;■ S7i i&muW Hmrmitg Jilraj:g THE G(FT OF .'*HKx<)Tlr^ A. ( t'hnc)'\ •7.0^ /.?j3/.f? Cornell University Library Z8242 .S79 some Dfey,I,Sg,,lj»f,!;ffl|i|| "'%7^^7 029'"642 448 olin ^ The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://archive.org/details/cu31924029642448 ^be ®)pcn Court A MONTHLY MAGAZINE 2>e\>ote6 to tbe Science of iReligfon, tbe iReUgfon of Science, an& tbe Bxtension of tbe IReligious parliament ll&ea Editor: Dr. Paul Carus, . . j E. C. Hbgbler. Atnttanl Editor: T. J. McCormack. Assoctatet: ^ ^^^^ Caros. VOL. XIII. (no. 2) February, 1899. NO. 513 CONTENTS: Frontispiece. Voltaire. Voltaire. (1694-1778.) His Philosophy, Theology, and Conception of Universal History. Prof. L. L£vy-Bruhl, of the 6cole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Paris 65 The GifflDrd ^ctures^s. Their History and Significance. With a Portrait of Lord Gifford.'' Prof. R. M. Wenley, University of Michigan. . 72 The Intelligence of Animals. Do Animals PdSsess General Ideas? Prof. Th. RiBOT, of the College d^^ance, Paris . 85 Rationalism in the Nursery. Editor ":'.-•." 98 A Modern Instance of World-Renunciation. With Illustrations of the School of the Countess M. de S. Canavarro, of Ceylon. Editor . . . . 11 1 Hidalgo and Morelos the Forerunners of Mexican Independence. Dr. George Bruce Halsted, of the University of Texas 118 An Encyclopcedia of Mathematics 119 Japanese Calligraphy. With Illustration of Buddha the Father. The Rev. Shaku Soyen, Kamakura, Japan 120 ,^ ll Some Dreyfus Literature. T heodore Stanton, Paris 121 |H The Emperor of China. Gloria Fatalis. A Poem. The Rev. George T. Candlin, Tientsin, North China 124 Book Reviews, Notes, Etc 124 CHICAGO ©be ^T^zxK (Eoutt Ipublisbing (Tompanie LONDON : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. Single copies, 10 cents. Annually, $1.00. In the U. P. U., 5s. 6d. Coprright, 1899, by Tbe Open Court Publishing Co. 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Ulrico Hoepli, Librario della Real Casa. ROTTERDAM : CALCUTTA : H. a. Kramers & Son. The Maha-Bodhi Society, 2 Creek Row. The Monthly Open Court. A FEW RECENT AND FORTHCOMING FEATURES : Biographical Sketches of Great Thinkers, Philosophers, and Scientists. WITH HANDSOME HALF-TONE PORTRAITS. The following have appeared in the series : PYTHAGORAS ZOROASTER LESSING SCHILLER GOETHE DESCARTES MALEBRANCHE SCHOPENHAUER LOBACHEVSKI GALILEO EULER LAPLACE KEPLER LAGRANGE MONGE Studies in Comparative Religion. (Mostly with rich illustrations.) The Religion of the Ancient Persians. Editor. Dr. Bruce on Buddhism. Glasgow Gifford Lectures Eschatology in Christian Art. Editor, for i8g8. The Religion of Islam. Pire Hyacinthe Loyson, Norse Mythology. Editor, Catholicism in Italy. Pro/. G, Fiamingo, The Trinity Idea. Editor Death in Religious Art. (A Series.) Animal Worship. Dr. Th. Achelis, Bremen. The History of Religion. History of the People of Israel. From the Beginning to the Destruction of Jerusalem. By Dr. C. H, Cornill, of the University of KOnigsberg. Written especially for The Open Court. Historical Sketch of the Jews Since Their Return From Babylon. With illustrations of Jewish cus- toms and life. By the Rev. B. Pick, Ph. D. The Inquisition. Editor. Illustrated. The Canonisation of Saints. By Professor Fiamingo. Illustrated. The Unrecorded Sayings of Jesus Christ. Thoroughly compiled. Philosophical and Scientific. Lamarck and Neo-Lamarckianism. By Prof. A. S. Packard. Ethnological Jurisprudence. By the late Judge Post of Bremen. On the Photography of Flying Bullets. By Prof. E. Mach, Vienna. Popular articles by the First Authorities appear on all scientific and philosophical questions. Announcements. Solomonic Literature. By M. D. Conway. On the Philosophy of Science. Prof. Ernst Mach, On Money. By Count Leo lolstoi. Vienna. Mathematical Recreations, etc. On the Evolution of General Ideas. Prof. Th, History of Modern Philosophy in France. By Ritot, of the Collfege de France, Pans. Professor Llvy-Bruhl, Paris. Assyria, Prof, J. A. Craig. Single copies, 10 cents. Annually, $1.00. In the U. P. U., 5s. 6(1. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3,4<=5iJ4°?„' st. ^^ M'f -T^a. VOI^TAIRE. (1694-1778.) From an eugraving iu tlie possession of Jean Baptiste de Poilley. Frontispiece to the Open Court for February^ ^Sgg, The Open Court A MONTHLY MAGAZINE Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea. VOL. Xni. (NO. 2.) FEBRUARY, 1899. NO. 513 VOLTAIRE. (1694-1778.) BY PROF. L. LfiVY-BRUHL. WE must not turn to Voltaire for an original conception of the universe that connects the whole of reality with a first prin- ciple, or for a constant concern for the metaphysical problems upon which both science and action depend. It is a well-known fact that Voltaire was not akin to such men as Plato, Descartes, and Spi- noza. These lived only to seek disinterestedly after truth. If they influenced the world it was from afar, and through a slow diffu- sion of their principles — a result all the deeper and more durable coming as it did from a greater height. Voltaire wished for imme- diate effects. He was not above the world : he was, on the con- trary, what the Germans call a Weltkind. He loved wealth, success, honors : he was eager for literary fame. He lived in the midst of controversy, and was never weary of it. He was full of craft and cunning, and curious regarding the most trifling as well as the most important objects. In spite of all, his contemporaries, and the greatest among them, Kant for instance, did not think they ought to deny Voltaire the name of philosopher. Let us not be more exacting than they. Let us acknowledge, as they did, that the philosophy of Voltaire, though not strictly reduced to a system, is nevertheless diffused through his work, and is the very soul of it. It is expressed in his novels, in his historical works, and even in his tragedies, as well as in his essays and in the philosophical dictionary. It is indeed char- acterised rather by wide range than by depth. Voltaire was ad- dressing the public at large. He preaches and rails indefatigably : his satires are sermons, and his sermons, satires. He makes use, in a thousand different shapes, of the process familiar to all great 66 THE OPEN COURT. journalists, of whom he was the first : namely, repetition. He is thus led to an extreme simplification of his philosophy, and reduces it to a small number of propositions, which require no effort to be understood. But, just as we make an effort in order to grasp clearly the meaning of some abstruse metaphysician, in spite of his obscur- ity, so should we endeavor to bring out Voltaire's philosophical thought, in spite of the excessive zeal for clearness by which it is often distorted. Is this philosophy, as has been said, an engine of war against the Church and the Roman Catholic dogmas? No doubt it is that, but not that alone. It aims not only to destroy, but also to build up. As Voltaire was much better fit for the former task than for the latter, he was infinitely more successful in it. But this is no reason either for suspecting his sincerity when he seeks to be con- structive, or for dismissing without a word an effort, the trace of which has not yet disappeared. Voltaire's religious philosophy, for instance, is even in our days that of many people who do not acknowledge or sometimes even suspect that it is so. The philosophy of Voltaire varied, but less than might have been expected in the course of so long a life from such a mobile nature as his, so keenly alive to every new impulsion of the spirit of the age. Thus, in his Traite de Metaphysique (1734) he admits free-will, and later on, in the Philosophe Ignorant (1766) he confesses that Collins had converted him to determinism. He changed his opinion also on the question of the eternity of the world. His semi- pessimism became more bitter as he grew older. But on the main points of his doctrine, on God, the soul, morals, the essential prin- ciple of religion, Voltaire was always consistent with himself. He saw most of the Encyclopaedists follow after Diderot and go even much farther ; in spite of their urgent entreaties, and at the risk of seeming a conservative and almost a reactionist, he refused to swerve from his theories. In a man so careful of his popularity as Voltaire was, this is a sure proof of his attachment to a body, if not a system, of philosophical ideas. Introduced when still a mere youth to the society of the Temple, Voltaire was initiated into the philosophy of the " libertines," and was thus in direct connexion with the anti-religious movement in the seventeenth century. He was well acquainted with Fontenelle and Bayle, not quite so well with Malebranche, and but slightly with Descartes, though he often mentions him. He seems to see in Descartes only the author of the hypothesis of vortices and plenum : one wonders whether he ever read the Discours de la Mithode and VOLTAIRE. 67 the Meditations. He certainly did not enter deeplj' into them. It was in England that Voltaire became fond of philosophy. Locke and Newton were his masters in the art of thinking. On his return to France, full of what he had learned, he undertook the introduc- tion of Newton's physics and Locke's empiricism. The zeal and talent of such a disciple contributed in no small degree to make them known and admired. It is true he did not present to his readers the entire works of either Locke or Newton ; he rather "adapted" them, according to his own taste and to the supposed taste of the public. The success was considerable, and one cannot tell whether the Lettres Anglaises did more for the European fame of Locke and Newton, or for the reputation of him who expounded their doctrines so skilfully. After having contributed, more than any other man, to spread in France the discoveries of Newton, Voltaire ceased to concern himself with astronomy and physics. But he never ceased to seek in Newton's physics a help for his demonstration of the existence of God. In Voltaire's philosophy, the ontological proof has disappeared, since he does not admit innate ideas. There remain therefore the cosmological proof and the proof by means of final causes. For the former, it is precisely Newton's physics on which he relies for support. Newton in fact says : "There is a Being who has neces- sarily been self-existent from all eternity, and who is the origin of all other beings. This Being is infinite in duration, immensity, and power : for what can limit him? " But may not the material world be that very Being? You might suppose so, answers Vol- taire, should you, as the Cartesians do, admit the plenum, and the infinity and eternity of the world. Nothing is so easy as to pass from this to materialism, that is, to a doctrine which makes matter the eternal substance, and knows no other God. (Thus, to Voltaire, the words materialist and atheist are almost always synonymous.) But the Newtonians, from the very fact of their admitting a vac- uum, admit that matter has had a beginning, that motion needs a first cause, in short, a creating God. Still, when Voltaire later on came to think that the universe must be eternal as the very thought of God who caused it to exist, this argument lost some of its force, or at least ought to have been restated in a different form. If Vol- taire did not think of it, it was probably because he was fully satis- fied with another proof, concerning which he never changed his mind : i. e., the proof based on final causes. No doubt he was the first to laugh at the abuse made of the 68 THE OPEN COURT. consideration of finality. "Noses were made to wear spectacles; therefore we have spectacles. Legs were obviously instituted that they might be clad, and so we have knee-breeches ; stones, that they might be cut ; swine, that they might be eaten, and so on." But never did Voltaire find anything ridiculous in the thought that the whole of nature bears witness to Him who created it. "When I observe the order, the prodigious contrivances, the mechanical and geometrical laws which reign over the universe, the innumer- able means and ends of all things, I am overcome with admiration and awe. Nothing can shake my faith in this axiom : 'Every piece of work implies a workman.'" This workman we have already met with: it is Fontenelle's "watchmaker." Voltaire uses almost exactly the same expressions as Fontenelle : " When we behold a fine machine, we say that there is a good machinist, and that he has an excellent understanding. The world is assuredly an admir- able machine ; therefore there is in the world an admirable intelli- gence, wherever it may be. This argument is old, and is none the worse for it." Voltaire thinks to give this argument a deeper basis by adding that "nature is art," which means that there is, properly speaking, no nature, since all existing things are the work of some great un- known Being who is both very powerful and very industrious. He thus carries to its utmost limits the clear notion of finality, which is borrowed directly from the analogy between the order in the uni- verse and the productions of human art. But of what value is this analogy? German philosophy, on the contrary, likes to show that the idea of finality is an obscure one, because the way in which na- ture engenders and animates beings resembles in no wise the in- dustry of man. Man makes use of materials and springs, and puts together pieces of various origins : he works from the outside, whereas nature works from the inside. Instead of explaining na- ture by means of art, we ought rather to interpret art by nature : for, if we do not understand the organising and restoring power of nature, neither can we explain the creating genius of the poet or the artist ; the finality of nature is not clear, as Voltaire thought it to be : it is mysterious. We cannot help supposing it to exist, says Kant ; but no more can we understand What it is. Voltaire was not aware of these difficulties. His proof seemed to him flawless, and he steadily maintained to the last the existence of God, even against his friends. This is not only because God is needed for social ethics. From a purely theoretical point of view, when Voltaire weighs the reasons for or against atheism and the- VOLTAIRE. 6g ism, he thinks the latter preferable to the former. " In the opin- ion that there is a God we meet with difficulties, but in the con- trary opinion, there are absurdities." For instance, to come back to Newton, who plays so large a part in Voltaire's natural theol- ogy, the atheist, as we have said, is a materialist : he acknowledges the existence of infinite matter, of a plenum ; he therefore stands in contradiction with Newton. Now Newton certainly has spoken the truth : atheism is therefore untenable. Voltaire's reasoning is perhaps over-simplified, on account of his constant endeavor to be clearly understood even by the most careless reader. But the lead- ing idea is an interesting one : to give up such of our metaphysical ideas as are incompatible with well-grounded scientific truths. This is precisely what we do in the present century. The idea of humanity is the basis of Voltaire's philosophy of history. As early as 1737, in his Conseils d, un Journaliste, he ex- pressed the wish that a universal history should really correspond to its title, and that in it the whole of mankind should be studied. It would be desirable for Orientalists to give us outlines of the East- ern books. The public would not then be so totally ignorant of the history of the larger part of the globe ; the pompous name of uni- versal history would not be bestowed upon a few collections of Egyptian fables, of the revolutions of a country called Greece, not larger than Champagne, and of those of the Roman nation which, vast and victorious as it was, never ruled over so many states as the people of Mahomet, and never conquered one-tenth of the world. Later on, in the preface to his Essai sur les Mmurs, he openly criti- cises Bossuet. He reproaches him with forgetting the universe in universal history, with mentioning only three or four nations, which have now disappeared from the earth, with sacrificing these three or four powerful nations to the insignificant Jewish people, which occupies three-fourths of the work, and lastly, with passing over Islam, India, and China without a word. Voltaire wished to secu- larise universal history, hitherto subordinate to theological dogma. But his own conception of imiversal history remains practically incomplete, since what he knows of the history of the New World is next to nothing. And above all, he lacks a central principle that would enable him to understand this universal history in its unity. He can but repeat that "man has always been what he is." He implicitly believes in this uniformity of the species, which pre- vents him from understanding the little he knows of remote an- tiquity. Some of the religious rites of the Babylonians are offensive to our idea of morality Voltaire does not hesitate to assume that 70 THE OPEN COURT. historians lied in relating them. The men that he sees everywhere are perfectly similar to those around him, though disguised, some as Greeks or Romans, others as Chinese, Persians, Turks, or Hin- doos. He sees everywhere the public credulous and deluded, and the world going on its usual way, at once tragic and ludicrous. His romances are the exact counterpart of the Essai sur les Mceurs. Candide, Zadig la Princesse de Babylone, complete the idea of hu- manity given in Voltaire's historical works. He does not derive his knowledge of mankind from history : on the contrary, he trans- fers to history the humanity that he already knows, from observa- tions of his contemporaries. He does not however deny progress ; but he has a most pecu- liar notion of it. The idea of slow and gradual evolution, of suc- cessive stages that must needs be travelled in order to reach a certain point, does not appear in his works. Progress, with him, does not consist in a law of development. It began less than a century ago, with the awakening of natural philosophy, and above all, with the enfranchisement of reason. No doubt antiquity pos- sessed great thinkers, but it was nevertheless a prey to superstition. "There is not a single ancient philosopher who now serves to in- struct young people among enlightened nations." As for the Mid- dle Ages he despatches them in short order. " Imagine the Sa- moyeds and the Ostiaks having read Aristotle and Avicenna : this is what we were." Ignorance, misery, and theology: the whole of the Middle Ages was in these three plagues, and Voltaire cannot tell which of the three is the worst. According to him, scholasti- cism, the wars of religion, the plagues, famines, and autos-da-fe, are all intimately related ; and we are hardly yet rid of them. Witches had been condemned to the stake in Germany as late as the seventeenth century. There were still in France trials like that of Calas and La Barre. Therefore, when Voltaire speaks of the Middle Ages, it is never in the tone of the historian : passion al- ways intervenes. He is little acquainted with this period, but what he knows of it is sufficient to make him loathe and despise it. Nor does he study it, being persuaded beforehand that such study would only confirm him in his feeling. Is it surprising that Voltaire, being thus disposed, misappre- hended the art of the Middle Ages, and was unaware of the grand- eur of the age of Saint Louis, and of the prosperity of France before the Hundred Years' War, etc. ? We must however also acknowledge, it seems, that his prejudice did not prevent him from giving a picture, which is often accurate, of the general history of VOLTAIRE. 71 Europe since Charlemagne. And though the Essai sur les Mceurs may not be adequate to the idea of a philosophy of history, the very conception of the work was an original one, and many of the views expressed in it by Voltaire were fruitful for the historians who came after him. This is not the proper place to speak of Voltaire as an econo- mist, a criminalist and commentator of Beccaria, a writer on the theory of taste, and lastly, as the author of the Questions sur P En- cyclopMie, applying to the most varied subjects his eager curiosity. Though it is difficult to draw the line between his philosophy, properly so called, and the rest of his works, we must here content ourselves with stating his philosophical ideas, in so far as they may be grouped into a system. Now, from all that we have said it ap- pears that his principle is empiricism tempered by the idea of uni- versality. Voltaire thinks, as Locke does, that nothing is given us beyond and independent of experience. But at the same time he is, perhaps unconsciously, faithful to the Cartesian tradition, and maintains that nothing is theoretically true or practically just, un- less it be universally accepted by reason. The union of these two elements is effected in the idea of humanity, which is both an em- pirical and a universal one. From this point of view, Voltaire's philosophy, in spite of its gaps and inconsistencies — which, by the bye, are less serious than they are' often said to be — offers a real unity. Science, morals, history, religion, politics, are all subjected by him to a criticism, which is sometimes hasty and partial, but which proceeds from an unchanging principle : to oppose to the products of historical evolution, varying according to places and times, and often irrational and absurd, the standard of what is purely human and universally accepted by reason. Thus, over against the positive religions, he sets up natural religion, which contains nothing but the human ideal of morality. The real name of Voltaire's God is : Justice. It is a noble name. We may venture to believe that the great German philosophers of the end of the eighteenth century, influenced, like everybody else, by Voltaire's prestige, retained something of his thought on this point. No doubt the influence of Rousseau told still more strongly upon them ; no doubt they went more deeply into the ideas of ex- perience, reason, justice, and truth, which Voltaire did not suffi- ciently analyse. But though he was too little of a philosopher to build a system as they did, he succeeded in spreading critical and humanitarian ideas all over Europe, and even in gaining for them a temporary ascendency. THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. BY PROF. R. M. WENLEY. THE recent appointments of Prof. William James by the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, and of Prof. Josiah Royce by the Uni- versity of Aberdeen, to the Gifford lectureships, have called the attention of many Americans to this foundation. It is so remark- able in itself as to merit notice in such a magazine as The Open Court ; and some account of the deed of gift, of the incumbents, and of the results achieved may not be unwelcome from one who has had the privilege of listening to seven of the distinguished lec- turers. More than ten years ago Scotland was startled by the intelli- gence that Lord Gifford, one of the judges of the Supreme Court, had by will left ^400,000, to be divided among the four universities, for the purpose of founding lectureships on what he designated Natural Theology. Before passing to consider this sign of the times, its results, and the personality of the donor, it may be well to determine the precise nature of Adam Gifford's wishes by refer- ence to the testamentary deed — which is in itself a sufficiently striking document : " I having been for many years deeply and firmly convinced that the true knowledge of God, that is, of the being, nature, and attributes, of the Infinite, of the All, of the First and Only Cause, that is, the One and Only Substance and Being, and of the true and felt knowledge (not merely nominal knowledge) of the relations of man and the universe to Him, and of the true foundations of all ethics or morals, being, I say, convinced that this knowledge, when really felt and acted upon, is the means of man's highest wellbeing, I have resolved to institute and found lectureships or classes for the promotion of the study of said subjects among the whole people of Scotland. . . . The lecturers appointed shall be subjected to no test of any kind, and shall not be required to take any oath, or to emit or subscribe any declaration of belief, or to make any promise of any kind ; they may be of any denomination whatever, or of no denomination at all (and many earnest and high- minded men prefer to belong to no ecclesiastical denomination) ; they may be of THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. 73 any religion, or, as is sometimes said, they may be of no religion, or they may be so-called sceptics, or agnostics or free-thinkers, provided only that the "patrons" will use diligence to secure that they be able, reverent men, sincere lovers of and earnest inquirers after truth. "I wish the lecturers to treat their subject as a strictly natural science, the greatest of all possible sciences, indeed, in one sense, the only science, that of Infi- nite Being, without reference to or reliance upon any supposed special exceptional or so called miraculous revelation. I wish it considered just as astronomy or chem- LORD GiFFORD. istry is. I have intentionally indicated, in describing the subject of the lectures the general aspect which personally I should expect the lecturers to bear, but the lecturers shall be under no restraint whatever in their treatment of their theme ; for example, they may freely discuss (and it may be well to do so) all questions about man's conceptions of God or the Infinite, their origin, nature, and truth, whether he can have any such conceptions, whether God is under any or what lim- itations, and so on, as I am persuaded that nothing but good can result from free discussion. . . . My desire and hope is that these lectureships may promote and ad- 74 THE OPEN COURT. vance among all classes of the community the true knowledge of Him Who Is, and there is none and nothing beside Him, in Whom we live and move and have our being, and in Whom all things consist, and of man's real relationship to Him Whom truly to know is life everlasting." From the document just quoted, it is sufficiently evident that Gifford was a noteworthy man. At a time when many of his com- patriots still stood hedged in by an obscuring ecclesiasticism, he was freely and fearlessly revolving the highest problems and ar- riving at conclusions which none but the most tolerant, open- minded, and strenuous, could be expected to adopt. We know from his friends — he is without biographer — that he delighted to escape from the exacting routine of a large legal practice in order to be free to live alone in peaceful communion with his beloved books. And from the same source we can glean partial and frag- mentary information about the authors and studies that went to • the moulding of his intellectual career. For, like so many Scots, he seems to have been impelled by mastering intellectuality, which was called forth into active exercise by the profoundest questions respecting the origin, nature, and final cause of human life. These predilections led him into many fields of literature, and he read omnivorously. But amid all his literary and philosophical ac- quaintances two swayed him, not exclusively, but with a subtle spell of which the others did not possess the secret. Devotion to Plato, saturation in Spinoza, tell a plain tale regarding his spec- ulative tendencies ; and this becomes even clearer when one calls to mind that Spinoza figured as his most constant companion. In- deed, what the Romantics said of Spinoza might be applied with equal fitness to this, his late Scottish disciple — he was a God-intox- icated man. Little wonder, then, that he slowly, but with cer- tainty, arrived at monistic conclusions, and became firmly con- vinced that God is the one reality, this universe but the sphere of divine self-expression. Very naturally, too, he came to drift far from the dogmatic faith wherewith he had been early indoctrinated. We are unaware that he ever formulated his results and the rea- sons of his dissent. But we do know that he lost faith entirely in what is called the "supernatural," and rejected the miraculous ele- ment in the Bible. It may therefore be inferred that the liberal conditions of his bequest, like the subjects he prescribed for study and investigation, were dictated by his own dearest interests, as well as by an earnest desire that, in the coming time, others might find opportunity to enjoy benefits that he had longed to share. In one respect the bequest had peculiar opportuneness. In THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. 75 Scotland, all the chairs devoted to the study of religion and mat- ters theological were, and still are, upon a confessional basis. In other departments of knowledge the four universities are free to select the best specialists available, and, on the whole, they make the most of their liberty. But in the cases of the Biblical lan- guages ; of theology — philosophical, systematic ; of apologetics ; of New and Old Testament criticism ; of the History of the Church, of Dogma and of Religion, the professorships are open only to clergy who have pledged themselves to the Westminster Confes- sion of Faith. Nor is this all. The situation finds further aggra- vation in the fact that the dissenting communions maintain theo- logical colleges of their own, with the result that the university chairs are practically confined to ministers of the Established Church, the vast majority of whom possess slight expert acquaint- ance with the subjects mentioned. The Gifford bequest thus seemed destined to fill a gap at once in the matter of study and in the manner of presentation. How far it has contributed to this result we shall see later. Lord Gifford showed further wisdom in the provisions he laid down for patronage. He might easily have entrusted this to a small body, composed largely of laymen — the kind of body which is more than likely, when elections come to be made, to lie under the influence of one or two partisans, or academico-political wire- pullers. Whether he foresaw this or not — and he must have had plenty of evidence before him — he wisely avoided the danger by remitting elections to the senates of the universities. That is to say, every professor on the teaching staff has an equal voice in de- termining who the incumbent shall be. While this may conceiva- bly result in occasional trials of strength between the "humanists' and the "scientists," it is practically certain to issue in elec- tions which are reputable, if no more. And to their credit, be it said, the senates have to this point used their privilege with em- phatic freedom from presuppositions, with an eye to the represen- tation of divergent schools of thought, and with a catholicity of choice which guarantees that men of widely varied interests shall have opportunity to express their ideas. Moreover, no special favor has been extended to Scotchmen ; indeed France is the one great contributor to the Science of Religion and the Philosophy of Reli- gion (which have now driven antiquated Natural Theology from the field) whose resources have not been tapped. As witness of cath- olicity, take the present incumbents. At St. Andrews, Well- hausen, of Marburg, the Old Testament scholar ; at Glasgow, Fos- 76 THE OPEN COURT. ter, of Cambridge, the physiologist ; at Aberdeen, Royce, of Har- vard, the idealist philosopher; at Edinburgh, James, of Harvard, the psychologist. A similar breadth of sentiment and of selection had marked the appointments since their commencement, in 1888. The list may be of interest; for the majority of the discourses are available in published form. Taking the universities in the order of seniority, we first come to St. Andrews. Here the lectureship was initiated by Andrew Lang, who, though his reputation is chiefly that of a critic and lit- terateur, had given hostages to fortune in the shape of his well- known works. Custom and Myth, and Myth, Ritual, and Religion. His lectures have never been published as such. But it is under- stood that the materials employed have been worked over in his recent book. The Making of Religion (Longmans, 1898). Mr. Lang was succeeded by the greatest of living British philosophical teach- ers, in the person of Dr. Edward Caird, then professor of philos- ophy in the University of Glasgow, now master of Balliol College, Oxford. Dr. Caird's prelections immediately saw the light ; and The Evolution of Religion has taken its place, not merely as one of the most important of the Gifford series, but as the leading work in English embodying the neo -Hegelian view of the development of religion (The Macmillan Co., 1893). After an interval, during which the lectureship was unfilled, Dr. Lewis Campbell, best known as the editor of Plato and biographer of Jowett, followed Dr. Caird. His lectures naturally dealt with his chosen field — the civilisation and literature of Greece, and are now announced for publication under the title. Religion in Greek Literature. The pres- ent incumbent, as has been said, is Professor Wellhausen, of Mar- burg. Different interests — anthropology, philosophy, classical lit- erature, and Hebrew literature— have thus been represented at St. Andrews ; the single criticism that could be offered by the carper is that three Oxford men, whose traditions had exposed them to similar moulding forces, have occupied the foundation. Glasgow placed Max Miiller at the head of her roll, and did him the honor, thus far extended to no other lecturer, of appoint- ing him for a second term. His lectures, thoroughly characteristic of his life-work, appeared regularly at yearly intervals from 1889 (Longmans & Co.). When Professor MuUer's term of office ex- pired, this university had a successor ready to hand in the person of her distinguished head, John Caird, the most eloquent of Scot- tish divines, and the venerated leader of the liberal party in theo- logical thought. He had already been approached by the Univer- THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. 77 sity of Edinburgh, but preferred to accept the invitation of his alma mater. His painful, and as it was to prove final, illness, struck him down while he was in the midst of his second course ; his lectures are now being edited by his brother and fellow- Hegelian, Dr. Edward Caird. True to its tradition as the head- quarters of British Hegelianism, this university next invited Prof. William Wallace, the translator and elucidator of Hegel, biog- rapher of Schopenhauer, and leader of Oxford Hegelianism. I listened to his lectures, which were amongst the most remarkable displays of wit and learning that I ever witnessed. He spoke for the greater part without even notes, and the effect was almost weird, as the late Henry Drummond said to me. Professor Wal- lace's lamentable death, by a bicycle accident, followed soon after his term of office ended, and it is a thousand pities that little remains in a condition for publication. These prelections having represented what might be called the left-wing tendency of con- temporary British thought, it was but fair that, on the succeeding occasion, the more orthodox party should have its opportunity. This was recognised by the appointment of Prof. A. B. Bruce, who is best known to Americans as the editor of the Theological Trans- lation Fund Library, and to Scotsmen as the most inspiring of teachers to be found in the theological colleges of the dissenting denominations. His first course of lectures was published a year ago under the title The Providential Order of the World (Scrib- ner's) . The scientific men, who had not hitherto been recognised at Glasgow, have their protagonist in the new incumbent. Profes- sor Foster, of Cambridge. Science of Religion in the strict sense ; Philosophy of Religion from the standpoint of a right-wing He- gelian theologian and from that of a Hegelian metaphysician ; and Natural Theology according to a convinced supernaturalist, have thus been heard in this university. It remains to be seen what the scientific investigator, in the strict sense, will provide. Like Glasgow, Aberdeen began with a man whose reputation had long been securely settled. Dr. E. B. Tylor, of Oxford, the leading British authority on early civilisation, and the earliest in- vestigator to recognise the importance of animism in the early stages of religious growth, received the initial appointment. Dr. Tylor's lectures have not been published. He was followed by Dr. A. M. Fairbairn, principal of Mansfield College, Oxford, the most celebrated divine and liberal theologian of the Congregational communion. Although Dr. Fairbairn had long been known for his strictly theological writings, it was an open secret that he had 78 THE OPEN COURT. never abandoned those studies in the Philosophy of Religion which were foreshadowed in his first, and now scarce-book, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History (1877). Among the English di- vines no wiser selection could have been made. Dr. Fairbairn's lectures have not seen the light as yet ; but doubtless he is retain- ing the material for use in his promised book on "Comparative Religion " in that successful series, the International Theolo- gical Library (Scribner's) ; and his present visit to India will give him new opportunities for investigation and collection of informa- tion. Dr. Fairbairn was followed by Dr. James Ward, the most eminent of British psychologists. The Cambridge thinker has never been a prolific writer, and his lectures are still unprinted. Professor Royce, whose Religious Aspect of Philosophy gives more promise than some of his more recent writings, is just now enter- ing upon the ofiice for 1899. Aberdeen can claim the same cath- olicity of selection as her sisters. Anthropology ; speculative the- ology; philosophy in the modern British line; and American neo- Hegelianism, have each received recognition. The youngest, and largest, of the universities still remains. Perhaps to make amends for absence of academic recognition on her part, Edinburgh chose to begin with her world-famous local philosopher. Dr. J. Hutchinson Stirling, the man who first intro- duced Hegel to the English-speaking peoples in his characteristic book. The Secret of Hegel, known to and appreciated at its full value by Emerson and Carlyle. The veteran took up his task with typical zeal, and soon after his incumbency published that curious, stimulating, but often crabbed book. Philosophy and Theology (Scrib- ner's). The influential scientific wing at this university after hav- ing invited Lord Kelvin and Helmholtz, without success, secured representation at the vacancy by the election of the eminent Cam- bridge physicist, Sir G. G. Stokes, president of the Royal Society. From the point of view of the plain man, Stokes's lectures are among the most satisfactory yet given ; but they sadly lack infor- mation on phases of the subject later than Paley; and one "im- pertinent " (or pertinent) critic has had the audacity to describe them as "without form and void." They are published in two small volumes under the title. Natural Theology (A. & C. Black). Sir George Stokes left the vacant chair to the incumbent, whose lectures — strangely enough as some think, — caused more discus- sion and ill-will than any yet delivered. Such turned out to be the good or evil fortune of Prof. Otto Pfleiderer, the eminent spec- ulative theologian of Berlin. His lectures were immediately THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. 79 printed with the title Philosophy and Development of Religion (Scrib- ner's). They contain an admirably clear summary of views he had propounded years before in his Urchristenthum and Religionsphilo- sophie. Familiar as they must have been to all experts, they had not then reached the mass of the "nation of sermon-tasters,' hence the pother. Determined to err on the safe side on the next occasion, Edinburgh called back to service her eminent emeritus professor of metaphysics, Alexander Campbell Fraser, the editor of Berkeley and Locke, and the surviving representative of Berke- leian tendencies among British thinkers. His lectures derived power from his great age, and the pathos with which an old man views the profound questions of religion pervades them through and through. They have received publication in two volumes (Scrib- ner's), and, as they happen to give expression to those conserva- tive views that have recently won a large party in Britain and the United States, they have been received with distinguished favor (Scribner's). Like the prelections of Sir George Stokes, they fol- low more or less closely the lines of the old Natural Theology, though with a philosophical insight and sense of proportion to which the physicist could not pretend. Professor Fraser found a successor in the one professed master of the Science of Religion who has held the appointment to this date — Professor Tiele, of Leyden. With the exception of Dr. E. Caird's lectures, his first volume has generally been regarded as the most important contribution yet made from the foundation. The complete work, under the title Elements of the Science of Religion, will extend to two volumes, of which the first, Morphology of Religion, has recently been given to the public (Scribner's). The second part. Ontology of Religion, is awaited with keen expectation. Prof. William James, of Harvard, is now just about to enter upon his incumbency; and if, as is reported, he intends to devote attention to the psychology of the founders of religions, one may predict an intellectual and literary feast for the auditors, and later for the readers. For Professor James is the psy- chologist who writes like a novelist, and own brother to the novelist who writes like a psychologist. Edinburgh has not failed in her dispensation of the trust. Metaphysics of the Hegelian and British schools ; physical science, represented by a great leader who never lost his faith ; speculative theology set forth by its most winning living exponent ; the Science of Religion voiced by a Saul amongst its prophets; and the "new psychology," witnessed to by its wit- tiest and most suggestive master, have passed to the rostrum in turn. 8o THE OPEN COURT. In conclusion, what are we to say of the results so far achieved? We may begin by looking at the less favorable aspect of the matter. As was to be anticipated, neither the foundation itself, nor the lecturers appointed, nor the lines pursued by the incumbents, have escaped attack. At the first blush, the average man scouted Gif- ford's will as the testament of a crank. What need could there be to institute lectures in connexion with religion, when three or four competing churches existed in every village of the land ? Why give such prominence to "unsettling " discussions, and especially, why remove all safe-guards ? When the terms of the bequest were announced, one heard these and similar questions constantly. Now they are no longer asked ; the " sensation " has passed, and the average man is busy over another occurrence of the hour, one probably more suited to his capacity, or less removed from the field of his bourgeois vision. Yet again, when the machinery came to prove itself in the ordinary course of work, the centre of criti- cism shifted. The personnel and the subject matter of the prelec- tions at once fell under review, as was to be expected in a country where university matters attract widespread attention and offer fer- tile suggestion to the busybody and the "letter-to-the-editor" bore. Curiously enough, the personnel has received unfavorable comment from the free-thinker so called ; while, less curiously, the ortho- dox — though not the "unco' guid," as the Scotch Pharisee is called — have entered their protest against the freedom used by some lecturers. In the former case, it has been objected, for in- stance, that ministers of the churches ought not to be appointed. In other words, the patrons have been accused of unfaithfulness to their trust in electing men like Principals Caird and P""airbairn, or Professors Campbell and Bruce. This criticism has raged chiefly round the appointment of the last — in some ways, it seems to me, an excellent testimonial for him. It implies that Dr. Bruce had something to say from his standpoint that might be weighty. The contention of these critics has been that one whose signature stood below the Westminster Confession had thereby unfitted himself for exercising that impartiality for which Lord Gifford was so solicitous. It must be obvious, of course, that this objection holds with refer- ence to Christianity alone. The signatory of the Confession re- tains perfect liberty to treat precisely as he chooses all matters that fall without the dogmas of the Church. In short, he is as competent as his neighbor to discuss "natural theology" in the old sense of the term, and, be it said, he is almost certain to turn out better informed. Besides, Gifford himself had decreed, "they THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. 8 1 may be of any religion, or of none." This criticism has proceeded mainly from the " letter-to- the-editor" bore, and maybe dismissed as not worth the ink spilt upon it. Closely connected with it, how- ever, is another objection that seems to be better based. Under the wisely liberal administration of the late Principal Caird, the chapel of the University of Glasgow had become a unique institu- tion. From Sunday to Sunday during the academic year, the pul- pit was in the occupancy of distinguished men belonging to all denominations. When the principal himself received election it was but natural that, in order to reach as large an audience as pos- sible (it often ran to several thousands) the lectures should be in- corporated with the regular Sunday service. And when the Rev. Professor Bruce followed, it was equally natural that the custom should be retained. As the Scottish universities are Presbyterian, the service was substantially that of the Church of Scotland. Hence, Roman Catholics, Freethinkers, Anglicans, Unitarians, and others objected that it was no part of the founder's intention that, in order to hear a lecture, auditors should have to submit to an alien religious service. On the whole, this objection has some rea- son ; although the critics apparently forgot the peculiar circum- stances, which must cease on the appointment of another layman, and the equally prominent fact that but a very small percentage of the hearers could have been outside Presbyterianism, Scotland being, with the exception of Sweden, the most unanimous country in the world in this matter. While these criticisms, being on the surface, did not excite much attention, others, proceeding from traditional quarters, and directed to the subject matter of the lectures, caused commotion from time to time. The learned professor of theology at Glasgow indulged in a tilt with Prof. Max Muller, in which the theologian had all the best of the linguist. Much adverse comment was passed upon the "flippancy" of Professor Wallace's lectures, and the same thing happened at St. Andrews in one or two cases. But the real fight did not come till Professor Pfleiderer's occupancy of the Edinburgh lectureship. Though the opinions of the great Ber- lin theologian had long been known to students in Scotland, they had not reached the mass of the public till he found this occasion to present them. They caused much heart-searching, and promi- nent theologians of the three chief Presbyterian communions deliv- ered public replies, which were afterwards printed in book form. For the Church of Scotland, Professor Charteris, the occupant of the chair of New Testament criticism in the University of Edin- 82 THE OPEN COURT. burgh, was the spokesman. For the Free Church, Principal Rainy, of New College, Edinburgh, and Prof. Marcus Dods, of the New Testament chair in the same institution ; for the United Presbyte- rian Church, Prof. James Orr, of the Church History chair in the Theological College. The purport of their joint volume is indi- cated by its title, The Supernatural in Christianity, and by the titles of the three lectures it contains : — Principal Rainy on the " Issues at Stake;" Professor Orr on "Can Professor Pfleiderer's View Jus- tify Itself?" and Professor Dods on "The Trustworthiness of the Gospels." Professor Charteris, who was prevented by illness from lecturing, affixed a preliminary statement, which well exhibits the general tenor of the argument. After admitting that Pfleiderer's conclusions are not new, and after paying a tribute of respect to the lecturer's ability, he continues : " There seems to many of us to be a call to say, at the earliest possible moment, with all possi- ble personal respect for the lecturer, that we object to many things clearly stated in those Gifford lectures. Perhaps I may be allowed to speak for myself, and say that I object to the lecturer's presup- position that the Incarnation is to be disbelieved because it is not, according to his conception of history, founded on our experience. Further, I object to his assumption that all the more marvellous incidents in the Gospel history of Jesus Christ are of later inven- tion than the others. I object to his extraordinary assertion that St. Paul believed in a merely spiritual resurrection of Jesus Christ. I object to his almost as extraordinary assertion in regard to Baur's view of the Fourth Gospel, that ' all further investigations have always only contributed anew to confirm it in the main.' . . . Objection may well be taken to the lecturer's attempt to borrow all the ethics of the Christian revelation, and to appropriate all its high- est hopes, and to make them parts of a speculative system which I know not whether to call Deism or Pantheism, which seems to deny any revelation except what may be found in gathering the lessons of history and science Therefore, I, for one, am glad that some men have come forward to protest, in the name of the Christian Church in Scotland, against this attack upon their faith. / hope steps may be taken by the Senatus to prevent any future lecturer on Natural Theology from making an attack on the records of the Christian faith." The words I have italicised contain the secret of the difficulties to which the lecturers are exposed. Of course any Senate which took such steps would be directly traversing Lord Gifford's most explicit injunctions. But the question still remains, What is Natural Theology? Professor Charteris evi- THE GIFFORD LECTURESHIPS. 83 dently clings to the old — and now abandoned — view, that Natural Theology deals with all questions of religion which can be treated apart from revelation; and that there are other problems which con- sort only with special revelation. Every authority on the History of Religion now teaches that all religion is one revelation; or, if you choose to put it in another way, that there is no peculiar reve- lation. The distinction between Natural and Revealed Religion is held to be a false abstraction ; and so the records of the Christian faith cannot claim exemption any more than the Avesta, or the Qu'uran, or the Jewish Prophets, or the Book of Mormon. The central point of interest is that Lord Gifford endowed Natural The- ology just at the moment when it had ceased to exist, or had died of inanition, and when its subject matter had been parcelled out to its successors — Science, and especially Philosophy, of Religion. At the same time it may very well be conceded to the critics that lecturers would be well advised to confine their attention to other matters for a time. Biblical criticism has not done its work yet ; we are only on the threshold of a competent grasp of the history of dogma ; and till these sources are fully exploited it is impossi- ble to reinterpret Christianity in that positive spirit which is the major demand of our age. If Philosophy of Religion and Science of Religion are to be barred from consideration of Christianity, it is a bad day for the maintenance of our religion. But the time has hardly come as yet for the new interpretation. We do not under- stand the position which we now occupy. But the Gifford lectur- ers, and their critics, are doing an indispensable work in calling attention to the widely altered and still rapidly changing condi- tions of the entire problem. Every question presents two sides; and Pfleiderer and his critics happen to be alike right and alike wrong. Time alone can overtake the requisite synthesis. I do not think it is so true of any age as of our own, that special pleaders on opposite sides have had the misfortune to be born too soon.^ One criticism I might be permitted to pass on my own respon- sibility. It is unfortunate, I think, that the terms of the bequest forbid any permanent appointment, and that an appointment for two years is rapidly coming to be of use and wont. In these cir- cumstances it is inevitable that election should be made of distin- guished men who, immersed in other specialties, have not had either the time or the unbidden inclination to devote the necessary 1 What I mean happens to be aptly illustrated by three articles in The New World, Septem ber, i8g8 ; Professor Pfleiderer reasserts his position ; Mr. Denison very cleverly upholds Pro- fessor Pfleiderer's critics ; while Prof. Henry Jones gives some hint of the clue that we seek for discovery of the larger synthesis. 84 THE OPEN COURT. preliminary years to investigation of religious phenomena. Thus there happens to be more than a danger that the lectures should become interesting rather than authoritative. Physicists, physiol- ogists, even psychologists and philosophers von Fach, have more than enough tc occupy them in their own field. Thus when they are led to accept Gifford lectureships they are apt to make special preparation under pressure, with the not unexpected consequence that they evince lack of broad knowledge, a deficiency which results from imperfect handling of evidence that may be quite familiar to those who have devoted their life-study to religion. Stimulation may be the consequence ; but another unavoidable issue lies in the vulnerable points which are exposed to attack, and successful at- tack, by learned men who are obscurantists by nature or by the force of circumstances. This, it seems to me, is the weakest point in the Gifford machinery. If four experts could be placed in a position to devote their entire time and energy to " Natural Theol- ogy," I feel sure that the results would be more commensurate with the greatness of the opportunity which Lord Gifford created. And this view is gaining ground rapidly in Scotland. However this personal opinion may be, the mere fact that the lectureships exist is cause for rejoicing. For they afford occasion for the free ventilation of subjects that many have come to con- sider too odoriferous for common converse. They restore dignity to a department of learning that has too long been, in manj' eyes, the happy hunting ground of "theologues," as the contemptuous word stands. And they afford the most eminent thinkers of the time a point of vantage from which they may, without false senti- ment, and without false pride, unburden themselves on subjects which, after all has been said, have no peers in fundamental im- portance. THE INTEI.LIGBNCB OF ANIMALS.' BY PROF. TH. RIBOT. IN the immense realm of the invertebrates, the highest psychical development is, by general acknowledgment, met with among the social Hymenoptera ; and the capital representatives of this group are the ants. To these we may confine ourselves. Despite their tiny size, their brain, particularly among the neuters, is re- markable in structure — "one of the most marvellous atoms," says Darwin, "in all matter, not excepting even the human brain." In- juries to this organ, which are frequent in their sanguinary com- bats, cause disorders quite analogous to those observed in mam- mals. It is useless to recall what every one knows of their habits their organisation of labor, varied methods of architecture, their wars, plundering and rape, practice of slavery, methods of educa- tion, and (in certain species) their agricultural labors, harvesting, construction of granaries, etc.^ We, on the contrary, must examine the exceptional cases in which the ants depart from their general habits ; for their ability to abstract, to generalise, and to reason, can only be established by new adaptations to unaccustomed cir- cumstances. The following may serve as examples : "A nest was made near one of our tramways," says Mr. Belt, "and to get to the trees, the leaves of which they were harvesting, the ants had to cross the rails, over which the cars were continually passing and re-passing. Every time they came along a number of ants were criished to death. They persevered in crossing for some time, but at last set to work and tunnelled underneath each rail. One day, when the cars were not running, I stopped up the tunnels with stones ; but a:lthough great numbers carrying leaves were thus cut ofi from the nest, they would not cross the rails, but set to work making fresh tunnels underneath them." iTransIated from the French by Frances A. Welby. 2 For details see Romanes, Animal Inlelligence, Chapters III. and V. 86 THE OPEN COURT. Another observer, Dr. Ellendorf, who has carefully studied the ants of Central America, recounts a similar experience. These in- sects cut off the leaves of trees and carry them to their nests, where they serve various purposes. One of their columns was returning laden with spoils. "I placed a dry branch, nearly a foot in diameter, obliquely across their path, which was lined on either side by an impassable barrier of high grass, and pressed it down so tightly on the ground that they could not creep underneath. The first comers crawled beneath the branch as far as they could, and then tried to climb over, but failed owing to the weight on their heads. . . . They then stood still as if awaiting a word of command, and I saw with aston- ishment that the loads had been laid aside by more than a foot's length of the column, one imitating the other. And now work be- gan on both sides of the branch, and in about half an hour a tunnel was made beneath it. Each ant then took up its burden again, and the march was resumed in the most perfect order." They also show considerable inventiveness in the construction of bridges. It appears from numerous observations that they know how to place straws on the surface of water, and to keep them in equilibrium or unite their several ends together with earth, moisten them with their saliva, restore them when destroyed, and to con- struct a highway made of grains of sand, etc. (Reaumur.) They even employ living bridges : "The ground about a maple tree hav- ing been smeared with tar so as to check their ravages, the first ants who attempted to cross stuck fast. But the others were not to be thus entrapped. Turning back to the tree they carried down aphides which they deposited on the tar one after another until they had made a bridge over which they could cross the tarred spot without danger."^ I shall cite no observations on the intelligence of wasps and bees, but I wish to note one rudimentary case of generalisation. Huber remarked that bees bite holes through the base of corollas when these are so long as to prevent them from reaching the honey in the ordinary way. They only resort to this expedient when they find they cannot reach the nectar from above; "but having once ascertained this, they forthwith proceed to pierce the bottoms of all the flowers of the same species." Doubtless association and habit may be invoked here, but before these were produced, was there not an extension of like to like? For the higher animals I shall also restrict myself to the upper 1 Romanes. Animal Intelligenct, Chapter III. THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. 87 types. We shall of course reject all observations relating to "per- forming " animals, all acquirements due to education and training by man, as also the cases in which, as in the beaver, there is a per- plexing admixture of instinct so called (a specific property), and adaptation, varying according to time and place. The elephant has a reputation for intelligence which may be somewhat exaggerated. His psychology is fairly well known. We may cite a few characteristic traits that bear upon our subject. He will tear up bamboo canes from the ground, break them with his feet, examine them, and repeat the operation until he has found one that suits him ; he then seizes the branch with his trunk and uses it as a scraper to remove the leeches which adhere to his skin at some inaccessible part of his body. "This is a frequent occur- rence, such scrapers being used by each elephant daily." When he is tormented by large flies he selects a branch which he strips of its leaves, except at the top, where he leaves a fine bunch. "He will deliberately clean it down several times, and then laying hold of its lower end he will break it off, thus obtaining a fan or switch about five feet long, handle included. With this he keeps the flies at bay. Say what we may, these are both really bona fide imple- ments, each intelligently made for a definite purpose." "What I particularly wish to observe," says an experienced naturalist, "is that there are good reasons for supposing that ele- phants possess abstract ideas ; for instance, I think it is impossible to doubt that they acquire through their own experience notions of hardness and weight, and the grounds on which I am led to think this are as follows. A captured elephant, after he has been taught his ordinary duty, say about three months after he is taken, is taught to pick up things from the ground and give them to his- mahout sitting on his shoulders. Now for the first few months it is dangerous to require him to pick up anything but soft articles, such as clothes, because the things are often handed up with con- siderable force. After a time, longer with some elephants than others, they appear to take in a knowledge of the nature of the things they are required to lift, and the bundle of clothes will be thrown up sharply as before, but heavy things, such as a crowbar or piece of iron chain, will be handed up in a gentle manner ; a sharp knife will be picked up by its handle and placed on the ele- phant's head, so that the mahout can also take it by the handle. I have purposely given elephants things to lift which they could never have seen before, and they were all handled in such a manner as to 88 THE OPEN COURT. convince me that they recognised such qualities as hardness, sharp- ness, and weight. " Lloyd Morgan, who, in his books on comparative psychology, is evidently disposed to concede as small a measure of intelligence to animals as possible, comments upon the above observation as follows : ^ "Are we to suppose that these animals possess abstract ideas? I reply — -That depends upon what is meant by abstract ideas. If it is implied that the abstract ideas are isolates ; that is, qualities considered quite apart from the objects of which they are charac- teristic, I think not. But if it be meant that elephants, in a prac- tical way, 'recognise such qualities as hardness, sharpness, and weight,' as predominant elements in the constructs they form, I am quite ready to assent to the proposition." ' I agree fully with this conclusion, adding the one remark that between the pure abstract notion and the "predominant" notion so called, there is only a difference of degree. If the predominant element is not isolated, detached, and fixed by a sign, it is certainly near being so, and deserves on this ground to be called an abstract of the lower order. The observation of Houzeau has been frequently quoted re- specting dogs, which, suffering from thirst in arid countries, rush forty or fifty times into the hollows that occur along their line of march in the hope of finding water in the dry bed. They could not be attracted by the smell of the water, nor by the sight of vege- tation, for these are wanting. They must thus be guided by gen- eral ideas, which are doubtless of an extremely, simple character, and, in some measure, supported by experience." It is on this account that the term "generic image" would in my opinion be preferable for describing cases of this character. "I have frequently seen not only dogs, but horses, mules, cat- tle, and goats, go in search of water in places which they had never visited before. They are guided by general principles, because they go to these watering places at times when the latter are per- fectly dry.* Undoubtedly it may be objected that association of images here plays a preponderating part. The sight of the hollows recalls the water which, though absent, forms part of a group of sensations which has been perceived many times ; but since the generic image is, as we shall see later, no more than an almost IC. Lloyd Morgan. Animal Life and Intelligence, Chapter IX., p. 364. 2 Houzeau, Etudet tur Us facultit mentales des animaux. Vol. II., p. 264 el seq. The same author gives an example of generalisation in bees. THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. 89 passive condensation of resemblances, these facts clearly indicate its nature and its limits. I shall merely allude without detailed comment to the numer- ous observations on the aptitude of dogs and cats for finding means to accomplish their aims, the anecdotes of their mechanical skill, and the ruses (so well described by G. Leroy) which the fox and the hare employ to outwit the hunter, "when they are old and schooled by experience ; since it is to their knowledge of facts that they owe their exact and prompt inductions." The most intelligent of all animals, the higher orders of monkeys, have not been much studied in their wild state, but such observations as have been made, some of which have been contributed by celebrated natural- ists, fix with sufficient distinctness the intellectual level of the bet- ter endowed. The history of Cuvier's orang-outang has been quoted to satiety. The more recent books on comparative psychology con- tain ample testimony to their ability to profit by experience ^ and to construct instruments. A monkey, not having the strength to lift up the lid of a chest, employed a stick as a lever. "This use of a lever as a mechanical instrument is an action to which no ani- mal other than a monkey has ever been known to attain." Another monkey observed by Romanes, also "succeeded by methodical in- vestigation, without assistance, in discovering for himself the me- chanical principle of the screw ; and the fact that monkeys well understand how to use stones as hammers, is a matter of common observation." They are also skilful in combining their stratagems, as in the case of one who, being held captive by a chain, and thus unable to reach a brood of ducklings, held out a piece of bread in one hand, and on tempting a duckling within his reach, seized it by the other, and killed it with a bite in the breast."^ One mental operation remains which must be examined sepa- rately, and in its study we shall pursue the same method, wherever it occurs, throughout this work. The process in question has the advantage of being perfectly definite, of restricted scope, com- pletely evolved, and accessible to research in all the phases of its development, from the lowest to the highest. It is that of numera- tion. Are there animals capable of counting? G. Leroy is, I believe, the first who answered this question in the affirmative, in a passage which is worth transcribing, although it has been often quoted. 1 Darwin, The Descent of Man, Vol. I., Chapter III. s Romanes, lac. cit„ Chapter XVII. go THE OPEN COURT. "Among the various ideas which necessity adds to the experience of animals, that of number must not be overlooked. Animals count, — so much is certain ; and although up to the present time their arithmetic appears weak, it may perhaps be possible to strengthen it. In countries where game is preserved, war is made upon mag- pies because they steal the eggs of other birds. . . . And in order to destroy this greedy family at a blow, game-keepers seek to destroy the mother while sitting. To do this it is necessary to build a well- screened watch-house at the foot of the tree where the nests are, and in this a man is stationed to await the return of the parent bird, but he will wait in vain if the bird has been shot at under the same circumstances before. . . . To deceive this suspicious bird, the plan was hit upon of sending two men into the watch-house; one of them passed on while the other remained ; but the magpie counted and kept her distance. The next day three went, and again she per- ceived that only two withdrew. It was eventually found necessary to send five or six men to the watch-house in order to put her out of her calculation. . . . This phenomenon, which is repeated as many times as the attempt is made, is one of the most extraordi- nary instances of the sagacity of animals." Since then the question has been repeatedly taken up. Lubbock devotes to it the three last pages of his book The Senses of Animals. According to his ob- servations on the nests of birds, one egg may be taken from a nest in which there are four, but if we take away two the bird generally deserts its nest. The solitary wasp provisions its cell with a fixed number of victims. Sand wasps are content with one. One spe- cies of Eumenes prepares five victims for its young, another species ten, another fifteen, another twenty-four; but the number of the victims is always the same for the same species. How does the insect know its characteristic number ?i An experiment, methodically conducted by Romanes, proved that a chimpanzee can count correctly as far as five, distinguishing the words which stand for one, two, three, four, five, and at com- mand deliver the number of straws requested of her.^ Although the observations on this point are not yet sufficiently varied and extended to enable us to speak of them as we should wish, it must be remarked that the cases cited are not alike, and lAt the end of the passage in question there is an extraordinary account of the arithmetical powers of a dog, which Lubbock explains by " thought reading." I omit this instance, since we are deliberately rejecting all rare or doubtful cases. ^Mental Evolution in Man, Chapter III., p. 58. THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. 9I that it would be illegitimate to reduce them all to one and the same psychological mechanism. 1. The case of insects is the most embarrassing. It is but candid to state a non liquet, since to attribute their achievements to unconscious numeration, or to some special equivalent instinct, is tantamount to saying nothing. Besides, we are not concerned with anything relating to instinct. 2. The case of the monkey and his congeners stands high in the scale : it is a form of concrete numeration which we shall meet again in children, and in the lowest representatives of hu- manity. 3. All the other cases resemble the alleged "arithmetic" of G. Leroy's magpie and similar observations. I see here not a nu- meration, but a perception of plurality, which is something quite different. There are in the brain of the animal a number of co-ex- isting perceptions. It knows if all are present, or if some are lack- ing ; but a consciousness of difference between the entire group, and the diminished defective group, is not identical with the oper- ation of counting. It is a preliminary state, an introduction, noth- ing more, and the animal does not pass beyond this stage, does not count in the exact sense of the word. We shall see in a subse- quent article that observations with young children furnish proofs in favor of this assertion, or at least show that it is not an un- founded presumption, but the most probable hypothesis. We may now without further delay (while reserving the facts which are to be studied in the sequel to this article) attempt to fix the nature of the forms of abstraction, and of reasoning, acces- sible to the higher animal types. I. The generic image results from a spontaneous fusion of im- ages, produced by the repetition of similar, or very analogous, events. It consists in an almost passive process of assimilation ; it is not intentional, and has for its subject only the crudest similari- ties. There is an accumulation, a summation of these resem- blances ; they predominate by force of numbers, for they are in the majority. Thus there is formed a solid nucleus which predomi- nates in consciousness, an abstract appurtenant to all similar ob- jects ; the differences fall into oblivion. Huxley's comparison of the composite photographs (cited in the last article) renders it needless to dwell on this point. Their genesis depends on the one hand on experience ; (only events that are frequently repeated can be condensed into a generic image ;) on the other hand on the ef- fective dispositions of the subject (pleasure, pain, etc.), on inter- 92 THE OPEN COURT. est, and on practical utility, which render certain perceptions predominant. They require, accordingly, no great intellectual development for their formation, and there can be no doubt that they exist quite low down in the animal scale. The infant of four or five months very probably possesses a generic image of the human form and of some similar objects. It may be remarked, further, that this lower form of abstraction can occur also in the adult and cultivated man. If, e. g., we are suddenly transported into a country whose flora is totally unknown to us, the repetition of experiences suggests an unconscious condensation of similar plants; we classify them without knowing their names, without needing to do so, and without clearly apprehending their distin- guishing characteristics, those namely which constitute the true abstract idea of the botanist. In sum, the generic image comes half way between individual representation, and abstraction properly so called. It results almost exclusively from the faculty of apprehending resemblances. The role of dissociation is here extremely feeble. Everything takes place, as it were, in an automatic, mechanical fashion, in conse- quence of the unequal struggle set up in consciousness between the resemblances which are strengthened, and the differences, each of which remains isolated. 2. It has been said that the principal utility of abstraction is as an instrument in ratiocination. We may say the same of generic images. By their aid animals reason. This subject has given rise to extended discussion. Some writers resent the mere suggestion that ants, elephants, dogs, and monkeys, should be able to reason. Yet this resentment is based on nothing but the extremely broad and elastic signification of the word reasoning — an operation which admits of many degrees, from simple, empirical consecutiveness to the composite, quantitative reasoning of higher mathematics. It is forgotten that there are here, as for abstraction and for generalisa- tion, embryonic forms — those, i. e., which we are now studying. Taken in its broadest acceptation, reasoning is an operation of the mind which consists in passing from the known to the un- known ; in passing from what is immediately given, to that which is simply suggested by association and experience. The logician will unquestionably find this formula too vague, but it must neces- sarily be so, in order to cover all cases. Without pretending to any rigorous enumeration, beyond all criticism, we can, in intellectual development, distinguish the fol- lowing phases in the ascending order : perceptions and images THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. 93 (memories) as point of departure ; association by contiguity, asso- ciation by similarity; then the advance from known to unknown, by reasoning from particular to particular, by analogical reasoning, and finally by the perfect forms of induction and deduction, with their logical periods. Have all these forms of reasoning a common substrate, a unity of composition ? In other words, can they be re- duced to a single type — of induction according to some, of deduc- tion according to others ? Although the supposition is extremely probable, it would not be profitable to discuss the question here. We must confine ourselves to the elementary forms which the logi- cians admit, or despise, for the most part, but which, to the psy- chologists, are intellectual processes as interesting as any others. Without examining whether, as maintained by J. S. Mill, all inference is actually from particular to particular (general proposi- tions being under this hypothesis only simple reminders, brief for- mulae serving as a base of operations) it is clear that we have in it the simplest form of mental progress from the known to the un- known. At the same time it is more than mere association, though transcending it only in degree. Association by similarity is not, as we have seen, identical with formation of generic images ; this last implies fusion, mental synthesis. So, too, reasoning from par- ticular to particular implies something more than simple associa- tion ; it is a state of expectation equivalent to a conclusion in the empirical order ; it is an anticipation. The animal which has burned itself in swallowing some steaming food, is on its guard in future against everything that gives off steam. Here we have more than simple association between two anterior experiences (steam, burning ; and this state "differs from simple associative sugges- tion, by the fact that the mind is less occupied with the memory of past burns than with the expectation of a repetition of the same fact in the present instance ; that is to say, that it does not so much recall the fact of having once been burnt as it draws the con- clusion that it will be burnt. "^ Otherwise expressed, he is orientated less towards the past than towards the future. Granted that this tendency to believe that what has occurred once or twice will occur invariably, is a fruitful source of error, it remains none the less a logical operation (judgment or ratiocination) containing an element more than asso- ciation : an inclusion of the future, an implicit affirmation ex- 1 J. Sully, The Human Mind, I., 460. The author gives excellent diagrams to represent the difference in the two cases. For reasoning from particular to particular, c£. also J. S. Mill, Logic, II., Chapter III., p. 3 ; Bradley, Logic, II., Chapter II., p. a. 94 THE OPEN COURT. pressed in an act. Doubtless, between these two processes, — asso- ciation, inference from particular to particular — the difference is slight enough ; yet in a study of genesis and evolution, it is just these transitional forms that are the most important. Reasoning by analogy is of a far higher order. It is the prin- cipal logical instrument of the child and of primitive men : the substrate of all extension of language, of vulgar and empirical classifications, of myths, of the earliest, quasi-scientific knowledge. ^ It is the commencement of induction, differing from the latter, not in form, but in its imperfectly established content. "Two things are alike in one or several characteristics ; a proposition stated is true of the one, therefore it is true of the other. A is analogous to B\ m\s true of A, therefore m is true of B also." So runs the for- mula of J. S. Mill. The animal, or child, which when ill-treated by one person extends its hatred to all others that resemble the op- pressor, reasons by analogy. Obviously this procedure from known to unknown will vary in degree, — from zero to the point at which it merges into complete induction. With these general remarks, we may return to the logic of ani- mals or rather to the sole kind of logic possible without speech. This is, and can only be, a logic of images (Romanes employs a synonymous expression, logic of recepts), which is to logic, properly so-called, what generic images are to abstraction and to generalisa- tion proper. This denomination is necessary ; it enables us to form a separate category, well defined by the absence of language ; it permits us, in speaking of judgment and ratiocination in animals, and in persons deprived of speech, to know exactly what meaning is intended. It follows that there are two principal degrees in the logic of images. 1. Inference from particular to particular. The bird which finds bread upon the window, one morning, comes back next day at the same hour, finds it again, and continues to come. It is moved by an association of images, plus the state of awaiting, of anticipation, as described above. 2. Procedure by analogy. This (at least in its higher forms in animal intelligence) presupposes mental construction : the aim is definite, and means to attain it are invented. To this type I should refer the cases cited above of ants digging tunnels, forming bridges, etc. The ants are wont to practise these operations in 1/b re analogy, consult Stern's monograph, Die Analogic im volksthiimlichen Denken, Berlin, 1894. THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. 95 their normal life ; their virtue lies in the power of dissociation from their habitual conditions, from their familiar ant-heap, and of adap- tation to new and unknown cases. The logic of images has characteristics which pertain to it ex- clusively, and which may be summarised as follows : 1. As material it employs concrete representations or generic images alone, and cannot escape from this domain. It admits of fairly complex constructions, but not of substitution. The tyro finds no great difficulty in solving problems of elementary arithmetic (such as : 15 workmen build a wall 3 metres high in 4 days ; how long will it take 4 men to build it?), because he uses the logic of signs, replacing the concrete facts by figures, and working out the relations of these. The logic of images is absolutely refractory to attempts at substitution. And while it thus acts by representation only, its progress even within this limit is necessarily very slow, encumbered, and embarrassed by useless details, for lack of ade- quate dissociation. At the same time it may, in the adult who is practised in ratiocination, become an auxiliary in certain cases ; I am even tempted to regard it as the main auxiliary of constructive imagination. It would be worth while to ascertain, from authentic observations, what part it plays in the inventions of novelists, poets, and artists. In a polemic against Max Miiller, who persists in af- firming that it is radically impossible to think and reason without words, a correspondent remarks : "Having been all my life since school-days engaged in the practice of architecture and civil engineering, I can assure Prof. Max Miiller that designing and invention are done entirely by men- tal pictures. I find that words are only an encumbrance. In fact, words are in many cases so cumbersome that other methods have been devised for imparting knowledge. In mechanics the graphic method, for instance."^ 2. Its aim is always practical. It should never be forgotten that at the outset, the faculty of cognition is essentially utilitarian, and cannot be otherwise, because it is employed solely for the pres- ervation of the individual (in finding food, distinguishing enemies from prey, and so on). Animals exhibit only applied reasoning, tested by experience ; they feel about and choose between several means, — their selection being justified or disproved by the final ^Three Introductory Lectures on the Science of Thought, delivered at the Royal Institution appendix, p. 6, letter 4 ; Chicago, 1888. It should, however, be remembered that the writer who thus uses the logic of images has a mind preformed by the logic of signs : which is not the case with animals. 96 THE OPEN COURT. issue. Correctly speaking, the logic of images is neither true nor false ; these epithets are but half appropriate. It succeeds or fails ; its gauge is success or defeat ; and as we maintained above that it is the secret spring of aesthetic invention, let it be noticed that here again there is no question of truth or error, but of creating a suc- cessful or abortive work. Accordingly, it is only by an unjustifiable restriction that the higher animals can be denied all functions beyond that of associa- tion, all capacity for inference by similarity. W. James (after stating that, as a rule, the best examples of animal sagacity "may be perfectly accounted for by mere contiguous association, based on experience "), arrives virtually at a conclusion no other than our own. After recalling the well-known instance of arctic dogs harnessed to a sledge and scattering when the ice cracked to dis- tribute their weight, he thus explains it : "We need only suppose that they have individually experienced wet skins after cracking, that they have often noticed cracking to begin when they were hud- dled together and that they have observed it to cease when they scattered." Granting this assumption, it is none the less true that associa- tions by contiguity are no more than the material which serves as a substratum for inference by similarity, and for the act which fol- lows. Again, a friend of James, accompanied by his dog, went to his boat and found it filled with dirt and water. He remembered that the sponge was up at the house, and not caring to tramp a third of a mile to get it, he enacted before his terrier (as a for- lorn hope) the necessary pantomime of cleaning the boat, saying : "Sponge, sponge, go fetch the sponge." The dog trotted off and returned with it in his mouth, to the great surprise of his master. Is this, properly speaking, an act of reasoning? It would only be so, says James, if the terrier, not finding the sponge, had brought a rag, or a cloth. By such substitution he would have shown that, notwithstanding their different appearance, he understood that for the purpose in view, all these objects were identical. "This sub- stitution, though impossible for the dog, any man but the stupidest could not fail to do." I am not sure of this, despite the categorical assertion of the author ; yet, discussion apart, it must be admitted that this would be asking the dog to exhibit a man's reason. As a matter of fact, notwithstanding contrary appearances, James ar- rives at a conclusion not very different from our own. "The char- acters extracted by animals are very few, and always related to THE INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. 97 their immediate interests and emotions." This is what we termed above, empirical reasoning. G. Leroysaid: "Animals reason, but differently from our- selves." This is a negative position. We advance a step farther in saying : their reasoning consists in a heritage of concrete or gen- eric images, adapted to a determined end, — intermediary between the percepts and the act. It is impossible to reduce everything to association by similarity, much less by contiguity, alone ; since such procedure results necessarily in the formation of unchange- able habits, in limitation to a narrow routine, whereas we have seen that certain animals are capable of breaking through such re- strictions. RATIONALISM IN THB NURSERY. BY THE EDITOR. WHEN rationalism, as a religious movement, first dawned on the world, it was exaggerated to such an extent and carried into such improper fields, that it became ridiculous as a theory and a religion. Reason, however, we must remember, is the most essential feature of the human soul, and the proper training of rea- son is indispensable. It is of such importance that it ought to be- gin at an early date, and the application of reason should extend to all the questions of life, secular and religious. As to the use of reason in religion we must distinguish between what is rational and rationalistic. The rational ought to be wel- come, while the rationalistic is a misapplication of the rational. There are some great religious teachers, such as St. Augustine and Luther, who unqualifiedly declare that religion must from its very nature appear irrational to us. They claim that reason has no place in religion, and must not be allowed to have anything to do with it. The ultimate basis of a religious conviction, they urge, is not knowledge but belief, — a view which in its utmost extreme is tersely expressed in the famous sentence, Credo quia absurdum, — I believe because it is absurd. In opposition to this one-sided con- ception of the nature of religion, rationalists arose who attempted to cleanse religion of all irrational elements, and their endeavors have been crowned with great results. We owe to their efforts the higher development of religion, and must acknowledge that they were among the heroes who liberated us from the bondage of super- stition. Nevertheless, the rationalistic movement, or that movement in history which goes by the name of Rationalism, is as one-sided as its adversary. Without any soul for poetry, its apostles removed from the holy legends the miraculous as well as the supernatural, and were scarcely aware of how prosaic, flat, and insipid religion became under this treatment. On the one hand they received the RATIONALISM IN THE NURSERY. 99 accounts of the Bible in sober earnestness like historical docu- ments ; on the other hand they did not recognise that the main ideas presented in religious writings were of such a nature as to need the dress of myth. We know now that the worth and value of our religious books does not depend upon their historical accu- racy, but upon the moral truths which they convey. We do not banish fairy-tales from the nursery because we have ceased to be- lieve in fairies and ogres. These stories are in their literal sense absurd and impossible, yet many of them contain gems of deep thought ; many of them contain truths of great importance. The rationalistic movement started from wrong premises and pursued its investigations on erroneous principles. Our rationalists tried to correct the letter and expected thus to purify the spirit. But they soon found it beyond their power to restore the historical truth, and in the meantime lost sight of the spirit. They were like the dissector who seeks to discover the secret of life by cutting a living organism into pieces ; or like a chemist, who, with the pur- pose of investigating the nature of a clock, analyses the chemical elements of its wheels in his alembic. The meaning of religious truth cannot be found simply by rationalising the miraculous ele- ment in the holy legends of our religious traditions. Rationalism is a natural phase of the evolution of religious thought, but it yields no final solution of the problem. In a simi- lar way our classical historians attempted in a certain phase of the development of criticism to analyse Homer and the classical leg- ends. They rationalised them by removing the miracles and other irrational elements, and naively accepted the rest as history. The historian of to-day has given up this method and simply presents the classical legends in the shape in which they were current in old Greece. Legends may be unhistorical, what they tell may never have happened, yet they are powerful realities in the development of a nation. They may be even more powerful than historical events, for they depict ideals, and ideals possess a formative fac- ulty. They arouse the enthusiasm of youth and shape man's ac- tions, and must therefore be regarded as among the most potent factors in practical life. We regard the rationalistic treatment of Bible stories as a mis- take, yet for that reason we do not accept the opposite view of the intrinsic irrationality of rehgion. We do not renounce reason ; we do not banish rational thought from the domain of religion. Al- though we regard any attempt at rationalising religious legends as a grave blunder, we are nevertheless far from considering reason lOO THE OPEN COURT. as anti-religious. On the contrary, we look upon reason as the spark of divinity in man. Reason is that faculty by virtue of which we can say that man has been created in the image of God. With- out reason man would be no higher than the beast of the field. With- out rational criticism religion would be superstition pure and sim- ple, and we demand that religion shall never come in conflict with reason. Religion must be in perfect accord with science ; it must never come into collision with rational thought. Reason after all remains the guiding-star of our life. Without reason our existence would be shrouded in darkness. If children hear stories that are irrational there is no need of telling them flatly that the story is not true, but it will be wise to ask the question, Is that possible? Children are sure to take certain things as facts without thinking of applying criticism. Their little souls are as yet blanks. How is it possible to expect in them the critical attitude of a scholar? If children see pictures of angels, or devils, or fairies, they will believe them to be as they see them, without questioning the possibility of such beings. It was characteristic of a child's mind when a little three year old boy once asked one of his aunties, "Have you ever seen an angel?" and she replied, "No, have you?" "Yes," he said con- fidently, "in my picture book." That things can be pictured which are not realities, is an idea that has not as yet entered the mind of a young child. And it will be wise not to tell him directly that certain pictures are unrealities, but to guide his opinion and help him to form his own judgment. Children are liable to lose the moral of a fairy tale if they are told at once that fairies and ogres are unrealities. It will for a time be sufficient to tell them it is a story and never mind whether it actually happened or not. And if the moral of the story now and then finds application in their experiences they will learn to appre- ciate it, and yet distinguish between poetry and reality. They will acquire a taste for poetry without falling a prey to romanti- cism. There is a difference between true and real. Real is a thing that is concrete and actual ; history is real, and all things real are instances of general laws. A truth is the recognition and correct knowledge of a general law ; and the lesson of a general law in the moral world may sometimes be better set forth in an invented story than in incidents that have actually happened. In this sense a story, a myth, a legend, may be unhistorical, unreal, and even ab- surdly impossible, and yet be true in its significance. Children do RATIONALISM IN THE NURSERY. lOI not, of course, at once appreciate this distinction between truth and historical actuality, and one of my little boys for a long time refused to listen to "stories that were not true," as he said. He objected to fairy tales as not being based upon facts, preferring to hear the account of the invention of steam engines or of the landing of the Pilgrims. It almost seemed for a long time as though he had no sense for poetry ; but by and by he learned to like certain fairy tales whose spirit he appreciated — for instance, of the boy who knew no fear and who, when he went abroad to learn what fear was, gained a kingdom. Parents must develop the critical sense of their children with- out destroying poetry and the enjoyment of fiction. If children prefer the one or the other extreme, let them freely develop it and fear not that they will become over-credulous or over-critical, that they will become superstitious through a belief in fairy tales, or prosaic on account of their objection to stories that are not true. Every child passes through successive phases in its mental devel- opment, and it will only assimilate the impressions and informa- tion for which its budding mind is ready. If these phases show an occasional onesidedness, parents need not worry, for mankind, at large, also had its phases, and the religious evolution of the race necessarily passed through the mythological and dogmatic period. The same rule that applies to fairy tales holds good in the realm of religious legends and stories. The parents' rule might be: Give the children every chance of forming their own opinion, and let them acquire information of all kinds in whatever way life may offer it to them. Let children go to churches, witness religious pro- cessions, attend Sunday-school, but preserve under all conditions their independence of judgment without directly forestalling the decision to which they are ultimately liable to come. Parents who wish to insist on a rational comprehension of religious truths need not be in a hurry to influence the souls of their little ones. If they give them outright the results of free investigation instead of merely stimulating their critical powers by questions and suggestions, they are liable to make them shallow, and instead of making them ra- tional will make them rationalistic. One of my little boys, now eight years old, recently learned to skate on the ice. He could do it so long as he remained uncon- scious of himself, but he gave up at once after his first accident, because the thought of falling frightened him. When I told him that he could do it if he only had confidence in himself, he an- swered, "Isn't there a truth in the story of St. Peter's walking on I02 THE OPEN COURT. the See of Galilee? He sank when he lost faith, and he walked on the water when he had the confidence that he could do it. He added at once, "I do not believe that he walked on the water, but the story is good, isn't it ? " As to credulity in the common walks of life, it will always be wise to distinguish between what actually is true and what a per- son has stated to be true, or what he may believe to be true. The distinction is subtle to a child's mind in the beginning, but as soon as he understands it, he will utilise it and it will become a trait of character that in future life may be of great importance. He will learn to respect the right of others to believe as they please, al- though he may come to the conclusion that the belief itself has no foundation and is unacceptable to himself. MUTUAL EDUCATION OF CHILDREN. An only child is apt to be spoiled, and why? Because he does not have the benefit of the mutual education that brothers and sisters in their common plays as well as in their quarrels naturally bestow upon one another. If he is not self-willed, and if his pecu- liarities do not manifest themselves in naughtiness, he will as a rule be over-sensitive, — which in later life may prove almost more disastrous ; for he will be liable to fret without any cause when others unwillingly or unwittingly offend him. Parents that have several children should not be grieved if their boys, or even their girls, sometimes quarrel among them- selves. There are few brothers who would not now and then come to blows, and there is no harm done in their childish quarrels, so long as they are kept within proper limits, and parents should in- terfere as little as possible, except to counterbalance the greater strength of the elder ones, to prevent their having toys which might turn out to be dangerous weapons, and in general to see to it that no serious harm be done. There is no better system of edu- cation than that which springs from the conflict of interests that originates within the sphere of the children's own experiences. No teachings in words can better explain to a child that the rights of others must be respected, than the practical experiences, be they ever so trivial, which give meaning to the moral exhorta- tions of the golden rule and of practising justice. The child must feel the resistance of others, in order to learn that there are limits imposed upon us in society by the rights of our fellows. There- fore, if parents see their children quarrelling they should not be RATIONALISM IN THE NURSERY. IO3 anxious about them. Every blow that one little brother gives or receives is a moral lesson which will bear fruit in time. While the quarrels of children are not to be regarded as an evil, they should not be fostered or produced. They should only be suffered, and parents should not be alarmed at occasional out- breaks of anger. Far from fostering quarrels, parents should see to it that their children love and respect one another, and it is easy enough for them to do so. They should never in the presence of one child speak slightingly of their other children, but always in respectful and loving terms. Every word of contempt or ill-will, even of deserved reproach, if listened to by a brother or sister, sinks much more deeply into their hearts than adult people as a rule are apt to believe. It is remembered, and though it may re- main unnoticed for a long time, it will finally come out in one shape or another when least expected. It may be true that most of the grudges and ill-will that brothers sometimes show one an- other are due to the carelessness of parents who reprove the little fellows in the presence of their brothers. Parents, therefore, ought to make it a rule to treat children throughout in the presence of their brothers and sisters, and also of strangers, not very differently from adult people. Whatever reproaches have to be made ought to be done, at least as far as possible, in private, and not for the purpose of humiliating the child. Children are apt to scold one another, but their words have not the same weight that those of parents and nurses have. Their revilings, therefore, cannot do the same harm. On the contrary, if parents or nurses show their disapproval of using names, bicker- ings in the nursery will be remembered as deterring examples. When little children interfere with the plays of their older brothers and sisters, taking away their toys and running off with them, the older children naturally grow indignant and are apt at once to beat their weaker playmates. Then of course it is time to interfere and give them a lesson in patience. And the best method to keep older children in good humor, is to teach them to look upon their smaller companions with the eyes of grown up people. When a baby of two years runs away with her four year old sister's doll, it is better to let her carry off her spoils, and taking the elder child in your arms, to say: "Now let us watch baby and see what she is doing with dolly. I'll see to it that she does not break it. Now look how she carries the doll. Would any mamma carry her baby by the leg? She does not yet know how to treat babies, but we will teach her. You are the elder, you must tell her how." 104 THE OpEtJ COURt* Possibly for the first time children may not prove amenable, but by and by they will learn to take fatherly or motherly interest in the queer ways of their younger sisters and brothers, and that will help them to bear with their smaller companions if they unduly interfere with the rights of their elders and provoke their anger. Of course, children should always be watched, especially if they have dangerous toys in their hands, such as iron tools which may easily become weapons, but at the same time they ought to enjoy their liberty as much as possible, so as to educate one another by mutual assistance and interest — as well as by friction. I remember a children's party given in the days of my own childhood in celebration of the birthday of one of my little friends. Our host had received a game called "Reynard the Fox," and he had invited all his little comrades to play the new game. But he had cleverly arranged it so that none of his guests had the least chance of winning, and he alone bore off all the honors and prizes of the day. He was an only child, and that too without a mother who might have checked his ambitious plans, and the outcome of the children's party was general dissatisfaction and finally an actual re- bellion against the host who tried to usurp all the power. At last his father interfered to restore order, and settled the dispute in a man- ner which was not to the taste of the spoiled child. When I re- counted the story at home and informed my parents about the little tricks which my friend had used to insure his victories, they pointed out to me the lesson that the host should always look to the interests of his guests, and that it was a matter of honor on his part to let them be satisfied and go home with the pleasant feeling of having been well entertained. The vanity of gaining all the honors of the day spoiled the birthday party of my little friend for himself and others. Had he been wise enough to suffer his guests to gain all the prizes, he would have increased their friendship and would probably have enjoyed the day much more than he hoped to do and might have done by winning all the prizes, even if his guests had not demurred. I do not remember whether as the host of a children's party I was better than my spoiled friend, but I am sure that it was an ex- perience which made a deep impression on my mind, and it seems to me that parents should improve all the opportunities they have of guiding children's inclinations in the right way by utilising their own experiences. RATIONALISM IN THE NURSERY. lOJ FEAR AND CIRCUMSPECTION. It happens that children sometimes are frightened by phan- toms of their own imagination, and being naturally weak and feel- ing that they are unable to protect themselves, may at the idea of a fancied danger fall into hysterics. What is to be done if such a state supervenes, or if symptoms appear which indicate its ap- proach, — a state in which the child is overpowered by all kinds of presentiments and would be impervious to argument? The best plan is not to deny at once the reality of the imagina- tion which is the immediate cause of the sudden fright, for that fan- cied fearful object is a reality to the child, and to deny it would be to cut off all means of curing it. The best way is to consider it tem- porarily as being real, or at least possible, and accept the state of things imagined. Place yourself in the child's position, and thence start for further operations. That is the first condition which in- sures the child's confidence, so that it will be willing to follow you, and you will then have easy play to examine the state of affairs, which will of course result in the discovery that there was no cause for fear. A few examples will illustrate the case. A little girl frequently fancied she saw bears and tigers when- ever she happened to awake in the night. Presumably she dreamed of some danger, may be on account of having eaten too much for supper or having eaten the wrong kind of food. At any rate, she frequently awoke crying in the night, and in her fear interpreted the dim outlines of a dress or a curtain as a fearful beast that was about to attack her. The best thing to do is to deal tenderly with such fancies and remove the child as far as possible from the ob- ject that has caused her excitement. Then, if you can do so with- out disturbing the other children, light the lamp and let it fall full on the thing that has given rise to her fear. Be slow, and express your opinion first as a kind of preliminary assumption that the bear may after all be mamma's skirt or the curtain moving in the draft ; and when this comforting probability is understood, follow up your advantage and declare it to be a good joke that a harmless piece of cloth should look like a fearful animal. Make the child smile at the incongruity of her fancy, and her laugh will cure the horror of the dream and dispel the nightmare as sunshine dissolves the mist. One day I walked with one of my little boys along a wooded creek. It was winter, and the trees were leafless and dry. Now it Io6 THE OPEN COURT. happened that a trunk of a tree which had lost its crown and was en- circled by strong vines, looked, from a certain position, like a man, or rather like a tramp (for he looked very ragged) bending over a broken bicycle. The vines were so queerly shaped that the illusion was almost perfect. My little boy stood aghast for a moment. "There is a bad man," he said, "with a bicycle," and he pointed to the strange sight. I could not help at once tracing the figure to which he referred, but I knew at the same time that it was a tree and not a real man, for a man would not have stood so motionless as did that weird, ragged looking figure in the valley. The fear of the little boy was great, and he did not know what to do, — whether to run away or to hide, and as his imagination was easily worked up I felt that there was danger of an hysterical outbreak. The first thing to be done was to remain very calm myself. Calm- ness produces calmness, as irritation will produce irritation. Men- tal states are by imitation as much catching as contagious dis- eases. Now I told the little fellow to stand perfectly still and watch that tramp in the valley. At the same time I took him in my arms, which of course alleviated his immediate fears, and while he watched that tramp- like figure I called his attention to the fact that he stood perfectly still and did not move, except as a tree will in a gentle breeze. When he had grown calmer, I proposed to walk towards the man and see what he did. But the little fellow was still too much afraid and said, "Let us go away as quickly as we can." But that seemed to me very undesirable. Although we were on our way home, I saw clearly that I had first to disillusion him as to the cause of his fear. As he would not walk towards the strange figure directly, I thought it wisest to approach it indirectly, and while we moved some steps to the side, the tree ceased to look like a man and appeared more like a tree. At the same time the figure remained motionless as before. This increased the courage of the boy and I at once took advantage of it. "I don't believe it is a man," said I, " let us go and see." He still objected. I again changed our position to a place which presented another view of that queer tree, and the confidence of the boy grew more and more. The hysterical condition disappeared completely and there remained only a certain awe of the weird appearance ; but it seemed to me advisable to dispel that awe too and leave no trace of it. Even now it seemed to me advisable not to approach the tree directly and quickly, but slowly, as Indians would do when deer-stalking or stealing upon an enemy. The approach made in this careful way increased his confidence, for we stopped whenever RATIONALISM IN THE NURSERY. I07 new doubts arose which manifested themselves in renewed hesita- tion ; and at last I said "it would be fun if the wild man would turn out to be merely a tree stump. Really, I believe it is only a tree. What do you think ? " And he thought that it was really a tree and his fright changed slowly into fear, then into awe, then into circumspection, then into a strong suspicion of the causeless- ness of his fear, and at last into good humor at the situation. When we came to the place and stood before the leafless tree, which had no longer any resemblance to a man or a bicycle, we had a hearty laugh and I did not fail to impress on the boy the ridiculousness of the situation. Lest the experience should vanish from his memory, I sometimes reminded him of the incident, recommending him in all similar cases first to look closely at the frightful apparition. Perhaps then it will dissolve into nothing, just as an imagined high- wayman changed into a rotten stump. Another instance of fear that I found necessary to allay in the same little boy, happened on the farm to which we were accustomed to go. When he first encountered a pig, he was so frightened at its grunt that he could not be induced to walk into the yards in which the swine were kept with the cows and sheep. As it did not seem to me advisable to yield to his fear, I carried him to the fence on my arm, where he felt safe, and explained to him that pigs are very much afraid of men and even of little boys if they only courageously hunted them. So when a pig approached the fence I drove it away, which gave the little boy a great deal of pleasure to see his old en- emy put to flight. I at once made use of his elated state of mind and pursued the pig. When he saw that the pigs were really cow- ards, I put him on the ground and gave him a stick and let him give chase himself. First he would not go to the ground ; but hav- ing repeatedly witnessed the wild flight of chased pigs, he ventured the feat, stick in hand, still clinging, however, to his papa's hand. Of course, I took care that the first pigs he met with were not too large and that they would quickly retire at our approach. The little boy's courage grew with his success, and after a few repeated pig hunts he lost all the fear he had entertained, and I now found it necessary to give the boys, him as well as his little brother, a warning not to be too bold with pigs when they were alone, be- cause the big ones might not be quite so cowardly as they thought, and might turn out to be ugly. Make it a rule never to excite fear in children, and never show fear yourself in their presence. On the contrary, set children an example of calm behavior in instances where either you yourself I08 THE OPEN COURT. become involved in an actually perilous situation or where the child's imagination sees a mere show of danger. Unfortunately most of the help employed in a house, especially the servants in the kitchen, show an extraordinary fear of mice, which is transferred to the children. If a child observes but once a scene of excitement, because a little mouse happens to be heard, parents will have a great deal of trouble to eradicate the evil effect. This impression will probably last forever, and can only be coun- teracted by carefully superadding the ridiculousness of such fear. The elimination of fear in education should not, however, pro- mote audacity and foolhardiness ; on the contrary we must begin at an early age to caution children and make them look out for and anticipate dangers. When taking a walk with children, it is advisable to think aloud, and to tell them why we walk here and there, why we look out when crossing the tracks, or crossing streets ; and to point out to them the dangers that must be avoided. Circumspection must be one of the fundamental ideas in a child's mind, especially in our days when civilisation begins to grow more and more com- plex. If you have electric wires in the house, either for lighting or for bells, it is advisable to improve the occasion whenever a repair is made, or whenever an opportunity may offer itself, to show to children the sparks that appear when wires touch. If the current is too weak to do any harm, it is even advisable to let children touch wires and receive a shock. At any rate, they ought to be informed of the dangers to which they expose themselves in touching wires. They ought to know that as the electricity in the wires of a bell are weak, so the electricity in the wires of a street railway are very powerful and would, if touched, unfailingly kill a man. It is not exactly necessary to tell children the terrible acci- dents that frequently happen, but it is necessary to give them full information about what might happen. When they grow older, attaining an age at which the imagination is no longer apt to be overstrung, they should also be told of the accidents whenever and wherever they happen, and how they happen, so that they will learn to avoid them. It will be useful under all circumstances to impress short rules upon the minds of the children, never to touch a wire that might happen to dangle from a pole, and never to step on a wire that RATIONALISM IN THE NURSERY. lOg might touch the ground, and the connexion of which cannot be traced. It might be harmless, but it might be a live wire. The same rules, mutatis mutandis, apply to innumerable other situations. If parents visit factories or machine shops with their children, as in my opinion they ought to do from time to time, they should give due warning not to touch any running machinery and especially to be on the lookout with regard to belts. Before they approach the machinery they should watch it for a moment so as to know how far its sphere of danger reaches. In smithies and near fire-places of any kind, children must be taught never to step on iron, because even the dark-looking irons may still be hot, and it will be instructive to touch with a piece of wood some hot iron which, having lost its reddish blaze, appears to the uninitiated eye quite harmless. The wood will quickly catch fire, and the child should learn that if it stepped on that same iron the heat would soon burn through the shoe into the flesh, and perhaps to the bone. Of course, these little lessons in caution should not be given so as to make the children timid ; and, as a rule, it will be time to devote special attention to them as soon as the child has lost its natural fear. First teach children courage, then show them the need of circumspection. no THE OPEN COURT. A MODERN INSTANCE OF WORLD-RENUN- CIATION. BY THE EDITOR. COUNTESS M. de S. Canavarro, now of Geylon, is a woman of rare qualities, which not only deserve our sympathy but also arouse our interest from a purely psychological point of view. About two years ago we read the New York newspaper reports of her departure for a new home with surprise, and, we must confess, not without serious misgivings and doubts as to the advisability of her bold step, for she was about to leave her American home and sever all family ties for the purpose of educating the women of an island in the far East, among the very antipodes of her adopted country, and to take upon herself new duties which meant uphill work and hard labor. We do not know much about her, except what the newspaper reporters in America and in Ceylon have to say and what we have gleaned from several personal letters giving life to the dry facts of the work which she is doing in public, and ex- hibiting a noble soul filled with the desire of living not for herself but for the benefit of mankind. The flame of her life is burning to give others light, and she finds her highest satisfaction in so em- ploying herself that the good that is in her may spread. The Countess was probably raised in the faith of the Roman Catholic Church, presumably on the peninsula which is severed from Europe by the Pyrenees. She lived the greater part of her life in the far West of the United States of America, and we may not be wrong when saying that she acquired here a sense for being practical and doing work methodically and with energy. No doubt there is much of the "1 will" spirit in her. How she became estranged from the belief of her childhood is not known to us ; ap- parently she felt a desire for a broader religion, less narrowed by dogma and yet affording her free scope for religious devotion 112 THE OPEN COURT. A MODERN INSTANCE OF WORLD-RENUNCIATION. II 3 that shows itself in the practical work of sympathetic love. The hunger of her soul for unselfish usefulness found, after much vain search, the most appropriate expression in the doctrine of the Sha- kya-philosopher, whom his followers call Buddha, the Enlightened One, or Tathagata, the perfect teacher and master. If she were asked what is her religion, she would confess herself a Buddhist ; but she has repeatedly declared that she is not antagonistic to any other religion, least of all to Christianity. In one of her letters, recommending a Christian book as worth reading and considering, she says : ' ' The author is painstaking, truthful, and spiritual. Who can say more ! What know we puny mortals of the spirit of man ! 'Judge not lest ye be judged.' All believe they have the truth — every denomination, great and small alike, believe the truth is held in their special dogma. I believe I possess the truth, but I am not ready to say that no one else has it. To me truth is like the ocean, like eter- nity, embracing all things, not confined to any one thing. So wherever I turn, I gather jewels of the law." The Countess went to Ceylon, not for the purpose of opening a campaign in the interest of a militant Buddhism or endeavoring to make converts, or counteracting Christian missions, nothing of the kind, — but simply to do educational work. She purchased a beautiful garden with a modest but pretty one-story building, and opened a school, an orphanage arranged for boarding pupils and admitting day scholars. The newspapers of Ceylon, reflecting the opinion of her new countrymen, English as well as Singhalese, express great admira- tion for her executive ability and business talents. We have to add that although she had devoted all her own means to the enter- prise, she still needs money and assistance. She has received help (so far as we know) from various sources, but new needs produce new demands, and the burden of caring for everything grows too much for her shoulders. She wrote for help to America, and we are informed that Miss Shearer, an American lady who saved the money for the long journey from her scant salary as a governess, has now gone to join the Countess and share the burden of the work, and we hope that she will be as buoyant and enduring as the Countess Canavarro herself when confronted with the many sacri- fices which such a devotion necessarily demands. We repeat that the religious devotion of Countess Canavarro not only deserves our sympathies (and we wish sincerely that she would receive more help from sympathetic friends), but is an object of interest to the psychologist. The Countess has lost the dogmatic 114 THE OPEN COURT. A MODERN INSTANCE OF WORLD-RENUNCIATION. 115 I 1 6 THE OPEN COURT. beliefs of her old Christian faith, and her motives are not dominated by a hope of acquiring saintship in heaven. Her belief in immor- tality is the Buddhist conviction that our deeds live, — a conviction which is so frequently denounced by the militant missionaries of Christianity as the dreariness of nihilism. She is a living example of the religious devotion which is recorded in the history of every, but especially the Christian, faith, and her character will help us to understand similar personalities of the past who have almost be- come mythological to us in the matter-of-fact atmosphere of the present age. A MODERN INSTANCE OK WORLD-RENUNCIATION. 117 X Q Q D CQ <: MiSCBlvLANEOUS. HIDALGO AND MORELOS THK FORERUNNERS OF MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE. To-day hangs over the entrance oE the palace of Dictator President Diaz in Mexico City the most sacred church bell of all the myriad church bells of this be- churched country — the sacred bell on which the priest Hidalgo sounded the tocsin of revolution against Spain in 1810. I have been examining a marvellous collec- tion of manuscripts offered to me for three thousand dollars gold, and cheap at the price, were it not for the too obvious evidence that they have been stolen from the secret archives of the Government here in Mexico. One is a holograph letter from Hidalgo to Morelos, explaining the withdrawal of his army after his fight before the Capital, a withdrawal which proved the beginning of disasters which finally cost him his life. Hidalgo here says he did not retreat defeated ; far from it. His army of roughly a hundred thousand, mostly pure natives, say Aztecs, on captur- ing the city of Guanajuato had slaughtered the Spaniards and now again in the fight before the Capital the whole body of Spaniards, estimated at three thousand men, had been killed, only one officer, on horseback, escaping. Hidalgo says that finding his horde uncontrollable, he feared to trust them in an attack on the great city, and with some idea of training them he deviated from the advance movement. The idea spread among them that perhaps they had been defeated, and the vast army melted like snow. Hidalgo was not long after captured, tried, unfrocked, and executed (1811). The hero priest Morelos, after four years of victory, was defeated (in 1815) by Iturbide, who was afterward (in 1821) destined to finish the work of liberation from Spain, when he reigned for a brief space as emperor (1821-1824). Morelos, con- fined in a corner room of the winter palace of Cortez in Cuernavaca, afterward so dear to Maximilian, was then himself tried for heresy, that he might first be un- frocked and degraded from the priestly office, before suffering death as a traitor. These manuscripts are of historical interest, some contain the original and only record of this strange trial, hitherto an undivulged secret. Here are all duly recorded the changes, the questions, the answers of Morelos. A few excerpts from these marvellous answers will show the hero wrestling vainly with his fate, "You charge me here," says Morelos, "with disbelief in an actual hell in a future life. Yet further on you equally charge me with maintaining that MISCELLANEOUS. II9 the late Pope is burning now in the eternal fires of hell. These two charges con- tradict each other. "Again you charge me with being a Lutheran, yet further on you charge me with rejecting the authority of the Bible. These two charges likewise contradic each other, for Luther bases his entire position on the authority of the Holy Scrip- tures as against the Pope and the Catholic Church." No wonder it was wished that this trial might be kept secret. Morelos con- fesses to having hoped for aid from the United States, but says that no such aid came. The whole manuscript is fascinating. These few lines may be perhaps even now the only part of it which will ever reach the world. George Bruce Halsted. City of Mexico. AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS. The publication of an Encydopeedia of the Mathematical Sciences, Both Theoretical and Afflied} under the auspices of the Scientific Academies of Mun ich, Vienna, and Gottingen, is announced by Teubner, of Leipzig. The E ncyo psedia is to fill six volumes containing from four to five installments each, pub- lished at the rate of one volume a year. To judge from the character and the number of the collaborators, the work will be a monument of erudition, and will constitute the most complete existing reference work of the mathematical sciences. On its historical, philosophical, biblio- graphical, and didactic sides also it will be exhaustive, particularly in regard to the developments of the present century (Vol. VI.). The applications of pure mathe- matics to mechanics, physics, astronomy, geodesy, engineering, and the industrial sciences are to be considered in the fourth and fifth volumes. The first three vol- umes, which are devoted to pure mathematics, will treat of arithmetic and algebra, analysis, and geometry. The scientific committee to whose charge the execution of the work has been committed are Prof. W. Dyck, of Munich ; Prof. G. von Esche- rich, of Vienna; Prof. F. Klein, of Gottingen; Prof. L. Boltzmann, of Vienna, and Prof. H. Weber, of Strassburg. The editors are Dr. Heinrich Burkhardt, of Zurich, and Dr. W. Franz Meyer, of Konigsberg, Prof. A. Schoenflies, of Got- tingen, and A. Sommerfield, of Clausthal. We are in receipt of the first article on The Foundations of Arithmetic, by Prof. H. Schubert, of Hamburg, with whose views our readers are familiar from our mention in the last 0;pen Court of his latest English essays^ on the same sub- ject. The remainder of the first installment (112 pp.) is taken up by Professor Netto, who writes on Konibinatorik, and by Professor Pringsheim, who treats of Irrational Numbers, and Convergency. 1 Encyklop'ddie der inathematiscken iVissenscha/ten tnit Einschluss ikrer Anwendungen . Mit Untersiutzung df-r Akademieen der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen und IVien und der Geseilschaft der Wissenschaften zu. Gottingen, sowie unter Mitwirkung zahlreicher Fachgenossen, heraus- gegeben von Dr. Heinrich Burkhardt, O. Professor der Mathematik an der Uiiiversitat Ziirich, und Dr. W. Franz Meyer, O. Professor der Mathematik an der Universitat Kbnigaberg i. Pr, Leipzig : B. G. Teubner. 1898. 2 Mathematical Essays and Recreations. Just published in the Religion of Science Library. Pp. 149. Paper, 25 cents. Cloth, 75 cents. I20 THE OPEN COURT. JAPANESE CALLIGRAPHY. Calligraphy is an art in Japan, and specimens of beautiful handwriting upon silk are as much used for wall decorations as pictures. The main value of orna- ments of this kind consists, of course, in the sentiments ex- pressed, which must be couch- ed in epigrammatic brevity. The verses are usually only four lines in length. These literary productions that greet the eye of the visitor to Jap- anese households are not lim- ited to one subject, but touch upon all the various interests of life, and it is natural that words of moral advice and re- ligious comfort should pre- dominate. They remind us of a similar custom which in former generations more than at present prevailed in Chris- tian countries, of having Scrip- ture verses on the walls or over the doors. As an instance of this kind of Japanese literature, we pre- sent to our readers the repro- duction of a poem by the Rt. Rev. Shaku Soyen, a Bud- dhist abbot of Kamakura, Japan, one of the delegates to the Parliament of Religions in 1893, whose contributions to The 0;pen Court and The Monist will be remembered by our readers. The outline drawing repre- sents Buddha, the omnipres- ent law of love and righteous- ness, as a father cherishing the animate creation like a child, in paternal affection, and bears a certain resem- blance to the Roman Catholic representation of St. Joseph with the Christ child. The illustration is made by Shaku Sokwatsu, one of the The whole card is, both in its calligraphic style and Dzizo-SoN. Buddha as omnipresent, fatherly love. Picture by Shaku Sokwatsu, with calligraphic writing by the Rev. Shaku Soyen, of Kamakura. Rev. Shaku Soyen's disciples. MISCELLANEOUS. 121 its sentiment characteristic of Japanese religious poetry. The following lines trans- late the Rev. Shaku Soyen's verse almost literally : , Throughout the three worlds I am everywhere. All creatures as my loved children I cherish . And though e'en time and space may perish, I shall ne'er cease to embrace them in prayer. O'SOME DREYFUS LITERATURE. The long, cruel, and complicated trial and punishment of Alfred Dreyfus, with all its many attending circumstances of suicides, law suits, debates in the Cham- ber and Senate, duels, etc., have naturally produced a large mass of books, pam- phlets, and leaflets which touch on every phase of this historic affair and offer bio- graphical sketches more or less complete of all the principal actors on the scene. I propose calling the attention of your readers to some of the more notable of these publications, all of which, I may add, are issued by Mr. P. V. Stock, who has made a specialty of Dreyfus literature, Galerie du Th^dtre Franjais, Palais Royal, Paris. One of the earliest, if not the earliest, French publicists to declare in print that Dreyfus was innocent and that a judicial error had been committed was M. Bernard Lazare, who brought out a very thorough examination of the whole case under the title " L' Affaire Dreyfus." A second brochure followed a year later. The two together form an exceedingly strong argument which has been confirmed in almost every point by the new facts made public during the past year. M. Lazare devotes himself especially to the task to prove, what we now know to be quite true, that the bordereau was not at all the work of Dreyfus. Bjit perhaps the most valuable contribution to this collection are the two vol- umes Le Prods Zola, which together fill a thousand pages and give the steno- graphic report in extenso of the celebrated Zola trial, extending from February to April, i8g8. The first volume opens with the famous letter " J'accuse," addressed to President Faure. It was this letter and the trial which followed which finally forced public opinion to take sides and eventually brought about the revulsion of sentiment which will soon give Dreyfus his liberty. Anotjjer somewhat similar volume forms an important volume in this series. I refer icfLa Revision du Prods Dreyfus, the stenographic report of the three days' discussion last October before the Supreme Court, when the question of a re- trial of Dreyfus came up for consideration. Of all the books concerning this case, this one is perhaps the most convincing of the innocence of Dreyfus, due, in large measure, to the fact that we have here an examination of the case, as far as the facts were then known, by a body of cool, trained lawyers and judges. Captain Paul Marin has probably written more than any other one man on this subject. His volume VHistoire Pofulaire de I 'Affaire Dreyfus is perhaps the best short account of the whole case down to the moment it was placed in the hamjs of the Supreme Court. Four othervolumes by the same author are devoted to''PicquartyT)u Paty de Clam, Captain Lebrun-Renault, to whom Dreyfus is said both to have confessed and not to have confessed his guilt, and Esterhazy. Some of the ablest writers and best known men of France appear in this col- lection. Here belong such names as M. Francis de Pressens^, the brilliant foreign 122 THE OPEN COURT. editor of the Tem^is; Professor Albert R^ville, who fills the chair of church his- tory at the College of France ; M. Joseph Reinach, ex-Deputy ; M. Duclaux, di- rector of the Pasteur Institute ; Senator Trarieux, ex-Minister of Justice ; M. Yves Guyot, editor-in-chief of the Steele; M. Philip Dubois, the able editorial contribu- tor of the Aurore, and many others. M. de Pressens^'s ^n Hiros is a warm defence of Lieutenant-Colonel Pic quart, written in the author's best style. Though occupied chiefly with M. Pic- quart, the volume gives a more or less connected account of the whole Dreyfus imbroglio and offers incidentally sketches of most of the early prominent leaders in the revisionist movement. To an American, a peculiar interest is added to this book by the fact that the author was once charge d 'affaires of the French Lega- tion at Washington, and is to-day one of the best authorities in France on Ameri- can politics. The volume is ornamented with an excellent portrait of M. Pic- quart. Vxoiss&ox'RivxWe's^Les Etafes d'un Intellectuel^-AS cme oi the first of these pro-Dreyfus volumes to made an impression on the French public mind. The au- thor's prominent position and his ability as a writer held the attention. The book shows how a thoughtful man, starting out with the belief of all France that Drey- fus was guilty, little by little began to change his mind till he become thoroughly convinced that he is innocent. The history of the conversion is given in the form of a diary, the date at the head of each entry adding point to the development that would otherwise be lost. J M. Joseph Reinach's share in this literary reawakening of France is large. Besides three or four tracts, and almost daily newspaper articles, he has brought together into a vohime— Vers la Justice fiar la V^riti — some of these contribu- tions to the press. Grouped under heads — "The Uhlan," "The Forgers," "The Legend of the Confession," etc. — these short, incisive, and often humorous com- ments, attacks, arguments, are as original as they are convincing. Just as M. Reinach's articles first appeared in the Si'ecle, one of the chief or- gans of the Dreyfus press, so the clever "Billets de la Province" saw light in the. columns of this same sheet. M. Michel CoUine was one of the earliest journalists to declare Dreyfus innocent, even before Henry's suicide opened the eyes of many who were hesitating. His articles are dated and it is interesting to see now how correct was his judgment on facts then obscure but now as bright as the noonday sun. An excellent little preface is a sort of resume of the book and the whole agi- tation. This is unquestionably one of the best written and most ably argued pam- phlets called out by " the affair." From the start, one of the ablest and most active defenders of Dreyfus has been M. Yves Guyot, ex-Deputy and ex-Minister, editor-in-chief of the Silcle. La '' Revision du Proces Dreyfus contains all the facts and judicial documents on vvhich the friends of Dreyfus based their demands for a new trial. The fac-simile of the bordereau, of Esterhazy's handwriting and of that of Dreyfus, all three placed in parallel columns, is an interesting document to look at. The exact simi- larity between the two first is evident to even the most unpractised eye. But the most interesting pamphlet from the pen of M. Guyot is that entitled ' Les Raisons de Basile, being the series of letters sent to the Siecle last summer by M. Ferdinand Brunetiere, of the French Academy and editor of the Revue des Deux Mondes, and M. Guyot's answers. Of course Brunetiere was opposed to a retrial and though his arguments are presented in fine French and with a brilliancy for which their author is noted, the Henry suicide utterly routed the academician MISCELLANEOUS. 1 23 and left the journalist victorious. Branetiere felt so ashamed of the absurd plight that when Guyot tried to bring out the controversy in book form, Brunetiere called on the court to interfere. So the pamphlet is suppressed and a law suit is on the point of being begun. By the way, the name Basile is used in French to designate " a calumniator, a bigot, and a niggard." Doubtless the title of the pamphlet is one of the reasons why Brunetiere wishes to suppress it. But before M. Brunetiere made the huge blunder of entering upon his anti- Dreyfus campaign in the Siicle, he had already shown on which side he stood in an unfortunate article published in the Revue des Deux Mondes, entitled "Apres le Proces," and referring to the Zola trial, which had then just ended. This article h^s called forth a clever reply by M. Ducloux, of the Institute, which he entitles »^'Avant le Proces," and in which poor Brunetiere is again put in a pitiable posi- tion, a sad warning given to those who are expected by their very nature and call- ing to be on the right side when unpopular, but who take a cowardly course and get on the wrong side. But as the right is sure to triumph in the long run, this time-serving has left Brunetiere in a most unenviable posture, whereas if he had stood with the rest of " the intellectuals," he would have been to-day with the win- ning instead of with the losing side. A score of small pamphlets of unequal value and ability and touching on vari- ous phases of the subject u^der consideration deserve a word here. There is a tteu-'t letter of Senator Tr94seu:fTp M, Cavaignac, Minister of War at the moment when it was written ; M. Duboi^s clear presentation of Picquart's part in the case, M. Jean Testis's accpunt of Esterhazy's relations with SchwarzkofEen, an anonymous author whose 'T!^e Syndicat de Trahison" — the title is of course ironical— consists of a series of brief sketches of the chief friends — Zola, Ranc, Guyot, Labori, Clera- enceau, Pressens^, etc. — of the agitation; Henry Leyaet's "^ettres d'un Coupa- y^Sk ble, " meaning the letters of Esterhazy and being of course a pendant to "T,ettres d'un Innocent," a heart-rending volume giving the letters of Dreyfus to his wife ; and M. Villemar's "TDreyfus Intime," which throws some light on the more private side of the existence of the prisoner of Devir's Island. This Dreyfus affair has also called forth a certain number of pamphlets giving the history of other cases where the courts of France have condemned innocent men. Thus M. Rasul Allier has republished in a brochure hjs learned article, which appeared last January in the Revue de Paris, entitled Voltaire et Galas," in which is retold that infamous judicial mistake of the eighteenth century re- counted in all the histories of that period. Voltaire, and with him Condorcet, was also the Zola of the abominable imprisonment and execution of General Lally- Tollendal about the middle of the lajt-century, whose history is presented in this series of publications by M. Mfred Meye?. The case resembled that of Dreyfus in many respects. " L'affair^^abus et I'affaire El-Chourfi" and "Le Dossier du Lieutenant Fabry " are two more pamphlets presenting historic instances of the mistakes of courts martial. These pamphlets must set the most sluggard mind to thinking, and should lead to the conclusion that courts, and especially military ones, are not infallible. When the time comes for the future historian to recount the existence of the Third French Republic and pass judgment on its various acts, this abominable Dreyfus business will doubtless come in for its proper share of attention. His task will be easily performed, for he will find already presented, explained, and com- mented upon in every sense all the incidents of this long and tragic drama. He will consult many of the works mentioned above and others appearing almost I 24 THE OPEN COURT. daily. It may be that he will even be appalled at the mass of printed matter bear- ing on this one event. But however that may be, perhaps some contemporaries are also curious to know all the facts of this complicated case. It is for them that I have signalled the existence of this already formidable body of literature devoted to this one incident in the history of the day. Theodore Stanton. Paris, France. THE EMPEROR OF CHINA. GLORIA FATALIS. The heir of ancient glories past our scan ; Dowered with thy arrogant name — "Of Heaven the Son"; Proud ruler of the proud ! thy reign begun In ruinous times ; Corruption's cankerous ban Circling thy very throne, yet fain the van Of progress would'st thou lead, and teach to shun Her imminent doom thy realm. Ill-fated one ! Cowed by the fierce will of a harridan. Thy friends lie stricken in blood, in exile smart. Immured in splendor thou, curbed like a child. Leaning thy pale cheek on thy feeble hand, Thy heart with bitter thoughts and longings wild Torn and distracted ; in thy spacious land Lives no such piteous creature as thou art. George T. Candlin. Tientsin, North China. BOOK-REVIEWS AND NOTES. Petrarch. The First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters, A Selection from His Correspondence with Boccaccio and Other Friends. Designed to Illus- trate the Beginnings of the Renaissance, Translated from the Original Latin together with historical Introductions and Notes, by James Harvey Robinson, Professor of History in Columbia University, with the Collabora- tion of Henry Winchester. Rolfe : New York and London. G. P. Put- nam's Sons. 1898, 8vo. Pages, 434. The translations include one of the autobiography, and are thoroughly accu- rate, while always readable. The comments are written from the standpoint of scholarly liberalism, and go far to prove the claims of Petrarch to recognition as " the cosmopolitan representative of the first great forward movement in European thought." The book is handsomely printed and illustrated with copies of a por- trait, possibly from the life, of a page from Petrarch's own manuscript of the Iliad, and of his own artistic sketch of Vaucluse. F, m. h. In our review of the English translation of the Works of Nietzsche we omit- ted to mention the publication of the volume Thus Spake Zarathustra, a Book for All and None. In the judgment of the translator. Professor Tille, ' ' this as- MISCELLANEOUS. 1 25 tounding prose-poem is the strangest product of modern German literature. It is a kind of summary of the intellectual life of the nineteenth century, and it is on this fact that its principal significance rests. It unites in itself a number of mental movements which, in literature as well as in various sciences, have made them- selves felt separately during the last hundred years, without going far beyond them By bringing them into contact, although not always into uncontradictory relation Nietzsche transfers them from mere existence in philosophy, or scientific literature in general, into the sphere of the creed or Weltanschauung' of the educated classes and thus his book becomes capable of influencing the views and strivings of a whole age. His immense rhetorical power and rhapsodic gift give them a stress they scarcely possessed before. His enthusiasm and energy of thought animate them, and his lyrical talent transforms them into ' true poetry ' for the believers in them. He makes the freest use of traditional wisdom, of proverbs and sayings of poets and philosophers that can easily be traced to their original source, partly by repeating them but slightly altered, partly by transforming them considerably, partly by turning them into their contrary, or even into more than that, by giving them a new point altogether, while keeping nine-tenths of their old form. And this close connection with the wisdom of the century gives a person who is well read in German literature of the present century quite a peculiar pleasure in read- ing the book." The scouters will take an opposite view ; and as is always the case when new prophets claim the future, there will be many who would as soon seek enjoyment in the reading of Revelation as in that of Thus S^pake Zarathustra. (New York; Macmillan. Pp. 499. Price, $2.-50.) Dr. Eugen Heinrich Schmitt has just published a study of Nietzsche entitled Friedrich Nietzsche an der Grenzscheide zzveier Weltalter. (Leipzig : Alfred Janssen. 1898. Pages, 151.) It is the work of an admirer. * * Attention was called in the January number of The 0;pen Court to the remark- able series of text-books of elementary mathematics now publishing under the di- rection of M. Darboux, Dean of the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, and we have a few words to add to that review concerning the important work that constitutes the first number of the series, the Lefons d'arithmetigue, theorique et ;practique, by Jules Tannery, Associate Director of the Scientific Department of the ficole Nor- male Superieure.' The book begins with the consideration of the notion of num- ber, counting, notation, the fundamental operations, etc., and gradually proceeding from these more concrete and more familiar data of mathematical experience, ulti- mately carries the student into the purely abstract regions of the subject ; whereas at the beginning, therefore, the work, although fuller and more readable, treats of the same subjects as the usual text-books, at the end we are led to the consideration of such advanced doctrines as the elementary theory of numbers, which, although briefly treated, is made to appear in its modern form as a science and not as an aggregate of disconnected theorems. As to fractions, they are regarded as systems of two whole numbers, and thus an important subject is kept entirely within the domain of arithmetic proper, and made to pave the way for the introduction of imaginary numbers in algebra. Following Dedekind, irrational numbers are de- fined by stating between what larger and smaller rational numbers they lie. These numbers are thus assigned their natural places in the number-continuum. The fundamental propositions regarding limits are also developed, and brief historical 1 Paris : Armand Colin &Cie.,'5 rue de M^ziferes. Pp.,i509. 126 THE OPEN COURT. remarks have been supplied. The discussions of the book are ample, the develop- ments easy and natural, and not marred by a strained effort for rigor and con- ciseness. The practical sides of arithmetic, notably methods of approximation and abridged procedures of computation, are emphasised; but mere mechanical expert- ness is never inculcated at the expense of reason and theory, which are always placed in the foreground. Great attention has been paid to the examples which form the logical complement of the text, and are in themselves an essential and in- tegrant part of the work. In fine, the work contains a vast amount of general and detailed material which can scarcely be found in any other book on the subject in English. * * » The joint committee appointed some years ago by the most prominent of the American universities and colleges, for adopting a standard and uniform system of English requirements for admission to college, marked the beginning of an exceed- ingly important educational reform in the United States. The extension of the same idea to the remaining systems of requirements, although far more difficult of execution, will be a great step toward raising the standard of American education. In the case of English, the students of all academies and high schools throughout the United States now know in advance what will be required of them for admis- sion to any college of high rank in the United States, and can consequently make their work conform to this end, without loss of time, money, or effort. Many pub- lishers have taken advantage of the new system to issue in convenient form small editions of the English classics whose reading forms part of the requirements men- tioned, but in general style and good typographical make-up, the editions of The Macmillan Company are superior to any that we have seen. The latest issues are Macaulay's essay on Milton, edited and annotated by Charles Wallace French, principal of the Hyde Park High School, Chicago, and Tennyson's Princess, ed- ited by Wilson Farrand, of Newark, N. J. Macaulay's Addison, George Eliot's Silas Marner, Coleridge's Ancient Mariner, Shakespeare's Macbeth and Mer- chant of Venice, with various other of the required volumes, have also been pub- lished. The books are small i6mos, bound in neat, flexible covers, and cost only 25 cents each. Their sphere of usefulness should not be limited entirely to the school-room. * We remarked many months ago upon the plan of M. Henri Joly to publish a series of Biographies of the Saints, and noticed his introductory work on the Psy- chology of Saints. The idea of M. Joly was not exactly that which would have suggested itself to the ultra-psychological critic. His treatment would not ac- cord with the possible treatment of M. Ribot, The ideal he sets is to reconstruct in vivid and faithful historical outlines both the personality and the epoch of his various subjects, and thus to depict reality rather as it appeared to the contempo- raries of the saints than as it would appear to psychological analysis proper. It is the work of the loving admirer rather than of the heartless critic. We glean from the titles and reputations of the collaborators that the series is intended for devout believers ; nevertheless the ideal is far above that which has usually shaped the character of such works. The series has been successful ; the initial volume by M, Joly on the Psychology of the Saints is now in its fourth edition ; the Biography of Saint Vincent de Paul, by the distinguished academician, the Due de Broglie, is also in its fourth edition ; that of Saint Augustine of Canterbury is in its third edition ; that of Saint Louis, Saint Jerome, and two others are in their second edi- MISCELLANEOUS. 127 tion. We have now to announce the publication of two new volumes, — that of Saint Ignace de Loyola, by M. Joly, and that of Saint Etienne, the apostolic king of Hungary, by E. Horn. M. Joly has made use of recently discovered ma- terial in his work, which has throughout many high qualities ; and it may be said of both volumes that they are very interesting reading. The publisher is Victor Lecoffre, Paris, rue Bonaparte go. The price of each volume is only 2 francs bound, 3 francs. * * * Longmans, Green & Co have just issued a monumental product of typography in the form of the new Metafhysic of Exferience of Mr. Shadworth H. Hodgson, a distinguished English thinker. Honorary LL D. of Edinburgh University, Hon- orary Fellow of Oxford University, Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, and Past-President of the Aristotelian Society. The work, which appears in four vol- umes of nearly 500 pages each, is a thoroughgoing review and examination of the philosophical field, and embodies the results of a life-time of thought and patient industry. We intend to give the work a critical examination in a forthcoming num- ber of The Monist. * We have to acknowledge the receipt of bound copies of Volumes VII and VIII of 7'/ie Critical Reviexv of Theological and Philosophical Literature, edited by Prof. S. S. F. Salmond, and published by T. & T. Clark, of Edinburgh (imported by Charles Scribner's Sons, New York). The Critical Review resembles in some respects the French Annates and the German Jahrbilcher; it does not contain in- dependent articles, but is made up simply of analyses, critical reviews, and notices of theological literature, and also of philosophy in so far as it forms a part of theo- logical study. These reviews are all by well-known authorities, and maintain a high standard. The clergyman and the theological scholar could scarcely find a better record of the English, German, and French publications in their field. The price of each volume is I2.00 net. * Henry Holt & Co. , of New York, are the publishers of a new text-book upon The Science of Finance for the use of colleges and universities. The author is Prof. Henry Carter Adams, of the University of Michigan, and the subtitle of the book, which more clearly defines its purpose, reads: "An Investigation of Public Expenditures and Public Revenues." The choice of the topics and the manner of discussion have been determined by a desire on the part of Professor Adams to "contribute something to the development of a financial system that shall satisfy the peculiar requirements of Federal and local government in the United States." He begins with a discussion of fundamental principles, a consideration of the na- ture of public wants, and a classification of the means to be employed for realising the aim which his "science sets. The work is divided into two parts entitled re- spectively. Public Expenditures and Public Revenues. In the first part, "The Theory of Public Expenditures," "Budgets and Budgetary Legislation" are con- sidered ; and in the second part the subjects ' ' Public Domains and Public Indus- tries," "Taxation," and "Public Credit" are treated. The work is large, contain- ing nearly 600 pages, and in style and general structure is as well adapted for independent reading as for university instruction. * * * The Macmillan Company have published a little work entitled Economics, by Dr. Edward Thomas Devine, general secretary of the Charity Organisation So- 128 THE OPEN COURT. ciety of the City of New York, and sometime fellow in the University of Pennsyl- vania. As to the point of view of the work, it will be sufficient to state that it is the production of a pupil of Prof. Simon N. Patten, of the University of Penn- sylvania. The work is simple and in part almost primer-like in its method of pre sentation, and will be found by all to be clear reading. It is a work which the uninitiated reader can peruse with facility and profit. It contains seventeen chap- ters treating of the economic man, the economic environment, the making and con- sumption of goods, value, distribution, money, the organisation of credit and indus- try, the disposition of the social surplus, etc. (Pp. 404. Price, $1.00.) The same company has also recently issued a timely little book on The Control of the Tropics, by Benjamin Kidd, the well-known author of that very successful work. Social Evolution. According to Mr. Kidd's view, ' ' the two leading sections of the English-speaking world, and particularly the American people, are, in their relations to the tropical regions of the earth, passing through a period of develop- ment which, in the result, is likely to profoundly influence the history of the world in the twentieth century." Mr. Kidd believes in the future ascendency of the two great English-speaking nations, and thinks that their method of dealing with the tropical problem is the only one which is destined to succeed. "The prevailing idea of a colony among the Continental Powers of Europe is the one which has been abandoned for a century throughout the^ English-speaking world — the idea that it is an estate to be worked for the exclusive profit of the Power whose posses- sion it is. The prevailing idea of a colony in England is that which governs the relations of England to Canada and Australia, where England is dealing practically with equals in these great modern States, in which all the forces resident in our civ- ilisation are operative." The publicist and the student of international politics will find helpful data and suggestive ideas in Mr. Kidd's little book. (New York : The Macmillan Company. Pp. loi. Price, 75 cents.) A more important and enduring work is The Rise and GrozvtJi of American Politics, being a sketch of constitutional development, by Henry James Ford. (New York ; The Macmillan Company. Pp.409. Price, $1.50.) The author in- forms us that it is the purpose of the work to tell the story of our politics so as to explain their nature and interpret their characteristics. He has omitted the con- sideration of questions of public policy and of party issues, which are referred to only in so far as they have affected the formation of political structure. It has been his object to give rather an explanation of causes than a narrative of events ; never- theless, the work presents a view of our political history from colonial times to the present day. Inasmuch as our politics are an offshoot from English politics, "the growth of the variety is studied with regard to the characteristics of the stock.' The work is divided into four parts : ' ' Origins of American Politics " are treated in Part I. ; "Political Development " is treated in Part II. ; " The Organs of Gov- ernment" are dealt with in Part III. ; and " The Tendencies and Prospects of American Politics " are considered in Part IV. The work is pleasantly written, and affords an accurate insight into the present status of American politics, and into the system of the government under which we live. Its perusal by thinking citizens would go a great way toward removing the prejudices which hamper indi- vidual political thought and action. Mathematical Essays and Recreations By HERMANN SCHUBERT Professor of Mathematics in the Johanneum, Hamburg, Germany. Translated from the German by THOMAS J. McCORMACK. Pages, 149. Cuts, 37. Price, Cloth, 75c. (3s. 6d.); Paper, 25c. (is. 6d.). Contents : Notion and Definiiion of Number. The Magic Square. Monism in Arithmetic. The Fourth Dimension. On the Nature of Mathematical Knowledge The Squaring of the Circle. The mathematical essays and recreations in this volume are by one of the most successful teachers and text-book writers of Germany. The monistic construction of arithmetic, the systematic and organic develop- ment of all its consequences from a few thoroughly established principles, is quite foreign to the general run of American and English elementary text-books, and the first three essays of Professor Schubert will,, therefore, from a logical and esthetic side, be full of suggestions for elementary mathematical teachers and students, as well as for non-mathematical readers. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., ..^'^fATrkst. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. THE BIBLES OF ALL NATIONS. Selections from the Sacred Scriptures of Egyptians, Hindus, Buddhists, Parsees, Chinese, Mohammedans, Jews, Christians, Greeks and Romans. Second Edition. Topically arranged under Character, Integrity, Friendship, Progress, Wealth, Immortality, Deity, etc., etc. By Alfred W. Martin. Minister of the Tacoma Free Church of Universal Religion. Pages, 70, cloth, 12mo. Neatly bound in blue and red. A Dainty Gift Book. Price Reduced to 50 Cents. Sent post-paid by addressing THE FREE CHURCH RECORD, 409 North E Street, TACOMA, WASH. SIXTY-NINTH YEAR. 1899 THE BIBLIOTHECA SACRA A Religious and Sociological Quarterly CONDUCTED BY Q. FREDERICK WRIGHT Z. SWIFT HOLBROOK Oberlin, O. Boston, Mass. Associated with EDWARDS A. PARK, NEWELL DWIGHT HILLIS, FRANK WAKELEY GUNSAULUS, FRANK H. FOSTER, JUD.SON SMITH, D. W. SIMON, WM. M. BARBOUR, SAMUEL IVES CURTISS, CHAS. F. THWING, A. A. BERLE, W. E. BARTON, E. H. JOHNSON, JACOB COOPER AND E. W. BEMIS. Contents of January, 1899 : The Outlook in Theology. Edward L. Curtis Christianity and Idealism. yames Lindsay The Place of a Miracle. 5. Leroy Blake Sentimental Sociology. George Luther Cady Warp and Woof. Frederick A. Noble A Side-Light on Luther. R. Clyde Ford The Nature of the Divine Indwelling. The New Political Economy. Frank Parsons Calvin B. Hulbert Dr. Driver's Proof-Texts. G. Frederick Wright The Philosophical Disintegration of Islam. The Christian Conception of Wealth. Henry Woodward Hulbert Charles C. Merrill Semitic, Critical, Sociological Notes, and Book Reviews in each Number. Rare Bargains for New Subscribers : 1 Bihliotheca Sacra Lotze's Microcosmus (1488 pages. Thick 8vo) 86.00 1 ^ . "="'-•-"---- '- - for 1899 3,00 f For $5.00. Regular Price 89.00 Davey's Cuba, Past and Present (Crown 8vo) 8^ 00 I t- .f. Bihliotheca Sacra for 1899 3.00 f For »3.30. Regular Price .86,00 2ns' Yesterdavs in the Bihliotheca Sacra Joseph Earle Stevens' Yesterdays in the Philippines ti.io I „ "•■-■■-"-- - for 1899 3.oof For $2.40. Regular Price 84.50 Walter A. Wyckoffi's The Workers— The East 8125) Walter A. Wyckoff's The Workers— The West 1.50)- For $3.15. JBibliotheca Sacra for 1899 3,03 ) Regular Price ,85.75 800 pp. Three Dollars a Year; 75 Cents a Number. Address THE BIBLIOTHECA SACRA CO., OBERLIN, OHIO, U. S. A. PMlosophical and Psychological Portrait Series. (Forty-five numbers now ready.) Suitable for framing and hanging in public and private libraries, laboratories, seminaries, recitation and lecture rooms. The portraits, which are ii x 14 in., will be taken from the best sources, and will be high-grade photogravures. The series is now nearly complete. HUME. To Subscribers: ^^HH| Philosophical : ^^^^^^H PYTHAGORAS SPINOZA SCHOPENHAUER ^^^^^^1 SOCRATES* LOCKE HERBART ^^H^^^H PLATO'S BERKELEY* FEUERBACH ^^^^^Hi ARISTOTLE* HUME LOTZE* ^^^^^Hi EPICTETUS* CONDILLAC REID* ^^I^^^H THO.MAS AQUINAS DIDEROT DUGALD STEWART H^^^^^H ST. AUGUSTINE* LEIBNITZ SIR W. HAMILTON ^^^^^^^1 DUNS SCOTUS* WOLFF COUSIN ^^H^^M GIORDANO BRUNO KANT COMTE* H^^^^^H BACON FICHTE* ROSMINI ^^H^^^H HOBBES SCHELLING J. STUART MILL* n^s^^^l DESCARTES HEGEL* HERBERT SPENCER K^^^P^I MALEBRANCHE Bjii^BaH Psychological : I^K^^MB CABANIS STUMPF C. L. MORGAN ^^^^nB MAINE DEBIRAN* MUNK* ROMANES BENEKE* EXNER PAUL JANET |.^^HffiH| G. E. MUELLER* WERNICKE* RIBOT v^S^S E. H. 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' ' I congratulate you on the magnificent character of the portraits, and I feel proud to have such adornments for my lecture room." — /. /. McNuUy, Professor of Philosophy in the College of the City of New York. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. CHICAQO, 324 Dearborn St. A NEW BOOK BY THE DIRECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY AND SOMETIME DI- RECTOR OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. TRUTH AND ERROR OR THE SCIENCE OF INTELLECTION By J. W. POWELL. Pages, 423. Cloth, gilt top, $1.75 (7s. 6d.). Important to Psychologists and Students of the Philosophy of Science. A Highly Original Work 07i Psychology, dealing largely zfith E^istemology . The first part of the book is a compendious exposition of the properties of matter. These properties, five in number, give rise in man to intellectual faculties, represented by five senses. There are also five fac- ulties of emotion, The author teaches a new doctrine of judgments, and carefully analyses them in the five intellections which he calls sensation, perception, understanding, reflection, and ideation, each of these fac- ulties being founded on one of the senses. Intellectual errors are classified as fallacies of sensation, fallacies of perception, fallacies of under- standing, fallacies of reflection, and fallacies of ideation, and a war is waged against the meiaphysic of the idealists in the interest of the philosophy of science. In the chapters on fallacies there is a careful discussion of the theory of ghosts, especially as treated in the publications of the Society for Psychical Research, and by various other authors on the same subject. No student of the sciences can afford to neglect this book. The discussion is clear and entertaining. On the Study and Difficulties of Mathematics By AUGUSTUS DE MORGAN. Just Published — New corrected and annotated edition, with references to date, of the work published in 1831 by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The original is now scarce. With a fine Portrait of the great Mathematical Teacher, Complete Index, and Bibliographies of Modern Works on Algebra, the Philosophy of Mathematics, Pangeometry, etc. Pp. viii + 288. Cloth, $1.25 (5s.). "A Valuable Essay." — Prof. Jevons, in the Encydofccdia Britannica. "The mathematical writings of De Morgan can be commended unreservedly. "—Prof. W. W. Beman, University of Michigan. " It is a pleasure to see such a noble work appear as such a gem of the book-maker's art." — Principal David Eugene Smith, Brockport Normal School, N. Y. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., a^^XaAS^n st. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. BOOKS OF TO=DAY. THE WAR AS A SUQQESTION OF MANIFEST DESTINY. By Prof. H. H. Powers, of Stanford University . . Price, 25c. The development o£ our new policy of imperialism. 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A history of the struggle between England and America to control the canal when built, dwelling especially on the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, THE LEGAL STATUS OF CALIFORNIA 1846-49. By Prof. R. D. Hunt, University of the Pacific . . Price, 25c. A description of the conflict of opinion between the citizens of California and the United States civil and military authorities in the interregnum between its cession and the complete integration of California in the system of states and territories. Current events in Porto Rico and Hawaii have a strange resemblance to these events of fifty years ago. SOCIAL THEORIES AND RUSSIAN CONDITIONS. By Dr. F. Sigel, of the University of Warsaw . . . Price, 25c. "Russia from the standpoint of a Russian. The author explains how Russia has developed particularly on political, social, and religious lines, and draws a compari- son between her civilisation and that of Western Europe and America." PROPOSED REFORMS OF THE MONETARY SYSTEM. By Professor Jos. F. 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COMMENDATORY NOTICES: " Many attempts have been made since Old Testament criticism settled down into a science, to write the history of Israel popularly. And some of these attempts are highly meritorious, especially Kittel's and Kent's. But Cornill has been most successful. His book is smallest and it is easiest to read. He has the master faculty of seizing the essential and passing by the accidental. His style {especially as freely trans- lated into English by Professor Carruth of Kansas) is pleasing and restful. Nor is he excessively radical. If Isaac and Ishmael are races, Abraham is an individual still. And above all, he has a distinct heroic faith in the Divine mission of Israel."— T'A^ Expository Times, " I know of no work that will give the beginner a more admirable introduction to the study of the history of Israel than this little volume. There is a fine discrimination of those events which are really important and an extraordinary ability in exhibiting their genetic relations. The place of Hebrew history in universal history is shown with accurate knowledge of recent archaeological discovery. The religious significance of Israel's history is appreciated to a degree that is unusual in an adherent of the radical school. It is refresh- ing to find Samuel regarded as more than a mere fortune-teller, David as more than a robber chief, and Sol- omon as more than a voluptuary. In this respect as well as in many of his historical conclusions Cornill rep- resents a reaction against the extremes of Stade and Wellhausen. One is much struck in reading this book with the similarity of its own story to the traditional idea of the course of the history of Israel. If the author did not occasionally warn his readers against the traditional view, I doubt if the average layman would find anything that would startle him. The professional Old Testament student recognises how here and there details have been modified by criticism, but still the sweep of the narrative is the same as that to which we are accustomed. This is significant as showing how even the more radical criticism leaves untouched the main outline of the history of Israel as presented in the books of the Old Testament. The publishers arp to be commended for their enterprise in securing the publication of this work in English before it appeared in German. The translation is admirably done. The book reads as if written originally in English." — The Hartford Seminary Record, " Professor Cornill has an unusually direct and pithy style for a German, and especially a theologian, and is a master of condensation. Added to these qualities there is a strength and beauty of expression, with occasional touches of eloquence, betraying a feeling and earnestness which are perhaps the more effective be- cause unexpected. To the student this work will not only be of interest as illustrating a method of recon- structing history, but of positive value for its scholarly use of all the results of research which throw light upon the history of Israel and its relations to other peoples. Taken in connexion with the Scripture records it becomes at many points an instructive and illuminating aid." — The Watchman. "A good example of the cultured taste which is making history accessible to the desultory reader who lacks time or inclination, or both, for the study of ponderous tomes, may be found here, While most of us have a certain familiarity with Greek and Roman history, we question if there is anything like so widespread a knowledge of historical facts concerning the Jews, save what we remember of what we have read in the B\h\e."— Public Opinion. " It will be found an excellent accompaniment to the study of the Old Testament Scriptures, written, as it is, from the dignified standpoint of the conscientious and truth-loving historian, respecting honest reli- gious convictions, and at all times avoiding the tone of cynicism so commonly displayed at those times when historical investigation seems to conflict with the statements of avowed inspiration." — Chicago Evening Post. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., ^.^IfJ^^^ii, st. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. The Religion of Science Library. A Collection of standard works of The Open Court Press, issued bi- monthly. Yearly, $1.50; single numbers, 15, 25, 35, 50 and 60 cents (gd., IS. 6d., 2s., 2s. 6d., 3s.), according to size. The books are printed on good paper, from large type. The Religion of Science Library, by its extraordinarily reasonable price, will bring a number of important books within reach of all readers. 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A MONTHLY MAGAZINE IN ENGLISH or Art, Custom, Religion, and Literature in Japan, Containing a Summary Notice of Current Topics, Political, Social, and Religious. The First Number of the First Series Appeared in January Last. Terms. — Single copies, 20 sen each, 6 pence for foreign countries annual subscription 2.20 yen, for foreign countries 6 shillings. Postage- free. — Advertising: One page, 12 yen; half a page, 6 yen; one inch, 2 yen each insertion. THE HANSEI ZASSHI is absolutely the best, most complete, and most beautiful English maga- zine published in Japan. It contains in every number several original, interesting articles on the manners and customs, fine arts, literature, and religion of the Japanese: nation. It also gives comprehensive, trustworthy information on the politi- cal, social, and religious topics of the time. As a magazine of artistic taste, it is unique. 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Price for each volume, sold separately, S3. 50, or $15.00 for the set. Address AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN Office, Chicago, 111. Buddhism and Its Christian Critics By Dr. Paul Carus. 8vo. Pages, 311. Price, ^1.25. Contents : THE ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM. THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEM. THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF BUDDHISM. BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. CHRISTIAN CRITICS OF BUDDHISM. "Every religious man should study Other' religions in order to understand his own religion ; and he must try to trace conscientiously and lovingly the similarities in the various faiths in order to acquire the key that will unlock to him the law of the religious evolution of mankind." — From the author's Preface. The Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago Address ; Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict 144 Madison St., CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. THE PROHIBITED LAND THE TRAVELS IN TARTARY, THIBET AND CHINA Of MM. HUC and GABBT New Edition. From the French. Two Vols. lOo Illustrations. 688 Pages. Cloth, $2.00 (los.). Handsomely Bound in Oriental Style. A Classic Work of Travels. One of the Most Popular Books of All Times. Read the Following Commendatory Notices: " The work made a profound sensation. Although China and the other countries of the Orient liave been opened to foreigners in larger measure in recent years, few observers as keen and as well qualified to put their observations in finished form have appeared, and M, Hue's story remains among the best sources of information concerning the Thibetans and Mongolians." — The Watchman. "The book is a classic, and has taken its place as such, and few classics are so interesting. It de- serves to be put on the same shelf as Lane's Modern Egyptians. Recent investigations only strengthen the truth of the intrepid missionary's observations — observations which were once assumed in Europe to be sensational and overdone. These reprints ought to have a large sale. It would be a good time for the Catholic libraries to add them to their stock of works on travel. They will find that few books will have more readers than the missionary adventures of Abbe Hue and his no less daring companion." — The Cath- olic News. " Our readers will remember the attempt of Mr. A. Henry Savage Landor, the explorer, to explore the mysteries of the holycity of L'hassa, in Thibet. The narrative of the frightful tortures he suffered when the Thibetans penetrated his disguise, has been told by Mr. Landor himself. But where Mr. Landor failed two very clever French missionaries succeeded. Father Hue and Father Gabet, disguised as Lamas, en- tered the sacred eity, and for the first time the eyes of civilised men beheld the shocking religious ceremo- nials of L'hassa. The complete story of their extraordinary experiences is told in the book Travels in Tar- tary, Thibet, and China, published by The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago." — New York Journal. " Fools, it is known, dash in where angels fear to tread, and there are also instances of missionaries dashing in where intrepid and experienced travellers fail. Such was the case with MM. Hue and Gabet, the two mild and modest French priests who, fifty years ago, without fuss, steadily made their untortured way from China across Thibet and entered L'hassa with the message of Christianity on their lips. It is true that they were not allowed to stay there as long as they had hoped; but they were in the Forbidden Land and the Sacred City for a sufficient time to gather enough facts to make an interesting and very valu- able book, which on its appearance in the forties (both in France and England) fascinated our fathers much in the way that the writings of Nansen and Stanley have fascinated us. To all readers of Mr. Lander's new book who wish to supplement the information concerning the Forbidden Land there given, we can recommend the work of M. Hue. Time cannot mar the interest of his and M. Gabet's daring and successful enterprise." — The Academy. "They two visited countries of v^hieb Europe was, at the time, all but absolutely ignorant, and their record struck the reading world with almost incredulous wonderment." — The Agnostic Journal. "Has become classical. The work is still an authority on Thibetan Buddhism, and by its pleasant narration of varied adventures will always be readable." — The Dial. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3.A"e'fr^b?r"„ st. London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. When you want to ride first-class in a railway train you get in the parlor car. When you want to ride first-class on a bicy- cle you select a Columbia Chainless, $75. If determined, however, to stick to the chain, see our 1899 Columbia Chain Models 57 and 58, $50 ; or our Colum- bia Model 49 with 1899 improve= ments; $40; Hartfords $35, and Ve- dettes $25 and $26. The reputation of our bicycles for cor- roborating in actual service our advertised claims has been obtained through 22 years of fair dealing. Our 1899 Models are offered at prices but little higher than the price of the poorest. Why Not Get the Best? POPE MANUFACTURING CO., Hartford, Conn. AN ORIENTAL ART WORK Scenes from the Life of Buddha Reproduced in Colors from the Paintings of Keichyu Yamada, Professor in the Imperial Art Institute, Tokyo. With a Handsome Cover-Stamp especially designed for the volume by Frederick W. Gookin, in imitation of a Buddha-painting of the Fifteenth Cen- tury. Just Published. Price, $2.50. These pictures, which are a marvel of daintiness, have been reproduced by the new and expensive three-color process. The inimitable delicacy of tint of the originals has been brought out in this way with scarcely any loss of quality. Unique and Original. The illustrations are eight in number and occupy each a separate leaf, with the descriptions and references intervening. The publishers will send the work on inspection to subscribers to The Open Court, provided the same be re- turned uninjured and carefully packed within two days after its receipt, if not satisfactory. The Open Court Publishing Co., 324 DEARBORN ST., Chicago, - - = Illinois. THE MONIST. A QUARTERLY MAGAZINE Devoted to the Philosophy of Science. PUBLISHED BY THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. MoNON Building, 324 Dearborn Street. Post-Opfice Drawer F. Annually $3,00 (9s. 61I.). Single Copies, 50 cents (2S. 6d.)> AGENTS AND TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION. SINGLE COPIES YEARLY London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road 2S. 6d. 9s. ed. ■ Leipsic: Otto Harrassowitz - M. 2.50 M. g.50 Rotterdam : H. A. Kramers & Son Fl. 6.60 Palermo : } Libreria Carlo Clausen Lire la MiLANo : Ulrico Hoepli, Librario della Real Casa - — Lire 12 Boston ; Damrell & Upham, 283 Washington Street 50 cents S2.00, New York : Lemcke & Buechner, 812 Broadway 50 cents 52.00. Postpaid to New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, and New Zealand, and all countries in U. P. U., for one year, 52.25. Recent and Porthcomlne Features : A Series of Articles on General Philosophy. Principal C. Lloyd Morgan, Bristol, England, The Primitive Inhabitants of Europe. .Pro/. G, Sergi, Rome. On General Biology. Prq/". Yves Delage, Paris. On Pasigraphy. Prof. E. Schroder, Carlsruhe. On the Foundations of Geometry. Prof, H. Poincari, Paris. On Science and Faith. Dr. Paul Topinard, Paris. On the Education of Children. Vr. Paul Carus. The Gospel According to Darwin. Dr. Woods Hutchinson, Buffalo, N. Y. Retrogressive Phenomena in Evolution. Prof. C. Lombroso, Turin. General Review of Current German, French, and Italian Philosophical Literature. By Prqf. P. Jodl, Vienna M. Lvcien Arriat, Paris, and Prof. G. Piatningo, Rome, SOME RECENT CONTRIBUTORS : In General Philosophy : In Logic, Mathematics, Theory of Science : PROF. KURD LASSWITZ CHARLES S. PEIRCE PROF. RUDOLF EUCKEN PROF. FELIX KLEIN PROF. F. JODL SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL THE LATE PROF. J. DELBCEUF PROF. ERNST MACH PROF. C. LLOYD MORGAN PROF. HERMANN SCHUBERT In Biology and Anthropology : PROF. AUGUST WEISMANN THE LATE G. J. ROMANES PROF. ERNST HAECKEL PROF. C. LLOYD MORGAN PROF. C. O. WHITMAN PROF. TH. EIMER PROF. JOSEPH LeCONTE DR. PAUL TOPINARD PROF. E. D. COPE PROF. MAX VERWORN DR. ALFRED BINET PROF. C. LOMBROSO DR. EDM. MONTGOMERY PROF. JACQUES LOEB DR. JAMES CAPPIE In Psychology : In Religion and Sociology : PROF. TH. RIBOT DR. PAUL TOPINARD PROF. JAMES SULLY DR. FRANCIS E. ABBOTT DR. G. FERRERO PROF. HARALD HOEFFDING DR. J. VENN DR. PAUL CARUS DR. ERNST MACH PROF. G. FIAMINGO PROF. C, LLOYD MORGAN PROF. E. D. COPE THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3a/D"e'a^AS2. st. Lectures On Elementary Mathematics By JOSEPH LOUIS LAGRANGE Being the Course of Lectures Delivered at the 6cole Normale, Paris, 1795 Translated from the French by THOMAS J. McCORMACK With a Fine Photogravure Portrait of the Great Mathematician, Notes, Bibliographical Sketch of Lagrange, Marginal Analyses, Index, etc. Handsomely Bound in Red Cloth. Pages, 172. Price, $1.00 net. (5s). A Masterpiece of First Separate Mathematical Edition in Engrlish Exposition or French " I intend to recommend Lagrange's Lectures on Elementary Mathematics to the students of my course in the Theory of Equations, for collateral reading, and also to the teachers of elementary mathematics who attend my summer conferences on the Pedagogy of Mathematics. I trust that this valuable translation is but the forerunner of others in the same field by your house."— y. W. A. Young, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Chicago. " I put the book aside for a careful and leisurely perusal, in the first rush of my return from Japan, and DOW have reached it, and am truly surprised at it. It makes Lagrange human and personal to me. How he knew his Euclid I " — Dr. George Bruce Halsied, Prest. Texas Academy of Science. " Probably never equalled in the peculiar quality of leading the mind to see and enjoy the beauty as well as the accuracy of the science. It sets forth not only the bare science, but makes clear its correlation with history and philosophy." — The Chicago Chronicle. "The book ought to be in the hands of every high-school teacher of mathematics in America, for the sake of getting Lagrange's point of view." — Prof, Henry Crew, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. " Can we not get Lagrange before the mass of the teachers? No teacher should teach elementary mathematics who has not mastered the matter represented by this work." — L. Graham Crazier, Knoxville, Tenn. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 3,/Di^toTn st. London ; Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. Popular Scientific Lectures A Portrayal of tlie Methods and Spirit of Science By ERNST MACH, Professor in the University of Vienna. Translated from the German by Thomas J. McCormack. Third Edition. Pages, 415. An Elegant Volume. In Cloth, Gilt Top, J1.50 net. (7s. 6d.) Lectures on Mechanics, Sound, Light, Electricity, the Conservation of Energy, Philosophy, r'B and Education. The thoughts of the Master Minds of _lfi fG? V, Science are here presented in popular form by one of its C^>^rT±^^ f\\ foremost living representatives. _ mS', ',-- W Verdicts of the Press : "A most fascinating volume, . . . has scarcely a rival in the whole realm of popular scientific writing." — Boston Traveller. "Truly remarkable. . . . May be fairly called x&xe," —Professor Crew, N. W. University, "A masterly exposition." — Scotsman, Edinburgh. "A very delightful and useful book."— Daily Picayune, New Orleans. " Will please those who find the fairy tales of science more absorbing than fiction." — Pilat, Boston. "Have all the interest of \i\e\y &ction."— Commercial Adver- lUustrating proof of the law of the tiser. inclined plane. The whole string of .. ug merary and philosophical suggestiveness is very rich "— balls IS in equilibrium; cut away the Hartford Seminary Record. ^ ^^ ness is very ricn. lower part, and the balls on the sides '' still remain in equilibrium ; hence the tu« «« * u*-j; - * / ^ji v » .. powers on the sides are as the number ^"^ ^^""^ '° P^P^"^ binding, 50 cents (2S. 6d.). Send of the balls, or as the lengths. money by post office order, express order, or in stamps. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., ^.^^"^^^^^ London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co.