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C 681 ] 
 
 XXVI. Experimental Inquiries into the Chemical and other Phenomena of Respiration, 
 and their Modifications hy various Physical agencies. By Edward Smith, M.D., 
 LL.B. (Lond.), M-B.C.P., Corresponding Member of the Academic des Sciences et 
 Lettres de Montpellier, and of the Natural History Society of Montreal, Assistant- 
 Physician to the Hospital for Consumption, Prompton, &c. Communicated by Sir 
 B. C. Brodie, Part., Pres. B.S. 
 
 Eeceived December 16, 1858, — Eead January 20, 1859. 
 
 Notwithstanding the number of valuable observations upon this subject which have 
 been made since the publication of the first memoir of Lavoisier, there is but little 
 which has been conclusively established. Of the causes inducing this, two have para- 
 mount importance, viz. the practice of deduciag large from small quantities, in reference 
 to a subject in which the quantities are ever varying, and the absence of any method 
 whereby experiments could be repeated so frequently as to trace the changes actually 
 proceeding during the inquiry. I have named these two because it is to correct them 
 that I have directed my own observations. 
 
 During the past year I had the honour to transmit to the Eoyal Society the results of 
 an extended inquiry into the influence of various agents over the quantity of air inspired, 
 a short abstract of which was published in the ' Proceedings ' of the Society. Since that 
 period I have carried the inquiry further, and have determined the influence of those 
 agents over the carbonic acid exhaled, as well as over other phenomena of respiration. 
 
 The apparatus employed by previous observers for the determination of the quantity of 
 carbonic acid contained in the expired air, has been one of the following description : — 
 
 1st. That adopted by Prout*, CoATHUPEf, VierordtJ, and Boeker§, consisting of a 
 bag or other vessel of known capacity, into which the air was expired during a certain 
 time, and with a noted number of expirations ; and a graduated tube, into which a por- 
 tion of this expired air was passed, and the carbonic acid abstracted by potass, soda, or 
 lime. This was adapted to experiments lasting a few seconds only at a time. 
 
 2nd. A box of sufiicient capacity to permit a man to be seated in it, and rendered air- 
 tight, except at points which permitted the entrance and exit of air in given directions. 
 The analysis of the expired air was made by the aid of potass. This was Scharling's || 
 method, and by it he collected the products of the lungs and skin together, during a 
 period not exceeding 1^ hour. It was not practicable to determine the quantity of air 
 
 * Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, vols. ii. and It. t Philosophical Magazine, 18.39. 
 
 J Physiologic des Athmens, &c. § Beitrage zur Heilkunde, &c., 1849. 
 
 II Annales de Chimie, vol. viii. p. 478. 
 MDCCCLIX. 4 X 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
682 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 inspired, or to what extent the air was respired more than once ; and it was not easy to 
 prove how much carbonic acid remained in the box. 
 
 3rd. The method of Andeal and Gavarebt *, by which a mask of the capacity of an 
 ordinary expiration was placed over the whole face, and a continuous current of air 
 made to pass through it into an analytical apparatus without respiratory effort. 
 
 As the motor power was a vacuum produced in the receiver of the expired air, the 
 duration of each inquiry was limited to about half an hour ; and as all the air admitted 
 to the mask and the receiver did not enter the lungs, it was not possible to determine 
 the volume of air inspired. 
 
 Hence it was necessary, in order to pursue any serial and long-continued inquiry, to 
 devise a method which had not been adopted by previous observers. 
 
 The apparatus which I prepared for the purpose, after a long series of experiments, has 
 already been presented to the Royal Society, and it differs from any heretofore employed, 
 inasmuch as during the act of expiration, and for any length of time, it abstracts the 
 whole carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs. With it was conjoined a small dry gas-meter. 
 
 to measure the volume of the inspired air, as described in my former paper. The appara- 
 tus and method may be thus briefly described. 
 
 * Annales de Chimie, vol. viii. p. 129. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OF RESPIRATION. 683 
 
 A mask (A) is worn of a capacity only just large enough to receive the nose, lips, and 
 chin, and the apertures of the entrance and exit tubes. The part which sustains the 
 tubes (A 2) and the valves is made of brass, to the free edges of which is soldered sheet- 
 lead of sufficient thickness to remain fixed upon the features when it has been well 
 moulded to them (A 1), and to prevent the entrance of air except through the entrance- 
 tube. Elastic bands are suitably attached to it so as to bind it upon the head, when the 
 hands must be left free for other purposes. The entrance-tube is connected with the 
 spirometer by vulcanized caoutchouc tubing, and during the inspiration of the air the 
 index of the spirometer (B 1) registers the quantity from 1 to 1 million cubic inches. 
 The exit-tube leads to the analytical apparatus, and is connected vnth it by vulcanized 
 tubing. There are valves suitably arranged to prevent a retrograde current, and so light 
 that they do not oifer any important amount of resistance to the current of the expired air. 
 
 The analytical apparatus consists of — 
 
 1st. A Woulfe's bottle (C), of the capacity of 70 cubic inches, which is filled with 
 pieces of pumice-stone moistened with sulphuric acid. To the bottom of this the 
 current is directed, and in it the vapour is abstracted from the expired air. 
 
 2nd. A gutta-percha box (D), consisting of a series of chambers, each f ths of an inch 
 in depth, and offering a total superficies of 700 inches. The chambers are imperfectly 
 subdivided by partitions (E) into compartments of 2 inches wide, and so arranged that 
 the column of air must traverse the several compartments in each chamber, and each 
 chamber in succession from the bottom to the top of the box. Hence a column of air, 
 2 inclies vdde X f ths of an inch deep, is directed over an area of 700 inches. This area 
 is occupied by a solution of caustic potash of sp. gr. 1-27, which is introduced into each 
 chamber separately, and which, through fissures in the partitions of the compartments, 
 passes freely over the whole surface of each chamber. By this arrangement all the car- 
 bonic acid is abstracted with the rapidity of ordinary expiration ; and 30 fluid ounces of 
 the solution was found by experiment to abstract the whole carbonic acid up to 600 grains. 
 (It v»dll be observed that the air is not passed into, but only over caustic potash.) 
 
 3rd. A second drying apparatus (C), similar to the first one, to abstract the vapour- 
 which had been carried off from the solution of potash. 
 
 4th. A test of baryta water, over which the current was made finally to pass. 
 
 At the conclusion of each inquiry, the increase in weight of the potash-box (D), and 
 the second drying apparatus (C), gave the amount of carbonic acid abstracted ; and this 
 was determined by the aid of one of Oektliwg's balances (F), constructed to weigh, with 
 great care, to the Tooth of a grain, with 7 lbs. in each pan ; but it was not employed to 
 indicate less than the i^th of a grain in the large quantity of carbonic acid collected. 
 
 The apertures of the tubes throughout the apparatus had an area equal to that of the 
 trachea, so as to offer the least possible resistance to the current of air; a pressure of -^ths 
 of an inch of a column of water sufficed to move the spirometer, and an adverse pressure 
 of about half that amount was offered to expiration. By a series of experiments, I deter- 
 mined the extent to which the drying and carbonic-acid-abstracting apparatus were per- 
 fectly efficient ; and care was always taken to keep much within those limits. Several 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
684 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 sets of apparatus were at hand, so that by rapidly detaching one and attaching another 
 to the mask (A), a continuous inquiry could be maintained for an indefinite period ; and 
 when large quantities of air were required to pass through them (as under the influence 
 
 Drawing of a model in the possession of the Eoyal Society, showing the interior construction of the 
 potash-box. There is a series of chambers communicating by openings which are defended by a flange, as 
 at a, and divided by partitions, as at I. At c there are two sliding tubes, through which the air is passed 
 into the bottom chamber, and through the lateral openings of which the solution of potash is passed into 
 and out of each chamber separately. The openings are closed during the experiment by turning the inner 
 tube half round its axis. 
 
 of exertion), a double set was used at the same time. By some of these methods I was 
 enabled to make experiments in sleep, as well as in wakefulness, and with walking or 
 other modes of exertion, as well as at rest ; also for one or any limited number of minutes, 
 as well as for hours, and even for the whole day, continuously, except during short inter- 
 vals for meals. When the experiments were not continuous, they could be repeated 
 every ten minutes. Thus was avoided the fallacy attaching to the different composition 
 of different volumes or currents of the expired air by abstracting the carbonic acid from 
 the whole ; and the duration of each inquiry permitted me to escape from the errors of 
 the influence of the mind when directed to the respiration, and of inferring large from 
 very small quantities. In addition to this, I have endeavoured to give a more serial and 
 extended character to the investigations than any hitherto recorded. 
 
 The barometric pressure, and the temperature vnth the wet and dry bulb thermo- 
 meters, were duly recorded. The time was measured by an astronomical clock. 
 
 The objects of the inquiry were, the rate of pulsation and respiration, the quantity of 
 air inspired, and the amount of carbonic acid contained in the expired air. The amount 
 of vapour exhaled was also in a few instances determined ; but it was found that the 
 addition of this subject would render the inquiry too burdensome, and incapable of 
 repetition with suflicient frequency. 
 
 In the following communication I propose to show — 
 
 I. The quantity of carbonic acid evolved, and the changes in respiration, with and 
 without exertion, and with and without food, in the twenty-four hours of the day. 
 II. The variations from day to day, and from season to season. 
 
 III. The influence of walking and the treadwheel. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OF EESPIEATION. 685 
 
 I. QUANTITY OF CAEBONIC ACID EVOLVED, AND CHANGES IN EESPIEATION, WITH 
 AND WITHOUT EXEETION, AND WITH AND WITHOUT FOOD, IN THE TWENTT- 
 FOUE HOUES OF THE DAY. 
 
 1. With ordinary food. 
 
 No inquirer has hitherto collected the whole carbonic acid evolved by the lungs in 
 any considerable part of the day, neither has any one made serial experiments at each 
 of the hours of the day. Numerous observers have made isolated experiments at 
 various periods of the day (some have even experimented during the night) ; and a few 
 have, on certain days, made inquiries at intervals of about an hour for a large part of 
 the day ; and from these experiments, varying in number, duration, and interval, the 
 quantity of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs in the twenty-four hours has been deduced. 
 
 Lavoisier and Seguin*, in their memoir of 1789, state that the medium quantity 
 exhaled by the latter per day was 2 lbs. 5 oz. and 4 gros, but in the memoir of 1790 they 
 reduced it to 1 lb. 1 oz. 7 gros and 4 grs. These quantities represent 10 oz. 4 gros and 
 5 oz. 7 gros of carbon. They do not give the particulars of their computation. 
 
 CoATHUPEf computes that he expired 5 "45 oz. avoirdupois of carbon daily. 
 
 VALENTiif and BeujstneeJ, from inquuies prosecuted on several persons, give 173 grs. 
 of carbon as the quantity excreted per hour. 
 
 Andral and Gavarret§, and Scharling||, from similar inquiries made on a number 
 of persons respectively, state that the quantity of carbon burnt per hour varies from 
 77*2 grs. to 217'7 grs., and from 80-2 grs. to 154'3 grs., — quantities equal to 283 grs. and 
 798 grs., and again to 294 grs. and 566 grs. of carbonic acid per hour. 
 
 ViBRORDT has made a larger number of experiments, and of a more uniform and serial 
 kind than any hitherto published. He found that the medium of five of the highest 
 and five of the lowest experiments gave 7*5 grs. of carbonic acid per minuta The minima 
 were to the maxima as 1 to 2-25. 
 
 BARRAL*f[ inferred the quantity of carbon burnt by determining the difference between 
 the quantity contained in the ahment and that found in the excretions. It varied in 
 himself from 8^ oz. to 12 oz. daUy at difiierent seasons of the year. 
 
 Baron Liebig **, by a similar mode of inquiry upon a large number of Hessian soldiers, 
 found the medium quantity to be 13'9 oz. daily. 
 
 I do not think that we are justified in deducing the total quantity of carbon expired 
 in the twenty-four hours from the small quantities determined per minute or per hour 
 as above mentioned, when the authors have declined to do so; for most of the experi- 
 ments were not intended to embrace all the variations of that period. Andeal and 
 Gavarret expressly state that they do not feel warranted in doing so from their expe- 
 riments. Moreover, no just comparison of the results can be made, since they were 
 obtained under dissimilar and also under unrecorded circumstances ; and some of them 
 include the carbon exhaled by the skin also. The following comparison is therefore only 
 to a certain extent true : — 
 
 * Memoires de TAeademie des Sciences. t I'OC. cif. J Lelirbuch der Physiologie. 
 
 8 Loc. cit. II Loo. cit. % Aanales de Chimie, 3 a6r. vol. xxv. ** Letters on Chemistry. 
 
 ^ Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
686 
 
 DK. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 Observers. 
 
 Subjects of experiment. 
 
 Carbon expired in 24 hours, 
 oz. gros. 
 
 Lavoisier and Seguin . . . One person. 
 CoATHDPE One person. 
 
 Valentin and Brunnee 
 Andeal and Gavaeeet 
 
 schaeling' 
 
 Baeeal 
 
 LlEBIG 
 
 Several. 
 Several. 
 
 " Several. 
 
 One person. 
 
 JlO 
 
 15 
 5-45 
 9-202 
 
 r 4-0068 
 
 112 
 
 f 4-4 
 
 1 8-464 
 
 f 8-5 
 
 ll2 
 13-9 
 6-78 
 
 French. 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 [■Avoirdupois. 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 Many persons. 
 ViEEOEDT One person. 6-78 Avoirdupois. 
 
 This Table shows that the estimated quantities hitherto recorded are very diverse, and 
 I now proceed to state the result of my own inquiries. 
 
 Four series of inquiries have been instituted to determine these facts. In two (see 
 Tables I. and II. ) the experiments were continued during ten minutes, at the commence- 
 ment of each hour, and also of each half-hour immediately following the meals, whilst in 
 the others (see Tables III. and IV.) the inquu-y was continuous, that is, the whole 
 carbonic acid was collected during the whole hours of the working day, with very short 
 intervals for meals. Of the two first, one took place on March 12, 1858, in the Hunterian 
 Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, by the great com-tesy of the President and 
 Council of that learned body, beginning at 7 a.m. and ending at midnight ; the other in 
 the house of Mr. MouL, who, with great devotion to science, gave very efiicient aid in this 
 inquiry, continuing from 6^ A.M. until 10 p.m. on May 15. 
 
 In the first inquiry the subjects were: — 
 
 Myself, set. 38 years, 6 feet high, 196 lbs. in weight, and a vital capacity of 280 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 Mr. MouL, aet. 48 years, 5 feet 9-^ inches high, 175 lbs. weight. 
 
 Dr. MuEiE, set. 26 years, 5 feet 7^ inches high, 133 lbs. weight, vital capacity 250 
 cubic inches. 
 
 In the second, myself, Mr. MouL, and Professor Feankland, F.R.S., set. 33 years, 
 5 feet 10"!^ inches high, and 136 lbs. weight. 
 
 The two latter inquiries (or those in which the whole carbonic acid was collected) 
 were prosecuted upon myself alone ; one on March 22, in the Hunterian Museum, from 
 6|- A.M. until 9A P.M., and the other in my own house on August 10, from 7^ A.M. until 
 11^ P.M., with the exception of 1^ hour in the first, and one hour in the second inquiry for 
 meals at three or four periods of the day. All these inquiries were made in the sitting 
 posture, except during 2^ hours at various times in each of the two last inquiries, when 
 relief was sought in the standing posture, at accurately noted periods. A state of 
 mental and bodUy rest was aimed at; but I undertook the weighing, and being alone in 
 the inquiry on August 10, I ^^^j^^dt^ i^^^sSft^^^ and empty the apparatus; and 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OP EESPIEATION. 687 
 
 hence, without removing from my place, there was a small degree of exertion made. In 
 the two former inquiries exertion was taken in the intervals of the examinations, but 
 we sat down some minutes before each experiment was renewed. It is probable that in 
 Dr. Mukie's case there was on a few occasions a little excess in the results, owing to the 
 want of close attention to the latter circumstance. On a review of these experiments, 
 I believe that the two former, \iz. those in which the experiment was not continuous, 
 may be taken to represent the state of the system at rest, and the two latter in ordinary 
 but not absolute quietude, that is, in the state in which men remain when slightly 
 engaged but not moving the whole body. 
 
 The periods above mentioned include nearly 18 hours, viz. from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m., or 
 from 7 A.M. to 12 p.m. all inclusive; and in order to compare them, I have made such 
 addition by computation to each as will include that period ; and I regard the results as 
 indicating the true state of the system during the working day. The particulars of the 
 computation are as follows : — 
 
 Com/putation of the Cm-honic Acid expired in eighteen hours from the returns 
 
 obtained in the four inquiries. 
 
 March 12. The inquiry embraced the whole period. 
 
 May 15. The inquiry was continued through 16^ hours. 
 
 Self. Mr. Moul. 
 grs. grs. grs. ■ grs. 
 
 16| hours at 10 per minute (collected) = 9900 at 8-01 = 7950 
 ( 6 to 6^A.M.) ^ hour at 8-85 per minute (computed) = 265-6 at 7-1 = 210-3 
 (11 to 12) 1 hour at 8-5 per minute (computed)= 510 at 7 = 420 
 
 10675-5 8580-3 
 
 In Professor Feajstklai^d the average of 15 hours, at 6-66 grs. per minute, was used for 
 thel8hours=7192-8grs. 
 
 grs. 
 March 22. 15 hours' experiment (collected) 9166 
 
 (6 to 6f A.M.) f hour's experiment (computed) 353 
 (9f to 12) 2\ hours' experiment (computed) 1125 
 
 10644 
 
 grs. 
 
 August 10. 16 hours' experiment (collected) 10786 
 
 (6 to 7^ A.M.) 1^ hour experiment (computed) 627 
 
 (11| to 12) ^ hour experiment (computed) 300 
 
 11713 
 
 Food was taken at 8| a.m., 1-J, b\ and 8J p.m., in all the experiments. The break- 
 fast consisted of good tea with sugar and milk, bread, butter, bacon or eggs. The 
 dinner, of beefsteak or mutton chop, with bread, potatoes and water. The tea meal, of 
 tea, vnth sugar and milk, and bread and butter. The supper of boiled eggs, and bread 
 and butter, with water. 
 
 The details of the results of these inquiries are given in the following Tables, Nos. I., 
 II., III., and IV. :— Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
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690 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Experiments made in the Hunterian Museum on myself alone. 
 
 Continuous inquiry. Carbonic acid weighed every quarter or half hour. 
 
 March 22, 
 1858. 
 
 b 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 7 
 
 A.M. 
 
 7 
 
 15 A.M. 
 
 7 
 
 30 A.M. 
 
 7 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 8 
 
 A.M. 
 
 8 
 
 15 A.M. 
 
 8 
 
 30 A.M. 
 
 8 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 9 
 
 A.M. 
 
 9 
 
 15 A.M. 
 
 9 
 
 30 A.M. 
 
 9 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 10 
 
 A.M. 
 
 10 
 
 15 A.M. 
 
 10 
 
 30 A.M. 
 
 10 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 11 
 
 A.M. 
 
 11 
 
 15 A.M. 
 
 11 
 
 30 A.M. 
 
 11 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 12 
 
 3 A.M. 
 
 12 
 
 15 A.M. 
 
 12 
 
 33 A.M. 
 
 12 
 
 45 A.M. 
 
 1 
 
 P.M. 
 
 1 
 
 15 P.M. 
 
 1 30 P.M. 
 
 1 47 P.M. 
 
 2 P.M. 
 2 15 P.M. 
 2 30 P.M. 
 
 2 46 P.M. 
 
 3 P.M. 
 
 16 P.M. 
 
 30 P.M. 
 
 45 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 15 P.M. 
 
 30 P.M. 
 
 46 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 15 P.M. 
 
 30 P.M. 
 45 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 15 P.M. 
 
 30 P.M. 
 45 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 15 P.M. 
 
 45 P.M. 
 
 15 P.M. 
 
 45 P.M. 
 
 15 P.M. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Wet. Dry. 
 
 Baro- 
 meter. 
 
 inch. 
 30-14 
 
 Carbonic 
 
 acid, 
 per min 
 
 7-93 
 
 7-53 
 
 7-66 
 
 7-6 
 
 7-63 
 
 7-6 
 
 7-7 
 
 Air. 
 per min. 
 
 cub. in. 
 474 
 487 
 449 
 429 
 446 
 445 
 481 
 
 Little escajje. 
 
 Brea 
 54- 
 
 54' 
 
 56' 
 
 Dinner 
 58-0 
 
 kfast : — Tea, cold ham, an 
 
 d bread 
 
 5 
 
 58-8 
 
 
 10-0 
 11-0 
 
 10-2 j 
 
 579 
 612 
 575 
 
 582 
 
 2 
 
 58-5 
 
 ... 
 
 9-9 
 9-2 
 10-2 
 10-4 
 10-3 
 10-5 
 10-7 
 10-3 
 10-8 
 11-4 
 10-7 
 10-9 
 
 588 
 573 
 566 
 609 
 597 
 696 
 642 
 687 
 533 
 859 
 605 
 611 
 
 8 
 
 60-9 
 
 
 10-5 
 10-3 
 10-9 
 
 589 
 604 
 556 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 per min. 
 
 77 
 75 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 76 
 80 
 
 ;— Mut 
 
 on 
 
 , bread, potatoes, an 
 
 
 
 9-2 
 
 582 
 
 62-0 
 
 30-3 
 
 90 
 
 531 
 
 
 
 8-9 
 
 604 
 
 
 
 
 8-8 
 
 568 
 
 
 
 
 9-0 
 
 588 
 
 
 
 
 9-8 
 
 605 
 
 
 
 
 9-6 
 
 616 
 
 
 
 
 9-0 
 
 574 
 
 
 
 
 8-3 
 
 564 
 
 
 
 
 9-2 
 
 580 
 
 
 
 
 8-7 
 
 568 
 
 
 
 
 9-9 
 
 633 
 
 
 
 
 9-5 
 
 625 
 
 
 
 
 9-5 
 
 576 
 
 
 
 
 8-5 
 
 574 
 
 d wafer (enjoyed it). 
 
 Walking fiom 78 
 
 dinner. 80 
 
 Tea : — 
 
 Tea, bread, and butter. 
 
 ' ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 10-5 
 
 
 
 
 9-7 
 
 
 
 
 11-2 
 
 1 '" . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 10-1 
 
 Lost time waiting for lamps 
 
 8-58 
 58-3 63-0 ... 8-9 
 8-5 
 
 8-76 
 7-98 
 
 720 
 575 
 675 
 665 
 
 571 
 
 579 
 578 
 590 
 535 
 
 Walking from. 
 tea. 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 90 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 Rate of 
 respira- 
 
 Littlc sinking. 
 
 Walking from 
 breakfast. 
 
 89 
 88 
 92 
 90 
 
 
 78 
 76 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 76 
 
 Excited. 
 
 
 Little excited. 
 
 76 
 
 
 77 
 
 72 
 
 Little sinking. 
 
 Little oppressed, 
 
 per mm. 
 
 15 
 
 *15 + 
 15 + 
 15 + 
 
 15 
 
 15-5 
 16 
 
 16- 
 17 
 
 16 + 
 
 17 + 
 17 + 
 19-5 
 19 
 18 
 
 17-5 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 
 16-5 
 16-5 + 
 17 
 17 
 
 17 + 
 17-5 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 16-5 
 16-5 
 
 16-5 
 
 18 
 19 
 18-5 
 
 15 
 
 14-5 
 15 
 
 Posture. 
 
 Sitting. 
 
 Standi 
 
 Sitting 
 
 Standing. 
 
 Sitting. 
 
 Sitting 
 
 * I talked occasionany during the wlQjg/Sg^i^y l^qm§^+ and - indicate that the rate of respiration 
 was a little more or a little less than the figures indicate. 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OF EE8PIEATI0N. 
 
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692 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 A. Carbonic Acid evolved. 
 
 The carbonic acid during eighteen hours, or the period constituting the working day, 
 was as follows in oz. avoirdupois (28-332 grms.), in the order of the inquiries as above 
 
 mentioned. 
 
 Continuous inquiries. 
 A , 
 
 Myself . 
 Mr. Moul 
 Dr. Murie 
 
 oz. 
 
 21-6 
 
 March, 
 oz. grms. 
 
 24-328 (689-28) 
 
 August. 
 oz. grms. 
 
 26-776 (758-44) 
 
 March. May. 
 
 grms. [ oz. grms. 
 
 (611-97 ) J24-4 (691-3 ) 
 21-205 (600-78 ) 19-33 (547-65) 
 19-582 (554-797) j 
 Prof. Franldand ' 16-43 (465-49) 
 
 The average results were, — myself, 24-274 oz. (687-7 grms.) (9-77 grs. per minute), 
 a quantity identical with the results of two out of the four inquiries, and Mr. Moul, 
 20-267 oz. (574-11 grms.); whilst the total average of the eight sets of inquiries was 
 21-693 oz. (614-6 grms.), or 8-78 grs. per minute. This contains a total quantity of 
 5-917 oz. (167-64 grms.) of carbon. 
 
 The quantity evolved during the remaining six hours of the daj^ was determined by 
 two inquiries upon myself alone. 
 
 On July 15, whilst scarcely awake, at 1^, 2^, and 6^ a.m., I exhaled 5-7, 5-94, and 
 6-1 grs. per minute, on the average of one-quai'ter of an hour at each of those hours. On 
 July 16, during light sleep, at 1 and 3 a.m., the quantities were 4-88 grs. and 4-99 grs. per 
 minute on the same average (Table YIII. July 16). As the latter quantities are notably 
 less than the former, and yet the difference in the state of the system was not great, I think 
 it probable that in profound sleep the quantity would be still less, and probably so low 
 as 4^ grs. per minute. The duration of profound sleep is, however, short ; for in a series 
 of hourly inquiries into the rate of pulsation and respiration, both in health and disease, 
 published in the Transactions of the Eoyal Medical and Chirurgical Society for 1856, I 
 showed that the lowest rate of the respiration was from 1 to 3 a.m. ; and in applying the 
 above calculation of the influence of profound sleep I limit its occurrence to those two 
 hours. In estimating the state of the respiration in the hour preceding, and also in 
 the hours succeeding, until the hour when my inquiries in the working day commenced, 
 1 take the a-\erage between the state in profound sleep and at those preceding and 
 succeeding hours. From these data the result is obtained of 1950 grs. of carbonic acid 
 evol\ ed during those six hours ; and this, added to the total average of the working day, 
 gives a total for the twenty-four hours in a state of rest of 26-193 oz. of carbonic acid, 
 or 7-144 oz. of carbon. 
 
 The same addition being made to the results obtained from each person, the quan- 
 tities of carbon exhaled in twenty-four hours, in a state of rest, are as follows in ounces 
 avoirdupois : — 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHER PHENOMENA OF RESPIRATION. 
 
 (593 
 
 Mr. Moul. 
 
 .Et. 48. 
 
 5 feet 9^ inches liigli. 
 
 173 lbs. weiglit. 
 
 6-735 oz. 
 
 Myself. 
 
 Mt. 30. 
 
 fuel hi^'li. 
 
 19G lbs. wt'iglit. 
 
 Vital capacity 270 cub. in. 
 
 7'85 oz. 
 
 Professor Frankland. 
 
 .Et. 33. 
 
 5 I'cct lOj inches high. 
 
 136 lbs. weight. 
 
 5-G oz. 
 
 Dr. Murie. 
 
 Mt. 26. 
 
 5 feet 7y inches liigh. 
 
 133 lbs. weight. 
 
 Vital capacity 250 cub. in. 
 
 G'54 oz. 
 
 In myself the proportion of carbonic acid evolved per hour during the night of six 
 liours, is to the day as 1 to 1-8, — a proportion v^'hich differs somewhat from that which 
 ScHARLiXG found with nine hours' rest. 
 
 There yet remains for determination the influence of exertion. There are not on 
 record any experiments in reference to the influence of exactly defined degrees of 
 exertion, except that of raising certain weights through a given space in a given time ; 
 but Eegxault, Vierokdt, and others have ascertained in a general way that exertion 
 increases the respiratory changes. I shall again refer to this subject at a future page. 
 
 Whilst walking at two miles per hour during three-quarters of an hour, and carrying 
 the spii'ometer, weighing 7 lbs., I expired 18-1 grs. of carbonic acid per minute, and 
 25-83 grs. when walking at three miles per hour. These quantities represent 1*85 and 
 2-64 times that of quietude in the sitting posture. Hence if three hours were spent in 
 walking at two miles per hour, and one hour at three miles per hour, as is probably the 
 case with the non-laborious class (2^ hours in the standing posture having been introduced 
 into each of the two contmuous inquiries above recorded when at rest), the addition to 
 the daily quantity of carbonic acid evolved will be 2463 grs. ; and it is probable that 
 thrice that quantity would be applicable to the really laborious class. It is true thaf^ 
 these are probabilities and not demonstrations ; but if it be desirable to determine the 
 daily amount of carbonic acid evolved by the community, it can only be effected by 
 dividing them into classes, and determining the precise influence of certain agents dui'ing 
 theii' period of action. 
 
 These quantities give the following total average results in the twenty-four hours : — 
 
 Inquietude .... 26'193 oz. of carbonic acid = 7-144 oz. of carbon 
 Non-laborious class . . 31-824 oz. of carbonic acid = 8-68 oz. of carbon 
 Laborious class ... 43 oz. of carbonic acid = 11-7 oz. of carbon, 
 
 or a general average of 33-67 oz. of carbonic acid and 9-18 oz. of carbon. 
 
 As some of the elements in this calculation apply to myself alone, -viz. those in 
 reference to sleep and exertion, it may be of interest to determine my average apart 
 from that of those who were conjoined with me in some parts of the inquiry. Thus, 
 
 Inquietude 28-8 oz. of carbonic acid = 7-85 oz. of carbon 
 
 As a member of the non-laborious class 33-43 oz. of carbonic acid — 9-11 oz. of carbon 
 As a member of the laborious class . 45-7 oz. of carbonic acid = 12-19 oz. of carbon, 
 or a total average of 35*97 oz. of carbonic acid, and 9-72 oz. of carbon in the twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 I do not know how to compare these results with those given by previous observers, 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
694 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 since the degree of exertion and other circumstances are not recorded by the latter, 
 and hence it is impossible to appreciate the state of the system to which they refer. 
 
 It is noticeable how great is the difference amongst men in the amount of carbon 
 which they expire — a fact which has been observed by all inquu-ers. Thus Professor 
 FrAnkland and myself differed as 2 to 3, and yet we were nearly of the same age and 
 height, but differed greatly in weight and robustness of constitution. Each person also 
 differs much at various periods — a circumstance noticed by Baeeal. Mr. MoUL varied 
 as 10 to 11, and I at least as 11 to 12. Hence it is safer to adopt comparative rather than 
 absolute quantities in determining the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled per day by any 
 individual. Thus if the amount of carbonic acid exhaled in a state of quietude in the 
 day-time be determined by observations made at various periods of the day in relation 
 to the meal hours, the amount exhaled during six hours of the night may be determined 
 by allowing the amount of 3|- hours of the day ; and in reference to exercise, by allow- 
 ing If hour rest for one hour of walking at two miles per hour, and 2f hours of rest 
 for one hour of walking at three miles per hour. 
 
 B. Quantity of Air inspired. 
 
 In the four series of inquiries now recorded, the quantity of air inspired in cubic inches 
 during the working day was per minute as follows : — 
 
 Myself 
 
 Mr. Moul . . . 
 Dr. Murie . . 
 Professor Frankland 
 
 March, 
 cub. in. 
 
 575 
 
 483-1 
 
 464-5 
 
 May. 
 cub. in. 
 
 631-5 
 431-7 
 
 364-4 
 
 Continuous inquiries. 
 
 A 
 
 March, 
 cub. in. 
 
 682-1 
 
 August. 
 cub. in. 
 
 583 
 
 The average quantity inspired by myself was 667-7 cubic inches, and by Mr. MouL 
 457-4 cubic inches, whilst the average of all the observations was 502 cubic inches per 
 minute. 
 
 In order to determine the proportion which the quantity of air inspired bears to the 
 carbonic acid collected (for as I have not measured the expired air I cannot take that 
 as a point of comparison), I insert the following statement of the amount of carbonic acid 
 per minute which was actually collected, with the quantities of air which have just 
 been given. It is as follows : — 
 
 March. 
 Carb. acid. Air. 
 grs. cub. in. 
 
 Myself. . 8-75 675 
 Mr. Moul 8-6 483-1 
 Dr. Murie 7-93 464-5 
 Professor Frankland 
 
 
 
 Continuous 
 
 inquiries. 
 
 May. 
 Carb. acid. Air. 
 
 f 
 
 March. 
 Carb. acid. Air. 
 
 August. Average. 
 Carb. acid. Air. Carb. acid 
 
 grs. 
 
 10 
 
 cub. in. 
 
 531-5 
 
 grs. cub. in. 
 
 9-5 582-1 
 
 grs. cub. in. grs. 
 
 10-9 683 9-79 
 
 8-06 
 
 431-7 
 
 
 
 6-66 
 
 364-4 
 
 
 
 Digitized by /W 
 
 icrosoft® 
 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OF EESPIEATION. 
 
 695 
 
 Hence the average of the whole was 8"8 grs. per minute, and the propoilion was, 
 in myself, Mr. MoUL, Dr. Mukie and Professor Feankland in order, 1 gr. of carbonic- 
 acid to 58 cubic inches, 54' 8 cubic inches, 5 8 '5 cubic inches, and 54' 7 cubic inches of 
 inspired air, whilst on the whole it was 1 gr. to 66-3 cubic inches. This is a lower pro- 
 portion than occius in fasting (the normal state of the system), and much lovvei- than 
 with exertion, in which it increases as the exertion increases. Thus in walking at two 
 miles per hour it was 1 to 44-1 cubic inches, and at three miles per hour 1 to 39'7 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 In the above experiments the average temperature with the dry-bulb thermometer was 
 58°"18, 6o°-4, 60°-6, and 72°-2, yielding a total average of 63°-5. The barometric pressure 
 was on the average '29'72, 29'04, 30'13, and 29-63, or a total average of 29-63 inches. 
 
 C. Bate of Respiration. 
 
 This was as follows on the average per minute in each of the three first series of experi- 
 ments. It was not recorded in the last one. 
 
 March. 
 
 Myself 15-2 
 
 Mr. Moul 14-45 
 
 Dr. Murie . • . . . 15-4 
 Professor Frankland 
 
 May. 
 
 11-63 
 12-6 
 
 11-8 
 
 Coutiniioiis inquiiy. 
 
 March. 
 
 167 
 
 The total average in myself was 14-54, and in Mr. Moul 13-5 ; whilst that of the whole 
 series was 13-87 per minute. 
 
 D. Depth of Inspiration. 
 
 The average depth of inspiration was in myself, 39-5 cubic inches; Mr. Moul, 33' 8 
 cubic inches; Dr. Mukie, 30 cubic inches; and Professor Frankland, 30-9 cubic inches ; 
 giving a total average of 33-6 cubic inches. 
 
 E. Rate of Pulsation. 
 In the four series of inquiries the rate of pulsation was per minute — 
 
 March. 
 
 May. 
 
 March. 
 
 August 
 
 Myself .... 83-7 
 
 69-6 
 
 78-5 
 
 78-4 
 
 Mr. Moul . . . 85-7 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 Dr. Murie . . . 713 
 
 
 
 
 Professor Frankland 
 
 59-1 
 
 
 
 giving total averages in each of 76-5, 79-8, 71-3, and 59-1, and on the whole 71-7 per 
 minute. 
 
 The factor of the respirations required to render the numbers of respirations and 
 pulsations equal, was in Mr. Moul, 5-72; myself, 5-25; Professor Frankland, 5; and 
 Dr. Murie, 4-63; variations which are very noticeable and follow the order of age. 
 The total average was 5-15. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
606 DE. E. SMITH OX THE CHEMICAL 
 
 I have sought to discover a proportion between the pulsations and respirations 
 together and separately on the one hand, and the quantity of air inspii'ed, or the 
 carbonic acid exhaled, on the other ; but by no combinations have I been able to dis- 
 cover it. Lavoisier affirmed that the volume of oxygen consumed was " en raison 
 directe du produit des inspirations par les pulsations." I find that half of the product 
 of the respirations and pulsations will very nearly represent the number of cubic inches 
 of air inspired by myself and Professor Frankland, and in the whole results combined, 
 but it is excessive when applied to Dr. Murie and Mr. MouL. 
 
 The difference amongst men which has been already noticed in respect to the carbonic 
 acid, is equally observable in all other subjects of inquiry. Thus Professor Franzland 
 and myself differed in the quantity of air inspired as 3 to 5, and in pulsation as 6 to 7. 
 Dr. Murie exhibited the highest proportion of respii-ations to pulsations, and Mr. MouL 
 the least ; the former being the youngest, and the latter the oldest subject of the inquiry. 
 
 2. Without food. 
 
 There ha^e been numerous experiments of long duration made on animals whilst fast- 
 ing, all of which have proved that in the absence of food the quantity of carbonic acid is 
 reduced. No similar experiments are upon record in reference to Man ; but Lavoisier, 
 Scharling, Vierordt, Valentin and others, have shown that when the interval between 
 meals is prolonged the same result is obtained. 
 
 On July 6 I fasted fi-om 9^ a.m., after a rather small breakfast (12-| hours having 
 elapsed since the previous meal), until midday of July 7, and made an inquiry into the 
 state of the respiration during five minutes at the commencement of each hour, from 
 1 to 11 P.M. on the 6th, and from 7 to 12 a.m. on the 7th. After having fasted twenty- 
 li'^'e hours, I wished to ascertain if starch would produce more respiratory changes when 
 the system was empty of food than under ordinary circumstances, and I took 500 grs. 
 of arrowroot boiled \vith 10 oz. of water ; and having found that the secretions were very 
 alkaline, I took 6 drachms of table vinegar in water in an hour after having taken the 
 starch. The details of this experiment are recorded in Table V. [See opposite page.] 
 
 The total quantity of carbonic acid evolved gave an average of exactly 7 grs. per 
 minute. If to this quantity, computed for the eighteen houi-s of the working day, be 
 added that previously assigned to the six hours of the night, the total quantity of 
 carbonic acid evolved in the twenty-four hours will be 21-73702, containing 5 '923 oz. 
 of carbon. The total average of the twenty-four hours was thus 6'61 grs. per minute, 
 and the deficiency from the quantity evolved with food, from the data already given, 
 was 25 per cent., or one-fourth of the larger quantity. The quantity of carbon thus 
 evolved daily in the absence of food is very nearly equal to that contained in 20 oz. of 
 bread, or 7^ oz. of fat. 
 
 The quantity of air inspired during the working day, was on the average 367-5 cubic 
 inches per minute. The rate of respiration 10-86, and of pulsation 65-6 per minute. 
 The diminution, when compared with the experiment with food in May, was in the 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
A]^D OTHER PHENOMENA OP EESPIRATION. 
 
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 4z 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
698 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAIi 
 
 quantity of air 30 per cent., in the rate of respiration about -7 per cent., and of pulsa- 
 tion about 6 per cent. Hence the rate of the functions was far less variable than the 
 amount of vital action. 
 
 At 11 P.M., or IB^ hours after the last meal, I had felt nothing unpleasant. There was 
 a feeling of great tameness, and the pulse was wavy or jerking and very soft. The 
 respiration was feeble. On going to bed I was very cold, and notwithstanding the addi- 
 tion of blankets, it was some hours before my feet became warm. I slept very fairly, 
 and in the morning, at 7 o'clock, the chief feature was still tameness or inaction. There 
 was, however, headache, accompanied by pulsation, and it was increased on lying down. 
 There was also a disagreeable taste in the mouth and sinking at the stomach and bowels. 
 At 9 A.M., the usual hour for breakfast, there was still greatly lessened nervous, mental, 
 and muscular power, a sickly and fainting feeling at intervals, and throbbing in the 
 head constantly ; causing with the nausea a most unpleasant but not constant headache. 
 The pulse was still remarkably soft, feeble, and wavy. There was no marked thirst or 
 craving for food. At 10 a.m. the urine was high coloured, alkaline, with a specific gravity 
 of 1' 01 8. The saliva was very alkaline. 
 
 The starch and water filled the pulse temporarily, but rather increased than reUeved 
 the depressed state of the system. The acid gave almost instantaneous relief to the head- 
 ache, but the benefit was only temporary, and it did not diminish materially the alkalinity 
 of the saUva. At a little before the experiment ejided I was very low and ill. A cup 
 of tea gave no relief, but bread and butter was of some service. At 12'' lO"" I began to 
 eat a good dinner, and took a glass of wine ; and so soon as I had fairly began to eat the 
 symptoms abated, and at the end of the meal I was quite well and went about my duties. 
 It is important to remark that nothing but nutriment was of any avail. I had no 
 longing for acids, or for anything in particular, except perhaps potatoes. 
 
 Valour exhaled. — In this inquiry I also determined the quantity of vapour exhaled by 
 the lungs; and although the subject has not been referred to in this paper, the uniform 
 state of the system during fasting afibrded so good an opportunity to determine it, that 
 I think it right to msert it. 
 
 On the average of the whole inquiry, I exhaled 2-02 grs. of watery vapour per minute 
 during the working day, making a total of 6 oz, avoirdupois in that period. On various 
 other occasions with food I found that the quantity exhaled was from 3 grs. to 3-4 grs. 
 per minute, and hence the diminution durmg the fast was 37 per cent. The quantity of 
 vapour to each 100 cubic inches of expired air was -548 gr., and hence assuming that 
 the expired air had a temperature of about 98°, it was but little more than half saturated. 
 
 n. YAEIATIONS PEOM DAY TO DAY, AND FEOM SEASON TO SEASON. 
 
 «. During the "Working day. 
 
 1. With ordinary/ food. 
 Variations in the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled at different parts of the day have 
 been affirmed to occur by Seguin, Peout, Allen and Pepys*, Viekordt and other 
 * PhilosopHcal Magazine, I^/|e^^; /^^Qg^al Transactions, 1809, p. 405. 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OP EESPIEATION. 699 
 
 observers, and tliey have been ascribed to food, exertion, and sleep. Some of these 
 observers, as Pkout and Coatiiupb, determined only the per-centage in the expired 
 air ; an inquiry of no value in determining the total amount of carbonic acid exhaled. 
 Lavoisiek states that the quantity differs every moment, and with every person, but each 
 person has a law for himself Sciiaeling states that the proportion of the night to the 
 day varied from as 1 to 1-225 to as 1 to 1-42, whilst Marciiand regarded the difference 
 as inconsiderable and due simply to quietude. In my experiments the variations during 
 the day were extremely great, so much so that the maximum and minimum quantities 
 of carbonic acid usually differed to the extent of more than half the latter. They were 
 as follows in grains per muiute in the four sets of inquiries : — 
 
 Min. Mas. 
 
 Myself 6 '25 and 9-59 
 8-68 and 11-53 
 ^ ^ r7-81 and 11 
 
 ContmuousJ 
 
 ^"^"- 16-96 and 13-3 
 
 Min. Max. 
 
 Mr. Moul 6-76 and 11-56 
 
 6-76 and 9-35 
 
 Min. Max. 
 
 Dr.Murie . . . .6-14 and 9-25 
 Professor Frankland 4-58 and 8-32 
 
 the total being 6-74 and 10-43 grs. per minute. 
 
 These variations were due to food, and were of such a nature that an increase began 
 directly after a meal and progressed to a maximum, after which they declined gradually 
 to a minimum until the following meal. 
 
 Generally the maximum quantity was observed in from one to two hours after a meal, 
 and after each meal, but after the breakfast and tea meals it was the greatest, and both 
 were nearly the same. The minima were observed before a meal, and hence there were 
 five in each day, viz. before breakfast, dinner, tea, and supper, and some time after 
 supper ; and it is very noticeable that they were nearly the same at each of those periods. 
 Hence there is in a state of quietude in each day a minimum line below which the 
 system does not pass, and also a maximum which it does not exceed, the difference 
 between the two being due to the temporary influence of food. In several of the 
 inquiries, however, as for example in that of Professor Feankland, in my first and 
 in Mr. Moul's second experiment, there was not in the afternoon the ordinary amount 
 of diminution in the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled ; and as this was exceptional, and 
 we dined before our usual dinner hour, it was probably owing to food having been 
 supplied before the action upon the respu-ation of the previous quantity had ceased 
 (Plate XXXIII. fig. 1, March 12). There can be no doubt that, with a suitable interval 
 between meals, there are striking alternate elevations and depressions in the line repre- 
 senting the quantity of carbonic acid excreted. 
 
 A reference to the above maximum and minimtim quantities, and to the variations 
 hour by hour as shown in the Tables I. II. III. and IV., with the want of uniformity 
 in any of these quantities, proves that any attempt to determine the whole carbonic 
 acid evolved in a day from isolated or irregular observations must be futile. They, 
 
 4z2 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
700 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 however, show that observations taken at the period of the day when the quantity of 
 
 carbonic acid evolved is at the lowest point, viz. four to five hours after a meal, will be 
 
 nearly luiiform, and that the excess due to food may be approximately arrived at by 
 
 taking observations at 1^ to 2^ hours after the meal, and deducing the average from 
 
 those quantities. 
 
 2. Without food. 
 
 The variations in the respiratory phenomena in the working day were so small, that at 
 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 10 o'clock p.m., on July 6, all the quantities were almost identical 
 with those at 7 on the foUovsdng morning. The maximum and minimum quantities of 
 carbonic acid were 6-52 grs. and 7"44 grs. ; of air inspired, 399 cubic inches and 341 
 cubic inches ; rate of respiration 12 and 10"2, and rate of pulsation 71 and 68 per minute 
 — quantities which contrast in a remarkable manner with those previously shown to 
 occur -with food. In Plate XXXIII. fig. 1, the variations with and without food are con- 
 trasted. 
 
 Hence there is great uniformity in the respiratory phenomena during a long fast ; but 
 it was noticeable that on the occasions when the carbonic acid would have increased with 
 food, there was a slight decrease without food — a fact corresponding with that which I 
 recorded in the Transactions of the Royal Medical and Chu'urgical Society for 1856, in 
 the rate of the functions on five persons of difiierent sexes and ages. A low and uniform 
 state of system is therefore the characteristic condition in a prolonged fast ; and it is 
 very like that which occurs with food at the end of the interval between the meals. It 
 has also been shown that in a fast of this duration the quantity of carbonic acid does 
 not progressively diminish, but is the same at the end of twenty-seven hours as it was 
 at the end of 4^ hours. 
 
 There is therefore a state of the system which is nearly uniform under all the circum- 
 stances of the day, when the body is uninfluenced by exertion or the primary processes 
 of digestion, and which may be called the basal or normal state. From this but little 
 can be taken away ; and the additions must be due to exertion or the temporary influ- 
 ence of compound aliments. This I shall subsequently show to be a fact of much 
 interest and importance, since it will be proved that certain substances which, as food, 
 must contain nutriment, do not increase the products of respiration over this basal line ; 
 whilst others, including all compound ahments, do produce an increase. 
 
 The great uniformity in the state of the system during fasting renders that period 
 particularly fitted for the determination of the numerical relations between the carbonic 
 acid, air inspired, and rate of pulsation and respiration, and also as a basis with which 
 to compare the influence of food and other agents. The law before mentioned in refer- 
 ence to myself was well exemplified in this experiment ; for the cubic inches of air 
 insphed are very nearly represented by the half of the product of the pulsations and the 
 respirations. There was 1 gr. of carbonic acid to 52-5 cubic inches of air; which if 
 we consider it as a normal, the proportion with food is less and with exertion is greater. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHER PHENOMENA OF EESPIRATION. 701 
 
 This experiment also conlirms Kegnault's observation, that the composition of the 
 expired, air is uniform during fasting. 
 
 In reference to the variations of the day in the quantity of vapour exhaled, the high- 
 est amount (2-26 grs. per minute) was obtained in the two first hours of the inquiry, or 
 those nearest to the last meal, and the lowest amount (1-74 gr.) was obtained after 8 p.m. 
 On the following morning the quantity was increased to 2-2 grs. per minute, and it did 
 not exceed that after I -had taken the arrowroot and water. 
 
 I do not find any observations on record with which I can compare these results. 
 
 There yet remain for examination two other sources of variation in the respiratory 
 phenomena, ^iz. those occurring at short intervals from day to day, and those extending 
 over a lengthened period of months and associated with season. I shall now describe 
 them. 
 
 The experiments connected with both heads of the inquiry were made in the investi- 
 gation of the influence of food, and under precisely the same external circumstances as 
 to period of the day, food, exertion and excitement ; for they were all made between 
 7 and 8 a.m., before breakfast, in the sitting posture, and in the absence of all exertion 
 and mental excitement. They were commenced on March 30, and were continued with 
 regularity by Mr. MouL and myself until the middle of June, and then by myself alone 
 until the present time. 
 
 /3. Variations from day to day. 
 
 iS'early all observers have found that the absolute quantities recorded on any day 
 did not correspond with those of other days ; but as the inquiries were not made 
 under precisely the same external circumstances, it was not possible, with certainty, 
 to assign any cause to which the variation could be attributed. It would not 
 perhaps be unreasonable to presume that, with identity of external circumstances 
 on successive days, the system would not vary in any appreciable degree ; but a 
 reference to Plate XXXIV. will show that whilst in not a few instances the quan- 
 tities obtained were constant, in many others the variation from day to day in the 
 amount of carbonic acid amounted to half a grain, and in a few to even one grain 
 per minute ; and that this was not due to any error in the inquiry, may be inferred 
 from the fact that, when a food was under examination which did not vary the 
 respiratory changes, the same numbers were obtained in several successive experi- 
 ments within from one to two hours. Hence we must search within the system for 
 the explanation, and we shall find reason to believe that the nature of the night's 
 rest, and the amount of nutriment remaining in the system, cause variations in the 
 amount of carbonic acid expired in the early morning, before food has been taken. 
 On many occasions I noted these conditions at the time that I made the experiment. 
 Thus I passed a restless night on April 7, June 1, 16, 18, 23 and 24; had short night's 
 sleep on April 24 and 28 ; was not well on April 15, 16, May 8, 18, June 14, and 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
702 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 Carbonic acid. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 gr. 
 
 gr. 
 
 -0-29 
 
 -0-6 
 
 + 0-1 
 
 -1-5 
 
 + 0-8 
 
 -0-3 
 
 + 0-44 
 
 + 0-18 
 
 + 0-6 
 
 -0-58 
 
 + 0-58 
 
 + 0-23 
 
 + 0-2 
 
 -0-36 
 
 -0-2 
 
 + 0-2 
 
 + 0-68 
 
 — 1-32 
 
 + 0-16 
 
 + 0-16 
 
 
 -0-26 
 
 
 — 1-12 
 
 
 -0-67 
 
 
 -0-27 
 
 September 14; and in almost every instance there was a fall in the 
 quantity of carbonic acid on the foUomng morning (see Table). I 
 passed a good night and was very well on April 20, 26, 30, May 19, 
 20, 24, June 4, 21, July 1, September 19, and November 4, and 
 with equal uniformity the carbonic acid was increased (see Table). 
 These may be appreciated by referring to Plate XXXIV. ; and it will 
 also be observed that the changes were extremely well marked on 
 May 18, 19, 20, 31, and June 1. With a large supper of meat there 
 was an increase, but with a late supper vdth tea or coffee there was a 
 decrease. With much food taken during the preceding day, there 
 was on May 31 an increase so large as to look like an error, whilst on 
 the succeeding day, on which there was an unusual amormt of exer- 
 tion and deficiency of food, the decrease was equally great. 
 
 The uniformity in these results is too striking to admit of their being merely coinci- 
 dences ; and whilst the general feeling of the syst-em may not admit of very accurate and 
 minute definition, I believe that the following statement may be relied upon, viz. that with 
 much food on the preceding day, with good and long night's rest, and with a feeling of 
 health and good spirits, the quantity of carbonic acid evolved before breakfast is greater, 
 whilst it is lessened by the contrary conditions. The hour of supper and the nature of 
 the food then taken will also vary the quantity. The mode by which tea and coffee act 
 will be explained in a subsequent paper. I have not recorded many observations in refer- 
 ence to the effects of spirituous liquors ; but whenever I had taken them at a late hour, 
 it is recorded that the carbonic acid was lessened, but it is also stated that I had passed 
 a restless night. The conditions favourable to the production of a large amount of car- 
 bonic acid in the morning are such as have tended to induce profound and continued 
 Bleep, whilst in the adverse conditions there has been an unusual nocturnal activity of 
 the respiration. This is agreeable to a 'priori reasoning ; but I do not -know that it has 
 been hitherto demonstrated, and by it we may explain much of the remarkable differ- 
 ences in the returns from day to day, and many diversities in the relative quantities 
 evolved by myself and Mr. Moul. 
 
 y. Variations connected with. Season. 
 
 Barral* states that he excreted considerably more carbon in winter than in summer; 
 and a similar observation was made by Vierordt ; but their observations were not made 
 with such regularity and vsith such identity of external conditions as to eliminate the 
 true effect of season. 
 
 Mr. MiLNERf , Surgeon to the Wakefield Prison, in a paper recently read before the 
 British Association, found, in an experience of ten years, and from 40,000 weighings, 
 that the prisoners, on the average, gained in weight from March or April to September, 
 and lost weight during the other months of the year. 
 
 * Annales de Chimie, 3 ser. vol. xsv. p. 165. t Sanitary Eeview, 1858. 
 
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AND OTHER PHENOMENA OF EE8PIEATI0N. 703 
 
 The general expression of the results obtained by me is, that the advancing hot 
 season lessened all tlie vital and mechanical changes of respiration, viz. the quantity of 
 carbonic acid expired and of air inspired, the rate and depth of respiration, the quantity 
 of vapour exhaled, and the cooling of the body. These include lessened muscular and 
 "\esicular actions and chemical changes. With the return of the cold season the quan- 
 tities increased. All the results are delineated in Plate XXXIV., which shows the 
 quantity of air inspired and of carbonic acid expired, with the rate of respiration and 
 pulsation contrasted with the temperature during each month of the year. 
 
 The results obtained from myself correspond in all essential particulars with those 
 obtained fi'om Mr. Moul, except that the changes were induced in him more quickly 
 and powerfully. Hence I infer that he was more susceptible to seasonal influences; 
 and this was in conformity with a law which I evolved in former researches at the 
 Hospital for Consumption, and pubhshed in the British and Foreign Medical and 
 Chirurgical Ee^iew, April 1856, viz. that all who bear heat badly have an excess of all 
 the seasonal efiiects, for he sufiers much from heat, whilst I bear it well. I was thus 
 fortunate in having an example of the two classes of persons. I will first describe my 
 retu.ms, and then those of Mr. Moul. 
 
 On the average of the second week in April I inspired 550 cubic inches of air per 
 minute in sixteen inspirations, and expired 8-65 grs. of carbonic acid per minute ; but 
 on the average of a whole month, from the middle of July to the middle of August, 
 the quantity of air was reduced to 386"4 cubic inches, of carbonic acid to 7"27 grs., and 
 rate of respiration to 11 per minute. Hence there was a diminution of 30 per cent. 
 in the quantity of air, 32 per cent, in the rate of respiration, and 17 per cent, in the 
 quantity of carbonic acid ; so that the proportion of the carbonic acid to the inspired air 
 was greater, although the total amount was lessened. Up to the end of May the quan- 
 tity of carbonic acid did not fall below 8 grs. per minute, and on many occasions it 
 exceeded 9 grs. ; but as June advanced the quantity progressively fell, so that it was 
 often under 8 grs., but never above 8 grs. per minute; and after the 22nd of June, until 
 the middle of August, the quantity was between 7 and 8 grs. Hence the beginning 
 of June was the true period of commencement of seasonal decline in the respiratory 
 changes. The period of the commencement of increase was October, and the increase 
 continued in the succeeding months. 
 
 The relation of the carbonic acid expired to the air inspired varied each month as 
 
 follows, from April to October inclusive : — 
 
 April. May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct. 
 
 1 gr. to 58 cub. in. 507 cub. in. 52 cub. in. 51-5 cub. in. 54-8 cub. in. 56-3 cub. in. 51-4 cub. in. 
 
 In the first week of April Mr. Moul inspired 477 cubic inches of air per minute, at a 
 rate of respiration of 16-4 per minute, and with an evolution of 8-28 grs. of carbonic 
 acid per minute; but by the fourth week of that month he had lost more than 20 per 
 cent, of air, 18 per cent, of carbonic acid, and 13 per cent, in the rate of respiration. 
 Thus the proportion of carbonic acid to the air inspired was scarcely changed. After 
 that period the quantities increased from the 8th to the 18th of May; but on the averag 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
704 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 there was a further decline in all the respiratory phenomena, until the termination of 
 his experiments at the middle of June. The extreme loss from season on the weekly 
 averages, up to the middle of June, was 27 per cent, of carbonic acid, 27 per cent, of 
 air, and 28 per cent, in the rate, — a degree of uniformity in the phenomena exceedingly 
 striking. 
 
 In Mr. MouL the greatest and most sudden changes occurred in the early spring. I 
 had but little change in the spring, but there was a great decline in summer, which 
 continued until the autumn; and although Mr. Moul's experiments ended before 
 midsummer, the progression of his returns give us the right to infer that at the end of 
 summer his quantities would also have been much reduced. Hence there is a close and 
 significant relation between the activity of the vital changes in Man and plants at those 
 two periods, to which common experience has ever attached great importance, viz. 
 the spring and fall with their variations proceeding in yearly cycles. 
 
 . Having thus briefly stated the changes which occurred, it is now needful to determine 
 to what elements ia " season" they are to be attributed. Of these. Temperature and 
 Atmospheric Pressure are two of the most important, and have been investigated by other 
 observers. I have complete records of the former, and incomplete records of the latter. 
 
 A. Temjierature. — The retm-ns prove that the relation between the quantity of carbonic 
 acid evolved and the temperature of the air is an inverse one, as Vieroedt and others 
 had established ; but they also show that there is no absolute relation between a given 
 temperature and the carbonic acid — a circumstance which has not been hitherto demon- 
 strated. 
 
 The effect of the first sudden elevation of temperature in April is strikingly corrobo- 
 rative of the former assertion. Thus from March 31 to April 14, the temperature 
 gently and progressively fell from 56°-5 to 47°-5, and then it suddenly rose 6°-5 in one 
 day, and became so high as 63°-6 in ten days, after which it rapidly fell. Until April 
 14, with, declining temperature, my returns show an increasing quantity of carbonic 
 acid of more than 1 gr. per minute, ending in the large quantity of 9-J grs. per minute. 
 On the contrary, Mr. Moul's returns show a progressive decrease of more than 1 gr. per 
 minute. The Table and Plate XXXIII. figs. 2 & 3, show the coordinated movement of 
 the lines of temperature and carbonic acid during the period of the sudden increase of 
 the former. 
 
 Thus in my returns the carbonic acid suddenly decreased 1-3 gr. per minute, and 
 almost as suddenly increased nearly 1 gr. per minute, the former corresponding with 
 the accession and the latter with the decline of temperature. Mr. Moul's decrease was 
 greater, and had its maximum on the day of the maximum temperature, whilst the 
 increase was extremely great and rapid immediately after the temperature began to fall. 
 After this period, to the beginning of June, the curves of temperature and carbonic acid 
 in Mr. Moul's returns are opposed with tolerable uniformity ; and on the occurrence of 
 the second elevation of temperature at that period, there was again a sudden and tem- 
 porary diminution of carbonic acid. 
 
 The contrast of the monthly averages is of great interest. Thus — 
 
 Digifized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OF EESPIEATION. 
 
 705 
 
 Table VI. 
 Comparison of Monthly Averages of Respiratory and Meteorological Phenomena. 
 
 
 Myself. 
 
 Mr. Moul. 
 
 1858 and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1859. 
 
 Temp. 
 Dry. 
 
 Barora. 
 
 Carbonic 
 acid, 
 
 Air, 
 
 Pulse, 
 
 Respira- 
 tions, 
 
 Carbonic 
 acid, 
 
 Air, 
 
 Pulse, 
 
 Respira- 
 tions, 
 
 
 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 
 
 
 
 per min. 
 
 
 
 per min. 
 
 per min. 
 
 
 
 per min. 
 
 
 
 inch. 
 
 grs. 
 
 cub. inch. 
 
 
 
 grs. 
 
 cub. inch. 
 
 
 
 April ... 
 
 54-5 
 
 28-84 
 
 8-58 
 
 498 
 
 72-8 
 
 14-3 
 
 7-18 
 
 429 
 
 80-3 
 
 15-6 
 
 May ... 
 
 58-1 
 
 29-51 
 
 8-89 
 
 451 
 
 68-3 
 
 12-4 
 
 6-63 
 
 384 
 
 82-1 
 
 12-76 
 
 June ... 
 
 71-7 
 
 29-61 
 
 8-19 
 
 426 
 
 71-1 
 
 11-64 
 
 6-34 
 
 367 
 
 79-9 
 
 12-6 
 
 July ... 
 
 65-1 
 
 29-48 
 
 7-62 
 
 393 
 
 69-8 
 
 11- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. ... 
 
 66-6 
 
 29-49 
 
 7-15 
 
 392 
 
 73-3 
 
 10-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. ... 
 
 61-2 
 
 29-51 
 
 7-13 
 
 402 
 
 66-6 
 
 10-94 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. ... 
 
 52-8 
 
 29-38 
 
 7-67 
 
 396 
 
 69-8 
 
 10-93 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. . . . 
 
 43-8 
 
 29-28 
 
 7-86 
 
 414 
 
 69-1 
 
 10-87 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Dec. ... 
 
 45-2 
 
 29-43 
 
 8-27 
 
 429 
 
 67 
 
 11-16 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. ... 
 
 43-1 
 
 29-64 
 
 8-35 
 
 447 
 
 68-8 
 
 11-73 
 
 ISee Note, page 708. 
 
 
 Feb. ... 
 
 46-3 
 
 29-58 
 
 8-2 
 
 
 69-2 
 
 11-35 
 
 
 
 
 Mar. ... 
 
 48-9 
 
 29-47 
 
 8-25 
 
 
 70-9 
 
 11-38 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 Moreover^, the quantity of carbonic acid evolved in diflferent decades of degrees of 
 temperature shove's that the relation is an inverse one. Thus in the four decades from 
 40° to 80°, the quantities evolved by Mr. Moul were in the ascending order — 7-58 grs., 
 7'237 grs., 6-45 grs., and 6"37 grs., — a series continually decreasing; but the rule is not 
 so well exemplified in myself (for a reason to be presently explained), since the quan- 
 tities were 8-44 grs., 8-527 grs., 7'841 grs., and 8'29 grs. in their order. 
 
 The weekly averages show that in myself the rule was maintained in fourteen of 
 twenty-four weeks, and in Mr. Moul in eight of eleven weeks. 
 
 Hence it must be admitted that there is an inverse relation between seasonal tem- 
 perature and the respiratory changes. 
 
 But it is evident — and it is a fact of great interest — that there is no uniform relation 
 between the degrees of temperature and the carbonic acid, such as would be necessary 
 to determine the degree of dependence of the one upon the other. This will be proved 
 in two ways : first, by showing the changes which occurred during the long period of 
 months constituting each season ; and secondly, the sudden increase of temperature in 
 April. 
 
 Mr. Moul's returns are more uniform than mine, and yet in those the progressive 
 decrease of carbonic acid with increasing decades of temperature is so irregular, as 
 •343 gr., -887 gr., and '08 gr. In mine there was an increase in the second and fourth 
 decades. It is also shown in the foregoing Table, that the lowest state of the respira- 
 tion did not occur wdth the highest temperature of the season, but after the lapse of 
 two or three months, and the loss of 5° or even 10°, yet with the temperature always 
 exceeding 60°. Further, the follovraig Table shows that the same temperature is 
 attended by the most diverse quantities of carbonic acid ; as for example 59°, in which 
 I have returns in five months, the monthly averages are 8'11 grs., 9-13 grs., 7"64 grs., 
 7*3 grs., and 6-76 grs. in their order; and to take an illustration from Mr. Moul's 
 returns, at the temperature of 52°, the returns of two months are 9-36 grs. and 6-3 grs.; 
 and at 53°, 8-32 grs. and 6-35 grs. These returns, with others, are found in the follow- 
 ing Table, which I think is worthy..of clpse-attention. 
 
 MDCCCLIX. 
 
 5 a 
 
706 
 
 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 
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AND OTHER PHENOMENA OP RESPIRATION, 707 
 
 Thus it is proved indisputably that through long periods there is not a close corre- 
 spondence, but, on the contrary, a wide difference in the relation between the degrees 
 of temperature and the carbonic acid evolved ; and that as the season advances towards 
 autumn, with the same temperatui-e or even with a certain decline of it, the carbonic acid 
 progressively falls to a minimum. It is also evident that both before and after the period 
 of change, \iz. June, the respiration retains a certain amount of uniformity ; and this at 
 two different seasons mil differ greatly, whilst it may be that the same temperature is 
 found in both seasons. Thus my average quantities before July and after June respect- 
 ively, in the four decades of temperature, differed as follows : 8-88 grs. and 8-21 grs., 8-69 
 grs. and 7'43 grs., 8"45 grs. and 7*44 grs., 8'35 grs. and 7'12 grs. — differences of upwards 
 of 1 gr. of carbonic acid per minute in the three higher decades. Hence there is a want 
 of uniformity in the progression of the decades, as before mentioned, due to the admix- 
 ture of the results obtained in two seasons ; whilst Mr. Moul's returns are more uniform, 
 since they comprehend scarcely more than the early season. Further, it is interesting to 
 know that at each of the seasons the movements of temperature keep in advance of the 
 movements in the carbonic acid quantities. 
 
 It now only remains to show that, even -with sudden changes of temperature, there is 
 not an exact relation between the temperature and the carbonic acid. The Table and 
 Plate XXXIII. fig. 3, show this, first, in the proportion of carbonic acid to each degree 
 of temperature ; and secondly, the amount of diminution of carbonic acid vrith each 
 increasing degree of temperature. 
 
 From the above we learn that as the temperature increased the carbonic acid decreased 
 in an increasing ratio, and consequently that the two did not move in parallel lines. 
 This is particularly well marked in my own case, in reference to both modes of inquiry, 
 and in a very striking manner when the temperature exceeded 60°. Mr. Moul's returns 
 in the fii-st series correspond with mine, but in the second they manifest the influence of 
 some other distm'bing cause. 
 
 Hence it appears that any attempts to find one uniform relation between the carbonic 
 acid and temperature, such as that published by Vieeoedt and Lbtellier, are exposed 
 to serious error, and particularly if the inquiries, made upon different persons and in 
 different seasons, are mixed together ; and in reference to the influence of sudden 
 changes of temperature, the variations in the carbonic acid in my experiments are 
 greater than '094 gr. per minute for each degree, as ascertained by Vieeobdt. It is 
 also quite evident that the changes are due to vital conditions, and not simply to the 
 physical action of heat upon the body and the inspired air. 
 
 B. Barometric pressure. — The relations between barometric pressure and the car- 
 bonic acid expired are much less obvious than those of temperature ; and although my 
 returns have a general correspondence with those of Vierordt, in showing that the 
 relation is an inverse one, the rule is liable to many exceptions. Mr. Moul's returns 
 are more amenable to the law than mine, for they continuously declined from month to 
 month, whilst the barometer rose ; but in my case the month of May was exceptional. 
 The lowest pressure was, however, in April, when the respiratory phenomena were very 
 
 Digitized l^ l\/li^rosoft® 
 
708 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 active ; and both were nearly uniform in July, August, and September, when the respira- 
 tory changes were low. To show, however, that there is no invariable relation, it may 
 suffice to mention that with a pressure of 29-51 inches the carbonic acid was 8"19 grs. 
 and 7*13 grs. in May and September respectively. 
 
 Thus, after a minute inquiry into the influence of these two agencies, there can be no 
 doubt that the influence of season is far more than can be explained by these meteoro- 
 logical conditions, and that it is one which demands further accurate observation, and 
 particularly in reference to the influence of light as it increases in intensity in the 
 spring. It is, moreover, of the utmost importance to bear in mind that this influence 
 is felt in every action of the system ; for as the quantity of carbonic acid varies vnth the 
 season, so do the quantities evolved under the influence of exertion and food. Hence, 
 in stating the influence of any agent, it would be erroneous to give absolute numbers, 
 under the idea that they would be true at all periods of the year. This is particularly 
 applicable to the next subject of inquiry ; for my experiments have shown that the 
 same exertion, as for example walking at a given rate, produces effects upon the respira- 
 tion considerable/ greater in winter than in summer. 
 
 \_Note, April 1859. — Since the foregoing remarks were written, 1 have completed the 
 observations during the cycle of the year ending March 31, 1859; and the quantity of 
 carbonic acid evolved, with that of the air inspired and the rate of respiration, have been 
 added to Plate XXXIV. 
 
 At the end of October the quantity of carbonic acid evolved had materially increased ; 
 and throughout November and December and the beginning of January the increase 
 was progressive, so that the quantity had attained to upwards of 8^ grs. per minute. 
 Throughout the remaining portion of January, as well as in February and March, the 
 quantity evolved was nearly stationary, and even more uniform than at any other period 
 of the year; but at the end of March it again increased, and on March 31, 1859, was 
 very nearly the same as was recorded on March 31, 1858, viz. 8'25 grs. and 8'51 grs. 
 per minute. 
 
 The quantity of air inspired per minute increased from an average of 395 cubic inches 
 in October, to 414, 429, and 447 cubic inches in November, December, and January, in 
 their order. 
 
 The rate of respiration in like manner increased on the average from 10-93 per 
 minute in October, to 10-87, 11-15, 11-73, 11-35, and 11-38 in the months of Novem- 
 ber, December, January, February, and March, and did not reach to the elevation 
 recorded in 1858. 
 
 The temperature after October remained, during the winter months, at averages 
 varying from 43°-l to 48°-9, and exhibited marked perturbations at the end of Novem- 
 ber and the beginning of January and March. 
 
 The monthly averages are appended to Table VI. 
 
 The variations observed from day to day were frequently attributable to the causes 
 
 described in page 702, and tended further to corroborate the deductions then made • and 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® ' 
 
AND OTHEE PHENOMENA OE EESPIEATION. 
 
 709 
 
 ill further confirmation, it is remarkable to notice how frequently the evolution of carbonic 
 acid increased on the Monday, after the rest and retirement of the preceding day. j 
 
 III, INELUENCE OE WALKING AND THE TEEADWHEEL. 
 
 The only experiments which I have been able to make in reference to exertion are 
 limited to the influence of walking and the treadwheel. 
 
 1. Walking. 
 
 I employed two sets of the apparatus, and attached them to the mouthpiece by a long 
 tube, partly of glass and partly of vulcanized india-rubber, so long as to enable me to 
 walk about 11 yards in each direction. The distance was accurately measured, and the 
 speed regulated with the watch in hand in the most exact manner. I also walked at 
 the same speed for some time before the experiment began, so as to bring the body to 
 the full influence of the increased action. The results are given in detail in Table VIII. 
 
 Table VIII. 
 Showing the influence of Sleep and Exertion. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Carbonic 
 
 acid, 
 per min. 
 
 Air, 
 per min. 
 
 Pulse, 
 per 
 min. 
 
 Kateoi 
 respi- 
 ration, 
 per 
 min. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 July 15 A.M. 
 July 16 A.M. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 h m 
 
 1 30 
 
 2 35 
 6 45 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 grs. 
 5-7 
 5-94 
 61 
 
 4-88 
 4-99 
 
 cub. in. 
 
 "66 
 70 
 
 
 67 
 71 
 
 69 
 71 
 
 Whilst awake, but after lying dovm for some hom-s, 
 and with every approach to sleep. 
 
 In sleep, but probably not profound. 
 In sleep. 
 
 July 15 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 
 3 30 
 
 4 30 
 
 18-1 
 25-83 
 
 799 
 1028 
 
 90 
 
 14-5 
 16 
 
 72-5 
 
 75-5 
 
 Walking at 2 miles per hour. 
 Walking at 3 miles per hour. 
 
 Oct. 8 P.M. 
 Oct. 9 
 
 Oct. 22 
 
 P.M. 
 
 4 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 45| 
 
 3 47| 
 3 49 
 3 50 
 3 51 
 3 52 
 3 53 
 3 54 
 3 55 
 3 56 
 3 57 
 3 58 
 
 3 59 
 
 4 
 
 43-36 
 42-9 
 
 
 
 } 9-14 
 48-66 
 
 1120 
 
 930 
 
 720 
 
 r 680 
 
 ■ 590 
 
 600 
 
 540 
 
 590 
 
 530 
 
 r 560 
 
 1 540 
 
 500 
 
 / 560 
 
 1 520 
 
 150 
 150 
 
 'i()2 
 150 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 18 
 17 
 17 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 ■ Treaclwheel ; 43 steps, ascending 28-65 feet per minute. 
 I was on the wheel ^ of an hour, and determined 
 the carbonic acid for 3 minutes after 5 minutes, and 
 the last 2 minutes of 15 minutes. 
 
 r Treadwheel. Determined the carbonic acid dm-ing 3 mi- 
 \ nutes after 5 minutes, and 2 minutes after 10 minutes. 
 
 Best after treadwheel. 
 
 I sat down directly, and after ^ a minute used the 
 spirometer. Another ^ minute was lost after 3J 
 minutes. 
 . The carbonic acid was coUeoted — 
 
 Dm-ing 3 minutes after 4 minutes. 
 During 2 minutes after 10 minutes. 
 During 2 minutes after 13 minutes. 
 
 7 minutes. 
 
 Dined on prison fare at 2^ p.m. ; soup and bread. 
 Treadwheel, 40 to 44 steps per minute. Carbonic acid 
 taken three times in the last two of each 5 minutes. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
710 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 On July 15, with a temperature of 75^°, whilst walking at two miles per hour, I 
 expired 18-1 grs. of carbonic acid per minute, with a rate of respiration of 14 J, and of 
 pulsation 90 per minute, and with 799 cubic inches of inspired air per minute. 
 
 At three miles per hour the carbonic acid was increased to 25*83 grs., the air to 
 1027"5 cubic inches, and the rate of respiration to 16 per minute. I did not attempt 
 a greater speed ; for it required closer attention than I could give to the speed and the 
 apparatus at the same time to maintain a uniform rate of more than three miles per 
 hour. 
 
 Thus, taking as a basis of comparison the system at rest and without food, in the 
 sitting posture, at the same hour, viz. 7'44 grs. of carbonic acid per minute, the effect of 
 walking at two miles per hour was 2'5 times as great, and at three mUes per hour 3'5 
 times. There is a curious progression in the relation of carbonic acid to the inspired air 
 under these different conditions, as follows, taking 1 gr. of carbonic acid as the unit of 
 comparison : viz. in rest, sitting, and fasting, 1 : 49-6 cubic inches; walking at two miles 
 per hour, 1 : 44*1 cubic inches; at three miles per hour, 1 : 39"7 cubic inches — a pro- 
 gressive increase in the ratios of nearly one-ninth of the basis quantity. 
 
 2. The Treadwheel. 
 
 The treadwheel is a kind of exertion which consists in lifting the body a given height 
 in a given time, from the steps of a wheel turning downwards, and holding it in a 
 position in which its centre of gravity is anterior to its perpendicular central line. My 
 experiments have been made in many county gaols, but in only that at Coldbath Fields 
 have I determined the quantity of carbonic acid evolved during this kind of exertion. 
 I am under obligation to the Governor and Visiting Justices for much courtesy and 
 assistance. 
 
 There are not any similar inquiries on record ; but in reference to raising the body 
 through a given space at given times, Lavoisiee has stated the quantity of oxygen which 
 is consumed, and also that the increased rate of pulsation is directly as the weight mul- 
 tiplied by the height, if the effort is an easy one. 
 
 The influence of the treadwheel has been determined by three experiments, as 
 recorded in Table VIII. On October 8, with a low normal state of the respiration, 
 I expii-ed 43-36 grs. of carbonic acid per minute whilst upon the wheel; and on 
 October 9 the quantity was 42-9 grs. per minute. On each occasion the pulse was 
 150 per minute, and the rate of respiration 22 and 21 per minute respectively. On 
 October 22, in the afternoon, after having eaten the prisoners' dinner of brown bread 
 and soup, the quantity was 48-66 grs. per minute, with a pulsation of 150, and respi- 
 ration 20 per minute. In all the inquiries I worked the wheel fifteen minutes at a 
 time. In the two former I collected the carbonic acid during three minutes, after 
 having been upon the wheel five minutes, and again durmg the last two of the fifteen 
 minutes ; but in the last inquiry I collected it in the last two of each five of the fifteen 
 minutes. Thus the average in the first two is derived from five minutes, and in the last 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHER PHENOMENA OP RESPIEATION. 711 
 
 from six mintites. I was imable to use the spirometer as well as the analytical appa- 
 ratus whilst worlving the wheel, for I found the breathing too much oppressed by it ; 
 and more particulai'ly, since I was compelled to use a double set of the analytical appa- 
 ratus, on account of the rapidity of the current of the expired air which was forced 
 through it. 
 
 After the second inquu-y, I determined the state of the respiration in the fifteen 
 minutes constituting the interval of rest. After leaving the wheel I sat down (after 
 the manner of the prisoners), and with a loss of half a minute used the spirometer, and 
 noted the quantity of air inspired per minute. The carbonic acid was also collected 
 during seven minutes ; viz. during three minutes after four minutes' rest, two minutes 
 after ten minutes', and two minutes after thirteen minutes' rest. The average quan- 
 tity of carbonic acid thus obtained was 9"14 grs. per minute ; but that does not include 
 the first four minutes of the period of rest, and the following statement shows that 
 then the respiration was fast subsiding to the minimum quantity. From a considera- 
 tion of the quantity of air inspired, I compute that the quantity of carbonic acid 
 evolved during the first minute of rest was 25 grs., in the second 20 grs., and in the 
 third 15 grs., and hence that the average of the whole fifteen minutes' rest was 11-3 grs. 
 per minute. 
 
 The quantity of air inspired in cubic inches per minute, commencing half a minute 
 after the labour had terminated, was as follows, in each minute, in its order : — 1120, 
 930, 720, 680, 590, 600, 540, 590, 530, 560, 540, 500, 560, and 520, yielding an average 
 of 641 cubic inches per minute. It is evident that whilst there is, during the whole 
 interval of rest, an increase in the respiratory changes over that of rest apart from this 
 exertion, the great excess due to the exertion disappears after five minutes' rest. 
 
 The remark made already as to the influence of season over the effect of exertion must 
 
 not be forgotten. 
 
 Eesitme. 
 
 In the foregoing paper it has been shovvm — 
 
 1. That it is possible to collect the whole of the carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs 
 in the twenty-four hours, or for any period, however long or short. 
 
 2. The quantity of carbonic acid expired in the twenty-four hours was, on the average 
 of eight sets of inquiries in four adult males when in a state of rest, 26'193 oz. (7"144 
 oz. carbon), of which 1950 grs. were expired in the six hours of the night. The pro- 
 portion per minute in the night and the day is 1 to 1-84. In light sleep 4-88 grs. per 
 minute were exhaled, and 4-5 grs. is the estimated amount in profound sleep in July. 
 The quantity of carbon exhaled in the twenty-four hours, by each of the subjects at rest, 
 was 5-6 oz., 6-54 oz., 6-735 oz., and 7-85 oz. 
 
 3. The quantity of air inspired during the working day of eighteen hours, was, to the 
 carbonic acid expired, an average of 56-3 cubic inches to each grain. 
 
 4. The rate of respiration was on the average 13-87, and of pulsation 71-7. The 
 average depth of inspiration was 33-6 cubic inches. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
712 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL 
 
 5. The factor of the respirations to equal the number of the pulsations varied in the 
 different persons, increasing with their age, from 4-63 to 5-72, and on the average was 
 5-15. 
 
 6. Half of the product of the respirations and pulsations very nearly equalled the 
 number of cubic inches of air breathed in several of the cases. No such numerical rela- 
 tion could be found in reference to the carbonic acid. 
 
 7. The variations of the carbonic acid in the same day, vdth food, were so great as 
 an average of 10-43 grs. and 6'74grs., and extremes of 6'96 grs. and 1S"3 grs. ; but in a 
 prolonged fast the extreme difference was less than 1 grain. 
 
 8. In a prolonged fast of twenty-seven hours, the diminution per cent, from the quan- 
 tities on a day with food, was 25 of carbonic acid, 30 of air, 37 of vapour, -7 of rate of 
 respiration, and 6 of rate of pulsation. The loss of carbon in the twenty-four hours is 
 equal to that contained in 20 oz. of bread. The returns were so uniform, that the 
 quantity of carbonic acid expired at the end of twenty-seven hours was the same as at 
 4|- hours after food. 
 
 9. There is a normal or basal Una below which the system does not pass in health 
 and wakefulness, and which is tolerably uniform. It is the same in the complete absti- 
 nence fi'om food, as at the end of the interval between meals. There is also, when at 
 rest, a higher point, which the system does not exceed, due to food, and it is the highest 
 after breakfast and tea. 
 
 10. There is an increase of carbonic acid in the absence of food, at or near to the 
 period when it usually increased with food. 
 
 11. There are variations from day to day, in the absence of food and exertion, which 
 are dependent upon the amount of waste and supply of the preceding day and night. 
 ('Ceteris paribus, the more food, rest, and sleep, the greater will be the quantity of car- 
 bonic acid evolved on the following morning. 
 
 12. There are great variations from season to season, so that, as the hot season 
 advances, all the respiratory phenomena are lessened. The diminution in myself at the 
 middle of August was 30 per cent, of air, 32 per cent, in rate of respiration, and 17 per 
 cent, of carbonic acid. In Mr. MouL, to the middle of June the diminution was 27 per 
 cent, of air and also of carbonic acid, and 28 per cent, in the rate of respiration. 
 
 Spring is the season of the greatest, and the fall, of the least activity of the respiratory 
 and other functions. 
 
 13. Temperature and atmospheric pressure only partially explain the effect of season ; 
 for with the same temperature, at different seasons, there is great diversity in the car- 
 bonic acid expired, and particularly with a medium temperature; as, for example, 59°, 
 with which the quantity of carbonic acid was 9-13 grs. in the spring, and 6-76 grs. in 
 the summer and autumn. The relation of temperature and pressure to the carbonic 
 acid is an inverse one, the former acting in an increasing ratio in cases of sudden 
 increase, and with so much power that 2-3 grs. of carbonic acid per minute were lost in 
 seven days. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
AND OTHER PHENOMENA OF EESPIEATION. 713 
 
 The period of permanent decline iu the carbonic acid is May and June, in different 
 persons, and at the period of minimum quantity there is the greatest uniformity. 
 Temperature moves in advance of the carbonic acid, and particularly as it declines. 
 
 14. All respiratory phenomena vary with the season, and hence it is better to adopt 
 comparative i-ather than absolute quantities — the comparison being with the state of 
 rest, vsith or mthout food ; but the latter is the most reliable. 
 
 15. The effect of walking, compared, 1st, with the average state of rest with food, and 
 2ndly, with the state of system at rest before the breakfast, and therefore whilst fasting, 
 is as follows : — at two miles per hour, one hour is equal to If hour with food, and to 
 2^ hours \vithout food. At three miles per hour, one hour to 2f hours and to 3| hours. 
 One hour of the labour- of the treadwheel, whilst actually working the wheel, is equal to 
 4| hours with food, and 6 hours of rest without food. The proportion of carbonic 
 acid to the inspired air is much greater with exertion than at rest ; and it increases as 
 the speed, in a progression of one-ninth of the quantity at rest for two and three miles 
 per hour without food. 
 
 16. The proportion of the carbonic acid to the inspired air is greater without than 
 with food, and in summer than in winter. It is not absolutely uniform at any time, 
 and it differs in different persons. 
 
 Men differ in every subject which has been investigated. 
 
 In conclusion, I beg to offer my warmest thanks to Mr. MouL, to Professors Frank- 
 land, Platfair, Shabpet, and Williamson, and other gentlemen who have aided in 
 these and other inquiries. 
 
 Explanation of the Plates. 
 
 PLATE XXXIII. 
 
 Fig. 1. Shows the quantity of carbonic acid evolved per minute, with and without food, 
 in contrast, and also the effect of the supper on March 12, as contrasted with 
 the absence of that meal on May 15. The observations delineated in the 
 morning of the day of fasting in July followed, and did not precede those 
 represented in the afternoon. 
 
 Fig. 2. Represents the daily diminution in the quantity of carbonic acid per minute, 
 with sudden increase in temperature in April 1858. The diminution in the 
 quantity of air inspired by Mr. MouL is also stated on each day. 
 
 Fig. 3. Exhibits the same fact in two other aspects, viz. the quantity of carbonic acid 
 in decimals of grains per minute to each degree of temperature, and also the 
 diminution in the expiration of carbonic acid in decimals of grains per minute 
 for each degree of temperature above that which occurred immediately before 
 the increase of temperature took place. 
 MDCCCLIX. 5 B 
 
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714 DE. E. SMITH ON THE CHEMICAL AND OTHER PHENOMENA OP RESPIEATION. 
 
 PLATE XXXIV. 
 
 Shows the quantity of carbonic acid expired, and of air inspired, per minute, with the 
 depth of inspii'ation, and the frequency of pulsation and respiration at the 
 same hour, and under the same circumstances, on about 200 mornings in the 
 year, in relation to the temperature, with the wet and dry bulb, and the 
 season of the year. There were two subjects for experiment until the middle 
 of June. The opposition of sudden changes of temperature, and the expira- 
 tion of carbonic acid, is best seen from April 14 to 28. The progressive seasonal 
 diminution in the expiration of carbonic acid commences at the beginning of 
 June and ends in September, from which period the progressive increase 
 occurs until January, and thenceforward the quantity is shovm to be nearly 
 uniform. 
 
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[ 715 ] 
 
 XXVII. Experiments on Respiration, — Second Communication. On the Action of Foods 
 upon the Respiration during the primari/ processes of digestion. By Edward Smith, 
 M.B., LL.B. (Lond.), M.R.C.P., Corresponding Memher of the Academic des Sciences 
 et Lettres de Montpellier, and of the Natural History Society of Montreal^ Assistant- 
 Physician to the Hospital for Consumption, Brompton, '&c. Communicated hy Sir B. 
 C. Bkodie, BaH., P.R.S. 
 
 Eeceived January 6, — Eead February 10, 1859. 
 
 In a paper which I have recently had the honour to forward to the Royal Society, I 
 showed that there are alternate elevations and depressions of all the respiratory pheno- 
 mena during the day, due to the temporary influence of food, and that the maximum 
 influence of food always occurs in from 1^ to 2^ hours after the meal. I also proved, 
 from the state of the system in a prolonged fast, as well as from the tolerably uniform 
 state at the end of the interval between the meals, that there, is on each day a basal or 
 normal line below which the amount of respiratory action does not ordinarily fall ; and 
 I also showed that there is a maximum elevation from food which is tolerably uniform, 
 and which is the most pronounced after the breakfast and tea meals. Hence it appeared 
 that the influence of food is in two degrees: — 1st, that which lies between those two lines 
 and exceeds the normal or basal line ; and 2nd, that which sustains the system up to 
 the minimum or basal line. The former action is temporary and of short duration, 
 whilst the latter is permanent. 
 
 Proce_eding from these facts, I have prosecuted a lengthened inquiry into the influence 
 of numerous articles of food over the respiration, when taken separately and not in the 
 combined form in which we take them at meals, and have endeavoured to ascertain 
 what is their maximum effect. As nearly all food tends to sustain and increase the 
 vital actions, and as in the total absence of food for a lengthened period the respiratory 
 changes are sustained to the extent of 75 per cent, of that vnth food, my inquiries 
 have been almost entirely directed to determine that influence, which acts so as to 
 appear between the maximum and minimum lines just mentioned. Except within very 
 narrow limits, I have not found any substance taken as food or with food which mate- 
 rially lowers that minimum line ; and, moreover, I do not know any method whereby 
 it would be possible, in a state of health, to show the action of any substance which 
 acts much below it. Hence my aim has been to show to what extent various substances 
 raise the respiratory changes above or depress them below a basal line, and not merely 
 to state what absolute amount of carbonic acid, for example, was evolved during their 
 action. The former could be referred to no other cause than the food under experiment ; 
 
 6b2 
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716 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 but since, as has been just mentioned, so great a part of the latter would have occurred 
 if the food had been withheld, it is impossible to affirm that it was due to its influence. 
 This has afibrded me an inquiry of a well-defined nature, and one which my apparatus 
 permitted me to make with ease ; and it is one, moreover, so far as I know, not hereto- 
 fore pursued. 
 
 Nearly all previous inquiries have been made upon the lower animals, and have had 
 for their object to determine the effect upon nutrition of the exclusive use or the entire 
 absence of certain substances, and only a few experiments have been made upon Man. 
 Prout* ascertained that the per-centage of carbonic acid in the expired air was some- 
 what lessened under the influence of both tea and alcoholic liquors; and Vibeoedt'I' 
 found the same result from the latter loithout any appreciahle difference in the other 
 phenomena of respiration. BoekerJ has made the most remarkable inquiries into this 
 subject ; and the method adopted by him was to take a considerable quantity of the sub- 
 stance, as sugar, for example, at several periods of the day, in addition to his ordinary 
 food, and afterwards ascertain the state of the excretions and the respiration at several 
 irregular periods. When we recollect how great is the variation in the quantity of 
 carbonic acid evolved at different periods of the same day, and how irregular is the 
 quantity on different days, — how powerful is the effect of exertion, an influence which 
 cannot under ordinary circumstances be the same on any two days, — the disturbing 
 influence of unusually laj^e or often repeated quantities of a substance, and lastly, the 
 unkno^vn influence of other articles of food, varying in quantity and quality, — it is easy 
 to see how difficult it would be for M. BoEKER to eliminate the normal and true effect 
 of the article under inquiry. He found that sugar, coffeie, and alcohol lessened the 
 respiratory changes, and that in their principles of action they are identical; but he 
 then inquires how it is, if this be so, that they act as antidotes to each other \ It will 
 be shown that my results do not accord with his. Mr. MiLner§, Surgeon to the 
 Government Prison at AVakefield, in a paper which he recently read before the British 
 Association, states that he had proved by experiment that tea given to the prisoners, 
 whether in lieu of, or in addition to their ordinary food, caused them to lose weight at 
 an increasing rate, — a fact which supports my results on the action of that substance. 
 
 My experiments have been made chiefly upon myself, set. 39, and upon Mr. Moul, set. 48 
 (a gentleman whose devotion to the inquiry in the interests of science is beyond all 
 praise), but in a few instances upon others also. The plan pursued was as follows : — 
 
 A quantity of the substance under inquiry, not greatly different from that ordinarily 
 taken by mankind, was administered apart from any other food. The experiments were 
 nearly all made from 7 to 9 a.m., before breakfast; but some were made at 2 p.m., after 
 the influence of the breakfast had passed over. All were made in the sitting posture, 
 and in the absence of all exertion and mental and bodily excitement. Hence we isolated 
 the influence of the substance, and made one long series of experiments under precisely 
 
 * Thomson's 'Annals of Philosophy.' f Physiologie des Athmens. 
 
 X Beitrage zur Heilkunde, &c., 1849. § Sanitary Review, 1858. 
 
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OF FOODS UPON THE EESPIEATION. 717 
 
 similar and normal conditions. We sat down at least a quarter of an hour before taking 
 the first observation, or that which showed the state of the system before the substance 
 under inquiiy was taken, and which was the basal state with which the subsequent effects 
 of the substance were compared, and upon the accuracy of which the truthfulness of the 
 results niainly depended. We then ate the substance in question, and in from 3 to 
 10 minutes afterwai'ds made our first inquiry into its effects ; and repeated the inquiry 
 every 12 or 15 minutes (as frequently as we could complete each experiment), until the 
 maximum effect had passed ; the same conditions as to posture and quietude being main- 
 tained unbroken throughout the whole inquiry. We did not continue the experiment 
 beyond our usual breakfast hour ; for, in accordance with a statement made in my former 
 paper, we found that an increase in the respiratory phenomena occurred at the meal 
 hoiu" before any food had been taken. Hence it was neither necessary nor desirable to 
 continue the mquiry much beyond two hours. Each of these experiments lasted five 
 minutes, but in several of them the inquiry was continuous, and the whole of the 
 carbonic acid evolved during the action of the substance was collected. 
 
 In recording the results, we made use of the total quantities ; but in abstracting them 
 for the purposes of this communication, I have compared them with the basis quantity, 
 and have given the amount of increase or decrease only. This was necessary, both on 
 account of the observation made above, and because the total quantities varied with the 
 season. 
 
 The apparatus employed was that described in my previous paper *, consisting of an 
 instrument to measure the quantity of inspired air, and an analytical apparatus to abstract 
 the vapour and carbonic acid from the whole of the expired air. The force of inspiration 
 and expiration was in a few instances determined by a bent tube with a column of water 
 attached to the mask ; and the temperature of the expired air was determined by the aid 
 of a small thermometer inserted at right angles into a box-wood tube, 1^ inch in length, 
 and protected by valves, as described in my paper published in the ' Proceedings ' of 
 the Society for 1857. The temperature with the wet and dry bulb, and the barometric 
 pressure, were recorded, as was also the state of the weather. 
 
 The foods which have been the subjects of inquiry are very numerous, and of the 
 finest quality; and some of them, as tea, sugar, milk, and alcohols, were subjected to 
 very numerous and varied experiments. As the results have shown that it would be 
 inconvenient to arrange them solely according to their chemical constitution, I purpose 
 to describe them under the following heads : — 
 
 1. The Starch Series, viz. arrowroot, arrowToot and butter, arrowroot and sugar, com- 
 
 mercial starch, wheat starch, gluten, bread, oatmeal, rice, rice and butter, 
 potato, gum. 
 
 2. The Fat Series, viz. butter, olive oil, cod-liver oil. 
 
 3. Sugars, viz. cane-sugar, cane-sugar and butter, cane-sugar with acids and alkalies, 
 
 grape-sugar, milk-sugar. 
 
 * Page 682 of this volume. 
 
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718 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 4. The Milk Series, viz. new (cows') milk, skimmed milk, casein, casein and lactic acid, 
 
 lactic acid, sugar of milk and lactic acid, cream. 
 
 5 . Alcohols, viz. spirits of wine, brandy, whisky, gin, rum, sherry and port wine, stout, ale. 
 
 6. The Tea Series, viz. tea, green and black, hot and cold, in different quantities, and 
 
 with acids and alkalies ; coffee, coffee leaves, chicory, cocoa. 
 
 7. Certain other nitrogenous substances, viz. gelatin, albumen, fibrine, almond- 
 
 emulsion *. 
 
 The immediate object of inquiry was the effect of these various substances over the 
 carbonic acid and vapour exhaled, the quantity of air inhaled, and the rate of pulsation 
 and respiration. The inquiry as to the amount of vapour exhaled was chiefly pursued 
 in the experiments on alcohols. 
 
 I shall describe the effect of these various substances in the order now given, and in 
 order to avoid repetition shall reserve some general observations untU the end of the 
 paper. The whole of the detailed results, forming many sheets of tables accompanying 
 this paper, are delineated on Plates XXXV. and XXXVI. 
 
 1. The Starch Series. 
 
 The general expression of the results obtained, is that starch does not excite the evolu- 
 tion of carbonic acid, whilst the ordinary foods, containing starch with other substances, 
 as sugar and gluten, are powerful and enduring respiratory excitants. 
 
 Arrowroot. — June 19 (7 experiments f). The purest starch which I could obtain was 
 arrowroot. The effect of 500 grs., well cooked with water, was an average increase of 
 only '154 gr. of carbonic acid per miaute in myself, and "208 gr. in Mr. MouL (Plate 
 XXXV. fig. 3). On another occasion, September 6 (6 exps.), 750 grs. gave me an average 
 decrease of '08 gr. per minute. In the fii-st inquiry there was an average decrease in the 
 air inspired of 8 cubic inches- per minute in myself, and an increase of 10 cubic inches 
 in Mr. MouL, whilst in the last I had an increase of 5 cubic inches per minute. The rate 
 of respiration was reduced in all the inquiries, whUst that of pulsation was decreased in 
 Mr. MouL 3 per minute in the first, and increased in myself 3 per minute in the last. 
 
 When taken after a long fast, as described in my former paper, page 696, 500 grs. 
 gave a maximum increase of "45 gr. of carbonic acid per minute. 
 
 Starch, &c. — June 14 (10 exps.). Starch, imperfectly washed from 4 oz. of wheat flour, 
 and therefore associated with other substances, gave a maximum increase of 2'1 grs. of 
 carbonic acid per minute in myself, and 44 cubic inches of air inspired. There was a 
 decrease in the rate of respiration, and a very slight increase in the rate of pulsation. 
 When the starch had been much better washed, June 24 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. 
 fig. 6, the increase in the carbonic acid was -52 gr., and 14 cubic inches of air inspired. 
 
 * It will be borne in mind that in this series of inquiries the amount of hydrogen consumed was not 
 determined. 
 
 t This expression means that 7 observations were made upon each of us (or 14 on both of ua) at regular 
 intervals during the continuance of this experiment. 
 
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OF FOODS ITPON THE EESPIEATION. 719 
 
 Bread. — April 13 (6 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 7. 4 oz. of white home-made bread gave 
 maxima of increase in the carbonic acid of 1-48 gr. and 2-4 grs. per minute to myself 
 and Mr. MouL respectively, and on another occasion, April 23 (7 exps.), of 1 gr. and 
 2 "2 grs. respectively. The quantity of air M^as increased on the tw^o occasions 60 cubic 
 inches and 20 cubic inches per minute in myself, and 96 cubic inches and 118 cubic 
 inches per minute in Mr. Moul. The rate of respiration was not increased in myself 
 or in Mr. Moul, and in the latter the pulsation fell somewhat. The effect was very 
 enduring. 
 
 Oatmeal— X^x\]. 26 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 10, July 9 (8 exps.), fig. 11. 4 oz. 
 of good Scotch oatmeal, made into pudding with water, gave me a maximum increase 
 of carbonic acid, on two occasions, of 1'63 gr. and -93 gr. per minute, and to Mr. Moul of 
 1-32 gr. per minute. The volume of air inspired by myself was increased 55 cubic inches 
 and 19 cubic inches, but Mr. Moul had a less increase. The respirations were lessened, 
 and the pulsations were not increased. The effect was very enduring. 
 
 i?2ce.— April 28 (8 exps.). May 13 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 9. 4 oz. of the best 
 rice, vrell cooked, gave me maxima of increase in the carbonic acid of 1*9 gr. and 
 1*44 gr. per minute, and Mr. Moul of 1-15 gr. and 1-94 gr. per minute. I had a maxi- 
 mum increase in the volume of air of 54 cubic inches and 40 cubic inches per minute, 
 and Mr. Moul of 44 cubic inches and 96 cubic inches per minute. There was generally 
 a diminution in the rate of respiration, and an increase in that of pulsation. The effect 
 was very enduring. 
 
 Potato.— May 17 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 12, July 21 (6 exps.), fig. 13. 8 oz. 
 of very good cooked potato, with 3 oz. of cold water, gave a maximum increase of car- 
 bonic acid in myself of 1-27 gr., on two occasions, and 52 cubic inches and 20 cubic 
 inches in the air inspired. The rate of respiration was in both instances reduced, as 
 was also that of pulsation, but in a less degree. The potatoes were old in the first and 
 new in the second inquiry. 
 
 Commercial Starch. — June 18 (6 exps.). 500 grs. of commercial starch gave me a 
 maximum increase in carbonic acid of "8 gr. per minute, and of air 22 cubic inches per 
 minute, whilst the rate of both respiration and pulsation was slightly increased. 
 
 Gluten.— June 11 (8 exps.), June 16 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 8. The gluten washed 
 out of 4 oz. of fine wheat flour gave me a maximum increase in carbonic acid of '84 and 
 •74 gr. per minute, and in air of 8 cubic inches and 11 cubic inches per minute. The 
 rate of respiration was decreased very shghtly, whilst that of pulsation was increased on 
 one occasion and decreased on another. 
 
 Arrowroot and Butter. — June 21 (6 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 4. 1 oz. of fresh 
 butter, added to 500 grs. of arrowroot, gave me an average increase in carbonic acid of 
 •17 gr. per minute, and a maximum increase of -4 gr. per minute. The quantity of air 
 inspired was somewhat lessened, as was also the rate of respiration. The pulsation was 
 increased 4 per minute. 
 
 Bice and Butter.— Ko^y 14 (8 exps.). 1 oz. of butter, with 4 oz. of rice, gave to myself 
 
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720 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 and Mr. MouL an average increase of-84gr. and 1-25 gr. of carbonic acid, and a 
 maximum increase of -94 gr. and 1-9 gr. per minute respectively. The quantity of air 
 was increased 14 cubic inches and 22 cubic inches. The rate of respiration vi^as reduced, 
 and to the extent of 2-6 per minute, whilst that of pulsation was increased 9 and 6 per 
 minute. 
 
 Arrowroot and Sugar. — September 13 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 5. 250 grs. of 
 sugar, added to 500 grs. of arrowroot, gave a maximum iocrease of 1 gr. of carbonic acid, 
 and 20 cubic inches of air per muiute in forty minutes. The rate of respiration was 
 progressively reduced, whilst that of pulsation was temporarily increased. 
 
 Hence it appears — 
 
 1. That pure starch exerts but an insignificant influence over the increase of carbonic 
 acid and over pulsation, and that after a fast of twenty-foujr hours the influence is but 
 very sUghtly increased. 
 
 2. That wheat flour, oatmeal, and rice have a great and very similar influence over 
 respiration, both in degree and duration; but the latter differs from the others in 
 increasing the rate of pulsation. In each of them there remained an increase of 1 gr. 
 of carbonic acid per minute after the lapse of two hours. 
 
 3. That potato differs from the foregoing less in the amount of its maximum influence 
 than in the shorter duration of its influence, the subsidence from the maximum being 
 very rapid. New and old potatoes had the same influence. 
 
 4. The foregoing invariably reduced the rate, and thereby increased the depth of 
 respiration. 
 
 5. The proportion of carbonic acid to the inspired air was increased by these sub- 
 stances to the greatest extent in rice, and the least in potato. The maximum increase of 
 air and carbonic acid almost invariably occurred together. 
 
 6. The maximum influence was obtained in from 1^ to 2 hours, and it was the same in 
 wheat, oatmeal, and rice, and nearly the same in potato. 
 
 7. The addition of fat to starchy foods did not increase, but rather lessened the 
 influence of the latter. It however increased the influence over pulsation. 
 
 8. Gluten exerts a considerable influence, but much less than that of bread, oatmeal, 
 and rice. Its effects were very uniform on two occasions. Its maximum influence was 
 produced in forty minutes, and the whole effect ended in about two hours. 
 
 9. Arrowroot, alone, gave no sense of satisfaction (all our experiments were made 
 whilst fasting), but, on the contrary, there was in about one hour an unnatural sensation 
 of sinking in the stomach and small intestines. 
 
 With bread there was a sweet taste in 14 to 20 minutes; and with bread, rice, and 
 potato sour eructations in 35 minutes. The inspirations were forcible. 
 
 2. Fats. 
 Fat, like starch, does not excite the respiration. 
 Butter.— J^xne 25 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 2. 500 grs. of butter gave me an 
 
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or FOODS UPON THE EESPIEATION. 721 
 
 average increase of carbonic acid of only -05 gr., and a maximum of -34 gr. per minute. 
 There was a maximum decrease of 33 cubic inches in the air inspired, and a progressive 
 decrease in the rate of both respiration and pulsation. On another occasion, June 28 
 (7 exps.), there was an average decrease of -11 gr. of carbonic acid per minute, with 
 decrease in the rate of respiration and the quantity of air inspired. 
 
 Olive Oil. — February 22 (8 exps.). 1 oz. of olive oil gave me an average increase of 
 •11 gr. of carbonic acid, and a maximum of -55 gr. per minute. The quantity of air 
 was not materially varied, but there was a diminution in the rate of respiration. 
 
 Cod-liver Oil. — March 8 (6 exps.), Plate XX\V. fig. 1. 1 oz. of cod-liver oil gave 
 me an average decrease of carbonic acid of -27 gr., and a maximum decrease of 18 cubic 
 inches of air per minute. The rate of respiration was decreased 1 per minute. On 
 another occasion, June 24 (8 exps.), the average increase of carbonic acid was -03 gr. per 
 minute, with a maximum decrease of 19 cubic inches in the inspired air. There was also 
 a diminution in the rate of respiration, and an increase in that of pulsation. 
 
 Hence — 
 
 1. The general tendency of these fats was to lessen the above-mentioned respiratory 
 changes, but the variation, whether above or below the basis, was not great. 
 
 2. The rate of respiration was always lessened, whilst that of pulsation was usually 
 increased. The quantity of air was lessened disproportionately to the carbonic acid, 
 and thereby the proportion of the latter was increased. 
 
 3. Both cod-liver oH and butter produced a soothing effect, whilst with all the fats the 
 respii-atory efforts were feeble, and in about 20 to 30 minutes there was a slight sense 
 of oppression at the heart. 
 
 I am of the class of persons who are fond of fat, whilst Mr. MouL dislikes it. 
 
 ^ 3. Sugars. 
 
 Sugar, unlike starch' and fat, powerfully excites the respiratory changes. I have made 
 a very extensive series of inquiries into its influence. 
 
 Cane-sugar.— A^r\l 14 (6 exps.), Plate XXXV- fig. 23 ; May 1 (7 exps.), fig. 22. The 
 maximum increase in the carbonic acid, due to 1^ oz. of white sugar dissolved in water, 
 was 2"18 grs. per minute in myself on two occasions, and 1'5 gr. and 2"71 grs. per minute 
 in Mr. MouL. There was an increase of about 1 gr. per minute within 10 minutes, and 
 the maximum increase was attained in about 25 minutes, after which there was a rapid 
 subsidence. The whole effect did not usually pass away in less than two hours. The 
 maximum increase in the air inspired was per minute 74 cubic inches and 111 cubic 
 inches in myself, and 30 cubic inches and 100 cubic inches in Mr. MouL. The rate of 
 respiration was lessened, and the depth was increased 8 cubic inches and 6 -6 cubic 
 inches in myself, 8 cubic inches and 12-2 cubic inches in Mr. MouL. The rate of pulsa- 
 tion was lessened. 
 
 August 25 (6 exps.). — The effect upon Mr. Eeid, Surgeon to the Canterbury Hospital, 
 who made an experiment for the first time, was a maximum increase of 1-9 gr. of car- 
 
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722 DE. E. SMITH OX THE ACTION 
 
 bonic acid in 25 minutes, and after the expiration of 70 minutes the increase was still 
 1 -42 gr. per minute. The pulse was fuller and more frequent. 
 
 ]May 10 (13 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 25. — | an oz. of sugar, taken at intervals of 
 one hour, gave me a maximum increase of carbonic acid, on each occasion, of 1"3 gr., 
 and of air of 26 cubic inches, 25 cubic inches, and 11 cubic inches per minute over the 
 first basis quantity. The depth of inspiration was increased on each occasion, and the 
 pulsation was somewhat decreased. On the second occasion the sugar was eaten dry ; 
 and as an uneasy sensation followed, water was drunk in one hour afterwards, and was 
 followed by a renewed increase in the carbonic acid evolved. 
 
 On another occasion, May 18 (9 exps.), fig. 24, -| an oz. of sugar, with 3 oz. of water, 
 taken twice, with an interval of 1 hour, gave me a maximum increase in carbonic acid 
 of 2-18 grs. per minute in 23 minutes in the first, and "52 gr. per minute in 23-J minutes 
 in the second experiment, whilst in Mr. MouL the increase was "86 gr. and 2-14 grs. per 
 minute in the same period. The maximum increase in the quantity of air inspired at 
 the same period was 51 cubic inches and 29 cubic inches per minute in myself, and 
 58 cubic inches and 52 cubic inches per minute in Mr. Moul. The depth of inspiration 
 was considerably increased in both persons. 
 
 May 21 (19 exps.). — 500 grs. of white sugar, dissolved in 6 oz. of cold water, were 
 taken, and the whole of the carbonic acid evolved afterwards was collected and weighed 
 every half hour. In the fii'st half hour the increase was 1'57 gr. per minute, and in the 
 second half hour '58 gr. per minute; whilst the quantity evolved at 95 minutes, when 
 the inquiry ended, was '12 gr. per miinute above the basis quantity. The increase in 
 the carbonic acid, in the first hour, was thus 57-5 grs. The quantity of air inspired was 
 registered every 5 minutes. The maximum increase was 64 cubic inches in 35 minutes, 
 and the quantity was reduced to the basis in 85 minutes. The average increase was 
 19-3 cubic inches per minute in the first half houi', 30-6 cubic inches per giinute in the 
 second half hour, and 8-3 cubic inches per minute in the third half hour. The rate of 
 respiration was scarcely changed, and hence the depth of inspiration varied as the 
 quantity of air inspired. 
 
 Cane-sugar and Vinegar. — June 29 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 26. 750 gi-s. of 
 white sugar, with 6 drachms of good vinegar and 7 oz. of water, gave a maximum increase 
 per minute of carbonic acid of 3-3 grs. in 20 minutes. The average increase in IJ horn- 
 was 1-24 gr. per minute; the maximum increase in the air inspired was 79 cubic inches 
 in 20 minutes, and in the depth of inspiration 4-1 cubic inches. The rate of respiration 
 was increased slightly, and that of pulsation 5 per minute. 
 
 October 4 (6 exps.). — The repetition of this experiment in October (but with raw 
 sugar) gave a less increase, and at a later period. 
 
 June 24 (7 exps.). — With 30 grs. of citric acid instead of the vinegar, the maximum 
 increase in carbonic acid in myself was 1-74 gr., and in Mr. Moul 2-25 grs. per minute. 
 The increase of air inspired was 47 cubic inches and 20 cubic inches per minute. 
 
 July 5 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 27.— 750 grs. of white sugar, with 40 m of 
 
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OP FOODS UPON THE RESPIEATION. 723 
 
 Liquor Potassse in 12 oz. of water, gave me a maximum increase in carbonic acid of 
 2-13 grs. per minute, and after 100 minutes the increase was more than 1 gr. per 
 minute. The maximum increase in the air inspired was 105 cubic inches per minute, 
 in a little less than one hour. The rate of respiration was scarcely altered, but that of 
 pulsation was lessened 7 per minute in 1^ hour. 
 
 Canc-m^gar ami Butter. — July 1 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 28. 750 grs. of white 
 sugar-, with 500 grs. of butter, and ^^'ithout ■v'sater, gave a maximum increase of only 
 l*3gr. of carbonic acid per minute, of air 48 cubic inches per minute, and in depth of 
 inspii"ation 3 '8 cubic inches. The pulsation was slightly increased. 
 
 Grape-sugar. — July 2 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 29. 500 grs. of grape-sugar, dis- 
 solved in 10 oz. of hot water, gave a maximum increase in carbonic acid of 1'04 gr. per 
 minute in 55 minutes ; whilst on another occasion, July 8 (7 exps.), 750 grs. gave an 
 increase of 1*1 gr. per minute in 50 minutes. The maximum increase in the quantity 
 of air inspired per minute Avas 8 cubic inches and 23 cubic inches. The rate of respira- 
 tion was lessened, as was also that of pulsation, in the first experiment. 
 
 Milk-sugar.— ^\me 12 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 20. 250 grs. of sugar of milk, 
 with 6 oz. of hot water, produced a maximum increase in carbonic acid per minute of 
 1*62 gr. in myself, and '%% gr. in ISIr. MouL. The volume of air inspired was increased 
 24 cubic inches and 29 cubic inches per minute. The rate of pulsation fell, in Mr, 
 MouL, 5 per minute, and that of respiration 1*5 per minute, whilst in myself the 
 subsidence was to a less extent. 
 
 Hence it is proved — 
 
 1. That sugar in every form is a powerful respiratory excitant. 
 
 2. The action is almost immediate, and it rapidly rushes up to a maximum, but the 
 whole efiect does not disappear in less than from 1^ to 2 hours. 
 
 3. "SMien taken dry the eifect is lessened, and the subsequent addition of water 
 increases its action. 
 
 4. In some conditions the addition of an acid increased the degree, but lessened the 
 dui'ation, of its influence, whilst that of an alkali had the contrary effect. The variation 
 in these results is in accordance with the variation which I have found in the action of 
 acids and alkalies alone. The contrast in the experiments on June 29 and July 5 is 
 very striking. 
 
 5. The addition of fat lessened its action. 
 
 6. Milk-sugar has less influence than cane-sugar, and grape-sugar has less influence 
 than either. 
 
 7. The rate of respiration was always lessened, except when acid was added to the 
 sugar, whilst that of pulsation was sometimes increased, and particularly with acid and 
 fat ; but when an alkali was added, it was decreased considerably. 
 
 The depth of inspiration was always largely increased. 
 
 8. There was a sense of great ease and depth in both inspiration and expiration. In 
 5 minutes there was sometimes a sour taste ; and although there was commonly at first 
 
 5c2 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
724 DE. E. SMITH OX THE ACnO]N' 
 
 a comfortable feeling, in 1-| hour there was usually craving for food, — a circumstance very 
 different from that which occurs with ordinary /oo^a. 
 The urine in one instance (May 10) had a celery odour. 
 
 9. With both sugar and starch, but especially with the former, there was a very 
 unusual condensation of vapour in the mask. 
 
 10. The proportion of carbonic acid to the air inspired was always increased, but it 
 was the most so with the sugar and potass, when the proportion of 1 gr. of carbonic 
 acid to 52 cubic inches of air Avas increased to as 1 : 44 cubic inches at the period of 
 maximum increase of the air and the carbonic acid. 
 
 I like sugar moderately, but Mr. Moul dislikes it. 
 
 4. The Milk Series. 
 
 Milk, a highly complex body, both as a whole, and in nearly all its elements, excites 
 the respiratory function. 
 
 Neio lf^•W^— April 3 (5 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 14, April 8 (5 exps.). One pint of 
 cold good new cows' milk gave me a maximum increase of 2-26 grs. of carbonic acid per 
 minute on one occasion, and 1-9 gr. per minute on another. With the latter, the maxi- 
 mum increase in Mr. Moul was -94 gr. per minute. The maximum increase in the 
 inspired air was 96 cubic inches per minute in myself, and 22 cubic inches per minute 
 in Mr. Moul. The rate of both respiration and pulsation was increased in myself, but 
 not in Mr. ]Moul. 
 
 Skimmed Jlilk. — June 9 (5 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 15. One pint of good skimmed 
 milk gave me a maximum increase of carbonic acid per minute of '84 gr., and Mr. Moul 
 of '54 gr. per minute. The volume of air was increased 21 cubic inches per minute in 
 myself, but there was a decrease in Mr. Moul. The rate of respiration was decreased 
 1 per minute in both, and that of pulsation 8 per minute in Mr. Moul. 
 
 Casein. — June 10 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 17, June 11 (7 exps.). The casein of 
 1 pint of good skimmed milk, well washed with water, gave me, on two occasions, a 
 maximum increase in carbonic acid of 1-34 gr. and -92 gr. per minute; but Mr. Moul 
 had a decrease, and the maxima of decrease were '38 gr. and •& gr. per minute. My 
 maximum increase in the volume of air inspired was 28 cubic inches in the first, but 
 there was no increase in the second experiment, whilst in Mr. MouL the maximum 
 decrease was 26 cubic inches and 28 cubic inches per minute. My rate of respiration 
 and pulsation was nearly unchanged, but Mr. Moul had a decrease in both. 
 
 Lactic Acid. — June 7(7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 19. 40 in. of lactic acid in 8 oz. of 
 water, gave me a maximum increase in carbonic acid of "42 gr., and Mr. Moul a maxi- 
 mum decrease of '8 gr. per minute. There was a slight decrease in the quantity of air 
 inspired, and a decrease in the rates of both respiration and pulsation, but the diminu- 
 tion in that of respiration was greatest in myself, and that of pulsation in Mr. Moul. 
 
 Casein and Lactic Acid. — June 14 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 18. The casein of 
 1 pint of skimmed milk and 40 v\ of lactic acid with water, gave me a maximum 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
OF POODS UPON THE EESPIliATION. 
 
 725 
 
 increase of -91 gr. of carbonic acid and 19 cubic inches of air per minute. The rate of 
 respiration slightly increased at first and decreased afterwards, and that of pulsation 
 slightly increased. 
 
 Milk-sugar. —June 12 (7 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 20. I have already stated the 
 effect of sugar of milk. 
 
 ATilk-sugar and Lactic Acid. — June 15 (8 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 21. 250 grs. of 
 sugar of milk and 40 in. of lactic acid, with 8 oz. of hot water, gave me a maximum in- 
 crease in carbonic acid of 1-18 gr., and in air of 22 cubic inches per minute. The rate 
 of respii-ation fell slightly, whilst that of pulsation was scarcely changed. 
 
 Cream. — June 22 (6 exps.), Plate XXXV. fig. 16. 2 oz. of good fresh cream produced 
 in myself an average increase of -24 gr., and a maximum increase of -48 gr. of carbonic 
 acid per minute; whilst in Mr. MouL there was a maximum decrease of -58 gr. per minute. 
 
 June 23 (8 exps.). — 2J oz. gave me an average increase of '29 gr., and a maximum of 
 •64 gr. of carbonic acid per minute. The volume of air was increased in myself 33 
 cubic inches and 19 cubic inches per minute, but in Mr. MouL it was lessened 42 cubic 
 inches per minute. My rate of respiration was slightly increased in the first experiment, 
 and Mr. Moul's fell 1 per minute. My rate of pulsation was somewhat increased. 
 
 The effect of rum and milk will be described in the alcohol series. 
 
 These experiments show — 
 
 1. How different the effects of milk are upon different persons, and that there is a 
 relation between this variation and the enjoyment of the food. I am fond of milk, but 
 Mr. MouL states that neither he nor any of his family can take cheese or milk. As the 
 difference in reference to the influence of milk and its components is very striking, I 
 have tabulated the results for their more ready appreciation. 
 
 Thus the increase or decrease of carbonic acid in grains per minute was — 
 
 
 New milk. 
 
 Skimmed milk. 
 
 Casein. 
 
 Sugar of milk. 
 
 Crpam. 
 
 Lactic acid. 
 
 Myself 
 
 f 0-28 1 
 + 10-94/ 
 
 gr- 
 + 0-84 
 
 + 0-54 
 
 / 0-381 
 "io-6 1 
 
 gr. 
 + 1-63 
 
 + 0-66 
 
 gr- 
 
 fO-481 
 + 10-64/ 
 
 -0-58 
 
 gr- 
 + 0-42 
 
 -0-8 
 
 Mr. Moul 
 
 
 2. That there is no element in the milk (except the acid in some conditions) which 
 is not excito-respiratory. 
 
 3. That no artificial combination of the component parts of milk produces the effect 
 upon the respiration which follows the use of the natural combination. 
 
 4. That new milk has greater infiuence over the respiration than skimmed milk, and 
 that the cream has greater influence than was found to exist in butter. 
 
 5. The rate of respiration and pulsation was increased by new milk and by cream in 
 myself, whilst it was lessened by skimmed milk and lactic acid, and was unchanged by 
 casein. 
 
 6. The proportion of carbonic acid to the inspired air was slightly increased. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
726 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 5. Alcohols. 
 
 Alcohol, and substances containing much alcohol, disturb the respiration rather than 
 influence it uniformly in any dii'ection. Certain members of the class increase, whilst 
 others decrease the activity of that function, probably according to the elements other 
 than alcohol of which they are composed. 
 
 Alcohol. — March 9 (8 exps.). 11 di-achms of Spt. Vini (76 per cent, of pure alcohol) 
 in 6 oz. of cold water, caused in myself an average increase of '18 gr. of carbonic acid, 
 and a maximum of "46 gr. per minute ; and on another occasion. May 6 (7 exps., Plate 
 XXXVI. fig. 44), an average increase of -8 gr. and a maximum of 1-64 gr. per minute. 
 Mr. MoUL on the latter occasion had no average change, but a maximum decrease of 
 •72 gr., and an increase of '4 gr. per minute. The quantity of air was increased 47 cubic 
 inches and 53 cubic inches per minute in myself, and 26 cubic inches per minute in 
 Mr. MouL. The rate of respu'ation declined throughout in the first, but in the 
 second experiment there was an increase in both of us, and a subsequent decrease in 
 myself. 
 
 Dec. 21 (5 exps.), fig. 45. — I took \ an oz. of alcohol, spec. grav. -858 (76 per cent.), 
 with 2 oz. of cold water, every quarter of an hour for three times, after which (as also in 
 the experiment on March 9) I was nearly unconscious. The carbonic acid was increased 
 •74 gr. per minute, and the air 37 cubic inches per minute. The rate of respiration 
 was scarcely changed, but that of pulsation rose. In 70 minutes from the first dose the 
 quantities fell to the basis. The vapour exhaled from the lungs increased from 3'12 
 grs. to 3^76 grs. per minute. 
 
 Wlvisky.—A^xil 6 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 46. 1^ oz. of whisky, spec. grav. -936 
 (42 per cent.), in 6 oz. of cold water, caused an average decrease of carbonic acid in 
 myself of ^33 gr., and a maximum of -l gr. per minute. The rate of respiration was 
 unchanged, but that of pulsation fell 7 per minute. 
 
 April 29 (5 exps.). — 2 oz. of the finest whisky, spec. grav. ^875 (69 per cent.), bottled 
 more than twenty years, vdth water, taken after an experiment on the influence of the 
 vapour of wine, gave an average increase of ^29 gr. of carbonic acid in myself, and ^22 
 gr. in Mr. Moul; vdth maxima of decrease of -73 gr., and of increase of 1'53 gr. in 
 myself, and a maximum increase of -78 gr. in Mr. MouL. My quantity of air was at 
 first increased and then lessened, whilst it varied in Mr. MouL. The rate of respiration 
 fell, and that of pulsation rose in both. Since the basis quantity in this experiment was 
 due to the inhalation of wine, it is possible that the comparative results thus given may 
 not be quite normal. 
 
 May 4 (6 exps.), fig. 47. — 2 oz. of the whisky which was used in the first experiment, 
 spec. grav. -928 (45^5 per cent.), caused an average decrease in carbonic acid of -57 gr., 
 and a maximum of 1 gr. per minute, whilst in Mr. MouL the average increase was -29 
 gr., and the maximum -66 gr. per minute. The rate of respiration declined considerably 
 in myself, and, with one exception, in Mr. MouL also. The rate of pulsation fell in 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
OF POODS UPON THE EESPIEATION. 727 
 
 Mr. MoUL 8 per minute. The qviantity of air was reduced in myself 52 cubic inches per 
 minute. 
 
 Brandij. — April 20 (6 exps.). 1^ oz. of excellent brandy, with water, caused in me 
 an average decrease of -2 gr. of carbonic acid, and a maximum of -38 gr. per minute. 
 
 April 24 (6 exps., Plate XXXVI. fig. 52). — 2 oz. gave me an average decrease of '38 gr., 
 and a maximum of -71 gr. per minute, and to Mr. MouL -02 gr. and '62 gr. respectively; 
 but in him there was, on two occasions, an increase of -4 gr. per minute. The quan- 
 tity of air fell 42 cubic inches and 37 cubic inches per minute in myself, and 34 cubic 
 inches per minute in INIr. MouL. My rate of respiration and pulsation fell on both 
 occasions, whilst in INIr. MouL the former varied and the latter fell a little. 
 
 G^/«.— April 27 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 48. 2 oz. of fine old British gin, with 
 6 oz. of cold water, gave me a maximum decrease of 1*52 gr. of carbonic acid in half an 
 hour, and an average decrease of '65 gr. per minute in 86 minutes. In Mr. MouL the 
 average decrease was "2 gr., and the maximum -4 gr. per minute. The volume of air 
 was reduced 56 cubic inches in myself, but it was unchanged in Mr. Moitl. The rate 
 of respu-ation fell in myself, but it varied much in Mr. MouL ; whilst that of pulsation 
 fell 6 per minute in myself, and was unchanged in Mr. MouL. 
 
 Dec. 21 (4 exps.). — The same quantity of newer and probably inferior gin, taken in 
 the afternoon, gave me a maximum decrease of '46 gr. of carbonic acid and 43 cubic 
 inches of air per minute, the diminution ending in three-quarters of an hour. The rate 
 of respii'ation slightly fell, whilst that of pulsation rose 5 per minute. There was a 
 decrease in the amount of vapour exhaled from the lungs, from 3-12 grs. to 2-7 grs. per 
 minute (-699 gr. and -667 gr. to 100 cubic inches). 
 
 Rum. — April 8 (6 exps.). 1-^ oz. of Na^7 rum, spec. grav. -900 (58 per cent.), with 
 water, taken in the afternoon, gave me a maximum increase in carbonic acid of "78 gr., 
 and an average increase of "26 gr. per minute, whilst Mr. MouL had a maximum increase 
 of '7 gr. per minute. The volume of air was increased 13 cubic inches and decreased 
 49 cubic inches in myself, and in Mr. MouL it was decreased 80 cubic inches per minute. 
 The rate of respiration fell, and chiefly in Mr. MouL ; whilst that of pulsation rose in 
 myself and fell in Mr. Moul. On another occasion, April 10 (7 exps., Plate XXXVI. 
 fig. 49), in the morning, the increase of carbonic acid was much greater, viz. a maxi- 
 mum of 1-24 gr. in myself, and 2-14 grs. per minute in Mr. MouL. The quantity of air 
 inspired varied in myself, but in Mr. Moul it was increased 82 cubic inches per minute. 
 My rate of respiration fell, and that of Mr. Moul fell greatly, and his rate of pulsation 
 fell also. The depth of inspiration was increased in both of us. 
 
 April 30 (7 exps.). — 2 oz. of very fine old rum, spec. grav. -875 (69 per cent.), taken 
 in the morning, gave to me a maximum increase in carbonic acid of only -1 gr., but to 
 Mr. Moul of 1-5 gr. per minute. There was a maximum increase in the quantity of air 
 of 11 cubic inches in myself, and 40 cubic inches in Mr. Moul per minute. The rate 
 of respiration fell towards the end of the inquiry in myself, and at an earlier period in 
 Mr. Moul. His pulsation also fell a little, whilst mine rose. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
728 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 December 27 (5 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 50. — J an oz. of only moderately good rum, 
 which had been used in the experiments on inhalation, and so weak as -944 spec. grav. 
 (37-5 per cent.), with 2 oz. of cold water, taken every quarter of an hour, gave the follow- 
 ing increase in the quantity of carbonic acid evolved after each dose: — "14 gr., '43 gr., 
 •2 gr., and '66 gr., showing a continuous increase. The maximum increase in the quan- 
 tity of air inspired was 49 cubic inches after the last dose, and the proportion of the 
 carbonic acid to the inspired air was somewhat reduced in consequence of the dispro- 
 portionate increase of the latter. The rate of respiration was slightly increased vrith the 
 fii-st dose, and as slightly decreased with the subsequent ones, whilst the rate of pulsation 
 was also slightly increased. The amount of vapour exhaled per minute in the expired 
 air varied from a decrease of '3 gr. and '2 gr. after the second and third doses, when the 
 respiration felt feeble and there was sighing, to an increase of "04 gr. and "06 gr. after 
 the first and fourth doses. There was, however, a progressive decrease to each 100 cubic 
 inches of inspired air, as follows: — '742 gr. (basis), "7 gr., "67 gr., '65 gr., and "67 gr., 
 after succeeding doses. 
 
 Bum and Milk. — April 12 (8 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 51. 1^ oz. of Navy rum, 
 with 1 pint of good new milk, produced in myself and Mr. MouL an average increase 
 in the carbonic acid of -73 gr. and "65 gr. per minute, whilst the maxima of increase 
 were '9 gr. and 1'38 gr. per minute respectively. The quantity of air was increased 25 
 cubic inches and 18 cubic inches per minute, with a diminution also of 42 cubic inches in 
 the latter (Mr. Moul). The rate of respiration declined, and very much so in Mr. MouL, 
 whilst that of pulsation was increased. The depth of respiration was increased in both. 
 
 Sherry Wine. — April 2 (5 exps.), May 5 (5 exps.). May 6 (7 exps.), Plate XXXVI. 
 fig. 53. 3 oz. of tolerably good sherry-; wine, alone, produced in myself, on two occa- 
 sions, an average increase of '19 gr. and "3 gr., and on another occasion an average 
 decrease of "32 gr. of carbonic acid per minute. The maxima of increase were "36 gr. 
 and -44 gr., and of decrease '52 gr. per minute on the several occasions. In Mr. MouL 
 the average decrease was -32 gr., and increase -926 gr. and -21 gr. per minute; with 
 maxima of decrease -9 gr., and of increase 1-44 gr. and -82 gr. per minute. The quantity 
 of air was lessened in myself in all the inquiries, but chiefly in the first one, and least in 
 the last ; whilst in Mr. Moul it varied in the two former and was reduced in the last. 
 The rate of respiration in both feU, and chiefly so in the first experiment ; whilst that 
 of pulsation rose in myself, and was unchanged in Mr. Moul. 
 
 Inhalation of Alcohols. 
 
 I have made several experiments with a view to determine the infiuence of the vola- 
 tile matters of wines and spirits when inhaled, but the uneasy feeling in the lungs which 
 followed each experiment made me fear the effect of a too prolonged series. I placed 
 3 or 4 oz. of the fiuid for examination in a Woulfe's bottle, and inspired air at the ordi- 
 nary temperature which had passed directly over it, taking care to shake the fiuid fre- 
 quently. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
OF FOODS UPON THE EESPTEATION. 729 
 
 Port fr?«f.— April 29 (4 oxps.), Plate XXXVT. fig. 54. The wine ^Yas exceedingly 
 tine and old, and the vapour was inspired during 10 minutes, on four occasions, within 
 70 minutes. The carbonic acid was reduced on the average '53 gr. in myself, and 
 •42 gr. in Mr. INlorL per minute, Avith maxima of decrease of -87 gr. and -58 gr. per 
 minute respectively. The maximum decrease in the inspired air was 56 cubic inches 
 in myself, and 36 ci\bic inches in Mr. Moul per minute. The rate of respiration was 
 increased in INIr. Moul, but it was ultimately decreased in myself. A moderately pun- 
 gent sensation was perceived in the pharynx, and particularly when the wine was shaken. 
 The loss in weight was 40 grs., and the spec. grav. increased from 1-004 to 1-005. 
 
 Sherry Wine. — December 15. The bouquet was good but not persistent, and it pro- 
 duced but little effect iipon the throat. The effect of my inhaling it during 10 minutes 
 was to reduce the carbonic acid -12 gr., and the air 8 cubic inches per minute. The 
 vapour exhaled was increased from 3 grs. to 3-06 grs. per minute (-707 gr. to -88 gr. to 
 100 cubic inches). 
 
 Alcohol. — ]\larch 30. Spt. Vini, inhaled 15 minutes, caused during the- last 5 minutes 
 a decrease in the carbonic acid of -34 gr., and in the air of 11 cubic inches per minute. 
 The quantity of vapour- exhaled was increased from 3-22 grs. to 4-04 grs. per minute 
 (•755 gr. to -973 gr. to 100 cubic inches). On another occasion (December 6), the alcohol 
 being inhaled during 10 minutes, there was no variation either in the carbonic acid or 
 air. and the vapour exhaled was increased from 3-3 grs. to 3-9 grs. per mmute (-78 gr. 
 to -91 gr. to 100 cubic inches). The alcohol lost 21 grs. in weight. In both experi- 
 ments the pulse became fuller. 
 
 Gin [British). — December 13. Inhalation of gin during 10 minutes caused a decrease 
 in the carbonic acid of -5 gr. per minute, whilst there was an increase in the volume of 
 air inspired of 18 cubic inches per minute. The vapour exhaled was increased from 
 
 3 grs. per minute to 3-51 grs. per minute (-746 gr. to "835 gr. to 100 cubic inches). 
 Mum. — December 4, December 13. Rum, inhaled during 10 minutes on one occasion, 
 
 and 15 minutes on another, gave a decrease in carbonic acid of -56 gr. and -12 gr., and 
 in air an increase of 12 cubic inches per minute. The pulse became much fuller. The 
 vapour exhaled increased from 3-24 grs. to 3-89 grs. per minute (-799 gr. and "962 gr. to 
 100 cubic inches), and from 3-12 grs. to 4-4 grs. per minute (-699 gr. to -943 gr. to 100 
 cubic inches). In the first experiment the rum lost 17 grs. in weight in ten minutes. 
 
 I now proceed to describe the effect of ale and porter. 
 
 Stoiot. — May 7 (7 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 55. 10 oz. of good stout gave to myself 
 and Mr. Moul an average increase in the carbonic acid of -83 gr. and -81 gr., and maxima 
 of 1-56 gr. and 1-02 gr. respectively per minute. The air was increased 41 cubic inches 
 and 46 cubic inches per minute. The rate of respiration was a little increased, and varied 
 somewhat in myself, whilst it fell in Mr. Moul. The rate of pulsation was increased 
 
 4 and 7 per minute. The depth of inspiration was increased 1-6 cubic inch. On another 
 occasion, May 11 (6 exps.), the maximum increase in carbonic acid was 1-16 gr. and -98 gr. 
 
 MDCCCLIX. 5 D 
 
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ON THE ACTION OF FOODS UPON THE EESPIEATIOK. 731 
 
 per minuto. There ^^•as no increase in the quantity of air in myself, but there was a 
 maximum increase of IS cubic inches in Mr. MouL. The rate of respiration fell a little, 
 and that of ]nilsation rose, lire depth of inspiration was mucli increased. 
 
 Ale. — INIay 10 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 56. 11 oz. of good old home-brewed 
 Hertfordshire ale, a little acid, gave an average increase in carbonic acid of -6 gr. and 
 •27 gr., and maxima of Tl gr. and -30 gr. to myself and Mr. Moul respectively. The 
 volume of air inspired was increased 00 cubic inches in myself, but there was a diminu- 
 tion in ]Mr. MouL. The rate of respiration and pulsation scarcely varied in myself, and 
 that of respiration was at first increased in Mr. MouL. 
 
 As there ^^ as much variation in the action of the substances classed under this head, 
 I have throAvn the results now given into the Table on the opposite page, with a ^'ie^y 
 to the more ready comprehension of the numerous details. 
 
 Abstract of the Effects of Alcohols. 
 
 From the foregoing wc may learn — 
 
 1. That the presence of alcohol, being one amongst many elements, and that one 
 varying greath' in quantit}', is an insufficient ground for classification, and does not give 
 a common action to the members of this class. 
 
 2. The direct action of pure alcohol was much more to increase than to lessen the 
 respii'atory changes, and sometimes the former effect was well pronounced. Small doses 
 repeated had a more uniform and persistent effect than would have followed the admi- 
 nistration of the whole at once. The indirect action, as, for example, in lessening the 
 appetite for food, and the mode of its action, I have not investigated. 
 
 3. Brandy, whisky, and gin, and particularly the latter, almost always lessened the 
 respiratory changes recorded, whilst rum as commonly increased them. Rum and milk 
 had a verv pronounced and persistent action, and there was no effect upon the senso- 
 rium. Ale and porter ab^ays increased them, whilst sherry wine lessened the quantity 
 of ail' inspired, but slightly increased the carbonic acid evolved. 
 
 4. The volatile elements of alcohol, gin, rum, and sherry and port wme, when inhaled, 
 lessened the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled, and usually lessened the quantity of air 
 inhaled. The effect of fine old port wine was very decided and uniform; and it is known 
 that wines and spirits improve in aroma and become weaker in alcohol by age. The 
 excito-respiratory action of rum is probably not due to its volatile elements. 
 
 5. The quantity of vapour exhaled from the lungs was increased during the inhala- 
 tion of the volatile elements of wines and spirits, without the quantity of air having 
 increased. ^Mien gin was drank, the quantity of vapour in the expired air was lessened, 
 whilst it was increased under tlie influence of alcohol, in about the same degree as 
 during the inhalation of that substance. Hence the exhalation of vapour and carbonic 
 
 acid are not parallel acts. 
 
 6. The rate of respiration was in almost all instances lessened in both of us, whilst 
 that of pulsation was as constantly increased in myself, but not in Mr. Moul. 
 
 5 d2 
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732 DE. E. SMITH OX THE ACTION 
 
 7. The relation between the quantity of carbonic acid expired and the volume of air 
 inspu-ed, was usually increased at the period of maximum influence. 
 
 8, The variation in the results was greater than the statement of the average and 
 maximum effects indicates, as may be seen in the Tables and Plates. 
 
 The general effects upon the system of these substances may be thus epitomized : — 
 
 1. There is not an exact correspondence in time and intensity of the effects upon 
 consciousness, sensibility, and respiration, and their principal influence is not upon the 
 respiratory function. They disturb the vital actions. 
 
 2. There were two sets of eflects in each of the inquiries on spirits. 
 
 A. The early effects, consisting of — 
 
 Lessened consciousness, with cloudiness, swimming or giddiness, beginning in less 
 than 10 minutes, and increasing during about 30 minutes. 
 
 Lessened sensibility to light, sound, and touch. 
 
 Wavy or buzzing sensation passing through the whole body ; and a semi-cata- 
 leptic state, in which there was indisposition to move any part of the body from 
 the then existing position. 
 
 These occurred at the same period as : 
 
 Lessened voluntary muscular power and control, with sensation of stiffiiess and 
 lianging of the upper lip, and stiffness of the face and forehead, beginning in 
 8 minutes, and continuing about 45 minutes. The dartos was relaxed, and the 
 erector penis and the sphincter of the bladder were rendered less effective. The 
 action of the heart and arteries was increased, as was that of the muscles of inspira- 
 tion, with a sensation of sudden and forcible action, to a greater degree than the 
 quantity of air inspired accounted for. There was certainly a difference in the effect 
 upon the muscles subject to, and not subject to volition. 
 
 Lessened transpiration of vapour from the lungs during f to 1 hour, with dry- 
 ness of the skin (as if it had been induced by an east wind), and particularly 
 with rum. Increased arterial action near to the surface in 8 minutes, with heat, 
 tingling and swelling of the skin, and a dry state of the whole mouth, with whisky ; 
 and dryness, redness, and soreness of the tip of the tongue Avith rum. 
 
 Pleasant dreaminess and talkativeness, particularly with rum, in 13 to 15 minutes. 
 
 B. The later effects. 
 
 Taciturnity in from 18 to 80 minutes, followed by depression and a miserable 
 feeling in from 60 to 90 minutes. 
 
 Sensation of cold often occurred suddenly and apart from the temperature of the 
 air in about 50 minutes. 
 
 The principal influence over consciousness and sensibility was often lessened sud- 
 denly, and the effects of the alcohol nearly disappeared at the following periods : 
 71 to 73 minutes with alcohol; 43 to 120 minutes with rum; 66 to 84 minutes 
 with whisky; 46 to 80 minutes with brandy, and 68 minutes with gin. 
 
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OP FOODS UPON THE EESPIEATION. 733 
 
 G. The Tea Series. 
 
 The members of this class are nearly all powerful respiratory excitants. The inquiries 
 \m\e been very varied and extensive. The tea was exceedingly good and pure. 
 
 Tm.— April 2 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 32. 100 grs. of black tea gave to myself 
 and Mr. Moul a maximum increase of carbonic acid of -87 gr. and 1'72 gr. per minute 
 in 50 and 71 mhmtes. The average increase was -73 gr. and 1 gr. per minute. The 
 quantity of air was increased 71 cubic inches and 08 cubic inches per minute, and the 
 depth of inspiration 4 cubic inches in each of us. The rate of respiration was in- 
 creased and that of pulsation decreased, except at the first observation, after the tea had 
 been taken. 
 
 April 7 (5 exps.), April 17 (5 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 31, April 19 (5 exps.).— 50 grs. 
 of black tea gave the following results to myself, Mr. Moul, Mr. Moul's son (a3t. 16), and 
 Professor Feankland on different occasions : — a maximum increase of carbonic acid of 
 1-08 gr. ur myself; 1-38 gr., 2-58 grs. and 1-6 gr. in Mr. Moul ; 2 grs. in Mr. Moul's son, and 
 ■69 gr. per minute in Professor Feankland. The maximum increase in the quantity of air 
 inspired was in the same order, — 34 cubic inches, 39 cubic inches, 50 cubic inches, 72 cubic 
 inches, 95 cubic inches, 26 cubic inches per minute. My rate of pulsation was lessened, 
 and that of respiration was scarcely changed. The rate of both was lessened in Mr. ^louL, 
 whilst in his son that of respiration was increased and of pulsation decreased. 
 
 May 26 (7 exps.). — 100 grs. of green tea, drunk when cold, gave to myself and 
 Mr. Moul maxima of increase of carbonic acid of •9gr. and 2-58 grs. per minute, with 
 average increase of -44 gr. and 1-57 gr. per minute. The quantity of air was not 
 increased in myself, but it was increased 120 cubic inches per minnte in Mr. Moul. 
 The rate of respiration declined so much as 1-2 and 2 per minute, and in Mr. Moul that 
 of pulsation also slightly declined. The depth of inspiration was increased 3 cubic 
 inches and 10 cubic inches. 
 
 August 26 (4 exps.). — The same quantity given to Mr. Hoffman-, Surgeon to the 
 Margate Infu-mary, caused a maximum increase of -64 gr. of carbonic acid per minute 
 and 50 cubic inches of aii- per minute in one hour. The pulsation declined after the 
 first observation. 
 
 May 24 (10 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 35. — 25 grs. of green tea, drunk when cold 
 several hours after it had been infused, and repeated every quarter of an hour for five 
 times, gave Mr. Moul an average increase in carbonic acid of 1*2 gr., and a maximum of 
 1-8 gr. per minute. The maximum increase in the quantity of air inspired was 66 cubic 
 inches per minute after the fifth dose. The total increase of carbonic acid, as deduced 
 from the ten observations, was 193 grs. ; but at the end of the inquiry, in two hours and 
 thirty-four minutes, there was still an increase of -9 gr. of carbonic acid and 36 cubic 
 inches of air per minute. The rate of respiration declined 1-6 per minute, whilst that 
 of pulsation was scarcely changed. The depth of inspiration was increased 10-6 cubic 
 inches, and was much the greatest after the fourth dose. 
 
 Jrme 8 (13 exps.), fig. 34. — Mr. Moul took 150 grs. of black tea infused in one pint of 
 
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734 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 water, and the whole carbonic acid exhaled by him during the inquiry was collected 
 and weighed every five minutes. The basis quantity was again reached after sixty-five 
 minutes. On the whole average the increase in the carbonic acid was -79 gr., with a 
 maximum of 1-24 gr. per minute. Thus the excess of the carbonic acid exhaled over 
 the basis quantity was 51-35 grs., or only one-fourth of that resulting from a smaller 
 quantity when di-\ided and taken at intervals. The maximum increase in the quantity 
 of au- inspired was 92 cubic inches per minute, and the greatest increase in both the 
 carbonic acid and the air occurred in the first half of the period of inquiry. The rate 
 of respiration was increased in the fii'st three examinations. 
 
 iMay 22 (7 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 33.-1 took 100 grs. of black tea and collected 
 all the carbonic acid exhaled under its influence, and weighed all that collected in the 
 first hour, and then each quarter of an hour for three times, and finally in five minutes, 
 when the basis v>'as reached and the inquiry ended. The average increase in the carbonic 
 acid was '64 gr. and the maximum l'23gr. per minute, and thus the total increase in 
 110 minutes was 70-40 grs. The quantity of air was increased on the average 47-5 cubic 
 inches, and the maximum increase was 77 cubic inches per minute at the end of the first 
 hour. The pulse fell and the rate of respiration slightly increased, whilst the depth of 
 inspii'ation increased nearly 5 cubic inches. 
 
 Tea, Milk, and Sugar.— June 5 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 30. 50 grs. of black tea, 
 taken with milk and sugar, gave us maxima of increase in the carbonic acid of 2-96 grs. 
 and 2 -50 grs. per minute. The maximum increase in the quantity of air was 78 cubic 
 inches per minute. There was also increased rate both of respiration and pulsation. 
 
 Tea and Citric Acid.—Jnlj 9 (7 exps.), fig. 36, July 13 (5 exps.), July 15 (5 exps.), 
 July 13 P.M. (3 exps.), July 12 (5 exps.). 100 grs. of black tea, taken with 30 grs. of 
 citric acid, gave me maxima of increase of carbonic acid in three experiments of 1-86 gr., 
 1-11 gr., and 1-14 gr. per minute; on another occasion it was only -88 gr. per minute 
 in Mr. MouL. The increase in the quantity of air inspired was 72 cubic inches, 60-5 
 cubic inches, and 72 cubic inches per minute in myself, and 6 cubic inches per minute 
 in Mr. Moul; but in him there was also a maximum decrease of 18 cubic inches per 
 minute. The rate of respiration and pulsation was always considerably increased in 
 myself, but not in Mr. MouL. 
 
 When taken in the afternoon I had no increase of the carbonic acid, and the effects 
 much more resembled those observed in Mr. MouL in his experiment before breakfast. 
 
 Tea, ivith Soda and Potash.— Julj 10 (6 exps.), fig. 37. 100 grs. of black tea, with 
 50 grs. each of carbonate of soda and potash, with 8 oz. of water,, gave me a maximum 
 increase in carbonic acid of 1-08 gr. per minute, and in air 39 cubic inches per minute. 
 The rate of respiration scarcely varied, but that of pulsation was a little increased. 
 
 Tea, with Caustic Alkali.— July 22 (5 exps.), fig. 38. 100 grs. of black tea, with 40 in. 
 of Liq. Potassse and 7 oz. of water, gave no increase in the carbonic acid. There was an 
 increase of 27 cubic inches of air. The rate of respiration was unchanged, but that of 
 pulsation fell. 
 
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OP rOODS UPON THE RESPIEATION. 7^5 
 
 On many occasions we took a cup of tea with a ^iew to relieve the system after expe- 
 riments Avith other substances ; and the results have much interest, as showing their 
 uniform direction and the rapidity of the action of tea. We both took milk Avith it, 
 but I alone took sugar. 
 
 April 24.— After having taken brandy, tea gave to myself and Mr. :\rouL in fifteen 
 minutes an increase of curbo.nic acid of -02 gr. and 2-58 grs., and of air 25 cubic inches 
 and 108 cubic inches per minute. 
 
 :MaY 16. — After cocoa had increased the respiration in myself, but scarcely in 
 :Mr. MouL. tea gave us an increase in carbonic acid of •2gr. and 2-2 grs., and in air of 
 9 cubic inches and 78 cubic inches per minute. 
 
 May 28. — After an experiment on rice, 50 grs. of tea infused one minute, gave 
 Mr. MouL an increase in carbonic acid of 1 gr., and in air of 17 cubic inches per minute. 
 
 May 29. — After having taken whisky, the same quantity of tea infused two minutes, 
 gave us in ten minutes an increase in carbonic acid of -96 gr. and 1-32 gr. of carbonic 
 acid, and 50 cubic inches and 56 cubic inches of air per minute. 
 
 May 30. — After an experiment on rum, tea caused a small decrease in my carbonic 
 acid %vith a slight increase of air ; but ]\Ir. Moul had in tAventj-five minutes an increase 
 of -92 gr. of carbonic acid and 48 cubic inches of air per minute. 
 
 June 21. — After an experiment on arrowroot and butter, I had again a small decrease 
 in the carbonic acid, whilst Mr. Moul had an increase of 2-12 grs. and 98 cubic inches 
 of air per minute. Neither substance agreed with us. 
 
 C'o/J¥.— April 6 (4 exps.), April 9 (6 exps.), April 15 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 39, 
 May 3 (7 exps.), fig. 40. ^ an oz. of good coffee gave to myself and Mr. Moul, on three 
 occasions, the follo-ning increase per minute: — Carbonic acid, -98 gr. and 1-02 gr., 9 gr. 
 and -4 gr., 1-16 gr. and 2-54 grs. ; aii-, 36 cubic inches and 14 cubic inches, 40 cubic 
 inches and 34 cubic inches, 35 cubic inches and 84 cubic inches, f of an oz. gave us an 
 increase per minute of carbonic acid, 1-08 gr. and '82 gr. ; and of air, 28 cubic inches and 
 54 cubic inches per minute. The rate of respiration, but not of pulsation, was increased 
 in myself, whilst in Mr. Moul the increased rate of both functions was much less than 
 in myself in the first experiment ; and in the others there was no increase. The increase 
 in the depth of inspiration was not great. 
 
 April 27. — A cup of coffee with milk, after an experiment on gin, ga\e neither of us 
 any increase of carbonic acid or air within a short period. 
 
 May 6. — f of an oz. of coffee with milk gave us, after an experiment on wine, 
 an increase in carbonic acid of -68 gr. and 1-68 gr., and of air 64 cubic inches and 86 
 cubic inches per minute in thirty minutes. 
 
 Chicory. — May 17 (7 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 42. \ an oz. of chicory with 8 oz. 
 of boiling water, gave to myself and Mr. Moul a maximum increase in carbonic acid of 
 1-17 gr. and -66 gr. per minute, whilst the quantity of air inspired was increased 27 cubic 
 inches and 42 cubic inches per minute. The rate of respiration and pulsation fell con- 
 siderably in Mr. Moul, whilst in myself the latter was lessened 1 per minute and the 
 
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736 DE. E. SMITH OX THE ACTIOX 
 
 former slight!}' increased. The depth of inspiration was increased 4 cubic inches and 
 6'2 cubic inches. 
 
 Cocoa.— April 16 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 43, April 20 (6 exps.). 1 oz. of good 
 cocoa, well boiled in 11 oz. of water, gave me on two occasions a maximum increase in 
 carbonic acid of 1-92 gr. and 1-1 gr. per minute, whilst Mr. MouL had on one occasion 
 a maximum increase of -64 gr. There was a maximum increase of air of 27 cubic inches 
 and 61 cubic inches per minute in myself, with an increase of 94 cubic inches in Mr. 
 MouL. The rate of respiration and pulsation was nearly unaffected in myself, but it 
 fell in Mr. MouL. The depth of inspiration was increased 3-6 cubic inches and 5'7 
 cubic inches in myself. 
 
 Coffee leaves.— A^^il 16 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 41, April 30 (5 exps.). Mr. Han- 
 bury of Plough Court kindly furnished me with a specimen of coffee leaves, from which 
 a beverage is made in Sumatra. \ an oz. infused in 10 oz. of boiling water gave me on 
 two occasions a maximum decrease in carbonic acid of -84 gr. and -89 gr. per minute, and 
 Mr. MouL had a decrease of 1-42 gr. per minute. There was a maximum decrease in 
 the quantity of air inspired of 25 cubic inches and 51 cubic inches per minute in myself, 
 and 160 cubic inches in Mr. MouL. The rate of pulsation and respiration, and the depth 
 of inspiration, all fell in both of the inquiries. 
 
 The foregomg experiments prove — 
 
 1. That tea, coffee, chicory and cocoa are respiratory excitants, whilst coffee leaves 
 depress the respiratory function. 
 
 2. The uniformity in the direction of the results is exceedingly striking, whilst the 
 degree of influence is to a certain extent variable. 
 
 3. Tea is the most powerful, then coffee and cocoa, and lastly, chicory. 
 
 4. The rate of respiration was sometimes a little increased and at others a little 
 decreased, but the depth of inspiration was always largely increased. The rate of 
 pulsation was usually slightly increased. 
 
 5. With the addition of an acid the effect was somewhat lessened, and the rate of 
 both functions was increased to a greater degree than with tea alone. 
 
 6. The addition of an alkali also lessened the effect of tea, and a fixed alkali totally 
 destroyed its influence. 
 
 7. The action of acids and alkalies varies with the state of the system and in different 
 persons. 
 
 8. The addition of sugar and milk in the ordinary way increased the effect. 
 
 9. Small doses of tea, frequently repeated, have much greater effect, than the total 
 quantit}- taken at once. 
 
 10. Cold tea, and tea infused and kept twenty-four hours, has as much effect as when 
 hot and recently made. 
 
 11. Green tea has somewhat more influence than black tea, and particularly in 
 lessening the rate and increasing the depth of respiration. 
 
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OF FOODS UPON THE EESPIEATION. 737 
 
 12. The proportion of the carbonic acid to the quantity of air inspired was always 
 increased at the period of maximum influence. 
 
 13. Mr. MouL experienced much greater effect from tea than myself. He is exceed- 
 ingly fond of tea, is not fond of coffee, and dislikes acids, and in the aboe experiments 
 the results corresponded. 
 
 14. The influence of both tea and coffee is exerted almost immediately, viz. in five 
 minutes, and the maximum is attained in from twenty-five to sixty minutes. The 
 duration varies from one to two hours. In all these particulars there is a variation in 
 different persons. 
 
 15. With tea we frequently found nausea in ten minutes, and sometimes to a very 
 unpleasant degree, but it left in ten or fifteen minutes. There was also a soothing or 
 narcotic effect at first on several occasions, and when it had been taken with an alkali 
 this effect was continued to the end ; whilst on the other hand the influence was more 
 stimulating with the acid. There was great freedom of inspiration, and sometimes of 
 expiration also, in about forty to seventy minutes, and with this there was a feeling of 
 lightness and clearness. The pulse was always soft, and the skin moist or soft. 
 
 16. With coffee there was no nausea or soothing; the pulse was sometimes feeble, and 
 the pulsation in the head and hands more perceptible. There was often an uncomfort- 
 able sensation in the small intestines and forcing at the rectum, and not unfrequently a 
 sense of constriction about the diaphragm in from sixteen to forty minutes. There was 
 more action upon the kidneys than with tea. The skin was often hot and dry. 
 
 17. Coffee leaves caused the hands to be hot in seven minutes when 1 oz. had been 
 taken, and in thirty-five minutes a purring sensation occurred similar to that with 
 alcohol, and a not unpleasant feeUng of listlessness. The effect Avas narcotic in thirty- 
 seven minutes. 
 
 7. Some other Nitrogenous Substances. 
 
 Alhwnen. — ^April 9 (8 exps.). Two good-sized boiled eggs gave Mr. Moul's son an 
 average increase in carbonic acid of -27 gr., and a maximum of -88 gr. per minute. The 
 maximum increase in the quantity of air inspired was 17 cubic inches per minute. 
 On another occasion, April 21 (6 exps.), Plate XXXVI. fig. 57, my increase in carbonic 
 acid was an average of -45 gr. and a maximum of 1-12 gr. per minute, whilst in Mr. Moul 
 they were -13 gr. and 38 gr. per minute, respectively. I had a decrease in the quantity of 
 air, whilst Mr. Moul had an increase of 38 cubic inches per minute. My rate of respi- 
 ration scarcely varied, but Mr. Moul's fell, as did also his pulsation in a slight degree. 
 
 Gelatin. — May 8 (6 exps.). The effect of 120 grs. of pure dry isinglass prepared with 
 12 oz. of water, gave to myself and Mr. Moul an average increase in carbonic acid of 
 •43 and 14 gr., and maxima of -84 gr. and 66 gr. per minute respectively. On another 
 occasion, May 21 (7 exps.), 100 grs. of dry commercial isinglass gave to myself and 
 Mr. Moul an average increase in carbonic acid of -14 gr. and -26 gr., and maxima of 
 •76 gr. and -92 gr. per minute respectively. I had no increase of air in the first expe- 
 
 MDCCCLIX. 5 E 
 
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738 DE. 'B. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 riment, bnt there was a maximiTm increase of 14 cubic inches per minute in the second, 
 whilst the increase in Mr. MouL was 70 cubic inches and 28 cubic inches per minute. 
 The rate of respiration was reduced in both, and the respirations were free and deep. 
 Mr. MouL is fond of jelly. 
 
 Almond-emulsion. — September 16 (6 exps.). 1000 grs. of almonds made into an emul- 
 sion with 8 oz. of water, gave me an average decrease in carbonic acid of -17 gr., and in air 
 of 1 8 cubic inches per minute. The rate of both pulsation and respiration fell, and there 
 was a semi-narcotic eifect in thirty-five minutes. The hands were hot and congested. 
 
 Leanfiesh. — April 23 (7 exps.). 6 oz. of raw (4^ oz. cooked) excellent lean beefsteak, 
 gave to myself and Mr. MouL a maximum increase of -7 gr. and -2 gr. per minute, but I 
 had no average increase. The maximum increase in the au- inspired was 19 cubic inches 
 in myself, whilst there was a decrease in Mr. MoUL. The rate of respiration was reduced. 
 
 Msh. — July 5 (8 exps.). 8 oz. of very fine, well cooked salmon, gave me a maximum 
 increase of -84 gr. of carbonic acid per minute in sixty-five minutes, but there was no 
 average increase. There was a maximum increase of air of 15 cubic inches, with a 
 shght fall in the rate of both respiration and pulsation. 
 
 Hence albumen, fibrine, and gelatin exert an influence in exciting the respiratory 
 function — ^fibrine in the least, and gelatin in the greatest degree. Almond-emulsion, 
 although so powerful a ferment, is not a respiratory excitant. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Having now described the action of each of the substances mentioned in the list, I 
 proceed to offer a few general remarks upon the results obtained. 
 
 1. It is evident that foods maybe fitly divided into two classes, viz. those which excite 
 certain respiratory changes (excito-respiratory), and those which do not. 
 
 The excito-respiratory are nitrogenous foods, mUk and its components, sugars, rum, 
 beer, stout, the cereals, and potato. 
 
 The non-exciters are starch, fat, certain alcoholic compounds, the volatile elements 
 of wines and spirits, and coffee leaves. 
 
 2. Of the hydrocarbons, sugar must be regarded apart from starch and fat; the 
 former being destructive and the latter conservative of material in the system. Alcohols 
 are allied to both, but chiefly to the latter. 
 
 The very similar and powerful action of the cereals, and the uniform and powerful 
 action of milk — substances upon which the life of man chiefly depends — are remarkable, 
 whilst the very feeble excito-respiratory action of pure starch is in accordance with its 
 exceptional use. 
 
 No sufficiently distinctive action between fat and starch has been demonstrated, but 
 certain differences have been shown, such as that fat, as compared with starch, less excites 
 the respiration, does not increase the action of starch, increases pulsation somewhat, has 
 a soothing influence, and gives a sensation of satisfaction. 
 
 3. Nearly all nitrogenous foods are " excito-respiratory" in various degrees, and they 
 
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OF POODS UPON THE EBSPIEATION. 739 
 
 comprehend nearly all the members of the class. This power is not in a definite pro- 
 portion to the quantity of nitrogen contained by them, and sugar, which is powerfully 
 " excito-respiratory," is destitute of nitrogen. Probably all compound foods containing 
 sugar or gluten, or both, are " excito-respiratory." The principal ferments are " excito- 
 respiratory." 
 
 4. Eespiratory excitants have a temporary action ; but the action of most of them 
 commences very quickly, and attains its maximum within one hour. 
 
 5. The most powerful respiratory excitants are tea and sugar ; then coffee, rum, milk, 
 cocoa, ales, and chicory ; then casein and gluten, and lastly, gelatin and albumen. The 
 amount of action was not in uniform proportion to their quantity. Compound aliments, 
 as the cereals containing several of these substances, have an action greater than that of 
 any of their elements. 
 
 6. Most respiratory excitants, as tea, coffee, gluten and casein, cause an increase in 
 the evolution of carbon greater than the quantity which they supply, whilst others, as 
 sugar, supply more than they evolve in this excess, that is, above the basis. No sub- 
 stance containing a large amount of carbon evolves more than a small portion of that 
 carbon in the temporary action occurring above the basis line, and hence a large portion 
 remains unaccounted for by these experiments. 
 
 7. The source of the carbon evolved, whether directly from the food recently taken, 
 or indirectly from increased action induced in the tissues, or from the more rapid dis- 
 engagement of that contained ui the blood, has not been determined; but it has been 
 shown in reference to the rapidity and amovuit of action of foods, — 
 
 a. That the increase in the evolution of carbonic acid vnth some of the respiratory 
 excitants is considerable in from three to eight minutes after the introduction of the 
 substance into the stomach, and increases regularly and quickly to a maximum, and 
 then often declines rapidly, as is well shown by tea and sugar. In others, as casein, the 
 action is more tardy. 
 
 j3. That the effect of alcohols upon the sensorium was often perceived in four minutes 
 after they had been swallowed; and the effect of the inhalation of alcohols over the 
 chemical and physical changes was immediate. 
 
 y. That alkalies usually lessen and prolong their action. That fat and the absence of 
 fluid lessened the action of sugar, whilst acids often increased its action. 
 
 5. That small quantities, often repeated, were more efficacious than one large dose. 
 
 E. Also that the whole of the carbonic acid evolved under the influence of tea, coffee, 
 and gluten, could not have been derived from those substances. 
 
 It is remarkable that starch and fat, which constitute the chief supply of carbon to 
 the system, scarcely increase the respiratory changes beyond the amount in_ which they 
 are found in the absence of food. This may help in the elucidation of their interme- 
 diate transformations. Fat never, and lactic acid seldom, increases the respiration above 
 the minimum line; Grape-sugar is a less powerful respu-atory excitant than any other 
 kind of sugar; but I have not determined its influence when given in the doses in which 
 
 5e2 
 
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740 DE. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 it may be presumed to be given to the respiration as the result of chemical transforma- 
 tions within the body. 
 
 Starch and fat maintain the respii'ation to the minimum line, and only under the in- 
 fluence of exertion or of some other respiratory excitant is that amount much exceeded. 
 
 8. Pulsation and respiration, carbonic acid and vapour in the expired air, do not 
 respectively move in parallel lines. There is a close but not absolutely uniform relation 
 betvi^een the quantity of air inspired and the carbonic acid expired. There was almost 
 always a parallel movement between them. 
 
 9. Very generally there was an increase in the quantity of carbonic acid in relation 
 to the air inspired. 
 
 10. The depth of inspiration was almost always increased ; and never with food was 
 increased quantity of air inspired, or of carbonic acid expired, due to increased rate of 
 respiration. The rate usually declined and the depth increased. 
 
 11. In reference to alcohols, it must be remarked — 
 
 a. That alcohol alone was not used in the whole of Peout's and Vieeoedt's experi- 
 ments, but various substances containing alcohol were taken by the former, and white 
 wine by the latter. 
 
 (3. There is the utmost variation in the composition and quality of the members of 
 this class, so that in reference to vdnes and spirits, and perhaps alcohol, it would be 
 impossible to obtain two precisely similar specimens from different supplies. 
 
 y. There is great variation in the habits of men, and therefore of inquirers in 
 reference to their use. Coathupe states that he took one pint of wine at dinner, and 
 occasionally a glass of weak brandy and water at night. Peout states " that the quan- 
 tity I am in the habit of taking is very small." Mr. MouL and myself scarcely ever take 
 spirits ; and I rarely take wine or ale, but Mr. MouL takes three glasses of good wine 
 daUy. 
 
 I. Our experiments were made when fasting. 
 
 Hence there are many causes for discrepancy in the results of different observers. It 
 is in accord with common observation that different members of this class have different 
 effects ; and it is not the practice in medicine to substitute alcohol for wine, brandy, or 
 ale in the proportion in which it is found in those substances. The preference of rum 
 to gin, or other spirits, for the use of the navies of all countries is probably, at the present 
 day, based more upon their different action than upon their relative cost. 
 
 12. Tea also varies much in quality, and the effect of different weights of it varies 
 much also. These circumstances have not been recorded in connexion with previous 
 inquiries. 
 
 Its powerful, uniform, and rapid excito-respiratory action without increasing pulsation 
 and without supplying much carbon, renders it worthy of being more highly regarded 
 as a medicinal agent. Its efficient action when cold, and after having been infused 
 for many hours, and even days, and its accumulative influence with repeated doses, 
 increase its value. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
OF FOODS UPON THE EESPIEATION. 741 
 
 It is probable that coffee leaves have valuable medicinal properties. The contrast in 
 the effect of tea, and such alcohols as brandy, gin, and whisky, upon the respiration, 
 consciousness, sensibility, muscles, skin, and mucous membranes and pulsation, and the 
 power of regulating the heat of the body, is very striking, and shows that the two 
 classes of substances are applicable to very different conditions. 
 
 13. The different action of milk and its components upon Mr. MouL and myself is 
 instructive ; and in general these experiments have shown that there is a direct relation 
 between the idiosyncrasies of individuals in the enjoyment of certain articles of food and 
 theu" effect upon the system, or in other words, that they are not merely prejudices, but 
 have a relation to the state of the body. I enjoy every kind of food, whilst Mr. MoUL 
 dislikes many, but in such a manner that, with the avoidance of certain members of a 
 class, as respiratory excitants, he had an unusual relish for others of the same class. 
 
 As some of the results at which I have arrived are not in accordance with those 
 obtained by some other observers, I have felt it to be a duty to carefully reconsider my 
 own labours, and to make myself familiar with the methods adopted by those with 
 whom I differ ; and after doing so, I find no reason to distrust the truthfulness of my 
 own observations. 
 
 As Dr. Peout, forty-five years ago, simply sought to determine the per-centage of 
 carbonic acid in the expired air, without being apparently aware that that would not 
 give the total quantity of carbonic acid evolved in any given period, whilst I have 
 determined the latter only, our results cannot be compared ; but as I think that he is 
 not always correct, even in reference to the per-centage amount of carbonic acid, I 
 venture to ask attention to the following circumstances : — 
 
 He compares the results obtained with standard quantities for each hour, most of 
 which are " only the result of estimation ;" and when they were observed quantities, they 
 were derived from a limited number of inquiries upon himself, and evidently without a 
 due appreciation of the varying effects due to the meals and the duration of the intervals 
 between the meals. He states that the results were not in accordance vdth those of 
 Mr. Beandb, and were quite unexpected by him. There were also remarkable oscilla- 
 tions ; and when the alcohols had induced yawning, the quantity of carbonic acid was 
 found to be much above the standard. 
 
 In one experiment only was alcohol taken, whilst wine in different quantities, and 
 porter, with and without food, were taken in other experiments. 
 
 He also states that the inspirations and expirations were somewhat deeper than 
 natural, and that " the results obtained are evidently to be understood as measures of 
 the capability of the organs of respiration to form carbonic acid at any given time, and 
 not as measures of the quantity of \i formed in a given time." 
 
 In reference to M. Bobkee's experiments, I cannot but attach weight to some of the 
 objections made by me at the commencement of this paper; and although I cannot fully 
 explain the cause of the discrepancy in our results, I think that the decided and uniform 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
742 1>E. E. SMITH ON THE ACTION 
 
 action of sugar, tea, and coffee, in my experiments, affords indisputable evidence of their 
 truthfulness. He classes sugar, coffee, and alcohol together ; and although the class of 
 alcohols is a difficult one for investigation, and consists of substances which are known 
 to vary in their action, the truthfuhieBS of my results in reference to two of the three, in 
 opposition to those obtained by M. Boeker, is presumptive of the truthfulness of the 
 third. 
 
 ExPLAiirATiojsr of the Plates. 
 
 PLATE XXXV. 
 
 Kepresents the effect of numerous articles of food when taken in moderate doses alone, 
 fasting, and under precisely the same cu'cumstances, upon the carbonic acid 
 expired, the air inspired, the depth of inspiration, and the rate of pulsation 
 and respiration. They are arranged in four series : viz. Fats, figs. 1 and 2 ; 
 the Starch Series, figs. 3 to 13 ; the Milk Series, figs. 14 to 21 ; and the Sugar 
 Series, figs. 22 to 29. 
 
 PLATE XXXVI. 
 
 Eepresents similar inquiries in reference to articles arranged in the Tea Series, figs. 30 
 to 43, and in the Alcohol Series, figs. 44 to 56 ; and also the effect of Albumen. 
 
 In the construction of these two Plates the absolute quantities have not been delineated, 
 but only the increase or decrease from the quantities ascertained immediately before the 
 food was taken. These latter quantities are regarded as basal quantities, and they are 
 stated in figures near the basal line of each object of inquiry in each experiment. Thus 
 in fig. 47, " S. 8-33" and " M. 7'98" placed under the basal line of the carbonic acid, show 
 that before the tea was taken Dr. Smith expired 8-33 grains, and Mr. MouL 7-98 grains 
 of carbonic acid per minute ; and the direction of the curves shows how far the quantity 
 at each inquiry exceeded the basal quantity. The period at which each inquiry was 
 commenced after the food had been taken is stated in hours and minutes at the head 
 of each column. Each inquiry was continued during five minutes after the period 
 just mentioned ; but in some experiments it was continuous for one hour, and followed 
 by others at intervals, as in fig. 33, or was continued without intermission until the end, 
 but the quantities recorded every five minutes, as in fig. 34. In figs. 24, 25, 35, 45, 
 and 50, the dose of the food was repeated more or less frequently during the experiment, 
 and then the figures at the head of each column show the period when the inquiry was 
 made after the repetition of each dose. 
 
 The temperature and the height of the barometer are recorded at the head of each 
 figure. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
;[ 743 ] 
 
 XXVIII. Supplement to Mr. Macquoen Rankinb's Paper " On the Thermodynamic Theory 
 of Steam-engines with dry saturated Steam., and its application to practice*." 
 
 Eeceived September 3, — Eead December 8, 1859. 
 
 The following additional information respecting the steam-ships referred to in the 
 examples may be interesting, although it does not strictly belong to the special subject 
 of the paper. 
 
 Example I. — Paddle-steamer ' Admiral,' built by Mr. James E. Napier ; engines 
 made by Messrs. Randolph, Elder and Co.; draught 7 feet 6 inches; length 210 feet; 
 breadth 32 feet; displacement 820 tons; speed with 774 indicated horse-power 11'9 
 nautical miles an hour. Effective work in driving the ship, about 604 horse-power. 
 
 Available heat expended per hour in foot-pounds per indicated horse-power, 
 
 1,980,000 1,980,000 _ 
 
 efficiency of steam— 0-123 — J-0,J-UU,UUU. 
 
 Coal burned per indicated horse-power per hour, 2 -97 lbs. 
 Available heat of combustion of one pound of coal, 
 
 ^^4^=5,420,000 foot-lbs. 
 
 The total heat of combustion of one pound of the coal employed being roughly esti- 
 mated at 10,000,000 foot-pounds, it appears that the efficiency of the furnace and boiler 
 was about 0*542. 
 
 The boilers were improved marine boilers of ordinary proportions. 
 
 Example II. — Screw-steamer ' Thetis,' built by Messrs. C. Scott and Co. ; the engine 
 made by Messrs. Eovan and Co. 
 
 Available heat expended per hour in foot-lbs. per indicated horse-power, 
 
 1,980,000 1,980,000 p. 
 
 efficiency of steam— 0-192 —^^,^^^,^^^- 
 
 Coal burned per indicated horse-power per hour, during an experiment of one hour's 
 duration, 1-02 lb. 
 
 Available heat of combustion of one pound of the coal employed, 
 
 ^°'^!qY"" = 10,110,000 foot-pounds. 
 
 The coal used was of very good quality ; and its total heat of combustion per pound is 
 * Philosopbical Transactions, Part 1. 1859, p. 177 ; Proceedings of the Eoyal Society, January 1859. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
744 ME. MACQTJOEN BAJfKINE ON STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 estimated at 11,560,000 foot-pounds.j Hence the efficiency of the furnace and boiler was 
 
 10,110,000 „ „ 
 ll,560,000~" °°- 
 
 In this case the short duration of the experiment on the consumption of coal, which 
 was interrupted by a fog, makes the result less satisfactory than it would have been if 
 the experiment had been continued, as intended, for several hours. The engine and 
 boiler were of a kind invented some years ago by Mr. Craddock ; the boiler consisting 
 chiefly of a sort of cage of vertical water-tubes enclosing each fire-grate. The heating 
 surface was about nine times as gr^at, relatively to the fuel burned, as it is in ordinary 
 marine boilers. ^ 
 
 Example III. — Paddle -steamer ' Callao,' built by Messrs. John Reid and Co. ; the 
 engines by Messrs. Randolph, Elder and Co. ; displacement 1100 tons ; speed with 
 1176 indicated horse-power 12-05 nautical miles per hour. 
 
 Available heat expended per hour in foot-pounds per indicated horse-power, 
 
 1,980,000 1,980,000 ....onat^f . iv 
 
 efficiency of steam = 0-14 =14,143,000 foot-lbs. 
 
 Coal burned per indicated horse-power per hour, 2-67 lbs. 
 Available heat of combustion of 1 lb. of coal, 
 
 ^^4^=5,300,000; 
 
 being nearly the same as in Example I. 
 
 The boilers in this case were, like those in Case I., improved marine boilers of ordi- 
 nary proportions. In such boilers, 5,400,000 foot-lbs. may be considered a fair estimate 
 of the available heat of combustion of good ordinary steam-coal. 
 
 Digitized by Microsoft® 
 
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 DR E.SMITH'S PAPER. 
 
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