 
 the teaching of Baucher, who introduced many valuable 
 improvements in military equitation, the normal position of 
 the head of the school horse was perpendicular to the 
 ground ; and that the head was carried comparatively low. 
 
70 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE 
 
 That admirable exponent of the haute Scole, James Fillis 
 
 (see his Principes de Dressage), having wisely rejected, even 
 
 in the most elaborate airs de manege, this artificial style, 
 
 teaches that the school horse should carry his head high 
 
 and the muzzle well advanced out of the perpendicular. 
 
 If the head be carried too high ; forward reach will be 
 
 proportionately sacrificed to upward shoulder action, with 
 
 consequent loss of speed. Hence hunters, animals that 
 
 require to be clever over bad ground, such as pig-stickers 
 
 and Colonial stock horses, and those in which showy action 
 
 is sought, such as chargers, school horses, and park hacks, 
 
 should carry their heads higher than animals in which speed 
 
 is the chief consideration. The more the lift to the fore 
 
 legs is obtained by the play of the shoulders, and not by 
 
 the mere raising of the knees ; the safer, more brilliant, less 
 
 fatiguing, and faster will the action be in every class of horse. 
 
 The chief muscle which draws the fore limb (of each 
 
 side) forward and upward, is attached by one end to the 
 
 humerus and by the other to the top of the head. Other 
 
 muscles that draw the shoulder-blade forward and upward, 
 
 are attached to it and to the ligament of the neck, which 
 
 stretches from the withers to the top of the head (p. 28). 
 
 As muscles act best when their points of attachment are wide 
 
 apart ; the horse, during rapid movement, regulates, under 
 
 normal conditions, the amount of the extension of his neck, 
 
 according to the speed at which he is going. In this case, 
 
 the head and neck are the fixed point ; the fore limb, the 
 
 movable one. As long, therefore, as the speed of any 
 
 particular pace remains uniform, the length of the neck 
 
 (measured roughly from withers to top of head) should 
 
 continue unchanged. Consequently, when riding or driving, 
 
 if we desire the horse to maintain a uniform rate of speed, 
 
 we should keep a uniform tension on the reins (note, for 
 
 instance, the fixed position of the hands of a capable lad 
 
 from a racing stable when he is riding a steady training 
 
 gallop), and should not **give and take" with them. If 
 
 the speed be increased, the hands, supposing their hold on 
 
REGULATION OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY, 71 
 
 the reins remains unaltered, should be advanced, as may be 
 required; if it be decreased, they should be drawn back. 
 Thus, any alteration by the rider, of tension on the reins 
 which might impede the legitimate movements of the neck, 
 is avoided. As the joint which the head makes with the 
 atlas (first vertebra of the neck) is situated some distance 
 below the top of the head, it follows that if the muzzle 
 be unduly stretched out, the occipital crest (top of the 
 head) will be brought back, and the tension of the liga- 
 ment of the neck lessened, with consequent decrease of 
 power to the muscles which are attached to this ligament. 
 The muscle which is attached to the humerus and top of the 
 head, also would work to disadvantage if the muzzle were 
 stretched out to a greater extent than would bring the 
 line of the face to a right angle with the direction of this 
 muscle, which forms the upper border of the jugular 
 groove. Even in the fast gallop {vide Figs. 133 to 148), the 
 horse rarely carries his head at a less angle than 45° to 
 the ground, 
 
 (3) To regulate the position of the Centre of Gravity. — 
 The more the head is advanced to the front, the more 
 unstable will be the equilibrium, and the greater will be 
 the speed during progression (p. 54). Hence, the race- 
 horse, when galloping at full speed, will bring his head 
 forward as much as the other conditions which affect its 
 carriage will allow him to do. As I have before remarked, 
 the angle which his face makes with the ground will 
 seldom be less, even at the highest speed, than 45"". The 
 cart-horse, if he has good foot-hold, will also, when pulling 
 a heavy load, lower his head and stretch it out, so as to 
 bring the centre of gravity forward as much as possible. 
 Here I assume that the ground is soft enough to allow 
 him to *Mig his toes" into it, or, if it be rough, that he 
 is provided with toe-pieces on his front shoes. If, on the 
 contrary, the roadway is slippery, like the London streets 
 which are covered with asphalte or wood, the cart-horse 
 in heavy draught, being afraid of falling down if he throws 
 
72 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 his weight into the collar, will try to keep the centre of 
 gravity back by holding his head high, while trusting 
 almost entirely to his hind legs to push the body forward. 
 When a horse rears, halts suddenly, or reins back in heavy 
 draught (p. 99), he will raise his head and neck so as 
 to bring the centre of gravity back. Any one who has 
 ridden much " over a country," will know the great use a 
 horse makes of his head and neck for regulating the 
 position of his centre of gravity when jumping, and 
 especially when he makes a ''mistake." When a horse 
 turns or ''circles," he ought to have his head and neck 
 bent in the direction he is going, in order to see where 
 he is proceeding, and to increase his stability by shifting 
 the centre of gravity towards the side to which the turn 
 is being made. 
 
 (4) To enable the Mouth-piece of the Snaffle to act effici- 
 ently on the ''bars'' of the Moutk — I may explain that 
 the " bars " of the mouth are those parts of the gums of the 
 lower jaw which are bare of teeth, and which are situated 
 between the back teeth and the tushes of the horse or 
 gelding, or the spots which they would occupy, were these 
 canine teeth developed in the mare. As the ''bars" are 
 much more sensitive to pressure than the corners of the 
 mouth ; we should, when using the snaffle, endeavour to 
 make the horse carry his head so that he will not shift the 
 mouth-piece off the former and on to the latter. The mouth- 
 piece will, naturally, act best when the head is carried per- 
 pendicularly to the ground ; but it can also act efficiently if 
 the line of the face is not at a less angle to the ground than 
 about 40°. The apparent anomaly of the mouth-piece of the 
 snaffle not slipping off' the "bars " and on to the corners of 
 the mouth in this case, may be explained by the fact that the 
 well-broken horse, when being ridden or driven, keeps the 
 joints of his lower jaw in a more or less relaxed condition, so 
 that the " bars," as a rule, will make a greater angle with the 
 ground than the line of the face will do. When a horse 
 which is ridden in a snaffle, is made to carry his head in a 
 
ACTION OF THE MOUTH^PIECE. 73 
 
 more or less perpendicular manner, he may, as a *' defence," 
 relax his jaw, with the object of letting the mouth-piece slip 
 down in his mouth as much as possible, in order that a 
 certain amount of the pull of the reins may be transferred 
 from it to his poll, over which the crown-piece of the bridle 
 passes. Any '' defence " which a horse makes by opening 
 his mouth, may be counteracted by the use of a properly 
 applied nose-band* 
 
74 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTKR XL 
 
 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 Lying Down and Getting Up — Rearing — Kicking — ^The PiafFei. 
 
 Lying Down and Getting Up. — When a horse prepares 
 to lie down, he will bring all his feet well under his body, 
 while resting his weight chiefly on his hind feet. After 
 making a few tentative movements with his fore limbs, he 
 will gently lower his fore hand until his knees lightly touch 
 the ground. He will then give his body a twist, and will roll 
 over, and rest, partly on his side and partly on his breast 
 bone. Colin describes as follows the position of the horse 
 when lying down. As a rule, if he is on his right side, for 
 instance, the right fore leg will be under the chest, with its 
 foot facing the inside of the left elbow. The other fore, 
 equally bent, but clear of the body, will have its foot close to 
 its own elbow, and there will be a space of about twelve 
 inches between the two knees. The hind limbs will be bent 
 up under the body, with the feet carried to the front. The 
 near hind will be far removed from the side ; its hock will be 
 on a line with the hip joint , and its hoof, with the point of 
 the hock. The neck will be raised, and the head will be in- 
 clined to the left side. Sometimes the animal rests his lower 
 jaw on the ground. He may even, at certain moments, 
 support his head on the flank or hock, which is a favourite 
 position with cattle, buffalo and deer, when they have stopped 
 ruminating, and appear to want to go to sleep. They cannot, 
 however, long maintain this position. 
 
 As the suspensory ligament of the neck can support the 
 weight of the head and neck without giving rise to the sensa- 
 tion of fatigue ; a horse can sleep comfortably on his side 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 51. — Foal getting up off ground. 
 
 M, H. H. 
 
 Fig. 52. — Hollow Back from old age. 
 
 To face p. 74. 
 
REARING. 75 
 
 and breast bone and with his head turned to the opposite 
 side. When a horse is very tired, or even when he feels 
 secure from disturbance, he may sleep entirely on his side, with 
 his cheek resting on the ground. On rare occasions, a horse 
 will repose lying down on his breast bone, with his knees 
 advanced and his heels more or less close to the points of 
 his elbows. This position is considered apt to give rise to 
 ** capped elbow," on account of the pressure of the heel of the 
 doubled-up fore leg on the point of the elbow. It is not 
 an easy position for the horse ; for the sharp keel of his breast 
 bone will be liable to be hurt by contact with the ground. It 
 is, however, the natural sleeping position of horned cattle, 
 which can rest at ease in this manner ; as the keel of their 
 breast bone is tlat. 
 
 In getting up, the horse straightens his fore legs out to 
 the front (Fig. 51), and with a strong effort places his fore 
 feet on the ground and raises his fore hand, so as to sit up 
 like a dog. With another effort he raises his hind-quarters 
 and stands on all four feet. 
 
 Rearing". — When a horse prepares to rear, he will get 
 his hind feet well under him and will raise his head, so as to 
 ''lighten" his fore hand, which he will lift off the ground by 
 the straightening out of one or both fore legs, and by the 
 action of his "rearing muscles" (p. 52). He will then keep 
 his fore legs bent at the knees and his head high (Fig. 53). 
 In guarding against the rear, the rider should, therefore, lean 
 well forward. If he wishes, by inflicting punishment, to stop 
 the horse from rearing, he may hit the animal on one of the 
 hind legs, so as to prevent him from fixing them on the 
 ground, in order to ** get up " ; but he should on no account 
 strike him on the shoulders ; for doing so would tend to 
 make him raise his fore hand. We may break a horse of 
 rearing by teaching him to rein back in a '* collected " manner 
 (p. 99, ei seq\ By doing this, we ''lighten" the hind- 
 quarters and accustom him to lift them and move them freely. 
 In the rear, the horse usually keeps one hind foot advanced 
 
76 
 
 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 more than the other, and his hind feet more or less apart, 
 so as to widen the base of support. 
 
 The rear is a particularly insecure and fatiguing attitude 
 for the horse to maintain ; as the column of bones formed by 
 the body and the hind legs has to be kept in position, 
 at its joints (or angles), by the exercise of muscular force. 
 In a biped, like man, this column of bones can be brought 
 into a nearly vertical position, so that its component parts 
 
 Fig 53.— Rearing 
 
 can rest on each other, with but little muscular exertion 
 to maintain them in that position. Owing to the large 
 amount and continued nature of this muscular effort, there 
 will be an appreciable backward and forward sway 
 (caused by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the 
 opposing muscles) at the various joints. This, added to 
 the narrowness of the base of support (formed by the hind 
 feet and the respective lines which join their toes and 
 
KICKING. 77 
 
 heels), will render the rearing position so insecure that, to 
 support it, the horse will have to keep frequently changing 
 it. The danger of falling backwards which the animal incurs, 
 if he gets too erect, will naturally help to deter him from trying 
 to assume a comparatively vertical position. Hence, he will 
 have to keep the joints of his hind limbs more bent than 
 if he was not exposed to this risk of falling backwards. 
 
 The hocks are particularly liable to injury from rearing, 
 owing to the great strain thrown on them when the animal 
 assumes an upright position. '' Curbs " and other enlarge- 
 ments are of frequent occurrence among circus horses which 
 are trained to walk on their hind legs. 
 
 Kicking. — The term '' kick " is usually restricted to a 
 blow given by one or both hind legs (Fig. 54). A horse is 
 said to *' strike out" with one or both fore legs. We may 
 regard both these movements as kicks. 
 
 A horse can kick in three ways : (i) To the rear with 
 one or both hind legs ; (2) to the front with a hind leg ; and 
 (3) to the front with one or both fore legs. Unlike horned 
 cattle, a horse is unable, without moving the body, to kick to 
 one side, except to a slight extent, owing to the presence of a 
 ligament which connects the thigh bone to the pelvis, and 
 which greatly restricts the side action of the limb. If a horse, 
 therefore, wants to kick a man who is standing a little away 
 from its side, it will have to turn round to do so. For this 
 reason, if a person wishes to stand in safety by the side of 
 a horse's hind-quarters, as for instance when examining its 
 hocks, he should get an assistant to stand on the same side, 
 and to draw the head round to it a little, so that the animal 
 will not be able to turn round to kick if so inclined. If the 
 horse be a vicious kicker, the advisability of getting the fore 
 leg of the side at which one is standing, held or tied up, will 
 be self-suggestive to any one who has had experience with 
 horses. The forward kick with a hind leg (called a cow kick) 
 has a good deal of range ; as a horse can, in this manner, hit 
 a man who is standing at its shoulder. 
 
7^ 
 
 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE 
 
 When striking out in front, the horse will generally do so 
 with one foot; for the blow can be deHvered with greater 
 speed when the other fore foot is on the ground, than if 
 both were off it If he strikes out with both fore feet, he will 
 do so with a quick, short effort, with the object of giving 
 a blow ; or he will make a greater or less attempt at rearing, 
 so as to bring his feet or legs on the top of the offending 
 person or animal with the view of knocking it down. The 
 governing idea, more or less developed, of thus overthrowing 
 
 Fig 54 — KicraNG 
 
 his enemy is, evidendy, to kneel on him and to bite him. 
 This mode of attack is seldom seen in its complete form, 
 except in the case of entires, which are more prone to bite 
 and strike out with both fore feet than are mares and 
 geldings. Mules usually kick out behind with greater 
 freedom than horses, but are not so much inclined to bite or 
 to strike out in front. Mares, from sexual causes, are more 
 inclined to kick with their hind legs than are the other two. 
 Horses sometimes kick with a hind foot in a good-tempered 
 way, not with the purpose of inflicting pain, but merely to 
 push the object of the attention out of the way, as we may 
 occasionally see a mare do to her foal. Horses often kick 
 
THE PIAFFER. 79 
 
 in play without any vicious intention. I am convinced that 
 many apparently vicious kicks which miss their marks, are 
 delivered, not with the desire of sending the blow home, 
 but to warn the intruder against nearer approach. 
 
 When a horse kicks out behind, he will put extra weight 
 on his fore hand, and, as a rule, will lower his head. When 
 he cow-kicks or strikes out in front, he will raise his head and 
 bring his weight back. 
 
 In almost all cases, just before a horse kicks, he will draw 
 back his ears, and more or less show '' the white of his eye." 
 If the suspicious object be behind him, he will bring his head 
 slightly round so as to see it, and will prepare for his attack 
 by bending the fetlock and raising off the ground the 
 heel of the hind leg of that side. I mly mention that a 
 horse cannot kick with the hind leg upon ^hich he is resting 
 his weight ; for he has to transfer the w |ght to its fellow 
 before he brings it into play. My readers < ill observe that I 
 have used the word '* slightly" with refereflice to the extent 
 the animal turns his head when he gets read^y to '*lash out'' ; 
 for if he brought it round a good deal, he wo|uld be obliged to 
 throw more weight on the hind leg of the ^ide to which he is 
 looking than on its fellow, and would coi|isf 'luently have a 
 difficulty in using it. 
 
 The Piaffer. — This is an air de manegd\ which is simply 
 a passage (p. 98) without gaining groutid. The most 
 brilliant kind of ptaffer is when the movemesit is slow, lofty, 
 in true cadence, and with a well-marked p#uss when each 
 leg is raised to its highest point. 
 
Bo FACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE 
 
 Defimtions-»-The Trot— The Amble-~The Walk™-The Canter--Tlie Gallop 
 — The Passage — The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot — The Rem Back — 
 Foot-prmts of the Horse during various Paces. 
 
 I MAY remark tiat there is no such thing as absolute 
 uniformity in the paces of the horse. 
 
 Definitions. To simplify explanation, we may, when 
 speaking of the liilnbs, call the near (left) fore and near hind, 
 the left pair; tW off (right) fore and off hind, the right 
 pair; the off fo'e and near hind, the right diagonals ; and 
 the near fore anc <Dff hind, the left diagonals. The meaning 
 of both fore and S^oth hind is evident. 
 
 We may use the word support to signify the fact that 
 the weight of the body is borne by one or more limbs, as, 
 for instance, left support, when only the left pair are on 
 the ground; and right diagonal support, when the right 
 diagonals alone prevent the horse from falling. 
 
 A stride is the distance from the foot-print of any one 
 leg to the foot-print of the same leg, when it next comes 
 to the ground ; or it is the action of the limbs while that 
 distance is being covered. 
 
 A step isi t?e forward or backward movement of one 
 foot ; or it is the distance one foot is removed from its 
 fore or hina fellow. 
 
 The te^m, period of suspension, will serve to designate 
 the time clurirg which the animal is completely off the 
 ground at any particular pace, or when jumping. 
 
THE TROT. 8i 
 
 Natural paces are those which the horse adopts of his 
 own accord, without any teaching of man ; artificial paces, 
 those which he performs only after special training. 
 
 Time (as applied to the rhythm of a pace) is the number 
 of separate steps in each stride of that pace. Thus, the 
 amble, in which the right pair and left pair move alternately, 
 is a pace of two time; and the walk, in which each limb 
 moves separately, is a pace of four time. 
 
 To prevent any chance of confusion, I shall limit, in 
 this chapter, the meaning of the word pace to particular 
 and distinct methods of progression, and shall not use it 
 as a synonym for the word speed. 
 
 The Trot. — We may select the trot to begin with, as 
 it is the simplest of all ordinary paces, Although it is 
 essentially a natural pace, some horses which have been 
 trained to amble, require a good deal of teaching to give up 
 the amble, and to trot in true style. It consists of the 
 alternate action, in progression, of the two diagonals, in each 
 one of which the fore and hind leg move in the same manner. 
 Thus, in Figs. 55 and 57, we have the left diagonal support 
 and right diagonal support shown as the diagonal pairs of 
 feet come alternately to the ground. Figs. 56 and 58 depict 
 the position the limbs occupy, just before the feet quit the 
 ground. I need hardly say that it is a pace of two time. 
 
 We may divide the trot into three kinds: (i) The short 
 or slow trot, in which the prints of each respective hind 
 foot do not reach as far forward as those of the fore foot 
 of the same side ; and there is no period of suspension. 
 (2) The ordinary trot (Figs. 55, 56, 57, and 58), in which 
 the hind feet more or less cover the fore feet, or even go 
 slightly beyond them, in which case there will be a brief 
 period of suspension. (3) The flying or fast trot, in which 
 there is a well-marked period of suspension between each 
 stroke of the diagonals (Figs. 59 to 6-^ ; the movements 
 represented being those of alighting, support, quitting, 
 suspension, and alighting on the opposite diagonals. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The trot is the least fatiguing pace to the horse, by which 
 he can go a long distance continuously at a fair rate of speed ; 
 because both fore and hind limbs, respectively, have the 
 same amount of work to do ; the body can be more easily 
 maintained in a state of equilibrium by a diagonal support 
 than by a side support, as in the amble ; there is but little 
 loss of power in keeping the centre of gravity (p. 40) level ; 
 and because the pace is a tolerably fast one. It is more suit- 
 able for draught, than for saddle. First of all, it is very 
 
 ^JZ.JP^ If 
 
 F*a. 55.— Beginning of Left 
 Diagonal. 
 
 Fig. 56.— End of Left 
 Diagonal. 
 
 r^^^ 
 
 Fig. 57.--BEGINNING OF Right Fig. 58.— End of Right 
 
 Dt AGONAL. Diagonal. 
 
 Ordinary Trot. 
 
 fatiguing to the rider, especially if he bumps up and down 
 d la militaire. Consequently, we find that men who are 
 accustomed to go long distances on horseback, as in the 
 Colonies, almost always combine the canter and walk instead 
 of adopting the trot. Although rising in the stirrups will 
 make this pace much more easy for the rider, it will not 
 benefit the animal to the extent one might imagine ; for, 
 strange to say, almost every horseman, when rising at 
 the trot, invariably comes down on one particular pair of 
 
THE TROT* 
 
 S3 
 
 diagonals. Thus, some will put their weight only on the 
 right diagonals ; others, only on the left. I may mention 
 that, when rising in the stirrups, the rider's weight is borne 
 by only one pair of diagonals. As each pair has to do its 
 
 Fig. 59. — Commencement of Right Diagonal. 
 
 Fig. 60.— Right Diagonal. 
 
 Fig. 61.— Right Diagonal. 
 
 Fig. 62. — Suspension. 
 
 ■i'»»* ^a^ 
 
 Fig. 63.— Left Diagonal 
 
 Fast or Flying Trot. 
 
 own allotted work, it is nearly as well to have both tired, as 
 one fresh and the other fatigued. The chief advantage 
 which rising in the stirrups has to the horse, is that the man 
 who adopts it, conforms better to the movements of the 
 
S4 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 animal than one who bumps up and down. Men who ride, 
 might with advantage learn how to change their time of 
 rising in the trot, so that, after having made one pair of 
 diagonals bear their weight for a time, they might be able to 
 change it on to the other pair. Ladies whose stirrup is on 
 the near side, and who rise in the trot, almost always do 
 so during the left diagonal support, and come down 
 during the right diagonal support. As the weight at the 
 trot is distributed between one hind and one fore leg, it (or, 
 possibly, the amble) should be used, when practicable, for 
 going over hard ground, in preference to the canter, and still 
 more so to the gallop. 
 
 Figs. 64 to 69 show phases, from photographs, of the 
 trot, from the left to the right diagonal support. 
 
 The Amble. — A few horses naturally adopt this pace 
 in preference to the trot ; but it is an artificial one with 
 the majority of amblers. Goubaux and Barrier tell us 
 that some foals begin at the amble, and that they do not 
 learn to trot until later, when they have acquired age and 
 strength. These eminent French authorities also point out 
 that it sometimes happens that horses, which were formerly 
 good trotters, take to ambling at the decline of their life, on 
 account of their legs becoming worn out. 
 
 The amble is a pace of two time, and consists of the 
 alternate movement, in progression, of the right and left (or 
 left and right) pair of legs. In Figs. 70 to 74, which depict 
 what we might call the flying amble, there is a period of 
 suspension between each stroke. This fast amble is known 
 in America as ** pacing." There is little or no period of 
 suspension in the ordinary amble. The amble is a very easy 
 pace for the rider, but is unpopular (why, I cannot tell) in 
 England. The slow amble (the **tripple ") is the favourite pace 
 among the Dutch farmers in South Africa. Baron de Curnieu 
 {Leqons d' Hygiene Hippique GSnirale) tells us that Napoleon L 
 was accustomed to ride amblers during his campaigns, when 
 he had to go long distances at a fast pace. If a horse 
 
A. H. 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 A. H. 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 A. H. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 A. H 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 A. H. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 A. H. 
 
 Phases of the Trot oe a Hl'nter. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 To face p. 84. 
 
FLYING AMBLE. 
 
 85 
 
 takes readily to the amble, his rider will find it a comfortable 
 method of travelling. The remarks I have made on page 82, 
 et seq,, with reference to the merits of trotting, apply equally 
 well to ambling, with the exception that the equilibrium of 
 the animal's body is not maintained as easily in it as in the 
 
 Fig. 70— Beginning of Right Support. 
 
 Fig. 71. — Middle of Right 
 Support. 
 
 Fig. 72.— End of Right 
 Support. 
 
 Fig. 73.— -Suspension. Fig. 74.— Left Support. 
 
 Fast or Flying Amble. 
 
 trot, which, consequently, is the less fatiguing pace to the 
 horse. The amble is a natural pace of the camel. 
 
 The amble is, probably, a slightly faster pace than the 
 trot ; the apparent cause being that the equilibrium is more 
 insecure (p. 54) in the former than in the latter. 
 
86 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE, 
 
 Fig 7S—LEF1 SuppoRr 
 
 YiG 76— End of Llft Support. 
 
 Fig 77— Left Diagonal. 
 
 Fig 78.— End of Lei-i Diagonal. 
 
 Fig 79— Right Support, 
 
 Fig. 80— End of Right Support, 
 
 Fig 81. Fig. 82— Right Diagonal* 
 
 Ordinary Walk. 
 
THE WALK, 87 
 
 The Walk. — This is a movement of four time, and is a 
 pace in which all the limbs move, respectively, one after the 
 other. If, for instance, the near fore leads, the sequence is : 
 I. near fore (Fig. 99), 2. off hind (Fig. 100), 3. off fore 
 (Fig. 103), 4. near hind (Fig. 106). If the near hind begins, 
 it will be I. near hind, 2. near fore, 3. off hind, 4. off fore. 
 Each foot comes after the one which precedes it, at an 
 interval of about half the time occupied in taking one step. 
 The result of this is that we have the following order of 
 supports . I. right pair (Fig. 98), 2. right diagonals (Fig. loi), 
 3. left pair (Fig. 103), 4. left diagonals (Fig. 106). As a 
 rule, a horse begins the walk with a fore leg. 
 
 We may divide this pace into : (i) The short stepping 
 walk, in which the prints of the hind feet do not come as far 
 forward as those of the fore feet of their respective sides. 
 {p) The ordinary walk, in which they more or less cover 
 them. (3) The long striding walk, in which they go clear 
 in front of them. (4) The high stepping walk, which is 
 generally an artificial pace, and in which the feet are raised 
 off the ground higher than usual (5) The walk tn heavy 
 draught, which is a short stepping walk, and which has 
 peculiarities that I shall presently consider. 
 
 Figs. 75 to 82 give an example of the ordinary walk ; for 
 the hind feet cover, as nearly as possible, the prints of the 
 fdre feet of their respective sides, and there is no exaggerated 
 knee action. 
 
 The long striding walk is shown in Figs. 83 to 88. As 
 an example of the high stepping walk, we may take the 
 action of Napoleon's horse in Meissonier's great picture, 
 ** 1814." 
 
 In the various forms of the walk — except in heavy 
 draught on the level or up an ascent, or when going up an 
 incline without having to pull a heavy weight — the healthy 
 horse brings the heel of the foot first on the ground, or the 
 flat of the foot. When the heel precedes the toe in touch- 
 ing the ground, the interval is so short that it is all but 
 imperceptible. In cases suffering from certain diseases, 
 
88 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 especially laminitis (fever of the feet), this interval is so well 
 marked as to be characteristic of the ailment. In heavy 
 draught which taxes the pulling powers of the horse (we 
 have in Figs. 89 to 95 a representation of this pace), and 
 
 -r^>^''^l^T^ 
 
 Fig S3 
 
 Fig. 84 
 
 -^^"^f 
 
 Fig 8: 
 
 Fig. Z(>, 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 Fig. %%, 
 
 Long Striding Walk. 
 
 particularly when going up a steep hill, the toe will be first 
 brought down, as in Fig. 90. In Fig. 89, the right diagonals 
 bear the weight of the horse. In Fig. 90 the near fore comes 
 to their aid. There is a brief left support (Fig. 91). As 
 the off fore is quitting the ground, the oiff hind comes down, 
 
THE WALK, 
 
 89 
 
 Fig 89 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 Fig. 92 
 
 Fia 93. 
 
 Fig 94 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 Short Stepping Walk in DIl^ught 
 
90 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and continues its assistance while the weight becomes shifted 
 on to the left diagonals (Fig. 93) After that, the weight 
 falls on the right paij; of limbs (Fig. 94), and again on 
 the right diagonals (Fig 95). In heavy draught, we may 
 see that during the side supports there are never less than 
 three feet on the ground, and sometimes even four. In the 
 diagonal support, however, the two limbs may be alone on the 
 ground for a brief period, or only very slightly assisted by the 
 other legs. From this we may 'conclude that a fore and a 
 hind limb work better together when they are diagonals, than 
 when they are on the same side. This would support the 
 assumption that the horse would work at the trot, other 
 things being equal, with more mechanical advantage than at 
 the amble. 
 
 In the representations of the walk, as shown in Figs. 89 
 to 95, and in Figs. 83 to 88, dotted lines are used to mark 
 the positions of the toe of one of the fore feet, so as to com- 
 pare It with that taken up by the toe of the hind foot of 
 the same side. We see from this, that in the long striding 
 walk, as depicted, the hind foot oversteps the print of the 
 fore one, nearly as much as it fails to reach it in the walk 
 during heavy draught. 
 
 Figs. 96 to 106 give a series from photographs of the 
 normal walk. The movements of the off (or near) limbs, 
 in Figs. 96, 97, 98, 99 and 100 correspond more or less 
 accurately with those of the near (or off) limbs in, respectively, 
 Figs. loi, 102, 103, 104 and 105. 
 
 The Canter. — The canter is, practically, a pace of 
 three time, in which the footfalls are, for instance: (i) off 
 hind (Figs. 107 and 114); (2) off fore and near hind 
 (Fig. 109), or off fore followed after a very short interval 
 by the near hind (Fig. 115); and (3) near fore (Figs, no 
 and 116), which may or may not be followed by a period 
 of suspension before the horse again brings down his off 
 hind (Figs. 112 and 122). The fore leg of the diagonal 
 support may come down a little before its hind fellow, 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 M. H. H. • 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 100, 
 
 Phases of the ordinary Walk of a High Caste Arab 
 
 Fig. ioi. 
 
 To face p. 90. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. I02. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 ^ Fig. 105. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 90. 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 Phases of the ordinary Walk of a High Caste Arab {continued). 
 
THE CANTER 
 
 9] 
 
 4w^i 
 
 Fig 107 Support on Off Hind (ist Time) Fig 108 
 
 ^lilSlb' »}, 
 
 Fig 109 Right Diagonal (2ND Timf) Fig no 
 
 Fig III Support on Ne^r Fore (3RD Time) Jig. 112 
 
 -»*i41uCy 
 
 Fig. 113— Support on Off Hind (ist TimeV 
 "Typical" Canter without Suspension. 
 
92 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 as in Fig. 115. In the canter of the cart-horse shown in 
 Figs. 107 to 113, there is no period of suspension. 
 
 As an exceptional case, I may mention that the canter 
 of the riding school, when very short and greatly collected, 
 may be a pace of four time. 
 
 In the canter, the fore leg which does not belong to 
 the diagonal support is called the leading fore leg. If, as in 
 Figs. 107 to 122, it be the near fore, the movement is said 
 to be a canter to the left ; if the off fore, as in Figs. 123 
 to 132, a canter to the right; the reason being that at 
 this pace, or at the gallop, the horse should lead with the 
 leg of the side to which he is being turned or circled. If 
 when leading with the off fore, for instance, he be turned to 
 the left, he will be liable to cross his legs and fall. I may 
 remark that in the gallop or canter, a horse can cross his 
 fore legs only with the leading leg. We may observe that 
 the hind leg which, in due rotation, alone supports the weight 
 of the body, is on the side opposite to the leading fore leg. 
 In the canter shown in Figs. 107 to 113 — which, with or 
 without a period of suspension, is usually regarded as the 
 typical canter — the supports are the same as the footfalls. 
 In the one portrayed in Figs. 1 14 to 122, the diagonal support 
 (off fore and near hind, Figs. 115, 116, and 117) does not at 
 any time act unaided (as in the other form of canter, Fig. 
 109) ; but is assisted by the other hind leg and the other fore 
 leg in turn. This smooth style of canter might be termed 
 (to use a popular expression) a hand gallop. We may note 
 that when there is a period of suspension in the canter, and 
 also In the gallop, it is obtained by the fore hand being raised 
 by the straightening of the leading fore leg (and especially by 
 that of its fetlock joint), as it quits the ground (Figs. 118 
 to 120). 
 
 The time (three) of the movement shown in Figs. 114 to 
 122 is irregular ; for the interval during which the suspension 
 takes place between the coming down of the near fore and 
 off hind, is longer than either of the other two intervals. 
 Supposing that the speed be the same, and that there be the 
 
THE CANTER, 
 
 93 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 Fig. 116, 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 Fig. 1 18, 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 Fig. 120. ^^^^ ^21. 
 
 Ordinary Canter or " Hand Gallop," 
 
94 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE, 
 
 Fig 122 
 
 ORDINARY" CENTER OR "HAND G\LLO'P" {contimud\ 
 
 same Interval of suspension in an irregular canter of this kind 
 and in a typical canter, the former would be less distressing 
 to the horse than the latter ; for the weight is better distri- 
 buted in it. The same remarks apply to the canter shown 
 in Figs. 123 to 132, which is a series, from photographs, 
 of an easy canter of a high caste Arab, in which the near 
 hind is on the ground when the left diagonals comejdown 
 (Fig. 125), and they are supporting the body when the oft 
 fore reaches the ground (Fig. 127). 
 
 We see that, in the canter, the leading fore has more 
 work to do than the non-leading fore leg. Hence, if this 
 pace be long continued, the rider should, if possible, make 
 the horse change the leading fore leg. 
 
 The Gallop. — This is a pace of four time, in which the 
 feet follow one another in succession, with an interval of 
 suspension between the coming down of the leading fore foot 
 and that of the opposite hind foot (Figs. 133 to 148). If we 
 compare that series with Figs. 107 to 113, and with Figs. 1 14 
 to 122, we shall see that, in the canter, the fore leg of the 
 diagonal support comes to the ground at the same moment 
 (Fig. 108) as, or slightly before (Fig 115), its hind fellow; 
 but, in the gallop, it comes after it (Figs. 135 to 137). We 
 may note that this interval, in which consists the difference 
 between the canter and gallop, is dependent on the extent of 
 the forward reach of the non-leading fore leg. Hence we see 
 that the canter merges imperceptibly into the gallop, and that 
 the difference in these paces,, in the same animal, is simply 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. I2S. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 M. H. H. M. H. H. To face p. 94. 
 
 Fig. 127. Fig. 128. 
 
 Phases of the Hand Gallop of a High Caste Arab. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 M. H. H. M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 131. Fig. 132. 
 
 Phases of the Hand Gallop of a High Caste Arab {continued). 
 
 To face p. 94. 
 
FAST GALLOP, 
 
 95 
 
 SsStrf* 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 S'". 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Fast Gallop. 
 
96 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE, 
 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 j^tHtf"^^^ .JiiiC\v 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 .SjW«^45f>'*'! 
 
 Fig. 147. Fig. 148. 
 
 Fast Gallop {continuei). 
 
FAST GALLOP, 97 
 
 one of forward reach of fore leg— that is, of speed. I may 
 mention that the intervals of time between each of these 
 fpositions represented by Figs. 133 to 148 are all equal. We 
 may see, starting with Fig. 133, that the near hind, off hind, 
 near fore, and off fore (the leading fore leg) remain for nearly 
 the same time on the ground. The leading fore, however, 
 has to perform a longer period of support than any of the 
 other three. It is also more extended when it touches the 
 ground than is the non-leading fore leg, as we shall note if we 
 compare Fig. 140 with Fig. 137. Hence it is more liable 
 than the other limb to suffer from sprains of the suspensory 
 ligament and check ligament {inferior carpal)^ both of which 
 structures aid in supporting the fetlock joint. As regards the 
 injurious effect of concussion, it would appear that the non- 
 leading fore leg (Figs. 136 and 137), by reason of its coming 
 to the ground at a moment when it is wholly unsupported by 
 the other fore limb, would suffer more from concussion than 
 the leading fore. Consequently, I venture to submit that, 
 when the ligaments of the leading fore leg get sprained 
 during the fast gallop, the cause is over-extension rather than 
 the popular one of concussion, or even of sudden jerk. We 
 may also see from Figs. 143 to 145, and from Figs. 130 to 
 132, how it happens that the back tendons (especially the 
 flexor perforans) of the leading fore, during a gallop or canter 
 in *' heavy" ground, are far more apt to become sprained 
 than those of the non-leading fore leg ; for, immediately 
 before the period of suspension, they have (on the contraction 
 of their muscles) not only to help in raising the fore hand by 
 the straightening of the fetlock (Fig. 144), but have also to 
 overcome the resistance which the soil offers to the withdrawal 
 of the foot from its surface. 
 
 In the fast gallop the horse has never, or perhaps only for 
 a very brief period, more than two feet on the ground. At 
 that pace, suspension is obtained more by *' doubling up " the 
 legs, than by raising the body off the ground. 
 
 A horse galloping at speed sometimes brings the toe of 
 the advanced fore foot in front of the end of the muzzle, as we 
 
98 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 may see in Muybridge's admirable book, Animal Locomotion, 
 vol ix. Also, at this pace, the angle which the face, when 
 viewed in profile, makes with the horizontal plane, more 
 often exceeds than is less than 45°. I may say that, unless 
 in very exceptional cases, it is never less than 40° We have 
 on rare occasions, in jumping, extreme extension of the neck. 
 
 Passage, — Having no more suitable term to express the 
 artifical pace under consideration, I am forced to employ the 
 French word passage, that signifies a short and very high 
 
 Fig. 149.— The Passage. 
 
 trot, in which each fore limb, in its turn, when it is raised to 
 its highest point, is poised in the air for an instant, and is 
 bent at the knee and fetlock. It may be called the prelude 
 to the piaffer (p. 79), and is an air de manege (high school 
 pace). The '* passage " of the English military riding school 
 is a movement (i deux pistes) by which ground can be taken 
 to the right or left without the rider being obliged to turn 
 his horse. In Fig. 149, which shows th^ passage, the riders 
 bridle hand is held high, so as to bring the animal's neck in 
 
THE REIN BACK, 
 
 99 
 
 a more or less vertical direction. When it is held in this 
 position, the muscles of the neck will be in the best position 
 for raising the fore limbs, alternately, high off the ground 
 (p. 68). 
 
 The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot — These high 
 school paces are, respectively, similar to the ordinary walk 
 and trot, except that when each fore leg is advanced in 
 its turn, it is poised for a moment, and is kept more or less 
 
 Fig. i5a-THE Spanish Trot. 
 
 straight out, and about as high as the elbow. Fig. 150 gives 
 a representation of the Spanish trot. With respect to the 
 position of the rider s bridle hand, see preceding paragraph. 
 
 The Rein Back. — The movement to the rear called the 
 rein back may be executed at the walk or trot. The rein 
 back at the walk or trot is performed in a reversed, though 
 exactly similar, manner to the ''short stepping walk," or 
 short trot to the front. The so-called galop en arriere of the 
 high school is not a canter. It is merely a series of short 
 
 jumps to the rear. 
 
 H 2 
 
loo PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 I wish to draw my readers' particular attention to the two 
 different methods of backward propulsion adopted by the 
 horse, when he makes this movement to the rear, (i) When 
 he is at liberty, or when he reins back '* collectedly " with a 
 capable rider in the saddle, he lowers his head so as to put 
 weight on the fore hand, and pushes himself back by the 
 alternate straightening out of his fore legs ; while the hind 
 legs, being comparatively free of weight, are raised higher 
 and with greater freedom than the front ones. It is evident 
 that this high and light action of the hind limbs is as conducive 
 to the safety of the rein back, as would be the same style of 
 movement of the fore legs in paces of forward progression. 
 (2) When the horse in harness tries to push a heavy weight 
 to the rear, or when he ''plants " his hind legs on the ground 
 owing to unwillingness to rein back or to unskilful handling 
 by his rider or driver, he will make his effort or his 
 *' defence," as the case may be, by throwing the weight on 
 his hind-quarters. In the event of the centre of gravity of 
 the horse (and of the rider) falling to the rear of the base of 
 support (p. 46) formed by his four feet, he will, if in saddle, 
 have to make a hurried and consequently a low step to the 
 rear with one hind foot, which may be followed by the other 
 feet in a more or less disorganised and insecure manner. 
 If the hind feet fail to come quickly enough to the support of 
 the centre of gravity, a fall will be the inevitable result. Besides 
 the danger of this rein, or rather run, back, the fact of the 
 hind limbs (which are far less suited to bearing weight than 
 the fore ones) being surcharged with weight will render 
 them liable to become injured, and will make this movement 
 to the rear far more fatiguing to the animal than if it were 
 executed in the manner first described. It behoves us, there- 
 fore, if we wish to rein back a horse which we are riding, to 
 adopt the safer and less tiring method. With this object in 
 view, when we wish to make a horse which we are riding, 
 rein back, we should keep our hands ''down," so as to allow 
 him, or, if needed, to induce him, to lower his head and put 
 weight on his fore hand. We should avoid the practice, 
 
THE REIN BACK lo* 
 
 taught in English riding schools, of taking an equal pull on 
 both reins ; for, if we do so, we shall adopt the best means 
 to induce the animal to throw his centre of gravity to the 
 rear, and to adopt the second method of the rein back, which 
 is objectionable in all cases, except in heavy draught. In- 
 stead of this '' even feeling" on both reins, we may effect our 
 purpose by, for instance, taking a stronger pull on the near 
 rein, so as to bend the horse's head and neck more or less to 
 the left, draw back the right leg, and touch him with it on the 
 side. The weight then, on account of the head being turned 
 to the left, will be placed more on the near limbs than on the 
 off ones. Consequently, when the off flank is touched by the 
 drawn-back right foot, the animal will, as a rule, readily lift up 
 the off hind foot from the ground, and, feeling the backward 
 pull of the near rein, his natural impulse will be to take a 
 step to the rear with his off hind, and, in order to preserve 
 the previous distribution of weight, he will follow it with his 
 near fore. When the rider has obtained this diagonal step 
 (with the near fore and off hind) to the rear, he can get the 
 other diagonal step (with the off fore and near hind) by 
 slackening the near rein, taking a pull with the off rein, 
 drawing back the left foot, and touching the horse's left side 
 with it ; and so on. I need hardly say that, as each step is 
 obtained, the drawn-back leg should be brought forward. I 
 may also remark that a straight direction to the rear is 
 maintained by the pressure of the drawn-back leg, whichever 
 it may be at the time. We may see that the tendency of the 
 well-broken horse, when reined back in this way, will be to 
 adopt the diagonal movement (or trot) to the rear. Of all 
 unhorsemanlike proceedings, the practice of *' chucking'' the 
 animal in the mouth with the reins, to obtain the rein back, 
 is one of the worst ; for it will tend to make him, in his 
 endeavour to escape the painful pressure of the bit (curb or 
 snaffle), throw his weight to the rear, and run back according 
 to the dangerous second method. Although the well '* col- 
 lected '' rein back may be done at the walk or the trot, the 
 rein back by the second method is never executed at the trot ; 
 
102 
 
 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 for the weight is too unequally distributed to admit of the 
 simultaneous action of an off fore and a near hind, and of a 
 near fore and an off hind. I need hardly say that the rein 
 back in light harness may be similar to the rein back in 
 
 n 
 
 (\ 
 
 h i 
 
 (!) I 
 
 t\ 
 
 1 I 
 
 t ! 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 6 
 
 ^- 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 ORDINARY 
 
 Walk. 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 Long Striding 
 Walk. 
 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 n 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 rh 
 
 ! 
 
 44 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 Short Trot. 
 
 t) 
 
 
 
 
 
 -A 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 Slow Trot. 
 
 saddle, When the object of the rein back is to push a great 
 weight to the rear, as in heavy draught, the horse will have to 
 exert his powers in bringing his centre of gravity as far back 
 as possible. Consequently, he ought to have his head well 
 
FOOTPRINTS OF THE HORSE, 
 
 103 
 
 raised, and ought to get his hind feet under him as far as he 
 can without sHpping. In this he will be greatly assisted by 
 having calkins on his hind shoes. 
 
 ..n' 
 
 I n 
 
 
 
 (i) 
 
 n 
 
 0"-i" 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 Fast Trot. 
 
 h 
 
 (!) 
 
 
 
 
 
 fti 
 
 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 Slow Amble. 
 
 
 A 
 
 s 
 
 /t> 
 
 n 
 
 i n 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 Slow Canter. 
 
 (h 
 
 ! t 
 
 i i 
 1 
 
 i i 
 
 i 1 
 
 h 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 Fast Gallop. 
 
 Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces.- 
 
 In the study of the foot-prints of the horse we are struck with 
 two notable facts: (i) The faster the pace, the greater 
 tendency has the hind foot to be placed beyond the fore foot 
 
104 PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the same side. Here we have the influence of instability 
 of equilibrium in increasing the speed (p. 54). (2) The 
 faster the pace, the nearer do the foot-prints of all four 
 feet tend to come into the line of direction in which locomo- 
 tion takes place. As Lenoble du Teil expresses it, the foot- 
 prints of the race-horse at full speed resemble the marks that 
 would be made by the spokes of a wheel which had no felloes. 
 This fact proves the undesirability, from a speed point of 
 view, of any undue width between either the fore or hind 
 legs (p. 53). In Figs. 151 to 158, for which I am indebted 
 to Barrier and Lenoble du Teil, the left-hand dotted line 
 of each diagram represents the direction of the prints of 
 the near feet ; and the right one, those of the off feet. In 
 Figs. 151 and 154 the prints of both fore feet are covered by 
 those of the hind feet. In Fig. 157 the prints of the near 
 fore foot are covered by those of the near hind foot. In 
 these figures only the succession of the foot-prints has been 
 noted. No attempt has been made to mark the lateral 
 distances between the respective lines of direction of the 
 near and off feet. 
 
 The length of stride in the canter is about 12 feet ; that 
 of the full speed gallop of the race-horse, about 24 feet. 
 
( 105 ) 
 
 V-' Xjl xx, JT X X-/ X\. wc\. J. X i, > 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 Definition of the Leap — Varieties of the Leap — Difference between the 
 Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or 
 Gallop—Mannei m which the Hoise takes off— Peiiod of Stride at 
 which the Take Off is effected — Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap — 
 Clearing a Fence — Landing ovei a Jump — Influence of Blood m 
 Jumping. 
 
 Definition of the Leap. — The ordinary leap or jump is 
 the proj'ection of the body off the ground by means of the 
 hind limbs, after the fore hand .has been raised* 
 
 Varieties of the Leap, — We may divide the leap into 
 the running jump and the standing jump ; and each of 
 them into the high leap and long leap, which are differences 
 merely of degree. 
 
 Difference between the Horse's Leap and the 
 Suspension of his Body during the Canter or 
 Gallop. — In the leap, the period of suspension takes place 
 when the hind legs quit the ground ; in the canter or gallop, 
 when the leading fore leg is raised (compare Figs. 195 to 199 
 and Figs. 186 to 190 with Figs, 130 to 132, and with Figs. 
 144 to 148). It is instructive to note that a definition founded 
 on this difference is not of general application to other 
 animals. In the gallop of the greyhound, there is a period of 
 suspension (Figs. 162 to 164) similar to that of the horses 
 leap, as well as one (Figs. 159 to 161) like that in the horse's 
 gallop. It seems that the former is longer than the latter in 
 
io6 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 the full Speed gallop of the greyhound. It appears that if this 
 dog begins his stride on one fore leg, the right for instance 
 (F^?- ^59)j he will after his two periods of suspension 
 (Figs. 1 60 and 163) ''take off" from the opposite fore leg, the 
 left (Fig. 165) in this case. If this be true, his stride 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 Fig. i6r. 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 Fig. 163. Fig. 164. 
 
 Gallop of the Greyhound, showing Two Periods of Suspension. 
 
 C-*' 
 
 Fig. i66. 
 
 
 T 
 
 Hi? 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 V\ip, 
 
 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 ^=^, 
 
 ^^"^t 
 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 -- -a, 
 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 Gallop of the Cat. 
 
 
 
 r IG» 17 1» 
 
 (counting it as the interval between the supports of the same 
 leading fore leg) will include four periods of suspension. In 
 the gallop of the cat (Figs. 166 to 171), and also in that of 
 the tiger, panther, and cheetah, the leaping form of suspension 
 
THE " TAKE OFF:' 
 
 107 
 
 appears to be the only one present. I may mention that I 
 have not had an opportunity of observing the paces of other 
 large felines. The Indian black buck and the South African 
 springbok, which are two remarkably fast kinds of antelope, 
 generally begin their gallop by a series of leaps, when 
 suddenly startled The gallop of the mastiff (which is a 
 comparatively slow dog), depicted by Figs. 172 to 177, 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 
 Fig. 173 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 Fig, 175. Fig. 176. 
 
 Gallop of the Heavy Dog. 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 
 resembles that of the horse. I may remark that the longer 
 the period of suspension, the faster and more fatiguing, as 
 a rule, will be the gallop. 
 
 Figs. 195 to 199 show photographs of ^the leap from 
 takmg'off to landing' ^ ^ ^ ' 
 
 Manner in which the Horse takes off, — In the 
 
 canter or gallop, the animal makes his preparation when 
 he supports his body on his leading fore leg (Figs. 178 
 and 181), by straightening which (and especially its fetlock 
 joint) he raises his fore hand. At the same time, he brings 
 one hind leg down (generally that on the same side as 
 the leading fore), followed by the other hind (Figs. 179 
 and 180, and Figs. 183 and 184), and, by straightening 
 them out, projects the body upward and forward (Figs. 
 185, 186 and 187). We may note that there is, practically, 
 
io8 
 
 LEAPING 
 
 no period of suspension (Figs. 178 and 179, and 182 and 
 183) between the removal from the ground of the fore leg 
 that supported the weight, and the putting down of the 
 hmd leg which first comes on the ground. 
 
 From the halt, the horse would prepare to leap by- 
 making a rear (p. 75), and would project himself forwards 
 and upwards when he had raised his fore hand sufficiently. 
 From the walk, trot or amble, he would take off from 
 either fore leg, and would bring the hind legs under the 
 body as might be required. 
 
 Fig. 179 Fig 180 
 
 "Take Off" of Leap, with Hind Feei not brought well under 
 
 THE Horse 
 
 Period of Stride at which the Take Off is 
 Effected. — In the running leap from the canter or gallop, 
 we may regard the putting down of the leading fore leg (Fig. 
 181) as the commencement of the take off; for, at that instant, 
 the character of the pace is changed, and the *'take off^' 
 by the hind legs is made close to the foot-print of that leg. 
 We therefore see that during the stride of, say, from four to 
 
THE LEAP 
 
 109 
 
 Fig iSi 
 
 Fig 182 
 
 itv 
 
 Fig. 183 
 
 Fig 184 
 
 Fig. 185, 
 
 Fig 186 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 The Horse's Leap. 
 
 Fig i8b. 
 
no 
 
 LEAPING. 
 
 Fig 189 
 
 Fig. 190 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 Fig. 192 
 
 J""*- **H*^*N.™w 
 
 Fig. 193. The Horse's Ije.k'?— [continued). Fig. 194. 
 
 seven yards in length, there is only one moment at which the 
 ** take off" can be executed. Hence, if a horse does not 
 regulate the length of his stride when coming up to a fence, 
 he may easily make a mistake. Let us suppose that, while 
 taking a stride of five yards, he brings down his leading 
 fore leg three yards short of the proper spot at which he 
 ought to take off; he will then have to jump three yards 
 ** bigger," or chance an accident by taking off two yards 
 too near. The longer the stride, the greater will be the 
 tendency to this error. Consequently, other things being 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fk;. 195. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 Phases of the Leap. 
 
 To face ^. no. 
 
SPEED IN LEAPING, in 
 
 equal, a short-striding horse will be safer over a *' cramped" 
 country than a long-striding one. Also, we may say that no 
 horse merits the title of '' a safe conveyance " unless, when 
 coming up to a jump, he accurately regulates the length of 
 his stride, and ''puts a short stride in," when required. 
 
 In the trot or amble, the putting down of the fore foot, 
 which is the last to quit the ground, may be looked upon 
 as the beginning of the take off. 
 
 Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap. — The 
 
 running jump is usually executed at the canter or gallop. 
 A few horses can leap (especially height) cleverly from the 
 trot, which is a useful accomplishment in the hunter ; for it 
 may enable him when in a difficult position (as when 
 jumping out of a lane) to utilise a *'run" which would be 
 too short for the longer stride of the canter or gallop. 
 Besides, at these paces there is only one period of the stride 
 at which the animal can take off (see preceding paragraph) ; 
 but in the trot there are two such periods, namely, when 
 the respective diagonals come to the ground. A horse, 
 however, cannot jump so freely and **big'* from the trot as 
 from the canter or gallop, in each stride of which, the hind 
 legs are brought nearly together under the horse's body 
 (Figs. 130 and 143), ready, if need be, to change the pace 
 into the leap (Fig. 178). In the trot, each hind limb 
 moves harmoniously with its diagonal fore leg ; but in the 
 opposite direction to its hind fellow. 
 
 In examining the various kinds of leap of the horse, 
 we must remember that he has a long distance (that from 
 his hocks or buttocks to his muzzle) of body to carry over 
 a fence, independently of raising it to a sufficient height ; 
 hence his high jump partakes much more of the long jump 
 than the high jump of a man, whose body is carried more 
 vertically than horizontally. For this reason, it is more 
 essential for a horse than for a man to *'get up'' a fair 
 degree of speed in order to jump height well. 
 
 The speed at which a horse goes at a jump (supposing 
 
112 LEAPING. 
 
 that it does not prevent him from *' collecting " himself 
 properly), influences the width he can clear; because (as 
 we have seen on p. 49) the force by which he is projected 
 forward into the air is equal to the force of propulsion 
 derived from his limbs, plus the impetus due to the speed 
 at which he is going. The greater this impetus, the lower 
 will be the *' angle of elevation" at which the centre of 
 gravity of the body is propelled forward. 
 
 We may, with approximate accuracy, define the '* angle 
 of elevation'' as the angle which a line passing through 
 the centre of gravity and a point midway between the 
 prints of the two hind feet, makes with the horizontal 
 plane, at the moment when the body leaves the ground. 
 
 Looking at the subject from a hasty point of view, 
 those of us who have not had practical experience, might 
 come to the conclusion that a horse would jump height as 
 well when going fast as when going slow, and that the 
 only difference is that, in the former case, the animal would 
 be obliged to take off further from the fence than in the 
 latter. This supposition, however, does not hold good ; 
 for the faster the pace, the more weight is thrown on the 
 fore hand, and the greater difficulty will the leading fore leg 
 have in raising the fore hand off the ground. Hence, even 
 without the valuable experience of the hunting field and 
 steeplechase course, we may accept the truth of the old 
 saying that one should ride slow at ''timber." Also, I am 
 inclined to think that a horse will not clear as great a 
 width when taking a water jump if he is sent at his topmost 
 speed at it, as he would do were his rate of going slightly 
 moderated, so as to enable him to raise his fore hand 
 sufficiently off the ground in order to obtain the angle 
 of elevation which will enable him to cover the maximum 
 distance. 
 
 Clearing a Fence. — It is evident that the more a 
 horse, in the leap, brings his hind feet forward as compared 
 to the position of the prints of the fore feet, the greater 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 198. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 Phases ov the Leap {continued). 
 
 To face p. 112. 
 
CLEARING A FENCE, u^ 
 
 will be the angle at which he can, at the speed he is 
 going, project his body upward. Also, the more he 
 raises his head, the more will he, by bringing back the 
 centre of gravity, increase its angle of elevation. Besides, 
 as the forward and upward movements of the fore limbs 
 depend on the action of the muscles of the neck, the 
 direction in which the fore legs will be raised, will naturally 
 depend on that of the neck. A -horse, therefore, when 
 approaching a fence which will tax his powers to clear, 
 should regulate his speed, so that the impetus obtained 
 from it may be in due proportion to the propulsion derived 
 from the limbs , should bring his hind feet well under his 
 body ; and should hold his head high. I am here 
 supposing that the animal takes off at the correct distance 
 from the obstacle. These actions constitute, as regards 
 the horse, what is popularly and somewhat vaguely called 
 ''collecting'' himself 
 
 We may note that although, when preparing to leap, the 
 hind legs are brought down on the ground in a straightened 
 out position {see the off hind in Figs. 179 and 184), and 
 leave it in the same attitude (Fig. 186), they are some- 
 what bent at the hocks and stifles (Fig. 185) at a time 
 intermediate to these two moments. Hence, we see from 
 these drawings that the propulsion from the hind legs in 
 the leap is due to their being suddenly straightened out, 
 in which action, the fetlock joint also plays an important 
 part. 
 
 As the ability to clear height depends greatly on the 
 power of raising the fore hand; the rider should refrain 
 from leaning forward when the horse is rising at an obstacle. 
 He should, on the contrary, if anything, lean back at this 
 moment (Fig. 195), so as not to put any avoidable weight on 
 the fore hand. 
 
 In almost all cases of the well executed high jump, the 
 fore legs are bent up together and the hind ones fully 
 straightened out at the moment of taking off (Fig. 200). 
 The fore legs will be kept more or less in this position till 
 
 I 
 
114 LEAPING. 
 
 the fence be cleared. If the obstacle be '* stiff" and the 
 horse hit it with his knee or fore arm, he will probably fall ; 
 but if any part of the leg below the knee strike it, he 
 will generally get over all right, or with a '*peck" at most. 
 Hence, a clever horse will try to avoid an accident by raising 
 his knees well out of harm's way. Another danger consists 
 in the horse catching the fence with his hind legs, which he 
 will best avoid by bending them as much as possible at 
 the stifles and hocks (Fig. 203). Consequently, the clever 
 jumper, the moment his hind legs quit the ground when 
 taking off, will tuck them under him as if they were on 
 springs suddenly let go, after having been drawn out. The 
 slovenly fencer, on the contrary, will drag his hind legs 
 after him, at the imminent risk of catching them in the 
 fence and falling. In the high jump, the animal should 
 keep his hind legs well bent until he is clear of the 
 obstacle (Fig. 206), so that, if need be, as might occur in 
 the case of an unexpected wide drain being met with at 
 the landing side, he may strike the fence with his hind 
 legfs, and thus srive himself a fresh forward impulse. 
 
 When a horse is suspended in the air during a leap, he 
 may move his limbs or retain them in one position, according 
 to what he feels to be most conducive to his safety. 
 
 Landing over a Jump. — The prettiest style, and safest 
 manner, of landing in the leap, is for the two fore legs to 
 be kept straightened out and comparatively close together 
 (Figs. 198 and 199, and 201 and 202) until they are near the 
 ground, when one of them comes down, and is followed by 
 the other, which is placed a little distance in front of it. This 
 method of landing gives the impression to the observer that 
 the horse comes down on both fore feet at the same time. If 
 we compare these figures with Fig. 189, we shall feel con- 
 vinced that the plan of landing with one fore leg considerably 
 bent, as in the latter style, is not so safe as in the former ; for 
 in the event of any falter being made by the supporting fore 
 l^gy the other fore leg will be better prepared to save the 
 
M. H. H. To face i). 114. 
 
 Fig. 200.— Cloister and Horizon jumping open ditch at Sandown Park. 
 
LANDING OVER A JUMP. 
 
 115 
 
 horse from a fall, if at that moment it be straightened out, and 
 not bent. 
 
 It is evident that, for safety, the knee of the leg upon 
 which the animal lands, should be as straight as possible , for 
 if the knee *' gives," the horse will almost certainly fall. 
 Hence, we may regard the condition of being **over at the 
 knees" (p. 193) as a grave defect in the jumper, especially if 
 he be required to go fast. 
 
 As a rule, when landing over a jump, the hind foot which 
 first comes down, has been made way for by the fore foot 
 of the same side, somewhat beyond the print of which it is 
 placed. The other hind foot and the other fore foot act in 
 a similar manner. We may see from Figs. 190 to 194, that 
 a horse "gets quickly away from a jump" by the raising 
 
 Fig. 201. Landing over a Jump. Fig. 202. 
 
 of the fore hand, which is accomplished by the straightening 
 out of the fore limbs. The rider should, therefore, avoid 
 throwing any undue weight on the fore hand at this moment. 
 It sometimes happens that a horse ** over-reaches " (strikes a 
 fore leg with a hind foot) when landing over a jump on 
 account of the rider being jerked on to the animal's neck ; the 
 injured fore leg having been prevented from getting out of 
 the way of its hind fellow by the surcharge of the fore hand. 
 The heavier the fore hand, other things being equal, the 
 further forward, when landing over a jump, will the hind feet 
 be carried as compared to the fore feet ; and vice versa. 
 Hence, the faster the pace, the greater will be the tendency 
 to over-reach. We see this to be especially the case in 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 LEAPING 
 
 jumping water, at which, not alone is the speed as a rule 
 high, but the ground on landing is often soft and *' holding " 
 from the infiltration of water. It is evident that the '' deeper '' 
 is the ground, the more difficult it will be for a horse to 
 extricate his fore feet out of it in time to make way for his 
 hind feet We may see therefore the advisability in such 
 cases of leaning well back in the saddle. Figs. 209, 210, 
 and 211 show consecutive movements of the horse after 
 landing over a jump. 
 
 A horse should not land with his head and neck bent, 
 as might be caused by the action of a severe bit which he is 
 afraid to '* face " ; for when the neck is bent, the muscles * 
 which draw the fore legs forward and enable them to reach 
 well to the front, will be more or less thrown out of action. 
 Hence, the rider ought to give the horse plenty of rein on 
 landing, and should try to avoid bringing his weight forward. 
 As an interesting point in the action of a severe bit in 
 leaping, I may mention that if we observe a horse that is 
 being ridden up to a high jump in a bit which he is afraid to 
 ''face,'' he will land, in the event of his clearing the obstacle, 
 more or less on all four legs at the same time, in his endeavour 
 to save his mouth from any sudden ''job," by keeping the 
 weight as much as he can off his fore hand. He may act in 
 the same way, even with a snaffle, if too short a martingale be 
 used. I may remark that the two '* defences " which a horse 
 generally uses against a severe bit, are to poke his nose up in 
 the air, and to draw his chin in towards his chest, and thereby 
 arch his neck. Many persons, against the evidence of photo- 
 graphy, assert that a clever jumper will generally land first 
 on his hind legs, and will then (so they say) be in the best 
 position to *'get away" quickly. They quite forget (or 
 perhaps do not know) that the hind limbs of the horse are 
 altogether unfitted to stand the violent shock which would be 
 
 * The cliief of these muscles is the levator humeri^ which is attached to the top 
 of the head and to the upper third of the humerus. The nearer its points of 
 attachment are brought together, the less power has it to draw the hmb forward. 
 
A.H. 
 
 Fig. 203. 
 
 M. H. //. 
 
 Fic;. 204. 
 
 M. H. H 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Jumping. 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 M, H. H. 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
 Trotting. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 1 16. 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
LANDING OVER A JUMP. 117 
 
 transmitted through them, if they had to bear the weight of 
 the body on landing. Such poor weight-bearers are they, 
 that they have great difficulty, as a rule, in enabling a horse 
 to walk a few yards on his hind legs. Almost all circus horses 
 which have to perform this trick, throw out, after a short time, 
 curbs, spavins and thoroughpins of amazing size. What, I 
 wonder, would be the state of the hocks of a hunter or chaser, 
 had he always to land first on his hind legs ! The fore limbs, 
 on the contrary, being attached to the body only by muscles, 
 are singularly well adapted to support shock, like that of 
 landing over a fence* Besides, if a horse, which, like all 
 other animals, is obliged to ''take off" from his hind legs, 
 were, also, to land on them, he would lose all the advantage 
 which the forward reach of his fore legs gives him. As we 
 have already seen, a horse in the gallop, after the period of 
 suspension, lands on a hind leg ; but in the leap, he lands on 
 a fore leg. 
 
 In the well executed leap, the fact of the horse landing on 
 one fore leg and then on the other, lengthens the base of sup- 
 port, and thus increases the stability. The hind legs coming 
 down in the same manner enables the horse to at once take 
 up the gallop, which is in four periods, without loss of time 
 (Fig. 194). The safest way for a man, on the contrary, to 
 alight is on both feet kept together, with the knees somewhat 
 flexed (Fig, 35), in order to break the shock of concussion ; 
 for his body is placed vertically, and not horizontally, as is 
 the case with the horse. In drawing any comparison of this 
 kind, we must remember that our legs are attached to the 
 trunk by bony union, at our hip joints, and not, as in the fore 
 legs of the horse, by muscles which act as springs in nullifying 
 any injurious effect from the force of impact with the ground. 
 Again, in the horse, although the knees must be kept straight, 
 on landing, in order to insure stability ; the fetlock, elbow and 
 shoulder joints act as springs. As man is a plantigrade 
 animal (one that walks on his hocks ; p. 27), he must utilise 
 the ''play" of the knee-joints, with which to break the force 
 of concussion, when he lands on the ground with any great 
 
ii8 LEAPING, 
 
 force. If, in such a case, the knees be kept straight, the 
 shock will fall in its entirety on the pelvis, at the hip joints, 
 and may be transmitted with very serious effect to the spinal 
 cord. Men who practise hurdle-racing on foot, alight on one 
 foot, and then bound off on to the other ; as their great object 
 is to lose no time in getting away from their fences, which, 
 being comparatively low, do not greatly affect the athlete's 
 stability. 
 
 We may see from the foregoing considerations, that for 
 safety and quickness in *' getting away " after a leap, it is 
 essential for the fore legs to be removed out of the way of 
 the hind feet, and for the fore hand, which was previously 
 depressed by the weight of the body falling on it (as in Fig. 
 189), to be raised by the straightening of the fore legs (Figs. 
 190 to 194). These two actions, I need hardly say, have to 
 be performed with speed and precision. ^ Hence, it is neces- 
 sary for the horse to see where he is going to place his feet 
 on landing; so that he may be prepared for the required 
 movements of the limbs. If he be prevented from knowing 
 when his feet will come down on the ground, there will be 
 loss of time to calling the muscles of the limbs into action, and 
 the probability of an accident will be greatly increased. A 
 common way some riders have ^ of making a horse, when 
 jumping, fall or over-reach in this manner, is to '^^ throw up 
 their hands," and thus cause the animal to unduly raise and 
 extend his head, which he does with the object of " saving '' 
 his mouth ; the result being that the horse cannot accurately 
 see where he is going to put his feet. The rider, on the 
 contrary, should keep his hands low and should give his mount 
 plenty of rein, so as not to interfere with the animal's move- 
 ments when landing. 
 
 Influence of Blood in Jumping.— Seeing the manner in 
 which the rate of speed influences the extent of the long jump, 
 we may reasonably conclude that a fast galloper, other things 
 being equal, would jump a greater width than a slow horse. 
 The possession of great galloping speed, however, would not, 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 M. H. //. 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Getting away after Landing. 
 
 To face p. 118. 
 
 Fig. 
 
INFLUENCE OF BLOOD IN JUMPING, 119 
 
 of itself, materially assist the high juniper. I regret to say 
 that I have no exact data to go on ; but my own experience 
 leads me to conclude that the majority of big water jumpers 
 will be found among well-bred horses. As the height or 
 distance over which the body is propelled by the limbs 
 depends on the speed at which they are straightened out; 
 we shall find that a horse which is quick in his movements, 
 other things being equal, will jump higher and broader than 
 another which is slower. For this reason, the thorough- 
 bred, properly selected and trained, will make the best of 
 all jumpers, over height as well as over length. 
 
120 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 That distinguished French savant, M. Marey, published in 1S78 his re- 
 searches on the paces of the horse. He prosecuted them by means of a 
 registering apparatus somewhat similar to the one, the sphygmograph, used by 
 doctors for recording the movements of the pulse. The machine consisted of 
 a cylinder which was made to revolve round by clockwork. Attached to it 
 were four pointed leveis that were airanged so as, when pressed upon, to 
 trace lines on a piece of blackened paper. Each of these levers was 
 provided with an india-rubber tube, which communicated with a rubber ball 
 filled with air and fixed on the ground surface of one of the animal's feet. 
 These levers and their connections were made so that, when the horse 
 during movement put a foot on the ground, the rubber ball attached to that 
 particular foot would be compressed, and the air rushmg into the tube would 
 raise the lever and bring its point against the sheet of blackened paper. 
 When the animal lifted its foot from the ground, the air would go back into 
 the ball, and allow the point of the lever to be taken off the surface of the 
 paper. As, while this was being done, the cylmder revolved round at a 
 uniform rate of speed, it follows that the line traced by each lever point 
 would be a record of the duration of the contact of the foot with the ground, 
 and that the intervals between two such contacts would be a measure of the 
 time the foot was suspended in the air. By this means, Marey investigated 
 the nature of the paces of the horse. He also devised a very ingenious 
 method' of representing them on paper, which I shall now tiy to explain to 
 my readers. 
 
 If we wish to express on paper the running pace of a man, we may do so 
 by making a scale with rectangles, which, for convenience' sake, we may use 
 instead of Marey's lines. Thus, if the time of contact be about equal to 
 that of suspension, Fig. 212 will express the nature of the pace. To render 
 this figure more graphic, I have used plain rectangles to mark the supports 
 of the left foot, and shaded ones, those of the right foot If we desire to 
 represent the ordinary walk of a man in the same manner, we shall be con- 
 fronted with the difficulty that, as both feet are on the ground at certain 
 periods of this pace, the rectangles would naturally have to overlap each 
 other. We may, however, get over it by placing the diagrammatic prints of, 
 say, the left foot on a line above those of the right foot. In this manner, in 
 
NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. I2l 
 
 Fig. 212.— Run of Man (Figs. 24, 25 and 26). 
 
 Fig. 213.— Run of Man (Figs. 24, 25 and 26), 
 
 Fig. 214.— Walk of Man (Figs. 19, 20 and 21). 
 
 Fig. 215.— Typical Slow Trot. 
 
 Fig. 216.— Ordinary Slow Trot (Figs. 55 to 58}. 
 
 Fig. 2I7.~Fast Trot (Figs. 59 to 63). 
 
 Fig. 2x8.—Typical Slow Amble. 
 
122 
 
 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Fig. 219.— Flying Amble (Figs. 70 to 74)- 
 
 Fig. 220.— Typical Walk. 
 
 Fig. 221.— "Ordinary Walk (Figs. 75 to 82). 
 
 Fig. 222.— Slow Walk in Draught (Figs. 89 to 95). 
 
 Fig. 223.— " Typical" Canter. 
 
 Fig. 224.— "Typical" Canter without Suspension (Figs. 107 to 113). 
 
NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 123 
 
 Fig. 225. — Ordinary Ca^nter or "Hand Gallop" (Figs. 114 to 122). 
 
 Fig. 226,— Fast Gallop (Figs. 133 to 148). 
 
 Fig. 227.— The Leap (Figs. 181 to 194). 
 
 order to represent the run, we would place these footprints as they are shown 
 in Fig. 213 ; not as in Fig. 212. We may indicate the "v^alk by Fig. 214, in 
 which J have assumed that both feet are on the ground for one-sixth of the 
 period of support of each foot. 
 
 We must remember that these scales or notations give us only the order 
 of succession of the feet, and their respective and proportionate periods of 
 support and suspension; but they do not furnish us with a clue to the 
 speed of any particular pace, except that, when there is a period of suspen- 
 sion, the longer it is, the greater, as a rule, will be the speed. 
 
 To construct the respective notation of the various paces of the horse, we 
 may employ the rectangles of Fig. 212 for the fore legs, and may use similar 
 ones, placed underneath them, for the hind legs. Thus, Fig. 216 will give us 
 the scale of the trot as shown by Figs. 55 to 58. 
 
 My readers will notice that the dotted lines on Fig. 217 mark the 
 respective moments at which the horse assumed the positions depicted in 
 Figs. 59 to 62,, In the remaining notations in this chapter I have similarly 
 marked the connections between these scales and the corresponding figures 
 in Chapters XIL and XIIL 
 
124 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES, 
 
 General Hemaiks— Relations between Height and Length of Body — Com- 
 paiative Height at Withers and Croup — Points m Common — Limit of 
 Height — Thickness of Limb — Length of Neck— Length of Head — ^Width 
 between the Foie Legs — Compaiative Weight of Body — Comparative 
 Length of the Bones of the Limbs — Differences of Confoimation between 
 the Two Sexes. 
 
 General Remarks. — In order to simplify comparison and 
 to prevent tedious repetition, I venture to divide horses, from 
 a conformation point of view, into (i) horses of speed, and 
 (2) horses of strength ; and also into {a) saddle horses, and 
 (b) harness horses. Thus, we have the speedy saddle horse 
 in the flat-racer ; the speedy harness horse in the match- 
 trotter ; the strong saddle horse in the weight-carrying hunter 
 and trooper ; and the strong draught horse in the Shire or 
 Clydesdale. I shall therefore contrast, in this chapter, 
 '' points " of speed with those of strength ; and the differences 
 between horses intended for the saddle, and those required 
 for work in the shafts. English and Colonial lovers of horses 
 will demand a further distinction — to which I shall do my 
 best to attend — between flat race horses and cross country 
 horses. In general terms, the outcome of this research will 
 be a more or less successful investigation into the '* points'' 
 of the race-horse ; hunter, trooper, or riding hack ; match 
 trotter ; light harness horse ; and heavy cart-horse. I shall 
 endeavour to show later on, that all riding hacks and cavalry 
 horses should possess the jumping points of the hunter. It is 
 evident that the steeplechase horse should be a judicious 
 combination of the hunter and the race-horse. The fast 
 horse, whether racer or American match trotter, can no more 
 
HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF BODY. 125 
 
 dispense with a certain amount of strength than can the 
 heavy draught horse attain excellence without a certain 
 amount of speed, even at the walk. ^ I need hardly say that 
 the light vanner belongs to a class intermediate between the 
 light harness horse and the heavy draught horse. 
 
 The method of working from the whole to a part should 
 be followed as rigorously in judging a horse, as in painting or 
 land surveying. If we desire to obtain correctness in these 
 arts, we must, as a rule, first get our general outline, and then 
 fill in the details. If, in our preliminary examination, we 
 allow our eyes to be caught by some isolated beauty or defect, 
 we would be — to use an oft applied simile — like a painter who 
 begins a full-length portrait of a person by drawing the nose, 
 and then hangs the remainder of the body to it I cannot too 
 strongly insist on the fact that the degree of adaptability of 
 an animal for any special kind of useful work, depends more 
 on his general shape, than on the possession or absence of 
 any particular '* point." 
 
 I may mention that, in making comparisons, we should not 
 be disconcerted by the fact that some of the proportions of 
 the horse may vary a little according to the position in which 
 he stands, and the nature of his bodily condition. Some 
 allowance has to be made for the fact, in my illustrations, 
 that the majority of the fast horses and jumpers were taken 
 when they were in hard training ; and most of the heavier 
 horses, when they were in a *^ lusty" state. It would have 
 been more satisfactory, if they had been photographed at a 
 time when they were all in '' hard " condition ; but that, 
 obviously, was out of my power to get done. The method I 
 shall indicate will, however, give results sufficiently uniform 
 for our purpose. We must also remember that the respective 
 proportions of animals of the same class and of equal merit 
 are not always the same , for a defect in one point may be 
 compensated by increased excellence in another point. 
 
 Relations between Height and Length of Body*— 
 
 We have seen, in Chapter L, that the fundamental difference 
 
126 
 
 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 between animals of speed and those of strength is that the 
 former have comparatively long legs, and that the latter have 
 comparatively short ones. We have in the camel a well- 
 marked exception to this rule. The Ship of the Desert, as 
 we may see in Fig. 228, has very long legs in comparison 
 to his length of body, and yet he is extremely slow for his 
 size. The cause of his lack of speed is chiefly owing to the 
 weakness of his ''rearing muscles" (p, 52), and to the 
 straightness of the column of bones of his fore limb (p. 50). 
 Hence, when he tries to go quickly, he is unable to raise his 
 
 Fig. 228.— Camel. 
 
 fore hand sufficiently to obtain a well-regulated period of 
 suspension, like that of the horse (Figs. 62, 131, and 145). 
 His gallop, which he attempts only on rare occasions, has so 
 much up and down motion in it that he can continue it but 
 for a very short time. His usual fast pace is a kind of amble 
 which has no period of suspension. The muscles of his 
 limbs, as compared to the weight of his body, are very 
 poorly developed. Many ''weedy'' horses (p. 239) which 
 have long legs are deficient in speed from causes similar 
 to those that render the camel slow. The law as to length 
 of limb can be amply verified, other things being equal, 
 
HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF BODY. 
 
 127 
 
 in the case of the horse, by the hard logic of statistics. 
 I accordingly give the following table of measurements 
 in inches, taking Ormonde (Frontispiece) and St Simon 
 (Figs. 9 and 229) as examples of the fleet of foot, and the 
 Shire horse, Cheadle Jumbo, and the Shire mare. Chance 
 (Fig, 232), as illustrations of strength. 
 
 
 Oimonde. 
 
 St. Simon. 
 
 Cheadle 
 Jumbo. 
 
 Chance. 
 
 Height at witheis 
 
 641* 
 
 ^Zl"" 
 
 67* 
 
 67* 
 
 Length of body .... 
 
 6ii 
 
 591- 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 Depth from witheis to biisket 
 
 29 
 
 27^ 
 
 35i 
 
 34 
 
 Distance of "giith place" 
 fiom ground . 
 
 zsi 
 
 Z^l 
 
 Zil 
 
 33 
 
 Length of head .... 
 
 241- 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 
 * Without s 
 
 hoes. 
 
 
 
 I took the measurements of Ormonde on the 20th July, 
 1887, when he was a four-year-old ; and those of St. Simon 
 in September, 1884, when he was a three-year-old. I may 
 mention that the photographs of Ormonde and St. Simon 
 are particularly valuable, as these animals were probably the 
 two best race-horses that have ever lived, and as their 
 photographs were taken when they were in racing condition. 
 I may also mention that the outlines of Fig. 229 have been 
 taken from a photograph which was too much ''fogged" to 
 bear reproduction. The shadows, however, have been added 
 by an artist, Mr. Oswald Brown. 
 
 We see from the foregoing table, that some three and 
 four year-old race-horses of the best class are 3 or 4 inches 
 higher at the withers (and at the croup) than they are long 
 in the body ; and that the Shire horse, which is the most 
 powerful of all horses, is about 9 inches longer than he is 
 high. The difference between the two types with respect to 
 their length of leg, as compared to their depth of chest, is 
 
128 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 equally well marked. The intermediate classes, in this respect, 
 partake, as a rule, of the characteristics of the respective 
 types to which they are most nearly allied. Thus, if we take 
 Ormonde (Frontispiece) as the highest type of the race-horse, 
 we shall find that the distance from the top of his withers to 
 his brisket, if applied down his fore leg, will reach from his 
 brisket only to the bottom of his fetlock. In the high-class 
 Leicestershire hunter (Fig. 329) it will come down to the 
 middle of the pastern , in the heavy-weight hunter, to the 
 coronet , in the Artillery '* wheeler " or light cart-horse, to the 
 ground ; and in a Cheadle Jumbo, it will be four inches more 
 in length. Hence we may conclude that the term, '' short on 
 the leg," is one to denote the possession of strength rather 
 than of speed. The reckless manner in which it is used 
 with respect to race-horses is as incorrect as it is ridiculous. 
 I may add, that with age, good feeding and want of exercise, 
 a horse usually lengthens, deepens, and thickens somewhat as 
 regards his height. Mr W. F. Shaw, F.R.C.V.S., who has 
 charge of the horses belonging to the London Streets Tram- 
 way Company, tells me that he has frequently observed that 
 comparatively light, well-bred horses, when put to tramway 
 work at about five years of age, thicken and get coarse after 
 a few months, to a far greater extent than if they had been 
 used at fast paces. I need hardly say that labour between 
 the rails is slow ; and the feeding (eighteen pounds of corn 
 and twelve pounds of hay) ample for these not very large 
 animals. We may accept the fact that both muscled and bones 
 accommodate themselves in time to the nature of the work to 
 which they are put ; the difference being one of thickness, 
 and not of length. I have often noticed among thoroughbreds 
 that, to a certain extent, they became coarse and lost their 
 appearance of blood if kept under rough conditions and used 
 for ordinary hack work. 
 
 I may mention that St. Gatien, the celebrated son of The 
 Rover and St. Editha, who ran a dead heat with Harvester 
 for the Derby of 1884, won the gold cup at Ascot and the 
 Cesarewitch (carrying the unprecedented weight of eight 
 
C. Re id, JVtshazv. 
 Fig. 338. — Cleveland Stallion, Luck's All, the property of Mr. H. C. Stephens, M.P. 
 
 J 
 
 C. Reid, Wishazv. ' To face p. z^^. 
 
 Fig. 339.— Cleveland Mare, Madam, the property of Mr. H. C. Stephens, M.P. 
 
HEIGHT AT WITHERS AND CROUP. 129 
 
 Stone ten pounds for a colt of his age) In the same year, was 
 a very deep-chested horse, as his depth from his withers to 
 his brisket (just behind the elbow) was an inch more than 
 from his brisket to the bottom of his fetlock. He was thus 
 an inch deeper than Ormonde, who was one and three-quarter 
 inches deeper than St Simon. St. Gatien, I need hardly 
 say, was particularly distinguished by his ability to stay a 
 distance. 
 
 The fact of foals (Fig. 233) being extremely " long on the 
 leg'' accounts for their great speed as compared to their 
 strength. Without this peculiarity of conformation, there is 
 no doubt that the horse, prior to the time at which he 
 became domesticated, would not have survived the struggle 
 of existence 
 
 Comparative Height at Withers and Croup. — 
 
 '* Comparative length of fore and hind limbs " would be a 
 more correct heading for this paragraph than the present one, 
 which I adopt solely for the sake of convenience. It goes 
 almost without saying that it is much easier to compare the 
 respective heights of a horse at the withers and croup, when 
 he is standing in the ordinary position in which we get him 
 placed for inspection, than to judge of the comparative 
 lengths of his fore and hind legs, clothed as they are with 
 skin and muscle. In adopting the more convenient method 
 of the two, due allowance should be made for the attitude 
 in which the horse places himself. 
 
 The conditions under which the limbs play their part 
 in locomotion, are so complex and varied, that I can lay 
 down rules on this subject only in very general terms. We 
 must also bear in mind that there is a certain limit of height 
 (largely influenced by breed) which the horse should not 
 exceed, and which will be discussed on page 134, et seq, 
 I may state the present question as follows : at any given 
 height, is it advantageous for the horse to be higher at the 
 withers than he is over the top of the croup, or vic& versa, 
 when he is intended for galloping, jumping, light harness, or 
 
 K 
 
130 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 heavy draught ; and to what extent may such difference, if 
 any, amount to ? It is evident that the longer the hind leg, 
 the greater— other things being equal— will be the speed of 
 propulsion. Excess of height at the croup will, however, 
 be accompanied by three serious drawbacks: (i) by putting 
 increased work, during fast paces, on the fore limb (p. 51) 
 and on the muscles of the back and loins (p. 52) in raising 
 the fore hand at each stride, it will diminish the animal's 
 staying power ; (2) by surcharging the fore legs (p. 40), it 
 will naturally tend to render these limbs more liable to the 
 injurious effects of work than they would be, were the weight 
 more equally distributed between the fore and hind extre- 
 mities ; and (3) by overloading the fore hand, it will militate 
 against the cross-country horse rising easily at his fences and 
 getting away safely from them on landing. Those speedy 
 animals, the cheetah, the Indian black buck, and the grey- 
 hound, are a little longer in the hind limb than they are in 
 front. As a rule, race-horses of the highest class are about 
 the same height at withers and croup. This difference 
 between the racer and the other gallopers may be accounted 
 for by the fact, that the proportion of weight which the fore 
 limbs of the race-horse have to carry, is still more increased 
 by the presence of a jockey on his back. Among the fleet of 
 foot, I purposely omitted mentioning the hare, whose fine 
 speed can be maintained, as we might have inferred, only for 
 a short distance on level ground; though it is particularly 
 hard to catch up a hill, the diifficulty of ascending which is 
 directly lessened by the fact of the fore limbs being shorter 
 than the hind ones. Any disadvantage, in progression, 
 arising from undue shortness of fore legs is, more or less, 
 compensated for, in the hare, by great development of the 
 muscles of the loins (*' rearing muscles," p. 52). The lynx 
 (Fig. 4), which is very high behind, has an extraordinary turn 
 of speed ; but only for a short distance. Its gallop, like that 
 of other cats, is a series of leaps (p. 106). From practical 
 observations, I do not think that it is an advantage for a 
 race-horse to be higher over the croup than at the withers. 
 
C. Reid, IVishaiv. 
 
 Fig. 231. — Mr. Joseph Wainwright's Shire Stallion, Bury Victor Chief. 
 
 Dixon ^ Sons. To face p. 130, 
 
 Fig. 232. — Mr. A. B. Fkeeman-Mitkord's Shire Mare, Chance. 
 
HEIGHT AT WITHERS AND CROUP, 131 
 
 With regard to this point, we may study Ormonde (Frontis- 
 piece) and Persimmon (Fig. 322). Could a horse be reserved 
 for races up-hill, like on the old Cambridgeshire course, 
 which finished at ''the top of the town,'^ increased height 
 at the withers might be an advantage ; but such a policy 
 would hardly be practicable. We may conclude from the 
 foregoing remarks, that if a race-horse be higher over the 
 croup than at the withers, he will require, all the more, to 
 have sloping shoulders, oblique pasterns and powerful loins, 
 and to be light in his head,^ neck and shoulders. 
 
 We have now to consider the very practical question — 
 which, no doubt, every man who goes in for pony racing 
 has asked himself — is it an advantage for a pony which has 
 to pass the standard at a certain height, to be considerably 
 higher over the croup than at the withers ? The results of 
 my experience make me reply **no'* to this query. The 
 statement, which I have often heard urged, that a pony 
 which measures, say, 14.3 over the croup, and which can 
 pass the standard at fourteen hands, must have a '' pull " 
 over others of its own class which are as high at their 
 withers as over their croup, is not borne out in practice. 
 The best racing ponies I have seen, had no great difference 
 between these two measurements — certainly not more than two 
 inches. Among this list I may mention • the English ponies, 
 Predominant (Fig. 236), Lord Clyde, Water-lily (Fig. 332), 
 Maythorne, Mike (Fig. 235), St. Helena, Selena, and Sylvia, 
 the New Zealanders, Little Wonder and Parekaretu ; the 
 Australians, Mayflower, Achievement, Chester, Bob, and 
 Jeannette ; the Arabs, Caliph, Little Hercules, Blitz (Fig. 
 370), and Sweet William ; the Barb, Kangaroo ; the Indian 
 country-breds. Ruby, Bonnie Doo, and Daphne; and the 
 South African, Coachman. Skittles, who belonged to Captain 
 Mowbray of the Black Watch, and who was a very good four- 
 teen hand pony, showed, I think, the maximum of comparative 
 height behind. Her excess of height at the croup (about 2 
 inches) was compensated for by the possession of remarkably 
 long and sloping shoulders. The large majority of racing 
 
 K 2 
 
i%2 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 ponies I have known which were much lower at the withers 
 than at the croup, stood work badly owing to their fore legs 
 being unusually liable to become infirm. I think we may 
 accept the statement that instability of equilibrium (p. 54), 
 which is increased according as the weight on the fore legs 
 exceeds that on the hind ones, should be obtained, in the 
 galloper, more by the body being short and the legs and neck 
 long, than by the difference of height between the withers 
 and the croup. I cannot too strongly direct the attention of 
 my readers to the necessity of the hunter (p. 245) being 
 "light in front,*' and consequently being higher at the 
 withers than over the croup. 
 
 The lower a horse is in front, other things being equal, 
 the rougher will be his paces ; hence an animal of this 
 kind of conformation will not, as a rule, make a pleasant 
 hack. 
 
 With the harness horse in movement on level ground and 
 especially when going up an incline, the position of the burden 
 will more or less diminish the instability of equilibrium, and 
 consequently the speed : a proof of which statement is obtained 
 from the fact that, as a rule, horses will trot faster under 
 saddle than in a sulky. Also, we find that in match trotting, 
 the tendency is to get the weight of the driver as far forward 
 as possible. I believe I am correct in saying that, agreeably 
 to these principles, the American match trotter is lower at 
 the withers, as compared to his height at the croup, than the 
 race-horse. 
 
 The heavy cart-horse, viewed from a purely draught 
 point of view, ought to be higher in front than behind 
 (p. 61), 
 
 Points in Common. — We may advance a step further 
 in our search after the true principles of horse conformation ; 
 for if we compare the proportions of the body of the racer 
 with those of the heavy draught animal,^ we shall find that 
 they are essentially the same, and that the Ccily real difference 
 which exists between these two classes is \n the length of 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fic;. 233. — Foal. 
 
 C. Tadman, Stansted. To face p. 132. 
 
 Fig. 234. -Sir Walter Gilbey's Shire Horse, Norman Conqueror, 
 
 AND Shetland Pony, Good Friday. 
 
POINTS IN COMMON 133 
 
 their legs. Were those of Ormonde, as he is in the Frontis- 
 piece, cut down nine or ten inches and proportionately 
 thickened, and were he swelled out by ''bulky'' food, he 
 would pass fairly well as a cart-horse ! The statement which 
 I have just made concerning the comparative proportions of 
 the two extreme types of horses, may not appear so out- 
 rageous as it might do at first glance, if we consider that the 
 difference of work between them is one of limbs and not of 
 body. The galloper needs the highest possible development 
 of speed with a sufficiency of strength ; the cart-horse, a 
 maximum of strength with a very moderate amount of speed ; 
 both the strength and speed being derived from the muscles 
 of the limbs. The two classes, however, are in their work 
 equally dependent on the organs (those of breathing, circula- 
 tion, digestion, secretion, etc.) which are contained in the body. 
 The lungs of the draught animal, when facing a stiff hill with 
 a heavy load behind him, have to be in as good order as 
 those of a racer who is finishing in front of the Grand Stand 
 at Epsom or Newmarket His stomach, bowels, liver, 
 spleen, kidneys, etc., will also require to be as healthy as 
 those of the other. Hence we need not expect to find, nor 
 shall we meet with, any material difference in the proportions 
 of the respective bodies of these two animals. If we take 
 from the table given on page 127, the depths (from withers to 
 brisket) of the four representative horses, and divide them 
 respectively into the lengths of these animals, we shall find 
 the ratio for Ormonde, St Simon and Cheadle Jumbo to be 
 I to 2.1, and for Chance, i to 2.2 ; while the ratio of their 
 depths at the lowest point of their backs to their lengths will 
 be in all four cases, i to 2^ (nearly). This is sufficient to 
 prove the close identity of proportions between the depth and 
 length of body both in racers and heavy cart-horses, and a 
 fortiori with those of the intermediate classes, such as hunters, 
 troopers, and light harness horses. 
 
 It may be objected to the foregoing remarks that, in the 
 heavy draught animal, the shoulders are thicker, and the 
 breast broader in proportion to the length of the body, than 
 
134 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES, 
 
 in the case of the galloper. To this I may reply that the 
 difference is due, not to the shape of the body, but to the 
 size of the muscles which attach the limbs to the body, and 
 which consequently partake of the massive character of the 
 legs. We must also remember that the pelvis is a portion of 
 the hind limb (p. 26). 
 
 Limit of Height. — In all species of animals there appears 
 to be a limit of height which the respective members cannot, 
 as a rule, exceed, and at the same time retain strength, activity 
 and symmetry of form. We see this law well exemplified 
 in dogs, which can rarely vSurpass, say, thirty-four inches in 
 height, without becoming weak in the loins and clumsy in their 
 movements. For cart-horses, I shall put this limit at, say, 
 seventeen hands two inches ; and for race-horses at, say, six- 
 teen hands three inches. Besides this maximum, there is a 
 certain height which it is no benefit for a horse, from a useful 
 point of view, to exceed. Although, to employ an old saying, 
 ''a good big one will beat a good little one;" it is no 
 advantage for a racer, chaser, hunter, hack or light trapper 
 to be more than fifteen hands three inches, or a heavy cart- 
 horse to be higher than sixteen hands three inches. It is 
 an interesting fact that this standard of useful height varies 
 considerably in different breeds. I would put it approxi- 
 mately as follows r^English, North American, Australian, 
 and New Zealand thorough-bred and half-bred horses, fifteen 
 hands three inches ; ordinary South African horses, fifteen 
 hands; Arabs, fourteen hands two inches; East Indians 
 (country bred, without admixture of English blood) and 
 Basuto ponies, fourteen hands; Mongolian, Yarkundi, Spiti 
 and Bhootiah ponies, thirteen hands two inches ; Baluchi, 
 Herati and Cabuli horses, fourteen hands two inches ; Burma 
 and Deli ponies, thirteen hands; Manipuri ponies, twelve 
 hands. On Indian race-courses it has been proved, times out 
 of number, that an Arab of fourteen hands two inches is as 
 good as any other son of the desert, no matter how much he 
 may exceed that height. In fact, there have not been many 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 235. — Colonel Simpson's English Racing Pony, Mike. 
 
 R. Hotz, Simla. To face p. 134. 
 
 Fig. 236. — H.H. The Maharaja of Kooch Behar's Racing Pony, Predominant, 
 
 BY Balfe, out of Dominante. 
 
LIMIT OF HEIGHT. 135 
 
 Arabs which have gone to India that were better than the 
 gallant little Chieftain, who was only fourteen hands high, 
 and who was the best of his time. The records of the 
 Shanghai and Hongkong races prove that a good Mon- 
 golian of thirteen hands two inches (like Teen Kwang, see 
 Fig. 350, who was the Eclipse of the Celestial Empire) can 
 hold his own with any of his class, even at level weights. 
 In China an allowance of only three pounds for an inch in 
 height is given, and yet the best ones are found at about 
 thirteen hands two inches. In India, on the contrary, an 
 allowance of twelve pounds an inch is given ; but, with very 
 rare exceptions, a thirteen hands one inch or a thirteen hands 
 two inch English, Australian, Arab or '* country-bred " has 
 no chance with a fourteen-hander of its own class. These 
 striking differences in the standard of useful heights are no 
 doubt chiefly due to the effects of climate ; for if foreign 
 blood be introduced into any country, it will, in a very few 
 generations, assume the characteristics of the local type of 
 horse or pony. 
 
 Careful selection in breeding, good feeding, and healthy 
 conditions of life have a great influence in tending to increase 
 the size, not only of individuals, but also of breeds, in which 
 case the standard of useful height will naturally become 
 raised. Thus the average English horse is, at the present 
 day, probably six inches taller than he was 200 years ago. 
 From my own observation, I am inclined to think that horses 
 in England have increased about an inch in height during 
 the last thirty years. We should remember that when we 
 refer to certain breeds of ponies, we allude to horses that 
 have for generations been kept small by privation, inclemency 
 of climate, or other influences which have retarded their 
 growth. Were they placed under conditions favourable to 
 their development, their descendants would soon become full- 
 sized horses, even in the case of ten-hand Shetland (Fig. 234) 
 or Corean ponies. Selection, as in the case of toy-terriers, 
 would of itself, if carried out strictly, enable xis to maintain 
 a breed of dwarf horses ; but when with small size we also 
 
136 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES. 
 
 require physical excellence, this application of selection would 
 certainly prove too costly for practical requirements. Hence, 
 in temperate climates like those of England and Australasia, 
 horse-breeders are unable to maintain a race of ponies which 
 are well fed and well cared for. Extraordinarily good 
 polo ponies, like Dynamite (Fig. 237), and racing ponies, like 
 Predominant, are more or less flukes in breeding. At the 
 same time, we must not ignore the following three facts in 
 this connection :— (i) That the respective offspring of certain 
 sires and certain mares are abnormally small , (2) first foals 
 are often smaller than subsequent ones ; and (3) the produce 
 of very old sires are frequently lacking in height 
 
 Thickness of Limb. — Continuing the argument begun 
 in Chapter I., we find that the muscles of the limbs of 
 gallopers are comparatively long and slender. Hence, the 
 bones, being dependent on the muscles for their shape, must 
 partake of the same character. It is advantageous for 
 another reason that they should be slight ; for, were the 
 bones of the legs of the galloper massive, the friction in the 
 working of their joints would be proportionately increased, 
 with consequent loss of speed, which would be of little 
 importance n the heavy draught animal, in which the 
 opposite kmd ot conformation should be sought for. 
 
 Length of Neck. — As the muscles which draw the 
 fore leg forward (namely, those of the neck) are muscles of 
 locomotion, they should be proportionate in length to those 
 of the fore limb. Hence, if a horse has long fore legs, like 
 the race-horse, he ought to have a long neck ; and vice versa. 
 
 Length of Head, — As the head is a part of the spinal 
 column (p. 24), its length, as a rule, will be proportionate 
 to that of the spinal column ; but will bear no fixed ratio 
 to the length of the limbs,^ which varies according to the kind 
 of work to which the particular horse is best suited. Thus, 
 we find that although the length of the head has the same 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 2.37.— Mr. J. E. Peat's English Polo Pony, Dynamite. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 To face p. 136. 
 
 Fig. 238.— Mr. W. H. Walker's Montana Polo Pony, Montana Bill. 
 
LENGTH OF THE BONES OF THE LIMBS, 
 
 137 
 
 proportion (about i to 2\) to the length of the body in both 
 the racer and cart-horse, the comparison does not hold good 
 with regard to the height, which is naturally influenced by the 
 length of the fore legs. 
 
 Width between the Fore Legs shows strength of 
 the pectoral muscles (p. 31) which draw the fore limbs back, 
 and consequent weight on the fore hand. Hence the galloper 
 and jumper must be comparatively narrow in front ; and the 
 cart-horse, broad. 
 
 YiQ, 239. — Fore Foot drawn up so as to touch 
 
 THE Elbow. 
 
 Comparative Weight of Body.— The body of all 
 saddle horses should be as light as is compatible with the due 
 performance of their work ; for any extra weight will be 
 carried at the expense of the soundness of their legs. It is 
 different with the harness horse, which has, comparatively, no 
 weight on his back. The heavy cart-horse requires a deep, 
 massive body for the attachment of his powerful muscles, and, 
 also, to give him the necessary weight to throw into the collar. 
 This subject has been discussed in Chapter IX. (p. 60). 
 
 Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs — 
 
 If we ''pick up" in succession the fore feet of a number of 
 
138 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES, 
 
 differently shaped horses, and bend the limbs at the knees 
 as far as they will *' go/' we shall find that in almost all 
 cases, the heel will touch the elbow (Fig. 239) at about the 
 same place. As the proportion between the length of the 
 fore arm and cannon-bone evidently varies in different horses, 
 a comparatively long or short fore arm must be accompanied 
 by a similar condition of the bones below the fetlock. Lecoq 
 remarks : '' The length of the fore arm varies inversely as 
 that of the cannon-bone." I think I may venture to extend 
 this principle somewhat further, in stating the following 
 inverse proportions :— Shoulder-blade, long ; humerus (from 
 point of shoulder to elbow joint), short ; fore arm, long ; 
 cannon-bone, short ; pastern, long. In other words, a long 
 shoulder-blade is accompanied by a long fore arm and long 
 pastern, and by a short humerus and a short cannon-bone. 
 The converse of this holds equally good. Taking the 
 shoulder-blade as the base to start from, we may infer that 
 the difference between these alternate proportions should be 
 best marked in animals, like the hunter or steeplechaser, 
 which specially require to have this bone of considerable 
 length (p. 184). It may be objected that the greyhound 
 (Fig. 8), which is possessed of extraordinary speed and 
 marvellous jumping power, has, comparatively speaking, a 
 short shoulder-blade and long humerus. Although the length 
 of the latter, which is detached from the body, gives him 
 great forward ** reach ; " the shortness of the former makes 
 him too bad a weight-carrier (p. 180) for him to be accepted 
 as a model for our purpose. I think we may assume that a 
 similar series of inverse proportions should exist in the hind 
 limb. Thus : pelvis, long ; thigh, short ; tibia (from stifle to 
 hock), long ; cannon-bone, short ; pastern, long. As the 
 muscles which give length to the tibia are far more concerned 
 in the extension of the hind limb of the jumper and galloper 
 than in the cart-horse; we should look for greater length 
 from stifle to hock, in the first two, than in the last-named. I 
 would also expect in them a shorter thigh and a shorter 
 cannon-bone. I may mention that I am confirmed in this 
 
SEXUAL DIFFEREl^CES. 139 
 
 opinion by the practical^ experience of Mr. Tom Jennings, 
 junr., the well-known trainer, who once remarked to me that 
 he always regarded as a good point in a race-horse, the fact 
 of its stifle being set high up in its flank — i.e., its having a 
 short thigh bone, and consequently being long from its stifle 
 to its hock. 
 
 In the remainder of the body we might, possibly, also 
 find a series of inverse proportions as follows : — Head, short ; 
 neck, long ; back and loins, short ; croup, long ; bones of the 
 tail, short. 
 
 Although I am well aware that the proportions of the 
 skeleton do not rigidly follow any strict mathematical rule ; 
 still I am strongly of opinion, from close study of the horse, 
 that in the large majority of cases the foregoing deductions 
 will be found to be correct. 
 
 Differences of Conformation between the Two 
 Sexes, — As a rule, the mare, as compared to the horse, has 
 a lighter neck, a broader pelvis, is higher behind and slacker 
 in the loins, than he is. 
 
140 HEAD AND NECK 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Size of Head — Leanness of Head— Profile of Face — Fiont View of Face — 
 Size of Bram— Top of the Head — Eais — Eyes — Hollo\\s above the Eyes 
 — Nostrils— Lips—Lower Jaw — Setting- on of the Head — Neck — Tin oat. 
 
 Size of Head. — We have seen on page 136 that as the 
 head is a portion of the spinal column, it should correspond 
 in size to the bones of the back, loins, croup, and ribs, and 
 not to those of the limbs. Agreeably to the axiom that ''the 
 function makes the organ," we find, in the majority of cases, 
 that a horse's breathing capacity is proportionate to the size 
 of his air passages, of which the cavities that lead from the 
 nostrils towards the windpipe and lungs cannot be large, 
 unless the bones which form them are of fair size. We must 
 remember that a horse breathes, normally, through his nostrils 
 and not through his mouth. Besides, as the tube [larynx) 
 through which air enters the lungs from the nasal cavities, 
 lies between the two branches of the lower jaw ; it follows, 
 speaking generally, that the broader and more open the 
 nostrils are, the greater will be the calibre of this tube, and 
 the more perfect the breathing power. Although it is 
 impossible to draw any hard and fast rule on this subject, 
 we may infer that a comparatively small head is not a desir- 
 able " point " in horses whose success depends on their power 
 of breathing. I venture to think that men of experience will 
 agree with me in saying that unusually neat and trim heads 
 are far more common among '* the five furlong division/' than 
 among genuine stayers. Again, the head should be of 
 sufficient size to afford a broad surface for the attachment of 
 the muscles of mastication, for those that extend, flex, rotate 
 
SIZE OF HEAD. 141 
 
 and move the head from one side to the other, and for muscles 
 which draw the limb forward, and which are, consequently, 
 important agents of movement. The connection between the 
 size of the head and the amount of intelligence possessed by 
 an animal is, as with ourselves, too ill-defined to admit of any 
 practical deductions being made from it As the usefulness 
 of a horse is generally limited by the amount of work his 
 legs will stand, the possession of a large head by an animal 
 which is " light of bone" in his extremities, is a serious defect ; 
 for it not alone shows that his frame is wanting in symmetry, 
 but it also tends to indicate that the bones of his body, and, 
 probably, the muscles and other tissues, are too heavy for his 
 legs. If, however, he showed great substance and good 
 quality of bone, tendon and ligament, we might very well 
 '' put up " with some *' plainness " about his head. Any useless 
 weight of that part, acting at the end of the lever formed by 
 the neck, will naturally be objectionable. Agreeably to the 
 facts mentioned on page 136, we may judge the length of the 
 head by that of the body, the usual proportion being about 
 I to 2^. Probably, a more practical rule is to compare the 
 length of the head with the depth of the body at the lowest 
 point of the back. In a well-shaped horse which is not in 
 gross condition, these two measurements are very nearly 
 equal ; although the head, from its isolated position, looks 
 much less long, at first glance, than the body is deep. 
 Besides this, the fact of the body being round, while the side 
 of the horse's head, as seen in profile, is flat, will cause the 
 depth of the former to appear to measure more than the 
 length of the latter. We may prove the approximate cor- 
 rectness of the ratio of i to 2^, by reference to the table given 
 on p. 127. From it we see that in Ormonde the proportion 
 is I to 2.5 ; in St. Simon, i to 2.48 ; in Cheadle Jumbo, i to 
 2.6, and in Chance i to 2.7. Here, possibly to our surprise, 
 we perceive that the cart-horses have comparatively smaller 
 heads than the racers — a difference which, no doubt, is due 
 to their grosser "condition"; as the fat on their chests 
 and quarters must add slightly to their length of body. 
 
142 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Bourgelat, followed by all, or nearly all, the French writers 
 on equine conformation, adopted the length of a horse's head 
 as a measure of its height, in the proportion of i to 2-|. This 
 eminent Frenchman based his calculations on a type of horse 
 (such as the ordinary saddle nag) which was about as high at 
 the withers as it was long in the body, and did not take into 
 consideration the great differences between the respective 
 heights and lengths of animals of various classes, ranging 
 from the racer to the Shire horse. From my own observa- 
 tions, I would put the length of a horse at from 2-|- to 2^- 
 times the length of his head. 
 
 The fact that the size of the head of the horse is propor- 
 tionate to his length of body, and not to his height at the 
 withers, accounts for the cart-horse appearing to have a 
 comparatively larger head than the thoroughbred. 
 
 Leanness of Head.— In the lighter classes of horses, 
 the head should present a general appearance of '* leanness," 
 that is to say, the skin which covers it should be fine ; its 
 bony prominences sharply marked ; and the muscles, blood- 
 vessels, and nerves which are immediately under the skin, 
 clearly defined. 
 
 The absence, thus indicated, of an excess of loose under- 
 lying tissue will suggest the possession of strength of muscle 
 and bone (p. 12). When the head is large and '' fleshy," 
 we may generally assume that the animal is **soft" and 
 wanting in '* blood." The presence on the head of well- 
 developed muscles, of which those of mastication are the 
 most powerful, will naturally suggest to the observer that the 
 horse has a good constitution. As pointed out by Goubaux 
 and Barrier, we must not mistake for *' leanness'* an 
 emaciated or wasted appearance of the muscles, due to old 
 age or debility. 
 
 The Bombay Arab dealers (such as that fine judge, Ali 
 bin Abdullah, and that prince of Bedouins, the late Shaikh 
 Esa bin Curtas) regard thinness of the lower jaw at its 
 angles as a sure sign of pure desert blood. 
 
PROFILE OF FACE. 143 
 
 Profile of Face. — The line of the forehead and nose, 
 when viewed in profile, will, as a rule, be straight, concave or 
 convex. The first two forms of contour are more or less 
 characteristic of the thoroughbred and Arab (Figs. 323 and 
 244) ; although it is only correct to say that many horses of 
 aristocratic English blood have Roman noses, especially those 
 bred in the Colonies. I have never seen a high caste Arab 
 have such a conformation. The true concave face is obtained, 
 not by a prominent forehead, as in Fig. 245 ; but by a dip in the 
 nose between the eyes and nostrils (Fig. 244). Ormonde's 
 face (Frontispiece) tends to concavity. For a convex profile 
 (Roman nose), see Fig. 246. This shape might be objected to 
 on account of its liability to render the air passages of the 
 head curved, instead of straight, in which case there might be 
 some light interference with the ready ingress and egress of 
 respired air. I have, however, never met with a case in 
 which a Roman nose was the cause of impaired breathing 
 power ; although I have known a horse become a roarer 
 from alteration in the shape of the nasal cavities from a 
 disease of the bones called osteo porosis, or **bief head," 
 I may mention that many heavy 4t-horses have^ Roman 
 noses. 
 
 Colonel John Anderson, late Inspecting Veterinary 
 Surgeon, Bombay Army (than whom no better judge of 
 a horse exists), remarked to me many years ago, that a 
 prominent forehead (Fig. 245), or a rise between the eyes, is 
 an indication of a bad, or at least of a wayward, temper in a 
 horse. I have no theory to advance in support of this idea, 
 the truth of which, however, I have seen verified in many 
 instances. The original of Fig. 245 was a rascal of the deepest 
 dye. Tristan (Fig. 240) had this fatal bump between his 
 eyes, and he was a " thief," as well as a bit of a *' savage.'' 
 His name will recall to many old race-goers the memorable 
 struggle for the Cambridgeshire of 1881, when, ridden by 
 poor George Fordham, he finished third to Foxhall and Lucy 
 Glitters. It is but just to the chestnut son of Hermit and 
 Thrift to say that his trainer, Mr, Tom Jennings, junr., tells 
 
144 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 
 
 me that Tristan's temper had been spoiled by bad usage 
 when he was a yearhng 
 
 Front View of Face. — Good width of forehead between 
 the eyes (Fig 248) indicates, as a rule, free breathing power 
 and strong muscles of mastication, for the bones of that 
 part [frontal boms) form a portion of the roof of the cavities 
 through which air enters on its way to the lungs, and gives 
 
 Fig 240 —Mr LEFLVRii'b Tivisi'VN. 
 {Drawn fro?ji aphotogr aph ) 
 
 attachment to a powerful muscle which aids in closing the 
 jaws, and which is fixed in the large depression that is just 
 above the eye. Good width between the eyes is generally 
 regarded as a sign of intelligence and of a generous dis- 
 position ; and it may indicate large capacity of brain, by 
 reason of the frontal bone forming a portion of the covering 
 of that organ. I shall refer, under the next heading, to the 
 subject of the desirability, or otherwise, of a large brain in 
 the horse. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 241.— Hkad of High Caste Arab. 
 
 Fig. 242.— Head of High Caste Arab. 
 
 7o face p. 144. 
 
FRONT VIEW OF FACE. ias 
 
 As seen from the front, the bones at each side of the head, 
 from the outside corner of the eyes to the hollow above the 
 eyes, should run nearly parallel to the long axis of the head, 
 and should then narrow inwards. This desirable shape is 
 well shown in Fig. 251. If the reader will compare this 
 photograph with Fig. 252 he will see my meaning ; for in the 
 latter, the line from the outside corner of the eye to the base 
 of the ear is nearly straight. This peculiarity and a certain 
 fulness of nose (which is very different to the fine modelling 
 of the nose in Fig. 251) gives a coffin shape (Fig. 243) to the 
 
 Fig. 243.~Coffin Shape of He-\d. 
 
 head in Fig. 252. I may mention that this head is slightly 
 foreshortened, and consequently does not appear as narrow 
 as it ought to be. I need hardly say that I am aware that 
 the stable term, *' coffin-shaped," as applied to a horse's 
 head, has reference to its appearance in profile, and not to 
 its front view. 
 
 Experience tells us that the forehead should be prominent 
 immediately below the brow-band, and should be marked on 
 each side by a well-developed lump of muscle which is shown 
 fairly well in Fig. 251. This formation, I am inclined to 
 think, is usually accompanied by the possession of pluck and 
 "■ cleverness " ; but can give no reason for this opinion. Its 
 good or poor development is, I regret to say, as difficult to 
 
 L 
 
146 HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 clearly explain in words as it is to show in a photograph ; 
 although its recognition in actual practice is an easy matter. 
 
 It is regarded as a beauty for the eyes to be set high up 
 in the head. As far as I can see, their position varies but 
 little in the horse. In the mountain zebra (Fig. 257) they are 
 set rather low down. 
 
 The bones on the sides of the nose are prominent in 
 youth, but gradually ''fall in" with age, on account of the 
 fangs of the back teeth, which are lodged in them, descending 
 lower and lower as the animal grows older. 
 
 This change in the form of the nose will serve to indicate, 
 to somfe extent, the age of the horse. 
 
 Size of Brain. — Without entering into any physiological 
 argument we may assume that, as a rule, size of brain is an 
 indication of brain power. According to the classic idea 
 entertained by writers on equine conformation, a large 
 development of brain is a desirable ''point" in the horse. 
 Thus we read in Achat du Cheval^ by Gayot, that: '*The 
 more voluminous is the brain, the larger is the spinal cord, 
 proportionate to the size of which are the nerves that issue 
 from it. It is thus that a large forehead, denoting a high 
 degree of intelligence, is the index of a good nervous system 
 — that is to say, of high mental and physical qualities." As 
 regards this, I would suggest a doubt respecting the connec- 
 tion claimed between " high mental and physical qualities." 
 It did not exist among the ancient gladiators, nor does it 
 in the case of our modern prize-fighters and pedestrians. 
 Although the bull-dog is stronger and the greyhound faster 
 for their size than the poodle and collie, they are certainly 
 not more intelligent. A long and intimate acquaintance with 
 horses — especially that acquired during my professional horse- 
 breaking tours — convinces me that a comparatively high 
 degree of mental {le, reasoning) power is not desirable in a 
 horse ; because it is apt to make him impatient of control by 
 man. A jibber in harness, or a refuser in the hunting-field, 
 when the vice has not been induced by pain or infirmity, such 
 
M. H. H, 
 
 Fig. 244.— Head of English Thoroughbred. 
 
 To face p. 146. 
 
SIZE OF BRAIN, 147 
 
 as galled shoulders or weak hocks, usually ''baulks" because 
 *' he knows too much," or at least he knows more than the 
 animal that will pull at the traces or follow the hounds till he 
 drops. So far from a horse taking delight, as he is supposed 
 by novelists to do, in obeying the wishes of man, he very 
 seldom yields to his would-be master without a struggle. If 
 this takes place in the hoped-for manner, when the horse is 
 quite young, the victory on the part of the man is generally 
 easy, and a few repetitions of it quickly confirm the habit of 
 obedience. If, however, the attempted subjugation be delayed 
 till the animal is *' aged'' — when he will be able to think for 
 himself without the promptings and influence of man — it will 
 be found that his breaking will be ten, if not a hundred, times 
 more difficult than if it had been undertaken in his early 
 youth. This theory of the undesirability of a horse knowing 
 too much, which I have applied to refractory animals, appears 
 to hold equally good in greyhounds that run ''cunning," In 
 these remarks on the intelligence^ of horses, it must be clearly 
 understood that I refer to reasoning power and not to power 
 of memory, which is independent of the capacity to draw 
 conclusions from given premisses. It is evident, without the 
 necessity of writing a treatise on the subject, that the useful 
 (to man) intelligence of the horse lies in his power of memory 
 and in the quickness with which his muscles act in response 
 to the impressions received by his senses. In other words, 
 his useful intelligence depends on the high development of 
 his instinct, and not of his reason. We demand of the horse 
 ready obedience ; but not obedience matured by reflection, 
 like what the shepherd would expect his dog to display when 
 getting his flock home on a stormy night, or when driving 
 them through a crowded thoroughfare. We do not ask him 
 to take the initiative from the deep affection which he does 
 not bestow on us, nor to reason out problems ; we only want 
 him to remember that if he does certain things, \-ve shall 
 "make much of him" ; that if he does other things, we shall 
 punish him. 
 
 We know that reflex action, prompted by stimuli from 
 
 L 2 
 
14^ HEAD AND NECK, 
 
 outside the body, acts best when it has but little connection 
 with the brain. In fact, the smaller is the comparative size 
 of the brain, the quicker and more accurately are instinctive 
 movements performed. Thus we see animals with, compara- 
 tively, a very small brain, or with none at all, get out of 
 danger, or seize their prey, with an amount of speed and 
 precision which it would be hopeless for any man to attempt 
 to rival ; simply because the action of his instinct is impeded 
 by the influence of a large brain. We find this demonstrated 
 in ourselves, in the case of movements which, like those in 
 fencing, boxing and dancing, for instance, could be executed 
 only slowly and clumsily at first, when they needed the 
 exercise of thought, become capable of being performed with 
 the speed and correctness of a machine, as soon as practice 
 had made them almost automatic. 
 
 The prominent forehead (Figs. 245 and 250), to which I 
 have alluded on p. 143, indicates a large size of the in- 
 tellectual portion {cerebrum, p. 35) of the brain, which at 
 that part of the forehead is covered by only a thin plate 
 of bone. Without wishing to import any of the jargon of 
 phrenology into a discussion on this subject, I may hazard 
 the suggestion that the portion of the brain which is con- 
 secrated to the functions of memory and perceptive power^ 
 as well as the cerebellum (the organ of '' muscular sense," 
 p. 35), lies underneath the upper part of the forehead, where 
 prominence and convexity of the part is a marked beauty, 
 as I have mentioned on p. 145. 
 
 For the foregoing reasons, I do not look upon the posses- 
 sion of a large brain as a desirable '' point " in a horse. 
 Hence, apart from the practical experience I have had, I 
 do not like, as I have just said, a bulging-out condition of 
 the lower part of the forehead, nor a long distance between 
 the eyes and the top of the head (p. 146), both of which 
 peculiarities of conformation point to large brain capacity. 
 
 Top of the Head. — The bone (the occipital crest) at 
 the top of the head should be prominent and well developed, 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 245. — Prominent Forehead. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 246. — Roman Nose. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 148. 
 
 Fig. 247.— Roman Nose, Ewe Neck, and Upright Shoulders. 
 
EARS, 149 
 
 as it affords attachment for the powerful suspensory ligament 
 of the head and neck (p. 28), and for several important 
 muscles. Large development of the occipital crest (Fig. 254) 
 is considered by some authorities to indicate corresponding 
 size of the cerebellum. 
 
 Ears. — Personally, I cannot say much as regards the 
 indications afforded by the ears. In common, probably, 
 with most observers, I have remarked that animals which 
 move their ears in a quick decisive manner, evidently with 
 the same intent as they use their eyes to see what kind of 
 ground they are going over, are, generally, of the "clever" 
 sort which do not know how ''to put a foot wrong." Their 
 method of employing their ears is quite different to the 
 restless, -listening" (if I may use the word) style adopted 
 by horses that have defective sight. The former have their 
 attention chiefly directed to the ground in front of them ; 
 the latter distribute it on all sides. It looks well for the 
 skin and hair which covers the ears to be fine, and the 
 ears themselves thin and lean. Whether in horse or man, 
 I dislike to see ears set up high on the head, and think 
 that the part of the skull which is between them should be 
 moderately broad, as in Fig. 248. At the same time, I must 
 say that I have seen many clever horses, especially among 
 those bred in India, that had their ears close together and 
 set up high on the head, as in Fig. 253. This photograph 
 gives us an idea of the peculiar manner in which the 
 points of the ears of some Indian breeds (Kathiawars and 
 Wuzeerees, for instance) are directed inwards when the ears 
 are pricked forward. To show what diverse opinions exist 
 as to the ears of the horse, I give from different works on 
 conformation the two following extracts, which are far from 
 being in accord with each other. The reader, however, can 
 decide from his own practical experience as to their respective 
 correctness. *' There can be no greater ornament than long, 
 fine, active-looking, upright, tolerably close-set ears, with 
 the points a little inclined towards each other. I never saw 
 
ISO HEAD AND NECK 
 
 a soft constitutloned horse with ears of this description " 
 {Carson), Goubaux and Barrier state : '* It is a fact worthy 
 of notice that horses which have short ears are always 
 energetic and plucky. There seems to be a certain 
 relation between their length and the timidity of their 
 bearers. At least, this is the conclusion we may draw from 
 a comparison made among different kinds of animals, of 
 which the most timid and inoffensive have them greatly 
 developed. Carnivorous animals, on the contrary, have them 
 small. Short ears render the head lighter, and the expres- 
 sion of the face brighter, more expressive and more pleasing 
 to the eye. In this respect the Arab horse^ greatly excels 
 English and continental animals. It is considered a beauty 
 for a horse to have his ears well directed to the front 
 at an angle of about 45° with the axis of the head. Quick 
 and energetic animals carry their ears in this manner. To 
 sum up, the ear is beautiful when it is short, directed to 
 the front, well placed, lean, fine, and covered with thin skin, 
 which should be adherent, and comparatively free from hair 
 in the interior of the ear.'' With respect to the ears being 
 *' well directed to the front at an angle of about 45*^ with 
 the axis of the head,'' I may remark that such a carriage of 
 the ears, being produced by voluntary muscular effort, can 
 be sustained only for a comparatively brief space of time. 
 Almost all horses which are not prevented therefrom by 
 disease, malformation or accident, have the ability to direct 
 their ears forward in the manner mentioned ; but do so only 
 when their attention is attracted to something in front of 
 them. The same may be said of donkeys, mules and zebras 
 (Figs. 257 and 258). It is true that some horses "• prick their 
 ears " more frequently than others ; but, for all that, such 
 carriage of the ears can be regarded as but a temporary 
 lighting-up of the face, and not as a permanent beauty. I may 
 add that if a horse habitually carries his ears more or less 
 directed behind him, we might suspect him to be wanting 
 in courage and good temper. This is by no means an 
 invariable rule, for I have met some notable exceptions. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 248. — Broad Forehead. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 249.— Stripe and Snip. 
 
 ^'fi-I^- To face p.. so. 
 
 Fig. 250. -Prominent T'orehead. 
 
EYES, 151 
 
 Richard remarks that deaf horses carry their ears steadily 
 pointed in the direction the horse is looking, without side 
 '*play." Such animals are generally docile and attentive 
 to the indications received from the rein and leg. 
 
 A horse is said to have lop-ears (Fig. 256) when they are 
 usually carried m a loose and somewhat pendulous manner, 
 and they therefore lack the frequent forward, backward and 
 lateral play of those of the ordinary horse. Although 
 increased size naturally directs attention to this peculiarity; 
 lop ears are not necessarily large ears. A lop-eared horse 
 is quite as capable of pricking his ears forward as any 
 other horse; but having done so, he generally allows them 
 to fall back into their accustomed pendulous position. Lop- 
 eared horses are generally supposed to be more placid in 
 disposition, if not more sluggish, than their fellows. 
 
 Eyes. — The eye should be clear and free from tears, 
 the pupil black, and "the eyelids thin and comparatively 
 free from wrinkles. A small eye (Fig. 247) in the horse is 
 called a ''pig-eye," and is generally considered to denote 
 a disposition that is either sulky or wanting in courage. 
 In this photograph, the straight shoulder, ewe neck, Roman 
 nose and pig-eye point to the plebeian origin of the animal 
 whose portrait it is. The prominent -buck-eye" is gene- 
 rally regarded as an unfailing sign of short sight, which is, 
 however, a very rare defect in horses. Horses which show 
 a good deal of white in their eyes, as the term is, are 
 usually suspected of being vicious ; for kickers, as a rule, 
 uncover a portion of the white of the eye (on the side to 
 which the head is turned) when they look back ready to 
 *'let fly." This suspicion is naturally heightened if, at the 
 same time that the danger signal in the eye is displayed, 
 the ears are pressed back close on the neck, the front 
 teeth are exposed by the drawing back of the lips, and a 
 hind foot is kept raised off the ground. I have, however, 
 known horses of most placid temper whose eyes showed a 
 great deal of white all round the iris (the coloured portion 
 
152 HEAD AND NECK 
 
 of the eye), on account of the iris being abnormally small 
 I may mention that, under ordinary conditions, the human 
 eye always shows a good deal of white, but that the horse's 
 eye, as a rule, does not do so, except when its glance is 
 directed to the rear or inwards. Some game, honest horses 
 (like St. Gatien, for instance) show, without looking in a 
 backward direction, a certain amount of white of the eye, 
 which, when it is of a constant reddish tinge, is thought by 
 some to mark hardiness of constitution and staying power. 
 
 Hollows above the Eyes. — The existence of deep 
 hollows above the eyes is objectionable, for it denotes that 
 the animal is old and more or less worn out, or that either 
 its sire or dam was well advanced in years when it was 
 bred, and, consequently, that it is somewhat wanting in 
 vigour. 
 
 Nostrils. — The nostrils should be thin, flexible and of 
 large capacity, so as to suggest the possession of large air 
 passages. During rest they should be more or less closed 
 If they are kept constantly dilated when the breathing ought 
 to be tranquil, we may infer that the animal has something 
 wrong with his *'wind." 
 
 Lips. — The lips should be lean and comparatively thin ; 
 should possess considerable power of movement ; and, as a 
 rule, should be kept closed, for the sake of appearance. 
 We may generally consider that a pendant condition of the 
 lower lip indicates want of vigour; for it is much more 
 frequently observed among old horses than among young ones. 
 Richard considers that it is often inherited. *^We have," 
 says he, '' ridden horses full of energy, which had a pendant 
 lower lip. Delphine, formerly a brood mare at the stud at 
 Pin, daughter of Massoud and of a Selim mare, dam of 
 Eylau, had a drooping lower lip, and all her foals took after 
 her in this respect. She, however, possessed energy and 
 blood which have left their mark." Some horses have great 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 251. — Head of Well-bred Horse. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 252.— Head of Underbred Horse. 
 
 M, H. H. 
 
 Fig. 253.— Turned-in Ears. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 152. 
 
 Fig. 254. — High Occipital Crest. 
 
SETTING-ON OF THE HEAD, 
 
 3J 
 
 length of upper lip, which undoubtedly looks ugly. Both this 
 conformation and the possession of a thick tuft of hair or 
 moustache on the upper lip, are indicative of coarse blood. 
 
 Lower Jaw. — The branches of the lower jaw should be 
 broad, as viewed from the side, and should be wide apart at 
 their angles, so as to give plenty of room for the tube (the 
 larynx) which lies between them, and which opens into the 
 wind-pipe. The space between the jaws should not alone be 
 broad, but should also be hollowed out, a condition which 
 will show that the parts are of firm texture and free from 
 excess of loose connective tissue (p. 12). The old practical 
 rule of finding whether a horse is wide enough between the 
 jaws, is to try if the clenched fist can be placed within the 
 hollow. I venture to think that few horses could successfully 
 pass this test, if it were applied with an ordinary sized man's 
 hand. When this space is broad and well hollowed out, the 
 horse will naturally be able to bend his head more freely than 
 when it is narrow, and he will, consequently, be pleasanter 
 to ride and drive. 
 
 Setting-on of the Head. — The part where the head is 
 set on to the neck should be lean and muscular, and should 
 show a slight depression behind the ears and lower jaw, and 
 also above the wind-pipe. This will indicate absence of an 
 excess of loose connective tissue and ability on the part of 
 the horse to bend his head freely. The beautiful manner in 
 which the neck ''runs into'' the head of some horses, is due 
 to the arrangement of the bones of the neck and to the lean 
 and well-developed condition of the muscles. The profile of 
 this junction will, then, form a curve which will be a fitting 
 commencement of the graceful, undulating line that sweeps 
 over the neck, slightly dips in front of the withers, over 
 which it curves, and rising a little along the back, swells 
 boldly over the loins and quarters, dips again at the root of 
 the dock, and, finally, ends in the flowing lines of the tail. 
 The setting-on of the head and the curves alluded to were 
 
154 HEAD AND NECK, 
 
 beautifully exemplified in St. Simon, whose photograph 
 (Fig. 9) is not nearly as good as I could have wished. These 
 points also come out well in Florizel IL (Fig, 323), Favonius 
 (Fig. 324), Predominant (Fig. 236), Blitz (Fig. 370), and 
 Romance (Fig. 270). In the Arab pony, The Brat (Fig. 
 371), the curved line is perfect from the head to the croup , 
 but, on account of the way he is standing, it descends too 
 abruptly from the top of the croup to the tail In Ormonde 
 (Frontispiece) the head is set on to the neck in a coarse, 
 stiff manner. The ideal contour which I have described, is 
 evidently an affair of beauty rather than of usefulness. 
 
 Neck, — As the length of the neck indicates the length 
 of the muscles which draw the shoulder forward (p. 31) , the 
 more we seek for speed and ability to jump cleverly in an 
 animal, the longer should be his neck; its thickness being 
 limited by the amount of strength the muscles have to put 
 forth. The race-horse, hunter, and fast trotter, therefore, 
 should have a long and comparatively thin neck, and the 
 other classes should have their necks proportionately shorter 
 and thicker according as they recede from the racing and 
 'cross country type and approach that of the heavy draught 
 animal. The operation of this rule should be restricted only 
 so far as to allow sufficient length of neck for grazing 
 purposes. Some heavy cart-horses have such short necks 
 that they cannot feed off level ground with comfort to 
 themselves. When the art of breeding is pushed to such an 
 extreme as this, I cannot help thinking that there must be 
 some defect in its practical working. It is evident that 
 the combination of a large head and a thin neck is not 
 alone unpleasing to the eye, but is almost always a sign of 
 general weakness. 
 
 The all-essential power which men possess to guide and 
 regulate the movements of a horse, largely depends on the 
 flexibility of the animal's neck. Were we unable to make 
 him bend it, and to oblige him to turn his head to one side 
 or the other in obedience to the ** feeling" of the hands on 
 
M. H. 11. 
 
 Fig. 255.— Mr. W. H. Walker's Specs. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 256. — Lop-eared thoroughbred Mare. 
 
 To face p 154, 
 
NECK. 155 
 
 the reins, he would be all but useless to us in saddle and for 
 ordinary harness work. With reference to this subject, I 
 may mention that I once undertook to saddle and get ridden 
 an old entire zebra {equus zebra^ Fig. 257), whose feet were 
 becoming gradually deformed, on account _ of its not 
 permitting them to be pared down from time to time. 
 In less than an hour after I had turned it into the ring of 
 Frank Fillis's circus, which was then in Calcutta, I had its 
 feet rasped down to a proper level, and had it saddled and 
 bridled for the first time in its life. It was then ridden by 
 Steve Margarett (a brilliant Australian rough-rider) and by 
 my wife. This was certainly the first occasion a lady ever 
 rode this variety of zebra, which has the reputation all over the 
 world of being unrideable. Although I was able to quickly 
 teach it to carry its unwonted burden quietly, I made far less 
 progress in giving it a '* mouth," during the two days I had it 
 in hand, than I would have done in half an hour with any wild 
 Colonial horse caught for the first time on a '' run ; " the 
 reason being that the zebra^s neck was so stiff and strong, 
 that I was unable to bend it in any direction. I soon taught 
 it to do what I wanted in the circus , but when I rode it out- 
 side, it took me wherever it liked. In fact, I had not the 
 slightest power to either stop or guide it Some horses, like 
 this striped ass, though not to the same extent, are very stiff 
 in the neck, a fact which may be owing to an obstinate 
 temper, bad breaking in, or to a thick and rigid condition of 
 the muscles and joints of the part. This natural want of 
 flexibility may be overcome to a great extent by judicious 
 '* bending." As it militates against the ready turning and 
 easy regulation of the paces of an animal, it should be 
 regarded as a grave defect of conformation in the saddle- 
 horse and light trapper. It may, however, be overlooked in 
 the heavy cart-horse, whose normal pace being a walk, will 
 not require to be as ** supple" (to use a riding school term) as 
 an animal that has to go at a faster pace, and whose line of 
 progression, instead of being along a more or less straight 
 road, may be across an intricate country, or in conformance 
 
156 HEAD AND NECK, 
 
 with the word of command in a riding school or on parade 
 Besides this, to have the necessary power in his fore limbs, 
 the heavy draught animal will need massive neck muscles 
 (p. 31) to draw them forward. When ^* cleverness " is 
 essential to a horse, he should have a flexible neck, and 
 should be able to bend and extend it with the utmost facility, 
 so as to use his head and neck as a balancing pole for 
 preserving the equilibrium of his body. 
 
 Some extra weight in the neck, apart from that required 
 for the due development of the neck muscles, will probably 
 be no detriment to the usefulness of a powerful cart-horse ; 
 for it will aid him in ''throwing weight into the collar." In 
 the saddle-horse, on the contrary, it would be a great dis- 
 advantage , because it would make him heavy on his fore 
 hand, and would consequently render him liable to pre- 
 maturely wear out his fore legs. In this connection, I may 
 point out that entires, who, as a rule, have much heavier 
 necks than geldings, do not, when they are employed at 
 fast paces, stand as much work, retain their " form '* as 
 long, or get into galloping condition as quickly as those 
 which have been ''added to the list." We see this rule 
 well proved in steeplechasing and racing, as witness the 
 long careers of those geldings, Liberator, Regal, Gamecock 
 (Fig. 259), Reindeer, and others. For races in the early 
 part of the season in England, geldings as a rule can be 
 got much fitter than entires ; as they require less work. As 
 maturity of horseflesh is required far more at steeplechasing 
 than at flat racing ; the superiority of the gelding over the 
 entire is particularly observable "between the flags." 
 Owners and trainers who recognise the advantage of 
 castrating those colts of theirs which do not give promise 
 of value for stud purposes, are often deterred from putting 
 the operation into practice on account of geldings being 
 ineligible for many flat events. This prohibition extends 
 on the Continent to a few steeplechases. I think I may 
 safely say that the large majority of colts which are not 
 worth keeping entire for future stud purposes, should 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 257. — Mountain Zebra. 
 
 M. H, H, 
 
 Fig. 258. — Burchell's Zebra. 
 
 To face p. 156. 
 
be cut not later than the end of their two-year-old racing 
 career. The records of hunting amply prove the benefits 
 of the operation. Mr. H. T. Barclay's Freeman, who 
 carried his master most brilliantly for fourteen trying 
 seasons over Leicestershire, is no solitary instance of 
 the ability of the gelding to stand work, especially when 
 it is of a nature, like that of jumping, to severely tax the 
 soundness of the fore legs. The necessity of the hunter to 
 be light in front, is a subject upon which I need not dwell 
 here. Many experienced trainers with whom I have dis- 
 cussed this subject, hold the same opinions as I do on the 
 practical utility of castration. I think that the majority of 
 trainers will agree with me in saying that geldings not alone 
 stand fast work better than entires ; but also recover more 
 quickly from injuries of the fore legs. The lesson to be 
 learned, from a conformation point of view, from the fore- 
 going remarks, is that the racer, chaser, and hunter should 
 be light in the head, neck and shoulders. 
 
 As regards the contour of the neck, I may state that, 
 according to its shape, it is designated high-crested (or 
 convex, Fig. 334), straight (Figs. 322 and 329), or ewe- 
 necked (concave, Fig. 247). The contour varies a good 
 deal according to the manner the animal holds his head, and 
 should be judged by the form it assumes when the horse 
 stands in an ordinary manner at attention (p. 62), with the 
 line of its face at an angle of about 45^ to the ground 
 Some horses, especially coarse bred entires, have a very 
 high and thick crest, from an excessive amount of fat 
 having been deposited above the suspensory ligament of 
 the head and neck. Such a formation, from overloading 
 the fore hand, is a marked defect in any kind of saddle- 
 horse. A slight convexity of crest in a lean though fairly 
 muscular neck, as in Fig. 371, is a beauty. 
 
 The fact of a horse being ewe-necked seems to be of no 
 detriment to his speed. It might, however, affect his 
 handiness, on account of depriving, to some extent, his rider 
 or driver, as the case may be, of command over him , and 
 
158 HEAD AND NECK, 
 
 by causing his head to be brought into a direction which 
 might prevent him seeing clearly where he was going On 
 page 67, et seq , I have discussed at some length the subject 
 of the carriage of a horse's head and neck. 
 
 In saddle-horses, the place where the neck comes out of 
 the chest should be marked, above, by a slight depression in 
 front of the withers , below, by another depression at the 
 point where the jugular groove meets the chest , and at each 
 side, it should be nearly flat with neck and shoulder. In 
 cart-horses, the large muscles of the shoulder stand out in 
 prominent relief from the neck, and the dip in front of the 
 withers is either absent or but faintly indicated. Owing to 
 the comparative lightness of the neck in mares and geldings, 
 the union of the neck with the head and trunk is better 
 marked in them, than in entires. 
 
 Throat. — The wind-pipe should be large and well 
 detached from the neck ; as it will then indicate good 
 breathing power. I have noticed that roaring often 
 accompanies a wasted appearance of the tissues which 
 cover the larynx. I am of course aware that the typical 
 form of roaring is caused by paralysis of one or both of the 
 muscles which open the larynx ; and that their size is too 
 small to account for the peculiarly emaciated condition to 
 which I have alluded. 
 
Clarence Hailey. 
 
 Fig. 259. — Mr. Swan's Gamecock. 
 
 Clarence Hailey. 
 
 Fig. 260.— Captain Powell's Midshipmite. 
 
 To face p. 158. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF THE TRUNK. 159 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 General View of the Trunk — Chest and Ribs — Abdomen — Withers — Breast — 
 Back and Loins — Points of the Hips- — Flank — Croup — ^Anus — Tail. 
 
 General View of the Trunk. — We have seen on p. 133, 
 that, as the work which the organs (heart, lungs, liver, spleen, 
 stomach, intestines, kidneys, etc.) contained in the trunk have 
 to do, is the same, whatever may be the kind of horse ; the 
 shape of the trunk will not be affected by class distinctions. 
 In this particular, the conformation which will, for instance, 
 be most suitable for a Derby winner, will be that which is 
 best for a cart-horse. In laying down this general rule, I 
 must make an exception of the withers (p. 166), which are 
 concerned in locomotion, and not in the performance of any 
 vital function. Although the shape of the horses body 
 remains constant — without, of course, taking into considera- 
 tion individual peculiarities — the bones which make up the 
 entire structure should agree as to thickness with those of 
 the legs ; for several of the muscles that are attached to 
 them, are also attached to the limbs. It has already been 
 remarked that the strength of a muscle more or less regulates 
 the thickness of the bone to which it is fixed. 
 
 In all cases, the body should be as short as possible 
 compared to its depth ; or, in other words, as deep as pos- 
 sible, compared to its length. The longer it is, the further 
 removed will the fore and hind limbs be from each other, and 
 the less able will the animal be to carry weight- On p. 53 
 we have seen that a short body is a desirable point in the 
 race-horse and jumper. In draught, also, any undue length 
 of body is a disadvantage ; for the farther the fore and hind 
 
i6o THE TRUNK. 
 
 legs are apart, the less rigid will be the connection between 
 them, and the less efficiently will they work together. When 
 speaking of the depth of a horse's body, I refer to its depth 
 at the lowest point of its back (Fig. ii). If an animal 
 shows a good measurement at this part, he is almost certain 
 to possess fair substance of body. The measurement from 
 withers to brisket is very fallacious ; for it is not alone 
 affected by the height of the withers themselves, but it also 
 affords hardly any indication of the nature of the " centre- 
 piece " of the body. Many horses which are very light in 
 their loins and back ribs have good depth from withers to 
 brisket, as in Fig. 268. In different horses, the length of the 
 body varies from about 2 . 4 to 2.8 times its depth. 
 
 Chest and Ribs. — Although the heart, as well as the 
 lungs, is contained in the chest, I shall not consider it here , 
 for I can offer no clue as to its action from the consideration 
 of the conformation of the chest, which is influenced chiefly 
 by the shape, size and setting-on of the ribs. The points 
 which we should seek for in the ribs of the horse, in order to 
 obtain the best possible breathing power, are — 
 
 I. Convexity or roundness of ribs (''barrel") behind the 
 shoulders. 
 
 2 Good length of ribs. 
 
 3 Ribs well inclined to the rear. 
 
 I may explain that the convexity of a curve may be 
 measured by the proportion which its height {c d, Fig. 261 
 or Fig. 262) bears to the length of its chord a b. Thus, if c d 
 
 Fig 261.— Semicircle Fig 262— Apc of Circle 
 
 is equal to i a 6 in Fig. 261, and equal to I a 5 in Fig. 262, 
 the curve a c 3 will be three times as convex in the former as 
 in the latter. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 263. — Gulf Arab. 
 
 M, H. H. 
 
 Fig. 264 — Cabuli Horse, 
 
 To face p. 160 
 
CHEST AND RIBS. 
 
 i6i 
 
 Among the higher animals we find that chest capacity 
 is obtained either by convexity or by length. Hence those 
 Species which have short chests have round ones, and those 
 that have long ones have them flat-sided, the capacity being 
 increased by roundness of the ribs and decreased by flatness 
 of these bones. We have already stcn that undue length 
 of body is detrimental to speed, weight-carrying power, 
 and strength in draught. Consequently, we should seek for 
 roundness of chest in order to obtain good breathing power. 
 
 Fig. 265. Fig. 266. Fig. 267, 
 
 Diagrams showing different Degrees of Expansion of Chest. 
 
 Youatt, in his book on The Horse, appears to have originated 
 a fallacy concerning the conformation of the ribs which has 
 been repeated by many English writers. He says that *'the 
 circular chest could not expand, but every change of form 
 would be a diminution of capacity." This statement seems to 
 be based on the supposition that the chest expands and con- 
 tracts by the ribs opening and closing in a direction at right 
 angles to the length of the body. Instead of this being the 
 case, the difference in capacity of the chest is due to the fact 
 of the ribs, which are inclined to the rear, turning round 
 
 M 
 
i62 THE TRUNK. 
 
 towards the front on their upper and lower ends, as on pivots, 
 when air is drawn into the lungs, and then revolving back 
 again when the air is expelled from them. I may explain that 
 the (tidal) air is expelled from the lungs by the elastic recoil 
 of the ribs, which takes place the moment the muscles which 
 drew the ribs forward become relaxed. Youatt's statement 
 is altogether incorrect; for the rounder the ribs are, other 
 things being equal, the greater will be the difference of 
 chest capacity when the lungs are full to what it would be 
 when they are comparatively empty. 
 
 We may piove the foregoing remarks as follows : Let the shaded oval in 
 Figs. 265, 266 and 267 diagrammatically lepresent the space respectively 
 •enclosed between three pairs of iibs of different degiees of convexity, but of 
 the same depth, viewed from behind, at the end of an expiration. Let a b 
 {-a b^) be, respectively, the distance of the centre of each nb from its 
 vertical axis, if a c the angle at which the ribs m all three figures are inclined 
 to the rear, and I)^ a h the angle through which they respectively turn 
 -during an inspiration. We shall then see that the difference of capacity — 
 shown by the difference of aiea between the shaded oval and the one which 
 circumscnbes it — is greatly m favour of the round barrel. If it were possible 
 to have a chest perfectly circular (as in Fig. 267) at the end of an expiration, 
 the transverse axis of the chest, when the lungs were fully inflated, would 
 exceed in length the vertical axis. 
 
 The second desirable condition — namely, good length of 
 ribs — should, as we have seen, be obtained rather by rotundity 
 than by the distance which the ends of the ribs respectively 
 are from each other. Given ribs sufficiently round, we need 
 not trouble ourselves much as to their length, except as 
 regards the farthest back ones, which should be as long and 
 directed as much outwards as possible, so as to afford a broad 
 attachment to the diaphragm (p. 38). It would be easy to 
 prove that the more inclined the ribs are to the rear, the 
 greater will be the difference in capacity of the chest when 
 empty to what it would be when full of air, and, conse- 
 quently, the better the breathing power ; but I do not think 
 that it is possible to estimate this inclination with sufficient 
 accuracy to make it a practical guide. My experience leads 
 me to conclude that all useful purposes in this respect will be 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 268. — Thoroughbred, "Weed. 
 
 M. H, H. 
 
 Fig. 269.— Captain Woolmer's Minden. 
 
 To face p. 162, 
 
CHEST AND RIBS. 163 
 
 served by satisfying ourselves whether or not the horse under 
 examination is '' well-ribbed up." If the last rib be short, flat, 
 and but little inclined to the rear, the animal will be *' slack 
 in the loins," and most certainly will not have as good 
 breathing power as he would have had if that rib had been 
 long, ''springing" well out from the side, and inclined so 
 much to the rear, that there would be space only for the ends 
 of two or three fingers between it and the point of the hip. 
 Such a desirable shape would give the utmost width of base 
 to the diaphragm, which is a very important muscle of 
 breathing. Although I mention in this connection only the 
 last rib, I take for granted that its neighbouring ribs would 
 conform, more or less, to its length, shape and inclination to 
 the rear. From the foregoing considerations, I would regard 
 roundness of barrel behind the girths ; depth of body (as 
 compared to length of body) in the centre of the back ; and 
 being well ribbed up, as the great signs in conformation, 
 of a horse having good breathing power. As "■ the middle 
 false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being 
 drawn forwards and outwards" (p. 29), they, in comparison 
 to the length of the body, should be as long, as well as 
 convex, as possible. On account of their lower ends being 
 difficult* to trace in the living animal, we may conveniently 
 judge of their approximate lengths, by the depth of the body 
 at the centre of the back, making due allowance for the 
 ''condition" of the animal. If we examine the Frontispiece 
 and Fig. 268, which show three horses in training for 
 racing, we shall notice that the back ribs of both Ormonde 
 and Cloister were of good length, thus indicating fine 
 breathing power; and that those of the '*weed" were 
 unusually short. As might have been expected, this mare, 
 though fast, was a very poor stayer. I need hardly say that 
 the shape of the body should be judged by the body itself, 
 and without reference to the length or substance of the legs. 
 The fact, as often occurs, of the body being too heavy for 
 the legs, in no way affects the proportion which its length, 
 depth and thickness bear to each other. The popular term, 
 
 M 2 
 
i64 THE TRUNK. 
 
 ** slack in the loins," which I have used, is applied to the 
 objectionable condition of the last rib being short and at a 
 considerable distance from the point of the hip. As this kind 
 of conformation usually accompanies a more or less weak 
 state of the muscles of the loins, the expression is not 
 altogether inappropriate. Some persons ignorantly think 
 that it is an advantage for a horse, as regards speed, to be a 
 bit '' slack in the loins ; " because (so they say) such a shape 
 allows the animal more freedom in bringing his hind legs 
 forward, than if he were well ribbed up. I need hardly point 
 out that the form of a horse's back ribs cannot in any way 
 affect the action of his hind legs. This absurd notion was, 
 no doubt, started by some person who supposed that the hip 
 joints were at the points of the hips' Owing to sexual 
 causes, mares, as a rule, are not so well ribbed up as horses. 
 Hence some slight slackness in the hollow of the flank is not 
 such a grave fault in them as in entires and geldings. The fact, 
 however, remains, that for all purposes of work, a horse or 
 mare cannot be too well ribbed up. 
 
 Merche remarks that : '* Among common horses, the last 
 rib is less arched and less carried back than among blood 
 horses ; and the flank consequently appears longer." 
 
 St Simon, among many other great^ race-horses, was an 
 instance of a fine stayer, who possessed singularly little depth 
 at the withers, but had great roundness of chest behind the 
 girth, and also fair depth of body at the lowest point of his 
 back. It is essential for the race-horse to obtain good 
 breathing power by roundness of ribs, so that his body may 
 have its powers of breathing fully developed without its 
 length being unduly increased. 
 
 The great advantage of depth in the front portion of the 
 chest is to allow of good length of shoulder blade, which is 
 indispensable to the weight-carrier and jumper. 
 
 Abdomen. — ^We have seen on p. 37 that the trunk is 
 divided by the diaphragm into two portions, the chest and 
 abdomen ; the former containing the lungs and heart ; the 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 270. -Mr. Vansittart's Australian Horse Romance. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 271. — Underbred Australian Horse. 
 
 To face p. 164. 
 
ABDOMEN, 165 
 
 latter, the stomach, liver, intestines, bladder and other organs. 
 The ribs form the walls of the chest The contents of the 
 belly (consisting mostly of the intestines) are kept in their 
 place chiefly by powerful ligaments, the principal one of 
 which is the abdominal tunic (p. 28), and by muscles. These 
 structures are respectively attached to the margin of the front 
 part of the pelvis, to the rear part of the breast bone, rear- 
 most edge of the ribs, and to the sides of the loin vertebrae, 
 thus bridging over the vacant space. We may, then, fairly 
 assume that the lines of the abdomen should form a con- 
 tinuation of the general contour of the chest. As the 
 straight muscle of the abdomen which covers the lower 
 portion of this cavity, is the chief muscle that bends the 
 back, the horse cannot be thoroughly *'fit'' for work, if this 
 muscle is unduly pressed down by the intestines, and is 
 consequently prevented from contracting to its full extern. 
 This straight muscle and the other muscles of the abdomen 
 aid in the process of breathing, which will be more or less 
 interfered with, if these muscles have to constantly strive 
 against undue pressure from the contents of the cavity they 
 cover. Besides, if the intestinal mass is greater than it 
 ought to be, it will hamper the action of the lungs by forcing 
 the diaphragm too far into the chest ; it will add to the 
 weig^ht to be carried ; and will militate agfainst speed by 
 t Jing to bring the centre of gravity to I. rear 'and by 
 thus mcreasmg the stability of the equilibnum (p. 41). 
 Although the subject of feeding is not within the province of 
 this book, it may not be out of place if I mention that the 
 practice of giving horses large quantities of soft food (boiled 
 turnips, for instance), which they can quickly consume, exerts, 
 among other evils, a very injurious effect on the muscles of 
 the stomach, intestines and abdomen ; for, being deprived of 
 the rest which is necessary to their repair and development, 
 by the continued pressure resulting from the presence of the 
 bulky food, these muscles soon become ill-fitted to perform 
 their work. On the other hand, we should guard against a 
 ''tucked up" condition of belly, which will indicate illness, 
 
i66 THE TRUNK. 
 
 over-work, too excitable a temperament, or improper manage- 
 ment of some kind. If we consider that these abdominal 
 muscles act by tending to become straight between their points 
 of attachment, and that when in a passive state they are longer 
 than when they contract, we shall see that, when in a con- 
 dition of rest, they should be gently rounded, and should be 
 neither drawn straight nor bulged out. In Chapter XXI I. , I 
 shall consider the special development of these muscles. 
 
 Withers. — The chief object which the withers fulfil, is to 
 afford attachment for the suspensory ligament of the head 
 and neck ; for muscles which extend the head and neck ; for 
 muscles that draw the shoulder blade forward ; for the powerful 
 muscle that runs along the top of the back and extends the 
 vertebrae ; and for a muscle which aids inspiration by bringing 
 the ribs forward. If we look at the skeleton (Fig. 12), we 
 shall readily see that the fact of the withers rising, as they 
 do, above the line of the back, greatly assists the action of the 
 elastic ligament that supports the head and neck, and of the 
 muscles which extend these parts. It also increases the 
 power of the muscle which extends the back and loins. 
 Besides, it tends to give length to the muscle which is 
 attached to the withers and which helps to draw the shoulder 
 forward, and by affording increased space for the top of the 
 shoulder blade, it favours length of this important bone. The 
 further back the withers extend, the more do they, by giving 
 a broad surface for attachment, indicate large development of 
 the muscle which extends the back and loins, and the more 
 room do they afford for the backward slope of the shoulder 
 blade. Hence, withers which are high and which extend far 
 back, are generally associated with a good carriage of the 
 head and neck ; free movement of the shoulder ; long and 
 sloping shoulder blades ; and strength in the back and loins. 
 Such a conformation is desirable in every kind of horse, 
 and especially in the race-horse, hunter, and steeplechaser. 
 Low withers, on the contrary, are usually accompanied by 
 .heavy, short and upright shoulders. Lecoq observes that 
 
WITHERS. 167 
 
 '' in the mule, and especially in the ass, the withers are 
 always low ; a conformation which is in accordance with the 
 small development of the paces of these animals." Dealers 
 and others, when ** showing off" a horse which has high 
 withers, not unfrequently endeavour to direct attention to 
 this fact, as a proof of the length and obliquity of the 
 shoulders. I need hardly point out, even to the inex- 
 perienced horseman, that any particular part should be 
 judged, if possible, on its own merits, and not by those of 
 another part, however much excellence in the latter may 
 indicate its possession by the former. 
 
 TAe Height of the Withers is, strictly speaking, that of 
 the spines of the vertebrae of the part and the soft tissues 
 which cover their summits. Their apparent height is the 
 distance they project above the top of the shoulder blades ; 
 although I must confess that k is often difficult to tell how 
 high they are in horses which have very thick withers. 
 Animals that are comparatively high over the croup, appear 
 to have lower withers than those which are high in front, 
 even when we make allowance for any difference that may 
 exist in the length of the spines themselves. The reason for 
 this seems to be that, as elevation of the croup causes the 
 weight of the body to be shifted forward ; such a con- 
 formation tends to depress the body between the shoulder 
 blades, and consequently reduces the distance between them 
 and the top of the withers. 
 
 The Width of the Withers — constituting '* thick withers '* 
 or ''thin (lean) withers/' as the case may be — depends on 
 their apparent height ; actual thickness of the spines and their 
 cartilages ; size of the muscles of the part ; and the amount of 
 loose tissue about it. Although we cannot expect leanness "of 
 withers in the cart-horse, the presence of whose massive 
 muscles that lie between the trunk and shoulder blades, 
 separates the ends of the latter widely asunder ; still it is 
 a very desirable point in the saddle-horse, as it indicates 
 absence of an excess of connective tissue (p. 12), lightness 
 of fore hand, and height of the withers themselves. Very 
 
1 68 THE TRUNK 
 
 thin, high withers are objectionable; for they are liable 
 to become hurt by a saddle, especially by a side saddle. We 
 are all aware that when the part is of this shape, it is difficult 
 to keep the "gullet-plate" of the saddle from touching it, 
 however high this iron arch may be ; the reason being, as far 
 as I can see, that such a condition is usually associated, as 
 might be expected, with emaciation of the neighbouring 
 muscles ; among the rest, that which gives rise to the pro- 
 minence (''saddle muscle,'' see p. 183) behind the shoulder 
 blade, and behind which the ** points'' of the tree of the 
 saddle should rest. When the part is thus unduly flat, the 
 saddle is naturally liable to slip forward. Also, with horses 
 which have thick withers it is often difficult to keep the 
 saddle in its place ; for the presence of large shoulder muscles 
 and abundance of connective tissue conceal the outline of the 
 shoulder blades and render the part, upon which the points 
 of the tree rest, smooth and flat. 
 
 *' Age and sex have an equal influence on the leanness of 
 withers, which, badly defined in the colt, come well out only 
 towards five or six years old, at the time when the bones 
 have attained their full length, and the body its definite size. 
 The withers are less high in the mare than in the geldmg or 
 entire. As a set off, the last mentioned, whose fore hand 
 acquires a considerable development, has this part thicker, 
 especially in the case of a heavy draught animal " {Goubanx 
 and Barrier). 
 
 As the comparative leanness or thickness of withers 
 greatly depends on the size of the muscles of the shoulders, I 
 shall defer the further discussion of this subject until treating 
 on the form and function of the shoulders (p. 182, et seq). 
 
 Breast — The conformation of the breast has reference 
 almost solely to the comparative width between the fore legs, 
 which *' is generally looked upon as a measure of the size of 
 the chest, or, rather, of its rotundity. This is an error which 
 we have cleared away by more than fifty observations made 
 on the living animal, and afterwards completed on the dead 
 
Major J. F. Nott 
 
 Fig. 272.— Abyssinian Ass. 
 
 Frank Haes, 
 
 Fig. 273.— Onager. 
 
 To face p. 168. 
 
BREAST, 169 
 
 subject. We have never been able to ascertain, with respect 
 to this point, any practical difference among animals of the 
 same height, whatever might have been their width of 
 breast ; for the simple reason that it is not in its front part 
 that the chest varies much, but rather in its middle and back 
 portions. To what cause, then, other than bulging out of 
 the anterior ribs, is width between the fore legs due ? We 
 must attribute it to the greater or less thickness of the 
 pectoral muscles which form its base. We may see the 
 truth of this from the fact that this part may become narrow 
 in animals which have large chests. It is merely necessary 
 to place them under bad sanitary conditions as regards work 
 and feeding, to convince one that their state of emaciation 
 brings on the loss of width of which we speak" {Goubaux 
 and Barrier). If we take the trouble to compare the width 
 between the fore legs of badly-shaped cart-horses which 
 happen to be ''flat-sided'' and wanting in girth, with that of 
 thoroughbreds having large capacity of chest, we shall note 
 that the width in question bears no relation to the size of 
 chest. Again, it is no rare occurrence to see horses that 
 have been once broad-chested, become narrow in front when 
 they are old and worn out The pectoral muscles, to which 
 the eminent French professors alluded in the foregoing 
 extract, lie between the humerus and chest As there is 
 considerable lateral play between the elbows and chest of the 
 horse; the width between the fore legs varies a good deal 
 when the animal is standing, according as the fore feet are 
 close together or wide apart. The fact that horses which are 
 broad between the fore legs are very rarely good stayers at a 
 gallop, has been used as an argument that roundness of rib is 
 inconsistent with good breathing power. We may, however, 
 I venture to think, account for it more correctly by saying 
 that the failure in ''staying" is owing to the undue weight of 
 the fore hand consequent on the large muscular development 
 of the part, and to the tendency to lateral displacement of 
 the centre of gravity (p. 53). I must here explain that those 
 muscles the large development of which gives increased width 
 
170 THE TRUNK, 
 
 between the fore legs, might with propriety be considered in 
 conjunction with those of the shoulders (p. 182), to the bones 
 (shoulder blade and humerus) of which they are attached at 
 one end. The ''thickness of the shoulders" is directly 
 influenced by their development, which is naturally more or 
 less in agreement with that of the other muscles of the 
 shoulder. Thus we rarely see a horse wide in front which is 
 not at the same time thick just below the withers (p. 183). 
 As these facts are perhaps not known to the majority of 
 readers, I have thought it well, for simplicity' sake, to discuss 
 the respective subjects of width between the fore legs and 
 shoulders separately. For further remarks on '* thickness of 
 shoulders," see pp. 183 and 184. 
 
 Mr. H. Wilton points out to me that horses vary very 
 little — comparatively to their depth of body, from top of 
 withers to brisket — in their respective '' width through the 
 heart, ' which is the term applied by saddlers to the 
 horizontal and transverse measurement through the chest at 
 the points touched by the ends of the points of the tree 
 (supposing that they are both of full length) of a properly- 
 made and well-fitting side saddle, when it is placed in correct 
 position on the animal's back. The point at which the 
 measurement is taken is indicated by the letter "^," Fig. 287. 
 I need hardly explain that the expression ''width through 
 the heart '' is not quite correct ; because the heart is situated 
 lower down, and more to the front, than the line in question. 
 The term is, however, well understood, and serves its 
 purpose. Mr. Wilton gives me the following average 
 measurements "through the heart," which he has obtained 
 during a long experience in the fitting of side saddles : — 
 
 19I inches, foi a very heavy-weight hunter (maximum), 
 
 18 „ „ 15 or i6-stone hunter. 
 
 17 1 „ „ 13-stone huntei. 
 
 i7i jj 3j hght-weight hunter, or thoroughbred. 
 
 i6f „ „ Arab, say 14, 1 or 14.2 high. 
 
 These figures certainly prove that comparative width of 
 breast, or width between the fore legs, is not dependent, or 
 
BREAST. 171 
 
 only to a very slight extent, on width of chest. I need 
 hardly say that this measurement of ''width through the 
 heart " is taken behind the shoulders, the condition of which 
 can, therefore, in no way affect it. 
 
 When a horse is narrow between the fore legs by reason 
 of the emaciated condition of his pectoral muscles, ** the keel 
 of his breast bone becomes prominent, the points of the 
 shoulder are pushed forward to the front, and allow to be 
 seen, between them and the breast, two deep depressions in 
 which the jugular grooves terminate below'' {Goubaux and 
 Barrier). These writers point to the fact that narrowness 
 in front may therefore be either natural or acquired. In 
 the cart-horse, width of breast is a desirable point ; for he 
 requires to have massive muscles. Close observation of 
 thoroughbreds convinces me that a race-horse cannot be too 
 ''narrow in front;" provided that his fore legs 'are properly 
 shaped and properly put on, and that the action in front is 
 consequently '* true." Undue narrowness of the chest may 
 arise from the elbow being turned in and the toes turned out, 
 as in Fig. 48, which represents a defective conformation of 
 the part. The increase of width between the fore legs in 
 proportion to weight-carrying power, is but slight in the 
 well-shaped hunter, as we may see in Fig. 276, which is the 
 front view of a particularly strong and active fifteen-stone 
 hunter (Fig. 330). Fig. 277 is the front view of another 
 powerful fifteen-stone hunter that could gallop, jump and 
 stay with the best. We see in Fig. 275 the same view of a 
 thoroughbred that was particularly thick, for a clean bred 
 horse, in the shoulders and far too wide in front for galloping. 
 The muscles of the fore arm in this figure contrast, as regards 
 development, unfavourably with those of Fig. 276. Those 
 of my readers who have followed me up to the present point 
 need hardly be told that in the saddle-horse, the propor- 
 tionate development of the muscles which give width between 
 the fore legs (those of the shoulders), should never exceed 
 that of the muscles of the fore legs. Fig, 279 gives a front 
 view of a light harness horse which was too broad between 
 
172 THE TRUNK. 
 
 the fore legs for saddle work. Fig. 274 is a front view of a 
 well-shaped race-horse which is of ordinary width between 
 the fore legs. Sections of the chests of the horses shown in 
 Figs. 277 and 279 are given in Fig. 286. 
 
 Back and Loins. — The upper line of these parts should, 
 for beauty, run in a straight line, or with the slightest possible 
 rise, to the croup (Figs. 9, 327, 331, 334 and 344). When 
 the animal has a ''roach-back" (Fig. 280) — that is, when 
 this line is decidedly convex — the muscle which runs along 
 the top of the back, and which has a powerful action on all 
 the paces of the horse, will be found wanting in develop- 
 ment, and the chest will, as a rule, be flat-sided. This con- 
 dition of back, from the fact of its assuming, to some extent, 
 the form of an arch^ is generally supposed to be advantageous 
 for carrying heavy burdens, as in the case of baggage animals. 
 I am not, however, able to furnish any actual proof that such 
 is the case. A *' hollow-backed " or ''saddle-backed" horse, 
 on the contrary, is one which has this line concave, on 
 account of the arrangement of the vertebrae of the part. It 
 is frequently the result of relaxation of the ligaments which 
 bind the vertebrae together, owing to the effects of hard work 
 and debility. Thus, we may often see a horse, which in his 
 youth had a straight back, become hollow-backed in his old 
 age (Fig. 52). From the different position assumed by man 
 when moving, the opposite to this occurs to ourselves. An 
 appearance of hollow-back (Fig. 256) may be given by unusually 
 large development of that part {posterior iliac spine, Fig. 1 2) 
 of the pelvis which forms the highest point of the croup. 
 I have also observed — especially among Arab ponies — the 
 same kind of conformation arise from the pelvis being set up 
 particularly high in animals which were low in front. No 
 fault can be found with an apparently hollow back produced 
 by the putting-on of the pelvis. 
 
 Without any exception, the loins and back, at the region 
 of the cantle of the saddle, should be as flat and broad as 
 possible ; for this condition indicates the presence of powerful 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 274. — Well-shaped T.B. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 275. — Broad-Chested T.B. 
 
 M. //. H. 
 
 Fig. 276.— Well-shapeu Hlntek. 
 
 To face p. \'j2.. 
 Fig. 277.— Well-shaped Hunter^ 
 
BACK AND LOINS. i^jz 
 
 rearing muscles (p. 52), and rotundity of the back ribs 
 (p. 162). In many draught animals the upper muscles of 
 the loins and back stand out as distinct ridges of muscle 
 on each side of the backbone. This beauty in the coarser 
 breeds is not confined to them, but may sometimes be seen 
 in well-bred horses, as was the case with Mr. Kelly Mait- 
 land's Kingcraft, which was one of the best race-horses that 
 has ever been in India. This Australian was a singularly 
 muscular, short-backed animal, to whom distance and weight 
 made comparatively but little difference. This "double- 
 backed '' condition may come on or disappear according to 
 the amount of '' flesh " which the animal carries. A false 
 appearance of flatness and strength of back and loins, and 
 of roundness of barrel, may be temporarily given by ex- 
 cessive fat. 
 
 In default of a generally accepted expression, I may 
 perhaps be allowed to use the term, '* wedge-shaped loins" 
 (namely, loins which slope downwards on each side from 
 the middle line of the back), in contradistinction to *'flat 
 loins " (Fig. 278). We must take in consideration that a 
 wedge-shaped appearance of the loins may be caused by 
 undue length of the spines of the vertebrae of the part, 
 and not by deficiency of muscle, in which case the loins 
 will be more or less reached. 
 
 Shortness of Loins and Back. — The appearance of com- 
 parative shortness or length which the back and loins (or 
 back, if we include the loins in this term, see p. 20) may 
 present, is due, I would submit, chiefly to the following 
 causes : — 
 
 1. The manner in which the croup runs into the loins. 
 For instance, the back and loins will appear short and the 
 croup (or *' quarters ") long, if the pelvis be more or less 
 horizontal ; the contour of the croup free from angularity ; 
 the muscles over the loins largely developed ; and the flanks 
 well ribbed up. We may here compare Figs. 332 and i']'] 
 with Figs. 344, 371, and Ormonde (Frontispiece). 
 
 2. The distance to which the withers run back. I may 
 
174 
 
 THE TRUNK. 
 
 point out that the extreme lowness of the withers in the 
 Burchell's zebra (Fig. 258), the kiang (Fig. 384), and the 
 onager (Fig. 273), gives the backs of these animals a false 
 appearance of undue length. The angularity of the contour 
 of Mike's croup (Fig. 235) might lead one to form the wrong 
 opinion that he was long in the back and loins, if his 
 withers did not extend so far to the rear as to counteract 
 that impression. 
 
 3. The degree of slope of the shoulder and pelvis. It is 
 evident that the greater the angle formed by the respective 
 directions of the shoulder blade and pelvis produced (the 
 
 Fig. 278— Sections of Loins 
 
 The shaded portion of this figure represents the upper part of a transverse 
 section of the loms, just behind the cantle of the saddle, of a horse with 
 " wedge-shaped ^' loms , the whole figure (namely, the shaded portion and 
 that outside it), that of a horse with fairly flat loms. 
 
 more oblique the shoulder and the more horizontal the croup), 
 the shorter will the back and loins appear to be ; and vice 
 
 versd. 
 
 4. Length of neck. I need hardly say that a long neck 
 (or a ^'long rein/' if we include the withers) will give an air 
 of shortness to the back and loins, and vice versd. 
 
 5. Depth of back ribs. Compare Ormonde or Cloister 
 (Frontispiece) with Fig. 268. 
 
 Without indulging in any tedious repetition, I think we 
 may safely assume that, in all cases, a horse's back and 
 loins should have the appearance of being as short as 
 possible. 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 279.— Breast of Harness Horse. 
 
 M, H. H. 
 
 Fig. 280.— Roach-Backed and Goose-Rumped Horse. 
 
 To face p. 174. 
 
CROUP, 175 
 
 Points of the Hips.— When these parts are very 
 prominent, the horse is said to have ** ragged hips." Such a 
 condition gives the animal an angular appearance, and is con- 
 sequently displeasing to the eye. A horse thus formed is 
 more likely to hurt his hips by knocking them against 
 door-posts, or by lying on a hard surface when he is not 
 supplied with a sufficiency of bedding, than one of different 
 conformation. The fact of the hips df a horse being flat or 
 ragged does not appear to influence his usefulness in any 
 way. Among thoroughbreds, certain strains of blood have 
 them prominent. Although it would be more correct to 
 consider the points of the hips along with the hind limb ; 
 I have placed them, for convenience' sake, under the present 
 heading. 
 
 Flank.-The only thing to remark about this part is 
 that the '' hollow of the flank," which is included between the 
 loins, point of the hip and end of the last back rib, should be 
 well filled up and should be as small as possible. If it is 
 hollowed out, it will indicate that the animal is in bad health, 
 out of condition, or of weak constitution. If the extent of the 
 hollow of the flank be small, the animal will be well ribbed up, 
 a form of conformation which I have discussed on p. 163, etseq. 
 It is more essential for race-horses to be well ribbed up than 
 for any other class ; as they can ill afford to make up, by 
 Increased length and depth of chest, for any deficiency in this 
 point. Increased depth or increased length of chest, besides 
 adding to the weight to be carried, would militate against the 
 possession of speed, on account of its tending to lower or 
 bring back the centre of gravity, and thus to increase the 
 stability of the equilibrium (p. 54). 
 
 Croup. — The upper line of the croup, from the loins to 
 the root of the tail, should remain convex, even when a fairly 
 heavy weight is carried. This convexity, more or less 
 regular, is caused by the prominence of the inner angle of the 
 pelvis ; by the action of the muscles which flex the back ; and 
 
176 THE TRUNK. 
 
 by the strength of the ligaments which preserve the stability 
 of this arch. We may note how relaxation of these muscles 
 will affect this state of convexity if we pinch the loins of a 
 horse, so as to make him crouch, which he does by the con- 
 traction of the muscles that lie on the top of the loins. 
 When he crouches in this manner, the upper line of the croup 
 will tend to become straight. Hence we may accept the 
 conclusion, which is fully borne out in practice, that undue 
 straightness of the upper line of the croup indicates weakness 
 of the part. I may also mention that when a horse is 
 affected by paralysis of the muscles of the loins, the croup 
 will usually assume an abnormally flat appearance, especially 
 when weight is put on the back, which, in this disease, can 
 badly support it. The slope of the croup (whether it is 
 *' goose rumped" or horizontal) will be considered on pp. 206 
 to 208. 
 
 Anus. — The anus should be prominent, and the tissues 
 around it should be well filled out. It should be firm in 
 appearance and closed when at rest. A hollow, flabby and 
 open condition of the part indicates illness or general 
 debility. 
 
 Tail. — The tail should be muscular at its root, and 
 naturally short as regards its solid portion (dock). Strength 
 of tail, as may be tested by endeavouring to lift it up with 
 the hand under the root, usually shows vigour of body. 
 A naturally long dock is, to a certain extent, a sign of 
 inferior breeding. 
 
 The tail should, in all cases, be set on **high " (Fig. 281) ; 
 as this form points to a more or less horizontal position 
 of the sacrum. If this part be bent downwards, as in Fig. 
 280, so as to form a decided angle with the vertebra of 
 the loins and back, the backbone will not be as well adapted 
 to purposes of locomotion as it would be if it were com- 
 paratively horizontal. 
 
 During movement, the tail should be carried well away 
 
."» 
 
 
 Ik 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 281.— Mrs. Hayes's Arab Pony, Freddie. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 282. — Mrs. Hayes's Irish Hunter, Salary. 
 
 To face p. 176. 
 
TAIL, 177 
 
 from the quarters ; for this will indicate that its muscles 
 are in good order. Some horses, especially those of high 
 spirit and good blood, when going fast, carry the tail '* like 
 a flag,'' having the dock raised and more or less concave. 
 It looks very bad if the tail, when carried low down, say, 
 at the walk, has a concave bend in it, particularly if there 
 be an abrupt turn or '' kink " in the tail near its end. 
 Such a carriage of tail is usually supposed to be associated 
 with an ''ungenerous " disposition; although this is not 
 always the case. In coming to a decision on this subject, 
 we should not fail to take into consideration the indications 
 afforded by the eyes and ears. Thus, if the horse, 
 although carrying his tail ''meanly," had a "kind," fearless 
 look about the eyes, and kept his ears well to the front, 
 and worked them in a quick decided manner, we might 
 reasonably conclude that the defective carriage of the tail 
 was due to faulty conformation, and not to a sulky 
 disposition, which would be the greater of the two evils. 
 In making these remarks, I am, of course, alluding to 
 horses that have not been docked. 
 
 Any unnecessary whisking of the tail when the animal 
 is in motion is objectionable ; as it is often a sign of " jadi- 
 ness" and bad temper. We may not unfrequently remark 
 that the fact of an animal being beaten in a race or steeple- 
 chase is first made manifest by the tail beginning to go 
 round and round. The swishing of the tail may here, 
 however, be due rather to the application of the spurs or 
 whip, than to any " unkind " running on the part of the horse. 
 On the other hand, we may observe instances of thoroughly 
 game race-horses, when "finishing," being so engaged in the 
 keen struggle for victory, that they will keep the tail without 
 movement, even under severe "punishment." Mares, as a 
 rule, undoubtedly whisk their tails about more than horses 
 and geldings. Some of them which are in 'a state of con- 
 tinual irritation from sexual causes, do so to an extent that is 
 very unpleasant to their riders or drivers. Such animals are, 
 generally, of but little use. Almost all Arab horses, and 
 
 N 
 
178 THE TRUNK, 
 
 certain horses in all countries, keep the tail rigidly fixed to 
 one particular side, near or off, when walking, unless, indeed, 
 to use it when occasion demands. English thoroughbreds, 
 however, at the same pace, generally swing it from side to 
 side in an easy, free manner, somewhat similar to that in 
 which a fast and fair walker uses his arms when going along 
 at, say, the rate of six miles an hour. The difference, here, 
 seems to be due to the thoroughbred's longer stride and 
 greater freedom of action. 
 
( 179 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Fore Limb — Chief Duties of the Fore Limb — Fore 
 Legs in Saddle and Draught — The Shouldei — Humerus — ^ElboTv — Fore 
 Arm — Knee — -From Knee to Fetlock — Fetlock — Pastern — Hoof. 
 
 General View of the Fore Limb. — The term *'fore 
 limb" or ** fore leg" is applied to the column of bones 
 from the shoulder-blade to the hoof (inclusive), and the 
 attendant soft parts. As the chief muscles of the neck are 
 concerned in the movement of the fore limb, we must take 
 into consideration the conformation of the former part while 
 studying that of the latter. The shape of the muscles which 
 lie between the^upper portion of the limb (above the elbow 
 joint) and the chest must not be neglected ; for they, 
 respectively, connect the limb to the trunk, and draw it 
 upwards and backwards. The size of some of them, as 
 mentioned on p. 169, regulate the width between the fore 
 legs. ^ As the action of the neck muscles, as regards the 
 fore limb, has been considered in Chapters X. and XVL 
 (pp. 68 and 1 54), and that of the other muscles in Chapter IV. 
 (pp. 31 and 32), they need not be specially noticed here. I 
 shall now examine the nature of the work which the fore limb 
 has got to do, with the object of drawing conclusions as to the 
 conformation most suitable to it in particular cases. As its 
 various parts should move in harmony together, it will at 
 first be more profitable to study them collectively than 
 particularly. 
 
 Chief Duties of the Fore Limb are — (i) to support 
 weight; (2) to resist the injurious effects of *'work" on its 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o THE FORE LIMB, 
 
 own Structures ; (3) to presei-ve the stability of the body ; 
 (4) to propel the body forward or backward ; and (5) to raise 
 the fore hand. 
 
 To support weight, the horse requires bones and muscles 
 strong in proportion to the nature and amount of work to be 
 done, a more or less straight condition of the bones, and a 
 shoulder-blade sufficiently large for the muscles which attach 
 it to the trunk, and whose size is a measure of their strength. 
 The comparative straightness of the column of bones will be 
 largely affected by considerations of propulsion and of the 
 effect of work on the legs. In all cases, the bones at the 
 knee should be straight. 
 
 To resist the injurious effect of ^^ work " on its structures^ 
 the bones of the shoulder and pastern (at each respective end 
 of the limb) should be placed obliquely, if the ground be 
 hard, so as to diminish the injurious effects of concussion, 
 which are seen in, for instance, navicular disease, laminitis, 
 rmgbone, wind-galls, sore shins and splints. The obliquity, 
 however, will be obtained at the expense of mechanical 
 advantage. Hence, the softer the ground and the slower the 
 pace ; the less sloping need the shoulder and pastern be, to 
 avoid the injurious effects of concussion. 
 
 To preserve the stability of the body, we require sloping 
 shoulders and sloping pasterns, both of which aid in raising 
 the fore hand. With sloping pasterns, the danger of catching 
 the ground with the toe is reduced ; for the more oblique the 
 pastern, the easier will it be for the horse to bring his heel 
 first on the ground at each step. 
 
 To propel the body forward to the best advantage, we 
 require a humerus n6t much removed from a horizontal 
 position ; for the pushing force derived from the fore limb 
 takes place throug^h that bone. Also, in propulsion, the 
 muscles which bend the fetlock joint will act best, the more 
 upright isl the pastern (p. 57). I need not say anything here 
 about backward propulsion, as it has but little bearing on 
 conformation. I have made some remarks on reining back 
 in Chapter XII. (p. 99). 
 
FORE LEGS IN SADDLE AND DRAUGHT, i8t 
 
 To raise the fore hand effectively, we require, as I have 
 just said, obliquity of shoulder-blade and pastern, so as to 
 favour the straightening of the limb (p. 51). 
 
 From the foregoing observations we may see that the 
 conformation most suitable to one function of the fore limb 
 may differ essentially from that best adapted to other offices 
 performed by it. Consequently, the conformation to be 
 sought for in the fore limb of a horse will be the best 
 possible combination of somewhat conflicting elements. 
 
 Fore Legs in Saddle and Draught. — In draught, 
 whether light or heavy, the pace is practically confined to the 
 walk, trot, and, in rare cases, to the amble, in none of which 
 is the function of raising the fore hand tested to anything like 
 the same extent as in the canter, gallop, and, particularly, in 
 jumping. Hence the saddle-horse, and especially the hunter, 
 requires a lighter fore hand and greater power of flexing and 
 extending the joints of the fore limb than the harness animal. 
 Setting aside for the moment the question of the heavy cart- 
 horse, which under all circumstances requires a maximum 
 amount of development of bone and muscle in his limbs, we 
 must also remember that the legs of the saddle-horse (par- 
 ticularly the fore ones, in proportion to the speed required) 
 have to bear the burden of a rider, from which the limbs of 
 the trapper are free. Consequently, the saddle-horse should 
 have stronger legs in comparison to the weight of his body 
 than an animal that works between the shafts, the correcitness 
 of which remark will be confirmed by an inspection of Figs. 
 270, 282, 324, 328, and 370, for instance. Fig. 283 shows a 
 thoroughbred mare whose fore legs, for purposes of racing 
 and steeplechasing, were too light for the weight of her body. 
 She had a nice short back, powerful loins, and was well 
 ribbed up ; but, as I have already said, was too *' heavily 
 topped.'* Her conformation is the direct opposite of that of 
 Specs (Fig. 255), who has a remarkably light fore hand, 
 beautiful riding shoulders, and fore legs which have stood an 
 extraordinary amount of work ; but lacks the " close coupling '" 
 
1 82 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 and good loins of the mare. An inspection of the illustrations 
 in this book, of hackneys, Cleveland bays and Yorkshire 
 coach-horses will further elucidate my meaning. The remarks 
 I have here made are naturally comparative , for I am of 
 course aware that it is impossible for a harness-horse, any 
 more than a saddle-horse, to have too good fore legs. 
 
 The Shoulder. — The degree of slope of the shoulder is 
 difficult for inexperienced persons to determine, especially 
 when the part is covered by fat or by thick muscles. French 
 writers give rules for measuring with a kind of clinometer the 
 obliquity of the shoulder-blade, which is an operation, I must 
 confess, that I have not been able to perform satisfactorily. 
 I have studied the subject for many years, and find that I can 
 rely fairly well on the instruction my eyes have received 
 during that time. The horse with the most oblique shoulders 
 I have ever seen was St. Simon (Fig. 9), whose photograph, 
 I regret to say, does not render this point properly, as it 
 is a little foreshortened. The lines of his shoulder are 
 correctly shown m Fig. 229, which is a reproduction of 
 a painting made from a photograph that was too badly 
 done to bear reproduction. As this illustration gives his 
 exact outline taken in strict profile, it is valuable for com- 
 parison ; although much of the detail which would have 
 been given in a good photograph is, naturally, wanting. 
 Ormonde (Frontispiece), Lord Arthur (Fig. 329), Midship- 
 mite (Fig. 260), Dynamite (Fig. 237), Predominant (Fig. 
 236), and The Brat (Fig. 371) had very good, sloping 
 shoulders. As instances of straight shoulders, I give 
 Figs. 247, 280 and 284. Taking into consideration every- 
 thing I have written in the present book on this point, I 
 think we may accept the conclusion that obliquity 
 of shoulder is a desirable point in every kind of horse, 
 except perhaps in heavy draught animals which are not 
 required to go out of a walk. If they have at times 
 to exceed this pace, on hard ground, as dray horses have 
 to do in London, they should undoubtedly have sloping 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 283. — Thoroughbred Mare. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 To face p. 182. 
 
 Fig. 284.— Well bred Hunter. 
 
THE SHOULDER, 183 
 
 shoulders, so that their legs may be preserved as much as 
 possible from the injurious effects of concussion. It is 
 evident that cart-horses which have to labour on soft ground, 
 like that of ordinary farms, may have with advantage more 
 upright shoulders than those employed on road work. At the 
 same time, even at a walk, speed, which is a desirable quality 
 in every horse, is largely dependent on obliquity of shoulders. 
 
 The thickness of the muscles about the shoulders should be 
 proportionate to the amount of strength which the animal 
 may be called upon to display. We may judge it by the 
 thickness of the structures just below (four or five inches) the 
 highest point of the withers ; by the width between the fore 
 legs ; by the thickness of the broadest part of the body at the 
 point of the shoulders (Figs. 274 to 277) ; by the condition 
 of the muscles which cover the shoulder-blade ; and by the 
 amount of depression there is immediately in front of the 
 shoulder-blade where it joins the neck. This dip is well 
 shown in Figs. 247, 256, and 280. The difference of level 
 between the neck and shoulder will be best observed when 
 the former is thin and the latter thick (see remarks on the 
 conformation of Cloister, p. 247). At the same time, a 
 properly shaped, heavy draught-horse will always have 
 prominent shoulders, which in him are desirable, so as to 
 give a broad surface for pressure against the collar. 
 
 This question of thickness or thinness of shoulders is 
 very important, especially to hunting men, and has, up to the 
 present, received scanty notice from writers on horses. When 
 in the saddle we are certainly in the best position to judge 
 whether the shoulders are thick, thin, or of medium substance. 
 The first point that will strike the experienced horseman 
 when mounted, is the condition of the *' saddle muscle,^' which 
 is the name usually given by London saddlers to the muscle 
 close behind which, on each side, the points of the tree 
 should rest when the saddle is on the animal's back. In a 
 thick-shouldered horse this muscle will appear as a rounded 
 lump at a point about 4^ inches below the top of the withers 
 (Figs. 286 and <^, 287). To explain my meaning, I have given 
 
i84 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 in Figs. 285 and 286 sections (viewed horizontally) through the 
 shoulders of four different kinds of horses, made respectively 
 by a transverse plane passing obliquely from the highest 
 point of the withers through the upper part of the fore arms, 
 so as to afford a fair idea of the contours of the shoulders at 
 their thickest parts. The direction of this plane is shown by 
 the dotted line a bin Fig. 287. The width of the shoulders 
 will attain its maximum measurement at about half way down, 
 namely at c, on the same figure. The horses represented in 
 Figs. 274 (well-shaped thoroughbred of the 11 -stone hunter 
 class), 277 (well-shaped 15-stone hunter), and 275 (thick- 
 shouldered thoroughbred of 13-stone hunter type), measured 
 between the points of the shoulders (width across the breast), 
 respectively 15, 17 and 18 inches. These photographs have 
 been done on nearly, though not quite the same scale. 
 
 Length of skotdder-blade is a valuable ** point" in all 
 classes of horses. In the racer, considerable length of the 
 muscles which open and close the angle made by the 
 shoulder-blade and humerus, is conducive to speed. As the 
 size of a bone is, as a rule, proportionate to the strength of 
 the muscles which are attached to it ; the length of the 
 shoulder-blade may generally be taken as a measure of the 
 strength of the muscles which connect it with the trunk, and 
 upon which the weight-bearing powers of the animal are 
 mainly dependent. Hence, a large shoulder-blade is not 
 alone advantageous to the weight carrier and heavy cart- 
 horse ; but it is also essential to the jumper, in order to 
 enable him to bear the shock of landing over a fence with 
 a man on his back. The dog, which has a short shoulder- 
 blade, as compared to the horse and ass, is, as we might 
 expect, a very bad weight carrier. We may prove this 
 practically by testing the respective strength of back of a 
 mastiff weighing, say, ten stone, and a very small donkey, 
 who, although he might not have as great draught power 
 as a dog, would be able to carry far more weight. 
 
 The shoulders of the race^horse, as I have already indicated, 
 should be long, oblique, and as light as is compatible with 
 
THE SHOULDER. 185 
 
 their work. As far as mere speed goes, great obliquity of 
 shoulder appears to be no advantage. As the weight is 
 brought more forward by the shoulders being upright^ than 
 if they were sloping, the former condition, by increasing 
 the instability of the equilibrium (p. 54), is equally, or 
 even perhaps more conducive to speed than the latter. 
 It also, by tending to bring the humerus into a more 
 horizontal position, places that bone in a more advan- 
 tageous direction for forward propulsion than it would 
 have with an oblique shoulder ; because the impetus given 
 to the fore hand in progression to the front, takes place 
 through that bone. Those particularly speedy animals, 
 antelope and deer, have, I may mention, comparatively 
 straight shoulders. Many of our fastest race-horses have 
 been built in this way. It is not, however, sufficient for a 
 horse to have the great gift of speed in order to shine on 
 the turf; but he must also be able to "stand training," 
 which will more or less severely test the durability of the 
 bones, ligaments and tendons of the legs, and especially of 
 his fore ones. Both in training and in racing, the animal 
 has to carry a rider, whose weight will add materially to 
 the ''wear" of the fore legs, the jar on which will be far 
 less when the shoulders are oblique than when they are 
 comparatively upright. 
 
 Important as obliquity of the shoulders is in the race- 
 horse, it is not nearly so much so as lightness of that part ; 
 for heaviness of the fore hand not alone throws increased 
 strain on the fore legs, but also detracts from spe^d. We 
 have three | simple and practical guides by which we may 
 judge of the lightness or heaviness of the shoulders : (i) 
 by the manner in which the neck runs into the shoulders. 
 If we observe that at their point of union there exists a 
 marked depression (p. 183), we may with reason con- 
 clude that the animal, being furnished with a good surface 
 for the collar, was evolved for draft rather than for speed. 
 Here we must not be led astray by the appearance of any 
 undue thickness of the neck muscles which may fill up 
 
i86 
 
 THE BORE LIMB. 
 
 fop of withers 
 
 Line 4j inchesbelow 
 top or withers 
 
 ibetween f 
 fore legs. 
 
 Fig. 285. 
 
 The fuH-sized figure bounded by a continued line represents a transverse section 
 (viewed horizontally) through the shoulders of a thoroughbred with thick 
 withers, made by a plane passing through the highest point of the withers and 
 the fore arms. The direction of this plane is shown in Fig, 287 by the dotted 
 Ime a 3, The figure which is bounded by dotted lines, and which is inside the 
 figure just described, represents a similar section ^through the shoulders of an 
 ordinary well-shaped thoroughbred. 
 
SECTION THROUGH THE SHOULDERS. 1S7 
 
 Top of withers. 
 
 Line 4 2 inches below 
 top of withers. 
 
 / Space 
 /between the\ 
 fore-tegs 
 
 Fig. 286. 
 
 The figure bounded by a continued line (ses descriptive letterpress of Fig. 285) 
 represents a section tbrougb the shoulders of a thick-shouldered harness horse 
 (Fig. 279) ; and the figure bounded by dotted lines and inside the larger figure, 
 a section through the shoulders of a well-shaped 15-stone hunter (Fig. 277). 
 
VcS IBE FORE LIMB, 
 
 this dip; for the fact of their being massive would be 
 even more prejudicial to the galloping pretensions of the 
 horse than if the shoulders were somewhat '* loaded." I 
 may point out that as the neck projects beyond the 
 fore legs, weight in it, by its increased leverage, will 
 interfere with the action of the fore limbs to a propor- 
 tionately greater degree than weight in the shoulders, 
 which will be placed more or less above this bony and 
 muscular spring, to which I have alluded in Chapter VOL 
 (2) By the comparative width between the fore legs, which 
 I have discussed on page 1 68, et seg. (3) By the compara- 
 tive '* thinness" or ** thickness" of the withers. As a rule, 
 any undue thickness of the withers will be specially well 
 noticed, by the rider, at a point on each side, as I have 
 already said, about 4I inches below the top of the withers 
 This is a peculiarity of shape with which every experienced 
 hunting man must be familiar. A study of Figs. 285 and 
 286, which I drew from actual measurements, will further 
 elucidate my meaning. 
 
 I wish to direct special attention to the fact that 
 obliquity and lightness of shoulders, by tending to render the 
 animal's action perfect, are indispensable requisites for enabling 
 him to ''stay" over a distance of ground. I have seen many 
 *' sprinters " which have had upright and loaded shoulders , but 
 I have never known a genuine stayer — like what Ormonde, 
 St. Gatien, or Robert the Devil was — who had that kind of 
 conformation. 
 
 In the shoulders of the draught-horse we should have 
 plenty of power and a broad bearing surface for the collar, 
 into which the animal should be able to put all his weight. 
 It is evident that he cannot do this, if his shoulder-blades be 
 very oblique, which is a form aimed at by the majority of 
 exhibitors. Any such ''show" question does not concern us 
 at present ; for I am regarding the horse entirely from a useful 
 point of view. I find that the deductions I have made in this 
 chapter are, generally, in accordance with the experience of 
 practical men like Mr, G. M. Sexton, Secretary of the 
 
SLOPE OF SHOULDER IN CART-HORSES. 
 
 189 
 
 English Cart-horse Society. He admires *'the shoulder well 
 let down into the chest, and with a moderate slope , it is not 
 necessary to be too oblique, as with a hunter or a race-horse, 
 but just sufficient to ensure free action of the fore legs, 
 encased with plenty of muscle, which will enable him to lean 
 into the collar It is essential that he should be a free, 
 
 fast walker . . Action means power, time and money.'* 
 Mr. F Street, in The History of the Shire Horse, advocates, 
 "■ Shoulders well thrown back.'* Mr. Thomas Dykes, late 
 Secretary of the Clydesdale Horse Society, remarks in the 
 
 Fig. 287 — Diagram to expl^iin Figs 185 and 1S6 
 
 Stud Book of that breed, that ** the shoulder should be more 
 oblique than in the English draught-horse. This, indeed, is 
 one of the distinctive features of the Clydesdale, as to his 
 formation of shoulder is largely owing his long, quick step, 
 for which he is so justly admired. The upright shoulder of 
 the English cart-horse may certainly give greater power in 
 the collar, but if shortness and slowness of step be considered, 
 this cannot be called an advantage. The English horse, 
 besides, is more accustomed to sheer dragging and to working 
 in chains, while his Scottish rival is chiefly employed in the 
 
190 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 two-wheeled cart, which occasions a considerable amount of 
 weight being balanced on the animal's back. A medium 
 slanted shoulder gives a horse, in such circumstances, an 
 advantage ; and doubtless those who carted the minerals of 
 Lanarkshire in ante-railroad days, found this formation well 
 adapted for their purpose. Even yet no one will affirm that 
 it is unsuited to the traffic of the day, if he will only take the 
 opportunity offered for forming an opinion by the sight of 
 the Clydesdale horses yoked to cart or lorry in the streets 
 of Glasgow." Mr. Reynolds, M.R.C.V.S., in his Essay 
 on the Breeding and Management of Draught-horses, while 
 recommending that the shoulders should be massive and well 
 thrown outward to afford ample space for the collar, cautions 
 his reader as follows against extreme views as to oblique 
 shoulders : — *' Many good judges insist that a cart-horse 
 should possess very sloping shoulders. Whilst admitting the 
 necessity of such a conformation for good saddle and light 
 harness horses, and appreciating its beauty in heavy animals, 
 I am decidedly opposed to the opinion, on the ground that 
 such a form is almost invariably associated with thin withers 
 and shoulder-blades closely applied to the front ribs, afford- 
 ing an insufficient and insecure seat for the collar, and, 
 consequently, one very defective for the purposes of heavy 
 draught." 
 
 Horses — like the heavy draught animals of Edinburgh, 
 Liverpool and Manchester — that have toe-pieces on their 
 shoes, and consequently make full use of their fore legs as 
 propellers, should, for this object, have fairly upright shoulders, 
 and should have no bearing-reins, which would impede them 
 in advancing and lowering their heads. Dray-horses, like 
 those in London, which have flat shoes in front, should have 
 sloping shoulders. I may, therefore, venture to settle this 
 question by saying that heavy cart-horses which are not 
 required to go out of a walk, and which, in order to perform 
 their work to the best possible advantage, ought to have toe- 
 pieces, should have upright shoulders ; and that those which 
 have to trot as well as to walk, should have sloping ones. If 
 
SHOULDER-BLADES OF THE HUNTER. 191 
 
 the ground, such as wood pavement or asphalte, be unsuitable 
 to the use of toe-pieces, the animals, even if they have not to 
 go out of a walk, should have oblique shoulders ; because in 
 this case the fore legs will be concerned more in maintaining 
 the stability of the body than in propelling it We may 
 also infer that horses which have toe-pieces on their fore 
 shoes, will do their work best when their shoulders are 
 upright. 
 
 The shoulders of the hack and hght harness horse ought to 
 be oblique and light in order to obtain sure-footedness, good 
 forward reach, and sufficient knee action. Although the 
 match trotter should be built more or less like a race-horse, 
 it is even more necessary for his shoulders to be sloping than 
 for those of the galloper ; because, unless they are so, he 
 cannot have free knee action. I may mention that the fast 
 trotter requires to be able to bend his knees a good deal more 
 than the race-horse. 
 
 The shoulder-blades of the hunter and chaser, as I have 
 before said, should be long and oblique, so as to enable 
 him, in the best possible manner, to resist the shock of 
 landing over a fence. On account of having this special 
 kind of work to do, his shoulders should be more muscular 
 than those of the race-horse. The fact of his shoulders being 
 sloping, will enable him to ''take off" more cleverly at any 
 obstacle than he could do, were they upright. 
 
 The term "good shoulders " or - bad shoulders " is nearly 
 always a comparative one ; for shoulders which might be very 
 bad in one type of horse, might be very good in another 
 type ; and vice versa. Besides, we rarely see shoulders which 
 would be unsuitable for any class of work, supposing, of 
 course, that the other parts of the body were of appropriate 
 conformation. 
 
 The Humerus. — The position and form of this bone, 
 which lies between the shoulder joint and elbow, are so hidden 
 by the muscles about it, that it is difficult to form a correct 
 opinion as to its conformation. Even if it were exposed to 
 
192 THE FORE LIMB. 
 
 view as much as is the fore arm, I cannot see how the fact of 
 its being so, would greatly help us. We know that forward 
 propulsion given by the fore limb must take place through 
 it ; but I cannot say exactly what is its best direction for 
 purposes of progression. We are aware that the different 
 paces of the horse require, in varying proportions, the direction 
 . of the propulsion to be both upward and forward ; but we 
 cannot tell what these proportions should be. It is evident 
 that the heavy cart-horse, which requires the aid of his fore 
 limbs to propel him forward, should not have an upright 
 humerus. It appears probable that the angle which the 
 shoulder-blade makes with the humerus, varies but little in 
 different horses ; in which case, the more oblique the 
 shoulder-blade, the more upright the humerus, and vice 
 versa. Consequently, by observing the slope of the shoulder, 
 we mipht estimate that of the humerus. 
 
 Elbow* — The point of the elbow should be capable 
 of being drawn well away from the side. It will then have 
 plenty of freedom, and will not be tied down to the chest. 
 
 Fore Arm. — This part in all horses should be muscular ; 
 as its muscles have to do all the work of the limb below the 
 elbow. On p. 138, I have alluded to its comparative length. 
 In Figs. 322, 324, 329, 332, 333, and 370, are shown well- 
 shaped fore arms; in Figs. 304, 305, and 310, mean ones. 
 Although a race-horse might have a somewhat light fore arm 
 without much detriment, it is imperative for the jumper to be 
 strong in this part ; for in leaping great strain falls on the 
 muscles at the back of the fore arm in straightening the 
 fetlock, by which action the fore hand is raised. It goes 
 almost without saying that the heavy cart-horse should have 
 a powerful fore arm. 
 
 Castors or chesnuts, — On the fore arm, generally, but not 
 always, nearer the knee than the elbow, there is a horny 
 growth, called a castor, corn, or chesnut. It is generally flat, 
 and more or less in the form of an oval, the greater diameter 
 
KNEE. '95 
 
 of which is about two inches in length. It may, however, take 
 the form of a small horn (Fig. 291), in which case, it will, as 
 a rule, readily break off from its base, if force be applied to it. 
 Goubaux and Barrier state, as an extremely rare occurrence, 
 that absence of castors from the fore legs has been observed 
 in horses. There are, in almost all cases, similar, though, 
 somewhat smaller, castors on the inside of the hind limbs, 
 just below the hock and near the back of the leg. Huzard, 
 and Goubaux and Barrier remark that they have seen in- 
 stances of the hind castors being absent in the horse. They 
 are larger and of a more horny texture in coarse-bred horses 
 than in blood animals. Nothing is known of the origin of 
 castors (p. 274). 
 
 Knee. Looking at the knee in profile, while the horse 
 
 bears weight on the leg, we should find that the cannon-bone 
 and radius are nearly in a straight line. In reality they are 
 not quite so in perfect specimens ; but are united by a slightly 
 undulating line of great beauty, the contour of which I 
 am unable to lay down with mathematical accuracy. Figs. 
 255, 256, 282, 294, 322, 324 and 332 furnish us with good 
 illustrations of well-set-on fore arms, knees, and cannon- 
 bones. Fig. 299 is an example of the condition known as 
 " calf-knees," to which there is a slight tendency in Figs. 
 297 and 306. The opposite formation ("being over at the 
 knees") is shown in Fig. 303. to which there is an 
 inclination in Fig. 304- This condition is generally due to 
 hard work ; but may, I am inclined to think, be natural ; for 
 I have seen it in young animals which had not been broken 
 in and which had consequently done no work, beyond 
 voluntary exercise in their paddock. I may hazard the 
 conjecture that purely congenital "standing over at the 
 knees"— as, probably, in Fig. 303. which represents the 
 fore legs of a four-year-old well-bred hunter type of 
 horse which had done very little work— will be unaccom- 
 panied by alteration in the slope of the pastern. As a 
 great rule, when a horse stands over at the knees from 
 
194 ^-^^ i^^;?^ LIMB, 
 
 work (Fig. 259), the pasterns become abnormally upright. 
 The horse whose fore legs are shown in Fig. 303 had 
 unusually sloping pasterns. 
 
 The fact of a horse being ''calf-kneed'' renders the back 
 tendons and check ligaments more liable to sprain by violent 
 •descent of the fetlock than if the knee were straight. It 
 tends, however, to make the animal more sure-footed, by 
 bringing the weight back from the toe. In all cases this 
 condition adds to the tension to which the back tendons are 
 put when they are flexing the foot. Although it Is in no way 
 an advantage ; it is much less a detriment to the cart-horse, 
 which has rarely to go out of a walk or slow trot, than to the 
 saddle horse or fast trapper. Many heavy cart-horses are 
 '' back at the knees " (Fig. 232), which is a shape of the fore 
 limbs that is not uncommon among Arab and East Indian 
 
 As the bones of the knee give attachment to important 
 tendons and ligaments, and as other important tendons, 
 respectively, pass over the front and rear aspects of that 
 joint ; it is a beauty, recognised by all good judges, for the 
 horse to have broad, large knees, as viewed from the front. 
 The front surface of the knee should also be flat (Fig. 298) ; 
 for any prominence of the part, as in the case of a ** big " 
 knee, will point to the probability of unsoundness, which is, 
 however, a subject outside the scope of this book. 
 
 From Knee to Fetlock. — We know from experience 
 that the more nearly parallel the back tendons are to the 
 cannon-bone — other things being equal — the better able will 
 the limb be to stand work* Why this should be the case 
 I cannot say with certainty. I may, however, hazard the 
 conjecture that, as ^* tying-in " below the knee is due to the 
 smallness of the bones which form the groove through which 
 the back tendons pass, this condition may point to want of size 
 in these tendons; for '*the function makes the organ." It 
 appears that the calibre of this groove (or rather canal), which, 
 to a great extent, is formed by the trapezium, is, as a rule, 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 288. — Rear view of well-shaped 
 15 STONE Hunter. 
 
 Dixon &^ Sons. 
 Fig. 289. — Rear view of 
 Ormonde. 
 
 M. //. I/. 
 Fig. 290. — Off fore with two digits. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 194. 
 
 Fig. 291. — Long Castor on hind leg. 
 
FROM KNEE TO FETLOCK i% 
 
 ample for the working of these tendons ; for when such ''tied- 
 in '' tendons happen to become damaged by work, the seat of 
 injury is very rarely behind the knee. Hence I think we 
 may conclude that when this groove — which is dependent 
 for its size on that of the bones behind the knee — is com- 
 paratively small, the tendons are also proportionately wanting 
 in substance, and consequently unduly weak. I have always 
 remarked that, in legs of about the same size of cannon-bone, 
 when the back tendons approached a direction parallel to 
 the cannon-bone (as in Figs. 270, 292 to 295, 296 and 298), 
 they were larger and consequently stronger than those which 
 were tied-in (as in Figs. 300 and 302). The parallelism of 
 the back tendons with the cannon-bone is beautifully shown 
 in Fig. 293, which represents the fore legs of a thoroughbred 
 yearling filly. We should, I may observe, regard a large 
 degree of backward projection in the trapezium as a 
 desirable ''point"; not merely as indicating the size of 
 the bone itself, but also that of the other bones of the 
 knee. The trapezium is well developed in Figs. 292 to 
 295, 298, 299, and many of the other photographs in this 
 book ; and poorly, in Figs. 300, 301, etc. 
 
 The objectionable tying-in of the knee, which we may 
 see in Figs. 297, 300, and 302, is, I believe, due in almost 
 all cases .to an admixture of more or less cart blood. 
 Although individuals of other breeds may be light below 
 the knee, I have never seen in them this fault emphasised 
 by undue width of pastern (from front to rear), in the 
 same manner as it is in the draught animal of Western 
 Europe Experience tells us that a leg which shows the 
 form of tying-in below the knee to which I allude, is 
 altogether unfit for fast work, or for jumping, and is 
 unobjectionable only for labour which does not require the 
 animal to go quicker than an ordinary trot. The reason 
 for this is, as far as I can see, that a large fetlock is 
 characteristic of cart blood, and consequently indicates that 
 the bones of the part are unfitted for work at fast paces. 
 As bones are subordinate to muscles, we may take for 
 
 o 2 
 
196 THE FORE LIMB 
 
 granted that, if the former be weak in structure, the latter, 
 as well as the tendons and ligaments, will also be wanting 
 in strength. Eastern horses, and those of Oriental blood, 
 are often very light below the knee , but they hardly ever 
 possess undue width of fetlock. A thoroughly sound rule, 
 which is borne out in practice as well as by theory, is to 
 judge (as regards this particular point) the wear-resisting 
 powers of a fore leg by the direction which the back 
 tendons make with the cannon-bone, and not by its 
 measurement below the knee, which is worthless, unless that 
 round the fetlock is also taken into consideration. It is 
 important to note the difference between a leg which is light 
 below the knee, and one which is tied-in below the knee. 
 The latter is always objectionable ; the former, only when 
 the body is too heavy for the fore legs, as in Fig. 308. 
 
 The desirable condition of comparative shortness of 
 cannon-bone is, I think, more frequently %t^n in hunters, 
 than among other classes of horses. It is well shown in 
 Fig. 320. 
 
 With respect to knees being '* well let down,*' see p. 212. 
 
 The cannon-bone should be of good substance, as in 
 Frontispiece and Figs. 294, 298 and 328. It should feel 
 hard to the touch and free from any excess of soft tissue 
 between it and the skin, or from enlargement from the 
 effects of work or disease^ — any one of which conditions 
 would give it an appearance of undue loundness. The 
 back tendons, as I have just pointed out, should be as nearly 
 as possible parallel with the cannon-bone. They should 
 be straight, and hard as if they were made of catgut, 
 and in well-bred horses with fine skins, the division 
 between the two tendons should be visible on close 
 inspection. Any deviation out of the straight line, or any 
 fulness or softness, will indicate the presence or previous 
 existence in them of injury or disease. If the leg be free 
 from an excess of hair, the suspensory ligament should stand 
 out in bold relief (Fig. 292) between the cannon-bone and 
 back tendons, and should feel as tense and hard as a fiddle- 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 292. — Clean Fore Legs. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 293. — Good Fore Legs of Yearling Filly, 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 294. — Good Fore Legs of Hunter. 
 
 M. //. H. To face p. ig6. 
 
 Fig. 295. — Good Fore Legs of Well-bred Horse. 
 
PASTERN. 197 
 
 String. If there be any difficulty in tracing its course with 
 the fingers, or if it feels soft or rounded, we may rest 
 assured that it has suffered from injury, which fact will 
 probably prevent it from standing much work. In *' clean " 
 legs (Fig. 292), we should be able to trace the course of 
 the suspensory ligament for some distance on each side, 
 as it proceeds obliquely down the pastern. 
 
 Fetlock. — The chief points about this joint are : that it 
 should be flat from side to side, and that, viewing the leg in 
 profile, it should not (as I have previously remarked) be 
 broad as compared to the width of the lesf just below the 
 knee (Fig. 297). Any roundness of the fetlock, which will 
 be caused by undue thickness from side to side of this 
 part, will indicate the effects of '* work," or of injury. The 
 peculiar roundness of fetlock, caused by sprain of the 
 suspensory ligament at its attachment to the sesamoid bones, 
 will be readily noticed by the practised observer. 
 
 At the back of the fetlock there is a lock of hair which 
 gives its name (" feet-lock ") to that joint, and which is par- 
 ticularly abundant in cart-horses. This tuft of hair covors 
 a fatty mass (the fetlock pad), and has in its centre a 
 horny growth, called the ergot. 
 
 Pastern. — By the working of the fetlock and pastern 
 joints, the injurious effects, on the limbs, of concussion are 
 more or less obviated, and assistance is given in the straight- 
 ening of the limb, to raise the fore hand. As the horse will 
 have no difficulty, under ordinary conditions of soundness and 
 labour, in bringing his pastern into the same straight line as 
 his cannon-bone; the amount of **play" which the fetlock 
 will have, will depend on the distance through which the 
 fetlock can descend, or, in other words, on the acuteness of 
 the angle which the pastern can make with the ground, when 
 weight is thrown on the part. Although we cannot, by mere 
 inspection of the animal, determine the efficient limit of this 
 angle, we may assume that horses which have, when standing, 
 
198 THE FORE LIMB 
 
 what are called sloping pasterns (Fig. 298), will have more 
 play in these joints than those that have upright pasterns. 
 On the other hand, their back tendons and suspensory- 
 ligaments will work at a greater mechanical disadvantage. 
 As the expressions '' oblique (or sloping) pasterns/' and 
 *' upright pasterns/' are more comparative than absolute, it is 
 impossible to define them with precision. Figs. 298 and 306 
 may be taken as good examples of these respective forms of 
 conformation. I need hardly say that pasterns which would 
 be far too upright for fast work on hard ground, might do 
 admirably on soft ground or for slow draught Although the 
 pasterns of the fore legs shown in Fig. 306, appear very 
 upright; they belonged to a horse that galloped in good 
 style, and jumped (Figs. 195 to 199) with great cleverness and 
 flippancy, on all kinds of ground. The abnormal upright- 
 ness of his pasterns when he was standing, in no way 
 prevented his fetlock and pastern joints from having free 
 play durmg movement. The obvious lesson here is that 
 shape should not be studied independently of action. We 
 may accept, as an axiom, the statement that the harder the 
 ground and the faster the work, the more sloping should 
 the pasterns be, in order to save the legs from the injurious 
 effects of concussion (p. 57). If the horse be required to 
 gallop over hard ground, the pasterns can hardly be too 
 oblique (supposing, of course, that this condition has not 
 been brought on by injury) ; provided always that the 
 pastern bones are strong. I may point to Fig. 298 as an 
 extreme case of sloping pasterns in an Arab horse that had 
 remarkably sound legs. I may mention that such instances 
 are in no way uncommon among the sons of the desert ; and 
 that, as a rule, the possessors of such pasterns are animals 
 which like to **hear their feet rattle." As a case in point, I 
 may instance Mr. Covey s famous Arab, Marquis, who won 
 all over India, at all weights and all distances (m his own 
 class, of course). After doing as much work as would break 
 down a dozen ordinary horses, his legs were as clean as when 
 he was foaled , although, even when walking, his fetlocks 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fici. 296. — Good Fore Legs of Common Horse. 
 
 M. H. H 
 Fig. 297. — TiEu-iN below Knee 
 
 AND LARGE FeTLOCKS 
 
 M. H. //. 
 Fig. 298. 
 
 -Good Fore Legs and Sloping 
 Pasterns of Arab. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 19S. 
 
 Fig. 299.— Calf Knees : Legs otherwise good. 
 
UPRIGHT PASTERNS, 19S 
 
 came nearly down to the ground at each step — so oblique 
 were his pasterns. Their bones, though long and sloping, 
 were, however, of good substance. My experience among 
 horses in many lands leads me to the conclusion that the 
 drier the country in which they are bred and reared, the 
 more sloping are their pasterns. I advance no theory in 
 support of this instance of the *' survival of the fittest,'* which 
 I give merely for what it is worth. Australian horses, I may 
 mention, have their pasterns more oblique than English 
 horses (though practically of the same blood), and are 
 consequently better fitted for work on hard ground. As 
 the shoulder-blade and pastern are at the opposite ends of 
 the spring made by the bones of the fore limb, we may 
 infer that they should be more or less at the same slope. 
 Hence, if it be desirable that a horse should have oblique 
 shoulders, he should also have well sloped pasterns, which 
 is a term that had best be accepted as indicating a conditior 
 of limb, in which the fetlock and pastern joints have free 
 play. 
 
 The two curses which remain on English thoroughbreds 
 are upripfht pasterns and roaring-. The former condition is 
 such a common defect that it generally passes without 
 notice, and is accepted by the ignorant as the proper kind 
 of conformation. Of the two, I certainly think that undue 
 straightness of pastern is the cause of the turf career of more 
 English horses being cut short than is roaring. Examples 
 of this fatal shape are but too common. 
 
 As I have already said, the defect of uprightness of 
 pastern in the fore limb (want of " play " in the joints of the 
 fetlock and pastern), not alone militates against the speed 
 of a horse by causing him to suffer to an undue extent from 
 the injurious effects of concussion ; but also tends to decrease 
 his power of raising his fore hand by the straightening of the 
 fore limb, as we see done in Figs. 128, 129, 130, and 131. 
 It is evident that when the fetlock and pastern joints possess 
 but little mobility, there will be only a slight descent of the 
 fetlock joint, and consequently their ''play'* will affect but 
 
200 THE FORE LIMB, 
 
 little the length of the limb. I may here repeat (p. 47) 
 that propulsion is accomplished by the straightening out of 
 the limb, to effectually do which, the joints in question must 
 possess the ability to be freely flexed and extended. Every 
 experienced trainer will have noticed that as a race-horse's 
 fore pasterns become more and more upright from work, the 
 more will he lose his speed and his '* level" style of galloping. 
 This will also occur to a horse whose pasterns have become 
 abnormally oblique on account of sprain of the suspensory 
 ligament, in which case the defect will lie in the inability to 
 straighten the joint freely when weight is thrown on the limb. 
 It is evident that the longer the pastern, the greater will be 
 the play of the fetlock joint. Hence, length, as well as 
 obliquity, of pastern is an indication of speed. 
 
 Polo has done much to teach men in England the 
 necessity of sloping pasterns for work on hard ground. 
 
 Lecoq remarks that : *' The direction of the pastern is 
 almost always influenced by its length. The shorter the 
 pastern, the more upright is it ; and the longer it is, the 
 more is it sloped," This rule may hold good in horses of the 
 same class; but not, at least to the same extent, among 
 animals of different breeds. This French writer also adds 
 with iustice that: '* There are, however, horses — and especially 
 mules and asses-in which the pastern, although very short, 
 is well sloped." As the evil effects of concussion fall much 
 more severely on the fore limb than on the hind leg, its 
 pastern is, normally, more sloping. 
 
 Referring to Clydesdales, Mr. Dykes writes : '* No doubt 
 the upright pastern suits well the upright shoulder and slow 
 action of the English draught-horse, a conformation which 
 can scarcely be called the best for any purpose ; but it will 
 not do in the Clydesdale, which requires a pastern to suit 
 the formation of the shoulder, and to confer the necessary 
 elasticity to counteract the concussion caused by his quick 
 firm step. Short upright pasterns always get worse with age 
 and feeding, and the action in due course of time becomes 
 impeded. A horse with an upright pastern has little or no 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 300, — TiED-iN below the Knee 
 AND large Fetlock. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 301. — Small development of 
 Trapezium. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 302. — Tied-in below the Knee. 
 
 M, H. H. To face p. 200. 
 
 Fig. 303. — Over at the Knees. 
 
THE HOOF. 201 
 
 command of his foot, and literally walks as on a crutch ; and 
 if he has no power of his foot, he cannot have much in his 
 shoulder. The streets of Glasgow are very trying to horses 
 which have to scramble for a footing in the furrows between 
 the hard, smooth paving stones ; and horses with upright 
 pasterns are sometimes almost powerless to move, where 
 those with pasterns moderately sloped, and of medium 
 length, can walk with comparative ease. Farmers around 
 Glasgow are alive to this, and will not readily use a stallion 
 which has this defect, however strong and shapely." The 
 comparisons which Mr. Dykes draws between the Clydesdale 
 and the Shire horse in no way concern us here. 
 
 The Hoof. — The hoof serves as a horny boot in which 
 to enclose the bones and soft structures of the foot. The horn 
 of the wall, sole, and frog should be thick, hard and tough, so 
 as to resist in an efficient manner the effects of wear. Moisture 
 has a well-marked softening and weakening influence on the 
 horn, and it consequently affects the form of the foot. We 
 shall find that the drier the climate ; the stronger is the horn 
 of horses reared in it ; the more upright are the feet ; and the 
 more concave are the soles. I may explain that when the 
 horn of the wall and sole is weak, it will not be able to 
 efficiently support the weight thrown on the leg, and the foot 
 will have a tendency to become flat. The feet of, for instance, 
 horses bred in Australia are stronger than those produced 
 in England, owing to the climate being drier ; although both 
 are practically of the same blood. The fact that water 
 mechanically softens horn, does not explain why the hoofs of 
 horses in damp climates should be produced thinner than 
 those of animals in dry climates. We know from experience, 
 however, that moisture has a great influence in quickening 
 the growth of horn, as we may see in horses turned out on 
 marshy ground. Also, in those parts of India where the 
 yearly rain-fall, though large in quantity, is practically con- 
 fined to about four consecutive months, it is found that the 
 growth of the horses' feet during the ** monsoons " is much 
 
302 THE FORE LIMB, 
 
 greater than it is in the dry weather. Hence, we may reason- 
 ably conclude that this stimulation in growth is one of length 
 of horn, and not one of increased horny material The case, 
 I submit, is somewhat analogous to that of plants, which, 
 under the influence of an excess of moisture, spring up quickly, 
 with tissues full of water, but with little solid matter. The 
 great trouble with heavy cart-horses in England is from 
 the weakness of their hoofs, the horn of which, as a rule, is 
 neither thicker nor stronger than that of well-bred horses ; 
 although the strain which falls on It is much greater than that 
 which tries the tenacity of the horn of the feet of saddle 
 horses. Considering the greater size of the muscles and 
 bones of the draught animal, we should expect that the horn 
 of his hoofs would be proportionately stronger than that of 
 the half-bred. The fact that it is not stronger, is a proof 
 that English cart-horses are deficient in one of the most im- 
 portant points of usefulness. Veterinary surgeons in practice 
 in England and Scotland could tell us that the large majority 
 (I would say about nine-tenths) of cart-horses which come to 
 them for treatment, are foot cases. The ideal hoof of a cart- 
 horse should in no way differ from that which is most suitable 
 to a light trapper, hunter, or race-horse, except that it should 
 be larger and consequently stronger. Therefore, we should 
 regard with disfavour the weak feet, with their low, spread- 
 out heels and flat soles, which, from their frequent occurrence, 
 have become too generally accepted as characteristic of cart- 
 horses. Small contracted feet are equally bad. 
 
 The inner quarter of the foot is more upright than the 
 outer quarter, and its ground surface is straighter ; conditions 
 which provide for the fact of more weight falling on the inner 
 than on the outer part of the foot. The horn has its 
 maximum amount of thickness at the toe (at which part there 
 is the greatest amount of wear from friction with the ground), 
 and gradually gets thinner as it approaches the heels. As 
 the fore feet are intended to support more weight than the 
 hind feet; their ground surface is broader, their frogs are 
 larger, and their heels are lower. 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 304.— Slightly over at the Knees. 
 
 M. H. H, 
 Fig. 305.— Bones of Pasterns too slight. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 202. 
 
 Fig. 306.— Upright Pasterns. 
 
THE HOOF. 203 
 
 From many careful measurements of well-formed feet, 
 both in a natural state and when subjected to the influence of 
 shoeing, I have come to the conclusion that the slope of the 
 fore foot, at the toe, should be about 50^^, with a variation, 
 one way or the other, of, say, not more than 3^. The slope 
 of the hoof will conform somewhat to that of the pastern. 
 The outside surface of the hoof should be naturally smooth, 
 and should be straight from the coronet to the ground ; for 
 undue roughness, bulging-out, or concavity of surface will 
 probably indicate the presence or previous existence of disease. 
 The heels should be strong and the "bars'' well developed, 
 so that the proper slope of the foot may be maintained, and 
 that the liability to *' corns" or to contraction of the heels, 
 may be lessened. I may point out that one effect of shoeing 
 in the ordinary manner is to cause the heels to be subjected 
 to more wear than the toes ; for, at the latter part, the 
 position of the iron with regard to the wall is fixed ; but at 
 the former there is a certain amount of *'play'' between 
 the shoe and the horn. Consequently, the tendency of 
 the shod foot will be to acquire a less slope than it ought to 
 have at the toe. This difficulty in preserving the proper 
 shape of the hoof is a troublesome one to every careful and 
 competent shoeing smith. Some horses have such weak heels, 
 that if they wear ordinary shoes, it is impossible to keep the 
 feet at a proper slope, or to prevent them getting corns. The 
 fact of the feet being at a less slope than natural, will cause 
 an undue amount of strain to be thrown on the back tendons 
 (p. 57). I may mention that if the bars be weak in pro- 
 portion to the wall, or if they be cut away, the heels of the 
 shod foot will have a tendency to contract Unusual width 
 between the heels Is generally associated with weakness of 
 those parts. A t the same time they should have no tendency 
 to contraction, which will not be present if the frog, as it ought 
 to be, is well developed. I may remark that an abnormal size 
 of frog, especially if the sole be convex, or even flat, will, as 
 a rule, point to the effects of laminitis (fever of the feet). If, 
 however, the frog is in a healthy state, and if the sole, as it 
 
204 THE FORE LIMB, 
 
 should be, is concave in form, the observer need not fear that 
 the frog is too big. Horses which have never been shod, have 
 their frogs much larger, their heels further apart, and the 
 ground surface of their feet of greater area, than those which 
 habitually stand on iron. The cleft of the frog in a healthy 
 foot is merely a slight depression in the centre of the frog, 
 and does not communicate with the sensitive structures 
 immediately above the frog. If the wall be strong and the 
 sole be concave, we may rest assured that the horn which 
 covers the sole is of sufficient substance, provided, of course, 
 that it has not been pared away by the shoeing-smith. 
 Some horses have an excess of soft tissue at the back of the 
 foot, which then makes the distance between the coronet 
 and heels abnormally long. This condition is known as 
 ''boxy" or *' fleshy heels," and is objectionable in that it 
 cramps the action of the foot, and renders it weaker, and 
 consequently more liable to injury, than if the foot were in a 
 normal state. 
 
 An undesirable kind of conformation (Fig. 305) which is 
 sometimes seen, usually in horses that have a combination of 
 cart and thoroughbred blood, is that which gives the hoof the 
 appearance of being too big for the bones which it covers, 
 without being in any way deformed by disease, or by an 
 overgrowth of horn. This condition is due to the pastern 
 bones being slight in comparison to the size of the pedal 
 bone, which, in health, regulates that of the hoof. In such 
 cases, the leg is not alone abnormally weak, but the fact that 
 its bones are not symmetrical, points to the probability that 
 there are, in other parts of the framework, similar instances 
 of lack of harmonious conformation. 
 
C Re id, W'ishciXv, 
 
 Fig. 307. — Iceland Pony. 
 
 M. H, H, 
 
 Fig. 308.— Heavy-Toppku Hunter. 
 
 To face p. 204. 
 
( 205 ) 
 
 CHAPTKR XIX. 
 
 THE HIND LIMB. 
 
 General View of the Hind Limb— The Pelvis — ^Thigh and Stifle — Tibia — 
 Hock — Cannon and Fetlock — Pastern and Hoof. 
 
 As many points of resemblance exist between the fore and 
 hind limb, I shall assume, in order to avoid needless 
 repetition, that my readers, before arriving at this chapter, 
 have studied the preceding one, and also Chapter VII L, in 
 which I have tried to explain the action of both pairs of 
 legs. 
 
 General View of the Hind Limb.— As the pelvis, 
 which is analogous to the shoulder-blade of the fore leg, is 
 essentially a portion of the hind-quarters, I have reserved its 
 consideration for this chapter, instead of the one (Chapter 
 XVI L) in which I have attempted to treat of the trunk. 
 Although the chief function of the hind limb is that of 
 propulsion, it has, like the fore extremity, to bear weight ; 
 but to a lesser extent, and is also less exposed to the effects 
 of concussion. Thus we see that while the shoulder-blade 
 is connected to the body by muscles which work like a 
 spring, in order to save the parts from the ill effects of 
 concussion ; the pelvis is firmly united to the spine, so 
 that the force of propulsion by the hind limbs may be 
 transmitted to the body with but little mechanical loss. 
 The pastern and hoof of the hind-quarters are naturally 
 more upright than those of the fore hand, and, con- 
 
2o6 THE BIND LIMB 
 
 sequently, the muscles which bend them, act to greater 
 mechanical advantage. 
 
 We have seen in Chapter VIIL, that for the attainment 
 of high speed, the horse should possess the fullest ability to 
 bend and extend the hind limb. Hence the beauty, in the 
 race-horse, of a '' straight dropped " hind leg. As this power 
 chiefly depends on the action of the hock, I shall defer its 
 further consideration, until I come to that joint. 
 
 On page 138, I have remarked that the desirable pro- 
 portions for the bones of the limb are : pelvis, long ; thigh, 
 short ; tibia (from stifle to hock), long ; cannon, short ; and 
 pastern, long. 
 
 The sets of muscles which move the joints of the hind 
 limb, appear to complete their respective actions, in suc- 
 cession, from above downwards, namely : the hip-joint 
 first ; then the stifle ; and, finally, the hock and fetlock ; the 
 former being extended by the muscle that bends the latter. 
 We may infer that, to be effective in the production of speed, 
 these actions must increase in rapidity in the same order. 
 As the muscles that *' start" the weight at each step are 
 those which extend the hip-joint, we must look for, in the 
 cart-horse, special muscular development of the croup and 
 thigh. In the race-horse, however, length and power of the 
 muscles of the gaskin, which cause acceleration of speed at 
 the end of the *' stroke,'' should be particularly sought fon 
 These deductions, I may remark, are in accordance with the 
 nature of the conformation respectively exhibited by horses 
 which are the representative types of the two classes. 
 
 The Pelvis. — For speed we require the pelvis to be as 
 long as possible ; for strength, as broad as it can be. 
 
 The consideration of the best slope for the pelvis is a much 
 more difficult question than that of the most suitable angle for 
 the shoulder-blade, which, for most purposes, cannot be too 
 oblique. 
 
 If we examine Fig. 94, and refer to Chapter IX., we shall 
 see that the push, in draught, by the hind leg, is in an irregular 
 
THE PELVIS 207 
 
 line from the toe, through the bones of the hind limb, the 
 pelvis, and the body, to the centre of pressure of the collar 
 on the shoulder. In Fig. 139, the line of propulsion is similar 
 to that in heavy draught, except that it passes through the 
 centre of gravity, instead of the centre of pressure on the 
 shoulder by the collar. It is evident that the straighter, or 
 less convex, this irregular line is, the more effective will be 
 the propulsion. In draught, therefore, shortness of the hind 
 limbs, as compared to the fore hand, will be an advantage (as 
 I have also pointed out on p. 61), in that it will tend to 
 render the line of bones through which propulsion takes 
 place, straight. As good length of hind limb is a necessity 
 in the galloper ; any reduction in the convexity of this line 
 will have to be obtained by the opening out of its angles, and 
 not by curtailing the length of the hind limb. Thus, the 
 hind leg will be stretched out as much as possible to the rear 
 (compare Figs. 94 and 139), and the direction of the pelvis (as 
 a point of conformation) will be more horizontal than in the 
 draught animal The so-called horizontal croup is not alone 
 a great beauty in the saddle horse, but it is also a decided 
 mark of speed. If the pelvis or croup (which in this case is 
 practically the same thing) be too level (pp. 175 and 176), 
 we may suspect that the back is weak. 
 
 I need hardly point out that the pelvis is more upright 
 when the animal is standing still, than when he is in move- 
 ment; and when he has no burden on his back, than when he 
 is mounted. 
 
 In jumping, the conditions are different from those of 
 galloping or draught ; for special provision has to be made 
 in the leap for raising the fore hand when the horse " takes 
 off" If we refer to Fig. 195, we shall see that the more a 
 horse, at that moment, gets his hind legs under him, the 
 easier will it be for him to raise his fore hand. The more 
 sloping is the conformation of the pelvis, the more will the 
 hip joints be lowered and brought forward. Hence a '' goose- 
 rumped " horse will be able to get his hind legs more under 
 him, than if his pelvis were more or less horizontal. The 
 
2o8 THE HIND LIMB, 
 
 correctness of this theory is borne out by the fact that in 
 Ireland hunting men h'ke a hunter to have a drooping pelvis , 
 because, so they say, this shape is generally associated with 
 cleverness in jumping. Although high-class chasers generally 
 have the pelvis fairly sloped ; they are rarely goose-rumped, 
 with an exception now and then, like Soarer. 
 
 From a galloping point of view, a drooping pelvis is 
 a serious defect; for its existence implies that the back- 
 ward sweep of the hind leg is proportionately curtailed, and 
 consequently the compass of the stride is more or less 
 cramped. Also, on account of the point of the buttock being 
 depressed, the muscles (the tsckio tibial) which are attached 
 to it and to the head of the tibia, and which aid in the ex- 
 tension of the hip-joint, will be unduly shortened in length. 
 To have the point of the buttock placed high and projecting 
 well to the rear is a great beauty, which may be seen in some 
 thoroughbreds and high-caste Arabs. I may state that this 
 kind of conformation is found in a high state of perfection 
 in the hare, in which animal the pelvis is not alone more or 
 less horizontally placed ; but the portion of it (the ischium) 
 that is behind the cavity in which the head of the hip-bone 
 works, is much longer in proportion to the remainder of the 
 pelvis than it is in the horse. 
 
 A horse with unusually drooping quarters, as in Fig. 280, 
 is said to be *' goose-rumped." 
 
 The prominence which some horses show in the middle of 
 the croup (Fig. 235), is due to the large development of the 
 inner angle (posterior iliac spine. Fig. 12) of the pelvis (at 
 each side), and points to the presence, in the part, of strong 
 muscles. Cloister (Frontispiece) and St.^ Gatien have this 
 prominence well marked. This peculiarity indicates gfreat 
 length of pelvis, which is a ve:^ desi«ble jiint in the hunter 
 and chaser, in both of which, as we have already seen 
 (p. 184), a long shoulder-blade is essential. As the pelvis in 
 the hind limb is the analogue of the shoulder-blade of the 
 fore limb ; it follows that these two bones should be of 
 proportionate length. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 309. — A Finish at Kempton Park. 
 
 5r-.x 
 
 M. //. H. 
 
 Fig. 310. — Upright Shoulders and poor Gaskins. 
 
 To face p. 20S. 
 
TIBIA* 209 
 
 Thigh and Stifle. — The muscles of the thigh should be 
 well developed, so that, when viewed from the rear (Fig. 287), 
 they should leave no unsightly gap between the legs. For 
 speed, the thigh should be comparatively short (p. 138), 
 in which case the stifle will have the appearance of being 
 placed high up on the flank (p. 139). The stifle should be 
 directed well outwards, so that it will have no difficulty in 
 clearing the abdomen, which the peculiar construction of the 
 hock joint that is explained on p. 58, enables it to do. It 
 seems probable that the fact of some '* cow-hocked " (hocks 
 turned in, p. 210) horses being able to show an unexpected 
 turn of speed, is frequently due to this kind of conformation 
 conferring on them increased ability to bring their hind feet 
 well forward. 
 
 Tibia. — Under this term, I wish to include the muscles 
 and tendons between the stifle and point of the hock, with 
 their coverings, as well as the tibia (Fig. 12), which, I may 
 repeat, is the bone that lies between the stifle and hock 
 joint. For speed, the tibia should have a maximum of length 
 (p. 138). It is very long in the hare. 
 
 The Gasktn is one of the most important points by 
 which we may judge of the suitability of a horse for fast 
 work ; for I venture to assert, after a long and careful 
 study of the subject, that it is impossible for a horse to 
 have a really fine turn of speed, unless he has broad 
 gaskins. I may point out that width of gaskin is conferred 
 by length of os calcis (p. 26). We may see from p. 58 
 that the longer the os calcis^ the greater is the mechanical 
 advantage at which the muscles that are attached to the 
 point of the hock, work. I may add, that these muscles 
 agree in length with the tibia, and that the longer they are, 
 the quicker will be the action of the hock in propulsion. 
 The gaskin should not alone be broad, for purposes of 
 speed ; but in all cases its muscles should be well developed 
 (Frontispiece and Figs. 274, 312, 320, 322 and 370). In 
 Fig. 310, the gaskin is poor. 
 
210 THE BIND LIMB 
 
 The Hock. — On page 64, I have indicated the direction 
 which the hock should have, as viewed from behind We 
 have seen on page 58, that by a special an-angement of the 
 bones of the hock, the stifle is enabled to clear the abdomen, 
 without altering the direction of the hind foot, when the hind 
 leo- IS brought forward during: movement This action is 
 facilitated by the fact that, in a normally shaped leg, the 
 hock is directed slightly outwards as well as forwards 
 When the points of the hocks are turned in to excess 
 (Fig, 50), the effect on the eye is bad , but the mechanical 
 loss is small, unless, indeed, the fault be much exaggerated 
 If, on the contrary, the points of the hocks be turned 
 outwards, the forward reach of the hind legs will be impeded 
 by the abdomen. Also, if we observe, from behind, a horse 
 which has this kind of conformation, and which is walking, 
 we shall as a rule find that each hock, instead of moving 
 steadily in a straight line, receives a peculiar twist (which 
 must be accompanied by loss of power) while it is propelling 
 the body forward. Experience certainly teaches us that, of 
 the two defects, it is better for a horse to have his hocks 
 turned in, than to have them turned out 
 
 For purposes of speed, the hock should possess the power 
 of being fully extended (p. 51) , hence the beauty of a 
 ''straight dropped" hind leg. In all great gallopers 
 (Ormonde, Cloister, St Simon, Favonius, and Persimmon) 
 we may see^ this kind of conformation ; although it is true 
 that some fairly speedy horses (but not of the highest class) 
 have their hocks more bent than the types I have given 
 This ability to straighten the hock is not required, to any 
 great degree, in animals that are used at slow paces. 
 ** Sickle-hocks" (Fig. 316), as those are termed which remain 
 bent to a marked degree, when the joint is extended as much 
 as possible, are, however, objectionable in any kind of horse. 
 
 While recognising the desirability of straight hocks for 
 speed, we must not forget that this kind of conformation, to 
 be effective, must be accompanied by good length of hind 
 hmb from hip-joint to foot, in order to obtain full advantage 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 311. — Large "Bone" below 
 THE Hock, 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 312.— Large "Bone" below the 
 Hock and broad Gaskins. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 313.— Large "Bone" below 
 THE Hock. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 314. — Large "Bone" below 
 THE Hock. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 210. 
 
 Fig. 315. — Large "Bone" below 
 
 THE Hock. 
 
THE HOCK. 211 
 
 from flexion and extension. If the hind leg be compara- 
 tively short and the hock straight, as in Fig. 280, it is 
 evident that there will be but little straightening out of the 
 limb, when the *' shove-off" is being given. 
 
 The width of the leg, immediately below the hock 
 (looking at the limb in profile), should be as great as possible 
 compared to the width of the fetlock. This desirable shape 
 (which has its analogy in the fore limb, see p. 195) is well 
 shown in Figs. 311, ^i'^, and 314. I may remark that the 
 hock in Fig. 314, which is that of a half-bred saddle nag, is 
 not a particularly straight one, although it is otherwise well 
 shaped. Fig. 3 1 7 is a capital illustration of the defect known 
 as *'tied-in" below the hock. Fig. 311 shows a beautifiil 
 hock — with great bone and straight-dropped hind leg — of a 
 smart and strong hurdle racer and chaser (Mariner by 
 Geologist). We may contrast it very favourably with the 
 hock in Fig. 319. The hock (that of a thoroughbred) in 
 Fig. 318, though fairly good, is neither so straight nor has 
 such good bone just below the joint as that in Fig. 311. The 
 leg in Fig. 312 belonged to a yearling thoroughbred, by 
 Highland Chief, that had, as we may see from the photo- 
 graph, remarkably good hocks for her age. 
 
 We are all agreed that a horse should have large hocks, 
 an expression which — ^granting that its shape is good in other 
 respects — is synonymous with '' strong hocks.'' If we find 
 that a horse is not **tied-in" below the hock, and that his 
 gaskins are broad {i,e, his os calcis long), we may rest assured 
 that his hocks are of good size. 
 
 As the diseases and injuries of the hock belong to the 
 domain of equine surgery, and as I have investigated them 
 in Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners, I shall not allude 
 further to them here. The desirable absence of synovial 
 enlargements and of an undue amount of cellular tissue will 
 be indicated by the bones, tendons, and ligaments, and by 
 the hollows and eminences formed by them, being clearly 
 defined underneath the skin. 
 
 The horse has on the inside of each hind limb, and a little 
 
 p 2 
 
212 THE HIND LIMB, 
 
 below the hock joint, a castor or chesmtt somewhat similar 
 to that found in the fore leg (p. 192). 
 
 Hocks and Knees well let down, — There is no point in 
 the conformation of the horse, upon which more stress is 
 usually laid, than that which may be described in horsey 
 language as *' hocks and knees well let down,'' or '* hocks 
 and knees close to the ground." The cheetah (Fig. 3) has 
 this point well marked. The black buck (Fig. i), another 
 speedy animal, is, on the contrary, long from his hocks and 
 knees. From an examination of the comparative length of 
 the bones of the limbs (pp. 137 to 139), we know that 
 the proportion of the length of the column of bones below the 
 knee and hock to that of the radius and tibia, respectively, 
 remains more or less constant. How then comes it, we may 
 well ask, that the idea of the hocks and knees of some horses 
 being better *'let down," than those of other horses, has 
 gained currency? As regards the fore limb, the answer is 
 easy; for the knee of a leg which has a comparatively 
 short cannon-bone and a sloping pastern, would, naturally, 
 be somewhat closer to the ground, than it would be, were 
 the cannon-bone long and the pastern upright. Besides this, 
 the appearance of a comparatively long cannon may, I ven- 
 ture to think, give the impression of greater length below 
 the knee and hock, than would be the case, were the cannon 
 short in comparison to the pastern. As regards the opinion 
 that the length from hock to toe, as compared to that from 
 hock to stifle— irrespective of the slope of the pastern — being 
 less in some horses than in others, I must say that I think it 
 is founded on an optical delusion. If we examine Fig. 313 
 we shall see a hock which certainly gives us the idea that it 
 is **well let down" ; but a look at Fig. 316 will convey to 
 our minds the opposite kind of impression. And yet if we 
 take a pair of dividers and describe a circle, with the point 
 of the hock as a centre, and its distance from the toe as a 
 radius, we shall find that in the case of both Fig. 313 and 
 Fig. 316, the circumference will cut the curved fold of skin 
 near the groin at the same point! For convenience' sake, 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 316.— Sickle Hocks. 
 
 M, H.H. 
 Fig. 317. — TiEU-iN below the Hock. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 Fig. 318.— Fairly good "Bone" below 
 THE Hock. 
 
 M. H. H, To face p. 212. 
 
 Fig. 319.— Small "Bone" below 
 THE Hock. 
 
PASTERN AND HOOF. 213 
 
 I have taken these measurements, which are sufficiently 
 accurate for the purpose in question ; although it would have 
 been more correct to have made them from the hock joint 
 to the toe, and to the stifle joint, respectively. From whence 
 arises, then, this difference of appearance between these two 
 hind limbs, as regards the height of the hock off the ground ? 
 To this I would reply that the fact of the hock in Fig. 313 
 being ** straight" (p. 210), gives the impression to the ob- 
 server that it is better ** let down " than the **bent" hock in 
 Fig. 316; for, as the eye runs down the limb, it would not be 
 so abruptly arrested by the former as by the latter kind of 
 conformation. Also, the broader the bone is immediately 
 below the hock (contrast Fig. 315 with Fig. 317), as com- 
 pared to the width of the hind fetlock ; the easier will the 
 eye of the observer run down the hind leg. 
 
 Cannon and Fetlock. — Considering these parts, I have 
 nothing to add to what I have already written in this chapter 
 and in the preceding one, beyond saying that if the leg is 
 of good width immediately below the hock, its shape will be 
 all right down to the fetlock. 
 
 Pastern and Hoof, — As the hind limb is concerned more 
 in propulsion than in resisting the evil effects of concussion ; 
 its pastern should be more upright, than what would be 
 required in that of the fore leg. The hoof should more 
 nearly approach the perpendicular, than the fore one ; its 
 slope, when viewed in profile, being, in unshod horses, about 
 60"^. It is, as compared to its length, narrower ; the ground 
 surfaces of its quarters are straighter, and their respective 
 curvatures differ less from each other, than those of the fore 
 extremity. The horn at the toe is not so thick ; the sole is 
 more concave ; the frog is narrower and less developed ; and 
 the heels are higher and closer together. 
 
214 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 Skin — Colour — Colour in relation to Heat and Cold -Hair — Han- on tJie 
 
 Legs of Cart-horses — Maikmgs. 
 
 Skin^ — The chief functions of the horse's skin, as far as 
 we are at present concerned, are: (i) to regulate the tem- 
 perature of the body ; (2) to aid in removing waste matters 
 from the blood ; and (3) to protect the body. As the first 
 and second duties are intimately connected with each other, 
 we may consider them conjointly. 
 
 The internal temperature being maintained by the 
 changes which take place in the tissues ; exercise, by 
 promoting these changes, increases the production of heat 
 But as it also determines blood to the surface of the body, 
 and thereby stimulates the sweat glands ; the surplus heat is 
 removed by an increased amount of evaporation from the 
 skin, which performs this work, and also that of radiating 
 heat, best when it is thm. Although the subject of health is 
 outside the scope of this book, I may remark, in passing, that 
 a soft and pliable condition of the skin is due to the fact of 
 the oil glands, which are imbedded in it, being In good orden 
 Granting the employment of clothing when necessary, we 
 may assume that the skin of hard-worked horses, especially 
 those which are engaged at fast paces, should, within 
 reasonable limits, be as thin as possible, consistent with its 
 being able to stand the friction and pressure of harness or 
 saddle-gear. 
 
COLOUR. 215 
 
 Colour. — The colour of a horse's coat, as a rule, does not 
 seem to be of much importance, as far as his useful qualities 
 are concerned ; although we cannot help being favourably- 
 impressed with those of rich and decided shades. Personally, 
 I admire most a dark chestnut, or a dark brown with a tinge 
 of rich claret-colour through it, as may be met with on rare 
 occasions. Dark, bright bays are also very pleasing to the 
 eye. Generally speaking, a horse looks best when his legs 
 below the knees and hocks, mane and tail are darker than 
 the rest of his coat. Bright chestnuts or bright bays, with 
 white stockings and blaze, like many of the Blair Athol 
 blood, form, perhaps, an exception to this, supposing, of 
 course, that there is not too much white about the face. I 
 cannot help sharing the general dislike to ** mealy" chestnuts, 
 and to bays and browns which are lighter on the insides of 
 the limbs and on the lower part of the belly than on other 
 portions of the body. The existence of this partial deficiency 
 of colouring matter in the skin seems to infer want of 
 nervous power ; for we must remember that the distribution 
 of pigment is greatly influenced by the nervous system. The 
 common belief that if one fore leg is dark and the other 
 white, the latter will be more apt to go wrong than the 
 former, holds good, I think, only as far as the skin and hoof 
 are concerned. Many persons consider black a *' soft '' 
 colour, except, indeed, in the case of cart-horses, which are 
 much admired when of that hue. The prejudice to which I 
 have just alluded is, probably, due to the fact of many animals 
 of this shade being '* foreigners." Grey is, undoubtedly, an 
 unpopular colour. Apart from any feeling as regards the 
 colour itself, it is true that It gets fainter as the horse grows 
 older, and then unmistakably and perhaps unpleasantly 
 proclaims the fact that the animal has passed his first youth 
 Besides this, a grey coat is difficult to keep clean, and is 
 liable to contract stains which are hard to remove. The 
 extra trouble thus entailed predisposes grooms to dislike grey 
 horses, a fact which may account for the small number of 
 grey horses in England, compared with those met with in 
 
2i6 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR 
 
 the East, where stable duties are not so onerous as m this 
 country. I may mention that grey horses appear to be more 
 liable to melanosis than animals of other colours Shire 
 horse fanciers do not like greys , for the majority of foreign 
 buyers object to them. Some of their best horses, as 
 What's Wanted and Rokeby Fuchsia, for instance, were of 
 this hue. For my own part, I am very fond of dark iron or 
 dappled grey with dark mane and tail. Among the cleverest 
 hunters I have seen, I must say that a comparatively large 
 proportion of them have been greys, a fact for which I can 
 offer no explanation, unless that of their havmg had 
 Chanticleer blood in their veins. In Leicestershire, moderate 
 performers, as a rule, are averse from riding out hunting a 
 grey horse, whose conspicuous colour is apt to draw attention 
 to sins of commission and omission m too marked a manner 
 to be always pleasant. Blue and red roans, and dun with 
 black points, are supposed to be *' hardy" colours. The most 
 showy colours for harness work are bright chestnut and red 
 roan with more chestnut than grey hairs, and free from white 
 patches. When there is a large admixture of white with the 
 red, the colour may be called strawberry roan, which is an 
 ugly hue, particularly if the animal that wears it has a blaze 
 and white stockings. Both piebald (black and white) and 
 skewbald (bay or chestnut and white) may be suggestive of 
 a circus, except in a team ; although as clever a hunter (Fig 
 320) as I have seen in Leicestershire was a skewbald. In 
 a hunter, both piebald and skewbald are even more con- 
 spicuous than grey The colours found among high-caste 
 Arab horses are practically limited to bay, brown, chestnut, 
 and grey. The same remark applies to our own thorough- 
 bred stock, except that we have a few roans, and a very 
 small proportion of greys chiefly through Chanticleer. The 
 general idea that chestnuts are more impetuous than horses 
 of other colours, is one which I do not think worthy of much 
 weight. 
 
 Mr. T. C. Patteson, of Toronto, draws my attention to 
 the very interesting fact that the offspring of two chestnuts 
 
M. H. H. 
 Fig. 320.— Captain G. S. Williams's Hunter, Joskpii. By The King; dam by Will Scarlett. 
 
 M. H. H. To face p. 216. 
 
 Fig. 321.— Weight-carrying Hunter, the property of Prince Henry of Pless. 
 
COLOUR. Ill 
 
 IS always a chestnut (hence the uniformity of colour in 
 Suffolk cart-horses) , and that a grey is produced only when 
 one or both of the parents are grey. There is a certain 
 uniformity, which is by no means absolute, in breeding 
 respectively from bays and browns, as we may see among 
 Cleveland bays and brown Exmoors. Mr. Patteson informs 
 me that two greys may produce a bay foal. 
 
 The colour of the skin itself is either black, pink (free 
 from pigment), or it may be partly black and partly pink in 
 patches Although the large majority of grey and white 
 horses have black skins ; pink skin will invariably produce 
 white hair, and will secrete (at the coronets) white hoofs. 
 Black skin will form dark-coloured horn, even when the coat 
 is white Although, as I have just said, white horses may 
 have black skins , we shall find that the skin of white 
 markings (stars, blazes, reaches, snips, stockings, etc) on 
 dark-coloured horses is, as a rule, pink. In fact, I venture 
 to say that the skin of white stockings is always pink, and 
 consequently the hoofs of these legs will be white ; provided, 
 of course, that the white hair is continued down to the 
 coronet. In the East we may not infrequently see pink- 
 skinned horses, which, of course, are white, and which, 
 according to my experience, are much ** softer " in constitu- 
 tion than animals with dark skins. This fact is, I think, 
 chiefly owing to the greater effect the rays of the sun have 
 on skins which are free from pigment, than on dark-coloured 
 skins. Besides, as human albinos are generally inferior, 
 intellectually and physically, to their fellows, we may suppose 
 that the same rule holds good with respect to these equine 
 albinos. Experiments show that dark-coloured hair is 
 capable of sustaining greater tension than blonde hair. 
 Hence we have reason to assume that the protective cuticle 
 and horn (both of which, like hair, consist of epithelium), 
 secreted by dark-coloured skin, are stronger than those 
 formed by pink skin. 
 
 Enpflish stable-men who make a practice of washing: horses' 
 feet, Ihtly consider that the anLals under their' charge 
 
2i8 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR, 
 
 which have white pasterns, are more Hable to get cracked 
 heels than those which have dark ones. The supposed 
 idiosyncrasy in this case is no doubt chiefly due to the extra 
 amount of washing which the white pasterns receive, so as 
 to give them a clean appearance. 
 
 Colour in relation to Heat and Cold. — Experience in 
 tropical climates teaches us that the darker a horse's coat is, 
 the better will he stand the effects of the sun. I may explain 
 that dark surfaces radiate out heat and also absorb it faster 
 than those of a lighter hue, as we may prove by the two 
 following experiments. If we fill with boiling water two 
 crockery teapots of the same form — one being white, the 
 other black — we shall find that if they are both placed in a 
 cool spot, the latter will lose its heat quicker than the 
 former. If, however, they are filled with icy cold water, and 
 are then exposed under similar conditions to the effect of the 
 sun on a hot day, the black one will get warm in a shorter 
 time than its fellow. We are also aware that the skin of 
 natives of tropical climates is darker than that of in- 
 habitants of temperate or cold countries ; and that in the 
 Arctic regions, the coats of various animals turn white on 
 the approach of winter. The working of this natural law is 
 most beneficent ; for, as the temperature of the body of the 
 polar bear, for instance, is much higher than that of the 
 atmosphere in which he lives, he can lose nothing on account 
 oi his whkt coat hdng a bad absorber of heat ; while the 
 fact of its parting with (radiating) heat slowly, helps the body 
 to maintain its normal degree of warmth. The skin of the 
 negro, for example, although it absorbs heat quickly, radiates 
 it still faster ; for the vapour given off by the skin cools the 
 surface, and also, by the mechanical protection it affords, 
 tends to prevent the absorption of heat from the atmosphere. 
 At first glance, we might, possibly, imagine that if the 
 surrounding air was warmer than the internal temperature 
 (about 99.5° Fahrenheit for the horse), no cooling effect 
 could be produced by radiation. When, however, the skin 
 
HAIR ON THE LEGS OF CART-HORSES, 219 
 
 is jp healthy and untrammelled action, its temperature, on 
 account of the free evaporation of perspiration, is consider- 
 ably under that of the deeper structures, even when the 
 thermometer stands, say, ii^"" Fahrenheit in the shade. If, 
 under such circumstances, clothing be worn, the garments will 
 soon become almost, if not quite, as hot as the surrounding 
 air, evaporation will be checked, except from the exposed 
 parts, the temperature of the skin will rise, and the cooling 
 process of radiation will be more or less stopped. In this 
 case, any gain which may be obtained in lessening the 
 absorption of heat, as persons do in hot countries, by wearing 
 white will be a direct gain. During the summer months in 
 tropical latitudes, the hair on a horse's body will, usually, be 
 so short and thin, that its presence will offer no impedi- 
 ment to the action of the skin. Agreeably to the foregoing 
 observations, we find that black and brown horses stand heat 
 best ; and that white — especially if they have pink skins — and 
 grey animals sustain it comparatively badly. I have fre- 
 quently observed on hot days in tropical climates that, other 
 things being equal, grey horses sweated far more readily 
 and profusely than those of darker shades. 
 
 Hair. — The possession of a fine glossy coat will naturally 
 indicate that the skin is in active working order, and conse- 
 quently in good condition for removing the surplus heat 
 generated in the body by hard labour. The Desert Arabs, 
 who have no objection to a thick mane, consider that unless 
 a horse has a thin tail, he cannot be of high caste. The 
 same idea seems to have given rise to the saying that one 
 never sees a bad rat-tailed horse. 
 
 Hair on the Legs of Cart-horses. — It is a common 
 belief that cart-horses with a good supply of hair on the legs 
 have better bone than the cleaner limbed animals. Mr. 
 G. M. Sexton, secretary to the English Cart-horse Society, 
 in his essay on cart-horses, writes as follows: *'One of the 
 characteristics of the Shire horse is to have hair on the legs. 
 
220 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR. 
 
 The hair should be long and thin, finer in quality on the 
 mare than the stallion ; it should grow from the fetlock above 
 the knee, and the same behind the hock. By many this is 
 thought to be a useless appendage, and that this abundance 
 of hair is a cause of grease ; but it is not so by any means. 
 Hair is an indication of bone and size." Mr. Frederick 
 Street, in his History of the Shire Horse, gives *' plenty of 
 long silky hair on the legs " as one of the desirable points in 
 the Shire horse. Mr. James Howard, M. P., in his Note% on Cart- 
 horses (Royal Agricultural Journal, 1884), remarks that '' A 
 grave doubt, however, arises whether the profusion of hair 
 and ' feather ' insisted upon in show-yards and among the 
 leading breeders of Shire horses is really so essential to 
 strength and constitution as is generally asserted and 
 believed. As a farmer of heavy clay land — much of it 
 hilly — which requires very powerful horses in tillage and in 
 carting, I have long entertained doubts as to the policy of 
 the present tendency to such a profusion of hair. Breeders 
 not only contend for hair on the rear of the legs, but 
 many have also come to insist upon a mass of hair in front 
 from the knee downward, doubtless a characteristic of many 
 of the old Shire horses bred in Derbyshire early in the 
 present century. Of course, no one contends that all this 
 hairy covering is desirable in itself; it is advocated as 
 being essential to hardiness of constitution and size of bone 
 This contention merely means that the desired constitution 
 and sufficient bone have not hitherto been obtained without 
 an abundance of hair." This gentleman cites cases in 
 which, for railway work, clean-legged horses are preferred to 
 those with a plentiful supply of hair, on account of the 
 latter being predisposed to grease and other forms of 
 inflammation of the skin of these parts. We may readily 
 see that legs which have a large amount of coarse hair on 
 them would be predisposed to grease and other allied 
 ailments ; for, as both hair and scurf skin are secreted by 
 the true skin, we may infer that if the former is thick and 
 coarse, the latter will be strong and harsh, and conse- 
 
MARKINGS, 221 
 
 quently, the oil which is secreted to keep the surface soft 
 and supple, will not be able to perform its duty as 
 efficiently as it would do, were the scurf skin thin. 
 When the scurf skin gets hard and cracks from the effects 
 of^ climate and from its being insufficiently supplied by 
 this oil, the highly sensitive true skin becomes inflamed 
 from irritation due to exposure. The fact of cart- 
 horses being peculiarly liable to *' sallenders," if they are 
 blistered for ** bog spavins," taken in connection with the 
 coarseness of their hair, as compared ^ to that of lighter 
 breeds, would seem to support the opinion that the coarser 
 the hair, the more liable is the animal to suffer from 
 inflammation of the skin, of which grease is a form that is 
 very difficult to entirely allay. We may safely conclude that 
 if hair on the legs be desired, it should be soft and silky in 
 its nature. I may mention that Prmce William, who, as a 
 two-year-old, was the champion of all classes in the Shire 
 Horse Society's show for 1885, had the best hair I have ever 
 seen on a cart-horse. Mr. Thomas Dykes, in his essay on 
 The Clydesdale Horse, states that '' the back part from the 
 knee down should possess a nice flowing fringe of silken hair, 
 which should spring from the very edge of the bone. This 
 hair should be of what a judge of a Skye terrier would style 
 a * pily * nature ; and good judges will not have a horse at 
 all, the feather of which has a coarse matted appearance. 
 The high value set upon nice silky hair is on account of its 
 being an indication of strong, healthy bone, and as hair of a 
 short coarse matted kind suggests a tendency to grease " 
 
 Mr, John Anthony, the well-known Norfolk breeder of 
 hackneys, tells me that Shire horses, bred on chalky soil, 
 like that in Norfolk, never have as good a show of hair on 
 their legs, as those brought up on land with less lime in it. 
 
 Markings. — When a dark-coloured horse has a small 
 patch of white, more or less in the centre of his forehead, 
 it is called a '*star'' (Fig. 237). If the white spreads over 
 the forehead, it is termed a *' blaze'* (Fig. 232). If it runs 
 
222 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR 
 
 down the nose in the form of a line of no great width, it 
 is known as a ''reach" or ''stripe'' (Fig. 249). A white 
 or pink patch on either Hp is called a "snip'' (Fig. 249). 
 White, reaching down to the coronet, on the leg of a dark- 
 coloured horse, is, as we all know, termed a "white stocking-" 
 (Fig, 269), an expression that might be reserved for one 
 that comes up as high as the knee or hock , while that of 
 a "white sock" (Fig. 268) might be used to signify the 
 marking when it is shorter. 
 
( 223 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 
 
 Action. — General Remarks on Action, — The three chief 
 requisites of action, from a useful point of view, are : sure- 
 footedness, effectiveness, and lightness, so that the limbs may 
 not unduly suffer from the effects of concussion. As remarked 
 many years ago by Dr. Carson, the safety of a horse s action 
 depends on the way he puts his feet down, rather than on 
 the manner in which he picks them up. We should, there- 
 fore, from this point of view, attach no value to high action, 
 beyond what is sufficient to enable the animal to avoid striking 
 his toes against any inequalities which may be on the surface 
 over which he is going. The stability *of the fore limb, when 
 the foot comes on the ground, depends, to a great extent, on 
 the knee being kept straight, which is mechanically done, 
 without the expenditure of muscular force, if a line, drawn 
 from the heel to the centre of the elbow joint, falls at that 
 moment in front of the centre of the knee joint. The more 
 upright the pastern, the further will this line be drawn back as 
 regards the position of the knee. As the shoulder blade and 
 pastern are at opposite ends of the column of bones of the 
 fore limb, and as they both slope in the same direction, 
 it follows that the degree of slope of the shoulder will 
 influence that of the pastern. Hence, for safe action, we 
 should seek for oblique shoulders, sloping and long pasterns, 
 knees in which there is no tendency to '* stand over," and 
 lightness of fore hand. 
 
 For effectiveness, the action should be the happy medium 
 between a cramped style of going, and one in which 
 
:24 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 
 
 command over the limbs is, to a certain extent, lost by the 
 stride being too long. 
 
 By the term lightness of action, I wish to specify well- 
 balanced movements of the limbs, by which undue weight is 
 thrown on none of them, and particularly not on the fore hand. 
 The action, from a ''level" point of view, is influenced by the 
 conformation of the body, and by the carriage of the head and 
 neck. To be perfect at fast paces, we require the animal 
 to be light in front , to have oblique shoulders and sloping 
 pasterns, so as to have full power to raise the fore hand ; 
 and to have good loin muscles. On page 6j, et scq., I have 
 treated of the carriage of the head and neck. In heavy 
 draught we do not require lightness of action, which is the 
 direct opposite of throwing weight into the collar. 
 
 The Walk — At this pace, like at all others, the shoulders 
 should work with the utmost freedom, and the fore foot 
 should be thrown well to the front and only high enough to 
 clear and cover the ground. We may see this beautiful play 
 of the shoulders to perfection in young thoroughbreds. The 
 hind legs should be swung freely to the front, so that they 
 will considerably overstride the imprints made by the fore 
 feet. Viewed from behind, as well as from the front, the near 
 and off pairs of legs should respectively move in the same 
 line, so that there may be no ** dishing" or crossing of the 
 legs. The hocks should have no in-and-out movement, as 
 may be sometimes seen, and had better work rather close 
 together than wide. Any tendency to stumble or knuckle 
 over behind is a serious fault, unless it be solely due to bad 
 shoeing. If the horse be given a long rein, he should carry 
 his head rather low and well advanced, and should be able to 
 walk at the rate of about five miles an hour. 
 
 The Trot— At the fast trot, the fore leg should be 
 brought to the front with a straight knee, the foot appearing 
 as if suspended for a brief moment (Fig. 208) before being 
 placed down. The knee should not be raised higher than 
 what would be sufficient to make the fore arm horizontal, 
 or not quite so much. The hind legs should be carried 
 
ACTION AT THE GALLOP 225 
 
 well forward, and should work in perfect unison with the 
 fore limbs (Fig. 405). Nothing looks worse than to see a 
 horse trotting high in front, and dragging his hind legs 
 along the ground. As I have already remarked, with 
 reference to the walk, there should be no ''dishing'* or 
 crossing of the legs, so that, when viewed from behind, a 
 clear space will be preserved between the near pair and 
 the off pair of legs. I may explain that a horse '' dishes " 
 with a fore leg when he throws the foot outwards as he raises 
 it off the ground. In the trot, the head should be carried 
 much higher than in the walk ; as the limb has to be raised 
 to a greater extent, Fig. 207 shows the ''extravagant" 
 action which is greatly prized among fashionable harness 
 horses. 
 
 The Gallop. — In order that the animal may utilise to the 
 utmost his forward reach in the gallop, the knee of the leading 
 fore leg should be kept as straight as possible ^hile that \tg is 
 being extended to the front. In fact, the straighter it is at that 
 moment, the more perfect will be the front action on level 
 ground. A race-horse should, like a ballet dancer, move as 
 if he had no knees. I may, however, qualify my praise of 
 low action by remarking that a horse who bends his knees a 
 little, is better suited for going up a hill, than a "daisy 
 cutter " ; as his " round " style of going will aid him in climb- 
 ing the ascent. Heavy shoes on the feet have a marked 
 influence in making horses go "high" in all their paces, a 
 fact which has been largely utilised by American trainers in 
 regulating the action of their trotters. As this tendency is 
 detrimental to the speed of race-horses, their shoes should 
 be as light as practicable. In India, where but very little 
 rain falls during the racing season, I have trained and run 
 many of the horses I have had in vsiy stable, without 
 shoes of any kind. I have mentioned, on p. 69, that curb 
 bits are objectionable for use with race-horses, on account 
 of their tendency to make horses gallop " round,'' or 
 to " fight '' in their action. In the former case, the animal 
 will carry his head low and bring his chin into his chest, with 
 
 Q 
 
226 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS, 
 
 the object of transferring the pressure, as much as possible, 
 to his poll, over which the head-piece of his bridle passes, 
 and will consequently bend his knees too much. In the latter 
 case, the animal will keep his head stuck up in the air, 
 probably, in the vain attempt to get his jaw away from the 
 painful contact of the curb chain. 
 
 If we observe a **true" galloper, we may note that he 
 holds his head and neck in a more or less uniform position 
 (pp. 70 and 71), so as to enable the muscles of the neck to 
 work in a regular manner. 
 
 The hind legs, at the gallop, should be brought well for- 
 ward under the body, with particularly quick recovery after 
 having been straightened out. Their action, like that of 
 the fore hand, should be characterised by the machine-like 
 regularity of their forward and backward sweep. The limbs 
 should move in such perfect accord one with the other, that 
 there should be the least possible rise and fall of the fore 
 hand ; for if the weight be depressed at one moment, it will 
 have to be raised during the next, by an expenditure of force 
 which will be wasted as far as progression is concerned. 
 
 Leaping, — In Chapter XI 1 1, we have seen that the *' take- 
 off " in the leap consists in the raising of the fore hand and 
 in the propulsion of the body. Hence, at that moment, the 
 animal should have his head raised and somewhat drawn 
 back, so as to "lighten" the fore hand, for which object, 
 and in order to be able to fully bend the hind legs, he should 
 have them well under him (Fig. 1 95). To obtain the maximum 
 effect of propulsion, the horse should straighten his hind legs 
 to their utmost extent (Fig. 200) ; and to clear the object, if it 
 be one that is likely to tax his powers to "negotiate," he 
 should raise his knees well and should bend them as much as 
 he can (Fig. 196). The instant the hind feet quit the ground, 
 they should be drawn up as quickly as possible and close 
 to the body, so that, in high jumping, they may not catch 
 in the fence, but be ready to save the animal from a fall in 
 the event of an accident, and to enable him to land in 
 safety. On clearing the obstacle, the fore feet should be 
 
HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS. 227 
 
 brought well to the front, and as they respectively come to 
 the ground, their knees should be quite straight (Figs. 
 199, 206 and 409). The head should be somewhat raised 
 and the muzzle drawn in a little, so as to bring the weight 
 back, and to enable the horse to see where he is going to 
 place his feet. 
 
 Handiness and Cleverness. — ^The '* handiness " or 
 '* cleverness'' of a horse depends on his conformation, dis- 
 position, and training, with which we are not at present 
 concerned. It goes almost without saying, that a placid- 
 tempered animal would be easier to stop or turn than an 
 excitable one, and w^ould be consequently handier ; but I 
 cannot say that he would be cleverer. I have known several 
 terribly hard-pulling steeplechasers that were as '* clever as 
 cats," and always had a ** spare leg" for every difficulty, 
 provided their rider did not interfere with their mouth , and I 
 have seen other equally stiff-necked, cross-country horses, 
 whose sole delight, no matter how lightly they were handled, 
 seemed to be punching a hole in every fence they met. Some 
 temperate ones are just as *' chancy," apparently, from pure 
 laziness ; though many quiet animals are incapable of making 
 a mistake. 
 
 The points of conformation which conduce to handiness 
 and cleverness are :- 
 
 1. Well set on head and neck, so that the horse may be 
 able to bend readily to the rein. 
 
 2. Light in front (head, neck, and shoulders), and having 
 well-sloped shoulders and oblique fore pasterns, in order 
 that the animal may be able to raise his fore hand with 
 ease, and bring his weight back. 
 
 3. Strong loins. We must remember that the upper loin 
 muscles are '' rearing muscles " (page 52), and that the 
 lower ones assist to bring the hind legs under the horse. 
 
 4. Strong hocks. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 CONDITION. AND 'GOOD LOOKS, 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS. 
 
 Condition. — I use this term here to signify the bodily 
 state in which a horse can, in the best possible manner, do 
 work that will test the power of his lungs and muscles to the 
 utmost. I shall make no reference to '' dealers' condition," 
 which is a subject that does not come within the scope of 
 conformation. 
 
 A horse to be in condition should be healthy and sound ; 
 should have his breathing apparatus in the best possible 
 working order ; his muscles developed to the highest degree 
 of perfection, with regard to the nature of the task they have 
 got to perform ; and the amount of fat in his system should 
 be reduced to a minimum consistent with health. 
 
 I shall now glance at the chief signs of condition in the 
 horse. 
 
 I. Health and Soundness, — The latter, apart from the 
 former, need not be considered here ; for it belongs to the 
 domain of veterinary science. The ordinary indications of 
 health are : coat, bright ; skin, cool (except when heated by 
 exercise, or by the sun), soft and loose over the muscles ; 
 eyes, bright and soft in expression ; visible mucous mem- 
 branes of the eyes and nostrils, healthy looking ; mouth, 
 sweet smelling; internal temperature (in health about 99.5° 
 F.) ; pulse (from about 35 per minute for heavy cart-horses, 
 to about 45 for small ponies) ; and rate of breathing (10 to 12 
 per minute, when at rest), normal. The dung should be fairly 
 well formed, free from mucus, and from any offensive smell 
 
DEVELOPMENT AND LEANNESS OF MUSCLES. 229 
 
 The appetite as a rule should be good ; although horses may 
 become a bit '' dainty " in their feeding, when they have been 
 wound up in their training to '' full concert pitch." 
 
 2. Development and Leanness of Muscles. — The muscles of 
 the croup (those over the quarters) should present a rounded 
 surface, and those over the loins and back, at each side of the 
 backbone, should stand out in bold relief The line (some- 
 times known as the '' water-mark ") down the thigh (Fig. 
 260) should be clearly apparent. The muscles just above 
 the fore arm should form a rounded mass, and those of the 
 shoulders should be well defined. There should be over the 
 ribs a thick sheet of muscle, which should show well above 
 the level of the part of the flank in rear of it. This muscular 
 covering of the ribs terminates abruptly in an irregular line 
 which goes downwards and backwards in the direction of the 
 groin, and which can be seen plainly only when there is no 
 excess of fat about the part I may explain that in forced 
 respiration (p. 39), the muscles which cover the ribs are 
 brought into active play, and they consequently become 
 largely developed by the process that brings the galloper, or 
 fast trotter, into condition. Hence, if there be in a horse a 
 marked difference of level between the surface in front of the 
 line in question, and that in the rear of it (Fig. 322), we may 
 reasonably conclude that he has done a good deal of that 
 kind of work which brings his lungs into rapid action, and 
 that his system is not overloaded with fat. The fact of the 
 '' water-mark " being clearly indicated is also dependent on 
 the absence of fat about the part. 
 
 The line which marks the termination of the sheet of muscle to which I 
 have alluded, corresponds to the posterior border of the fleshy portion of the 
 ^amiiculusy and indicates the commencement of the aponeurotic portion. 
 The " water-maik," or *' quarter-mark,'* to which I have also drawn attention, 
 is the line of separation between the rotator tiUalis and the abductor femoris. 
 
 The most time-honoured method of ascertaining whether or 
 not a horse is in condition is to feel his crest with the hand, 
 so as to find out if it be hard or soft. This plan has its merits ; 
 for the crest is a part on which many "heavy-necked" horses 
 
230 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS. 
 
 (Fig. 263), especially entires, have a tendency to deposit 
 fat. I need Ihardly say that a thick layer of fat would 
 feel softer to the touch than a mass of ligament, muscle 
 and tendon; and that the nearer a horse approaches the 
 cart-horse type, the heavier is his neck. 
 
 The diagonal line on the flank, the appearance of the 
 ribs through a thick layer of muscle, and the lean though 
 muscular condition of the shoulders of a race-horse in 
 training, are well shown in the photograph of Ormonde 
 (Frontispiece). 
 
 3. Signs of condition afforded by the siaie of the 
 breathing, — Although a practical trial would give an 
 experienced observer the best possible idea of the state of 
 an animal's organs of breathing ; the question depends so 
 much on individual merits and defects, that it is very 
 difficult to lay down any fixed rules for guidance in making 
 such a test. Supposing that the horse had done his work 
 in what we considered a satisfactory style, we might 
 prove the correctness of our judgment, by observing the 
 manner in which he would recover from the effects of his 
 exertion. If after a sharp ** rough-up,'* his lungs resumed a 
 tranquil form of breathing, when he had rested or (better 
 still) had been walked about for a few minutes, and if he 
 did not show any appearance of being distressed by the 
 severity of the work, we might fairly conclude that his 
 *' pipes'' were in good order. Trainers generally think that 
 the fact of a horse *' blowing his nose" (as a kind of 
 sneeze which these animals sometimes make after a quick 
 "spin," is called) is a sign of the wind being all right. I 
 may also point out that if the wind of a hunter is not 
 ** clear," he will be unable to quickly **come again," if he 
 gets out of breath during a run, even if he be *' eased 
 off" for a little with the object of letting him ** catch 
 his second wind." If a strong gallop has the effect of 
 making a horse unusually thirsty, we may doubt that his 
 lungs are in good order. To find out, in doubtful cases, 
 whether or not a horse is a roarer, we had best, immediately 
 
GOOD LOOKS. 23t 
 
 after the animal has done some fast or severe work, apply 
 the ear close to one of his nostrils. 
 
 Large calibre and thinness of the walls of the nostrils, 
 which condition predisposes a horse to *'high blowing," is a 
 sign that the animals organs of breathing are naturally good. 
 
 4. Signs of condition manifested by the state of the sweat. — 
 The fatter a horse is, the thicker and more greasy will be 
 his sweat. When a horse is in condition, his sweat will 
 come off like water, will have lost the saline taste it 
 previously had, and, unless the animal is in a state of 
 excitement, it will dry on the skin with extreme quickness, 
 as soon as the work which had opened the pores has 
 been^ stopped. If a horse which has no excess of fat 
 in his system, shows a tendency to sweat on a very 
 slight provocation of work or *' closeness " of atmo- 
 sphere, and if the perspiration thus induced, takes a 
 long time to dry on the surface of the body, we may 
 reasonably conclude that general weakness is the cause of 
 this excessive action of the skin. I may explain that when 
 a horse sweats from excitement (as on a race-course), the 
 surface of the body thus moistened will not dry quickly ; 
 for as long as the excitement lasts, the outpouring of the 
 fluid will more or less continue. 
 
 Good Looks. — Beauty in the horse is dependent :- 
 
 1. On the uniformity of type which the various parts of 
 the body bear to each other. Thus, a Shire or Clydesdale 
 horse, with his Roman nose, loaded shoulders, and short 
 legs, may be quite as handsome as a good-looking English 
 thoroughbred, or a showy, high-caste Arab. 
 
 2. On the artistic arrangement of the lines of his body. 
 We may see the importance of this from a beauty point of 
 view, if, for example, we contrast a photograph of a horse 
 having the ears pricked forward, with another one of the 
 same animal, taken a moment afterwards, but having the 
 ears in a normal position. The former may look handsome, 
 and the latter plain ; although the two may be absolutely 
 
232 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS, 
 
 identical in every particular, except in that of the ears. The 
 ''line of beauty" (alternate convexity and concavity, or vice 
 versd) is well exemplified from the tip of the off ear to the 
 top of the croup, in Fig. 371 ; in which there is, however, a 
 too sudden depression of the quarter. The outlines of the 
 tail are very graceful in Fig. 370. The curves from tip of 
 ear to end of tail are also good in Fig. 236, except that the 
 line of the crest might be slightly more convex. For beautiful 
 curves of the upper line of the body, from tip of nose to tail, 
 see Figs. 234, 324, 327, 328, 334, 346, and 356. One reason 
 (which possibly might escape the notice of a casual observer) 
 why the pictures or photographs of some horses (Figs. 270, 
 322, and 370) look well, is that the curves of the under 
 part of the body — from muzzle, lower lip, along lower jaw, 
 under throat, down neck, in front of chest, along the belly, 
 under groin, and carried in front of both hind legs — are very 
 graceful. In all cases, oblique shoulders, sloping pasterns, 
 long and well-arched back ribs, muscular loins, more or less 
 horizontal pelvis, tail set high up, straight-dropped hind leg, 
 will be beauties. 
 
 As heavy cart-horses are often somewhat ''back at the 
 knees" (p. 194), the presence of a good supply of fine hair 
 behind the back tendons, increasing in amount from the 
 knee to the fetlock, will balance this concavity. I do not 
 think that docking, except when it is done to remove an 
 unsightly "kink," ever improves the appearance of a horse, 
 from an artistic point of view. The removal of the forelock, 
 when hogging the mane, is always an eyesore. Whenever 
 ^,^ looks are sought to be studied, the mane should not be 
 hogged, if the animal has a light neck. As a horse is looked 
 at more frequently from the near than from the ofF-side ; his 
 mane, as a rule, should fall to the off-side. 
 
 Under this heading we must also put good carriage of 
 the head and tail, and true and showy action. For carriage 
 of the head and neck, see p. 6jj et seq. The tail during move- 
 ment should be held well out, with the hairs falling from it 
 in graceful curves. To look well, the limbs should work in 
 
GOOD LOOKS. 233 
 
 lines parallel to the direction in which the horse is going; 
 for any crossing or dishing of the legs will detract from the 
 grace of their movement Somewhat lofty, "cadenced'' 
 action in the walk or trot of the hack or charger will be 
 pleasing to the eye, as it will suggest the possession of force 
 and speed held well in reserve. 
 
 I need hardly say that a bright, intelligent expression of 
 face, which is greatly assisted by the movements of the ears, 
 adds much to the beauty of the horse. 
 
 As regards colour, see Chapter XX. 
 
234 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER. 
 
 r'T-T A pnrTTP wttt 
 
 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER. 
 
 Weight-carrying Power. — The special points for 
 weight-carrying power are : — 
 
 1. Length and obliquity of shoulder-blade (p. 182 ei seq.). 
 One might be inclined to think that very oblique 
 
 shoulders are not an advantage from a weight-carrying 
 point of view ; for they necessitate the saddle being put 
 farther back on the horse, than would be the case with 
 shoulders of only a moderate slope. At the same time, 
 we must remember that with horses of the same depth of 
 body at the withers, the more oblique the shoulder-blades, 
 the longer they will be. 
 
 2. Strong loin muscles. 
 
 3. Good substance and fine quality of bone. 
 Ormonde (Frontispiece), ''the horse of the century," St. 
 
 Gatien, the dead-heater for the Derby and winner of the 
 Cesarewitch, and Cloister (Frontispiece), were horses of great 
 bone, and marvellous weight-carriers. 
 
 4. Pasterns not too sloping. 
 
 5. Absence of undue weight of body beyond that which 
 would be necessary for the movements of the limbs, and for 
 the performance of the various vital functions. 
 
 The foregoing rules would apply to all classes of horses. 
 For absolute weight-carrying power, the animal should have 
 short legs (a fact which would be incompatible with the 
 possession of speed), and should have his pelvis somewhat 
 drooping. 
 
STAYING POWER. 235 
 
 Staying Power. — The ability to '' stay a distance/' 
 granting the possession of health and condition, depends 
 (i) on the breathing power being good; (2) on the muscles 
 working to advantage, and on the conformation being of the 
 required kind ; and (3) on the action. 
 
 With respect to the first condition, we require the barrel 
 to be deep and rounded behind the girths (p. 163), and 
 the flanks to be well ribbed-up. 
 
 The second condition will be best fulfilled, from the point 
 of view of speed, when the muscles over the loins are power- 
 ful, and when the fore hand is light ; that is to say, when the 
 shoulders and pasterns are oblique, and the head, neck and 
 shoulders light, in which case the fore legs will not be 
 wide apart (p. 169). As thick muscles are unsuited to 
 bear the strain of continued quick work, we usually find 
 that genuine stayers at fast paces are not heavily built horses. 
 Any excess of height over the croup, as compared to that 
 at the withers, will add to the weight on the fore hand 
 (p. 40). The fact of the neck (p. 154) being abnormally 
 short in comparison to the limbs, will naturally detract 
 from the staying power. The same remark applies to the 
 possession of ^^sickle-hocks ^^' (p. 51). In heavy draught, 
 the mechanical advantage will be on the side of a heavy 
 fore hand. 
 
 There is an important difference between staying power 
 (using the term in its racing sense), and ability to endure 
 fatigue. For instance, East Indian ponies, though often 
 very fast for a short distance, are notoriously bad stayers ; 
 and yet they are wonderfully good animals on a long journey. 
 Thus, many of them which are incapable of *' getting " 
 beyond three furlongs in a race would, if harnessed to an 
 eckd (a native two-wheeled trap), do, comfortably, 70 or 
 80 miles from sunrise to sunset, with the thermometer at 
 noon up to 110° F. or more, in the shade. Here the lack of 
 staying power would be due to the organs of breathing being 
 unable to continue work under high pressure. As might be 
 expected, these ** country-bred*' ponies (Fig. 2>n) ^^^> ^^ ^ 
 
236 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER. 
 
 rule, light behind the girth, flat-sided, and badly ribbed-up. 
 With thin necks and light shoulders, their good legs and 
 feet have but little weight to carry ; and as the quality of 
 their tissues is of the best, and their spirit undeniable, they 
 can go marvellously long distances without getting knocked 
 up — provided always that they are not over-paced or over- 
 weighted. I need hardly say that a genuine stayer will also 
 be capable of appearing to advantage in a '' go-as-you-please '' 
 task , for he will possess all the good points of the other, 
 with better organs of breathing. The small amount of extra 
 weight (on account of increased length of rib) which he 
 will have to carry, will be more than compensated by the 
 larger space allowed for his digestive organs. As a rule, in 
 proportion to their respective sizes, small horses will stay 
 better, and will be capable of enduring more fatigue, than big 
 horses. The reason for this appears to be that the former 
 have more vitality than the latter, on account of the rate of 
 the circulation of their blood being quicker. 
 
 I need not point out the advantages of good action in the 
 present connection. 
 
( 237 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS. 
 
 Blood, — The relation of "blood" to conformation is its 
 only one which need be considered here. 
 
 The term ** blood" usually signifies more or less pure 
 descent from animals mentioned in the English Stud Book, 
 or from high-caste Arabs. In our Colonies, the initials T. B 
 have a more elastic application than in the Mother-country. 
 As English thoroughbred horses have been bred almost 
 entirely with the object of their utilisation on the Turf; their 
 conformation more or less resembles that of the galloper. 
 Were I to be asked to particularise the " point ''or " points " 
 most characteristic of the English '* blood '' horse, I would 
 answer : ** The legs below the knees and hocks." Their 
 special peculiarities, in this respect, are : lightness of bone, 
 thinness of skin, fineness and shortness of hair, small amount 
 of underlying connective tissue, near approach to parallelism 
 of back tendons to cannon-bones, with consequent smallness 
 of fetlock joints (p. 194), good length of pasterns, and small 
 hoofs with well-arched soles. These hard-looking, though 
 light-shaped legs, are evidently the production of a dry, warm 
 climate, during many generations in the East ; for although 
 we rarely. If ever, see them in pure Western stock, we may 
 find them in profusion among Arab, Barb, Persian, East 
 Indian, and South African horses, all of which have been 
 bred in a hot, dry climate. The speed of the thoroughbred 
 is the result of careful selection in breeding, by which, not 
 only has the best form of conformation been obtained, but also 
 the most suitable kind of nervous organisation. The effect of 
 
238 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS. 
 
 heredity is specially shown in the working of the nerves, 
 which regulate the exhibition of all muscular force. Although 
 they can in no way increase the actual strength of a muscle, 
 its failure or success in putting forth its full power, and 
 also its speed of contraction, are dependent on them. 
 Hence, two horses of identically the same "make and shape" 
 (if such a thing were possible) might differ widely in pulling 
 power, handiness, or speed, on account of a want of similarity 
 in their nervous systems. We see this fact well marked 
 among men, in whom uncommon quickness and great 
 dexterity of muscular movement is often inherited. The 
 speed thus obtained from '* blood'' independently of confor- 
 mation, may be regarded as an outcome of heredity. In 
 judging, therefore, by a horse's conformation, of his suitability 
 to any particular kind of work, we should take into careful 
 consideration all the ** blood" points which he may possess. 
 The fact of a horse having Arab blood in his veins, is , in 
 itself, no reason for our inferring that he has a good *' turn of 
 speed " ; for Arabs, though charming hacks and admirable 
 light cavalry troopers, are not race-horses. 
 
 It is noteworthy that thoroughbred stock which are allowed 
 (as they often are in the Colonies) to run wild, say, up to 
 four or five years old, before they are taken up, and which 
 are then put to ordinary labour, lose in a great measure the 
 blood-like appearance they might have possessed, had they 
 been handled early and put into training in the usual way. 
 
 Symmetry is the conformance, as regards size, shape 
 and arrangement, of the various parts of the body to some 
 particular type of useful horse. 
 
 In violation of this condition, we may have united in 
 the same animal the long legs and light body of the race- 
 horse, and the heavy head, loaded neck and thick shoulders 
 of the cart-horse ; or the contours of the race-horse, with the 
 exception of the loins being weak, and the hind legs short 
 with drooping croup. Even with the ordinary saddle-nag, 
 to say nothing of the hunter and officer s charger, we have 
 
COMPENSATIONS. 239 
 
 too often the massive shoulders of the draught-horse. A 
 heavy head, which reveals but too plainly a cart-strain, is a 
 terrible eyesore to an animal whose neck and shoulders are 
 light, and which might otherwise be a high-class hack. 
 
 We may see short-legged, deep-bodied cart-horses, with 
 great power of limbs and shoulders, having weak loins. A 
 horse which has oblique shoulders should also have sloping 
 pasterns and a horizontal croup. We must here allow for the 
 fact that **work" often renders the pasterns abnormally up- 
 right. We may witness many instances of want of symmetry 
 in the **tying-in" of the legs under the knees, short pasterns, 
 and large, flat feet of long and slender-limbed horses. Fig. 
 284 shows a mare that was of fine width just below the hock 
 (p. 211), but was tied-in below the knee. A mean carriage 
 of the tail will contrast very unfavourably with a showy 
 and graceful bearing of the head and neck. 
 
 The generic term '*weed" is applied, usually, to long- 
 legged animals which are weak in the loins, and are light in 
 the back ribs. As a rule, the cause of their comparative 
 worthlessness is wrongly attributed to the length of their 
 limbs, rather than to their defects of loin and rib. If we 
 compare Fig. 268 with the Frontispiece, we shall see that 
 the mare in the former was actually ''longer " and '* lower" 
 (taking the proportion between her height at the withers 
 and her length of body) than the deep-ribbed and strongly 
 ''coupled" Ormonde. It is evident that no amount of 
 shortening of her legs could improve her conformation. 
 
 Compensations. — The points which I shall consider 
 
 it A. 
 
 under this heading have special reference to the saddle-horse 
 and light trapper :- 
 
 ^^ Plainness'' of head will be best "carried off" by a 
 *' kind," intelligent expression of face ; quick play of the 
 ears, which appear to most advantage when they are small ; 
 good carriage of the head ; and graceful setting-on of the head 
 with the neck. The size of the latter should conform to that 
 of the former. 
 
240 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS. 
 
 Undue lightness of neck — Full mane ; light head, small 
 ears, sloping and flat shoulders. 
 
 Heavy neck and loaded shoulders may be corrected to 
 some extent, from a beauty point of view, by a good-looking, 
 intelligent head, nice crest, and light mane. From considera- 
 tions of utility^ we should have the shoulders and pasterns 
 sloping ; the bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments of the 
 fore limb below the shoulder strong ; feet good ; and loins 
 and hind-quarters powerful. For cross-country work strong, 
 sloping fore pasterns are the best compensation for shoulders 
 that are upright and heavy. 
 
 Fore legs below the elbows too light ; Pasterns too upright, 
 or too oblique. — Legs otherwise well-shaped ; light fore hand ; 
 sloping shoulders ; and good loins. 
 
 ** Calf knees ^'' or ^'over at the knees J' — Strength of leg below 
 the elbow ; parallelism of back tendons with cannon-bones 
 (p. 194) ; sloping shoulders ; light fore hand ; strong loins. 
 
 Ribs ''flat-sidedr — Good depth of body at lowest point 
 of back ; flanks well ribbed-up. 
 
 Too hollow in the back. —Light fore hand, sloping shoulders, 
 and in all cases, broad, powerful loins, which is the special 
 kind of compensation in this instance. 
 
 Loins too light^ and flanks badly ribbed-up. — Light fore 
 hand ; shoulders and pasterns oblique ; light abdomen ; 
 well-rounded barrel ; strong hind-quarters ; good gaskins ; 
 ** straight-dropped" hind legs. 
 
 Hind-quarters too light, — Light fore hand ; shoulders and 
 pasterns oblique ; light, but well-rounded barrel ; muscular 
 loins; good gaskins; ** straight-dropped'' hind legs. 
 
 '' Sickle hocks!'— ^ixh. this defect in a saddle-horse which 
 would be required for fast work, it would be well for him 
 to have good length of hind legs, the possession of which 
 will presuppose that of a horizontal pelvis ; and the com- 
 pensations mentioned in the preceding paragraph, with 
 the exception of *' straight-dropped " hind legs, which is 
 the opposite kind of conformation to that which we are 
 considering. 
 
( 241 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 The Race-horse — The Racing Pony — The Hunter and Steeplechaser — The 
 Heavy Cart-hoise — The Harness-hoise — The Hack — The Lady's Hoise 
 — The Cavalry Trooper — The Officer's Charger — The Aitillery Horse — 
 The Light Vanner — The Polo Pony. 
 
 The Race-horse* — i. The height of the galloper at the 
 v^ithers, and also over the croup, should be at least equal 
 to his length of body (p. 127, et seq). 
 
 2. The depth of the body at the withers should be 
 considerably less than half the height (p. 128). 
 
 3. The loins behind the cantle of the saddle should be 
 flat on account of the presence of largely developed muscles 
 (pp. 52 and 172, et seq.). 
 
 4. The gaskins should be broad (p. 209). 
 
 5. The neck should be long (p. 154). 
 
 6. The fore hand should be light (p. 185). Consequently, 
 the neck should be free from "lumber"; there should be 
 but little width between the fore legs (p. 168, et seq.) ; 
 the shoulders flat and without any *' place for the collar" 
 {p. 185); and the horse should not be thick between the 
 upper ends of the shoulder-blades (p, 184). 
 
 7. The withers should be high, and should run far back. 
 
 8. The hind legs should be long. 
 
 9. The hocks should possess the ability of being freely 
 straightened out, as well as bent. 
 
 As types of English race-horses, I may instance the 
 following : — 
 
 Ormonde (Frontispiece), by Bend Or out of Lily Agnes, 
 was, I need hardly say, the race-horse of the century. In 
 
 R 
 
242 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 training, he was a little higher at the withers than long in the 
 body ; and about as high at the croup as at the withers. His 
 legs, though long, were muscular, and their bones strong, 
 as we may perceive from the appearance of his fore arm and 
 gaskin and from the shape of the limbs below the knees and 
 hocks. He had a particularly straight-dropped hind leg. 
 Although he was in training when this photograph was taken, 
 he shows great depth of body in the centre of the back : a 
 fact which points to the unusual length of his back ribs, and to 
 the admirable shape of his chest for purposes of breathing. I 
 may point out that his roaring infirmity, being a nervous 
 disease of his larynx, had nothing to say to his conformation. 
 As his neck agrees in length with his limbs, and as his withers 
 run far back, he had a very long *' rein." His neck, though 
 muscular, was light for a four-year-old entire. He was coarse 
 about the throat, where the head and neck join. The hori- 
 zontal marks on his legs, on and near his fetlocks, were curls 
 in the hair, due to bandaging. His back view (Fig. 289) 
 shows that he was narrow behind as compared with a middle- 
 weight hunter (Fig. 288). His hocks were particularly good. 
 His tail was placed very high on his croup. 
 
 Fig. 9 shows St. Simon (by Galopin out of St. Angela) 
 slightly fore-shortened. Fig. 229 gives him in strict profile; 
 but as it had to be copied from a photograph which was not 
 good enough to bear reproduction, its details have not come 
 out as well as I would have wished. They were both done 
 in 1884, when St. Simon was a three-year-old, and when he 
 was in training. Owing to the death of his first owner, Prince 
 Batthyany, his nominations for the great three-year-old events 
 were rendered void. Despite the fact that he had never met 
 a great race-horse, he won all his contests with such con- 
 summate ease that I am inclined to think that as a two-year- 
 old towards the '' back end '' of the season (1883) and for the 
 first half of his three-year-old career — in other words, as long 
 as he kept sound— he was as fast a horse, with, perhaps, the 
 exception of Ormonde, as ever lived. St. Simon's height at 
 the withers, or over the croup, is considerably more than his 
 
TV. A. Rotich, Strand. 
 
 Fig. 322.— H.R.H. The Prince of Wales' Persimmon. 
 
 Clarence Hailey. To face p. 242. 
 
 Fig. 323.— H.R.H. The Prince of Wales' Florizel H. 
 
THE RACE-HORSL 243 
 
 length of body. Also, his back and loins are remarkably- 
 short, and his shoulders are long and extremely oblique. I 
 remember having been greatly struck by the marvellous 
 beauty of his shoulders, and by the shortness of his back and 
 loins, when I saw him for the first time, when he was sold as 
 a two-year-old in 1883, after the death of his owner Both 
 his fore hand and hind-quarters were light He was extremely 
 round in the back ribs (p. 163), and was very well ribbed up. 
 
 The possession, in the same year, by H.R.H. the Prince 
 of Wales, of two such good horses as Persimmon (Fig. 322) 
 and Florizel 11. (Fig 323), is a matter of congratulation to 
 every lover of racing. The winner of the Derby and St. 
 Leger, having been photographed a couple of days after he had 
 won at Epsom, looks somewhat light, though muscular and 
 very fit. His straight-dropped hind leg, powerful gaskins 
 and hocks, light fore hand, and beautifully shaped fore leg 
 from elbow to hoof, proclaim his ** quality." Time will no 
 doubt make him deeper in the back ribs. Florizel H. is 
 also a race-horse all over. 
 
 In 1871 Hannah (Fig. 325) won the Oaks and St. Leger, 
 and Favonius (Fig. 324) the Derby of the same year. They 
 were in the same stable as Corisande, who won the 
 Cesarewitch of that season carrying 7 st 12 lbs Lord 
 Suffolk states, in the Badminton book on Racing, that 
 Favonius was 16 or 18 lbs. better than either of the two 
 mares , but that he became unsound. Accepting this 
 estimation, we must regard him as one of the best horses 
 of the century. We might have inferred the fact of his 
 superiority over Hannah by noting that he was much deeper 
 in the body behind the saddle than she was, and consequently 
 his chest was better formed for forced breathing than was 
 hers. He looks up to more weight than she does, on 
 account of his fore arms and gaskins being more muscular 
 and his bones below the knee being larger. Both animals 
 have equally " straight-dropped " hind legs. Her neck is 
 lighter, and her shoulders appear flatter and more oblique 
 than his. Both have almost exactly the same proportions 
 
244 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSED 
 
 between the length of body and the height at the withers , 
 and between the depth from withers to brisket, and the height 
 of the brisket off the ground. As both were in training, 
 and standing in nearly the same position, we have a good 
 opportunity of comparing their respective conformation. 
 
 Cremorne (Fig. 326), by Parmesan out of Rigolboche, 
 won the Derby of 1872 against a bad field, with the excep- 
 tion of the roaring Prince i Charlie. His produce have been 
 famous for their jumping powers. He is standing so 
 awkwardly m his photograph that it is difficult to form from 
 it a correct idea of his *'make and shape." He seems to 
 have had a long shoulder-blade and a light neck, both of 
 which are important jumping points. 
 
 La Fl^che (Fig. 230) shows two essential points of speed, 
 in being long on the leg and having but little to carry. By 
 comparing Fig 230 with Fig. 229 we shall see that La 
 Fl^che is longer in the body and not so closely '* coupled '' 
 as St Simon. 
 
 The Racing Pony should possess all the points of the 
 race-horse which have been described under the preceding 
 heading, but modified where necessary, by conditions suitable 
 to superior ability for carrying weight ; for racing ponies, in 
 comparison to their height, have almost always to bear much 
 heavier burdens than race-horses. 
 
 I cannot give a better illustration of a 14-hand thorough- 
 bred racing pony of the highest class than that of Predominant 
 (Fig. 236). He was sent from England to India, where he 
 easily beat everything of his size in that great home of pony- 
 racing. Mike (Fig. 235) was in a high state of excitement 
 when he was photographed, as we may see by his stiffened 
 tail, erect head, pricked ears, and by the collected manner in 
 which he was standing. He had capital shoulders, good legs, 
 and, like St. Simon, had not much to carry. He was one of 
 the best 13. i ponies ever bred in England. Water Lily 
 (Fig. 332) was a very good 13.2 pony. For remarks on 
 Arab racing ponies see p. 265, et seq. 
 
k "'- 
 
 Frank Haes. 
 
 Fig. 324.— Baron Rothschild's Favonius. 
 
 Frank Haes. 
 
 Fig. 325.— Baron Rothschild's Hannah. 
 
 To face p. 244. 
 
THE HUNTER AND STEEPLECHASER. 245 
 
 The Hunter and Steeplechaser. — i. The fore hand 
 should be light. This point is of special importance in the 
 Leicestershire hunter, the goodness of whose shoulders is 
 probably more severely tested by the ridge and furrow than 
 by the jumping, which is particularly trying, owing to the 
 fact that the animal must *' spread " himself out and go fast. 
 Many hunters which would be of no use in Leicestershire, on 
 account of having heavy shoulders, perform brilliantly in 
 Ireland, where jumping on and off banks, and galloping on a 
 smooth surface do not '' find out '' their weak point. 
 
 2. It is a defect in the cross-country horse to be higher at 
 the croup than at the withers, or even to be the same height 
 at these parts (pp. 1 30 and 40) ; for he requires to be light in 
 front, and to have the bones of his fore limbs comparatively 
 long, so as to be able to efficiently raise his fore hand, both 
 when taking off and landing. 
 
 3. The shoulder-blades and pasterns should be long and 
 sloping. 
 
 4. The muscles which lie along the front portion of the 
 shoulder-blade, and the lump of muscle above the fore arm 
 should be well-developed (Fig, 329) ; as the former straighten 
 the shoulder joint, and the latter straighten the elbow joint ; 
 two actions which help to prevent the horse from falling^ when 
 he lands over a jump. 
 
 5. The muscles over the loins, behind the saddle, should 
 be particularly strong (p. 52). 
 
 6. The hocks should be large ; and their straightening 
 power (the gaskins) broad. 
 
 On page 208, I have alluded to the favour which hunting 
 men in Ireland accord to goose-rumped hunters, and which 
 is fully justified in practice. ^ 
 
 A high-class Leicestershire hunter is undoubtedly the 
 best type of horse in the world ; for he unites in himself the 
 greatest number of useful qualities : speed, strength, staying 
 power, cleverness, courage, good manners and mouth. The 
 speed possessed by that fine steeplechaser, The Doctor, 
 made him all the better hunter in The Shires. We may 
 
246 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 be quite certain that no horse is too fast for a Leicestershire 
 pack of hounds which gets well away with a clear start from 
 the field, behind a stout and straight-running fox, and with a 
 good scent. The two horses which, to my thinking, more 
 nearly approached in conformation the ideal Leicestershire 
 hunter than any others I have ever seen, were Cloister 
 (Frontispiece), the greatest chaser of all time, and Liberator, 
 who was unapproachable in his day. Both of them were 
 well able to carry 15 stone to hounds, which is a task that 
 should not be beyond the compass of the ideal animal we are 
 considering. Gamecock (Fig. 259), another winner of the 
 Grand National, and an extraordinarily fine stayer, had all 
 the *' shape and make" of a hunter of the highest class. 
 Midshipmite (Fig. 260), who is very smart over a country 
 for three miles and has perfect jumping shoulders, is not 
 very good in his loins and back ribs. The same remark 
 applies to Specs (Fig. 255), who, being longer in the body in 
 comparison to his height, does not approach the race-horse 
 type as nearly as does Midshipmite. During recent years, 
 the best Leicestershire hunter (I am speaking of the middle- 
 weight division) is Mr. H. T. Barclays Lord Arthur, who 
 has won several steeplechases and ran well in the Grand 
 National, but was beaten for speed. He possesses, in a 
 high degree, the peculiarity, which is invaluable in a saddle- 
 horse (p. 137), of having very powerful limbs in comparison 
 to the weight of his body (contrast the fore legs in Fig. 329 
 with those in Figs. 283 and 308). Specs (Fig. 255), who is 
 honest, clever, and smart at his own distance and under a 
 suitable weight, is built in the same way, but has not as 
 powerful loins or as '' close coupling " as Mr. Barclay's 
 chestnut. Cloister, Gamecock, Lord Arthur, Midshipmite, 
 Specs, and the vast majority of fine hunters and good 
 chasers, are considerably higher at the withers than over the 
 croup. We see this point in Fig. 331, which is a portrait of 
 one of the best weight-carrying hunters that ever crossed 
 the Rugby country ; and in Salary (Fig. 282), a clever and 
 well-bred Irish mare of the old-fashioned sort. As exceptions 
 
Frank Hues. 
 
 Fig. 326.— Mr. II. Savile's Cremorne. 
 
 M. H. H. ^ To face p. 2^6. 
 
 Fig. 327.— Mr. A. A. Apcar's Australian Horse, Bravo. 
 
HUNTERS AND STEEPLECHASERS, 247 
 
 to this rule, I may mention the names of Franciscan (Fig. 
 328) and Stepaside (Fig. 333). Franciscan is a beautifully- 
 shaped 15-stone hunter of very high class. Stepaside, an 
 Irish mare, after having been hunted in Ireland, was taken 
 to India, where she showed herself to be the best chaser and 
 hurdle-racer of her time in that country. On contrasting 
 her conformation with that of Franciscan, we shall see that 
 the '' middle piece " of her body is too light for the require- 
 ments of a fair hunting weight, on a long and fast day. One 
 of the nicest shaped hunters I have ever seen was Captain 
 Williams's Joseph (Fig. 320). As examples of horses with 
 good *' middle pieces," I may cite Ormonde (Frontispiece), 
 Cloister (Frontispiece), Franciscan (Fig. 328), Joseph, and 
 Predominant (Fig. 236). If Gamecock (Fig. 259) lacked 
 somewhat in depth at the middle of the back, he amply made 
 up for the deficiency by being, like St. Simon, remarkably 
 round in the barrel (pp. 163 and 164). 
 
 Cloister (Frontispiece), whom I have lately had an 
 opportunity of carefully examining, thanks to the kindness 
 of Mr, Duff and Sir Charles Nugent, is in two particulars 
 a very deceptive-looking horse. The great height of the 
 inner angle of his pelvis (p. 208) gives him a false appearance 
 of being slack in the loins, which, in fact, are broad and 
 muscular. His neck is so very light that there is a marked 
 depression between it and his shoulders (p. 183). His 
 shoulder-blades are particularly long; although they are 
 not very well sloped. His shoulders, though muscular, 
 have no superfluous weight about them, as I saw by the 
 fact that there was no undue development of the *' saddle 
 muscle'* (p. 183), and that his fore legs were not too far 
 apart (p 171). His withers are high and thin. His fore 
 arms are remarkably powerful. The muscles of his limbs 
 show great development in comparison to the weight of 
 his body, neck and head. His barrel is round (p. 163). 
 He has great power of straightening his hocks, just below 
 which the bone of the leg is singularly broad (p. 211). He 
 shows great bone below the knee, as well as below the hocks. 
 
248 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 Allowing for the scars of honourable warfare, his fore leo-s 
 may be said to be ot the type shown in Fig. 294 
 
 As a rule, in ''The Provinces," especially where the 
 country is cramped and there is a good deal of plough, as in 
 Cheshire, for instance, the hunters are up to more weic^ht 
 and are more cobby than m Leicestershire. Fig 330 
 shows a fine type, as far as conformation goes, of a 
 Cheshire hunter, who, though strong and thick-set, has a 
 sufficiency of speed. For a horse of his build, he has com- 
 paratively light shoulders, as we may infer from a front view 
 of his fore hand (Fig. 276), in that he has no undue width 
 between his fore legs. 
 
 Love of gambling is, no doubt, the chief cause why, 
 among animals of equally high merit in their own respective 
 spheres of life, race-horses and chasers are more valuable 
 from a monetary point of view than hunters , for were it 
 otherwise, no sane man would spend more money in the 
 purchase of a horse for another man to ride, than in that of 
 an animal for his own riding. I make this remark solely 
 from a desire to emphasise the importance of a study of the 
 ** points " of our most valuable all round horse, the hunter ; 
 for I am fond of racing as well as hunting, and have no 
 objection to a ''mild gamble," 
 
 The Heavy Cart-horse— i. The legs should be as 
 short and massive as possible : consequently the animal will 
 be considerably longer in the body than he is high at the 
 withers or at the croup, and he will be deeper from the 
 withers to the brisket, than from the withers to the ground. 
 
 2. He should be of great width of body when viewed from 
 behind ; and across the chest in front. 
 
 3.^ His muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments should be 
 as thick and strong as possible. 
 
 4^ The shoulders should be sloping in cart-horses which do 
 not use their fore legs, to any marked degree, as propellers ; 
 and somewhat upright in those which utilise them in that 
 manner (p. 188, et seq\ 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 328. — Mr. H. T. Barclay's Franciscan. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 To face p 248. 
 
 Fig. 329.— Mr. H. T. Barclay's Lord Arthur. 
 
THE HACK, 249 
 
 5. The height over the croup should be less than that 
 at the withers (p. 61). 
 
 For further remarks on cart-horses, see pp. 254 and 258. 
 
 The Harness-horse. — For convenience sake, I use the 
 expression '* harness-horse '' to signify all horses which go in 
 draught, except the heavy cart-horse* Taking the limits as 
 the racer and Shire horse, I may say that the conformation of 
 the animal should, within certain limits, approach that of the 
 former, or of the latter, according as his work is fast or slow. 
 For remarks on the conformation of the match trotter, see 
 page 261, ct seq. The ordinary trapper should be thicker 
 in the shoulders than the saddle nag ; and, if he has strong 
 hind-quarters and fair action, he may be pardoned if he be 
 long in the back, slack in the loins, and somewhat flat-sided. 
 For fashionable town work, the harness-horse will, as a rule, 
 require to be either one of the smart small sort, or of the 
 imposing brougham type. The former should have all the 
 good looks and ^* quality" of a well-bred, middle-weight hack. 
 The latter should measure high at the withers ; should have 
 sloping shoulders, so as to have free action in front ; and 
 should carry his head high. Owing to the manner in which 
 he is bitted and "checked," his hind action is not taken much 
 into consideration. Between these two kinds of horses, there 
 is as much difference as between a clever bull-terrier and an 
 overgrown, weak-loined mastiff. Fashionable trotting action 
 is far more the result of training than of conformation. For 
 pairs and teams, horses should match in height, colour, 
 general character, action, manners, and mouth. 
 
 The Hack. — The chief points about the hack are that 
 he should be "light in front," have sloping shoulders, and 
 sound legs and feet, so that he may be sure-footed and able to 
 stand work; and he should be rather high in front (p. 132). 
 The conformation of his head and neck should be such as to 
 allow him to bend readily to the rein. The action of the 
 hack should be somewhat "high," and should be "true," so 
 
250 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES. 
 
 that, when viewed from behind, the near pair of limbs, in the 
 walk, trot and canter, should move in a line parallel to that of 
 the off pair. Action, good looks, and a showy carriage of 
 the head and tail are essentials in the high-priced hack. 
 *' Mouth" and *' manners" are two other indispensable re- 
 quisites which do not come within the province of this book. 
 
 The Lady's Horse. — A lady's horse should be a good- 
 looking hunter or smart hack, according to the work for 
 which he is intended. He should carry his head and neck 
 particularly well; because his rider, owing to the nature of 
 her seat, cannot keep her hands low down. His fore hand 
 should be inclined to be high, so that his paces may be easy. 
 His withers should not be high and thin ; for if they are, 
 they will be liable to be Quailed on the off side by the saddle. 
 For obvious reasons, he should be up to at least a stone 
 more weight than if intended for a man. 
 
 The Cavalry Trooper. — The ideal cavalry horse should 
 (if price had not to be considered) be of the heavy weight 
 (Fig. 331) or thick set (Fig. 330) hunter type. His chief 
 requirements as regards conformation are as follows : — 
 
 1. That he should be up to the weight he has got to carry. 
 But he should on no account be too heavily topped for his 
 legs, or for the work he will be called upon to do. His loins, 
 therefore, should be strong, his shoulder-blades long, and his 
 legs should be as short as is compatible with the possession 
 of sufficient speed for military purposes. 
 
 2. His legs and feet should be particularly sound and 
 well able to stand work. As he will be called upon at 
 times to go fast and to leap; his back tendons should be 
 more or less parallel with the cannon-bone, and he should 
 have no tendency to undue width of fetlock {see p. 194, 
 et se^,), 
 
 3. His fore hand should be light, so that his legs and 
 feet may continue sound, and that he may be able to do 
 his school work properly. 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 330. — Mr. W. H. Walker's Touchstone 
 
 M. H. H. To face p 250 
 
 Fig. 331. — Weight-carrying Hunter, the property of Mr. Muntz, M.P 
 
THE ARTILLERY HORSE. 2\i 
 
 4. He should have a good carriage of the head and 
 neck, so that he may be obedient to the rein. 
 
 5. He should be a *'good doer," and have a strong 
 constitution, which will usually be the case with a horse 
 that has a bright eye ; soft, cool skin ; deep rounded 
 barrel ; full flank ; firm, prominent anus ; and is well 
 ribbed up. 
 
 The Officer's Charger. — A cavalry officers first 
 charger, with all the useful points of the cavalry trooper, 
 should have undeniably good looks, and a showy carriage 
 of the head and tail, which should not be docked. As he 
 will have to carry less, and will cost considerably more 
 than an animal in the ranks, he should be well bred, and, 
 with a rider of ordinary weight, he should approach the 
 type of a handsome thoroughbred hunter. A second 
 charger should have all the useful points of a first charger ; 
 but need not be so good-looking. The colour will, as a 
 rule, depend on regimental regulations. Speaking generally, 
 he should not be less than 15.3. A man at the head of a 
 regiment of cavalry, or of a battery of horse artillery, 
 looks best on a tall horse. 
 
 The Artillery Horse.— Artillery horses are divided 
 into those for horse artillery and those for field batteries. 
 As the teams of the former have to manoeuvre with 
 cavalry, and also drag their guns, they require to be 
 exceptionally strong, smart horses. The latter, as they 
 are supposed not to go faster than a trot, are stronger 
 and slower horses than those of light cavalry. The 
 wheelers are active, light-built cart-horses. For their 
 work, they need to be somewhat thick in the shoulders, 
 short on the leg, and of considerable weight to stop the 
 gun when the order to halt is given. Their hind-quarters, 
 loins, and hocks should, therefore, be particularly strong. 
 The riding horses of the Nos. i and markers of field 
 batteries should be of the light cavalry type. 
 
252 SPECIAL POINTS OF V 1 PIOUS CLASSES OF IfOPSES. 
 
 The Light Vanner, which we meet in vans, 'buses 
 and tram-cars, should be similar in type to field artillery- 
 wheelers ; in fact, active, light cart-horses that can trot 
 freely and at fair speed. 
 
 The Polo Pony. — Handiness and speed, with sufficient 
 staying and weight-carrying power, are the two chief 
 requirements of the polo pony. Consequently, he should 
 be light in front, should carry his head and neck well, 
 have sloping shoulders and particularly strong hocks. 
 The fact of his being slightly ^'goose-rumped'' will be no 
 detriment. The best English polo ponies, such as the once 
 matchless Dynamite (Fig, 237), are animals which, but for 
 an accident of breeding, would have been high-class 
 hunters or brilliant chasers. Mr. E. D. Miller lays down, in 
 Modern Polo, the sound maxim that a polo pony should be 
 by a thoroughbred out of a mare by a thoroughbred. 
 
Dixon &^ Sons. 
 
 Fig. .^^^2.— Mr. W. li. Walker's Water Lily. 
 
 M. //. //. 
 
 Fig. 333. -Mr. Gregory's Stepaside. 
 
 To face p. 252. 
 
( 253 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 The English Thoioughbied — The English Half-bied Hoise — The Shiie 
 Horse — The Suffolk Horse oi Suffolk Punch — The Cleveland Bay — The 
 Yoikshire Coach Hoise— The Hackney — The Exmoor Pony — The 
 New Forest Pony — The Dartmoor Pony — The Clydesdale — The 
 Shetland Pony — The West Highland Pony — The Welsh Pony — 
 Australasian Horses — The Noiwegian Pony — The Iceland Pony — 
 Ameiican Ponies — 'American Trotters — South Afucan Horses — South 
 Ameiican Hoises — Aiab Hoises — East Indian Hoises — Buima and 
 Manipuii Ponies — Sumatia and Java Ponies — Mongolian Pomes— 
 Coiean Ponies — Japanese Ponies, 
 
 The English Thoroughbred — I have said so much in 
 the previous chapter on English race-horses, that I shall 
 content myself here with making a few general remarks. 
 As a rule, the chief merits of English thoroughbreds are 
 Speed, early maturity, and the fact of their being '^well 
 topped " ; their chief defects, weediness, deficiency of bone 
 below the knees and hocks, and uprightness of fore 
 pasterns. Hence, we find among them a far greater 
 number of light-weight sprinters that are incapable of stand- 
 ing much work, than sound stayers which can carry a fair 
 weight, and which will '' train on." The English thorough- 
 bred, or nearly thoroughbred, pony, like Predominant, 
 Lord Clyde, Mulberry, Sylvia, Mike, Bustle, Deuce of 
 Diamonds, and Dynamite, is certainly the best of its class 
 in the world, whether for racing or polo. I am inclined 
 to think that in comparison, say, with blood horses in 
 Australia, English thoroughbreds under 15 hands are 
 better than those over that height. If this be the case, 
 the facts that big horses are more liable to become roarers 
 
254 Ji£MARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 than small ones, and that roaring is far more common in 
 England than in Australia, would no doubt have an 
 important bearing on this point. 
 
 The English Half-bred Horse. — The half-bred 
 English horse, of which we may take the half-bred hunter as 
 the best type, is, as a rule, Hke the thoroughbred, well topped ; 
 but is far too often very poor below the knees, and heavy 
 about the shoulders, both of which defects are generally 
 owing to an attempt to obtain ** substance" by the 
 dangerous admixture of coarse blood. 
 
 The Shire Horse is a beautiful and essentially 
 English breed, and is the incarnation of equine strength, 
 as we may see by an inspection of such magnificent speci- 
 mens as Rokeby Harold (Fig. 334), Rokeby Fuchsia 
 (Fig. 335), Bury Victor Chief (Fig. 231), and Chance 
 (Fig. 232). His average height is about 16.2, His proper 
 work is the traction of immense loads at a walk. As 
 regards conformation, he shows a maximum of size, com- 
 pactness and weight of body, and shortness and muscularity 
 of limb. In Norfolk and elsewhere, a smaller and more 
 active horse, though of the same breed, proves admirably 
 suited to general farm work. 
 
 The Suffolk Horse, or Suffolk Punch (Figs. 336 
 and 337), is the most typical English agricultural horse, 
 being a fast walker and light easy trotter. He ranges in 
 height from 15.3 to 16.2, and, though active, is remarkably 
 compact, shows great bone, and stands on short legs, which, 
 contrary to those of Shires and Clydesdales, carry but little 
 superfluous hair. Chestnut is the only recognised colour for 
 this breed. He is a very hardy horse. No fault is found 
 with him if his shoulders are somewhat upright. 
 
 The Cleveland Bay (Figs. 338 and 339) has existed 
 as a distinct type for hundreds of years in the North and 
 
C. Reid, IVishavc. 
 
 Fig. .534.— Lord Belper's Shire Stallion, Rokeby Harold. 
 
 C. Reid, Wishaw. To face p. 254. 
 
 YiG. 335.— Mr. John Parnell's Shire Mare, Rokeby Fuchsia. 
 
THE YORKSHIRE COACH HORSE. 255 
 
 East Ridings of Yorkshire. Formerly, he was used for 
 coaching and agriculture, at both of which he was an equally- 
 great success. In ancient days, the roads were so bad and 
 the vehicles were so heavy, that strength rather than speed 
 was sought for in coaching. At farm work, the Cleveland 
 has always distinguished himself by his great activity. With 
 improvements in roads and carriages, breeders of Clevelands 
 have successfully tried to obtain more speed. The Cleveland 
 of to-day is essentially a clean-legged coach horse or light 
 vanner, with blood-like head, full, well-arched neck, sloping 
 though rather thick shoulders (suitable for a collar), and well 
 set-on tail. His good carriage of head, neck and tail makes 
 him a showy harness horse. He has a tendency to be light 
 in the loins, which fact, along with his comparatively heavy 
 fore hand, unfits him, as a rule, for saddle work. The 
 mare stands about 16 hands, the stallion 16. i to 16.2. 
 The only recognised colour is bay. The action, at a trot, 
 resembles that of a thoroughbred, and is free from ''the 
 snap of the knee'' of the hackney. At this pace, the 
 Cleveland bends his hocks well, and brings his hind legs 
 under him with great freedom. Tradition points to a 
 Barb cross with Yorkshire cart mares as the foundation of 
 this breed. 
 
 The Yorkshire Coach Horse (Figs. 340 and 341). — 
 The increase of speed rendered necessary by improved 
 communications, showed the advisability of an infusion of 
 Eastern, and subsequently of thoroughbred blood, into the 
 Cleveland, with the result of the formation of the Yorkshire 
 Coach Horse, which may now be regarded as a distinct type. 
 For detailed information on this subject, I may refer my 
 readers to Vol. I. of The Yorkshire Coach Horse Stud Book, 
 which tells us, as instances of the speed and endurance 
 of these anitflals, that ** Dreadnaught, by Old Clothier, won a 
 trotting match for ^100, carrying 16 stone 16 miles within 
 the hour; and that Peirson's Plato trotted 18 miles within the 
 hour, carrying 18 stone." 
 
2s6 J^EMAJ^KS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF IIORSns 
 
 The Hackney.— Formerly, the English roadster was 
 represented by two distinct types, namely, the Norfolk 
 trotter and the Yorkshire hackney, which are now merged 
 mtothe one class of *' hackney '' (Figs. 342, 31 -,, 3 {4 and 345) 
 after frequent crossing with the thoroughbred The fashion- 
 able hackney {vide Danegelt, Fig. 342) resembles to some 
 extent the thoroughbred by his lightness of body and length 
 of legs ; but the heaviness of his fore hand unfits him for 
 saddle work of the hunter or charger kind. His well-shaped 
 head, powerfully developed and commanding neck, horizontal 
 croup, jauntily carried tail, and extravagant action, make him 
 a very showy horse, particularly tis his shouVlers nrv oblique, 
 and have a good place for the collar. 
 
 Danegelt was not alone a handsomt* and t\pical hackney, 
 but possessed the far more valuable qualit\, in a sire, of being 
 able to transmit to a remarkable extent his best pomts to his 
 offspring In Ganymede, he left behind him a worthy son 
 of the highest character. 
 
 As a contrast to the fashionable hackney, I give V'lg. 
 346, which shows a very good-looking hacknt y of the old- 
 fashioned sort. Without appearing to hav«^ an) cross of the 
 thoroughbred, he looks, to my thinking, the dam uiial of a 
 useful roadster for country requiremc^nts in Itnglancl I leave 
 my readers to evamine his good points, and, to aid them 
 doing so, I give, by way of contrast, Mg. 347, in which 
 the horse is very much of the same class, but differs greatly 
 m slope of shoulder, length of neck, and size <ind shape 
 of head. 
 
 The Exmoor Pony. — Sir Thomas Dyke A eland tells 
 us (see Ltve Stock Journal, 28th May, 1886) that his father, 
 prior to 18 15, had about 500 Exmoor ponies running wild on 
 Exmoor, and that a famous, and possibly mythical, stallion, 
 Katerfelto, was supposed to have infused some fine Spanish 
 or Arab blood into them. He also informs us that Exmoor 
 ponies are miniature cart-horses, with good action, and that 
 they have goose rumps. 
 
C. Reid, Wishavc. 
 
 Fig. 336. -Mk. Horace Wolton's Suffolk Stallion, Chieftain's Champion. 
 
 C. Reid, IVishazv. To face p. 256. 
 
 Fig. 337. — The Dlke of Hamilton's Suffolk Mare, ^ueen of Trumps. 
 
THE DARTMOOR PONY, 2.7 
 
 Mr. Charles H. Basset, late Master of the Devon and 
 Somerset Staghoimds, writing to Mr. Edward Mucklow, Junr , 
 thinks that there is no breed of pony like the pure Exmoor, 
 of which Sir Thomas Acland and Mr. William Westacott, of 
 Harkridge, are the principal breeders. Mr. Basset says that 
 '' these ponies are beautifully shouldered, deep girthed, and 
 with lovely heads ; but with the drooping quarters peculiar to 
 the breed, and which, I have been told, are generally seen on 
 all horses and ponies that are bred and reared on hilly and 
 mountainous land. Anyhow, both the ponies and sheep of 
 Exmoor have the same sloping hind-quarters They are 
 about 10 or 11 hands high, and the colour brown with mealy 
 noses I am told that Sir Thomas Acland will not keep 
 any other colour, and that it is a sign of a stain in some cross 
 when any other colour but brown appears '' Writing to me 
 about Exmoor ponies, Mr. Mucklow says that '*they are the 
 foundation of the best polo ponies, mated with a thorough- 
 bred horse, not too big. Ponies bred this way are extra- 
 ordinary jumpers, and lovely hacks." I may here repeat 
 Mr. E. D. Miller's well-proved rule that the English polo 
 pony of the present day, in order to have sufficient speed, 
 must be by a thoroughbred out of a mare by a thoroughbred. 
 Exmoor ponies have been a good deal crossed in breeding, 
 with the 6bject of increasing their height, which has been 
 obtained with, naturaUy, some loss of hardihood. Royal Oak 
 (Fig. 348) and Gladys (Fig. 349) are handsome specimens 
 of the breed. 
 
 The New Forest Pony (Figs. 351 and 352) is an 
 old English breed, to the improvement of which Lord 
 Arthur Cecil has devoted much attention. They are 
 very hardy, clever little horses, and are good either to 
 ride or drive. They, like the Exmoors, have been much 
 crossed. 
 
 The Dartmoor Pony is also an old English breed, and 
 somewhat resembles the Exmoor. 
 
258 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 The Clydesdale is a distinct breed of heavy cart-horse 
 that has been long established in Scotland. He is, as we 
 may see from the fine specimens shown m Figs. 353, 354, 
 355 and 356, a remarkably handsome, strong and active 
 animal. Clydesdale breeders, as a rule, make a great point 
 in obtaining oblique shoulders and sloping pasterns, and seek 
 for ability to walk fast and trot well, with as much strength 
 as possible. The breed has been crossed a good deal with 
 the Shire. Scotch breeders will no doubt keep the Shire 
 type in their mmds ; for weight means money in the cart- 
 horse market. 
 
 The Shetland Pony (Figs. 234 and 357) is an 
 extremely hardy, handsome, and strong pony of from 10 to 
 1 1 hands high. 
 
 The West Highland Pony (Fig. 358) is another 
 indigenous Scotch pony of great hardiness and strength. 
 
 The Welsh Pony varies greatly in height and confor- 
 mation. Many of them have a good dash of hackney blood, 
 and make very useful trappers. An immense number of 
 these animals may be found in tradesmen's carts of the light 
 sort throughout England. 
 
 » 
 Australasian Horses. — The special good points of 
 
 Australian, Tasmanian, and New Zealand horses, from a 
 
 saddle point of view, are their excellent fiat shoulders, light 
 
 necks, well-shaped legs, and sound feet. Their loins, barrel, 
 
 and croup are not, as a rule, as good as those of English 
 
 horses ; but they are able .to stand more work. Animals 
 
 that are brought up on extensive ** runs *' till they are, say, 
 
 four years old, develop better shoulders and sounder legs 
 
 and feet than those which are *' taken up '' early ; although, 
 
 other conditions being equal, they may, perhaps, not be as 
 
 neatly ** topped.'' Their^light fore hands and good shoulders 
 
 make the Australasian horses clever jumpers The Colonial 
 
C. Reid, Wishaiv. 
 Fig. 338.— Cleveland Stallion, Luck's All, the property of Mr. H. C. Stephens, M.P. 
 
 C. Reid, Wishavc. 
 
 To face p. 258. 
 
 Fig. ^3q.— Cleveland Mare, Madam, the property of Mr. H. C. Stephens, M.P. 
 
AUSTRALASIAN HORSES. 259 
 
 animals, taking them all round, have more thoroughbred 
 blood in them than their English cousins. 
 
 The Antipodes, as far as I can judge, are far more 
 suitable for the production of thoroughbreds with large 
 bone and substance, than is England. Hence we find, in 
 these colonies, a comparatively large number of animals of 
 the weight-carrying hunter and charger type which have 
 little or no stain in their pedigrees. On the other hand, 
 although thoroughbreds in England have a greater tendency 
 to ''run light" than in Australasia, they certainly show more 
 *' quality " than those of any other country. Without wishing 
 in any way to dogmatise, I would venture to say that the 
 Colonies are capable of producing more useful saddle-nags 
 and cavalry troopers than Europe ; but not as high-class 
 *' sprinters." As an exception to their general utility for 
 Army purposes, I think that better field artillery horses, and 
 especially field artillery wheelers, which require a strong 
 admixture of cart blood, can be obtained in England, thar 
 in Australia. As a proof of deterioration in racing '' quality,'^ 
 I may mention that, up to the present, the produce of im- 
 ported sires has, as a rule, been more successful on the 
 Australian turf than that of Colonial-bred sires, of which the 
 best has been Yattendon, whose two most distinguished sons 
 at the stud were Grand Flaneur and Chester, both out of 
 imported mares. The best Australasian sires have been 
 imported horses, such as Panic, Musket, Fisherman and St. 
 Albans. The same rule appears to hold good in America, if 
 we may judge by what the Spirit of the Times says in the 
 following extract: '*The success of imported English sires 
 within the past twenty years, beginning with Leamington, 
 has certainly impressed many breeders with a belief in their 
 superiority. Glenelg, Australian, Bullet, King Ban, The 
 Ill-used, Great Tom, King Ernest, Bonnie Scotland, Rayon 
 d'Or, Prince Charlie, Phaeton, Eclipse, St. Blaise, etc., have 
 well-nigh driven the native stallions into exile. Virgil may 
 be said to have been the only stallion who was native bred 
 on both sides of his pedigree, and who has held his own 
 
 s 2 
 
26o REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES, 
 
 against the imported horses. Longfellow, Spendthrift, 
 Enquirer, Eolus, King Alfonso, and other successful native 
 sires, were the sons of imported horses. The English mares 
 have also succeeded in a great degree." 
 
 As long as Australia and America have to obtain fresh 
 infusions of blood from England, to keep up the excellence 
 of their respective breeds of race-horses ; so long should no 
 jealousy, as regards horses, exist between the mother-country 
 and her offspring, who should regard their state of dependency 
 on her, as one of her strongest claims on their affection and 
 support. 
 
 Australasian race-horses at long distances are probably 
 as good as any horses in the world. The performance of 
 Carbine (a New Zealand son of Musket) in winning the 
 Melbourne Cup, two miles, with lo st. 5 lbs. up, compares 
 not unfavourably with the most brilliant victories of 
 Ormonde, Isonomy, or St. Gatien. In the Colonies there 
 are many smart racing ponies, like Glengary IL, Little 
 Wonder (New Zealand), Mayflower, and Jeannette ; but 
 they are not, as I have already remarked, as good as the 
 best in England and Ireland. 
 
 The Australian race-horse. Bravo (Fig. 327), by Grand 
 Flaneur out of The Orphan, won the Melbourne Cup in 
 1889, when in receipt of 21 lbs. from Carbine. When 
 I took his photograph, he was about half-trained, and was 
 consequently somewhat lusty. To judge of him as he was 
 standing for his portrait, he appears to have been a trifle 
 longer in the body, than he was high at the withers, from 
 which fact we might infer that he was not a race-horse of 
 the highest class. He had good shoulders, long neck, short 
 back, and good depth at the centre of his back, and was 
 consequently a fine stayer. His hocks were not as straight 
 as those of Ormonde (Frontispiece), Persimmon (Fig. 322), 
 or St. Simon (Figs. 9 and 229). 
 
 Romance (Fig. 270) is a handsome Australian horse of 
 the light or even middle weight hunter or charger type. 
 He won several races over hurdles and on the fiat in 
 
M. MidgUy, York'. 
 Fig. 340.— Mr. John White's Captain Svkks, No. 1002 Vokkshikk Coach Horsk Stlju Book. 
 
 M. Midglry, York. ^o face p. .60. 
 
 Fig. 341.— Mr. John White's Ainsty Queen, No. 367 Y. C. H. Stud Book. 
 
AMERICAN TROTTERS, 261 
 
 Australia and India; but among inferior company. His 
 shortness of leg, as compared to his length of body, precludes 
 the possibility of his being gifted with a fine turn of speed. 
 Though no race-horse, he is perfectly shaped as a fast hunter. 
 He has a short back, long *' rein,*' and particularly strong, 
 well-formed legs. His good shoulders and light head and 
 neck are valuable jumping and galloping "points." His 
 best points of speed are, no doubt, his straight hocks and 
 powerful gaskins. 
 
 The horse shown in Fig 271 belongs to a common type 
 of underbred Australian horse, which makes a good remount 
 and useful slave. As a rule, these horses are well fitted for 
 saddle ; for their fore hand is comparatively light and their 
 legs good. 
 
 The Norwegian Pony is a distinct breed that has 
 been long distinguished by its hardiness, activity, and 
 general usefulness. A good representative of these small 
 horses, and fast trotter, is given in Fig. 359. A half-bred 
 Swedish hunter is shown in Fig. 360. 
 
 The Iceland Pony (Fig. 307) is a diminutive, good- 
 looking breed that manages to exist under most severe 
 conditions of privation and cold. 
 
 American Ponies. — Figs. 238 and 362 show us good 
 types of American polo ponies. 
 
 American Trotters. — According to Mr. Francis A. 
 Foster, of Boston, who very kindly writes to me on the sub- 
 ject, the trotter (Figs. 363, 364, 368, and 374), compared to 
 the thoroughbred, has a large head ; short and thick neck ; 
 deep and short body in comparison to his height; broad 
 chest ; low withers ; thick shoulders ; and is broad, as viewed 
 from behind. In fact, he has more bone and muscle all round 
 than the race-horse of English blood. His chief characteristic, 
 as regards conformation, is the shortness and depth of his 
 
>62 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 body as compared to his height. He is, as a rule, a smaller 
 horse than the thoroughbred. Trainers of trotters prefer 
 small horses ; for they find them more lasting than big ones. 
 I am inclined to think that the pelvis of the American trotter 
 is more sloping than that of the thoroughbred ; a peculiarity 
 which would cause him (i) to be shorter in the body ; and (2) 
 to have his hind legs more under him than would be the case 
 if his pelvis were more horizontal. The best American 
 trotters vary in height, as a rule, from 15 hands to 15.2. 
 Taller trotters seldom prove to be good campaigners. The 
 following is a list of the respective heights of some of the 
 most famous American trotters : — 
 
 Hands. 
 
 Alix(2.03i) 15 
 
 Floia Temple (2.192) .... 14. 2I 
 
 Goldsmith Maid (2 . 14) . . . . 15.0 J 
 
 Dextei (2.17I) ... . 15. oi 
 
 Sunol(2.o8|) . . 16 (neaily) 
 
 Nancy Hanks (2 . 04) . . . .15,02 
 
 Diiectum (2.05-) . . . . 15.1 (at 4 years old) 
 
 Jay Eye See (2.10) . - ^5 (under) 
 
 Kremlin (2.072) . . . . .16 
 
 Great Eastern (2.152) . . . . 1 7 . i 
 
 . .0 . o X (15-2 (at withers) 
 
 MauaS. (2.082) . ... ],3.3. (^^ croup) 
 
 The stock of the Hambletonians are very irregular as to 
 size. The Mambrino Chiefs are tall and leggy. The Morgans 
 keep close to 1 5 hands. 
 
 The characteristic difference between the conformation of 
 the American trotter and the thoroughbred, as regards the 
 proportion between the length of body (or rather, the length 
 from hip joint to point of shoulder) and length of limb, is 
 shown not only by actual measurement, but also by the fact 
 that many match trotters cannot go fast without '' inter- 
 fering" to such an extent that they are obliged to be 
 exercised habitually in specially made boots (''scalpers"). 
 Setting this and other not so pronounced differences aside, 
 the fact remains that the American trotter, at least as 
 regards "quality," has shown a gradual approach to the 
 
C. Re id, Wishazv. 
 
 Fig. 342. — Sir Walter Gilbey's Hackney Stallion, Danegelt. 
 
 is .^ >..» tti » »inm»«'»» w"- - 
 
 ■ fc*^** 
 
 H. R. Gibbs, Kingsland Road. To face p. 262. 
 
 Fig. 343.— Sir Walter Gilbey's Hackney Mare, Lady Keyingham, 
 
AMERICAN TROTTERS. 263 
 
 thoroughbred. Originally sprung from horses which possessed 
 the all-important gift of trotting, although in many cases of 
 coarse blood, they were at first but little removed from what 
 we might call ''light harness horses." By careful selection, 
 good management, and, perhaps, the judicious infusion of 
 English racing blood, the conformation of the trotter, from 
 a speed point of view, has improved immensely, as we may 
 see from the following record times for one mile . — 
 
 ^^3S^ 
 
 Sally MiUei . 
 
 2.37 ^ 
 
 1845. 
 
 Lady Suffolk 
 
 2. 291 
 
 ^^S' 
 
 Highland Maid 
 
 2.27 
 
 1865. 
 
 Flora Temple 
 
 2.19I 
 
 1875 
 
 Goldsmith Maid 
 
 2. 14 
 
 1885. 
 
 Maud S. 
 
 2.08I:/ 
 
 1895. 
 
 Alix . 
 
 2.03J 
 
 '> Old-fashioned sulky. 
 
 Some strains of American harness-horses produce, in- 
 differently, trotters or pacers, which is a peculiarity that is 
 not found among true trotting breeds of other countries, such 
 as England or Russia. It appears that in these American 
 cases there is always a cross, more or less remote, of pacing 
 blood. Pacers never come from stock in which there is no 
 pacing blood. 
 
 American trotting blood is eminently suited to give speed 
 and useful trotting action to all light harness horses. I 
 believe that this cross with the Hackney, under favourable 
 conditions, is productive of a harness horse of showy presence 
 and fine speed. Although conformation, no doubt, plays a 
 certain part in the result, I am inclined to think that the 
 wasteful knee action and consequent tendency to roll from 
 side to side, too often exhibited by the Hackney when going 
 at his highest speed, is chiefly due to training. 
 
 When we consider that, in modern times, no race-horse 
 with a stain in his pedigree has ever gained first-class honours 
 on the turf, and that a considerable admixture of coarse blood 
 is no bar to high trotting merit ; we may not unreasonably 
 conclude that the gift of trotting lies more in the brain than 
 in the muscles. 
 
264 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORDES. 
 
 South African Horses* — The ordinary horses of the 
 Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal 
 show a fair amount of *' blood," with a dash of the Arab, and 
 have very good legs and feet. They are, however, for the 
 most part '' weedy." Although they are admirable ''slaves" 
 with a light weight, or with but little to draw , they are quite 
 unsuited for military purposes. Those which are up to the 
 weight of a trooper, or fit to take their place in an artillery 
 team, would, at an average price of ^35 or ^,'40, be too slow 
 for cavalry or horse artillery work. The weight-carrying 
 hunter type of horse is practically unknown in South Africa. 
 The success on the turf of locally bred horses, like Prosecutor, 
 proves that the country is capable of producing good race- 
 horses. The freedom in which stock are raised there, 
 undoubtedly accounts for the excellence of their limbs. The 
 chief native breed, the Basuto pony, is a remarkably hardy 
 animal, with capital legs and feet ; but as he is rather short 
 on the leg, he is deficient in pace. Indeed, South African 
 horses, except those that are thoroughbred, are, as a rule, 
 very slow ; a fact which is no doubt due, in many instances, 
 to their loins being weak, their gaskins poor, and their hocks 
 being too much bent. South African breeders are much 
 handicapped by outbreaks of '' horse-sickness '' and by want 
 of water. With the exception of these drawbacks, the 
 country, especially in the Colesberg district and Orange Free 
 State, is admirably suited to the production of good horses. 
 Soutn Africa is singularly wanting in smart ponies, such as 
 those fit for polo. In this respect it forms a marked contrast 
 with England, Australasia, India, and Arabia. 
 
 South American Horses. — In the Argentine Republic 
 many good thoroughbreds are raised by Mr. Kemmis and 
 other breeders. I have no means of '' drawing a line '' 
 between them and English or Australasian horses, except the 
 fact that Camilla, the aged daughter of Ph^nix, with 32 lbs. 
 the best of the weights, beat the Australian plater. The Wild 
 Oat, and five others at Calcutta in December, 1890. Neither 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 344.— Mr. Tom Mitchkll's Hackney Stallion, Ganymede. 
 
 C. Tadman, Stansted. > To face p. 264. 
 
 Fig. 345. — Hackney Mare and Foal, the property of Sir Walter Gilbey. 
 
ARAB HORSES, 265 
 
 Camilla nor The Wild Oat, at the time, were good repre- 
 sentatives of their respective classes ; so the result of the 
 race is no criterion to go by. The common Argentine 
 horses, if somewhat wanting in blood, are of the sturdy and 
 useful sort. The country seems well suited to the production 
 of excellent stock. 
 
 Arab Horses. — My fnend, the late Shaikh Esa bin 
 Curtas, always maintained that the best Arabs did not, as a 
 rule, exceed 14.I2 or 14.2 in height AH bin Abdoolah, 
 another Arab friend of mine, and of nearly as great experience 
 as the late Shaikh, likes them bigger. From a galloping 
 point of view, judging by the Indian records of the last half 
 century, there is not much to choose either way ; the balance 
 of weight being probably with the big Arabs, like Child of 
 the Islands, Raby, Lucifer, Marquis, Sherwood, Euphrates, 
 and Euclid. Yet with such good fourteen-handers as 
 Anarchy, Chieftain, Shere AH, and Turkish Flag, who, in 
 their time, were second to none in their own class ; the fact 
 remains, that for the attainment of galloping excellence, an 
 Arab need not exceed 14. i My own impression is that 
 among the Arabs sent to India for racing are to be found 
 many of the best and highest caste horses bred in the Desert 
 This opinion is in accordance with that often expressed to me 
 by experienced Arab dealers whose friendship I have enjoyed. 
 Also, poor Colonel Valentine Baker, whom I knew in Cairo, 
 and who had an intimate acquaintance with Eastern horses, 
 told me that the best Arabs were sent to Bombay, where new 
 importations, if of really high character, readily fetch from 
 ;^20o to ;^300 a-piece. We may infer from the foregoing 
 remarks, that the Arab horse is, according to our Western 
 acceptation of the term, a pony. Even restricting him to 
 this class, 1 feel confident that the best Arab that ever lived, 
 no matter what his height, was inferior, from a racing point 
 of view, to a first-class English or Australian pony of fourteen 
 hands. The English fourteen-hand pony mare. Skittles, 
 the property of Captain Mowbray, of the Black Watch, beat 
 
266 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES, 
 
 in a two-mile match at Cairo, in 1886-7, the Arab Haddeed 
 in a common canter, when giving him 7 lbs. He was looked 
 upon in Egypt as an extraordinary good Arab. Mr. Kelly 
 Maitland's Australian 13.2 mare, Fleur de Lys, several 
 imes proved herself as fast as any Arab in India for 
 I mile. Taking the time test, which has been applied with 
 great precision to the running of Arabs, we find that their 
 performances in India have been much inferior to those 
 accomplished by the English ponies, Lord Clyde (formerly 
 belonging to Mr. John Watson), Predominant (Fig. 236), 
 and Labby (by Wisdom), and by the Australian pony mare 
 Achievement, none of whom exceeded fourteen hands in 
 height. Although Arabs are not race-horses, they are ex- 
 cellent hacks, and excel particularly as light cavalry troopers. 
 In these respects the small Arab, not exceeding 14.2, is, as a 
 rule, undoubtedly better than the bigger Arab. A son of the 
 Desert of the best type has a handsome and intelligent head, 
 with broad forehead, large, '' kind " eyes, straight or concave 
 line of the face, large nostrils, well carried ears, lean and wide 
 jaw. His neck, if somewhat coarse, is fairly long and 
 is well set on to his head, which is carried bravely. His 
 shoulders are well sloped, although they often err, from a 
 galloping or jumping point of view, on the side of thickness, 
 and his breast is not too broad. He has capital legs and 
 feet. His withers are often somewhat low and thick. His 
 loins are flat, broad, and powerful. For roundness of barrel 
 and length of back ribs, for levelness of croup, and for 
 beautiful carriage of the tail, he is certainly without equal 
 among horses. He is not unfrequently higher over the croup 
 than at the withers, which, in that case, will have a conse- 
 quent tendency to be unduly low and thick. I do not think 
 that his hocks and gaskins are as good as those of well-bred 
 English or Australian animals. In justice to the Arab, I 
 must point out that the heaviness of his fore hand, as com- 
 pared to that of the English thoroughbred, is due to the 
 large size of the muscles which attach his shoulders to his 
 chest, and which draw the fore limbs forward and backward. 
 
M, H. H. 
 
 Fig. 346. — Old Fashioned Roadster. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 347. — Roadster. 
 
 To face p 266. 
 
EAST INDIAN HORSES, 267 
 
 The comparatively large development of the muscles of his 
 fore hand and loins makes him a good weight carrier for 
 his size. The common statement, that Arabs have bad 
 shoulders, has evidently been made by persons who do not 
 know that the kind of shoulders which might be very good in 
 one class of riding horse, might be equally bad in another 
 kind of saddle animal. The grandly shaped barrel of the 
 Arab plainly indicates that he has clear wind, strong consti- 
 tution, and that he is a good *'doer.'' Fig. 370 shows us 
 Blitz, the best 13. i Arab pony that has ever run in India; 
 but he was not as good as the English pony Mike, who was 
 about half an inch the smaller of the two. 
 
 The more an Arab exceeds, say, 14. 2 in height, the more 
 inclined is he to be long in the leg, light in the loins and 
 flanks, and flat-sided. 
 
 The term Gulf Arab (Figs, 263 and 361) is applied to 
 horses, which, though not desert born, have a dash of 
 Arab blood, and which have been imported to Bombay 
 from the Persian Gulf. They stand about midway between 
 the true Arab (Fig. 370), and the Cabuli (Fig. 264). I 
 believe that, as a rule, they are either Persians, or have 
 been bred in the Euphrates valley. 
 
 East Indian Horses. — The native horses of India are 
 of the smart, wiry sort. As a rule, they are best when they 
 do not exceed 14.1 or 14.2; for the more they overtop 
 this height, the '* weedier" do they become. Having light 
 fore hands and well-sloped shoulders, they are clever and 
 jump well. They haveLcel.en. feet. Their legs, though 
 capable of standing a great deal of work on hard ground, are 
 often, from errors of breeding and bringing up, misshapen ; so 
 that turned-out toes, calf-knees, cow-hocks, and sickle-hocks 
 are of frequent occurrence among them. Generally, they are 
 flat-sided and light in the loin. Consequently, they are poor 
 weight carriers, and bad stayers at fast paces ; but are 
 marvellously good at enduring fatigue and privation. The 
 best of them make capital light cavalry horses up to, say, 
 
268 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES 
 
 13 St. 7 lbs. Although they are not as strong or as good- 
 looking as Arabs, they are probably hardier and better suited 
 to endure hunger and thirst. Many of them, especially if 
 they have a dash of English or Arab blood, have a fair 
 turn of speed, and consequently make good pig-stickers 
 and polo ponies. Indian racing ponies, which have a 
 strong infusion of English blood, are, speaking generally, 
 about 14 lbs. worse than Arabs of the same height, and 
 particularly so over long distances. At fourteen hands 
 it would be difficult to '' bring them together " "with 
 English ponies in a race for, say, a mile. Without the 
 constant importation of fresh blood from England, it is 
 impossible In India to breed horses fit for racing, or for the 
 requirements of English cavalry and artillery : even then, 
 the results are very poor. Good as Tangri, Minden 
 (Fig. 269), Engadine, and others of General " Ben " Parrott's 
 breeding have been in their own class and against Arabs, 
 their form has been but little better than that of fourteen- 
 hand English ponies. 
 
 Minden (Fig. 269) was a famous ** country-bred " race- 
 horse in India, among his own class, which is not within 
 '^measureable distance" of that of English ^50 selling 
 platers. Viewed as a smart saddle-nag, I must say that 
 Minden looks a nice-shaped horse He has capital 
 shoulders and a good ** middle-piece " I may add that 
 he was in training when I took his photograph. The fact 
 of his being longer in the body than he is high at the 
 withers or at the croup, points to deficiency of speed. 
 
 Fig. 377 shows us a typical Kathiawar mare. She is 
 a '' three-cornered" animal, but having been brought up 
 among rough surroundings, is capable of enduring much 
 privation and hard work ; though necessarily slow on 
 account of her body being much longer than she is high 
 at withers or croup. Her body is also very long com- 
 pared to its depth. She is '' calf-kneed," '* sickle-hocked," 
 and slightly tied-in below the hocks. As compensations, 
 her shoulders are fairly well shaped , her fore arms and 
 
Hay t nan 6~-' So)i. 
 
 Fig. 348.— Mr. Edward Mucki.ow, Junr.'s Exmoor Pony Stallion, Royal Oak. 
 
 Hay man & Sou. To face p. 268. 
 
 Fig. 349.— Mr. Edward Mucklow, Junr.'s Exmoor Pony Mare, Gladys. 
 
SUMATRA AND JAVA PONIES. 269 
 
 gaskins are strong; and her ^'bone" below the knees 
 is good. 
 
 Under the present heading we may put Cahdi (Fig. 264), 
 Baluchi, and other Trans4ndus horses, which are largely 
 used in India, and which, though stouter and shorter on 
 the leg, are neither as smart nor as hardy in hot climates 
 as the ''country-bred/' We might consider them as inter- 
 mediate between the East Indian horse and the Mongolian 
 pony. 
 
 Burma and Manipuri Ponies. — The so-called Burma 
 pony (Fig. 378) is chiefly bred in the Shan Hills. He 
 rarely exceeds 13.2, and is probably at his best when about 
 thirteen hands high. He is a grand weight-carrier, jumps 
 well, and is very hardy, though slow. The ponies of 
 Manipur, which has been the home of polo for many cen- 
 turies, are closely akin to those of the Shan States ; but 
 are smaller, and smarter for their size. These two kinds 
 of ponies appear to belong to a distinct breed, which seems 
 to have no relationship with ponies of any other country, 
 except, possibly, with those of Sumatra and Java. The 
 Burma pony is sometimes called a Pegu pony. I may say 
 that in the vast extent of country from Rangoon to 
 Mandalay, there are no good native ponies bred. 
 
 The body of the Burma pony has great depth in com- 
 parison to its length. For a saddle-pony, he has a nice 
 head and neck, and fair shoulders ; but his croup is too 
 drooping. He is much better -topped'^ than he is below 
 his elbows and stifles. His fore arms and gaskins are 
 poor, and he has sickle hocks. As might be expected, 
 Burma ponies, of which this one is rather a good specimen, 
 are strong for their height, but slow. 
 
 Sumatra and Java Ponies. — The strongest ponies 
 for their size I have ever seen, are those of Deli (Sumatra). 
 Their average height is about 12.2. They have handsome 
 heads set on to high-crested necks, are full of spirit, and 
 
270 
 
 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES. 
 
 are simply balls of muscle The capable and light-hearted 
 way in which one of these grand Lilhputs can trot away 
 with a four-wheeled carriage containing five or six heavy 
 men, is a sight worth going many miles to see. Acheen, 
 which is in the north of Sumatra, has a good breed of 
 ponies. The Java pony, though a relation of, is inferior 
 to the Dell pony. 
 
 Mongolian Ponies. — Under this broad heading I 
 would class a breed of ponies which is found in the high- 
 
 '^^n^rJ' ^Jr 
 
 r 
 
 Fig 350 —The China Pony, Teen Kwang 
 {Drawn fi om a photograph ) 
 
 lands between Siberia and the Himalayas , for I can see 
 no distinctive difference between the ponies of Bhootan, 
 Spiti, Yarkund, and Mongolia, with all of which I have 
 had more or less acquaintance The so-called China pony 
 is bred in and sent from Manchuria to China, usually vta 
 Tientsin. They have thick-set bodies, short, sound legs, 
 capital feet, fairly good shoulders for a saddle, and are 
 hardy and sure-footed They average about 13.1 and «are 
 very slow In China, Mongolian ponies are used exten- 
 sively for racing, of course, among themselves, and with 
 
C. Reii/, IViahazv. 
 Fig. 351. — New Forest Pony Stallion, the property of Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil. 
 
 C. Reid, Wishmv. To face p. 270. 
 
 Fig. 352.— New Forest Pony Mare and Foal, the Property of Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil. 
 
JAPANESE PONIES. 271 
 
 excellent results, as far as sport is concerned , for the 
 entries are large, and the pretensions of the candidates 
 pretty even. It has been found that it is no advantage, 
 from a racing point of view, for a Mongolian pony to 
 exceed 13.2. The once matchless Teen Kwang (Fig. 350), 
 who may be regarded as the Ormonde of the Far East, 
 was a little under that height. An English, Australian or 
 Arab 13.2 racing pony could give, in a mile race, about 
 150 yards start to a first-class China pony of the same 
 height, at even weights. The pony of the Himalayas, Yar- 
 kund, and Chinese Tartary is a splendid weight-carrier, and is 
 matchless for enduring fatigue and privations in a cold and 
 desolate country. 
 
 Corean Ponies. — The indigenous pony of Corea is an 
 extremely small animal, often not more than nine hands high. 
 He is very handsome, being built on fine and graceful lines , 
 in fact, he looks like an Arab, or like the Iceland pony in 
 Fig. 307. Despite the smallness of his size, and the slight- 
 ness of his build, he is capable of doing a good deal of hard 
 work. He seems to be of quite a different breed from the 
 Manchuria pony. 
 
 Japanese Ponies are weak-bodied, long-legged animals 
 of about fourteen hands high. In the main island are used 
 a large number of imported Mongolian ponies, which, being 
 thick-set and short on the leg, differ a great deal from the 
 indigenous animals, the best of which come from the province 
 of Namba. There are several half-breds which have been 
 produced by a cross with English or American blood, and 
 which show an advance in height and speed as compared 
 with their local ancestors and with Mongolians. The Nippon 
 Race Club has a very nice course on the Negishi Hill, which 
 is about three miles from Yokohama. In the northern island 
 (Hokkaido or Zezo) there is a distinct breed of ponies, 
 which are weak and weedy. 
 
272 WILD HORSES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 WILD HORSES. 
 Wild Hoises m Australia and America — faipans— Piejcvalsky's Horse 
 
 Wild Horses in Australia and America.— In Australia, 
 there are many herds of wild horses, which are descended 
 from escaped or *' turned out" domesticated animals. Those 
 of America are usually supposed to be of a similar ancestry. 
 This idea is, however, open to doubt , for fossil remains of 
 horses like unto those of the present time, or closely akin to 
 them, are to be found nearly all over North and South 
 America. Considering their former abundance in prehistoric 
 times, and the favourable conditions for equine life which 
 appear since then to have existed in the New World, it 
 seems highly improbable that there were no horses on that 
 continent at the time of the Spanish discovery. This doubt 
 is still more strengthened by the fact that Northern Europe 
 was in communication with North America hundreds of 
 years before Columbus first sighted the Bahama Islands. 
 
 Tarpans. — '* The nearest approach to truly wild horses 
 existing at present are the so-called Tarpans, which occur in 
 the steppe-country north of the Sea of Azoff, between the 
 river Dnieper and the Caspian. They are described to be of 
 small size, dun colour, with short marfc, and rounded, obtuse 
 nose " (Sir Wtlkam Flower). The Russian naturalist, Polia- 
 kof, states that they are mouse-coloured, lighter coloured 
 under the belly than elsewhere, and that their legs are black 
 below the knees and hocks. 
 
C. Reid, Wishaiv. 
 
 Fig. 353._Mr. P. Crawford's Clydesdale Stallion, Prince ok Carruchan. 
 
 C. Reid, Wishaw. To face p. 272. 
 
 Fig. 354.— Mr. R. H. Walker's Clydesdale Mare, Zeynab. 
 
PREJEVALSKV.! HORSE. 27^ 
 
 Prejevalsky's Horse, which has been found in Central 
 Asia near Zaisan and in the desert of Dzungaria, is described 
 by Poliakof (''Annals of Natural History," 1881, p. 16, et 
 seq) as intermediate between the horse and the ass. Like 
 the former, it has castors (chesnuts) on its hind legs as well 
 as on its fore extremities ; and, like the latter, it has an erect 
 mane and no forelock. It has no stripe down the back. Its 
 tail is bushy, being furnished, like that of the horse, though 
 not to the same extent, with long hairs from the root of the 
 tail. Poliakof states that it is of a dun colour, has a 
 yellowish tinge on the back, and is lighter coloured under 
 the belly than elsewhere. It is supposed to be indigenous to 
 Central Asia. 
 
 All kinds of wild horses are smaller and inferior to 
 domesticated animals, in every useful particular, except, 
 perhaps, in the quality of their hoofs and in the soundness 
 of their constitutions. 
 
274 ASSES 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Differences between the Ass and Horse — Hybiids bet^^een the Hoi se and 
 Ass — Vaiieties of Asses — ^The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild Ass — 
 The Onager — The Kiang — The Mountain Zebia — Burchell's Zebia — 
 Chapman's Zebia — The Gr^vy or Somahland Zebia — The Quagga — 
 Points of the Ass, 
 
 Differences between the Ass and Horse. — The follow- 
 ing are the chief differences between the two animals — 
 
 I. The ass has castors (p. 192) only on the fore legs. 
 
 Chauveau is of opinion that the castor is the rudiment 
 of the thumb, or rather first digit- Against this idea there 
 are the following facts : — 
 
 (a.) The castor has no special connection, bony, liga- 
 mentous, or otherwise, with either the bones of the knee or 
 those of the hock. As, in the evolution of the horse, the 
 wasting away of the digits (p. 289, e^ seg.), which have either 
 disappeared or have become rudimentary^ began from below, 
 it is unreasonable to assume that a vestige of the first digit 
 should have remained after all trace of its metacarpal or (as 
 the case may be) metatarsal bone had been lost. 
 
 {b) The second and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal 
 bones still remain strongly in evidence , yet their digits have 
 entirely vanished. 
 
 {c.) The castors are situated below the hock and above 
 the knee. In the onasrer I have seen them much nearer the 
 elb^w than the knee. 
 
 I think the foregoing facts are sufficient to prove that 
 the castors are not rudiments of the first digits. I have no 
 theory to offer respecting their origin. 
 
6". Re id, Wishaiv. 
 
 Fig. 355. — LoRP Londonderry's 4-year-old Clydesdale Stallion, Holyrood. 
 
 C. Re id, Wishatv. To face p. 274. 
 
 Fig. 356. — Mr. John Gilmour's Clydesdale Mare, Moss Rose. 
 
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND THE HORSE, orj^ 
 
 2. The ass has a tufted tail, somewhat like that of an ox, 
 erect mane, and no forelock. The horse has a bushy tail, 
 drooping mane, and a forelock, when they have been allowed 
 to grow. The difference in the mane is due to the length of 
 the hairs of the part. In the horse, the hairs of the tail grow 
 long from the root of the dock. In the ass, they do so only 
 as they approach the end of the tail. 
 
 3. Veterinary anatomists state that the ass has five loin 
 vertebra, and the horse six (p. 24), unless in some very 
 exceptional cases, when he may have five. If we examine 
 the skeleton of the mountain zebra (Fig. 257) which is in the 
 Museum of the R.C.S., Lincoln's Inn Fields, we shall, how- 
 ever, see that it has six loin vertebra. The skeleton of the 
 famous race-horse Orlando, which is in the same building, has 
 only five loin vertebrae. I have never heard of an instance, 
 in the domestic ass, of the number of these bones exceeding 
 five. I do not know their normal number in zebras. 
 
 4. In the horse, the lachrymal duct, which is the canal 
 that conveys tears from the eye on each respective side into 
 the nostril, has its opening near the inferior commissure of 
 the nostril, and on the line of union between the dark-coloured 
 skin and the pink mucous membrane. In the ass and mule, 
 it is situated at the inner face of the outer wing of the nostril. 
 This orifice is sometimes double. 
 
 5. In the ass, the false nostril extends higher up than in 
 the horse. 
 
 6. The male ass has two rudimental teats in the form of 
 small tubercles. They are absent in the horse. 
 
 7. The ass brays ; the horse neighs. 
 
 8. In the ass, the deep depression at the base of the 
 epiglottis is covered by a thin membrane, which is capable of 
 vibrating, and which is wanting in the horse. Its presence 
 may have some influence in causing the voice of the ass to 
 differ from that of the horse^ I may explain that the 
 epiglottis is a cartilage that acts as a door to the larynx, which 
 is the organ of voice, and which forms an opening into the 
 windpipe. 
 
276 ASSES, 
 
 9. The ass hardly ever has any irregular markings on its 
 coat, such as a **star," '* blaze," *' reach," or *' stockings," all 
 of which are very frequent among horses. A small star, on 
 one or two occasions, is the only mark of the kind I have 
 ever seen in the ass. At the same time, I must state that I 
 have not had much experience among these animals. 
 
 10. I believe I am correct in saying that the colour of the 
 ass is never of a bright bay, chestnut, red or blue roan, or 
 nutmeg grey, I have seen mules of an iron-grey colour ; but 
 have not observed it in the ass. This conservatism in colour 
 and freedom from irregular markings, shown by the ass, is 
 very remarkable ; considering how greatly the coat of the 
 horse varies in this respect, and that the ass has, in all 
 probability, been longer under the influence of domestication 
 than the horse. 
 
 1 1. As regards conformation, I may say that the ass differs 
 from the horse, chiefly, by its greater height over the croup, 
 as compared to that at the withers, and by the narrowness, 
 uprightness, and concavity of its hoofs. The excess of height 
 at the croup tends to make the withers of the ass appear 
 unduly low (p. 167). The spines of the vertebrae at the 
 withers are only a little shorter in the ass than they are in 
 the horse. As a rule, horses are higher at the withers than 
 they are at the croup. 
 
 12. The horse has a thick strong dock to his tail; the 
 ass, a thin, lissom one. 
 
 13. The horse, on each side of his croup and covering his 
 pelvis, has, underneath and closely adhering to the skin of 
 the part, a thick and extremely dense layer of connective 
 tissue, which is so close and hard, when the skin has been 
 tanned and dried, that it looks like horn. These two patches 
 of thickened skin are separated from each other about four 
 or five inches apart, so that there is a strip of skin of ordinary 
 thickness running down the croup towards the tail. These 
 pieces of skin are utilised, chiefly, for the manufacture of long 
 boots for foreign cavalry officers, by curriers, who dress and 
 pare down the '' shell," or hardened layer, until it is almost as 
 
C. Reid, Wishazv. 
 
 Fig. 357. — Lord Londonderry's Shetland Pony, Laird of Noss. 
 
 C Reid, IVishainK To face p. 2.1G. 
 
 Fig. 358. — Lords Arthur and Loinel Cecil's West Highland Pony, Highland Laddie. 
 
HYBRIDS BETWEEN THE HORSE AND ASS. 277 
 
 smooth as glass, and can consequently take the brilliant polish 
 which is greatly esteemed by these beaux sadreurs. I need 
 hardly say that the leather which is thus employed, is worn 
 inside out It is both air and water tight The *' shell" is 
 connected to the skin so closely that the two form one piece ; 
 although their respective consistencies are different. If a 
 section be made through the hide, their line of union may be 
 readily seen In the ass, the *' shell" is not confined to the 
 skin that covers the pelvis ; but also extends over the ribs, 
 which are consequently not as sensitive to the effects of blows 
 as are those of the horse. I may point out that the tendency 
 which a horse has to turn his rump, as the least sensitive 
 part of his anatomy, towards falling rain, cold currents of 
 wind, etc., appears to be due to the feeling of protection to 
 that part, which the presence of the " shell '' on each side 
 gives him. 
 
 Huxley remarks that asses form a distinct species from 
 horses ; because '' all asses have tufted tails and have callosi- 
 ties only on the inner side of the fore legs. If animals were 
 discovered having the general characters of the horse, but 
 sometimes with callosities only on the fore legs and more 
 or less tufted tails ; or animals having the general characters 
 of the ass, but with more or less bushy tails and sometimes 
 with callosities on both pairs of legs, besides being inter- 
 mediate in other respects, the two species would have to be 
 merged into one They could no longer be regarded as 
 morphologically distinct species, for they would not be dis- 
 tinctly definable one from the other/* When Huxley wrote 
 this, he was evidently unaware that the horse has not 
 invariably callosities on all four legs (p. 193). 
 
 Hybrids between the Horse and Ass. — Neither the 
 mule (the produce of the jackass and mare), nor the hinny 
 or jennet (the cross between the horse and the she-ass), is 
 fertile, either among themselves, or with other members of 
 the horse family. Those animals which have been mistaken 
 by superficial observers as fertile mules, have been, I venture 
 
278 -^6**5*^5:^. 
 
 to say, in most cases the offspring of mares that have 
 previously bred to donkeys, and have endowed their young 
 with some of the characteristics of their former asinine lovers. 
 Both the mule and the jennet respectively '* take after " their 
 dam in size ; and their sire, in appearance and disposition. 
 
 I know nothing respecting the question of the fertility of 
 the respective crosses between the different kinds of asses, 
 true or striped. 
 
 Varieties of Asses. — These animals may be divided into 
 the true or whole coloured asses, includmg the domestic or 
 Abyssinian ass, the onager, and the kiang ; and the striped 
 asses, comprising the mountain zebra, BurchelFs zebra, Gr6vy's 
 zebra, and the quagga 
 
 The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild Ass {Equus 
 asinuSy Fig 272). — The domestic ass or donkey is, with hardly 
 any doubt, identical with the handsome and speedy wild ass 
 which is found in North-eastern Africa, and which is known 
 as the Abyssinian wild ass. The chief characteristics which 
 distinguish it from other asses is the possession of a nearly 
 vertical black stripe running down the shoulders, from the 
 front of the withers, and the narrowness of the stripe down 
 the back. These two stripes, which are, as a rule, only from 
 a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, make the well- 
 known cross. Sir William Flower states that the shoulder 
 stripe is '^sometimes double, and not infrequently altogether 
 absent." I believe the stripe down the back is now and 
 then wanting. It is not uncommonly seen among native bred, 
 and especially dun-coloured, horses m India. This wild ass 
 is of a light mouse colour except on the muzzle, under part 
 of the body, and inside of the legs, which are more or 
 less white. Its coat, particularly in the case of the domestic 
 ass, may vary from white to a very dark brown, or even 
 black, with tan '* points." Both in a wild and tame state, it 
 frequently shows dark horizontal stripes on its fore arms. It 
 resembles the mountain zebra in having very large ears, 
 
Fig. 359.— Mr. Hklgivsen's Norwegian Pony 
 
 
 * ■"«*•*,*■'?• 'f * 
 
 To yvTcr /. 278. 
 
 Fig. 360.— Mr. Helgesen's Half-bred Swedish Hunter. 
 
THE ONAGER. 279 
 
 and a very large head compared to the length of its body. 
 From ancient Egyptian records we learn that this ass was 
 employed for domestic purposes in Egypt many centuries 
 before the horse was known in that country. Its introduc- 
 tion into Europe, however, has been comparatively of recent 
 date. It does not appear to have been known in England 
 before the time of the Saxons, and did not come into general 
 use until the beginning of the seventeenth century. The 
 horse, as we all know, was employed by the ancient Britons, 
 even for purposes of war, at the time (55 B.C.) when Caesar 
 landed. The donkey used by native washermen in India 
 is the smallest and most miserable of its kind It is often 
 not more than eight hands high, and, from overloading at a 
 far too early age, its hocks frequently are so much turned 
 in that they rub against each other at every step, even when 
 the animal is at liberty. In countries like America and 
 Spain, where care has been bestowed on the breeding of 
 this ass, it may be found as big as an ordinary saddle horse^ 
 and proportionately strong. 
 
 The donkey associates itself to man as readily as does 
 the dog* and, unlike the horse, evinces little or no inclina- 
 tion to return to a wild state of life after it has become 
 domesticated. It is interesting to note that this ass, which 
 is characterised by a stripe (sometimes two stripes) down 
 the shoulder, and frequently by horizontal stripes on the 
 fore arms, is a native of the country (Africa) in which zebras 
 are indigenous. 
 
 The Oti'dJg^t {Equus onager, Fig. 273). — The wild asses 
 which are found in Syria, Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan, 
 Turkistan, Afghanistan, and Kutch (in India), resemble each 
 other so closely that they may be classed under the one 
 heading of '* onager," which is the term usually reserved for 
 the Indian and Persian wild ass. It is lighter in colour and 
 longer on the leg, in comparison to its length of body, than 
 the Abyssinian variety. It is generally of a light mouse or 
 ash colour on the head (with the exception of the muzzle), 
 
28p ASSES. 
 
 and on the upper parts of the neck, shoulders, back, and 
 quarters ; and more or less white on the muzzle and under 
 part of the neck, chest, and belly, and on the legs. Some- 
 times the colouring is so faint that the animal's coat looks 
 almost of a silver white. It has not, or only to a slight 
 extent in exceptional cases, the cross stripe on the shoulders 
 There is a broad stripe, about five inches wide at the croup, 
 down the back, nearly similar to that of the Burchell zebra 
 {Fig. 367). Adults are from twelve to thirteen hands high 
 at the withers. Its ears are not quite as long as those of 
 the Abyssinian wild ass. It is handsome, very fast, and 
 extremely difficult of approach. 
 
 The Kiang {Eqtms hemionus, Fig. 384) is the wild ass 
 of Thibet and Tartary. It seems to be identical with the 
 onager, except that it is different in colour, more heavily 
 built, on shorter legs, and that the stripe down the back is 
 narrower. The colour of the kiang is a rather light brown, 
 which is darker and redder than the light mouse colour of 
 the onager; but is not red enough to be termed a bay. 
 This ass is about thirteen hands high. It is far less wary 
 than the onager, and consequently falls a ready prey to 
 the cockney sportsmen who invade its domains in the high 
 table-lands of Thibet 
 
 The Mountain Zebra {Eqtms zebra, Fig 257) has a 
 more tufted tail, a scantier mane, longer ears, and a larger 
 head for its size than the Burchell zebra. As far as my 
 experience goes, it has a thicker neck, and its legs, especially 
 as regards the back tendons and suspensory ligaments, are 
 not as well suited to civilized requirements as those of the 
 Burchell zebra. The male, at least, appears to have a 
 rudimentary dewlap. Its stripes are black or dark brown, 
 on a white ground. The most distinctive difference between 
 the arrangement of its stripes and those of the Burchell 
 zebra, is the existence of a number of transverse stripes, 
 which run across the top of its croup and across its tail. 
 In some instances, this zebra is white on the underneath 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 361— The Gulf Arab Polo Pony, Spec. 
 
 To face p. 280. 
 
 Fig. 362.— The Hon. W. Anson's Texan Polo Pony, Rondo. 
 
BURCHELDS ZEBRA. 281 
 
 part of the body. With this exception, it is distinctly- 
 marked all over the body, even down to the coronets, with 
 black and white stripes. It is indigenous to the southern part 
 of Africa. I believe it has not been found north of the Vaal 
 River. At present (1896), it is met with in a wild state 
 only in a few mountain ranges in the southern part of 
 Cape Colony, where it is preserved. There is a herd of 
 these zebras preserved on a farm near Craddock, which 
 is a small town in the eastern province of Cape Colony. 
 It is much wilder and more intractable to handle than the 
 Burchell zebra. I have been told that on different occasions 
 it has been successfully '' inspanned '' in South Africa, 
 although I have not heard of its having been put into 
 draught between the shafts. I may point out that the 
 steadiness of an animal is far more severely tested by having 
 to bear weight placed on its back by the shafts than by 
 merely pulling against breast harness, or even against a collar, 
 in a *'span;" and by going in saddle than by any kind of 
 harness work. The height of the mountain zebra, when full 
 grown, is about twelve hands. 
 
 BurchelFs Zebra {Equus hurchelhy Fig. 258) differs from 
 the mountain zebra in being taller (its full height is about 
 13. 1 or 13.2), having a longer and thicker mane, a more 
 bushy and less tufted tail, smaller ears and a smaller head in 
 comparison to the length of its body, and in the differences 
 of its markings The dark stripes are more brown than 
 black The light colour is of a yellowish cream. The stripes 
 are broader and differently arranged (compare Fig. 258 with 
 Fig. 257). A broad stripe runs down the back, and there are 
 no stripes across the top of the croup (Fig. 367). Its legs, 
 below the knees and hocks, from their ** flatness," with the 
 back tendons and suspensory ligaments clearly showing, are 
 much more like those of a well-bred horse than are those 
 of the mountain zebra. It further resembles the horse by 
 having a fairly lissom neck and a well-rounded barrel, and in 
 the size of its head and ears. The typical BurchelFs zebra 
 
282 ASS£S» 
 
 has no dark stripes, or only very slight ones, below the 
 elbows and stifles, on the legs. The Orange River has 
 been generally regarded as its southern limit. Mr. F. C. 
 Selous, the celebrated African sportsman and naturalist, tells 
 me that it *' was first discovered by Burchell near the Orange 
 River in Southern Bechuanaland. It is still to be met with 
 in Kamas country, and along the northern and eastern 
 borders of the Transvaal. In the neighbourhood of the 
 Pungwe River, it exists in very great numbers, herds of 
 hundreds together being common." It is probably widely 
 distributed throughout Central and Eastern Africa. On 
 account of the fact that this zebra, when in a wild state, 
 possesses immunity from the effects of the bite of the tsetse 
 fly, which is a carrier of death to horses, I strongly advocated, 
 while I was in South Africa, the taming and employment 
 for harness or saddle of these animals in " fly " infected 
 districts. With respect to this subject, Mr. Selous writes to 
 me that : ''although BurchelFs zebra, born and brought up in 
 the 'fly' country, does not suffer from its bite, it is my 
 opinion that if a young one was caught and brought up in a 
 locality where there was no ' fly,' and was then taken into a 
 ' fly ' infested district, it would die. This, however, is only 
 my opinion." As the Burchell zebra is comparatively easy to 
 break in, and as it will breed in confinement, there is but little 
 doubt that it will in time become domesticated. If, as is 
 quite possible, it possesses little or no tendency to contract 
 '* horse sickness," it will prove a valuable means of convey- 
 ance in South Africa. During one of my horse-breaking 
 performances in 1892, at Pretoria, the capital of the 
 Transvaal, I made a young Burchell zebra, after about an 
 hour's handling, quiet to carry a rider. In doing this, I 
 did not throw the animal down, nor did I resort to any of the 
 usual *' heroic" horse-taming methods. Throughout South 
 Africa, this variety of zebra is wrongly called a quagga. 
 
 Chapman's Zebra {Equus chapmant) appears to be 
 identical with BurchelFs zebra, except that its legs have 
 
Schreiher, Philadelphia. 
 
 Fig. 363.— American Trottkr, Maud^S. (Rkcord, 2.o8:|; 
 
 Schreiher, Philadelphia. 
 
 To face p. 282. 
 
 Fig. 364. — American Trotter, Sunol (Record, 2.084). 
 
THE GRJtVY OR SOMALLLAND ZEBRA. 2^3 
 
 Stripes continued down to its pasterns. These leg stripes are 
 not so regularly defined as those of the mountain zebra. As 
 we may meet with specimens having all degrees of striping 
 on the legs, I would submit that the presence or absence of 
 stripes on the limbs is a mere question of individual or local 
 difference, and that the so-called Chapman zebra should not 
 be regarded as a distinct variety. 
 
 The Gr^vy or Somali-land Zebra {Equus grivyi. 
 Fig. 365). This animal, which is found in Shoa and Somali- 
 land, closely resembles the mountain zebra in being striped 
 
 Fig. 365. — The GRivY or Somali-land Zebri. 
 
 down to the coronets, and in having the hair of its tail 
 collected as a tuft at the end. It differs, however, in being 
 white underneath the chest and abdomen, and in having white 
 patches on the rear part of the croup at each side of the stripe 
 down the back. Also, there are no transverse stripes on the 
 croup. The stripes are somewhat narrower than those of the 
 mountain zebra, and, in their arrangement, resemble them 
 more nearly than do those of the Burchell zebra, with which 
 it closely agrees in its conformation. The differences in the 
 stripes of these two animals are shown in Figs. ^^66 and 367. 
 
284--, 
 
 ASSES. 
 
 The Quagga {Eqmis quagga, Fig. 385), forty years ago, 
 was to be found in immense numbers south of the Vaal river 
 in Southern Africa. I have the authority of Mr. F. C. Selous, 
 for saying that it is extinct in a wild state ; although it is 
 
 Fig. 366. — Skin of the Somali-land Zebra. 
 
 Fig. 367.— Skin of Burchell's Zebra. 
 
 possible that there may be a specimen or two in some mena- 
 gerie or other. During a tour four years ago throughout 
 South Africa, I failed to obtain any tidings of the quagga. It 
 was a strong, somewhat heavily built animal, slow of pace for 
 
Schreihei', Philadelphia. 
 
 Fig. 368.— American Trotter, Nancy Hanks (Record, 2.04). 
 
 Schreiber, Philadelphia. To face p. 284. 
 
 Fig. 369.— American Pacing Stallion, John R. Gentry (Record. 2.01^). 
 
POINTS OF THE ASS. 285 
 
 a wild ass, and could have been readily broken to harness or 
 saddle. It stood about the height of the Burchell zebra. 
 Its colour on the shoulders and body was brown. The head 
 and neck were marked alternately with white and dark-brown 
 stripes, like those of the mountain zebra. There were on the 
 shoulders and body some faint stripes, which gradually faded 
 away as they went backwards. The colour was more or less 
 white beneath the chest and belly, on the tail, except at the 
 root, and on the legs below the elbows and stifles. It had a 
 broad stripe down the back. It closely resembled BurchelFs 
 zebra, with the exception of being differently marked, and 
 being more heavily built. 
 
 Points of the Ass. — The law which I put forward in 
 Chapters I. and XV., with respect to the influence of 
 comparative length of limb on speed and strength, holds 
 as good in the case of the ass, as it does in that of the 
 horse. From it we may justly infer that the onager is the 
 speediest of its class. From personal deductions, which I 
 cannot support by any precise data, I would think that 
 the onager is faster for its size, and under equal conditions, 
 than any kind of wild horse, or, perhaps, than any horse 
 which has not some English racing blood in his veins. 
 As it is not at all probable that this ass will be bred for 
 racing purposes, I need form no conjectures respecting its 
 future on the turf. I have already alluded to the fact 
 of the ass being higher over the croup than at the 
 withers. In the domestic ass, the gaskins and fore arms 
 are, as a rule, very poor ; but they are not so, at least 
 to anything like the same extent, ^ in the wild ass. Proba- 
 bly, on account of the ass having fewer loin vertebras 
 (p. 275) than the horse, it has less tendency to be ''slack 
 in the loins.*' Compared to the horse, the ass has a very 
 weak tail, and is consequently unable to '' carry its flag " 
 in the style usually affected by a spirited horse during 
 movement. 
 
286 EVOLUTION OF THE B^ORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX* 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Ancestiy of the Hoise — Immediate Ancestois of the Hoise — Conditions 
 which modified the Foim of the Hoise— Points of Speed and Stiength 
 m the Fossil Horse—- The Horse of the Futuie 
 
 Ancestry of the Horse. — It is my Intention here, with 
 special reference to conformation, to write about the 
 descent of the horse in such a manner that my remarks 
 may be easily understood by those who possess no acquain- 
 tance with fossils or comparative anatomy. Instead of 
 commencing the history of the horse_ according to the 
 orthodox method, at a period many millions of years ago, 
 I shall begin with him as he now is, and shall try to trace 
 back his lineage to a time sufficiently remote for our 
 requirements. Although we cannot hope to determine the 
 exact sequence of the footsteps of the animals which, m 
 their march of evolution, became gradually changed into 
 the horse ; we shall find, on their track, marks left by them, 
 or by their near relatives who accompanied them on their 
 journey, that will guide us in the right direction. As science 
 progresses, so will the intervals between these land-marks 
 become filled in from time to time ; though it seems impossible 
 that the position of every footprint can ever be accurately 
 defined. 
 
 We learn from the study of geology that living creatures 
 began to inhabit the earth after its crust, which was once in a 
 
 * For fuller information on this subject see Professor A Gaudry's EncMtne- 
 ments du Mojide Animal, and Sir WiUiam Flower's The Horse. 
 
J. Coivell, Simla. 
 
 Fig. 370. — H.H. The Maharaja ov Patiala's Arab Pony, Blitz. 
 
 M. H. H. ^0 face p. 286. 
 
 Fig. 371.— Colonel Anderson's Arab Pony, The Brat. 
 
ancje:stry of the horse. 287 
 
 liquid state, had cooled down, and the action of physical 
 causes, such as wind and water, had commenced to form 
 sedimentary rocks, in which the bones and other remains of 
 existing animals became entombed as fossils. Thus, through 
 countless ages, a history of animal and also of vegetable life 
 has been written in stone by the hand of time, The last leaves 
 of this book lie uppermost, while the first ones repose on fused 
 rock, of which granite is a familiar example. This history is 
 divided by scientific men into the Primary, Secondary, and 
 Tertiary periods, of which the last-mentioned is the only one I 
 shall take into account ; as, during it, hoofed animals appeared 
 for the first time on the earth. The tertiary period is divided 
 into the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene periods ; 
 the Eocene being the most ancient ; and the Pleistocene the 
 one immediately preceding historic times. In searching 
 through the records of the past, an examination of fossil feet 
 is particularly interestmg ; for we can obtain from it direct 
 and clearly expressed evidence respecting the capacity of 
 movement possessed by the animals which walked on the 
 earth many thousands, if not millions, of years ago. 
 
 Before beginning, I may remind my readers that the 
 knee of the horse corresponds to our wrist (p. 27); and his 
 fore fetlock to the row of knuckles nearest to the wrist 
 Instead of having, as in our hand, five metacarpal bones 
 between the knee and fetlock, he has only one entire bone 
 (the cannon-bone), and two rudimentary (or splint) bones. I 
 may remark that in the hind limb, the bones between the 
 hock and hind fetlock are called metatarsal bones. Each of 
 our five metacarpal and metatarsal bones is furnished with 
 a digit, a synonym for either a toe or a finger ; but in the 
 ordinary horse the cannon-bone only is provided with a 
 digit. The bones of each digit (the phalanges) are num- 
 bered from above downwards. Thus the long pastern-bone 
 (Fig. 12) is called the first phalanx ; the short pastern-bone, 
 the second phalanx ; and the pedal or coffin-bone, the third 
 phalanx. 
 
 If we examine the bones of the horses limbs from, respec- 
 
288 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE, 
 
 tively, the knees and hocks downward, we shall notice that 
 although the splint-bones form joints with the knee bones which 
 are immediately above them ; their lower ends do not, like that 
 of the cannon-bone, articulate with any other bones. Were a 
 man who knew nothing about the anatomy, working functions, 
 and diseases of any other animal except those of the horse, to 
 criticise the plan according to which the bones below the 
 knees and hocks were constructed ; he might justly remark 
 
 Fig. 372.— (4//^r Gaudry:) Abnormal Left Fore Leg, below the Knee, 
 
 OF Horse (fth real length)* 
 
 that, for purposes of equine labour, it would have been better if 
 the cannon-bone and two splint bones had been one bone of 
 corresponding size. Such a combination would have rendered 
 the ^column of bones stronger at that part, and would have 
 obviated the frequent evil effects of sprain to the interosseous 
 ligaments which connect each splint-bone to its cannon-bone. 
 I may here point out that the disease known in veterinary 
 surgery as " splint," is; as a rule, brought on by sprain of this 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 ^'^'^' 373-^Mr. Dignum's Arab Pony, Magistrate. 
 
 Schreiber, Philadelphia. To face p. zi 
 
 Fig. 374.— American Trotting Stallion, Kremlin (Record, 2.07^-). 
 
ABNORMAL FOOT OF HORSE. 
 
 289 
 
 ligament. If we agree in considering the working of the laws 
 of nature to be perfect, we cannot accept the theory of special 
 creation ; but must regard the body of the horse, like that of 
 other animals, to be in a transition state ; in that it is con- 
 stantly, though slowly, accommodating itself to the conditions 
 of life in which it finds itself. While indulging in the present 
 train of thought, the first question which the inquirer after 
 knowledge will probably ask will be : The splint-bones being 
 in a state of transition, what was their previous form and 
 
 Fig. 375.— Fore Foot of Pig (|th real length). 
 
 functions, and what conditions have reduced them to their 
 present rudimentary state ? I shall now try to suggest 
 answers to these questions. 
 
 On rare occasions we find in the horse that one or two 
 of the splint-bones have the character of the cannon-bone, 
 in that they are provided with a more or less perfect pastern 
 and hoof. From time to time there have been well-authenti- 
 cated instances of horses which were so completely furnished 
 in this respect on their front feet, that, instead of having 
 been shod on only four feet, they carried iron on eight. I 
 need hardly say that the four supplementary shoes were 
 applied merely for exhibition purposes. Such a digit is well 
 shown in Fig. 290, which is a reproduction of a photograph 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the abnormal foot of a pony mare I took in Surrey in 
 1894. This mare, which was about 132 high, and which 
 was of the light trapper class, suffered no inconvenience in 
 her movements from the presence of the supernumerary digit. 
 At the time I took the photograph, this pony had by 
 her side a smart, healthy foal, whose feet were normal. 
 Fig 372 represents the bones of a colt's near fore leg 
 that was given by Professor Goubaux to the Veterinary 
 College at Alfort. These new digits are no functionless 
 monstrosities, like a sixth finger or toe which sometimes 
 appears on the hand or foot of man, but are the restorations 
 
 Fig 376 —{Aftet Caudiy.) thPPARION GRx\cile ^^.tb xeal height). 
 
 of parts once used by the horse's ancestors. Here we have 
 a good exemplification of the struggle which is constantly 
 going on in the animal body between the tendency to 
 preserve the ancestral type and the effort to adapt itself to 
 its surx'ounding conditions. If we examine the foot of the pig 
 (Fig*- 375)^ which, like the horse, has hoofs, we shall find 
 that it has two toes upon which it walks, and two supple- 
 mentary digits which do not touch the ground. As the 
 function makes the organ, we may confidently assert that 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 377.— Kathiawar Mare. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fiu. 378. — Burma Pony. 
 
 To face p. 290. 
 
HIP PARI ON GR AGILE, 
 
 291 
 
 ancestors of the pig walked on these four toes, two of which, 
 apparently from disuse, have become reduced to their present 
 insignificant size. We may, with equal certainty, affirm that, 
 if the pig remains under its present conditions of life, which, 
 as we all know, do not demand work from its small side 
 toes, these digits will in process of time disappear, and their 
 
 Fig. 379. — Left Fore 
 Foot of H. Gracile 
 (|th real height). 
 
 Figs. 380 and 381. — Left Fore and Right Hind 
 Leg of same H. Gracile (|th real height). . 
 
 metacarpal and metatarsal bones will become as rudimentary 
 as the splint-bones of the horse. Even if it were objected 
 that these facts do not warrant us in assuming that the 
 ancestors of the horse had, on each foot, three toes, two of 
 which were more or less rudimentary ; we have the still 
 stronger evidence afforded by fossils of horse-like animals 
 
 u 2 
 
292 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 [Hipparion, Fig. 376), whose feet were in this condition 
 (Figs. 379, 380, 381 and 382). Fig. 383 gives a front 
 view of the horse's foot. Sir WilHam Flower points out 
 that the European representative [Hipparion gracile) of 
 
 ,rffl.. 
 
 AlX. 
 
 Fig. 382. — {After Gauciry.) Front and 
 Side Views of Left Fore Foot of 
 HipPARiON Gracile (|th real length). 
 The lettering is the same as that of 
 Fig. 386. 
 
 Fig. 383. — Front View of Left 
 Fore Foot of Horse, (-^th real 
 length) . 
 
 this fossil family could not have been an ancestor of the 
 horse ; for, besides differences in the teeth, it possessed 
 a deep depression in front of the eye, on each side of 
 the face, in which depression was lodged a large tear or 
 scent gland, similar to that found in several kinds of deer 
 
Frank Haes. 
 
 Fig. 384. — KiAXG. 
 
 Frank Haes. 
 
 Fig. 385.— Quagga. 
 
 To face p. 292. 
 
ANCHITHERIUM. 
 
 293 
 
 and antelope. Had the H. gractle been the ancestor of the 
 horse, this depression would not have entirely disappeared in 
 the horse. The H. gracile does not appear to have left any 
 descendants. It is probable that the immediate ancestors of 
 the horse of to-day [Equus caballus) came, in prehistoric times, 
 from America, in which country are to be found the remains 
 
 Fig. 386 — {After Gaudry) Lefi Fore Fooi Oi Anchitherium 
 
 (^tli real length). 
 
 2;;2, second metacaipal bone (inner spluit-bone) , 3;;^, thud metacarpal bone 
 (cannon-bone) , p7t, fomth metacarpal bone (outer splint-bone) ,/', fiist phalan\ 
 (long pastel n bone) , p ', second phalanx (shoit pastern bone) , p"\ third phalanx 
 (pedal bone) 
 
 of various kinds of fossil horses which resembled our present 
 ones more nearly than did H. gracile. The Hipparion 
 flourished in the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene ages, 
 and was from 13 to 14 hands high. 
 
 The Hipparion was preceded in the Miocene period by a 
 somewhat similar, three-toed animal, the Anchitherium, which 
 was about 10 hands high. We may see from Fig. 386 that 
 its side toes were longer than those of its successor. The 
 Russian paleontologist, Kowalevsky, points out that the 
 bones below the fetlock in the Anchitherium were not so 
 firmly united together as they were in the Hipparion, and 
 
=94 
 
 EVOLUTION OF 2 HE HORSE. 
 
 Still less SO than in the horse ; and, consequently, that there 
 must have been a certain amount of lateral play in them. 
 The length, also, of the side digits would lead us to form the 
 opinion that this animal walked on three toes. 
 
 The majority of palaeontologists, I believe, consider that 
 the Hipparion used only one toe of each foot in progression. 
 Against this opinion I may advance the fact, not very 
 generally known, that some horses, especially high-caste 
 Arabs, have such a naturally large amount of " play " in the 
 fetlock and pastern joints of the fore legs, that during the fast 
 gallop the fetlock pad (p. 197) is liable to come down on the 
 
 Uri 
 
 Fig i^T— {After Gauchy.) FORF 
 Foot of Paloploiherium (Jrd 
 real lengtli). 
 
 Flo ^U --{After Gmuhy) Lebi 
 Front Foot or Orohippus 
 Aguis (fullisize). 
 
 ground and get bruised. The ergot, which is in the centre 
 of this pad, is evidently, as pointed out by Sir William 
 Flower, the rudiment of a structure (like the pad of a dog's 
 or cat's foot) that acted as a buffer to the fetlock at the time 
 when the horse was a digitigrade animal, namely, one which 
 walks on Its digits, and not as the horse now does, in unguli- 
 grade fashion, only on their tips. In all horses which have 
 free action, the fetlock descends a good deal in the gallop 
 (Fig. 128). Hence, I am inclined to think that the Hip- 
 parion, whose immediate ancestors were digitigrade animals, 
 used the second and fourth digits, at least of its fore feet, 
 to some extent at fast paces ; if not in slow movement. 
 Still earlier, we find in the middle Eocene age the 
 
HYRA CO THERIUM, 
 
 2QS 
 
 Paloplotherium, which resembled the Anchitherium and 
 Hipparion in its feet (Fig. 387) ; and the horse tribe, 
 generally, in its teeth.* Its principal digit was much 
 weaker than that of its successors. The foot shown in 
 Fig. 387 is that of a small variety of Paloplotherium. 
 Among the Eocene deposits in America is found the 
 Orohippus agilis\ (Fig. 388), which, as the name given to 
 it by Professor Marsh implies, may be taken as the limit to 
 which we can fairly trace the horse in his character of a 
 one-toed animal. Going further back in the Eocene period, 
 we meet with the Hyracotherium (Fig. 389), which had 
 three toes on its hind feet and four toes on its front feet, 
 
 Fig. 389.— HYRACOTHERimi (Jth leal heights 
 
 and which had hoofs on all of them. It was about 15 
 inches high, and was closely akin to the tapir, which has 
 maintained its peculiarities of conformation, up to the present 
 day, almost without change, during that vast period of time. 
 
 * The teeth of the Paloplotherium have a plentiful supply of crusta petrosa 
 (cement), and thus resemble those of the hoise. I may explain that the cement is 
 the outer layer of the teeth. In youth, it forms a thm covering to the enamel on 
 the outside ; and a thick one m the depressions which all the teeth, with the 
 exception of the tushes, have on their crowns. The cement becomes quickly 
 stained by the action of the food and gives the "mark" m the teeth its charac- 
 teristic dark appearance. The front teeth of the horse become white with age 
 from the wearing away of the cement. 
 
 t ^Opos-, limit ; tTTTroy, horse. 
 
296 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE, 
 
 Although the Hyracotherium had four toes on its front 
 feet, it may be considered to have been an odd-toed animal ; 
 for one of these digits was off the ground, and was conse- 
 quently functionless. 
 
 The foot of the rhinoceros (Fig. 390) shows a marked 
 tendency to become one-toed. Being three-toed on its fore, 
 as well as on its hind feet, it belongs to a less ancient type 
 than the tapir. The Acerotherium (Fig. 391) was a prob- 
 
 FiG. 390. — Fore Foot of 
 Rhinoceros (|th real length). 
 
 Fig. 391.— (4//^r Gaudry.) Left 
 Fore Foot of Acerotherium 
 Tetrad ACTYLUM Qth real length). 
 
 able ancestor of the rhinoceros, if not of the horse. The 
 Brontotheriwn, which has been found in the Miocene of 
 Colorado, had, like the tapir, four digits on its front feet, 
 and three on its hind ones (Figs. 392 and 393). 
 
PHENACODUS, 
 
 297 
 
 Proceeding still further down in our search, we find in the 
 early Eocene the Phenacodus prtmcevusy which is supposed to 
 have been the ancestor, or one of the very early ancestors, of 
 all hoofed animals. Fig 394 shows how it appears in a fossil 
 condition. It was about twenty-one inches high. From the 
 form of the third phalanx of its digits, we may conclude that 
 each of them carried a hoof. We may also see that each 
 
 Fig 392 — {After Gaudry) Left Fokl 
 Foot of Broniotherium (^th leal length). 
 
 Fig. 393 — {Afiu Gaud}y ) 
 Lfft Hind Fooi or Bronto 
 THERIUM (|tli real length). 
 
 of its digits had three phalanges. As I am considering the 
 genealogy only of hoof-bearing animals, I shall not go fur- 
 ther back than the Phenacodus. Having now arrived at an 
 animal with five toes, I may point out that in no case do 
 the digits of any normal mammal (an animal which suckles its 
 young) exceed that number The digits, I may remark,«3re 
 numbered from within, outwards. Thus, the thumb on our 
 hand is termed the first digit , the little finger, the fifth digit 
 Among the ancestors of the horse, the first digit was; the first 
 to disappear ; and after it, the fifth digit. In the Hyraco- 
 therium, the first digit has gone from all four feet. The fifth 
 has vanished from the hind ones, and has begun the process 
 of doing so in the front feet. The Orohippus has also 
 lost its first digit. The Anchitherium (like the rhinoceros) 
 
298 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE, 
 
 appears as a true three- toed mammal ; having lost its first 
 and fifth digits. In the Hipparion gracile, the second and 
 fourth digits have begun to disappear ; and have done so 
 completely in the horse of the present day, whose ancestors, 
 from the foregoing considerations, are classed among odd- 
 toed animals [Perzssodactyla). We must further observe that, 
 from the Phenacodus to the horse, as we now know him, 
 the third digit has remained the principal one of both fore and 
 hind limbs. It is instructive to note that the phalanges and 
 
 Fig. 394.— Phenacodus PRiMiEvus (rVth real length). 
 
 digits of the hind limb have a greater tendency to decrease in 
 number than those of the fore leg. As the fore foot is nearer 
 to the head than the hind foot, its functions are more various, 
 and its digits are less liable to become affected by disuse. In 
 man, we find that the toes are smaller than the fingers ; and 
 that, in many cases, the little toe has lost its third phalanx ; 
 although the little finger still retains that bone. In the case 
 of the re-appearance of the second (as in Fig. 290) and fourth 
 digits in the horse, the fore legs are far more frequently 
 supplemented in this way, than the hind ones. 
 
IMMEDIATE ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE. 299 
 
 Immediate Ancestors of the Horse.— The type of 
 horse immediately preceding the present one, is a subject 
 which I approach with a great deal of diffidence ; as I have 
 not had an opportunity of studying it carefully, much as I 
 would have wished to have done so. Darwin, very justly as 
 it seems to me, points to the probability that all the existing 
 races of horses have descended from ''a single dun-coloured, 
 more or less striped primitive stock, to which our horses occa- 
 sionally revert." This primitive stock, I would conjecture, 
 closely resembled the quagga or Burchells zebra. The not 
 uncommon appearance in horses of dark stripes on the fore 
 arms, and a dark stripe along the back and across the shoulders, 
 seems to be cases of reversion to the likeness of an ancestor, 
 especially as these markings, when they do occur, show much 
 clearer in early youth than when the animal grows older. Not 
 alone in this respect does the horse take on the markings of 
 the ass ; but his coat not infrequently assumes a near approach 
 to the colour of the ass, with white under the belly, insides of 
 the legs, etc. The ass, on the contrary, never clothes himself 
 in the bays, chestnuts, roans and greys which are greatly 
 affected by the horse ; and is practically free from the irregular 
 markings so freely indulged in by his relative. ** Stars/' 
 *' blazes," '"reaches," *'snips/' ''stockings," and coats, piebald 
 and skewbald, can hardly be the unbiassed result of domestica- 
 tion ; for the ass appears to have been the companion of man 
 even longer than the horse, and he shows little or no tendency 
 to adopt such motley wear. The apparently functionless false 
 nostril of the horse is of lesser depth than that of the ass, and 
 may be expected to disappear in the course of ages. I would 
 therefore infer that the immediate ancestor of the horse, as we 
 know him, was a more or less striped ass. From the drawings 
 made on pieces of bone and horn by the cave men of Southern 
 France, it would seem that the horse of Western Europe, say, 
 ten thousand years ago, was a small, rough, thick-set animal 
 rather like the Mongolian pony. The instinct this and other 
 horses have of scraping away with their fore feet snow when 
 it covers the ground, so as to get at the underlying grass, would, 
 
300 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE, 
 
 as Darwin suggests, point to the probability that our horses 
 originally came from a country in which there were severe 
 winters. It would be interesting to know if this instinct, 
 which no doubt is possessed by the kiang, is retained by the 
 onager, the Abyssinian wild ass, and the eastern horse. The 
 horses of the present day may be divided into two, more or 
 less, distinct types ; the one, thick-set and *' coarse," like 
 the Mongolian pony ; the other of comparatively slight build 
 and smart appearance, like the Arab or Indian pony (Fig 
 377). I would refer the aboriginal horses of Western Europe 
 and the various cart strains to the first division. Our saddle 
 horses and trappers are, as we all know, a judicious blend 
 of English and Eastern blood. The differences which exist 
 among the various breeds of horses in the world, are evi- 
 dently due to the effects of climate, selection, and stable 
 management 
 
 From the remarks made on page 276, with respect to the 
 presence of thickened skin in the horse and ass, we might 
 conclude that these two animals are descended from a thick- 
 skinned ancestor, akin perhaps to the rhinoceros, whose foot 
 (Fig. 390) shows a marked tendency to become one-toed. 
 It is almost needless to say that the rifle of the sportsman 
 will, in the near future, put a summary stop to this process of 
 evolution in the case of this horned pachyderm. The fact of 
 the ass possessing a larger amount of thick skin than the 
 horse, also seems to prove that his type is the more ancient 
 one of the two. Judging by the general conformation, 
 especially as regards the comparative size of head, BurchelFs 
 zebra appears to be the nearest akin, among asses, to the 
 horse ; and the mountain zebra, the furthest removed. The 
 recent extinct quagga more closely resembled the horse, than 
 does Burchell's zebra. 
 
 Conditions which Modified the Form of the Horse. 
 
 —The conditions which have produced an animal (the horse) 
 with a single toe to each of its feet, from ancestors with five 
 toes, have been, apparently, those of soil, combined with a 
 
FOOT OF STEINBOK. 
 
 301 
 
 tendency to place the weight of the limb more on one 
 particular digit than on any other digit. The fact that the 
 feet of the tapir have undergone, practically, no modification 
 for several millions of years, proves that his conditions of life 
 at the present day are nearly the same as they were when 
 the ancestors of the horse, like those of the tapir, had four 
 hoofs on each front foot, and three on each hind one. Feet 
 like these, which, under the influence of pressure, had the 
 faculty of spreading out, were admirably suited for going 
 through soft ground similar to that over which the tapir still 
 
 ■mr^ c 
 
 Fig. 395. — {After Gatidry^ FOOT OF SxElNBOK 
 
 roams in a wild state ; for the increase of the area of support 
 thus offered by the feet, was a direct help in preventing the 
 animal from sinking too deeply in the mud over which he 
 travelled. It is evident that this lateral play of the digits 
 entailed loss of speed for progression on hard ground, on 
 account of expenditure of muscular power required to restore 
 them to their normal state, and from increased friction. The 
 less lateral play the digits would have, the faster would the 
 
302 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 animal be able to travel over hard ground. For instance, the 
 wild pig, whose feet (Fig. 375) spread out a good deal 
 more than those of the steinbok (Fig. 395), is much better 
 through ''dirt" (to use a racing and hunting expression) 
 than this speedy South African antelope, but is far inferior 
 to him in a gallop over hard ground. We may, therefore, 
 infer that the decrease in the number of the digits of the 
 horse's foot has been due to residence during thousands, if 
 not millions, of generations on dry soil With the loss of 
 lateral play in the foot, there has been a consequent increase 
 of speed, which was necessary for protection against the 
 attacks of carnivorous animals, like the cheetah (Fig. 3) and 
 wolf, whose conformation was unsuited for predatory operations 
 in the morasses which had afforded an asylum for ancestors 
 of the horse. 
 
 Points of Speed and Strength in the Fossil Horse. 
 
 — At the outset of this investigation, I am met with the perti- 
 nent question . what is a horse ? My natural reply to this 
 will be that the horse is an animal which has only one toe to 
 each of its legs. I might also add, for the benefit of those 
 of my readers who are interested in comparative anatomy, 
 that his teeth are plentifully supplied with crtista petrosa 
 (p. 295), and that the pulley-like processes on his astragalus 
 are directed forward and outward (p. 58). The fact of unity 
 of digit^ — a peculiarity which distinguishes the horse from all 
 other mammals — will probably suffice for ordinary inquirers. 
 Taking this test, we cannot with propriety apply the term 
 horse to animals further back in equine descent than the 
 Anchltherium. The Phenacodus resembles a carnivorous 
 animal (a Dandy Dinmont or otter hound) more than he 
 does one of the horse tribe. His great length of humerus 
 must have given him considerable power in raising the 
 fore hand by the play of the shoulder and elbow joints, 
 the diminution of which play is compensated for in the 
 horse by the action of the fetlock joint His hocks and 
 knees, like those of the dog and cat, were '' well let down." 
 
CANNON-BONES OF HIP PARI ON 303 
 
 He might have had a fair *'turn of speed" for a short 
 distance, but he was too long in the body to have been a 
 stayer. There is no doubt that the ancestors of the horse 
 were of very slow pace at the time when they were iden- 
 tical with, or nearly akin to, the Paloplotherium and the 
 Hyracotherium, animals which were not far removed from 
 the rhinoceros and tapir. With the tendency to the gradual 
 adoption of the one-toed method of progression, there was an 
 evident increase of speed. By examining Figs. 379 to 383 
 and 386, we may see that the length of the bones below the 
 fetlock, compared to that of the cannon-bone, was greater in 
 the Hipparion than in the Anchitherium ; and in the horse, 
 than in the Hipparion: length of pastern, as we have seen on 
 p. 200, being directly conducive to speed. Taking the con- 
 verse of this argument, which we may fairly do from our present 
 knowledge of palaeontology, we may assume that this increase 
 m the comparative length of the bones below the fetlock is 
 a sound proof that this kind of conformation is conducive 
 to speed. 
 
 Although, as regards the number of toes, the horse s foot 
 is better suited than that of any other animal for the develop- 
 ment of a high rate of speed ; the fact remains that the four- 
 toed cheetah (Fig. 3), hare, wild dog, and wolf, and the 
 two-toed black buck (Fig. i) are comparatively, for their 
 size, if not actually, faster than any wild horse or ass. Here we 
 have an instance of the complex nature of physical faculties, 
 which, like speed, are not made up of one component, but of 
 many. In the cat, dog and hare, the muscles of progression 
 are of much greater comparative length than those of the 
 horse ; as we may judge by the way the hocks and knees are 
 '*let down." Although these joints in the antelope are "high 
 off the ground," the extreme length of his limbs compensates 
 him for this disadvantage, as well as that of having two toes 
 on each foot In the case of the ancestors of this jfleet 
 ruminant, the tendency to place weight both on the third and 
 fourth toe was so evenly distributed on these two digits, that 
 the balance between them has remained practically un- 
 
304 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. 
 
 disturbed for ages, and under modifying conditions which 
 have nearly doubled the comparative length of the limbs. 
 
 Like the horses of the present day, the members of the 
 Htpparion gractle tribe differed a good deal among each other 
 as regards conformation; as we may see by the fact that 
 the cannon-bones of some are very much thicker than those 
 of others. 
 
 The Horse of the Future. — The bones of the limbs, 
 as we have seen, are gradually assuming the character of a 
 single column, and are increasing the rigidity of their con- 
 nections between the joints necessary for locomotion. We 
 may observe a tendency to bony union between the splint 
 bones and their cannon-bones, and between the lower row of 
 the small bones of the hock and knee, and their respective 
 metatarsal and metacarpal bones. Thus we find that com- 
 paratively harmless forms of "simple" splint and '*low" 
 spavin are increasingly common among young horses sub- 
 jected to civilised conditions. They will, as suggested by 
 Mr. H. G. Rogers, gradually lose their morbid character, and 
 will become normal processes of development. Agreeably 
 to this, we may note that such splints and spavins are less 
 liable to injuriously affect the usefulness of a thoroughbred 
 than of, for instance, a Mongolian pony or a South American 
 broncho. As ages roll on, the splint bones will disappear, 
 d.Vi^ pari passu, the small bones of the knee and hock which 
 rest on them. The increasing prevalence of '' side-bones " 
 among heavy cart-horses seems to justify the idea that the 
 Shires and Clydesdales of the near future will have no lateral 
 cartilages. Among other changes, the bones of the sternum 
 will in time become joined together, and anchylosis will 
 take place between the pelvis and sacrum. The racer will 
 become comparatively longer in the legs and neck, stronger 
 in the loins, rounder in the barrel and better ribbed up than 
 he now is ; and the draught animal will become shorter in the 
 limbs, and more massive in muscle. Both will increase in 
 height and docility. 
 
( 3o; ) 
 
 L. Jrl ri Jr i Ji JA. js.j^^j\.* 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 
 
 Photography is a very useful aid for the acquisition of a 
 knowledge of conformation ; for it enables us to place on 
 record exact results unobtainable by other means. This is 
 a truth which is too evident to need support by argument. 
 
 Photographs are taken of a horse with the object of 
 obtaining a picture, a portrait, a combination of the two, 
 or a likeness of the animal by which his '* points " may be 
 best seen and compared, with the greatest exactness, to those 
 of other horses. When a picture is the end in view, the 
 pose will have to be subordinated to artistic requirements. 
 If a portrait, the position should be that which will convey 
 to the spectator the best possible idea of the general look 
 of the animal. This will usually be obtained when his 
 body is in profile, and the head and neck carried in the 
 manner most characteristic of the horse in question. My 
 experience is that horses in photographs look better when the 
 head is turned a little towards the observer (Figs. 236, 256, 
 344 and 370) or is directed straight to the front (Fig. 322),. 
 than when it is turned even slightly away (Fig. 255). When, 
 however, the photograph is required as a more or less exact 
 record of the horse's ''make and shape," he should be in as 
 nearly perfect profile as practicable : just as if he were posed 
 for the inspection of an intending buyer. 
 
 In order to preserve harmony in the graceful curves of 
 the upper line of the body, the horse, to look his best, should 
 have his ears pricked forward, his head carried high, and, 
 if possible, he should not have his tail tucked in between 
 
 X 
 
^o6 PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 
 
 his legs. When standing still, he will look to most 
 advantage when the fore leg of the observer s side is more 
 advanced than the other, and when its hind leg is more 
 drawn back than the other hind leg (Figs. 324 and 370). 
 Unless the background be a specially prepared one, the 
 horse should be well away from it, and it should be out 
 of focus, so that he may stand out in bold relief. As a 
 rule, the animal, even when he is a grey or white, should 
 be placed, more or less, against the sky. If possible, the 
 horse should not be put, as is frequently done, close against 
 a building, the lines of which would prevent the eye from 
 following the contours of the animal My readers will see 
 many illustrations of these points in this book. I find that 
 horses look more animated and hold themselves better, away 
 from their stables, than near them ; and especially when 
 they are in an open plain. 
 
{ 307 ) 
 
 v_^ rl A J: i lif K. y\.X.^l. 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 BouRGELAT, Mcrche, Duhousset, Goubaux, Barrier, and other 
 writers on Conformation have laid down certain proportions 
 for an ideal horse, which, unfortunately; does not exist as a 
 distinctive type. Failing to draw sufficient attention to the 
 great difference of shape between horses of speed and those 
 of strength, the comparisons which they have instituted 
 between the dimensions of the limbs and those of the head 
 and body are wholly arbitrary. I need hardly remind my 
 readers that, speaking generally, although the respective 
 proportions of the head and body are practically the same 
 in all classes of horses, the length of the neck and limbs 
 varies according to the work for which the muscles of these 
 parts are best suited. Hence the only proportions of the 
 horse which are fixed within narrow limits are those of the 
 head and body. We may sum up the most evident ones 
 as follows : — 
 
 Proportions Common to all Classes of Horses. 
 
 The measurements here given hav reference to Fig. 396. 
 
 (i) Length of body {a b) = 2^ to 2| times length of head {k /). 
 
 (2) Height at withers (c d) = height at croup {fg). 
 
 (3) Length of head (k /) =: depth of body at lowest part of back (h z), 
 
 (4) Length of head = distance of " swell" of muscle at posterior angle 
 
 of shoulder-blade to point of hip (s t). 
 
 (5) Distance (kf) of top of head to corner of mouth = distance from 
 
 point of hip to point of buttock {t u). 
 
 (6) Width of head {m n) = § length of head {k I), 
 
 That careful observer. Colonel Duhousset. states that 
 
 (7) Length of head = distance of point of shoulder to top of withers. 
 
3oS 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 
 
 As this proportion must necessarily vary according to the 
 length and position of the shoulder-blade, I refrain from 
 applying it to all classes. 
 
 The following proportions are approximately correct for 
 all horses, except those of the heavy cart type, whose necks 
 are particularly massive, as in Fig. 334 : — 
 
 (8) Width of head (m n) = width of upper part of neck {n 0). 
 
 (9) Distance {k /) of top of head to corner of mouth = thickness of 
 
 base of neck {q r). 
 
 Any attempt — as has frequently been made — to formulate 
 proportions of length between the limbs and body of what 
 might be called an '' ordinary horse/' would be merely 
 
 Fig. 396.— Proportions of Horse. 
 {Drawn from a Photograph.) 
 
 begging the question by constructing an ideal animal to 
 conform to one's own theories ; instead of, as one ought to 
 do, supporting one's hypotheses on the firm basis of fact 
 As the comparative length of limb varies according to the 
 class ot horse; we find (Chapter XV.), taking the two 
 
PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE, 309 
 
 extreme types, that the legs of the heavy cart-horse are 
 far shorter than those of the racer (compare Fig. 334 with 
 Fig. 322). Thus, in the cart-horse, the length of the body 
 and its depth at the withers are, respectively, several inches 
 more than the height, and the distance of the brisket from 
 the ground. The racer, on the contrary, is inclined to be 
 shorter than he is high, and measures much less from the 
 withers to brisket than from brisket to ground. 
 
 As the result of my own observations I may add the 
 following proportions for thoroughbreds only : — 
 
 (10) Height at withers (c d) = length of body (a b), or a little (say, up 
 
 to 4 inches) more. 
 
 (11) Depth at withers {c e) = distance of " girth place " to lower part of 
 
 fetlock in a three-year-old, or to centre of pastern in an 
 " aged " horse. 
 
 Beyond repeating (p. 136) that the muscles of the neck 
 should be proportionate in length to those of the limbs, I 
 can offer no useful hint as regards the comparative length of 
 the neck ; for the only measurement which can be readily 
 taken of it, namely, that from the withers to the top of the 
 head, greatly alters in length, on account of the elasticity of 
 the connecting ligament (p. 28), according to the position 
 in which the head is held. We must here remember that 
 this suspensory ligament of the head and neck is immediately 
 underneath the crest, and that the vertebrae of the neck 
 (Fig. 12) do not follow this line. 
 
310 
 
 THE PAINTER'S HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE PAINTERS HORSE 
 
 Horses have been treated by painters, and also by sculptors, 
 m a very unhandsome way, and especially by English so- 
 
 e Pdffer 
 do^^rc* Pairocel 
 
 Fig 397 — [Copied ft oin Dtchousset) LOUIS XV. 
 
 called artists who continue to perpetuate the conventional 
 or stencil-plate animal in a style long since forsaken by con- 
 tinental draughtsmen. There are, of course, several brilliant 
 exceptions. The most usual faults of conformation to be 
 seen in horse pictures, are absurdly small heads and ex- 
 travagantly long hind-quarters, from point of hip to point 
 of buttock, as we may see in Figs. 397 and 398. The 
 former is a sketch of an equestrian portrait, by the French 
 
FIGURE OF THE HORSE, 
 
 311 
 
 artist Parrocel, of Louis XV. in his youth. The latter is 
 from Beauties and Defects in the Figure of the Horse^ by 
 H. Aiken, who published it seventy years ago, and who 
 described the subject of his work as follows: ''The animal 
 from which this drawing was made, is accounted one of the 
 finest figures in England." He must have had some mis- 
 givings ^bout the dimensions of the head and neck , for he 
 takes care to add that : ''A small head and neck in a horse 
 are considered a great beauty , and in the original of this 
 
 y^>^v 
 
 >in^ -2, < 
 
 Fig 398 — Horse by Alken 
 
 drawing, I think they are the least I ever saw in proportion 
 to the body.'* All the saddle-horses of some English artists, 
 among whom was that unrivalled caricaturist, Mr. John 
 Leech, have a remarkably ''good place for the collar" 
 on their shoulders. "The old masters'' drew horses very 
 incorrectly ; and yet we find in the bas-reliefs of the Par- 
 thenon done over two thousand years ago, horses depicted 
 with' a near approach to truth both in form and action (Fig. 
 
312 
 
 THE PAINTERS HORSE, 
 
 399). Meissonier drew horses with marvellous correctness, 
 as we may see in his ** Napoleon i'^" (Fig. 400), and in 
 '*i8i4" (Fig. 401). He was not alone attentive to truth 
 in the proportions of his horses ; but was also singularly 
 happy in catching the character of different classes and 
 
 Fig 399— Horse and Rider in ihe Parthenon 
 
 breeds : for instance, compare (leaving out the question of 
 attitude) the Arab horse in Fig. 400 with that in Fig. 281. 
 Some represent the walk by the action of the trot. 
 Even G6ricault gave the movements of the amble for 
 those of the walk, as Duhousset shows us in Le Cheval, 
 A well-known English artist drew a picture of Napoleon's 
 charger, Marengo (Fig. 407), balancing himself on a fore 
 and hind leg of the same side ! Artists of the present time 
 have no excuse for similar lapses into error ; for they have 
 the results of the researches of Marey, Muybridge, Anschutz, 
 and other photographers to guide them. Photography 
 proves that the walk (Figs. 402, 403, 404, and some of 
 the series, Figs. 96 to 106), trot (Figs. 69, 208 and 405), 
 
GIVING THE IDEA OF MOTION. 
 
 313 
 
 canter (choose from series, Figs. 123 to 132), gallop (Fig. 
 406), and leap (Figs. 195 to 199, 200, 204, 206 and 409) 
 can be drawn artistically and truthfully at the same time. 
 A combination of these two conditions is harder to find in 
 the canter, and especially in the gallop, than in the other 
 movements. The difficulty, here, lies in the nature of the 
 action rather than in the speed of the pace ; for the eye can, 
 
 Fig. 400. — Meissonier's Napoleon i^\ 
 
 for instance, follow the order in which the limbs work far 
 more easily in the fastest trot or amble than in the slowest 
 walk. Here we come to the noteworthy truth that the 
 eye will seldom recognise as true in Art what it has 
 not actually seen in Nature. The distance from which we 
 usually look at the movements of a horse's legs in the 
 canter or gallop is usually too close to permit us to take 
 in all four together at the same moment. Hence, when 
 
314 
 
 THE PAINTER'S HORSE. 
 
 critically regarding the action in either of these two paces, we 
 generally content ourselves with studying that of the fore pair, 
 and, subsequently, that of the hind pair ; or vice versL In 
 such a case, therefore, whichever pair be focussed sharply 
 on the retinae of our eyes, the other pair will of necessity be 
 blurred. Consequently, if both pairs of limbs be depicted 
 sharply in the canter or gallop, the chances are that the 
 idea of motion will not be conveyed to the spectator. For 
 
 \1<W 
 
 <*(x*<i«,^ 
 
 Fig 4oi-Meissonier's"i8i4" 
 
 ,/"• 
 
 ^'^^'^1^^^' 
 
 this reason, the painter who is trying to give the ''feeling" 
 of motion to a horse he is drawing at either of these paces, 
 will do well to blur (by means of dust, snow, etc.) or to hide 
 (by a bush or grass, for instance) one pair, if he desires to 
 make the other pair sharp. I can see no error of technique 
 in giving indistinctness of outline to the limbs themselves. 
 A painter who exhibited, in the Royal Academy or Salon, 
 a picture representing a horse running away with a carriage, 
 
M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 402.— Mr. E. D. Miller on Peter. 
 
 M. If. H. 
 
 Fig. 403. — Mr. Buckmaster on Sunshine. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 404. — Ganymede Walking. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 405.— Ganymede Trotting. 
 
 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 406. — Riding a Gallop. 
 
 To face p. 314. 
 
HORSE LEAPING 
 
 315 
 
 would most probably incur no rebuke from the art critics 
 for blurring all the spokes of the wheels, and drawing all the 
 legs and feet of the animal sharp. And yet those of us who 
 know anything of the laws of motion, must be aware that, 
 in such a case, any one of the horse's feet which is going 
 forward, must be passing far faster through space, than the 
 more or less perpendicular spokes which are revolving 
 through the lower half of their circle ^ The blurred appear- 
 ance of the near fore foot of the horse in Fig. 406, shows that 
 that foot was rapidly going forward at the moment the 
 photograph was taken The fact of the horse pulling his 
 
 «u •'->• ^&4£2hC< 
 
 Fig 407. — Napoleon's Charger, Marengo {After Mr. James Ward, R.A.) 
 
 rider out of the saddle, gives the idea of movement, which 
 Fig. 309 fails to convey. 
 
 At paces in which there is a moment of suspension, the 
 idea of motion, will, as a rule, be best conveyed by drawing 
 the horse with his feet off the ground. On account of vio- 
 lating this principle, old time painters, who represented the 
 horse in the gallop with both hind feet on the ground, failed 
 to give the idea of movement ; although, as it happened, the 
 attitude they adopted was not far from true (Fig. 136) 
 The later method of showing the racer at full speed, sus- 
 pended in the air, with his fore legs stretched out in front and 
 his hind limbs extended to the rear, was absolutely incorrect, 
 
3i6 
 
 THE PAINTER'S HORSE, 
 
 as well as utterly impossible ; and yet it conveyed the feeling 
 of motion better than that practised by the earlier horse 
 painters. It is manifest that a pictorial attitude which we 
 know to be incorrect, will look unnatural to us. Consequently, 
 the more general knowledge becomes, the more difficult will 
 it be for a painter who tries to draw horses in motion, to 
 satisfy the artistic requirements of his public. Hence, pictures 
 
 
 Fig. 408.— Horse Leaping, by Alken. 
 
 of galloping horses appearing to claw the ground, as the 
 fore feet come down with the knees and fetlocks well bent, 
 or committing equally absurd eccentricities, will, to any one 
 who has studied the paces of the horse, look simply ridiculous, 
 no matter how meritorious the painting may be in other 
 respects. Barroil {UAri Equestre) justly remarks that the 
 fact that the domain of the painter is what one sees and 
 not what really takes place, is no proof that one sees attitudes 
 which do not exist ** It is, however, by virtue of this theory, 
 
HORSE LEAPING. 
 
 317 
 
 set Up as an axiom, that many artists represent, in their 
 works, horses in attitudes which they have never assumed, 
 and which they could not assume/' 
 
 A common form of conventional leap appears to have 
 been taken from Aiken's drawing (Fig. 408). It is neither 
 correct, nor does it give — at least, to a horseman — the idea 
 of what is intended to be represented. A horse in the act 
 of landing is often represented with its fore feet so far to 
 the front that, when they will come to the ground, it could 
 not possibly raise its fore hand, and a fall would be the 
 inevitable result. Fig. 409 gives a correct rendering of the 
 action at this moment ; the idea of movement being greatly 
 heightened by the happy position of the horses, which follow 
 one after the other. A method of recent date is to give the 
 animal, just before landing, the appearance of being afraid to 
 face his bit. Consequently, although the position may be 
 true, it will look constrained and awkward to the eye of a 
 cross-country expert, which is a role that such artists are 
 evidently unqualified to assume. I need hardly say that 
 the more an artist knows, the^ better will he paint. 
 
 , / 
 
 "\%''" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 #, 
 
 ^1' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X'^;^ ^#~^|^^m^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *"^ • '^y^HJiiJy^ »^r^^BMi 
 
 itfk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SjMfy 
 
 '^I^^^T'T^'"*''"'^ 
 
 M^9 
 
 |^%L^ 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^t 
 
 ■^^1 flUH 
 
 ES 
 
 ■i 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
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 y» 
 
 
 
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 ^^1 
 
 
 
 
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 M. H. H. 
 
 Fig. 409.— -The Water Jump at Sandown Park. 
 
I ND EX 
 
 Abdomen, 164 
 
 Arab horses, 265 
 
 Abdommal tunic, 28, 165 
 
 Argentine Republic, 264 
 
 Abyssinian wild ass, Fig. 272 
 
 Articulations, 24 
 
 Acerotherium, 296 
 
 Artilleiy horse, the, 251 
 
 Acheen ponies, 270 
 
 Asphalte, 60, 71, 191 
 
 Achievement (pony), 131, 266 
 
 Ass, Abyssinian wild ass, 278, Fig. 272 
 
 Ackland, Sir Thomas, 257 
 
 „ and hoise, diiferences between, 274 
 
 Action, 223 
 
 5, conformation of, 276 
 
 Age affecting shape of nose, 146 
 
 „ domestic, 278 
 
 „ „ „ withers, 168 
 
 „ pasterns of, 200 
 
 Ainsty Queen, Fig. 341 
 
 „ points of the, 285 
 
 Air, respiratory, 38, 39 
 
 „ withers of, 167 
 
 „ tidal, 39 
 
 Asses, 274 
 
 Albatross, breast-bone of, 4 
 
 „ striped, 278 
 
 Albinos, 217 
 
 „ true, 278 
 
 All bin Abdoola, 142, 265 
 
 „ varieties of, 278 
 
 Alix, 262, 263 
 
 Astragalus, 26, 58, 302 
 
 Aiken, 311 
 
 Attachments of muscles, 24 
 
 Amble, the, 84 
 
 Attention, standing at, 62 
 
 American ponies, 261 
 
 Attitudes of the horse, 62 
 
 „ trotters, 261 
 
 Australasian horses, 258 
 
 Anarchy, 265 
 
 Australian horses, 199, 258, 259 
 
 Anatomy of the horse, 24 
 
 „ horse, underbred, 261, Fig. 
 
 Anchitherium, 293, 297 
 
 271 
 
 Anderson, Colonel John, 143 
 
 
 Angle of elevation, 112 
 
 Back, 20, 172 
 
 „ friction, 61 
 
 „ hollow, 240 
 
 Ankle, analogue of, 27 
 
 „ tendons, 194 
 
 Anschiitz, 313 
 
 Baker, Colonel Valentine, 265 
 
 Antelope, 2, 11, 54, 185, Fig. i 
 
 Balancing pole, 56 
 
 Anthony, Mr. John, 221 
 
 Ball and socket joint, 24 
 
 Anus, 176 
 
 Ballet dancer, 225 
 
 Arab, head of, Figs. 241 and 242 
 
 Baluchi horses, 149, 269 
 
320 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Barcaldine, ii 
 
 
 Breathing, forced, 39 
 
 Barroil, 317 
 
 
 „ mechanism of, 37 
 
 Bars of the hoof, 19 
 
 
 „ rate of, 228 
 
 „ „ mouth, 1 6, 72 
 
 1 
 
 „ state of, 230 
 
 Basset, Mr. C. H., 257 
 
 
 Brisket, 21 
 
 Basuto pony, 264 
 
 
 Brontotherium, 296 
 
 Baucher, 69 
 
 
 Brown colour, 215 
 
 Bay (colour), 215 
 
 
 Buck-eye, 151 
 
 Bearing reins, 61, 69, 19c 
 
 ) 
 
 Buckmaster, Mr., Fig. 403 
 
 Beauty, 231 
 
 
 Buffalo, 2, Fig. 2 
 
 Belly, 21, 165 
 
 
 Bull, heavy-draught, 3, Fig. 7 
 
 Bendigo, 11 
 
 
 V dog, 2 
 
 Bhootan, 270 
 
 
 Bullet, 259 
 
 Biceps, 9 
 
 
 Bullock, trotting, 3, Fig. 6 
 
 Birds, breast bones of, 4 
 
 
 Burma ponies, 269 
 
 Bit when leaping, horse afraid to face, 
 
 „ pony, Fig. 378 
 
 116, 317 
 
 
 Bury Victor Chief, 254, Fig. 231 
 
 Black buck, 2, 56, 107, i 
 
 30, Fig. I 
 
 Bustle, 253 
 
 Blair Athol, 215 
 
 
 Buttock, points of the, 21, 26 
 
 Blaze, 221, 276 
 
 
 
 Blitz, 131, 154, 267, Fig. 
 
 Z10 
 
 Cab-horse, 61 
 
 Blood, 34, 118, 237 
 
 
 Cabuli horse, 267, 269, Fig. 264 
 
 Blowing the nose, 230 
 
 
 Calcutta, 155, 264 
 
 Boat, leverage in, 43, 51 
 
 
 Calf knees, 194 
 
 Bob, 131 
 
 
 „ of leg becoming tendinous, 13 
 
 Bodily weight in draught, 
 
 60 
 
 Caliph, 131 
 
 Body same m all hoises. 
 
 132, 133 
 
 Callosities on legs, 18, 192, 211, 274 
 
 Bog spavin, 221 
 
 
 Cambridgeshire course, 131 
 
 " Bone," 7 
 
 
 Camel, 85, 126 
 
 Bones, 5, 24 
 
 
 Camilla, 264 
 
 „ effect of paralysis on, 7 
 
 Cannon bone, 19, 194, 196, 213 
 
 „ of the limbs, 
 
 comparative 
 
 Canter, the, 90, 313, 314 
 
 length of the, 137 
 
 
 Cape Colony, 264, 281 
 
 Bonnie Doo, 131 
 
 
 Capillaries, 34 
 
 „ Scotland, 259 
 
 
 Capped elbow, 75 
 
 Boots, 276 
 
 
 Captain Sykes, Fig. 340 
 
 Bouley, H., 58 
 
 
 Carbine, 11, 260 
 
 Bourgelat, 307 
 
 
 Carnivorous animals, ears of, 150 
 
 Boxing, 14 
 
 
 Cariiage wheels, 315 
 
 Brain, 35, 36 
 
 
 Carson, Dr., 150, 223 
 
 „ size of, 146 
 
 
 Cart-horse, conformation of, 61 
 
 Brat, the, 154, 182, Fig. 
 
 371 
 
 „ position of head of, 71 
 
 Bravo, 260, Fig. 327 
 
 
 „ the heavy, 248 
 
 Breast, 17, 164 
 
 
 Cartilage, 9 
 
 „ bones of birds, 4 
 
 
 Castors, 18, 192, 211, 274, Fig. 291 
 
 Breathing, 29, 161, 230 
 
 
 Castration, 156, 157 
 
JNDEK. 
 
 321 
 
 Cattle lying down, 75 
 Cat, claws, 27 
 
 „ gallop of the, 106 
 Cavalry trooper, 250 
 Cave men, 299 
 Cecil, Lord Arthur, 257 
 Cement, 295 
 
 Centre ofgravity, 40, 71 
 
 Cerebellum, '^%, 148 
 
 Cerebrum, 36, 148 
 
 Chance, 127, 141, 254, Fig. 232 
 
 Chanticleer, 216 
 
 Charger, officer's, 251 
 
 Chauveau, 274 
 
 Cheadle Jumbo, 127, 128, 133, 141 
 
 Cheetah, 2, ii, 54, 56, 130, Fig. 3 
 
 Cheshire, 248 
 
 Chest, 17, 160 
 
 „ expansion of, i6t 
 Chester, 131, 259 
 Chestnuts, i8, 192, 211, 274 
 Chestnut colour, 216 
 Chieftain, 135, 265 
 Chieftain's Champion, Fig. 336 
 Child of the Islands, 2^^ 
 Chin groove, 16 
 China ponies, 270 
 Chucking horse in mouth, lor 
 Circus horses, 77, 117 
 Cleveland Bays, 182, 217, 227, 254 
 Cleverness, 227 
 Climate, 6 
 Cloister, 163, 174, 183, 208, 210, 234, 
 
 246, 247, Frontispiece, Fig. 200 
 Clydesdales, 189, 190, 200, 231, 258 
 Coachman, 131 
 Coffin-shaped head, 145 
 Colesberg, 264 
 Colin, 29, 40, 41, 59, 67 
 Collar-bone, 26 
 Colonial horses, 258 
 Colonies, horses in the, 238 
 
 „ riding in the, 82 
 Colour, 215, 218 
 Columbus, 272 
 Compensations, 239 
 
 Condition, 228 
 Connective tissue, 12 
 Convexity of a curve, 160 
 Corean ponies, 271 
 Corisande, 243 
 Corns, 18 
 Coronet, 19 
 
 Country-bred ponies, 235 
 Cow hocks, 209 
 
 „ Kick, 77 
 Cracked heels, 218 
 Craddock, 281 
 Cremorne, 244, Fig. 326 
 Crest, 17, 229 
 
 Croup, 21, 175 
 Croup, prominence in, 208 
 Crusta petrosa, 295, 302 
 Curb bits, 69, 225 
 Curbs, 77, 117 
 Curnieu, Baron de, 84 
 Curve, convexity of, 160 
 
 Dachshund, 2 
 
 Dalmeny, 8 
 
 Danegelt, 8, 256, Fig. 342 
 
 Daphne, 131 
 
 Darwin, 299, 300 
 
 Dartmoor pony, 257 
 
 Deaf horses, 151 
 
 Deer, 185 
 
 Definitions, 15 
 
 Dell ponies, 269 
 
 Delphine, 152 
 
 Depth of body, 23 
 
 „ chest at withers, 23 
 Derbyshire Shire horses, 220 
 Deuce of Diamonds, 253 
 Dexter, 262 
 Diagonals (legs), 80 
 Diaphragm, 37, 162 
 Digit, supernumeiary, 290, Fig. 290 
 Digits, numeration of, 297 
 Directum, 262 
 Dishing, 224 
 Dock, 22 
 
 Y 
 
323 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dockmgj 232 
 
 Doctor, the, 245 
 
 I^og, 2, 3, 36, 134, 184, 303 
 
 Donkeys, 184, 278, 279. Also see 
 
 "Asses" 
 Dorsal, 24 
 
 Draught, mechanism of, 59 
 Dreadnaught, 255 
 Diy chmate, effect of, 201 
 Duff, Mr , 247 
 Duhousset, 22, 307, 312 
 Dun (coloui), 299 
 Dung, 228 
 
 Dykes, Mr., 200, 221 
 Dynamite, 182, 252, 253, Fig, 237 
 
 Eagle, breast bone of, 4 
 Ears, 149, 231 
 Echpse, 259 
 
 ^-'gypt, 279 
 
 Elbow, 18, 192 
 
 Engadme, 268 
 
 Enquiiei, 260 
 
 English hoises, 134^ 143, 150, 199, 
 
 241, et seg 
 Eocene, 287 
 Eolus, 260 
 Epiglottis, 275 
 Epsom, izz 
 Equation, personal, 14 
 Equilibiium, instability of, 54^ 132 
 Ergot, 197, 294 
 Esa bin Cuitas, 142, 265 
 Euclid, 265 
 Euphiates, 265 
 Evolution of the horse, 286 
 Ewe neck, 157 
 ExmOor ponies, 217, 256 
 Expiration, 38 
 Extension of joints, 24 
 Extravagant action,' ..5 
 Eyes, 67, 79, 151 
 
 „ hollows above, 152 
 
 „ set high, 146 
 
 Fabulous Portune, Fig. 8 
 
 >j 
 
 J) 
 
 Face, front view of, 144 
 
 „ profile of, 143 
 Face with giound, angle of, 67 
 Fat, 229, 230 
 Fatigue, 55 
 
 „ abihty to endure, 235 
 Favomus, 154, 210, 243, Fig. 324 
 Fence, clearing a, 1 1 2 
 Fencing, 14 
 Fetlock, 19, 197, 213 
 
 descent of, 97, 294 
 mechanism of, ^S 
 Fibula, 26 
 
 Fighting m gallop, 225 
 Filhs, Frank, 155 
 
 „ James, 70 
 Fingers. See " Digits " 
 Fisheiman, 259 
 Fishing rod, leverage in, 43 
 Flank, 175 
 Fleur de Lys, 266 
 Flexion of joints, 24 
 iloia Temple, 262, 263 
 Flouzel IL, 154, 243, Fig. 323 
 Flowei, Sir Wilham, 278, 292, 294 
 "Fly" countiy, 282 
 Foal, Fig. 233 
 
 „ getting up off giound, Fig 51 
 
 „ long m the leg, 129 
 Foot S.i '^ Hoof" and '' Digits " 
 
 „ abnoimal, 290 
 
 ,, prints, T03 
 
 „ putting down, 223 
 Foidham, Geoige, 143 
 Foie arm, 18, 193 
 
 ,, feet, stnkmg out with, 78 
 
 „ hand, foie leg laismg, 51, 181 
 Forehead, 15 
 
 bioad, 144, Fig. 248 
 piomment, 143, 148, Figs. 
 
 245 and 250 
 Foie legs in diaught, 181 
 „ m saddle, 18 t 
 too light, 240 
 
 width between, 137, 168-172 
 limb, bones of the^ 25 
 
 j> 
 
 jj 
 
 J? 
 
II\Ij£,JC, 
 
 323 
 
 Fore limb, duties of the, 179 
 „ „ geneial view of the, 179 
 „ lock, 15, 232 
 
 Fossils, 287, et seq, 
 
 Foster, Mr. F. A., 261 
 
 Foxhall, 143 
 
 Franciscan, 247, Fig. 328 
 
 Fieddie, Fig. 281 
 
 Fieenian, 157 
 
 Friction, angle of, 61 
 ,, m jomts, II, 136 
 
 Frog, 19 
 
 Fiont view of horse^ 64 
 
 Fulcium, 42 
 
 " Function makes the oigan," 140 
 
 Gallop, the, 55, 94, 225, Fig 406 
 „ diifeience between the leap 
 and, 105 
 Galloping lound, 69, 225 
 Galojj en affzhe^ 99 
 Gamecock, 156, 246, 247, Fig. 259 
 Ganymede, 256, Figs. 344, 404, 405 
 Gaskm, 21, 209 
 Gaudiy, 286 
 Gayot, X46 
 Geldmffs, 156, 157, 168 
 
 Geology; .86;./4. 
 Gdicault, 312 
 
 Getting away aftei jumping, xi8 
 Getting up off the ground, 75 
 Guth place, 21 
 " Give and Take," 70 
 Gladys, 257, Fig. 349 
 Glasgow, 190, 201 
 Gland, teai 01 scent, 292 
 Glenelg, 259 
 Glengaiy IL, 260 
 Goldsmith Maid, 262, 263 
 Good Fiiday, 234 
 
 „ looks, 231 
 Goose-iump, 208 
 Goose-rumped hunters, 207, 208 
 Goubaux and Barrier, ^2^ 40, 41, 6^,^ 
 
 168, 169, 171, 193, 307 
 Grand Flaneui, 259 
 
 Gravity, centre of, 40, 46 
 Grease, 220 
 Great Eastern, 262 
 
 „ Tom, 259 
 Giey horses, 215 
 Greyhound, 2, 11, 54, 130, Fig. 8 
 
 „ gallop of the, 105 
 
 Gristle, 9 
 Gu^m, 13 
 Gult Aiabs, 267, Figs. 263 and 361 
 
 Hack, the, 249 
 Hackney, the, 256, 263 
 Haddeed, 266 
 Han, 219 
 
 „ on legs of cart-horses, 219-221 
 Hair, strength of, 217 
 Half-bied hoise, 254 
 Hamble tomans, 262 
 Hammond, Mr. John, 7 
 Hamstimg, 21 
 Hand gallop, 92 
 Handmess, 227 
 
 Hands, iider thi owing up his, 118 
 Hannah, 243, I<ig 325 
 Hansom cab-hoises, 61 
 Hare, 3, 130 
 Harness hoise, 249 
 Haivestei, 7, 128 
 Head, 15 
 
 and neck m locomotion, 56 
 „ „ carriage of, 67 
 
 high, caiiymg, 70 
 
 leanness of, 142 
 
 length of, 136 
 
 of Aiab, Figs. 241 and 242 
 
 plainness of, 239 
 
 setting on of the, 153 
 
 size of, 140 
 
 thoroughbied, Fig. 244 
 Health, 228 
 Heart, 34, 160 
 
 „ width thiough the, 17a 
 Heavily topped, 137, 181 
 Heel, analogue of man's, 27 
 Heels, cracked, 218 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 >? 
 
 ?j 
 
 >) 
 
 ?> 
 
 jj 
 
 J? 
 
 j> 
 
 Heels of hoof, 19, 202-204 
 Height and length of body, 125 
 
 at croup, 23 
 
 at withers and croup, 129 
 
 in horses, increase of, 135 
 
 limit of, 134 
 
 of a horse, 22 
 Hemionus equus, 280 
 Herati horses, 149 
 
 Heredity, 338 
 High action, 225 
 
 „ blowing, 231 
 Highland Chief filly, 211 
 Laddie, Fig. 358 
 Maid, 263 
 High school riding, 69 
 Hind leg, straight dropped, 210 
 
 „ legs in jumping, landing on, 116, 
 
 117 
 Hind legs well under horse, 65 
 
 ,, limb, general view of, 205 
 Hikd-quart'ers too light, .4^ 
 Hinge joint, 24 
 Hinny, 277 
 Hip, 9, 2T, 292 
 
 „%ointofthe,.x,.6,.75 
 Hipparion gracile, Figs. 298, 376 
 
 Hock, 22, 209 
 
 mechanism, ^8 
 
 point of the,.. 
 
 tied in below, 211 
 
 width just below, 211 
 
 Hocks, cow, 64, 209 
 
 sickle, 210 
 
 straight, 20, 51 
 
 turned in, 64, 210 
 
 „ out, 210 
 
 well let down, 212 
 
 , ,, under horse, 65 
 
 Hokkaido; 271 
 Hollow back, 172 
 
 Hollows above eyes, 152 
 
 Holyrood, Fig* 355 
 
 Hoof, 6, 19, 57, 201, 203, 213 
 
 Hoof too big for pedal bone, 204 
 
 Horizon^ Fig, 20a 
 
 ?j 
 
 >j 
 
 >> 
 
 >? 
 
 » 
 
 ?? 
 
 3? 
 
 ?? 
 
 ?J 
 
 3J 
 
 J7 
 
 JJ 
 
 )J 
 
 J? 
 
 >? 
 
 J7 
 
 >? 
 
 7> 
 
 Horn, growth of, 201 
 Horse, ancestry of the, 286 
 evolution of the, 286 
 getting up off the ground, Fig. 51 
 immediate ancestors of the, 299 
 intelligence of the, 36, 146, 147 
 of the future, 304 
 points of the fossil, 302 
 proportions of the^ 307 
 sickness, 264, 282 
 the painter's, 310 
 Horses, harness, 124 
 „ of speed, 124 
 „ of strength, 124 
 ,, on bone and horn, drawings of, 
 299 
 Horses, saddle, 124 
 Howard, Mr. James, 220 
 „ of Bradford, 55 
 Humerus, 191 
 
 Hunter, description of, 245-248 
 goose-rumped, 207, 208 
 higher at withers than at croup, 
 132, 245, 246 
 Hunter, high withers in, 166 
 light in front, 132 
 Leicestershire, 245-248 
 length of leg in, 128 
 in provinces, 2 48 
 neck in, 154 
 shoulders in, 191 
 „ strong in limb compared to 
 weight of body, 246 
 Hunter, width between fore legs in, 171 
 
 ,, with heavy shoulders, 245 
 Huxley, 24, 277 
 Huzard, 193 
 Hybrids, 277 
 Hyracotherium, 295, 296, 297 
 
 Iceland pony, 261, Fig. 307 
 
 Ill-used, the, 259 
 
 India, 225 
 
 Indiau heavy draught bull, 3, Fig. 7 
 
 „ horses, East, 267 
 
 „ ponies, East, 235 
 
 jj 
 
 J? 
 
 V 
 
 J? 
 
 ?> 
 
 J> 
 
 J? 
 
 J7 
 
INDEX. 
 
 32s 
 
 Indian trotting bullock^ 3, Fig. 6 
 
 Insertion of muscles, 24 
 
 Instability of equilibnunij 54, 132 
 
 Instinct, 147 
 
 Intelligence of horse, 36, 146, 147, 
 
 148 
 Internal temijerature, 228 
 Iris, 151 
 Isonomy, 11, 260 
 
 Japanese ponies, 271 
 
 Java ponies, 269 
 
 Jaw, angles of lower, 1 6 
 
 „ branches of lower, 16 
 
 „ lower, 153 
 Jaws, space between, 153 
 Jay Eye See, 262 
 Jeannette, 131, 260 
 Jennings, junr., Mr. Tom, 143 
 Jibber, 146 
 
 John R. Gentry, Fig. 369 
 Joints, .4, n 
 Joseph, 247, Fig. 320 
 Jugular groove, 17 
 Jumping, T05-119, 207 
 Jump, landing over a, 114 
 
 Kangaroo, 131 
 
 Katerfelto, 256 
 
 Kathiawar mare, 268, Fig. 377 
 
 Kemmis, Mr., 264 
 
 Kemp ton Park, race at, Fig. 309 
 
 Kiang, 174, 280, Fig. 384 
 
 Kicking, 33, 36, 77 
 
 King Alfonso, 260 
 
 King Ban, 259 
 
 Kingcraft, 173 
 
 King Ernest, 259 
 
 Kink in tail, 232 
 
 Kirk's Physiology, 36 
 
 Knee, 18, 193 
 
 analogue of, 27 
 
 tied-in below, 195 
 Knees, back at the, 232 
 calf, 240 
 over at the, 193, 240 
 
 ?/ 
 
 3J 
 
 5J 
 
 Knees, well let down, 196, 212 
 Knuckles, analogue of, 27 
 Kowalevsky, 293 
 Kremlin, 262, Fig. 374 
 Kutch, wild ass of, 279 
 
 Labby, 266 
 Lachrymal duct, 275 
 Ladies rising in the trot, 84 
 Lady Keyingham, Fig. 343 
 
 „ Suffolk, 263 
 Lady's horse, 250 
 La Fl^che, 244, Fig. 230 
 Laird of Noss, Fig. 357 
 Laminitis, 180, 203 
 Landing over a jump, 1 14 
 Larynx, 153 
 Leading fore leg, 92 
 Leamington, 259 
 Leap and suspension during canter or 
 
 gallop, difference between, 105 
 Leap, definition of, 105 
 
 effect of pace on, 1 1 1 
 „ speed on, in 
 taking off at, 107 
 varieties of^ 105 
 Leaping, 105-119, 207 
 Lecoq, 166 
 Leech, 311 
 Legs of Eastern horses, 237 
 
 „ well under him, horse standing 
 
 with hind, 65 
 Legs, width between, 53, 169-172 
 Leicestershire, 157, 216, 245, 246, 
 
 248 
 Length of body of horse, 22 
 
 „ bones of limbs, comparative, 
 
 137 
 Lenoble du Theil, 104 
 
 Level action, 53, 55 
 
 Levers, 42 ^ et se^. 
 
 Liberator, 156, 246 
 
 Ligament of the head, suspensory, 28 
 
 „ suspensory, 32 
 
 Ligaments, 12, 27 
 
 Limbs, thickness of, 136 
 
 ?7 
 
 JJ 
 
 ?7 
 
 ?> 
 
326 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 J? 
 
 J? 
 
 3? 
 
 J) 
 
 Lips, 152 
 
 Little Hercules, 131 
 
 „ Wonder, 131, 260 
 Liverpool, 190 
 
 Locomotion, mechanism of equine, 46 
 Loin muscles, 53 
 Loins, 20, 172 
 
 slack in the, 164 
 
 too light, 240 
 
 wedge-shaped, 173 
 
 well ribbed up, 162-164 
 Longfellow, 260 
 Lop-eared maie, Fig* 256 
 Lop-ears, 151 
 Lord Arthur, 182, 246, Fig. 329 
 
 „ Clyde, 131, 253, 266 
 Louis XV., 311 
 Low in front, 131, 132 
 Lucifer, 265 
 Luck's All, Fig. 338 
 Lucy Glitters, 143 
 Lungs, 34 
 Lying down, 74 
 Lynx, 3, 130, Fig. 4 
 
 Machine Animak^ la^ 4 
 
 Madam, Fig. 339 
 
 Magistrate, Fig. 373 
 
 Mattre d'armes, 14 
 
 Mambrino Chiefs, 262 
 
 Mammal, 297 
 
 Man and horse, comparison between 
 
 bones of, 26 
 Manchester, 190 
 Manchuria, 270 
 Mane, 219, 232, 275 
 Manipuri ponies, 269 
 Man jumping, 49 
 
 „ swimming, 47 
 
 „ walking, 46 
 Mare and foal, Fig. 345 
 
 „ conformation of, 139, 164 
 Mares, imported, 259 
 Marey, 4. 120, 313 
 Margarett, Steve, 155 
 Marquis, 198, 265 
 
 Mariner, 211 
 
 Markings, 217, 22T, 299 
 
 Marsh, Professor, 295 
 
 Mastiff, gallop of, 107 
 
 Maud S., 262, 263, Fig. i(>z 
 
 Mayflower, 131, 260 
 
 Maythorne, 131 
 
 Medulla oblongata, 35 
 
 Meissonier, 312 
 
 Meissonier's " 1814," 87, Fig. 401 
 
 „ Napoleon i''^ Fig. 400 
 
 Melanosis, 216 
 Memory, 36, 148 
 Merche, 164, 307 
 Metacarpal bones, 287 
 Metatarsal bones, 287 
 Midriff, 37, 162 
 
 Midshipmite, 182, 246, Fig. 260 
 Mike, 131, i74> 244, 253, 267, Fig. 235 
 Miller, Mr. E. D., 252, 257, Fig. 402 
 Minden, 268, Fig. 269 
 Miocene, 287, 293 
 Mongolian ponies, 270 
 Montana Bill, Fig. 238 
 Morgans, 262 
 Morris, General, 40 
 Moss Rose, Fig. 356 
 Moustache, 153 
 Mouth, bars of the, 16, 72 
 Movement, idea of, 313 
 Mucklow, Mr. E,, 257 
 Mulberry, 253 
 Mules, 78, 167, 200, 277 
 Muntz's hunter, Mr., Fig. 331 
 Muscles, 3, 8, 9, 13, 229 
 
 „ of locomotion, 30 
 Muscular contraction, 51 
 
 „ sense, 35, 148 
 Museum of E..C.S., 275 
 Musket, 259 
 Muybridge, 98, 313 
 Muzzle, 16 
 
 Names of external parts, 15 
 Nancy Hanks, 262, Fig. z(i% 
 Napoleon L, pictures of, Figs. 400, 401 
 
INDEX, 
 
 327 
 
 Napoleon riding amblers, 84 
 Natal, 264 
 Navicular bone, 26 
 
 ,, disease, 180 
 Neck, 17, 154 
 
 and shoulders of cart-horses, 6 1 
 
 ewe, 157 
 
 in locomotion, head and, $6 
 
 length of, T36 
 
 muscles of, 68, 70 
 
 of cart-horses, 61 
 
 too heavy, 240 
 „ light, 240 
 NegishiHill, 271 
 Nerves, 35 
 
 Nervous system, 13, 35 
 New Forest mare and foal. Fig. 352 
 „ „ ponies, 257 
 „ ,, stallion, Fig. 3151 
 Ne;ma;ket, 133 
 New Zealand horses, i<8 
 Norfolk, ..X, .54 
 Norman Conqueror, Fig. 234 
 Norwegian pony, 261, Fig. 359 
 Nose, 15 
 Nose-band, 73 
 Nostril, false, 275 
 Nostrils, 152 
 
 „ false, 275, 299 
 Notation of paces, 120 
 Nugent, Sir Charles, 247 
 
 Oars, propulsion by, 42, 43, 51 
 
 Obedience from horse? 147 
 
 Occipital crest, i6, 148 
 
 Old man, muscles of, 13 
 
 Olecranon, 26 
 
 Onager, 174, 274, 279, Fig. 273 
 
 Orange Free State, 264 
 
 Origin of muscles, 24 
 
 Orlando, 275 
 
 Ormonde, 11, 51, 127, 128, 129, 131, 
 133, 141, 154, 163, 173. 174, 182, 
 188, 210, 234, 260, Frontispiece, 
 Fig. 289 
 
 Orohippus, 295, 297 
 
 35 
 
 3? 
 
 Os calcis, 26 
 Osteoporosis, 143 
 Over-reaching, 115 
 
 Paces, artificial, 81 
 natural, 81 
 
 of the horse, 80, et seq. 
 Pacing, 84 
 Packwax, 28 
 Painters, 310 
 Painter's horse, 310 
 Paloplotherium, 295 
 Panic, 259 
 Panniculus, 30, 229 
 Parallelism of back tendons, 194 
 Parallelogram of forces,- 50 
 Paralysis of the loins, 176 
 
 „ on bones, effect of, 7 
 Parekaretu, 131 
 Parrocel, 311 
 Parrott, General, 268 
 Parthenon, 311 
 
 Part to a whole, working from a, 125 
 Partridge, breast-bone of, 4 
 Parts, names of external, 15 
 Passage, 98 
 Pastern, 19, 197 
 
 „ slope of, 57 
 Pasteriis, sloping, 198 
 
 „ too upright or too oblique, 240* 
 upright, 199 
 Patella, ^z6 
 
 Patteson, Mr. T. C, 2x6 
 Pectoral muscles, 137, 1 68-1 71 
 Pedal bone, 26 
 Pegu pony, 269 
 Pelvis, 26, 206 
 Perissodactyla, 298 
 Persians, 267 
 Persian wild ass, 279 
 Persimmon, 131, 210, 243, 260, Fig.322 
 Personal equation, 14 
 Peter, Fig. 402 
 Phaeton, 259 
 Phalanges, 287 
 Phenacodus, 297, 302 
 
32§ 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 jj 
 
 5? 
 
 Photograpliing horses, 305 
 PiafFer, 79, 98 
 Piebald, 216 
 Pigj eye, 151 
 
 fore foot of, Fig. 375 
 
 toes of, 290, 291, 302 
 Pigeon, 36 
 Placer, le, (^z 
 Plantigrade, 117 
 Plato, 255 
 Pleistocene, 287 
 Pless's huntei, Prince Henry of, Fig. 
 
 321 
 Pliocene, 287 
 Ploughing by tail, 59 
 Poliakof, 272, 273 
 Poll, 17 
 
 Polo, 200 
 
 „ pony, 252 
 
 Ponies, 34, i35j ^3^ 
 
 Pony, the racuig, 244 
 
 Posterior iliac spine, 172, 208, 247 
 
 Predominant, 131, 154. 182, 244, 247, 
 
 253, 266, Fig. 236 
 Prejevalski's horse, 273 
 Primary period, 287 
 Prmce of Carruchan, Fig. 353 
 
 „ Charlie, 244, 259 
 
 „ William, 221 
 Prominence in croup. Sec " Posterior 
 
 iliac spine " 
 Prominent foiehead. Ste '^ Forehead, 
 
 prominent " 
 Proportions of the horse, 307 
 Propulsion by limbs, 47, ct seq. 
 Prosecutor, 264 
 Provinces, the, 248 
 Pulse, 228 
 Punjab, 6 
 
 QUAGGA, 282, 284, Fig. 385 
 Quarter maik, 229 
 Queen of Trumps, Fig. 337 
 
 E.ABY, 265 
 
 Race, finish of, Fig. 309 
 
 Racehorse, the, 54, 241 
 Racehorses, action of tail of, 177 
 American, 259 
 Australasian, 259, 260 
 back and loins of, 173 
 cioup, 207 
 footprints of, 104 
 gaskms of, 206, 209 
 head of, 141 
 height at cioup of, 130 
 height of, 134 
 length of body of, 53, 127 
 ,, leg „ T27, 128 
 
 fi 
 
 J3 
 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 
 JJ 
 
 3) 
 
 J? 
 
 >5 
 
 ■J 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 muscles of, 10, 136 
 neck of, 136 
 pasterns of, 199, 200 
 position of head of, 7 1 
 ribs of, 164 
 shoulders of, 184, 185 
 special points of, 241 
 stride of, 104 
 stifle of, 139 
 straightening limbs, 45 
 straight hind leg, 206 
 well nbbed-up, 175 
 width between foie legs 
 
 in, 54, 171 
 Radius, 26 
 
 Rat-tailed horses, 219 
 Rayon d'or, 259 
 Reach, 222, 276 
 Rearing, 75 
 
 „ muscles, 52 
 Rear view of hoise, 64 
 Refuser, 146 
 Regal, 156 
 Reindeer, 156 
 Reining back, 69, 99 
 Reins, unifoim tension on, 70 
 Respiration, 38 
 Reynolds, Mr., 190 
 Rhinoceros, 2, 30, 296 
 Ribs, 20, 25, 29, 1%, 39, 160, 229 
 
 „ rotundity of, 162, 16-4 
 
 „ too flat, 240 
 Ribbed-up, badly, 163, 240 
 
INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 Ribbed-up, well, 162-164 
 
 Richard, 151, 152 
 
 Ringbone, 180 
 
 Roadster, 256, Figs. 346 and 347 
 
 Roach-back, 172, Fig. 280 
 
 Roan colour, 216 
 
 Roaring, 199, 230 
 
 Robert the Devil, i38 
 
 Rod, fishing, 43 
 
 Rogers, Mr. H. G., 304 
 
 Rokeby Fuchsia, 216, 254, Fig. 335 
 
 ,, Harold, 254, Fig. 334 
 Romance, 154, 260, Fig. 270 
 Roman nose, Figs. 246 and 247 
 Rondo, Fig. 362 
 Rotundity of back ribs, 162 
 Round action, 225 
 Royal Oak, 257, Fig. 348 
 Ruby, 131 
 
 Runners, conformation of, 3 
 Running man, 47 
 
 Sacrum, 25 
 Saddle, 168 
 
 „ of mutton, 53 
 Saddle back from old age, Fig. 52 
 
 „ muscle, 168, 183 
 St. Albans, 259 
 „ Blaise, 259 
 „ Gatien, 7, 11, 128, 129, 188, 208, 
 
 234, 260 
 „ Helena, 131 
 
 „ Simon, 50, 127, 129, 133, 141, i54? 
 164, 182, 210, 242, 244, 247, 260, 
 Figs. 9 and 229 
 Salary, 246, Fig. 282 
 Sallenders, 221 
 Sally Miller, 263 
 Saxons, 279 
 Scalpers, 262 
 Scapula, .s- 
 Secondary period, 287 
 Second thighs, 33 
 See-saw, 42 
 Selena, 131 
 Selous, Mr. F. C, 282, 284 
 
 3? 
 
 3? 
 
 J? 
 
 >7 
 
 Sesamoid bones, 26 
 
 Sexton, Mr. G. M., 188, 219 
 
 Sexual differences in conformation, 139 
 
 Shan States, 269 
 
 Shape ofhorses, comparative, 124 
 
 Shaw, Mr. W. F., 128 
 
 Shepherd^s dog, 147 
 
 Shere Ali, 265 
 
 Sherwood, 265 
 
 Shetland pony, 258 
 
 Ships, 40 
 
 Shire horse, 189, 231, 254 
 
 „ „ hair on legs of, 219 
 Shoa, zebras m, 2^-^ 
 Shoes, heavy, 225 
 
 5, horses trained without, 225 
 Shoulder-blade, 25 
 
 „ length of, 184 
 
 Shoulders, 17, 182 
 
 loaded, 24 
 
 points of the, 17 
 
 sections through, 186, 187 
 
 thickness of, 170 
 Sickle hocks, 5x, 2x0, 235, ^40 
 Side bones, 304 
 „ saddle, 168 
 Smews, 10 
 Sires, imported, 259 
 Sirlom of beef, 12, 52, 53 
 Skaters, 54 
 Skewbald, 216 
 QJHkin, 2x4 
 „ colour of, 217 
 „ over croup, thick, 276, 300 
 Skittles, 131, 263 
 Sleeping standing, ()6^ 67 
 Snaffle, action of, 72 
 Snip, 222, Fig. 249 
 Snow, 299, 314 
 Soarer, 208 
 
 oOCix, 22 2 
 
 South Africa, 281, 282, 284 
 
 „ African horses, 264 
 
 „ American horses, 264 
 Spanish walk and trot, 99 
 Spavin, 304 
 
330 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 jj 
 
 7? 
 
 JJ 
 
 Special creation, 289 
 
 Spec, Fig. 361 
 
 Specs, 246, Fig. 255 
 
 Speed, animals of, i, 3 
 
 Spendthrift, 260 
 
 Spinal cord, 35, 36 
 
 Spuitofthe Times ^ 259 
 
 Splint, 180, 288, 304 
 „ bones, 19 
 „ „ changes in, 289 
 
 Spiti, 270 
 
 Spokes of wheel, 315 
 
 Sprains, 97 
 
 Springbok, 56, 107 
 
 Sprinteis, conformation of, 3 
 
 Standing at attention, 62 
 at ease, 65 
 collectedly, 64 
 when asleep, 66, 67 
 „ with hind legs well 
 him, horse, ^^ 
 
 Stai, 221, 276 
 
 Staying power, 235 
 
 Steeplechaser, 245 
 
 Steinbok, 302 
 
 Step, 80 
 
 Stepaside, 247, Fig. 333 
 
 Stifle, 21, 27, 30, 58, 209 
 „ clearing belly, 58 
 
 Stockings, 222, 276 
 
 Straight dropped hind leg, 210 
 
 Straightening leg, 51 
 
 Strangeways%9 
 Street, Mr. F., 189, 220 
 Strength, animals of, i, 3 
 Stride, 80 
 
 „ length of, 104 
 Stripe, 222, Fig. 249 
 Suffolk horses, 217, 254 
 
 Sumatra ponies .69 
 Sunol, 262, Fig. 364 
 Sunshine, Fig. 403 
 Support, 80 
 
 Suspension, period of, 80 
 Sweat, 231 
 
 undei 
 
 jj 
 
 J? 
 
 Swedish hunter, 261 
 Sweet William, 131 
 Swimming, 47 
 Sylvia, 131, 253 
 Symmetry, 238 
 Syria, wild ass of, 279 
 
 Tail, 176, 232 
 
 ploughing by, 59 
 
 of ass, 275 
 Taking off at leap, 107 
 Tangii, 268 
 Tapix*, 296, 301 
 Tarpans, 272 
 Tasmanian hoises, 258 
 Tear or scent gland, 292 
 Teats, rudimental, 275 
 Teen Kwang, 135, 271, Fig. 350 
 Teeth, 146, 292, 295, 302 
 Temper, 1^3 
 
 Tempeiatuie, internal, 214, 218, 228 
 Temples, 15 ^ 
 Tendo Achillis, 21 
 Tendons, 9, 13 
 Tertiaiy period, 287 
 Thibet, 280 
 Thigh, 21, 209 
 
 „ second, zs 
 Thirst, 230 
 Thoroughbred, English, 253 
 
 „ head of. Fig. 244 
 
 Throat, 158 
 Tibia, 209 
 Tidal air, 39 
 Tientsin, 270 
 Tiger, 3, Fig. 5 
 
 „ gallop of the, 106 
 Timber jumping, 112 
 Time of a pace, 81 
 Tim Whiffler, 50 
 Tissues, 13 
 Toe-pieces, 61 
 Toes. ^S^^" Digits" 
 Topped too heavily, 181 
 Touchstone, Fig. 330 
 Traces, direction of, 61 
 
INDEX. 
 
 331 
 
 Transvaal, 264 
 Trapezium, 26, 195 
 Tripple, 84 
 
 Tristan, 22, 143, Fig. 240 
 Trot, 81-84 
 
 „ jumping from the, 1 1 1 
 Trotter, American, 261 
 Trunk, 159 
 Tsetse fly, 282 
 Turkish flag, 265 
 Turnips, 165 
 Two-year-olds, 11 
 
 Ulna, 26 
 
 Unguligrade, 27, 294 
 Upper cut, 52 
 
 Vanner, light, 252 
 "Vertebra, 24, 28 
 Vertebrae, loin, 275 
 Virgil, 259 
 
 Walk, 87, 224 
 „ of man, 46 
 
 Washing horses' feet, 217 
 
 Water jumping, 112 
 
 „ on hoof, effect of, 201, 202 
 „ Lily, 13T, 244, Fig 332 
 „ mark, 229 
 
 Weed, 239, Fig. 2(>Z 
 
 Weight borne by fore and hind legs, 40 
 „ carrying power, 234 
 „ in draught, bodily, 60 
 
 Weight of body, comparative, 137 
 „ on back in draught, 60 
 
 Well ribbed-up, 162-164 
 
 Welsh ponies, 258 
 
 Westacott, 257 
 
 West Highland ponies, 258 
 
 Whafs Wanted, 216 
 
 Wheel-barrow, leverage in, 42 
 
 Wheels of carriage blurred, 315 
 
 Whole, working from a part to a, 125 
 
 Width between legs, 53, 168-172 
 ,, through the heart, 170 
 
 Wild horses, 272 
 „ Oat, the, 264 
 
 Wilton, Mr. H., 170 
 
 Withers, 17, 25, 166 
 
 Wood pavement, 60, 71, 191 
 
 Wrestlers, conformation of, 3 
 
 Wrist, analogue of, 27 
 
 Wuzeerees, 149 
 
 Yarkund, 270 
 
 Yattendon, 259 
 
 Yorkshire coach horses, 182, 255 
 
 Youatt, 161 
 
 Zebra, BurchelFs, 174, 281, Fig. 258 
 
 „ Chapman's, 282 
 
 „ Grdvy's, 283 
 
 „ mountain, 146, i55. 275, 280, 
 
 Fig. 257 
 
 „ Somaliland, 283 
 Zeynab, Fig. 354 
 Zezo, 271 
 
( 333 ) 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 The following are the chief books which have been written on the 
 Conformation of the Horse, and on Equine Locomotion :— 
 
 Alix, Eugene. — Le Cheval^ 1886. 
 
 Barroil, l^tienne. — L'Art i,questre, ist Part, 1887. 
 
 Borelli. — De Motii A?imaiiMm, 1680. 
 
 Bourgelat — De la Conformation Extkrieiir du Cheval^ 1808. 
 
 Carson, J. C, L. — The Form of the Horse, 1859. 
 
 Duhousset, Colonel. — Le Cheval, 1881. 
 
 Fearnley, W. — Lessons in Horse Judging, 1879. 
 
 Gayot, Eugene. — Achat du Cheval, 1862. 
 
 Goubaux and Barrier* — The Exterior of the Horse, Translated and Edited by 
 
 S. J. Harger, V.M.D. 1892. 
 Goubaux et Barrier, MM. — LExferieii,r du Cheval, 2nd ed., 1890. 
 Giinthefs — Beurtheilungskhre des Fferdes, 1889. 
 Hofman, L- — Das Exterieiir des Pferdes, 1887. 
 Lecoq, F. — Exferieur du Cheval, 1843. 
 Magne, J. H, — Choix du Cheval, 1864. 
 Marey, Professor. — La Machine Animale, 1873. 
 Merche, — Nouveau traife des formes exferieurs du Cheval, 1868, 
 Montigny, Comte de. — Comment il faut choisir un Cheval, 1885. 
 Morris, G^n^ral. — Essai sur lExtkrieur du Cheval, 
 Mullen — Lehre vom Exterieur des Pferdes, 1884, 
 Muybridge, E, — Animal Locomotion, 1887. 
 
 Percivall, W. — Lectures on the Form and Action of the Horse, 1850. 
 Richard, du CantaL — J&tude du Cheval 
 Roloff. — Beurtheilungskhre der Pferdes, 1870. 
 
 Besides the books just enumerated, many useful remarks on the form 
 and movements of the horse may be found in the writings of Henri Bouley, 
 ** Stonehenge," Youatt, Lupton, Lenoble du Theil, Barroil, Raabe, Colin, 
 and EUenberger ; in chapters on the Exterior of the Horse, in Schwarnzecker's 
 PferdesMcht, 1879 ; and in the Handhuch dcr Pferdekujide, by Bom and Moller, 
 3rd ed., 1890. 
 
lONDON 
 
 IklMLD BY WILLIAM CLOWhS AND SONS, LIMllED, 
 
 islAMlOlU SlILLi AND C^AKI^O CI OS>S 
 
Number LXXIV. 
 
 Registered Telegraphic Address Established 1820 
 
 'MOFUSSIL, LONDON 
 
 Books on Horses 
 
 BY 
 
 . nUKHUL nHYLo, r.K.U.Y,u, 
 
 (Late Captain *'The Buffs"), 
 
 AUTHOR 01 POINTS Oh FHE HORSJi ETC 
 
 W. TH ACKER & CO., 
 
 2, Creed Lane, Ludgate Hill, London, EX., 
 
 AND 
 
 TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., 
 
 5 and 6, Qovernment Place, Calcutta. 
 MDCCOXCVll. 
 
^. THACKER &> CO,, LONDON. 
 
 The SECOND EDITION of Captain Hayes' Important Work on 
 
 POINTS OF THE H0R5E. 
 
 k FAMILIAR TREATISE ON EQUINE CONFORMATION. 
 
 By M. HORACE HAYES, RR.C.V.5. 
 
 (Late Captain " The Buffs.") 
 
 The present Edition has been thoroughly revised and contains numerous additions, 
 including specially written Chapters on the Breeds of Enghsh and Foreign Horses, with 
 over Two Hundied beautiful Illustrations reproduced from Photographs, the larger number 
 of which were taken by the Author and have never before been published. 
 
 Super- Royal 8vo.j Clothe Gilt Top, Price 34/" 
 
 Also a Large Paper Edition, strictly limited to One Hundred and Fifty 
 Copies for England and America, each numbered and Signed by the Author, 
 printed by Messrs. William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., on paper specially manu- 
 factured for this Edition. [f^GSLrly all Subscribed, 
 
 Demy 4/^,, handsomely bound in best Buckram Binding, top edges gilt^ uncut, 
 
 price 63/- net. 
 
 "An elaborate and instructive compendium of sound knowledge on a subject of great moment to all 
 owners of horses, by a writer of established authority on all matters connected witb the horse."— Tm<?j. 
 
 ** We hml the advent of a work on the subject by such a past master of the arts hippie as Captain Horace 
 Hayes, late of * The Buffs,' and a Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, the author of several 
 of the most simple and thoroughly instructive treatises upon riding, breaking, and veterinary treatment of the 
 }ioTst"^Land and Water^ 
 
 ** There is not a page in the book that does not display knowledge, and those who desire to become 
 familiar with the character of the horse will find the work invaluable. It is scientific in its method, and 
 practical in its purpose."— -(4rw/ and Navy Gazette 
 
 "A soldier, a certificated veterinarian, a traveller, and a successful rider, the author is well qualified to 
 treat on all that pertdns to the subject before us." — Nature, 
 
 '* This is another of Captain Hayes' good books on the horse, and to say it is the best would not be going 
 far out of the way of truth. It is a luxurious book, well got up, well and clearly printed in large readable 
 type, and profusely illustrated." — Saturday Review. 
 
 ** A volume that must be regarded as a standard work On the subject. It is well done. No point is left 
 unexplained ; no quaHty in a type unnoticed." — Pall Mall Budget, 
 
 '* To those who are desirous of availing themselves of the knowledge of a writer who has been used to horses 
 all hib life, the book may be cordially recommended." — Meld. 
 
 ** No book like this has hitherto appeared in English, or any other language. For ^ving us such a 
 beautiful, interesting and instructive book, the members of the veterinary profession, horsemen and horse 
 owners, as well as delineators of the horse, in every English-speaking country must acknowledge themselves 
 deeply indebted to Captain Hayes." — Veterinary yourmd* 
 
IV, TIIACKER 6- CO,, LONDON. 
 
 Ftftk EdtUon, Revised and Enlarged, Crown Svo, Cloth, i<^s, 
 
 VETERINARY N0TE5 . . . 
 
 . . . FOR H0RSE-0WNER5. 
 
 An Illustrated Manual of Horse Medicine and Surgery, written In 
 
 Simple Language. 
 
 By Capt. M. H. HAYES, RR.C.V.5. 
 
 T/iis Edition IS revised throughout, considerably ejtlarged, and incorporates the substame of the 
 
 Author's "Soundness and Age of Horses," 
 
 The chief new matter in this edition is— articles on Contracted Heels, Donlcey's Foot 
 Disease, Forging or Clicking, Rhenmatic Joint Disease, Abscess, Dislocation of the 
 bhoulder Jomt, Inflammation of the Mouth and Tongue, Flatulent Distention of the 
 Stornach, Tw ist of the Intestines, Relapsing Fever, Cape Horse Sickness, Horse Syphihs, 
 Rabies, Megrims, Staggers, Epilepsy, Sunstroke, Poisoning, Castration by the Ecraseur, 
 and Mechanism of the Foot (in Chapter on Shoeing). 
 
 " Is a thoroughly practical work and may be recommended with confidence."-— r^<? Field* 
 
 " Is a valuable addition to our stable literature , and the illustrations, tolerably numerous, are excellent 
 beyond the reach of criticism.'* — Saturday Review. 
 
 ** Leaves nothing to be desiied on the score of lucidity and comprehensiveness."— F^j/^m/^rv Journal. 
 
 "A necessary guide for horse-owners, especially those who are far removed from immediate professional 
 a&sistance."— The J imes, 
 
 ** Of the many popular veterinary books which have come under our notice, this is certainly one of the 
 motat scientific and reliable. If some painstaking student would give us works of equal merit to this on the 
 diseases, of the other domestic animals, we should possess a very complete vetennary library in a very small 
 compass. ' ' — Fz^d, 
 
 "The present edition is nearly double the size of the first one, and the additional articles are well and 
 clearly wiitten, and much increase the value of the work. We do *iot think that horse owners in general are 
 likely to find a more reliable and useful book for guidance in an emergency." — Field. 
 
 " Simplicitjjr is one of the most commendable features in the book. What Captain Hayes has to say 
 he says in pjiam terms, and the book is a very useful one for everybody who is concerned with horses." — 
 lUustraied Sporting and Dramatic News. 
 
 " The usefulness of the manual is testified to by its popularity, and each edition has given evidence of 
 increasing care on the part of the author to render it more complete and trustworthy as a book of reference for 
 amateurs." — The Lancet. 
 
 Imperial i6mo* lox. 6d, 
 
 THE HORSEWOMAN. 
 
 By MRS. HAVE5. Edited by Capt. M. H. HAYES. 
 
 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SIDE-SADDLE RIDING. 
 With Numerous Illustrations and Drawings from Photographs by Oswald Brown. 
 
 " A large amount of sound, practical instruction, very judiciously and pleasantly imparted." — The Times. 
 
 "This is the first occasion on which a practical horseman and a practical horsewoman have collaborated in 
 bringing out a book on riding for ladies. The result is in every way satisfactory, ajid, no matter how well a 
 lady may ride, she will gain much valuable information from a perusal of 'The Horsewoman.' The book is 
 happily free from self-laudatory passages." — The Field. 
 
 ** A most useful and practical book on side-saddle riding, which may be read with real interest by all lady 
 Mitts.''— The Queen. . . , . ,. , ., , t. 
 
 " Mrs. Hayes is perhaps the best authority m these countries on everything connected with horsemanship 
 for ladies."— y^r-?<?JW««V y^«r«iz/ (Dublin). . . 
 
 "With a very strong recommendation of this book as far and away the best guide to side-saddle ndmg that 
 we have seen." — Saturday Review, 
 
m TH ACKER 6- CO., LONDON, 
 
 Imjterial i6mo. Second Edition. 21s. 
 
 Illustrated Horse=Breaking: 
 
 By Capt M. H. HAYE5, F.R.C.V,5. 
 
 This Edition has been entirely re-written ; the amount of the letterpress more than doubled; 
 and 75 reproductions of Photographs have been added, 
 
 *'It is a characteristic of all Captain Hayes' books on horses that they are eminently 
 practical, and the present one is no exception to the rule. A work which is entitled to high 
 praise as being far and away the best reasoned-out one on breaking under a new system we 
 have seen.'" — The Field, 
 
 *' The work is eminently practical and readable."— Veterinary Journal, 
 
 Fifth Edition, Revised, Crown Zvo. *]s, 6d, 
 
 TRAINING 
 
 AND 
 
 HORSE MANAGEMENT in INDIA 
 
 By Capt. M. H. HAYES, RR.C-V.S. 
 
 "A! useful guide in regard to horses anywhere. Concise, practical, and portable." — 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 " We entertain a very high opinion of Captain Hayes' book on 'Horse Training and 
 Management in India,' and are of opinion that no better guide could be placed in the hands 
 of either amateur horseman or veterinary surgeon newly arrived in that important division 
 of our empire." — Veterinary Journal. 
 
 " We have always been able to commend Captain Hayes' books as being essentially 
 practical and written in understandable language. As trainer, owner, and rider of horses on 
 the flat and over country, the author has had a wide experience, and when to this is added 
 competent veterinary knowledge, it is clear that Captain Hayes is entitled to attention when 
 he speaks." — The Field, 
 
Wr^THACKER &^ CO., LONDON. 
 
 Third Ediiion. Revised and Enlarged. Imperial i6mo. los, 6d. 
 
 RIDING: 
 
 On the Flat and Across Country. 
 
 A GUIDE TO PRACTICAL HORSEMANSHIF. 
 
 By Capt. M, H. HAYES, RRX.V.5. 
 
 Eighty Illustrations by Oswald Brown, Sturgess, and Stanley Berkeley. 
 
 "Captain Hayes' hints and instructions are useful aids, even to experienced riders, while 
 for those less accustomed to the saddle his instructions are simply invaluable."— 7%/? Times. 
 
 "To possess knowledge and to succeed in imparting it, are two different things ; but 
 Captain Hayes is not only a master of his subject, but he knows how to aid others in gaining 
 such a mastery as may be obtained by the study of a book."— The Standard. 
 
 ' ' We are not in the least surprised that a third edition of this useful and eminently- 
 practical book should be called for. On former occasions we were able to speak of it in 
 terms of commendation, and this edition is worthy of equal praise."— -7%^ /i"<f/<f. 
 
 ** We heartily commend it to our readers."— ^/^r/w^ Times. 
 
 "Is as practical as Captain Horace Hayes' * Veterinary Notes' and 'Guide to Horse 
 Management in India/ Greater praise than this it is impossible to give."— Z^^ Graphic. 
 
 Illustrated. 8w. Cloth^ Gilt Top. i6s. 
 
 Among Men and Horses. 
 
 By Capt. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 "To sportsm^ii/and especially to horse-lovers> it should prove irresistibly interesting."— 
 The Glober-m^' 
 
 '* A Very readable book."— ^y^^ World. 
 
 " A most interesting book."— r^^ Spectator. 
 
 " All Irishmen, except those in Parliament, are supposed to have a keen sense of humour, 
 and Captain Hayes admirably illustrates this national characteristic— his stories are always 
 funny and mostly new."— 7*/^^ Saturday Review. 
 
JV. TBACKER &- CO., LONDON. 
 
 Imperial i6mo. Sixty-four Illustrations from Photographs, I2s, 6d, 
 
 MODERN POLO. 
 
 A Practical Guide to the Science of the Game, Training of Ponies, Rules, etc. 
 By Mr. E. D. MILLER, Late 17th Lancers. 
 
 Edited by Capt. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. 
 
 A practical and exhaustive description of the science of the game, duties of players, selection, breaking, 
 training, and management of ponies, various breeds of ponies in all parts of the world. Polo in India ; 
 Hurlingham, Indian, and American Rules, etc. Beautifully illustrated with sixty-four repi eductions of 
 Photographs showing the various "points" of the game, famous ponies, players, etc. 
 
 CONTENTS.— Chapter I. First Steps at Polo.— Chapter II. Theory and Practice of 
 Polo.— Chapter III. Polo Appliances.— Chapter IV. Choosing a Polo Pony —Chapter V. 
 'I raining the Polo Pony —Chapter VI. Polo Pony Gear.— Chapter VII. Polo Pony Manage- 
 ment. — Chapter VIIL Various Breeds of Polo Ponies — Chapter IX. Polo m India. — 
 Chapter X. Polo Pony Breeding.— Chapter XL Veteiinary Advice to Polo Players. — 
 Appendix. Tournaments, Laws and Bye-Laws, etc. 
 
 " Both in the matter of polo playing and in that of choosing or breeding polo ponies, the 
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 *'* Modern Polo,' written by E, D. Miller and edited by Capt, M. H. Hayes, will 
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 illustrations from photogiaphs." — Black and PFhte. 
 
 *' Mr. Miller's is by no means the only work upon the Game of Polo, but it is, at least, 
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 has had the benefit, too, of the editorship of Capt. M. H» Hayes, one of the best 
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 Hayes are also due the excellent photographs by which the book is illustrated, showing 
 almost every turn and stroke in a rather complicated game." — Graphic, 
 
 Royal ^vo.f cloth. 
 r IV* C L^ JD El l\\j JCi 1 t\\JCil 1 i 1 Ililx 4^ 
 
 VETERINARY PATHOLOGY. 
 
 Translated from the original German of the recently-published FOURTH EDITION, 
 
 and Annotated 
 
 By Capt. M. H. HAYES, RRX.V.S., 
 
 Author of "Points of the Horse," etc. [//7 the PreSS, 
 
A SHORT LIST 
 
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 AND 
 
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8 
 
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 Dogs for Hot Climates 
 
 A Guide for Residents in Tropicai Countries as to Suitabie Breeds, 
 ttieir Respective Uses, Management and Doctoring. 
 
 By VERO SHAW, 
 
 Author of CasselVs '* Book of the Dog;" and Judge at numerous Dog Sho7vs; 
 
 Edited by CAPT. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S., 
 
 Author of ** Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners y' ** Training and Horse Management 
 
 in India" etc.y etc. 
 
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 A NATURAL HISTORY OF THE 
 
 MAMMALIA of INDIA, BURMAH, 
 / and CEYLON. 
 
 By R. A. 5TERNDALE, F.R.G.5., F.Z.S., etc., 
 
 Author of ** Seonee," '* The Denizens of the Jungle," " The Afghan Knife," etc. 
 
 With 170 Illustrations by the Author 
 and Others. 
 
 ** It is the very model of what a natural history 
 should be." — Knowledge. 
 
 "An amusing work with good illustrations." — 
 Nature. 
 
 ** The results of a close and sympathetic observa- 
 tion." — A ihenceum. 
 
 *' The notices of each animal are, as a rule, short, 
 though on some of the larger mammals - the lion, tiger, 
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TffACKER, SPINA 6- CO., CALCUTTA, 
 
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 most graphically and hurporously de- 
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lO 
 
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 Eighth Edition, Cloth Elegant, Bevelled Boards,. Gilt Edges, los^ 6d. 
 
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 . . , The edition before us is enlarged, and contains 
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12 
 
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