Cornell XDlnivetsit^ OF THE IRew ^ovf{ State College of agriculture Cornell University Library LB 1607.H2 Supervised study; a '''s="ssion of the stu 3 1924 013 063 254 Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013063254 SUPERVISED STUDY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA * SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limitbd LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO SUPERVISED STUDY A DISCUSSION OF THE STUDY LESSON IN HIGH SCHOOL BY ALFRED LAWRENCE HALL-QUEST PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING, UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINL^ Nefa gorfe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1917 ^11 rights reserved Copyright, igx6. By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1916, Reprinted Septemberi October, 1916; January, 1917. NotfoootT prcsis J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. tTo MY MOTHER WHO WAS MY FIRST TEACHER AND WHO IN COUNTLESS WAYS HAS BEEN A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION PREFACE Interest in supervised study has become so general within the last few years that the time seems ripe for the appearance of a discussion that seeks to define this new method of teach- ing. The following chapters aim (i) to formulate a tentative conception of supervised study ; (2) to indicate what should be included in a course on teaching the high school pupil how to study; (3) to describe in detail the various schemes of organization by which the supervision of study is adminis- tered in a large number of schools; (4) to apply the prin- ciples and methods of supervised study to some of the subjects in the high school program; (5) to summarize the results of the more significant investigations aiming to prove the effectiveness of supervised study ; (6) to collect the data on supervised study that have appeared in several periodicals within the last five years and which may not have been accessible to the majority of teachers. I have sought to avoid theory as much as possible. Wher- ever theoretical discussions are introduced I have been guided by observations made in a number of high schools where this method is well established. The book aims to be practical. It is a reflection of things as they now are. It may seem to many teachers that some of the discussions are really treatments of the well-known recitation. My beUef is that a cooperative recitation does employ many of the principles viii Preface of supervised study, and that for this reason any discussion of the study period as viewed in this book would necessarily include the recitation lesson. It should be noted, however, throughout the book that supervised study is interpreted to mean that method of instruction by means of which the teacher so presents the subject matter in hand that every pupil is given an adequate opportunity to understand and master the various problems. Supervised study, I hold, is concerned not so much with hearing lessons as with learning lessons. The teacher who is trying to teach her pupils how to study is not interested in memory feats. Recitation periods we must have, of course, for reviews are essential and summaries are indispensable. But with a thoroughly organized supervision of study the teacher will find less need of the old-time recitation. She will find in the study-period ample ground for class marks. From one angle, supervised study is simply an elaborate and cooperative assignment. The next lesson is made so clear and so much time is given each pupil to grasp its details that every one has a maximum chance to learn the lesson. This is fair to the pupil. Nothing is gained by an austere and autocratic attitude on the part of the teacher. Knowledge is not esoteric or aristocratic. It belongs to everybody and every one ought to have an opportunity to get as much of it as possible. Teaching is not telling or testing; it is guiding and helping others to get knowledge. Obviously, I am indebted to a large number of schoolmen who have generously rendered me invaluable service in many forms specifically indicated in the various chapters. I am especially indebted to Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston of the University of Illinois from whom I first received the sug- gestion to make the field of study one of prolonged investiga- Preface k tion, and from whom I have received, in a bewildering number of ways, inspiration and guidance. To Dr. W. C- Bagley I am indebted for many suggestions regarding the organization of the material throughout the book, and for encouraging stimulus to offer teachers a discussion of this method. I wish to acknowledge also my gratitude to Dr. J. Stanley Brown, of Joliet, 111.; Mr. F. M. Giles, of DeKalb, 111.; Dr. J. L. Merriam, of the University of Missouri ; Mr. G. E. Rickard, of Oakland City, Ind. ; Mr. L. I. Loveland, Principal of High School in Pottstown, Pa. ; and Supt. E. E. Smith, of Richmond, Va., for the many data they gave me, which I have used in a variety of ways throughout the book. The authors and close readers will recognize also my frequent reference to The Psychology of High School Subjects by Charles H. Judd and to Methods of Teaching in High Schools by S. C. Parker. A. L. H. University of Virginia, December 22, 1915. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS CHAPTER PAGES I. The Present Demand for Supervised Study . . 1-15 I. The interchanging influence of society and the school. II. Present conditions of society affecting the school. 1. The family — modified in four respects : u. Biological, i. Architectural, t. Industrial. 6? 1 1 ^ 1 1 Freshmen . .^^s 29.79 ,';64 S1.69 46 4.21 61 5-59 50 4.58 8 ■73 37 3.39 1091 Sophomores 270 31.28 397 46.00 46 5-33 46 S-33 66 7.64 6 .69 32 3-7 863 Jmliors . . 202 29.66 323 47.43 36 ,,.28 43 6.31 .';3 7.78 3 ■44 21 .2 68t Seiiiors . . 196 31.76 2SI 40.68 40 6.48 48 7-77 53 8.59 — — 29 4-7 617 Totals . 993 30.53 1535 47.20 168 S.16 198 6.09 222 6.82 17 .52 119 3^6S 3252 It will be seen from Table I that 1535, or nearly 48 per cent, studied in the hving room. About 31 per cent had their own room. Of the 48 per cent, 564 or nearly 52 per cent were first- year pupils grappling with new subjects, new methods, new points of view. The author found in this surve)' that the largest per cents of pupils studying in the living room lived in the three largest cities that he visited while making the investi- The Present Demand for Supervised Study 7 gation, and also that in these same cities first-year pupils more than others did not have their own rooms for quiet studying. c. Industrial Conditions. The instinct of self-preservation with its expression of the individual's independence has found unKmited stimulus in American democracy. Once, the child remained consciously and quite willingly dependent upon the parents for a number of years. Beyond the home there were only a few occasional attractions indulged in, and these did not materially disturb family unity or stability. But to-day the boy seven or eight years old begins to earn " spending money " by selling papers, running errands, or doing odd jobs. Parents pay their children a few pennies a day for doing household work. The child is early taught — and rightly so — to be economically independent. By the exercise of this independ- ence the child becomes skilled and even versatile. His plastic- ity, curiosity, and energy make possible a wide range of informa- tion and abiUty, beyond that of the parents in many instances. The older children are even more independent. They usually pay for their board and room at home. They exercise their own judgment in selection of wearing apparel. They make acquaintances outside of the circle of friends frequented by the parents. Resulting from this economic independence is a decrease in respect for parental authority. The children may even feel superior to their parents. The industrial unity of the early family required that every child contribute to the general store of supplies. Practically everything needful was made at home. Candles, clothing, furniture, food — all necessities were made by the family. There was constant exchange of service. The division of labor was individual and familial. The small family group was quite sufficient unto itself. To-day, however, industry is 8 Supervised Study widely differentiated. Few things are made at home. Many families rent apartments and board. There is little or no visi- ble evidence of interdependence. Each member of the family feels that he owes nothing to the others and that they owe nothing to him beyond monetary assistance — and this is an elastic band. The school child in these independent family groups soon finds that there is little time, Httle inclination, and less ability to serve him along intellectual lines. Ideals and interests have become so individualized that only with difficulty can any member of the family render competent service to the child attending school. Moreover, proAdding the child with a sug- gestive and hygienic study environment is unthought of or at best not imderstood. The child must attend the school — so the law demands, and what a relief to the mother ! — but be- yond the common necessities little is contributed in many homes toward the success of the child's career. d. Social Conditions. With the industrial and economic independence of the members of the home there has come the enlarged opportunity for social independence. Modern amusements have a constant variety of appeal. Facilities for travel have added to life's pastimes. Lacking unity along other Hnes, it cannot be expected that aU the members of the family will have the same friends or the same sources of enjoy- ment. With diversity of time and place in rehgious worship, with different hours of employment, and also individual tastes well developed and frequently indulged in, it is not sur- prising to find that the home has become in many cases more of a hotel than a hearth. The result of this conflict of habits is evident from the following tables including conditions in Iowa and Minneapolis, Minn. The Present Demand for Supervised Study 9 Table II. — Evenings at Home Each Week 7 6 S 4 3 2 I Iowa City . . . 36 41 92 90 68 34 7 15 Dubuque . . . 25 31 70 99 73 33 II 7 Burlington . . . IS 20 76 88 31 17 3 6 Ottumwa . . . 21 4S 106 132 77 26 5 9 97 137 344 409 249 no 26 37 Minneapolis . . 91 SS 79 56 45 25 15 14 Two small schools 8 20 26 19 16 9 2 14 It was found in Iowa that pupils spending 4-7 entire evenings per week at home average 55 failures to every 100 pupils, but pupils spending 0-3 evenings per week at home average 135 failures to every 100 pupils, some failing in more than one subject. In Minneapolis it was learned by the Schoolmasters' Survey that 8 per cent of the mothers and 10 per cent of the fathers were absent from home more than two evenings or afternoons (in the case of mothers) a week ; while 40 per cent of the fathers and 46 per cent of the mothers were absent once a week. Only 54 per cent of the pupils had the stay-at-home habit. In 20 per cent of the homes there was " company " twice a week; in 12 per cent three times a week. Approxi- mately 50 per cent of the families represented in the investiga- tion ate breakfast together about three times a week ; 26 per cent were never together at the morning meals. The children slept late and ate breakfast on the run to school. " Thus they miss not only good training in punctuality, in formal con- versation, and in deliberation, but they actually injure their health besides." lo Supervised Study The writer's investigation of study conditions in seven high schools of Illinois in May, 1914, throws some additional light on this matter. Of 1091 first-year high school pupils 27.54 per cent attended parties away from home at least once a week, and 16.6 per cent from one to three times a month. 7.77 per cent had parties at home at least once a week ; 12.28 per cent from one to three a month. 24.13 per cent attended the theater once a week, 28.19 per cent once or more a month, 59.30 per cent went to the "movies" at least once a week, and 38.13 per cent more than once a week. Of 863 second-year pupils 30.80 per cent attended parties once a week, 12.26 per cent more than once a week. 8.32 per cent had parties at home once a week ; 1 2.04 per cent one to six a month. 28.78 per cent attended the theater at least once a week and the movies 57.65 per cent at least once a week. Of 681 third-year pupils 38.16 per cent went to parties once a week, 16.4 per cent once to six times a month. 7.62 per cent had parties at home once a week, and 12.56 per cent once to three times a month. 20.21 per cent went to the theater once a week ; 26.84 per cent once to six times a month. 57.98 per cent went to the movies once a week, and 35.52 per cent more than once. The 617 grave seniors are not as grave as reputed. 36.44 per cent attend parties once a week, and 15.70 per cent from one to six a month. 12.32 per cent have weekly parties at home; 11.46 per cent once to three times a month. 25.41 per cent of them enjoyed the drama (?) once a week, and 34.4 per cent went to the theater once to six times a month; while 43.73 per cent watched the thrilling reels once a week, and 26.88 per cent more than once. Summary. From the foregoing it is clear that the family, with its variability in size, lack of room, and diversified indus- The Present Demand for Supervised Study ii trial and social activities, offers little or no opportunity for the efficient guidance or supervision of the child's study habits during its school years. If assistance is offered, it is strained, nervous, often inaccurate. The child hardly feels that its problems are of interest to the others. Control and super- vision are limited to a requirement that the child study at a certain time, but to compel a child to study in an environment full of distractions and with no suggestions of intellectual effort is not likely to produce favorable results physically or intellec- tually. Moreover, the high school pupil is entitled to con- siderable social life. He needs it for relaxation and he needs it for easier dealing with people. A long home-study schedule seriously interferes with needful recreation. 2. The Modem Program of Studies. When education meant a reasonable proficiency in the three R's, it was a com- paratively simple task to study. Books were few and thin. The applications of knowledge were few and local. School work doubtless had its hardships because stern and relentless discipline required the child to " toe the mark " imder the threat of a severe flogging. But the lessons were mastered at home in the family circle or in the school building in the presence of the teacher. To-day, however, there are over 200 subjects taught in the high schools of America. Some of these are closely similar to others, but as stated in a hundred catalogues in 1913 the subjects are over 200. Requirements have increased and electives have- multiplied. Books are many and heavy. Hours are long and crowded. Of necessity, school work is becoming highly standardized, so that it is now more difficult for a child to " slide through " in our large school systems. The distances between school and home are often 12 Supervised Study long. With a full day's work, under a pressing organization, it is small wonder that many children fail to accomplish as much as parents and teachers require. The complexity of the school program, with its rich additions and many subjects still unorganized, presents a problem to the conscientious parent and teacher who are just as solicitous of the pupils' health physically as of their mental development. The problem has its various divisions. The enriched program of studies calls for a wise and just differentiation of courses, so that no pupil shall need to study subjects that can have little or no value in his Ufe career. Requirements for high school graduation in some places have been reduced to a bare mini- mum. By the organization of Junior High Schools in nearly 300 systems this adjustment of subjects to Kfe needs of differ- entiated groups of pupils is well provided for. Many effective administrative policies have been enacted for the reheving of uneconomical studying in the high schools throughout the United States. Hygienic schedules, modern buildings, more highly trained teachers, social organizations, departmental viewpoints and groupings — these as well as better texts and methods of teaching with the increasing reports of in- vestigations carried on by high school teachers and others interested in secondary education, witness to the rapidly evolving attitude that the American high school requires ex- pert and wide expression. Because reconstruction and revision are the spirit of modern life, no apology is needed for suggesting that in all of this im- provement supervised study should have a prominent if in- deed not a central place. With buildings hygienically sound, with methods of teaching and teachers pedagogically closer to the standard, there is little if any reason to deny that in the The Present Demand for Supervised Study 13 high school building should be concentrated the intellectual life of young people during the formal learning period. Here the environment can be made conducive to studying. The tools of studying are easily assembled. The most logical individual to do the work is here present, for the teacher's task should be largely to prevent the pupil from forming bad habits of study and to help him to form correct habits of intellectual work. Arguments in behalf of supervised study are more justified when one considers the results of this new method. In Chap- ter XVII some of these benefits are noted in detail, but, to anticipate, it has been found by many superintendents that retardation and elimination have been greatly reduced by this means. Greater enthusiasm and initiative are noticeable. Theefifect on the teachers is likewise wholesome, for supervised study involves a reduction of the " telling " method. The teacher is not expected to ask as many questions as now seem necessary in all too many schools. 3. The Modem Emphasis on Individual Differences. To the student of the history of education the modern tendency to treat scientifically the problem of individual differences is especially interesting. For centuries individual instruction was the common method of class management. Each pupil was called to the teacher's desk for the purpose of reciting — usually an exhibition of memory efficiency. The noteworthy efforts of Lancaster and Bell to improve this wasteful method had wholesome results. Groups containing usually ten pupils were given in charge of a superior pupil titled " monitor." Several of these groups would recite at the same time to their respective monitorial instructors. Ample provision was made for individual capacities by allowing pupils to recite in each subject with the group to which his progress most logically 14 Supervised Study fitted him. In arithmetic, for example, he might be a member of a very advanced group, and in spelling find his place in a slower group. The recognition of individual differences has recently re- ceived more careful observation and organization. Thorn- dike, Ayres, Courtis, and others have performed various kinds of experiments and have devised methods of exact measure- ments, so that what has commonly been accepted as true — namely, that pupils in a class cannot all progress at the same rate — is now scientifically demonstrated and by different methods provided for. These methods will be discussed in a later chapter. Class instruction, having proved an immense time-saver over the centuries-old individual instruction, is in- adequate and unjust to the differing capacities of school chil- dren. Some pupils easily adopt effective methods of study and achieve quick results. Others work less effectively and more inaccurately. The former deserve greater opportimities for original and advanced work. The latter require and should have instruction in how to study. Although, in the main, mental processes are ahke in all individuals, differing qualities and amoimts of instruction and learning tend to produce marked differences among pupils in their ability to grasp new material. Vicious habits of study, easily acquired in earlier grades, persist and become increasingly stubborn as the pupil goes from grade to grade. He adopts the easy method of memorizing. Independent thinking has never been taught him — he believes that this is the abiUty of only a favored few. Consequently, when he finds in high school that memorizing is not a successful method and has no substitute, his progress is retarded, and he loses interest and courage. The trouble began early in his school The Present Demand for Supervised Study 15 career. It could have been corrected or prevented in the lower grades, as Lida B. Earhart, Ph.D., has shown, but in mass organization the individual was submerged. " The survival of the fit " controlled promotions — the weak had to fall by the wayside. Supervised study in the high school is a definite and scientific attempt to correct these long prevalent evils. It comes late, but better so than never coming at all when the intellectual and social advantages of pupils are at stake. The supervision of study makes possible the advance of each pupil according to his individual capacities. There is an equal chance for every one — equal in the sense that standards are individual, not class — so that whenever each pupil masters his difficulties, however large or small the percentage of quality may be, he may advance. Summary These considerations, then, are some of the more evi- dent social and educational conditions that have stimulated educators to revise methods of class management. The family is no longer the close unit of former days. Its members are more independent of one another, and this inde- pendence becomes evident early. The rich program of the schools renders it quite impossible for members of the family, even if so disposed, to help the pupil accurately with home study. Individual differences are being more adequately recognized. Schemes of class promotions are now felt to be unfair to pupils often retarded for perfectly legitimate reasons. Opportunities must be provided for every pupil to advance according to his capacity. This need, with fairness to the standards of the school as well as to the hmitations of its pupils, is met by supervising the study habits of each pupil. CHAPTER 11 THE CONCEPTION OF SUPERVISED STUDY I. Supervised Stxjdy a New Teem The current movement of uniform terminology in high school admuiistration, stimulated and developed in the main by Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston of the University of Illinois, is one of the fortunate outcomes of scientific thinking on the problems of secondary education. The list of terms on which there should be general agreement is comparatively long and com- prehensive. Each term, such as " program of studies," " curriculum," " course," " unit of instruction," " pupil," "credit," etc., reflects careful and cooperative thinking. The many intricate problems of the high school are here dealt with in a clear and intelligible form. Many high school problems would appear less complex and hopeless if schoolmen em- ployed a language whose various terms indicated a clear-cut distinction of purpose, function, and method. It is interesting to find, however, that the term " super- vised study " is not included in the Hst. At first this might seem a serious oversight, but in reality it is a silent confession of the fact that no one engaged in high school work or con- cerned with the problems of secondary education has been able to define the term. It is new. One does not find it in educa- tional literature of five years ago. Only within the last two i6 The Conception of Supervised Study 17 years has its usage become fairly well organized. It is still, however, unknown to many teachers, and there is no general understanding of its technical signification. II. Misconceptions or Supervised Study This condition doubtless accounts for some of the indiffer- ence, and even antagonism, displayed toward what is supposed to be its method. One hears it frequently said by high school teachers that themupl^must rely on himself. Grappling with a problem until eventually he solves it, gives the pupil confi- dence and ambition. " It makes him think." It happens only too frequently that travelers in a new country lose their way. They may know many things about traveling. By tedious, arduous, discouraging, and perhaps injurious at- tempts they eventually may find familiar paths and havens. Doubtless they did considerable thinking, and their satisfac- tion upon at last finding the right way was, of course, a natu- ral state of feeling. But would it not have been better never to have missed the path? If the pupil's power to think depends on tedious, prolonged, and all too frequently unsuc- cessful effort, then it is small wonder that so few high school pupils think — nay, more — it is the possible explanation of the dearth of thinking among the masses. The doctrine of difficulty has its martyr-host as numerous and pathetic as the victims of untested opinion and ideas in religion and government. The learning process is difficult enough without ■putting a special premium on difficulties. Intense Effort must be Directed. Advocates of the strenuous life in education at times seem to ignore the fact that effort for its own sake is sheer waste. Effort is a means, not an end. The automobile stalled in a mudhole will grumble and roar 1 8 Supervised Study and pull. There is effort a-plenty and there is waste of " gas," tires, time, nerves, and good disposition as well. But direct this effort by chains, boards, or special devices for overcoming such mishaps, and effort proves successful. The athlete puts forth effort in the game or on the track. But he must be economical. He must know how to breathe, how to mass his strength at the point of greatest strain, how to use just enough and no more, being always ready for the inevitable need of strength during the last minute of play, for the last lap of the course. In studpng, there is perhaps more waste of time and more waste of nervous energy than in any other department of educational Hfe. One might add that there has been wanton waste of paper and pencils as well, in the usual methods of studying. Mass teaching, hurried assignments, indiscrimi- nate marking, together with the expectation that studying is a self-evident process, have wrought grave injustice to the pupils and have delayed a finer efl&ciency of school product. There are, however, hopeful signs on the horizon. Superintendents, principals, and teachers are uniting in a reorganization of high school methods of teaching, in which the factors of the educative or learning process will be given greater weight and more conscientious oversight. III. Various Analyses of Supervised Study In our attempt to formulate at least a tentative definition of this new term, it will be suggestive to examine some of the recent Uterature deahng with this subject. In July, 1914, there appeared The Modern High School,^ in which Chapter X by the present author deals with " The ^C. H. Johnston, Editor, Scribners. 1914. The Conception of Supervised Study 19 Direction of Study as the Chief Aim of the High School." The main headings of the chapter are as follows : The need of attending to the technic of study. The meaning of study. Factors in the technic of study. The teacher an Alpine guide. Assignments. The study period. Management of the study period. Plans of supervised study. Difficulties of supervision ; a feasible plan. How to use books — The function of books in the technic of study. r _ Conditions of efiective 'studying — incentives, study roODsv hght, temperature, diet, sleep, health. *^«* ^ Hindrances — laziness, mind wandering. The social appeal of the high school through study. Two volumes of unusual significance appeared during the summer of 1915. One volume, Methods of Teaching in High Schools^ devotes Chapters XVI and XVII to " Supervised Study" and "The Use of Books." The main points of supervised study are: 1. The supervision of individual students who are studying silently at their desks should replace a considerable part of the time now spent on recitations and home study. 2. Poor students especially fail to profit under the system of recitations based on home study. 3. Precisely measured, experimental investigations show that supervised study improves the wor^ of poor students. 4. Divided periods, part for recitation and part for supervised ' S. C. Parker, Giim & Co., 1915. 20 Supervised Si/udy study, should be arranged as regular parts of the daily programs in most high school subjects. 5. Conditions favorable to study are those favorable to con- centration of attention. a. Physical conditions and certain routine hf.bits may be easily improved. b. Spontaneous interest and concentrated thinking are more difl&cult to secure, but are essential. 6. A special technic of supervising study should be mastered by teachers. It should include a. Skill in determining the character of the progress being made by students while they are studying. h. Skill in stimulating and aiding this progress by means of questions and suggestions without assisting too much. The main points of the chapter on " The Use of Books " are : 1. The use of books is a most important process in social life, and it is the most economical means of instruction in school. 2. Textbook study should be"~lupplemented by other required readings and by independent investigations by students upon assigned topics. 3. Great care should be exercised to select textbooks that treat subjects intensively in a manner that can be easily understood by students. 4. The recitation period should be used primarily for interpreta- tive and supplementary discussion, although testing should not be neglected. 5. For required supplementary reading, sufficient duplicate copies of a few serviceable books should be available, and exact page assignments to these should be made. 6. Contribution recitations can be effectively organized on the basis of such supplementary reading and of more elaborate inde- pendent investigations of special topics by individual students. The Conception of Supervised Study 21 7. In such investigations, students should be trained to pursue standard bibliographical methods. 8. The system of oral reports based upon such investigations should be standardized and routinized so as to include frequent conferences with the instructor, descriptive bibUographies, care- fully prepared briefs, and oral reports of varying length adapted to the capacities of individual students. The second volume. The Psychology of High School Subjects,^ contains in Chapter XVIII several pages of helpful sugges- tions on " Teaching Students to Study." Among them are : Psychology as a science of methods of study. Psychology of different types of study. Rapid survey. Observing methods of study. Asking questions of people and of books. Formulating productive questions. The discovery of problems. The advantage of group study. Training in economical methods of study. Anticipation of applications. Students profit by use of standards. Progression a test of effective training. School subjects require psychological analysis. Subject matter less important than progression. Organizing a study program. Selecting essentials. Elaborating a theme. Reviews. Mental hygiene. Dangers of overstimulation and of distraction. Adjusting study to outside engagements. Excellent students require the maximum of attention. 1 C. H. Judd, Ginn & Co., 1915. 22 Supervised Study The foregoing lists indicate the present scope of the subject. Supervised study may be regarded, in the light of these topics, as a new form of 1. Class management. 2. Methods of teaching. 3. Curriculum organization. 4. School administration. rv. The Fourfold Application of Supervised Study 1. A New Tjrpe of Class Management. Supervised study involves a change from mass teaching to individual or smaller group instruction. In this book a number of schemes are de- scribed that aim to break up class teaching into more effective forms of dealing with individuals from the standpoint of their mental, hygienic, emotional, and vocational needs. It will be found that some of these schemes seek to retain the form of class organization and to supplement it by. study periods ef- fectively supervised, or by a study coach whose office is both advisory and tutorial. Other schemes minimize class organi- zation and stress the need of devoting most or all of the class period to individual studjdng. Whatever the plan advocated, it will be observed that the pupil is regarded as possibly differ- ent from others in native capacity or in temporary responsive- ness to certain phases of the course. The tendency in most of the supervised study plans is to " relief " the individual, to set him apart from the group so as to give him a better opportunity to employ his type of learning to an efficient achievement according to his rate of progress. 2. A Change of Accent in Methods of Teaching. The revi- sion in management necessarily affects the teacher's method of unfolding new material or in transferring old matter into The Conception of Supervised Study 23 vital applications. Whereas, in all too many cases, the assign- ment has been hurried, indefinite, and insufficiently motivated ; under the method known as supervised study, the assignment is advanced to a place of fundamental importance. It will be seen that in the following pages considerable space is devoted to the assignment. It is the all-essential of a good start in studying. It is the teacher's golden moment for stimulating interest, suggesting methods of studying, and presenting a clear explanation of what is involved in the new lesson. The assign- ment is the teacher's marching orders to the class. She must know what is important, and she must be able to anticipate the difl&culties inevitable in every subject. But the new type of teaching embraces much more than this. The teacher is now to be regarded as a director of study. Conditions and methods of effective work are taught and supervised. The pupil's whole life is brought into relation to his mental task. Instead of being regarded as par excellence an undeveloped intellect the learner is to be treated as an unfolding life whose every activity and attitude in some way is related to the studying of the assignment in hand. Physio- logical, physical, and psychological conditions are given earnest attention. The actual method of attacking the new lesson is watched and checked at the point of wrong departure! The pupil is not allowed to become lost. He is given a map ; he is given specific directions for using it; and he is, moreover, guided away from treacherous ground. The objection often urged that supervised study prevents the pupil from relying on himself, is answered sufficiently by suggesting that without it he does not rely upon himself, but instead enlists family, friends, and classmates in his behalf. Home study is harmful, not only because unhygienic, but also 24 Supervised Study because it tempts the pupil to claim as his own work what others have done for him. Problems in mathematics, theme writing, and outline work are referred to others whenever feasible to do so. This is natural. The difficulties are severe, the assignments are unreasonably long, and class marks are usually impersonal. What is the pupil to do ? Let him with- out offense in this type of home study cast the first stone. Supervised study means working with the pupil but not for him. It is preventive. It deals not merely with subject matter, but with methods of learning it, and for this reason it is necessary that the teacher for a considerable time devote part or most of the class period to this fundamental of learning. The high school pupil must be taught how to think, how to organize, and how to apply. 3. Discriminate Organization. But supervised study in- volves even more than all this. By the aid of careful measure- ments or scientific investigation the contents of each course are analyzed so that its development may be as discriminate and balanced as possible. What are the general difficulties encountered by most pupils in language study, mathematics, sciences, etc. ? How can they be either avoided or so antici- pated that the pupil will spend less time on the no-progress level or get the most effective advantages out of it? Are all parts of a subject equally important ? To what extent can the " old line " subjects be rejuvenated into compelling stimuli of study ? If a large number of pupils regard English and history as useless, this criticism should excite the teacher to an investi- gation of the reasons for such antipathy. High school pupils are thinking individuals. They are frequently hasty in their judgments and extravagant in their conclusions, but sometimes they are right and possessed of electric insijght into the frauds, The Conception of Supervised Study 25 the cant, the artificiality of much that flaunts the noble name, education. These are days of surveys, investigations, experiments, scientific doubt. Deduction and opinion are losing caste. Authority is being pulled from dusty thrones and cross-ex- amined. The millennial bias, that a thing is right because it is old, is suffering a twist into a frontal position where the past is looked at face to face and respectfully requested to divulge by what mystic process it became authoritative in the be- ginning. If the evidence is forthcoming and is rational or even true to experience, authority will be escorted back to its throne, which in the meantime has been well dusted by approved methods, let us hope. Probably the ancient trivium and quadrivium, if taught in the spirit of modern needs, have superior value, but it is im- portant that those who teach and those who study understand why these subjects are included in the educative process. Let us throw more light on these subjects, and illuminate the dark caves and catacombs of some of these imperial knowledges that emperors, kings, and nobles studied as fit only for the high- born. It may be true that all who master them are high born, ^ut 'in a democracy high birth is less significant than high achievement. 4. School Administration. Supervised study sooner or later will involve a change of school administration in at least four directions. (fl) Less Home Study. If the function of the school involves direction of the pupil's preparation of lessons so that these may be learned most successfully, it will be necessary, during at least the first year of every new subject, that such directed study take place in the school and that home study be omitted 26 Supervised Study as a possible interference because of the forming of unfavorable habits of study. The chief objection against abandoning home study comes from parents. They still believe that the pupil must be kept busy by long home work. The favorable results of no home study in JoHet, 111., and Sacramento, Cal., doubtless can be duplicated elsewhere. When the pupil has received considerable training in studpng, it will be safe to require a minimum amount of work to be done at home, but the hulk of preparation should be done during the study period and vacant periods. (b) Longer School Day. This has been introduced in several schools. The addition of an hour to the school day with no home study is beneficial to pupils and teachers, providing the teacher has been freed from the slavery of correcting papers. Intellectual work, confined to the school day, allows the pupil to play and to engage in supplementary reading or social pas- times. If the social hfe of adolescents must be controlled by severe home assignments, it is hardly an advantage to effective studying, for the distracting desires and thoughts caimot be shut out so easily. In the school the suggestion of study is in itself helpful. The group habit is imitated by the individual. If, moreover, it is understood that the pupil's time for prepara- tion is Hmited to the school hours and that his marks depend somewhat upon his industry, it is Kkely under proper supervi- sion that he will prove diligent in this work. The hours out- side of school can become rich in the storing away of general information, in enjoyment of legitimate pleasures, in play and refreshing sleep. (c) A New Type of Teacher. The inability of teachers to undertake supervised study is due in the main to the fact that they have not been trained for this kind of work. Training of The Conception of Supervised Study 27 teachers should now include specific instruction in the organiza- tion and direction of this important duty. It is far from the author's desire to increase the burdens of an already over- worked and sacrificing army of teachers. But he has reason to believe that supervised study will Hghten their present tasks by reheving them of those details that are now the dis- tressing routine of the classroom. Correction of many papers, asldng many questions, depending upon rapid responses in recitation for evidence of teaching ability — these are gloomy responsibilities. Growth in the following qualities that doubtless belong to the successful study supervisor would spread joy throughout our profession : 1. Sympathy that rests on a knowledge of the pupil's point of view. 2. A broad background of information about the customary attitudes of high school pupils, 3. Tact in dealing with individuals. 4. Knowledge of what is implied in the psychology of subject matter, 5. Ability to adapt methods to local conditions. 6. Trustworthiness — respecting the confidences of pupils. 7. Leadership — involving enthusiasm expressed in real love of the subjects taught — an affection based on understanding pur- poses, difficulties, and application of the various subjects.* {d) Better Proportioned Expenditure of Money. Here is the rub! Although supervised study in some form of the divided period does not require a very great reduction in the size of class, a certain increase in the teaching force may be imperative in some schools where teachers are expected to handle several courses. It is a question of proportioned cost, however. Dr. J. Stanley Brown, of Joliet, 111., for example, prefers to spend 28 Supervised Study money in order to prevent repeaters rather than on the repeaters. If one estimates the drain of retards andeKminates on the school treasury and compares it with the estimated cost of increased teaching force, it is Kkely that the cost will be either so nearly the same or so much more wisely appropriated that the treas- ury will not be seriously handicapped. An interesting statement of cost is furnished by Mr. E. A. White, Principal of the High School, Kansas City, Kansas.' Table III. — Compakative Report for First Six Weeks' Work 1913-1914 Depaetmznt No. Pupils m Department Cost or Department (Instruction Only) Cost per Pupil in Each Department 1913 1914 1913 1914 1913 1914 English Mathematics . . . Science Foreign Language . History .... Commercial . . . Art Manual Arts . Physical Training 952 809 671 659 378 499 278 303 140 1059 796 768 783 592 805 229 512 328 $1696.00 1456.00 1230.50 1426.50 675.00 465.00 417.00 994.50 349-SO $1846.50 1479.00 1252.50 1468.50 847.50 825.00 424.50 1024.50 300.00 |i.7S 1.80 1.83 2.16 1.79 .91 1.50 3.28 2.49 $1.74 1.86 1.63 1.87 1-43 1.02 1.80 2.0a .91 Total . . . 4679 5872 $8710.00 $9468.00 $1,861 $1,613 Or 25 cents per pupil class, which makes $1.25 for each pupil, each having five studies for $12. It makes a saving of $15 for six weeks and $90 for the year. Supervised study was introduced in 1914. The high school employs fifty teachers and has an enrollment of over 1200 pupils. About thirty minutes of each period (there are five > Journal of Educational Adrninistration and Supervision, April, 1915. The Conception of Supervised Study 29 sixty-five-minute periods with no laboratory periods) are devoted to study directed by the teachers, except in manual work and on laboratory days in science. Every teacher teaches five periods and five classes. V. The Meaning of Supervised Study The foregoing comments and analysis have paved the way for a more compact statement of the conception of supervised study adopted in this book. Supervised study is that plan of school procedure whereby each pupil is so adequately instructed and directed in the methods of studying and thinking that his daily preparation will progress under conditions most favorable to a hygienic, economical, and self-reliant career of intellectual endeavor. It seeks to prepare pupils not simply for high school graduation or courses in higher education, but to an even greater extent for successful coping with problems in a world of intense competition, where superior achievement depends on initiative, clear thinking, and confidence in one's ability to organize experience for new adjustments. What is aimed at in supervised study is an individual who is trained to attack problems, and to organize his experiences into large controlKng concepts, and who, moreover, has acquired ability to initiate or to serve vnthout merely doing what he is told to do. The world of business is choked with unthinking imitators who parrot- like repeat exactly what has been said, but who cannot be de- pended upon to perform a task without being given constant and minute directions. The world at large, business, and professions, are crying for independent thinkers, men and women who see a task and who can readily work toward its successful accomplishment without being watched at every step. College needs them. Pitiful 30 Supervised Study is the ignorance of students in a library or in their attempt to make an original report. Inaccuracies, haste, confusion abound. But they were able to enter college simply because they had certain units of subject matter! The world smiles and sneers at our ludicrous formalism. The time is ripe for another class of young people. Our high schools must face the need of producing individuals who, in every phase of school life, have been taught the meaning of and have been trained in the exercise of accurate, organized, independent, and practical thinking. CHAPTER m INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I. The Transition from Class to Individual Instruction Supervised study rests partly on the now well-established doctrine of individual differences. Class instruction has proved ineffective in many respects because it employs arbi- trary group standards suited to average or to superior pupils, but usually ill adapted to individual traits and capacities present inevitably in every class. Individual instruction was once the common method of teaching. As formerly employed, however, it was wasteful and whoUy unscientific. The pupil recited at the teacher's desk, while the remainder of the class " cut up " and in various ways made it impossible to con- duct an effective school. In smaller schools it of course worked better, but even here it lacked the background and efficiency that are embraced in the more modern form of individual instruction. The disadvantages of class methods have been cited by many superintendents and teachers. These objections may be summarized in the criticism that individual pupils are at a disadvantage in large groups where, perforce, the rate of progress must be determined either by the brightest or by the slowest pupils or by the average with resulting injustice 31 32 Supervised St/udy to the whole class and to each group in particular. Ob- viously, the social law of retribution — the innocent must suffer with the guilty — should not mean in school work that the bright must conform to the weak or the weak to the bright. If there be any sincerity in our American creed of democracy, ample provision should be given by the state for each individual to reach his maximum in the best and quickest way. This is just to the state and fair to the tax- payer as well as to the pupil. The difficulties of providing a class organization to meet this need of individuals are obvious. Elaborate systems have been suggested. The St. Louis, Elizabeth, Santa Barbara, Cambridge, Le Mars (Iowa), Portland (Ore.), Denver (Colo.) plans in this country, and the Charlottenburg and Mannheim plans of Germany, have sought to avoid class promotions in the elementary grades. The Pueblo (Colo.) plan and the several types of organizations discussed in the following chapters also aim to modify class teaching so as to give a more adequate amount of attention to the in- dividual. It ig at present impossible to judge the superior- ity of any of these types of organizations over one another. Considerable investigation must be carried on before it will be possible to define scientifically the advantages of any one above the others for high school purposes. It is interesting, however, to note that these attempts at efficient individual instruction are current; that there is a return to a type of individual instruction which at the same time preserves the advantages of class organization, for one must not ignore the social as well as the economic needs of group teaching.* ' W. H. Holmes, School Organization and the Individual Child, Davis Press. Individual Differences 33 II. What is meant by iNDivmuAL Differences When one considers the various kinds of environment, the diversity of experiences in a single life, the many possible combinations of human traits due to intermarriage and also to employment, the overwhelming complexity of the in- fluence exerted by the cooperation of the foregoing agencies, together with the modifications of innate capacities resulting from education, it is not surprising that man should differ from his fellows in many details. Among many similarities by which social groupings are feasible there are diversities and differences which stress the fact that however groups may have traits in common, individuals within every group differ from each other in many respetts. Sex, " chance variations," opportunities for longer adjustment of one's " original nature," restrictions that cage and warp and degenerate native ability — all operate to produce variety instead of unity in the social order. This is not only inevitable — it is the very foundation of progress. If true that like begets Hke, there must be agencies at work to modify or wholly destroy undesirable duplicates. But it is never true that hke begets exact Kkeness. Nature could not advance if this were true. Biologists inform us that the existence of a million species is not improbable. The tendency everywhere notable is an eddy of the hke and unhke whirling together in an ever changing advance to some unknown ultimate. The ancient philosophy of flux, with its tinge of cynicism or perhaps pessimism, has its alluring harmonies even to-day. Of special importance in education are those subtle differ- ences due to the interplay of man and his environment. 34 Supervised Sitidy Whatever man does affects what he is. What man is deter- inines in the main what he does. He is constantly under the pressure or excitement of this conflict and interaction. The school is organized to cultivate in every individual those things that make him easily and wilUngly a part of the world of men. But in doing so, teachers must note that a common goal need not imply a common method of reaching it. There is not one road in learning, but many. Considerable impetus was given to a scientific study of difference by Dr. E. L. Thorndike and Dr. L. P. Ayres. Problems in retardation and elimination, waste, and mental types have been receiving, since 1900, wide attention. The motive in all this investigative work has been not merely to reduce the constantly increasing cost of education, but to make the ultimate product of school work as efficient as present equipment renders possible. The final outcome of this campaign of investigation and experimentation will involve, as it already does in some school systems, a thoroughly revised method of school and class management. The Junior High School is one result of this movement ; vocational education is another; supervised study, a third. Curriculum reor- ganizations other than purely vocational are also based on this wholesome study of individual differences. In the interest of supervised study individual differences will be discussed from three angles: (i) individual abilities; (2) individual image types ; (3) individual dispositions. III. DrFFERENCES IN INDIVIDUAL ABILITIES I. Differences in Rate and Amount ofWork. In the limited space of this book it will be impossible to do more than cite a very few illustrations of how peculiar are the differences of Individual Differences 35 abilities among individuals. Thorndike directs attention to what experienced teachers well know, — namely, that "the teacher of a class, even in a school graded as closely as is possible in large cities, where two classes are provided in each build- ing for each grade and where promotion occurs every six months, will find in the case of any kind of work some pupil who can do from two to five times as much in the same time or do the same amount from two to five times as well, as some other pupil." ^ a. Illustrations of Differences from Thorndike. Illustra- tions of such differences are given by Thorndike in the book referred to.- Thorndike gives two Latin translations, of which portions are quoted below. Two translations made by two pupils (A and B) of the same grade and class (and age). The passage to be translated was as follows : Atticus adolescentulus propter affinitatem P. Sulpicii, qui tri- bunus plebe iaterfectus est, non expers fuit illius periculi. Namque Anicia, Pomponii consobrina, supserat (M.) Servio, fratri Sulpicii. Itaque interfecto Sulpicio, posteaquam vidit Cirmano tumultus civitatem esse perturbatam neque sibi dari facultatem pro dignitate Vivendi, quin alterutram partem offenderet, dissociatis animis civium, cum ahi SuUanis, alii Cinnanis faverent partibus, idoneum tempus ratus studiis obsequendi suis, Athenas se contulit. A's Translation Atticus a young man because of his friendship with Sulpicius, the tribune of the people who was killed was not free from this danger. For Anicia the wife of Pomponius had nursed Servius, brother of ' Principles of Teaching, p. 73. ^ Quoted also by Parker, op. cit., pp. 368-377. 36 Supervised Study Sulpicius. And so after Sulpicius was killed and after he saw that the state was aroused by the revolt of Cinna and that no oppor- tunity was given for him to hve in accordance with his dignity without offending one or other of the parties, for the minds of the people were divided, some favoring the party of Sulla, some that of Cinna, and after he thought it was a proper time for pursuing his studies, he betook himself to Athens. B's Translation Atticus a youth on account of P. Sulpicus who was a tribune of the people, was not of his danger. And for Anicia, of Pompey, had , the father of Sulpicuo. And so by the killing of Sulpicius, after he saw the state to be disturbed by a tumult nor to give to himself the abihty on account of his dignity, that might ofiend the other part, the unassociated minds of the citizens, with some Sullani other Cinnane might be favored by some the time was followed with their desires, Athens carried itself. A similar contrast appears in the algebra papers. These papers were written by two pupils, A and B, members of the same class, in a test in algebra. The test on which they were based is given below. Do these examples as quickly as you can. Do not copy them, but put the work right under each example. Take the quickest way you can to get the correct answers. 1. SimpUfy /a^ - S^ V a:^ - y^ y c^ \ \x-yj\a-b j\x + y j 2. What are the values of x and y if 5 a; + 3 y = 8 and 7 « - 3 y = 4 3. A shepherd, being asked how many sheep he had in his flock, said, "If I had as many more, half as many more, and seven sheep and a half, I should then have 500." How many sheep had he ? Individual DiJ'erences 37 4. What are the values of x and y if X — y X — y 23 5. Simplify m + n . m — n m — n m -\- n m — n m + n m + n m — n 6. If, to the double of a certain number, 14 be added, the sum is 154. What is the number? A's Paper (l) c\a + b) (3) Let x = no. sheep (2) 12 a; = 12 X +x +\x + 1^ = soo X = 1 2X +\x = S°o - "J^ y = X 2\x = 492^ l^ ^^ - ^91 ^^^^^ 197 (6) Let X = Number 2« + 14 = 154 2X = 154 — 14 X = JO the number B's Paper (l) a^ - b^ .a +b _a^ - 2 aW - W X — y x^ + y'^ ^ — 2X'f — 'f a' - 2 a62 - W ,^ c2 _ aV - 2 aWc^ - ¥c^ ^ — 2xy'^ — 'f X + y x^ — 4 xy — 2 xy* — y^ (2) S a; + 3 y : 8 : : 7 X — 3 y : 4 (5) w^ — 2 wm — w' 12 X : 6 y: : & : 4. m^ — 2 mn — »^ a; : y : : 2 : 1 trfi — 2 mn — nf- X = 2 n^ — 2 mn — rfi y = I 38 Supervised Study Under present methods of teaching, A and B would be given practically the same treatment in the class, A receiving a higher class mark, but B would retard the progress of the whole class at this point and much of A's time would be sheer waste. b. An Illustration of Difference by Monroe. Another illustration of this difference in ability is furnished by Dr. Walter S. Monroe.' Six tests were given to first-year high school pupils in two city high schools in March, 1914. In both schools the pupils doing unsatisfactory work at the middle of the year were placed in a beginning class, but these pupils were not given the tests. It is unnecessary here to go into any of the details of the test beyond some of the results. Mr. Monroe says : "One student performed 34 multiphcations in three minutes, while in the same time another pupil performed only 3 multiphca- tions. . . . The average number attempted is 17.3, which is almost exactly half of the maximum number. There is a large number of students who worked more rapidly than this average and also many who worked less rapidly. ... In test A class 8 has an average of 21.5 examples attempted, while class 5 has an average of 12.2. Since these classes are from thr same school, the difference in ability is due to the difference in the instruction or in the native ability of the students. . . . The average of class 10 is nearly three examples less than that of class 12. . . . "In test B, 67 students or 34 per cent failed to get a single example right." Monroe found also some interesting correlations between accuracy and speed. 1 " A Test of the Attainments of First-year High School Students in Algebra," School Review, 1914. Individual Differences 39 "This high degree of correlation means that of these high school students, the ones who work rapidly work with a relatively higher degree of accuracy than those who work more slowly. This is contrary to the popular belief that those who work slowly work with greater care and accuracy. Evidently students who work rapidly may be just as accurate as those who work slowly. In fact, the data here show that they are superior in accuracy. Thus, accuracy must depend upon some factor other than the speed with which the student works. This being true it seems reasonable to expect that accuracy can be developed independently of speed, and that its development is not to be secured just by cautioning the student to work more slowly." 2. Differences of Ability according to Subject. There is a popular theory abroad to the effect that some people are " born short " in a certain subject — mathematics being a favorite illustration — and for this reason it is unfair to re- quire these " bom shorts " to study the subjects in which they have no native ability. Two studies bearing on this phase of individual differences will be considered briefly. a. An Experiment in Correlation. Two students, Mr. L. E. Frailey and C. M. Grain, of the School of Education at the University ci Illinois, undertook " to find, if possible, the correlation which might exist between (i) the standing of a pupil in one subject and his standing in other subjects, (2) the standing of a pupil during one year and his standing in succeeding years." Other interests were included in the investigation, references to which are made in the discussion on sex differences. The investigation was made at the high school of Urbana, 111., through the courtesy of its principal, Mr. M. L. Flannigan. The records of pupils for the past six years were examined in order to select a group of pupils 40 Supervised Study whose study experiences had apparently been identical in all respects. Thirty-two pupils were thus found who had all enrolled in the Urbana High School in the fall of 1908 and graduated in the spring of 191 2; who had studied algebra, civics, American history, geometry, Latin, and English under the same instructors during the four years ; who had also studied English four years under the same instructors; who in other respects were as nearly alike mentally, physically, and morally as is possible among individuals. The method of comparison observed the following plan. The 32 pupils were divided into four groups of equal numbers. If any correlation were evident, pupils of Group I in algebra, for example, would also be in Group I in civics. A perfect correlation would show that each group in each subject con- tained the names of the same pupils. Each pupU was given the same number in all the subjects. The composite table on facing page shows the results for each pupil in each subject, the Roman numerals referring to the groups. Perfect group correlation is shown by 4, 5, and 8 of Group I; and by 27 and 32 in Group IV. Groups II and III lack complete correlation. The investigators concluded : (i) that there is a correlation of excellence in the various subjects of study ; (2) that the most perfect correlation exists among the brightest and among the most stupid children ; (3) that the least perfect corre- lation exists among the pupils of medium abiHty; and (4) that it is rare for a pupil to represent both extremes of the excellence distribution. The detailed tables (not cited here) show the interesting facts that pupil i ranked first in algebra and American history, and pupil 8 ranked first in civics, geometry, and English (4 years). Pupil 4 ranked first in Individual Differences Table IV. Ranks of Pttpils by Subjects 41 Pnpn. No. Algebra Civics History Geometry Latin Engush I I I I I n 2 IV IV I II III 3 I II I I I 4 I I I I I 5 I I I I I 6 II II III III III 7 II II III III 11 8 I I I I I 9 II II I II III II 10 II I II IV I I II II III III II II 11 12 II I II II I I 13 II II III III II III 14 II II n II II I IS II III III IV II II 16 II I I 11 I I 17 III II I III III II 18 III IV IV II III III 19 III II ni III III II 20 III III II I II III 21 III III I IV IV III 22 III IV III IV IV IV 23 III III IV n II III 24 III III II I III IV 25 IV II II III IV II 26 IV IV IV III IV IV 27 IV IV IV IV IV IV 28 IV IV III IV IV IV 29 IV IV IV II III IV 30 IV III III IV IV III 31 IV III III III II IV 32 IV IV IV IV IV IV Latin but fourth in algebra, fifth in civics, third in American history, second in EngUsh (4 years), and tied with pupil 8 for first rank in geometry. Pupil 32 is colored. Of the 32 pupils numbers 17, 18, 22, 30, and 32 were most prominent in 42 Supervised Study athletics, all of these pupils being in the slower groups. But, on the other hand, pupils i and 3, ranking among the highest, were most active in other outside features of school Ufe. From this investigation it may be concluded that the born-short theory is not as formidable as some are led to believe. High ability is general. Excellence in one subject seems to indicate excellence in other studies. Mediocrity is also general, lack of ability not being confined necessarily to a particular subject, but evincing itself in practically all. 6. A Pupil " born Short." Dr. Jesse White, Dean of the Department of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh, related to the writer a short time ago an experience with a young lady student of the University. She failed in mathematics and, on petition to the faculty to be excused from this requirement, was granted permission to drop the subject because she was unable after conscientious effort to complete the course. Later she enrolled for courses leading to the master's degree, selecting psychology as her major study. Dr. White sug- gested that she undertake the study of mathematics as an interesting experiment in psychology. The professor of psy- chology and the young lady who had repeatedly failed in mathematics went over the old ground of the subject. They met the difficulties that she had found insurmountable. By patient, thoroughgoing analysis of each difficulty the student gradually became embarrassed and finally in confusion admitted that her petition had been a mistake. She could have passed in mathematics. By careful " study-coaching " her apparent " born shortness " became a vain delusion. This does not mean that all pupils can under the most favorable conditions attain to Group I. Differences there Individual Differences 43 are bound to be, but they are not as serious in this connection as many believe. The differentiation of school curriculums should not rest chiefly on a basis of pupils being wholly unable to pass this or that subject. Curriculums, it would seem, need reorganization largely on the basis of superior or average abiHties. The bright pupils deserve a different treatment from the average or mediocre. c. A Study of Pupils' Marks. The second part of the investigation imder discussion is equally significant. The standing of the same 32 pupils during one year was compared with their marks during the successive years. English was chosen. The composite table on next page indicates the results. It will be noted that perfect group correlation is shown by pupils 8, 4, 16, 12, and 10 in Group I, by 17 and 19 in Group II, by 20 in Group III, by 22, 29, 28, 27, and 32 in Group IV. Thirteen out of thirty-two pupils, nearly one third, were in the same group for four years. No pupil appeared in all the groups. The authors conclude that (i) there is a correlation of excellence in successive years of study ; (2) the most per- fect correlation exists among the brightest and among the most stupid children (I and IV) ; (3) the least perfect correla- tion exists in the medium group, representing students of average abihty ; and (4) never, so far as shown by their test, and probably very rarely in any case, does a pupil rank among the brightest students one year and among the most stupid another. An additional conclusion of the authors deserves careful attention. " A more perfect correlation exists between excellence in one study during succeeding years than exists between excellence in various studies of different nature — 44 Supervised Study the same pupils appear in each group for both correlations, thus inviting the conclusion that, with the group studied, abihty and stupidity are not only fairly constant in successive years of study." Table V. — Ranks op Pupils in English Cotjeses PiiPii. No. English i English 2 English 3 English 4 8 I I I I 4 I I I I S I I II II i6 I I I I 3 I I II 11 12 I I I I lO I I I I 14 I n n I 25 n II I II I II m n n 9 II II I II 17 11 II II II II n n m ni IS n I I n 6 II III in III 19 II II II n 24 III IV IV III 2 III n w III 20 III III m III 31 m IV w ni i8 III ni n IV 7 III III m I 13 HI IV II ni 21 ni HI III I 22 IV IV IV IV 3° IV III III IV 26 IV III III rv 29 IV IV IV IV 28 IV IV IV IV 27 IV IV IV IV 32 IV IV IV IV 23 IV in III ni Individual Differences 45 3. Differences in Ability according to Sex. Various opinions are afloat concerning the relative abilities of boys and girls. Investigations in this field do not give as definite and final conclusions as one may desire and as doubtless will be possible in years to come. According to Netschajeff, boys are better able to learn objects directly perceptible, while girls prefer concrete experience. Lobsein concludes from his experi- ments that girls at all ages are superior to boys in all spatial memories (except unintelligible terms). The most striking differences between memories of boys and girls appear between the ages of eleven and fourteen. During this period girls show a superior memory-development to boys, but from the age of fourteen on boys overtake the girls. Lobsein found also that boys are superior to girls in all types of memory except that for real things. a. The Pyle Data. Pyle ^ has found that girls between the ages of nine and fifteen (excepting age of eleven) possess a better memory for ideas than do boys. The following curve makes his conclusion clear : 50 40 30 20 MENTALEFFICrENCY OF BOYS^ND GIRLS BY AGES AGE 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ' Outlines of Educational Psychology, 3d edition, p. 259. 18 46 Supervised Study Other investigators have found that boys develop memory for objects first ; then words of visual content ; next words of auditory content, sounds, terms denoting tactual and motor experiences, numbers, abstract conceptions ; and lastly emo- tional terms. For girls the order of development is somewhat different ; words of visual content, objects, sounds, numbers, abstract conceptions ; words of auditory content, terms denoting tactual and motor experiences ; and finally emotional terms.^ h. The Monroe Data. In the investigation already cited Mr. Monroe found that " there is no evidence in support of the frequently expressed belief that girls excel boys in facility in algebra, for in three of the tests the average number attempted by the boys is higher than the corresponding aver- age for the girls, and in the other three tests the conditions are reversed. In every test the boys showed superior accuracy." c. The Minnick Data. J. H. Minnick ^ from an elaborate investigation concludes that " girls are the equals of the boys although they do not excel to the same degree in mathe- matics as they do in some of the other subjects, especially in language and English. In studying retarded pupils he reached results, some of which are represented in the following tables : Table VI. — Percentage of Students taking Each Subject eetabded BY that Subject Mathematics English Lakguage History Science Boys .... Girls. . . . 49-3 46.5 2S-S 41. 1 29.1 29.S 30-S 27-S 24.9 Differences . . + 2.8 00.0 + 12.0 — I.O + 2.6 ' Rusk, Experimental Education, p. 82. 2 " A Comparative Study of the Mathematical Abilities of Boys and Girls," School Review, Vol. XXIII, February, 1915, pp. 73-84. Individual Differences 47 The table shows that a smaller percentage of girls than of boys is retarded by mathematics. In the order of differences .the subjects occupy the following positions: language, mathematics, science, English, history. Table VII. — Average Grades of Students retarded in Any Subject Mathematics Ekglisb Language History Science Boys .... Girls. . . . 77-9 8o.s 77-4 8o.i 63-7 71. 1 79-7 76.0 78.4 77.0 Differences . . + 2.6 + 2.7 + 7-4 -3-7 -1.4 These and other tables show that in five points considered, the girls excel in two and the boys in three. " A smaller percentage of all girls than of all boys in the high school is retarded by mathematics, and the retarded girls have a higher average in mathematics than do the retarded boys ; while, on the other hand, among the group of retarded students, mathe- matics seems to give more difficulty to the girls than it does to the boys." The examination of pupils eliminated from the high school shows in Mr. Minnick's study that " mathematics does not seem to be a much stronger element in the elimination of girls than it is in the elimination of boys. A study of the relative achievements of boys and girls in the various subjects reveals the fact that the difference of achievements in mathe- matics is less than in English and in language." Minnick's general conclusion from the investigation of records in a single high school are significant. He writes: "We may conclude that taking the entire student body into con- sideration, the boys and girls do about the same grade of work in mathematics. Among the retarded students, mathematics has 48 Supervised Study given slightly more trouble to girls than to boys. Mathematics seems also to have been a sUghtly stronger factor in the elimination of girls than in the elimination of boys. When we compare the relative achievements of the girls with those of the boys, we find that the girls have done decidedly better in language and English than they have in mathematics, history, and science. However, if measured by abihty to achieve, mathematics is about as well suited to girls as are history and science." d. Frailey-Crain Data. In their investigation discussed in this chapter, Frailey and Grain found data that in the main confirm Minnick's. Their conclusions follow: (i) the average girl is as good a student in algebra and geometry as the average boy, — in fact, perhaps slightly better ; (2) the average girl student excels the average boy student in Latin to a greater degree than in any of the subjects selected ; (3) the average girl seems to be slightly more intelligent than'fhe average boy or perhaps she goes less into outside activities and, therefore, gives more time to the preparation of her studies ; and (4) in none of the six subjects does the average boy excel the average girl. But in the scale of general attainments these authors found " that (i) boys are more likely to rank at the top of the grade scale and (2) that they are also more likely to rank at the bottom of the grade scale. In short, the generally accepted theory that the chances for either exceptional ability or ex- ceptional dullness are greater among boys than among girls is borne out by our group." General Conclusion. In the light of the foregoing data — representative of many others — it is hardly wise to draw any conclusion as to the relative abilities of boys and girls. What differences there are are so small and so easily reversed Individual Differences 49 that it would be hazardous to base any reorganization of class procedure on the ground of sex alone. Abilities, it may be said, differ among individuals, not between the sexes. Probably it is unnecessary, in the Hght of present data, to have groups in classes segregated on the ground of sex. Boys and girls may well work together in all groups. II. Individual Duterences in Image Types Quite recent investigations point to the fact that people differ from one another in the way they receive mental im- pressions. In school pupils do not receive instruction or suggestions by similar mental reactions. Colvin ^ discusses at length the nature of the various kinds of images and calls attention to the fact that there is at present a tendency to abandon the doctrine of image types. As will be seen later in this chapter, however, there is evidence that high school pupils " possess a greater vividness of imagery in one sense depart- ment than in others," although it is highly probable that most persons belong to a mixed type " with predominating types for certain classes of sensory or verbal material." The significance of this condition becomes clearer by a simple classification or analysis. People who learn and recall experiences by a distinct mental picture of them are called visuals. They possess a photographic mind. In school such pupils can see the picture of the page from which they are reciting. Whatever is written on the blackboard is remem- bered with comparative ease. But other persons recall only with difficulty what they have read or seen. They find it easier to remember what has been said or read to them. ' " The Nature of the Mental Image," Psychological Review, Vol. XV, 1908, pp. 158-168, and The Learning Process, 1911, pp. ioj-115. E 5° Supervised Study Their type of mind might be called phonographic. There is a third group of individuals who depend less upon vision and hearing and principally on " muscle memory," on subtle im- pressions that are reproduced by muscle feeling. They are the moteurs, the motor minded. Persons depending on visual memory find it easy to remember colors, forms, position of objects with considerable accuracy. They can vision the location of words on a page, lists of names, numbers, etc. Written examinations and book work are easy for this type. The auditiles or ear minded retain sound impressions and reproduce them readily in sound, in form, or by some other means. Others, again, learn by doing, by acting out for themselves what they have read or have been told. The last named employ principally kinaesthesic imagery, i.e. muscle images. William Chancellor ^ reports an investigation on image types among school people. A study of the following parallel outline shows some of his results : Table VIII.- -Image Types ElXMENTAKV PuPILS DNDEE 12 YEARS OP AgE High School Puphs Image Type Per Cent Image Type Percent Notably auditory . SS Notably auditory . 8 Notably visual IS Notably visual . . 60 Superior auditory and Superior auditory and visual .... 13 visual .... 16 Mediocre auditory and Mediocre auditory and visual .... 18 visual .... 12 Inferior auditory and Inferior auditory and visual .... 4 4 Greatly deficient auditory Greatly deficient auditoty and visual . . 3 and visual . . Virtually imbecile in these Virtually imbecile in these senses . . I senses . 1 Journal of Education, April 29, 1913. Individual Differences 51 The table shows that children under twelve learn more easily by hearing or by being told, while high school pupils learn more readily by reading or by seeing the data to be learned. Chancellor refers to the case of his oldest daughter. He says : " She always did weU the second time she went through a subject, which occiured in unhappily niunerous cases, and especially where the teacher was a good expositor and did not rely upon books. In college work, she secured the highest kinds of marks with the briUiant lecturers, and by no means such marks with the men who gave immense amounts of reading to do. She got on well in quizzes, and but poorly in written examinations. She plays the violin. And that was the key to the case. She was discovered to be highly auditory and notably non-visual." Another case cited by Chancellor illustrates a second type : "My next case to be closely studied was that of a newspaper reporter. In two days' examinations, I proved to his city editor that he ought to be considered a criminal in employing him to report oral interviews. This reporter was an almost perfect visu- aUst and extremely rapid writer. But he could not remember a sentence of eight words thirty seconds after hearing it. On the other hand, in one hundred and twenty seconds, he could easily memorize thirty words of either prose or verse. He admitted that he never dreamed conversations nor hummed tunes." These illustrations, interesting for the information they contain, are suggestive of what is necessary in the high school. Block or mass teaching cannot give sufficient atten- tion to varjdng mental types. It should be noted, however, that the employment of two kinds of teaching, for example, the visual and the oral, is less effective than using only one. It has been found, to be more specific, that the teacher makes a mistake if using the blackboard and employing the oral 52 Supervised Study method during the same period and for the same group. Chancellor, in the study already discussed, suggests reorganis- ing the class into at least three groups : the visual, the audi- tory, the mediocre or worse in both types, and giving each group the kind of instruction best adapted to its type of mind. This can be done in the supervised study period dis- cussed in another chapter. Attention should be called to the fact already hinted at, that probably there are no pure mental tj^es. On the other hand, there are what Meumann classifies as object types, including minds readily stimulated by any sense organ, and word types with the combinations of verbal-visual, verbal- acoustic, verbal-tactile, and kinaesthetic t3T3es. Colvin ^ cites as illustration of the object type the reviving of the appearance of a rose — a concrete visual image ; recalling its odor — a concrete olfactory image ; recaUing the sensa- tion of touching its petals — a concrete tactile image. To recall the movement of drawing away from the thorns on a rosebush would be a concrete motor or kinaesthetic image. But if one thinks simply of the word " rose," there is a verbal image ; to remember the exact place on the page where " rose " is printed is a verbal-visual image. If one recalls the name " rose " as having been spoken by some one, the experience is called a verbal-acoustic image. Again, a verbal-motor image consists of recaUing the word " rose " in the terms of throat movements used in pronouncing it or the terms of muscle movements used in writing the word on the blackboard or on paper. Some people think of a word as they would write it. This is a verbal-motor image. Colvin suggests that the latter kind of images usually arise in company with verbal ' Op. cit., pp. 107, 108. Individual Differences 53 speech-motor images. He says : " Attempt to spell a word merely by forming the letters with a pen or pencil, and you will find yourself probably either actually pronoimcing the letters or reviving images involved in pronouncing them." ^ This phase of individual differences must not be discussed without a well-deserved reference to " the other side of the story." Thomdike ^ in criticizing the doctrine of multiple types says : " Fact showed opinion to have been grossly in error as a result of its assumption that distinct t3rpes of some sort there must be. The contrary is true. Instead of distinct types or many ' mixed ' types, there is one type — mediocrity. Instead of antagonism between the development of imagery from one sense and that from other senses there is a close correlation." In support of his position Thorndike considers some argu- ments in favor of the single-t3T)e theory. These in substance are: (i) Exact measurements favor the single-type theory. Advocates of the many-type theory have failed to use the exact measurements employed by defenders of the single- t3^e theory. (2) There are really only a very few instances of one type excluding another tj^e of mind. (3) " Satis- factory proof of the existence of a distribution of human individuals after the fashion demanded by the multiple-type theory has never been given in a single case, and the evidence oflfered by even the most scientific of the theory's adherents is such as they would certainly themselves consider very weak if they were not certain that types of some sort there must be." ' Teachers should study carefully this subject of image types as discussed, for example, by Colvin in The Learning Process or by Colvin and Bagley in Human Behavior. The latter volume is an excellent introduction to the study of psychology. ' Educational Psychology, Vol. Ill, Chapter XVI, p. 374 ff. 54 Supervised StiMy Thorndike's position seems to be that individuals vary gradually from a single type called mediocrity — some reach- ing an extreme brilliance, others extreme deficiency. There are probably no pure or exclusive types, but instead a long series of overlapping traits. Consequently, grouping by topics is practically impossible. Chancellor's study, however, seems to supply data that make the multit3^e theory at least worthy of more investigation and consideration in deal- ing with individual pupils. A study of biographies, as, for example, those of Poincare, the mathematician, and of Zola, suggests to the writer that wide differences of types of mind are illustrated in these men. In the chapter on " Methods of Studying," Rickard's investigation also suggests individual differences of mental type. Summary. There is enough evidence supporting the doc- trine of image types to warrant teachers noting these differ- ences and applying methods of individual instruction suit- able to each type. It is likely that three divisions of such types would be ample. III. Differences of Character and Disposition, Etc. It is quite impossible to deal adequately with the pupils unless one understands something of their dispositions and takes these into careful consideration when judging their work or attitude toward school life. The following suggest the kinds of analyses necessary under this head : I. An Illinois Scheme. The following plan was suggested at a seminar in the University of Illinois. The phases bear- ing on our topic embrace several considerations. Individual Differences 55 Proposed System of Advice and Guidance for Junior and Senior High Schools I. Begin with seventh grade and continue through the high school. II. System of "Teacher Advisors." Men for boys, women for girls, 25 pupils to advisor (or more if enough good advisors cannot be found on plan suggested). Appoint at beginning of school year. Provide for it on daily program, if possible, crediting it on teachers' daily schedule. Get local and other public men and women to address these advisors throughout the year. a. To conduct an industrial survey of the city by the pupils from observation, visits, etc., including in reports the kind of indus- try, people employed, wages paid, moral conditions and dangers, health conditions, possibilities of advancement, etc. b. To compile card index of individual health, mental traits and interests, family traits and occupations, social coifditions, and expectancy in years of schooUng of all pupils as foUows : INDIVIDUAL TRAITS Card Index (to be recorded by numbers) I. Name School Date of birth Nationality Parents' name Residence Health and physical [ Height characteristics (from the physician) a. Prompt b. Responsible c. Impulsive d. Careless e. Shiftless /. Lazy g. Habit-forming power Weight f Eyes Sense organs Ears 2. Character Supervised SPudy 3. Intellectual capacity Intellectual habits and characteristics 5. Attention 6. Special interests 7. Social capacities 8. Habits a. Able b. Bright c. Average d. DuU a. Studious b. Industrious c. Irregular d. Lazy e. Original /. Matter-of-fact g. Accuracy h. Endurance i. Strength j. Quickness k. Adaptability a. Flexible b. Wandering c. Persistent under difficulties a. General interests b. Bookish interests c. Mechanical interests (machines, etc.) d. Laboratory interests e. Artistic interests /. Nature interests g. Indifferent interests a. Companionable b. Leader c. Follower d. Love of game and physical skill e. Love of indoor games Habits made Habits broken Good habits at present Bad habits at present Individual Differences 57 2. Pyle's Scheme. Professor Pyle ^ offers the following Mental Record as a guide in this kind of analysis : MENTAL RECORD Date of birth. Yr Mo Day Name in full y Record Standing by Rank, Disposition by a Word Bate Attention Invention Associa- tion Learning Capacity Rote Memory Logical Memory Imagi- nation Disposi- tion OR Temper- ament Figure I ' Op. cit., p. 265. 58 . Supervised Study 3. Bagley's Classification of Troublesome Cases. In his book on School Discipline^ Dr. Bagley classifies pupils into the following groups : a. The stubborn pupil. e. The morose pupil. b. The haughty pupil. /. The hypersensitive pupil. c. The self-complacent pupil. g. The deceitful pupil. d. The irresponsible pupil. h. The vicious pupil. The list is suggestive of what must be done in dealing with high school boys and girls. The following tentative analysis is offered with the hope that other lists may be devised for publication and eventual standardization. 4. A Tentative Analysis of High School Pupils' Dispositions as related to Studying. While serving as study-coach the writer had many opportxmities to note wherein pupils differ from one another in their attitude toward school life. He found the following types : a. The timid pupil — easUy misjudged ; hesitates to assert his rights. b. The overconfident pupil — likes to be prominent ; may resent explanations. c. The impulsive pupil — sees things at once but superficially. d. The careless pupil — unrehable in details. e. The industrious but not briUiant pupil — deserves recognition. /. The brilliant but lazy pupil — should be warned. g. The aU-round pupil — can and does learn easily. h. The resentful pupil — low marks or criticism offend him. i. The indifferent pupil — an enigma often; hard to arouse, seek for his chief interest. _;. The artistic pupil — very neat. k. The social pupil — prefers clubs and social life in general. ' Macmillan, igis, Chapter XIII. Individual Differences 59 The foregoing analyses illustrate that the classroom is made up of a heterogeneous number of individuals who must be adjusted to some group conformity. It should not be expected, however, that complete adjustment is possible, even if it were desirable. Individuals need to be adjusted, but this harmonizing with group standards must take place by leading each individual according to his t3^e of responses. 5. The Detroit System of Records. The following blank is used by the Liggett School of Detroit, Mich. A report of the system describes its details as follows in tables on p. 60.'- This blank is filled out for each individual and serves first to give a large body of detailed information with regard to the pupil's work. Second, it permits a comparison of the pupil with himself rather than with other members of the class. Such a report is filed in the principal's ofl&ce every two months and is made the basis of conferences and inter- views with the pupil and his parents. A somewhat different blank is used in sending notices to parents. This blank contains the following statement by way of explanation of the record. " Our system of reports is based on the conviction that a teachers' judicious recogni- tion of success and failure, of cause and effect, of effort and achievement, is helpful to the workers. So far as possible we wish to destroy the habit of competition with others and establish a true conception of the value of self-management." This home report then gives for each study taken by the pupil a statement of the pupil's achievement, preparation, attitude, deportment, and attendance. The fiHng and handling of these reports involves somewhat more labor than is represented in conventional pupils' reports. There can be ' School Review, 1915- 6o Supervised SPudy Year Months of Sept. and Oct. Name . Study Grade. Instructor A. General Summary Achievement Effort Attitode Included in this Report No. Lessons Interviews Absence Made up B. Daily Work in Explanation of Above Class Work Written Work Preparation Attention Deportment Promptness Fonu Habits Imfrovement Study Attack Correction Shown in Daily Wort Shown in Tests FieoRE n Individual Differences 6i no question, however, as to the wisdom of enlarging school reports, and this elaborate example may serve to stimulate the adoption of similar plans elsewhere. General Summary The foregoing discussion has stressed the importance of dealing with individuals from the standpoints of their native capacities in responding to class duties, in dealing with par- ticular subjects, or in regard to sex differences ; their image types, i.e. their peculiar type of mental reaction, dominantly visual, auditory, or motor ; and their dispositional attitudes. Individuals are not to be dealt with to the neglect of group cooperation, but the latter becomes more harmonious and efl&- cient if the teacher understands what mode of procedure is most successful in bringing each individual to the maximum development. It has been suggested throughout the chapter that these various individual traits should be considered in judging the pupil's progress or the kind of method best adapted to his finest development. CHAPTER IV PROPER CONDITIONS OF AND HINDRANCES TO STUDYING I. The Significance of Favorable Conditions One frequently reads of the hardships endured by famous characters during their preparatory days, of how they studied and worked under conditions of squalor, ill health, and mental disturbances bordering on insanity. Reference to such con- ditions is made as a sort of stimulus to overcome various kinds of limitations and in the process of overcoming the acquiriag of qualities of greatness and worthy responsibihty. Doubtless such a message has an important place in education. The significance of heroic examples should never be minimized. Gahleo, Schiller, Franklin, Wordsworth, Edison, immortalize faith, industry, and grit. Without these elements of power intellect is like an unharnessed force of nature, running ever to waste. It will not be denied, however, that significant as hardship and experience must be, they are also tremendously expensive. Probably friction can never be wholly removed. One of the alluring problems of physics, as we all know, is just this mini- mizing of friction. Hardships, the stimulus of difficulty, the incentive of mastery, are invaluable ; but in the hfe of the pupil who earnestly strikes for great achievement they will 62 Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 63 become more meaningful and more glorious under conditions that give them, so to speak, a more favorable and strategic battle ground. In other words, under whatever conditions the pupil studies, his task must be considerably difficult. Learn- ing is not easy. It implies, it demands perseverance, ingenu- ity, grit. This is true even under the sanest program of the doctrine of interest. But the purpose of this chapter is to stress the importance of surrounding effort and good-will with conditions most favorable for their exercise. Effort for its own sake is a doubtful doctrine anywhere, even in physical training, but effort under certain advantageous conditions reduces friction and waste, and conserves energy, time, and hope. II. Conditions of Studying Classified For convenience of discussion and application the essential conditions of stud3dng may be grouped as follows : physiologi- cal, including the large topic of health with its requisites of nourishment, sleep, and exercise ; physical, embracing some of the fundamentals of school hygiene, and certain items relating to the pupil's study room at home ; psychological, involving amount of time for studying, mental tone, moods, etc. Stu- dents of the science of education will recognize the foregoing topics. They are introduced here because they are as inti- mately related to the student's life as they are to class manage- ment or to the teaching process in general. It is fundamental in successful teaching that everything pertaining to school life cluster around the student. All school work should be viewed from the place of the one taught. The foregoing classification therefore aims to focus attention primarily on those conditions that are intimately related to the study life of young people in high school. 64 Supervised SPudy I. Physiological Conditions, including Health. The old adage, " a sound mind in a sound body," like many other wise sayings, has been challenged by notable exceptions. Pope, Coleridge, Carlyle, Milton, Poe — to mention only a very few — were far from sound in body, and yet their literary produc- tions rank among the world's treasures. Ill health sometimes becomes a powerful driving force, urging the mind to masterful victories. There can be no gainsaying the fact that ill health and physical deformity are not always visible impediments of success. Marshall P. Wilder, in spite of his dwarf-like figure and crippled form, scattered sunshine into lonely huts and austere palaces of kings. Steinmetz, another dwarf, and seriously handicapped physically, rivals Edison in the electri- cal domain. But it is unsafe to generalize from a few and al- together unusual exceptions. In the very nature- of things, health is essential to the best effort, for health simply means the largest amount and finest quality of work of which the individual is capable. a. What Health Means. Without attempting or referring to a technical definition, it is important that students and teachers should know that essentially health means a well- balanced organism. The process known as metabolism con- sists of two main functions : one, called anabohsm, builds up the body by feeding, sleep, and recreation ; the other, termed katabolism, tears down the organism by work, disease, or the lack of those agencies that restore it. The nervous system receives its strength and resiliency from the well-balanced body. Good blood circulation and normal digestion with its allied functions mean vitality, the source of ■ effort. The building up or anabolic process serves to stimulate the nervous system to resume alert charge of the organism. Overstimu- Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 65 lus of the nervous system causes it to work too hard, i.e., to produce more in a shorter amount or equal amount of time than normally it should be required to do. Hence, the over- stimulated nerves use up energy faster than the strength of the abnormal stimulus can supply it. The result is that exhaus- tion sets in earlier and more completely. The ultimate effect of stimulants consists in the nervous system requiring this unusually strong means of excitement. The using up of energy by the nervous system gradually implies that the stimulus or the stimulant must become corre- spondingly stronger. Normal stimuli, such as food, sleep, and recreation, under these conditions have long since become inadequate, because less intense and rapid in their effects. Ultimately the organism craves the once unusual and now the only effective sting to work. The use of tobacco among high school boys cannot be too strongly denounced. Nicotine, like every stimulant, is also a narcotic. It stimulates only to depress a Httle later on. There are investigations a-plenty to show that tobacco users, especially in high school, are about 15 per cent less efl&cient than others. Cigarettes are much more harmful than cigars or pipe, but all forms of tobacco for growing boys (need we add girls?) are injurious to physical growth, reliabiHty, endurance, and alertness. Similar prohi- bition must be placed on the use of coffee, tea, and certain drinks at the soda fountain. The growing boy and girl must give eager nature a right of way toward sturdy forms and con- trol of the nervous system. It is important, therefore, that students attend to the normal means of exciting physical and mental effort. These are : (i) Food. Among the several " new movements " in modern education none is more significant than the Domestic 66 Supervised Study Science curriculum. Food is now studied in its chemical rela- tions in a way similar to the analysis of soil fertilizers, for example. Certain foods contain certain chemicals. The body needs this or that kind of food for producing fats and tissues. Food chemistry enables the well informed to select those foods that serve in the capacities required. By means of food nervous and muscular energy are supplied. There is, how- ever, no special food for either muscle or brain development. Here, as in other fields, superstition has wrought much harm ; fish, for example, being called a brain food. Eating is impor- tant from two standpoints : quality of food and time of eating. (a) Quality and Amount of Food. Foods are divided into proteins or tissue-building and carbohydrates and fats or the energy-producing kinds. ProteiQs or tissue builders are foimd chiefly in the animal kingdom and include meat, eggs, cheese, milk, dried peas, beans, and lentils, some of the grains as rolled oats (on which the Scotch are said to have developed brain and brawn), and finally nuts. The latter produce also heat and energy, but are rather expensive. The heat and energy pro- ducers embrace sugar, the fats and oils, bread, cereals, vege- tables, and fruits. A well-balanced dietary should include aU of these. There is no general agreement concerning the pro- portion needed. Vost and Atwater favor the first groups — ■ the proteins or tissue builders; more recent physiological thought, led by Chittenden,^ advocates a smaller per cent of tissue builders. In plain language this means less meat. It is commonly agreed that meat once a day is sufficient for stu- dents and people generally. Many sustain robust health with- ' See Chittenden, Nutrition of Man and Physiological Economy in Nutrition; Hutchison, Nutrition and Dietetics; Sherman, Chemistry of Food and Nutrition; Thompson, Practical Dietetics. Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 67 out any meat at all, but to do so requires some knowledge of food values in order to obtain a balanced ration. It is doubtful, however, if pure vegetarianism should be insisted upon for high school pupils. Well-cooked cereals are excellent food for adolescents. It has been found by students of the subject that fresh fruits and vegetables are necessary to supply organic acids, mineral matter, and bulk, essential to normal peristalsis and also to a certain amount of energy. Recent investigation has shown that the organism needs an abundance of mineral matter, especially the phosphates, calcium, and iron as found in fruits and vegetables and also in the milk and egg foods. Dearborn, in " The Sthenic Index of Education," ^ discusses at length the chemical composition of nerve nutriments. He writes: "Many things of late have combined to suggest that the proper nutrition of the nerve cells of the central neural axis depends espe- cially on the phosphatids. These are complicated substances be- longing to the class of lipoids and consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. These are fat-like compounds but more complex than the fats. They are phospharized and ni- trogenized fats, and, therefore, are highly unstable substances with abundant calory value for their own essential purposes. Perhaps herein hes the solution of humor of moderately fat people — worry is allied to discouragement. Worry uses up nerve energy at the maximum rate and rapidly consumes the general body fat whether it does the Upoids and the chromatin of the brain cells or not." Dearborn says further that efficiency depends upon brain and muscle nutrition, internal secretion, muscular adroitness, the heartrate, the blood pressure, the humidity and sunlight. ^Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XIX, pp. 166-185, 1912. 68 Supervised Study Euphoric conditions produce a certain balance, consisting of harmonious interplay between the central nervous system (brains and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. Euphoria or well being is defined also as a delicate " balance action of opposed functional groups of muscles with kinsesthetic sensations as its essential consciousness." SkiU depends on this balance of energy, as Book points out. MacDougall states : "The conception toward which the study of the organism as a whole points is that the neurones of the afEerent side of the nerv- ous system (including the cerebellum) constitute a great com- mon reservoir of free energy, in which the head of pressure varies from moment to moment with the ratio of inflow to the out- flow and on which aU afferent paths may draw in turn when they come into activity. This reservoir of free energy is the tension, neural and muscular, represented in the effort of exact volimtary control inherently kinsesthetic and inhibitory." When one considers the far-reaching importance of the science of eating in its relations to efficiency in studying, it is surprising that so little attention was given until recently to this phase of school life. One ventures the suggestion that in the organization of the program of studies in the high school one of the new requirements should be this very subject of health with emphasis on the science of nourishment. The amount of food is another vital question. As a rule, adolescents are hearty eaters. The physical growth of the body and the incessant activity of the individual demand a liberal supply of nourishment. The high school pupil needs only too frequently more than can be contained in the limch- box. School cafeteria supplement the home supply, but poor pupils who cannot afford even the small price of these school luncheons are at a serious disadvantage. Complete satisfac- Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 69 tion in eating, however, should not be aimed at. Fletcher has suggested that one should leave a meal feeling able to eat more. Eating to the point of full satisfaction, as, for example, at a large Thanksgiving or Christmas dinner, produces slug- gishness and drowsiness, both of which are hindrances to studying. An interesting collection of individual peculiari- ties in this matter of the amount of eating has been made. Mohammed needed only a handful of dates and a mouthful of water after a day of hard riding. Pope Pius IX required only an egg and a piece of bread for breakfast. Michael Angelo most of his life subsisted on the plain food of an ItaUan peasant. Leonardo da Vinci was satisfied with bread and oranges. Francis Bacon never ate more than one or two simple dishes at a meal. Locke believed that students should eat a piece of fish for breakfast, while Raphael lived principally on figs and raisins and other dried fruits with bread. Extremes of a wholly different type, however, were Peter the Great who enjoyed baked goose stuffed with apples; Fielding whose "heaven's own food" consisted of tarts with currant jelly; Ben Jonson who doted on pork pie with an abundance of Canary wine ; Macaiilay who thought that plain roast beef and potatoes were fit for any man. Henry VIII with consistent pro- chvity for exaggerations in life ate himseK drowsy on a haunch of venison. Walter Scott preferred venison and potatoes to any other dishes. Frederick the Great was German enough to prefer cabbage with salt beef and pork. School feeding is now so common in large high schools that it promises to become universally an integral part of the sec- ondary school system. The menus at the school luncheons are, of course, not intended to serve as completely satisfying meals, but to the la}anan it is quite astonishing how effective these luncheons have proved to be. The following Three-cent Meal is typical. 7° Supervised SPudy Table IX. — Typical Three-cent Meals Meal No. Contents op Meal Food Value m Calories, I Cocoa, apple butter, 2 dates, sandwich, i graham wafer 439 400 48s 400 42s 410 2 3 4 S 6 Rice pudding with raisins, bread, i pretzel, 4 stewed prunes Bean soup, bread, i milk lunch, 2 stewed peaches . Clam chowder, bread, i graham wafer, i banana . Baked beans, bread, i pretzel, s stewed prunes . Macaroni with tomato sauce or macaroni with hamburg steak and brown bread, milk lunch, These luncheons are interesting because of their selection, their food values, their variety, their quantity, and the re- markably low price of three cents. Practically all children economically able to attend a school can buy such lunches.^ (b) Time of Eating. A few years ago an experiment on indigent children in Boston was carried on by feeding them at noontime and morning on proper nutrients. In a short while they showed marked improvement. It was the suppljdng of proper food at the proper time that wrought the change. Fletcher and others have advocated eating whenever the or- ganism craved food. Stated hours of eating, it is claimed, are arbitrary and may prove harmful. It would be impossible, however, to carry out such a regime in high school. In some schools the luncheon hour is not the same for all classes, but approximately all classes lunch between twelve and one. The social value of such group lunching should not be minimized. Often the meal itself stimulates a sluggish appetite, and the individual finds that the feeling of " no appetite " vanishes 'W. S. Cornell, Medical Inspection, 191 2, p. 100. Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 71 before tempting dishes. Regular meals have the added value of being rest periods, pauses in the day's work. Again, they serve to regulate the program of the day, giving it a certain systematic procedure, in itself important to the successful pupil. Regularity of eating involves also sufficient time for eating. The average Cornell student, it was found, three years ago, devoted 1.40 hours a day to meals ; President Shurman's rec- ommendation being two hours a day. A large number of stu- dents spent less than an hour and a half a day at regular meals. Doubtless, high school pupils do not spend as much time as this. With the activities, social and intellectual, accumulat- ing at this time, eating is a hurried necessary formality, sup- plemented by a midnight lunch, a chafijig-dish party, or a lunch-counter vigil. Digestion and nourishment must suffer under such conditions and in turn cause serious indifference toward school work. (2) Sleep. An interesting and startling opinion on sleep was given by Mr. Edison some time ago ^ in the following words : "In the old days man went up and down with the sun. A million years from now he won't go to bed at all. Really, sleep is an absurdity, a bad habit. Humanity can adjust itself to almost any circumstances. Not so very long ago we had a good deal of trouble here in the factory while we were tr3dng to perfect the disk record for our phonographs, and it was plain enough to me that one reason for it was that our work was too much interrupted by the daily routine of our hves. We had made up our minds that the trouble had to end, and that it would really not get something approach- ing undivided attention until it did end. Eight of us then started upon the work with very definite intentions of wasting just as little time as possible. For five weeks we put in from 145 to 150 hours 1 New York Times, Simday, October ii, 19 14, Section 4. 72 Supervised StiMy a week each at the job. One hundred and fifty hours a week means more than twenty-one hours a day . . . we all gained weight. . . . The average man who sleeps seven or eight or nine hours daily is continually oppressed by lassitude. If he sleeps only four or five hours daily, he feels as clear as a bell and full of energy when he wakes up, and when he goes to bed he is sufficiently tired so that he will certainly sleep well, but it takes a month or two to acquire the habit." Edison, former President Harper of the University of Chicago, and Napoleon are famous among short-hour sleepers. Napoleon found that two or three hours' sleep sufficed. These are adults, however, and ambitious Edisons and Harpers in high school must bear this in mind. Furthermore, it is a matter of history that after Napoleon had adopted the brief schedule of sleep, he divorced Josephine, invaded Russia with the tragic return from Moscow as a result, and at last met de- feat on Waterloo. He had lost his control, his shrewd judg- ment, his power of endurance. Dr. Duke ^ offers the following schedule of sleep for adolescents : Table X. — Schedule of Sleep Age Hours or Si.eep 12-14 loi 14-16 10 16-18 9i 18-19 9 19-21 8i 21-23 8 Some have said that of all rooms the bedchamber is most important and usually the worst planned. Sleeping quarters > Teachers^ Encyclopaidia, Vol. IV. Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 73 should be commodious, with high ceihngs and wide windows, which should be open from the top at least a foot. If sleeping porches are available, they should be used, providing there is ample bedding. Bright, dainty, plainly furnished bedchambers with cheer- ful pictures and small rugs — not carpets — are the most desirable. In homes where these conveniences are prohibitive, the rooms should be at least well ventilated all day long. This is possible in almost every home. Sleeping hoods are now available for those who can afford them. In country districts the instinctive desire of boys to sleep in tents should be re- spected imder proper vigilance. Too much time caimot be spent out of doors, and the habit of sleeping either out of doors or what amounts to the same thing, on sleeping porches, should be strongly recommended. (3) Recreation. Good studying depends also on a sound body developed by wholesome exercise. This does not mean violent or frequent recreation, as only too often characterizes athletics. It does mean daily and moderate enjoyment of life in the open by long walks, various kinds of games, like tennis, track, golf, lacrosse, baseball, and football. The amount of time and money spent on gymnasiums has doubtless been exaggerated. Basket ball outdoors is better than indoor playing. Artificial means of exercising, while important under certain conditions, should be regarded as makeshifts. Out- door Ufe, with its many forms of activity, its diversions of hunting, horseback riding, swimming, motoring, canoeing, rowing, sailing, yachting, and skating, is far superior to dumb- bells and crossbars. In cities where country-life advantages are difficult to procure, the gymnasium is the best substitute. The pool provides aquatic pastimes, less spectacular, and ex- 74 Supervised Study hilarating than the surf, but interesting, and as a recreation very effective. Physical directors need to be men of wise discrimination. In many universities they are physicians — one feels that everywhere this important ofl&ce should be filled h-} a physician. The danger of overexercising, overexertion even in normally harmless forms of " gym " work, makes urgent the demand that each and every high school pupil undergo a thorough physical examination before being permitted to engage in any recreational exercise. The school health inspection crusade has already won wide territory. It deserves universal indorse- ment and adoption. Mr. N. C. Johnson in an investigation of how high school pupils study ^ gives the following table which has interest in this connection. The top numerals refer to high school classes. Table XI. • — Game or Recreation Tending to put One in Good Condition for Study Total Walking . Bicycling Driving . Baseball . Music . . Tennis Gymnastics Running . Work . . 59 37 i6 12 5 S 4 S 4 II 9 2 S I I 2 4 17 19 4 3 4 2 4 o II 6 4 I S 2 O O I 71 26 21 IS 10 10 9 6 It is a serious mistake to seek mental recreation by hard physical exercise. Too much physical exercise is exhausting and unfits one for serious concentrated study. ' School Review, Vol. VII, No. 5, May, iSgg, p. 268. Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 75 2. Physical Conditions. The reader will bear in mind that the thesis of this book maintains that supervision of study implies the supervision of the whole individual and his en- vironment. Study is most effective, it is maintained, imder conditions that further the best intellectual effort. For this reason it is necessary to consider some of the more fundamental phases of school hygiene as related more particularly to the physical conditions of the pupil's environment. The con- ditions of light, heat, and ventilation must be here viewed in their relation to studying. a. Light. A few simple rules based on careful investiga- tions direct that in the daytime the pupil's desk, in school or at home, should be placed so that the light falls over his left shoulder. This simple rule is widely disregarded at home. Its importance is obvious, for, inasmuch as the majority of people are right-handed, Kght from the left strikes the hand in writing or the book in reading without any shadow falling on the paper or the book. Furthermore, the light does not enter the eye directly as it does when the desk faces the window. Modern school buildings provide for this hygienic condition of Hghting by windows on the left of every classroom, no win- dows in the front of the room, and rarely any in the back of the room. This accounts for the large bare walls in the architec- ture of new school buildings. It is important that similar rules be observed with artificial light. At night, however, it is often impossible to arrange the hghting facilities so conveniently. The gas jets are too high, the electric bulbs are not handy. The best substitute under such conditions is either to place the table or desk near the source of illumination so that the light comes from the left, or to wear a green eye shade. By the latter means the rays of 76 Supervised StiMy light are prevented from striking the eyes directly. It should be noted also that when lying down to read the light should be back of one's head, and to the left, never directly in front of the eyes with the book serving as a shield. The quality of light is equally important. Flickering gas jets and yellowish electric Hght are plainly to be avoided. Some students of maturer age find that the old-style easily portable student lamp with green shade is still unexcelled. Its light is white and steady. It can be adjusted to suit various kinds of type or paper. It can be placed at convenient range. The same results, of course, are possible with the electric read- ing lamp, providing its shade is not too large or too high. Personal preference will determine whether or not the study- room at home should be brilliant with illumination or subdued with only a soft Ught near the one at work. Whatever may be one's preference in this matter, it is important to avoid dazzling light either by day or night. Too much sunshine in the school- room or at home is injurious to the eyesight. Light green or yellow shades are commonly used to modify too strong hght. At night the illumination should be soft, even if the whole room is flooded with hght. Indirect Hghting is being found most serviceable in this connection. The remarkable results of indirect Hghting at the Panama Exposition indicate the possibiHties with this kind of illumination. Subdued lighting in the schoolroom is made possible by walls tinted in light green or light buff with ceiHngs in cream color. The once and not altogether abandoned practice of painting schoolroom interiors in chocolate or olive hues cannot be too strongly condemned. Such colors may not show finger marks and spots, but neither do they stimulate the pupils to have pride in their room and consequently to keep it neat and clean. Proper Conditions oj and Hindrances to Studying 77 The foregoing provisions, however, must not divert attention from the most important requirement, namely, sufficient light. One of the finest high school buildings in this country lacks this important feature. Its observance of the hygiene of hghting is correct in other respects ; but the rows of seats farthest removed from the windows are insufficiently illumined, even on the brightest days. The principles of school hygiene regulating the amount of light may briefly be stated as follows : The window area of the schoolroom should be at least one sixth of the floor area ; on the lower floors one fourth of the floor area. There should be no windows in front. If used at all on the back wall of the room, they should be about eight feet from the floor and serve principally as means of ventilation. As already stated, the main source of light should come from the left. On the right wall, when necessary, there may be supplementary windows with less lighting capacity than that of the windows on the left. Top or sky lights should be avoided. They throw shadows, are likely to be obsciured by snow in winter ; and in summer they cause the sun rays to beat down on the pupils. Furthermore, they are hard to keep clean. Windows should reach as close to the ceiling as possi- ble, at least to within six inches. The top of the glass surface should be twelve feet above the floor, thus allowing eight feet for the length of each window. The bottom of the window should be at least four feet from the floor in high school buildings, the sill being on a level with the eyes of the pupils seated at their desks. The windows should be placed as far to the rear of the room as possible. The muUions between windows should be as narrow as safety of construction permits. Metal mullions about ten inches wide guard safety in the small building, but wider dimensions will be necessary in larger buildings. The windows, if constructed in banks or groups, should be separated by piers ranging from a foot 78 Supervised Study to three or four feet according to the size of the structure. By making the outer portion of the mullions and piers wedge-shaped — reaching almost a sharp edge — sufficient light will be admitted whatever the width of mullion and pier. School boards will find that the expense of such mullions is almost the same as for brick piers.^ Steel crossbeams may be used. Some architects use the arch hntel, but others believe such practice is inadvisable. The general outUnes of windows should be plain rectangles. Large window glass is substituted by small ribbed glass in some schools. The latter style tends to break briUiant sunshine and give the need- ful softness of illumination. It has been found that nine 36-candle power, 40-watt Tungsten lamps, each equipped with the diffusing prismatic glass coated on outer or inner surface with a white enamel is the best hght. By arranging these Tungstens in three rows, parallel to the desks and placing each lamp ten feet six inches above the floor so that the center of hght distribution falls slightly to the left of the middle of the room when facing the teacher's desk one obtains 2.5 candle feet at every desk.^ Acetylene and also gasoline lighting have been found very satisfactory for country and village schools. They give a bright, white hght, and are cheap. Blackboards shut out a great amount of light. For this reason it will be found beneficial to cover the blackboards when not in use with roller or drawn white curtains. The school building should not be handicapped by the close proximity of tall trees or high buildings. These tend to shut out a considerable amount of light. As a general requirement it may be said by way of summary that there should be light sufficient for the pupil to read 20 Type at 20 feet in any part of the room and diamond (brilliant) at 12 inches minimum distance, the book lying on the desk as it should ' Warren R. Briggs, Modern American School Buildings. ' B. B. Hatch, electrical engineer for the School House Commission of Boston, Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 79 be used by the pupil. Cloudy, muggy days, and late afternoon hours require, of course, more light ; and this should be provided for as suggested in the foregoing paragraphs. b. Heat. Probably in most schools and with most individ- uals there is more likelihood of the room being too warm than comfortable or too cold. Rooms that are too warm produce drowsiness and sluggishness. In country schools, however, where heating is provided usually by means of stoves, the dis- tribution of heat throughout the room is unequal, pupils near the stove getting too much and those farthest away too little heat. For good studying 6s°-68° Fahrenheit is ample. In England and Scotland the regulation calls for 65°. The exact amount of heat depends on the structure of the walls and floors, the pupil's clothing, age of pupils, kind of food eaten, and somewhat on geographical location. Young people in extreme northern climates are more accustomed to cold, are hardened, so to speak, to the climate, and probably would find comfort in a room that to others might seem unbearable. Persons with sluggish blood circulation require for comfort's sake more heat than the very robust. (i) Kinds of Heating. Considerable advance has been made in the improvement upon the old fireplace, and the "base-burner." Both of these means of heating, however, are still useful, and might well serve to supplement heat from other sources, whenever needed. The stove is still used in most country schools, but as a sole means of heating is injurious for reasons already named. But surrounded by a "jacket" its distribution of heat will be more uniform. The hot-air furnace resembles the jacketed stove, but is placed in the basement. It provides for proper ventilation in cold weather ; is more easily managed than steam or hot-water heat; is better adapted to milder climate ; provides needful moisture at reason- 8o Supervised Study able expense ; and all together is cheaper than any other kind of central heating. But it has certain disadvantages, as, for example, the danger of gases from the combustion box getting into the ducts that lead to the rooms ; fluctuates in amount of heat and unless carefully watched fails to supply sufficient heat especially to rooms on the cold side of the building. Sieam heat is becoming more popular. Its supply of heat is comparatively steady. The amount of heat can be regulated for even distribution throughout the build- ing. Its chief advantage Ues, however, in the possibility of keeping the boiler-room in a disconnected annex reached by a steel and asbestos door, and thereby reducing danger from fire to a minimum. Experts, however, are required to manage it. Pounding in the pipes is not an infrequent disturbance ; breakage is frequent and costly. Hot-water heating, while resembUng steam heat, is better suited to a mild climate, and costs less to maintain, although the cost of installing is greater than that of the other systems. For school purposes, however, it is hardly to be recommended. Too much time is required to heat the whole building. There is danger of the water freezing in the pipes unless the janitor maintains a low fire when the building is not used. c. Ventilation. Closely related to the matter of heating is proper ventilation. In many homes and schools the air is heavy and unfit for study purposes. Attention should be called to a recent investigation which seems to prove that air is impure not because unchanged but because it lacks circula- tion. If currents of air could be kept moving, this investiga- tion shows that the same air might be used over and over again with no serious results. If, for example, large electric fans maintained a constant circulation of air, it would matter very little whether or not the windows were open or change of air came from other sources for a considerable time. The air currents in the room would by themselves keep the occupants Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 8i of the room comfortable and energetic. However this may be, poor ventilation causes headache, lassitude, faintness, sleepi- ness, dizziness, and general nervousness. Good ventilation involves air currents, temperature, and humidity. The last named must not be overlooked. Too Httle moisture in the air of the schoolroom causes dry nasal passages and membranes, conditions that render the pupil liable, to infection outdoors. The amount of himiidity de- pends upon the locality and the temperature. Large ven- tilating systems provide needful humidity by forcing the in- coming air through sheets of water, thereby also washing and cooling it. Where stoves are used, a receptacle of water on the stove will provide moisture. (i) Methods of Ventilation. The usual method has many advantages. Windows open at top and at the bottom allow the impure air to escape and the fresh supply to enter. It is better, however, to open the windows wide at stated intervals and then close them rather than to keep them open constantly. This method of course is cheap. There is no skill needed in keeping it adjusted. The Plenum System accomplishes the same results by a much more intricate process. Air is supplied through the base- ment, forced into air ducts by huge fans, these ducts opening into aU the rooms. On the inner wall a second opening allows the "impure air" to escape. With this system it is unnecessary to open the windows at all. Unless, however, all parts of the system are in order, the results are unsatisfactory. It probably is the best system of internal ventilation, although still lacking perfection. The Gravity System is most serviceable in small schools where more elaborate systems are prohibited on account of the expense. The common jacketed stove, already referred to, and the hot-air furnace are the prevaihng forms of this type of ventilation, e '82 Supervised Study d. Appearance of Pupil's Study Hall at Home and at School. Pupils in high school and students at college are peculiarly fond of denlike rooms elaborately furnished with trophies, pictures, pennants, pillows, books, furniture, etc. Aside from the lack of artistic simplicity in such oriental and imitative luxu- rious surroundings there is a distinct loss of the suggestion of study. The appearance of the room suggests a thousand and one distracting reminiscences rather opposed to concentration and prolonged willingness to work. Without in any sense being ugly the pupil's study room' should be plainly furnished. Lounge, rocking chairs, pillows, are so many temptations to relaxation. System, however, should characterize the arrangement of books, papers, pencils, references. Much time is lost in not being able to find things. If the pupil is compelled to gather up his references when not yet through with them, there is loss of time is sorting them again and finding the place where to begin. For this reason the pupil's room should be so private that he can leave things as they are and continue the next time with the least amount of confusion in starting. This habit of knowing where to find things is important not only in studying but in every phase of economical living. If the pupil owns a desk, he should determine upon a convenient scheme of plac- ing his study paraphernalia in the various drawers. Certain books should occupy defined places on the shelves — not by color or size but as nearly as possible by subjects. The orderly arrangement of the room (not necessarily "spick and span ") suggests work rather than idleness and day dream- ing. The business air of the pupils' workshop indicates that study is, for the time being at least, an earnest vocation, not a lightsome occupation or a dull drudgery. Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 83 In the school there is little likelihood that the study hall will appear overfurnished, but there is danger of distraction from much writing on the blackboard, or elaborate stage settings, as the writer saw in one high school where the stage held a confused collection of athletic trophies, biological and botani- cal specimens, manual training exhibits, and domestic science mysteries. 3. Psychological Conditions. The reference to a simple, orderly arrangment of the study room leads to a more detailed discussion of attention and posture, mental tone, and emotional states which may aid or hinder studying. a. Attention. The question is often asked — How can I learn to concentrate? Many attempts have been made to answer, but in all too many cases the replies amount to little more than an imperative — pay attention But that is the rub — what is the price required ? Some individuals possess a peculiar power of concentration ; others, try as they may, fail to hold themselves to the task for any long period. The following suggestions have proved helpful : (i) Posture. Avoid a reclining or swinging posture. The attitude of attention is alert — the sentinel must not sit down or doze on duty; he should keep moving. The chauffeur and locomotive engineer look straight ahead — in a position tense, alert, ready for action. The pupil in a straight-back chair in front of his table or clock with light well directed is seated at attention. (2) A Quick Start. WiUiam James has written about the agony of starting — an experience known probably to all writers. In school children fidget, drop books and pencils, rearrange papers, etc., several minutes before getting down to work. If they do so at school, they surely do the same thing 84 Supervised Study at home. There might well be some driU in the quick start — the speedy eUmination or avoidance of preliminaries. (3) Time Limit. One of the best aids to concentration is being compelled to work under a certain amoimt of pressure, — so many problems in fifteen minutes, — so many pages in ten minutes. Under the divided period scheme of supervised study with little or no home study, the pupil knows that most of his studying will be limited to the class period. If the assignment is reasonable, he will be able to concentrate during school hours (with the additional vacant period for study) on practically all of his lessons. (4) Interest in the Subject. This goes without saying. Few boys grow tired of playing baseball or hunting. They con- centrate on what they like. It is the teacher's task (how often this has been said !), therefore, to arouse interest by enthusiasm, good cheer, kindliness, cooperation, super- vision of studying. Enthusiasm is just as contagious as indifference. (s) Rapid Reading. Mind wandering while reading a book is a frequent hindrance to studying. It is necessary to take oneself well in hand, and increase the rate of reading for several hues, then to go back over the same lines until the attention is normal. The increase of rate demands more attention — one is conscious of being at work, and this very fact of added strain or effort checks the dilatory day dreaming or loose associations. (6) Variety of Appeal. Under the most ideal conditions monotony is inevitable unless the pupil attack his lesson from more than one angle. After studying history, for example, in one textbook it would be an advantage to read some novel dealing with the period or some other author whose point of Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 85 view is fresher and whose literary style is attractive. Monot- ony is caused by discouragement, overconfidence leading to laxity of effort to advance beyond one's present attainment, and also by the daily routine of method in teaching and study- ing. The kind of stimulus must change or the amount of it must increase, but the best incentive is that produced by suc- cess itself. The pupil should aim, then, to develop more skill, more knowledge in his subject in order to sustain and increase attention upon its various phases. The variety of appeal will increase knowledge and enlarge one's conception of the subject and by this very fact strengthen attention. b. Feeling Tone. Another important consideration in ef- fective studying is the pupil's emotional condition. How we feel has more to do with success than is generally recognized even by pupils themselves. Pleasant and unpleasant feeling tone, it was seen in the first part of this chapter, depends upon health conditions ; but other factors enter into these states of feeling, factors common enough in every one's life but hardly respected as yet in formal school work. Several points must be noted. (i) Success produces a pleasant feeling. The knowledge that one can do a task at first very difficult is a powerful push to advance to higher forms of achievement. Repeated failures result in discouragement, weakness of will, and eventually in loss of abiHty to attempt big things. The pupil needs the ap- proval of teachers ; but, more than this, he must have his own approval growing out of well-applied effort at last victorious. Praise that is undeserved works harm, not only morally, but psychologically. It tempts the pupil to get rewards without having earned them. The daily awareness of forging ahead is a continual stimulus to advance. 86 Supervised Study (2) Confidence in one's knowledge of fundamentals leads to forceful satisfaction. Success in studying involves not only the forward movement but also the deep-going knowledge of the subject. The daily or detailed advance, important as it is, must mean that the pupil is getting a grip on the larger whole of the subject. Battles fought and won become signifi- cant only when they are known to contribute to the ultimate triumph of a huge campaign. The pupil should be aroused to ask himseM in reviews, in conferences, in reports, etc., what he understands of the more fimdamental meanings of history, mathematics, science. Do these subjects begia to appear with far-reaching relations or are they still merely unattached, daily assignments and facts? The sense of familiarity with the whole subject contributes to the pleasant feeling tone. It is the joy of the engineer, of the artist, of the pubKc speaker that he can move among details with the easy advance of one who knows what these facts mean to one another and to society. He feels at home and therefore is secure and satis- fied. This is peace leading to power — harmony calm with strength. (3) Moods are the emotional climate that exhilarate or depress the pupil at work. Another condition of studying is developed by those subtle states termed moods. It is not always pos- sible to determine their origin. Superstition, ancient and modern, has a motley variety of explanations, but none of them deserves serious notice. Modern abnormal psychology suggests several reasons, some of which doubtless account for a few of these moods. The pensiveness of a gray day in autumn, with the air misty from burning leaves and sugges- tive of loneliness, loss, defeat, produces a state of feelings quite different from the cheerful activity of a bright day ia Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 87 June or an April morning along the coast of Maine. We smile at the moods of young people, their loves and their dreams, and our smiling evinces a careless neglect of one of the most potent forces in adolescent life. Whatever causes these moods, the fact of their existence must be recognized, especially during high school years. At the time when the sex instinct assumes its more pro- nounced aspects and the individual enters upon perhaps the most crisic period of his development, there are bound to be tendencies, preferences, motives, and activities that seriously affect his intellectual growth. The additional fact that in the very nature of things this crisis must be concealed, and that society fails to regard the fancies of youth very seriously, in- creases the handicap that now threatens to swerve the pupil from sustained effort in school. At present there is apparently nothing that can be done to lighten the sweet burden of early love or mere attraction between the sexes. The young people don't want it supervised, and too much attention to it on the part of parents and teachers may frustrate the very purpose of control. It is an experience that most people pass through and strangely forget. Call it silly, temporary, and let it go at that ! But high school pupils must study, and it is the fimction of organized education to make this possible under the most advantageous conditions. Sweet melancholy, indifference, loneKness, " wanderlust," or cheerfulness, excitement, impul- siveness, confidence, etc., are moods that swing the pupil back and forth at the time when he meets new subjects, new methods, new social conditions in the high school. Obviously, the supervisor of study must deal with this problem. Tact, insight, sympathy, and fairness must somehow blend with the 88 Supervised Study necessary observance of routine, effort, and application day by day. The private longings and feelings of the pupils must be understood and their symptoms recognized. (4) The clash between self-preservative and social instincts tends to hinder progress in studying. Two important facts must be noted as common among high school pupils. One of these concerns the personal appearance of the pupil ; the other, his popularity. (o) The Pupil's Appearance. Ridicule is one of society's cruelest weapons of preventing strangers from breaking into a desired group. In high school the pupil whose garments are plain or limited in variety is likely to be avoided by the better dressed. This is true especially among the girls. Cliques are unavoidable; it matters not how one may legislate against secret organizations in the high school. All of us choose com- panions who have a sufficient number of quahties in common with our own and a few desirable ones lacking in ourselves. Personal appearance plays an important r61e in such selection of friendships. It works harm to the poor pupil whose parents cannot afford to provide her with many or pretty clothes. She feels shut out, and may grieve in secret over the slights and ridicule thoughtlessly expressed by her schoolmates. To some it may serve as a powerful incentive to show her frivolous classmates that clothes are not everything; to others it be- comes a heavy, gloomy burden that shuts out the joy of school days. Such pupils tend to leave school. Teachers should know also how peculiarly sensitive the tall boy is in a class of pupils smaller in size although of the same age as his own. We want to conform to the group we like or make it conform to ourselves, but obviously the oversized boy can do neither. While less prevalent in the high school Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 89 than in the lower grades, an oversized first-year pupil in long trousers feels embarrassed among pupils in knickerbockers. He too wants to break away from such conditions, and is likely to leave school for blind-alley occupations. Studying has been checked by the feeling tone of embarrassment due to the pupil being unfavorably conspicuous in a group where a prevailing school organization compels him to belong. Physical deformity and facial ugHness have been found pro- ductive of similar results. Many of these " different " pupils are intellectually capable. They are in every sense of the word normal as individuals, but in the constant clash of group Hfe they are crushed, submerged, ostracized for no fault of their own. Again, the teacher's problem is acute. To segregate them would be unfair and destructive. They deserve notice, kindliness, and friendship. Appeal to that finer sense of jus- tice and heroism deep in all young people would be one remedy ; appeal to personal courage through the study of great biogra- phies and the literature of success where men and women of humble origin are seen to rise to pinnacles of power and fame would be another ; a spirited, often repeated, and amplified interpretation of democracy, with its gospel of opportunity, would be a third. (6) Popularity. This is often arbitrary and cheap. The pupil who makes it an end may suffer shameful defeat. It does not always depend on favorable appearance, but more often on the fijier qualities of grit, cheerfulness, cooperativeness, achievement. The brilUant debater, long punter, fast runner, skillful basket-ball player, are usually candidates for the Popu- lar Club. But many a quiet, resourceful, studious pupil is elected to universal esteem in the school. Others who fail to win popular favor, and who reaUy deserve it, suffer secret 90 Supervised Sttidy humiliation. They brood or resort to unworthy means to be- come popular in less desirable groups. Whatever the cause or circumstances, unpopularity in many cases is a serious hindrance to study. It tends to throw the pupil too much upon himself in a morbid, self-pitjdng, or self-depreciating way, and therefore weakens the resolution to forge ahead or to grapple more earnestly with difficulties. The remedy, in part, is that mentioned under the preceding head. Furthermore, in pubhc addresses, in an impartial atti- tude toward the pupils, in rewarding effort as well as achieve- ment, in cordial initiative toward those pupils whose timidity prevents their own approach to the teacher for a confidential chat — encouragement, excitement toward better effort may be effected. In general, however, attention should be directed to these common conditions of individual life' and some place assigned them in one's judgjnent of the pupil's attitude toward school work. (5) Weather and climate affect the pupil's feeling tone. This statement hardly needs elaboration. None of us feels active on a muggy or rainy day. Intense summer heat weakens resiliency; the climate of the rigorous north or its milder forms in less extreme latitudes has a sting and " pimch " that makes our whole being tingle with the joy of work. Ex- treme summer climate, however, is less conducive to sustained effort. It is well known how intimately geography, topog- raphy, and history are related. The operas of Italy are essentially different in atmosphere, mode of treatment, char- acter of music from those of Wagner and Strauss. The effect of the southland on Byron's poetry is easily understood. The difference between Boccaccio and Wordsworth is largely due to climate. One may notice the same fact as accounting for Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Sttidying 91 the musical lilt of the Italian and Spanish languages and the rugged crash of the German, the Swedish, the Russian. Who could speak like a German in the balmy peace of the Medi- terranean, or Uke a lute-fingering Italian in the mountains of Scandinavia or Scotland ! Once more the teacher's task adds a responsibility. The day's success depends somewhat on sunshine and on rain. Climate and weather require adjustments in classroom pro- cedure, just as the psychologically trained organist adjusts the key of the hymn tune to the weather conditions, thereby assenting to a profound truth that religion and climate have more in common than theologians are willing to admit. c. Distractions. In addition to the foregoing conditions and hindrances, some of which are annoying distractions, the pupil is hampered by noise, confusion, worry, conflicting aims, and other forms of unfavorable environment. Study in a room where recitations are being held, or near a factory, rail- road, and roughly paved street, is more difficult than in a neighborhood where quiet is usual. It should be noted, how- ever, that investigations have shown how the nature of the distraction affects the intensity of disturbance. Distractions similar to the work the pupil is engaged in are more serious than those wholly different in character. For example, if the pupU is studying English Hterature while some one near by is reading a novel aloud or reciting on some other phase of the subject, he is likely to be more disturbed than if some one is demonstrating a proposition in geometry or dressing a board. The noise would at first distract his attention, but the interests of work and distraction being quite dissimilar, the pupil with some effort can eventually concentrate on his work and wholly disregard the noise. But the novel or recitation are similar 92 Supervised Sttidy to the work he is doing. Attention is tempted to run back and forth. Concentration is focused on English, but with ill success on any special form of it at the time. Alternate seat and recitation work would be more advan- tageous if, for example, one section studied spelling while another recited mathematics, the section studying having just previously recited on mathematics. (i) Distribution of Distractions. N. C. Johnson^ foimd the following distributions of distractions : Table XII. — Tending to interfere with Study TOTAI. Reading stories Parties . . Violent exercise Baseball . . Theater . . Running . Bicycling Dancing . i6 7 7 7 4 4 lO 4 6 I I II 8 3 37 21 8 8 S 5 4 (2) Fatigue is commonly referred to as one of the most serious hindrances to study. Its most easily noticed symptoms are a depreciation in the quality of work, a decrease in the amount accomplished, and a growing failure to attend to what is going on. The result is a loss of interest in studying and a tendency to loaf or to sleep throughout the day. Eventually, fatigue may lead to complete nervous exhaustion manifested in acute sensitiveness, irritability, love of contentions, and abnormal forms of excitement, and finally hysteria. One must not be too hasty to judge symptoms of indifference^ ' School Review, Vol. VII, May, 1899. Proper Conditions of and Hindrances to Studying 93 as those of fatigue. Many other factors reduce responsive- ness. The subject may have become more difficult, ill health may have begun its inroads, the teacher's methods may lack spring and " punch." There is more danger of girls becoming seriously fatigued than that boys will be exhausted. Girls are more likely to remain indoors, while boys find abundance of exercise. Great care should be taken to suit assignments to the health conditions of adolescence and to the factors of physiological and psychological development taking place at this time. General Summary The considerations deemed significant in this chapter have far-reaching applications. Health, housing, and mental con- ditions are of the first importance in the hf e of every individual. Teachers need to know these facts for their own sake and for the good of their pupils. The supervision of study, then, is more than overseeing the pupil at work on an assignment — it includes the supervision of his environment, the conditions that make or mar study efiiciency. The teacher, as far as possible, should know the fundamentals of school hygiene, and throughout the school there should be a concerted effort to apply the principles of physiology and psychology to the pupil as a learner. This broader aspect of duty will eventually make the school more vitally a part of the home fife of each child. Such a democratic service must be viewed as ideal. CHAPTER V THE ORGANIZATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY I. Inevitable Variety in Schemes of Organization The medical student spends four long and hard years study- ing the scientific theory of preventing and curing disease. Upon graduation he immediately begins, as an interne, to ap- ply the knowledge gleaned from his several courses. Later he opens an office of his own, — " begins to practice." Inevitably and invariably he finds that the cases of his patients present symptoms and combinations quite different from similar cases described in textbooks and studied at the medical school. He finds it necessary to adapt his knowledge to the case in hand. Each case must be treated according to its own causes and symptoms. Similar conditions obtain in theological seminaries. Men are there taught, among other things, to preach by set homiletic rules. But the young minister soon finds that preaching by set rules is likely to lead to failure on the frontier. If he is wide awake, stirred to white heat by some overwhelming civic or moral conditions, then conviction, zeal, courage, tender solicitude, will force him to modify rules and sermon outlines. He will preach with fire, abandon, magnetism, and the sine qua non of success everywhere — sincerity. It is so in all professions. The preparatory courses must deal with certain fundamental prin- 94 The Organization of Supervised Study 95 ciples. But life is full of varieties ; they appear, one cannot tell when or where or how.' The successful man is he who can take principles and by sane judgment apply them to the variations from type cases, type sermons, type bridges, etc. The foregoing analogies apply equally well to the profession of teaching. Normal schools and departments of education present certain principles of education and illustrate various methods of teaching. The young teacher in her first school may beUeve that now at last her careful preparation can be apphed in all details to the class or subject over which she is responsible. Alas and alack ! Again life's variations upset the wisest rules and advice. If she adheres rigidly to all the details of her preparation, she may succeed, but more than likely the effort to dovetail professional preparation into local and individual peculiarities will result in failure, despair, and tears. Teachers with experience are, therefore, usually more valuable to a school than a highly trained newcomer. It is essential to use common sense, judgment, native shrewd- ness in dealing with school conditions. There is no " general method " of teaching every subject, everywhere, to all kinds of pupils. Originality, initiative, independent thinking, must dominate the teacher's methods. For this reason it is not surprising to find that in attempting to administer supervised study, superintendents and teachers have devised a considerable number and variety of methods of organization. Some of these methods prima facie seem wholly inadequate. Others probably are effective in the localities where they are used, but if employed elsewhere perhaps would be less effective. Investigations are going on that aim to ascertain the relative effectiveness of some of these methods. At present writing, however, very few data 96 Supervised Study are obtainable, and these refer only to one type of supervised study in relation to none at aU. The methods to be discussed in these chapters are now being used aU over this country. Their variety indicates serious interest in arriving at some organization that will advance the pupil's opportunities to reach his maximum ability. The methods now employed may conveniently be grouped under the following main heads : General Organization, em- bracing the usual assembly hall, conferences, study period, study program, and eclectic plans ; the Subject Organization, embracing the various forms of divided period, study period for each subject, alternate periods, and occasional super- vision plans. II. General Plans of Supervised Study They are called " general " because no attempt is made under these plans to assign each teacher the task of teaching pupils to study the subject in her charge. The teacher's work is confined to teaching the subject ; others are assigned the task of supervising the pupils at work on this or any other course. Some of the plans under this head obviously do not deserve the name supervised study, while others depend so much on the unique ability of the person in charge and on considerable expenditure of money that they are quite beyond the reach of the average school. These plans wiQ now be discussed in detail. I. The General Assembly Hall Study Period. In practi- cally every school one large room is called the study hall. Here pupils gather during vacant periods to study whatever course they choose. As a rule many are in the room. In some schools this room is the assembly hall; in others, one The Organization of Supervised Study 97 of the larger classrooms. In one high school the author found the study hall occupied by nearly one hundred pupils from all classes of the school. The study period is in charge of one person, who may be the principal, vice principal, a teacher, or a student monitor. In some schools the librarian is assigned this task of police duty. When the number of pupils is exceptionally large, a certain school employs three teachers, who stand guard over the behavior and attention ( ?) of the pupils. Principals vary the method of supervision according to local conditions. In some schools teachers are assigned to groups of fifty pupils. In others there is a special teacher known as the assembly hall teacher, or there is one person, as the assistant principal, who remains in the room throughout the school day. The practice in one school has been to require only freshmen to use the study hall. For reasons not whoUy clear to the writer it is customary in other schools to Umit the use of the study haU to pupils in mechanical drawing and bookkeeping, or English all year, or history only. In some schools the hall is controlled entirely by student government. Criticism oj Study Hall. However appropriate it may be to call these rooms study haUs, they are not, and under the most favorable conditions could not be, classed as super- vised study halls. In the first place, the number of pupils is too large for one teacher without a more specific differentia- tion of groups according to abilities or mental t)^es. Again, one teacher ought not to be expected to know the thousand and one things of all subjects. Furthermore, the teacher in charge is incorrectly assumed to be present to help the pupil do his own work. Supervised study does not mean doing the pupil's work for him. In the fourth place, there is insuffi- 98 Supervised Study dent time to be of service to more than a very few. Again, the teacher as a rule waits for the pupil to call for help — there is little or no attempt by the supervisor to examine the methods of every pupil. The teacher simply waits for difficulties to appear. Again, however careful every one may be there are inevitable distractions in these haUs. Un- favorable study conditions obtain. The fact is that to call these rooms study halls is a grave misnomer. Under the best conditions they cannot fiilfill the requirements of sound study supervision. Some con- scientious pupils doubtless iind them helpful, especially before and after school when the length of the school day permits their being open. They may be better than conditions at home in many cases. But they do not provide what pupils actually need, — namely, definite and frequent instruction in correct methods of study. 2. The Conference Plans. These are of two kinds — the Stated Conference and Appointments. The former is not in- frequent. Some principals require teachers to remain each day for a half hour after the regular recitation schedule is over. Pupils may then consult their own teachers. Doubt- less the plan is far superior to the study hall when used as a supplement to the latter, for opportimities are given the pupils to ask for advice, to discuss difficulties, and teachers thereby learn many of the personal peculiarities of their pupils. Under whatever system study is supervised, the conference period should be maintained. Informal, personal, friendly, it offers possibilities of influence that probably no other method can provide. The conference hour at Teachers' Institutes is frequently more helpful than the formal lec- tures. The psychology of group and formal instruction is The Organization of Supervised Study 99 necessarily different from the individual conversational method. Both are important, but for the best results each is necessary to the other. An elaborate form of the Stated Conference is maintained for first-year pupils in the high schools of Pittsburgh, Pa.^ One period out of four, each week, is devoted to special super- vision of study. At that period no assignment of lessons is made, and no preparation required of the pupils. It is vari- ously called the " conducted study period," the " conference period," and the " unassigned lesson period." It fulfills a threefold purpose : 1. To relieve first-year pupils from the strain of a too heavy schedule and to improve the quality of work undertaken. 2. To give the teacher an opportunity to train pupils to think, to attack new topics properly, and to secure careful and accurate reviews. 3. To afford opportunity for special and individual help to pupils weak or temporarily disabled on account of illness or who for other reasons are behind in their work. The work became operative in September, 1910, and is used in English, algebra, Latin or German, and elementary science. The plan bears very close resemblance to the DeKalb type discussed in the next chapter. Conference by Appointment. This dififers from the stated conference in several respects.. Usually the appoint- ment is made by the teacher. Weak pupils are asked to confer with the teacher or the principal for various reasons. The request itself may savor of some penalty. There is a presumption at the outset that the pupil has failed to meet 1 Rynearson, "The Conference Hour in the Pittsburgh High School," School Review, Vol. XX, 191 2, pp. 246-253. 100 Supervised Study requirements. Bad news travels fast and it does not in- frequently happen that the pupils whisper the news abroad that so and so " had to see the principal or teacher to-day." Trivial as this may seem, it nevertheless deserves consideration in dealing with high school people. Appointments should be made inconspicuously. Although they may be necessary for disciplinary reasons, this fact should be minimized at first. Discipline to be effective must rest on facts carefully and justly obtained. The conference by appointment is also employed as a means of arousing weak and backward pupils. In many schools it is confined to such cases. There are occasions, however, when appointments shotild be made with advanced and faithful pupils for their further encourage- ment and progress. (i) The Technic of the Conference Hour. Whatever the type employed, it is essential that the principal or teacher conduct the conference with some system. For this reason it should be insisted on that pupils come punctually. The teacher should be just as prompt. Much time may be wasted in conference and serious injustice be done by requiring pupils to wait unnecessarily long. The conference should be well planned. Its program should be definitely in the teacher's mind, although it need not be followed in every detail. But in the informal discussion there is a tendency to overstress certain incidental points and to neglect the most important. For this reason the teacher should control the conversation, bringing it to a close as quickly as possible, and reach some definite decision. The conference should be definite, in other words. Even if the decision cannot be final, the pupil should carry away some definite plan or information. Moreover, the general tone of the conference should be as The Organization of Supervised SUidy loi informal as possible. Authority, dignity, ofl&ciousness, have their value in dealing with certain kinds of people, but in high school it is well to establish friendly relations with the pupils, to make the conference period so personal that here the pupils will unfold secret difficulties or problems that are fundamental in their studying. Opportunity should be given pupils to state their problems clearly, and by tactful questions the teacher should encourage them to discuss phases of studying that instinctive timidity otherwise would prevent them from mentioning. If the teacher shows a tactful, sympathetic interest in the pupil's life during the conference much may be accomplished by this means. Detailed technic is illustrated in Part II imder the various subjects. The conference periods, when an integral part of the general organization of supervised study, should be carefully recorded. They can be made a basis of marking. By reference to them the teacher may be better able to judge of the amount and quality of the pupil's progress. Appointments should be kept in a conference book or form part of a General Record. A suggestive page in such a conference book is given below. If the conference is stated, the pupil's name, date, and reason for conference can be recorded after the hour. If by appoint- ment, the engagement is made by record on the top of the page. The conference itself with the teacher's decision occupies most of the space. By confining the reference to one page of the size here suggested, little time will be required for making the record. If so preferred, a loose-leaf book can be employed with similar type of record. All the conferences with the same pupil can then be kept together. Or cards serve the same purpose. If cards are used, it probably would be more con- to2 Supervised Study Specimen Page of Conference Book Name of Pupil Date of Conference . Reason of Conference- THE CONFERENCE Pupil's Side Principal's or Teacher's Decision- FiGttRE ni The Organization of Supervised Study 103 venient for filing purposes to use the long dimensions of the card as top and bottom. The method of recording would be the same. (2) Benefits of Conferences. Rynearson ^ states that teachers employing the conference found it advantageous for the following reasons : 1. It affords a practical and efl&cient means of helping the first-year pupil to keep up to grade. 2. It combines happily the class and individual methods of teaching. 3. It serves the useful purpose of a general " clearing house " period for review, drill, discussion of obscure principles, and for personal work with the individual pupil. 4. It encourages the pupil to express his doubts and difi&culties, without fear of low grades. 5. Through intimate personal contact it stimulates a feeling of mental sympathy and helpfulness between teacher and pupil, and obviates the doubtful practice of keeping chil- dren in school to make up work. 3. The Study Coach. Under this system of supervised study one person devotes all of his time to the work of coach- ing pupils individually in their stud)dng. The person is employed for this purpose alone, as at Jackson, Mich. All the pupils of the high school are referred to the study coach during the school day. Regular oflice hours are conducted, the pupils calling when they need assistance or being required to consult the coach because of unsatisfactory work. Study coaching is of two kinds — the unassigned teacher and the general study coach. a. The Unassigned Teacher. This plan was highly 1 Op. dt. I04 Supervised Study developed by Superintendent Spaulding at Newton, Mass. It has recently been introduced at Hastings, Neb. The un- assigned teacher has no regular class, either in the elementary or the high school grades. The regular work of the classroom is supplemented by that of the unassigned teacher who usually is kept busy throughout the day coaching or tutoring the various groups needing special instruction. It requires, of course, a rather unique type of teacher, one who has not formed ahnost ineradicable habits of class teaching. Study coaching is iadividual teaching exclusively and demands a type of personaUty and method essentially different from the usual procedure of the classroom. At Newton, Mass., the best students of the Normal School are employed for this work. (i) Technic of the Unassigned Teacher. The operation of the plan ^ is described as follows : "The day's work of an unassigned teacher may be something like this. For the first half -hour in the morning there comes to her room a little group of half a dozen children from a third grade. The third grade teacher has selected these children because they are all having difficulty, beyond that experienced by their class- mates, with some _ process in arithmetic. . . . The . un^signed teacher has previously been informed as fuUy as possible concerning the condition and needs of these children. The half-hour is spent in discovering still more accurately the pecuUar difficulties of each one, and in giving each just the assistance and practice which he requires. This work is individual so far as need be ; at the same time the group can usually work together advantageously. " At the end of the half -hour these children return to their class and a group of children come from the seventh grade; perhaps there are only four in this group. They are not having unusual 1 W. H. Holmes, op. cii., pp. 69, 70. The Organization of Supervised Study 105 difficulty with any subject. . . . They need more work and more difficult work than their class as a whole is capable of. Yet they are not fitted to pass at once successfully into the class next above theirs. The unassigned teacher prepares them for this long advance step. She takes them through the essentials which sepa- rate the work of their present class from that of the class which they are preparing to enter. To-day and perhaps for several days, the work is in arithmetic. Other days it will be history or geog- raphy or grammar. " When the period is over, these children give their place to a group from a fourth grade. They are temporarily behind the work of this class . . . they have been kept out for several weeks on account of illness. The unassigned teacher's work with these will be similar in purpose to that of the last group ; she will take them rapidly over the essentials covered by the class during their enforced absence. " The unassigned teacher's fourth period is occupied with a full division, perhaps twenty pupils, of children of the fifth grade. They come from a large class composed of two grades, the fourth and fifth. To relieve the regular teacher of some of her many recita- tions, the unassigned teacher takes the work in arithmetic with the fifth grade division. " The fifth period is devoted to a single child. He does not belong to any grade, judged by the evidence of ability which he shows when assigned any definite task. So he probably comes from a class in which he is not too conspicuous on account of his size. The unassigned teacher tries patiently to determine just what the serious obstacles in the child's advancement are. He may have to be sent to a special class for backward children. Possibly with sufficient individual attention he can work with some regular class." The foregoing description of the unassigned teacher's work in the elementary school suggests what could be done and what needs to be done in the high school. Similar conditions io6 Supervised Study obtain here. In small high schools the regular teacher, even with conferences, does not have time for the work already described. In some districts where the high school teacher also teaches grammar grades, obviously the day's schedule is already crowded. Unassigned teachers, although necessitat- ing an additional salary, could save communities money and time. Normal School graduates or graduates from Schools of Education might be required to do this type of work as a " practice year " before receiving full license to teach. In connection with this work it is important to keep accurate records of the process. Many schools fail to provide for permanent records of the pupil's school career. This is un- fair to the pupil, to the parent, and also to the new teacher, who without such records must either begin haphazardly the same kind of work or make wasteful omissions and repetitions — both of them increasing the cost of school instruction. The following record sheets are suggested not with any desire to increase " red tape " or to burden the teachers with secre- tarial work, but every teacher should have accurate knowl- edge of as many factors in the pupil's progress as are legiti- mately possible. By referring to records like the following the career of the pupil is an " open book " capable of being interpreted and more effectively developed. This card or blank should be triplicated ; i.e., the unassigned teacher is given one by the pupil at the time of the transfer, a duplicate is sent to the principal, and the regular teacher keeps one. By carbon paper these three copies can be made with one writing. When the period of special instruction is over, the lower section of the blank is returned, one copy to the regular teacher by the pupil, and another copy to the The Organization of Supervised Sttidy 107 Specimen Transfer Card TRANSFER CARD TO UNASSIGNED TEACHER Name or Pupel_ __^ School Year— ist, 2d, 3d, 4th (underscore) Date of Transfer . Subject or Number of Course Reasons of Transfer (Perforation) DISMISSAL CARD TO REGULAR TEACHER Name of Pupil School Year — ist, 2d, 3d, 4th (underscore) Date of Dismissal No. Days Special Instruction. Suggestions for Dealing with Pupil. Signature of Unassigned Teacher Figure IV io8 Supervised Study principal's office, the unassigned teacher retaining the original. In this way the pupil's transfer and special instruction are checked by the three officials immediately concerned. The work of the regular and unassigned teachers is properly recorded by themselves, and the principal's records of each pupil are likewise complete. The card is simple and the in- formation required is essential. Only a small amount of time is needed in making the record. It helps to keep the organization of supervised study intact as a regular, vital part of the school work, and may serve also to impress the pupil with its fundamental importance, its relation to his whole career as a pupil in the high school. It keeps the pupil from drifting through the school at this particular point. His studying is supervised not loosely but system- atically. b. The General Study Coach. This type differs from that of the unassigned teacher in being essentially individual and informal. The pupils take the initiative, consulting the coach as needs arise. They are not transferred to his charge. The coach has a consultation office during school hours, and the pupils may confer with him during their vacant periods. It calls for a person with broad and accurate knowledge of many subjects, although not necessarily as deep going as the knowledge of subject matter by the teachers of the various subjects. The study coach, moreover, should know con- siderable psychology, especially educational psychology, and its several applications in the learning process. Sympathy, tact, patience are always essential. Insight into the motives and attitudes of the pupUs is equally important, for high school pupils are likely to misuse the study coach unless he can forestall such behavior by strong, masterful attacks. The Organization of Supervised Study 109 Pupils will try to use the coach as a crutch, trying to persuade him to do the studying for them. If weak, indulgent, cra\dng popularity, he may be tempted to do more for the pupils than is for their intellectual and moral good. (i) Technic of Study Coaching. Several points need em- phasis in this connection. The study coach must first of all learn in detail the nature of the difficulties troubling the pupil. The teacher will supply her interpretation of the difficulties. But this is not enough. The pupil must be encouraged to state the difficulties as they appear to him. At first he may give only vague replies, make sweeping generalities none of which is specific enough to serve the coach. It becomes necessary, then, for the coach to analyze the situation by careful questions. The following case from the writer's own experience will illustrate this: A young senior found geometry very difficult. Unfortunately, the teacher possessed a rather repellent personality and seemed wholly out of patience with this girl. This pupil was eager to graduate in the spring, but could not do so without credits in geome- try as entrance requirements to the university. She "thought" she understood the theorem and proposition preceding the day's lesson. On being asked to prove it she failed. Step by step, page by page she and the coach retraced the course until the first theorem of the book was reached. She knew nothing about anything in the whole course! The situation was grave enough. Was the girl "born short" in geometry? The following conversation took place : Q. What do you regard as your main difficulty? A. I believe it is because I don't understand the figures. Q. What do you mean by not being able to understand the figures? A. I can't see what the lines mean — they are all Unes to me, but the teacher says they mean objects. I can't see the objects. I don't know what no Supervised Study angles are, anyway, in this book. Q. Can you draw the outline of a cube? ^. Yes. (She drew a cube.) Q. Now, can you see that cube — does it look Uke the cube on the desk yonder ? A . Well, I think it does when I compare them, but I can't always see it so. Q. Has this been your main difficulty throughout geometry? A. Yes, I had the same trouble before coming here. Q. Oh, you studied geometry in another school before coming here? A. Yes in . They used a different kind of textbook with figures that looked very different from those in this book. Besides, the teacher there had patience enough to try to explain a few things. But this one — Q. You don't recognize the figures in this geome- try? A. Well, they look queer, turned around. A and B were in different places in the other book. Q. I suppose you memorized a great deal? A. Well, yes, but I could do originals fairly well, etc. Here was a case of weak visual imaging, resulting in a vague perception of space relations. The girl had no back- ground that could be reinterpreted according to the different textbook. Unable to visualize the figures and having dealt with figures quite different, she had a double handicap. By requiring her to draw every line and to give an adequate explanation of each step with reasons therefor, she was finally coached beyond the passing mark. Other factors , operated in her case. She was fond of social life, fond of the boys, athletics, sewing, textile work. She frankly admitted all of these to the coach who gave them due weight. The pupil's problem must be clearly understood before the coach attempts to supervise the pupil's studying. Often it is a very delicate jnatter to analyze this problem. One must not be inordinately inquisitive, nor encourage unkind or unjust criticism of the teacher's work. It often happens, however, that the teacher is largely to blame. A certain The Organization of Supervised Study iii amount of knowledge about the teacher's procedure is im- portant in dealing with the pupil's difficulties. But criticism should never be encouraged beyond the point involved and then only in strict confidence. The following suggestions for effective study coaching have been found helpful : 1. Address the pupil kindly with a smile, with a friendly grip of the hand. 2. Ask him to be frank in stating the difficulty. All he says will be regarded absolutely confidential. 3. Ascertain as many details as possible bearing on the pupil's general attitude toward the subject. 4. Begin the actual coaching by requiring the pupil to read the problem slowly with proper emphasis on important words. Then set him to work as much of the problem as he can. 5. When the pupil reaches the difficulty, analyze the situation carefully for the reason of the difficulty. It has a reason — an important psychological one. Use analogies from common day experience. Attack the difficulty by appealing to senses other than sight. Use manual construction if possible. Use blackboard together with the pupil. Shift the angle of attack until the pupil says, " I see it ! " If after many trials he cannot " see it," then tell him what to do. 6. Prevent wasteful energy and time by stopping the pupil as soon as he has begun a wrong procedure. The.factor of independ- ence is provided for in requiring a reason for every step taken and at point of difficulty stating reasons for attempting this or that next step. 7. If there is a group of pupils facing the same difficulty, all of them should be given opportunity to state reasons for processes employed in the solution of the problem. 8. Do not work any problem for the pupil. He must do all the work under tactful suggestion by questions. But when absolutely necessary, supply information. 112 Supervised Study 9. Make a record of the difficulties encountered, number of visits made by each pupil, amount of coaching for same kind of diffi- culty. (See blank on next page.) The study coach is essentially a diagnostician. His technic depends upon his knowledge of the pupil, the sub- ject matter, and the kinds of dif&culties likely to be encoun- tered by certain types of pupils. Eventually, it may be hoped, every teacher will have the training requisite for this type of work. It is individual instruction of the highest kind. If the work is to have any value for the regular teachers, it is necessary that the coach report the essentials of the cases under his supervision. It is not necessary or just to the pupil to repeat any of the criticism as having been made by him. The criticisms, however, may be worth while and should be mentioned to the teacher impersonally. The record of the findings of the study coach become a vital part of the history of each high school pupil. For this reason they should be carefully filed in the principal's office beyond the reach of any one save the teachers. The blank on opposite page may prove suggestive : This blank entails very little work. It provides room for a statement of the general difficulty with this pupil and then in detail specific difficulties in the various subjects. By keeping a record of the dates on which coach and pupil dealt with the trouble, it will be possible to determine the pupil's rate of progress and also to stimulate attention by referring him to the fact that he has already been coached on this t3rpe of difficulty several times. On the reverse of the card the coach might index the types or kinds of difficulties presented and refer to them by The Organization of Supervised Sittdy 113 Specimen Record Sheet of Study Coach Name of Pc School Yea] General Di RECORD BLANK OF STUDY COACH •PTT. R — ist, 2d, 3d, 4th (underscore) imrnTTV SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES Natdile or DlTFigULTY Dates — — J FlGHKE V 114 Supervised Study their index letters or numbers. This saves time. The coach will find that difficulties fall in large groups. These are discussed under " Conditions and Hindrances " and also in Part II under the several subjects. A more elaborate method of recording is suggested in the following blank : RECORD BLANK OF STUDY COACH Name of Pupil School Year — ist, ad, 3d, 4th (underscore) Pupil's Standing in Elementary School by Subjects- Previous Standing in High School by Subjects. Social Activities now Engaged in by Ptjpil- Pupil's Favorite Subject- Predominant Mental Image — Visual, Auditory, Motor. Teacher's Statement or Pupil's Difficulties- Pupil's Statement of His Own Difficulties- Figure VI The Organization of Supervised Study 115 Several important factors entering into the pupil's attitude toward studying are called for on this card. Investigations show that pupils as a rule maintain a certain standard throughout their school life. Mediocre pupils in the ele- mentary school are rarely superior pupils in high school. Excellent pupils in the grades as a rule maintain this excellency in the higher classes. It is important for the coach to know something of the intellectual history of the case before him if he is to suggest to the teacher wise and just methods of dealing with the pupil. 'Hie social environment preferred by the boy or girl is equally significant. It may be too distracting, too strenuous, or insufficient. The preference of subject matter may mean neglect of this subject because seemingly easy or neglect of other subjects because disliked. Mental type is also significant because it is Kkely to affect method of teaching. (See chapter on "Individual Differences.") (2) Summary. It is now apparent that the study coach and the unassigned teacher, for both of them may employ similar methods of recording, should be weU-organized offices, filled by persons pecuharly endowed for this kind of work. It may not be impossible in schools of education and normal schools to evolve such persons with training in mental testing, sta- tistical recording, methods of teaching, and a working knowl- edge of the subjects in the curriculum. This is a large order, but public school education is an immense undertaking. It calls for the most efficient service, and some day doubtless will be in a position to demand it and pay for it. 4. The " Delayed Group " Plan. This has recently been introduced at JoHet, lU. It aims to anticipate or prevent difficulties of studying in the first year of the high school by carefully examining the qualifications of entering pupils ii6 Supervised Stiidy for the new type of work. Dr. J. S. Brown, the principal, describes the plan as follows i;i a personal letter to the writer : "Our plan, which is beginning to operate, contemplates a careful study of the scholastic qualifications of the eighth-grade pupils when they come to the high school. This study includes the record which they made during their eighth grade and the record which they make in the high school for the first four weeks. Qn this basis, we take from the entire group the pupils who, judged by their previous record and the opinion of the teacher having them for this month of high school work, will not be able to go in the same pace as is required of the normal school pupil. These pupils are put into a group by themselves and are given a pace for their work which enables them to complete twelve weeks' work of the semester of eighteen weeks. At the close of this semester there are six weeks work yet to do by such a group. In order to do this work, this group is immediately put into a vacation school extending from the beginning of the week following Commencement until about the beginning of August, or a period of six weeks. The smnmer school pace is somewhat modified by the fact that their number of studies in such cases is one fewer than in the regular year's work. By such a means as this, the 'delayed group' is enabled to spend about thirty per cent more time in doing regular work than the regular group. In this way, such a group comes back to the school in September with all the work passed, and does not have to enter the second year's work with any kind of handicap." This plan has not been in operation long enough to indicate any dependable results. 5. General Directions in Studying. In some schools the importance of guiding pupils is recognized by giving platform talks on study at the beginning of the term or during the session. Teachers sometimes spend part of the period in The Organization of Supervised Study 117 suggesting how to study. Four of the best methods of this type of supervised study will now be considered. a. The Study Program. W. C. Reavis ^ has found a Pupil's Study Program helpful. Cards with duplicate copies for fiHng in the assembly-room desk are handed to each pupil. One side of the card contains a schedule of hours, the other side several directions on how to study. The following figure shows the form. PUPIL'S STUDY PROGRAM Name Grade HODK Stody Reciie 9 :oo 9--4S 10:30 II : 10 i:iS 2:00 2:4s 3:20 {over) FiGOTE vn ' "Importance of a Study Program for High School Pupils," School Review, June, 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 398-405. ii8 Supervised Stttdy This card indicates the pupil's division of time during study hall periods. The teacher in charge of the hall is then enabled to supervise the pupils while carr3dng out the schedule. On the reverse of the card is printed a list of directions. Directions for Study 1. Follow your program regularly. 2. If possible, study your lesson immediately after the assign- ment is made. 3. Take brief notes and afterwards restudy by outUne. 4. Use dictionary and reference books for points not clearly comprehended. 5. Concentrate your mind so that outside interests will not frequently disturb your study. 6. Do not try to commit exact words until you understand their content. 7. Connect the important facts of the new lesson with facts previously learned. 8. Make comparisons and contrasts when possible. 9. Carefully review and think over the previous lesson before beginning the next. 10. The extra effort spent on preparation pays the greatest intellectual dividends. Here is a conscientious attempt to direct pupils while at work on their lessons. It is a plan easily adapted to any school. The test of effectiveness is stated by Mr. Reavis in the article already referred to. He says : "During the two and a half years that study has been closely supervised and regular programs for each pupil strictly followed, three things have been accomplished with more or less success: (i) the problem of discipUne has been practically solved; (2) con- The Organization of Supervised Stvdy 119 siderable improvement has been made in scholarship ; (3) regular hours of home study have been provided for by the large majority of the students." The benefits of the method are reported by the pupils as follows : 1. By following a definite program of study I have formed the habit of studying a certain lesson at a certain time, and because I know that I must study at that time I am always ready. 2. If a definite program is followed, I can do more and better work than if I study in a haphazard fashion. 3. When following a study program one is never in doubt about what to do next. 4. A study program keeps me from spending too much time on favorite subjects. 5. By following a regular program I waste no time in thinking about what I shall do next. Then, too, it keeps me from changing tasks when I begin to tire of what I am doing. 6. By preparing my work regularly I find that I not only have better lessons but also have more time for leisure. 7. The study program has proved so beneficial to me in the prep- aration of my lessons that I now follow a regular program for all of my work. 8. I find that by following a regular program of study I always study each lesson, whether I accomplish anything or not. At least I always know something about each lesson. 9. I had the habit of always putting off my work until I felt just right for study, and as a result made very poor grades, but since I have adopted a regular study program my interest in my work has. greatly increased and I am no longer ashamed of my grades. The benefits of this plan then are : (i) improved discipline ; (2) finer scholarship ; (3) regular hours of home study ; (4) systematic organization of the pupil's time ; (5) aid in start- ing to work ; (6) balanced studying ; (7) saving of time by knowing what to do next ; (8) provision for needful leisure. 120 Supervised Study The technic of the plan has been sufficiently described in the foregoing. The success of the scheme depends obviously on the teacher's loyalty to her part of the work. . If the, dupli- cates are not referred to and if the pupils are allowed to neglect this schedule, the plan fails. There must be a pilot — an overseer who is alert on duty. b. The Giles Scheme. A similar method of directing habits of study is employed by F. M. Giles at DeKalb, lU., Town- ship High School. He does not use the study-program card, however. Instead, a bulletin is handed the pupils. It con- tains the following directions : ^ 1. Study away from interruption. — Have a definite place for study where you won't be interrupted. 2. Concentrate. — Put your attention on your work. That is, don't let your mind wander to what people are saying, to look out the window, to think of other things. In other words, concentra- tion helps study. 3. Get regular study habits. — Have a definite time for study. Make up your mind always to have the same time for your work and in the end you will get a habit so that work will be easier. 4. Understand the topic. — In starting to work on your lesson be sure that you understand it. Do not try to study topics that don't mean anything to you. If the trouble is in words, get your dictionary and look them up. If the trouble is in the topic itself, ask the teacher to help you. Men who know tell us that it is much easier to learn lessons when they are xmderstood than it is when the person does not understand them. Take advantage of this fact. 5. Reason about it. — Read the lesson over as a whole, then try to pick out the important points in each paragraph. A well-written paragraph has one topic. Do not try to learn everything in the lesson, but pick out the chief things and relate the minor topics to 1 See School Review, November, 1914, pp. 635-636. The Organization of Supervised Study 121 them. It is a good plan to underscore the most important sentence in each paragraph. But" don't underscore four or five sentences. Too much underscoring is worse than none. Next make out a Ust of the most important topics in the lessons. Then, having closed your book, try to give the most important facts about these topics out loud, or write out the material on paper. Do not open your book for help if you cannot recall a topic. Do the best you can until you have been over the whole lesson. Then open your book and see what you have failed to recall. 6. Review often. — If you can, study your lessons at two different times, that is, study it at night and review it in the morning before going to class. Men who have studied the way the mind works tell us this review helps one to remember. 7. Recite and review again. — Repeating what you know and review are the most important parts in mastering any material whether a rule in mathematics, a topic in history, or a principle in science. It is a good plan to review hard topics from week to week. 8. "Will to learn." — Finally, make up your mind that you can learn. It has been found from experience that when people have the "will to learn," the mind will work much more easily. Do not say, "I can't learn it. I am not interested in it." When you get this attitude it is almost impossible to do successful work. 9. Talk over your work. — Talk over your school work at home. Tell about the interesting things in history, in Enghsh, or in science, or your hard problems in mathematics. This will help you master your work. Here are directions that stimulate the pupil to regard studying as something improvable. The supervision of study at DeKalb is referred to also in the next chapter. c. The University of Chicago Plan. At the University High School of the University of Chicago, the following list of suggestions formulated by teachers in mathematics and by the librarian have proved to be very valuable. 122 Supervised Study Study Helps — For Students in the University High Schooi The habits of study formed in school are of greater importance than the subjects mastered. The following suggestions, if care- fully followed, will help you make your mind an efficient tool. Your daily aim should be to learn your lesson in less time, or to learn it better in th^ same time. 1. Make out a definite daily program, arranging for a definite time for each study. You wiU thus form the habit of concentrating your thoughts on the subject at that time. 2. Provide yourself with the material the lesson requires ; have on hand maps, ruler, compass, special jjaper needed, etc. 3. Understand the lesson assignment. Learn to take notes on the suggestions given by the teacher when the lesson is assigned. Take down accurately any references given by the teacher. Should a reference be of special importance, star it so that you may readily find it. Pick out the important topics of the lesson before beginning your study. 4. In the proper use of a textbook, the following devices wiU be found helpful : index, appendix, footnotes, maps, illustrations, vocabulary, etc. Learn to use your textbook, as it wiU help you to use other books. Therefore, understand the purpose of the devices named above and use them freely. 5. Do not lose time getting ready for study. Sit down and begin to work at once. Concentrate on your work, i.e. put your mind on it and let nothing disturb you. Have the wiU to learn. 6. In many kinds of work it is best to go over the lesson quickly, then to go over it again carefully; e.g. before beginning to solve a problem in mathematics, read it through and be sure you understand what is to be proved before beginning its solu- tion ; in translating a foreign language, read the passage through and see how much you can understand befpre consulting the vocabulary. The Organization of Supervised Study 123 7. Do individual study. Learn to form your own judgments, to work your own problems. Individual study is honest study. 8. Try to put the facts you are learning into practical use if possible. Apply them to present-day conditions. Illustrate them in terms familiar to you. 9. Take an interest in the subjects taught in school. Read the periodical Hterature concerning these. Talk to your parents about your school work. Discuss with them points that interest you. 10. Review your lessons frequently. If there were points you did not imderstand, the review will help you to master them. 11. Prepare each lesson every day. The habit of meeting each requirement punctually is of" extreme importance. d. The Twin Falls Study Outline. At Twin Falls, Id., Mr. Dowman, the principal, in cooperation with the su- perintendent, Mr. Hal G. Blue, hands each pupil a copy of the following " Study Outline." It is cited here in full as an example of painstaking, thoughtful interest in opening up the science of study to the pupil. Study Outline Trying to achieve something without a plan is very ineffective. To obtain success in any undertaking requires that a plan of action be thought out and followed closely. The lawyer must carefully plan his case; the instructor must plan the work of a course of study and develop its parts from day to day ; the farmer must plan the rotation of crops and the care and culture of a particular crop. This same poUcy as to a plan must be followed by students in high school. Certain fundamental principles govern one's ability to study and learn. These must be mastered before one can reach efficiency in acquiring an education. The first principle of learning that one should master is that of : A. Understanding: 124 Supervised Study 1. Be sure that you understand. Be honest with yourself and try to discriminate between what you think you know and what you are sure you do not know. This attitude will be of great value to you in your endeavor to learn. Haziness of understandiag leads to guessing and a lack of mental insight. 2. Life demands that people who have formed habits of accuracy do the world's work. It is disastrous to think that your efforts are scholarly or of much value simply because you have the right principle in solving a problem. Inaccuracy in any profession or position is fatal. The best colleges and imiversities are eUminat- ing from their student body those who cannot think with accuracy. The second step in studying is : B. Systematizing: I. In studying a lesson, systematize the material in the lesson. Endeavor to see T;he important things and their relation with one another as well as with that part of the subject which you have previously studied. If you can do this, you will have taken an important step toward efficiency in learning. The third step is : C. Associating: I. Try to associate the new materials acquired with other matter of a similar kind. This will enrich your knowledge and give you such a grip on it that it will stay with you and be of real value to you. The fourth principle is : D. Remembering: I. Your memories cannot be cultivated, but your ability to remember depends entirely on the way you learn. If you under- stand what you study, if you associate the new things learned with other knowledge of a similar nature and see their relations, if you systemize your daily work and play and also the subject matter of each lesson, you will then remember. Memory is of great impor- tance. The world of affairs demands men who can both think and remember. The Organization of Supervised Sttidy 125 In order to become master of the above principles, i.e. under- standing, systematizing, associating, and remembering, the follow- ing suggestions may be helpful to you : a. Be sure you understand the directions of your teachers and then foUow them. b. In studying many of your lessons, such as history or Enghsh, it is well first to read the lesson over as a whole to get a bird's-eye view, then study it in detail. c. Put your attention on your work and be sure you understand it. Concentrate on the matter at hand. Try to discover the main points of the lesson and express them in your own words. d. Talk over your lessons at home. This will aid your under- standing and memory of them greatly. e. Have you a definite place to study and where there are not distracting influences ? /. Keep your study room weU ventilated. g. Keep windows of your sleeping room open. h. Have a definite time to study. Study regularly a certain portion of the time each day and get some wholesome recreation each day. i. Do not "dilly-dally." When you study, make a serious busi- ness of it. Work hard while at it and train yourself to study rapidly and with accuracy. The hardest and fastest workers are the most accurate. j. Review often. Do not wait for your teachers to give you re- view lessons or a systematic review of a subject. Whenever you find that you do not understand a lesson because of haziness of knowledge previously gained, make an independent review of your own of the course. k. Use all aids available. Ask questions of your teachers con- cerning things you do not know. Remain after school hours to get aid in your work. Consult reference books, magazines, pictures, diagrams, laboratory apparatus, and any other aids you may be able to appropriate. 126 Supervised Study What has been attempted by the educators cited and also by others is within the reach of every principal and every teacher. May it not be true that if teachers dealt more with studying than with reciting the pupils would respond with more alacrity? If teachers showed an intelligent inter- est in correct and economical methods of work, it is not unlikely that the pupils would regard studying with more earnestness. General Summary The foregoing general methods of supervised study, with the exception of the Assembly Study Hall, may prove very- effective as corrective agencies when high school pupils find studying unsuccessful. The main criticism to be offered against them is that they are chiefly, if not exclusively, corrective. They do not allow for any definite or prolonged instruction in how to study each assignment. Probably, in the great lack of teachers who can teach pupils this important branch of school life, it is better to seek for the expert and give him or her the task of supervising studying. The pres- ence of such an expert indicates that the school authorities sense the problem and are attempting to find a solution in the most effective manner. It remains true, however, that every teacher must become a study expert, with all that this means. CHAPTER VI THE ORGANIZATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY (Continued) The Importance of Specific Direction in Study. In the preceding chapter discussion was limited to schemes of supervised study that make no attempt to give formal in- struction in study but aim to help the pupil to overcome difficulties in preparing lessons. It was pointed out that these plans are chiefly corrective or only generally directive. The highly trained study coach, to be sure, is in a position to diagnose " cases " and suggest methods of dealing with such pupils in the regular class work. The schemes, however, fail to take into account the fundamental need of so revising present classroom procedure that considerable time may be devoted in every subject to training in and supervision of study. The methods to be considered in this chapter are organized with this purpose in view. Teachers using these methods spend much time in individual instruction. Home study is minimized and in some schools wholly eliminated under these types of study administration. The school work stresses study rather than reciting. These plans will now be discussed in detail. II. Subject Organizations These include various forms of divided periods, study periods, and occasional supervision. 127 128 Supervised Study I. Divided Periods. These are modifications or elaborations of the early Batavia plan evolved by Superintendent John Kennedy in the town of Batavia, N.Y. The origin of the plan was the usually overcrowded schoolroom, in this case of over sixty pupils in an elementary grade. To relieve the teacher of this crowded room, Mr. Kennedy put in an addi- tional teacher. The additional teacher, Miss Lucie Hamilton, was not an assistant but an associate teacher with a specific type of work to perform. The pupils in the class who for various reasons were retarded were given in her charge. Her work was similar to that of the unassigned teacher, only here she was a regular teacher in this room and her efforts were confined to the pupils of this particular grade. The result of this work far surpassed expectations. Retarded, in- different, restless children awoke. Their attitude toward the class and the teachers became enthusiastic. Similar results were obtained by adding teachers to other rooms. After the plan had been in operation for a year, it occurred to the superintendent that the fxmdamental reason for improve- ment lay not in having two teachers but in employing two wholly different methods of teaching. Class instruction supplemented by individual instruction was really the secret of the great change. It seemed worth while to try another method, — namely, dividing one teacher's time between the usual recitation and supervised study in the same period. It met with success in two grade rooms and in rooms with many grades. The Batavia, or Divided Class -Period, plan has been in- troduced into many high schools with success equal to that at Batavia. It means, essentially, the abandoning of the usual " question and answer " type of recitation and stressing The Organization of Supervised Study 129 cooperative assignments, the teacher working with the pupils, not for them, in the preparation of the new lesson. Several forms of the divided period have been developed. These will now be considered. a. The Newark Plan. Principal William Wiener, at Newark, N.J., has found that the divided period is far supe- rior to the traditional type of class period. At first he divided a sixty-minute period equally, devoting the same amount of time to recitation and to study, with five minutes between periods for transit to and from classes. In the chapter on " Results of Supervised Study " are given some tables illustrat- ing the benefits of this type of study supervision at Newark. The length of the period has been reduced by Mr. Wiener so that now twenty-five minute halves are in vogue in each period. Each teacher using the method provides for suitable instruc- tion in how to prepare the assignment just given. Home study is minimized or wholly eliminated, the additional amount of study necessary being provided for during the vacant periods. Under this plan the school day is broken up into fixed recitation and fixed supervised-study periods, each beginning and ending by bell signals. h. The Columbia Plan. This is somewhat different in being more flexible and in allowing as a rule more time for study than for recitation. Dr. J. L. Merriam, principal of the University High School at Columbia, Mo., believes in stimulating interest and effort by abandoning the usual form of instruction where pupils are assigned certain seats and are expected to remain seated for the greater part of the period. The high school pupils in this school are given unusual privileges. The classroom resembles more nearly a small reading room than a recitation hall. Pupils while at work 13° Supervised Study may pass back and forth as they find it necessary to consvilt reference books or other material. The recitation room is essentially a workshop where teacher cooperates with the pupil, where pupils are constantly supervised while engaged in studying. About one third of the period is devoted to recitation proper, but this amount of time is flexible. Dr. Merriam conceives of the class period in every subject as essentially a laboratory hour, — not a reiteration or memory exhibition. The important thing is to arouse pupils to work constructively and economically. In a class where pupils realize that marks and promotion depend upon evidence of individual effort, day after day, rather than upon occasional opportunities to answer questions or work frequently not the pupil's own achievement, it is likely that study wiU be regarded as an end in itself — the very act or effort of work- ing win be deemed as important as the finished recitation. (i) The Organization of Columbia Plan. Teachers in the University High School are given a list of Directions to Teachers containing helpful and definite guidance in the supervision of study. The following extracts illustrate the excellence of the directions : ^ Purpose in these Directions I. To make the class hour and individual work more effective by more definitely differentiating between recitation, class study, assignment, and home study. We easily drift into habits of loose- ness which seriously affect results. I wish this avoided as much as possible. ' Dr. Merriam very kindly sent the author a copy of his "Directions," with permission to make copious citations. Dr. Merriam is planning to publish a Manual of Supervision which will contain the directions in complete form. The Organization of Supervised Study 131 2. To raise the standard of the work : i) By making the recitation more sharp and positive (but bear in mind that this portion of the class hour should be more and more reduced). 2) By making the class study an exercise more helpful in teach- ing students how to attack a new problem. 3) By making the assignment more definite, as an outgrowth of class study. 4) By obUging the student to feel greater responsibiUty in his individual work. DIVISIONS OF THE CLASS HOUR 1. Recitation . ' 8.10 to 8.30 (or earlier) 2. Class study 8.30 (or earlier) to 8.55 3. Assignment 8.55 to 9.00 3. In many cases the recitation time can be shortened, as I wish "class study" emphasized. Time needed for assignment will vary ; sometimes more, sometimes less. Sometimes assignment is so readily inferred from the class study that no formal assignment is at all necessary. In another section of his " Directions," Merriam adds the following " Note of Importance " : The recitation here proposed is only a compromise. Eventually, no recitation, as such, is needed} Above all things, teachers must beware of directing class study or home work as a preparation for recitation. The traditional recitation cannot be dropped from the high school as abruptly as has been done in the University Elemen- tary School. But until this is possible the recitation portion of the class hour must be made more effective than at present prevails. Under the head. Nature of Class Study, are a group of directions that can hardly be surpassed. The following ex- tract is in full : ' Italics not used in the original. 132 Supervised Study NATUSE OF CLASS STUDY 1. Class Study is the opening of the study of a specific topic or problem. 2. This class study is under the direction of the teacher who has previously studied out such topics for the purpose of helping others to study it. Such preparation is quite diSerent from that of a student. Method of study is the chief problem of the teacher in her preparation. The teacher should be constantly directed by the question. "What do I wish my students to do in studying this topic?" 3. Such class-study is usually upon the basis of certain facts or data previously collected by the students. For example : i) In Enghsh Uterature : Students have read certain pages, chapters, or selections ; they are fairly famihar with the story, the facts or the plot. 2) In history : Students have read in the texts or reference books material bearing upon a given topic, e.g. ; the causes of the American Revolution. They are in possession of the more impor- tant facts. 3) In botany : Students have collected certain plant forms from laboratory cases or from the fields. This material is before them for study. 4. This class-study may well be opened by the teacher — or students stating a problem or the problem, for the study of which these facts or data collected contribute much. (In this connection keep in mind the note given at the close of this section.) 5. Study and recitation are to be carefully distinguished. For example : Sight translation in a foreign language is not study, but looking for probable or possible subjects and predicates, finding difficult or pecuhar constructions, etc., is study. Guessing at interpretations in literature and history is not study, but reasoning about the data at hand is study. The Organization of Supervised Study 133 6. The library and laboratory method of work is the method of "class study." Open books are needed. Notes may advisedly be made even in the books {i.e., the students' books). The student-teacher is reminded of the eight "factors in study," dis- cussed by McMurry in his book How to Study. But one's class work must not be too closely directed by those eight factors. Study is essentially the working out of those means that lead to the accompUshment of one's purposes. Note of Importance. Much of what is presented in this section as class-study is due to the curriculum which tradition has given us. The problems of purpose in this class-study are largely mapped out for us by the subject chosen and the text used. For example, how reasonable was the attitude of the colonists toward " taxation without representation." This interesting problem is discussed in class because the facts involved are met in a given text used in a specified course of study. Contrast this with reading current Uterature on Woman's Suffrage. In the latter case, the problem presents itself to us in the course of normal life-: reading and study is pursued as a means of helping us solve the problem. In the former case, the reading material is presented to us — a problem for study is formulated to suit the data before us. Until our high school course of study is changed to a study of contemporary life, our purposes or problems in class-study must be largely determined by the subject-matter which tradition has given us. Thus much of the class-study proposed above is a compromise. 2. The Double Period. The inception and development of this unique plan are due to Dr. J. Stanley Brown, principal of the High School at Joliet, III. It will be an advantage to read Dr. Brown's description of it : 1 a. The inception of this plan in our own school did not grow out of the experience in any other school or from any other plan. Only ' School and Home Education, February, 1915. 134 Supervised Sttidy four or five years ago did we begin to make a careful tabulation of the percentage of failure in each subject each semester, and I am sure that it was due to the fact that this percentage seemed to us entirely too high that the experiment, which we began to carry on three or four years ago, had its origin. The experiment was tried first with the mathematics class in algebra because the failure seemed to be greatest in that place. It was extended then to geometry and seemed to produce better results than the preceding plan in that subject. It has now been extended so as to include practically aU of the mathematics of the first two years, all of the foreign language, Latin, French, and German, of the first year, all of the English of the first year, all of the Science of all the years including the domestic science and manual training. Our proce- dure from one subject to another and from one year's work to an- other has been a gradual one and has been made only when the facts set forth at the close of each semester seem to justify such extension of work. In general, our double period scheme, as we call it, means that the first period of the two, each 40 minutes long, is spent in the conduct of the recitation; the second period is spent in directed study with whatever assistance may be foimd necessary, according to the need developed either during the preceding recitation or the examination of the lesson for the following day. The double period plan has been introduced this year for the first time in all of the first year Enghsh classes. The amount of the teacher's work, under the new plan, is not greater than under the old plan, but the effec- tiveness of the work is its main point of defense. The interrogation which is made always by the people who visit these classes to find out what this sort of study means is : "Don't you find that pupils are given so much help that they are weak in the succeeding work and that you direct them so much that they lose their initiative?" This is a very natural inquiry and of our faculty of sixty-six we have two people who are inchned to think there is reason for these questions. At the same time, both of these The Organization of Supervised Stvdy 135 people are unwilling to accept a single period of recitation and have their work compared with the work of another teacher who has a double period. We are ready to answer both of these questions in defense of the scheme because we have carried on this scheme long enough to see what pupils do in their succeeding work. My own observation leads me to say that the number of teachers I have found in any high school giving too much help is far smaller than the number giving too httle. This scheme cannot be carried on successfully where the school is too small to justify the employment of ten or a dozen teachers. It cannot be carried on successfully unless the conditions necessary for its success are provided before its operation begins. The ele- ment of specialization enters quite largely into the scheme ; hence, the larger organization with the larger number of students and the larger number of teachers favors the working of the scheme. The scheme will probably fail if adopted in schools with a small number of teachers having to teach three or four different subjects during the day. The library scheme in history will fail where there is not a well equipped library. The laboratory scheme will fail where the apparatus is not sufl&cient in quantity to enable individual work. The double period scheme will fail where teachers are unwilling to carry out faithfully and accurately the plan for its operation. It is likely to find opposition on the part of all teachers, men and women, especially women, who are opposed to the lengthening of the school day. Even though that does not provide a larger number of classes, it is sometimes charged against this scheme that the continued effort at keeping students keyed up and alert for a long period of time will make them stale for the last part of the day. This would have some defense in it were it not for the fact that gymnasium exercises are daily required of all pupils in the first year and that the freshen- ing and recreative resultant of passing from one building to another a block away seem sufficient, not only to prevent staleness and drowsiness, but to insure contintied alertness on the part of the students. This scheme is, like all other schemes, dependent largely 136 Supervised Stvdy on the sympathetic and enthusiastic attitude of the teacher for its success. This scheme proposes abolishing home study largely, if not entirely, and confines study to the school buUding where the library is, where the laboratories are, where the manual training and domestic science equipment is, and above aU, where the teachers are. Our observation and investigation leads us to the belief that a great part of the so-called home study is time Ul spent, when we consider the small return for the large amount of time. The teacher has no real evidence that the theme written at home is the real efiEort of the pupU, or that the prose composition in foreign lan- guage when prepared at home is the real effort of the pupil. Work done under the eye of the teacher, under the direction and supervi- sion of the teacher, inculcates a kind of personal honesty which it is difficult to inculcate outside of such supervision. The time ought never to come in this country when the individ- ual should be styled a teacher if he thinks that his function as such has been properly performed after he has assigned a lesson and heard the boy recite it. This dwarfed, shrivelled, and medieeval type of teacher ought to be assigned to a work dealing with inert, non-sentient material, but not with hmnan, hving, pulsating, grow- ing life. Supervised study reaches its greatest defense in a teacher in whom the quahties of sympathy and interest, inspiration and magnetism and human uplift are dominant. The enrollment of the Joliet High School is nearly 2000. With nearly seventy teachers it is possible to achieve well- nigh marvelous results. Mr. Brown believes in shifting the outlet of school costs from the far to the near end, in spending money to prevent repeaters and retards rather than to improv- ing abnormal cases. He says : " This plan means a larger number of teachers to operate it. Our scheme means five teachers where, imder the older plan of proce- dure, we had four. We have estimated, however, that the percent- The Organization of Supervised Study 137 age of repeaters, under the old plan, has been sufficiently reduced by the new to meet the financial difference in the cost between the two plans of operation. " In all of the modem language classes in which the direct method is used, there is no very great difference between the use which the teacher makes of the first period, but the modern language teachers are a unit in the opinion that this double period scheme justifies itself in the fact that almost no work outside of the school building is necessary on the part of the pupil. The percentage of failures in modern language has been very largely reduced. The consequent saving in teaching force, due to less numbers of repeaters, is apparent. " The use of this double period in first year Latin is defended by all the teachers of this subject on the ground that an uninterrupted effort for two periods, with but a trifle of a break of three minutes between, enables them to so connect up the work of one day with that of another day that the pupil accomplishes more during this practically continuous effort for two periods, under direction, than he could accomphsh with three or four disconnected periods without direction. In this subject, also, the percentage of failures has been largely decreased and the consequent number of repeaters decreased. " In beginning algebra, which is offered in the first year of our school, our percentage of failures before the introduction of this scheme was sometimes as high as thirty. Since the introduction of this scheme, which in the case of algebra has been continued longer than in any other subject, the percentage of failure has been reduced about fifty per cent. The same deduction may be made here with reference to the number of repeaters as was made above. The directed study in the case of algebra is very different from that of either beginning Latin or beginning German or French. The opportunity to help, legitimately and immediately, when the pupil has made an honest, faithful effort, means much more for the pupils' progress and interest in the subject than if such suggestion or help is postponed for twenty-four hours or until the pupil comes into 138 Supervised Sttidy the class the next day. The element of encouragement and interest in the subject tends to grow in the right direction if help is admin- istered immediately when needed. " The subject of geometry is not approached in precisely the same way as the subject of algebra and necessarily differs greatly from the linguistic studies. It must be largely freed from the memoriter kind of work and must be given time for the young minds to reason slowly and in logical steps. After the first period of recitation the teacher has had an opportunity to know who needs assistance and where that assistance must come, and in the discussion and direction of the work for the following day he has an opportunity to make immediate use of all of the developments of the recitation which has just closed. This is another case of " striking while the iron is hot " and not giving it twenty-four hours to cool before it is struck again. " The double period in all of the classes of the science work differs from all the other classes because they spend four days of the week in the laboratory in the performance of experiments, only a single day of the week being given to formal recitation. The fact that the double period is set aside every day for this science work and the fact that the teacher has the opportunity to plan the work on this basis, seems to the science teacher a very much better plan than any that has been yet tried. In all the first year science it is not found necessary for the pupils to spend more time than is pro- vided in two periods. The direction of their work and the close supervision of the teacher makes it possible to accomplish, during these two periods, what was with difficulty accomplished in a single period of recitation followed by undirected work in two periods outside the laboratory. " The history department is using a scheme somewhat different from all the rest because a single period of recitation is followed by directed work in the library. The history department feels, at the beginning of this experiment, that the ability to use the Hbrary effectively is one of the greatest aids to all history work, and that, if this power is developed during the earlier years of the high school The Organization of Supervised Study 139 course, it may be utilized with great advantage in all succeeding work. We are not ready to pronounce upon this plan, because this experiment is yet in the trial stage. It finds its defenders, however, in every member of the history department and in the pupils because it is rarely necessary to spend much time outside of the school building." The plan in English is somewhat different. One of the teachers in this department describes her method in the following words : " The second period is used primarily for supervised study. If the work is very difficult or if a great deal of explanation and instruc- tion is necessary, a part of this time is used for recitation. Since the second period is intended to be used for study under the direct supervision of the class teacher, it does not seem wise nor fair to spend too much of this time in recitation. " The lesson for the following day is assigned at the beginning of the second period. The period is used for the study of that lesson. I help the class in various ways, but I take great care in determining the amount and the kind of help I give. I have in mind that the pupil is to be taught to study and to be independent in his work. A legitimate number of questions are answered and difficult pas- sages in the test are explained. I refuse to pronounce, spell or define words. The child is sent to the dictionary. If he does not under- stand the explanation, I assist him. When themes are assigned, the first draft of the composition is written during the second period. Often the pupils correct and re-write the themes that I have cor- rected and returned to them. While this is being done, I spend some of the time giving individual help to those who do not under- stand the principles of composition and to those who have difficulty in correcting their work." So far as the writer has been able to learn the double period is used only in Joliet, 111. With the advantages claimed for it I40 Supervised Study by a principal with the long experience and thoroughgoing progressive methods of Mr. Brown, it deserves adoption, at least experimentally, in schools large enough for such a schedule. Unquestionably it has proved successful in Joliet. The writer has visited the school, and observed the process of study supervision in a few of the classes. It is an easUy defensible scheme for schools with faculties numbering at least fifteen. b. General Technic of the Divided and Double Period. The question is frequently asked by interested teachers : What do you do — how do you keep the pupils busy ? Some teachers fear that there will be a great amount of time wasted. Others believe that there will not be suf&cient time to complete the course of study. Others, again, think that the pupil will have nothing to do after school hours if most or all of the assigiunent is prepared in class or at school. It is necessary, therefore, to consider the general procedure of the divided period and to offer a few suggestions that will aid the teacher to begin this work with confidence and prose- cute it without loss of time. The more detailed procedure in coimection with each subject is dealt with in Part II. (i) The Teacher's Preparation. The first step in successful supervision of study deals with the teacher's organization of the term's work. It is essential that teachers under any method of teaching have a perspective, — a map, — a de- tailed plan of their work. The subject must be broken up into large divisions, called units of instruction, — big topics that are the main vertebras of the course. In American history, for example, these would be the periods of discovery, colonization. Revolution, Civil War, etc. The Table of Contents in the textbook provides a basis of such units of The Organization of Supervised Study 141 instruction. The course should consist of what Charles McMurry calls " tjpt lessons," big movements, institu- tions, or industries. In commercial geography, mining, irrigation, cotton, canals, would be imits of instruction, rather than rivers, erosion, climate, currents, which are subtopics. Having selected these big units of instruction, the teacher should in the next place schedule the sub-topics, or units oj recitation, — the topics to be studied each day. Some topics can easily provide for this variety of length. Next comes the daily assignment, or unit of study. Here the teacher must exercise considerable judgment in making the assignment reasonable, — neither too short nor too long, — and also in weighing its parts, and giving due emphasis of explanation where this is most needed. If, in addition to the foregoing, the teacher employ a variety of Lesson Plans, or Lesson Types, as referred to by Strayer ^ and Earhart,^ the scheme of prepara- tion wiU be practically complete. The teacher's preparation, as described, can be planned in book form as on following page. The book should be large enough to include aU of each day's recitation on the two pages as described. On the left- hand page is stated the big topic, or unit of instruction, which forms the broad background of the day's work. The dates — beginning and close — of the treatment of this topic are stated also as daily checks on the amount of time devoted to each day's work. This is followed by a statement of the more specific topic under discussion. Here is the " local station " en route. The unit of study is smaller than the recitation unit, for it refers to the pupil's part of the day's work, or the amount of preparation the teacher requires him ' The Teaching Process. ^ Types of Teaching. 142 Supervised Study Sample Page from Teacher's Plan Book Unit of Instruction T)atf. TTnTT of "RFriTATTOW DEVELOPMENT OF LESSON Lesson Type Unit of Study or Assignment Datf Lesson Type to be used in Treat- TNr, ARDVF A RSTfiWmi-NrT ■Rfff/pfkitf. ■RnniTR Individual Assignments or Re- pnBTS left page RIGHT PAGE FiGOTE VIII to make on the unit of recitation which is being developed cooperatively by teacher and pupil. By selecting a good while ahead the kind of lesson type to be employed, the teacher will be able to find illustrations and reference material, much of which would lie unnoticed without some topic or mode of procedure drawing it into the teacher's experience. Reference books, including magazines, can be selected a long time in advance of the lesson and procured if the teacher The Organization of Supervised Study 143 has her work well planned. Individual assignments with the name of the pupil selected for the special work should also be recorded. This is especially important in super- vised study where much of the work is by small groups or individuals. (2) The Assignment. Much has been said about the as- signment, but there is no danger of overstressing this vital part of the teacher's work. Teachers only too frequently ignore the second syllable of the word assignment. It is, or should be, a clear sign pointing the way to go and giving detailed directions for reaching the destination. Signs call attention to the unusual or to something that persons are stimulated to want. The assignment in school work has similar functions. I t^ deals with something new — it must be made attractive enough for the pupils to want its material. It must state clearly what is offered or expected, where to get it, and how to get it. Supervised study is simply an elaborate assignment or a cooperative assignment. It can never be too specific — never too clear. The proof of this last statement is furnished by Breslich : ^ That in beginning classes of the high school, suggestions given with the lesson are not suflScient to enable the pupil to do his work, and that the pupil's dif&culty in studying his lesson is much greater than is generally assumed, is illustrated by the following occurrence. The parents of a pupil just beginning first-year mathematics in tl^ University of Chicago High School complained to the teacher that the daughter came home day after day with home work assigned but with no idea how to do it. The girl had told them it was the ' "Teaching High School Pupils How to Study," School Review, October, 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 505-513- 144 Supervised Study teacher's custom to assign problems -with no suggestions. Feeling that this procedure was unreasonable, the parents spent the evening hours working the problems and explaining them to the chUd. When they were unable themselves to do the work, they called on a ministerial friend Uving in the next block, who was good in mathe- matics and kind enough to help. Finally the parents came to the teacher and complained: ''Sometimes even all of us cannot do the work you assign, how do you expect her to do it alone?" The teacher was surprised to learn that, after all the careful preparation in the classroom, a pupil, no matter how slow, should not even know that suggestions were given. Asked whether any suggestions for the next day's lesson were given, the girl said she knew of none. To satisfy the parents, the teacher took a quarter of an hour to go over the preparation of the lesson with the parents and daughter exactly as had been done in the classroom. It was found that the girl remembered it all, but failed to see how it would help her to study her lesson. It was now the parents' turn to be surprised. They went away feehng that the child, not the teacher, was at fault. This experience shows that in giving out an assignment several things are fundamentally important. First, the limits of the new lesson must be clearly defined. This is not always done even in universities. Second, directions of study must be so labeled. The teacher must preface the remarks by saying: "Here is the best way to prepare or to study the lesson for to-morrow." One dare not assume that high school pupils are alert every minute of the period. Clear-cut, signal directions are necessary, spoken in a loud (not shrill) voice, and plain language. Third, explanations should follow. A problem, if in mathematics, should be worked on the board. A sample of the kind of work required should be shown — usually best selections from other classes are excellent illustra- The Organization of Supervised Study 145 tive material — and in detail the merits of the sample com- mented on. Supervised study, however, goes one step beyond the fore- going. Explanations may be clear. The pupil thinks that he cari study the next lesson without any trouble. But when he actually finds himself so engaged, unexpected difl&culties arise. The model example, and the explanations were clear enough, but how do they apply to this problem, to this section of the lesson? The process of association has been blocked for some reason. At this point it is important to supervise the pupil's work. This can be done during the supervised study period. The assignment now becomes individualized. Ex- planations are now made to individuals, not to the class. The teacher and pupil together apply the explanations al- ready given the class, thus starting the pupil on a right method of attack. The assignment may be of various kinds according to the subject. The following kinds are in use : ^ 1. Page assignment — "take so many pages" or "take from page 00 to page 00." 2. Paragraph assignment — "In the next lesson omit paragraphs so and so, and study especially paragraphs so and so." 3. Topic assignment — "For to-morrow study (name of topic). References — 4. Problem assignment — (a) Stated by teacher in form of a large question, or ' Dr. Henry W. Holmes of Harvard University informs the writer that one of the graduate students of the Division of Education is investigating the most effective kind of assignment, according to the dominant mental processes it will call for. It is Ijoped that the investigation will aid in deter- mining what modes of assignment bring the best results in each particular type of study. 146 Supervised Study (6) A number of questions are given out, the answers to be ascertained by the pupils, or (c) Pupils frame their own problems in connection with the general assignment; i.e. they discover issues, questions, crises, difl&culties as in history or in Kterature — also in science. (d) Grouped assignments — special reports or investigations. The page assignment is the most dif&cult of all, for it assumes that the pupil will know how to select the important material, how to organize it, and how to prepare for reciting what he has tried to learn. It has been called an " ideal " assigmfient in the sense that pupils should be trained to work with a minimum amount of direction. It probably is " ideal " more in the sense of lying beyond the pale of high school possibility. Definiteness — " a goal idea" — is necessary to best work even in graduate departments of universities, but it is difficult to form such problems, such definite tasks even in the high- est walks of intellectual life. The high school pupil can well afford to spend four years in being trained to work on definite assignments. The other types of assignment referred to aim to keep the pupil from scattering energy and thereby producing " loose- jointed " recitations. The problem assignment advocated by John Dewey, Frank McMurry, and others gives the pupil a specific task or series of tasks. At first it will be neces- sary for the teacher to state most, if not all, of the problems in the new assignments. The large end in view, of course, should be to arouse and train the pupil's ability to discover problems for himself. This, however, is a well-advanced method of studying and comes only through careful instruction in organization of textbook and similar material, the pupil's list of questions on the assignment, and various kinds of The Organization of Supervised Study 147 " socialized recitations " involving reports on civic or com- munity activities or reports on any phase of common day existence. Considerable background is necessary for the recognition of problems, issues, or specific purposes. A problem is a felt need to reorganize past experience and to gather supple- mentary material in order that past and new experience together may answer the question raised, settle a dispute, re- move doubt, or satisfy any need involved. The pupil must see the problem, understand its meaning and the material and method necessary for the solution. Mere abstract, general assignments will not awaken personal interest in the problem. The pupil must feel its importance for him, its relation to his sphere of life. Experience in the large must become experi- ence individualized. This is a lofty conception of social efficiency; namely, that the problems of society are after all the individual's own problems. Assignments, therefore, should include this personal interest. Teachers must be able to assign lessons by appealing to the individual interests of each pupil. Concrete, real, famiHar situations should be used. The foregoing emphasis on the importance of clear, specific, well-motivated assignments implies that a large part of the teacher's time will be spent on preparing adequate material and method of assigning lessons. In supervised study, to repeat, this is of first importance. The question is often asked, how much time should be spent on the assignment? The answer ought to be obvious. There can be no fijced time limit. It depends on the subject, on the nature of the subtopic, on the readiness of the class for the new work, The following merely suggestive division 148 Supervised Study of time can be modified to suit local conditions. The im- portant thing is to give ample time for clear statement and illuminating explanations. Table XIII. — Division OF Recitation Pekiods Whole Lengih oj Pebiod Recitation oe Pre- ceding Day's Work Assignment Supervised Study 01 Assignment 50 minutes 40 minutes 30 minutes 5-10 minutes S minutes 5 minutes 15-20 minutes 15 minutes 12 minutes 20-2 s minutes 20 minutes 13 minutes As a general principle the daily recitation should occupy one fifth of the time, the assignment two fifths, and supervised study two fifths. Most of the time should be spent on supervising the pupils at work. But, as already stated, there can be no arbitrary time limits. Conditions must determine the needful distribution of time. (a) Dr. Merriam on the Assignment. A very different plan of treatment is advocated by Dr. Merriam. Instead of preceding, the assignment follows the study period, grows out of the problems raised in this portion of the hour's work. In the " Directions " akeady quoted, the following sugges- tions direct the teacher's attention to the importance of specific assignments : Nature or Assignment I. The assignment normally grows out of the class study and, therefore, should be given at the close of the class hour. Not infrequently the students may well infer the assignment from the study done in class, and thus no assignment, in a formal way, may be made. The Organization of Supervised Study 149 2. If assignment is made, it should be very specific. It may be specific and yet allow the student large opportunity for individual . variation. Only in case the assignment is specific can the student be held responsible for executing it. The importance of this is seen in the next article (3) . 3. Teachers should impress their students with the idea that the efiectiveness of the class hour depends much upon the equipment of the members of the class at any class exercise. (Compare note of importance below.) 4. Most assignments should be remembered by the students. Page references and the like may be written. But in such case, the teacher must dictate with care and the student must write with care. Good written form is essential. 5. Teachers should consult students, supervisors, and principal frequently as to the amount of time and effort required by assign- ments. Note of Importance. Such formal assignments are not normal. The teacher is warned against the notion that such outside study is properly a preparation for class recitations. This places study subordinate to recitation. However, until schoolroom problems are more closely allied to the normal problems of contemporary life — as experienced by the students — the assignment discussed above may be used as a compromise. (3) Supervising the Pupils at Work. The teacher is now ready to undertake the detailed supervision of the pupils engaged in stud3dng the assignment explained during the first part of the period. In order to accomplish this effec- tively it is necessary to break the class up into at least three groups which conveniently may be called the superior, the average, the inferior. In the first group belong the boys and girls who do not seem to need any individual attention. They grasp the explanation of the assignment. They under- stand the model problem. Not only are they able to adapt ISO Supervised Study the explanation to new situations quite readily, but they work rapidly, and, therefore, can outstrip the rest of the class. For these reasons it is not necessary for the teacher to devote much time to this group. At present most of the teacher's time is spent on the bright pupils ; for they are more easily taught, working with them is less taxing, they " advertise " the teacher's ability better, and in some schools are " fattened " for exhibition purposes. In supervised study, however, they are given extra work, a different kind of work. They are permitted to advance as rapidly as they can regard- less of the class and, if eventually their standing permits, ad- mission into another subject is their due. Most of the supervision will be confined to the second and third groups. The second group differs from the first in lacking readiness of understanding. It needs help along the way. Perhaps some pupils can be developed to such an extent that it will be advisable to promote them into the first group. Whenever possible this should be done. If the class is grouped on some ^heme like the foregoing, it will be found that the third group will require most of the supervision. If the teacher is at all successful, this third group will not be large at any time. Most of the class will proceed with little or no help — the small third group will demand considerable attention for a time. By the foregoing arrangement there wiU be ample time for considerable study supervision every period. The class is not retarded by the slower members; for, by individual or group assignments of greater extent but all bearing on the same imit of recitation, the class can move forward at the re- spective group rates. For example, in mathematics group one may undertake a large number of originals or be excused The Organization of Supervised Study 151 from the second half of the period in order to study other phases of the subject in the Hbrary. Limiting the discussion, then, to the supervision of the most needy group the teacher's method will be somewhat as follows. The pupils have begun to work. The getting ready process must be prompt and precise with a minimum of noise. No questions are permitted audibly, but by raising the hand the pupil indicates a desire to consult the teacher, who passes quietly to the pupil's desk. The pupil and teacher in whispers confer on the difficulty. When not so occupied, the teacher moves quietly up and down the aisles stopping at each desk to inspect each pupil's work. When she finds a pupil em- plojdng a wrong method, she stops and in low tones asks why he used this method. She always requires the pupil to give a reason for what he does. The pupil is expected to make his own corrections with a minimum of suggestion from the teacher. When absolutely necessary to do so, she will give the required information. There is nothing gained under such circumstances by sending the pupil on a long hunt for the facts. Valuable time is saved by telling him what he probably could not have discovered for himself. The tour of inspection for the third group completed, the rest of the time is devoted to group two and, if any time remains, a rapid glance over the work of the first group finishes the main work of the study period. During the inspection the teacher may employ a little " daybook " similar to that of the study coach already de- scribed. The study period will afford abundant opportunity for marking the pupils. These " study-marks " can be supple- mented by the records during recitations and on examinations. A sample page of a book for such record is here given : 152 Supervised Stiidy Daybook in Supervised Study Name or Pdpil Masks S R S R s R s R S R s R s R S R S R z s R z s R _ S R S - z - z - — - — — - - 1 — - - - - _ z - — - - - — _ — - - - - - - - - - - — — - - - - - - - FiGUEE IX -^ The 5 column refers to the studying of the assignment and the R to the recitation of the assignment studied the day before. The dates, therefore, will be successive and are placed beneath the respective letters, S being on the preceding day and R on the day after. This method of recording gives the teacher a double check on the pupil's ability to do the work. It is assumed throughout this discussion that the study period simply starts the pupil rightly. If the teacher knows that the pupil understands how to study the assignment, a poor recitation on the following day will be due either to neglect or carelessness. The pupil under supervised study schemes is expected to use vacant periods for additional prep- The Organization of Supervised Study 153 arations. But if he has been correctly instructed in how to study during the divided period, it may be safely assumed that he will be able to study with profit when alone. The effectiveness of the work may be increased by desig- nating the best pupil of the class (in each subject) as assistant to the teacher. This pupil would then have partial charge of the second group. The old monitorial system of Lancaster and Bell is here given a more specific application. The assistant should receive additional credit for this work. The Daily Schedule of the Junior-Senior High School of Rochester, New York, given on the next page, indicates very well the practical arrangement of the class periods organized on the divided period basis.^ 3 . Weekly Supervised Study. This plan sets aside one hour every week for supervised study in each subject by the teacher of the respective subjects. The plan was started by F. M. Giles, principal of the high school at DeKalb, 111. He writes of the plan as follows : Our plan, briefly, was this : We took five minutes from each of the six recitation periods, which we have in our school days, and put these together to make a thirty-minute study period coming once a day. In order that each class might receive the benefit of this period, we arranged that the first period class use the time on Tuesday ; the second period class on Wednesday, and the third period class on Friday. The following week that the fourth, fifth, and sixth period classes use the period for supervised study. On Monday and Thursday the teacher uses this study period by having come to her room for individual attention such students as she thinks may need individual help. So much for the plan. In regard to the resxilts we have found that the plan is of greatest advantage with the younger students and in the first part of a ' The Elementary School Journal, March, 1916, p. 329, 154 Supervised Study £ H O pt s ,R O u in u so l-H t^ ll 3 to t* a II .a oO B tbco 1— « 1— I r It 1— 1 w lei 1 VO § < t— t - tico > 1" it la >^ > §■2 > £>> p~ 1 M 1-2 O W c S-2 c3" g > s §•3 Si OS 1 " CT> 1^^ h-l ll 1^ ui ° l-H tA a £ >> .P3 Is *o 1' en &3 eg-" e 2 §•3 111 lO 1^ Eh h 1 to 1 ^^ ■20 lis =3 »E-| Tioi:jBq jnsuo3 "^ PQM "Sh a>f^a^ >t |1 O H ^" < d^' -i Sewing .... 2 37-0 Arithmetic . . . II 30.0 Business EngUsh . 13 38.0 Physics .... 2 37-0 Stenography . . 4 37-5 Cooking .... 6 25.8 General Average General Average 31-7 m. 40.0 m. 1 66 Supervised Study innumerable distractions, poor light, bad posture — in a word, conditions hardly adequate for the finest eiq^ression of intellec- tual abiUty. II. Methods of Work The teacher who aims to teach pupils the meaning and the methods of studying will need to deal with the following topics : The Use of the Textbook, Underscoring, Summarizing, Out- lining, Notebooks, Reports and Supplementary Reading; Reference Books, including Dictionaries and Encyclopedias and Magazines. These are the main wheels and shafts of the mechanics of studying. They will now be treated in detail. I. The Use of the Textbook. The attitude that regards a book simply as an ornament, a form of craftsman's art, has no place in the study room of the high school pupil. To him a book must be a tool whose peculiarities and possibilities are known and constantly developed. Doubtless there is too much textbook work in the average school, but however methods of teaching may change, there will always be room for a good text — in fact, it is difl&ctdt to see how teaching could achieve results without some ready summary of subject matter. This does not mean that the text ought to be the chief source of information. But because it is likely to remain one of the necessary means of education, it is important that the pupil understand how to use his book while studying. a. Underscoring. Underscoring is a means of hitching or anchoring what the pupil has found to be the important sentence or topic in a paragraph. In some texts this sentence is printed in italics, but in many others the pupil himself must ascertain the topic sentence, the leading thought of the para- graph. By drawing a horizontal line beneath the sentence the pupU sees the main point " reliefed." It stands out from the Methods of Studying 167 rest of the words and on rereading is easily apprehended. Sometimes the topic sentence is not so compact. It contains many relatively unimportant modifiers which can well be omitted in selecting the controlling sentence. For this reason it becomes necessary to make a Z type of underscoring, the leading words of the chief thought being combined by a continuous line that follows a zigzag path. Although the textbook is to be treated as a tool, this must not mean careless and ugly underscoring. If in the manual training department it is important to keep the tools sharp and clean so as to achieve a fine cabinet or a perfect chair, it is no less imperative that pupils take care of their study tools in other subjects. Neatness should characterize the pupil's work in all branches of his studying. Neatness, orderliness, clearness, are closely related to good studying. This does not imply that one's writing must be perfect or labored, for this to many of us would be a fearful loss of time. What is meant is that underscoring should be done neatly, not with large ugly black lines that follow the course of a mountain path. It probably is better not to use ink for underscoring. It often spreads, and easily blots. The main objection to the use of ink is, however, that it makes revision rather difficult. In schools where textbooks are free, the question arises whether the pupils should be allowed to deface the books by underscoring. If the lines are drawn lightly, yet plainly and with discrimination as to their number, they could be erased by the pupil at the end of the term, and thus leave the book in good condition for the next pupil. (i) Notice Signs. Some people prefer to employ a variety of signs, such as parentheses ( ), parallel lines 1 |, braces \ \, crosses X X , or checks V V, at the begirming and end of a sen- 1 68 Supervised Study tence or passage that is important. This method is less de- facing than long lines, but in the high school it fails to set forth for the young pupil the master thought as boldly as is possible by means of the long line. One finds persons who pre- fer to make an N.B. in the margia or an OBS, calling attention to something important in the paragraph. The chief objection to this method for high school pupils is that it fails to make definite what is important. At the moment the important point is perfectly clear, but with the passing of time this im- portant point has become vague, the sign points to a confused something only. In many books it is customary to introduce in the text numerals as (2 : 15), calling attention to a list of ref- erences at the end of the chapter. In high school the pupil can employ this method for cross references, allowing each numeral to indicate a topic and after it the page on which this topic is again discussed. This is almost indispensable for eco- nomical work when working on a problem assigimient. It is customary in Bible Training Schools to employ such methods as the foregoing for ready reference purposes. Bible students often make use of similar devices. Underscoring, whether by lines or by signs, cannot be done successfully without considerable drill. Part of the period at the beginning of the term, with frequent additional periods, should be spent on this phase of study. It is just as important as the subject contents of the course. Pupils can be graded or marked on this kind of work just as well as they are marked on the problems they are assigned to solve. b. Summarizing. This differs from the preceding method in several particulars. The summary or gist of the lesson is stated in the pupil's own words. It should be a condensed brief or review of a paragraph or whole lesson. This implies Methods of Studying 169 that the pupil has already discriminated between the im- portant and the incidental features of the paragraph. A summary that simply repeats with a few verbal changes the contents of the next lesson is not a summary — it is virtually a copy. Summarizing is difi&cult work. In its highest form it becomes a rare literary art as well as a beautiful evidence of clear thinking. The man who can seize upon the essentials of a situation, a case, a book, and report these briefly and at the same time clearly is valuable to society. He is likely to be an excellent book reviewer, an alert and prompt journalist. One finds in the high school, however, that this ability lies undeveloped. The pupils are expected to do this kind of work, but seldom does the teacher take time to drill upon it. It forms a unit of recitation in some English courses, and when taught there it is tacitly assumed that the sunmiarizing power will spread over into all the subjects. This, however, is a false assumption. In every subject with the exception of those that do not call for such methods, the pupils should be trained to summarize the contents of the next lesson. (i) Means of Training Pupils to Summarize. A helpful means of acquiring this needfid skill is to require the pupils to write the summary on a sheet of paper of a certain size and to confine the material to this one sheet. Or the summary must be given orally in a certain time limit. Another method is suggested under the topic, " Inserted Leaves," page 171. A significant variation from the usual type of examination would be to require the pupils to summarize a page in their textbook or in some new material, giving them a certain amount of time for reading the contents and a time limit for the summary. Still other assignments in this type of work are writing book reviews of the text used in class or other 170 Supervised Study material ; summaries of bibliographies or references assigned by the teacher or found by the pupils themselves ; prefaces to some long report being prepared as a group assignment or a preface to some imaginary book ; introductions which contain reviews of the course as outlined by the teacher or statements relative to the meaning of some large unit of recitation under discussion. A stiU more valuable method is to require the pupils to write a summary of the chapter being studied and later a summary of the whole book or of the whole course. c. The Uses of the Margin. Margins are generally included in printed material for aesthetic reasons as well as for the necessities of the printing press. Pupils in school not infre- quently find the margin an opportunity to develop latent talent of caricaturing. Frequently the margin is filled with idle jottings, ugly forms, and meaningless scribbling, witnessing to the vagaries of a wandering attention. It has finer possi- bilities, however. Instead of serving as a frame of the printed page forbidding with an adolescent's wit or idleness, it should serve as a depository of : First, the summary of each paragraph. If the pupil is trained to write along the side of each paragraph a brief summary of its main thought, he will save much time in his studying. Second, references to related material in the same book or else- where. Third, questions on the lesson, questions that arise during the reading of the lesson and that must be jotted down at once lest they vanish. Fourth, criticisms of the lesson, points of view different from the author's, the pupil's fresh reaction to the subject matter. Fifth,new thoughts, suggestions, large questions that are destined, perhaps, to stimulate the young man or young woman into serious plans of great hving. Methods of Studying 171 The possibilities of the margin are immeasurable.^ Here the pupil or the reader is invited to deal intimately with the author through his book. Nothing is more attractive to the real student than a book well thumbed and scented with the presence of fine thinking on its contents. Books so often lie cold and ignored even though read and commented on. They lack the touch of the individual reader. Written for many, they, however, depend upon the individual's opinion and criti- cism for favor and influence. This should be true in the high school, where life's finer things are taught, and where habits of living and working should find a large place in the activities of the school day. What is true of the margin is equally true of the flyleaves. They offer large opportunities for personal comment of the best kind. Here, again, is a basis of class standing. Marking pupils on their reaction to the books used in class is of no less importance than knowing a few dates and the details of Ivanhoe or Lady of the Lake. d. Inserted Leaves. For the sake of compactness and also economy of time it is helpful to paste blank pages in the book at the close of a chapter or here and there within the chapter. On these pages can be written outlines, summaries, references, etc. The advantage of this method is that at the end of the term these extra pages can be removed without any harm to the book. They should be of thin paper so that the bulk of the book will not break the back. A thin, narrow strip of paste on the left edge is sufl&cient. This edge should be inserted close to the binding of the book. D. Pupils' Comments on their Methods of Studying. Be- fore taking up another section of this subject it will be inter- 1 Howard Griggs, The Use of the Margin. 172 Supervised Study esting to note what Rickard and Giles gleaned concerning some of the foregoing methods of work. In answer to his question, Do you underscore the most important point in the text ? Giles obtained the following results : Table XVIII. — The Frequency of Underscoeing Yes No FoDRTH Year 21 4 Third Year 63 6 Second Year S8 27 FmsT Year SO 23 Totals 192 60 Rickard, however, in reply to a similar question received less favorable replies. His results are shown in the general table on page 193. It is altogether likely that many high school pupils all over the country use the methods described. Whether they do so intelligently and with considerable skill based on careful in- struction, is quite another question. The point here as else- where in this book is simply this, that these methods should be taught just as much as are history or English or science. 2. The Use of Reference Books, including Dictionaries and Encyclopedias and Magazines. Almost every teacher who reads this book will agree that few high school pupils (not to mention pupils on other levels) know how to use a dictionary. One needs only refer to the beginner's study of a foreign lan- guage and the confusion of selecting proper meanings to fit a hazy translation to understand the bewilderment of many young people using the dictionary of their mother tongue — English. This is not necessarily a criticism of the dictionary. Language is bound to be complex, and there must be a wealth Methods of Studying 173 of definitions. In the front of many dictionaries are direc- tions, but few people consult them. Even if they should do so, the directions themselves often need interpretation. Dictionaries are arranged in alphabetical order not simply in regard to the initial letter of each word but the second and third letters, etc., are arranged in a similar order. This fact is frequently overlooked by the yoimg pupil. During the prolonged assignment and supervised study period the handling of the dictionary would be an excellent drill lesson in study. Encyclopedias are elaborate dictionaries on the one hand and compendiums of knowledge on the other. The best of them are written by high authorities, and endless care is taken to make them accurate and at the same time brief. Consider- ing their importance, it is surprising to find that few young people are taught to use them.^ Young students find it diffi- cult to select exactly what is pertinent to the problem. They discover something that bears a similar title and then proceed to copy long sections of what often proves to be irrelevant mate- rial. This means loss of time and effort. It is due in the main to a lack of background, a broad or general knowledge of the sub- ject. For this reason assignments that involve the use of ref- erence books must be carefully planned and their preparations supervised. One needs only examine the work of university students in this particular to note how helpless many of them are when assigned readings and reports in reference or outside reading. The following report by Miss Caroline S. Lutz of the Academy of the James Millikin University is included as an excellent illustration of what should be done in every high school possessing its own or patronizing the public library. ' See G. Lomer and Ashmun, The Shdy and Practice of WriPmg English. 174 Supervised Study The Round Table A LIBRAKY TOtTR We needed to do so much library reference work in our academy that we arranged with our city Ubrarian for a systematic torn: of the city library for ten students. The tour was planned in three stages : (i) the Ubrarian was to reveal the way a book finds its place in the library family ; (2) the cataloguer was to explain how these books are classified, cards filed in the catalogue, and positions on the shelf given ; (3) the reference librarian was to conduct the party to each section of the Hbrary and locate each class of periodical and book. The ten best students from the third and fourth year classes were selected to make the tour, because they would be more enthu- siastic and more accurate in presenting the material to the students who were not present. They had their Uttle pads and pencils ready when we were invited into the private office of the Ubrarian. She gave us each an accession card. Then she told us the story of " Book X" : how an accession card was made out for it, not because one of the Ubrarians had learned about it in the A. L. A. booklet or from a book review in a periodical, but because a friend had desired the book ; how this card had been filed in the drawer, "Books Wanted" ; how one day it had come out to be placed on the Ust to go before the Ubrary board ; how the Ubrary board did not think the book too expensive, although it was a very fine book; how the accession card for "Book X" then foxmd itself in the drawer "Outstanding Orders" ; how the book was received, checked up, and entered in the accession book; how the cataloguer then took it to give it a caU number, to make out and file its cards in the catalogue, and to send it out to the shelves, labeled. What had happened to this book had happened to forty thou- sand other books, and in the cataloguer's room we learned how these thousands of books can each have a difierent call number. SUps with the following information were given us : Methods of Studying 175 DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION Classes 000 — General Works 500 — Natural Science TOO — Philosophy 600 — Useful Arts 200 — Religion 700 — Fine Arts 300 — Sociology 800 — Literature 400 — Philology 900 — History (Biography and Travel) Each class is divided into ten divisions, each division into ten sections, the sections into subsections, etc. Besides a class number every book has an author number. The combination of these two numbers forms the call number of a partic- ular book, and is the number in the upper left-hand corner of the catalogue card and on the back of the book. It is the key to the location of a book on the shelves. PREFIXES TO CLASS NUMBERS R — Reference room B — Bound periodicals (lower stack) *R — Reference (Lib. or Cat. R.) P — PubUc documents J — Children's books -| Oversized books F — French ; G — German, etc. BL — Books for the blind. With these data before us, the cataloguer explained the Dewey Decimal System and the Cutter Table. Then she turned to the many books which she had arranged on the shelves of her office for the occasion. There were ten books to illustrate the call numbers of ten general classes of books. There were other books to illus- trate the exceptions to the rule, such as the big "S" in the call number of the short-story group. There were still other books to 176 Supervised Study illustrate the special symbols used, such as the red "J" for books in the children's room. There were more books to give us the key to the order of precedence on the shelves, with special reference to the complicated decimal. After we had looked at these books and their labels, we listened to a little talk about the Dictionary Catalogue : how it differs from an index ; how the system of classi- fication under a specific subject is followed; how the catalogue answers about twenty different general questions, such as, " What is the real name of ?" "Who wrote a biography of ?" "Has a certain book a sequel?" "Who is joint author of a certain work?" "What bulletins does the Ubrary contain?" "By what means was a certain periodical first published?" and "With what year and volume does our file of a certain magazine begin?" how the cards are filed in the order of person, place, thing, and works before criticisms ; how the abbreviations and the figures are con- sidered as if spelled out ; how the articles are disregarded ; and how the subjects are written in red. Then we went to the catalogue itself. Each student was given a slip of paper with three library problems. The following are examples : 1. Have we a book by Jean Mace? 2. Who wrote the Riverside Art Series? 3. Locate the Sherlock Holmes stories. 1. How many different editions have we of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ? 2. Find order of stories in Wellworth College Series. 3. Locate Riis's Ten Years' War. The first two required just the use of the catalogue. The last problem asked for the call numbers of certain books. These were used later. The third part of our visit was in charge of the reference hbrarian. She called our attention to the fact that all books and periodicals in the library have a definite order of arrangement. First she showed us how the periodicals and newspapers in the reading room are arranged alphabetically; then how the books in the Methods of Studying 177 reference room are arranged according to the Dewey Classifica- tion. A number of books such as the index to Britannica, New International Encyclopedia, Brewer's Reader's Hand Book, Walsh's Curiosities of Popular Customs, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature, Hoyt's Cyclopcedia of Practical Quotations, Who's Who, and Stateman's Year Book were given special attention. Poole's Index and Reader's Guide were consulted before going to the lower stacks to see how the periodicals were arranged. We saw the difierent classes of books for circulation in place ; we located books for the blind, oversized books, French and German books. We made use of the call numbers which we had written opposite ques- tion 3 on our slips. Ten dehghted students located ten books, not easy to find, in quick time. Students who before had borrowed cards or begged to be excused from library work now felt at home and wanted cards. Effective reference work depends, then, upon a clear concep- tion of the problem, — upon what the " goal idea " is in this ad- ditional reading. Consequently, reference work must rest on a very specific assignment in the less advanced classes. Clearly, the type of reference work rightly expected of advanced uni- versity students should not have a place in the high school. But only too frequently high school teachers employ university types of asagnments in the secondary schools, and the results cannot be other than discouraging. They are depressing enough in higher education. Before pupils are sent into li- braries to look up additional material, there ^ould be careful training in this type of work, training just as minute and organized as any of the traditional subject drills. 3. Use of the Outline. Ordinarily, outlines are used as preliminaries to a lengthy discussion or report. They set forth a scheme of treating a subject, giving a review of the points to be considered with the probable amount of emphasis 178 Supervised Stiidy or space that properly belongs to each head. They serve the purpose of a map or a purpose similar to that of an architect's plans of a building. For a long discussion, such as a book or a magazine article, they are almost indispensable. They are less essential to a brief treatment. Some writers do not employ them at all. They have a clear conception of the field and of the form, and write rather under the excitement of a theme that seemingly develops itself logically or psychologi- cally. But, although these writers or speakers do not use a written outline, they follow a plan that is the result of analysis based on carefxil thinking. Phillips Brooks, the renowned preacher, rarely used outlines of the ordinary kind. Instead, he constructed his sermons on the basis of so many paragraphs, each paragraph containing a new point, a higher rimg in the ladder of his development of the theme. It was a ladder type of outline, not definitely sketched beforehand, but growing naturally out of the leading conception of his theme. Outlines have also another function. They are not only pencil sketches or charcoal strokes of the painting to be made, they are also analyses ; i.e., in the stud5dng of an assignment in the textbook the pupil must first of aU grasp the author's meaning, not in a general way, but in detail. As far as possible he must reproduce the author's framework, ascertain the basal and incidental parts of the material. The pupil's out- line, however, will necessarily differ from the author's. It must be his own outline of the author's discussion, and reflect his own understanding of the problem. To be sure, much of the outline will reproduce the author's arrangement of the material ; but it is important that the pupil react with his own conception and interpretation of the lesson. In other words, Methods of Studying 179 the outline of the next lesson should involve original thinking on the part of the pupil. Viewed from this angle, outUnes, as a factor in studying, are more than bare skeletons of the lesson. As employed in this chapter the term includes something finer and more difl&cult than mere listing of points haphazardly selected from each paragraph. The outline is a reconstruction of the author's material as the pupil sees it. It must be the pupil's own analysis. No two outlines in a class where studying is cor- rectly performed will be exactly alike, although in general form they will of course have many similarities. a. The Structure of Outlines. Outlines should follow certain set rules.i Construction of Headings (a) They should represent main divisions, important aspects, or distinct steps in the treatment of the subject. (&) They should as far as possible be consistently expressed in the form of nouns, noun phrases, or complete sentences. (c) When related, they should be expressed in parallel form. {d) They should be as brief as is compatible with clearness. (e) They should be so worded as to make the most important element in the heading emphatic. DETAILS OF ARRANGEMENT (a) Headings of coordinate value should always be the same distance from the left-hand margin. (6) Subordinate headings should always be indented under the heading to which they are subordinate ; and subheadings which are of equal value should be indented the same distance. (c) When headings or notes run over one Une, the second line should begin either level with the first word of the preceding line or ' Loiuer and Ashmun, op. cit., pp. 198, igg. i8o Supervised Study else should be indented. It should never run out to the margin or begin level with the number or letter indicating the heading. {d) Avoid the practice of too elaborate subordination. Do not put in the form of minute headings material not important to the outline. Too much detail is confusing and properly belongs in the text. (e) The marks generally used to indicate headings and sub- headings are Roman (I, II, III, etc.) and Arabic numerals (i, 2, 3, etc.), capitals (A, B, C, etc.) and small letters (a, b, c, etc.), and occasionally the letters of the Greek alphabet (a, j8, y). (J) Roman numerals are generally used to indicate large parts or sections of an outhne ; letters should not be used where there are a large number of headings of coordinate value or where numerical order is significant. The system of numeration indicated in A', A", or A\ A^, I', F, P, has the obvious disadvantages of being too confusing. (g) Except in the case of a brief for an argument do not use the terms Introduction and Conclusions, unless they include material distinct from that in the rest of the outUne. Qi) A tabulated list of matter arranged in colunms should be clearly indented under its special heading. Any matter following the^ tabulation and included in the note should follow rules (a), (b), and (c) given above. The authors of the foregoing suggest further that subhead- ings should be avoided when the material could readily be included in the main head or properly omitted. A single heading could hardly be justified, but as a counter suggestion it should be noted that corollaries to theorems in geometry are subheads and often are single. b. The Forms of Outlines. The foregoing excellent rules can be illustrated under a variety of forms of outlines fre- quently met with in all kinds of school work. Methods of Studying i8i (i) The Vertical or Serial Outline. This is the simplest of the forms, consisting of a number of items listed one below the other, all coordinate one with the other. Each topic sentence of a number of paragraphs would constitute an item in such an outline. The chief events of a reign, or a presiden- tial administration, would be listed in such an outline form, if there were no subordinate points included. The itemized statements of merchant's bills are vertical outlines. If the pupil writes in the margin the topic sentence oppo- site the proper paragraph, he will have at the end of his lesson a vertical outline complete. The review would then include principally this margin outline. Or the main points might be written on the inserted page. It is better to keep the outline together with the text by means of the margin or inserted pages. In the beginning, however, pupils should practice outlining on separate sheets. (2) The Oblique Outline. This requires considerable ability to think, the power of discriminating between essentials and non-essentials, and also the ability to make the whole outline effective for review purposes. The form of the outline has already been referred to under the various rules or mechanics of headings, indentations, etc. Two are here given. I -A A I I a a I I) a) a) I) (i) (a) (o) (i) Etc. ■ Etc. Figure XI l82 Supervised Study (3) The Parallel Outline. This is a double or multiple verti- cal outline. It is used mainly for purposes of comparison ; as, for example, in history, where contemporaneous reigns are compared, and also for laboratory reports. Illustrations of both kinds are given below : A Parallel Outline in History Table of the Thirteen Original States ^ COIONV Date First Settlement Motive Setixees Virginia .... Massachusetts . . 1607 1620 Jamestown Plymouth Wealth Religious freedom English adventurers English Separatists FiGUKE XII A Parallel Outline in Science Table for Guide in Study of Minerals* Name Hard- ness Color Specieic Gravity Crystal Form Cleav- age Frac- TDRE Luster Otftfi! Features Quartz . . Calcite . . Etc. . . . 7 Trans- parent 2.6 Hexag- onal Name * Con- choidal Vitre- ous FiGUEE xin (4) The Brace or Horizontal Outline is less familiar to the high school pupil and in general is less used than the others. It presents the material clearly and with more economy of space ' Dickson, American History jor Grammar Schools. ' Tarr, The New Physical Geography. Methods of Studying 183 than the oblique form. It is of special service in grammar work when the teacher desires to employ a diagram that varies from the usual type. Examples of this form follow : etc. Figure XIV (s) The Interlacing Outline. An illustration of this t}^e is given in this chapter. It sometimes happens that illustra- tive material, such as tables or other forms of statistical results, must be broken up in order to make the reference especially suggestive or striking at the time. It becomes necessary, then, to scatter the results throughout the chapter as done here ; but, inasmuch as all of this material belongs to a particular large section of the chapter, it is given its own outline, which 1 84 Supervised Study dovetails into the general outline of the chapter. For example, the capital letters in this chapter belong to the overlapping outline. 4. Notebooks. There is need of a warning note at this point. Doubtless too much emphasis has been placed on note- book work, especially in English, where much time is spent in copying poems and a long variety of interpretations. When one considers the great amount of themes, copying material, or organization of lessons in notebooks, and the working of problems on paper common to the average school and the customary assignments, it would seem that the educative or learning process is as much manual as mental, with perhaps an overemphasis on the former. Notebooks, as already indicated, are used for a variety of purposes. In science it is important that formulce and experiments preferred by the pupil have a record permanent enough for reviews and examinations, if not for a longer period. In English it is customary to employ notebooks for many reasons, some of them legitimate and others questionable. (A more detailed discussion of the English problem may be found in Part II, Chapter IX.) Perhaps there is more need of notebook work in history than in any other subject except- ing mathematics. The necessary correlations and reorganiza- tions essential in the studying of history require careful re- cording in some form of notebooks. In high school there is, as a rule, little need of notebooks for the purpose of taking lecture notes. It is extremely doubt- ful whether instruction by telling or by the frequent employment of exposition is effective in high school. A certain amount of explanation beyond that of the texts is, of course, essential. These references by the teacher might be recorded in note- Methods of Studying 185 books, although it probably would be more helpful to write these explanatory notes on insert pages or in the margin. Many students fill the flyleaves and covers of their text- books with various notations. It is an excellent practice to paste book reviews or criticisms of each book in one's personal copies. a. Kinds of Notebooks. In looking over an ordinary class the teacher will find a confusing variety of notebooks, some large, others small; some opening at the end, others at the side ; some loose-leaf, but most of them bound. Many note- books are carelessly bound, and therefore easily bent and torn. A shabby-looking notebook is a mark of a careless pupil. Tools should always be in good condition. (i) The loose-leaf notebook has many advantages over the boimd. The cover is stiff, the pages can be rearranged for purposes of correlation or expansion. It lies open easily. For the sake of uniformity of tools — as in manual training or domestic science and laboratories, every pupil should have the same kind of notebook with pages of letter size (8| X 11) and opening at the side. The initial expense of such a book is a little greater than for the kind ordinarily bought, but the same cover can be used in every course. The additional expense of paper is cheaper than buying a notebook for each subject. When the course has been completed, the pages con- taining its material can be bound with manila covers and strings (girls probably would prefer ribbons) or bound in more permanent form in the bindery of the high school. (2) Cards. A modification of the loose-leaf notebook, and preferred by some students, is the card or stiff paper usually 4X6. It is convenient for reference work or merely tem- porary notations. The following is a t}'pical form : i86 Supervised Study Cakd for Reperence Work Course Reference Notes AntVinr Title of TtonV Topic being studied Page FiGTOE XV (3) Manila Folders and Filing Cases. A much better device consists of large manila folders in which are filed items pertain- ing to the subject named on the projection of the folder. These are filed in a wooden or steel cabinet according to al- phabet. Clippings, magazine articles, jottings, references, etc., can be recorded in this way for ready service and be discarded if desired when the pupil has no further need of them. A convenient size is i if X 8|, with an additional half-inch pro- jection for the subject. This size is suitable for magazine articles and letter-size notepaper. The .loose-leaf pages of the notebook can be filed in such folders without requiring covers or binding. Filing cases can be made in the manual training department for each pupil. A large cabinet or series of cabinets with a drawer for each pupil should belong to the supervised study equipment of every room where the notebook work is done. Or a large room, like a locker room, could be set aside for these Methods of Studying 187 cabinets, each pupil of the school possessing one with individ- ual key. In this drawer could be filed, in a systematic way, all the extra material in every subject. The cabinet or series of cabinets should be made somewhat as follows : o 00 m 11=11 CI o 00 in 1=1 EI o o o =] I=D HZ o 00 FiGOTtE XVI On the front of each drawer appears the pupil's name, writ- ten on a card, inserted in a small frame for this purpose. At the end of the term the name can be changed, if necessary, and the contents of the drawer removed. A side view of one drawer is given in the next drawing. Eront ^ Side Sliding Back •mwM FiGUEE XVII Back Ciecfc 1 88 Supervised Study The folders stand in the drawer. A sliding back or large block of wood should be used to support the folders if there are only a few of them. A check to keep the drawer from being pulled out all the way has been found serviceable. Pupils in the manual training department can easily design and construct these filing cabinets, but in plarming for new buildings it would be better to provide for them at the begin- ning and have them built in, as is customary with bookshelves. Before closing this section on filing cases, it may not be im- proper to remind teachers that just as much care should be taken in systematizing the details of studying as is taken in caring for the pupil's wardrobe or gymnasium outfit. The pupU should be marked on his ability to do filing properly and progressively. It is important in business, in any well-organ- ized office, where secretaries are employed to do the work. But it is equally vital in the life of the individual whose time and effort are in many cases his only original capital of success. Authors, professors, public speakers, and housewives find this method invaluable. System as a means, not an end, is funda- mental in the life of every individual whatever his career, and, for this reason, pupils in high school should be taught how to study and how to live economically. b. How to keep Notebooks. Much valuable time is lost by pupils who do not have an effective method of keeping note- books. The book is merely a loose collection of material, hastily written, unorganized, and soon unintelligible because insufficiently prepared. Two matters of great importance must, therefore, be considered at this time. (i) How to take Notes. Although there is less need of taking notes in high school than in college, what is done should be per- formed well. Several rules deserve attention. Methods of Studying 189 Notes should be brief but at the same time elaborate enough to prove intelligible for study purposes. On the one hand, it is a mistake to take complete notes. Unless the pupil knows shorthand, verbatim notes are impossible and, it may be added, usually uimecessary. On the other hand, the notes should be complete enough to convey definite and accurate meanings. Otherwise the pupil will be wholly confused while studying. Speed and accuracy are enhanced by employing abbrevia- tions of common words. The writer early found it helpful to use such a personal system of shorthand. Kg., for example, means knowledge ; Km. chemistry ; Skpr. Shakespeare, etc. Final letters of words can be omitted in shorthand work. It is well to have a key of such abbreviations on the inside of the notebook cover for future reference. In supervised study a variety of abbreviations might be determined upon for class use, so that every onewould knowthe meaningof them. Study symbols certainly are as appropriate as signs and symbols in mathematics and science. Some lecturers usually help pupils to take notes by pausing at the end of a sentence. This enables the hearer to get the main points. It is helpful, also, if the lecturer summarizes each section of his discourse or if he uses many illustrations under each head. It is not possible to note all the illustrations. One might be recorded in detail, the others merely mentioned. If the teacher employs an outline on the board, the pupil should use this as a framework, copying it as the teacher ex- plains the lesson, point by point. To copy the whole outline beforehand is wasteful, for usually many important details are added during the discussion. By careful writing the first time it will be unnecessary to re- write the notes. The notebooks should be inspected, but in- I go Supervised Study spection should not stress appearance of handwriting. Note- taking is not an exercise in model penmanship. If clear, legi- ble, generally neat, and accurate, the notebook has fulfilled its main purpose. Too much time is spent on recop)dng notes. The writer requires his students to hand in carbon copies of all reference reading, as a timesaver to the student and also a training in preparing notes effectively the first time. Although rewriting notes forms a good means of reviewing, an outline would be just as effective. (2) The Appearance of the Notebook. The general appear- ance or structure of notebooks should follow a uniform plan throughout the class. On the cover of the notebook (preferably the loose-leaf) should be pasted a slip of paper 2X4, bearing the name of the school, the pupil, school year, and courses being studied. In the event of becoming lost, the book could easily be identified. Label on Cover of Notebook THE JEFFERSON HIGH SCHOOL Name op Pupil School Year Courses Figure XVIII If the school year and courses are recorded in pencil, they can be changed when necessary. Or another label can be Methods of Studying 191 pasted over the old one when the pupil changes school or courses. This renders it unnecessary to buy more than one loose-leaf cover for the high school period. A left-hand margin of one and one half inches should be ob- served for minor additions, dates, name of subject or topic, and name of teacher ; for example : Sample Page in History Notebook History Miss Brown . . 9-9-45 War of 1812 Nov. 2, 1915 Figure XIX By this method the pupil can easily rearrange his notes by sub- jects in a chronological and logical order. 192 Supervised Study It is interesting to note what Washington has to say about the use of notes: "Whenever I set down to write you I read your letter or letters carefully over, and as soon as I come to a part that requires to be noticed, I make a short note on the cover of a letter or piece of waste paper — then read on to the next, noting that in Uke manner ; and so on until I have got through the whole letter and reports. Then iu writing my letter to you, as soon as I have finished what I have to say on one of these notes, I draw my pen through it and proceed to another and another until the whole is done, crossing each as I go on, by which means, if I am called off twenty times whilst I am writing, I can never with these notes before me finished or unfinished omit anything I wanted to say."i Pages should be numbered as used and by subjects. Each period's work should have its own series of page numerals, in pencil. Later when all the pages of each course are collected, they can be numbered consecutively in ink. Pupils will find it helpful to make indices of their notes. In- dexing requires instruction, and hence forms another unit of study during supervised study periods. It should be stated in this connection that inserted leaves or marginal notes in the textbook should be indexed by the pupil at the end of the book. The pupil's own indexing is an excellent means of review. E. Pupils' Comments on their Methods of Studying. Do pupils employ, to any considerable extent, dictionaries, outlines, note taking, etc. ? Rickard, in the investigation already re- ferred to, gives the following information on these points : » Pavil Leicester Ford, The True George Washington, p. 68. Methods of Studying 193 Table XIX. — Percentage using Vasious Devices or Sttjdy by Grades ^■3 ii Year — B and A. Sections combined . Percentage knowing the general topic . . Percentage of each grade using the follow- ing methods : 1. Read once .... . . . . :i. Use dictionary' 3. Use maps 4. Re-read once or more 5. Ask themselves questions and attempt to answer ... . . 6. Repeat off book 7. Use additional reference 8. Outline 9. Tell story in own words 10. Use comparison and contrast . . . 11. Exercise judgment in the choice of sub- topics 12. Merely recognize that there are points or subtopics 13. Write out notes 14. Use glossary 15. Translate 16. Memorize dates 17. Find the paragraph which gives answers to questions . ... 18. Underscore words . . . . 19. Look up references in footnotes . 20. Group events about dates 7th 91 74 71 S 37 37 20 3 9 23 14 8th 82 86 24 14 4S 17 55 10 3 41 34 3 24 9th 72 lOtt 71 71 38 42 37 42 8 12 16 21 8 nth 70 go 20 IS 40 25 55 5 45 35 20 15 1 2th 23 77 19 46 II 14 7 61 7 2,? Two results obtained by Giles in his investigation confirm in substance those of Rickard. About 46 per cent of Giles's pupils employed outlines ; 43 per cent wrote out notes on their lessons ; about 81 per cent in studying history, science, and English literature, etc., tried to pick out the most important 194 Supervised Stvdy points in a lesson and master them. Table XX contains addi- tional information on these points. Table XX. — Methods of Study found Most HELPm FODRTH Third Second First Yeak Year Year Yeas a. Writing notes . . 3 3 6 7 19 b. Writing translation . o o I o I c. Outlining .... 6 II 21 3 41 d. Underscoring . . . lO lO 9 2 31 e. Reading aloud . . I 3 I 2 7 /. Reciting to some one r I S I 8 g. Closing book . . . S 21 i8 19 63 h. Other plan . . . o 7 13 6 26 Outlining and underscoring are preferred to writing notes. Siunmary. It is not a question of whether or not many or all pupils employ these methods (although it is interesting to find how many do favor them), but the question of more fundamental importance is how these methods are prosecuted. Underscoring, outlining, notebook work, can be helpful or harmful. Unless they are employed skillfully they are labor and material wasted. If recognized as tools, kept in effective condition, and drilled upon, they can become most useful. They are already part of high school education, but in all too many instances are taught, if at aU, only in courses in English. Each teacher will find it an advantage to devote time to this work and to evolve modifications or elaborations of the methods and devices discussed so far in this chapter. Eventually in the fourth year of high school and later in college, each pupil should be able to fashion his own methods with more success if schooled in this kind of work. CHAPTER VIII METHODS OF STUDYING {Continued) 5. Reports, Special Papers, Etc. No small part of the pupil's work consists of handing in reports or papers on various topics. This is an elaborate form of problem assignments, and, when properly done, a mark of high efficiency. It is employed in what has been called the social recitation,^ which essentially is a prolonged or extended supervised study period. a. How to prepare for Writing Reports. The report, as a rule, consists of a collection of data illustrating some topic, proving an hypothesis, or presenting evidence on some moot question, etc. Whatever the form or contents of the report, it may be called a simple type of research work. It implies originality and organization, and may offer recommendations or state conclusions. For this reason certain principles and rules of procedure should be borne in mind. Data or references should be organized under separate heads to which all items can be referred. The filing system pre- viously considered is one form of this method of collecting data. Another is illustrated in the accompanying figure. Several pages are shown lying side by side with the topic at the top. Relevant material is noted under each topic. Cards may be used in the same way. 1 An excellent example of this type is found in The Modern High School, edited by Chas. Hughes Johnston, Chapter IX, by Miss Dora Williams, Teacher of Physiology and Hygiene, Boston Normal School, Boston, Mass. 195 196 Supervised Study Specimen Pages of Refeeence Sheets for Making Reports Biographical Material about Longfellow Sources or Hiawatha Interpretations OF Hiawatha Indian Life Where and How Dramatized To-day FiGUEE XX The loose-leaf notebook lends itself to this method very conveniently. If more than one sheet of paper is required, they should all be pinned or " clipped " together and each page fmmbered. State accurately all sources of information, giving name of author, title of book or article, publisher or volume, and date of magazine and pages. Pupils as a rule are very negli- gent in this matter. But it is of utmost importance that they should be trained to give proper credit for information ac- quired. It is not only just to the author, but it gives strength and dignity and authority to the pupil's statements. A convenient mode of stating the reference is by parenthesis after the point itself or at the close of the paragraph. The reference usually takes this form : Methods of Studying 197 S. S. Seward, Notetaking, Boston, 1910, p. 50. Quotations, besides the usual quotation marks, may be stated in an indented paragraph, about half an inch farther in than the main section, observing this margin to the end of the passage. They should be as brief and as few as possible and employed only for purposes of clear illustrations or very exact language. When this preliminary work of gathering material is com- plete, the various sheets, topic by topic, should be collected and the material organized under logical heads, care being taken to discuss each point under a distinct head rather than scattering the material without any clear scheme of arrange- ment at all evident. Duplicate notes and others not im- portant for the present purpose should now be discarded or filed as the first draft of the report is organized. The first writing of the report should follow the outline sug- gested under b on next page. But it often becomes necessary to make changes in the arrangement ; additions are also need- ful. The first draft, although the pupil should take the greatest pains to write it well and logically, is rarely finished enough for others' eyes. Revision is a constant necessity. A convenient device for supplementing the first draft is to add the new material on another sheet of paper numbered like the first sheet of the old material but bearing also a letter. For example, the first page is 10. The added page wiU be 10*. On page 10 at the place where the new material is to be added write "insert here page 10*." If the additional material is brief, an interUnear line or marginal reference will suffice. The second writing should not be undertaken until the pupil is satisfied that all necessary revision has been made. The second draft should then be written in clear, concise igS Supervised Study language, avoiding many adjectives and involved sen- tences. After the first or second drafts have been completed, it is a good practice to wait several days or as long as possible before imdertaking the final revision and " dressing " of the report. This delay enables the pupil to edit his work somewhat ob- jectively ; i.e., he wiU approach it with more freshness, the sentences perhaps will not seem as smooth as they did at first, and statements made will not seem as forceful as at first. He reads more like a stranger than as the author himself, and for this very reason may be able to edit or revise with more balance, more impartiality. Delay is an advantage also for the sake of including the latest information which will make the report up-to-date. This is less important in school work, but may have value especially in civics or any other form of community assignments. b. The Appearance of the Finished Report. The final form of the report should be legible or typewritten, with the space be- tween paragraphs slightly wider than that between the lines. The margin on the left hand should be at least an inch wide — long quotations having a wider margin. Sentences should not extend to the edge or to the bottom of the pages. A margin or frame around the report is desirable. Important words and foreign words should be underscored, the former with red ink. At the end of the report there should be a list of references used in preparing the report. The form of this bibliography is suggested under s a. The paper should be held together with a clip, folded length- wise or not at all, but never rolled. A cover of stiff manila paper bearing name of pupil, subject Methods of Studying 199 of report, and date should keep the first page from becoming soiled or ragged. 6. Supplementary Reading. This is the golden age of free libraries and cheap editions. Books are no longer the symbols of wealth and favored learning — everybody who is able to read may do so for the mere wishing. And young people read ! Fiction, erotic and adventurous, is thumbed and embraced. Youth is ravenous for adventures under the candle flicker or the glow of the carbon wire. Here is a force, an instinct, an interest to lasso and to harness. There must be time for it ; but even more than this, there must be a cul- tured Uking for literature that edifies without moralizing, and informs without consciously instructing. And in addition to this, the pupil needs to know how to read, how to derive the most good and lasting gain from this fellowship with books. Much of our reading is desultory, sauntering, strolling in its method. It is without destination but deUghtfuUy care- free, openly friendly to chance meetings on the way, frankly interested in the many \mexpected discoveries made on these excursions. But it is also true that when a Charles Darwin went strolling and when a Beethoven kicked the grass in the field, they saw and heard what other less seeing and less hearing men failed to experience on the same roads. They carried a purpose, — "a goal idea," — a collection of magnets that drew illustrations, suggestions, and new truths from the road and hillsides. Too much stress in these days cannot be placed on what has been called " the composite textbook." The one text course is rapidly disappearing, mainly for the reason that knowledge in all fields is increasing so rapidly that no text can be up-to- date very long or large enough to cover all the essentials of 200 Supervised Study point of view in the subject. The very best textbooks must be supplemented by additional reading. Reference books are important, as we have seen, but supplementary reading is equally vital in a course that seeks to arouse in- terest in progress toward truth. Supplementary reading gains in value — becomes a valu- able asset — if the pupil knows what he sees and hears ; and if he can find in new pages and less often perused books facts and thoughts that actually supplement what he has studied more formally. He should, therefore, be taught to read with a purpose, always receptive and always eqtiipped with means to collect what he finds in this additional, albeit informal, studying. a. How to preserve what is read. By emplojdng a simple method of indexing and recor4ing, the pupil is able to refer to what he has read. Some persons spend hours and hours copying passages in notebooks. This is necessary at times, especially if one does not own the book from which quotations are being made ; but, as a rule, it is a time-losing method. It is Uable to inaccuracies on account of careless copying and removing a selection from its general connection. Further- more, there is considerable truth in what Sydney Smith says : "Men seldom read again what they have committed to paper nor remember what they have so committed one iota the better for their additional trouble. On the contrary I beUeve it has a direct tendency to destroy the promptitude and tenuity of memory by diminishing the vigor of present attention and by reducing the mind to depend on future reference." The mind, like the body, is subject to habit control. If one early becomes accustomed not to retain what is read but merely to copy it in a notebook, this very practice be- Methods of Studying 201 comes a habit almost fatal to the ability to remember readily what has been read. A moderate use ^f notebooks in supplementary reading is, however, justifiable, providing one does not spend hours copying long selections. iBrief , unusual sayings or illustrations and allusions are perhaps all that should be attempted. 6. How to read rapidly. A few simple rules will aid the pupil to accompUsh an immense amount of reading each month: Read sentences, not words. To stop at each word may be important in legal and medical reading, but as a rule it is uimecessary in most supplementary work. Important words, as a rule, appear at the beginning and at the end of a sentence ; the subject, for example, usually being found at the beginning. Glance rapidly over the paragraph for leading words and sentences. The first and last sentences, as a rule, are most important. The first and last paragraphs ordinarily are more important than those intervening, but the pupil should get the main words of each paragraph also. The first states the subject or point of view, the intervening ones add points of develop- ment and in the last may be found conclusions, summary, or a final vital point. Practice will facilitate the discriminate elimination of modifiers, conjunctions, repetitions, and the perfectly obvious. If one is reading as a pastime, the increase of pleasure by observing striking descriptions is important ; but supplemen- tary reading for the wider range of knowledge does not re- quire this detailed enjoyment, c. How to copy Material in Notebooks. Much time may be saved if the pupil employs the following method in copying : 202 Supervised Study Dojipt copy mere words. Pupils glance at a word in the book, then copy it, and again glance at a word on the page. A more effective method is to read a whole sentence or, if long, the first part of it, and then to copy this. After a time it becomes quite easy to embrace a sentence of moderate length in one glance. The additional value in this method, beyond that of delaying fatigue, lies in the pupil understanding what he copies. Mere copying of words fails to convey any con- nected meaning, and after copying a brief or long selection the pupil has little or no conception of what he has copied. He has written isolated words — not associated meanings. They do not impress themselves on his mind as connected material — but merely an unrelated sequence of words — and consequently fail to convey a unity of thought. Copy- ing by sentences conveys organized meaning, so that at the end of his writing the pupil has acquired a quite definite understanding of the contents of the quotation. In this way he has actually been studying. ■ There is, however, a more effective method of preserving the desired material in supplementary reading. Use sHps of paper with main subject written at the top, these slips to be used in either or both of two ways: If the pupil owns the book, he should write on the top of the slip the topic he is interested in and, as he finds references to it in his reading, note on the slip of paper the page of these references with the name of the book. The latter is im- portant, for the same shp can be used in reading other books. When one sHp of paper has been filled, of course, others will be added. In the book itself parentheses around the passage will suffice for easy recognition. If the pupil does not own the book, the same procedure Methods of Stiidying 203 may be followed with the additional notation of the author and edition, if there is more than one edition. There will then be no confusion when he later wishes to refer to his reference. All of this takes a minimum of time, but the amount of time saved and the store of valuable material increased by such reference work is inestimable. The slips should be filed in the large manila envelopes or pasted in the notebook under proper headings. Slips of paper may be used also for marking future references. The exact reference desired should be inclosed in parentheses. The paper should extend slightly above the top of the book. 7. How to prepare for Examinations. Student language, picturesque and rugged, includes a number of vivid words referring to the preparation of examinations. " Boning," " poling," " cramming," " digging," are some of these pictorial terms borrowed from piscatorial experiences, pack- ing industries, and the life of the soil. They are expressive enough and portray the arduous endeavors of the pupil to memorize in an intense brief period of effort enough facts to " pass " the " exam." And so one who visits the student's room during those strenuous days of manu-mental labor may find the student uniformed with a towel around his forehead, his feet perchance in a bucket of hot water (perhaps to sym- bolize unconsciously the possibility that all of him may be similarly immersed on the dreaded day of testing), a steaming pot of vile black coffee at his side, and round him books, papers, piles of debris once scattered over his course. There is anxiety a-plenty in the room — a tension of effort that has dangerous possibilities. And this is education ! In high school there is less of this than at college, for parents 204 Supervised Study see to it that the pupils avoid such evidences of strenuous and semi-annual interest in the noble pursuit of knowledge. But there is just enough of this sort of thing in high school to make it easy for the coming college student to adopt it with little or no resistance. a. The Use and Abuse of Cramming. It must be admitted that there are occasions where cramming is the only way of escape under a regime of rigid examinations. Much material in the average examination has at best only a temporary or " degree " value. After the examination it is an advantage to forget most of the items insisted upon during the course. As long as teachers stress memory tests there must be a considerable amount of " poling " — it is almost inevitable — in what may be regarded in the main as a pernicious method of testing the process of education. The true examination fulfills the necessary purpose of reorganization and review of material at points of greatest weakness. To ascertain how much the pupil does not know of the fundamental units in the course is perhaps more im- portant from the standpoint of effective teaching than to know how much the pupil has mastered. If examinations could always be followed by reviews of the weak places, their value would be greatly enhanced. But as a method of study cramming must be condemned for several reasons. It discourages progressive organization of material. It allows for only a superficial grasp of the subject. It permits only a temporary knowledge of the covirse, because the object in view is only a brief retention of facts — enough to pass the examination. It bars out the fundamental purpose of education, — train- Methods of Studying 265 ing the pupil to think and overstresses the methods of mem- orizing. It lowers the pupil's mental strength by making him feel insecure — his passing depends on what he can remember, but his mental alertness depends upon confidence in his own ability. It leads to the temptation of cheating. Facts can be copied, but original thinking cannot be anticipated. It is injurious to the pupil's standing in every subject ; for with many examinations to prepare the intense strain of memorizing is likely to reduce efficiency in every examination. It jeopardizes the pupil's eyesight, physical and mental health more than is necessary. It practically limits the pupil's education to the knowledge aim ; whereas education includes much more than this, — the abUity to think, to organize, to apply, to lead. It produces the attitude that school is an examining in- stitution primarily and teachers relentless inquisitors of knowledge. 6. The Best Way to study for Examinations. The pupU who makes a daily outline or summary of his work, either by some outline form or by fashioning his own review questions, will have at the end of the term a splendid background and frame- work for the final review. It is the daily organization that counts. There is nothing new in this suggestion, but under the administration of supervised study it becomes part of the pupil's standing. He is marked as much on the daily pre- paredness as on the final examination, — a preparedness that embraces not merely a factual recitation, but an ability to organize as well. When the time comes for the test or ex- amination, all the pupil needs to do is to review his summaries 2o6 Supervised Study and his notes with their supplementary material. He may not pass a perfect examination as to details, but he will give evidence of wide information, of deep-going appreciation of the general meaning of the topic and show that he can move about in it intelligently and thoughtfully. Facts come and easily go when treated merely as facts; but when learned in large connections with correlations and with applications, they have a tenacity that belongs to the well-related parts of any whole. It is because pupils are trained to regard facts in themselves as supreme that they tremble with fear lest these isolated elements of knowledge drop out. But when a topic is studied as a big phase of truth, involving principles, laws, and tendencies, facts are so many illustrations or evi- dences of the main truth. First, get the large perspective, panorama, sweep of meaning; and then details will fit in with surprising ease. All this means that the preparation for examinations is continuous — it is like a building rising story by story until at last the day of occupancy has arrived. This is the exam- ination day of builder and structure alike. The final test of the bridge depends upon its ability to stand the strain of construction foot by foot. It must resist its own strain of derricks and carriers inch by inch long before its trusses and arches meet in the finished span or rise in graceful strength in the cantilever. So with the masterful pupil, who enters upon an examination not hastily and strainedly prepared for, but strong and secure in daily understanding of each assign- ment and the continuous meaning connecting each assign- ment. 8. How to Memorize. It should not be assumed that because objections have been raised against the almost exclu- Methods of Stiidying 207 sive method of studying by memorizing that memory is to be wholly regarded as vicious in the learning process. Whatever one's definition of memory may be, it involves the fact that things once experienced can and must be reexperienced if the individual is to profit by his past. Thinking itself is the reorganization of experience so that it can be serviceable in solving new problems. There must be a considerable amount of memorizing in every classroom. Education is impossible without it. Because it is so fundamental, the pupil should be taught correct and economical methods of memorizing, and he should be trained in their exercise. The literature on the subject is voluminous. References to it are numerous enough outside of school work, but it is only the exceptional teacher who devotes any or considerable time in teaching the methods whereby the imprinting, the recall, the ready reference to things learned may be more effectively achieved. In this chapter it will be valuable to deal with the most successful of these methods. a. Methods of Memorizing, (i) A Clear and Accurate First Impression. What is to be learned will be recalled as it was first acquired. It is the first impression that counts. Facts and relationships learned vaguely or inaccurately will remain so unless revised, and it is a well-known truth that releaming is twice as difficult as the first learning. Time is saved if the pupil makes an effort to obtain, by careful reading or questioning, a clear and accurate knowledge of the subject the first time. (2) Correct and Numerous Associations. Each new fact is more easily understood by being immediately associated with previous experience. What we already know receives the 2o8 Supervised Study stranger-fact and tries to make it part of the group of knowl- edge. This is the reason for educated people being more receptive to new ideas than are the ignorant who have no way of anticipating or judging the importance of new facts or views. These associations may be considered under four heads : {a) Personal Experience. The pupil should constantly seek to link up new facts with experience he has already gained. Much of this background of knowledge is enriched by work in other classes. Literature and history and physical geography may be intimately related. General science is taking the place in the high school of diversified scientific courses be- cause the young pupil needs, first of aU, a broad knowledge of scientific truth before he engages in special studies. At first men ridiciiled the idea of telephones, for there was nothing in their experience to receive the new truth. But the other day when Vail and Bell talked to each other across the whole continent, the fact caused no excitement; and when a little later it was announced that wireless telephony had made audible in New York and Paris the same human voices, surprise was mild — we were ready for just such an annoimcement. Suffrage was once a cause of intense warfare in England : the common man had no vote. Enfranchise- ment of aU men was a startling theory and fact of govern- ment. It was attacked and bitterly fought, but to-day when women are struggling for what men contended only a few years ago, there is less surprise. Universal suffrage is not a wholly new idea. Past experience accepts and judges this newer fact. The hardships of the early reformers were numerous and bitter because society was vmprepared for their doctrines. Columbus was laughed to scorn because up to Methods of Studying 209 his time, so far as men in Spain were aware, no one had sailed around the world. We learn easily by gradual ap- proaches, — easy marches, — not forced plunges. It is necessary, therefore, to connect the past and present at every step. Each will interpret and reinterpret the other. This process of association is fundamental in maintaining interest and in retaining significant material. (b) Collateral or Supplementary Reading. This topic has already been referred to at some length. Here it is important for still another reason. Few people have time to read aU of a book. As a rule, it is not necessary to do so. For the sake of economy and association books should be read by topics. Several books may lie before the pupil. He reads the com- ments of one author and those of the others. Their views may conflict or supplement. By the method of topical read- ing he moves topic by topic through several books, and at the end of the term will have read more logically and more widely and also with more discrimination than if he had con- fined himself to one book at a time. Moreover, by this com- parative collateral reading, the pupil is forming rich associa- tions. New facts are more readily and habitually pigeon-holed. There is a place for everything. Memory has become a system- atic scheme of reference. (c) Whole Method. In learning a poem or piece of prose where verbatim exactness is required, time is saved by employ- ing what is technically known as the whole method. The more common method, called " the part method," in learning a poem, for example, takes a line at a time and constantly repeats the accumulating lines until the poem has been memorized. By the whole method the selection is studied logically for main and secondary ideas. The mechanical 2IO Supervised Study division into lines and stanzas is disregarded : the poem is learned as a whole. In more detail the method may b^ illustrated in the follow- ing poem from Rossetti's " House of Life." "I have been here before, But when or how I cannot tell ; I know the grass beyond the door, The sweet, keen smell, The sighing sound, the hghts along the shore. You have been mine before. How long ago I may not know ; But just when, at that swallow's soar, Your neck turned so. Some veil did fall — ■ I knew it all of yore." As a rule, young pupils would memorize this poem by learning the first two lines, then the third and fourth, re- peating all four. They would then add line five and repeat all that had been memorized so far and then continue. A large number of needless repetitions are here made ; illogical associations are formed, and much artificial work is done. Clearly, the poem has one simple theme. " I have been here before." The evidence, — grass with its sweet, keen smeU; sound and lights along the shore; and at last the swallow's soar. Memory is revived in one flash by the winging of the swallow. There is a unified thought here that can be stated in a plain declarative sentence. The whole poem is read through, the main thought extracted, and then logically the modifiers are added. For very brief poems and prose selections the process is much simpler ; one can easily discover the main thought. In longer selections the advantage of the method is not apparent Methods of Studying 211 at first ; but the greater amount of attention, logical analysis, and clearer understanding of the subject matter, made possible by the treatment of the passage as a whole, warrant this type of memorizing. What has just been said about rote or Hteral memory ap- plies with equal force to logical or idea memory, where the meaning of an assignment rather than every word of it must be learned. If the pupil begins to study each paragraph by itself, he will not appreciate its connection with other parts of the lesson. First read the whole lesson through rapidly — albeit accurately. Then re-read more closely and analyti- cally, as described in the section on Underscoring. This application of the whole method will result in less literal memorizing of assignments, for the pupil soon finds that by this method he can remember the important phases of the lesson. {d) Mnemonic Devices. One not infrequently meets in ad- vertisements the announcement of memory systems that guarantee to improve the memory and thereby to assure the individual a highly successful career. The best of these systems or schools employ mechanical devices of association, — nothing more, — many of them artificial and complex, and others reasonably worth while. Mnemonics are simply elab- orate schemes of associating new with old or familiar experi- ence or by comparison and contrast surrounding things de- sired to be recalled with stimulative associations. For example, it is easy to remember that Leonardo da Vinci belonged to the sixteenth century by noting that in the name Vinci VI stand for six and the " n " is an abbreviation of teenth. Learning vocabularies may be aided by the happy use of synonyms, as suggested by Loisette. 212 Supervised Study English INTEEMEDIAIES Latin Breast Suitor Man Garret front — front view — aspect Prince Charming — wooed by proxy married man — home storeroom — grain store fectus procus homo granaria Gekuan Voice Threaten Potato voice lozenges — stimulation stinging words — stinging bee — dig up — remove — cart off drone stimme drohen kartoffel French Tears Star To speak hysterics — fainting fit — alarm diamond — ball-dress — toilet converse — dispute — parley larmes etoile parler Another type of mnemonic associations is illustrated in the names of the brain lobes. Frontal — probable centers of reasoning — man's chief superiority Temporal — centers of hearing ■ — oral — spoken to hear Occipital — centers of seeing — C (see) with 2 i's Parietal — centers of motion — Par-t = parting. A certain amount of exercise in mnemonics as a drill in memory work would not be out of place, providing teacher and pupil bear in mind that all such devices are simply additional aids to a more fundamental and inherent associa- tion between facts. (3) Recall. An invaluable aid to effective memorizing is the practice of recalling immediately what has been read in each paragraph or on each page. If the pupil cannot recaU a single fact or idea on the page he has just read, he may be sure that his thoughts have been wool gathering. Mere read- ing of words, with one's attention elsewhere, is obviously a sheer waste of time. There must be a first, clear, vivid im- Methods of Studying 213 pression. The test of this first fundamental is made in the reviewing of what has just been read. Some pupils close the book (Giles found that 68 per cent of his pupils did so) and try to recall what they have just read ; others look off into space. At first it may seem to the pupil that slow progress is made by this method; but gradually the habit is formed, and the first reading of the lesson is accompanied by concentration and discrimination. At the close of his reading the pupil can then make an outline by the recall of what he has studied. If he underscores and writes brief sentences in the margin, these devices will help him to recall more accurately. (4) Studying Aloud. The form in which the lesson is to be recited should be practiced upon while studying. If, for example, the recitation deals with mathematics, most of the work will be done in writing, and this method is followed in preparing the problems. But in geometry, besides the figure, there is demonstration to be made aloud to teacher and class. By studying this demonstration aloud the pupil forms the reciting habit and gains in ease and confidence. To accustom oneself to the sound of one's voice while studying is valuable in every subject where verbal methods are employed. If it is impracticable to study aloud, moving the Hps is a good substitute. Both methods tend to keep the mind from wandering. Attention is fixed more easily by these devices. 9. Thinking. Investigations by Dr. Lida B. Earhart ^ and Dr. Frederick Bonser,^ as well as treatises by Dr. John ' " Systematic Study in the Elementary Grades," Teachers College Contribu- tions, No. 18. ' " The Reasoning Ability of Children," Teachers College Contributions, No. 37. 214 Supervised Study Dewey ' and Dr. I. E. Miller,^ have shown not only that children do think but also how the thinking ability may be trained and applied in all school work. No one wiU deny that thinking is a fundamental human capacity. It is tacitly assumed to be so, especially in high school and coUege ; but little time is devoted to the actual demonstration of what it means to think, and how pupils can become proficient in its technic. By some, thinking is regarded as an unusual abihty, possessed by rare geniuses, who have never been instructed or trained in the meaning of its various factors, but who evolved their remarkable achievements under the dominance of rare insight. It will not be denied that philosophy, art, science, inven- tion, poetry, etc., exhibit unusual intellects and that, so far as records go, these distinguished thinkers never received formal training in their high art. But the lack of formal training in this branch of education may account for the rarity of the Kants, Michael Angelos, Huxleys, Edisons, and Mil- tons. If the schools in earlier days had trained the average boy and girl to think constructively, — just as it stressed mnemonics and formal discipline, — it is likely that civiliza- tion to-day would be even more progressive than it is. As the mass of society learns to think, its rarer minds — always to be expected — will loom even higher than they do. The hope of the race lies in an elevated universal knowledge of how to think, and, on the basis of this knowledge, an intelli- gent exercise of careful thought on the mighty problems of the hour. Doubtless the present war would not be possible if the great bulk of population in Europe had been trained to think on the profound meaning of society, individual rights, ' How We Think, 1910. 2 Psychology of Thinking. Methods of Studying 215 wages, and truth in its many reaches. And in our own coun- try, where the ideals of democracy and social ef&ciency are praised and sought, progress toward this realization will be retarded just so long as the average man and average woman are unskilled in the tools of thinking. There must always be the few to lead and the many to follow, but in the democratic regime the thinking many are privileged to elect as their leaders the trained few; and their choice of these leaders, whether it shall be safe or menacing, depends upon the ability to judge, to foresee, to evaluate issues and character. Studying of the finest type and as a preparation for sane and safe citizenship must include — nay, more, must be dominated by — instruction and training in how to think in every subject of the school program. Education means ad- justment, and adjustment rests upon the ability of each indi- vidual to apply experience to new situations in the quickest, most effective, and most permanent fashion. The high school pupil who enters the contest of a career will meet daily new problems (with some famiUar phases, no doubt) whose solution will depend not only upon the direct application of knowledge acquired in school or elsewhere, but more often upon the reor- ganization of this knowledge, upon the selection of elements deemed especially suited to the need of the hour, and upon the determination of how the chosen elements are to be applied and, if necessary, what kind of additional factors are to be sought and where they are likely to be found. a. The Thinking Process. There is space here for little more than a sketch of what actually takes place when the pupil thinks. Let us suppose that he has been assigned a problem in English, — the description of a county fair. These fairs are common enough and are usually very much alike. 2i6 Supervised Study The pupil, however, is expected to describe some fair that he has visited. A number of years ago the writer visited the first fair of this kind in Beltrami County, Minnesota, held in the little village of Blackduck. The county is heavily timbered with a variety of trees, but mostly of pine, birch, and tamarack. Clearings in those days were comparatively few. Much labor in feUing and hauling trees, removing stumps, draining the swampy land, building roads and homes was required. The black loam looked promising. Home- steaders and other settlers had dreams of farms and dairying as a consequence of this labor. And so, after a few years of persevering toil, the county had begun to yield its garden produce. The products, it seemed to some of the leaders, warranted as big an exhibit as money and time could afFord. The visitor to the Blackduck Fair may have come with Uttle expectation. But he knew one thing. It was the first fair in that section of the state ; the forests were deep, dark, and miles long. Swamps were plentiful ; hired labor scarce ; roads few and mostly corduroy ; money or wealth not in circulation. And now he sees the long shelves of garden truck; wheat of superior excellence; grasses rich and plentiful; flowers, tinted almost in defiance of early frosts; five stock, sturdy and fine blooded. He examines the needlework of patient fingers that have also handled the rough tools of the clearing, but fingers deft with the artistry of needle and thread. He tastes the bread, the butter, the preserves, and the other cookeries bearing blue ribbons, — all this the result of patient toil and sacrifice of a people Uving in forests near the Canadian border. The pupil, let us suppose, was at this fair, and he now sets to work to describe it. What process of thinking must be followed? Methods of Studying 217 The vivid picture of what he has seen forms the starting point. This is the raw material of his thought. Next is the selection from this material of certain more important exhibits not expected so far north and in an un- developed county, such as wheat, tea roses, red clover. The significance of these exhibits is judged by comparing them with those of other county fairs and also by the immense amount of labor preliminary to the harvest or yield. The pupil draws on his memory of what he has seen and heard for these additional factors. But the fair means something for the future. By memory of what has been done and by imagination of what is coming, the pupil's description of the various exhibits becomes even more stimulating, for here are promises of what development of the country will bring to pioneers and other settlers, and also to the general stores of supply of the whole country. Criticism may now be offered in the light of the conditions in the county ; suggestions offered in the Hght of what is done at other similar fairs. What the pupil has done may be stated in a few words. He first of all received a clear first impression through seeing and hearing and perhaps touching. The first meaning of all he experienced was determined by similar experiences obtained at visits to other fairs or through reading and seeing pictures. Later upon interpreting what he has seen, the pupil resorts to his memory of what county fairs purpose to accomplish, — • to show resources, progress, possibilities. Next he faces the more pressing problem of interpreting and judging the mean- ing of the fair for the improvement and settling of the country, and he selects certain advantageous products and indicates what is needed in roads, railroad transportation, cooperative 2i8 Supervised Study farming, and scientific agriculture to achieve an even greater development. h. What Thinking Involves. Thinking depends, then, upon the same factors as are necessary in correct stud3dng. This really means that thinking and studying are synonymous: clear and accurate first impressions, organization by analy- sis, and later reorganization by association so far as demanded by the problem. Thinking is essentially a new organization of knowledge with additional facts sought for if needed. There can be no thinking without something to think with, — a store of knowledge. Herein, to repeat, lies the fuller signifi- cance of supplementary reading, observation, and experimen- tation in every subject of the program of studies. Obviously, memorizing has its important place, but it is only one step in the development of thinking. The ultimate habit of reflect- ing, weighing, and judging or seeing an issue and a need from several available angles aims at safety, wisdom, economy, and progress in social efficiency. lo. Application. In laboratory subjects there is a constant application of studying by the performing of experiments, making of furniture and dresses, drawing, modeHng, farming, etc. There is comparatively Httle difficulty in finding motiva- tion and vital reality in these courses. But the case is differ- ent with the abstract subjects, such as language, history, mathematics. What appKcation is available here? The answer to this question is attempted in Part II. Suffice to anticipate by saying that application is considered from two angles : a. Doing as a Process of Learning. The common aphorism " Learn by doing " is no longer in need of defense. One finds the truth of this saying illustrated in practically every Methods of Studying 219 school of the land. What the pupil does for himself under proper guidance creates skill and confidence. It estabHshes proper nerve connections and fixes habits. Supervised study stresses this fact with the accompanying caution that doing must not be impulsive, impatient, or wholly independ- ent. It is correct doing that counts. In the learning process there are inevitably, as Book has shown, subtle errors creep- ing in, the correction of which retards progress and causes at times heavy discouragement. Unavoidable as many of these errors doubtless are, even under the best of conditions, earnest effort on the part of the teacher must be put forth to forestall as many of the pupil's mistakes as possible. True as it is that doing strengthens impressions and thereby facili- tates memorizing, the even greater truth is that first impres- sions must be accurate and the application of them as correct as possible the first time. b. Doing as a Test of Learning. Application as a test of learning differs from the one preceding in the amount of proficiency available. The abiHty to drive a car, make a table, cultivate a good crop, sew a beautiful dress is the result of constant application and eventually estabHshes the end of learning. To imderstand the far-removed ultimate causes of the present European war; to be able to describe moun- tain scenery, narrate an incident, argue a moot question ; to be skillful in measurements, in computation, etc., are tests of learning which in and of themselves augment further skill. Examinations with preHminary reviews are, therefore, helpful and necessary, when they test not merely details but the pupil's abiHty to handle the material in a practical and even original manner. The test of language is translation and reading; the test of mathematics, solving problems; the 220 Supervised Study test of literature, not so much detailed historical knowledge as appreciation of the best and the abiUty to judge or criticize a piece of Hterature. General Summary The machinery of studying considered in these two chapters on Methods of Work indicates a complex skiU in the handling of textbooks, summaries, underscoring, outlining, notebooks, reports, supplementary reading, memorizing, and thinking with the constant checking of progress by careful application. These are fruitful topics, essential to democracy's high school, fundamental not only in formal school work, but in private studying at any time. If the pupil becomes skillful in the use of these tools, he will be able to undertake new tasks alone and also to evolve methods of work which for him are pecul- iarly successful. After all, each individual must eventually fashion his own method of working, but he can do so more quickly and with less need of frequent revisions if he has a general conception of what should be involved in studying. PART II CHAPTER IX SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION It is generally believed among school people that no subject in the high school presents so many serious problems as does English. Perhaps no subject is so frequently attacked by re- formers and by foes of education. The efficiency of higher education is tested very largely by the graduates' ability to spell, to write a letter or report, and to converse or speak in public with ease and force. Pupils themselves are not enthu- siastic about the studying of their mother tongue. J. C. Brown and J. A. Minnick ^ found that English is among the subjects high school pupils prefer to drop either because they dislike it or because they deem it useless. Whatever the reasons may be for the present unrest in the EngUsh courses (and some of the reasons are quite apparent) no one will deny that EngHsh must remain in som-e respects the most important subject of the high school program, and that for this reason its teachers and friends must devise methods aiming at a soundly practical as well as cultural plan of development and study. ' " A Study of the Preferences of Secondary School Pupils for the Various Subjects and of the Ranking of the Various Subjects on the Basis of Utility as Judged by the Pupils," Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. I, No. 8, October, 1915, pp. S27-S4S- 222 Supervised Sttidy English, however, is made up of five or six problems, — namely, grammar, written composition, spelling, oral compo- sition, public speaking, and literature which includes oral reading. Each of these will now be discussed from the pupil's point of view as well as the teacher's in supervising study. I. Grammar Should the pupil be required to study formal grammar in high school ? May it not be true that much of the dislike toward English is due to the unbalanced emphasis on this particular phase of the course ? These are two common ques- tions. Advocates of formal grammar argue that by this study the pupil is trained in accurate thinking and correct speaking. By habitually attending to the niceties of form, he grows to like and to speak with ease the English of educated people. In this way the pupil is able to counteract the influences of an environment wherein the correct form of English is habitually disregarded and even scorned. Doubtless the mark of a truly educated man and woman is their easy observance of gram- matical form. " He don't," " I done it," " It is me," " He done it good," etc., are marks of inferiority and often bar the users of them from desirable employment and social connec- tions. It is doubtful, however, if the study of formal grammar in high school will serve the end desired. Imitation is a powerful counterforce. Pupils may speak correctly in the school, but on the street or at home fall into the habits of their asso- ciates. Before reaching high school the pupil should have been thoroughly drilled in correct speaking. This is the period when habits of correct speech are most easily formed, not Supervising the Study of English Composition 223 merely by book-study but by close observance of form in every subject. When one hears teachers in the schoolroom, in the corridors, or elsewhere say " She don't," " It's me," " Sure, we done it," as the writer has heard them on several occasions, one should not wonder if children with the irresistible instinct of imitation speak as their teachers do. In high school the work in EngKsh should not be impeded by prolonged driU in grammar. Entrance upon high school courses should rest mainly on the elementary pupil's ability to speak and to write correctly the limited forms of his expression. In high school grammar must be less formal. Mr. Harold W. Gammans of the high school in Holyoke, Mass., writes of his method in this particular : ^ " The pupils had grammars but did not recite more than four or five lessons from them. I have never found formal grammar of much practical aid to the pupils in writing, if they have not learned it before they enter the secondary school. As care and interest in writing are developed in the pupils, they will write grammatically in the secondary school." It may be added that the consensus of opinion at present is in favor of a brief and properly evaluated course in high school grammar with a small amount of attention to parsing and dia- graming; with careful avoidance of teaching EngHsh from the Latin point of view ; with the principal unit of instruction made up of sentence structure based on sentence analysis rather than artificial adherence to diagrams and agreements. I. How to study Grammar. A certain amount of time, however, should be spent on teaching pupils how to study ■* " The Pupil who fails in Secondary School English : How to teach Him," Journal of Education, June 3, 1915, P- 6oi- 224 Supervised Study somewhat formally the simple essentials of grammatical con- struction. a. Formally. The analysis of the sentence is the basis of discriminate study in the selection of topic thought or in the summarizing of a paragraph. Neither of these functions of studying can be performed adequately unless the pupil under- stands the meaning of each sentence. And this meaning rests, of course, upon a knowledge of how subject, verb, attribute, and modifiers are interrelated. The picking out of the back- bone of the sentence, short, long, simple, compound, complex, or greatly involved, need not become a lifeless pursuit, how- ever. Valuable exercises in such analyses should form part of the work in every English course, increasing in difficulty with each year. Sentences, for example, might be selected from newspaper editorials or news items, from magazines, modern novels, law cases, text-books in subjects other than English. Diagraming should be avoided as long as possible, and if deemed necessary, should employ the Brace Outline referred to on page 182. This is simple and clear, and, furthermore, relates sentence analysis to outhning or analysis on a larger scale. Both are a part of the process of thinking. It is hardly necessary to require the pupils to copy these analyses. Most of the work should be done in the class on the blackboard or, when feasible, by discussion based on the textbook of the class. One pupil reads his analysis, while others follow by attending to their books. Writing in this part of the work should be avoided as much as possible. No small amount of dislike toward English is due to the excessive requirements of writing. Sentence structure may be studied also by building or ex- Supervising the Study of English Composition 225 panding simple sentences into complex or compound ; chang- ing order of expression ; studying different ways of expressing similar ideas as found in a number of authors. One pupil, for example, might be given the assignment to write a descrip- tion of a battle. Others would have assignments in modern war correspondence, Victor Hugo's Battle of Waterloo, Louisa Miihlbach's description of Frederick the Great's campaign in Silicia, etc. Sentence forms in the writings of Henry James, James Huneker, Henry van Dyke, Ernest Poole, Hawthorne, Dickens, and Scott could be studied by this comparative method with constant application by the pupil in sentence structure and sentence analysis. Gammons in the study cited accompUshed laudable results by requiring the pupils to use a simple sentence or a sentence of not over two clauses. Only these two kinds of sentences were permitted, and day after day he drilled them in the dis- criminate use of these forms. He insisted, also, that the pupils should read their compositions aloud by themselves at home and notice if word groups beginning with a capital letter and ending with a period were at all sensible. Nothing more was required. By listening to the natural division of the sentence into pauses, they were trained to place commas at such pauses. No rules of punctuation were taught. Words and phrases out of their natural order were referred to in class as requiring commas before and after. He did not insist on paragraphing at first. If there were two or more quite evident groups of thought in a composition read aloud to the class, he asked how many paragraphs there should be. Paragraph- ing, he found, developed fairly well by this method. b. Incidentally and at Home. Grammatical form should re- ceive attention as part of the study of Uterature and composi- Q 226 Supervised Study tion, oral and written. Doubtless the time will come when pupils will be marked on their correctness of speaking and writing everywhere during their enrollment in the school. Superintendent Alderman's extension of school credits for home work, with careful Hsting of credit values for the differ- ent kinds of home work, may some day include credits in school for correct speaking at home, during meals, before the hearth, in Sunday school, etc. Lists of mistakes to avoid, with demerits opposite each, could be used just as practically as the lists of domestic, industrial, and commercial tasks out of school hours. Such a list would have a favorable influence on all the members of the home. Not until grammar comes to mean more than rules (many of them relics of English different from that of to-day), and receives recognition as a practical, everyday, and generally observed mark of education during the pupil's entire school career in and out of school, can serious attention to its evaluated details result in correct speaking and writing. In other words, every teacher and parent should share the re- sponsibiUty of helping the pupil to form habits of correct speaking and writing. It is not the EngUsh teacher's task alone. Her finest work is easily frustrated by laxness in other subjects and at home. Correct usage in Enghsh courses does not automatically spread over into other courses. It spreads only by being directed all along the hne. II. Composition The question needs to be asked. What is the specific aim of instruction in writing ? It seems an absurdly useless ques- tion. Everybody knows why composition is taught. But the cynic is at hand with chilhng insistence on conclusive evi- dence. If we project the point of view far beyond the high Supervising the StiMy of English Composition 227 school years, the question really amounts to this : What is the ultimate and practical purpose of high school training in com- position? The answer to this question must be considered from two points of view. A. Written Composition, i. Studying Theme Writing. Theme work is so deeply intrenched in the English courses that it occupies the bulk of the teacher's and pupil's time. Its purpose is obvious, — to teach pupils how to write. Es- says or themes are therefore assiduously studied, reams of paper covered with thousands of words, hours of patient or impatient toil consumed by the pupil writing and by the teacher editing during four years of high school and four years of college. Some teachers of EngHsh have invented long series of symbols or signs to be used in the red-ink scrutiny of these compositions. Ruiming through all of this laboratory and factory process of producing skiU in writing there is doubtless an honest faith that all of this does accomplish re- sults or that it is the only means whereby writing efl&ciency can be achieved. In the light of the ultimate and legitimately practical need of skill in composition, some important factors should be noted. a. Habits of Writing are Specific, not General. The pupil's ultimate need of proficiency in writing Enghsh must be a guiding principle in this part of his studjang. Will he ever need to write essays after he leaves school ? Will the average individual do very much writing aside from correspondence? It is assumed that theme work in Enghsh will develop style of fluency in writing at large ; but style is specific, i.^., it con- forms to the character or nature of the theme being developed. The essay is valuable for the future essayist, not for the busi- ness man or even the professional man. 228 Supervised Study Ability to write in English courses does not necessarily spread over into power of fluent or even accurate expression in history or physics. These have a style of their own. Neither does a carefully written essay mean that the pupil will learn thereby to speak more easily and correctly. The two mental processes are quite different and must be carefully developed in their respective fields. Composition, to prove ultimately effective, should deal in the high school with forms of expression and characteristics of style peculiar to the kind of writing used. Motivation becomes easier from this point of view. Interest is more likely to be sustained under this differentiated method of composition work. b. Fluency and Forcefulness of Expression depend upon having Something to Say. The principal reason for the lack of transfer of ability to write Ues in the pupil's paucity of ideas or knowl- edge in particular subjects. However well he may be able to write in English courses, his expression or style in history, science, civics, etc., will be halting if he does not have a rich background or a weU-organized group of facts in these sub- jects. Language is a vehicle of thought and moves easily only when concepts are large and rich. To be proficient in expression the pupil, therefore, needs training in expression in every subject he studies. Themes selected from the pupil's other courses as part of the assignments in English work, and exercises in writ- ing answers to questions in these courses as part of his training in composition, are effective means of bringing this about. c. Coherence and Balanced Expression are determined by Habits of Correct Thinking. The attempt to superimpose forms of Supervising the Study of English Composition 229 accurate expression on a habitually careless or loose manner of thinking must prove a failure. The new forms of expression have not become habits ; whereas the manner of thinking has long been fixed as a habit of mind and will proceed automati- cally, while the newer facts of the English course will be less likely to find ready expression. This results in an awkward and halting style, however proficient the pupil may be in exer- cises of English Composition. d. Interest in the themes for their own sake will vitalize the pupil's work in written compositions. In these days of world conflict ; of discoveries in archaeology and science ; of inven- tions ; of political, economic, social, educational, and reUgious reforms ; of civic improvements such as good road movements, rural transformations, and cities beautiful, it ought to be easy to find large themes both entertaining and practical. The world of sport, travel, industry, music, and literature is replete with life subjects that appeal to the pupil's social instincts. In the selection of themes it is necessary to leave the beaten path and travel less frequented but often more fascinating roads. PupUs like to write about subjects that concern their own lives. The adolescent is intensely interested in himself and indeed has a right to be, for this is fundamental in the imfolding of his individuality. 2. Diversified Forms of Written Composition. The recent attempts of Hillegas ^ and Ballou ^ to measiure the products of composition include the usual divisions of writing into descrip- tion, narration, exposition, and argumentation. Each of these forms is distinct from the others and must be studied by a method peculiar to itself. Proficiency in the writing of one 1 Composition Scale, Teachers College Publications. 2 Harvard-Newton Composition Scale, Cambridge Press. 230 Supervised Study does not necessarily mean skill in handling the others. A few simple rules, briefly stated, for the studying of each of these forms have been found helpful. a. How to study Narration. Get a perspective of the story ; i.e., know what the end is to be and work consistently toward this end. In short narratives, such as are likely to be written in high school, practice balancing the story; i.e., avoid unnecessary details, whoUy irrelevant material, and long, flowery descrip- tions. Select a single incident and surround it with a natural, simple setting. Choose a convenient point of view, teUing the story in the words of some character or in the third person. Limit yourself for the sake of conciseness (preserving ease of expression) to a certain number of words or so many sheets of paper. Reporters, for example, are allowed so much space for a " story." DriU in this will eventually ehminate unim- portant details and showy writing. Narrate something that you are familiar with, however commonplace, and try to give it a fresh setting. Avoid themes that are beyond your present stage of development; i.e., tell about something interesting to you personally. Practice narration in letter form, telling a real friend the latest news and some special incident of more than usual in- terest to both of you. TeU the story as you know it ; avoid copying from others, but use models, changing these from time to time, always bearing in mind that your point of view, your mode of expres- sion will give swing and music to the tale ; whereas, in another's language, it may be too evidently not your own or may ap- Supervising the Study of English Composition 231 pear stilted when mixed with your own attempts. Write as you feel regardless of j&nished form. Seek to adapt your style to the temper of the incident — quick action in short sentences or crisp phrases ; slower move- ments in longer rhythm. Use simple words, preferably those of one or two syllables ; avoid many atljectives, adverbs, and conjunctions. Analyze the structure of short stories for narrative form. b. How to study Description. Describe something simple at first ; attempt only the pos- sible. Determine upon a point of view. Landscape changes its appearance according to one's point of view. Mountain scen- ery looks different from the observation car than from the en-, gineer's cab. Be true to what you see from where you are. Points of view should change as in moving pictures : first a broad panorama ; then a " close up " of some important detail. Be consistent with the natural emotional feelings at the time and place of your description. Things look different in a gloomy ravine from what they do on a suimy ocean beach. Your mood affects what you describe. Use the imaginative and suggestive method ; i.e., avoid ex- cess of detail — let the reader see for himself what you merely suggest. Practice flash descriptions of important details. Work toward a climax. Reserve the most striking point in your description until the last few sentences. Contrast, bold or blended, is effective. Just as in a picture the artist seeks to gain contrast by high lights and shadows, so in description vividness is realized by direct and distinct contrast or by a quieter blending and overlapping of differences. Description by behavior is likewise a good exercise. What 232 Supervised Stiidy effect does a scene, a person, a series of incidents have on the observer ? Visit an art gallery or study an illustration and describe what you see. Observe the effect that the description has on others. Do they see the picture ? Practice describing the scenes along the way to and from school, or sonaething unusual you have seen. Note the effect of your description on others. Do you hold their attention? Use as few words as possible and make each word count. Avoid flowery description. c. How to study Exposition or Explanatory Writing. Prob- ably the pupil will have more need of this and the following form than of the two preceding, for in the- busy world of men there is daily need of explaining new things or acts performed, such as the working of machinery, the meaning of a new plan or a new movement, etc. In community civics, for example, and in politics there is constant need of explanations and argu- ments. The following suggestions for studying wiU aid the pupil in making his work definite. Exposition must be clear. An explanation that needs to be explained is hardly an explanation at all. The language must be simple and easily understood. The process of explanation or exposition must be broken up into steps, each logically related to the other and all pre- senting a coherent, consistent analysis of the thing being ex- plained. This has already been discussed under Outlines. Exposition depends also upon careful definitions. To de- fine words or terms concisely and yet with a proper limiting of the meaning requires long practice. Pupils should study defining in their own language the experiences they acquire day by day. Supervising the Study of English Composition 233 Study headlines in newspapers, titles of chapters, subjects of lectures, advertisements and announcements for striking and terse summaries that are often vividly explanatory. Prac- tice writing such headlines. School and class mottoes are forms of the same type of explanation. Illustrate as often as possible by concrete cases analogies, comparisons, and contrasts selected from your own, but pref- erably from the auditor's experience. Diagrams, photographs, or drawings are serviceable in this coimection. Review your course without reference to book or notes, and write an exposition of some part of the subject. Practice com- menting on common day issues and note what your weaknesses are in such efforts. Study typical expositions for the author's method of begin- ning, classifying, developing, and ending his elaborate un- folding of the theme. d. How to study Argumentation. Pupils are more familiar with this kind of written composition under the term "de- bating." The difference between this and the preceding form lies chiefly in the purpose of each. Exposition explains some- thing that the reader is quite willing to accept as true, but ar- gumentation sets out to convince him by carefully presented points of facts that it must be true. The two types are not mutually exclusive, but overlap at many places. A few funda- mental rules should be observed. State clearly in the form of a simple declarative sentence the proposition to be proved. " Prieparedness is necessary for the future peace and prosperity of America " is a frequently heard statement in these days. It sets forth clearly something that is being widely debated and discussed. Select arguments in the brief that can be backed up by evi- 234 Supervised Study dence and authority. In arguing for reforms of any kind al- ways consider well whether the plan you propose is practicable. Will it work ? is a t3^ical American rebuttal to many specious arguments. Weigh the issues involved. Prepare a brief or elaborate outline of the arguments to be followed. A brief consists of complete sentence points rather than abbreviated statements employed in the usual outline. Each subpoint should support the main head of which it is a part and all main points should consistently support the orig- inal proposition. The following is a typical form : Brief Proper I. Football is good for the players physically, for A. It keeps the man out in the open air, for (i) They spend every afternoon at the athletic field. B. It requires a healthful diet, for (i) The athlete cannot eat pastry, and (2) He cannot eat between meals. C. It develops the muscles, for (i) The variety of plays develops the whole body. n. It is good for the players mentally, for A. It makes men think quickly, for (i) Unexpected plays are always happening. B. It makes the men resourceful, for (i) They need variety of plays, and (2) They need skiQ in each separate man. III. It is good for the players morally, for A. It develops courage, for (i) It is a dangerous game. B. It teaches self-control, for (i) A man must not be offside, and (2) A man must obey the umpire. Supervising the Study of English Composition 235 Conclusion Since football helps the players physically, mentally, and morally, it is a good thing and should be encouraged.^ In less formal argumentation there is no need of a brief. An editorial or article aiming to persuade the reader presents a series of carefxilly selected reasons for supporting this or that project. The pupil should study editorial writing in news- papers or magazines. 3. Supervising the Written Composition Work. The fore- going hints on how to study the four types of composition are merely suggestive of the kind of guidance that pupils need in this branch of their work. This forms part of the program of supervised study of English. A few important additional suggestions are necessary. a. There should be a minimum amount of written work. The bane of teachers and pupils is writing. A certain amount is necessary, but Lounsbury ^ has well said : " I am thoroughly convinced that altogether undue importance is attached to exercises in EngUsh Composition, especially compulsory exercises ; that the benefits to be derived from the general practice schools is vastly overrated ; that the criticism of themes, even when it is fully competent, is, in the majority of cases, of little value to the recipient ; that in a large number of instances the criticism is and must be more or less incompetent ; and that when the correc- tions which are made are made inefficiently and uninteUigently as is too often the case, the results are distinctly more harmful than helpful." 1 Canby and others, EngUsh Composition in Theory and Practice, pp. 175-176. ^"Compulsory Composition in Colleges," Harper's Magazine, November, 1911, Vol. CXXm, pp. 866-880, or Judd, op. cU., pp. 171-172. 236 Supervised Study b. " Editing to kill " and the " tragedy of red ink " are unwise means of developing style. Many English teachers allow the pupils for a month or more to write freely, idiomatically — even with slang — in order to encourage ease of expression. Gradually correction of mistakes is introduced, but not by covering the composition with red ink. Gammans ^ refers to his method : '■ I read the daily compositions of every pupil to the class, mak- ing corrections as forcibly as possible. Each pupil heard about his own particular errors or merits and those of the other members of the class. He seldom, however, saw his errors as no papers were handed back to him after the first few days. I think this is a point which aU teachers should consider. I have not been able to see that any pupils in secondary schools and in the freshman year of college receive much benefit from having their exercises returned to them with their mistakes underlined to be corrected, or corrected by the teacher. Its usual effect on the pupU who needs correction and help is to discourage, puzzle, and bore him. I attempted to be kind in making these corrections before the class and used no sarcasm." c. Reading the best compositions before the class, school, patron's leagues, or publishing them in local newspapers or in the school magazine provides the wholesome stimulus of an audience. d. A " standing " assignment, consisting of a large problem to investigate and report on from time to time, adds to the prac- tical value of composition work. Such problems are listed imder " How to Study Civics." e. To develop style requires many years. Only a little can be accomplished each term or each year. For this reason there 1 Op. cit. Supervising the Sitidy of English Composition 237 should be a stressing of certain fundamental factors in any- kind of writing; for example, quick preparedness to write, systematic collection of material, automatizing of simplicity, clearness, conciseness. The pupil should be trained to write minutes of meetings in correct form, letters of various kinds, social and business. The more elaborate and vocational kinds of writing should be introduced when the pupils are reason- ably certain of their choice of career, but there are forms of writing everybody should know, such as letters, orders, news items for publication, directions to friends coming on a visit but unacquainted with routes and locality. In a word, the pupil should be trained in the kind of writing that belongs to efficient citizenship. Sentence structure, punctuation, and the like can be developed through these media just as well as by means of the ordinary theme work. /. Mistakes calling for special attention should be reduced to a minimum. Throughout the four years or six years of the high school period the following common mistakes made by pupils shotild receive careful notice by a spiral method, — each year's work embracing drill in all of them but with lessen- ing amount throughout the years, except when the tenacity of these fatilts demands special drill. But aU such drill should take place in the quiet of the personal supervision between teacher and each pupil. Common Mistakes in English 1. Diction. 6. Agreement between subject 2. Locution. and predicate. 3. Slang. 7. Adjective for adverb and vice 4. Colloquialism. versa. 5. Case. 8. Misuse of shall and will. 238 Supervised Study 9. Sequence of tenses. 14. Imagery. 10. Participles. 15. Euphony. 11. Unity. 16. Form of discourse. 12. Coherence. 17. Ambiguity. 13. Figures of speech. 18. Spelling. It will be agreed that here is a large program. To cover all of these errors in one year and at the same time sustain inter- est is a comprehensive and discouraging task. It will be more feasible to select the mistakes most common and supervise the study of their corrections. g. Spelling should be studied mainly by drill in writing, pref- erably in sentence form rather than in word lists. The old- time spelling bee was unquestionably socially very important. The custom, however, of " spelling down " by means of hard words and hailing the victor as the best speller had its serious faults. The chief of these ignored the law that practice should follow as nearly as possible the channel of application and should have, as nearly as possible, a setting similar to that of the habit applied. Spelling is a part of written composition, and only rarely, as in dictation, is it employed orally. Indi- viduals who write correctly often find it difficult to spell orally quite common words. Another mistake of the spelling bee was the testing of spelling ability by long and unusual words. There is little need of such knowledge. Supervising the study of correct spelling of words in daily usage is all the teacher should aim to accomplish. B. Oral Composition. The emphasis long placed on written work in English has resulted in judging oral work as of secondary importance. Or, if not deemed of secondary im- portance, the methods of declamations and elocution have lowered it, in the opinion of the boys, especially, into a subject Supervising the Study of English Composition 239 suited only for girls. Oral composition has been limited to " public speaking " courses with the familiar and distressing exhibitions of school oratory and other forms of elocution. It is unfortunate, to say the least, that oral composition has not received the careful organization and method of teaching assigned written work. Most people speak more than they write, and many of them succeed or fail, largely because of skill or defects in ordinary conversation. Important as it is for individuals to be able to speak in pubHc, it is much more important that they understand the art and technic of con- versation or private speaking. It will not be out of place, therefore, to consider in this chapter some of the factors that should be noted in teaching pupils how to study oral composi- tion. I. How to study Oral Composition. As already indicated, oral discourse falls naturally into two divisions : {a) con- versation and discussion; (&) pubKc speaking which em- braces addresses, after-dinner speaking, debates, and artistic reading. a. Conversation and Discussion. One hears it often stated that conversationalists are bom, not made. Loose generaliza- tions of this sort based on the belief that achievements in any field are possible only to those whom the gods favor, result in extended mediocrity among the majority who, possessing less talent, could make praiseworthy use of their powers by careful training. To converse well involves among others the follow- ing factors : (i) Broad General Knowledge. Conversation must have a common ground. Each partner in the conversation must know something of what the other is speaking about. The broader one's culture, acquired through reading, observation, 240 Supervised Study or travel, the easier does it become to meet people of walks of life different from our own and to establish lines of intercourse that eventually lead to intimacy or friendship. The high school pupil, therefore, should be required to read newspapers every day, magazines, and the books generally read, so that he may have opinions on the facts or events discussed by the average individual. Visiting local industries and points of interest, noting with the reporter's — not the gossip's — keen sense of news, and appreciating the human interest in his environment will gradually enrich his store of common in- formation. (2) Special Knowledge. Each individual has, or should have, his own particular interests about which he should be able to talk with enthusiasm, conviction, and human appeal. Most of us are afraid of being enthusiastic ; it seems to lack dignity, but beneath intellectual refinement and conventional reserve there run the deep torrents of emotion that help to turn the wheels of progress, economically and socially. Dare to be original, — to be just different enough from other people to define the hmits between them and you. This need not lead to the free-lance attitude or to the pseudo-Bohemian dis- regard of necessary conformity to group standards. High school pupils should be encouraged to analyze what they like in others. This at first may be a difficult undertaking, but much of the difficulty is due to habitual neglect of this important treatment of acquaintances and friends. Each pupil should study or do something that eventually develops into either expertness or a certain amount of emi- nence, locally at least. He should be encouraged to speak about this chief interest at a social hour. One of the five hours each week during the four years that English teachers Supervising the Sttidy of English Composition 241 rightly insist upon having, might well be devoted to such class conversations. (3) Good Listening. The art of listening is just as important as that of speaking. The good listener pays close attention to what the other is saying, even though it may be somewhat boresome. How often one finds people who are eager to talk, but impatient, mind-wandering, indifferent while others speak. Half the battle in good conversation is to have an interested auditor whose facial expression and whole attitude respond to the rhythm, the thought, the intensity, or the mood of our remarks. The sympathetic Ustener who appreciates our points of view patiently waits for his time to speak, tactfully differs from our own opinions, and expresses in look or word praise without inordinate flattery, lubricates the wheels of verbal intercourse and not infrequently helps to evolve a bril- liant conversationalist. (4) Beginning and Closing a Conversation. Most of us be- gin with the weather. It has common interest. It is an easy preliminary to more vital topics. We ask about each other's health and less private experiences, and then launch out into a dialogue about some topic of mutual interest. The writer knows a brilliant conversationalist who rarely begins to talk about the weather. He makes it a point to select, after the first greeting, some beautiful picture or ornament in the room, and then leads the conversation into channels of art, and always seeks to leave some cheerful thought that makes his call an angel visit indeed. Others have seen something interesting or have heard something amusing that by a little skillful resetting dovetails easily in the other's life. A good story, a witty re- mark, an opinion on the leading news item of the day, a com- pliment on the appearance of the neighborhood, the children 242 Supervised Study (a splendid starting point in families with children), etc., are other means of beginning a conversation. In high school part of the English course might well deal with the various ways of beginning and closing conversations. We struggle over these problems in letter writing and in general composition. The good conversationalist makes a study of the personal Hkes and activities of other people. Conversation does not just happen. It is well prepared for, and after a time becomes easy and attractive. (5) The Attitude in Conversation. Should we be very formal, i.e., observe in detail a stiff, labored, technical attitude? Again, the caller must not allow conventionality on the one hand or overfamiliarity on the other to destroy individuality. We naturally stand in awe before great persons and usually should wait for them to direct the conversation. But it may happen that the great person is unable to adapt himself easily, and that, therefore, his embarrassment spoils what ought to be a most helpful meeting. Under such circumstances others should tactfully lead the conversa- tion, remembering that great people are very human and not at all indifferent to the sidelights on life led by their fellow men. The high school pupil should study correct form of social intercourse, the niceties of courteous behavior, and the cus- toms of different classes of society. Knowing them, he will be able to adapt himself more easily to the customary restraints of the occasion. A brief story to the point, a little dash of comment on a matter of pubUc interest, a friendly solicitude for the other's success, etc., — these little personal expressions can be made naturally and effectively even under the restric- tions of social form. Supervising the Study of English Composition 243 (6) The Voice in Conversation. Well modulated, clear, moderately slow, avoiding shrill pitch, or very loud speaking are a few of the important things to notice in the conversational voice. Avoid the affected accents, but speak pleasantly in a natural voice. Be yourself, not somebody whose voice you think very beautiful, but which becomes very unattractive when imitated by others without careful training. (7) Models of Conversation. Read conversations in biog- raphy and the best fiction. The foregoing suggestions apply in general to discussions. Courteous deference to others while they are speaking, ease, himian interest, definiteness, general information, together with a certain amount of expertness or exact information, are essential in any discussion of a more private character. b. Public Speaking. The former phase of oral composition is the more important for most people. But no one is wholly barred from the occasional invitation to speak in public. Ordi- narily it is assumed that professional speakers, such as lawyers, ministers, lecturers, and political candidates are the only ones who should know the " tricks of oratory." In a democracy, however, where each citizen has a voice and a vote in the government, he should be able to use the privilege of free speech to the best advantage. For this reason too much em- phasis cannot be placed on the importance of pubhc speaking as a part of the EngHsh courses in high school. (i) After-dinner Speaking. Many a good banquet has been lamentably spoiled by unskilled after-dinner speakers. The reason for the custom of indulging in this frequently doubtful practice lies mainly in the fact that after an individual has been well fed the resulting state of euphoria or well-being makes him more easily receptive to new ideas or to plan difl&- 244 Supervised Study cult undertakings. It is a social hour, and man is kindly disposed when seated with his fellows around the festal board. A good af ter-diimer speech, a course in the " feast of reason," is a fitting supplement to the material part of the hour. The occasion only rarely serves for an elaborate presentation of policies or projects. Usually the after-dinner speech is made up of felicitations, a good story, a brief eulogy (if oc- casion so requires), and a line or two of more serious matter. High school pupils, in connection with domestic science courses, might well be trained in this art at an occasional banquet served by the class in domestic science. They should observe the following rules in studying after-dinner speeches : Read model after-dinner speeches by Chauncey Depew, Simeon Ford, and others. Make the speeches appropriate to the occasion of the banquet. They should be brief, — rarely more than five minutes unless the speaker is the only one and has been ia\'ited to speak on an important subject at this occasion. A brief, pointed story is always in place and often is sufficient. Avoid flowery language, bombastic oratory, extravagant praise, and unbalanced personal pledges that commit one either beyond reasonable reaUzation or to sham and retrenching. The toastmaster should be addressed first and then the guest of honor if there is one. (2) Addresses. It is impossible here to discuss in detail the principles of preparing and delivering addresses. The high school pupil, however, will find it profitable in studying this topic to note the following principles : An address is prepared for many people and therefore should seek to interest not only the particular audience hearing it, but certain individuals in the audience. Supervising the Study of English Composition 245 Always speak to one person in the crowd. Aim to attract him, to convince him. Begin the address, if possible, with a reference to some incident of common interest to your audience. Begin where your audience is and lead them to where you are. DeUvery should be easy, not artificial. The following lines are often quoted as suggestive of a psychological approach : "Begin low. Proceed slow, Rise higher. Take fire. When most impressed, Be self-possessed, To spirit wed form. Sit down in a storm." The style of delivery developed in debating societies or by some teachers of elocution is most unfortunate. The author saw a ludicrous and at the same time pathetic illustration of this in the effort of a university graduate. He appeared before a large body of educators to present a very important organization. His face was flushed; he assumed the hackneyed posture of right foot forward, straight back, head up, hands at fixed angles grasping his notes. His opening sentences echoed the bombastic thunderings of an oratorical giant. For nearly ten minutes he continued in this vein and then quite unexpectedly descended to the realm of human discourse, continued in an earnest, rather informal manner, and finished his presentation with considerable force. The finished orator with polish, correct gestures, fine modulation of voice, and also something worth saying is always an attraction. But what is needed by the average citizen who does not aim to be a professional speaker is something less technical than this. He needs a strong, well-controlled voice, simple, forceful language. 246 Supervised Study appropriate gestures, and the knack of clinching a statement with an apt illustration. Gestures are as much a form of language as are speaking and writ- ing. The fist shaken in the presence of another is well under- stood ; the pointing finger, sweeping arm, shrug of the shoulders, wave of the hand, extension of the arms sUghtly bent, the tense projection of the arm with hand at right angles and palm away from the speaker are forceful and unmistakable. To ignore the training of gestures is a serious defect in most effective pubUc speaking. What should be avoided is that finesse and overdeUcacy of facial expression and posture that very properly belong to schools of expression or courses of artistic reading, but not to a general course in pubHc speaking as here defined. There is considerable truth in the statement that enthusiasm and earnestness employ correct gestures almost instinctively. To overemphasize gestures may lead the attention away from the subject matter of the speech to the form of it, and this results in artificial delivery. At first it is important to require pupils to write and to memorize their speeches, but very early they should be permitted to use only notes, and later to speak without any notes at all. It should be noted, however, that speaking from a few notes is cus- tomary even among the most celebrated orators. A small piece of paper with the main points and other reminders is not a serious hindrance. (3) How to prepare and use Notes in Public Speaking. The notes should be brief and clearly written; each point well separated from the others ; a small card about 2 x 3 is con- venient, with writing on one side only. If there are about ten paragraphs in the speech, it is helpful to note the opening line of each, or the main subject of each. The following notes on The Life of the Lumberjack illustrates the principles set forth : Supervising the Study of English Composition 247 I. Instinctive interests in wild life — illustrated in fiction. II. Description of the country. 230 miles north of Minneapolis; 150 miles west of Duluth. Long winters. In 1900 unbroken wilderness. III. The home of the wandering lumberjack. 50,000 of them. What is a lumberjack? Story of stranger. IV. The past Ufe of the average lumberjack. V. Description of his life. 1. Trip to camp; the forest; lost in snowstorm. 2. At the camp — the bull-cook ; cookie, etc. 3. Supper in a lonely cabin. VI. The lumberjack in town. 1. Life in saloons. 2. Hospital. 3. Employment agencies. VII. The lumberjack and modern industry. 1. The lumber industry. 2. Indian in woods. 3. Adventure with wild animals. In using the notes the speaker should seek to include more than one line at a time. While speaking on one point glance at the card to ascertain what comes next. This does away with the awkward pause while the speaker is looking for his next point. The notes should be as inconspicuous as possible. If there is no reading desk available, the card should be held in the left hand, the right, as a rule, being employed in gestures. c. Debating. Usually this is cared for in debating societies, and teachers are called upon for references, arguments, briefs, etc. The work is often done haphazardly. There are books a-plenty on debating, also pamphlets with topics and argu- ments and rules of debating. It is assumed in this chapter 248 Supervised Study that debating belongs to the English courses as a vital part of the classroom work, necessitating the teacher's supervision from beginning to end. A few suggestions are important. Debating is an exercise in reasoning. A simple study of rudi- mentary logic wovild be helpful. The fallacy of an opponent's argument can then be challenged. Arguments should be based on fact not mere opinion. Facts should be weighed by conditions that caused them. Sources should be carefully evaluated and accurately stated or readily available when needed. The topic must be very closely defined, and all argmnents must deal with the topic as defined. The practice of writing briefs (discussed on page 234) is im- portant for clear, logical, and fairly complete presentation of arguments. Pupils should be assigned lessons ia well-known debates and practice constructing their debates in agreement with the models selected. At first it is necessary for the pupil to memorize the opening speeches, but the aim should be to develop fluent and logical extem- poraneous speaking. This requires confidence, much knowledge, organization, and a fairly rich vocabulary. Speaking extempo- raneously is a habit formed by attentive repetition or frequent prac- tice in every subject. Help toward this end is derived from more elaborate answers to questions in every course. Rebuttal depends upon concentrated attention to everything the opponent says. The keen debater wiU detect misapphcations or misstatements of facts, wrong inferences, and poor judgment in the stressing of unimportant points. Practice in meeting argu- ments, criticizing statements, challenging opinions, and conclusions should form part of the pupil's work in every course of the high school. It involves thinking, and this in turn rests upon rich information. The critical attitude develops slowly, but it should Supervising the Study of English Composition 249 be a fascinating part of the teacher's work to excite pupils to criticize in a Uvely, fair, impersonal, and constructive manner. d. Artistic Reading. This has taken the place of the old- fashioned declamations or recitations, with profit to every- body concerned. Reading is a fine art and all art is interpre- tation. To read well depends upon the rudiments of sentence structure and sjonpathy with the author's point of view. Facial expression, simple gestures, restrained emotionalism, suggestive intonation, appropriate attitude that radiates an atmosphere, are all essential to the artistic performance in this field. Besides the rules suggested under public speaking the follow- ing are important in this connection : Understand as well as possible what the author means. Picture as vividly as imagination based on knowledge permits what each character looks like and probably feels under the cir- cumstances of the story. Avoid overacting, ranting, tragical postures. Select for reading what you can do well. Never attempt a reading that others give if you are reasonably sure it is beyond your ability. If a book or manuscript is used, know most of it without refer- ring to the book. Turn the pages very quietly and as secretly as possible. Simple stage setting, such as table, chair, lamp, is helpful, but depend mostly on your own interpretation to convey the picture. If your memory fails at any point, be determined to remain cahn ; invent appropriate phrases while you approach nearer to the prompter or the book. Never pause awkwardly. Act under all circumstances. Most of the audience will not detect the change of words, and those who do will sympathize with your difficulty. Select hopeful readings; avoid the morbid, the trashy, the repel- 250 Supervised Study lent. Make your performance a contribution to others' welfare as much as to their enjoyment. The program should be arranged on the foEowing principles, stated in their order of application on the program : Part I 1. Brief, cheerful, but not humorous selection. 2. A humorous reading — a George Ade fable, for example. 3. A simple romance — Gilbert Parker's " Sweethearts." 4. A thoughtful reading — Maeterlinck's " Blind Men" or Vai> Dyke's "Blue Flower." Part II 5. A pleasing bit of philosophy — "Mr. Dooley." 6. A stirring selection — "Laska." 7. A string of good jokes or a ghost story. 8. A brisk, happy, and also meaningful selection. The program should last about an hour and a half. Selec- tions can be abbreviated when necessary, and often for public reading it is advisable to make such excisions of long descrip- tions full of confusing detail. General Summary An attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate some of the ways and means whereby courses in written and oral composition may be organized to serve legitimately cultural and practical ends. Supervising the study of English is, after all, principally a matter of supplying wholesome motivation and directing the pupil in worthwhile applications all along the line. The writer feels that what is needed is constructive Supervising the Study of English Composition 251 criticism and courage to break with the past in English work. What has been suggested in this chapter, especially, aims to stimulate teachers to make their courses different from others in maimer of approach, development, and application. Eng- lish is practical and must be supervised mainly from this point of view. Composition work is much like modeling in clay. There must be the raw material, properly mixed, deposited on the board, roughly pinched, pounded, and thiombed here and there before the finer work begins. First knowledge ; then careful selection of topics of individual interest, the rough sketching of the first draft; and then frequent revision, improvement, and finally achievement. This is true of both the written and the oral forms of composition. CHAPTER X SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF HISTORY I. The Pupil's Attitude It is the irony of educational fate that what ought to be the most fascinating subject in the school program is all too often regarded by pupils as uninteresting and even useless. It is a mere platitude to remind ourselves of the fact that the aver- age and normal high school pupil is deeply moved by adven- ture and romance. An historical novel or romance with royalty and courtiers, beautiful princesses and bold soldier- heroes appeals to the social and sex instincts of young people. This is granted, and under proper conditions should be en- couraged. But can any novel or romance be more thrilling than many periods of history ? Modern industry, invention, institutions, and customs originated and have been evolved under circumstances " stranger than fiction," but the glory of this fact somehow fails to arouse the high school pupil. I. Pupils' Reasons for Disliking History. Wayland ^ cites a few reasons for pupils' disliking history. The pupils them- selves gave these reasons : I did not find it interesting. I had never seen any historical places. I did not know why I was studying it. > Bow to Teach American History, Chapter XVII, 1915. 2.52 Supervising the Study of History 253 My teacher did not like it. I was entered too high. I was given a book too hard for me. Other pupils stated that the teacher simply heard the lesson ; other teachers taught only facts and dates without any stories or interesting things. Apparently the main criticism in all of these replies is that somehow the teacher failed to make history athrill with life interest. In a recent investigation J. C. Brown and J. H. Minnick ^ found that dislike and lack of usefulness were the prevailing reasons for boys' and girls' wanting to drop Latin, art, manual training, mathematics, and history. 2 . A New Point of View needed in Studying History. High school teachers are not wholly, nor perhaps chiefly, to blame for this condition. The course of study in history and a stubborn community loyalty to traditional subjects are in part responsible. The overcrowding of the program of studies with many additions but rare ehmination of subjects is another reason. Under crowded schedules of required and elective courses, with the effort to maintain some sort of continuity or sequence of courses, ancient, medieval, modern, and Eng- lish or American history cannot be studied by every pupil. The consequence is that pupils elect one of these together with the required American history, but, lacking the other departments of history, fail to obtain the needful background or continuity, without which historical study is indeed con- fusing or narrow. The pupil fails to see history big with world meaning and electric with hfe movements ! Another reason for the pupil's lack of interest in history is due to what has been called the encyclopedic method of ' Op. cit, pp. 527-545- 254 Supervised Study teaching and study. Too many details are included in the course. There seems to be wanting a careful balancing of men and events. Judd calls attention to the fact that too much time is spent on ancient and medieval history to the neglect of what the normal pupil is vitally interested in — namely, modern and contemporaneous history. The pupil becomes lost in a wilderness of dates, names, battles, reigns, royal houses. He sees facts like archipelagoes, scattered without apparent relationships. When his course is finished, he cannot feel sure that history means something definite. Two striking attempts have been made to reduce the number of facts required in elementary American history. The Report of the Committee on Elementary Course of Study of the Minnesota Educational Association, Bulletin No. 51, March, 1914, contains the following suggestive list, introduced by the following important statement : Exact dates are of secondary importance and events should be related in time to one another. For purposes of examination orJy the following dates should be required : 1. 1000 (about) Norse discovery of America. 2. 1492 The discovery of America. 3. 1519-21 Magellan sails around the world. 4. 1607 Settlement of Jamestown. 5. 1619 Slavery introduced into Virginia. 6. 1620 The Pilgrims land at Plymouth. 7. 1643 The confederation of the New England colonies formed. 8. 1754 Colonial Congress at Albany and Franklin's Plan of Union. 9. 1759 Wolfe captures Quebec. Supervising the Study of History 255 10. 1765 Passage of the Stamp Act and the meeting of the Stamp Act Congress. Battles of Lexington and Concord and of Bunker Hill. Declaration of Independence. The surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga. Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. First Congress assembled in New York. Washington inaugurated President. Cotton-gin invented by Eli Whitney. Louisiana purchased from France. First trip of Fulton's steamboat. War declared against England. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. Missouri Compromise adopted by Congress. Monroe Doctrine announced. First railroad built in the United States. First telegraph line estabhshed. Invention of the sewing machine. War with Mexico. Discovery of gold in California. Clay's Compromise adopted by Congress. Minnesota admitted to the Union. Succession of the South. Battle between the Merrimac and Monitor. Emancipation Proclamation. Battle of Gettysburg. Battle of Vicksburg. First Atlantic cable completed. First telephone patented. Electric light invented. 36. 1898 War declared against Spain. Battle of Manila. 37. 1903 First wireless message sent across the Atlantic. First message sent by the Pacific cable. II. 177s 12. 1776 13- 1777 14. 1781 IS- 1789 16. 1793 17- 1803 18. 1807 19. 1812 20. 1813 21. 1820 22. 1823 23- 1826 24. 1844 25- 1846 26. 1846-48 27. 1848 28. 1850 29. 1858 30- 1861 31- 1862 32- 1863 33- 1866 34- 1867 35- 1878 256 Supervised Stiidy Another list compiled from seventy-three replies, and ranked in the order of their most frequently stated evaluation, shows an interesting selection of dates regarded as important in American history in the elementary school.' Rank Date Evaluation Index Rank Date Evaidation Index I 1776 1323 17 1775 585- 2 1492 1261 18 1 781 584 3 1607 1163 19 1823 526 4 1789 IIOO 20 1846 470- S 1620 961 21 1628 467 6 1803 955 22 1754 421 7 1861 (Apr. 14) 901 23 186s (Apr. 14) 389 8 1787 821 24 1688 373 9 1863 (Jan. i) 808 25 1857 354 10 1820 793 26 1588 301 II 1812 752 27 1863 (July 7) 299 12 176s 629 28 /1522 13 1783 618 \1778 250 14 1865 (Apr. 9) 601 29 1867 185 IS 1850 591 30 188s 175 16 i8S4 59° An interesting fact iq connection with this composite list is that Professors Albert BushneU Hart and Edward Chan- ning (two eminent historians) placed the dates in essentially the same order by independent judgment. Professor Charles A. McMurry believes that what is needed in every subject is a few large t)rpe lessons, rather than a re- duction of dates or events. History should be studied from the institution point of view ; as, for example, The Rise of Liberty, The Development of World Federation, The Evolu- tion of Congress, The Expansion of Trade, The Growth of • School and Home Educ(Uion, December, 1914. Supervising the Study of History 257 Industry, The Progress of Education, The Emancipation oi Woman. 3. Educational Value of History. The foregoing references to conditions universally present in high schools suggest that it is necessary for teachers of history to have before them a very definite aim in arousing interest in and supervising study. Many suggestions and opinions have been expressed. They may be summarized under the following list of aims in the teaching of history : (a) To interpret the meaning of modern institutions by tracing in bold strokes their origin and evolution. (b) To appeal to the pupil's interest in his feUow man by acquainting him with the great characters, illustrious deeds of the past, and stressing the important fact that men in early times were dominated in the main by motives and passions similar to our own. This should lead to sympathetic criticism and sane emulation. (c) To study facts accurately and always in historical relationships. Isolated facts, says Bushnell Hart, are not in themselves history. (d) To arouse a healthful nationalism by acquainting the pupil with viewpoints, customs, traditions, tendencies, and ideals of other nations in contact with which his own nation should and must undergo readjustments. Patriotism that is blind to the good and even superiority in some respects of other countries is narrow and anti-social. True patriotism must always be embossed on a s3Tnpathetic cosmopolitanism. This is especially significant in these days of portentous scene shiftings on the stage of Europe. (e) To train the pupil to organize historical data into large concepts or historical ideas so that liberty, state, politics, 258 Supervised Study classes, democracy, etc., loom up as large and rich world ideas, long changing and ever swinging into new meanings. II. The Aims and Coeilesponding General Methods Professor Albert BushneU Hart ^ groups aims and methods in history in a suggestive way which may be tabulated as follows : AIM METHOD 1. The study of facts and the Study of textbook; recitations. meaning of their grouping. 2. The study of relationships Lectures or talks by teacher. between facts. (Exposition.) 3. The study of organized facts Topical method or problem assign- in logical outlines. ment. 4. Historical critical judgment. PupU's discovery of topics and extensive outside reading. in. How Pupils study History Before attempting in some detail an analysis of how the study of history should be supervised, it will be suggestive to review briefly reports on how pupils at present are trying to master this subject. I. Johnson's Report. Johnson, in the report already cited in Chapter VII, summarizes his findings as follows. Arranged in the order of their frequency, pupils study history by a. Repeated readings. b. Selecting important topics. (Giles found that about 81 per cent of his pupils did this.) c. Reflecting upon the lesson. d. Reciting to oneself. • Judd, Psychology of High School Subjects, 1915, p. 374. Supervising the Study of History 259 e. Reciting to pupils. /. Imagining place and events. g. Making a map. h. Writing down the lesson. i. Remembering one event by another that occurred at the same time or is otherwise related. 2. Rickaxd's Investigation. Rickard in his study cites the methods employed by a pupil age twelve in Grade 7 A. a. I read lesson over. b. I read about it in other books. c. I look up words I do not understand. d. I then make an outline of paragraphs and look up each topic. Special Devices a. I put myself in the place of one of the characters in the lesson. b. I shut my eyes and think of it as a picture, one scene at a time. c. Sometimes in battles, I read the battle over, then draw a plan of the battle. d. I locate in the geography places mentioned. Another pupil, Grade 10 A, referred to in Rickard 's report, describes her method in studying Roman history. (a) I read each separate paragraph and get the main points. (6) I discuss to myself freely the main points and their relation to other parts. (c) I read it all over again to be sure I have not missed a single point. (d) If I come to a word I don't understand, I look it up. (e) I locate in the atlas every city and country mentioned. The following special devices mentioned in Rickard's article indicate to what pains some pupils will go to master historical detail: 26o Supervised Study "I try to connect the names of men with places on the map. "I write down all dates and events which happened at that time beside them. "I use a rhyme for remembering dates, which I make up myself. "I use sums of money for important dates. I think of myself as having that many dollars." The reader of the foregoing methods has doubtless been impressed with the fact that very little of the work described is synthetic. It is primarily detailed and analytical, factual rather than conceptual. Pupils are strained to grasp the minutiae and, so far as the reports go, seem unaware of the need of achieving an organization in which only a few large truss-like facts, resting on firm piers of causes, span the centuries of human progress. IV. SuPERYISESfG THE STUDYING OF HISTORY During the study period, whatever type of organized study employed, the teacher's main task is to prevent the pupils from emplojong wasteful and unsuccessful methods. The routine of each period must be left to the teacher's judgment. Some days it will certainly be unnecessary to spend much time on detailed supervision, but, instead, considerable time on presenting, clearly and briefly, the meaning of some period or great historical occurrence, like the Thirty Years' War or the Feudal System, with these meanings illuminated by analogies in present-day circumstances. There can be no fixed time Umit, no set rules, always to be observed. The truly successful teacher must be as independent in judgment as a blue-ribbon cook or a tailor de luxe. I. Rickard's Analysis. Attempts are being made to analyze the mental processes involved in studying the various sub- Supervising the Study of History 261 jects. One of the most successful of these analyses is that by Mr. Rickard. His analysis, which follows, deserves care- ful study. Mental Process involved in the Study of History A. Association: 1. Of dates with events. 2. Of the names of persons with events or vice versa. 3. Of events and names with places — names and location of same on maps. 4. By causal sequence — an event or events leading to an event or events. 5. By similarity — comparison and contrast. B. Analysis which involves : 1. The acquisition of the proper concept of new and technical terms around which concept future mental experience can be crystallized. 2. Discrimination as to the importance of events and their interrelations. 3. Resolution of a general concept into the elements which com- pose it. (Example, the term "Federahsm" maybe resolved into the social, political, and economic elements which characterize it as an institution.) C. Synthesis the reverse of analysis, involving on lower levels : 1. The teUing of a story so as to tell all the important elements in order. 2. The grouping of sentences to develop a topical sentence. 3. The grouping of subtopics to develop a general topic on somewhat higher levels. 4. The grouping of characteristics into special tendencies. 5. The orderly arrangement of data, gathered from the text, collateral reading, or source material into these. 262 Supervised Study 2. The Dictionary Habit. The pupils should know in the beginning of the course the meanings of the terms com- monly found in history : " epoch," " age," " century," " period," " decade," " campaign," " movement " being such terms. There should be frequent recourse to dictionaries, or better still in the assignment, to save time, new terms should be defined either on the board or on mimeographed lists. 3. Steps in the Cultivation of Imagination and Feeling. a. Dramatic performance once a month in conjimction with English, domestic science, and ipanual training depart- ments, the former constructing the play and designing cos- tumes, the latter building properties. If an art department is available, its cooperation in decorations and designing of scenes would be invaluable. Pageants are an excellent varia- tion of dramatic performance. b. Assigning in each big unit of instruction or topic histori- cal characters to various pupils who will retain these charac- ters during the respective units of instruction. Each pupil should read, as extensively as opportunity allows, supple- mentary material on his character. c. Correlation of English, music (state, national, and school songs), and the special phases of modern hfe in its industrial, commercial, religious, educational, and social applications. d. Employing local history ; building tablets or monu- ments; having special days for unveiling these or doing so as part of Commencement Day. e. A history museum, history scrapbooks, discriminate library work. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the importance of a wise use of the library for general work and also for the special study of local history. Mr. W. Dawson Supervising the Study of History 263 Johnston ^ refers to the stimulating method employed in Springfield, Mass., where the pubhc library publishes an eight-page folder of pocket size containing questions that pertain to Springfield history and a list of books in which answers to the questions might be found. The list is called " Springfield in Early Days." History clubs are not a new type of supplementary instruc- tion, but in connection with high school work they can prove to be very effective. The high school is perhaps over- supplied with organizations, but there would be a distinct advantage in having the best pupils meet twice a month to study local history, including the history of the state. At such meetings there could be presented multigraphed copies of old newspaper articles, facsimiles of old documents, per- sonalia of the pioneers, special programs covering exploration, settlement, development, and rebuilding, and also legends, ballads, and traditions of local and state history. The club meetiiigs should be, of course, informal. Membership might be determined by election, members being selected from pupils attaining a certain standing in the formal class work. Social and refreshment features, occasional stereopticon lectures or plays dealing with local historical data would prove stimulating additions. Such clubs would be excellent means of fostering community activities, energizing the social center movement in rural districts. Parents, teachers, and pupils would here mingle. Local community pride might be aroused to emulation and progress by this means. 4. Organization of Material. It has already been stated that pupils have more difficulty in acquiring a big and definite conception of historical events than in memorizing particular ' School and Society, July 3, 1915. 264 Supervised Study facts. Most of the effort in the supervision of study will, therefore, be concerned with training pupils to think in history. Their first knowledge of data must be accurate ; the causes and occasions of events must be clearly associated with these facts. This logical framework will include not simply the data of one nation, but international relations must be understood by careful analysis, comparison, and grouping of events. All this means organization of material, and or- ganization involves clear, logical thinking. a. In Chapter VII it was shown how the parallel type of outline is convenient for historical study, especially for the comparison of reigns. This outline form is serviceable also in the sketching of the rise of institutions, the simultaneous beginning and parallel development of historical reforms, such as the Renaissance in Italy and Germany and in England ; the Reformation in Germany, France, and England; the American and the French Revolutions. The pupil must be able to trace the origin and to contrast the different lines of progress of the Renaissance, and must know how this movement affected the Reformation in various ways and eventually led to the American Revolution and in turn to the French struggle against the Bourbons. The details of the web of circumstances must be seen over against one another, and then all together as a large section in the span of historical progress. The parallel outline serves this purpose very well. b. Dr. Wayland ^ cites numerous mnemonic devices that have proved helpful in the inevitable memory work in history. He refers especially to the Alliterative or Euphonious Outline, of which two illustrations are here given : 1 Op. cit. Supervising the Study of History 265 FOUR STAGES OF AMERICAN HISTORY I. Struggle for Life, 1492-1789 II. Struggle of Factions, 1789-1820 III. Struggle of Sections, 1820-1877 rV. Struggle of Classes, 1877- THREE STAGES OF AMERICAN HISTORY I. Construction, 17 76-1 789 II. Destruction, 1860-1865 III. Reconstruction, 1865-1877 c. A suggestive method of bringing out the foregoing details is used by Rickard.^ His directions are as follows : Directions for Studying History When you take up a book what do you see? The first thing you will notice is that there are certain lines in very heavy type. These were put in heavy type in order that your attention may be called to them. Sometimes there are Unes in heavy type through the middle of the page, and then Unes in the same type at the sides. This usually means that the author has wished to call your atten- tion to certain subtopics which bear upon or re-enforce the general topic. You should find what the words of these heavy lines mean. If there are imfamiUar words, look them up in a dictionary. Try to change these hnes into your own words ; say them to yourself until you are sure you know the general topic, and the subtopics. Ask yourself in each case how these subtopics are related to the general topic outlined at the beginning of the chapter. In order 1 The author is indebted for many suggestions sent to him by Mr. Rickard, who generously made available for this book several data on an investigation in the supervising of the study of history in the high school of Oakland City, Ind. 266 Supervised Study to do this one must proceed to the subject matter of the text. One will find there first of all indentations which indicate the begin- ning of a paragraph. If you will search carefully, you will find in each paragraph one sentence which is the key to the thought ex- pressed in that paragraph. When you have found this key sen- tence underscore it or write it down in a brief memorandum. These memoranda in turn will be subtopics under the subtopics which were in heavy tjpt. Strive constantly to see how the topical sentences are related to the subtopics and these in turn to the more general topics. If the author uses unf amihar words look them up ; if he mentions places, find them on a map ; if he mentions persons, turn to the back of the book. Find where the person has been mentioned before, and refresh your mind in regard to him, or consult additional reference. After doing this reread the statement made by the author and try making the statement in your own words. Try constantly to connect names and places. Write them in groups if possible, or write, for example, the EngHsh and French leaders in the Hundred Years' War in parallel columns. Think of men as stationed on a map or moving from place to place in campaigns. Get the picture with your eyes closed. Most events in history have a cause or causes, or conditions leading to, or events leading to. Ask yourself constantly what the causes of a given event are. Set them down in one, two, three order. Say them to yourself until you know them, and see clearly their relation to the result produced. Imagine yourself as a teacher and ask yourself questions ; then find the answers. As a rule only a few dates will be assigned you, but these should be associated with their proper events and learned as thoroughly as a multiplication table. Don't be content with doing these things on one occasion, but with your book closed try to call up the important points, places, and persons, and their relation one to the others. Supervising the Study of History 267 Have the will to learn. The briUiant boy who finds it more agreeable to bluff a lesson than to prepare it, soon becomes incapable to the point of dullness. The least brilliant of you, by careful methods of study, canbecome an effective and satisfactory student. 5. Reviews and Summaries. The chief value of reviews lies in the accompanying necessity of reorganizing the subject matter. Outlines each day contain the pupil's interpretation of the text with possibly material from other sources inter- woven. The review embraces everything included in the particular unit of instruction. It is fundamentally im- portant to have well-planned reviews at the close of each large topic studied in order to sum up and evaluate the various facts. For this reason reviews should be a. Selective not Exhaustive. Details, unless of fundamental importance, should now be disregarded. What is needed is a clear and broad conception of this section of material. The pupil must have a perspective of the road traveled. i. New Views. Reviews are not drill lessons ; not simply a repetition of statements and facts studied day by day. Facts must now be viewed again from new angles, in the light of material that followed. This means that daily assignments will now be reset, so to speak, picked out of their little mold, and assembled with others into a big idea, a clear understanding of what particular events meant at the time. It ought to be evident that this is not the teacher's task alone ; it is primarily the pupil's test of how he has learned history. If he can interpret this large topic, he will be pre- pared to take up what follows. c. Vitalized by Association with Some Present-day Truth or Problem. In other words, the best way to cKnch a review is by some speci&c application or by some method of expres- 268 Supervised Study sion that indicates the value, the worthwhileness of the re- view. The day of reviewing can be made a " Red Letter Lesson" — an unforgettable revelation of how history after all is a huge story of men and women with origins, natures, development, ideals, faults, like men and women of to-day. Various methods to make this possible have been suggested. Superintendent E. E. Smith of South Richmond, Va., em- ploys the following type of organization in the Bainbridge Junior High School : Larger Problems Roosevelt and Jackson Compared and Contrasted. (See Bassett, A Short History of the United States, Chapter XL — "The Administrations of Roosevelt and Taft.") Are we affected by the outcome of many of the events of this period? METHOD or STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS Characteristics of the two men contrasted and compared : In fighting spirit : In actual warfare, one was the Hero of San Juan and the other the Hero of New Orleans. In administrative affairs of the government : The fight against the corporations — Roosevelt. The fight for election after 1824 — Jackson. The fight against fraud — Roosevelt. The fight for the establishment of Democratic principles. Opposition to American System and National Bank — Jackson. In tendency to use irregular methods : Both were extremely democratic in their method of appealing to the masses. Supervising the SUidy of History 269 In choice of advisers — Roosevelt's "Tennis Cabinet" and Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet." The "Big Stick" wielded when nothing else would avail. Witness Roosevelt's taking the Canal Zone, putting Taft in office, and dictating of poUcies to his party. Witness Jackson's hanging the Englishman in Florida, man- agement of the Creek Indian Affair, introduction of the spoils system, method of doing away with the National Bank, and putting Van Buren into the presidency. In fearlessness : Roosevelt settles the coal strike in spite of its effect on his or his party's ambition. Roosevelt probes the postal scandal. Roosevelt inaugurates strict civil service. Jackson handles nullification in South Carolina in spite of his personal view in regard to tariff. The outcome of their influence on their respective times : Roosevelt caused the beginning of an era of investigation by the government, a revolution in his party, and defeat of Taft. Jackson caused a temporary financial disarrangement in Van Buren's time, an organized treasury, and the defeat of Van Buren. The idea of popular government gained a stronger footing in the popular mind. BIBLIOGRAPHY McKinley's Outhne — Topics U 24 and 25. Bassett, A Short History of the United States, Chapter XL. Periodicals of 191 2. d. Methods of Reviewing. (i) Biographical — Pupils are assigned important names in the field of history just covered. Special reports are made on these, either by individuals or by groups. 270 Supervised Study (2) Contests such as history, spelling, officer, geographical, map-drawing, the class being divided into two sides, with leaders, much as in the old-time spelling bee.' (3) Topical outlines, newspaper squibs or articles, orations, dramatic performance or pageant. (4) Review questions by teacher or by pupil or by both. 6. Suggested Directions to Pupils for the Study of History. It would be helpful if history teachers prepared a chart like the following directions by Rickard and hung it in clear view of the class. Directions to Pupils for the Study of History 1. Only a few of the most important dates will be assigned, but these should be connected with their proper event and learned as thoroughly as a multipUcation table. 2. Write out and pronounce aU proper names. Try to connect each name with some place and some event. 3. Use map, dictionary, and additional reference for every loca- tion and word you are not sure of. 4. Try to find the cause or causes of each event. 5. In comparison and contrast set down likenesses and differ- ences point by point in parallel columns. 6. Ask yourself continually what the most important events in your lesson are and why. 7. Tell the story of your lesson to yourself in detail and in order. Be sure to use any term you have recently learned the meaning of. 8. After reading each paragraph ask yourself, "How is this paragraph related to the chapter heading ? " g. Jot down a brief memorandum of the points of each lesson which you regard as especially important. ' Wayland has an excellent list of suggestions on conducting reviews. Supervising the Study of History 271 V. Common Difficulties and Faults among the Pupils STUDYING History The study supervisor, like a good locomotive engineer, must know the track, its rise, fall, curves, weaknesses, etc. There is a variety of deficiencies among pupils, a knowledge of which would help the teacher to make more effective assign- ments. These difficulties and faults can be listed briefly as follows : 1 . Wrong inferences. 2. Confused knowledge. 3. Inaccurate statements. 4. Misspelling of names with consequent confusion. 5. Paucity of language. 6. Loose generalities. 7. Blunt historical sense. 8. Memorizing of too many details. 9. Uncertain conception of relationships. 10. Inability to weigh or evaluate material. 11. Failure to evolve a brief and clear scheme of organization either by outline or summaries. 12. Too much copying in notebooks. 13. Too little correlation with other subjects. 14. A narrow view or a one-sided point of view. History should be studied from several angles, industrial, educational, etc., as well as political. VI. The Technic of a Supervised Study Period in History In order to illustrate some of the foregoing material and at the same time summarize the various points in this chap- ter the following plan, evolved by Dr. J. L. Merriam of the 272 Supervised Study University of Missouri, is presented as a most excellent procedure. University High School — Ancient History — 8 O'clock Outline of Lesson Plan — Jan. 30, 1913 Text in use : Westerman, Story of Ancient Nations Prepared by Eleanor Wilkes General problem for this period : To see how Greece is at last united in an offensive policy against Persia by Macedon — Para- graphs 238-245. 1. Rise of Macedon under Philip. Text, paragraphs 238-240. IFUng — Source Book — pp. 286-294. Goodspeed — p. 191, etc. Bury — pp. 555-561. 2. Thoughts of the times on the proposed unity under Macedon. Text, paragraphs 240-243. f Goodspeed — p. 191, etc. I Bury, pp. 704-705, 716, 744, 583-585, etc. 3. Macedon unites Greece for offensive vs. Persia. Text, paragraphs 243-245. (Fling — pp. 286-294. Bury. Oman, etc. I. Recitation. A. On class study of previous day. Rise of Macedon under Philip. I. Compare the old Macedon with: a. Athens — r Athens civilized — shown in government, culture. I Macedon barbarian — shown in government, culture. 6. Sparta — f Sparta civilized. I Macedon barbarian — government was much the same, but Sparta's was more organized. Supervising the Study of History 273 Illustration in America — Compare old Macedon with American Indians. 2. Give reasons why Macedon had not developed before : a. Macedon separated from Oriental civilization. b. Separated from Greece by mountains. c. Macedon had a few good seaports. d. Macedon had no good leader. 3. Explain why Macedon grew in the time of Philip : a. Increased means of communication with other peoples since contact with Persia. b. As a consequence, Greek and Oriental culture filtered into Macedon. c. Greece weakened by wars. d. Leadership of Philip. 4. Explain Phihp's policies in organizing his kingdom : a. To organize scattered tribes into a nation. b. To form a standing army. c. To gain an outlet to ^gean Sea. d. Ultimately to unite Greece with Macedon for a war with Persia. B. Questions (on the advanced reading which was assigned the pre- vious day. These are to be factual questions. Books still closed) . 1. What two parties appeared in Athens on account of Phihp's pohcy ? 2. Who represented these parties? 3. What means did these men use to spread their ideas? 4. Tell something of the hfe of (a) Demosthenes ; (b) Isocrates. II. Class Study. (Books open.) Thoughts of the time on the proposed units under Macedon. To show the effect of contemporary theories upon the unity of Greece. 1. Demosthenes, his ideals and his party : a. Explain Demosthenes' ideas concerning the aggressive policies of Philip. 274 Supervised Study b. Why did he take the negative attitude against these poUcies? (i) He feared for the independence of Athens and Greece as a whole. (2) Could not see that Greece was incapable of uniting without foreign help, etc. c. What was the effect of Dem'osthenes' views on Athens? Strong party developed vs. PhiUp. 2. Isocrates, his ideals and his party : a. Explain the judgment of Isocrates concerning Philip's aggressive policy. . - b. Why did he want the leadership of Phihp in Greece? (i) He saw that Greece was weakened. (2) He saw that there was no leader in Greece like Philip. (3) PhiUp alone could give Greece a national enterprise. (4) This was the only hope of an effective alliance against Persia. c. Compare patriotism of Demosthenes with that of Isocrates. J Demosthenes loyal to Athens. [ Isocrates loyal to Greece as a whole. d. Let us see what effect the beliefs of Isocrates had at Athens. (A strong Macedonian party developed in Greece.) e. Let us see how the new education at Athens effected the spread of these respective beUefs. (Oratory, rhetoric, etc.) III. Assignment. I. On class study: a. Give three reasons why one could say that Demos- thenes stood for the Old Greek ideals. b. Give three reasons why one could say that Isocrates stood for the New Greek ideals. Supervising the Study of History 275 c. Discuss why it was thought that Macedon should be the leader in the wars vs. Persia. Advanced Reading : Text, paragraphs 243-245. (See also reference at first of this section.) Purpose of advanced reading: To show : I. How Greece at last united under Macedon. 2. How the policy now changed from the de- fensive to the offensive. CHAPTER XI SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF CIVICS I. The Present Significance of the Subject The criticism quite generally expressed against history as being uninteresting and useless cannot be directed against the studying of civics, for here we are concerned with the immediate surroundings of Kfe, community conditions that favor or harm personal growth in a variety of ways. There ought not to be any difficulty in securing proper motivation in this subject. Citizenship, social welfare, intimate knowl- edge of local conditions, good roads, etc., are live topics. Civics, perhaps more than any other subject except the purely manual, should spend less time upon textbook and reading matter and more upon excursions, tours of observation, and purposeful visits to the several agencies of local community existence. The real value of civics as a school subject lies in first-hand knowledge of how group Ufe is organized, not merely in the immediate home environment of the pupil but elsewhere as well, and of how Ufe at home is intimately tied up with life away from home. It is a study of the purpose, the nature, the methods, the ultimate possibilities or ideals of citizenship as a practical and forceful element in human progress. 276 Supervising the Study of Civics 277 II. How TO SECURE INTEREST IN CiVICS Interesting in itself, just as history is, civics can become dry and seem useless unless certain factors or elements of the subject are especially made appealing. In a recent bulletin ^ it is suggested that the following topics form the units of in- struction in civics: (i) health; (2) protection of life and property; (3) recreation; (4) education; (5) civic beauty; (6) wealth; (7) communication; (8) transportation; (9) migration; (10) charities; (11) correction. In addition to the foregoing the organization and financing of governmental and of voluntary agencies are included. It will be noted that each one of these topics is alive and possesses interest for the average wide-awake young person in the high school. There is, then, no need of struggling to form an interest, already existing ; but there is great need of directing it into worthwhile effort. The pupil should at the very outset have a perspective, a panorama, a preview of the course. He should glimpse on the first day the entrancing points of interest offered in this subject. Moreover, it should be impressed upon the pupils at the beginning of the study that civics is peculiarly a subject that appeals to the individual, to his responsibility, his resourcefulness, his development, his enrollment, and his cooperation in the forces of civic im- provement. III. Methods of Stxidying Civics The study hall of civics is the entire community. No one can derive any great amount of benefit from the mere reading ' The Teaching of Community Civics, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 191S, No. 23, Whole No. 650, price 10 ji, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. 278 Supervised Study of a textbook on civics. At best it deals only with principles, but, primarily, civics is a laboratory study, a study of life conditions as they are, not mere copies or pictures of life's needs and problems. I. Group Assignments. The topics are so many and the time so short that it will be necessary to assign small groups of three or four pupils special problems for investigation and report. A partial list of such topics is here given : a. Better Roads. b. New Viaducts, Culverts, Bridges. c. Playgrounds. d. Athletics, including tennis courts,' basket ball, baseball, cross-country rimning. e. Advertisements. A study of signboards in town, along country roads, on vacant and occupied buildings, windows, sidewalks, posts, poles, trees. The character of these, samples or pictures of them — all this leading to the recom- mendation of a pubhc advertising center, properly arranged and maintained. /. Amusements. Study of the moving-picture shows, classes of subjects shown, niunber attending, amount spent, who attend, etc., with recommendations for improved lighting, better screens, better lanterns, better ventilation, more beautiful exterior, and a higher and more varied selection of films. Similar study of the theater, the circus, the county fair. g. Church Life. Membership of churches, how the churches are governed locally and at large, training of minister, Ust of subjects and texts he uses, what is done at prayer meetings, the church music, the appearance of the church (interior and exterior), how strangers are treated, does the church pay its Supervising the Study of Civics 279 minister a living salary, does it pay the salary on time, what organizations are maintained by the churches, what social service do they render, etc., with recommendations for changes, improvement, cooperation. h. Newspaper. Names of those subscribed for and read in the commrmity or county; kind of articles appearing; kind of news, advertisements, phases of Kfe included, and amoimt of space given to the various kinds of each; how papers are dehvered, — on time, with good wrappers, de- posited by the door or thrown in the yard where they are * easily lost ; cooperation of editor with civic improvement ; the political pohcy of the paper, who owns it, circulation, how often quoted in other papers ; is editor a public-spirited, educated person, etc. i. Club Life of the Community. Names of clubs, who belong, purpose of clubs, when do they meet; what good do they accomplish ; amount of money spent for dues, socials, chari- ties, etc. ; officers — who they are in society, in business, in church, etc. A list of these clubs, with relevant material published in pamphlet form or in the newspaper, would be an eye opener to some communities. j. Living Expenses. Food, clothing, Hght, heat, building, taxes, value of real estate, number of property owners, number of renters ; slum or alley or tenement sections ; number of automobiles owned, live stock, etc. Reports could be obtained from local dealers. The aggregate reports would show how much it costs the town to hve, — a most vital fact in civics. k. Educational Provisions. Schools, public and private, with running expenses itemized ; boy scouts, camp-fire girl organizations with membership and other details ; reading 28o Supervised Study circles, lectures, library facilities, number of books possessed, magazines taken, etc. These reports would show the in- tellectual standing of the community. I. Public and Private Health. Kinds of diseases treated, number of cases on physicians' books, amount spent on iU- health, local sanitariums if any, patients' probable causes of ill-health ; storage, markets, dairies, sewerage. m. Utilities. Light, water, travel, including amount spent on cars, trains, boats, bus or jitney, Hvery. n. Public Morals. Number of police, arrests, number and causes, jail conditions, court conditions, kinds of cases on docket. The foregoing indicate the immense possibilities of how civics may be kept alive and how the subject can be studied with maximum effectiveness. Teachers should possess the bulletin referred to, for a detailed statement of the wide variety of topics to be investigated. Pupils vmdertaking these assignments must have the co- operation of every citizen in the community. It is right and proper that these growing boys and girls should have first- hand knowledge of some of the Hf e conditions in their com- munity. When their time comes to vote and to hold office, their worth to society will be invaluable if back of patriotism there is more than sentiment, — intelHgent criticism based on facts. Mere theories and principles will not suffice. Facts are stubborn and explosive or compelling in quieter ways, but careful study of such civic facts is imperative in a sane and in- telligent democracy. Reports, presented and discussed, with evidence or exhibits will occupy the bulk of the course. Supplementary reading can be used for comparisons and interpretations. The best Supervising the Study of Civics 281 reports should be published in the local paper or in the high school magazine. 2. Current Topics. A most helpful variety of reports takes the form of Current Topics. The following method employed in the Bainbridge Junior High School of Richmond, Va., is an illustration of how civic information can be developed. Superintendent Smith submits the following report of the plan : a. Selecting the Time. At least one day in each week should be devoted to the consideration of current topics of social interest. Friday is often selected, since a resume of the week's happenings can be talked about, and because any publications containing current topics reach people on or about Thursday. The important thing, however, is to select a time and see to it that the pupils come prepared with something to say. Simply to say something is not the idea of the work. One period in history or civics can be devoted to this topic. If approval is given and more time is required, a portion of some other period might be added with much profit. h. Preparation by the Pupils. Pupils should bring to the class (i) some current periodical, or (2) some recent news- paper, or (3) some cHpping or clippings that they may have saved. c. Motive. The material presented should be of interest to the entire class. It should have value as instruction and a distinct social color. Pupils should decide on the merits of what is being presented, although it is sometimes necessary for the teacher to do so. As an example of the above, one pupil in the seventh grade presented the following item : "I see that X— has been the victim of a fortune teller. It reads 'Citizen of Richmond Fleeced; desires his money back.' " An account of the local unpleasantness followed. While many knew the man referred to, one of the pupils 282 Supervised Study arose and said kindly: "This is of little interest to us," and the matter was dropped. We are all agreed that children should be encouraged to read current topics and taught how to read them. But simply to read and talk about items of interest is not enough. If a class record is kept, it is of immense value. A class scrapbook containing an account of morning exercise programs, postals and pictures of historical, geographical, and other interests, many items of class interest, etc., which, in a concrete way, supplement the curriculum and aid social activities. Even jokes can be pasted to advantage. News items which serve some special needs of the class or which, as a record, are valuable, should be kept ; and children, thus col- lecting by groups, can easily form the oft-neglected habit of "cUp- ping." Or a record alone of the current events class might be kept. Other motives are : approval by fellow members, gaining ability to get opinions and facts quickly and to organize, carrying such news to those who do not know it or have no way of finding out, abihty to participate in the conversations of parents, friends et als. Others might be added. The latter are individual motives, while the former may be called group or social motives. Note. The collecting instinct is very strong in children and the suggestion ofiered is entirely psychological. Practice proves it. d. Preparation by the Teacher. For the teacher to actually prepare for the material to be presented by the class by reading a great deal or most of the periodicals and papers, is impossible, for she does not know from what sources the material will come. But it is desirable and necessary that she "keep up" with current topics by reading some good magazine or magazines and at least one good newspaper regularly. In fact, to organize what she does read, to select certain articles for supplementing thought at any time during the school day in any and various subjects in order to assist in directing the thought of the current events period, is very desirable. Supervising the Study of Civics 283 The better the knowledge of economic principles, civil govern- ment, and allied organized knowledge, the better her qualifications, other things being equal. To know the make-up of a newspaper — what kind and what body of knowledge it contains — gives her a decided tool and a very necessary one. e. Desired Aims in Teaching It. The purposes of teaching it are as follows : (i) to get pupils in the habit of reading this kind of hterature; (2) to show them how to read it by having them select material of social value, and the make-up of the paper, etc. ; (3) to have them organize the material selected for purposes of record, information, and the training secured in this process ; (4) to give them standards for judging the inferiority or superiority of things sold to the pubHc to read. /. Material. The sources from which children contribute have been found to be : newspapers, magazines, health bulletins, theater programs, almanacs, novels, etc. A good map of the world should be before the entire class. g. Standards for Judging the Value of Contributions. Contribu- tions offered to the class by individuals of it should be of interest to many, if not all. The material should be authentic, and the source quoted by pupils. h. Delivery of Contributions. Contributions should be given in a whole-hearted way. Pupils should address the class, not the teacher. They should present, at the very beginning, the gist of what they desire to say, why they wish to tell or read it, and the source from which the information comes. For example, pupil A arises, faces the class, and says: "My attention was directed to (or I saw in) the Times of Thursday, December 2, 19 14, an interesting article (thing, statement, etc.). It tells us something about cotton production." He continues: "This article teUs us that a machine has been invented, etc. If I may, I should like to read a short description of it." Approval is given by one or more members. He proceeds to read. The pupils' replies should be as broad as the subject, making due 284 Supervised Stvdy allowance for maturity. For pupils to make a five minute talk or a three or two minute talk should become quite common. This fluency of discussion is rather conspicuous now because of its scarcity. i. How the Contributions are Organized. Contributions and readings can be organized to great advantage by having the topics touched upon grouped on the blackboard. For instance, the fol- lowing outline is a partial organization of the contributions of a class, placed upon the blackboard, the teacher having directed it : CURRENT TOPICS 1. War News. 1. Four Theaters of War — (Current Events) 2. What was news fifty years ago (1864) — (Local news- paper) ? The two compared. 3. Government Investigations. 2. Inventions and Discoveries. 1 . War helps a certain kind of invention. 2. How much of the world is not discovered? 3. Health and Sanitation. 1. State laws which investigate foot disease in cattle. 2. Panama Canal completed. Tolls received (related to health on account of early difficulties in building it). 4. Local News. 1. Death rate in . . . (chart). 2. Our city government . . . (chart). 5. General News Here and There. (Items not listed, but enjoyed.) j. Re-reading with a Specific Purpose. When the separate contributions have been received and organized, there is offered an opportunity for group rivalry. Suppose that five topics have been presented. Give to groups in the class (five groups in this case) one of the organized captions, and ask them to look quickly Supervising the Study of Civics 285 over their newspaper or whatever they have (textbooks and reference books, etc., can sometimes play a valuable part when referred to), and see if they can add anything to what has already been said. Using the illustration above, one group would have "War News," another "Inventions and Discoveries," another "Health and Sanitation," still another "Local News," and finally " General News Here and There." " Good Jokes " sometimes adds humor and entertainment. In this case, it is not necessary to group; — all are very anxious to contribute ! k. Important Points. 1. Prepare for the period. 2. Give a short while for a re-reading of their papers. 3. Encourage voluntary offerings. 4. Organize, in the most suitable way, the subjects touched upon. Provide for recording. Standard : Is the contribution of social value ? 5. Reassign subjects to certain groups. 6. Call for volunteers for an extended presentation of the most important and interesting things. Provide for recording. It should be understood that the citizens of the community are welcome at all meetings of the class in civics. For this reason it would be wise to conduct this class in the largest room of the school and at an hour convenient for everybody. Additional reports could be presented at the Parent-Teacher League which should be organized as a special branch of the course in civics. This would enhance adult interest and cooperation. If reports are brief, two or three might be read at a meeting, providing they are related. Pupils should be assigned reports at the beginning of the term with date of reading the report, and a Ust of these assign- ments posted in a conspicuous place so that all the pupils 286 Supervised Study of the school can read it. It would be well also to publish t,he schedule in the local paper. Whenever possible, pupils should be expected to make large charts of their results or conclusions for easy perusal by audiences. These charts should then be preserved in the school museum. In a small school, or even in a large one, it probably would be impossible to cover all the subjects in the course. The remainder could be taken up in subsequent terms. What- ever is undertaken should be done as thoroughly as possible, otherwise the reports would have little or no value. Summary The outcome of detailed observation of civic life, not only local but state and national as well, should be to foster friendliness, cooperation, team work, and loyalty for the building up of respectable centers of life. The high school, under the dominance of these motives, becomes in a very real sense the people's school, the dynamic of a saner and more beautiful manner of living, the inspiration of effort to advance beyond the best of the past or present. Under such conditions schools would eventually find financial support more generous, and teachers would feel that their standing in the welfare of the community was regarded as all important in a more vital, active, and rewardable form. CHAPTER XII SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS I. The Problem of Reorganization The author served as study coach for a brief period in a high school taught by a superior corps of teachers and in many respects controlled by a model organization. Conditions among the pupils seemed normal. There was doubtless as much interest in studying as one finds in the average American high school. The number of promotions were normal so far as present curves of promotions justify this conclusion. Nevertheless, more of the pupils who came to the study coach had trouble with mathematics than with any other subject. This distribution was not at all affected by sex; both boys and girls in equal number had difficulties in algebra and geometry. No one acquainted with high school pupils will deny that much of the fear and trembling in working out an education is caused by mathematics. Still required subjects in practi- cally all high schools (due largely to the dominance of entrance requirements to coUege), there is little or no opportunity to avoid the terrors of algebra and geometry. There are, to be sure, wholesome efforts being made to effect some sort of re- vision. Former Commissioner David Snedden of Massachu- setts, for example, strongly advocates inquiry into why girls 287 288 Supervised Study in high school should be compelled to study algebra or why girls seeking entrance into college must present a certain number of credits in mathematics. He believes also that young men who aim to enter medicine, law, journalism, or theology do not need algebra. Other critics advocate a reduc- tion of the amount of mathematics reqmred in high school, and some universities have made notable revisions in math- ematical entrance requirements. One feels that in these days of reorganization throughout secondary education some- thing definite and worthwhile will result. It is easy enough to throw the whole blame for the trouble in mathematics upon the teachers. There is no need here to stress in any detail what teachers themselves know aU too well, that many of them lack scholastic and teaching experience adequate to reheving the situation. With some knowledge of algebra or geometry and a few courses in methods, any teacher, it would seem, ought to be able to teach mathematics, espe- cially with a good textbook and a key! Why, then, do pupils have so much trouble with the subject? Evidently because they are either stupid in mathematics or because "it is the most difficult subject in the school." A star performer in al- gebra and geometry is looked upon by the other pupils as a marvel or perhaps a freak — certainly not ordinarily human. Tradition is a tenacious thing. All of us tend to believe that mathematical ability is extraordinary and is the mark of a superlatively acute mentaUty. The mischief in this belief hes in letting it affect one's attitude toward the pupils, — some can get it, help them,; some cannot get it, be merciful and let them through, anyway. The latter are enrolled in the tradi- tional " born shorts " ; the others tread fine floor or mosaic corridors with the strides of genius! " Ah me," sigh the gal- Supervising the Study of Mathematics 289 lery gods, "I wish I was as smart as John or Sue! " Or per- haps the host with lighter tinted gray matter sneer at the book- wormish few who don't have spine enough to be " like other folks." And so mathematics becomes a badge of genius, or the ball and chain of curriculum slaves. n. The Value of Mathematics Out of the mass of arguments for and against this subject, it is fair to conclude that the studying of mathematics has certain distinct benefits. These may be summarized as fol- lows: 1. Inasmuch as no one can foresee what life's changes will require of each of us in the way of skill, information, adaptabil- ity, etc., it is important that every progressive citizen should know the fundamentals of mathematics. 2. Algebra is a short cut of arithmetic and, therefore, of practical value, especially when correlated with arithmetic and studied as a phase of the science of numbers. 3. Geometry finds its truest claim in stimulating pupils to observe the definite procedure of reasoning. It does requir'e careful speaking at a time when language tends to be extrava- gant and inexact. This need not mean that there is any trans- fer from exact speaking in geometry to exactness in describing a thunderstorm, or translating ; but it does mean that pupils are introduced in a controlled way to the importance of basing conclusions on demonstration. Geometry has little value out- side of its " originals." Its training in independent thinking is one effective means of swinging the pupil away from mere memory work. As long as the doctrine of formal discipline is oscillating between proof and disproof, it may be wise for those of us who are not " born long " in mathematics to agree that ago Supervised Study while educators in the past were not infalhble neither were they wholly wrong. The problem of geometry is not fundamentally one of total or even partial elimination from the program of studies, but rather one of painstakingly directing each pupil so that his type of reasoning may appear to him successful. This means abandoning exclusive textbook worship and launch- ing each pupil on the more technical processes of thinking. 4. A knowledge of mathematics is essential to the study of the sciences and to the appKcations of these in aU forms of engineering, building construction, industrial chemistry, and statistical study of social behavior as organized in sociology, economics, political science, and education where only too frequently men jump at wild conclusions without having facts or knowing how to interpret the facts they do possess. 5. If mathematics is to awaken interest among high school pupils, it must be differentiated according to curriculum ends. This means that in high school each group of studies (curricu- lum) leading to a particular type of career, such as engineering, business, professions, home-making, etc., should stress the se- lection of topics and methods of study that logically serve as a specific prerequisite to advanced studies in mathematics. In other words, the proposition that pupils in high school will study mathematics more willingly and effectively if conscious of the practical value (which may include the cultural) of the t}^e of mathematics they are dealing with seems defensible and, if properly investigated, probably would be adequately supported by evidence. Vocational mathematics — this term including cultural as representing effective citizenship — rather than disciplinary mathematics, it seems to the author, would help to reduce the antipathy toward the subject. Supervising the Stiidy of Mathematics 291 Excellent illustrations of this discriminate curriculum thinking are found in Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. ; Lewis Institute, Chicago; Lincoln High School, Nebraska. In the first, mathe- matics of two year courses includes essentials of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytics, and calculus. In algebra the pupils begin by applying in shop work the principles of mathematics common to the work in hand. Shop and class-room are really laboratory and recitation rooms. Similar methods are employed in the Lewis Institute. In Lincob., Nebraska, algebra, geometry, and -trigonometry constitute a single unit in mathematics. The pupils are constantly dealing with this interrelationship. Pre- ceding work in mathematics there is an inspirational course in general science. The study of mathematics begins in the second half of the first year. Pupils who have shown no aptitude at all for the subject are not expected to enter the course, but this very freedom serves to stimulate industry, and many do enter the courses in mathematics. 6. So far as the girls are concerned, there is no reason for excusing them from either algebra or geometry, simply be- cause they are unable to learn these subjects. In the chapter on " Individual Differences " it is shown that girls and boys are about equally proficient in mathematics. Woman to-day competes with man in practically all walks of life. She can become a reliable engineer and a most accurate astronomer. A differentiation on the basis of sex alone is hardly justifiable. The vocational or curriculum distinction referred to under 5 applies with equal force to girls. Doubtless there should be a minimum of mathematics in domestic science courses, but girls electing other curriculums should conform to the require- ments of these groups. 292 Supervised Stiidy III. The Pilot Teacher of Mathematics Wherever tried, it has been found that supervised study in mathematics results in greater efl&ciency and in reduced re- tardation. The pilot teacher is all essential. Normal schools and similar training agencies must evolve methods of study supervision as well as methods of teaching ; in fact, may we not go even further and say that all methods of teaching must become methods of teaching to study? Unless the pupil learns how to learn, he wUl go through life either as the victim of an unreliable memory or as the half -expert delayed and confused by teachers who could imitate but not initiate or originate. Supervised study in mathematics depends upon teachers who know how to study algebra and geometry, and who are able to recognize the first feeble efforts of pupils to prove things in a way different from the textbook and perhaps more effectively than its author. IV. Supervising the Study of Mathematics I. The Assignment. Considerable space has already been devoted to this topic in Chapter VI. In addition to what is suggested there, the assignment should be brief. It is much more important for pupils to work a few problems correctly than to cover severaf in a less thorough maimer. What is needed is quality and not bulk in the study of mathematics. The time of the assignment must be left to the teacher's judg- ment, but whenever given, it should be clear and so definite that every member of the class has a fair chance at an ia- telligent start. The assignment should be written in an assignment book or on an inserted page. Pupils should not be permitted to write Supervising the Sttdy of Mathematics 293 assignments on scraps of paper or carelessly in the text. One of the requirements in all courses of mathematics should be orderliness, neatness, precision. Some teachers advocate that assignments should be simply remembered, not recorded. This, however, is a doubtful procedure. 2. Class Management in Mathematics. The usual practice of having the whole class go to the blackboard is indiscrimi- nate and useless. A better procedure observes the following points : a. Algebra problems should be solved on paper of uniform size, color, texture, preferably in special loose-leaf notebooks. The problems in the notebook should be notated in agreement with page and number in the text. The aim should be to evolve a pupil's key to the text. Problems should be classified as in the text. The appearance, organization, accuracy, and even originality evident in these books should enter into the class mark. 6. The various steps in solving a problem should be num- bered and so referred to in class discussions. c. The papers should be graded rapidly in class by the teacher reading correct solutions and the pupils correcting their own or one another's papers. d. Special difficulties may now be selected, and pupils hav- ing had special difficulties should be sent to the board or grouped in a corner for individual instruction. The remainder of the class according to groups (see Chapter VI) will be as- signed additional problems or given assignments in practical applications, suggested by themselves or by the teacher. If the pupils can be stimulated to contribute original problems, the teacher will have almost reached an ideal supervised study period. 294 Supervised Sttidy An example of this grouping is given by Parker.^ After the teacher had got the class started as a single group on the first book, and some of the fundamental ideas of geometric procedure had been established, the sections were organized on the basis of the students' records in previous work as well as their abiUty as shown in the new work. Each section was then assigned a corner of the room as its regular recitation place, and henceforth each section proceeded at its own pace through the geometry. The first section commonly completed the plane and solid parts of Wentworth's Geometry in one year. The medium section usually completed the plane geometry only (that is, five books), as is commonly done by classes using the simultaneous method. The slow section usually got through about four books, but most of its members managed to do this much with a fair degree of thoroughness, instead of being dragged over the whole five books in an uncomprehending way, as commonly occurs when the ordinary class method is used. e. Train the pupils to read the textbook. Much difficulty in mathematics is due to slovenly reading or misunderstanding of the words themselves. /. Note the errors or difficulties common in mathematics. The author has found the following list fairly common in five high schools. The types of difficulty are arranged in the order of their greatest frequency. (i) Wrong signs. (2) Mistakes in elementary processes of addition, subtrac- tion, etc. (3) Misreading of problems, such as omitting words or adding words. (4) InabiUty to visualize the conditions or "stage-setting" of the problem. ' Op. cit., p. 382. Supervising the Stvdy of Mathematics 295 (5) Impatience ; if the answer is not correct the first time, the pupil becomes discouraged. (6) Too many problems to solve. Pupil either tries to work all of them with consequent carelessness in many instances, or selects the easiest and ignores the others because they seem too hard. (7) Inabihty to transfer the processes of a model example to other problems. Some pupils understood the model solution but could not construct independently equations or steps in assigned problems. In other words, a perfectly clear explanation does not mean that pupils will find the work easy. They need supervision in the economical transfer of explanation to their own applications. (8) Carelessness in copying figures or terms. (9) Lack of orderhness on the "work sheet" results in confusion and mistakes in finding the steps in their solution. Hence need of system, notation, supervision of study. (10) Hasty work resulting in the neglect of terms or the omis- sion of X after the coefficient. (11) Groups in working together depended on the bright ones who gave the correct methods and answers. Dishonesty, the author has found, is more common in mathematics than in any other subject, not excepting Enghsh composition, which is immoral enough. (12) In geometry, memorizing of the demonstrations. (13) Failure to understand the meaning of space relations in geometry and the consequent inability to make proper comparisons. In addition to the foregoing discovered by the author, Judd ^ cites other errors : (i) Failure to keep in mind a long series of principles necessary to guide in manipulating the signs of different quantities; for example, forgetting that a negative sign before a parenthesis works certain changes in the quantity within the parenthesis; ' Op. cit., p. 120. 296 Supervised SPudy and losing sight of the efiect produced upon signs by transposition from one side of the equation to the other. (2) Failure to see the various familiar combinations which make it possible to get rid of undesirable quantities on both sides of the equation. Pupils forget that the management of the two sides of an equation or of the two members of a fractional expression calls for a like treatment of both of the elements in the operation. (3) Failures to try experiments in rearrangement of quantities. (4) Seeking to economize by carrying on processes mentally when the more dehberate written statement of the same problem showed that they knew the principle of procedure. Judd calls attention also to the principal difl&culties that pupils meet with in studying mathematics. Failure to dis- tinguish between knowledge of space and logical processes of demonstration ; inability to pass from logical demonstration to spatial fact ; lack of understanding or knowing the reason for methods used ; guessing answers ; vagueness ; inadequate perception and preparation. The foregoing errors and difficulties emphasize the need of having teachers who can provide conditions favorable to con- centration and who can devise interesting methods of drill so that fundamental rules become habitized. The suggestions already made, aiming at motivation through an analysis of the practical value of mathematics, may lend interest to the study. Charted directions, such as the following employed iu the Bainbridge Junior High School of Richmond, Va., hanging in conspicuous parts of the room are very helpful. Percentage I. Read your problem until you imderstand it: six times if necessary. Supervising the Study of Mathematics 297 2. State exactly what you want to find : base, rate per cent, or percentage. 3. Put down on paper each step in your solution. 4. Represent the base by "X " : for a per cent more add to "X " the rate per cent : for a per cent iess subtract from "X" the rate per cent. 5. Prove your result by working backward. 6. Remember: Percentage = Base times the rate. ^^^^^Per^ntage, Rate ^^^^^Per^ntage, Base 3. The Method of Teaching must be Symptomatic. An ob- vious conclusion from the foregoing discussion is that the teacher and the method exist for the pupil and not the pupil for either or both of the former. It is well enough to know the principles of teaching and to be familiar with the history and manuals of methods, but the conscientious and scientifi- cally trained teacher knows that methods are Uke cures, — they must suit the individual cases. In other words, teachers must know what is wrong and why the wrong exists and then apply the remedy. 4. Reviews and Examinations should test Ability to think and to apply Mathematical Knowledge. The real test is not abiUty to repeat definitions and rules or to work equations and prove stated theorems. The test here, as in other subjects, is one of independent application, not necessarily to a practical problem (although this is always preferable), but to any original problem. The following Cumulative Examination in Mathematics by Mr. Harrison E. Webb of Central Commercial 298 Supervised Study and Manual Training High School, Newark, N.J., illustrates the contents of such examinations : ^ Suggested Questions for Cumulative Examination Papers Algebra through Progressions 1. Show that a number is divisible by three if the sum of its digits is divisible by three. 2. Given , _ h — h hih-toY Solve for h. Find k when k = 39.27, h = 99.6, tg = 0.4, k = .000011. 3. Find by a short method the value of each of the following : (a) {3m - (i7i)^- (6) V 363 - 3V I - 5 -501 ,^ La Maison manner and used in conversation. In this way travel, buying and selling, home life, school life may be interpreted in foreign terms. 6. Dramatization and Magazine Work. In many high schools needful application is provided by the pupils writing plays, stories, news items, and editorials in the foreign lan- guage. The following illustrations serve as models of the type of work. The play was written by a second-year German class composed of secondary pupils and college students.^ ' Teaching, published by Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kan., Vol. I, No. I, August, 1914. How to Supervise the Study of Languages 337 ROTKAPPCHEN I Akt (Die Mutter in einer kleinen Kuche. Das Madchen spielt draussen.) Die Mutter (halt die rote Kappe hinter sick) : Mein liebes Kind ! Komm' her, ich habe dir etwas Schones zu zeigen. Das Madchen (lauft in das Zimmer) : Was hast du, Miitter- chen? Zeig' es mir. Die Mutter {zeigt es dem Madchen) : Wie gefallt das dir, mein Kind? Das Madchen : Setz' es mir auf den Kopf . {Lduft zum Spiegel.) Die Mutter : Es steht ihr ganz gut, mit den blauen Augen, den roten Wangen und dem blonden Haare. Das Madchen {lduft zur Mutter und umarmt sie) : Wie wunder- schon es ist ! Hast du das fiir mich gemacht ? Die Mutter : Ja und die Leute werden dich von jetzt an Rotkappchen nennen ! Das Madchen {tanzt herum) : Wenn nur die Grossmutter es sehen konnte ! Die Mutter: Das wurde ihr grosse Freude machen, deim sie ist sehr krank, also darfst du ihr etwas zu essen bringen. Das Madchen {klatscht in die Hdnde) : Soil ich einer Kerb dafiir holen ? Die Mutter : Ja, und auch eine schone, weisse Serviette. Das Madchen {holt diese Sachen) : Hier sitid sie. Die Mutter: Lege zuerst die Serviette in den Kerb und darauf den schonen Kuchen ; gelb wie Gold. Das Madchen : Was hast du noch fiir Grossmiitterchen ? Die Mutter {geht zum Schrank und holt ein Tdubchen): Hier ist ein Taubchen. Lege es neben den Kuchen. Das Madchen : Soil ich eine Serviette uber diese guten Dinge legen ? 338 Supervised Study Die Mutter: Ja, und noch siisse Trauben und goldgelbe Orangen darauf. Das Madchen: Mutter, ist das alles? Die Mutter: Ja, das ist genug. Nimm den Korb und trage ihm sorgfaltig. Das Madchen {kiisst die Mutter) : Auf wiedersehn. Die Mutter: Auf wiedersehn, mein Kind, und beeile dich durch den Wald. 2 Akt (Das Madchen in dem Walde) Das Madchen {fur sick): Ach, wie schon sind diese Blumen in dem Walde. {Sie lauft hin und her und pfluckt die Blumen.) Hier sind weisse Blumen und dort sind rote und auch blaue und gelbe. Jetzt habe ich einen schonen Strauss den ich der Gross- mutter bringen werde. Das wird ihr grossen Freude machen. (Inzwischen kommt der Wolf herein.) Der Wolf {fur sick) : Das ist Rotkappchen. Das schone Kind ist ein guter Bissen fiir mich. {Zu dem Madchen:) Wo gehst du hin? Das Madchen : Ich werde meine Grossmutter besuchen. Der Wolf : Wo wohnt, denn, deine Grossmutter, Hebes Kind? Das Madchen: Sie wohnt in dem Hauschen am Ende des Waldes und sie ist krank. Dee Wole: Ich halte nicht mehr auf. {Liiuft in den Wald hinein.) Das Madchen {fik sich) : Ich muss mich beeHen. {Lauft ab.) 3 Akt (Im Hause der Grossmutter wo sie im Bette liegt.) Die Grossmutter {hort ein Kloppen an die Tiir): Komm herein ! How to Supervise the Study of Languages 339 Der Wolf {tritt in das Zimmer) : Bist du krank, Groszmutter ? (Per Wolf kommt an des Belt und zieht die Vorhangezurceck.) Die Groszmutter : Ja, aber was willst du heir ? Der Wolf : Dich fressen ! {Springt auj das Belt und verschlingt die arme Frau.) Der Wolf {fiir sich) : Ich setze mich die weisse Haube auf und lege mich in das bett und decke mich zu. So warte ich auf Rotkappchen. Das Madchen {tritt in das Zimmer der Grossmutter) : Guten Morgen, Grossmutter ! Ich bringe dir etwas Gutes zu essen und zu trinken. Der Wolf: Eh? Das Madchen {geht an das Bett und zieht die Vorhange zuriick) : Grossmutter, wie wunderhch du aus siehst ! Was hast du fiir grosse Ohren ? Der Wolf : Dass ich dich besser horen kann. Der Madchen : Und was hast du fiir grosse Augen, Gross- mutter ? Der Wolf : Dass ich dich besser sehen kann. Das Madchen : Ei, und was hast du fiir grosse Hande ? Der Wolf: Dasz ich besser packen kann. {Springt aus dem Bett, packt Rotkappchen und verschlingtes. Der Wolf legt sich wieder in das Bett, schldft und schnarcht.) Der Jager {fiir sich der am ofenen Fenster steht) : Wie die alte Frau schnarcht ! Ich will sehen was ihr fehlt. {Tritt in die Stuhe und kommt an das Bett.) Der Jager {leise fiir sich, indem er erschrocken ztiriickfdhrt) : Was finde ich hier — einen Wolf? Das bose Tier muss ich gleich erschieszen. Vielleicht hat er abe die Grossmutter gefressen. Also nehme ich mein Messer und schneide ihm den Leib auf. {Er tut es.) 340 Supervised Study Das Madchen {springt heraus) : Ach, wie dunkel war es in dem Leibe des Wolfes. Die Grossmutter {springt dann heraus) : Wie froh bin ich wieder hier zu sein. Das Madchen {holi den Korb) : Hier, Grossmutter, ist etwas Gutes und Schones zu essen. Die Grossmutter : Mein Kebes Kind, setze alias auf den Tisch und wir wollen davon essen und trinken. Das Madchen: Hier sind auch schone Blumen. {Riecht an den Blumen.) Wie schon sie duften ! Das Madchen : Ich muss nach Hause eilen und der Mutter alles erzahlen. Auf wiedersehen, Grossmiitterchen. {Ah.) Der Jager : Ich habe dem Wolf den Pelz angezogen und werde denselben mitnehmen. Lebewohl ! The following illustration of the publication by high school pupils in Crawfordsville, Ind., shows how Latin may be used interestingly in an informal type of exercise. The extracts indicate the versatility of the young editors. Scientia Domestica. • — Scientia Domestica per hunc annum fuit acceptissima. Hoc studium vero fuit magno usui mihi. In sex primis dictatis rudimenta fructus conservandi et coaguli faciendi cognovimus. Pueri Societatis Athletica Multitudinem Vehementer Convoca- verunt. — Omnes pueri societatis athleticae ad deligendos duces anno postero convenerunt. "Preston Rudy" multo et divino impetu imperator est delectus, et "Fredericus Hunt" etiam proxi- mus imperio est delectus. Magistratus librari et aerari praefecti constituti sunt et "Delhertus Clements" ad hos habendos est delectus. . . . Conflagration calami tosissima multis mensibus in "IndianapoUs" fuit incendium aedifici magni "D. O. Langen" centum septuaginta quinque milibus thaleris amissis. How to Supervise the Study of Languages 341 7. Schemes of Directions and Procedure. The following methods are in actual practice and, therefore, may prove helpful to others. a. Plan in Richmond, Va. Superintendent E. E. Smith of Richmond, Va., — southern division, — employs the follow- ing plan : Methods in Languages for First Year Latin, Spanish, French, and German I. When pupil is reciting, face the class. n. The pupil's reply to a question must contain a complete thought and a complete sentence or discourse. Example : Ad- jectives should not be written or given alone, but should be given with nouns and almost always the entire sentence. III. The teacher must not repeat the reply. IV. Speaking the language wherever possible is most important. The idea is to develop the "language sense" in the pupil. For example : If a specific effort is being made to get a thought, then a word or two which is not exactly right need not necessarily be corrected. V. It is expected that pupils should show growth in using the foreign vocabularies both orally and in writing, and this should be measured fairly accurately. VI. Frequently, children should read aloud whole paragraphs expressively to the class from the language. No translation should be given, but questions asked in the foreign language should be answered from the printed page. VII. Avoid too much conscious attention to grammatical forms, except as they occur in the pupil's experience in Enghsh grammar. VIII. Grammatical ideas, other than English, are developed by using the necessary constructions often in sentences and drilling by means of the well-known sentence wholes in which these occur. 342 Supervised Study IX. Results can best be attained by the teacher's thinking in terms of the language and hence getting and using : A. Variety in procedure, such as animated conversa- tions, questions, requests, commands, songs, etc. B. Devices such as matches or "bees" of various kinds, particularly vocabulary matches, varying in detail, illustrative map work, little stories to be read and translated at a hearing, stories told and appre- ciated, composite stories made by the pupils or "original compositions," pupils asking one another questions, games and the like. C. Dramatic exercises to eventually emerge, so to speak. X. Written exercises should he given only to illustrate certain principles which have been inductively taught, and this should be the final fixing of the ideas in the pupil's mind. It is thought evident that adequate and sufficient oral work has been given so that the written work is smooth and not laborious. It should be directed so that mistakes might not be actually executed or "blind alleys" followed, as is done when written alone. XI. Teach vocabulary in manner advocated for spelling (Circular No. 14). "^ Children must keep a personal hst. The class list is also necessary. Teachers are responsible for knowing the total vocabulary, at any time, with which the class has been pre- sented in terms of different parts of speech. XII. No written work on blackboard should be left which con- tains mistakes. b. A brief symposium by several teachers. 1 This is important : (i) Present the word by writing it on the board, (2) pronounce it, (3) rub it off, (4) have children pronounce it (not in chorus), (s) have sentences given using the word or phrase, (6) have the word or phrase used a number of times that day in writing or translation, and (7) provide for sufficient and frequent recall of the words from time to time. H(rw to Supervise the Study of Languages 343 German The German department conducts reviews by returning cor- rected test papers and making them the basis of discussion. The following description shows the way these papers are discussed : I return a test on the subject of prepositions and model auxiU- aries, the work of six weeks. All mistakes have been marked on the paper, I call on a pupil to translate "for whom." If he says "fiir wem" I ask him to give the list of prepositions which govern the accusative, and also the declension of wer; then he corrects his mistake. I call on another pupil to translate "with whom," "against whom," and then "for what," and "against what." The next phrase "from it," leads to a discussion and drill on such forms as dafur, davon, and daraus. The third word, meineswillen, leads to a review of the personal pronouns, and a drill on the use of a noun preceding the preposition. When it has been possible, I have given examples involving the grammatical principle and then have had the pupils deduce the rule. For example, when the lesson was on prepositions gov- erning the genitive, I wrote upon the board several illustrative sentences, and the pupils with little explanation readily saw that such prepositions governed that case. Then, after the preposition, I gave a definite time for study, during which I required the pupils to learn all the prepositions governing the genitive and to use them in sentences. Then a short recitation followed, which for the most part was spontaneous and enthusiastic, owing, I think, to the super- vised study. I have had the pupils study, and I have tried to correct their methods of studying. Personally, I feel that the correct method is so different with different minds that the only way to help a pupil is to watch him and then make suggestions for a change. Too many pupils depend on memory, and then memorize in poor ways. Even in language the reasoning power should be used. 344 Supervised Study One or two poor pupils have improved their memorizing power by being required to write their rules, thus joining their eye and motor-muscle impressions to their ear impression. I have tried to have every German study-period typical of how the pupils should study at home. Another teacher, in training pupils to form right habits of study, lays stress upon concentration. The first half of the extra period is to be used as a study-period. The teacher assigns a definite amount which he knows can be prepared in a given time. Abso- lute concentration upon a particular portion of the lesson, along hnes which are at first indicated, is insisted upon. The other portion of the study-period is then given over to recitation upon the sub- ject just studied. In this way the teacher is in a position to know which pupUs must be taught how to study if any results are to be obtained. A second point kept prominently in mind is the necessity of teaching children how to attack a lesson. The modus operandi differs with the teacher and the class. Instruction — ■ direct and by example and suggestion — has been tried. AH of the teachers seem to have found the presentation of a new lesson during this special period exceedingly helpful. Sometimes I read aloud an anecdote taken from the textbook, or from some other book, and have the pupils translate from hear- ing. Sometimes I give an account of something connected with the lesson; for example, the life of Helen Keller proved interest- ing on the day the pupils added to their vocabulary the words "bUnd," "deaf," and "dumb." Sometimes I ask the pupils what they see in the schoolroom or from the school-room win- dow. I teach the new word by writing it on the board and explain- ing the meaning, either by gesture or by famiHar German words, rarely by the use of a dictionary. Often a pupil who has difficulty in learning from the printed page excels in the oral work. How to Supervise the Study of Languages 345 Latin If we have been studying lessons with long or difficult vocabu- laries, or when a study of a conjugation or a declension has been completed, we have a vocabulary match. We give the nomina- tive, genitive, and gender of the nouns, principal parts and synopses of verbs, type and comparison and adjectives, and formation and comparison of adverbs. These matches are conducted in two ways, either by "speUing down," or by "jumping," and then at the end of the period numbering for the next trial. A pupil who stays head two days in succession is on the honor roll and goes to the foot to start up in line again. We frequently have sentences on the different constructions of the previous week, and after a great many sentences have been given by the teacher, as quickly as possible, each student is asked to make a good English sentence using only words and construc- tions that can be translated into Latin by the class. One student is asked to read his sentence and another to translate it, if it is a good sentence. If it is a good sentence containing forms unknown to the class, the reader is asked to translate it. At other times the sentences are put on the board for the whole class to translate, and then the work is corrected. The classes have also written original Latin compositions. The sentences were, of course, of the first and second reader class, but the classes seemed to enjoy the work, and received a Uttle benefit therefrom. We have used the additional study-period chiefly to break new ground. By this I mean we reserve this lesson chiefly for the de- velopment of a new topic, for practice for sight work, for translat- ing, or for analysis of advanced English sentences. In other words, it is chiefly preparatory in nature. Any necessary memory work, on which such development is based, is arranged for on the previous days. Then, when the class is assembled, we examine and lay out our course for the following lesson or lessons during the week. From one third to one half of the first year work in Latin consists 346 Supervised Study of such advance explanation, so that we have been able to use this period advantageously in this way. The recitation is usually by volunteers, and, though no record of marks is kept as on other days, the pupils are quite as ready and interested as with their assigned work. To be more specific, in vocabulary work we often take up a new vocabulary and read it over, separating stems from endings, and deciding to what declension or conjugation each word belongs and why. When that is decided, we name the model word like which it should be inflected, and mention any irregularity in the inflec- tion. Following this, we sometimes decline to conjugate it to fix the forms more surely in mind. After reading a new vocabulary in this way, we translate new sentences containing these words, using the vocabulary freely for reference. In considering Latin sentences we generally read at sight, call- ing on anyone to supply forgotten words, phrasing, and pointing out relations indicated by endings. In case of hesitation, guidance is furnished by calling attention to the most important clues to the meaning, the subject, the verb, the object, and the division of the sentence into clauses, as shown by the introductory word and the verb, or the division into phrases indicated by a preposition and its object or by two or more in agreement. Time is saved and a better chance given to slow pupils in this work if the sentences are assigned and a minute or two given for their preparation, with- out reference to notes or vocabulary, so that the recitation is prompt. Sometimes we read a short anecdote from the Latin. Each student is given one word for which he is responsible; a moment is given for preparation, so that the new words may be found in the vocabulary and the construction decided upon. Then the story is read in English, each student contributing his word. This keeps the pupils thinking, for no one wishes to break the chain. One week one of the boys brought to the class an original anecdote, entitled "Caesar in London in 1910." Sometimes the classes are divided into two sections, those above How to Supervise the Study of Languages 347 65 per cent forming one section, those below, the other. Section I is given hsts of sentences previously prepared to be translated into Latin or English, while the pupils of the other section are being driUed on the paradigms and principles of syntax. The last part of the period is spent in reviewing the work of the first section. We have tried to .enliven our uninteresting textbook somewhat by telling or reading a Uttle about the Romans, their houses, and their games, and the education of the boys and girls. Since Roman history has been omitted from the curriculum of the first year, we have tried to give the pupils a httle background for the Enghsh composition by explaining briefly the terms "consul," "praetor," "repubhc," etc., which they find in their lessons. General Sxjmmahy There are so many excellent texts and methods that in this chapter the attempt has been made simply to call attention to some of the helpful forms of procedure during the supervised study period. It is of utmost importance that teachers make use of the fact that the pupil needs a language back- ground before he can make much progress. Details of gram- mar should be served in sentence form — nourishment must be made palatable. Ingenuity is just as important in the classroom as in the kitchen. Moreover, teachers should not become idolaters of any general method. Variety, individual adaptation, revision are important attitudes in language instruction and supervision. CHAPTER XV SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF LITERATURE I. The Purpose of Literary Study None of the fine arts is equal in popularity to that of litera- ture. In no other channel has man been able to express himself with so great an abandon, and with the range of in- fluence possible through the printed page. The abihty to read is craved by all men who have caught a gHmpse of a finer world of ideas. And this abihty to read, coupled with skill in writing, has done more to bring the race together than perhaps any other agency. Man instinctively craves self- expression in some form, and because writing or authorship is partly the possession of aU there is a greater output of literature than of any other form of art, with the possible exception of music. It ought to be apparent why high school pupils should study literature. Several reasons may be assigned. I. To gain Knowledge. Information is conveyed by means of literature as a fine art or merely as a vehicle of communication. Ability to read understandingly a newspaper, a textbook, a report, advertisements, encyclopdia, etc., is essential to active citizenship. The examples cited may not be regarded as artistic forms of Uterature, but they are rap- idly finding a place among the arts. Books on travel, science, 348 Supervising the Study of Literature 349 philosophy, biography, and history are certainly literature, as works by Dean Howells, Lyell, Darwin, Fabre, Hegel, Rousseau, J. S. Mill, Macaulay, Morley, and Woodrow Wilson indicate. They are replete with information in attractive literary style. 2. To enrich One's Vocabulary. Studying the dictionary doubtless has value, but no one would recommend this as the best means of acquiring a rich store of words. Reading now this, now that author, eventually provides one with synonyms, forms of expression, and terms that are serviceable both for speaking and for writing. 3. To cultivate Style. Literature is a form of self-ex- pression, and therefore each writer's style will possess a cer- tain amount of individuaUty. The pupil should not aim to imitate the style of another beyond the adoption of certain principles that supply rhythm, clearness, or brilliance. Ac- quaintance with the style of a Walter Pater, a Montaigne, a Maeterlinck, or a Van Dyke is favorable to cultivating one's own. It is almost impossible to become a fluent or readable writer without having browsed among great books. 4. To relax the Mind. The arts interpret Hfe in order that Ufe may be appreciated and enjoyed. Just as the or- ganism needs a certain amount of sweetmeats, so the mind craves the pleasant stimulus of entertaining Hterature. It may be the delightful observations of The Spectator, the frolics of Pickwick, the whimsical comments of Queed, or the stirring adventures of Don Quixote and Sherlock Holmes. They introduce us to other worlds where we sit in the grand- stand as it were and see the play in the arena. The taste for this form of relaxation must be educated away from mere sensory excitement to the rest and recreation estab- 3 so Supervised Study lished by new and noble ideas, attractive pictures of life and living. 5. To appreciate the Beautiful. The man of books who reads many authors, and absorbs their best ideas, craves the environment of ideas in which they move, and experiences day by day the subtle transformation of his own personality into a composite self made up of influences radiated by many minds. There is a fascination in the doctrine of the Platonic ideas that life here is a copy of the permanent and beautiful yonder, and that our world and our personalities become nobler and more attractive as we approach the ultimate excellence of the beautiful ideas. High school pupils, soon to be swept into the maelstrom of struggle for careers and independence, need to carry with them the vision of something stabler and worthier than the torrential flux of things. The sordid, mean, compromising, selfish, ugly are so many forms of a lack of appreciation of highest values. The study of literature, therefore, must separate the veil between the cheap and the glorious. It must elevate the individual from the wilderness of mere sense enjoyment into the realm of desire for harmony, symmetry, simplicity, and unity of beautiful living. If it fails to accomplish this, then the course has ignobly failed. In dealing with this question of purpose Dr. C. Alphonso Smith, under the title of What Can Literature Do for Me ? ^ says : 1. It can give you an outlet — "The masters have foimd you and you have found yourself." 2. It can keep before you the vision of the ideal. 3. It can give you a better knowledge of human nature. "AH literature reveals unconsciously something of the men who made it and something also of the people who like or dislike it." ' Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914. Supervising the Shtdy of Literature 351 4. It can restore the past to you. 5. It can show you the glory of the commonplace. 6. It can give you the mastery of your own language. II. What High School Pupils like to Read An interesting sidelight on the purpose of the study of literature is thrown by an itiyestigation on the type of read- ing preferred by high school pupils. Lancaster ^ in his study of the question found that 812 pupils preferred to read novels ; 797, poetry; 67, essays; 31, history; and 30, travel. It is interesting to find in this connection that Dr. Smith ^ gives a list of fictive characters that should be known by all students of literature. These are fifteen in number : Ulysses in Homer's "Iliad" and especially in his "Odyssey." King Arthur in Malory's "Morte d' Arthur" and Tennyson's "IdyUs of the King." Beatrice in Dante's "Divine Comedy." Don Quixote in Cervante's "Don Quixote." Falstaff in Shakespeare's "Henry IV" (Parts I and II) and "Merry Wives of Windsor." Hamlet in Shakespeare's "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark." Robinson Crusoe in Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe." Faust in Goethe's "Faust." Leatherstocking in James Fenimore Cooper's "Leatherstocking Tales." Pippa in Robert Browning's "Pippa Passes." Becky Sharp in Thackeray's "Vanity Fair." David Copperfield in Dickens's "David Copperfield." Silas Mamer in George EUot's "Silas Marner." Jean Valjean in Victor Hugo's "Les Miserables." ' "Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence," Fed. Scm., 1897, pp. 61-128. ' Op. cit. 3S2 Supervised Study Uncle Remus in Joel Chandler Harris's "Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sajangs," and "Nights with Uncle Remus." Teachers of literature in high school could doubtless make similar Usts by getting a large number of preferences from their classes. What characters ought they to know? Surely it is important to introduce young people to the nobihty of literature, past and present, rather than to bore them with minute interpretations of passages to be written in notebooks. III. How TO STUDY LiTERATUlLE One of the most important questions at this point is how much to require the pupil to know in the course on literature. There is abroad the impression that pupils are engaged in too many details in the English courses, or that appreciation of literature is spoiled by overanalysis of books and characters. Viewed from the standpoint of practical service (not neces- sarily a commercial term), it would seem that high school pupils ought to study literature in order to meet the following needs : 1. A broad knowledge of the history of Uterature in its relation to the modern history. The one interprets the other. 2. An understanding of the difference between a novel, a short story, and a play. 3. How to judge a piece of hterature. 4. How to read with understanding and feeHng. 5. The memorizing of poems or other selections. What should be aimed at is not so much a rigidly developed knowledge of detailed contents of any particular series of books as accurate knowledge of the part literature has played in various historical periods, a familiarity with prose and poetic form so that reference to them in literature or in conversation Supervising the Study of Literature 353 can be easily understood ; the intelligent criticism of a book, so that when asked by one's friends to judge a book the indi- vidual can state why the particular judgment is given ; and the deUghtful accomplishment of being able to read to others some book that they perhaps do not have time or inclination to read. I. A Broader Course of Reading. To arouse and inaintain interest in the study of Hterature it is necessary to revise the course of study followed in many schools. Such a revision was made by Mr. H. O. Church, principal of the J. Sterling Morton High School, Cicero, 111.^ Four fields of hterature were covered, viz. : fiction, history, science, poetry, and belles-lettres. The following Hst omits the fourth year because as far as possible there is a dupHcation of the first college year EngHsh at this time. Pupils who expect to enter college are required to study only three years EngUsh, all others are required to take four years. During the fourth year, be- cause a replica of the first college year in English, science books are omitted. First Year First Semester Fiction Dickens : Nicholas Nickleby Dickens : Dombey and Son History Franklin: Autobiography Poetry Arnold : Sohrab and Rustum Bryant: Selections Bryant : Ulysses 1 School Review, September, 1913, pp. 461-466, 2 A 354 Supervised Study Science Burroughs : Birds and Bees Burroughs : Sharp Eyes and Other Eapers Second Semester Fiction Dickens : Old Curiosity Shop Scott: Ivanhoe History Parkman : Oregon Trail Irving: AUiambra Poetry Lowell : Vision of Sir Launfal Browning: Selections Science Burroughs : Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers Burroughs : Afoot and Afloat Second Year First Semester Fiction Blackmore : Loma Doone Hawthorne : House of Seven Gables History Parkman : Conspiracy of Pontiac Prescott : Conquest of Mexico Poetry Shakespeare : As You Like It Shakespeare : Twelfth Night Science Higginson : Three Out Door Papers Lyell : Travels in America Supervising the Stvdy of Literature Second Semester Fiction Scott : The Talisman Scott : Quentin Durward History Lincoln (Tarbell) : Speeches and Writings Brown : Epoch Making Papers in United States History Poetry Shakespeare : Julius Caesar Shakespeare : Henry V Science Tyndall : Glaciers of the Alps Burroughs : A Bunch of Herbs and Other Papers Third Year First Semester Fiction Eliot : Silas Mamer Thackeray : Henry Esmond History Fiske : Critical Period of American History Motley : Peter the Great Poetry Tennyson ; Idylls of the King Shakespeare: Macbeth Science Darwin : Voyage of the Beagle Thoreau : Katahdin and Chesuncook Second Semester Science Huxley : Lay Sermons. L. 25 Darwin : Earth Worms. R. 25 35^ Supervised Study Poetry Milton : Minor Poems. R. 15 Milton : Paradise Lost. R. 15 History Macaulay: Warren Hastings. Me. 12 Macaulay: Chatham. 9.15 Essay Ruskin : Sesame and LiHes. R. 15 Thoreau: Walden. L. 25 Fiction Hugo : Ninety Three. B. 45 Dickens : A Tale of Two Cities. L. 25 2. How to direct the Pupil's Outside Reading. Mr. T. A. Wallace, principal of the Crosby High School, Waterbury, Conn.,^ reports a successful plan. At the beginning of the year a list of fiction (he frankly confesses inability to get pupils to read other kinds of literature) is posted at the school and at the city library. From this list the pupils are required to select one book a month. At the end of the month they report on sheets of paper with four columns. Name op the Author Title of Book Date Reuakes Under Remarks are criticisms, how they liked the book, a brief statement of the plot ; but each pupU is allowed to do what he pleases about such comments except that if made at all they must be the pupil's own opinion. ' School Review, September, 1913, pp. 478-485. Supervising the Study of Literature 357 3. Another scheme, less detailed, but possessing value is illustrated in the following suggestions: For action, read Homer and Scott. For conciseness, read Bacon and Pope. For sublimity of conception, read MUton. For vivacity, read Stevenson and Kipling. For imagination, read Shakespeare and Job. For cormnon sense, read Benjamin Franklin. For simplicity, read Bums, Whittier, and Bunyan. For smoothness, read Addison and Hawthorne. For humor, read Chaucer, Cervantes, Rabelais, and Mark Twain. For choice of individual words, read Keats, Tennyson, and Emerson. For the study of human nature, read Shakespeare and George Eliot. For loving and patient observation of nature, read Thoreau, Burroughs, and Walton. The Kst will have little value if the teacher finds it imperative to limit the choice to fiction. There are a few pupils, however, who can be tempted into other kinds of reading; and the teacher belongs just as much to the minority as to the many. IV. Methods of Supervising the Study of Literature In Chapter VIII several suggestions were given for supple- mentary reading. The teacher in directing the study of a piece of literature, to repeat, needs to guide the pupil along the following lines : 1. To read with pencil in hand. 2. To make excerpts or extracts. On the margin of the book a paragraph may be condensed into a single state- ment ; or the same material can be written on inserted leaves. 35^ Supervised Study 3. To read with a definite object in view. There must be a leading point of view: an angle of vision, a problem, a goal idea that helps the reader to focus attention on the various details. This controlling purpose must be the author's. 4. To re-read for a better understanding, deeper apprecia- tion, and a better retention of the material. One teacher finds the following method helpful to her pupils in studying American hterature : "With the books open on our desks we begin an outline as a preparation for study. 'American Literature' is taken as the title of the entire outline, and the subject of the first chapter as the first large topic. Taking the chapter, paragraph by paragraph, we give the topics, using them either as topics or subtopics according to the importance of the contents. "After much discussion, we decided that the idea of the first paragraph is 'the origin of hterature.' From individual sugges- tions we draw the conclusion that ' the meaning of litierature ' is the next point. This brings us to the idea of 'English hterature,' dis- cussed imder the heads : (i) characteristics, (2) growth, (3) divi- sions. The final topic of the chapter becomes ' causes for difference in British and American Literature.' Under each one of these topics are subtopics. The discovery of the important heads is what the pupil finds most difficult. If we can show him how to decide upon these, and how to attach to them, as minor details, the other ideas of the chapter, we have shown him how to study." I. Studying the Novel. The aim of this form of hterature should be kept clearly in mind. It is To entertain by a series of humorous or thrilling incidents. To awaken interest in social conditions demanding reform. To portray historical characters and scenes more informally than is done by the average historian, as in Louisa_Muhlbacks' novels. Supervising the Sttidy of Literature 359 To depict social and economic conditions of other days or of the present. When we ask others about a book they have read, we desire to know if it merits our devoting time to it. If in- teresting, why is it so? If a profound study of character, what kind of character? These practical everyday ex- periences with books are vital in a course on Kterature. Dur- ing an informal period the pupils should be led to speak of their impressions gained in reading. The teacher should be well read and by enthusiastic comments, comparisons, and criticism should seek to awaken in the pupils a faith in the value of knowing something about books. During this in- formal period the teacher should give a fair estimate of the best of past and modern novels. Although Goethe once said : " Do not study contemporaries, but those great men of the past whose works , have always been valued and esteemed through the centuries," there are many books of the present worthy of our perusal. Lady Baltimore, Richard Carvel, The Crisis, The Far Country, Queed, V. V.'s Eyes, The Harbor, The Harvester — to mention the more recent — should be read and commented on in class. b. A knowledge of the author's name, title of the book, publisher, date (year) of publication, kind of book (problem, historical, mystery, adventure, society, etc.), leading char- acters, skeleton of plot, general style, and method of develop- ing the plot are among the essentials in any luminous discus- sion of a novel. c. Novels are read mainly for the story. In high school courses much valuable time can be saved by omitting the long descriptive passages that are doubtless important as literature but hardly essential to the understanding of the 360 Supervised Study plot or story itself. Unnecessary details can well be omitted at this time. What is needed is rather accurate familiar- ity with the behavior of the characters and what they suggest. d. Detective stories and short stories in modem magazines are rarely studied in high schools. A distinguished English educator, Frank Hayward/ suggests that the detective story can be studied as an exercise in thinking. Much of the cheap literature of the present deals with trashy mystery and detective tales, rightly condemned by thoughtful people. Sherlock Holmes, Lupin, Lequoc, and Kennedy, however, de- serve a place in the fictive hall of fame and introduction to them and others of their stamp would elevate the pupil's taste in what is a normal desire of reading matter. 2. The Essay. Although, as a rule, high school pupils fail to find this form of Hterature appealing, somethiug can be done to create a liking for its representatives. As some one has said : " If we want the bare fact, we go to history, or, with discrimination, to the newspaper ; if we want a logical statement of principles, we go to philosophy ; if we want the truth below the fact as a man of genius divines it, the truth touched with beauty as it lies in the vision of the artist, or irradiated with humor and projected against a background of other and diverse truth, as the humorist sees it, we turn to literature. In the essay we get a glimpse of character, a turn of humor, a significant aspect of affairs, interpenetrated by a rich personality." One of the best suggestions for studying the essay has been given by Hamilton Wright Mabie in the following quotation : •See his The Lessons in Appreciation, 1915. Supervising the Study of Literature 361 "Three words define the best method of stud)ang the essay: appreciation, analysis, comparison. The rule-of-thumb in Uterary study is at present so widespread and so tyrannical that it is neces- sary to protest against it at every turn. A great many people beheve that salvation comes, not from a change of heart, but from a method of life ; that, if a complex method of study is secured, the work is done ; and the result is that there are hosts of people who know the definitions, but who do not know the things defined; who can repeat aU the principal dates in hterary history, but have not touched the heart of literature. It must be said over and over again, therefore, that the beginning of all wisdom in dealing with the work of art is to let it tell its own story, convey its own impres- sion ; in a word, making yourself thoroughly famihar with it, by holding a perfectly open mind to it until it possesses the imagina- tion. If one wants to understand the 'Ode on a Grecian Urn,' for instance, let him begin by putting all criticism out of mind and learn the poem by heart : this is appreciation. When this stage has been reached, one can with safety consider the separate qualities of an essay, the manner of treatment, the arrangement of the topics, the special variety — whether of philosophic comment, of vital interest, of study of manners, of personal portraiture, or of humor. This prepares a student to understand the difference between an essay from the ' Spectator ' and an essay by Charles Lamb. "This kind of analysis lays open, but does not disintegrate, a piece of hterary work. And it is aided and made more illuminating by comparison. One may be studying, for instance, the literary essay as a variety of the general literary form; let him compare Macaulay's Essay on Milton, Bagehot's Essay on Shakespeare. Arnold's Essay on Byron, and Lowell's Essay on Dante. These three words — appreciation, analysis, and comparison — suggest lines of work which do not run into tyrannical methods, but which may make highways into the heart of some of the best literature." 362 Supervised Sttidy 3. The Drama. Because its action is more rapid, descrip- tive matter confined to stage scenery, and the development of the plot brief, the study of the drama awakens quick re- sponse in most of us. It was written for acting — its appeal is the larger audience, whereas the novel addresses the indi- vidual reader. The method of study, therefore, will be in essential points different from that of the two forms already considered. a. Over analysis. Much writing, minute scrutiny of pas- sages must be avoided. A knowledge of the story is, of course, fundamental. Some acquaintance with the sources of the play is equally desirable. Questions like the following: Why did the people of Pope's day think little of Shakespeare ? Why has Shakespeare come into favor again since then? State what you know of the sources of any one of Shakespeare's plays, are suggestive of the better mode of attack.^ b. Modern Plays. The high school pupil, however, doubt- less has been served too much Shakespeare. Modern drama- tists are almost wholly neglected. Surely plays like " The Great Divide," " Servant in the House," " The Witching Hour," "The Rivals," "Secret Service," MoUere's "The Sick Man," Barrie's " Quality Street," etc., deserve study. As it now is the high school pupil may know " Macbeth " and " Julius Caesar," and " She Stoops to Conquer " not to mention the ever present " Hamlet," but has no knowl- edge of modern dramatic tendencies, or any clear conception of how to judge a play. The objection that the drama of to-day is hardly fit to be studied is made inadvisedly when one recalls some of the situations and hon mots of Shakespeare. 1 James W. Linn, in School Review, February, 191 1, p. 96. Supervising the Study of Literature 363 Study of dramatic reviews, synopses in some of the mag- azines, would prove a wholesome variation in a course that often is httle more than Hterary analysis. c. Cooperative Plays and Novels. The occasional appearance of a cooperative novel and the not infrequent cooperative authorship of plays suggest a method of study that perhaps is feasible on a smaller scale in the high school. In these days of emphasis on appKcation in education the cooperative author- ship of a play by high school pupils for credit is a means of vitalizing the course. The usual method of dramatization is pleasantly and profitably aided by the pupils writing a play built on the principles of modern dramatics. Scenarios or synopses are also a helpful exercise. 4. Poetry. The common opinion that reading poetry is unmanly and impractical is doubtless one of the strongest reasons for high school boys disHking EngUsh. Anyone can hardly blame them in the light of what only too frequently takes place in these courses. Poetry is a form of philosophy, — it is an interpretation of Ufe as art always is. It may be studied for its " prettiness " and thereby remain unintelli- gible. Studied as the poet's observation of life's subtler meaning or some phase of its many forms, it may become a most practical incentive to higher thinking, to more enduring effort, to -hope, to abounding struggle toward an ever beckoning Best. No one can find value in poetry unless he has been trained to appreciate its purpose, its thought, and its form. The mere repetition of words, the mere memorizing of its lines, the mere analysis of its imagery avail but little. Some- thing deeper and loveUer must be discovered and applied. a. The problem of appreciation, while less compelling in high school than in more advanced courses, nevertheless demands 364 Supervised Study considerable attention. George Edward Woodberry' writes feelingly on this topic : " The appreciation of Uterature is thus by no means a simple matter; it is not the ability to read; nor even a canon of criti- cism and rules of admiration and censure that are required ; but a Uve soul, full of curiosity and interest in Hfe, sensitive to impressions, acute and subtle in reception, prompt to complete a suggestion, and always ready with the light of its own hfe to serve as a lamp unto its feet. Appreciation of hterature, too, is neither rapid nor final ; it moves with no swifter step than hfe itself ; and it opens, like life, always on larger horizons and other labors." The teacher's objective in supervising the study of poetry and all forms of literature lies, then, in creating a real love for the ideas and ideals of noble living stated in language, choice, melodious, and representative, that is, appreciated not merely for its music — happy or sublime, as this may be — but for its glimpse into the heart of man and into the slowly evolving process of man, ever to be the Near-God. " Litera- ture is not an object of study but a mode of pleasure ; it is not a thing to be known merely like science, but to be lived." b. The need of studying poetry as well as any form of Utera- ture is, however, quite apparent. Appreciation is rarely if ever intuitive. Appreciation depends upon apperception — the interpretation of the present in the terms of past experi- ence. What we know gmdes us in understanding the strange. If a poem is obscure, this is due primarily to two causes: we fail to understand the language or we fail to understand the form. We lack experience by which to interpret the difficulty. Pupils, therefore, must study language and poetic ' See his chapter on " First Principles" in The Appreciation of Literature or in Essays for College Men. Supervising the Study of Literature 365 form as a means of appreciating the thought and the ideal of the poem. c. Method of Studying Poetry. This study should pursue the following methods : (i) Paragraphing. The pupil must be able to state in his own words or the author's in prose form what the poem states. All of the finer meanings cannot be discussed in high school courses. In fact, poems become richer in meaning only by our own maturing experience. But the main currents of thought must be studied at first by this prose route. (2) Classification of Instincts and Imagery. Literature is enriched and adorned by references to instincts and to the senses. Appreciation of an author's form of expression be- comes more sympathetic when one understands what he is appealing to in human nature. Dowden ^ writes : "From each work of a great author we advance to his total work, and thence to the man himself, — to the heart and brain from which all this manifold world of wisdom and wit and passion and beauty has proceeded. Here again, before we address ourselves to the interpretation of the author's mind, we patiently submit our- selves to a vast series of impressions. And in accordance with Bacon's maxim that a prudent interrogation is the half of knowledge, it is right to provide ourselves with a number of well-considered questions which we may address to our author. Let us cross- examine him as students of mental and moral science, and find replies in his written words. Are his senses vigorous and fine? Does he see colour as well as form? Does he delight in all that appeals to the sense of hearing, — ■ the voice of nature, and the melody and harmonies of the art of man? Thus Wordsworth, 1 Transcripts and Studies, London, 1888. Quoted by Carpenter, Baker, and Scott in The Teaching of English, 1913, pp. 255-257. 366 Supervised Study exquisitely organized for enjoying and interpreting all natural, and, if we may so say, homeless and primitive sounds, had little feeling for the delights of music. Can he enrich his poetry by gifts from the sense of smell, as did Keats ; or is his nose, hke Wordsworth's, an idle promontory projecting into a desert air? Has he, like Brown- ing, a vigorous pleasure in all strenuous muscular movements; or does he, like Shelley, live rapturously in the finest nervous thriUs ? How does he experience and interpret the feehng of sex, and in what parts of his entire nature does that feeling find its elevating con- nections and associations? What are his special intellectual powers ? Is his intellect combative or contemplative ? What are the laws which chiefly preside over the associations of his ideas? What are the emotions which he feels most strongly, and how do his emotions coalesce with one another? Wonder, terror, awe, love, grief, hope, despondency, the benevolent affections, admiration, and rehgious sentiment, the moral sentiment, the emotion of power, irascible emotion, ideal emotion — how do these make themselves felt in and through his writings ? What is his feehng for the beauti- ful, the sublime, the ludicrous ? Is he framed to beheve or framed to doubt? Is he prudent, just, temperate, or the reverse of these? These and hke questions are not to be crudely and formally pro- posed, but are to be used with tact; nor should the critic press for hard and definite answers, but know how skilfully to glean its meaning from an evasion. He is a dull cross-examiner who will in- variably follow the scheme which he has thought out and prepared beforehand, and who cannot vary his questions to surprise or beguile the truth from an unwiUing witness. But the tact which comes from natural gift and from experience may be well supported by something of method, — method well hidden away from the surface and from sight." (3) Interpretation of allusions in figures of speech or refer- ences. This is aided by information gleaned in practically every subject of the program of studies. Supervising the Sitidy of Literature 367 (4) A brief study of the author's life with the occasion of the poem, and the author's purpose in writing it. This should be aided by Literary Maps. A large map on the black- board, containing author's birthplace, home, and where he wrote each poem or book, and date may be of great value in forming a background of interpretation and appreciation. (s) Memorizing. A large part of the time now wasted in notebook work could be spent to greater advantage in learn- ing poems or quotations. The most economical method of memorizing is discussed on page 209. It is important in memory work to learn the poems as illustrations of some great ideas or facts. If memorized simply as poems, they are easily forgotten, but if learned in association with a great thought, they are easily retained. For example : Poems of Idealism or Inspiration To the True Romance, Kipling Locksley Hall, Tennyson Excelsior, Longfellow The Chambered Nautilus, Lowell Poems of Historical Events The Concord Hymn, Emerson Paul Revere's Ride, Longfellow Poems of Nature and Animals The Skylark, Shelley To a Mouse, Burns Snowbound, Whittier This linking of poem and view of Kfe is a cultural process. To have a quotation at one's command in life's shifting situa- 368 Supervised Study tions is the mark of a good reader. Nothing is more im- portant in the study of literature than this storehouse of illustrations. i. Merriam's Method of studying " Evangeline." An ex- cellent illustration of how pupils may be directed in studying " Evangeline " is furnished by Dr. Merriam in the following lesson plan. Lesson Plan in Evangeline Preliminary As a part of the previously assigned lesson, the class was directed to read sections I and II. The teacher added: "This is largely descriptive. Therefore read carefully, endeavoring to get clear pictures. At the next meeting of the class, be prepared to describe these pictures." The Class Hour I. Recitation : (A small portion of the period.) 1 . On the study of the previous day. 2. On the portion of " Evangeline " assigned. 1. What pictures did you find described? Answers would be, for example : 1. The village of Grand Pre. 2. The simple hfe of the Acadian farmers. 3. Evangeline. 4. EvangeUne's home. 2. Describe each picture. (This portion of the recitation is merely to make sure that the class has at hand the data needed for the class study.) II. Class Study : (A large portion of the period, usually with texts open.) Supervising the Study of Literature 369 Problem : 1. To observe certain details that contributed to the quiet happiness of the Acadian farmers. 2. To examine some of the means by which the poet presented his pictures. 1. What evidences are given of this quiet happiness? Answers would include, for example : 1. " Softly the Angelus sounded. " 2. "Homeward serenely she walked. ..." 3. "Neither locks . . . nor bars. ..." 4. " Free from fear . . . and envy. ..." 5. "The blacksmith . . . honored of all men. " What possible interruptions of this happiness ? Answers may be such as : 1. "Dikes . . . shut out the turbulent tides. " 2. ". . . foretold a winter long and inclement. " 3. ". . . English ships . . . with their cannon." 2. What means has the poet used to present these pictures so well ? Answer may be : 1. The inverted and transposed order in sentences, e.g. 1. "This is the forest primeval. " 2. "Black were her eyes." 2. A descriptive vocabulary, e.g. turbulent, wreathing, murmuring. 3. AUusions, e.g. 1. "The penitent Peter." 2. "Louisburg is not forgotten. " III. Assignment : (A few minutes at the close of the period.) I. On class study. 1 . Prepare in some detail a written outline of the evidences of happiness among these Acadian people. 2. Supplement (orally) the poem by further facts rela- tive to 2 B 37° Supervised Study 1. The Angelus. 2. Fear — tyrants, and envy — republics. 3. "The Village Blacksmith." 4. The religious life of the Acadians. 5. The penitent Peter. (These would probably be individual assignments.) 3. Express in prose (written) at least ten of the most poetic expressions. 2. On new material. Read III and IV and select the topic. e. Reading. What precedes finds its happiest application in the artistic reading of poetry with a sense of rhythm, a feeling of the poet's emotion, and a technic of vocal expression that lends charm and uplift to all who hear the poem read. Too little time is devoted to this phase of study. Again, it may be suggested that less notebook work and more oral interpretation is needed in the study of literature. A large part of credit in English should recognize the pupil's knowing many poems and his ability to read them with understanding and grace. General Sxtivimary Only broad principles of study have been treated in this chapter. Details of questions and notes are found in practi- cally all editions of literature used in the high school. There is need, however, to suggest that much of the copying and detailed analysis in literary study is wasteful and boresome. It leads to no permanent benefit. It is a mere traditional formalism that wide-awake teachers are forsaking to the vitalizing of their courses and the increasing of enthusiasm for literature. Literature is a form of self-expression and requires not a microscope but a rich experience of living. Its Supervising the Study of Literature 371 finest mode of study is sympathy — the power to feel what the author feels. Knowledge of poems, references, fictive char- acters is practical because enriching one's understanding of life. It is here that supervision of study in literature has its finest opportunity. CHAPTER XVI SUPERVISING THE STUDY OF THE FINE AND THE PRACTICAL ARTS I. The Natxjeal Interest in Art One of the most interesting phases of the emotional life of adolescents is their growing fondness for art, more particularly music, painting, architecture, and drama. One finds here a fascinating blend of individual and sex instincts (if the cus- tomary classification may be used) . On the one hand, art is a means of self-expression, a form of expression that requires freedom and abandon. The developing individuality must have a wide outlet or means of exercise. The creative instinct asserts the power of the individual to advance beyond his group and higher than the past. It seems that this biological need of self-expression is, moreover, surrounded with pleasur- able feelings and results, which stimulate a repetition of en- deavor until habits of refined expression have become more permanently fixed. But, on the other hand, this very art- form of the emotional Kfe, at the same time that it serves the individual for himself, tends to make one individual so attrac- tive in skill, appearance, character, or personahty that some other individual will desire to possess this superior person. Again, the biological law of repetition appear^, but now in the specific, albeit at first vague, tendency to multiply the attrac- 372 Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 373 tive individual. And so the sex instinct is affected by the charm of each individual, and in turn reacts on the further refinement of the one who loves or is loved. The high school, then, faces a double problem at this point. The tendency in some directions is toward repression. Sex, art, fine dress, and amusements are frowned upon as grievous temptations to evil. In other quarters full and free expression under reasonable control (freedom always involves control) is advocated. This poHcy results in courses on sex hygiene, physical culture, with considerable emphasis on dancing and art in its usual forms of music, painting, and clay or plaster modeling. There can be no question about the high school pupil's preferences in the matter. Lancaster ^ found that of 556 adolescents 464 testified to the " love of music." The author in his investigation of various phases of study in seven high schools of Illinois found that nearly 30 per cent wanted more art and nearly 34 per cent wanted more music in the high school. II. The Aim in studying Art Artists in various fields have stated extravagantly their conceptions of the value and aim of art. In his delightful series of essays entitled The Ministry of Art Dr. Ralph Adams Cram writes: " If education is the education of all that is best in man, the mak- ing possible the realization of all his potentialities, the building up of personahty through the dynamic force of the assembled achievements of the human race throughout history, and all toward the end of perfecting sane and righteous and honorable character, then you must make art, so understood and so taught as integral a part of your curriculum as natural science, or mathematics, or ' Op. cit. 374 Supervised Study biology. Not in dynastic mutations, not in the red records of war, not in economic vacillations, or in mechanical achievements, lies the revelation of man in his highest and noblest estate, but in those spiritual adventures, those strivings after the unattainable, those emancipations of the human soul from the hindrance of the material form, which mark the highest points of his rise, presage his final victory, and are recorded and revealed in the art which is their voicing . . . art ... is neither a commodity nor a wonder- ful attribute of man who is made in God's image, a subtle language, and a mystery that, in its nature, we may with reverence call sacramental." This is noble writing and finds reverential amens in the bosom of every artistic nature. It reminds one of the stirring lines of Victor Hugo : The initiate and the strong alone know the algebra that lurks in music ; genius knows all, and what it does not know it divines, and what it does not divine it invents, and what it does not in- vent it creates ; and it invents the true and creates the Ufe-hke. When one enters by railroad or boat a community, large or small, the ugly debris, foul odors, blatant misery and corrup- tion everywhere evident or suggested, give birth to the surprise that man's fabulous priced canvasses and marbles in the stately galleries and museums have failed to affect the out- skirts, the harbors, the poorer sections of our communities. One finds it very difl&cult indeed to keep back the judgment that museums of art are the world's crystallized vanity if they serve only for gushing " Ah, how exquisite, how superb," or for more restrained but inactive admiration. This is not the aim of art. Self-expression may lead to a refined individual- ism, but confined to this narrow circumference art fails to serve society unless its laws and ideals of the harmonious and Supervising the Stiidy of Fine and Practical Arts 375 the beautiful are made operative in every avenue of social Ufe. In the high school art in all of its branches must function toward the following ends : 1. Appreciation of the fundamental difEerences between the ugly and the beautiful. 2. The designing of dress, tools, furniture, table service, homes, cities from the standpoint of the simple and the harmonious. This, of course, does not mean an elaborate study of any of these ; but courses in domestic science and civics might well consider in some detail how homes should be organized on the principles of art and how cities or towns might be improved in appearance. 3. How to judge a picture, statue, or any work of art. 4. Artistic workmanship in manual training, domestic science, drawing, and painting as well as in music. 5. Pupil cooperation by competition or organization ui decorat- ing the school building in and out doors, and as much as feasible the home, church, and community. In some towns cleaning day is supervised by the seniors in the high school. III. Methods of Sxjpervising the Study of These COTIRSES The nature of the work in courses dealing with fine arts and the practical arts is fundamentally individual. The laboratory method prevails. Pupils learn by doing and by appljdng. This fact makes it unnecessary to consider in detail the super- vision of study in these subjects. A few suggestions will suffice. I. The Method of Application or the synthetic method is preferable to the more formal or analytic method. The pupil should begin at once to create or to deal with finished products. The learning to play simple selections has displaced the old method of beginning with scales. 37^ Supervised Study 2. Skill through Contact with Life Problems. If the pupil is working on something that eventually will be his, he will take peculiar pride in producing a creditable performance. His natural instinct of self-expression and ambition wiU impel him to do his best. For this reason pupils in manual training and domestic science work on things they can use. Similar motivation is possible in painting, clay modehng, decorations, and music. 3. School Credit for Private Work. The movement to recognize the pupil's private lessons in music, painting, elocu- tion, and aesthetic dancing or eurythmics is now well estab- Ushed. The following blanks and directions used by Superin- tendent Wilson Tout of North Platte, Neb., indicate what can be done in other fields as well.^ Form for Eneollmknt To Any Accredited Teacher of Music : a student in North Platte High School, wishes to take private music lessons on the This student will be given high school credit for this work after proper reports have been received from you. It is understood that this permit covers this semester only and is void after one high school credit has been received. Please fill out at once and send by the student, a copy of the Enrollment Blank, and when the 32 lessons have been completed in a satisfactory manner, send a copy of the Credit Blank by mail or deliver in person. (Never send the credit blank by the student.) This form is made out by the superintendent or high school principal, after satisfying himself that the student in question has not enrolled for too many other subjects. It is handed to the student who carries it to the teacher who is selected by the student. 1 Journal of Education, October 29, 1914. Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 377 Form of Return Sheet by the Music Teacher I have enrolled a student in North Platte High School for private music lessons on the This student will take lessons a week, the lessons to be given at (hour) on (days of week) and Not more than two lessons a week will be given, each to be of thirty minutes. I am to assume all responsibihty for collection of all charges, and in no case will I hold the North Platte City Schools responsible for any amount. A number of these blanks are furnished to each approved teacher of music. Upon receiving a permit from the school authorities the teacher fills out this blank and sends it to the person who signed the permit. Form of Credit Slip (Student's Name) a student in North Platte High School has taken 32 music lessons on the piano on the dates given below and they have been satisfactory. A grade of has been earned. 1 17 2 18 3 19 4 20 5 21 6 22 7 23 8 24 9 25 10 26 II 27 12 28 13 29 14 30 15 31 16 32 378 Supervised Study (This Credit Slip must not be sent by the students, but should be mailed or delivered in person by the teacher.) These blanks are furnished to the approved teacher of music and upon them the record of the student is kept. After the grade has been earned, this blank properly fiUed out and signed is sent to the person who signed the permit. This blank is always sent by mail or dehvered in person. Students enrolled in the North Platte High School may receive a maximum of six points credit toward graduation by complying with the following regulations governing credit for vocal or instru- mental music. Rule I. The Board of Education may accredit teachers of vocal or instrumental music who have shown marked ability as teachers in these special hnes. Institutions and schools wiU not be accred- ited but only individual teachers of such schools or institutions or individual teachers not connected with such schools or institutions. Rule 2. Accredited teachers will give standard courses and standard selections for study. The exact course and method of study is left to the individual teacher's judgment, but the Board of Education maintains its right to give examinations to the pupils of teachers suspected of not having a high standard, before giving them credit. Also its certificate of accreditment may be with- drawn from teachers violating any of the regulations herein given covering their work. Rule 3. Pupils wishing credit in music must select their own teachers from among those approved by the Board of Education and must make all arrangements with them as individuals. Neither the school nor its authorities will make such arrangements nor assume any liability or responsibility whatever. Pupils must pay the teacher directly and not through the school or its authorities. Rule 4. Not more than two half-hour lessons a week may be given for credit. The lessons may be more than half an hour in length, but not less. When a lesson is missed for any reason, three lessons must not be given during any other week. Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 379 Rule 5. Two hours' practice each week day or six hours prep- aration is required for each lesson. No lesson may be given on the Sabbath. Rule 6. When a lesson is given it should be marked satisfactory or unsatisfactory by the teacher. Full payment should be de- manded in either case. When thirty-two satisfactory lessons have been given, the credit blank (Form 3) should be mailed to the superintendent. This blank should not be given to the pupil to hand to the superintendent. Grades should be marked as follows : A, 95 to 100 ; B, 90 to 95 ; C, 85 to 90 ; D, 80 to 85 ; E, 75 to 80 ; F, below 75. Rule 7. Pupils taking music for credit may be excused from school for two periods required each week, if such periods do not conflict with the regular work of the pupil and if they are approved by the principal of the high school. It is not necessary that school time be used in order to receive credit. Pupils may take music during vacations, but not more than two points credit for music can be entered on the records for any one year. Rule 8. In order to get one point of high school credit the thirty- two lessons must be taken from the same teacher. Under no condi- tions will credit be given where a change of teachers is made during the taking of the thirty-two lessons. Teachers must not use sub- stitute when out of the city or when sick or for any other reason. Rule 9. No credit wiU be entered for pupils during the year in which they graduate. 4. Scheme in Junction City, Kan. A somewhat similar scheme is employed by Superintendent J. W. Shideler of Junction City, Kan.^ High School Credit for Music Study A bulletin issued by J. W. Shideler, superintendent of the Junc- tion City, Kan., public schools, announces that high school pupils 1 School Review, November, 1913. 380 Supervised Study taking music outside of school are given credit. One unit a year is granted on the basis of thirty-two credits for graduation. The requirements are as follows : 1. For instrumental music (piano), the following points wUl be emphasized: (a) bodily poise — position of hands, {b) correct rhythm, (c) tone coloring, {d) correct pedaling, (e) phrasing, (/) expression. (Viohn) omit latter part of {a) and {d) and substitute correct handling of bow. 2. For voice culture : (a) vocal poise, (6) tone quaUty, (c) tone placement, {d) articulation, (e) pronunciation, (/) smoothness of vocahzation, (g) phrasing, Qi) expression, (i) interpretation. 3. Application for such credit must be made by parent and must be accompanied by written recommendation of private teacher. 4. No pupil will be accepted who takes fewer than one lesson a week and practices fewer than six hours a week. 5. The teacher must report to the superintendent the first of the following months : October, December, February, April, and May 15, the character and grade of the work, the progress made by the pupil since the preceding report, and the compositions studied with remarks concerning the scope and quahty of the work done on each composition. The teacher wiU report a grade in per cent on the basis of 75 per cent for passing work. These reports are to be made in duphcate, one signed and one imsigned. 6. The parent will report to the superintendent the first of every month the number of hours of practice of the pupil. 7. The pupil will be required to pass an examination at the close of the year, under a board of examiners appointed by the super- intendent. The examination will be planned on the basis of the unsigned reports of the teacher. 5. Plan in Bristol, Conn. In Bristol, Conn., pupils are per- mitted to substitute music, either instrumental, vocal, or theoretical, for a high school study. Plans of administration like the foregoing are employed. Supervising the Study of Fine and Practical Arts 381 6. Suggestions for organizing Courses in Art. a. A study of the structure of instruments like violin, piano, organ, and cornet would add to the attractiveness of courses in physics or general science. b. The principles of organizing glee clubs, mixed choirs, quartets, orchestras, and bands would be valuable units in music courses. c. The meaning of good music {illustrated) and poor music. It should be noted in this connection that all ragtime is not trashy and all so-called classical music is not superior to modem light operas. d. Accuracy, neatness, speed, originality, judgment, and perseverance should be noted in all courses. e. Note individual peculiarities in the matter of vision, hear- ing, dexterity, organization. /. Give assignments in program making, hanging of pictures (the small reprints will do just as well), arrangement of furni- ture and bric-a-brac at home and in of&ces so that art may serve efficiency. g. Explain the psychology of dress m its relation to physique, complexion, color scheme of drawing-room. (For example, a pink dress against a dark red background is displeasing. Blondes should not dress in brown. Brtmettes should not wear cerise.) « h. Cultivate in the pupils respect for art as practical knowl- edge. Avoid, therefore, extravagant praise of objects studied ; shun the popular conception of the artist in mannerism and extreme novelty of dress. i. Art should be treated as seriously as any other subject. Its teachers should be selected for their training and controlled enthusiasm. Avoid the excessively emotional type. 382 Supervised Study General Summary The artistic attitude may be unaccompanied by any specific talent for definite artistic performance ; but it is fair to the pupils to give every one an opportunity to ascertain his fitness for artistic achievement. The pupil's social life is greatly im- proved by his ability in artistic performance of some kind. Vocational success may result from the arousal of interest in art during high school years. Supervision should aim at large views of art and a practical application of it from week to week. Mere formal exercises in drawing, carpentering, sewing, or even playing will fail to supply motivation. L. R. Alderman's scheme of school credit for home work will prove helpful in enlarging the field of application. Art should be treated as a serious form of Kving and not as a h3T)er-senti- mental gush of ecstasy. A study of the Roycroft movement at East Aurora, N.Y., would be invaluable as a financially successful attempt to make art vital and life artistic. PART III CHAPTER XVII THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SUPERVISED STUDY I. Measiired Results of Supervised Study I. Symposium at Columbia University. Unfortunately it is difl&cult to find teachers and principals who have kept ade- quate records of the results of this new t3^e of class manage- ment. There are a few, however, who in various ways have indicated what they regard as worthwhile results. Some of these will now be referred to. In the summer of 191 2 while teaching at the Summer School of Columbia University, Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston found opportunity to get from several high school principals reactions on this method of teaching. A composite Ust of these reactions from principals who had had some experiences with the method is as follows : (i) it saves time; (2) prevents waste of energy; (3) makes for definiteness ; (4) allows leisure for extra school work, family Hfe, athletics, music, art, reading, social and reHgious activities without neglecting school work ; (5) teaches children how to use their minds ; (6) gives pupils a working day the same as people generally have ; (7) aids discipUne by keeping the child active all the time ; (8) reduces the reiteration plan of recitation to a minimum ; (9) makes the classroom a live workshop ; (10) inspires pupils to study because they know how; (11) provides an atmosphere of study — everybody's 383 384 Supervised Study doing it; (12) brings about a better mutual understanding between teacher and individual pupil ; (13) because of better prepared lessons it relieves the teacher of the sense of failure in her teaching ; (14) reduces the amount of home study in the grades and the first two years of high school. 2. Results obtained at Trenton, N.J. H. E. Webb in The Pivot, published by the Central High School of Trenton, N.J., writes of the general results of the directed study period in that school. Briefly summarized his comments are as follows : {a) Earnest, sincere students now had the chance they had long deserved and were given the first place in the teacher's attention regardless of their innate abilities. (&) Idlers showed their character very quickly and no amount of smart- ness could conceal it. The great majority of them, therefore, set about to change it by the simple expedient of going to work, (c) A large number of idlers went to work during the study con- ference because there was nothing else to do and supervised themselves by finding that they enjoyed it. {d) Teachers found the character of the other part of the period (the method in this school is the divided recitation period already referred to) changing, owing to their better acquaintance with their pupils and the fact that the general policy of the school is one of helpfulness rather than of repression, (e) Students were not slow to appreciate that with the teacher at hand to help over the hard places it was weU worth while to concentrate on one study at a time and to economize the classroom hour to the utmost. 3. The Newark Results. Mr. Wiener, in his chapter in -The Modern High School, by Johnston and others, cites several tables indicating the benefits of the divided period. The teacher who promoted the fewest pupils did not use super- The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 385 vised study at all. Those who used it only indifferently had average results, whereas the teachers who emphasized super- vised study had the best promotion records. Table XXI. — Tables of Totals for English Name of Teachers No. ON Roil No. Promoted Per Cent Alden ... 174 154 88.5 Goldstein i8s IS7 84.8 Snodgrass 199 182 91.4 Holt . 24 24 lOO.O Denton 24 17 70.8 Rich . 199 125 62.8 Muhlman 189 147 74-4 Herzberg 168 iSS 92.2 The general tendency of tables indicating results in other subjects is the same. It will be noted that classes not having supervised study achieved 62.8 and 74.4 per cent of promo- tions. The enrollments here given are totals of all the classes taught by each teacher named. 4. Results in Joliet, 111. So far as the writer knows, the most elaborate employment of supervised study is found in the high school of Joliet, 111., where the double period is in vogue for the first two years in the high school. In the recent article in School and Home Education for February, Dr. J. Stanley Brown, the principal of this school, writes : "I have kept for the past ten semesters the percentage of failure in the various subjects taught by the various teachers. Every teacher is required to make a report at the close of the semester showing these things in every class, viz. : the number originally enrolled in the class ; the number in the class at the close of the semester; the number passed at the close of the semester ; the number failed with the names of each and the cause of the failure ; the number dropped with cause stated for dropping. 2 c 386 Supervised Study A tabulation is made of all these teachers' reports at the dose o\ the semester and opportunity is given for comparing one semester's work with another for the past four or five years. The past semester which ended in June, 1914, showed thirty-eight different classes in which there were no failures. It showed further that the percentage of failures is gradually being reduced to a minimum. For us an average minimum will be from ten to thirteen per cent. There will be an occasional class that will run very much higher, but a very much larger number that wiU run very much lower." Last spring Dr. Brown gave the writer the following table which illustrates the reference made in the foregoing quotation. Table XXII. — Tabue of Percentage of FAtttrEES Subject Algebra . . Arithmetic . Geometry German . . Latin . . . French . . Physiography 24 26 29 21 22 10 12 22 20 19 20 19 9 10 IS 12 17 13 16 8 1911 13 16 14 13 9 9 It will be noted from this table that there is a consistent decrease of failures from 191 1 to 1914. The few exceptions are due to conditions that must be contended with in connection with every method ; for example, the general ability of the en- tire class, some classes having a higher general efficiency than others. From his own observations of the method at work in the Joliet High School, the writer can bear witness to the general workableness of the scheme. All the teachers with whom the writer spoke were in hearty accord with the method. 5. Results by Mr. J. H. Minnick of Bloomington, Ind. Mr. Miimick performed an interesting experiment in super- The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 387 vised study with results confirming in substance those ahready cited.^ Selecting 60 pupils from classes beginning plane geometry, Mr. Mitinick drew at random thirty-six names and divided these thirty-six pupils, giving one division supervised study and the other remaining unsupervised. The following curves show the results as explained. 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS QUKVE SHOWING WHBKLT AVEBAQES OF RBCIIATION GTIADES 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS CiURVB SHOWESG TOTAi JSUMBER OF RECITATIONS PER WEEK e ©.— SUEERVISED CLASS __« »— UNSUPERVISED CLASS I See School Review, December, 1913, 388 Supervised Study In addition to the foregoing curves the following table of results Iq examinations is suggestive. Table XXIII. — Results in Examinations Kind or ExAimjAnoN No. OF Examina- AvEHAGE or Class Average Ntiuber Solved tions Supervised [Unsupervised Supervised Unsupervised Six-weeks examinations . {\ 77-3 8l.2 68.7 80.4 4.. 4-3 3-55 3-9 Final examination . . I 92.4 80.1 12.7 12.2 Tests consisting of new materials .... • 2 3 82.4 87-3 77.6 73-9 70.2 S6.2 4.8 4.8 2.1 4.4 3-7 2.1 . 4 82.8 77-3 4-2 3-8 6. Results by Breslich in Chicago. Clearly supervised study works in the cases cited. Additional evidence is fur- nished by Mr. Breslich of the Department of Mathematics in the University High School, University of Chicago.^ Two classes in algebra were tested. Section A was assigned the usual home work and no supervised study was given ; Section B was taught how to study and was not given any home work. Both sections were given the same lessons. The result of the same test given to both sections at the close of the experiment is as follows : Section A, 62.8 ; Section B, 65.5. The preceding semester when no supervised study was offered to any classes, Section B had an average of 79.4 and Section A 81.4. By supervised study Section B gained over Section A. The lower averages were due to the greater difficulty of the subject matter. In the next chapter studied the order was again re- versed. Section A was given supervised study and Section B the usual home work. In the test given both sections A aver- > See School Review, Vol. XX, pp. S°5-S^S- The Effectiveness of Supervised Study 389 aged 77.5, a considerable gain over 62.8, and B averaged 86.4, breaking its own record and gaining over A. The supervised study work given B before still persisted from the preceding chapter's work. 7. The Pottstown, Pa., Results. Mr. L. Loveland submits the following table which clearly shows that supervised study has benefited the pupils in this high school. There is a normal decrease of failures. One must, of course, make due allowance for change of teachers and the diflftculty of the subject. TABtE XXIV. — Progress of Pupils by Aid of Supervised Study Yeak No. Passed No. Non-Promotions No. Eliminated 1909-10 303 26 7+% 74 18% I9I0-II 292 17 6-% 68 17% 19II-I2 277 19 6+% 54 IS % 1912-13 219 27 8-% 54 13% I9I3-I4 288 26 8+% 60 16% 1914-15 324 19 6-% 43 12% 8. Pueblo, Col. In the high school (district No. 20) of this city conditions in junior algebra were far from ideal according to statements by the principal in 1913. Supervised study was introduced as an experiment. The results proved very gratifying. " How those classes have ' dug ' during the forty-five minute period. The tests have been passed by a considerably higher percentage of the classes than ever before, and, in addition to the getting of the work in algebra, they have been acquiring the habit of concentrated study." 9. Cairo, 111. In the high school of this city supervised study occupies a prominent place in every subject. The eclectic plan is followed. The following table shows results that justify the amount of time devoted to this type of supervision. 390 Supervised Study > o o o CO O o o O ON Ov M o H M \o »^ \0 oo CO 1 CO CO q q IN H (—1 (—1 lo O t^ O ?? 1— 1 d ?s lO M M 00 w t-H § CO q " t^ ss S ^ W H M M Ht H Hl-H lo O CO O CI c^ ? i o ^ q M CO 0> lO Ov 1 Tt lO or \ maximum attain- 13 J [ ment J 3. Select a subject] f Study arithmetic for 1 and go to the > or I maximum attain- teacher of it J [ ment J f Select a subject or < and go to the [ teacher of it I Study any sub- ject in room 13 It will be noted from the above, (i) This subject (Arithmetic) is studied on Monday. Others may find a place on the following days of the week. Hence the possibilities for studying at this period for the entire semester is very great. (2) The above groups are variable during or at the end of any month. (3) That a check is necessary for groups n and in. This is done by consultation of the teacher of arithmetic and the pupils (or any pupil) with any of the other teachers who may be concerned and then in turn between the subject teachers and the teacher of arithmetic whenever "returns" are necessary. In other words, the arithmetic teacher is responsible for the lAi pupils in room 13 on Monday of each week. (4) While a schedule is maintained, nevertheless there is much flexibility. In the first place, pupils who are deficient in subjects are provided for a time to study these. In the second place, pupils who are not deficient may confer and be guided in selecting what subjects they wish to study. The limitations to the fact that they will be able to study the subject they select under supervision are force'd only by the number of vacant seats with the subject teacher chosen. It will be noted that, in any case, they may sPudy the subject they want for they may remain in room 13. However, in the great majority of cases, trading is successfully effected. 4o6 Appendix (5) Teachers have an excellent opportunity during this period to get into close touch with the pupils. Heart-to-heart talks bring out the difficulties that pupils meet in their school life, and many pupils can be guided in a wise choice of meeting these trials and difficulties. (6) Group I consists of those who are greatly in need of improve- ment ; group 2 of those who may or may not need improvement in the subject of arithmetic ; and group 3 consists of those who are proficient. Below 75%, so far as "grades " are concerned, is con- sidered deficient. Heart-to-heart talks often reveal the fact that proficiency is maintained at great expenditure of energy, and they result in giving the ways and means of economizing time and energy. It is found that mere " marks " do not always tell the whole story of one's struggles. (7) By means of the entire plan of supervised study (including both forty-minute and thirty-minute periods), pupils have the opportunity of doing practically all their studying in school under supervision of the teacher of the subject. Home study can then be used for reading or getting supplementary material, or prepar- ing special reports and the like. The Ninth Period During the ninth period all who may so elect may remain. In addition, all pupils who are in need of assistance on any subject remain to study this subject. Usually, all pupils who have a grade below 75% on any subject at the time the period is held are required to report to the teacher of this subject. All pupils report to their home rooms at the ninth period each day. Those whose school work warrant it may leave when the bell rings. Then the home room teacher directs the remaining pupils to the necessary subject teachers. Then, when any pupil shall have " worked up " on the subject, he is sent back to the home room teacher, who may or may not require him to " work up " on Appendix 407 another subject. Of course, the home room teacher cannot arbi- trarily dictate to each and all pupils, but is guided by the record of the pupils from many teachers. The scheme is identical for each day of the entire semester. It is interesting to note how the number of pupils who have to re- main decrease in number from week to week and from day to day. It is also interesting to note the eager pupils seeking further help, although apparently proficient on all subjects. The Social or ExxRA-CtrRRicuLUM Hour A graphical explanation of the third study period for the lAi grade has been given above. The following representation is for the same grade, on the same day, Monday, but during the seventh period when this grade is in room 18 with the hterature teacher. This scheme holds good for only two days in the week at present — Mondays and Wednesdays. Otherwise, the seventh period is operated just as was explained for the third period above. It wiU be noticed in that explanation that six studies were being supervised for the lA grade pupils, while the lAi class was study- ing arithmetic. Now three of these teachers, — those of geography, arithmetic, and elementary science, — because of talents and train- ing that enable them to meet pupils in an informal or social way, give their time to developing in the children who wish it varied expression in Instrumental music. Drawing or painting, Folk-dancing and the like, or Baloptican depicting selected scenes, etc. There is no formal instruction but informal expression during these two half hours. These extra-curriculum or social courses are open to pupils of groups 2 and 3 as referred to above, and any 15 pupils who ask for 4o8 Appendix any kind of legitimate educational enjoyment are given it, if it can possibly be provided. Classes are, as before, distributed for group supervision by monthly schedule, each assignment of classes to each teacher for each day in the week being determined, as far as possible, by the wants and needs of the majority of the pupils in the class or by the needs of group i. With the sUght, but most important varia- tion ia regard to the extra-curriculum courses, the scheme for the seventh period is identical in nature with that of the third period, the variables, of course, being the room and subject chosen by the children. In the explanation above, the extra-curriculum activities simply replace studying lessons. BIBLIOGRAPHY^ BOOKS DEALING WITH PHASES OF STUDY Aber, M. R., An Experiment in Education, Part II. Am. Bk. Co. New York. 1897. Aykes, L. p., Laggards in our Schools. Charities Publishing Co. New York. 1909. Babbitt, Irving, The New Laokoon. Houghton. New York. 1910. Briggs, L. R., Routine and Ideals. Houghton. New York. 1904. Bryan, E. B., The Basis of Practical Teaching. Silver, Burdett & Co. Boston. 1905. Burr, Anna, The Autobiography. Houghton. New York. 1909. Craker, F., Talks to Students on the Art of Study. Hoffman Edwards. Madison, Wisconsin. 1903. Dewey, John, How We Think. Heath. Boston. 1910. (Doubtless the best contribution and most readable exposition of the relation of thinking to studying.) Dresser, H. W., Hiunan Efficiency. Putnams. New York. 1912. Earhart, L. B., Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools. Teachers College. New York. 1908. Eastwick, N. E., Art of Thinking. Lane Co. 1906. Henderson, E. W., Study of Memory for Connected Trains of Thought. Review Pub. Co. New York. Hinsdale, B. A., The Art of Study. Am. Bk. Co. New York. 1900. James, Williams, Some Problems of Philosophy. Chapters IV and V. Holt. New York. 1911. Johnston and Others. The Modern High School. Scribners. New York. 1914. Chapters IX, X, XI. Jones, Olivia M., Teaching Children How to Study. Macmillan. New York. 1909. • Articles and books on the various subjects are referred to in the respective chapters. 409 4IO Bibliography JuDD, C. H., The Psychology of High School Subjects. Ginn Co. Chicago. 1905. This is doubtless the best attempt to deal with the curriculum from the point of view of the pupil's difficulties and general methods of learning. See especially Chapter XVIII. Kennedy, John, The Batavia System. Bardeen. Syracuse, New York. 1914. Kratz, H. E., Studies and Observations in the Schoolroom. Educa- tional Co. Boston. 1907. Knowlson, T. S., Century Students Manual. Wame & Co. New York. 1910. Art of Thinking. Warne & Co. New York. 1910. LeRoy, Edward, The New Philosophy of Henri Bergson. (Chapter on Language.) Holt. New York. 1913. McMtJRRY, F. M., How to Study. Houghton. New York. 1909. (A careful but theoretical analysis of the factors in studying.) Meumann, Ernst, The Psychology of Learning. Appleton. New York. 1913. (A critical summary of the studies in the field of memory.) Meyer, Max, The Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior. Badger. Boston. 191 1. Mill, J. S., Autobiography. Longmans. New York. 1908. Miller, I. E., The Psychology of Thinking. MacmiUan. New York. 1909. (A clear exposition of the problem method of studying.) Parker, S. C, Teaching High School Subjects. Ginn. Chicago. 1915. (An excellent treatment of the modern viewpoint in secondary edu- cation.) See Chapters XVI, XVII. Partridge, G. E., Outhne of Individual Study. Sturgis and Walton. New York. 1910. Phelps, W. L., Teaching in School and College. MacmiUan. New York. 191 2. Pillsbury, W. B., The Psychology of Reasoning. Appleton. New York. 1910. Read, G. W., Automatic Instructor ; Practical System of Home Study. Hudson. Kansas City, Mo. Ribot,Th., Evolution of Generalldeas. Open Court. Chicago. 1899. Rowe, S. H., Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching. Longmans. New York. 1909. Bibliography \ 411 Sandwick, R. L., How and What to Study. Heath. Boston. 1916. ScHAEPrER, N. C, Thinking and Learning to Think. Lippincott. New York. 1900. Shields, T. E., Making and Unmaking a Dullard. Catholic Education Press. Washington, D.C. 1909. SiDis, Boias, Phihstine and Genius. Mofiat. New York. 1911. Spencer, Herbert, Autobiography. Appletons. New York. SwiET, E. J., Mind in the Making. Scribner. New York. 1908. Terman, L. M., Hygiene of the School Child. Houghton. New York. 1914. Thorndike, E. L., Human Nature Club. Longmans. New York. Principles of Teaching. Seiter. New York. 1906. Definitions of Study CoLGROVE, C. P., The Teacher and the School, pp. 298, 299. Scribners. New York. 1910. Elementary School Teacher. October, 1911. Hinsdale, B. A., The Art of Study, pp. 14, 15. Jones, Olive, Education, Vol. XXX, January, 1910, pp. 307, 670. McMuRRY, F. M., How to Study, p. 283. Reudiger, W. C, Education, Vol. XXIX, March, 1909, p. 437. Richards, J. W., Meaning of Study. Popular Science Monthly, No. LXXXI, p. 193 ff. Symposium on Study in Elementary Schools. Education, Vol. XXX, December, 1909, pp. 243-244. Welch, W. M., How to Study. Welch Co. Chicago. 1901. Home STxn)Y Gildemeister, Theda, Study at Home. In National Education Asso- ciation Journal of Proceedings and Addresses, 1909, pp. 1009- 1012. Hall-Quest, A. L., Home Study, Pro and Con. Virginia Journal of Education, 1915, pp. 399-402. Heck, W. H., Study of Home Study. School Review. November, 1915- 412 Bibliography Home Study, Boulder County Colorado Teachers Association. Ne- braska Teacher, Vol. XVII, pp. 84-86. September, 1914. Home Study, Primary Education, Vol. XXIII, p. 62. January, 1915. Home Study Reform, School Review, Vol. XX, pp. 526-531. October, 1912. Home Study S}rmposium, Journal of Education. December 18, 1913. Maxwell, W. H., Educational Review, Vol. XLV, p. 167 flf. (Types of parents analyzed.) Morgan, W. P., Questionnaire on Home Study. McComb, lUinois. No Home Study, Primary Education, Vol. XXIII, p. 62. January, 1915- Outlook, Vol. 103. January 18, 1913. (Reference to article in Ladies Home Journal, January, 1913, on Evening Study Hoiu". Should Home Study be Discontinued? Perm. State Educational Assoc, pp. 238-241. 1913-1914. Strike to End Night Work. Literary Digest, XLV, pp. 1125-1126. December 14, 1912. Methods and Habits of Studyeng Blatr, F. G., Study and the Use of Books. N. E. A. 1909, p. 856. Bruce, H. Addington (Various references to laziness). Review of Reviews, Vol. XLI, May, 1913, p. 109 ff. COLVIN, S. S., The Attitude of the Child in Learning. School and Home Education. September, 1914, pp. 29-32. Cramming, Benefits of. Independent, Vol. 62, pp. 746-747. March 28, 1907. Cramming for Civil Service Examination. School Work, Vol. XV, p. 7. January, 1913. Daves, J. N., Smoking and Scholarship. School Review, March, 1914, pp. 200, 201. Dearborn, G. V. N. , Economy in Study. Wm. Wood & Co. New York. Gamble, E. A. M., Study in Memorizing Various Materials by the Reconstruction Method. Psych. Review. Lancaster, Pa. Giles, F. M., Investigation of Study Habits of High School Students. School Review. 191 2. Helps to Studying. Popular Science Monthly, No. LXXI, pp. 193-196. August, 19x2. Bibliography 413 Honesty in School Work. Education, Vol. XXX, pp. 289-299. January, 1913- Ideals of Study, Nation, Vol. 88, p. 358. April 8, 1909. Intellectual Democracy, Nation, Vol. 88, pp. 391-392. Johnson, N. C, Habits of Work and Methods of Study of High School Pupils in Some Cities of Indiana. School Review, Vol. VII, No. 5. May, 1899, p. 257 ff- JuDD, C. H., Initiative in the Discovery of Problems. Elem. School Teacher, Vol. XIII. November, 1912, p. 146 ff. King, Irving, An Inquiry into Certain Aspects of the Study Habits of University Students. School and Society, Vol. II, p. 824. December 4, 1915. Laboratory Method and High School Efficiency. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXXXII, pp. 243-251. March, 1913. Leroy, S., Logical Chart for Teaching and Learning the French Con- jugation. Jenkins Co. New York. igoo. Maintaining Ideals of Study. Nation, Vol. XX, No. 88, pp. 300-301. Methods of Study. Worlds Work. November, 1912. MiJNSTEEBERG, HuGO, American Problems. Moffat. New York. 1910. (Reference to stimulants and their effect on studying.) NicoLSON, F. W., Education, Vol. XXX, June, 1910, p. 617. Porter, Noah, Books and Reading, pp. 41-42. Scribners. New York. RiCKARD, G. E., High School Students' Descriptions of their Methods of Study. School Review, 1913, pp. 673-677. Right Way to Study. Education, Vol. XXV, pp. 503-504. RowE, S. H., Study Habit and How to Form It. Education, Vol. XXX, pp. 670-683. June, 1910. School Masters' Club of Minneapolis. Report of Survey Committee. (Discusses the home life of children, number of evenings parents are at home, etc.) School Review. 1910. SissON, E. O., College Students' Comments on their own High School Training. School Review, Vol. XX, pp. 649-664. December, 191 2. Starch, Daniel, The Inheritance of Abilities in School Studies. School and Society, Vol. II, p. 608. October, 1915. Study and the Use of Books. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 852-859. Treatment of Idleness. L'Education Modem. Sixth Year. January, 1911, pp. 17-29- 414 Bibliography Tripplett, Norman, The Faults of Children. Ped. Sem., Vol. X, p. 202. Waugh, K. T., a New Mental Diagnosis of the College Student. New York Times. January 2, 1916. White, L. A., Some Considerations of the Study Problem. No. Dakota Educ. Assoc. Proceedings, 1914, pp. 60-64. The Supervising of Study Allen, I. M., Some Experiments in High School Instruction. School Review, Vol. XXII, p. 26. Bagley, W. C, The PossibQity of Training Children to Study. Illinois State Teachers Assoc. Proceedings. 1909. Springfield. The Educative Process. Chapter XXI. MacmiUan. New York. 1905. Breslich, E. R., Thirteenth Year Book of National Society for the Study of Education. Teaching High School Pupils to Study. School Review, Vol. XX, PP- 505-515- Brown, J. Stanley, Supervised Study in High School. School and Home Education. February, 1915, pp. 207-212. Caldwell, 0. E., Detroit Central High School Plan. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXXXII, pp. 243-251. Churchman, P. H., The Place of Study in the Curricultmi. Popular Science Monthly. December, 1913. Cleaton, Sue C, Teaching How to Study. Virginia Journal of Educa- tion, No. 6, pp. 7-10. October 12. Earhart, L. B., Experiment in Teaching Children to Study a Reading Lesson. Education, Vol. XXX, pp. 236-242. December, 1909. Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools. New York Teachers CoUege Series, No. 18. Types of Teaching. Houghton, Chapter XIV. French, J. S., How to Secure from the Pupil Initiative and Independent Effort. Principal Morris Heights School, Providence, R.I. Hall-Quest, A. L., Direction of Study. The Modern High School by Johnston and others. Scribners. Present Tendencies in Supervised Study. Educational Adminis- tration and Supervision, Vol. I, No. 4, April, r9is, pp. 239-256. Bibliography 415 The Aim of Supervised Study. Virginia Journal of Education, 191S, PP- 537-540. Supervised Study. Virginia Journal of Education, 191 5, pp. 181-184. Comments of Schoolmen on Supervised Study. Virginia Journal of Education, 1915, pp. 344-347. Some Reasons for and Results of Supervised Study. Virginia Journal of Education, 1915, p. 287 ff. The Problem of Supervised Study. High School Quarterly. Athens, Georgia. May, 1915. Holmes, W. H., School Organization. Davis Press. Individuals. Class Instruction. School Review, Vol. XIV, pp. 635-640. Jo^fES, Olive M., Teaching Children to Study. Education, XXX, pp. 242-244. December, 1909. Lewis, E. E., The Child who will not Study. Journal of Education, April 15, 191 s, p. 400. McMuRRY, F., Improvement of the Stud^ Period. N. E. A., 1906, pp. 102-108. Merriam, J. L., School Review, Vol. XVIII, pp. 627-633. (Recitation and Study.) MiNNiCK, J. H., An Experiment in the Supervised Study of Mathe- matics. School Review, Vol. XXI, pp. 670-675. Moore, E. C, Training Pupils to Work. Western Journal of Education, Vol. VII, pp. 200-204. March, 1902. Plummer, F. W., The Longer Day for Supervised Study. School Review, Vol. 22, May, 1914, p. 340. Reavis, W. C, Factors that Determine the Habits of Study of Grade Pupils. Elementary School Teacher, Vol. XII, pp. 71-81. Octo- ber, 191 1. Importance of a Study-program for High School Pupils. School Review, Vol. XIX, pp. 398-405. June, 1911. Roberts, C. L., How to Study and Teaching How to Study. Educator- Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 626-629. August, 1910. Ruediger, W. C, Teaching Pupils to Study. Education, Vol. XXIX, PP- 437-446- March, 1909. Search, P. W,, The Pueblo Plan, Education Review, Vol. VII, pp. 154- 170. Also W. H. Holmes, School Organization and the Individual Child. Davis Press, pp. 65-68. 4i6 Bibliography Seashore, C, Journal Educational Psychology, Vol. II, No. 6, p. 348. Sensible Directions of Study, School Review, November, 1914, pp. 635, 630. (Reference to work of F. M. Giles in DeKalb, 111.) Sheldon, W. D., A Neglected Cause of Retardation. Educational Re. view, 1910. Strayer, G. D., Teaching Children How to Study. Atlantic Educa. tional Journal, Vol. IV, pp. 285-85, 299. April, 1909. The Teaching Process, Chapter VIII. Macmillan. New York, 1911. SwETT, H. P., Teaching Pupils How to Study. Journal of Education, Vol. 69, pp. 631-632. June 10, 1909. Teaching High School Pupils How to Study, School Review, Vol. XX, pp. 505-515, October, 1912. Teaching How to Study, Brown University Teachers Association. April 22 and 23, 1910. The Batavia Plan after Fourteen Years of Trial. Elementary School Teacher, Vol. XII, pp. 449-459. Jime 12. The Teacher's Use of the Pupil's Study Time in Secondary Mathematics. Wisconsin Journal of Education, January, 1913, pp. 6-8. TiGHE, R. J., Teaching Children How to Study. North Carohna Asso. of School Superintendents and Principals, Proceedings, 1910. Raleigh. Whipple, G. M., How to Study Effectively. School and Home Educa- tion. Bloonjington, 111., January, February, April, 1916. Wiener. The Modern High School by Johnston and Others. (Refer- ence to plan of divided period in Newark, N.J.) Williams, C. W., The Scientific Study of the College Student. Science, Vol. XXXVIII. July 25, 1913. INDEX Abbreviations, 189. Abstract conceptions, 46. Accuracy, 56, 99, 124, 125, 189, 207, 219, 264, 293. and speed, 38, 39, 381. Achievement, 29, 62, 89. See also Success. and democracy, 25. Acids, 67. Acting, 249. Addition, 294. Addresses, public, 244-247. Ade, George, 250. Adjectives and adverbs, 237. Adjustment, 215. Adolescents, 68, 93, 229. Adverbs and adjectives, 237. Advertisements, 233, 278. in mathematics, 301. Esthetics, 306. Age, 262. Agriculture, 165, 312 ff. Aims, gi. Air, 306. circulation, 80, 81. Alderman, L. R., 226, 3S2. Alertness, 56, 65. Algebra : amount of time spent studying, 163. and girls, 287 ff. examinations in, 298, 299. methods o£ studying, 291, 293, 300. pupils' ability in, 40-48. rate and amount of work in, 36-38. stated conferences in, 99. supervised study in, 134 ff., 302, 303. value of, 289. All-round pupil, 58. Alternate daily periods, 96, 158, 159- Ambiguity, 238. Ambition, 87, 306. Amusements, 10, 11, 36, 278. Anabolism, 64 ff. Analysis, 178, 218, 223, 224, 225, 240, 261, 302- Analytics, 291. Apparatus, 125. Appearance of pupil, 88, 89. Appendix, use of, 122. Appetite, 70. Apples, 69. apple butter, 70. Application, 21, 88, 123, 205, 206, 215, 218- 220, 225, 297. Archaeology, 229. Argximentation, 229, 233-235, 248, 249. Arithmetic, 104, 105, 289. Art, 56, 58, 381. aim of studying, 373 ff. and composition, 232. and history, 262. pupil's liking for, 373. supervising study of, 372-382. Artistic reading, 249, 250. Assembly hall, 96-98. criticism of, 97, 98. study program in, 11 7-1 20. Assigrraients, 86, 93, 129, 130, 143-153, 168, 193- abstract, 147. amount of time for, 147 ff. attractive, 143. class, 145. cooperative, VIII, 129, 143, 278-286. definite, 131, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 177. general, 147. hurried, 18, 23. hygienic, 93. indefinite, 23. individual, 143, 14s, I47- informal, 148. intensive, 20. 2E 417 4i8 Index Assignments, in civics, 27S-286. in debates, 248. in history, 262 ff., 274, 275. in mathematics, 292 fE., 302, 303, in supervised study, 169-172 ff. kinds, 14s ff. long, 24. maldng, 144. memorizing, 211. mental processes in, 145 fn. Merriam, J. L., on, 148, 149. motivation in, 23, 147. omitting, 99. page, 20, 14s ff. paragraph, 145 fi. problem, 14s ff-, 258. reading first time, 122, 125. reasonable, 84. remembering, 149, 293. standing, 236. study after, 118. study before, 148. testing, 156. time for, 131, 148. topic, 14s ff., 281-286. understanding, 122, 152, 178, 206. vmiversity type of, 177. Association, 57, 124, 125, 202, 207, 209, 218, 259, 261, 267. Astronomy, 301. Athletics, 42, 56, 73, no, 234, 278. Atmosphere, 3r3. Attention, 56, S7, 60, 83, 84, 92, 97, 120, 125, 170. Attitude in studying, 60. Atwater. See Vost and Atwater. Auditory images, 46, 49, 50, 61, 114. Authority, 25, loi. Authors, 178, 196, 203. Automobiles, 73. Autumn, moods caused by, 86. Ayres, L. P., 14, 34. Bacon, Francis, 69. Bachelor apartments, 4. Bachelors, 4. Bagley, W. C. 58. Bainbridge, High School, Richmond, Vir- ginia, 296, 297, 399 ff. Ballou, 229. Bananas, 70. Bands, 381. Banquets, 244. Baseball, 73, 74, 92. Basebumers, 79. Basketball, 73, 89. Batavia, New York, plan of supervised study, 128, 129. Beans, 66, 70. Beauty, dvic, 277 ff. Bedchamber, 72, 73. Beef roast, 69. hamburg steak, 70. salt, 69. Beethoven, 199. Bell, Alexander, 208. Bell and Lancaster, 13. Bible students, 168. BicycUng, 74, 93. Biography, study of, 89, 243, 301. Blackboards, 78. and grammar, 224. use of, in supervised study, in. Blackduck, Minnesota, 216 fi. Blood, circulation, 64, 79. pressure, 67. Bloomington, Indiana, 386 ff. Blue, Hal G., 123-125. Boccaccio, 90. Bonser, Frederick, 213. Book, Wm., 68, 219. Bookkeeping, 97. Book, loose-leaf, loi. Book reviews, 169. Books, See Textbooks. closing, in studying, 194. dependence on, 51. in history, 265-267. modem, 240. reference, 116, 142, 170, 174-177. use of, 19, 20, 118, 122, 125, 171, 194. "Bom short," 42, 43. Boston, Massachusetts, 70. Boys, and oral composition, 238. fatigue of, 93. tall, 88, 89. See also Individual differ- ences. Brace outline, 182, 183, 224. Braces as notice signs, 167. Index 419 Brain, 68. cells, 67. food, 66. Bread, 66, 6g, 70. Breakfast, 69. studying before, 162. Breslich, E. R., quoted on assignment, 143- 144, 388. Bridges, 278. Briefs, 180, 234-235, 248. Brilliant pupil, 58, 150, 267. Bristol, Connecticut, 380. Brooklyn, New York, 291. Brooks, Phillips, 178. Brown, J. C, and Minnick-, J. A., 221, 253. Brown, J. Stanley, 27. quoted on "delayed group" plan, 116. quoted on double period plan, 133-140, 385, 386. Browning, 366. Burbank, Luther, 308. Byron, Lord, 90. Cabbage, x. Cafeteria, 68. Cairo, Illinois, 389, 390. Calcium, 67. Calculus, 291. Calory values, 67, 70. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 32. Campaign, 262. Canals, 141. Canoeing, 73. Capacity, native, 14, 15, 21, 22, 31, 33. analyzed, 56, 57, 61, 96. in mathematics, 288. See also Individ- ual abilities. Carbohydrates, 66. Carbon in food, 67. Cards, public speaking notes, 246; re- cording references, loi, 185-188. Carelessness, 55, 58, 185, 295. Carlyle, 64. Carpet in bedchamber, 73. Case, 237. Causes in history, 266, 270. Central High School, Newark, New Jersey, 2986. Century, 262. Cereals, 66, 67. Cerebellum, 68. Chance variations, 33. Chancellor, William, on image types, 50-52, 54- Chandler, Supt. J. A. C, 159. Channing, Edward, 256. Character. See Dispositions. Charities, 277. Charlottenburg, Germany, 32. Cheating, 205, 295. Checks as notice signs, 167. Cheerfulness, 84, 86, 87, 89, 250. Cheese, 66. Chemistry, 165, 305. Chicago, University of : assignments in high school, 143, 144. conference on German, 321 ff. mathematics in, 300, 301, 388. plan of directing study, 1 21-123. sleep habits of President Harper, 72. Children, independence of, 7. indigent, 70. Chittenden, R. H., 66. Chromatin, 67. Church, H. O., 353. Church life, 278. Churchman, P. N., 331. Cicero, Illinois, 353. Cigarettes, 65. Cigars, 65. Citizenship, 276 £f., 290. City life, 4, 5. Civics : and themes, 229, 232. assignments in, 147, 278-281. civic beauty, 277 £f. current topics, 281-286. methods of studying, 277-286. problems in, 55. pupil's abiUty in, 40 ff. supervising study of, 276-286. Civilization, 2, 214. Clam chowder, 70. Clark College, 331. Class instruction : aided by conferences, 103. criticism of, 31 ff., 51. needs of, 32. psychology of, 98. unassigned teacher, 104, 128. 420 Index Class instruction, m. individual instruction, 14, 18, 19, 21, 31. Class management, 13, 14, 34, 49, 52. and supervised study, 22, 58, 59, i?8-i6o. in mathematics, 293-297, 302, 303. Classroom, as study hall, 97. Clearness, 167, 207, 232. Climate and studying, go, 91, 141. Clippings, 301. Chib life, 279. Clubs, history, 263. mathematics, 301. Cocoa, 70. Coffee, 65, 314. Coherence, 238. Coleridge, 64. Colloquialism, 237. Colors, memory for, 50. Columbia, Missouri, plan of supervised study, 129-133. Columbia, South Carolina, 310. Columbia University, 383, 384. Columbus, 208. Colvin, S. S., on mental images, 49, 52, 53- Commencement day, 262. Common sense, gs. Communication, 277 ff. Community as study hall, 277. Comparison, 118. in history, 264. parallel outUne in, 182, 193, 264. Complacent pupil, 58. Composition, oral, 238-251. Composition, written. See also Themes. cheating in, 29s. correcting papers, 26, 27, 139, 236, 293. forms of, 22g £E. reports of, 6q. supervising study of, I3g, 221-238, 251. Concentration, 20, 56, 74, 84, gi, g2, ii8, 120, 122, 125- Concepts, in history, 261. in studying, 29, 85. Conclusions, 180. Conducted study period, gg. Conference book, 99, loi, 102, 125. Conference period, gg. Conferences, 86, 96, 98-103. by appointment, gg, 100. stated, g8, gg, Conferences, technic of, 100-103. Confidence, 58, 85, 86, 87, 219. Contentiousness, 92. Contrast, 118, 193, 231. Control, 68. Conversation, 100, 239-243, 33s, 336. Cooperativeness, 89. Copying notes, 201-203. Cornell University, 71. Cornell, W. S., quoted on school lunches, 70. Correcting papers, 26, 27, 139, 236, ags. Correlations, 40-44, S3. 206, 208, 262, 271, 28g, 300, 301, 302, 318. Cost of living, 4. Cotton, 141. Coulter, J. G., quoted on science, 312-314. Courage, 8g, 94. Course, 16. Courtis, S. A., 14. Crain, C. M. See Frailey an4 Crain. Cram, R. A., on art, 373 ff. Cramming, 204, 205. Crawfordsville, Indiana, 340. Credit, i5, 288, 2gi. Crossbars, 73. Crosses as notice signs, 167. Currents, 141. Current topics, 281-286. Curriculum, 16, 34, 4g, 289, 290. Daily extra period, plan of supervised study, 156-158. Daily work, report of, 60. Dancing, 92. Darwin, Charles, 199, 308, 348. Dates as food, 6g, 70. Dates in history, 254 ff., 261. Day tickets, 310. Dealey, 4. Dearborn, W., on well-bdng, 67-69. Debating, 89, 247-249. Decade, 262. Deceitful pupil, 58. Deduction, 25. Deformity, 89. DeKalb, Illinois, gg, 120, 121, 153, 163. " Delayed group " plan of supervised study, ii5i 116. Democracy, and achievement, 25. and history, 258. Index 421 Democracy, and individual pupil, 32. and public speaking, 243. and social efficiency, 213. as a stimulus, 89, 93. Demonstration, 289. Denver, Colorado, 32. Depew, Chauncey, 244. Deportment, 60. Descriptive writing, 229, 231, 232, 289. Desk, pupil's, 73. Details, avoiding too many, 179, 180. Detroit, Michigan, S9, 6o- Dewey, dedmal classification, 175 S. Dewey, John, 146, 214. Diagrams, 125, 183, 223, 224, 233. Dickens, Charles, 223. Diction, 237. Dictionary, use of, 118, 120, 139, 166, 172, 193, 2S9, 262, 263, 273. Diet. See Eating. Difficulties, analyzing, 109, iii. anticipated and prevented, 113, 116. dealiiig with, in conferences, loi, 103. example of, in geometry, 109, no. in history, 271. in mathematics, 293. recording, 112, 113, 114. Digestion, 64, 71. Dignity, loi. Disdphne, 119. Discouragement, 83. Discoveries and inventions, 313-317. Discussion, 239-243, 239. Disease, 64. Dishonesty, 293. Dispositions, individual, 34, 54-61. Distractions, 21, 26, 82, 91-93, 98, 113, 120, 123, 166. Divided period plan of sujjervised study, 84,96, 127, i28-r33, 133, IS7, 158, 160. Batavia, New York, plan, 128, 129. Columbia, Missouri, plan, 129-133, 148, 149. schedule of, at Rochester, New York, 134. technicof, 140-133. Doing and learning, 218-220. Domestic science, 163, 183. curriculum, 63, 66, 303. sewing, no. supervising study of, 134, 244, 262, 291. Domestic science, textiles, no. Don Quixote, 349. Double period in Joliet, Illinois, 133-136. Dowden, 363. Dowman, W., quoted on direction of study, 123-123. Drama, 362, 3g3. Dramatic work in language, 336 S. Dress, pupils', 88, 381. Drill, 103, 177, 223, 31S. Driving, 74. Drowsiness, 69, 81. Duke, D. C, quoted on sleep, 72. Dumb-bells, 73. Earhart, LidaB., 141, 213. Earning money, 7. Earth, 306. Eating, 19, 64. See also Food. amount and quality of, 66-70. time of, 70, 71. Economics, 163. Edison, 62, 64, 214, 308. quoted on sleep, 71, 72. Education : departments of, in imiversities, 93, 106, lis- false conceptions of, 23, 203. formal or organized, 87, 277 ff. meaning of, 213. primitive, i. social, 2. Educational values, 23, 27. of history, 237 ff. of mathematics, 289 ff . Efficiency, 67. Effort : abuse of, 17, 63. conditions of, 63. directed, 17, 18. disturbed by sex-instinct, 87, 88. reporting, 60. rewarding, 90, 130, 137, 203. source of, 64. Eggs, 66, 67, 69. Electricity, 306. Electric fans, 80. Electric lighting, 78. Elementary school : course in history, 234 S. 422 Index Elementary school, eighth grade in, ii6. English in, 223. unassigned teacher in, 104, 105. Elhuff, Lewis, on science, 314, 315. Elimination, 34, 88. Elizabeth, New Jersey, 32. Embarrassment, 89. Emotion, 46, 83, 85-91, 249. Encouragement, 90, 138. Encyclopedias, i56, 172 £E. Endurance, 56, 63, 6s. Energy, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68. physical, 306, 312 ff. wasteful, III, 146. England, heating of schools in, 79. English. See also Composition, correct- ing papers, literature, themes. in study hall, 97. methods of studying, 125, 169, 172, 193, 196, 215 ff. notebook work in, 184. pupils' ability in, 40-44, 46-48. stated conference in, 99. supervising study of, 134, 139, 155, 385. time spent in studying, 165. Enthusiasm, 27, 84, 240. Environment, 33, gi, 115. Epoch, 262. Equations, 296, 297. Erosion, 141. Essays, 227. Euphony, 238. Euphoria, 68, 243. European war, 214, 219, 257. " Evangeline," study of, 368. Examinations : in mathematics, 297 ff. mental types in, 50, 151. oral, SI- preparing for, 184, 203-206. variety in, 169. Examinations and reviews, 219. Exceptional pupils, 48, 54. Experience, 62, 147, 208. Experiments, 308, 309, 311. Expertness, 240. Explaining new lessons, 23, 144, 184, 29s. Exposition, 51, 184. forms of, in composition, 229, 232, 233. in history, 258. Extemporary speaking, 248. Eyesight, 205. See also Light. Fabre, J. H., 349. Facial expression, 249. Failures, 8s, 86, 184. Faintness, 81. Fair-mindedness, 87. Faith, 62. Family : architectural conditions of, 5-7. biological conditions of, 4, 5. colonial and modem, 3. independence of children, 7. industrial conditions, 7, 8. making necessities of life, 7. social conditions of, 8, 10, 55. traits, S5- Fatigue, 65, 92, 93. Fat people, 67. Fat-producing foods, 66, 67. Feeling, 262. FeeUng tone, 85-91. Fiction. See Novels. Fielding, H., diet of, 69. Figs, 69. Figures of speech, 238, 366. Filing, 186 ff., 195. Filing cases, 186 ff. Fish, 66, 69. Flannigan, M. L., 39. Fletcher, Horace, 69, 70. Flux, philosophy of, 33. Fly-leaves, use of, 171, 195. Food, 64-70, 314. Food chemistry, 66, 314. Football, 73, 89, 234. Footnotes, 122, 193. Ford, Simeon, 244. Formal disdphne, 226, 289, 318, 321. Form of discourse, 238. Fowl as food, 69. Frailey, L. E., and Grain, C. M., investi- gation of pupils' abiUtles in different subjects, 39-48. Franklin, Benjamin, 62. Frederick the Great, 69, 225. French, supervising the study of, 134, 137, 138, 318 ff., 33S. 336, 341 ff- Friction, 62, 63. Index 423 Fruits, 66, 67, 6g. Galileo, 62. Gammans, H. W., on grammar, 223, 225, 236. Geography, 105, 141, 165, 208, 259. Geometry : attitude toward, 287 ff. difficulties in, 109, no, 293. examinations in, 299. groups in, 294. memorizing in, 295. method of studying, 213, 300. pupils' ability in, 40-48, 91. supervising study of, 134, 138, 155, 303. value of, 289. German, 91. amoimt of time spent studying, 165. courses in, 322-324. stated conference in, 99. supervising study of, 134, 137, 138, 318 ff., 341 ff. Gestures, 246, 249. Giles, F. M., quoted on directions of study, 120, 121. on pupils' habits of study 163, 172, 193, 213. 258. on weekly supervision of study, 153, 134, 156. Girls. See also Individual differences. and algebra, 287, 291. and oral composition, 239. dress of, 88. fatigue of, 93. Goal idea, igg. Goethe, 321. Golf, 73. Glee clubs, 381. Grading. See Marking. Graham wafers, 70. Grammar, 325. method of studying, 183, 222-226, 321, 325-330. unassigned teacher in, 105. Gravity system, 81. Gray days, moods caused by, 86. Greek, 319. Grit, 62, 63, 89. Groups : according to mental types, 52. Groups, adjustment of, 59. assignments according to, 149. cooperation in, 61. delayed plan, n6. in mathematics, 294 ff. study coaching, in. supervising study of, 97, 151 ff. Gurlitt method, 325-327. Gymnasiimis, 73, 135. Gymnastics, 74. Habit, 55, 56, 60. of speech, 222. of study, 120-126. of writing, 227. Hamburg steak, 70. Hamilton, Miss Lucy, 128. "Harbor, The," 359. Hardship, 62. Harper, habits of sleep, 72. Harris, L. H., 320. Hart, Bushnell, 256, 257, 258. " Harvester, The, " 359. Haste, 295. Hastings, Nebraska, 104. Haughty pupil, 58. Hawthorne, 225. Hayward, F., 360. Headings, 179, 181. Health, 19, 55, 62, 64-74. meaning of, 64, 65, 205. study of, 277, 280. . Heart rate, 67. Heat: amount of, for studying, 79. foods producing, 66. kinds of heating, 79, 80. in science, 313 ff. smnmer, 90. Heck, W. H., 164. Hegel, 349. Henry VHI, diet of, 69. Heroism, 89. High school, 29, 55, 70, 106, 220. HiU, 159. Hillegas, M. B., 229. History, 24, 360. American, 40, 41, 105, 253, 265, 268-270. amount of time studying, 165. ancient, 272-275. 424 Index History, clubs, 263. correlations, 20S. in study hall, 97. mental processes in studying, 261 ff. methods of studying, 84, 85, 86, 121, 125, 132, 13s ff., 172, 182, 252-275. notebooks in, 184, 191. supervised study of, 15s, 252-275. value of, 257 £f. Hohnes, W. H., fn. 32. quoted on unassigned teacher, 104, 105. on assignment, fn. 145. Holyoke, Massachusetts, 223. Home life, 3-10, 73, 93. Home study. See Studying at home. Hope, 63. Horseback riding, 73. Hot-air furnace, 79, 80. Hot-water heating, 80. "House of Life" by Rossetti, 210. Howells, Dean, 349. Hugo, Victor, 225. Humanity, 71. Humidity, 67, 81. Hundred Years' War, 266. Huneker, James, 225. Hunting, 73. Huxley, 214. Hydrogen in food, 67. Hysteria, 92. lUinois, University of, investigation by School of Education of pupils' abilities in different subjects, 39-48. system of vocational guidance, 53-56. Illustrations, 122, 123, 125, 145, 183, 189, 197, 199, 201, 206, 233. Image types, 34, 45, 46, 49-54. Imagery, 238. in poetry, 365, 366. Imagination, 57, 259, 262. Imitation, 222. Imitators, 29. Impatience, 295. Important matter : checking and underscoring, 166-168, 169. organizing, 118, 179 ff., 193, 248. selecting, 21, 120, 122, 124, 125, 146, 155, 258, 259, 261, 270. Impression, first, 207, 219. Impulsiveness, SS> 87. Incentives, 19, 85, 88. Indentations, 179 ff., 197. Index, using, 122. making, 192. Indifference, 84, 87, 93. Indigent children, 70. Individual abihty. See Individual dif- ferences. Individual differences, 13-15, 22, 31-34, 381. according to image types, 34, 4S> 46, 49- 54- according to sex, 45-49, 61. according to subjects, 40-44. schemes of tabulating, 55-61. Individual dispositions, 34, 54-61. Individual instruction : inBatavia, New York, 128, 129. in study coaching, 112. present interest in, 32. Individuality, 229. Industrious habits, 56, 58, 62. Industry, and composition, 229. and language, 318. at home, 7, 8. modem, 8, 252. Ingenuity, 63. Ink, 167, 192. red, 198, 227, 236. Initiative, 29, 95. Inserted leaves, 171, 185, 192. Insight, 87. Instinct, sex, 87. self-preservative and social, 88-90, 199. social, 229. Institutes, conferences at, 98. Instruction, individual. See also Super- vised study, 32, 112, 128, 129. unit of, 16. Interest, 20, 22, 55, 56, 63, 84, 92, 129, 136, 199, 228, 229, 252 ff., 277. Interlacing outline, 183, 184. Intonation, 249. Introductions, 170, 180. Inventions and discoveries, 315-317. Iron in food, 67. Irritability, 92. ItaUan language, gi. Ivanhoe, 171, Index 425 Jackson, Michigan, 103. James, Henry, 225- James, William, 83. Jelly, currant, 69. Joliet, Illinois : delayed group plan, 115, 116. double period, 133-140, 302, 303, 328- 330, 385- no home study, 26, 136. prevention of repeaters, 28, 136. Johnson, N.C., quoted on distribution of distractions, 92. on pupils' habits of study, 161-163, 2s8 &. on recreation and study, 74. Johnston, Charles Hughes, 16, fn. 18, 383, 384. Johnston, W. Dawson, 263. Jonson, Ben, diet of, 69. Josephine of Frauqe, 72. Joynes and Meissner, 325. Judd, C. H., fn. 21. on history, 254. on mathematics, 295, 296. quoted on rate and amount of work, 33- 38. Judgment, 95. Jimction City, Kansas, 379. Junior high school, 12, 34. daily schedule of supervised study, 134. in Richmond, Virginia, 159, 399 ff. vocational guidance, 55, 56. Justice, 89. Kansas City, Kansas, 28. Kant, 214. Katabolism, 64 ff. Keeping pupils in after school, 103. Kennedy, detective, 360. Kennedy, John, 103. Kinaesthetic, images, 50, 52. sensations, 68. Kingsley outlines, 333 ff. Knowledge, 85, 86, 124, 205, 208, 228, 239, 240, 251. Laboratory, 1 23. indvics, 278 ff. in science, 308-311. method of, in studying, 130, 133, 182, i8s. Lacrosse, 73. "Lady Baltimore," 359. "Lady of the Lake," 171. Lamp, student, 76. Lancaster, 331, 373. Lancaster and Bell, 13, Language, 24. See also Latin. aim of, 318-320. French, 134, 137, 138, 318 ff., 335, 336, 341 ff. German, 134, 137, 138, 318 ff., 322-324. method of studying, 172. pupils' ability in, 46-48, 228. supervising study of, 134, 318 ff., 325-347. translation, 122 ff., 132, 219. Laska, 250. Lassitude, 81. Latin: amount of time in studying, 165. and EngUsh, 320. dislike of, 253. rate and amount of work in, 35, 36. pupils' abiUty in, 40, 41, 48, 340. stated conference in, 99. supervising study of, 134, 137, 318 ff., 332, 333-33S, 341 ff- Law cases, 224. Laziness, 19, 55, 56. Leadership, 27, 56, 205, 215. Learning and doing, 218-220. capacity for, 57. not easy, 63. Leisure, 119. Leland Stanford University, 333. Le Mars, Iowa, 32. Lentils, 66. Leonardo da Vind, diet of, 69, 211. Lequoc, 360. Lesson. See Assignment ; Recitation. Lesson plans, 141. book for, 141-143. Lesson types, 141, 142. Letter writing, 230. Lewis Institute, Chicago, Illinois, 291 Library, ignorance of students in, 30. in history, 262. in mathematics, 300, 301. method of studying with, 133, 13s ff., 174-177. Life, 95, 170, 305. 426 Index Life, modern, 262. study of, 277 ff. Liggett High School. See Detroit. Light, ig. acetylene, 78. amount of, 77-79. electric, 77-79. gasoline, 78, 166, 307, 315. quality of, 76. rules of lighting, 75-79. student lamp, 76. sufficient, 77. Lincoln, Nebraska, 291. Lipoids, 67. Listening, 241. Literature, 91, 92, 360. and composition, 229, and grammar, 225. correlations with, 208. drama, 362 363. essay, 360, 361. interest in, 199. method of studying, 193, 196, 208, 220. novels, 358-360. pupils' preferences, 351, 352. supervising study of, 132, 155, 156, 348- 371- value of, 348-351. Living expenses, 279. Living room, 164. Lobsein, M., 45. Locke, John, diet of, 69. Locution, 237. Lodge, G., 331. Logical memory, 211. Loisette, 211. Loneliness, 86, 87. Loose-leaf notebook, 185, 190, 196, 309 ff. Lounsbury, T. R., quoted on written com- position, 235. Love, 306. among pupils, 87. Loveland, I. M., quoted on daily extra period, 156-158, 389. Lunch box, 68. Lupin, 360. Lutz, Miss Caroline, 173. Lyell, Charles, 349. McDougall, William, 68. McMurry, Charles, 141, 256. McMurry, Frank, 133, 146. Mabie, H. W., 360, 361. Macaroni, 70. Macaulay, diet of, 69, 349. " Macbeth," 155. Maeterlinck, M., 250, 349. Magazines, 123, 125, 142, 166, 172 ff., 224, 240. Magnetism, 306. Maine, coast of, 87. Manila covers, 198. Manila folders, 186 fif. Mannheim, Germany, 32. Manual training, 91. and history, 262. pupils' dislike of, 253. supervising study of , 134, 185, 186. Maps, 123, 193, 259, 260, 270, 367. Marconi, 308. Margin, use of, 170, 171, 180, 181, 185, 192, 213. Marking, 18, 24, 26, 90. basis of, loi, 102, 130, 151, 152, 160, 168, 171,205. Marriage, 4. Mathematics. See also Algebra. amount of time in studying, 165. arithmetic, geometry, 24, 38, 46-48, 86, 92, 121, 122. assignments in, 143. difficulties in, 293, 294. groups in, 150. method of studying, 213, 219. notebooks in, 184, 293. supervising study of, 155, 253, 287- 304- value of, 289 ff. Measurements in education, 24, 53, 95, US- Meat, 66, 69, 70. Mechanical dravring, 97. Mediocrity, 54. Memorizing, 14, 118, 124, 138, 193, 200, 201, 205, 218, 220. and artistic reading, 249. in debates, 248. in geometry, 289. in history, 264, 271. methods of, 207-213, 331-333. Index 427 Memorizing, poetry, 367 ff. vocabulary, 331-333- Memory, according to sex, 45, 46. images, 49-54. kinds, 57, 210, 211. Mental hygiene, 21. Mental testing, 115. Mental traits, 55, 56. Mental types. See also Image types, 34, 97, ii4< 115- Merriam, J. L., quoted on supervised study in Columbia, Maryland, 129- 133- on studying history, 272-275. " EvangeUne," 368 ff. Metabolism, 64, 68. Method, general, 95, 347. natural, 325. psychological, 325. traditional, in language, 325. Meumann, E., 52. Michael Angelo, 69, 214. Migration, 277. Milk, 66, 70. Mill, J. S., 349- Miller, I. E., 214. Millikin, James, University, 173. Milton, 64, 2 14. Mind wandering, 19, 21, 56, 84, 170. Mineral matter in eating, 67. Mining, 141. Minnesota Educational Association, 254. Minnick, J. A., investigation of mathemati- cal abilities of boys and girls, 46-48, 387 ff. on English, 221, 253. Mistakes in composition, 237, 238. Mnemonics, 211, 212, 260. Mohammed, diet of, 69. Monitors, 13, 97. Monroe, W. S., quoted on pupils' work in mathematics, 38, 46. Montaigne, 349. Monuments in history, 262. Moods, 86-88. Morals, 280. Morbidness, 90. Morley, H., 349- Morose pupil, 58- Motivation, 228. Motor images, 46, 50, 52, 61, 114. Movement, 262. Moving pictures, 10. Muhlbach, Louisa, 225. Multiple type image theory, 53, 54. Muscle imagery. See Kinesthetic images. Muscular adroitness, 67. Museum, 262. Music, abiUty in, 51. as recreation, 74. adjusting key to weather, 91, 229. and history, 262. credit for, 376-380. meaning of, 381. supervising study of, 375 ff. Names, memory for, 50. Napoleon, sleep habits of, 72. Narcotics, 65. Narrative writing, 229-231. Neatness, 167, 293, 381. N.B., notice sign, 168, 298. Nerves, afferent, 68. Nervous exhaustion, 92. Nervousness, 81. Nervous system, 64. central, 68. peripheral, 68. Netschajeff, 45. Neurones, 68. Newark, New Jersey, 129, 384. News items, 224. Newspaper, 233, 236, 240, 263, 279, 360. editorials, 224. reporting, mental type of, 51. Newton, Massachusetts, 104, 105. Nitrogen in food, 67. Noise, 91. Norfolk, Virginia, 158. Normal schools, 95, 104, 106, 115, 292. North Platte, Nebraska, 376. Notation, 295. Notebooks, 166, 184, 220. appearance of, 190-192, 293. cards, 185 ff. copying in, 201-203. kinds, 185-190. in literature, 356, 357. in science, 309 ff. manlla folders, 185 ff. 428 Index Note-taking, ii8, 122, 18S-192, 193, 194. in history, 270. in literature, 356, 3S7. in textbook, 133. preparing for, in public speaking, 246, 247. too much, 184, 201, 271. Notice signs, 167 ff., 295. Novels, studying, 358-360. modem, 224, 243. Numbers, memory for, 50. Nutrition. See Eating ; Food. Nuts, 66. Oakland City, Indiana, 265, fn. Oats, as food, 66. Objects, 46, 50, 52. Oblique outlines, 181. Observation in science, 311. Obs. as notice sign, 168. Occasional supervised study, 96, 139. Occupations, 55. Offidousness, loi. Oils, as food, 66. Olfactory images, 52. Opera, Italian, 90. Opinion, 25, 248. Opportunity, 89. Oranges, 69. Orchestra, 381. Orderliness, 82, 167, 293, 295. Organization, 119, 193, 202, 204, 205, 218, 257. 258, 261, 263. Originality, 57, 95, 381. Outlines, 24, 118, 156, 166, 171, 1S9. brace, 224. in history, 258, 259, 270. in literature 356, 357. interlacing, 183. overlapping, 184. paragraph, 178. parallel, 163, 179, 264. structure of, 179-184. use of, 177-184, 189, 193, 194, 205, 220, 232, 234. vertical or serial, 181. Out-of-door sleeping, 73. Oxygen in foods, 67. Panama Exposition, indirect Ughting at, 76. Paper sUps, 202, 203. Paragraphing, 178, 201, 225. Parallel lines as notice signs, 167, 264. Parallel outlines, 182, 183. Parentheses, 167, 202. Parents : attitude of, toward pupils' moods, 87. cooperation in civic leagues, 285. in daily extra period, 157. in history clubs, 263. reports to, 59, 60. supervision, of examination preparations, 204. Parker, Gilbert, 250. Parker, S. C, 19, fn., 294. Participles, 238. Parties, attending, 10, 9a. Pascal, 301, 308. Pater, Walter, 349. Patron's leagues, 236, 285. Peaches, 70. Peas, dried, as food, 66. Percentage, 296, 297. Perception, no, 296. Period, 262. Peristalsis, 67. Perseverance, 56, 63. Peter the Great, diet of, 69. Philosophy, 360. Phonographs, 71. Phosphates, 67. Phosphorus in food, 67. Physical directors, 74. Physicians, 74. Physics, 62, 155, 165. Physiological conditions of studying, 63, 64, 74. 93- Pickwick, 349. Pictures, 125. Pipe, 65. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 99. Pius DC, diet of, 69. Playgroimds, 278. Pleasure, 85. Plenum system of ventilation, 81. Poe, Edgar Allan, 64. Poetry : influence of climate on, 90. memorizing, 209-211, 367. pupils' preference for, 351, studying, 363-370. Index 429 Poincar^, H., 54. Poole, Ernest, 225. Poole's " Index," 177. Pope, Alexander, 64. Popularity in high school, Sg-gi. Population, 4. Pork pie, 69. Portland, Oregon, 32. Posture, 83, 166. Potatoes, 69. Pottstown, Pennsylvania, 156-158, 389. Practice teaching, 106, 301. Praise, 85. See also Incentives ; Rewards. Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York, 291. Precision, 293. Predicate, 237. See also Grammar. Prefaces, 170. Preparation, 60, ii8, 119, 123, 296. See also Vacant periods ; Assignments. Pretzels, 70. Principal, 97, 98, roo, 101, 108, 116-126. Problems : assignments of, 145 ff. discovery of, 21, 133, 147, 258. in chemistry, 310. in civics, 278-280. in literature, 358, 359, 363, 365. in mathematics, 293, 294, 293. training pupil to attack, 29, 131, 132, iSS- Procrastination, 119. Program making, 250, 381. Program, of studies. See also Subject matter. cirrriculum, 16. in geometry, 290. in science, 305. Progress, 33, 34. See Pupils' progress. Promptness, 55, 60. Pronimdation, 52, 318, 330, 331. Prose, 209-211. Proteins, 66. Prunes, 70. Psychological conditions of studying, 93 ff. Psychology, 21, 27, 86. Public speaking, 178, 239, 243-247. Pueblo, Colorado, 32, 389. PunctuaUty, 123- Punctuation, 225. Pupil, high school : attitude toward, 23, 27, 87. brilliant, 21, 58, 150, 267. classificatloiTof, ss-6r. conversation of, 239-243. diiSculties of, 109, no, in, 113, 114, lis- directing study of. See Supervised study, financially poor, 68, 88. love affairs, 87. moods, 86. preparation by, 26, 29, 60, 118, 119, 123, 296. progress of, 20, 21, 34, 40-49, 60, 61, 106, 115, 130, 150. studjring, conditions of, 63, 64, 74, 93 ff. studying, methods of, 163-219, 258. weak, 99, 155, i57 ff- Puzzles, 303. Pyle, W. H., quoted on memory, 45, 46. on mental record, 57, 58. Quadrivium, 25. Quartets, 381. Queed, 349, 359. Questioning and questions, 21, 27, 128, 170, 193, 205. Raisins, 69, 70. Raphael, diet of, 69. Reader's guide, 177. Reading. See also Literature. aloud, 194. artistic, 249, 250, 370. broader course in, 353-356. first, of assignment, 122, 125, 193, 259, in history, 262. in literature, 353-356, 357. in science, 311. interest in, 199. light for, 77-79. method of, 171, 193, 194. note-taking, 167, 200-203, 35^ ff- posture in, 76. rapid, 84, 92, 201. reference, 21, 118, 170, 200, 259. supplementary, 20, 26, 166, 199-203, 2091 218, 220, 357. Reasoning. See Thinking. 430 Index Reavis, W. C, 117-130. Rebuttal, 248. Recall, 2ia, 213. Recitation, ig, 20. cooperative, 20, 27. distractions in, g2, 128, 129, 130-133, 147, 156, 160. early forms of, 31. in civics, 147, 278-281. in history, 258, 272, 273. in mathematics, 303. Reciting, vs. studying, 126, 132, 136, 160. to some one while studying, 194, 258, ass- Records, school, 106, 107, ir3, ir4, 152. Recreation, 64, 65, 73, 74, 92, 135, 277 £E. See also Athletics; Amusements. Reeve, W. D., 300 ff. Reforms, 229. Reference work, 21, 118, 122, 125, 142, 166, 170, 171, 172-177. card for, 186. iiling, 186 ff., 193, 195, 1961 I97- numerals in, 168. Reflection, 258. See also Thinking. Reliability, 65. ReUgion and climate, 91. Renaissance, 264. Repeaters, 136, 137. Reports, 21, 166. appearance of finished, 198, 199. how to make, 195-199. ignorance of pupils making, 30. in civics, 280. in history, 263, 264. in literature, 356, 359, 363. use of, 86, 220. Resentful pupil, 58. ResponsibiUty, 55, 58, 62, 65, 131. Retardation and retards, 34, 46-49, 99, 128, 136, 150, 159. Reviews, 21, 86, 99, 103, 118, 121, 123, 125, 158, 168, 178, 181, 184, 205, 219, 233, 267-270, 297 £f. Revision, 251. Rewards, 85, 300. Rice pudding, 70. Richmond, Virginia, 159, 281-286, 296, 297, 341 ff., 399 ff. Rickard, G. E., 54, 172, 193, 239, 265, 391, 393 ff. Ridicule, 88. Rivers, 141. Roads, 278. Rochester, New York, 154. Rossetti, 210. Rote memory, 211. Rousseau, 349. Routine, daily, 71, 85, 88. Rowing, 73. Rugs in bedchamber, 73. Ruiming, 74, 92. Rural life, 229, 278 ff. Russian, gr. Rynearson, W. E., 99, 103. Sacramento, California, 26. Sailing, 73. Schiller, 62. Scholarship, 119, 288. School : administration, 12, 25-29. buildings, 75-83. day, 26, 98, 129. feeding, 69, 70. hygiene, 93 . See Studying, conditions of. luncheons, 70. management, 12, 34, 89. reports, 59, 60, 152. Science, general vs. special, 208, 305, 306. Sciences, 24. method of studying, 121, 132, 134, 172, 182, 184, 193, 208, 229, 290, 307-317. pupils' ability in, 46, 48, 86. stated conferences in, 99. Scotland, 79. Scott, Walter, 69, 225. Scrapbook in history, 262. Secretion, 67. Self-confidence, 29. Self-pity, 90. Sensations, 68. Sensitiveness, 92. Sensitive pupil, 58. Sex, 33, 45-49, 61, 87, 88, 291. . Shades, window, 76. Shall and wiU, 237. Shelley, 366. Index 431 Sherlock Holmes, 349, 360. Shideler, J. W., Supt., 379. Shiftlessness, 55. Shrewdness, 95. Shurman, President, 71. Signs wrong, 294, 295. " Silas Mamer," 156. Sincerity, 94. Skating, 73. Skill, 68, 8s, 227, 259, 289. Skinner, M. M., 335. Slang, 237. Sleep, 19, 26, 64, 6s, 71-73. bedchamber, 72, 73. out of doors, 73. sleeping hoods, 73. sleeping porches, 73. sign of fatigue, 92. Sluggishness, 69, 79. Smell, images of, 52. Smith, C. A., 3So, 351. Smith,E. E., 139,268, 281-286, 341 fE.,399fF. Smith, Sydney, 200. Smoking, 65. Snedden, David, 287 ff. Social education, z, 19, 19s. Social efficiency, 147, 215. Social life, 9-11, 21, 26, 42, 56, 58, 71, 88- 90, 92, no, 114, 113. Sodety, 214. Soda fountain, 65. Sound, 307. Soup, bean, 70. Space relations, no, 293. Spanish, 91, 318, 341 ff. Spaulding, Supt., 104. Speaking : after dinner, 243 ff. correct, 228. " Spectator, The," 349. Speed and accuracy, 38, i8g, 381. Spelling, 238. Spinal cord, 68. Spinsters, 4. St. Louis, Missouri, 32. Stage setting, 249. Starch, William, 320, 321. Start, quick, 83, 122, 151, 133. Steam heat, 80. Steinmetz, 64. Stenography, 165. Stimulants, 65, 314. Stimuli, 21, 24, 62, 64, 6s, 70, 83, 90, 92, in, 129, 170, 207, 289. Strauss, Richard, 90. Strayer, G. D., 141. Stubborn pupil, 58. Student government, 97. Studying : alone, 123, 163. aloud, 213. conditions of, 19, 20, 23, 62, 63, 64, 74, 75, 83, 93- difficulties in, 24, 27, 63, 109, in, 113, 116, 271, 293. group, 21. hindrances to, 19, 21, 90, 92, 98, 115, 120, 125, 166. meaning of, 19, 133. methods of, 21, 60, 98, 116-126, 132, 161-219, 220, 290. moods in, 86-91. period, 19, 20, 26, 96, 97, 127, 129, 132, 133, 140-156, 166-219, 260, 273-273. program, 21, 96, 117-120, 122, 125, i6r, 163. recreation and, 73, 74, 92, 133, 277 ff. room, 19, 82, 83, 91, 123, 203. sleep and, 71-73. speed and, 123. suggestion of, 82. vs. reciting, 126, 132. waste in, 18, 30, 63, in, 153. Study at home, 3, 6, 8, 10, 19, 23, 24, 23, 26, 87, 119, 123, 127, 130, 131, 136, 149. iSS. 163. 226. Study, coach, 27, 103, 104, no, 113. tools, 122, 166 ff., 183, 220. Style, 227, 231, 236. Subject and predicate, 237. See Grammar. Subject matter, 2, 27, 30, 287. attacking new, 99. individualized, 24. modem, n, 13, 133. organization of, 140 ff. preferences for, 114, 113, 119. progress in, 59, 60. psychology of, 21, 27 . pupils' abiUty in, 39-44. teacher and, 97, 113. 432 Index Subject matter, unit of instruction, 140 ff. Subtraction, 294. Success, 8s, 95, 123. Suffrage, 208. Sugar, 66. Summarizing, 166, 168-170, 171, 193, 205, 220, 270. Sunshine, 67. Superintendents, 95. Supervised study, 12, 19, 22. alternate daily periods, 158, 159. assignments, 143-153. cost of, 27, 28, 137. daily extra period, 156-158. delayed group plan, 115, 116. divided period, 128-133. double period, 133-140, 140-156. general directions in, 116-126, 394-397. in Richmond, Virginia, 399 ff. meaning of, 13, 15, 20, 22, 24, 25, 29, 93, 145, 161, 164. misconceptions about, 17, 23, 97. occasional, 127, 159. organization of, general, 96-126. results of, 383-398. schedule of, 131, 148, 154. subject, 96, 127-160. technic of study taught, 166-219. Surveys, 25, 55. Swedish, 91. Swimming, 73. Sympathy, 87, 100, 103, 136. Synthesis, 260, 261. Tablets in history, 262. Tact, 87, 100, loi. III. Tactualimages, 46, 52. Talking over lessons, 121, 125. Tarts, 69. Tea, 65. Teacher : advisors, 55. assignments and, 143-153, 156 ff. conferences and, 98-103. experienced, 95. extra, 128, 153. first school, 95. main duty of, 13, 23, 19, 20, 23, 61, 87, 89, 96, 132. mathematics and, 288, 292. Teacher, personality of, 26, 109, 136. preparation of, 140 ff., 283, 392 ff. pupil criticizing, no. recording pupils' difficulties, 113, 114, speaking correctly, 223, 226. study period, 97, 116, 117, 118, 120, 128, 129, 130, 132, 134, 188. training of, 27, 88, 93, 95. transfer cards, 106-108. ujiassigned, 103-108, 115, 128. Teaching : cause of fatigue, 22. methods of, 22, 95, 297. training of teachers, 115. Telephones, 208. Temperament. See Dispositions. Temperature, 19, 81. " Tennis, 73, 74. Tenses, 238. Terminology, 16. Tesla, 308. Testing, mental, 60, 115, 158. Textbook, 20, 122, 146, 166-171, 178, 199, 220, 224, 258, 278, 288, 290, 294. Theater, 10, 92. Themes, 21, 24, 26, 139, 227-229. Thinking, 14, 29, 30, 95, 99, n8, 124, 132, 213-218, 220. cramming and, 205, debating and, 248. geometry, 289, 290. grammar and, 224. history and, 264. mathematics and, 302. outing and, 179, 181. process, 215-218. science a,nd, 305, 311. style and, 228. summarizing, 169. Thorndike, E. L., 14, 34. on image types, 53, 54. quoted on rate and amount of work, 35- 38. Three-cent meals, 70. Timid pupil, 58. Tissue-building foods, 66. Toast master, 244. Tobacco, 65. Tomato sauce, 70. Topic sentence, 181, 261, 266. Index 433 Topics, I20, 121, 132, 141, 14s ff. Tout, W., Supt., 376- Track, 73, 74, 8g. Tradition, 25. Translating, 122, 132, 193, 194, 219, 287, 33S- Transportation, 277 ff. Travel, 229. Trenton, New Jersey, 384. Trigonometry, 291. Trivium, 25. Trustworthiness, 27, 90, in. Twin Falls, Idaho, 123-125. Ugliness, 89. Unassigned lesson period, 99, 128. Unassigned teacher, 103, 104-108, 115. Underscoring, 121, 166 ff., 172, 193, 194, 213, 220, 266. Understanding, 122, 123, 124, 125, 249. Unit, of instruction, 16, 140, 142, 262. of recitation, 141, 142. of study, 141, 142. of subject matter, 30. Unity, 238. Unpopularity, 70. Urbana, Illinois, 39 ff. Utilities, 280. Vacant periods, 26, 96, 152, 157. Vacation school, delayed plan in, 116. Vagueness, 296, 309. Vail, Theodore N., 208. Van Dyke, Henry, 225, 250, 349. Variety, 84. Vegetables, 66, 67, 69. Vegetarianism, 67. Venison, 69. Ventilation, 73, 79, 80, 81, 125. Verbal-acoustic image types, 52. Verbal-motor images, 52. Verbal-speech-motor images, 32, S3' Verbal-tactile images, 52. Verbal-visual image types, 32- Vertical outlines, 181. Vidous pupil, 58. Visual images, 46, 49, 50, 52, 61, no, 114, 294. Vocabulary, 122, 211, 212. Vocational education, 34, 290. Vocational guidance, 55, 56. Vocational interests, 56. Vocational mathematics, 290. Voice, 243. Voluntary control, 68. Vost and Atwater, 66. "V. V.'sEyes," 359. Wagner, Richard, 90. Walls, color of, in school, 76. Walking, 73, 74. Wanderlust, 87. Waste in school work, 34, 63, 71, 83, ni. Water, 69, 306, 312. Waterloo, 225. Wayland, 252, 264. Wealth, 277 ff. Weather, 90, 91, 313. Webb, H. E., 297 ff., 384. White, E. A., 28. Whole method, 209, 211. Wiener, William, 129, 384. Wilder, Marshall P., 64- Will, 8s, 121. Will and shall, 237. Williams, Miss Dora, 19s, fn. Wilson, Woodrow, 349- Windows, 73, 7S, 123. Wine, 69. Woodbeny, G. E., 364. Word types, 52. Words, memory for, so, Sii S2- Words, use of, 231. Wordsworth, 62, 90, 36s, 366. Work, 34, 64, 74, 92, 306. Worry, 67, 91. Writing, 53, 167, 189, 190, 213, 224, 235, 2S9, 260. Yachting, 73. Zola, E., 54. Printed in the United States of America. 'T'HE following pages contain adverdsements of a ''' few of the Macmillan publications on Education MODERN PEDAGOGY Aspinwall .... Outlines of the History of Educa- tion $ .80 Bagley Classsroom Management. 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