'I'T 
 j low 
 
 \ino 
 
 Cornell University Law Library 
 
 The Moak Collection 
 
 PURCHASED FOR 
 
 The School of Law of Cornell University 
 
 And Presented February 14, 1893 
 IN nenoRY of 
 JUDGE DOUGLASS BOARDMAN 
 
 FIRST DEAN OP THE SCHOOL 
 
 By his Wife and Daughter 
 A. M. BOARDMAN and ELLEN D. WILLIAMS 
 
^-^' <^>^:>.^.<^ 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 TJ 1040.C88 
 
 The practical American millwright and mi 
 
 3 1924 017 529 748 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924017529748 
 
THE 
 
 PRACTICAL AMERICAN 
 
 MILLWRIGHT AND MILLER; 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRmCIPLES OP MECHANICS 
 MECHANISM, AND MOTIVE POWER, 
 
 HYDRAULICS, AND HYDRAULIC MOTORS, MILL DAMS, SAW-MILLS, 
 GRIST-MILLS, THE OAT-MEAL MILL, THE BARLEY MILL, 
 WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH FULLING AND DRESS- 
 ING, WINDMILLS, STEAM POWER, ETC. 
 
 BT 
 
 DAYID gRAlK, 
 
 MILLWRIGHT. 
 
 niCSTKATED BY NUMEKOUS WOOD ENGKAYINGS AND FOLDING PLATES. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 
 
 406 Walnut Street. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 SAMPSON LOW, SON & MARSTON. 
 
 18tl. 
 
Entered accordingSo Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 
 
 DAVID CRAIK, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the 
 Northern District of New York. 
 
 PBILABIIIPBIA : 
 COLLIHS, FEINTEB, WB JATSI BTEEET. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Elementary Works on Natural Philoaophy . . , .17 
 
 Elements of Machinery . . '' ■. It 
 
 The Lever 20 
 
 The Inclined Plane ......... 29 
 
 The Wedge 32 
 
 The Screw 34 
 
 The Pulley and Cord 40 
 
 The Crank 42 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ELY AND BALANCE WHEELS. 
 
 Centjifugal Force and Circular Motion 50 
 
 Action and Reaction ........ 54 
 
 Friction 63 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 TRANSMISSION AND TRANSPORTATION OP MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER. 
 
 Taking Levels T9 
 
 'Fitting down Sills under Water 81 
 
 Washing out a Mill-race or Foundation by Sluicing . • 82 
 
 Pressure of Water 84 
 
 Velocity of Falling Water 87 
 
 Tables 89 
 
 (iii) 
 
IV CONTENTS. 
 
 FAQE 
 
 Table of Velocity of Water, and Quantity Discharged under 
 Different Heads . . . . • • • .91 
 
 Measuring a Stream of Water 92 
 
 Table of Quantity of Water passing over a Wier from 1 to 18 
 Inches deep 92 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 WATER- WHEELS — THE XINDERSHOT. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 V 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 
 
 Barker's Wheel 117 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SPIRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 The Rose Wheel 149 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SPIRAL OR SCREW FLOOD- WHEELS. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MILL-DAMS. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 The English Gate 117 
 
 Lumber Business 177 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 SAW-MILLS {continued). 
 The Mulley Saw 215 
 
Gangs 
 
 CONTENTS. V 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 SAW-MILLS {continued). 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 
 
 Cooper's Circular Saw-mill 238 
 
 The Edging Circular 244 
 
 Log Table 247 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 Planning 251 
 
 Gearing 251 
 
 Mill Gearing 255 
 
 Belt Gearing 25Y 
 
 Gearing OTershots 259 
 
 The Building 265 
 
 The Husk Timbers, &c. 261 
 
 The Bridge Trees 269 
 
 The Step 271 
 
 The Spindle 273 
 
 The Bed Stone 275 
 
 The Driver 277 
 
 The Dansil 281 
 
 The Boxes 283 
 
 Bushes 285 
 
 The Curb 287 
 
 The Hopper- 289 
 
 Shoes 292 
 
 Millstones 298 
 
 Burr Stones 293 
 
 Draught 303 
 
 Dressing the Stones 807 
 
 The Sickle Dress 309 
 
 Balancing the Runner 313 
 
 Bolts 321 
 
 To put it upon the Reel 329 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bolt Chest 339 
 
 Smut-Machines • 341 
 
 Screens • 345 
 
 Merchant or Manufacturing Bolts 346 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE OATMEAI. MILL. 
 
 The Kiln . 354 
 
 Process of Drying ........ 355 
 
 Dressing and Hanging the Stones 356 
 
 Manufacture of Split Peas 364 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH FULLING AND DRESSING. 
 
 Tenter Bars 396 
 
 The Shearing-Machine 397 
 
 The Cloth-Press 399 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 WINDMILLS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 STEAM POWER. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 MERCHANT BOLT. 
 
 Description of Plates 423 
 
 Index 429 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The occupation of a millwright differs from that of almost all 
 other tradesmen and mechanics, in that he is compelled to accom- 
 modate his work to a greater variety of circumstances, conditions, 
 and contLagencies, For instance, a millwright is employed to 
 buUd two saw-miUs, one is to he in or near a city, convenient to 
 foundries and machine-shops, where a great variety of water- 
 wheels, and all the other machinery required for its construction 
 can be obtained cheaply and in abundance. But the water power 
 and site are valuable here, and he must select the water wheels, 
 and adapt every part to do the required amount of work with the 
 least possible waste of water and room, and all the machinery and 
 many of the fixtures will be of iron. The other saw-mUl is to be 
 buUt back in the interior of the wilderness where all supplies must 
 be packed and carried at great expense; and here, almost the 
 whole mill and machinery must be improvised of wood, on the spot. 
 Timber, water power, and space being of little value, while iron is 
 a precious metal, and he must exert his ingenuity to construct a 
 mill that wUl do the required work with the greatest possible 
 edonomy of iron work. Mills are sometimes thus built almost 
 entirely of wood, without bands or bolts, or even nails, with 
 scarcely anything metallic except the saw. 
 
 These supposed saw-mills occupy the two extreme situations, 
 but every location upon which a mill is to be built involves a 
 modification of material and construction continually varying 
 according to circumstances, requiring the millwright to deter- 
 mine and select, with a due regard to contingencies, the kind of 
 wheels, and machinery, and the materials most suitable to the site. 
 How, and of what material to construct the dam ? is a part of the 
 problem continually changing with the situation. 
 
 These facts tend to show that a " boss" millwright has need of 
 
 ( Vii ) 
 
VIU INTRODUCTION, 
 
 an extra share of tact and ingenuity, which will be obvious when 
 we consider that a like diversity of conditions occurs in construct- 
 ing other mills and machinery, as well as saw-mills. The following 
 considerations will further illustrate the head millwright's respon- 
 sibilities : One employer has a small stream of water with a high 
 head ; another has a large stream, with little or perhaps no chance 
 of raising any head above the natural current ; another has a good 
 water power, and well situated, but very little means to lay out 
 upon it. The next has plenty of money, but a water power and 
 situation almost impracticable; each wants some kind of mill 
 buUt, and the millwright must plan and construct a suitable mill 
 for any one, or all of these. 
 
 Any man who would make a good ordinary mechanic may learn 
 the use of tools, and make a good journeyman millwright, but a 
 thoroughly competent master millwright must, like a poet, be born 
 such, and cannot be made. Hence it is that we find so many cele- 
 brated millwrights who never served an apprenticeship to that 
 trade, but were originally perhaps a miller or sawyer, a carpenter 
 and joiner, an engineer or machinist, until some accidental cir- 
 cumstance occurred to show that they were millwrights. 
 
 Such men come into the trade naturally by intuition, but even 
 they would acquire the requisite knowledge much sooner, easier, 
 and better, by serving a term of apprenticeship imder an old ex- 
 perienced master, doing an extensive business, than having to 
 study and work out every problem for themselves. Observation 
 shows that the more information and experience a mUlwright ob- 
 tains, the more apt and ready he becomes to learn ; and he can 
 scarcely examine any old mill, or converse with any old mill wright, 
 or miller without obtaining some new idea, or perfecting some old 
 one. A fuU and free interchange of ideas and experience among 
 leading millwrights would be of great advantage to the faternity, 
 but of this they are naturally chary, for the reason that each one 
 has had to work out so many important problems for himself, that 
 he looks upon these discoveries as his own exclusive property, and 
 will leave others to work them out for themselves as he had to do, 
 or remain in ignorance. 
 
 This reticence confines the aspiring learner mostly to his own 
 resources, and the help obtained from books ; and experience has 
 taught us how meagre and unreliable most of the works on the 
 subject are ; what a small amount of real practical information they 
 contain, tedious to pick out, and unsatisfactory when obtained. 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 Some scientific books contain theories and formulse by which the 
 velocity and power of water vinder different circumstances may be 
 computed ; but these, like the phUpsophical treatises on mg,chinery, 
 are generally written iu a style that is not very intelligible to the 
 ordinary learner, who, after he has unraveljed all the mysterious 
 scientific terms and algebraic formulae in which they are enveloped, 
 often finds that they are inapplicable to his case, or unreliable, and 
 he finds it easier and safer to gather information by studying work- 
 ing machiuery, conversing Tnth individuals who understand these 
 subjects, or by experimenting with water and other things himself, 
 and working out problems with the square and compasses on a 
 planed board. The work published by Oliver Evans was an ex^ 
 cellent practical work in its day, but mUls have so changed within 
 the century that it is too far behind the times to be of much use at 
 the present day. 
 
 We have fi-equently been requested to write a book, embodying 
 our own long and rather extensive experience in building and run- 
 ning different kinds of mills in many sections of this country, and 
 what knowledge we have managed to pick up during that career, 
 for the benefit of others similarly employed or interested ; these 
 requests being backed by our own knowledge of the want of such a 
 work, from the many fruitless efforts to procure one, have induced 
 us to make the attempt. How far we have succeeded in supply- 
 ing the want, the reader will judge.' The book makes no claim to 
 literary merit further than to convey the knowledge and experi- 
 ence gathered in the career of a hard-working practical millwright 
 and miller, in plain concise terms, without any algebraic or scien- 
 tific mystery, and is wholly original. Some of the chapters, as 
 those on the manufacture of oatmeal, pot and pearl barley, and 
 split peas, that on windmills, and some others, are subjects of 
 which comparatively little is known in the United States, and our 
 knowledge of these subjects was gathered duriag an extensive 
 experience with these mills in the adjoining dominion of Canada and 
 in northern New York where such machinery is more common. 
 
 We have been assisted in the arrangement of the present work by 
 Mr. Robert Middlemiss, of Rockbum Prov. of Quebec, Canada, who 
 has also assisted in preparing the drawings. The general scope of 
 the work is to give practical and reliable information to millwrights 
 and millers generally, but more especially to that large class who 
 pursue their vocation in localities distant from large machine- 
 shops ; also to persons contemplating erecting mills and machinery 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in such situations ; and the author trusts that such will find much 
 information in it which they daily require, collected and com- 
 pressed within a smaller compass than in any work of a similar 
 nature. The tables will be found reliable and so simpMed as to 
 be easily understood by aU. To the young aspiring millwright 
 and miller especially, we would say, earnestly endeavor to improve 
 your mind, and enliven your spare hours by the cultivation of 
 practical science ; and should this volume facilitate your progress, 
 the desire of the author will be realized. 
 
 DAYID CRAIK. 
 
 Ceubch Millb, Cbateauqat, Fbanklin Co., TX. Y., 
 June 20, 1870. 
 
THE PEACTICAL 
 
 AIEEICAN MILLWEIGHT AND MILLER. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWEES. 
 
 Elementary works on natural philosophy, treating 
 upon the subject under the head of mechanics, mechani- 
 cal powers, or elements of machinery, are so numerous, 
 and so widely distributed, that almost every person 
 who may be expected to take any interest in reading 
 this work, must have seen and read more or less of 
 these, and we will, therefore, say but little on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 One reason for this reticence, we will confess, is a 
 soi't of repugnance, which we, in common with other 
 millwrights of our acquaintance, feel in wading through 
 the hackneyed and bewildering technicalities which 
 have been introduced into it. This is the result of the 
 many unnecessary divisions and subdivisions which the 
 various authors have seen fit to make out of the lever 
 and the inclined plane. One atuthor copying from an- 
 other, and intent on showing his greater erudition by 
 his nicer discrimination (while very few of them were 
 practically familiar with the instruments they were ex- 
 plaining), and each new writer felt bound to add some- 
 2 
 
1'^ MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 thing new to the elucidations of his predecessors. We 
 have a new work before us now, which, from the posi- 
 tion the author assumes, ought to be reliable, as he 
 writes, like us, expressly for the information of mill- 
 wrights ; yet his explanation of the principle and power 
 of the lever seems to us more glaringly absurd than any 
 we have seen by a mere theorist. For these reasons, 
 millwrights, in general, look upon all disquisitions on 
 these subjects as interesting only to amateurs, and not 
 available as a basis for practical calculations. 
 
 We once undertook, in a bantering way, to raise a 
 stick of timber to its place by merely walking upon it ; 
 all the help we asked being a boy to block it up when 
 we raised it. The stick was forty-five feet long, and 
 had been run into the basement of a mill, and lay an- 
 gling from one corner to the opposite one, upon two blocks, 
 three or four feet apart, near the centre. It lay two or 
 three feet from the floor, and had to be raised four or five 
 feet higher, and then swung parallel with the building, 
 when the two ends would reach and rest upon the end walls. 
 A pile of stuflf cut for buckets lay convenient, and a pile 
 of 3 by 4 inch braces. We placed a bucket piece on 
 each side of the timber, these reached from one to the 
 other of the timbers supporting the stick to be raised, 
 and made the commencement of the cob-house or crib 
 work upon which to raise and support it. We now 
 stepped on the stick and walked up to the most elevated 
 end ; this brought that end down, throwing the weight 
 all upon the bearing nearest to it, at the same time ele- 
 vating the other end, and making room for the boy to 
 place a brace across the bearing next to that end, which 
 kept it up. By walking up along the stick to the now 
 elevated end, that end was depressed, relieving the 
 other bearing, and making room for a brace to be placed 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 19 
 
 across upon that. By placing two more bucket boards 
 across these braces, and continuing the process, the stick 
 was raised to the height required, in less time than we 
 can write the details of the process. The last bearing 
 was placed across the middle of the cob-house at the 
 balance of the stick, and upon this it was easily swung 
 round to its position on the walls. 
 
 As we are writing for the benefit of millwrights, this 
 description, without any accompanying draft, is all that 
 is necessary, as they will comprehend the principle in- 
 volved at once, and be satisfied. But if we were writing 
 for the small fry philosophers alluded to, we would have 
 to accompany that description with a plan, and a tedious 
 and intricate formula, to demonstrate the principle of 
 the hver upon which our weight acted; another to de- 
 monstrate the principle of the inclined plane, up which 
 we travelled, carrying the stick (weight) up behind us ; 
 and yet another to show that the principle of the bal- 
 ance was as much involved as either of the others; and 
 the most inveterate sticklers for points and principles 
 would have it a tread power, or expect us to show that 
 each piece of scantling (brace) used, represented a wedge, 
 and that each lift was accomplished by the intervention 
 of a wedge, with the head and point reversed each time 
 alternately. 
 
 After making this long preface and these ill-natured 
 remarks, it might not be expected that we should tell 
 how many kinds of levers there are, nor point out their 
 distinct peculiarities, but as the principle of the lever in 
 some shape or form appears in almost every machine, 
 however simple or complex, it is important that its 
 various combinations and relative powers should be well 
 understood. We will, therefore, try to point out some 
 of its most obvious applications, and thus illustrate its 
 
20 
 
 MECHAKICAL POWERS. 
 
 effect in increasing or diminishing power, or of increasing 
 or diminishing velocity. 
 
 The Lever. 
 
 The handle of a common pump is a familiar example 
 of a lever. The weight to be lifted is the pump-rod and 
 valve, and the column of water. The fulcrum or point 
 of support is the pin through the handle, and the power 
 is the hand applied at the long end to work it. If the 
 pump-rod is attached at one foot from the fulcrum, and 
 the hand applied at four feet from that point; then every 
 pound pressure by the hand will raise four pounds on 
 the pump-rod, but the hand will have to move four feet 
 down and up to move the pump-rod one foot. Fig. 1. 
 
 If the hand be applied at two feet from the fulcrum, then 
 every pound pressed by it will balance two pounds at the 
 pump-rod, and the hand will have to travel two feet to 
 move the pump-rod one. If the hand is applied at one 
 foot from the fulcrum, the same as the pump-rod, then a 
 
THE LEVER. 21 
 
 pound upon one will just balance a pound on the other, 
 and to move the hand one foot, ok an inqh, will move the 
 rod exactly a foot or an inch. Both arms being equal in 
 length,— power and velocity will both be transmitted 
 without either loss or gain from either end of the lever. 
 
 If the hand is applied at only half a foot from the 
 fulcrum, it loses the advantage in power, but gains in 
 that of speed, the relative proportions in the length of 
 the lever being reversed; and it will now take two 
 pounds pressure by the hand to balance one pound at 
 the pump-rod, — but a motion up and down by the hand 
 of half a foot, will move the pump-rod up and down 
 a whole foot. 
 
 Here it must be particularly noted, that the tables are 
 now turned in favor of speed, and against power, the 
 pump-rod being on the long end of the lever, and the 
 hand on the short end, and that every increase in the dif- 
 ference of length in this direction, gives the pump-rod an 
 increased length of stroke, with a corresponding diminu- 
 tion of force, while it requires an increased force to be 
 communicated by the hand, but with a corresponding 
 diminution of the distance through which it moves, and 
 that this arrangement gains speed by wasting power, just 
 as the first arrangement gains power by wasting speed. 
 The point at which neither speed nor power is wasted 
 or gained being where both ends of the lever are of 
 equal length; and here the power has the sameeflfectas 
 if applied by the hand taking direct hold of the pump- 
 rod, and all the advantage derived from a lever thus 
 situated is, that it transposes the downward pressure of 
 the hand into ah upward lift on the pump-rod, thus en- 
 abling the hand to work in unison with gravity, ins'tead 
 of opposed to it. 
 
 It is the benefit derived from working in the direction 
 
22 MECHANICAL POTTERS. 
 
 of gravitation that has established the use of this kind 
 of lever for lift-pumps, blacksmith's bellows, and other 
 machines requiring an upward lift, rather than the second 
 kind of lever, which is used for force-pumps and other 
 machines which admit of a downward pressure. 
 
 That this second kind of lever is more powerful than 
 the first, may be seen by examining the action of the same 
 pump lever that we have been trying to illustrate. Sup- 
 posing the column of water to be raised, with the pump- 
 rod and valve, to weigh 40 lbs., the lever, as before, being 
 one foot from the fulcrum to the pump-rod, then it would 
 require a pressure of 10 lbs., by the hand, applied on the 
 long end of the lever (handle), at four feet from the ful- 
 crum, to balance the 40 lbs. The 10 lbs. and the 40 lbs. 
 being both supported by the fulcrum, make 50 lbs. pres- 
 sure upon it. If the pressure be applied on the lever at 
 one foot from the fulcrum, then both ends being equal, it 
 will require 40 lbs. pressure by the hand to balance the 40 
 lbs. on the pump-rod and water, thus making 80 lbs. pres- 
 sure on the fulcrum, or double the amount transmitted 
 through the lever to the other end. 
 
 Now, by moving the fulcrum bearing to a foot behind 
 the pump-rod, and attaching the rod to the lever at the 
 former fulcrum point, as in Fig. 2, the lever is trans- 
 formed to one of the second kind, the fulcrum being at 
 the end, and the rod or weight attached a foot from that 
 point, a pressure up or down upon the long end will now 
 produce the same increased force upon the pump-rod, that 
 it exerted before upon the fulcrum, i. e., the sum of both 
 weight and pressure, instead of the equivalent of one. 
 This apparent gain of power by the lever has been the 
 cause of many extravagant and expensive errors. Some 
 millwrights increase the number of intermediate parts 
 in a machine, expressly to gain this imaginary advantage. 
 
THE LEVER. 
 
 23 
 
 Other mechanics and geniuses will complicate and confuse 
 the simple appliances required to drive a churn or washing 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 machine for the same reason. The opinion is quite pre- 
 valent, that when a person holding the suspending hook 
 of a steelyard, Fig. 3, lifts a weight, say of a 100 lbs., on 
 
 ri>. 3. 
 
 the hook at the short end of the lever, he must sus- 
 tain a weight of 200 lbs., because, they say, the long 
 lever power on which the steelyard ball acts, enables it 
 
£4 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 to pry downward on the fulcrum support with a force 
 of 100 lbs., being equal to, and balancing that on the 
 short end. The most extensive application of this fal- 
 lacy that we have ever seen was among the farmers in 
 some of the Middle States, particularly in the southwest 
 portions of New York. The ploughing is often done 
 when the land is dry, and too hard for one pair of horses, 
 and the custom is to attach three horses to the plough, all 
 abreast. The two strongest are hitched to a common 
 evener or double-tree in the ordinary way ; the centre 
 of this evener is attached to the short end of a long 
 lever or triple-tree, — this is fastened to the plough clevis 
 at one third of its length from the double-tree end, 
 leaving two-thirds of its length for the long end, to which 
 the single horse is attached. The arguments by which 
 they support this arrangement are, that by taking advan- 
 tage of the gain in power, by the extra purchase of lever 
 on which the single horse acts, its power balances, and 
 is equal to the other two ; and thus, they say, they have 
 the power of four horses on the plough, with only the 
 expense and trouble of managing three. The principle 
 involved is exactly the same as that in the steelyard re- 
 ferred to ; and the fictitious gain vanishes when we con- 
 sider that there are only the 100 lbs. of weight on the 
 short end, and the ball on the long end, with the weight 
 of the intervening bar and its fixings, say 10 lbs. more, 
 added to the weight, making altogether 110 lbs. balanced 
 on the fulcrum, and held up by the person holding the 
 hook. If this is not suflBci^ntly plain, move the fulcrum 
 and hook to the middle of the bar, as in Fig. 4, and di- 
 vide the weight into two, of 55 lbs. each, and hang one 
 on each end of the bar, or divide the respective lengths 
 of the lever in any other proportion, apportioning the 
 weight in the same ratio, and the weight upon the sus- 
 
THE LEVEE. 25 
 
 pending hook will always be the same, at whatever point 
 of the bar it may be balanced. The same remarks ap- 
 
 Fipr. 4. 
 
 ply to the other problem of attaching three horses to a 
 plough, as there is no principle in the lever or any other 
 power in mechanics, by which their actual power and 
 speed can be augmented. 
 
 We have already seen how a simple lever may be 
 used to increase power at the expense of speed, or to 
 increase speed at the expense of power, but by a combi- 
 nation of levers more or less complex these transposi- 
 tions may be made in endless variety, and to an almost 
 unlimited extent. The principles involved in these 
 combinations are so nearly alike, and at the same time 
 so obvious, that they reveal themselves in the construc- 
 tion or planning, or even in the examination or contem- 
 plation of machinery, much better then we could by 
 writing of them. Therefore it will only be necessary 
 to notice a few of the most important points to be kept 
 in view by the millwright, and to illustrate these we 
 will go back again to the pump. But this time, instead 
 of locating the fulcrum either before or behind the pump- 
 rod, we will fasten it exactly over the centre, as shown 
 in Fig. 5. In the last experiment detailed the power 
 was applied on the lever only half a foot from the ful- 
 
26 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 crum. We will now insert a handle or pin at this point 
 and attach the pump-rod to the same pin; now cut off 
 the lever outside of the pin, and, 
 by taking hold of the pin, revolve 
 it round and round like a crank. 
 This will carry the end of the 
 pump-rod round a circle one foot 
 in diameter, and lift and depress 
 the valve-bucket one foot each re- 
 volution, the same as in the other 
 examples with the lever; but in 
 this case, without either loss or 
 gain of power or speed by the 
 lever, its only effect being to steady 
 the motion of the hand and deter- 
 mine the length of stroke. But if 
 we separate the power from the 
 end of the pump-rod and attach 
 each by a crank of its own to the 
 opposite ends of a short shaft, then 
 we can lengthen the crank end to 
 which the hand is applied and gain 
 power on the pump, or shorten the 
 same crank and gain speed on the pump, its length of 
 crank and stroke remaining the same; or, we can shorten 
 the crank and stroke of the pump-rod and gain power, 
 or lengthen these and gain speed in it — the length of 
 the hand crank remaining the same, as in Figs. 6 and 7. 
 Then we can combine these alterations in both direc- 
 tions and thus double the loss or gain made by either. 
 So far these variations are all made by the use of a 
 single lever by altering the respective lengths of the 
 two ends. If we wish to gain more power or speed than 
 this admits of then we must have recourse to a combi- 
 
THE LEVEH. 
 
 27 
 
 nation of two or more levers. To apply these, the crank 
 to which the pump-rod is attached must be changed into 
 
 Fig. 6. Fig. T. 
 
 ■II^H 
 
 or furnished with a wheel (a continuous revolving lever). 
 The crank to which the hand or power is applied must 
 also be transformed into a wheel and hung upon a sepa- 
 rate shaft. The circumference of these wheels must be 
 connected by cogs, or a band, so that the motion and 
 power of one can be communicated to the other, as in 
 Figs. 8 and 9. 
 
 To gain power by these, the wheel to which the pump 
 is attached must be enlarged, i. e., its lever power must 
 be lengthened, and the wheel to which the driving-crank 
 or power is applied must be diminished, thus shortening 
 its leverage and giving it the advantage. To gain s/peed 
 arid lose power it is obvious that the enlarged and 
 diminished wheels must change places. When it is 
 necessary to gain more power or speed than two wheels 
 will admit of, then one or more wheels, according to 
 circumstances, must be added — thus forming a train of 
 wheels in which each pair gains a proportion until the 
 required result is attained. 
 
 The movements in a clock furnish an example of a 
 train of wheels gaining speed from a slow motive power. 
 A better example for a millwright will be a large overshot 
 
28 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 wheel making only three or four revolutions in a minute 
 geared on to a circular saw making fifteen hundred re- 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 volutions in the same time, and one of Leffel's six or 
 eight inch turbines, making fifteen hundred revolutions 
 per minute, geared to some slow moving heavy machine. 
 
THE INCLINED PLANE. 
 
 29 
 
 A millwright should avoid, aa much as practicable, 
 such extremes, because the less machinery that is inter- 
 posed between the power and the work the better the 
 result will be. It is cheaper in the first place, easier 
 worked, and less liable to get out of repair. 
 
 The Inclined Plane. 
 
 The inclined plane is a mechanical power so com- 
 monly used, so simple in principle and varied in its 
 applications, that people often make use of it in their 
 daily avocations without knowing or suspecting that 
 they are dependent upon any of the (so-called) me- 
 chanical powers for assistance. The teamster trans- 
 ports his load from the valley to the summit level, or 
 up the mountain, by a natural inclined plane improved 
 into a road. The backwoodsman rolls the logs on to 
 his sled, a log heap, or a log house, by means of skids, 
 another inclined plane. The merchant loads or unloads 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 his barrels and hogsheads, or transfers these into or out 
 of his cellar by a plank or two timbers placed parallel, 
 which is also an inclined plane, Fig. 10. In digging a 
 
30 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 canal or raising an embankment the earth is wheeled 
 up an inclined plane on the same principle. 
 
 In all these and similar operations the weight or load 
 is raised to the required height }>y the continued appli- 
 cation of a force, the power of which is somewhere 
 between that required to move the load along a hori- 
 zontal plane and that which would lift the whole load 
 bodily and perpendicular. For this reason the method 
 of expressing the angle of inclination by the perpen- 
 dicular rise in a certain distance, as one foot in five or 
 one foot in ten, is preferable to that of expressing it by 
 the degrees in a quadrant. This will be evident when 
 we consider that the power required to move the load 
 up a plane is always in the ratio of the perpendicular 
 rise to the horizontal length of the plane. That is, a 
 rise of one foot in four will require a force equal to one- 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 fourth of the weight of the load ; one foot rise in six or 
 ten will take one-sixth or one-tenth of the weight of the 
 
THE INCLINED PLANE. SI 
 
 load to move it up the plane. This, like all other theo- 
 retical estimates, ignores the resistance of friction. A 
 knowledge of this law of inclined planes is necessary to 
 the mechanic, as he has often to adapt machines to work 
 on different inclines, such as tramways connected with 
 mines or public works, where a carriage descending one 
 plane is made to draw up another carriage on another 
 plane, as in Fig. 11. 
 
 In the instances referred to the load is carried up the 
 plane by the continued application of apart of the force 
 required to lift it. But there is another application of 
 the inclined plane up which the load is carried by steps 
 or instalments, the whole weight being raised by a suc- 
 cession of short lifts from one resting point to another. 
 Stairs leading up into the higher stories of buildings, or 
 down into cellars, are familiar examples; or the inclined 
 side of a pyramid up which the materials for its con- 
 struction are conveyed by a succession of short lifts from 
 one course of masonry to the next one. Various me- 
 chanical contrivances, more or less simple, are employed 
 in connection with the inclined plane for raising or 
 lowering heavy materials (it is equally applicable to 
 both). Such are handspikes or ropes and pulleys used in 
 rolling up or letting down heavy logs and barrels, also 
 the jackscrews and powerful windlasses employed in 
 launching vessels or hauling them up into docks. It 
 may be remarked that the gain of power by the inclined 
 plane, like that gained by the lever, is always at the 
 expense of time or speed. Suppose a loaded carriage 
 has to be raised on to a floor one foot in perpendicular 
 height above the level road, we may fix one incline to 
 extend back ten feet from the floor, another to extend 
 twenty feet, and another forty. It will require the same 
 power to draw the carriage over the forty feet, with one 
 
32 MECHANICAL POWEES, 
 
 foot rise, as to draw it over the twenty or ten feet, with 
 the same one foot rise, and that will be exactly the 
 power that would raise the carriage one foot perpen- 
 dicular. 
 
 This shows that there is no power really gained by 
 the inclined plane; it is only a medium of accommoda- 
 tion by which a fortieth part of the power required to 
 lift the carriage one foot high, by being exerted over 
 forty times the space and time, is enabled to lift the 
 same weight to the same height. It may be remarked, 
 that the laws governing the ratio of power and effect 
 are not arbitrary, as the last statement might imply, but 
 the power is increased as the horizontal length of the 
 plane is increased, and diminished as the perpendicular 
 height of the plane is increased. 
 
 The Wedge. 
 
 The wedge is another modification of the principle of 
 the inclined plane. In those already described the 
 weight or load is raised by being forced up a stationary 
 incline from the base or point to the head. With the 
 w^dge this order is reversed, the base of the plane or 
 point of the wedge being inserted under the load to be 
 raised or between two objects to be forced asunder, it is 
 then forcibly driven to the head. By this it is to be 
 seen that the distance to which anything can be moved 
 or raised by the wedge is very limited. But this pecu- 
 liarity, which limits its effective range to so narrow a 
 space, gives it at the same time some valuable advan- 
 tages, enabling it to be used in cramped situations and 
 narrow spaces which would not admit of the lever or 
 screw, or any other mechanical applications. Under 
 such circumstances it is not only the most convenient 
 mechanical contrivance that can be used, but also the 
 
THE WEDGE. 33 
 
 most powerful. Suitable wedges made of wood or iron, 
 and driven between substantial bearings by a heavy 
 maul or a battering-ram, exert a force sufficient to raise 
 almost any amount of weight, or burst asunder almost 
 any material. We have seen a crown-wheel or pinion 
 weighing half a ton bursted open by wedging it with 
 wooden wedges upon a wooden shaft. Similar wedges 
 of iron or steel driven into a fissure, or into holes drilled 
 for their admission in a rock, will burst the rock asunder 
 like the pinion. 
 
 The following method of dividing large masses of stone 
 for making mill-stones was formerly practised in Scot- 
 land and Germany : the block, after being broken from 
 the rock, was dressed off round in the form of a pillar, 
 the thickness of which was equal to the intended 
 diameter of the mill-stones ; the pillar was then divided 
 and marked into sections, each being the intended thick- 
 ness of the stone. Holes were now drilled in these 
 marks all the way round the pillar, and dry wooden 
 wedges were driven tight into these holes; the wedges 
 were then wet, and the gradual and equal expansion of 
 the wood, by the absorption of the water, rent the sec- 
 tions asunder. This might, of course, be accomplished 
 by placing two half-round iron feathers, with the thick 
 end down, in each hole, and then driving steel plug 
 wedges equally all around between these feathers; this 
 is the process by which building stones are wedged 
 apart, but the effect is not so equal, and is liable to 
 injure the texture of the stone opposite the wedges too 
 much for mill-stones. 
 
 Grindstones are sometimes made in this way, but only 
 
 in such quarries as do not lie in seams or layers. When 
 
 found in this condition thin steel wedges are driven in 
 
 the seams or fissures dividing the strata, which are thus 
 
 3 
 
34 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 raised from the ledge in large flags; these are then 
 marked fur stones of various diameters to avoid waste 
 of materials, broken apart by plugs and feathers or other- 
 wise, and then dressed off to the circle, the depth of the 
 strata or thickness of the flags, making the thickness of 
 ttie grindstones. 
 
 Another example of the convenient application of the 
 wedge is the use made of it in fastening the handles into 
 hammers, axes, and all such tools, and also in fastening 
 the gudgeons, cranks, or other such irons into wooden 
 shafts. In this connection we might likewise mention 
 its application in tightening and fastening bands, pinions, 
 wheels, couplings, and all such attachments to shafting, 
 whether by ordinary wedges or square and tapering 
 keys. For these and all other similar purposes there is 
 no substitute for the wedge known that would be equally 
 applicable and effective. 
 
 This principle of the wedge renders very effective aid 
 in using the axe, the chisel, the drawshave, and many 
 other tools, bj"^ forcing the material apart and loosening 
 the texture in advance of the cutting edge, thus assist- 
 ing its entrance. It may also be observed that the 
 wedge is frequently assisted in its entrance in a similar 
 manner by the principle of the leoer, thus the seam of 
 the rock is pried open in advance of the wedge by a 
 leverage equal to the distance of the fissure and the 
 strength of strata, and th^ timber is forced apart in 
 advance of the wedge in the same way, in the process 
 of splitting a log. 
 
 The Screw. 
 
 The screw is another modification of the principle of 
 the inclined plane, but its construction and application 
 are quite different from that of the wedge, which, although 
 
THE SCRE-W. 
 
 35 
 
 used in so many different forms and situations in the 
 construction and arrangement of machinery, furnishes 
 no medium of transmitting or communicating continu- 
 ous motion. The screw can be modified to produce a 
 dead lift, like the wedge, or to communicate almost 
 every variety of motion: rectilinear, reciprocating, or 
 rotary. 
 
 The most common and obvious application of tl*e 
 principle of the screw is, perhaps, the screw-press, Fig. 
 12, or the ordinary jack-screw for raising buildings. 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Other and still more common applications are the 
 screw-bolts and nuts used for fastening almost every 
 description of structure together, and screw-nails. The 
 screw, in all its various modifications, is a combination 
 of the two primitive mechanical powers, the inclined 
 plane and the lever. The thread of the screw is a con- 
 tinuous inclined plane wound spirally round a central 
 shaft or axis. The wrench or bar by which it is worked 
 is a lever, the fulcrum or axis of which is the central 
 shaft of the screw ; the power of this lever is found by 
 dividing its length from the centre of the screw to the 
 
36 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 point where the power is applied by one-half of the 
 diameter of the screw. For an example, suppose a 
 screw be four inches in diameter and the lever three 
 feet long, then divide the length of lever, 36 inches by 
 2, the half diameter of the screw would give 18, the 
 number of times the power applied is increased. The 
 power of the screw is found by dividing the length of 
 oce coil of the screw by the distance from the top of one 
 thread to the top of the next thread above it. Here we 
 will call the length of one revolution of the coil 12 inches, 
 and the distance of pitch half an inch, then we have 
 12 -r J = 24, being the number of times the power applied 
 by the wrench (lever) is multiplied by the screw (inclined 
 plane). Then 18 x 24 = 432, the number of times that 
 the power applied to the wrench is increased by the com- 
 bined action of the machine. 
 
 It may be necessary to add that the naked screw has 
 no power of itself; it can only operate by pressing against 
 the thread of another screw which overlaps it, and is 
 called a box or nut; it consists of a block with a central 
 tube cut out in spiral grooves so as to fit with the screw 
 which has to work in it. The lever is applied either 
 «pon this nut or through an enlarged head upon the 
 screw itself. 
 
 The screw, like all other mechanical powers, loses in 
 speed or distance all that it gains in power. The dis- 
 tance between the threads being diminished increases 
 the power as the incline is diminished ; the distance of 
 pitch being increased, increases the speed as the incline 
 is increased. To make this plainer, suppose. two screws, 
 otherwise alike, but one an inch pitch of thread, the 
 other half an inch pitch. Two men would raise a ton 
 weight an inch high by one revolution of the lever of 
 the first, while by the other screw one man would rsiise 
 
THE SCREW. 37 
 
 the same weight to the same height by two revolutions 
 of the lever. 
 
 Practice and observation have established approximate 
 rules for graduating the pitch of thread, thickness of 
 nut, &c., to the diameter of the screw and purpose to 
 which it is to be applied, but these would be out of 
 place in a work like this. 
 
 The screw used for feeding the logs through a slab- 
 bing gang of saws is an example of a screw producing a 
 continued forward motion. Those used for moving the 
 head-blocks and dogs of circular and other saw-mills 
 give a motion both forward and backward. The endless 
 or everlasting screw communicates a continuous revolv- 
 ing motion to machinery. This is frequently used in 
 mills to obtain a slow motion from a swift revolving 
 shaft or spindle. The most , familiar example of this 
 device is the ordinary clock reel used for winding yarn 
 into skeins, and counting the requisite number of forty 
 threads. This is done by cutting a single thread screw 
 around the axle of the reel and fitting the screw to work 
 in the edge of a small wheel, the circumference of which 
 is equally divided and cut out into forty notches or cogs ; 
 these cogs, as also the thread of the screw, are cut conical 
 or V-shaped to an edge, and thus match into each other. 
 By turning the reel, each turn of the thread upon its 
 axle receives a tooth of the wheel and brings it forward, 
 and as soon as one turn of the thread is disengaged 
 another comes into operation, so as to produce a per- 
 petual revolution of the wheel ; a short pin is fastened 
 into one side of the wheel near the edge, and catches a 
 spring which it bends until the end slips off the pin and 
 the spring reacts back with a snap, which announces 
 that the wheel has made its full revolution, and, conse- 
 quently, the reel its forty revolutions, and therefore 
 
38 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 contains the requisite forty threads, which are now tied 
 and the operation repeated. 
 
 By combining the screw with the wheel and axle in 
 this manner a slow motion is obtained, which is very 
 strong and uniform, and is generated by a very slight 
 power, but this, of course, must have a corresponding 
 swiftness of motion to compensate. 
 
 The wheel and axle here mentioned is shown in Fig. 
 14 ; it is identical with the wheel and pinion, the wind- 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 lass, and similar contrivances, all of which are revolving 
 or perpetual levers ; the wheel or crank being the long 
 end, and the pinion or the shaft upon which the rope or 
 chain winds, as the case may be, is the short end of the 
 same lever. The gain of power or of speed by any or 
 all of these is always in the proportion of the length of 
 these ends; i.e., the relative diameter of the one to which 
 the power is applied, and that upon which it produces 
 the eifect. 
 
 Examples of the application of the principles combined 
 in these machines are numerous and common. The 
 wheel and axle is used to hoist goods up to the higher 
 stories of store-houses, or to raise coals and other minerals 
 from mines. It is also combined with other wheels and 
 
( 
 
 THE SCREW. 29 
 
 pinions to increase the power of men applied to cranks, 
 as seen in the crane, Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
 The buU-wheel or pull-wheel used for drawing the 
 logs up into saw-mills is an application of this principle 
 with which millwrights are familiar. 
 
 These are all examples of gaining power at the ex- 
 pense of speed, but t'.e same principle is applied with 
 equal facility in the opposite direction as already inti- 
 mated; that is, to gain speed by the expense of power. 
 Take any of the machines alluded to, as the crane for 
 an example. When the weight has been raised to the 
 full height, if the men should let the winch or crank 
 go, it would turn back in the opposite direction with 
 great and increasing velocity until the weight had 
 reached the point from which it was raised, thus giving 
 back the same number of revolutions and the same 
 amount of power which it took to raise it. This is the 
 order of gearing employed for lathes, circular saws, &c., 
 when driven from a slow and strong first mover. 
 
 There are many other mechanical devices in use ; 
 those mentioned are either for gaining power or speed, 
 
40 
 
 KECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 but there are others employed to change one kind of 
 motion into another, as cranks, eccentrics, and cam- 
 wheels, for changing rotary into reciprocating, or vice 
 versd, also universal or toggle joints, bevel gearing, &c., 
 for changing the direction of revolving motions. 
 
 The Pulley and Cord. 
 
 The pulley and cord is another mechanical contri- 
 vance. The fixed pulley, Figs. 16 and 17, gives no 
 increase of power, its only advantages are that it dimi- 
 nishes friction and gives convenience in pulling. The 
 movable pulley doubles the power, as may be seen by 
 
 Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Fig. 18 ; one end of the cord being fastened, the power 
 applied upon the other end exerts a double force upon 
 the pulley at the middle by losing one-half of the speed. 
 The blocks and tackle used on shipboard and in rais- 
 ing buildings, also for hoisting heavy materials, are 
 
THE PULLET AND COED. 41 
 
 systems of fast and movable pulleys ; the fast ones are 
 contained in the upper block, and the movable ones in 
 the block attached to the weight to be raised. The 
 concentration of power by these combinations is as the 
 number of pulleys in each, and is determined by the 
 number of movable pulleys, each one of which doubles 
 the power, therefore multiply the number of these by 
 two and that product by the power applied: this last 
 product is the weight the tackle will raise, or the full 
 measure of its accumulated force. 
 
 It will be seen by this that the addition of one mova- 
 ble pulley to any system of pulleys doubles the effective 
 power, but at the same time it also doubles the time 
 required to raise the weight, as every additional fold of 
 the rope makes so much more rope to draw out, Fig. 
 19. By fixing a windlass or wheel and axle to wind 
 up the rope of a block and tackle, the power of the lever 
 is combined with that of the block and tackle, and there 
 is scarcely any limit to the power which may be exerted 
 by such a coijibination, except the strength of the mate- 
 rials used. 
 
 The pulley upon which the cord acts in these systems 
 is merely a continuous lever with equal arms, and giving 
 no mechanical advantage. It is the equal distribution 
 of the weight among all the folds or strands of rope 
 which divides and suspends it upon all the intervening 
 centres of motion that gives this advantage. Levers 
 with arms of unequal lengths are frequently used, some- 
 times for gaining power, in other circumstances for 
 gaining in length or distance of range, and also for 
 changing the direction of motion, and similarly worked 
 by a cord. Instances of this kind of cord and lever 
 occur in mills where they are employed to regulate the 
 feed, throw tighteners off or on to belts, or to manipu- 
 
42 
 
 MECHANICAL POWEES. 
 
 late the traps and gates for distributing grain from 
 elevators, &c. Such arrangements are called, by learned 
 authors, animal levers. 
 
 The power or velocity which these either gain or lose 
 is estimated by the respective lengths of the two ends, 
 measured from the fulcrum or centre of motion, like all 
 the other levers heretofore mentioned and referred to; 
 but when continuous revolving levers or wheels are used 
 the gain or loss is much easier computed by measuring 
 their relative circumferences. If cog-wheels, count the 
 number of cogs in each and divide the larger by the 
 smaller; if belt-wheels or pulleys be used, then measure 
 round their circumferences with a tape-line or other 
 string, taking the girth in inches, and divide the larger 
 by the smaller, the same as with cogs. 
 
 The Crank. 
 
 Cranks, Fig. 20, are another kind of revolving levers, 
 whether they are used to transform a reciprocating 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
THE CEANK. 43 
 
 motion into a rotary one, as in the steam engine, or to 
 transpose a rotary into a reciprocating, as in the com- 
 mon saw-mill. 
 
 This lever differs from all the others we have been' 
 considering in having the peculiarity of gradually vary- 
 ing its length of fulcrum from the whole length of its 
 radius down to nothing, and back again to full length 
 twice during each revolution, and it maintains this uni- 
 form gradation of length in both the situations referred 
 to: that is, whether the reciprocating motion be applied 
 to revolve the crank, or the crank be employed to pro- 
 duce the reciprocating motion. An exception to this 
 may be thought to be found in the application of the 
 hand, or other revolving motor that accompanies the 
 wrist-pin of the crank in its circuit; but such is not the 
 case, because when thus situated it ceases to be a crank, 
 and is only an ordinary revolving lever — the wrist-pin 
 being only the medium of connection, like any other 
 coupling. 
 
 There is nothing that we can think of in the whole 
 range of mechanics that appears so simple, and yet with 
 regard to which so much misconception exists, as the 
 crank. And this is the result of the tendency which 
 exists in the ordinary mind to see and appreciate the 
 advantage of power gained by lengthening a lever, and 
 ignore the loss in time and space which that gain in- 
 volves. To dispel this illusion, and banish the prejudice 
 against the crank, it is only necessary to consider that 
 the steam or other power applied in a right line upon a 
 crank must follow, and be exhausted, just twice as fast 
 at the middle of the stroke, where the crank acts as a 
 lever of its own length, as at half way to the end, where 
 it acts as a lever of only half that length. So that the 
 crank, like every other mechanical device, maintains 
 
44 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 always the same ratio of power and effect with time and 
 space. 
 
 Another delusion is very common with regard to the 
 crank, which is, that by making the iron arm of the 
 crank considerably longer than the intended length of 
 stroke, and then crook it up in the form of a half circle 
 or the letter S, a great advantage in power is gained. We 
 remember hearing this point argued, when very young, 
 in connection with the cranks used for turning the hand- 
 mills for grinding coffee and spices. But in the year 
 1836, while employed with the engineers in laying out 
 the works for the renewal of Fort Mifflin on the Dela- 
 ware River, a very amusing controversy occurred on 
 this subject. The moats or canals around the fort had 
 to be plumped dry, and the screw-pumps used for that 
 purpose were worked by six or eight men each. A bevel 
 wheel on an inclined pump, geared into another on a 
 horizontal shaft, fixed across a supporting frame: this 
 shaft had a crank upon each end, each crank being 
 worked by three or four men. The cranks were of 
 wrought iron,«and made to get the full benefit of this 
 advantageous leverage; whether from the simple convic- 
 tion of the nvaker or to humor the popular prejudice is 
 not material — but the cranks were continually breaking 
 and causing interruptions; and as there was no heavier 
 iron on the works, nor nearer than Philadelphia, the 
 question arose, whether the arm of the crank might 
 not be shortened one-half by making it straight from 
 the shaft to the handle. It was admitted that if this 
 were done the same iron would be strong enough to 
 hold the men, as only four could get hold of the handle 
 at the same time; but some argued that the handles 
 would have to be lengthened to allow more men to get 
 hold before they could work the pump, and then the 
 
THI, CRANK. 45 
 
 crank would break as before ; and these could not be 
 convinced until they saw the straight crank applied, and 
 the pump worked by the sama hands and with the same 
 ease as before. 
 
 Some will think such ideas too whimsical and frivo- 
 lous to mention here, but they are often troublesome 
 and mischievous as well as whimsical; and we have 
 been so often annoyed with the same kind of philosophy 
 since, that we think the mention here made may induce 
 some individuals to review their "theory of the bent 
 lover," and thus be the means of getting this particular 
 kink out of their imaginations. 
 
 The bent cranks used for tread powers, such as those 
 driving turning-lathes, grindstones, or the old-fashioned 
 spinning-wheel by the foot, are instances of the preva- 
 lence of this chimera of lengthening the lever, and at 
 the same time maintaining a short range of stroke. 
 
 The eccentric, so common in steam-engines and other 
 machines, is a modification of the crank, and its princi- 
 ples and mode of action are identical with those of the 
 crank. It is used where the situation or size of shaft 
 or some other peculiarity does not admit of an ordinary 
 crank. The various descriptions of cams are also modi- 
 fications of the eccentric. The crank and eccentric have 
 but one back and forward motion for each revolution of 
 the shaft to which they belong, while by camg two or 
 more may be made, as in driving hide or cloth fulling- 
 mills, trip-hammers, and also many other reciprocating 
 movements in cardiug-machines, &c. 
 
46 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 The fly-wheel and the balance-wheel, and their dif- 
 ferent uses and applications, the millwright should also 
 be familiar witk. The fly is used to equalize velocity, 
 the balance to equalize weight. 
 
 When a crank is used as the medium of transmission 
 between a rotary and reciprocating motion, in either 
 direction, a fly-wheel is generally necessary to equalize 
 the momentum among the various situations of the crank 
 during its revolution. The size and weight of the fly 
 must, of course, be determined by the weight, and more 
 particularly by the nature of the machinery. In many 
 instances this contains a sufficiency of regulating influ- 
 ences within itself, as the locomotive engine on a rail- 
 road, or the tread-power applied to drive a grindstone. 
 The ordinary stationary steam-engine, or a saw-gate 
 driven by gearing or by a belt, requires a fly-wheel of a 
 size and weight proportioned to the momentum of the 
 reciprocating movements. But a saw-gate or other re- 
 ciprocating motion taken direct from the water-wheel 
 by a crank on the same shaft will run well enough 
 with no other fly-wheel than the balance. In fact, 
 gates are often run in this way without either fly or 
 balance; but a balance should always be attached 
 when circumstances admit of it, because in addition to 
 the assistance rendered by balancing the weight of the 
 gate and pitman, another advantage is gained in the 
 reduced strain and wear upon the binder and plumb- 
 
FLT AND BALA^"CE-■WHEELS. 47 
 
 block, by which the crank is much easier kept in its 
 bearings. The rule among millwrights for the weight 
 of the balance is to have its balancing power as near to 
 that of the gate and pitmen as possible; the extra weight 
 of the saws, stirrup-irons, and gauges being found suflS- 
 cient, with the advantage of gravity, to compensate the 
 cut of the saws. 
 
 In computing this balancing power regard must be 
 had to the distance of each from the centre ; that is, the 
 weight of gate, &c., must be calculated by the length of 
 the crank from the centre, while the weight of the 
 balance must be calculated by the distance from its 
 centre of gravity to the same centre, which is generally 
 greater than the length of the crank. To make this 
 plainer, suppose the crank to be twelve inches long, and 
 the centre of the balance eighteen inches from the centre 
 of the shaft, then every pound weight in the balance 
 will be equal to one and a half on the crank. 
 
 For a light and swift crank motion, such as a screen 
 or sieve in a grist-mill, or the whiffers which take the 
 rolls from a wool carding machine at the doffer cylinder, 
 springs are an excellent compensating medium. 
 
 There are many circumstances in which a fly-wheel 
 may be advantageously applied in a strictly rotary 
 machine, either when the propelling power is unsteady 
 or disturbed by other machines, or when the power is 
 steady and the work or resistance is unequal, as in cir- 
 cular saws used for cutting firewood, making shingles 
 and staves, or other work where the saw is alternately 
 cutting and running empty at short intervals. By 
 lengthening the arbor of such saws so as to place a fly- 
 wheel upon the end at a convenient distance, and out 
 of the way, a great improvement may be made in their 
 working, as it tends to equalize the velocity while the 
 
48 TLT AND BALAKCE-WHEELS. 
 
 saw is running idle, and giving it out again while the 
 saw is cutting. This effects a considerable saving of 
 powdr which is stored up as it were in a reservoir and 
 given out when required, thus enabling a slight motive 
 power and light belt to carry a saw through a cut, which 
 without the fly-wheel would check up the saw or slip 
 the belt, and be ticklish and troublesome to feed. 
 
 It should be remembered here that the principle of 
 the fly-wheel is sometimes misunderstood and misapplied 
 as well as that of the lever, and that the fly-wheel can 
 never, under any circumstances, add power, but only 
 equalize it. A machine may, therefore, be made with 
 too much fly-wheel. An instance of this will show best 
 what we mean. A friend of ours took a fancy for turn- 
 ing, and employed a good machinist to construct a crank 
 power to be worked by hand to drive his lathe. The 
 workman first set up a large shaft with a crank on one 
 end and a fly-wheel on the other; the fly was heavy 
 enough for a ten horse power engine, and a train of cog- 
 wheels ingeniously contrived to gain speed by an advan- 
 tageous leverage without losing power, connected this 
 first shaft with the cone shaft from which the lathe belt 
 got its motion ; the result was, that three men sweating 
 on the crank gave the first shaft a motion like the shaft 
 of an overshot wheel, and drove the lathe like a buzz. 
 But the men complained that the work was too heavy, 
 and we were consulted to see if the work could be light- 
 ened ; the result was, that the great generator of power, 
 the fly-wheel, with its complicated train of cogged levers 
 was set aside and a light band wheel upon the crank 
 shaft substituted, from Avhich the cone shaft was driven 
 • direct, and one man drove the machine with perfect ease 
 and regularity. 
 
 Now this blunder was not made by an inferior me- 
 
^ 
 
 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 49 
 
 chanic, as the workmanship of the various parts was 
 excellent, but was the result of mistaken theories most 
 likely derived from a careless perusal of books and 
 jumping at conclusions, which he had never enjoyed 
 the opportunity of rectifying by experience. It may 
 further be remarked here, as a general rule, that when 
 a fly-wheel is necessary to any revolving machine it 
 should be either upon or as near to the last and quickest 
 mover as possible, and never, as in the case referred 
 to, upon the first and slowest, where its effect is only to 
 load and lumber the machine, and increase the friction, 
 without any compensating advantage. 
 
 We will end this subject by a remark which we forgot 
 to make when treating upon the saw-mill crank balance, 
 which is, that the weight of the balance should never 
 be more than the proportion there indicated, because the 
 balance, although counteracted by the weight of gate 
 "^ and pitman, when up or down, has no compensating 
 \ equivalent while acting horizontally, except the butt end 
 of the pitman, which leaves a great centrifugal force 
 unbalanced, and acting alternately in both directions at 
 each revolution, has an injurious effect upon the binder 
 and bearings; and further, that the balance and crank 
 should be connected, and opposite each to the other, and 
 not on separate parts of the shaft. A gang shaft was 
 broken where we were working last winter, when no other 
 cause could be assigned than that the balance was placed 
 upon the tail end of the shaft, which was thus, in addition 
 to the strain of driving, made the medium of connection 
 between the crank and balance, and it snapped off at 
 the crank bearing. 
 4 
 
 <;^ 
 
50 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 Centrifugal Force and Circular Motion. 
 
 Anything revolving around a centre has a tendency 
 to fly off from that centre and proceed in a straight line; 
 and this principle of motion is called centrifugal force. 
 If \Ye whirl a sling around rapidly, with a stone in it, 
 and allow the stone to escape, it flies off in a straight line 
 until its velocity is overcome by the resistance of the air 
 and the attraction of the earth. A pail of water may 
 be swung up and around in a circle without spilling the 
 water even when the bottom is upward ; or by turning the 
 pail rapidly in one direction, the water is piled up against 
 the edges of the pail, leaving a deep hollow in the middle. 
 When grain is dropped into the eye of a revolving mill- 
 stone, the motion of the latter gradually communicates 
 motion to the grain, and it is impelled around and out- 
 ward toward the edge of the stone, where it escapes as 
 meal. It is this force that throws the water from a re- 
 volving grindstone, and sometimes, when the velocity is 
 increased beyond the strength of cohesion in the stone, 
 it is thrown asunder, and the fragments fly off likcr 
 stones from a sling. 
 
 This tendency to fly off in a straight line from a 
 motion around a centre is called centrifugal force, as al- 
 ready stated; but the power which holds bodies to the 
 centre, and prevents them from thus flying off in a 
 tangent to the circle they are describing, is called the cen- 
 tripetal force. And all bodies moving in circles are con- 
 tinually acted upon by these opposing forces ; the ratio 
 of each being alike and governed by the following 
 laws — that is, these forces are always proportionate to 
 the weight and velocity of the revolving body : If the 
 weight of matiprial be increased, its distance from the 
 centre and velocity remaining the same, its centrifugal 
 force will be increased in like proportion ; if the distance 
 
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE AND CIRCULAR MOTION. 51 
 
 from the centre be increased, while the weight and time 
 of revolution remain the same, these forces will also be 
 increased in the same proportion. If the number of 
 revolutions in the same time be doubled, the distance 
 from the centre and weight being the same, the centri- 
 fugal force will be four times as great; if the number 
 of revolutions be increased three times, the force will be 
 nine times as great, if four times, it will be sixteen times 
 as great; and so it continues to increase as the square 
 of the number of revolutions. This shows the rapid in- 
 crease of centrifugal force with the increase of motion, 
 and the necessity of lightening, strengthening, and 
 balancing, all rapidly revolving machinery. It also 
 shows the reason why a revolving machine, as a mill- 
 stone, may be perfectly balanced while at rest, and yet 
 be far from balanced when under a rapid motion. This 
 is explained in the article on balancing millstones, 
 
 The centrifugal force is sometimes an auxiliary power 
 in some kinds of reaction water wheels. This is the 
 case when the head or pressure of the water is very great ; 
 the quantity and weight of water used for a given power 
 being then small. When the head of water is low, the 
 quantity required to produce any considerable power is 
 so great that its vis-inertia altogether overbalances the 
 slight increase of pressure induced by the centrifugal 
 force. In other words, it requires a greater potocr to take 
 such a continual mass of water as this requires, from a 
 state of rest, and impart to it the requisite revolving 
 motion while passing through the wheel, than all the 
 auxiliary power yielded by the centrifugal force gives 
 back. This fact we have established by varied and often 
 repeated experiments; not with ihodels, but with work- 
 ing machines, and will not attempt to explain it here 
 theoretically. 
 
52 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 The centrifugal pump illustrates the effect of this force 
 upon water. It is a hollow tube, set upright in the 
 water to be raised ; two hollow arms are extended in 
 opposite directions, from the top of the upright their 
 hollows communicating, and the outer ends of the arms 
 bent down so as to discharge the water into a circular 
 trough placed under thera to receive it. The upright 
 tube has a valve, opening upwards, in its lower end, to 
 retain the water when the machine is not in motion ; it 
 has also a journal in each end, upon which to turn, and 
 a sheave, or pinion on the top, by which it is driven. 
 To start the machine, the discharging openings in the 
 ends of the arms are slightly closed, and the interior of 
 the tubes filled with water through an opening at the 
 top (centre) ; the opening is then closed, and a rapid 
 rotary motion is imparted to the machine, which drives 
 out the temporary plugs from the ends of the arms, and 
 a constant discharge of water is thrown as long as the 
 motion and supply of water are continued. 
 
 It is this centrifugal force that gathers and communi- 
 cates motion to the air in every description of blower, 
 where the blast is raised by a revolving fan ; and a slight 
 modification of the fan blower makes it a convenient and 
 effective machine for raising or giving motion to water 
 both by suction and force. 
 
 The centrifugal gun furnishes a better illustration of 
 this force than any yet given. A carriage wheel whirling 
 rapidly along a muddy road throws the mud from its 
 circumference with considerable force. Boys will take 
 a ball of tough clay and fasten it on the end of a small 
 stick, or a small apple or potato is better than the clay, 
 or a small stone stuck in a cleft in the end of the stick ; 
 by swinging the stick rapidly, the missile is thrown from 
 its end with a force proportionate to the velocity and 
 
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE AND CIRCULAR MOTION. 53 
 
 length of the stick. This is the principle by which the 
 centrifugal gun throws its bullets ; instead of a stick a 
 hollow tube like a gunbarrel is used, one end secured 
 to the centre of an upright shaft, to which a very rapid 
 rotary motion is given by machinery ; the other end can 
 be raised or depressed, to increase or diminish the eleva- 
 tion of its range; the bullets are let into the tube at the 
 centre, and thrown out of the other end with a velocity 
 and force proportioned to the number of revolutions, and 
 length of the barrel. This would be a tremendous 
 engine of destruction if it could be manipulated so as to 
 direct its balls to any particular point, as by fixing a 
 reservoir of balls at the centre with a means for regu- 
 lating their admission into the tube, a rapid and contin- 
 uous discharge can be kept up, and by increasing or 
 diminishing the velocity, and elevating or depressing 
 the outer end of the barrel, the force and distance of 
 range can easily be controlled. 
 
 When we were engaged in employments that required 
 frequent correct estimates of the central force to be made, 
 we fixed a unit or starting point, to compute from. We 
 took sixty revolutions per minute, or one in a second, for 
 the velocity, and found the distance from the centre at 
 which that velocity would equal gravitation : but have 
 now forgotten whether the circle described was ten inches 
 in diameter, or a ten inch radius; we will therefore 
 describe the simple expedient by which we determined 
 this point. 
 
 Take a thin piece of board of any convenient width, 
 and bevel one end to the angle of 45°, that is, to a mitre ; 
 slip this through a slit in a vertical shaft, with the short 
 corner of the mitre up; now fasten a weight by a string 
 or small wire to the upper short corner of the mitred end, 
 and set the machine in motion. Time and regulate the 
 
54 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 revolutions to 60 per minute, and then knock the board 
 backward or forward in the slit, to lengthen or shorten 
 the carrying arm, until the string supporting the weight 
 corresponds exactly with the bevelled end of the arm. 
 This shows the centrifugal force to be equal to the weight, 
 in other words, it is drawn outward by centrifugal force, 
 just as much as it is drawn downward by gravity: and 
 it only remains to measure the distance from the centre 
 of motion to the centre of the weight (not its point of 
 suspension) to complete the problem. This velocity and 
 distance, if retained, give a basis from which to calcu- 
 late for any other velocity and distance from the centre, 
 by the rules of ratio and progression already given. 
 The weight of the mass under consideration, whatever it 
 may be, furnishes, of course, the other important item 
 in all such computations. 
 
 Action and Eeaction. 
 
 These forces are always equal, and in contrary and 
 opposite directions one to the other, whatever the power 
 or force employed to generate the motion may be. The 
 powder exploded within the gunbarrel or cannon exerts 
 the same force against the breech as against the bullet 
 or missile shot from the bore; the difference in velocity 
 between the projectile and the recoil of the gun being as 
 the difference of weight in each. The recoil or rebound 
 of the guns in a ship of war has frequently kept them 
 off a lee shore when all other resources had failed, and 
 has sometimes set them afloat when they were actually 
 aground. The chute of water projected against a wheel 
 exerts the same force against the penstock or flume that 
 it communicates to the bucket upon which it impinges. 
 This is the power employed in Dr. Barker's and other 
 reaction wheels 
 
ACTION AND REACTION. 55 
 
 A horse in the act of drawing exerts the same force, 
 in a contrary direction, against the road that he does in 
 moving forward the load. This is the power employed in 
 all horse tread-powers, whether the animal be hitched to a 
 bar, and draw on a horizontal wheel, or climb an incline. 
 
 A better illustration of this law of motion will be 
 found in rowing or pushing a small boat upon the water. 
 The oar being pushed against the water moves the boat 
 in one direction, the "slip" of the oar moves the water 
 in the opposite direction ; the force and motion being 
 divided and absorbed somewhere between these — one re- 
 presenting action, the other reaction. Now, suppose the 
 oar be placed against earth, or something immovable, 
 instead of the water, and the same force applied : the 
 pressure, as before, will be equal and opposite, but all the 
 motion is given to the boat — the result being the same 
 whether the man be in the boat or on the land. To make 
 this plainer, suppose two boats of equal size and weight, 
 with a man in each ; connect these by a long light pole, 
 each man having hold of the opposite end. Now let 
 both men pull alike upon the pole, and the boats will 
 approach each other with equal speed and force, meeting 
 half way; if something elastic, as a suitable spring, were 
 interposed between their points of contact, it would be 
 compressed until the forces of both were overcome, when 
 the elastic spring would react, sending both boats back 
 apart again; or rather let both men cease pulling when 
 the boats approached sufficiently near each other, and 
 push apart ; they must now exert the same force to stop 
 the motion that it took to engender it, excepting the loss 
 by friction; and if that force is continued after the 
 approaching motion is stopped, then the boats will begin 
 to move apart again, as in the other case; the strength 
 of the men exerted through the pole being interposed 
 
56 FLT AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 instead of the spring. In this case, the boats being 
 of equal size and weight, the motion of both will be 
 alike. If the size and weight of the two were very 
 different (as in the case of the gun and missile shot from 
 it), then the velocity of each would be as the mass and 
 weight of each. 
 
 The small steamer " Nellie Tupper," four horse power, 
 when towing logs on Chateaugay Lakes, left the two 
 men, who made fast the tow-line tp a raft, upon it; the 
 captain refusing to stop the boat, or send a small boat 
 to take them on board. Both being strong resolute men, 
 they fixed themselves in an advantageous position, and 
 undertook to pull the steamer hade, and get on board ; 
 this they accomplished to their own satisfaction and of 
 all who witnessed the feat. But all they actiially ac- 
 complished was to bring the raft and boat together by 
 pulling on the tow-line, like our supposed men pulling 
 on their connecting / pole. Here note particularly this 
 difference, which is of vital importance to the millwright; 
 the two men pulling on one end of the tow-line, had a 
 ixywer equal to four men, two pulling at each end, but 
 only half the speed. Here the boat and raft both con- 
 tinued their journey, the speed of the raft being accele- 
 rated, while that of the boat was retarded, in exact pro- 
 portion to the mass of each. 
 
 We have neither the ability nor wish to write a philo- 
 sophical treatise upon Action and Reaction, but as it is 
 a subject that every millwright should understand per- 
 fectly, we will try to make those points a little plainer, 
 which particularly relate to his business. 
 
 If two boats, or equal other floats, be placed side by 
 side upon the water, and a man stand upon one and 
 push lengthwise upon the other, if both be alike free to 
 move, the one under his feet will move back and the 
 
ACTION AND REACTION. 57 
 
 other forward as he travels along, each moving at half 
 
 the rate of the man's walk. If the one upon which he 
 
 stands be fastened, the other will be pushed forward at 
 
 the same speed the man travels. If the one against 
 
 which he pushes be fastened, and the other released, then 
 
 the one upon which he travels will move at the full speed 
 
 of his walk. In the first instance each float moves at 
 
 half speed, but in opposite directions; in each of the 
 
 other cases only one float moves, but with the whole 
 
 velocity of the man's walk, the power applied in the 
 
 three cases being the same. But let the man push against 
 
 some part of the float on which he stands ever so hard, 
 
 and he can give it no motion. This would be like 
 
 working a great bellows placed on the after end of a 
 
 vessel to fill a sail on the bow, expecting to drive the 
 
 vessel forward — such an arrangement could give it no 
 
 motion, but if the sail were removed, and the bellows 
 
 worked, the vessel would be driven backward. The wind 
 
 from such a bellows or other source, clear of the vessel, 
 
 impinging against the sail, would of course give it 
 
 headway. 
 
 Now many ingenious millwrights have attempted, and 
 some claim that they have actually constructed, a vater 
 wheel that will combine both of these powers, and give 
 a double result. We confess to pursuing that "ignis 
 fatuus" in our own younger days, but we never succeeded 
 in combining both powers in the same wheel, which would 
 be like getting into a basket, and attempting to lift one's 
 self by the handles, implying a genius of the perpetual 
 motion calibre, which we now disclaim. We placed a light 
 tub wheel outside of Dr. Barker's reaction tube wheel, 
 which intercepted the discharging water, and of course 
 revolved in the contrary direction, but found it much 
 better to lengthen the tubes or arms of the first wheel 
 
58 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 and take all the power from that, than to divide the 
 power in two, and gear those two separate powers together 
 upon the machinery to be driven, as it made a very good 
 and simple arrangement very complicated, and detracted 
 very sensibly from the power. See the article on 
 Barker's wheel. 
 
 There is a way of employing the recoil or reaction of 
 the water upon the same wheel, after or as it strikes, 
 which makes the force of impingement similar to that 
 produced by the stroke of a perfectly elastic body. To 
 effect this, the water must be sent around a curve repre- 
 senting a half circle, the water being shot into one end 
 of the curve, which it follows around and escapes from 
 the other end with nearly the same velocity with which 
 it entered, returning towatd the point from which it 
 issued, like the curved plate armor which Louis Napoleon 
 placed upon some of his ships of war, to conduct 
 the balls fired against them around a similar curve, and 
 hurl them back in the teeth of those who fired them. 
 
 To test the actual gain by this plan, we caused a 
 column of water to descend perpendicularly upon a level 
 scale, and balanced its force with weights; we then put 
 a curved scale, such as indicated, in place of the flat 
 one; this returned the column of water up again, close 
 to the descending column, but not touching it. It now 
 required double the weight to balance the scale. Some 
 would think this a very valuable discovery, but this 
 double power, which seems so sure and satisfactory when 
 weighed and tested upon the stationary scale, is very 
 much modified and dissipated when practically applied, 
 and the motion of the wheel as it recedes before the 
 water, carries a great part of the recoil away with it, 
 and changes the exact half circle into the curve seen in 
 
ACTION AND REACTION. 59 
 
 the buckets of our centre vent water-wheel, which see 
 in the chapter on Centre Discharge Wheels. 
 
 The proper curve required to catch and return the 
 water so as to get the benefit of this recoil, is verj diffi- 
 cult to understand, and still more difficult to explain. 
 The w^ter is affected by so many different contingencies 
 and circumstances in passing through the curved bucket 
 while the wheel is in motion, that we only found the 
 proper curve by many repeated experiments, as detailed 
 in the description of the wheel. In the first place the 
 water must be shot into the outer end of the bucket, 
 that is, at the circumference, and not at the centre of the 
 wheel : because then the water passes through in the di- 
 rection of the wheel's motion, the friction thus helping, 
 instead of hindering, the motion of the wheel ; and also 
 because the centrifugal force acting against the force of 
 the entering water, forces it outward against the inner 
 driving side of the bucket, and prevents it from touching 
 the back of the next one; and lastly, it brings the dis- 
 charging water near the centre of the wheel, where the 
 motion is comparatively slow, and this allows the nearly 
 spent water to impinge its little remaining force upon the 
 short curve of the inner end of the buckets, by its 
 recoil. 
 
 In referring to the recoil of a gun, we said it was equal 
 to the action of the powder against the ball — that is, the 
 velocity of the ball multiplied by its weight is exactly 
 equal to the velocity (recoil) of the gun and its attach- 
 ments multiplied by their weight. This may seem to 
 be following the laws of weight and velocity to an ex- 
 treme ; but it is sometimes necessary for the millwright 
 to deal with this law in a still greater extreme, like firing 
 the same charges of powder without any ball, or with 
 blank cartridges. In this case, the powder having nothing 
 
60 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 but the atmosphere to act against, the recoil is very small; 
 give it water instead of air to act against, and it will shiver 
 the hardest rocks, although otherwise unconfined. Large 
 rocks in the rapids of the river St. Lawrence have been 
 blasted and removed in this manner, in situations where 
 it was impossible to drill and blast by the ordinary 
 method. Many years ago, we saw a rotary steam engine 
 driven by the recoil of the steam, on the same principle 
 as Barker's water wheel. A pipe from the boiler car- 
 ried the steam up into a central hub or chamber, from 
 which two hollow iron arms projected in opposite direc- 
 tions; the hollow of these communicated with the inte- 
 rior of the hub and admitted the steam, which was forced 
 out through a small hole in the opposite side of each 
 end. These arms were about three feet long, flattened 
 to avoid the resistance of the atmosphere, and slightly 
 bent at each end. They resembled, in shape and size, the 
 iron scabbard of a dragoon's sword, and the hole in 
 each for the discharge of steam, the size of a large 
 knitting needle. The outside of the hub was turned oflf 
 to the shape of a pulley, and a belt from it drove the 
 machinery. This is the cheapest, most direct and simple 
 of all the applications of steam to drive machinery; and 
 if steam were a dense and heavy fluid, such as water, 
 it would also be the most effective. But this is the dif- 
 ficulty, steam is so light and ethereal, having such facility 
 for increased motion and escape under high pressure, as 
 shown by the action of the steam-gun, that this mode of 
 working it is like exploding gunpowder in a blank cart- 
 ridge. This engine made somewhere about fifteen thou- 
 sand revolutions per minute, and used all the steam that 
 could be raised in a boiler rated at twelve horse power. 
 The steam gun referred to threw a continuous stream of 
 bullets from a hopper at the breech, and it was found 
 
ACTION AND REACTION. CI 
 
 that every increase in the length of the barrel used 
 made a corresponding increase in the distance of its range, 
 which is not the case where gunpowder is used. Perkins, 
 the inventor, claimed that it could throw a ball from 
 Dover, in England, across the channel, to Calais, in 
 France, a distance of twenty two miles. ' 
 
 The centrifugal gun is a,nother engine that throws a 
 continuous stream of bullets from a hopper at the centre. 
 It is simply a long tube like a gunbarrel, one end being 
 fastened to a central pivot or shaft, which communicates 
 to it a very rapid revolving motion. The balls are ad- 
 mitted into the tube at the central end, and thrown out 
 at the outer revolving end by the centrifugal force. 
 The principle is similar to that of the sling. 
 
 It occured to us that a cpmbination of these two ma- 
 chines could be made, by using two round tubes like these 
 gunbarrels, as arms for a rotary engine, which would 
 yield a very strong reaction power. To do this the tubes 
 would have to be bent by an easy curve towards the 
 outer end, to a right angle, so as to discharge on a tangent 
 with the circle described, and we mention it to illustrate 
 the principle and mode of reasoning which led us to adopt 
 the following modification of the reaction rotary steam 
 engine, which makes it a very effective and economical 
 machine. 
 
 The machine itself, that is the central hub and hollow 
 arms are longer than that described before, as it requires 
 a greater interior capacity, but otherwise it is the same, 
 and the modification consists in forcing water through it 
 instead of steam or bullets. The weight and incompres- 
 sibility of water enable it to resist every acceleration 
 of motion. A double pressure of steam would double 
 its velocity and escape, and only double its power of ac- 
 tion and reaction ; but it requires a fourfold pressure to 
 
62 FLT AND BALANCE-WHEELS. 
 
 double the velocity and escape of water, and this double 
 discharge of water gives eight times the power of action 
 and reaction. For an explanation of this, see the article 
 on the " Pressure and Power of Water." 
 
 The pressure of the steam is made to act upon the 
 water on the principle of Savery's double engine. See 
 the chapter on " The Transmission and Transportation 
 of Motive Power." 
 
 So long as the mechanical power of water was obtained 
 almost exclusively bj' the use of the overshot and under- 
 shot wheel and their modifications, a millwright might 
 get along pretty well without a Very thorough know- 
 ledge of the peculiarities of this action and reaction oP 
 water, and the relation of each to the other; but now, 
 that such a great variety of wheels are used, employing 
 every modification of these two forces, and acting upon 
 principles more or less scientific and intricate, a more 
 perfect understanding of these principles is indispen- 
 sable. 
 
 There is one universal' law to be accepted in every ap- 
 plication of motive power, whatever that power may be, 
 which is : That the motor, being limited both in force and 
 velocity, may be made to give out nearly its whole force 
 in one direction, and its wbole velocity in the opposit-e, 
 like the gun, and missile shot from it; or it may be made 
 to yield a certain force and velocity in both (opposite) 
 directions, like a rocket, ascending by the combustion 
 of its contents, reacting against the air. But whatever 
 force and velocity it yielQis in one direction are subtracted 
 from that in the opposite direction, because each velocity 
 and force, being measured and multiplied together, and 
 the product of both added, give the measure of the 
 motor applied, and it is not possible to make any combi- 
 
FRICTION-. 63 
 
 nation, by which more than this measure can he ob- 
 tained. 
 
 For an illustration of this, we will suppose a Barker's 
 wheel, Fig. 25, discharging its water upon the buckets of 
 another wheel placed around its out«ide, and both geared 
 to the same machinery. The outside wheel receives the 
 direct action of the water, the inside one the reaction or 
 recoil. Here it is evident that the velocity with which 
 the inside wheel moves must be deducted from the 
 velocity of the discharging water before it strikes tlie 
 outer wheel ; and further, that the proportions of !he 
 gearing connecting these may be changed, so as to give 
 one nearly all the velocity, and t][ie other nearly all the 
 power, and vice versa; and that either will yield all 
 the power and speed of both by stopping the other. 
 
 Friction. 
 
 The rubbing of one surface against another is called 
 friction. It has a constant tendency to diminish power, 
 and retard velocity in every description of machinery; 
 and in adapting' the power of any first mover to a par- 
 ticular kind and amount of work, an allowance of more 
 or less power, according as the machinery is complex or 
 simple, must be made to compensate for the waste of 
 power and velocity by the friction of the moving parts. 
 
 There are so many contingencies aflFecting the different 
 kinds of machinery, and the conditions and cirGumstance.s 
 under which they are worked, that no rule that would be 
 even approximate, can be given to compute the amount of 
 waste by friction ; some machines, of simple construction 
 and good materials and workmanship, using up Jg- part of • 
 the motive power ; while others, where these conditions 
 are all the opposite^ use up one-half or more, of the power 
 applied. The friction of polished wood or metals sliding on 
 
64 FLY AND BALANCE-WHEKLS. 
 
 each other, is equal to about one-fourth of the pressure. 
 The friction of wood and metal working upon each other, 
 is a little less than that of two woods or metals working 
 in contact. Friction is considerably reduced by inter- 
 posing some kinds of unguent, as tallow, oil, or water, 
 between the rubbing surfaces. Tallow is found best for 
 wood, as oil or water tends to open the pores or grains of 
 wood, and soften its texture. Tallow is too hard for iron 
 journals, unless in some cases, as in steam-engines, where 
 the heat is sufficient to keep the tallow fluid. Olive and 
 sp^m oil are both good for lubricating all kinds of me- 
 tallic journals and bearings. Hog's lard is a good sub- 
 stitute for oil between metals, or for tallow between woods, 
 or wood and metal. Powdered black lead mixed with 
 the lard, tends to polish and harden the wood by filling 
 the pores. 
 
 Water, when clean, and never allowed to get dry, is 
 the most reliable lubricator for the iron journals of water- 
 wheels, when run upon wooden bearings; but ample 
 provision must be made to admit the water between the 
 journal and step or bearing, or they will heat, and burn 
 out the step in a very short time, even when deep in 
 back-water. 
 
 The retarding effect of friction is not materially in- 
 creased or diminished by either enlarging or diminishing 
 the surfaces of contact ; but by lengthening the bearing 
 of journals, or other movements, the friction is distri- 
 buted over a greater surface, and they will keep cooler, 
 the oil will keep better, and the danger of grinding or 
 wearing the surfaces is very much lessened. 
 
 Neither is friction aflfected in any material degree by 
 changes of velocity, its retarding effect being nearly the 
 same at all degrees of velocity. But to increase the 
 velocity by enlarging the diameter of a journal, or di- 
 
y 
 
 FKICTION. 60 
 
 minish velocity by reducing its (the journal's) diameter, 
 will increase or diminish friction in the same proportion, 
 because the increased diameter moves the resistance of 
 the friction further from the centre, and gives it more 
 purchase to hold back, while the diminished diameter 
 moves it nearer to the centre, and thus diminishes its 
 power of resistance, wliile the friction at the point of con- 
 tact remains in each case the same. 
 
 This will be better understood when we consider that 
 the power of friction to resist the motion of a revolving 
 wheel is directly as the diameter of the journals and 
 inversely as the diameter of the wheel. 
 
 Although friction is not materially affected by changes 
 of velocity, or by altering the breadth or area of bearing, 
 it is very sensitive to any increase or diminution of weight 
 or pressure ; and any variation of this in either direc- 
 tion increases or diminishes the friction in the same 
 proportion. This shows the economy of making machi- 
 nery as light as is compatible with sufficient strength. 
 
 Friction, while its constant tendency is to obstruct 
 and destroy motion, may, nevertheless, be sometimes 
 turned to useful purposes. It is friction that enables 
 a wedge to hold its lift, as each successive stroke 
 ?idvances it to the head. It also enables the screw to 
 hold each advance made by a turn of its lever. Friction 
 also furnishes a convenient medium of communicating 
 and transmitting motion in machinery, as in gigging 
 back the carriage and log in saw-mills ; and in some 
 modern mills, the whole driving power for both saws 
 and mill-stones is communicated by friction of iron upon 
 iron. It is friction also that enables belts and chains 
 to convey the motion from one pulley to another. 
 5 
 
66 TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 TRANSMISSION AND TRANSPORTATION OF MOTIVE 
 POWER. 
 
 It is frequently necessary to transmit motive power to 
 a distance from the source where it is generated. This is 
 generally effected by means of shafting coupled together, 
 or otherwise connected, or by belts or chains carried 
 over pulleys. Sometimes it is transmitted through con- 
 necting rods of iron or wood. We have seen it trans- 
 mitted for several hundred feet from one iron shaft to 
 another lying parallel to it, each shaft having three 
 equal cranks, exactly alike, and connected by iron rods 
 in such a position that one of these cranks was always 
 in a position for the connecting rods to draw upon the 
 crank at its opposite end; and thus, by the combined 
 action of the three, the motion of the first shaft was com- 
 municated to the second. This plan was used to trans- 
 mit the power from a water-wheel in the rapids of the 
 Niagara River to a grist-mill upon the top of the rock. 
 This mill stands (or stood) upon the American side, just 
 above and in eight of the suspension bridge. In all 
 these cases the power is transmitted through the various 
 mediums after the motion is generated, and the distance 
 to which it can be carried by any of these is very lim- 
 ited, as the weight of material and the friction soon use 
 up the motive power. Probably the greatest distance 
 that motive power was ever carried was by a com- 
 bination of jointed rods, similar to that at Niagara. 
 These were used to connect a series of pumps with the 
 
TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 61 
 
 water-wheels which drove them, at the celebrated water- 
 works of Marli, near Paris, in France. Eighty-two of 
 these pumps were placed more than three hundred feet 
 above the power which drove them, and half a mile away. 
 The sound of these rods working was like that of a num- 
 ber of teams loaded with bars of iron running down hill, 
 with axles never greased, and it was estimated that 95 
 per cent, of the power was wasted in communicating 
 motion to the machinery. 
 
 There are some motors that admit of transportation 
 from the place where they are generated, and then trans- 
 mit their power to the machinery in the situation in 
 which it is to be used. These are water, steam, and, to 
 a limited extent as yet, compressed air. The situation 
 in which water powers are most generally found being in 
 low ravines, precludes its transportation through tubes 
 or conduits to the places where the power could be most 
 advantageously used, except in very rare cases. From 
 the nature of the fluid, the place to which it is carried 
 must be still lower, or at all events no higher than the 
 place where the power is found. And then it is so dense 
 and so heavy, and resists any great acceleration of motion 
 so effectually, that large and strong tubes are necessary 
 to conduct it in quantity suflScient to yield any great 
 amount of motive power. And the expense of these 
 tubes, if nothing else should interfere, would set a limit 
 to the distance to which water could be carried for the 
 mere purpose of applying its motive power to propelling 
 machinery. i 
 
 The transportation of steam, in a like manner, is ob- 
 jectionable, although the»-objections against this are dif- 
 ferent. The elasticity of steam, and its great facility of 
 motion when compressed, admit of a , great amount of 
 power being transmitted through a comparatively small 
 
68 TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 tube, and this in any direction, without distinction, up 
 or down. But the trouble in conducting steam in this 
 manner is the constant tendency to waste by condensa- 
 tion; the effect of the absorption of heat by the pipes 
 and their surroundings. This can be partially counter- 
 acted by inclosing the pipes with felt or some other non- 
 conducting covering; still, the waste from this source 
 alone is so great that it prohibits the conduction of steam 
 power in this manner, except through very limited dis- 
 tances. 
 
 The conduction of motive power through tubes by 
 compressed air has been often proposed, but this has been 
 practically tested only to a very limited extent, and 
 generally on a small scale. That this should be the case 
 is rather singular, when we reflect that this medium 
 has all the facilities for rapid transit through tubes 
 that steam possesses, and nearly in the same perfec- 
 tion; while, on the other hand, it is free from the 
 objections inseparable from the transportation of either 
 steam or water. It is not subject to waste by conden- 
 sation, like steam, neither is it affected by frost, like 
 water. 
 
 The protection of such conduit pipes for water, as we 
 are considering against frost, in all cold climates, would 
 nearly equal the cost of their construction ; and without 
 such- protection they would be rendered inoperative in 
 cold weather, and the tubes ruptured and ruined. 
 
 Air is not affected to any material extent by the ordi- 
 nary changes of temperature, and the principal reason 
 why it has not been more used in a condensed state, for 
 the transmission of motive power, is the mechanical dif- 
 ficulty of confining and working it in the condensing 
 machinery and that by which the power is given out at 
 the place to which it is transported. The reason is, that 
 
TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 69 
 
 it is a fluid so ethereal, and possessing such a facility 
 for rapid escape through a small crevice, when strongly 
 condensed, that it requires the working machinery to be 
 made and maintained in the most perfect manner, to 
 confine and compress it economically. Yet this tendency 
 to rapid transit through a small issue, which requires 
 such care in the adjustment and packing of the machinery 
 to work it, is the very property that renders it so valu- 
 able a medium for the transmission of motive force ; and 
 the aspect of this whole problem is changed when we 
 consider the facility with which the pressure of water is 
 transferred to air, and that of the air transferred back 
 again to water. The combination this suggests, of com- 
 pressing air through the medium of water, where the 
 power occurs, and transmitting the pressure back again 
 to water, where the power is to be used, employing the 
 air only as the medium of transmission, dissipates the 
 difficulties which pertain to either fluid when used sin- 
 gly, and Utilizes the valuable properties of both when 
 thus combined. 
 
 We were brought to adopt the combination indicated, 
 as the best means of transmitting water power, not by 
 philosophical research, but by an accidental train of cir- 
 cumstances ; and as a detailed account of these will help 
 to illustrate the subject, we shall try to give it. We 
 owned a mill, where the quantity of water was small, but 
 the fall was high ; and we spared neither time nor money 
 in our efforts to utilize the whole power. When a very 
 dry time occurred, the power was still insufficient for the 
 work and had to be supplemented by steam, an ordinary 
 ten-horse stationary engine. This engine, more particu- 
 larly the boiler and furnace, was not of good construc- 
 tion, and yielded a poor return for the wood and attend- 
 ance; this result we ascribed to the disadvantageous appli- 
 
70 TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 cation of the steam through the cylinder and piston, the 
 crank and fly-wheel ; the latter appendage being exceed- 
 ingly heavy and cumbersome, and we set to work to 
 invent a steam engine that would produce a rotatory 
 motion direct from the steam, and dispense with all these 
 and their unavoidable friction. We were aware of the 
 defects of the reaction rotary mentioned in the chapter 
 on " Keaction," for we had seen that tried, but were not 
 aware that any one had ever made one to act by confined 
 steam, on the principle we meditated. The result was, 
 that we succeeded in perfecting the engine (a simpler 
 one than any we have since seen or heard of), but were 
 terribly chagrined when on looking up the means and 
 forms to secure a patent for the invention, to find that it 
 was an old device that had been ' repeatedly tried, and 
 found comparatively worthless. 
 
 This disappointment turned our experiments in an- 
 other direction. We had previous to this succeeded in 
 applying the force of water under a high pressure econo- 
 mically, and were acquainted, by the various experiments 
 made, with the rapid increase of power which a small 
 quantity of water could be made to yield, by increasing 
 the pressure to which it was subjected. And we con- 
 cluded to turn the full pressure of steam from a boiler 
 direct upon the surface of water confined in a strong 
 tank, and apply the water as it was forced through a 
 pipe from the bottom of the tank, to propel the machinery. 
 After our plan was matured, and arrangements made for 
 carrying out the design, subsequent business affairs in- 
 tervened, so that we did not proceed with the alterations ; 
 but we have never had any doubt that the arrangement 
 can be carried out to work satisfactorily and give a good 
 result. 
 
 The following description and plan will give an idea 
 
TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 71 
 
 of the machinery intended to be used, as shown in Fig. 
 21. The tank is double, that is, twice as long as it is 
 wide, and divided through the middle by a partition. A 
 
 tube, of a bore sufficient to pass the intended quantity 
 of water freely, is put up from the bottom, alongside of 
 this partition, at the middle. This tube comniunic;ites 
 
12 TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 with the two interiors at the bottom, by a valve in each 
 side opening inwards, and its upper end passes through 
 the top of the tanks. It will be seen by reviewing this 
 arrangement, that a pressure inside of one tank would 
 open the valve at that side, and close the valve at the 
 further side of the upright connecting tube, and the era- 
 tents of that tank would be forced up the centre tube. 
 When one tank is emptied, and the pressure let in to the 
 other, the play of the valves is reversed, and the contents 
 of the second tank are forced up the centre tube, as before. 
 
 The motive power is obtained by placing a rotary 
 reaction engine, like that described in the chapter on 
 " Action and Keaction" in this work, upon the top of the 
 upright centre tube, and forcing the water through that 
 engine. A wide rim is placed on edge around and 
 encircling the discharging arms, and covered to the cen- 
 tre shaft, thus forming a tight case to intercept the water, 
 the top of the taiik forming the bottom of the case. A 
 valve opening downward in each side of the case allows 
 the intercepted water to run down into the exhausted 
 tank through its valve, while the valve in the top of the 
 working tank is closed by the internal pressure. 
 
 The steam, or compressed air (it may be used with 
 either), is admitted into each tank alternately, by a 
 crotched pipe, a branch of which communicates with 
 the interior of each tank, through an opening in the top, 
 each opening being covered with a valve opening up- 
 ward. These valves are attached by a short stem to 
 the middle of the same lever, that controls the other two 
 valves through which the water is returned from the 
 wheel-case into the tanks. One end of these levers is 
 attached to the inside corner of each tank by a joint, as 
 shown in the figure; the other ends are connected by a 
 small balance beam, to insure the two sets of Valves 
 
TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 73 
 
 reversing at the same instant. A loose floating follower 
 is attached to the end of each valve lever by a rope of 
 such a length that the weight of the follower in the 
 emptied tank will assist the buoyancy of the follower in 
 the full tank to shift the valves. 
 
 To set the machine in motion, one tank must be 
 filled with water, the other empty to the top of the 
 valve in the connecting tube; the steani is then let into 
 the top of the full tank, its pressure closes the valve, 
 which was already partially closed by the float, and, 
 having no other means of escape, it'pre-sses down the 
 float and forces the water up the tube and through the 
 wheel. Here it is collected in the wheel-case and runs 
 through the open valve into the empty tank ; when the 
 water is settled down to the top of the valve in the 
 central tube, a rush of steam passes through with the 
 water, filling the wheel-case and the space above the 
 float in the other tank, which is now full of water. 
 The steam escapes in this way so rapidly that the in- 
 terior pressure is speedily reduced, and at the same 
 instant turns the steam into the other tank, and the 
 whole process is repeated from the opposite side. Thus 
 the same water is alternately forced from one tank and 
 collected in the other, and requires only a very slight 
 addition to the quantity to supply the waste by evapo- 
 ration. 
 
 This is a cheap and simple method of obtaining the 
 motive power from steam. It is also economical, especi- 
 ally after the water has become heated by repeated use. 
 The quantity of water wasted by evaporation increases 
 with the heat, and as the water approaches the boiling 
 point, the condensation in the wheel-case is not suffi- 
 ciently rapid, and it requires an escape pipe in the top 
 of the case for the exhaust steam. 
 
74 TEANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 Those who are familiar with the various applications 
 of steam, will perceive that this machine works upon 
 the same principle as Savery's double engine, which was 
 invented and used for forcing water up out of the mines 
 in England. A good description and history of this 
 celebrated engine is given in " Ewbank's Hydraulics and 
 Mechanics." 
 
 A number of years after studying out the plan we 
 have given the details of for transmitting motive power 
 by applying the pressure of steam, our attention was 
 again drawn to the subject, but in the interval a new 
 idea had occurred to our mind. There are numerous 
 waterfalls in many parts of the country, one in particu- 
 lar, the '• High Falls" on the Chateaugay River, quite 
 near the village, which being the outlet of the Chateau- 
 gay Lakes, might be made to yield a power of several 
 hundred horses. It occurs, however, in a deep ravine, 
 which is almost inaccessible, and we were next led to 
 consider the feasibility of erecting a powerful water 
 wheel at those falls, and by means of a large force pump, 
 driven by that wheel, to compress air into an air vessel, 
 and convey the air thus compressed to the village, to 
 supply the motive pressure for these engines instead of 
 steam. 
 
 The rapidity with which compressed air traverses 
 through a tube would enable one of a comparatively 
 small diameter to transmit all the pressure required to 
 drive the machinery we contemplated erecting at the 
 time, but the expense of such a tube of suitable material, 
 with that of the water-wheel and other condensinsr 
 machinery, was beyond our limited resources, and so we 
 banished the subject as visionary ; and the reader would 
 not now be troubled with this part of the subject, had 
 not the " Scientific American" taken it up. But the 
 
TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 75 
 
 fact of this means of transmitting and transporting 
 motive power being sanctioned and indorsed by such an 
 authority, gives us reason to hope that we may yet see 
 this our favorite device brought into extensive opera- 
 tion. 
 
 In Vol. 19, No. 13 of the Scientific American, page 
 196, is given an abstract of an article from the BuUet'm 
 Mensuel, wherein M. Leloup discusses the subject in an 
 interesting and comprehensive manner; also an en- 
 graving and description of the apparatus by which M. 
 Leloup proposes to compress and transmit the air by the 
 medium of water. It will be seen by a reference to that 
 engraving and description, that he proposes to work the 
 compressing machinery in contact with water, as we 
 intended ; thus obviating the necessity of any great de- 
 gree of accuracy of workmanship or finish, except in 
 turning the piston and fitting its packing box, and the 
 necessary valves. The cylinder does not require to be 
 bored, all that is required of it and the other containing 
 parts, being sufficient capacity, strength, and tightness, 
 like the tanks, &c. at the other end of the tube for giving 
 out the power. 
 
 It is strange that a means so obvious of obtaining a 
 cheap and reliable motive power should have been so 
 long neglected, especially in localities where great water 
 powers occur; and that two persons so differently situated 
 should both be impressed with the utility of this device 
 at the same time is a singular coincidence. One, a learned 
 savan, exploring the regions of science and philosophy, 
 and deducing new theories therefrom, the other an hum- 
 ble self-educated mechanic, seeking only to lessen the ex- 
 pense of driving his mill machinery, in order to reconcile 
 revenue and expenditure. The only difference between 
 us in tracing the problem to a solution appears to be, 
 
76 TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 that the savan began at the fountain head and followed 
 the current, while we began at the other end, and had 
 to work up stream. 
 
 Another correspondent, signing "A." in Vol. 19, No. 
 14, Scientific American, suggests the use of the trombe 
 or water bellows, as a means of compressing air for the 
 generation and transmission of motive power. This ma- 
 chine only collects and compresses the air within the 
 receiver by dragging a portion of the surrounding atmos- 
 phere along with a swift descending column of water, 
 and is only available as a ventilator, or by urging the 
 force of a draught to assist combustion, like a fan blower. 
 It could not be made to yield more than one, or at the 
 utmost, two per cent, of the power of the column of water 
 by which it is generated, and is therefore not adapted 
 to the purpose under consideration ; but the same column 
 of water, applied directly to compress the air within the 
 chamber, instead of M. Leloup's piston, on the principle 
 of the " Hydraulic Ram" would probably be the very 
 best arrangement that could be made to effect the neces- 
 sary compression of air, by the power of water. All the 
 alteration which the ordinary ram for raising water would 
 require to transform it into such an air compressing 
 machine, would be to remove the ascending pipe from 
 the water in the bottom of the condensing reservoir, to 
 the air in the top of it, when the pipe, instead of ele- 
 vating a certain amount of water at each stroke or pul- 
 sation, would transmit an equal quantity of compressed 
 air, and a valve opening inward to admit a fresh supply 
 of air at each respiration. 
 
 Such a ram would be preferable to M. Leloup's appa- 
 ratus, for several reasons. It would dispense with the 
 water-wheel, cylinder, and piston, and their connectiu"- 
 machinery; and this greater simplicity would lessen the 
 
PECULIARITIES AND PROPEETIES OF WATER. 77 
 
 expense, and also enable the same column of water to 
 transmit a greater proportion of its power to the com- 
 pressed air, than if applied through the medium of such 
 intervening machinery; and last, though not least, it 
 would dispense with the cost of a person to attend the 
 machinery, because the water ram, as perfected by 
 Montgolfier, and now so extensively used, is wholly self- 
 acting, and continues to operate night and day, summer 
 and winter, like the circulation in a living animal, until 
 interrupted by some casualty or extraneous force. 
 
 We know the opinion is general that the principle of 
 the water ram can only be applied on a small scale, but 
 this is an error, caused by the fact that while small rams 
 raising water for household purposes are so common, the 
 principle is never seen applied on a large scale. 
 
 It is j ust as applicable on a large as on a small scale, 
 the only limit in that direction being the strength of the 
 materials of which the confining tubes and reservoir are 
 composed. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OP WATER. 
 
 The text-books on natural philosophy treat of water 
 under the three different heads of hydrostatics, hydrau- 
 lics, and hydro-dynamics. The first treats of water in a 
 state of rest ; the second of the principles and peculiarities 
 of water in motion ; and the last, being the branch which 
 treats of the adaptation and application of water to ma- 
 chinery, is that with which the millwright is more par- 
 ticularly interested. Although this last division of the 
 subject may be the most interesting to the millwright, it 
 
78 PECULIARITIES AND PKOPERTIES OF WATER. 
 
 is important that the principles which govern the dead 
 pressure of water, and its flow through confining channels 
 under different circumstances, should be equally well 
 understood. The books referred to are so common, and 
 treat these suhjects so full and familiarly, that it would 
 he a needless waste of time to reproduce their explana- 
 tions and illustrations here ; and we shall only notice a 
 few of the most important peculiarities of water under 
 these different conditions. 
 
 Water, like every other fluid, has a constant tendency 
 to rush toward the centre of the earth. This is the natural 
 effect of the power of gravitation, which exerts a constant 
 force upon all bodies, whether solid or fluid, according 
 to their bulk and density. The cohesion of the particles 
 composing a solid body enables such bodies to lay sta- 
 tionary and at rest in any situation where their centre 
 of gravity or weight is supported ; but fluids, not pos- 
 sessing such cohesion, and the particles of which they are 
 composed being perfectly mobile and free to act inde- 
 pendently of each other, each particle takes its own most 
 direct route towards the centre of gravitation ; and hence 
 the necessity and difficulty of confining fluids within 
 restricted limits, and their continual tendency to burst 
 through or over such limits in any direction toward a 
 lower level. It is this perfect mobility of the particles, 
 and the independent freedom of each particle to obey its 
 own impulse, that enable water to assume a perfectly 
 level surface when confined by sufficient boundaries, and 
 it is this peculiarity, acted upon by gravity, that gives it 
 such velocity and impetus when it escapes through or 
 over such boundary. 
 
 This also accounts for the facility which water (in 
 common with other fluids) possesses of pressing with 
 equal force in all directions, at any particular point or 
 
TAKING LEVELS. 79 
 
 depth below the surface, and explains how it is that " a 
 quantity of water, however small, can be made to balance 
 another quantity however large." This is called in books 
 " The hydrostatic paradox ;" but it always appeared to us 
 that the paradox was all in the form of the statement, and 
 not in the water at all ; because when water is thus situ- 
 ated, as in two tanks, one large and the other small in 
 diameter, both interiors being connected by a tube at 
 the bottom, any one can understand at once how it is 
 that the water in the large tank stands at the same level 
 as the water in the small one, or how the water in the 
 spout of a teapot or kettle stands at the same level as 
 that within the vessel itself, and it appears paradoxical, 
 or rather impossible, that it should be otherwise. 
 
 There are several peculiarities and conditions pertain- 
 ing to water which are never mentioned in books, but, 
 as experience has taught us that some of these are both 
 useful and interesting to millwrights, we will mention 
 them here. 
 
 Taking Levels. 
 
 And first, the facility and accuracy of taking levels from 
 the surface of still water. We have often known men 
 who were contemplating the building of a mill, or mill- 
 dam, or canal, to go many miles to get a millwright 
 to level the site, or to lend them a spirit level, and give 
 them some instruction to enable them to level and de- 
 termine the amount of head that could be had, or the 
 height of dam, bank, or building. Now such levels can 
 be taken from the surface of still water more accurately 
 than by any spirit level, and by the following process : 
 Take two poles of sufficient length to reach from the 
 bottom of the water to the height of the required line of 
 level, measure these poles or laths from the upper end 
 
80 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER. 
 
 down to the length intended to stand ahove the water, 
 and make a plain notch or mark upon both sticks at 
 this point, by laying both together, to insure perfect 
 equality of height. These may be marked in feet and 
 inches, for convenience in showing, or in varying the 
 line of level. Now point or sharpen the lower ends of 
 the poles, and stick them down through the water into 
 the earth at the bottom, until the notch marks are both 
 at the level surface of the water, taking care to have 
 them stand plumb, and in the right lines, and at a con- 
 venient distance apart; then sight across the top of 
 these two and set a third, and fourth, or any number 
 required to run the line of level to the desired point, 
 ranging the tops accurately by the first two; and the 
 tops of these poles will show a water level, so many feet 
 above that of the water from which it is taken. 
 
 If the poles are all measured from the top end, and 
 marked, each one will show at a glance the relative 
 height of the ground on which it stands, whether above 
 or below that of the water. Another advantage in hav- 
 ing them measured and marked, is that when running 
 the line of level down stream, it can be dropped (lowered) 
 to any of the marks below, whenever the height of poles 
 becomes inconvenient, the number of feet 4ropped each 
 time being noted, and counted in the final result. It 
 will be easily seen that when the line becomes inconve- 
 niently low, as in running it up stream, it may be raised 
 in the same way, the amount of rise above the original 
 line being accounted for. It is obvious, that by shifting 
 the position of one or both of these poles in the water, 
 the line of level may be run in any other direction, 
 and equally so, that, as the poles from which the level 
 is taken may be any number of feet apart, or as many 
 rods, not exceeding the range of accurate vision, a more 
 
FITTING DOWN SILLS UNDER WATER, 81 
 
 exact level is obtained in this way than can be taken 
 by an ordinary spirit level. 
 
 Fitting down Sills under Water. 
 
 It frequently happens that sills have to be fitted down 
 to the bottom oi the water, for the erection of mills, flumes, 
 dams, bridges, and other structures, in situations where 
 the water cannot be turned aside, or kept out without 
 great expense for coffer-dams, pumping, &c. The follow- 
 ing method of obtaining an exact outline or profile of 
 the bottom in all such situations, we have practised for 
 many years with invariable success : — 
 
 The first requisite is a level surface on the water under 
 which the sill is to be placed. To obtain this it is some- 
 times necessary to obstruct the surface current sufficiently 
 to back and deaden the water as far as the sill extends ; 
 now fasten up a row of stakes along the intended bed of 
 the sill, and nail a wide, thin board upon edge to these 
 stakes, the entire length, the lower edge at the sur- 
 face of the water (water line). An exact outline of the 
 bottom, or bed of the sill, is transferred to, and marked 
 upon the board by the following process : Fix two 
 pieces of wood in the form of a T square, the tongue-piece 
 longer than the depth of water, and marked with feet and 
 inches, like a ten-foot pole, the T head about two feet 
 long, and three or four inches wide, with a mortise 
 through the middle in which the tongue-piece can slide 
 freely up or down, and at the same time be kept plumb. 
 Place the T head on the edge of the board, and slip 
 the tongue-piece down through the mortise to the bottom, 
 and try the depth along the whole bed, until the deepest 
 spot is found. Here cut a notch or make a hole in the 
 tongue at the surface of the water, to hold a pencil, and 
 let one man hold the T head with one hand, and the 
 6 
 
82 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER. 
 
 tongue with the other, moving both hands carefully 
 along the board towards one end, feeling the bottom as he 
 advances, while another man holds the pencil in the hole, 
 marking all the rises and inequalities of the bottom upon 
 the board, taking care to mark only when the tongue-, 
 piece touches the bottom. When thus marked to one end, 
 commence again at the same low place, and mark to the 
 other end ; and the outline of the bottom will be trans- 
 ferred to the board, with the relative level of either end 
 or any other part indicated by the distance of the pencil 
 mark from the lower edge of the board, which is the 
 water line or true level. 
 
 The marked boards may now be taken down, and the 
 portion above the pencil mark cut away, when the other 
 portion left will be a pattern by which to fit the under 
 side of a sill to the rock or bottom. It is sometimes 
 better to take the pencil line some inches above the 
 water line at the lowest part, and where the bottom is 
 very uneven it is best to mark the sill by the pattern, 
 so that only the slight inequalities will be cut out of 
 the stick, which will not affect its strength, and where 
 low spots in the bottom occur, short pieces should be 
 spiked on to fill out the pattern. By this plan, such 
 timbers can be fitted to a rock, or other bottom, under 
 water, nearly as accurately as if dry, and with very little 
 more expense. 
 
 This method of scribing down a mud-sill under water, 
 and the method of taking levels from water, as described 
 in this chapter, are, as far as we are aware, our own 
 inventions, but the following plan for 
 
 Washing out a Mill-race or Foundation by Sluicing 
 
 we learned from a friend, a returned Californian. 
 We had seen several attempts made to wash out a race 
 
WASHING OUT. A MILL-RACE. 83 
 
 or a foundation by water, and had once tried it, but all 
 these attempts ended in confusion and vexation, for the 
 reason that they were all begun at the wrong end. That 
 is, the water was shot down from a height above into 
 the foundation, or upper end of the race, without any 
 proper facility being provided for carrying away the 
 gravel and small stones; the result was always the same, 
 the water w^ould excavate a deep hole where it struck, 
 but only the soft loam and clay were melted and carried 
 away by the water, the stones and sand remaining and 
 blocking up the channel, and it was found cheaper and 
 better to plough and scrape the earth out. But Mr. 
 Whippile, the Californian alluded to, has shown us the 
 principle of sluicing, which experience has proved to be 
 the cheapest and best method of making such excava- 
 tions. He sluiced out a tail-race and wheel pit this win- 
 ter (1869) in a hard gravel soil, in a very short time; 
 he placed a sluice (by nailing three boards together, for- 
 ming a bottom and sides, and open at top) at the lowest 
 end or discharge of the race, and ran the water down 
 the intended route, and through this first length of sluice 
 into the river. He then commenced at the end of this 
 length and loosened the earth with a pick or crowbar to 
 the required depth and width, and the water, rushing 
 down from the unbroken surfiice above, swept the earth 
 and stones down the spout into the main stream. When 
 thus excavated to the proper distance, another length of 
 sluice was added, a little straw stuifed under the end, 
 and each side blocked up with stones to direct the water 
 into the end, and another length loosened and sent 
 through the sluice, as before. This process was con- 
 tinued until the race was completed, and the foundation 
 for the wheel-house reached; and here the benefit of 
 Mr. Whipple's Californian experience was more conspi- 
 
84 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OF TTATER. 
 
 cuous than in digging the race, because the depth of ex- 
 cavation here was so great that the earth would have had 
 to be wheeled to get it out of the way, and this is always 
 a tedious process; but he sent all the earth and moderate 
 sized stones down the sluice and river in an incredibly 
 short time ; by shifting the chute of water upon different 
 parts, and loosening and throwing out the larger stones, 
 thus giving the rest a proper facility of entering the 
 sluice, it was swept down stream by the water, requiring 
 only a little assistance with a hoe or shovel when large 
 or flat stones would incline to stop and obstruct the 
 passage. 
 
 Any person who does not comprehend the assistance 
 which such a sluice renders, to enable the water to carry 
 away stones and gravel, may satisfy himself by try- 
 ing to shovel or push such gravel and stones on top of 
 their natural bed, and then try to shovel the same, or 
 push them along in such a sluice; or let him try to shovel 
 potatoes from the top of a bin, and then try shovelling 
 them on a wooden floor. 
 
 Care should be taken to place each length of sluice at 
 the full and proper depth at first, and also to give each 
 length an equal and suflBcient fall to insure the requisite 
 rapidity of current. By Mr. Whipple's experience, two 
 inches of fall in one length of board, or twelve feet, will 
 carry along stones the size of potatoes, or a man's fist, 
 while three or four inches fall to each length will roll 
 along stones as large as a man's head. Of course, a sufii- 
 cient supply of water is necessary in all such operations. 
 
 Pressure of Water. 
 
 When water is confined in a tank or flume, it presses 
 equally on every part of the interior of the bottom or 
 sides, with a force proportioned to the height of the water. 
 
PRESSURE OP WATER. 85 
 
 Thus, a flume or tank, four feet square, and filled with 
 water one foot deep, will sustain a pressure of 62Hbs., 
 or 1000 ounces, the weight of a cubic foot of water, on 
 every superficial foot of the bottom, or 4x4=16 feet x 
 62 J= 1000 lbs. altogether. But the pressure against all 
 the four sides, which makes an equal area of 16 feet, 
 will be only half that amount, viz., 31 i lbs. per foot, or 
 500 lbs. altogether; because that although the pressure 
 is the same at the lower edge near the bottom as upon 
 the bottom itself, yet that pressure diminishes upward 
 to nothing at the surface of the water, and for that rea- 
 son the pressure is intermediate, and just half that upon 
 an equal area of the bottom. Now, suppose we let 
 the flume fill three feet deeper, making four feet of 
 water, then the extra three feet are added to the other, 
 and the pressure on the bottom will now be 4000 lbs. 
 instead of 1000, and the whole additional three feet deep 
 and 3000 lbs. pressure must be added to the former 500 
 lbs. of lateral pressure, outward, against the lower foot 
 deep of the side planking, thus making 3500 lbs. against 
 the lower 16 superficial feet of side planking, while, as 
 before, the pressure against the foot deep at the surface 
 will only be the same 500 lbs. To. find the amount of 
 pressure against one whole side, the computation, as with 
 one foot deep, must be taken at the middle. Thus the 
 area of one side being now the same as that of the 
 bottom, 16 superficial feet, the whole pressure of the 
 water against any of the sides will be just one-half of 
 that upon the bottom, or half the depth, 2x1000= 
 2000 lbs. The pressure against the inside of a flume or 
 penstock of any depth, and the whole weight of water 
 contained in it, can be computed in the same way. 
 
 If we fill this same flume up to 16 feet deep, instead 
 of 4 feet, the pressure and weight upon the bottom will 
 
86 PECULIARITIES AND PROPEKTIIJS OF -WATER, 
 
 be four times as great, and the lateral pressure and strain 
 will be increased in the same proportion. But we might 
 deck the flume over with plank, at the surface of the 
 four feet of water, and instead of filling the whole flume 
 to 16 feet deep, insert a tube into the water tliTough 
 the deck, and reaching up to 16 feet, or any other height, 
 and by filliTig this tube with water, the pressure on all 
 parts of the interior of the flume, under the deck, will 
 be the same as if the whole flume were filled to the 
 height of the tube ; and the velocity of the water issu- 
 ing from any part of the flume will also be the same, if 
 the tube be sufliciently large to furnish the quantity 
 discharged, and be kept full. 
 
 In this case the water in the flume will press upward 
 on every part of the under surface of the deck with the 
 same force that the column of water contained in the 
 tube will press downward upon the water immediately 
 under its lower end ; and if a hole be bored through 
 the deck, and a tube of proper shape to direct the water 
 be inserted in the hole, the water will be shot up as 
 high as the surface of the water in the tube, except a 
 slight reduction caused by the friction through the tube 
 and the atmosiphere. 
 
 Circumstances frequently occur in the construction of 
 mills, especially where the head of water is high, which 
 render it necessary to construct the flume on this prin- 
 ciple. Less strength is required in the framework, less 
 weight thrown on the supporting timbers, and it may be 
 placed under a floor comparatively low, and supplied by 
 a tube at any angle, from the outside of the building. 
 The above remark, that the frame of such a flume re- 
 quires less strength than if carried up the full size and 
 whole height, needs some explanation, as the pressure 
 of the water upon every square inch or foot of the inte- 
 
VELOCITY OF FALLING WATER. 87 
 
 rior, is the same in both cases. But the area of surface 
 within the decked flume and tube is less, and diminishes 
 the whole strain on the franiework in like proportion, and 
 the timbers are stronger in proportion as they are shorter. 
 There is also an excessive strain on the interior of a 
 close flume when a gate is shut, which must be relieved 
 by a ventilating tube carried up from the deck' to a suf- 
 ficient height. 
 
 Velocity of falling Water. 
 
 "When water is allowed to fall freely from any height 
 to the ground, it obeys the same laws, and acquires the 
 same velocity as a solid body of the same weight would 
 acquire in falling through an equal distance. This velo- 
 city increases in a regular ratio, as the distance of the 
 fall is increased, and is the tkeoretical velocity ascribed 
 to water issuing from a flume, or penstock, under the 
 same head as that fall. The aptual velocity of water 
 issuing through a hole cut in such a flume falls far short 
 of that velocity, as has often been proved by experiment ; 
 the actual velocity being to*the theoretical as 10 is to 16. 
 But the full theoretical velocity ascribed to the water 
 issuing under any given head can be obtained, and even 
 exceeded, by a proper construction of the spout or chute 
 through which the water issues ; and as this subject is 
 of great importance to the millwright, we shall try to 
 explain it here. 
 
 When such an orifice is opened in a flume, the water 
 rushes toward the outlet from every part of the interior ; 
 here the different currents all meet, and their opposing 
 forces mutually obstruct and impede each other in their 
 progress toward the outlet, and thus diminish the velocity 
 of the column of water as it enters the orifice. But in 
 passing out through the orifice, these opposing currents 
 
88 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OP TTATEE. 
 
 are equally balanced ; and being thus united and the 
 sum of all their forces tending in the same direction, the 
 velocity of the issuing column is increased, and in conse- 
 quence of this increase of velocity, its diameter is dimin- 
 ished; and it is found by measuring the discharging 
 column, that its diameter at the smallest part is to the 
 diameter of the orifice as 10 is to 15 or 16, accordingly as 
 the edge of the orifice is thicker or thinner. By attach- 
 ing a short tube, of the same bore, to the orifice, the 
 effect of the opposing currents inside is partially coun- 
 teracted, and the discharge through the tube will be as 
 13 to 16 of the theoretical velocity ; but by widening out 
 the end of the tube next the interior, to the shape of the 
 column issuing from the hole, the full theoretical velo- 
 city of the water is obtained, which, as already intimated, 
 is equal to the velocity attained by a heavy solid body 
 falling freely through the distance from the surface of 
 the water to the orifice. The conical part of the tube 
 or spout should only extend half its diameter from the 
 flume, which is the point of greatest contraction in the 
 liquid column, and the area of the wide end should be to 
 that of the narrow end as 16 to 10, like the issuing 
 column. 
 
 When we consider that the power obtained from 
 Water increases, not as the simple increase of velocity, 
 but as the square of the velocity, and that, to double the 
 velocity through any given spout yields eight times the 
 former amount of power, the importance of this subject 
 will be seen at once. To explain this, it is necessary to 
 consider that the double velocity gives 2 x 2=4 times the 
 power from the same quantity of water, but a double 
 velocity passes through a double quantity in the same 
 time, thei'efore it must be doubled again, which makes 
 4 x2=8 times the power. 
 
VELOCITY OF FALLING "WATER. 89 
 
 Ta make this plainer, suppose a water wheel is only 
 capable of driving a part of the required machinery, and 
 more power must be added ; if we can by raising the 
 head, or otherwise, impart a double velocity to the water 
 passing through the same chute, eight times the former 
 power will be imparted to the wheel ; and this; if all the 
 parts be strong enough, will drive more machinery than 
 if seven other wheels were added, and each supplied 
 with an equal quantity of water, and at the same velo- 
 city as the first. Here, we see, that by doubling the 
 velocity of the water, only twice the former quantity is 
 used to impart eight times the power, while it would 
 require eight times the quantity of water at the original 
 velocity to obtain the same result ; and when we take 
 into account the extra expense, room, and friction which 
 the latter arrangement of eight separate wheels would 
 involve, we can appreciate the importance of increasing 
 the velocity of the water applied to any water wheel or 
 turbine ; and the importance of forming all chutes and 
 delivering issues, so as to assist instead of retarding the 
 required velocity. See remarks on this subject in the 
 chapter on Central Discharge Wheels. 
 
 Tables. 
 
 "We subjoin a few Tables which will be useful in esti- 
 mating the powers of water, under different circum- 
 stances, and in making the necessary calculations to adapt 
 the power and machinery to the intended purpose. As 
 a millwright cannot be expected either to commit these 
 tables to memory, or to have them always at hand, the 
 following short rules, which are easily remembered, will 
 be found convenient, and suflSciently accurate for prac- 
 tical purposes : — 
 
 1. To find the velocity of water under any given head. 
 
90 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER. 
 
 EuLE. — Multiply the square root of the head in feet, 
 from the middle of the gate to the surface of the water, 
 by 8, and the product is the velocity in feet, per second. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Ex. 1. — Eequired the theoretical velocity of water, 
 under 16 feet head? 
 
 Am. — Square root of 16=4^x8=32, the velocity in 
 feet per second. 
 
 Ex. 2. — ^Required the theoretical velocity of water, 
 under 25 feet head ? 
 
 An». — Square root of 25=5^x8=40, the velocity in 
 feet per second. 
 
 Ex. 3. — Required the theoretical velocity of water, 
 under 49 feet head ? 
 
 Ans. — Square root of 49= 7^x8=56, the velocity of 
 feet per second. 
 
 2. To find the quantity of water discharged. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the area of the gate in feet, by the 
 square root of the depth in feet, and that product by 
 5^, the product is the quantity in cubic feet, per se- 
 cond. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Ex. 1. — Required the quantity of water that will pass 
 per second through a gate 2 feet square, under 9 feet 
 head? 
 
 Ans. — Area of gate 2x2=4. Square root of 9 = 3^ 
 4x3=12x5iV=61y\ cubic feet. 
 
 Ex. 2. — Required the quantity discharged per second 
 through a gate of 2 feet superficial area, under 25 feet 
 head ? 
 
 Ans. — Area of gate 2. Square root of 25= 5^x2= 10 x 
 5^=51 cubic feet. 
 
TABLE OF TELOCITY OF ■WATER, ETC. 
 
 91 
 
 Ex. 3. — Required the quantity of water that will pass 
 per second through a gate 1 foot square, under 36 feet 
 head? 
 
 Ans. — ^Area of gate 1. Square loot of 36 = 6^x 5^^^ = 
 30 jSjj- cabic feet, , 
 
 The first rule gives the theoretical velocity sufficiently 
 accurate, as will be seen by comparing the foregoing 
 results with the table. 
 
 The second rule gives the acttial quantity discharged, 
 
 as shown by the same table. 
 
 Table of Velocity of Water and Quantity Discharged vrnder 
 Different Heads. 
 
 
 THEORETIC AL. 
 
 REAL. 
 
 
 THEORETICAI.. 
 
 REAL. 
 
 
 •ti 
 
 •s a 
 
 •d 
 
 •a a 
 
 -tS " 
 
 TS * 
 
 -d 
 
 rS ca 
 
 
 a 
 
 S-e 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 9 S 
 
 a 
 
 P S 
 
 
 o 
 
 bC'' . 
 
 
 S'<.a 
 
 
 
 s'^-a- 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 ■5 a 
 
 
 
 o ° 
 
 
 -S =s 
 
 i 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 isi 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 
 in 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 ■ H 
 
 II" 
 
 lis 
 
 
 "S-S 
 
 U s- O 
 
 ««£ « 
 
 O fa o 
 
 
 s«« 
 
 O I- O 
 
 a<H 
 
 o u o 
 
 1 
 
 
 |s= 
 
 Qu.. 
 
 |a^ 
 
 1 
 
 S a 
 
 1&^ 
 
 S a 
 
 r-o 
 
 m 
 
 > 
 
 u 
 
 >■ 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 > 
 
 6 
 
 ■ t> 
 
 o 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Ca. feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Ca. feet. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Ca. feet. 
 
 Peet. 
 
 Ctt. feet. 
 
 1 
 
 8.02 
 
 3.34 
 
 5.09 
 
 2.12 
 
 23 
 
 38.46 
 
 16.02 
 
 24.42 
 
 10.17 
 
 2 
 
 11.34 
 
 4.73 
 
 7.20 
 
 3.00 
 
 24 
 
 39.29 
 
 16.37 
 
 24.95 
 
 10.39 
 
 3 
 
 13.89 
 
 5.79 
 
 8.82 
 
 3.68 
 
 25 
 
 40.10 
 
 16.71 
 
 25.46 
 
 10.61 
 
 4 
 
 16.04 
 
 6.68 
 
 10.19 
 
 4.24 
 
 26 
 
 40.89 
 
 17.04 
 
 25.97 
 
 10.82 
 
 5 
 
 17.93 
 
 7.47 
 
 11.39 
 
 4.74 
 
 27 
 
 41.67 
 
 17.36 
 
 26.46 
 
 11.02 
 
 6 
 
 19.64 
 
 8.18 
 
 12.47 
 
 5.19 
 
 28 
 
 42.43 
 
 17.68 
 
 26.94 
 
 11.23 
 
 7 
 
 21.22 
 
 8.84 
 
 13.47 
 
 5.61 
 
 29 
 
 43.18 
 
 17.99 
 
 27.42 
 
 11.42 
 
 8 
 
 22.68 
 
 9.45 
 
 14.40 
 
 6.00 
 
 30 
 
 43.93 
 
 18.30 
 
 27.90 
 
 11.62 
 
 9 
 
 24.06 
 
 10.02 
 
 15.28 
 
 6.36 
 
 31 
 
 44.65 
 
 18.60 
 
 28.35 
 
 11.81 
 
 10 
 
 25.36 
 
 10.57 
 
 16.10 
 
 6.71 
 
 32 
 
 45.37 
 
 18.90 
 
 2:8,81 
 
 12.00 
 
 11 
 
 26.60 
 
 11.08 
 
 16.89 
 
 7.04 
 
 33 
 
 46.07 
 
 19.20 
 
 29.25 
 
 12.19 
 
 12 
 
 27.78 
 
 11.57 
 
 17.64 
 
 7.35 
 
 34 
 
 46.77 
 
 19.49 
 
 29.70 
 
 12.38 
 
 13 
 
 28.91 
 
 12.05 
 
 18.36 
 
 7.65 
 
 35 
 
 47.46 
 
 19.77 
 
 30.14 
 
 12.55 
 
 14 
 
 30.01 
 
 12.50 
 
 19.06 
 
 7.94 
 
 36 
 
 48.12 
 
 20.05 
 
 30.56 
 
 12.73 
 
 15 
 
 31.06 
 
 12.94 
 
 19.72 
 
 8.22 
 
 37 
 
 48.78 
 
 20.33 
 
 30.98 
 
 12.91 
 
 16 
 
 32.08 
 
 13.37 
 
 20.37 
 
 8.50 
 
 38 
 
 49.44 
 
 20.60 
 
 31.39 
 
 13.08 
 
 17 
 
 33.07 
 
 13.78 
 
 21.00 
 
 8.75 
 
 39 
 
 50.08 
 
 20.87 
 
 31.80 
 
 13.25 
 
 18 
 
 34.03 
 
 14.18 
 
 21.61 
 
 9.00 
 
 40 
 
 50.72 
 
 21.13 
 
 32.21 
 
 13.42 
 
 19 
 
 34.96 
 
 14.57 
 
 22.20 
 
 9.25 
 
 49 
 
 56.07 
 
 23.79 
 
 35.04 
 
 14.87 
 
 20 
 
 35.87 
 
 14.95 
 
 22.78 
 
 9.49 
 
 65 
 
 64.08 
 
 27.61 
 
 40.05 
 
 17.26 
 
 21 
 
 36.75 
 
 15.31 
 
 23.34 
 
 9.72 
 
 100 
 
 81.00 
 
 34.00 
 
 50.62 
 
 21.25 
 
 22 
 
 37.61 
 
 15.67 
 
 23.88 
 
 9.95 
 
 144 
 
 97.02 
 
 40.80 
 
 60.61 
 
 25.50 
 
92 PECULIARITIES AND PROPERTIES OP WATER. 
 
 Measuring a Stream of Water. 
 
 The following table gives the number of cubic feet of 
 water passing over a wier per minute, for every inch in 
 length of wier, from 1 inch up to 18 inches deep. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the number corresponding with the 
 depth, by the number of inches in length of the wier, 
 which gives the number of feet passing per minute. 
 Then multiply the number of feet by 62 J, and that pro- 
 duct by the head in feet, and divide by 33,000, which 
 will give the horse power. 
 
 Tabk of Quantity of Water passing over a Wier from 1 <o 18 inches 
 
 deep. 
 
 No. of cubic feet No. of cnbic feet 
 
 No. of passing per inch No. of passing per inch 
 
 inches deep. in length. inches deep. in length. 
 
 1 0,403 10 12,184 
 
 2 1,140 11 .... . 14,404 
 
 3 2,095 12 16,758 
 
 4 3,225 13 18,895 
 
 5 • 4,507 14 21,170 
 
 6 5,917 15 23,419 
 
 7 7,466 16 25,800 
 
 8 9,122 17 28,250 
 
 9 10,882 18 30,706 
 
 Example. 
 
 1. Required the power of the water passing over a 
 wier 10 inches deep and 36 inches long, with 24 feet 
 head or fall? 
 
MEASURING A STREAM OF WATER. 93 
 
 12,784 cubic feet passes over 1 inch wide. 
 36 length of wier. 
 
 16704 
 38352 
 
 460,224 
 
 62^ lbs. weight of water in cubic foot. 
 
 920448 
 2761344 
 230112 
 
 28764,000 
 
 24 head in feet. 
 
 115056000 
 57528000 
 
 33000)690336,000(20,919^3^ horse power.— ^w« 
 66000 
 
 303360 
 297000 
 
 63600 
 83000 
 
 306000 
 297000 
 
 9000 
 
94: 
 
 WATER WHEELS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 WATER WHEELS— THE UNDERSHOT. 
 
 The undershot wheel, Fig. 22, the first and oldest 
 method of obtaining a motive power from water, is now 
 seldom used in the United States, being mostly super- 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 seded by others, more convenient for gearing machinery, 
 and occupying less room. It therefore requires but a 
 brief notice here. 
 
 It is simply a horizontal shaft, with arms attached, 
 projecting to a length proportioned to the intended 
 diameter of the wheel; float boards are fastened across 
 the ends of these arms, parallel with the shaft, which is 
 placed across the issuing stream, into which these float 
 boards dip, and are carried round by its force. If a 
 
THE TJKDERSHOT. 95 
 
 greater number of float boards are required than there 
 are arms, rims composed of felloes, are placed around the 
 outer ends of the arms into which starts are framed, and 
 the floats are attached to these starts. Care must be 
 taken to form the water-way so that the floats will just 
 pass through clear, without allowing the water to waste, 
 and also to allow the water to pass away freely when it 
 has spent its force upon the float ; and also to place the 
 floats sufiBciently close to each other to prevent the 
 water passing between without spending its force, and 
 not close enough to cause the water striking against the 
 back of one float to recoil back upon the front of the one 
 behind it. 
 
 The paddle wheel of a steamboat is a sample of an 
 undershot of very large diameter ; the flutter wheel, so 
 common in old saw-mills, will represent a small one. 
 
 The power of this wheel depends upon the quantity 
 and velocity of the water acting upon its floats, and as 
 so many other wheels come under the same rules, we 
 would refer the reader to the table in the preceding chap- 
 ter, for the velocity due to any particular head or fall, and 
 also to the same tables for the quantity passing through 
 a given aperture; merely explaining here that the 
 millwright must be particular to proportion the diame- 
 ter of the wheel and the gearing to the^ velocity of the 
 water due to the particular head, as found in the table. 
 Here good judgment is required to obtain the best 
 result, as under some circumstances the wheel may 
 move with two-thirds of the velocity of the water, 
 while in others it should only move at one-third of that 
 velocity. Suppose it is a large undershot, where 
 considerable gearing is required to connect it with the 
 work, as in a grist mill, then the wheel should be 
 geared to move at about one-third the velocity of the 
 
96 WATER WHEELS. 
 
 water ; but when a wheel of small diameter is used, like 
 the saw mill flutter wheel, with the crank on the same 
 shaft, dispensing with gearing, then the wheel may- 
 move with two-thirds the velocity of the water, and it 
 will work more steadily and give a better result. 
 
 To understand this better, suppose the wheel to be 
 geared to a grain elevator ; hoist the gate, and let on the 
 water, with the elevating buckets all empty. The 
 buckets will move up with great speed, and the floats of 
 the wheel will travel nearly as fast as the water, but no 
 grain will be carried up. Now stop the machine, and 
 fill grain into all the ascending buckets until it exactly 
 balances the power of the water, and it will stand still 
 with the water all on, but no grain is elevated. These 
 are the two extremes, and the best result lies sdmewhere 
 between. Now take out half of the grain from each 
 bucket, and try it again ; the cups or buckets, and the 
 wheel will move at about half of their velocity when 
 empty, and continue to carry that half load at that half 
 speed ; put less grain in each cup and they will travel 
 faster with the lighter load ; put in more, and they will 
 travel slower, with a heavier load. Try the machine with 
 different loads and velocities, 'until you find the rate 
 at which it will carry the greatest quantity in a given 
 time, and then you have the right speed to work it at. 
 These conditions apply equally to any other kind of 
 wheel, and all other kinds of machinery. 
 
 No invariable rule can be given. Old millwrights, who 
 have experimented much on this kind of wheel, as they 
 were much used in their time, differ widely in their con- 
 clusions, and present experience shows that the maxi. 
 mum velocity for working them still maintains as wide 
 a range as their various theories gave it, that is, from 
 one-third to two-thirds of the velocity of the water. 
 
THE UNDERSHOT. 97 
 
 As great a diflfereac^ obtains with regard to the power 
 of these wheels, some experiments making- them capable 
 of raising one-third of the quantity of water expended 
 on them, to the same height, while others make the 
 quantity only ^•'yths, or even one-eighth. This is a 
 natural consequence of the great variety of circumstances 
 and situations in which they are placed, and the diver- 
 sity of opinion among millwrights themselves. 
 
 There are many situations where this wheel may still 
 be used to advantage, and be preferable to any other. 
 Where theffe is a large quantity of water, and little head 
 or fall, a ^iVen amount of power can be obtained from 
 an undershot easier and cheaper perhaps than by any 
 other wheel. By using large float-boards, a great quan- 
 tity of Water may be applied to give the power required, 
 without the expense of erecting high dams or expensive 
 flumes and water-ways required for other kinds of 
 wheels, the quantity used making up for the low head 
 and little velocity obtained. 
 
 We remember seeing a wheel of this kind about forty 
 years ago, at Lachine, on the island of Montreal. The 
 priests and nuns of the Seminary owned all the island, 
 and all water-power connected with it (by a grant from 
 the French Crown, before the treaty ceding Canada to 
 Great Britain was signed), and the mills were mostly 
 driven by wind. This element is proverbially unstable, 
 and the mills driven by it partook of the same charac- 
 teristic. But a cunning cannie Scotchman built a mill 
 at the Lachine Rapids on the St. Lawrence River, that 
 was to be more reliable. The priests being inexorable 
 in their monopoly of the water-power, Mr. G. built his 
 mill ostensibly for horse-power, but did not run it long 
 in that style. It stood as close as compatible with safety, 
 to the Rapid, and Mr. G. placed a large undershot, or 
 
98 WATER WHEELS. 
 
 flood-wheel out in the current, taking care to have it 
 beyond the low-water mark ; this wheel he connected with 
 the mill machinery by a long shaft and coupling irons. 
 To start the mill, the clutches of the couplings were 
 thrown in gear, and to stop it they were thrown out 
 again; the water-wheel revolved continually, night and 
 day, summer and winter, without intermission. Its mo- 
 tion was so constant and uninterrupted that the French 
 Canadians made it a by-word or adage; any person who 
 talked continually, to the annoyance of others, they say 
 their tongue was comme le Moulin Lachine (like Lachine 
 Mill), that never stops. The Seignors prosecuted Mr. 
 G., and a long lawsuit was the result, which ended in 
 Mr. G.'s favor. 
 
 There are Inany situations where such rapids occur, 
 and where the stream is large, and other circumstances far 
 vorable, quite an amount of machinery ^might be driven. 
 We never erected such a machine in a rapid, but have 
 frequently driven light machinery on the rapids of com- 
 paratively small rivers, by a kind of screw-propeller, 
 resembling a large grain-conveyer, laid lengthwise in 
 the stream. This revolves more rapidly than the un- 
 dershot, and the required speed can be obtained with less 
 gearing. The speedier motion also admits of using this 
 kind where the current is less rapid than the undershot 
 will admit of, by lengthening the shaft — to the length of 
 a mast, if you like — and adding more oblique screw-pad- 
 dles, the power can be multiplied to, a great extent. 
 We have seen a grist mill of three run of stones driven 
 by such a wheel, in the Genesee River, somewhere be- 
 tween Rochester and the Alleghanies. This was before 
 the Genesee Valley Canal was made, and the river 
 boats passed up and down through the rapid in which 
 this screw-wheel was submerged. But this is a digression, 
 
THE UKDERSHOT. 99 
 
 and these wheels will be described under the name of 
 Spiral or Screw Flood Wheels. 
 
 The great objection to using the undershot in a cold 
 climate, is the trouble and expense of keeping it clear 
 of ice. This applies equallj to the overshot, and re^ 
 quires that it should be inclosed in a tight wheel-house 
 which is heated by firie, Steam, or smoke. A common 
 and convenient way is to have a small steam boiler 
 fitted into the top of the mill stove, from which a pipe 
 runs to the bottom of the wheel, and discharges the 
 steam there ; the steam will ascend about the wheel when 
 it is idle, and circulate with it when in motion, and if 
 the wheel-house is close, will keep it free from ice. This 
 plan has the objection of keeping the roof and whole 
 interior of the wheel-house wet with condensed steam, 
 which causes it to rot. 
 
 In the northern portions of the United States and the 
 adjoining provinces, a stove or fireplace is placed in or 
 near the wheel-house, discharging the smoke and fire 
 into the wheel, which circulates it by its moticin, like the 
 steam in the other case. This is preferable to the steam, 
 but requires that the wheel-house should be separated 
 from the mill by a tight wall, that the workmen may 
 not be annoyed by the smoke. It is not essential that 
 the wheel-house be perfectly tight in this'case, because the 
 smoke and hot air ca,rried in with it do not condense like 
 steam, and while the supply is kept up smoke will be 
 seen issuing from every crevice, eflfectually preventing 
 the entrance of cold air. But steam condenses so rapidly 
 that there is nothing to ooze out through the cracks, 
 which, as well as thfe tail race, must be tightly closed. 
 The steam supplied by the mill stove has the advantage 
 that it is sure to be well fired up in cold weather, while 
 
100 THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 the wheel-house stove or furnace is liable to be neglected 
 in a busy time. 
 
 The undershot wheel may be geared to machinery, 
 either by placing cast-iron cogged segments around the 
 wheel itself, or by extending the main shaft to a suitable 
 length, and placing another wheel on the end upon 
 which to place the gearing, and driving another shaft 
 from this by a pinion. See directions for gearing the 
 overshot. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 The overshot is the most powerful of all water wheels, 
 when tested by* the power yielded from the same quan- 
 tity of water; and this will apply to every height of fall, 
 whether high or low, where the overshot can be Osed. 
 An idea is very prevalent among millwrights and mill 
 owners, that the overshot is not suitable for a moderate 
 fall, which idea only requires testing to show it to be 
 erroneous. Mills may be seen in many parts of the 
 country, driven by various kinds of wheels, and working 
 on a short allowance of water, which might have enough 
 and to spare, if these wheels were used. Many of the 
 most intelligent millwrights are aware of this fact, but 
 almost every millwright of note is either a patentee, or 
 in some way interested in the manufacture or sale of 
 some other kind of wheel, which he recommends. A 
 few of these are excellent wheels, and give results nearly 
 approaching the overshot ; while a greater number bear 
 a closer affinity to the undershot. 
 
THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 101 
 
 The superior power given by the overshot is due in 
 part, to the more economical application of the water, 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 every particle of which is applied to the best advantage 
 for moving the wheel, while with others, there is more 
 or less w^aste by leakage and friction ; but it is princi- 
 pally due to the fact that the water acts by its gravity 
 during its whole descent upon the wheel, while it is 
 only by its acquired velocity that it is made to act on 
 other wheels. This velocity is found in practice to fall 
 far short of that ascribed to it by theory. This, with 
 the great difficulty of applying and arresting the whole 
 acquired velocity of the water, accounts for the differ- 
 ence. A well-constructed overshot will raise nearly as 
 much water as is applied to it, to the same height as the 
 fall, provided the fall be reckoned from the point where 
 the water enters the buckets to the point where it spills 
 out of them, while some other wheels will only raise one- 
 sixth or even one-eighth of that quantity. A difference 
 of opinion exists among millwrights as to the proportion 
 the height of the wheel should bear to that of the fall, 
 
102 THE OVERSHOT WHEEL, 
 
 some contending that the wheel ought to be higher than 
 the fall, and others, that it ought to be lower. A 
 favorite idea with the former is, that the wheel should 
 be so much higher, that the water may be applied one- 
 third down from the top, or at 10 o'clock on a dial plate. 
 This, however plausible it may appear in theory, is not 
 found to hold good in practice, because the increased size 
 of the wheel which this requires makes it of a larger cir- 
 cle, which causes it to spill the water higher, and wastes 
 more of the effect of the fall than the smaller wheel. 
 Besides, the water on entering the buckets requires some 
 time tp settle before it bears its full weight upon the wheel, 
 and when shot in at the top it has time to subside while 
 passing nearly horizontal, and is ready to exert its whole 
 force when the descent commences ; whereas, when let 
 on at the point corresponding with ten on the dial, the 
 descent being already abrupt, a slight loss of power 
 occurs while the water is subsiding. Add to these con- 
 siderations the extra cost, weight, and room required for 
 the large wheel, and the fact that it requires more 
 gearing, as its revolutions are slower, and the odds will 
 be in fiivor of the smaller wheel. 
 
 There appear to be only two considerations that would 
 justify making the wheel lower than the fall; one is, 
 where there is more fall and water than is required for 
 the work intended — and the other, where the fall is so 
 high that the wheel would be too large to be convenient 
 and durable. It is therefore recommended that where 
 the fall is permanent, the wheel be made only so much 
 lower than the fall as to admit of shooting the water 
 properly into the buckets, which will be considered in 
 treating of the velocity at which an overshot ought to 
 move. But where the fall is variable, with a pond to 
 draw upon, then the wheel should be low enough to get 
 
THE OVESSHOT WHEEL. 103 
 
 the benefit of the pond for gathering water. If care be 
 takea to shoot the water properly into the buckets, the 
 head above the wheel is not lost, but acts upon the 
 wheel the same as upon the best constructed undershot, 
 and every two feet of that head will produce an effect 
 about equal to one foot in height of the wheel. 
 
 There is considerable difference of opinion among 
 millwrights as to the rate at which an overshot ought 
 to move. A favorite speed with many old millwrights 
 is three feet per second. This would appear to be too 
 slow under any circumstances; it causes too much gear- 
 ing to intervene between the wheel and the work, and 
 too much water to be loaded upon the wheel, thus pro- 
 ducing a needless extra strain and friction upon every 
 cog and journaL If the same wheel were geared to 
 move at six feet per second, instead of three, only one- 
 half of the gearing would be required to give the ma- 
 chinery the same speed, and the wheel would require 
 but half the capacity for water, while all the various 
 parts would be lightened in the same proportion. 
 
 This, it is evident, would produce the same effect 
 with the same water, and the wheel would work much 
 freer and with less strain and friction, there being only 
 half the quantity of water in each bucket, with double 
 the purchase on the machine driven. Thus, the same 
 water wheel that drives a certain amount of machinery 
 when moving at three feet per second, will drive double 
 that amount when geared at six feet per second, but 
 requiring double the quantity of water to be discharged 
 upon it, as each bucket remains only half the time under 
 the stream; hence, the head over the wheel must be 
 more in the latter case, to give the water a velocity 
 greater than the wheel, which in every case it ought to 
 have, in order to shoot it properly into the buckets. 
 
104 THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 Many good millwrights err in this particular, and some 
 even take the trouble to interpose an obstruction be- 
 tween the flume and the wheel, to destroy the velocity 
 of the water before it reaches the wheel, under the mis- 
 taken idea that it thus produces more effect. In this 
 case, the front of the bucket strikes with its flat surface 
 against the stream, and carries it in a broken mass be- 
 fore it for a considerable distance before it enters the 
 buckets at all, thus not only losing a portion of the fall, 
 but interposing an actual resistance to the motion of the 
 wheel so long as the water lies against the front of the 
 bucket. 
 
 The principal argument in favor of running a wheel 
 so slow is, that by remaining so much longer under the 
 stream the bucket has more time to fill ; as an old mill- 
 wright here expresses it, he " wants thirty yards of the 
 stream on the wheel at once." This is a fallacy, as it 
 cannot be done without interposing too much compli- 
 cated and expensive clock-work between the wheel and 
 the work. 
 
 This misconception originates in the idea that the 
 slower any body descends by the action of gravity the 
 more force it exerts on any opposing obstruction. This 
 also is a fallacy, as can be proven when the time occu- 
 pied by the descent is taken into account, which it must 
 always be to arrive at true conclusions. The fact is, 
 that the action of gravity is not interrupted by motion 
 at all, no matter what the velocity may be ; a jet of 
 water or a cannon ball projected from a precipice hori- 
 zontally, over a level plane, will strike the ground at 
 the same instant that water, or another ball, dropped 
 perpendicularly from the same height, at the same time, 
 will strike the ground. When this is understood and 
 admitted it will be easy to see that there is no real loss 
 
THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. ]05 
 
 of power in running an overshot at considerable speed, 
 excepting only the head of water necessary to obtain 
 a velocity greater than that of the wheel. 
 
 We built a large overshot, many years since, which 
 was geared to run nine feet per second, with a variable 
 head from, four feet downwards, which we have never 
 been able to beat since ; and would remark that the 
 larger the wheel the faster it may be run ; and a very 
 small diameter ought not to be run faster than four feet 
 and a half per second. In every case the water should 
 get away freely from under these wheels. The mill- 
 wright, in making calculations for the construction of 
 these wheels, should consult the table of the velocity of 
 water, and allow suflBcient head above the wheel to give 
 the water suflRcient velocity over that of the wheel to 
 insure its free entrance into the buckets. 
 
 Having considered the theory and principle of action 
 of the overshot wheel, we will now proceed to detail its 
 mode of construction. 
 
 Having taken all the levels from head-water to the 
 tail-race (for directions, see article on levelling), making 
 due allowance for head over the wheel, and free discharge 
 below, and decided on the diameter and size of the 
 wheel, you will procure a sweep-rod a little over half 
 the diameter of the wheel for a radius ; stick a scratch- 
 awl through one end of this rod, and into a clear floor 
 of suflScient size ; then measure off half the diameter of 
 the wheel on the rod, from the first scratch-awl, and 
 insert another awl. Move this last round until you 
 describe the outside circumference of the wheel upon 
 the floor ; then move the outside awl back on the rod 
 to the width or depth of the rim, and describe another 
 circle there. Step the outer circle and divide it into as 
 many parts as there are arms and felloes in the rims. 
 
lOo THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 Then take a true straight-edge of suflBcient length, or if 
 that is not handy, a fine chalk-line will do, and draw a 
 scratch from each of these divisions to the centre. This 
 last mark will describe the centre of the arms. Place 
 a thin board upon the rim draft, equally between two 
 arms, and describe the two rim circles upon it; now 
 extend the scratch describing the centre of the arms 
 across this board, and the rim pattern will be marked 
 out. Proceed to lay out the gains or notches for the 
 buckets, on the pattern, before you remove it, because 
 these must be laid out very exactly, in order that the 
 part of the buckets divided by the joint at one end of 
 the pattern may correspond exactly with the part at the 
 other end. The start, or first part of the bucket, is laid 
 by the radius from the centre. In laying out the shoul- 
 der, or outer part, the millwright must use his own 
 judgment, as it must be varied according to the depth 
 of the rims, distance apart of the buckets, and the quan- 
 tity of water to be used, taking care to leave room for 
 the free inlet and outlet of water; and at the same time 
 bearing in mind, the greater the angle of the buckets 
 the longer will they retain the water at the bottom, and 
 so work to better advantage. 
 
 The pattern now requires the arms to be marked 
 upon it ; to do this extend a mark across each end of 
 the pattern parallel to the centre mark of the arm, and 
 half the thickness of the arm from that mark, as one- 
 half of the rim pieces must be cut off by that mark, if 
 the rims are to be double, to allow them to go in between 
 the arms. The other half must be left of full length 
 to meet half way between the arms. On these rims the 
 arms require to be marked at the centre, and to lay 
 these out you require the same mark upon the pattern. 
 To get this, find the centre of the pattern, and draw a 
 
THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 107 
 
 scratch from this to the centre of the wheel, the same 
 as for the other arm marks, and mark the whole size of 
 the arm by this centre mark, one-half being on each 
 side of, and parallel to it. Now take up the pattern 
 and work it o£f, and this will answer for laying out all 
 the rims for both sides of the wheel. For laying out 
 one side of the bucket gains, the pattern must be marked 
 on the other side — to transfer the marks, square across 
 both edges of it at the marks, and bore a small brad-awl 
 or gimlet through both the outer and inner corner of 
 the angle^place the square from these holes to the 
 scratches on the edge, and draw the marks required. 
 
 There are several ways of putting these rims together; 
 some make the rims of single felloes: these are notched 
 at the centre to go into a slit in the end of the arms, 
 which are then bolted through ; the ends of the felloes 
 are drawn together by joint bolts ; these are round bolts 
 with a nut on each end, and are bored in like dowels 
 with a mortise through the side into the hole, for screw- 
 ing on the nuts. When the ends are drawn tightly 
 together they are fastened by an iron clamp outside and 
 inside and bolted through. This is a common way of 
 making the rims, but it is preferable to make them of 
 two tiers of plank, the inner one say three inches thick, 
 the outer two inches. Sink the gains for the buckets, 
 and one at the centre for the arm, one inch deep, which 
 will leave two inches of whole wood in the three inch 
 pieces, the notch for the arm being on the same side as 
 the others; make a slit in the ends of the arms the depth 
 of the rim, two inches wide, and two inches from the 
 outer edge" of the arm. Slip the notched part of the 
 thick pieces down into these slits and bolt them, which 
 will complete the inside tier. Cut the ends off the two 
 inch rims to the arm marks on the pattern, and put 
 
103 THE OVERSHOr "WHEEL. 
 
 them in between the arms, and they will just fill it out 
 even, making it smooth outside. A portion of the arm 
 will project inside, to which the opposite buckets must 
 be fitted. These will break joints, and when well 
 pinned and bolted together will be strong and durable. 
 If a greater thickness of rim is desirable, to put on seg- 
 ments or the like, another tier of any thickness may be 
 put on the outside, breaking joints with the others, and 
 uf course adding to the strength. 
 
 The rims thus made of two thicknesses will be of half 
 strength at the weakest part, and if of three tiers there 
 will be two-thirds whole wood at the joinings. It is of 
 importance in making large wheels to have them strong, 
 without useless weight in any part, and free from weak 
 points. When the rims are made of a single felloe, 
 fastened with iron as described, the joints are all weak 
 points, and when the wheel is in motion there is a great 
 and continually changing strain upon these points; when 
 the joint is below, the whole weight of the wheel and 
 water is pressing it together ; but when it is at the top 
 the same strain is drawing it apart; and as this re- 
 ciprocating strain is constantly acting upon the joints 
 while the wheel is in motion, it is apt to work some of 
 the iron fastenings loose, in the course of time; and when 
 a wheel begins to worh at the joints it soon goes to de- 
 struction. Single rims are sufiBcient for a wheel of small 
 diameter, as the arras being short are stifi" enough to 
 keep the whole in place ; but in a large wheel, the arms 
 above and under the shaft, which act endways, have the 
 whole weight of wheel and water to sustain, as the arm 
 when horizontal only keeps the wheel in shape, being 
 so long and slender that its own weight would spring it 
 down at the ends if not held up by the rims. It is obvi- 
 ous, therefore, that the large wooden arms act partly on 
 
THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 109 
 
 the suspension principle, as well as those composed of 
 iron rods, and that every large wheel depends on the 
 strength of its own rims for stability. 
 
 For all very large wooden wheels I would recommend 
 the following plan, the result of a rather extensive ex- 
 perience, as the most economical and durable: Make 
 the arms small, but as many in number as can be pro- 
 perly attached to the shaft, in order to have the rims 
 supported at as many points as practicable; then make 
 the rims like the rim of a large spinning wheel. To do 
 this good wood is necessa,ry, such as oak, elm, or ash; it 
 should be sawed about two inches thick, and of a width 
 equal to the intended thickness of the rims; a circle or 
 mould should be made equal to the inside circle of the 
 rims, and long enough for one length of the stuff. Steam 
 enough of the pieces to make the first tier all around 
 the rims, and fasten them upon the mould until they 
 are dry enough to retain their shape; make a shoulder 
 upon each arm, at the inside circumference of the rim, 
 by cutting away a portion of the inside of the arm and 
 leaving a piece outside to bolt through. Now take the 
 pieces off the mould, and lay out a gain (by the pattern 
 or draft) in the edge of the pieces to fit the projecting 
 portion of the arm, and half an inch deep. The parts 
 may now be put together by placing them around the 
 shoulders on the arms ; bring the projecting lug of each 
 arm into its corresponding notch, and drive a spike 
 through into the shoulders to secure them in place. 
 The first tier being now completed, there is no further 
 need of the mould. Take the pieces from the steam- 
 box and bend them on to their places by griping down the 
 ends and driving a few nails here and there to keep 
 them even, taking care to place the nails where they 
 may not interfere with the bolt holes. Thus proceed 
 
110 THE OVERSHOT "WHEEL. 
 
 to put one tier above another, taking care to break 
 joints, until the rims are of the required depth; then 
 bolt them together with plenty of small bolts, and fasten 
 a strong piece of iron upon the inside of each arm, and 
 bolt the rims through this and the projecting portion of 
 the arm, and the rims will be complete. 
 
 To put in the buckets, lay out and cut gains or re- 
 cesses around the inside of the rims the same as when 
 made of felloes. I have used the following plan, which 
 I can recommend as being easier and cheaper, and 
 equally compact and durable : Take thin inch boards, 
 and make a pattern exactly corresponding with the solid 
 piece left between the bucket gains; lay this pattern 
 upon the boards and mark out as many pieces as are re- 
 quired for both sides of the wheel ; saw them out and 
 dress them off to the pattern, taking care to have the 
 grain of the wood run parallel with the long point of the 
 bracket ; gauge and dress off the ends of all the buckets 
 to a size, and they are ready to put in. Commence by 
 placing a bracket on each side, and nail it with about 
 five small nails in each; place the two pieces composing 
 a bucket, and nail them securely together at the corner ; 
 place and secure another pair of brackets, and another 
 pair of bucket pieces, until the whole is completed. 
 When you come to the iron straps at the arras cut 
 awny a portion of the bracket to fit the iron, and a piece 
 out of the end of the bucket to fit the same. Next be- 
 gin by placing a piece of the lining and nailing it se- 
 curely to the rims, and also to the inner edge of the 
 bucket, which you must be careful to do with each piece 
 as you proceed, as it is difficult to strike the edge of a 
 bucket after a number of them are covered. 
 
 We have made a number of large overshot wheels in 
 this way, and they are both light and str(mg — two quali- 
 
THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. Ill 
 
 ties of great importance. This plan also involves a 
 much smaller waste of material and labor, which is an- 
 other important consideration. 
 
 I have unwittingly detailed the methods of construct- 
 ing the outer circumference of the wheel before describ- 
 ing the shaft and centre portions by which it is sup- 
 ported ; which seems to indicate that I am more familiar 
 with making a wheel than describing one on paper. But 
 as there is no danger of any one committing the same 
 blunder in constructing a wheel, the error is compara- 
 tively harmless. 
 
 We will proceed to describe the process of making the 
 shaft. An iron shaft requires but little description, as 
 it is generally ready made to order. The first considera- 
 tion is to get suitable flanges upon it to fasten the arms 
 upon. These may have sockets like those in use for 
 steamboat paddle-wheels ; but these are not absolutely 
 necessary, iinless the power of the wheel is to be con- 
 veyed through the extended shaft, which is sometimes 
 requisite. The most economical mode of transmitting 
 the power is by placing cogged segments around the 
 circumference of the wheel, to work in a pinion upon 
 another shaft, to which it gives motion. As this motion 
 is taken from the swiftest moving part of the wheel, it 
 is comparatively rapid, and but little more gearing is 
 required to connect it with any machine to be driven. 
 This pinion shaft may run in almost any direction, 
 horizontal or perpendicular, by using spur, Or bevel seg- 
 ments. When motion is taken from the wheel in this 
 way the shaft does not require to be so strong, as it has 
 only to support the weight and keep the wheel in posi- 
 tion, there being no twist or other strain upon it. In 
 this case all the central flange required is a plain round 
 disk of sufficient size to bolt the arras securely upon. 
 
112 , THE OVERSHOT WHEEL. 
 
 and of suflBcient strength at the centre to be keyed 
 firmly on to the shaft. 
 
 To lay out these arms, make a draft of the size of the 
 shaft and flange upon the centre of the wheel draft; 
 then mark out the number, size, and position of the 
 arms, and by one of these arm-marks make a pattern 
 for laying them out, taking care to butt the ends solid 
 against the shaft. After the arms are bolted on, fit a 
 wedge-shaped piece in between, of sufficient size to fill 
 the space for some distance past the disk. Put these 
 wedges in with hot pitch, or white lead paint, and bore 
 a hole through, half in the arm and half in the wedge, 
 and insert a pin. This will bind the whole centre into 
 a solid hub, which is strong and secure. Such a shaft 
 is preferable to a wooden shaft and iron journals ; and 
 these, with the necessary bands and workmanship, will 
 frequently cost more than the cast il-on shaft. This 
 consideration, coupled with the fact that the wooden 
 shaft is liable to rot and other casualties, while the 
 iron one is sure to last out the rest of the wheel with 
 little deterioration in value, makes the iron preferable. 
 Old broken or worn-out steam engine shafts are some- 
 times to be had for little more than the price of old iron, 
 and answer well. 
 
 When a wooden shaft is to be made, oak or tamarac 
 are the best woods, while black ash and pine are very 
 good. And here I might observe, that tamarac or larch 
 is the very best wood for the wheel itself, being strong 
 and durable, and, like pine, not liable to waste away out- 
 side, or rust, as it is technically called, as all hard woods 
 are. To make the shaft, be careful to get a sound stick, 
 and large enough ; if you can get it to a saw-mill, it will 
 save some hard work. Cut off the pound log an inch 
 or two longer than the length for the shaft ; pink in a 
 
THE OVEKSHOT WHEEL. 113 
 
 piece of iron with a countersunk centre, in the middle 
 of each end, and hang it up a convenient height upon 
 two iron or steel points in posts or other jSxtures, in 
 such a position that you can pass a belt around a 
 shaft, and around the log, to give it motion, and turn 
 it oflF true, the whole size and length. Mark the 
 shoulders of the gudgeons and turn them oflf to the size and 
 taper of the wings; mark also the mortises for the arms, 
 with another scratch outside of the mortise for the dove- 
 tail, about half an inch, and one inside the mortise, for 
 keys, about three inches; turn the shaft round and 
 scribe all these different marks. Now measure the size 
 of the shaft and describe it on the floor, in the centre 
 of the wheel-draft, and divide it and lay out the number 
 and size of the arms, to correspond with the wheel. By 
 this section of the shaft make a pattern for the thickness 
 cf the tenon on the arm ; attach a piece of circle agree- 
 ing with the outside* of the shaft across the top of this 
 pattern to gauge the depth of mortise, and to insure mak- 
 ing them plumb and true, and another similar gauge for 
 the dovetails. Make the mortises before you take down 
 the shaft. You may now make a pattern of the back 
 end or wings of the gudgeons, as they are too heavy to 
 handle, and lay out and work the recesses by it. It 
 will save some hard work if it can be placed on the saw- 
 mill carriage to saw the recesses for the wings, and run 
 a saw-draft outside of each wing, and some inches deep, 
 for wedges. These may be run a liitle deeper with a 
 handsaw, to allow the wedge to penetrate to the back 
 end of the wings. Great care must be taken in banding 
 and wedging, as it is difficult to fasten them afterwards, 
 should they get loose. 
 
 You may also make a pattern from the wheel-draft, 
 for the arms, as it will facilitate and insure accuracy m 
 8 
 
114 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 
 
 laying them out. This is merely a thin aboard of the 
 length and- breadth of the arms, with the dovetail of the 
 tenon laid out on the outer edge, at one end, and the slit 
 to admit the rims on the other. To fasten these in the 
 shaft, make two keys with a slight taper, and suflBcient 
 size to fill the mortise; place one" with the head down, 
 and enter the point of the other between it and the arm, 
 and drive it home. These, as well as the arms, had 
 better be coated with white lead or coal tar. 
 
 When large felloes are to be broken out for rims the 
 following plan saves labor: Mark out the felloes by the 
 pattern, and cut the plank to the lengths; then slab 
 and turn down a large log on the saw-mill carriage, run 
 the saw into the middle of it, and take off" the feed, fix 
 a bar across between the fender posts the thickness of 
 the plank above the log. Lay a piece of the plank on 
 the log and under the cross-bar, in front of the saw. 
 Start the saw, and feed the plank against it by the 
 mark, which will be easily followed by placing a mark 
 upon the cross-bar above it, and having a man at the 
 other end behind the saw to help. If the circle be small, 
 put in an old narrow saw and set it all to one side, 
 which, with careful attention, will cut a pretty short 
 curve. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 
 
 Upwards of twenty years ago I commenced a series 
 of experiments with diflferent kinds of water wheels, and 
 being the owner of a grist and a saw mill, where the 
 
EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 115 
 
 quantity of water is rather small, but with a considerable 
 fall, I have continued these experiments at intervals ever 
 since, with the expectation of being able to construct a 
 wheel that would equal the overshot in power, without 
 its complicated and cumbrous machinery. 
 
 I began with wheels working on the reaction principle, 
 which were much in vogue at that time. I fixed up a 
 disk, or part of a wheel, a foot in diameter, with an 
 orifice at the centre to admit water from a flume, with 
 ten feet head. This I fastened upon a shaft, which re- 
 mained the same in all the experiments. I then made 
 another portion or disk to correspond with the first ; to 
 this last I attached movable pieces of wood or iron, as 
 the form of the issues made most convenient, and screwed 
 the two together. After trying this with one form of 
 issues and noting the result, I unscrewed the movable 
 part, took out the central pieces forming the issues, and 
 replaced them by others of another form and figure, 
 until every conceivable curve and position was tried, 
 taking care to have the sum of the issues of each to be 
 the same, whatever their numbers might be. To test the 
 diflFerent powers and velocities of^ these, I laid down an 
 inclined plane, upon which I placed a small stone^boat ; 
 this was loaded with small stones and had a line attached 
 to it, the other end of which was made to wind around a 
 small shaft of the machine. By varying the load on 
 the boat, and noting the velocity with which it was 
 hauled up the incline, the merits of the various forms 
 were compared and tested. 
 
 I mention these experiments thus particularly, only 
 to say that they satisfied me that no experiment with a 
 small model, however accurately made and figured up, 
 for a wheel of working size, and another head of water, 
 can be relied upon ; as upon making wheels by the data 
 
116 
 
 EXPERIMENTS "WITH WHEELS. 
 
 furnished by these experiments, for driving my 4i feet 
 millstones, first with 22, and afterwards with 30 feet 
 head, I found the result to differ each time ; and had to 
 make another set of experiments to find the best mode 
 of applying the water in practice. 
 
 I will not tire the reader with a full detail of these 
 experiments, but merely state that after a trial of up- 
 wards of twenty different kinds I adopted a modification 
 of Dr. Barker's wheel, Fig. 24. All these experiments 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 were made by placing the various modifications of wheel 
 on the lower end of the sam. iron shaft or spindle ; the 
 
barker's wheel. 117 
 
 millstone was placed upon the top without gearing, ex- 
 cept a small pulley upon the spindle, from which a belt 
 drove an upright shaft with bevel gearing to drive the 
 bolt and elevators ; and the water was admitted under 
 the bottom. As this is a very simple and effective 
 method of driving millstones, I will describe it in detail. 
 
 Barker's Wheel. 
 
 Bring the water in a strong tight spout about six 
 inches deep and two feet wide under the wheel. Under 
 and clear of this, place a bridge-tree, thin, wide, and 
 movable at one end, for raising and lowering the spindle 
 and stone; make a round hole a foot, more or less, in 
 diameter, according to the head, to admit the water to 
 the wheel, and a small hole, four or five inches in dia- 
 meter, in the bottom; turn a piece of maple or other 
 hard wood to fit this small hole; fill it full of tallow 
 and place it in the hole, and resting on the bridge-tree, 
 the upper end being turned to fit the concave end of the 
 spindle, which rests upon this block. 
 
 To make the wheel, get a central piece cast, about the 
 size and form of a patent pail, with parallel sides and a 
 strong bottom, with a hole in the centre to admit the 
 shaft, upon which it should be keyed at a proper distance 
 from the end. This must have two holes in opposite 
 sides, about eight inches in diameter, to admit the hol- 
 low arms, leaving about three inches of whole metal 
 below them. This part must be turned off true. Make 
 two pieces of plank, with a semicircle in each, to fit the 
 outside of the casting, and cut a recess around the under 
 side of these semicircles about half an iiich deep and au 
 inch or more in width; nail around these recesses two 
 or three thicknesses of leather that has been soaked full 
 of tallow, the edges projecting past the wood, so as to 
 
118 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 
 
 come in contact with the turned iron and make a tight, 
 free, joint. These are to be fastened on to the top of 
 the spout with handy screws, and then adjusted. 
 
 To make the hollow tubes or arms, get two pieces of 
 thin boiler plate of the requisite length and breadth, say 
 three and a half feet by two feet ; bend these round like 
 a stovepipe, and rivet the seam; compress the outer 
 ends a little, as it will allow them to revolve with less 
 resistance from the air; cut an end to fit, either of iron 
 or wood, and rivet the iron tube in over the end to keep 
 it tight. Cut a hole in each arm about two inches from 
 the end, on opposite sides — each hole about 2i inches 
 deep and 3 inches long — turn the iron out from the cen- 
 tre so as to form a ledge above and below to direct the 
 discharge, and rivet a like ledge on the outer end of the 
 hole. Now make a slide of the same iron of sufficient 
 length and breadth to cover the hole, with the outer end 
 turned out to form a ledge for the inner end of the hole, 
 and fix an eye or loop in the other end to come out 
 through a slit in the tube behind the hole, and of the 
 same length. This slide is placed inside the tube with 
 the bent ledge or end projecting through the hole, which 
 with the loop projecting through the slit keeps it in 
 place. If you take hold of this loop and draw it back 
 towards the centre the hole will be entirely open, with 
 a ledge all around; push it towards the end half way 
 and the hole will be half open, half shut; push it all 
 the way to the end and it will be shut, the end ledges 
 being in contact. This arrangement admits of the issues 
 being enlarged or diminished at pleasure, while the full 
 pressure of the water is maintained, which is a desidera- 
 tum not easily obtained with other kinds of reaction 
 wheels. 
 
 The following is the method used for commanding 
 
BAKKLR'a WHEEL. 119 
 
 these slides : Place over the shaft a strong double ring, 
 or band, with a groove around the centre of it ; take a 
 rod of iron and loop one end into the loop of the slide, 
 the other end into the ring or collar on the shaft ; fix 
 both slides the same — the connecting rods being of such 
 length that when the ring or collar is down to the wheel, 
 and the two rods nearly in a line, the two slides will be 
 closed. Raise the ring or collar up the shaft a certain 
 distance, and the slides will be opened. Now fix a lever 
 with a forked end to catch round the centre hollow part 
 of this collar, and with range of movement from the 
 shut to the open position of this collar, and the slides 
 can be moved quite easily while the machine -is in mo- 
 tion. I arranged this collar and rods to the slides with 
 the intention of attaching a common ball governor to 
 work them, but as I only used these wheels to drive a 
 millstone the governor was not required. 
 
 This whole arrangement gave good satisfaction, and 
 rather more power than any other tried on the reaction 
 principle. But it involves thfe expense of strong tubes 
 or spouts to conduct the water to it. We may dispense 
 with these by the following arrangement, which, though 
 not so suitable for a grist mill, may do better for some 
 other kinds of machinery : — 
 
 Make a round wooden tube of a diameter proportioned 
 to the power proposed, and a length equal to the height 
 of the fall (see Fig. 25) . This tube I made by sawing 
 a suitable log down the middle and hollowing out the 
 two halves, and then banding them together with iron; 
 the lower end supported on a concave journal running 
 on a wooden step, and having a strong circular disk in- 
 stead of wings, the upper end having two cross irons at 
 right angles, in the centre of which the upper journal 
 was fixed. The sheet iro» tubes are put into each half 
 
1-0 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 
 
 before they are put together ; the inner end being put 
 through the wood and split into narrow portions, then 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 turned back and nailed into the wood to make thein 
 
 fast. 
 
BARKER'S WHEEL. 12l 
 
 The upper end of tins hollow shaft must be widened 
 into a funnel shape to admit the water. Care must be 
 taken to gauge the quantity so that the tube will be full 
 and not run over. The following plan answers well : 
 Make a gate in the bottom of the spout to admit the 
 quantity necessary, and beside this main gate make a 
 small valve gate, hung near the centre; to this valve 
 fix a small stem or rod in such a position that when the 
 gate is shut the stem shall point in the direction the 
 machine and water are to revolve; but when open it 
 shall hang perpendicularly. Attach a wooden float or 
 weight to this stem at the proper height for the water, 
 and the arrangement is complete. Open the main gate 
 to admit as near the quantity as possible, and the valve 
 gate will regulate the rest. When the water falls too 
 low, the weight of the float will hang perpendicular and 
 open the valve; when too high, the float will be carried 
 round and raised by the water, and thus shut the valve. 
 Without this apparatus the water will either get too 
 low and lose part of the- head, or too high and run 
 over; because the machine discharges more water the 
 faster it runs, the centrifugal force increasing the pres- 
 sure of the water towards the ends of the tubes, and 
 thus increasing the velocity of the discharge and adding 
 to the power. 
 
 I tried many experiments in expectation of getting 
 more power by running these slower and with shorter 
 arms, and then placing another wheel outside of them, 
 like a li^iht tub-wheel, to get the power of the discharg- 
 ing water, but found it better to increase the diameter 
 and speed of the first wheel and use it at its full speed, 
 than to divide between the two. It made a simple 
 machine very complicated, besides losing a part of the 
 centrifugal force, which in these wheels is a very con- 
 
122 EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEELS. 
 
 siderable item, and helps to compensate for friction and 
 the power required to take the water from a state of 
 rest, and impart to it the requisite revolving motion. 
 
 This will be better understood if we remember that 
 this machine inverted is the common centrifugal pump. 
 Place the end of the upright tube in the water to be 
 raised, with a valve opening upwards at the lower end, 
 and fill both upright and cross tubes with water through 
 a hole at the top. Plug up the hole and cause the ma- 
 chine to revolve, and the contents will be discharged 
 through the hole at the end of the arms; at the same 
 time the suction or vacuum will open the valve in the 
 bottom, and the water will rush up and supply the place 
 of that discharged. Place a circular trough around to 
 catch the discharging water, and the pump is complete. 
 It will be observed that in this pump, as well as in the 
 wheel, the hollow arms only require to move, the main 
 tube may be stationary, and either perpendicular or in 
 any other direction. 
 
 This is an excellent pump where a continual discharge 
 is required, and the requisite motion can be had for it; 
 but as it acts by suction, or rather the pressure of the 
 atmosphere, it will raise water only a little over thirty 
 feet ; as a water wheel, however, it is applicable to any 
 height of water, and the higher, the more economically 
 it will work, on account of the vis inertia of the water, 
 before alluded to; the only limit being the strength of 
 the confining tubes and other component parts. 
 
 When steam is used to propel a rotary machine in 
 this way its power is wasted. Steam is so light, elastic, 
 and ethereal, that every increase of pressure only causes 
 it to escape the faster, without any corresponding reac- 
 tionary force being imparted to the machine; while 
 water, being heavy and incompressible, requires a gre^t 
 
barker's ■wheel. 123 
 
 increase of pressure to double or quadruple the discharge; 
 and the power of the wheel being as the pressure per 
 inch multiplied by the number of inches of the area of 
 the discharging orifice, it will be easily comprehended 
 how these wheels answer better with a high head. A 
 head of thirty-three feet being equal to the pressure of 
 the atmosphere, gives a force of fifteen lbs. to the square 
 inch, which being applied at the end of a 4-feet lever, 
 as in driving a millstone, the whole power is easily com- 
 puted and compared with any other power applied by a 
 pinion or. sheave, the lever power of which is half its 
 diameter. 
 
 To understand the principle upon which these wheels 
 act, let us suppose the discharging orifices both closed 
 by their slides, and the trunk and tubes filled with 
 water. It is evident that there would be a pressure 
 upon every inch of the inside surface of these tubes 
 equal to the pressure due to that head of water; but the 
 machine would not move. Now open the slides, and 
 the pressure upon so many inches as the hole measures 
 is removed, while the pressure opposite the hole remains 
 the same as before, and the end of the tube wilj be 
 pushed back with a force equal to the pressure per inch, 
 multiplied by the number of inches in the hole, and it 
 will incline to revolve with a force equal to the sum of 
 both holes thus found ; or, if all obstruction be removed, 
 it will revolve with a velocity a little over that due to 
 the head of water, measured from the discharge to the 
 surface in the trunk, as found by the Table. The in- 
 creased velocity of the wheel over that of the water is 
 due to the extra pressure of the water caused by the 
 accumulated centrifugal force within the arm. 
 
 A question in relation to these wheels has arisen in 
 my mind, which is of considerable importance, and 
 
124: EXPERIMENTS 'VriTH WHEELS. 
 
 though yet unsolved, I will try to explain. It is a fact, 
 well known by experiment, that water issuing through 
 an orifice in a thin plate of metal, like these tubes, dis- 
 charges a much less quantity in a given time than is 
 assigned by theory; but by fixing a ledge around the 
 orifice, as I did with these wheels, it forms a kind of 
 tube by which the quantity discharged is greatly in- 
 creased, and by a peculiar form of tube, the discharge 
 and consequent velocity can be more than doubled. 
 The question then is: Whether the increased or dimin- 
 ished discharge is more economical as applied to these 
 wheels? If the force be simply the reaction or recoil 
 imparted by giving impetus and velocity to that column 
 of water issuing through the orifice, then the greater the 
 velocity, the greater will be the recoil. But if the power 
 depends only on the internal pressure, then the simple 
 orifice will be the best, as that may be enlarged, while 
 the pressure elsewhere will remain the same. This 
 will allow about double the number of inches of orifice, 
 with the same expenditure of water. 
 
 I may explain that I discontinued the use of these 
 and, the central discharge wheels, next described, and 
 substituted overshots in my mills, on account of a 
 want of sufficient water at all times for the quantity of 
 work to be performed, experience having satisfied me 
 that although either of these kinds of wheels would 
 drive one run of stones with as little water as an over- 
 shot, when two or more stones were attached to the same 
 overshot, it would do more work with the same water. 
 The reason is, that the small wheel has little else than 
 the spindle and stone to drive, and nearly all the power 
 of the water is applied to grinding; while the overshot 
 requires a considerable quantity of water to drive itself 
 and the intermediate machinery at the proper working 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE "WHEELS. 125 
 
 velocity; and it is only the quantity applied over and 
 above that amount which drives the millstones and does 
 the grinding. And when the wheel and all the machi- 
 nery with one run of stones are working at the proper 
 speed and power, a small addition to the quantity of 
 water will enable it to drive another run at the same 
 rate. In other words, it is not necessary to double the 
 quantity of water to do double tTie work, in the one 
 case; while in the other, every increase in the quantity 
 of work done requires a proportionate increase in the 
 quantity of water expended. 
 
 A method patented a few years since for boring pump 
 logs by hollow cylindrical augers of any required dia- 
 meter, will facilitate the making of this kind of water 
 wheel, as the requisite tubes can be bored and turned 
 of solid wood, and with very little banding ; whereas 
 it was quite a job to make them of staves or in two 
 halves, as formerly, and band them sufficiently to pre- 
 vent leakage. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 A NUMBER of carefully conducted experiments with 
 centre vent wheels of small size and with a low head of 
 water, resulted, like those made with reaction wheel 
 models, in no practical benefit. The reaction wheel 
 which gave the best result in the model had only one 
 issue, coiled around in a spiral, or rather helical, form — 
 like the main spring of a watch — from the centre to the 
 circumference. Expecting the same result in practice, I 
 
126 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 made a wheel seven and a half feet in diameter, with a 
 similar issue of considerable size commencing at the cen- 
 tre, and gradually contracting as it wound around towards 
 the circumference, where the water escaped through 
 an opening of three by four inches. This channel was 
 about thirty feet long, and the water issuing through it 
 under thirty feet head had the appearance of soapsuds, 
 and instead of accumulating power and velocity, as the 
 model indicated, the friction through the long helical 
 tube destroyed both. 
 
 This experiment, although in itself a failure, furnished 
 a useful practical hint concerning the central discharge 
 wheel and its scroll case, namely, that as it is impelled 
 around the inside of the scroll by the head pressure, the 
 water has a constant tendency to continue on in a 
 straight line, which forces it against the outside of the 
 water way with a much greater force than it exerts at 
 the inside ; and this constant force and friction destroy 
 a large proportion of its power. Besides, it is only the 
 inside or lesser pressure, and not the outside increased 
 force, that can be applied to any wheel placed inside of 
 this water way. To test the difference between the 
 pressure of the water against the outside and inside of 
 this water way, I bored several auger holes around both 
 the outside and inside of the scroll in pairs opposite to 
 each other, and at equal distances apart ; a piece of lead 
 pipe was inserted in each of the first pair of holes, and 
 a full head of water was let on, and the height to which 
 each tube forced up the water was noted. The tubes 
 were then inserted in the next pair of holes, and the 
 first plugged up : thus it was continued, and the differ- 
 ence noted all around the scroll. The result was, that 
 the tubes next the outside of the scroll threw the water 
 one-half higher than those next the inside; and the 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 127 
 
 height of all the jets gradually diminished as they came 
 round to complete the circuit. Other similar experi- 
 ments showed that the larger the circumference of the 
 scroll, the greater was the waste ; and, also, that the 
 waste and loss increased in proportion to the increase 
 of the head and velocity of the water. 
 
 These experiments tend to explain what we^ have a 
 hundred times remarked in practice, namely, that these 
 scroll-cased central discharge wheels answer well for a 
 low head and ample supply of water ; and that when 
 the head and velocity are high, and the quantity limited, 
 they give a power much below that ascribed to them by 
 theory. 
 
 After many and varied experiments of this kind, we 
 concluded that in order to make one of these wheels 
 that could compete with an overshot, two conditions 
 were necessary : First, to get a throat or adjutage through 
 which the water would issue with the full velocity as- 
 cribed to it by theory; and second, to apply all this 
 acquired force upon the wheel. The first can be accom- 
 plished by issuing the water through a short tube made 
 conical or funnel-shaped at the inner end, in the form 
 called " the contracted vein," elsewhere described; and 
 the second condition is obtained by connecting this tube 
 or chute with the wheel in such a manner that the 
 bucket becomes a part of the chute, or takes the place 
 of it, receiving the water at its full velocity, and by the 
 gradual curvature of the bucket, combined with the cen- 
 trifugal force produced by the motion of the wheel, 
 gradually and completely overcoming and absorbing the 
 power of the water. 
 
 This will be better understood by examining the 
 cut, Fig. 26, where it, will be seen that the bucket 
 receives the water nearly straight at its outer end, and 
 
128 
 
 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WnEELS. 
 
 by its curvature and the motion of the wheel it brings 
 the water around in a circular scroll towards the centre, 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 where, its force being spent, it drops down clear of the 
 wheel by its weight. By this arrangement, it will be 
 seen that the curved bucket virtually takes the place of 
 the outside scroll of the common centre- vent wheel, and 
 receives the whole force of the water, intensified by the 
 curvature it here undergoes. The force of the water is) 
 still furthei" augmetited and impelled against the bucket 
 by the two opposite forces Which here act upon it, that 
 is, its acquired impetus, which urges it onward in a 
 straight line, and the Centrifugal force, which urges it 
 outwaM frbm the centre. These contending forces in- 
 crease thd pressure of the water against the inside of 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 129 
 
 the buckets by counteracting its progress towards the 
 centre of the wheel, and gradually overcome and arrest 
 its impetus altogether, and it falls clear of the wheel. 
 It may be further observed that the friction of the water 
 against the buckets and inside-of the wheel as it passes 
 through, which in all reaction, and most central vent 
 wheels, seriously retards its motion, is, in this, a help 
 instead of a hindrance, as it acts in unison with the 
 motion, of the wheel. 
 
 This is an excellent wheel for a high head of water, 
 being more simple in its construction than Barker's, and 
 not, like it, impeded by the ins inertia of the water, nor 
 by friction, and, when properly calculated and made, 
 gives a result fully equal to the overshot.- To obtain 
 this result, it is necessary that the size and velocity of 
 the wheel should be nicely adjusted to the velocity of 
 the water; so that in entering, the water may move 
 enough faster than the wheel to enable it to overcome 
 the centrifugal force, and follow the inside curve of the 
 bucket to its inner end, where the water should arrive 
 with its momentum exhausted. 
 
 To obtain these results we tried the following experi- 
 ments : We fixed a wooden disk or rim upon the lower 
 end of the iron spindle of a millstone, the disk being four 
 feet in diameter, and another rim of the same outside 
 size, but only twelve inches wide, being open at the cen- 
 tre to allow the water to escape. This last rim was 
 under the other, the wrought iron buckets being between. 
 The form and position of sixteen buckets were then 
 calculated as nearly as possible by making a draft upon 
 the floor, and by this we made a pattern of the space 
 between two buckets, and cut brackets out of half-inch 
 stuff" by this pattern to put in between the buckets upon 
 both rims. These were nailed in all around, and a 
 9 
 
IDO CENTRAL DISCHARGE "WHEELS. 
 
 small half-round bolt put through at the back of each 
 bucket to hold the rims together. We tried this, but 
 found it too large in diameter to give the 4 i feet stones 
 the requisite speed, 160 revolutions per minute, with 30 
 feet head. We turned off a portion of the rims and re- 
 peated the experiment several times, each time making 
 corresponding alterations in the brackets, and position 
 and shjipe of the buckets, until the wheel was reduced 
 to 3 feet and 1 inch, and the lower rim to 6 or 7. inches 
 wide, when we were satisfied with its working, and made 
 patterns and got wheels cast, with the wrought-iron 
 buckets between, requiring no bolting. 
 
 We had seen many central discharge wheels in opera- 
 tion, and patterns, drawings, and descriptions of many 
 more, and in every case the water was conducted to 
 them through a scroll-shaped water way extending 
 around the wheel, although some had several gates for 
 the admission of water ; and we determined to try how 
 one of these wheels would work in such a scroll. We 
 accordingly made a very nice scroll, the outside of 
 smooth iron, and the top and bottom lined with zinc, 
 and delivered the water through this upon the wheel, 
 the throat being a little over 3i inches square, or 12 
 inches of water under 30 feet head. This would hardly 
 give the requisite velocity to the stone when running 
 empty and free, and could only be made to grind between 
 one and two bushels an hour by checking it up quite 
 slow. We then removed a portion of the scroll at the 
 end, and brought the termination close to the wheel to 
 shoot in all the water, and found upon trial that it 
 worked better; another portion was then removed, which 
 showed a corresponding improvement. Thus we con- 
 tinued to cut and try, until the scroll was reduced to the 
 email portion we had previously been using, which was 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 131 
 
 only suflBcient to shoot all the water into three buckets 
 out of the sixteen, and then its former power and ve- 
 locity were restored, and it would grind eight bushels of 
 wheat or corn per hour, or average one hundred bushels 
 of mixed grain or custom work per day of twelve hours* 
 There will be some waste by this short scroll, unless 
 it be continued the true circle of the wheel, to cover the 
 space between two buckets, otherwise a portion of the 
 water will escape past the point of the chute without 
 entering the buckets. In fact, the curve of the water- 
 way, and form and motion of the wheel, cause some 
 water to pass in this way in spite of every precaution 
 against it. 
 
 Pig. 27. 
 
 To obviate this waste and loss we constructed a double 
 wheel, Fig. 27, the water being shot in and divided be- 
 
132 CENTRAL DISCHARGE -WHEELS. 
 
 tween the two, as shown in Fig. 27. These we made 
 thirty inches in diameter, with a corresponding alteration 
 in the form of the buckets, although under the same thirty 
 feet head. The wheels were connected by cogs around 
 their circumference, both above and below, both being 
 cast from the same pattern, but turned with different 
 sides up, to bring the buckets right. The buckets termi- 
 nated in corresponding cogs, so that when placed in gear 
 they overlapped each other, thus preventing the escape 
 of any water between the two wheels. These buckets 
 stepping in between each other at equal distances, re- 
 ceive the whole direct force of the water from the short 
 directing issue without any waste or loss by friction, and 
 split the stream equally between them, each carrying 
 its particular portion of water around with the motion 
 of the wheel until its force is expended, when it drops 
 down and escapes beneath. It is essential that these 
 wheels should be geared permanently together, to keep 
 the step of the buckets, as if allowed to shift their posi- 
 tion with regard to each other, the overlapping ends 
 would come in contact and damage each other. The 
 connection, in some cases, can be made more conveni- 
 ently between the shafts above; and where a horizontal 
 motion is taken from these upright shafts, the best way 
 is to place a shaft across the top, with a double bevel 
 pinion in the centre between the two, gearing into a 
 corresponding bevel pinion on each water wheel shaft, 
 as shown in Fig. 28. 
 
 These wheels work equally well on a horizontal shaft. 
 The short chute of the single wheel should commence 
 at the centre of the descending side and terminate at 
 the bottom. We have placed several of these wheels 
 in this position on the crank shafts of saw-mills, both 
 for English gate and gang. The wheels being cast with 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE "WHEELS. 133 
 
 a double set of buckets, thus discharging the water from 
 both sides ; that is, the wheel has a central rim which 
 extends to the shaft, where it bulges out equally on 
 both sides into a strong hub, by which it is keyed on to 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 the iron shaft. Buckets made of thin boiler plate are 
 cast into each side of this rim, those on one side break- 
 ing joints midway between the others, to avoid weaken- 
 ing the rim, and an open rim only five inches wide is 
 cast on to the outer edge of both sets of buckets. The 
 water discharges through these, the inner ends of the 
 
134 CENTRAL DISCHAEGE WHEELS. 
 
 buckets being slightly curved outward, and the bulge of 
 the central hub assisting to throw the water out end- 
 ways. 
 
 The top or entrance to the short chute is covered by 
 a planed iron gate, water-tight, which is slidden off or 
 on by a turned stem working through a stuffing-box. 
 Either the single or double wheel can be supplied by 
 bringing the water down a straight tube ; or a cheap 
 and good plan is to bring it from above in what is called 
 a rainbow chute, being the natural curve which the 
 water would assume if allowed to pitch over and fall 
 without interruption, and only confined sufficiently to 
 direct its shape and protect it from disturbance by the air. 
 This chute is only for a horizontal shaft, and if properly 
 made is supposed to give a velocity at the wheel equal 
 to that which any heavy body would acquire in falling 
 through a space equal to the height of the fall, except a 
 slight reduction for the resistance of the air, and friction 
 against the directing chute. 
 
 This is the velocity ascribed to the water by theory, 
 and is the standard by which its velocity is measured 
 and computed for any particular head, but, as before 
 remarked, the actual velocity, found by experiment, 
 differs widely from this, according to the nature and 
 form of the throat, or adjutage. Thus an orifice through 
 a thin board, or plate of iron, will admit a far less quan- 
 tity in a given time than this velocity would indicate, 
 while by using a short cylindrical tube, of the same bore 
 as the orifice, it will discharge as much water in three 
 minutes as the simple orifice will in four ; and if the 
 length of the directing tube be only about twice its dia- 
 meter the increase will be still greater. 
 
 By examining a jet of water issuing through a thin 
 plate, it will be seen to taper and diminish in size from 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 135 
 
 the plate to the distance of about half the diameter of 
 the hole, where the area of this smallest part will be to 
 the area of the hole as 10 to 15 or 16. This contraction 
 is whstt is called " the contracted vein," and by enlarging 
 the end of the tube next the flume in these proportions, 
 to a funnel shape, the same contraction takes place be- 
 fore entering the tube, and the flow is consequently 
 greatly increased ; by adding an enlarged conical piece 
 to the outer end of this, thus making the tube conical 
 at both ends, the velocity of the discharge can be more 
 than doubled, being to that of the thin plate as 23 to 
 10. Care must be taken not to overdo this, as the 
 length of the outer conical piece should not exceed three 
 or four times the diameter of the small end, and the 
 sides should not diverge more than to forni an angle of 
 three or four degrees with the other. This is a subject 
 with which every millwright should endeavor to make 
 himself thoroughly acquainted, as well as with the re- 
 tarding effects of friction in all the various forms of 
 chutes or adjutages, and the influence of curved or scroll- 
 shaped water-ways upon the velocity of the water. 
 
 By thoroughly understanding this disposition of water 
 in motion, and forming the short directing chute to ac- 
 commodate and take advantage of these peculiarities, 
 the water can be brought in contact with the wheel at 
 the full theoretical velocity ; and by proportioning the 
 size and motion of the wheel and curve of buckets to 
 this velocity, according to the head, the whole velocity 
 and force of the water can be arrested and absorbed by 
 the wheel, without waste or loss by friction. The at- 
 tainment of these two conditions is all that is required 
 to solve the long pending problem " How to make the 
 most of a fall of water," the only other desideratum 
 being, that the wheel be such as will admit of an easy 
 
136 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 and cheap connection with the machinery to be driven. 
 This the wheel under consideration admits of, at a tithe 
 of the expense required to gear the overshot to machi- 
 nery under the most favorable circumstances, the cost 
 of the wheel itself bearing about the same proportion to 
 that of the overshot {i. e., one-tenth). 
 
 When intended for a wooden shaft both rims are made 
 open in the centre, the buckets projecting past the rims 
 to the inside about two inches. Four cross-arms are 
 mortised through the shaft, and the wheel is secured to 
 them by screw bolts. 
 
 We have recently made several patterns for wheels and 
 chutes of this kind, of different sizes, and had the wheels 
 made and set to work since the chapters on the overshot 
 and reaction wheels, in the foregoing part of this work, 
 were written. This will account for any discrepancies 
 between the above remarks and those made in former 
 chapters, as the wheel and application of the water are 
 new, so far as we are aware, and we have not yet had 
 time to calculate and reduce the velocities and curves 
 to a rule or standard whereby they may be theoreti- 
 cally computed. 
 
 There are many other varieties of central discharge 
 wheels, each kind being, like our own, recommended by 
 its inventor and patrons as the best. Most of these are, 
 as we have already said, supplied by a scroll water-way 
 extending clear around the wheel, generally a single 
 gate to admit and control the water : one kind that is 
 common in the Northern and Western States having 
 three gates, each having a scroll or water-way encircling 
 one-third of the circumference, and terminating close to 
 the wheel. This is a good wheel for a low head and 
 plentiful supply of water. Another that has come into 
 extensive use within a few years is called LefFel's Tur- 
 
Central discharge wheels. 
 
 137 
 
 bine, Fig. 29, and has twelve gates, and as many separate 
 water-ways; this wheel the makers claim to equal an over- 
 shot with any fall or quantity of water. We have never 
 seen this tested, but confess that we cannot see how a 
 
 small quantity of water with a great velocity, divided 
 into twelve separate streams, each impeded by a certain 
 amount of friction against its gate and directing chute, 
 can be a very economical application. On the other hand, 
 each of these chutes applies the water straight and direct 
 upon the opposing bucket, without the loss and friction 
 
138 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS.' 
 
 of conveying it around the whole circumference in a 
 scroll; and this peculiarity, with the excellent workman- 
 ship and material used in their construction, accounts 
 for the high reputation they have gained wherever they 
 are used.* 
 
 If we were urged to give a candid opinion, we would 
 say that the Leffel wheel ought to give as good a result 
 with a low head, and up to a moderate height, as any 
 other turbine with which we are acquainted, not except- 
 ing our own ; but with a high head and velocity, we 
 would back our own against it with perfect confidence. 
 We are confirmed in this opinion by another considera- 
 tion to which we have not before alluded, viz., that the 
 principle upon which the Leffel wheel is constructed 
 involves a diminution of size, and consequent increase 
 of velocity, proportioned to the increase of head of water. 
 This with a high head reduces the size of the wheel to 
 10, 8, or even 6i inches in diameter, and increases its 
 revolutions to twelve or sixteen hundred per minute, 
 which involves a reduction of speed by intermediate 
 machinery to enable it to drive mill-stones or other 
 heavy work. This, of course, is called gaining power, 
 being the reverse of the intervening machinery of the 
 overshot, for gaining speed, but both really waste power, 
 and the less machinery interposed between the wheel 
 and the work, the more will the power of the water be 
 transmitted to the work. The fact of these small wheels 
 running at such a velocity for years is a proof of their 
 superior workmanship. 
 
 Other central discharge wheels have perhaps twenty 
 or thirty of these chutes or water-ways. The direct 
 action wheel of Howd, and others similar to it, are ex- 
 amples of this kind. They answer well on large and 
 
 * These wheels are manufactured by James Leffel & Co., Spring- 
 field, Ohio, and by Poole & Hunt, Baltimore, Md. 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 139 
 
 sluggish streams which a£ford a plentiful supply of water, 
 with but little head, as by enlarging the size of these 
 wheels almost any amount of water may be used to 
 make up for the deficiency of fall; but they are not 
 suitable for a high head and small quantity of water. 
 
 There are many other central discharging wheels with 
 only one water-way or chute, which is made in a scroll 
 form, and of more or less capacity, diameter, and depth, 
 according to the head of water under which they are to 
 act, and the amount of power to be developed. Some 
 of these, like the wooden centre vent and the Tyler 
 wheels, work by the impulse of the water. Others, as 
 Riche's wheel, the Ring Wheel, and Little Giant, work 
 partly by impulse on the outer incline of the bucket, 
 and partly by reaction through the contracted inner 
 issues. There are probably not less than forty different 
 varieties of these wheels in use in this country, difiering 
 from each other only in some slight particular, and all 
 working on the same general principle of intercepting 
 the impulse of the water by the outer circumference of 
 the buckets, and delivering it at the interior, with the 
 impulse or velocity more or less appropriated and applied 
 by the buckets. And the degree oi perfection with which 
 the velocity is thus absorbed and applied, is the measure 
 of excellence of any particular wheel. 
 
 The wheels last mentioned are much used in grist 
 mills ; there is generally a wheel for each run of stones, 
 with the shaft geared to the spindle, either by cog-wheels 
 or a belt, although the gearing is frequently dispensed 
 with, and the stone placed directly on top, and the wheel 
 on the foot of the same iron shaft or spindle. These wheels 
 answer well with a moderate head and supply of water, 
 but should not be used where the quantity is limited 
 and head high, as in that situation they involve too much 
 
140 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 friction and waste. Neither should they be used where 
 the head is very low and the quantity ample, because 
 the principle does not admit of applying sufficient water 
 in such a situation, and the Jonval, the Leffel, the Howd, 
 or similar wheel with numerous chutes, which may be 
 adapted to almost any quantity of water, will answer 
 the purpose better. When the conditions above referred 
 to are favorable, these are a cheap, durable, and conve- 
 nient kind of wheel, although not well adapted to run 
 on a horizontal shaft. 
 
 When a millwright has decided to use this description 
 of wheel, he may in general select the particular kind 
 or name, according to his fancy, merely adapting the 
 capacity of the wheel to the particular site and work. 
 In doing this, regard must be had to the nature of the 
 stream ; some being comparatively clean and free from 
 floating obstructions, while others contain a variety of 
 rubbish which would choke the issues of some kinds of 
 these wheels, and be a continual source of annoyance, and 
 others, having a larger throat, would swallow and dispose 
 of everything that could get through an ordinary rack. 
 
 We have seen several Little Giants, which is an ex- 
 cellent wheel on a clean stream, condemned and taken 
 out because they would choke up with bark and leaves, 
 and even coarse sawdust, and require to be cleaned out 
 even ten times a day. These wheels were protected by 
 a rack so fine that it had to be cleaned much oftener 
 than the wheels ; and if this was neglected, the spaces 
 became so completely closed as sometimes to allow the 
 water to draw down in the flume, until the pressure 
 upon the rack crushed it completely in. This occurred 
 on the Trout River, in the State of New York. But 
 another mill on Norton Creek, using the reaction wheel 
 on the Fourneyron principle, with narrow issues, was 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 141 
 
 periodically clogged with eels every fall, at nearly the 
 same time. The dam was built across the outlet of a 
 marsh twelve miles long, and pretty wide, raising the 
 water about two feet over that whole area. The eels 
 took a fancy for migrating down stream from this pond 
 every year, at the commencement of winter. They 
 glided through the rcuih without any diflBculty, but the 
 result shows that they had not studied the nature of 
 fluids tJieoretically^ and their practical experiments had 
 never been extended as far as hydronamics, for they 
 always blundered and got entangled in the wheels, and 
 these would have to be stopped and cleaned out several 
 times in the course of a night. 
 
 When we used Barker's wheel we were frequently 
 annoyed by muskrats getting into the hollow arms and 
 closing the issues in a similar manner ; these had to be 
 chiselled out, as no provision was made for getting out 
 such obstructions, and we depended on a fine rack for 
 keeping them out, but the muskrats would either climb 
 over, or force through by bending the rods of which the 
 rack was composed, and their strength, as shown under 
 such circumstances, was astonishing. A convenient 
 scuttle should always be placed in such wheels, for theoe 
 reasons. 
 
 When these scroll-cased centre-vent wheels are used 
 for driving saw-mills, they are generally placed upon an 
 upright shaft, from which a horizontal shaft is driven by 
 bevel gearing, and the motion is taken from a drum on 
 this shaft to the pulley on the saw-arbor, or crank-shaft, 
 by a belt. Several saw-mills with Yankee gangs and 
 large circular saws are in operation on a small stream, a 
 branch of the Trout River, before mentioned. The up- 
 per one, Tucker's mill, with gang, large circular, and 
 clapboard machine, is driven with Little Giant wheels. 
 
142 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 with about 24 feet head; it is indifferently attended, 
 and does but little business. Goodwin's, half a mile be- 
 low, contains about the same amount of machinery, with 
 some 26 feet head, and is driven by Reynolds' turbines ; 
 these are probably as good wheels as any of the class, 
 and the mill being well attended does a good business. 
 The next is Rood's mill, a large circular and English 
 gate, driven by a Ring wheel, and a pair of Hildreth's, 
 with 1 3 feet head ; this mill does a good business for the 
 head of water. Jordan's mill, with Yankee gang, Eng- 
 lish gate, shingle and lath machines, and edger; this has 
 18 feet head, and is driven by the author's wheels, these 
 being on the crank shafts without gearing: the chute 
 admitting water to the gang wheel, taking 120 inches, 
 that to the English gate 60 inches, and to the wheel on 
 the vertical shaft, which drives all the other machinery 
 having two chutes, one of forty- two and the other forty- 
 eight inches area, in sections, either or both of which are 
 used as the machinery being driven is varied. The head 
 over these gates and chutes is only about fourteen feet, 
 which makes this a much smaller quantity of water in 
 proportion to the head, than any other mill on the 
 stream. Below this is Hare's mill, a gang and English 
 gate, driven by Rose wheels, a pair on each crank shaft, 
 with about ten feet head ; and Judge Adams' mill, a large 
 circular, clap-board, and shingle machines; these are 
 driven by wooden centre-vent scroll wheels, that driving 
 the circular having an ai'ea of chute of over four hundred 
 inches, with about eleven feet head. 
 
 The Ring wheel, driving Rood's circular, with thir- 
 teen feet head, measures 20x23=460 inches in the 
 throat of chute taken the same way. The others men- 
 tioned, we had no opportunity of measuring ; and the 
 reports as to the quantity of water admitted were so 
 
CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 143 
 
 conflicting, that they were not reliable — those given we 
 measured. 
 
 The Jonval wheel,* Fig. 30, although it discharges at 
 the centre, like those we have been considering, works 
 upon a different principle from them, and is rather the 
 tjpa of the Spiral Discharge Wheels next described. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 It is probably the best wheel in use for obtaining a 
 
 * Manufactured by Emil Geyelin, 15 S. Seventh Street, Phila. 
 
144 CENTRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS, 
 
 great and constant power from a large quantity of water, 
 either with a moderately high or low head. But where 
 the power requires to be varied, or where the quantity 
 is limited and the fall very high, it has some defects. 
 The LefFel wheel is better adapted to develop a variable 
 power, economically from the water, than the Jonval. 
 And the author's double centre-vent wheel, which ap- 
 plies the water in one straight unbroken chute, will 
 yield more power from a small quantity of water, with 
 a very high head, than either the Jonval or the Leffel 
 wheel. Under the last conditions, Barker's reaction 
 water wheel will also beat them. For experiments on 
 this subject see the article on " Barker's wheel." 
 
 The principle of the Jonval wheel applies the water 
 upon the whole area, from the central axis to the cir- 
 cumference, and thus admits of the greatest possible quan- 
 tity, while the spiral guide plates, by starting the water 
 in the direction of the wheel's motion, where the oblique 
 buckets intercept it and reverse its direction and dis- 
 charge, give it at the same time the utmost velocity 
 obtainable from the water. This peculiar combination 
 makes it probably the very best wheel in use for a low 
 head and constant quantity, but a great waste is the 
 consequence of diminishing the full power, by checking 
 the flow through the gate ; because the water must still 
 fill the guide scrolls and issues of the wheel, and the 
 power is thus only diminished by transferring a portion 
 of the force and velocity of the water from the wheel to 
 the gate beneath it. The great expense of this wheel is 
 another objectionable feature which precludes its use on 
 a small scale, and confines it mostly to large establish- 
 ments. The Jonval, like the Leffel and other crack 
 wheels, is so well advertised and known, that any 
 further notice of it or them here is quite unnecessary. 
 
SFIKAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 145 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 SPIRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 
 
 Theee are a great many varieties of spiral discharge 
 wheels in use, generally in pairs, upon horizontal shafts. 
 In this way they are well adapted for saw-mills, espe- 
 cially where the hfead of water is low, as the oblique 
 position of the floats or issues, tends to screw up the 
 velocity with which they revolve : like the vanes or 
 sails of a common wind-mill ; thus giving sufficient velo- 
 city to the first mover, and dispensing with intermediate 
 gearing. To understand this increase of velocity, ob- 
 serve a boy's toy wind-mill in a moderate wind; you will 
 see that it revolves with a velocity far greater than the 
 breeze that impels it. The reason is, that the vanes are 
 held and revolve in the same plane, with their oblique 
 face exposed to the same constant force, instead of flying 
 away from the win$l or receding before it, as in the case 
 of the various wind-wheels on vertical shafts, and others 
 that are driven direct before the wind. In this case the 
 velocity of the sail must be deducted from that of the 
 wind, and the remainder is all that can possibly apply 
 to the sail. 
 
 This is the reason why a vessel will sail faster with a 
 side wind than with it fair in the rear. When the 
 vessel is moving fast before the wind, nearly as fast as 
 the wind wants to follow, there can be but little force 
 exerted on the sails ; but when the wind is coming in a 
 direction oblique to that of the ship, the sails are con- 
 stantly pressed upon and filled, being held to the wind 
 10 
 
146 SPIRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS, 
 
 by the keel and rudder, as the sails of the ordinary wind- 
 mill are held by the shaft. This side pressure upon the 
 vessel, and end pressure upon the shaft of the wind- 
 wheel is much greater than the actual propelling force, 
 and this is also the case with the spiral discharge water- 
 wheel, and greatly increases the friction where a single 
 wheel is used upon a shaft. But when a pair of wheels 
 are placed upon the same shaft, facing each other, and 
 supplied with water between, then one balances the 
 other, and in this way they work well upon a horizontal 
 shaft, the water discharging towards each end, clear of 
 the wheels. But this arrangement, with a vertical shaft, 
 is not so economical, because a space must be allowed 
 beneath the lower wheel for discharge, then a considera- 
 ble space between the two, for a free supply of water for 
 both, and then the other wheel inverted above that, and 
 discharging upward. 
 
 All this causes a great waste in a low head of water, 
 and these wheels should not be used with a high head. 
 I have seen several wheels working in this way, when 
 the upper wheel was a hindrance rather than a help, as 
 the lower wheel had so much more pressure that it 
 threw the water out through the upper one, which acted 
 as a brake, besides diminishing the pressure upon the 
 lower one. In general, a better result can be obtained by 
 removing the upper wheel, and replacing it by a smooth 
 " lighter" of the same size. 
 
 A better way to place a single wheel of this kind is 
 to inclose the water-way clear to the shaft ; as this re- 
 duces the space for friction and waste of water to the 
 circumference of the shaft, instead of that of the outer 
 edge of the wheel. In every case the water-way should 
 lead in towards the side in a scroll form, so as to give 
 
SPIRAL DISCHARGE WHEELS. 14t 
 
 the entering water a revolving motion in the same direc- 
 tion the wheel is to move. 
 
 The simplest and perhaps the best way to place such 
 a wheel upon a vertical shaft, is to place it in the bot- 
 tom of the flume, and case it around as you would the 
 bed mill-stone in the floor. This insures the full and 
 free force of the water, and also prevents trouble from 
 frost, but where several wheels are used in the same 
 flume, each must have its compartment partitioned off, 
 and its gate, or some other arrangement for putting on 
 and off the water. This I have done by two small 
 hatchway doors, shutting one each side of the shaft, with 
 half size of shaft cut out of each. The first one is hard 
 to open, and hard upon the hinges. I have also hung 
 this by four slings, to two rollers across above the flume, 
 so as to swing back ; in this way one door is sufficient, 
 if you make a slit in it of the width of the shaft and 
 from the forward end to the centre. Swing this for- 
 ward, and it will cover the wheel, except the slit that 
 straddles the shaft. This must be filled by a stationarj" 
 piece, which is little interruption to the water, if the 
 cover is placed some inches above the wheel. This 
 arrangement works easily and is not liable to get out 
 of order. A separate compartment of flume for each 
 wheel is the best where it can conveniently be obtained. 
 
 The downward pressure of the water being added to 
 the weight of the wheel shaft, &c., in this arrangement, 
 makes a great friction upon the foot gudgeon, which 
 must be large in size, and turned out concave in the 
 end, and run upon a block of hard wood fried full of 
 tallow. Great care must be taken to admit the water to 
 it freely, as otherwise it will burn out in a few minutes, 
 even when quite deep in back water. 
 
 There is such a great variety of these wheels in use, 
 
14S SPIRAL WSCHAEGE WHEELS. 
 
 that it would be needless to try to enumerate them, and 
 useless to specify the slight modifications got up by the 
 different makers, and insisted upon by them and their 
 advocates, as being of the first importance, and the last 
 improvement. Equally useless would it be to detail the 
 controversies of these interested sticklers about angles 
 and curves ; as to what angle the issue or float should 
 form with the plane of the wheel — whether said issue 
 should be an inclined plane or a curve — and what curve 
 — and whether the issues should pass directly through 
 in a line with the axis, or with a draft towards the cir- 
 cumference, &c. &c. 
 
 It may be remarked, however, that the more oblique 
 the issues are, the nearer the wheel will run to the full 
 velocity of the water; and that, by giving the issues a 
 draft outward, like the reaction wheel, it increases the 
 inclined working area, without diminishing the internal 
 pressure or increasing the expense of water; and also 
 secures a slight advantage from the centrifugal force, 
 and a freer clearance from the discharging water. 
 
 In conclusion, we would advise those intending to use 
 such wheels, to select from those that have been tried 
 and approved, rather than incur the expense of novel 
 and untried improvements ; taking care to get them of 
 a suitable diameter and area of discharge for the work 
 intended; and remembering that they all give a dis- 
 charge greater when in motion than when at rest ; while 
 many of the central discharge wheels give less. This 
 fact must be borne in mind, in comparing or testing the 
 different kinds of wheels, with the view of replacing one 
 kind by another ; as some use more, and some less, than 
 the actual measurement of water. And lastly, remember 
 that these wheels are well suited to give a speedy, direct 
 
THE ROSE WHEEL. 149 
 
 motion, with a low head, and ample quantity of water, 
 but are not suitable for a high head, with only a limited 
 supply. 
 
 The Rose Wheel. 
 
 A very good modification of the spiral discharge 
 wheels last described, is much used in the Northern 
 States, and is called '• The Rose Wheel." This wheel is 
 made with open issues or buckets, passing obliquely 
 through it, like the former, but instead of all the issues 
 around its whole circumference being exposed to the ac- 
 tion of the water at once, like that wheel, the Rose 
 wheel is driven by a spout, or water-way, approaching it 
 in a line tangent to the wheel's circumference. This 
 spout or " boot," as it is called, is nearly straight, being 
 only curved at the end sufficiently to cause the water to 
 strike the two or three opposing buckets at right angles, 
 the peculiar curve of the buckets turning the water in 
 the opposite direction, as it passes through them. 
 
 This wheel is equally well adapted either for a high' 
 or low head of water, and either on a horizontal or ver- 
 tical shaft. It can be used either singly, or in pairs, 
 although a pair of these upon an upright shaft would 
 be subject to the same inconveniences as the spiral dis- 
 charge wheels in a like arrangement. That is, a space 
 under, for discharge, and a space between, for entrance 
 of water ; then the up-hill manner in which the upper 
 wheel discharges its water. These, together, are suffi- 
 cient to condemn that plan ; besides, a much better and 
 cheaper way is to put another equal discharge of water 
 upon the opposite side of the same single wheel. 
 
 This double chute I have used upon my central dis- 
 charge wheels, already described, the principle of which 
 is similar to these. It gives double power, with but a 
 
IJO SPIRAL, OR SCREW FLOOD WHEELS. 
 
 very small addition of either expense or friction, and 
 either one or both chutes can be used, as circumstances 
 may require. Both the Rose wheel and central dis- 
 charge wheel last mentioned answer well upon a crank 
 shaft for a saw-mill, although the double chute cannot be 
 used so economically with a horizontal shaft, as the 
 curved point of the chute in this case ought to terminate 
 at the lowest part of the wheel; and it is better to put 
 on a pair of Rose wheels, facing towards each other, with 
 a double boot between. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SPIRAL, OR SCREW FLOOD WHEELS. 
 
 These wheels are very seldom used or seen in this 
 country, and, in fact, they are but little known, and the 
 principle upon which they act but little understood or 
 appreciated, except as it is adapted to the spiral dis- 
 charge wheel, last described. Their principle of action 
 is the same as the screw propeller, which has in a mea- 
 sure superseded the paddle wheel in steamboats — the dif- 
 ference being that the propeller is driven round (re- 
 volved, by the steam-engine, and its oblique vanes forced 
 against the dead water behind, thus pushing forward 
 itself, and everything connected with it, while the screw 
 water wheel is located and remains in its place, and is 
 driven or revolved by the force of the passing current 
 against its oblique vanes, and transmits this motion 
 through the gearing to any machinery attached to it. 
 
 To comprehend this similarity better, take a screw 
 propeller, and place its axis upon suitable bearings, and 
 
SPIRAL, OR SCREW FLOOD WHEELS. 151 
 
 parallel with the stream in a strong uninterrupted cur- 
 rent, and entirely submerged, and it will furnish a mo- 
 tive-power to drive machinery — the amount of power 
 being in proportion to the area of the vanes, and the 
 force and velocity of the passing current. These remarks 
 are only intended to illustrate the similarity of the two 
 principles, and not to recommend the propeller as a suit- 
 able flood wheel, because the action of each being ex- 
 actly contrary to the other, like the steam-engine and 
 force-pump, requires a modification in structure and de- 
 tails, to fit either and each to its particular purpose. 
 
 We have put in several of these wheels to drive light 
 machinery sometimes in comparatively small rivers, and 
 never failed to get the full power calculated and re- 
 quired. As little could be learned from the experience 
 of others with regard to these wheels, we had recourse 
 to experiment, and found that much more power could 
 be obtained by making separate detached vanes or wings, 
 thinned ofi" at the edges — like the blade of an Indian 
 paddle — than by placing a close continuous thread of a 
 screw around the shaft the entire length. The reason of 
 this is, that the first or up-stream end of the solid screw 
 breaks the force and spreads the current, so that little or 
 nothing is gained by extending the screw and shaft fur- 
 ther down stream : while detached vanes, like those re- 
 ferred to, allow the water to pass on each side, which 
 keeps up a continuous flow of current clear to the shaft. 
 This current, though partially checked by the yanes, is 
 restored by mingling with the uninterrupted current all 
 around, and ready to act with full force upon other de- 
 tached vanes, placed further down on the shaft; and by 
 extending the shaft, and a judicious distribution of these 
 vanes, or paddles, along its whole length, a portion of 
 the force and velocity may be abstracted from a large 
 
152 SPIRAL, OR SCREW FLOOD WHEELS, 
 
 volume of water, and applied to any useful purpose, giv- 
 ing a power suificient for a grist or a saw-mill, or any ordi- 
 nary machinery. The whole-thread screw checks only 
 a volume equal to its own area, and does not get the full 
 benefit of that, owing to the dead water behind the 
 •vanes, against which they work. For some further re- 
 ference to these wheels, see the chapter on the Undershot 
 Wheel. 
 
 When such wheels are made to work in a rapid cur- 
 rent, the vanes may be set more obliquely in the direc- 
 tion of the stream; but for a current comparatively 
 slow, the ends should point nearly across the stream. In 
 all cases they should be " weathered" in regular propor- 
 tion as they approach the shaft (centre) ; that is, a kind 
 of mould-board twist — like the vanes or sails of a. wind- 
 mill — which gives to the inner end, moving slowly in a 
 small circle, considerable obliquity, and diminishes it 
 gradually towards the outer end, which moves swiftly and 
 in a large circle; and here the face of the vane, or sail, 
 ,«hould stand nearly in the direction of the plane of its 
 motion. This subject is referred to in the chapter on 
 the Spiral Discharge Wheel, and the subject of weather- 
 ing the vanes being fully discussed and explained in the 
 chapter on Wind-mills, need not be repeated here. 
 
 The motion is sometimes taken from these wheels to 
 the machinery by an endless chain, composed of alter- 
 nate open and close links, graduated to the same equal 
 step, and working around and connecting two clutch 
 wheels, one upon the wheel in the water, the other upon 
 the machinery to be driven. These have projecting 
 clutches or cogs around their circumference, at equal 
 distances, corresponding with the open links of the 
 chain, which step into these to prevent it slipping, like 
 the chains in a tread-horse power, or the feed chain in 
 
SPIRAL, OR SCp.EW FLOOD ■WHEELS. 153 
 
 a gang saw-mill. Light machinery may be driven by an 
 ordinary short link cable-chain, by turning out a groove 
 in both wheel and pulley for it to work in. If the chain 
 be short, or nearly perpendicular, it must be furnished 
 with a tightener, because it stretches fast, especially 
 when first used. There are so many links (joints), that 
 a little wear in each is multiplied considerably in the 
 whole length. If the chain be of some length, and 
 nearly horizontal, it will not require a tightener. We 
 have frequently driven four and a half feet burr mill- 
 stones with such a chain. It is not equal to a belt, for 
 swift, light motion, but answers well for a slow, heavy 
 motion, and can be used in the water, where a belt is 
 useless. 
 
 Such chain gearing, for the purpose under considera- 
 tion, answers well in warm weather, but is an everlast- 
 ing source of trouble in frosty weather, as it is continually 
 carrying up water sufficient to cover with ice everything 
 within the reach of its influence. For this reason it 
 is better to place a narrow-rimmed cog-wheel around the 
 down-stream end, and take the motion from this by a 
 pinion and shaft. This is more reliable at any time 
 than the chain, and gives no trouble with the ice, the 
 lower end of the shaft and pinion being — like the water 
 wheel itself — wholly under water; the only part exposed 
 to ice is at the surface of the water. The whole struc- 
 ture must be guarded by a boom, or breakwater, placed 
 obliquely up-stream above it, to shoot floating ice or 
 flood-wood past. If a gear wheel of large size be placed 
 on the water wheel, its arms should be placed at an 
 angle and weathered, like the vanes or paddles ; it will 
 then help as much as hinder the revolutions of the 
 wheel. 
 
 Mills of this kind, driven by the current of a river, 
 
154 SPIRAL, OR SCREW FLOOD WHEELS. 
 
 have been common in some parts of Holland for several 
 generations. These Dutch mills are sometimes built to 
 float upon the water, and can be moved at pleasure to 
 any other suitable locality. They are anchored in a 
 rapid of the stream, or made fast to the shore, and pro- 
 vided with a gangway to communicate with the land ; 
 when custom begins to fail in one place, they remove to 
 another ; and thus possess a decided advantage over mills 
 built upon terra firma. 
 
 The first machinery that we ever saw driven by a 
 wheel of this kind, was a grist mill of three run of 
 stones. It was built upon the Genesee River, perhaps 
 midway between the city of Eochester and the AUegha- 
 nies. It was before the Genesee Valley Canal was made, 
 and boats passed up and down the river past the mill. 
 The mill was built with one end on the bank, which 
 was perhaps twenty-four feet high ; here the door com- 
 municated with the road ; the other end projected over 
 the river, and was supported upon naked posts. In the 
 rapid under this projecting end of the mill the flood- 
 wheel was placed. A bevel pinion, without arms, was 
 placed upon the down stream end of its wooden shaft, 
 and another wooden shaft, with a corresponding pinion 
 gearing into the first one, stood up perpendicularly from 
 this end, both shafts having their bearings in the same 
 wooden block ; this perpendicular shaft reached up to 
 the mill floor, and had a large spur wheel at the proper 
 distance from the upper end, around which the three 
 run of stones were placed, and by which they were 
 driven. 
 
 The shaft of the water-wheel was eight or nine feet 
 long, and fifteen inches in diameter. The screw was of 
 one continuous thread, standing out something over two 
 
SPIRAL, OR SCREW FLOOD WHEELS. 155 
 
 feet from the shaft, and was composed of pieces two and 
 a half or three inches thick ; each piece being narrow at 
 the end next to the shaft, and spreading out wide at 
 the outer end, to close and complete the circuit. They 
 appeared to have been split out of a winding or twisted 
 tree, which gave nearly the required weathering or 
 mould-board shape, with little dressing, and the narrow 
 end of each piece was tenoned and morticed into the shaft. 
 A wide bar of iron was bent and fitted to the proper shape, 
 and spiked securely around the outer edge of this continu- 
 ous screw, thus fastening the outer ends of all the pieces 
 composing it together, and making one piece help another. 
 This wheel was inclosed in a plank box, open at both 
 ends and top, except when a large gate closing the 
 whole up-stream end, was shut down to stop it. This 
 stopped the current through the box, and the wheel 
 stood still ; when the gate was raised, the current was 
 renewed, and the wheel started. 
 
 When we were at this mill, it had been idle three 
 weeks, on account of back water ; the waters were abated, 
 and it had just started. It was situated near the head 
 of the Genesee Flats — these extend along the river for 
 twenty miles, and average four miles in width — when 
 the spring freshet comes down from the AUeghanies, it 
 first fills the river channel, which is from twenty to 
 thirty feet deep, and then floods the whole flats to the 
 depth of several feet ; this causes dead water at the 
 bottom of the channel, and accounts for stopping the 
 wheel, and thus explains the mystery. 
 
156 MILL DAMS. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MILL DAMS. 
 
 A VERT important appendage to almost every mill is 
 the dam, and the failure of the dam from defective con- 
 struction, or other causes, has spoiled more mill specula- 
 tions, and ruined more mill owners, than any other defect. 
 
 It is in many situations a very expensive item, and in 
 some it is exceedingly difficult to make a dam that will 
 stand ; there are such differences in situations, and such 
 a great diversity of surroundings to be taken into account, 
 that it is impossible to give any general rule or direc- 
 tion that will apply in every case. The situation and 
 circumstances must determine, in a great measure, the 
 materials of which it should be constructed : whether of 
 logs or stones, of timber and pl'ank, or earth, or of part 
 or all of these combined ; and the solving of the pro- 
 blem, how, and of what materials to construct a dam, to 
 be most economical and safe, is often the most severe 
 task and test of the experience and ability of a mill- 
 wright. Still it is quite common for a man of good 
 sense and judgment in other matters, to imagine that 
 little skill or experience is necessary to construct a dam, 
 and with the assistance of a few laboring men, he will build 
 his dam, at the same time that he employs experienced 
 millwrights to do the rest of the work. But it is need- 
 less to say much on this subject, as some will see and 
 acknowledge the truth of these remarks at once, while 
 others will only be taught by the expensive school of 
 experience. 
 
MILL OAMS. 
 
 157 
 
 We will proceed to describe several different plans 
 for constructing dams with different materials, and begin 
 with Log Dams, Fig. 31. These, in a locality wherv 
 
158 , MILL DAMS. 
 
 timber is plenty, are cheapest, and easiest to build. If 
 the bottom be rock or other good foundation, begin by 
 laying a large log across the stream, at the down-stream 
 face of the intended dam, this you will extend from 
 bank to bank, by laying one log at the end of another, 
 having each piece as long and large as possible, taking 
 care to clear away everything that will wash out from 
 under, and where hollow places occur, put short logs 
 across under, so as to give it a safe foundation. Then 
 put short logs across this six or eight feet apart, their 
 butt ends lying upon the log and their top ends upon the 
 ground, up stream from this ; you will now place another 
 tier upon these, above and parallel with the first one, 
 but inclining slightly up stream ; then another set of 
 short ones, their butts upon the last tier, and top end 
 upon the ground beside the first cross ties. These must 
 be a little shorter than the first ties, to admit of laying 
 a smallish log on the ends of the first ones, and up into 
 the angle formed by the second ones ; you can now lay 
 "skids" upon these small logs, and proceed to roll up your 
 third tier of large logs, along the faces. Care must be 
 taken to notch them a little where they cross each other, 
 to insure their laying safely, or block them secure with a 
 stone or piece of wood where the small ends come. 
 
 Your next tier of ties must be notched well down at 
 the small or up-stream end, and you must proportion 
 your two parallel tiers of logs and these ties, so that the 
 front or breast will rise enough faster than the rear, to 
 keep it like a portion of an arch, and have the cob-work, 
 when finished, fit the rafters ; that is, the larger tier of 
 logs at the breast should support the rafters near the 
 top, while the smaller tier at the rear, should support 
 them near the middle, and the lower ends of the rafters 
 rest upon the rock or bottom. It will be seen that a 
 
MILL DAMS. 159 
 
 breastwork, so constructed, is like a portion of an arch 
 or circle, of which the foot of the rafter is the centre, 
 and the front of the breastwork the circumference ; and 
 the more weight is put upon it the stronger and more 
 solid it becomes. Care must be taken not to carry it 
 too high, or steep, for the length of rafter (or radius), as 
 in that case the force of water behind might slide it 
 away in a body. 
 
 If logs are convenient, this may be covered with them, 
 like rafters, touching each other, taking care to fit them 
 well and chink the cracks. The moss on trees and old 
 logs, in damp places, is good to chink these cracks, as it 
 grows and increases in such a place, instead of washing 
 out. Cedar bark, pounded soft like oakum, is also good. 
 Such a covering requires but little gravelling to make 
 it tight, as the pressure of the water forces the packing 
 down into the seams formed by the round logs, where 
 it is not easy to wash it out, or displace it by any other 
 means. 
 
 Such a dam is cheap, strong, and durable, where there 
 is a constant supply of water ; but on small streams 
 liable to dry up in summer, and allow the logs to dry 
 and heat and check, they very soon rot, and are there- 
 fore not to be recommended for such a situation. 
 
 Where logs are not so easily obtained for covering, 
 place rafters about three feet apart, upon the cob-work, 
 with the butt ends down, and plank crossways upon 
 these as in Fig. 32, using thicker planks near the 
 bottom, if the dam is deep, while thinner ones will 
 answer near the top, except where the water is intended 
 to run over, where strength is required to withstand the 
 ice, flood wood, &c. The lower planks should be scribed 
 down carefully to the bottom, and all the others bevelled 
 about one-eighth of an inch off the upper or inside 
 
160 MILL DAMS. 
 
 corners, and halfway through to allow dirt to get in to 
 make it tight; the ends should be sawn open inside 
 
 Fig:. 32. 
 
 also. If the plank were partly seasoned, and put on 
 with pins, each pin being draw-bored a little, to pinch 
 the plank tight, then a little gravel along the bottom, 
 and a little sawdust stirred in when the water is first 
 raised, will make it tight. Pinning and draw-boring is 
 a tedious process, however, and it is more common now 
 to spike the plank on and cover with gravel. 
 
 Great care must be taken with this, as with every 
 other kind of dam, to splice it securely on to the bank, 
 at each end, and one principal consideration should be 
 to attach it in such a way, that, as the dam settles down 
 (as it certaiply will, to some extent), it may settle on to 
 the bank, and secure it as much as possible against frost, 
 &x\di noi away from it, to cause a crack. These ends, 
 
MILL DAMS. 161 
 
 and the place where the waste water runs over, are the 
 most diflBcult parts to secure. 
 
 So far, we have supposed the dam to be built upon a 
 rock, .or other good bottom, and in such a situation 
 there is little trouble with the waste water; but upon a 
 soft bottom it is a very different affair. A carefully 
 constructed chute and apron are then indispensable; and 
 in some bottoms, composed of sand or mud, it is neces- 
 sary to drive piles to a great depth, and across the whole 
 breadth of the river, to get a foundation suflBcient for 
 building a dam. In one instance a double tier of these 
 piles was driven by machinery, the first twenty-five 
 feet long, and the second row breaking joints upon these, 
 fifteen feet long; these were driven into the quicksand 
 with the lower ends slightly inclined up stream, and the 
 tops bolted to a stick of timber. Upon this the dam was 
 built, composed of crib-work of timber filled with stone 
 at the centre, each end being flanked by a wing of frame- 
 work, rafters and plank. The whole channel, for some 
 distance above, was filled up with "fascines," and the 
 banks below were protected by the same means. 
 
 These fascines are small bundles of brusnwood, tied 
 up by three withes, about a foot apart. They are 
 placed in courses like shingles, each course overlapping 
 another, the upper end inclining down stream, and each 
 bundle fastened down by three stakes. These stakes 
 are three or four feet long, the small end sharpened and 
 a pin hole bored through the butt end, in which a pin 
 about eight inches long is driven. These stakes are 
 thrust through the fascines, one at each withe, and in 
 an oblique direction, being enterea above the withe, and 
 passing through below it at the under siae. They are 
 driven down by wooden mauls, until the pin comes upon 
 the withe, and hugs the whole bundle down tight. 
 11 
 
162 MILL DAMS. 
 
 Another dam, in a similar situation, was afterwards 
 built, without the pile work, the bottom and edges being 
 protected by fascines alone ; this dam has now stood for 
 many years, and appears to be safe and durable. And 
 yet another was made by rolling in loose stones, large 
 and small, just as they came, mixed plentifully with 
 pea-straw, until the channel was filled completely up, 
 and formed a rapid. This last stands equally as well as 
 the others, except that a large tree imbedded in the bank, 
 which was not discovered at the time, caused a small 
 break the first season. 
 
 These dams are all upon large streams emptying into 
 Lake St. Peter, in Canada, near the sandy north shore 
 of which lake they are constructed. It is worthy of 
 remark, that all these streams carry a large amount of 
 sand and mud in solution in their waters, especially 
 during freshets, which very soon fills all the interstices 
 in these fascines, or pea-straw and stones, and renders 
 the whole mass solid and compact. This result would 
 not take place in a stream where the waters were clear 
 and free from sediment, and the filling would have to 
 be supplied as the work progressed. 
 
 A very good way to make a foundation for a dam 
 upon a soft bottom where timber is plentiful, is ta lay a 
 tier of long logs lengthways of the stream, and touching 
 each other all the way across, and build the breastwork 
 of the dam upon the up-stream end of this causeway, 
 allowing the rafters and covering to run down past the 
 end, to prevent the water from getting under it. The 
 down-stream end forms the apron for the waste water to 
 strike over upon. Care should be taken to fit the foun- 
 dation logs well dowti, as they will not accommodate 
 themselves to inequalities in the bottom, like the stones 
 and straw, and they should be placed as low as possible 
 
MILL DAMS. 163 
 
 to insure their being always wet, and thus protected 
 from decay. 
 
 In a locality where stone is plentiful, a stone dam 
 may be the most suitable. There are several ways of 
 constructing these. Where the foundation is good they 
 may be built nearly perpendicularly on the face, an 
 incline of two inches to the foot being sufficient. The 
 back part may be carried up with considerable incline, 
 making the wall quite thick at the bottom, and then 
 filled up with earth behind, so as to make the surface 
 considerably flat. In this case a bond timber should be 
 built into the wall several feet from the top, on the up- 
 stream side, and another along the top, and the space 
 planked between these, at least as far as the water is 
 intended to run over ; otherwise the force of the water 
 will carry the earth over near the top, and displace the 
 stonework. The best and safest way is to place rafters 
 upon the stonework, and plank upon these, the same as 
 with a log or frame dam. 
 
 The following is an excellent method of constructing 
 a stone dam, where the bottom is not fit for an upright 
 face, like the last mentioned. It requires a good deal of 
 material and labor, with little other expense. Commence 
 by laying a tier of large flat stones across the stream, 
 below the point intended for the brink of the dam, then 
 fill to the level of this tier for a considerable distance 
 up stream, with gravel or stones of any size or shape, 
 anything in fiict that will not wash or waste away. 
 Now lay another tier of flat stones across the stream, as 
 before, on the top of the first tier, but receding up 
 stream ; say six inches from the edge of the first, if the 
 stones are thin, and more if the courses are thick, calcu- 
 lating for each course according to the thickness, to bring 
 the declivity equal ; fill up level on the up-stream side. 
 
164 MILL DAMS. 
 
 by dumping in as before, and it is ready for the third 
 course. Thus proceed, step by step up stream, until the 
 dam is of the required height, when a slight coat of good 
 earth will complete it. The water may run over such 
 a dam the whole length, and is, therefore not liable to 
 wash the earth over, as it will where it must all run 
 over a narrow apron. Such a dam, when completed, 
 and the water running over, has the appearance of a 
 natural fall over a ledge of rock, being so thick at the 
 bottom, and the water flowing down the incline, broken 
 by the steps or ledges of the diflferent courses, makes it 
 the safest and most durable dam that can be made. 
 Another very important consideration in favor of this 
 kind of dam is, that the dam is complete and safe at 
 any height ; it may be built only a few courses high 
 the first season, and when time and circumstances are 
 favorable, it may be increased again and again, until it 
 is completed; while almost any other kind of dam 
 requires the expense and labor for its full completion 
 to be laid out at once, before it can be used, or even 
 tried with safety. 
 
 Any stone dam is stronger and safer to be built with a 
 slight bow or arch up stream, the ends being well set 
 into the banks, which answer for abutments. This form 
 directs the overflowing water towards the centre of the 
 channel, thus saving the banks from washing, and in a 
 dam like that last described, where the water is flowing 
 over the whole length, it has a very fine appearance. 
 
 Any kind of dam is stronger and safer to be curved a 
 little up stream, but when built of wood, either frame 
 or logs, or cribwork, this form is more difficult to con- 
 struct than a straight line ; for this reason, as well as its 
 being the shortest, the latter is generally preferred. 
 
 There are several diflferent ways of constructing 
 
MILL BAMS. 
 
 165 
 
 frame dams. Where the bottom is good and level, 
 frames may be made in a triangular form like a drag, or 
 new land harrow. These are placed with the narrow 
 end up stream, three or four feet apart, and in a line 
 from bank to bank, and planked up along the upper 
 angle. If the bottom is good these may be placed upon 
 it without any further preparation ; but if soft or uneven, 
 a tier of timbers must be laid down across the whole 
 distance, one under the point, and another under the 
 wide or down-stream end of these triangular frames for 
 a foundation, as in Fig. 33. 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 In situations where these foundation timbers are 
 found to be necessary, the following plan will be more 
 economical. Place one tier of timber across the stream 
 at the breast, or down-stream side, another tier at the 
 up-stream side or foot of the rafters, and a third tier in 
 
166 MILL DAMS. 
 
 the middle between these. Frame posts into the down- 
 stream and middle tier of timbers, to support another tier 
 above and parallel with these, the posts slightly inclined 
 up stream ; the first tier of posts being sufficiently long 
 to raise the timber they support, to the intended height 
 for the top of the rafters. The posts to raise the centre 
 timber to be framed of proper height to range with this 
 last and the bed piece under the foot of the rafters. This 
 arrangement gives three supports for the rafters, at the 
 foot, top, and centre ; and by notching the rafters slightly 
 down upon these points, it binds the whole framework 
 together sufficiently strong when the planking is fastened 
 on, and the weight of water comes upon the whole, to 
 make it safe and secure. This is probably the cheapest 
 and easiest way of making a frame dam, as the timber 
 requires very little preparation, and the work of framing 
 is comparatively small. 
 
 A strong and substantial dam may be made of crib- 
 work, filled with stones. This is made by placing 
 two tiers of timber parallel with each other, at a proper 
 distance apart, and dovetailing ties across between them 
 at certain distances to bind them securely together, and 
 then filling the space with stones. The sides are built 
 up with some incline, and it is planked on the up-stream 
 face to make it water-tight, beginning at one end and 
 running the plank down endways to the bottom, and 
 spiking them on to the cribwork. 
 
 This dam can be pushed across a stream where the 
 water cannot be got rid of, or is too deep to build other 
 kinds with advantage. A portion of tbfe crib can be 
 built in the water at its place, or on the water at a more 
 convenient place, and floated to its destination, and 
 sunk with stones. We have seen such a dam built 
 across a large river, above an old dam, and in the dead 
 
< MILL DAMS. 167 
 
 water of the pond. The cribs must be open at the 
 bottom, and the stones being tumbled in loosely, settle 
 down into the inequalities of the bottom, and keep it 
 secure. Even if the foundation should wash out in 
 parts under these cribs, the loose stones will settle down 
 into the cavity and fill it up, and all that is required is 
 to fill the crib again with stones to the surface. This 
 dam may be planked over the top, and is then safe with 
 any quantity of water flowing over it. 
 
 In some situations, and under certain circumstances, 
 an embankment of earth is the best and cheapest dam. 
 "We have built such dams where the embankment was 
 almost completed by ploughing and scraping, requiring 
 only a little earth wheeled or carted on to finish it. 
 Care must be taken to provide a good waste or flood- 
 gate, to allow the water to pass off freely during the pro- 
 gress of construction. A neglect of this precaution 
 caused the writer much loss and trouble with his first 
 dam of this kind. "We turned the water out of the 
 channel above the place, and carried it past in a ditch 
 along the bank, and then placed a tube at the lowest 
 part, under the embankment, to carry off the leakage, 
 intending to have a dam perfectly tight ; as it was a 
 small stream, although subject to sudden floods. Twice, 
 during the process of construction, a heavy rain caused 
 such a flood that a large portion of the earth was swept 
 away, and it was with much difiiculty that we succeeded, 
 the third time, in getting the waste wier completed for 
 the safe overflow of the water, when the third freshet 
 occurred. Since that, we have always placed a flood- 
 gate the first thing, in commencing such a dam ; by 
 placing the bulk-head frame and gates on an incline of 
 45 degrees, or even less, it may be gravelled and made 
 perfectly tight, and is of great use after the dam is fin- 
 
168 MILL DAMS. 
 
 ished, in relieving it during a freshet, or in emptying it 
 for repairs, &c. 
 
 Great care and some experience are required in the 
 construction of the waste wier for such a dam, as the 
 frost, by heaving up the earth at each end, is almost 
 certain to raise and displace the timbers and planking 
 of the wier, and allow the water to work under. The 
 best method of securing such a wier, or similar connection 
 between earth and woodwork, is the following : Dig a 
 trench across the wier, canal, or whatever it may be, deep 
 enough to be below the frost, and a safe distance into the 
 bank ; place a stick of timber in this trench, and spike a 
 tier of plank on it, of such length as will reach nearly 
 to the surface. Place a similar stick across at the surface, 
 over the top of these planks, and place another tier of 
 plank flat against the first, breaking joints with them, 
 and spike this last tier to the upper stick. The first 
 tier of plank being fastened at their lower ends to the 
 stick at the bottom, and below the frost, will remain 
 there, while the other tier being fastened at their upper 
 ends to the stick at the surface, will rise with that stick 
 when the frost heaves up the earth and ice ; but as the 
 two tiers of plank overlap each other, the surface, timber, 
 and plank attached to it may be disturbed, while no crack 
 or leak can occur so long as the lower tier remains in- 
 tact, and the lap is maintained. This will be found 
 the simplest and safest way to connect a spout or flume 
 with a ditch or canal, in any situation that is liable to be 
 disturbed by frost. 
 
 An earth dam or embankment of this kind should be 
 raised a considerable height above the highest limits of 
 the water ; and it will add still more to its security to 
 cover it with straw, boughs, or brush, to encourage the 
 snow to lie upon it in the winter. 
 
MILL DAMS, 169 
 
 We have seen dams made of cribs of timber, similar 
 to those already described, but instead of being filled 
 with stones, and planked on the up-stream side, the 
 compartments were filled with earth. These are not 
 always reliable ; the water is very apt to find a way 
 along the cross-ties, or under them, as these prevent the 
 earth from settling and packing equally ; besides, this 
 plan furnishes a favorite resort for muskrats, as these 
 mischievous animals work more under such cribs than 
 in a bank composed entirely of earth. Where stones 
 cannot be had to fill such cribs, and the stream is too 
 large to depend on an embankment of earth, the follow- 
 ing plan will make a safer and better dam : Clear and 
 level the bottom as well as possible for a distance of 
 about twenty-five feet, and from bank to bank, and set- 
 tle down three tiers of timbers, their surface level with 
 the bottom, and about ten feet apart. If the bottom be 
 soft mud or sand, the centre tier of timbers should be 
 piled, by driving down planks as deep as they can be 
 driven, along the up-stream side ; these planks should be 
 grooved and tongued, as they will keep the line, and 
 drive better ; they must also be sharpened like a cold 
 chisel, at the lower end, and the advanced comer 
 bevelled off about one-third of the width of each piece. 
 This bevel, with the help of a handspike stuck into the 
 ground and crowded against the outer edge, will keep 
 the tongue in the groove, and insure each piece driving 
 in line and in its proper place or position. If the planks 
 are narrow and not very long, they can be driven by a 
 heavy maul, or otherwise a light tripod or derrick that 
 can be easily moved along as the work advances, may 
 be fixed with a pulley or other contrivance to work a 
 ram. The piles must be spiked to the sill. 
 
 A range of posts the height of the intended dam, must 
 
170 MILL DAMS. 
 
 be framed into the middle and up-stream tiers of timbers, 
 if the stream be small and the dam not very high, but 
 if more than eight or nine feet, or a very large stream, 
 posts should be framed into the third course of timbers 
 also. These posts require a plate along the top, and 
 the lower tier must be well braced from the down-stream 
 side. The framework thus constructed must be planked 
 on the inside, and the space between the two filled with 
 earth ; earth may also be filled in along the up-stream 
 side, next the pond, until it approaches the surface, and 
 slanting back into the pond at an angle of 45°. The 
 space from the middle to the down-stream tier of sills 
 must be planked, for an apron for the water to fall over 
 upon from the waste wier and waste gates. This apron, 
 where the bottom is soft, must be further extended down 
 stream, to protect the foundation from washing. For a 
 high dam, or large stream, the third or down stream 
 mudsills should have posts framed and planked like the 
 other two, thus making a second compartment to be filled 
 with earth ; and in this case other sills must be placed 
 further down stream, for the apron and support for 
 bracing. 
 
 A great deal of care has been taken to ram down and 
 pack the earth in filling in a mill dam, but this is all 
 labor in vain, as the water will saturate and soften the 
 whole mass like porridge, and in this condition it will 
 settle and pack more equally if the water can be run 
 down once or twice after the earth is thoroughly wet. 
 Unless this is done no earth dam can be depended on 
 for any considerable time. 
 
 Probably the most substantial and durable dam that 
 can be made, is that composed of large blocks of stone, 
 cut and fitted, with close joints, and these composed of 
 water-proof cement. Such a dam, as already intimated, 
 
MILL DAMS. 171 
 
 is made stronger by being made circular, the top of the 
 arch up stream, and the seams of the different strata or 
 courses, should incline or be lowest up stream ; that is, 
 these seams should run back at a right angle from the 
 face, or inclined front of the wall, instead of horizontally, 
 as in ordinary walls. This inclined bearing of the 
 courses is necessary for stability, for the same reason 
 that the face of the wall is inclined, viz : the pressure 
 being all from the up-stream side. 
 
 Such a dam requires great care in clearing and starting 
 the foundation, and splicing it into the banks, and also 
 in protecting the ends from injury from the effects of 
 ice and frost ; as such stonework conducts the frost to 
 a much greater depth than wood. The expense of 
 building such a dam, even under the most favorable 
 circumstances, is too great to admit of its general use 
 for ordinary mills, and restricts it to large establishments 
 in cities and villages, where the value and amount of 
 business will warrant so much outlay for a dam. 
 
 Piers of some kind are often, although not always, 
 required at the ends of a dam, to make a safe splice to 
 the bank, or to protect the bank from washing away in 
 case of great freshets or floods. These are generally 
 made of timber, in the form of cribs, nearly perpendicu- 
 lar on the face next the stream or main dam, and on 
 the up-stream side. These two faces are planked water 
 tight; the other sides are of a shape to correspond with 
 and splice to the bank, whether that be of rock or earth, 
 the crib being strongly built and bound together with 
 cross-ties, and the whole interior filled with earth or 
 stones. 
 
 Such piers are only required, when from the nature 
 of the bank, a tight substantial joining cannot be made 
 between it and the main dam ; as when the bank is 
 
172 MILL DAMS. 
 
 composed of a seamy or shelving rock, or a loose, friable 
 sand, or other soil. Of course the situation must deter- 
 mine the size and form of such a pier, but the height 
 must always be considerably above the highest water 
 known or expected. This precaution is rendered neces- 
 sary by the excessively high freshets which are known 
 to occur in almost every stream in this country, as the 
 forests around their sources become cleared off, and the 
 land along their courses levelled and smoothed down by 
 cultivation. 
 
 While the forest remains in its primitive condition, it 
 not only prevents, by its shade, the snow and rain from 
 melting and evaporation by the sun and wind, but it 
 also causes the earth to absorb and retain the moisture 
 like a great sponge. The leaves, which cover the ground 
 like a thick carpet, commence the process of absorption, 
 which the soil completes by the help of the trees. To 
 understand this, we have only to observe the action of 
 these trees during a storm ; as the top and trunk are 
 swayed to and fro by the wind, the roots and soil as far 
 as these roots penetrate are heaved up and let down 
 alternately, until, if the tree is not overturned, tearing 
 up the roots and earth with it, the soil is at least loosened 
 and rendered sufficiently porous to drink up the rain 
 and melted snow, which is gradually let off by springs 
 or otherwise, into the swamps and streams. The heights 
 and hollows made by turned-up roots of trees also tend 
 to prevent the water from flowing freely off the surface 
 of the forest; while these are all demolished by the 
 plough and harrow, and furrows and ditches, and every 
 facility is given the water to run off as speedily as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 The clearing of the forests and the cultivation of the 
 soil are the true causes of the manv old mills to be seen 
 
MILL DAMS. 173 
 
 in some parts of the country, idle and in ruins, that were 
 formerly busy with life and the hum of machinery. The 
 old channels are nearly or quite dry at midsummer and 
 midwinter, and are filled to overflowing during freshets ; 
 and for the same reason people now find it necessary 
 upon some rivers, to build their bridges higher, their 
 dams lower, and their booms and breakwaters strdnger 
 than formerly. 
 
 These booms and breakwaters are necessary to direct 
 and control the logs and timber, and also in some cases 
 the ice and floodwood. It requires much experience 
 and good judgment to locate these properly, but after 
 their plan and position are decided upon, there is little 
 skill required in their construction. The breakwaters 
 are generally piers or cribs of timber filled with stone, 
 and of sufiicient strength to withstand the current, with 
 the ice and floodwood, and also the strain upon the 
 booms which are fastened to them. The booms are 
 made in various ways, according to circumstances : whqn 
 merely intended to stop bodies floating upon the surface, 
 a single stick is sufficient; when intended to intercept 
 an undercurrent, then several sticks, one above the 
 other, are required. A good and simple way to make a 
 surface boom is to make it of single and double sticks 
 alternately, choosing the largest sticks for the single 
 ones. To connect them together, bore two large auger 
 holes through each end, about six inches apart, and 
 mortise the piece between, taking care to have the pairs 
 of equal length. Place the sticks with the end of the 
 single one in the middle, the others on each side, with 
 the mortises all in line, and drive a good hard wood 
 slat through the three, with a pin through each end. 
 Where the boom is intended to rise and fall by the ebb 
 and flow of the water, the pins should not pass through 
 
174 MILL DAMS. 
 
 the timbers, but only through the slats, so as to allow 
 the splices to yield, and the boom will accommodate 
 itself to the surface of the water or ice, the fastenings 
 at the ends being allowed a little play for that purpose. 
 The sticks composing such a boom may be squared, or 
 left round ; they ought at least to be flattened on the upper 
 side, for convenience of walking upon them, and it will 
 add considerably to their safety to spike a tier of plank 
 along the top of the timbers, the whole length. 
 
 Another appendage to the dam is the apron or slide. 
 This is always necessary where logs and timber have to 
 be run over, but upon a rock bottom, where no timber 
 is to be run over, the apron may be omitted. Upon 
 all bottoms of earth or loose stones, some kind of apron 
 must be interposed to break the force of the waste water 
 falling over, otherwise it will eventually undermine 
 the foundation and destroy the stability of the dam. 
 When only required to protect the bottom and founda- 
 tion, it will be best to make it flat upon the bottom, by 
 placing long timbers across the stream, and covering 
 these by cross timbers or strong planks pinned or spiked 
 on, lengthwise of the stream. Unless this last covering 
 runs back under the dam, it will be necessary to extend 
 it up along the breast of the dam, at least far enough to 
 prevent the water from dashing back under, and dis- 
 turbing the foundation. On a small stream, not subject 
 to great floods, this apron need not be the whole width 
 of the channel, but on large streams that are subject to 
 great freshets, it is best to have the waste wier as 
 wide as possible, as the extra width allows the increased 
 quantity of water to pass over with less perpendicular 
 rise. 
 
 Where a chute or slide is required to facilitate the 
 passage of timber, it ought not to be made wider than is 
 
MILL DAMS. 175 
 
 required to pass the cribs safely, as it is desirable to 
 have a good depth of water, and the entrance to the 
 chute must be lower than the rest of the dam ; of course 
 the narrower that entrance is, the greater will be the 
 depth of the water in it, and this lower entrance can be 
 raised to the level of the rest of the dam at low water, 
 by movable flash boards, to be removed when a flood is 
 expected. The slide may be a single inclined plane if 
 the dam be not very high, but on very high dams, two 
 or more of such inclines, with a fall or jog between, are 
 better; as these falls tend to break the force of the 
 water, and thus diminish the velocity of the passing 
 timber, and let it over more safely. 
 
 These slides require to be strongly made of good 
 timber, well pinned or bolted, and upon substantial 
 cobwork, well secured with cross-ties. If the founda- 
 tion is rock with a decline or fall below, these cribs may 
 be suflBcient without filling ; but upon a loose foundation, 
 or one subject to back water, the foundation might be 
 undermined, or a whirlpool or eddy formed by such a 
 chute entering the deep back water, might lift the whole 
 fabric, and carry it away entirely. (This I have seen.) 
 In such a situation, the cribwork must be completely 
 filled with stone, which will protect it against either of 
 these casualties. 
 
 The movable flash boards mentioned above, are a 
 valuable addition to almost every dam, especially where 
 there is any deficiency of water. The main dam is 
 made considerably below the high-water mark, to allow 
 the surplus water to pass during a freshet, then by 
 placing pins or other supports at proper distances apart, 
 along the brink of the dam, a tier of plank of any 
 suitable width may be placed on edge against the sup- 
 ports, and made tight; this will raise the water over 
 
176 MILL DAMS. 
 
 the whole surface of the pond the depth of these planks. 
 The extra head thus acquired is a good help when 
 water is scarce ; besides the extra quantity retained, for 
 we must remember that an inch or two on the surface 
 of a pond often contains as much water as a foot near 
 the hottom. Whenever high water is expected, these 
 flash boards can be removed and laid aside until again 
 wanted ; the supports may be left in some situations, in 
 others they require to be removed. Where much 
 timber, logs, or ice pass over a dam, a good piece of 
 timber should be fitted and well fastened along the 
 whole brink of the waste wier, and also across every 
 point of the slide where the timber, &c., breaks over ; 
 these sticks take the wear and tear, and when worn out 
 can be replaced by new ones, and thus protect the per- 
 manent timbers of the dam. 
 
 In some cases the water continues low and stands so 
 near the same level during the severe winter weather, 
 that the ice gets firmly attached to the whole surface of 
 the dam, and if a sudden rise of water should occur 
 under such circumstances, it would raise the ice, and 
 most likely a portion of the surface of the dam with it. 
 To prevent such an occurrence, the ice should be cut 
 loose from the dam occasionally, and kept clear, espe- 
 cially when a thaw is anticipated. When the ice 
 becomes very thick and strong it will sometimes crack 
 or otherwise injure a dam by contracting during a 
 sudden and severe cold term, and for this reason alone 
 it should be occasionally cut loose during the winter, as 
 it will then give way at the weak line, where it has 
 been cut, and save the dam from injury. 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. IT? 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 The English Gate. 
 
 The business known as the "Lumber Business" is 
 so extensive and varied, and its ramifications penetrate 
 and extend throughout all the subdivisions of this vast 
 continent to such a degree, that few, if any, of the 
 other branches of trade can equal it in magnitude. But 
 with all the different divisions of this vast trade we 
 have little or nothing to do, excepting the simple pro- 
 cess of sawing the different kinds of logs into the various 
 grades of lumber. The almost infinite subdivisions 
 which these grades have now assumed, from heavy tim- 
 bers and planks, down to laths, shingles, veneers, and 
 even matches, with the innumerable variety of machines 
 which human ingenuity has devised to facilitate the 
 manufacture of all these, would fill a volume as large 
 as this is intended to be, though merely giving the very 
 shortest intelligible description of them all, which would 
 be a feat that no single individual could ever hope to 
 accomplish. We will therefore only attempt to describe 
 a few of the most important, and begin with the common 
 "English Gate." 
 
 When nothing more than a single gate is intended to 
 be put in, the frame is generally about forty feet long, 
 by twenty feet wide; the lower story from eight to 
 eighteen feet high, according to the height of the banks, 
 and the head of water. Two sills are first placed in posi- 
 tion, with five posts in each, the two up stream, and the 
 12 
 
]'.S 
 
 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 two down stream pairs having beams framed across be- 
 tween them, and well braced; the centre pair has no 
 
 beam between them, as it would be in the way of the 
 pitman. A nair of "streak sills" are framed on to the 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 179 
 
 top of these posts, and three cross-timbers dovetailed 
 into these streak sills, one at each end, and a very heavy 
 stick, called the fender sill, across the middle. A pair 
 of posts and a beam, of moderate size, are raised upon 
 each end sill, and a large pair of posts, with beam to cor- 
 respond, called the fender beam, raised over the large 
 centre sill ; this heavy centre bent is called the fender 
 bent, because the fender posts, upon which the saw-gate 
 works, are attached to it. A pair of plates placed upon 
 the top of these second story posts will complete the 
 frame ready for the rafters ; girths are put in around 
 the frame between the posts, both above and below, at 
 proper distances, to which to nail the upright board 
 covering ; this is the simplest and cheapest frame that 
 can be made for a common saw-mill. When the mill is 
 intended for two gates, or more machinery of any kind, 
 the frame must of course be larger, and other posts and 
 beams must intervene between those mentioned, and 
 another stick of timber must be framed in between the 
 large centre post and the corner post, at a proper height 
 for the log way, with a short post between it and the 
 plate to receive the end of the extra beam. Some prefer 
 placing studs between the posts, at proper distances, to 
 nail to, and to put the boarding crossways and clap- 
 board over these. 
 
 The flume may now be put in, and for a foundation 
 for it and the machinery, place two large mud sills 
 lengthways of the building running down stream past 
 all the machinery, or as far as the building extends, and 
 up stream at least several feet past the water-wheel, the 
 further the better and under the bed timbers of the flume. 
 
 If the bottom be rock, these mud sills require only to 
 be fitted to it, but if composed of loose stones or earth, 
 flattened sticks will have to be placed under them, and 
 
180 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 sunk into the foundation, one across under the crank- 
 shaft, and others at proper distances up and down 
 stream; these, if the foundation be not safe, may extend 
 across the whole width of the building. These mud 
 sills must be placed at the proper situation and distance 
 for the plumb blocks upon which the crank and journals 
 of the water wheel revolve, and must correspond with 
 the saw gate and carriage above. The bed timbers of 
 the flume may now be placed with one end on these 
 mud sills, about two feet back from the crank-shaft, 
 leaving room for the baulk head posts, which must be 
 framed down into the mud sills with strong double 
 tenons, and either dovetailed and keyed, or well pinned, 
 or both — as one end of the binders which hold the crank- 
 shaft and wheel in place, is framed into these posts. 
 The bed timbers run up stream to the head gates, or 
 the whole length of the flume. Sills, posts, and caps are 
 then framed of the requisite height and width to corre- 
 spond with the baulk head posts, and placed upon these 
 bed timbers, three or four feet apart, according to the 
 strength required to withstand the head of water, and 
 this portion will be ready for planking. The baulk 
 head posts require two or three girths framed across 
 between them, and a cap across their top; this cap must 
 have a recess rabbited out of the under side and up 
 stream corner, to form a bearing for the ends of the 
 front planking, which go up and down instead of across, 
 like the rest, and the cross girths for the same reason 
 must be near the outside of the baulk head posts, to 
 allow the ends of the side planks a hold upon these 
 posts. The breast girths should be made with double 
 tenons, one to go across the outside of the post, the 
 other into a mortise about two inches from the face of 
 the post, and fastened to it by a bolt ; this secures the 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 181 
 
 requisite space inside the posts, and also preserves the 
 full strength of the girth. 
 
 This whole structure must be placed some distance 
 up stream from the line of the fender sill and beam, 
 because the fender posts are attached to that up stream 
 side, and the friction guides, upon which the gate works, 
 bring it still further up stream ; and this point must be 
 ascertainedj and a plumb line hung from the centre of 
 the lower bar of the gate, where the pitman is attached, 
 will indicate the spot for the centre of the crank and 
 shaft. The baulk heads must be placed some dis- 
 tance further off, so that the bearings cut in the plumb 
 blocks and binders, for the crank and journal, may not 
 be too close to the end. These plumb blocks and bind- 
 ers may be four to six feet long, and of a size propor- 
 tioned to the bearings; a tenon may be made on the 
 one end, and let into a mortise between the double 
 tenons on the foot of the baulk head posts, and a facing 
 may be cut in these posts, as deep as the dovetail facing 
 of its own tenons, without impairing the strength, and 
 the grip of the binder in this facing will help the tenon, 
 and add to its strength and stability. 
 
 The baulk head must be stayed by long braces from 
 the mud sills up into the posts, and pieces of good hard- 
 wood dovetailed into the mud-sills at the proper distance, 
 with key ways mortised through the top, to key down 
 the other ends of the plumb blocks and binders, which 
 have a slit cut out of that end of each to straddle these 
 pieces ; another key is driven down between the shoulder 
 of that slit and the upright piece to hold all solid against 
 the baulk head. 
 
 This plan answers well enough where little power is 
 employed, but where the mill runs strong, and strikes 
 quick, it is not sufficient, and another pair of posts 
 
182 SATV-MILLS. 
 
 should be set up in place of the short starts, to hold the 
 plumb blocks and binders. These should run up as high 
 as the flume, and have a cap across the top to corre- 
 spond with the flume caps ; then a trimmer stick can 
 be run in between these caps and the overlays support- 
 ing the floor and carriage, which answers the double 
 purpose of holding the under works down, and support- 
 ing the upper. If the mill be large, these posts should 
 be continued at proper distances upon the mud sills to 
 the end of the building, and two trimmers placed along 
 the top of these and each side of the flume, the whole 
 length of the building. A good hardwood girth should 
 be framed in between the baulk head posts and the next 
 pair, about half way up, and right over the binders, so 
 that an extra short post can be keyed in between it 
 and the binder to hold all secure. 
 
 The long braces from the mud-sills will, in this arrange- 
 ment, be put into these other posts, at or near the cross 
 girth just mentioned, instead of into the baulk-head posts, 
 as in the other case. The plumb blocks and binders may 
 also be framed with a large tenon, to pass through a 
 mortise in these posts, instead of the slit, &c., in the 
 other arrangement, and a transverse key-way mortised 
 through each, at these posts, to hold them firmly in 
 place. 
 
 For planking a flume, it is necessary that the planks 
 should be straight on the edges, although it is not im- 
 perative that they be jointed with a plane ; a good saw 
 joint, although it may not be perfectly water-tight at 
 first, will soon become tight if properly made. There is 
 more or less of foreign matter carried in solution along 
 with all running water, even in the purest spring, the 
 particles of which are so minute that they cannot be seen, 
 but pass freely along with the current, where nothing 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 183 
 
 obstructs it ; but when arrested in their progress, they 
 come in contact, adhere and accumulate, forming slime, 
 moss, and incrustations upon the bottom and sides of 
 the channel, which soon become water-tight. Now if a 
 seam occur between the square edges of two planks, that 
 seam will be as wide at the outside as the inside (the 
 outside being dry it will be widest), and anything that 
 enters the crack will pass through; but suppose you 
 bevel the inside corner of these planks off so that the 
 seam will be open on the inside an eighth of an inch, 
 leaving a part at the outside square and close, then the 
 seam will be contracting or funnel-shaped, admitting 
 these particles to enter, but pinching them tighter as 
 they pass through, and that seam will soon be, and re- 
 main, perfectly tight. We have seen a flume planked, 
 only running off the inner corner of the seam with a 
 drawshave, and spiking them on, the ends being sawn 
 bevelling the same way, to leave the joints open inside. 
 When the water was first let in it leaked like an old 
 basket, but by shovelling in a lot of sawdust, it became 
 quite tight in a few minutes. 
 
 The water ways to convey the water from the flume 
 to the wheels, as well as the gates for opening and clos- 
 ing these, with the modes of working the latter, will 
 depend upon the kind of wheel used, and more informa- 
 tion may be found in our detailed description of the dif- 
 ferent wheels. 
 
 The water way for the old flutter wheel is a curve, 
 the circle of which coincides with that of the wheel at 
 the bottom, or termination, but gradually recedes from 
 the wheel as it rises, to about the centre of the wheel, 
 where this " compass fall" commences, and is the width 
 of the "throat" away from the wheel. Thus only a 
 portion of the water is intercepted by the first float or 
 
184 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 bucket, the rest passes on to the next one, which inter- 
 cepts a little more, and so on until the last bucket catches 
 the whole ; this absorbs the force of the water gradually, 
 and at the same time maintains its velocity and facili- 
 tates the discharge. The gate for this is a piece of thick 
 plank the length of the chute, and somewhat wider, 
 with the thick edge next the chute bevelled off and 
 slightly rounded, to encourage the entrance of the water. 
 A shank is fastened to this at the centre and well braced, 
 a mortise is made in the end of the shank, and a lever 
 passing through a roller, or having some other sufficient 
 fulcrum, is placed with one end in the mortise of this 
 shank, and the other end has the gate handle above 
 attached to it ; by moving this handle in one direction 
 the gate is opened, by the reverse it is closed. This 
 gate is generally made to slide upon the bottom of the 
 Hume, and shut against the lower breast girth, which 
 for this purpose is made deep, and thinned away on the 
 lower edge to the shape of the wheel, to allow it to ap- 
 proach close enough to the chute. 
 
 Nearly all the various iron wheels which are used in 
 pairs and supplied by water through a curb or scroll 
 between them, require a free communication with the 
 flume, to maintain the full pressure of the water ; and 
 therefore the gate which controls these must be of large 
 area, and cannot be made to slide upon the bottom or front 
 of the flume, like the last. It is generally made nearly 
 square, and hung upon an axle near the centre ; one end 
 being enough longer than the other to insure its incli- 
 nation to shut. The long end is moved back into the 
 flume, while the short one is forced into the spout, and 
 the water passes on both sides of it ; when turned back 
 to its other position it closes the entrance ; sometimes it 
 is moved by a stem attached to the gate, at others by 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 185 
 
 gearing attached to the axis. This large gate, although 
 turned edgeways in the aperture, still obstructs the en- 
 trance of the water, and to obviate this it is sometimes 
 hung by iron slings working in eye-bolts, and also by 
 wooden slings attached to one or more rollers. In either 
 case, these slings sustain the pressure of the water, and 
 allow the gate to be swung off the entrance, leaving no 
 obstruction to the water. All these varieties are worked 
 by stems and levers, attaching them to the gate handle, 
 which must be convenient to the saw and feed works, 
 and varied according to circumstances. 
 
 The head gate is a necessary appendage to every 
 flume, to admit or shut off the water, and especially so 
 for a saw-mill, where so many contingencies are liable 
 to occur, requiring the water to be shut off for their pro- 
 per adjustment. This gate should be large, to admit a 
 full and free supply, without losing any of the head, 
 which will always be the case if the gate be too small. 
 It should also open easily, because it often has to be shut 
 and opened in a hurry, and with little help. To insure 
 both of these requisites, it will be best to make two 
 gates, joining at a post in the middle ; if these be large, 
 or the head of water considerable, a small scuttle may 
 be cut in one or both of these, and covered by a small 
 gate, which is easily opened, to allow the flume to fill 
 up (the gates below being closed) when the main gates 
 can easily be lifted. They are generally made to slide 
 up and down the baulk-head, which sustains them, and 
 moved by a lever, a rack and pinion, or windlass, attached 
 to the upright stem ; this stem, however, is liable to be 
 frozen solid into the ice, and difficult to loosen in an 
 emergency, and for this reason some prefer to hang the 
 gates upon iron hinges, at the upper edge ; they are then 
 totally under water, and out of the way of the ice, ex- 
 
186 SAW-MILLS, 
 
 cept a cLain which is attached by a ring or eyebolt to 
 the lower edge, to open or shut it. There is scarcely 
 any part of the whole structure so liable to be neglected 
 and out of order as the head gate ; and no part so 
 likely to be wanted on a sudden emergency. A gate may 
 get wrong and refuse to shut, or a stick or other obstruc- 
 tion may get into it, or a break may occur somewhere, 
 or a person fall in, or other contingency requiring the 
 water to be shut off instantly ; therefore it should be 
 made and kept in a condition to be easily and quickly 
 shut down ; and again, it is frequently necessary, when 
 the water is thus shut out, for a person to go down into 
 the flume, sometimes under the ice, or into the wheel 
 curb or spout, where a speedy retreat is impossible, and 
 certain destruction the consequence, if the head gates 
 should give way. 
 
 Three instances of this kind have occurred near where 
 this is written, one the season before last (1867), on 
 the Chateaugay Eiver just above the celebrated falls. 
 A man named Josiah Bull crept into the curb supply- 
 ing a pair of the Hildreth wheels to fix something in- 
 side ; the head gates, which were known to be insecure, 
 gave way, and although he was very active, and said to 
 be the strongest man in town, yet so great was the velo- 
 city and force of the rushing water, that he was unable 
 to escape. The owner of the mill had been in the same 
 curb a short time previously, and remarked to Mr. Bull 
 when he came up, on the danger of the situation, if the 
 head gates should have given way. Mr. Bull answered, 
 " You would certainly have got a ducking ; but I would 
 have cut the planking of the curb outside and let you 
 out before you drowned." The owner's presence of mind 
 so far forsook him, when the dreaded catastrophe actu- 
 ally occurred, that instead of doing this he ran to the 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 187 
 
 top of the bank, which was very high, calling to Mr. 
 Bull's brother for help. When the brother got there he 
 cut the curb open directly, but it was too late, and 
 Josiah was dead when taken out. 
 
 Another instance happened, when five men and boys 
 lost their lives. This flume was decked or planked 
 overhead, the head of water being higher than the lower 
 story of the mill, and a ventilator about sixteen inches 
 square was carried up to a height a little exceeding that 
 of the water, to relieve the strain or concussion of the 
 water when the gates were closed. The water was 
 shut off at the head gates, and several men were at 
 work in the flume, some other men and boys had also 
 gone down into it from curiosity, when the head gates 
 gave way, and instantly packed the whole flume full of 
 water, driving several persons up the ventilator who 
 happened to be near the bottom of that tube, and were 
 thus rescued, while five of the number perished before 
 any assistance could be rendered. 
 
 The other incident referred to had a less tragic 
 termination. We were gearing a new double saw-mill, 
 which was built at the down-stream end of an old one ; 
 the flume in the old one had lately been renewed, 
 and we continued it further on to supply the new one, 
 leaving the old head gates in the mean time just as they 
 were. We had started one saw gate in the new mill, 
 but the swing gate closing the entrance to the wheel 
 curb shut so suddenly and so tightly, that the vacuum 
 collapsed, or sprung a piece of plank loose inside the 
 throat, and the owner shut down the old head gates, 
 which had not been renewed when the flume was, and 
 persuaded an active young man, a cousin of mine, to 
 enter and fasten the fugitive plank. He had just slid 
 himself in feet foremost, and flat on his back, when the 
 
188 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 head gates gave way with a tremendous crash, and 
 
 Mr. B. scrambled up the ladder and left the young 
 
 man to his fate. His own activity, however, and the 
 length of the flume, enabled him to get out and clutch 
 one arm around the post, to which the gate was slung, 
 just as the water struck the baulk head; and being in 
 a corner, the whirl or eddy of the water struck his legs 
 and body, and carried him round and round this post 
 as it filled the flume, bearing him to the surface, when 
 my brother, who had run to the rescue, caught and 
 dragged him out, his clothing and skin pounded and 
 peeled by the square corners of the post and contact 
 with the planking. However, he escaped with his life, 
 and is now foreman of the Lake Champlain Steamboat 
 Company's Works at Shelburn Harbor, Burlington, 
 Vermont 
 
 But this is another digression, from which, however, 
 some useful hints and suggestions may be gleaned and 
 appropriated by some persons, which I will plead as a 
 partial excuse, and endeavor to get back to the machi- 
 nery. 
 
 If the crank shaft be iron, the wheels, whether one or 
 a pair, should be bored out to fit the shaft, and fastened 
 in their places by a steel key ; but if a wooden shaft, 
 it must be made large enough to fill the opening through 
 the wheel. If the original stick be not large enough, it 
 can be pieced up to the size, and turned ofi" to the exact 
 shape of the opening ; the wheels must be wedged on 
 solid and true, to run tight to the curb or chute with- 
 out leakage or friction. When the flutter wheel is used, 
 three rims are generally made around the shaft, with 
 openings into which the floats are fitted, then an iron 
 band of the exact size is heated to enlarge it and make 
 it slip on easily, and shrunk on around each rim, to 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 189 
 
 strengthen it and hold the floats iu their pxace. These 
 rims are made of hardwood plank, as many pieces as 
 there are floats in the wheel, and each piece being an 
 equal portion of the whole circle, with a tenon on the 
 narrow inner end to go into a mortise in the shaft, and 
 a piece cut out of one corner of the wide outer end to 
 admit the float. The floats are about four inches wide 
 by two and a half thick, the face next the water 
 flat, and the back rounded off to a half circle ; this form 
 helps to shed the back water. These wheels are some- 
 times made altogether of iron, with the three rims of 
 cast iron, ke^'^ed to an iron shaft, and the floats of bar 
 iron, with a half round piece of wood fastened along 
 the back of each, to improve their shape. 
 
 Formerly a simple crank of wrought or cast iron was 
 used without any balance, the wrought crank having a 
 square or flat shank let into the wooden shaft; this is 
 done by cutting two slits out of the wood, the length 
 and width of the shank, each slit or recess at right angles 
 with the other (not opposite). The shank is laid in 
 through one of these to the centre of the shaft, and 
 three iron bands put on. Then make three hardwood 
 keys for each, of such breadth and thickness as will 
 exactly fill each recess ; place two keys in each, with 
 the thick ends behind, and enter the point of the third 
 one between these two, and drive it home ; the centre 
 key should be left longer than required, as the battered 
 end requires frequently to be cut off and the driving 
 resumed. A ram made by hanging a long hardwood 
 stick by two chains, and in the right position to gtrike 
 these keys, when it is drawn back and pushed forward, 
 will be the best driver, as it should be very tight. The 
 cast-iron crank has wings like a gudgeon, and is laid and 
 secured in the shaft in the same way. 
 
190 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 Some kind of balance is now almost invariably used, 
 with reciprocating saw movements of every description. 
 To understand the benefit of the balance upon a crank, 
 we must consider the great weight of the gate, the 
 pitman, and feed works, with all the irons connecting 
 these, together with the saws and their hangings, and 
 that the combined weight of all these is attached to the 
 crank. Now, when the crank is set in motion, all this 
 weight has to be alternately raised up and jerked down 
 again, and that with a speed equal to the motion of the 
 saw, and this velocity is so great, that when the gate is 
 going up, it would continue right on up through the 
 roof if not held back ; but this upward stroke must not 
 only be instantly stopped, but reversed, and the whole 
 fabric sent down again with the same velocity and force. 
 Here again, it must be stopped and reversed, and so 
 continually, for every stroke of the saw. This uses up 
 a large proportion of the power applied to every kind of 
 saw gate, and shows the expediency of making the gate, 
 pitman, and every other part of these reciprocating 
 movements as light as possible, to be safe; and then 
 balance the weight of these, as near as may be, by a 
 balance weight attached opposite the crank pin.^ 
 
 It is by dispensing with the weight of the gate, or 
 sash, as it is sometimes called, and the corresponding 
 diminution of weight in the pitman and other fixings, 
 which the arrangement admits of, that enables the 
 " muUey saw," i. e. saw without, a gate, to strike so much 
 faster, and do so much more work with the same power, 
 than the English Gate. 
 
 The mulley arrangement, however, is subject to the 
 very serious objection, that no provision is made for 
 straining or tightening the saw ; the saw has therefore 
 to be stiffer and of course thicker, on that account, than 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 191 
 
 the common English gate saw. This extra thickness 
 cuts a wider saw draft through the log, and thus causes 
 both a waste of timber and a waste of power to make 
 this greater quantity of sawdust. The mulley must 
 also be hung and maintained accurately in every 
 respect, and set and filed perfectly true, requiring a first 
 class sawyer to keep it in proper working order. The 
 ordinary catch sawyers, that will keep and run a saw 
 well enough when strained tight as a fiddle string in a 
 heavy gate, would make bungling work with one of 
 these. 
 
 It will be found true therefore in theory as well as in 
 practice, that although it is not best to hang a saw in a 
 gate that would require two men to lift it, and with a 
 pitman as heavy as the gate, neither is it best to hang 
 it without a gate altogether, and with only a strip of 
 two inch plank for a pitman. Common sense would 
 seem to indicate a medium somewhere between these 
 two extremes ; and instead of straining a saw with the 
 whole strength of the stirrup irons, or running it with- 
 out any strain, we have always obtained better results 
 by using a light gate, made of light, elastic wood, and 
 suflBcient to give the saw a reasonable degree of tension. 
 
 Another point upon which a great diversity of opinion 
 exists is, the proper length of the crank. A certain 
 bias obtains among millwrights and mill owners in favor 
 oi short cranks, for the reason that a quicker stroke is 
 given by these, than by longer ones, other things being 
 equal ; it being a popular boast to have a " smart" or 
 quick striking mill. 
 
 This prejudice does not exist to the same extent 
 among sawyers ; experience soon teaches them that the 
 faster any gate strikes, the more trouble it is to keep 
 things in order; and, also, that the quantity sawed does 
 
192 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 not depend upon the number of strokes, but upon the 
 velocity of the saw. In other words, two strokes of a 
 twelve inch crank are equal to three of an eight inch 
 one ; two strokes of a fifteen inch crank are equal to 
 three of a ten inch, performed in the same time. If 
 this were all they would be equal, but the three strokes 
 have six stops and reverses, or six corners to turn, while 
 the other has only four; and it is these reverses, not the 
 cutting of the wood, that use up the greater part of the 
 power applied. To explain this, we will suppose an 
 engine upon a railroad, with a light train, or rather 
 attached to a single car, and required to move that car 
 over so many thousand feet of track in an hour. When 
 the engine started it would jerk pretty hard upon the 
 coupling to start the car, after which a slight steady pull 
 upon the coupling would soon carry it over the given 
 distance. But suppose, that instead of being allowed to 
 continue right ahead along the line to complete the given 
 distance without a stop, it should only go ten feet and then 
 reverse, and go back over the same ten feet, and so con- 
 tinuously until the given distance was made. We can 
 scarcely imagine the increase of power which this would 
 require, or the excessive wear and tear it would involve 
 upon the whole concern, particularly the couplings and 
 buffers, and how much it would increase all the disad- 
 vantages to shorten the range of movement still more, 
 or how much it would relieve it and assist in accom- 
 plishing the given distance, to lengthen the range, say 
 to fifteen feet, which (like the lengthened crank) would 
 make two reverses equal to three. 
 
 But this is a mode of reasoning for the long crank, 
 which all sawyers may not be able to appreciate ; I will 
 therefore give others in its favor for their (the sawyer's) 
 especial benefit. When a saw has a long range of 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 193 
 
 stroke, it moves faster in proportion as the range is 
 lengthened, and every tooth is made to cut nearly its 
 equal proportion along the whole face of the saw ; this 
 wears upon all the teeth nearly alike, and the saw is 
 easily kept straight and in order, besides which every 
 tooth has a chance to discharge its sawdust either above 
 or below the log, at each stroke. But with a short stroke 
 the middle teeth must do nearly all the work, the end 
 teeth never entering a small log at all, while the middle 
 teeth are never out of a large one, and have no chance 
 to discharge the sawdust, which clogs and heats the saw. 
 The middle of the saw in this case, does all the work, 
 and has a constant tendency to wear hollow in the 
 middle, while the end teeth, which get no wear, require 
 constant stripping, gumming, and filing, to keep them in 
 line with the middle ones ; and where the short crank is 
 used, and more especially when the logs are of small 
 size, sawyers are in the habit of cutting off several of 
 the end teeth, to avoid this extra labor. 
 
 The pitman for an ordinary English gate is generally 
 about six by nine inches at the lower end ; and four by 
 seven at the top ; a piece about two feet long is left full 
 size at the butt or lower end, with a hole through this 
 part about nine inches from the lower end, the size of 
 the crank pin or wrist. This hole is extended up in 
 the form of a mortise, about eight inches long, and square 
 at the upper end, and a box fitted into it circled out at 
 the lower end to fit the crank-pin, and with a space left 
 at the upper end for a key to be driven through to tighten 
 the box as it wears loose. The head of this key may 
 be left long to drive again, but the point must be cut off 
 close every time, as it would interfere with the balance 
 when it comes round. 
 
 An iron strap or clasp is put around ttie pitman at 
 13 
 
194 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 the centre of the box to keep it in place, and strengthen 
 the pitman. This clasp is made in two pieces, to admit 
 of its easy removal, the screwed ends of one piece pass- 
 ing through the other, and tightened by nuts on the 
 outside. Another wTiole band is sometimes heated and 
 shrunk on the extreme lower end, but this leaves the 
 end too square to work well, if there is any backwater; 
 and it is better to cut the end down to a kind of thin 
 point, and put a bolt through near the point, and two 
 others up near the wrist hole ; it is sometimes necessary 
 to bolt through above the key mortise also. 
 
 The upper end is finished by commencing at the full 
 width of six or eight inches, and about twenty inches 
 from the end, and tapering it down from this point on 
 both sides to the thickness of the noddle pin at the end 
 (working from a centre line struck upon both sides) ; it is 
 left the full thickness the other way, and one or more bolts 
 are put through to prevent its splitting. The noddle pin 
 is fastened on by an iron strap, about four inches wide, 
 bent over it and running down along the tapering edges 
 of the wood to the wide part. This strap has a mortise 
 through each end about an inch wide and three or four 
 long, and a mortise is made through the wood to corres- 
 pond with these ; three iron keys are made to fill these 
 mortises, two of them are placed in the mortise and the 
 third one driven between them, the mortise in the wood 
 being lower than those in the iron, to cause it to draw 
 and tighten. A screw bolt is put through near the top 
 to keep the strap in place ; the hole through the wood 
 being enlarged downward to allow the strap to be 
 •tightened by the keys. The wood should be thinned 
 away from the end of this strap downwards, to lighten 
 it; it may also be thinned away from above the crank 
 key upwards, but it should be the full width at about 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 195 
 
 one-third the length upward, as the swing of the crank 
 might cause it to spring. As the strain upon it the 
 other way is but trifling, it may be bevelled from the 
 centre lines almost to an edge. 
 
 The pitman is generally made of hard heavy wood, but 
 a thrifty little spruce, grubbed up by the roots, makes a 
 very good one ; it being light and stiff, and with the root 
 for the lower end, and well made and ironed, will 
 answer a good purpose. The noddle pin being secured 
 by the middle to the pitman, as described, a pair of 
 wooden boxes, about six inches long, are fitted on to 
 each end of it, and these boxes are fitted on to the under 
 edge of the lower cross-bar of the gate. An iron strap 
 passes over this gate bar, and down through the ends of 
 each pair of these boxes, and the nuts on the lower ends 
 of these straps being tightened, secures the whole to the 
 gate, while the round ends of the noddle pin, working 
 in these boxes, allows the pitman the necessary play. 
 The length of the pitman must be graduated exactly to 
 agree with the carriage, fender posts, and everything 
 else affected by it above. The simplest and safest way 
 to get the length, is to raise the gate up to the highest 
 point of its intended stroke ; and turn the crank up also 
 to its highest range, and take the measure with a pole. 
 Of course, the lowest range of both being found, if more 
 convenient, will give the same result. 
 
 The above is a common way of making and attaching 
 the pitman to an ordinary crank, driven direct from the 
 water-wheel without gearing. For a geared mill, driven 
 by a belt, or otherwise, and clear of the water, the lower 
 end must be provided with metallic or wooden boxes, 
 easily removed and replaced, and with some provision 
 made for oiling ; almost every millwright of note has a 
 different way of attaching these. 
 
196 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 The gate or sash consists of two upright stiles, and 
 two cross-bars, between which the saws are hung and 
 strained. It is generally made of hard wood, although 
 some light wood that is stiff and elastic, such as spruce, 
 is preferable, particularly for the upright stiles. There 
 are many different ways of putting these together, vary- 
 ing with the notions of the maker, and some of these are 
 very fanciful ; some compose the cross-bars of several 
 different pieces framed together with braces and slings 
 and other contrivances to combine the requisite strength 
 with lightness ; these are generally better examples of 
 ingenuity and patience, than of utility. The saw is 
 attached to the lower bar by two iron stirrups around 
 the bar at the centre, and between the two straps of the 
 noddle pin boxes. These stirrups should be long enough 
 to come about three inches above the bar, and should 
 be slipped on it before the gate is put together. The 
 lower end of the saw is slipped in between these, and 
 held by a " lug-pin" put through a hole drilled near the 
 end of the saw for its reception. The upper end is se- 
 cured in the same way by two stirrups passing over the 
 upper bar; these, however, are open above, the ends 
 being screwed and passing up through two strong pieces 
 of iron, with nuts above for tightening the saw. 
 , A strong spring, three feet long, or more, is fastened 
 by one end to the top bar of the gate, the upper end 
 being attached by a mortise and pin to the point of the 
 feed pole. The gate is attached to the fender posts by 
 four pairs of wooden boxes, one at each corner, clasped 
 around the friction rods, or guides, and bolted to the 
 gate. These guides are of iron, of sufficient length for 
 the intended stroke, turned or planed true, some round, 
 others square, and bolted firmly to the fender posts. 
 The fender posts are of large square timber, and are 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 197 
 
 let into a notch cut out of the fender beam and sill 
 about two inches deep, and wide enough to admit the 
 post, with a dovetail key on each side for its ready ad- 
 justment and security. The posts have a notch cut out 
 behind, opposite the beam and sill, four inches deep, and 
 two inches wider than the depth of the beam and sill. 
 A hook tenon is made at the top of each of these notches, 
 by leaving the first two inches cut out of the post two 
 inches lower, and cutting out the next two inches clear 
 to the highest mark. A mortise is made in the top of 
 the fender beam and sill, at each place, two inches back 
 from the face, and two inches wide and deep, to receive 
 these hook tenons,. The fender posts are then raised up 
 until the tenons will slip back over the top of the beam 
 and sill to their respective mortises, and dropped down 
 into their places; a key is then driven in upon the 
 shoulder under the beam and sill, which keeps them 
 firmly in position. 
 
 The feed pole, before mentioned, is ten or twelve feet 
 long, about three by four inches at the big end, which 
 is put through the rocker, by a tenon, or secured to it 
 by joint-bolts ; the small end about two by three inches, 
 is put through the feed spring on top of the gate, by a, 
 loose tenon, with a pin through to allow it to play. As 
 this small end is carried up and down by the motion of 
 the gate, it imparts a reciprocating rocking motion to 
 the rocker. The rocker is a piece of wood about eight 
 inches square, and of any convenient length, with journals 
 and bearings at each end to admit of motion and keep 
 it in place. It is placed overhead at a convenient dis- 
 tance beyond the wrag-wheel, and besides the feed pole 
 already mentioned, it has four standards mortised into 
 its under side, each being two inches square, and two 
 inches apart. These are connected together at the other 
 
198 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 (lower) end, for greater strength, and one end of the 
 connecting bar is slipped through the two inch space be- 
 tween these standards, and a short two inch piece or 
 pin thrust through the end of that bar, at right angles, 
 and in the contrary two inch space between the stand- 
 ards. This allows the end of the connecting bar to be 
 let down to the end of these standards, which gives it a 
 very long stroke, or taken up close to the rocker, which 
 gives a very short one ; and by fixing a lever overhead, 
 with the short end connected with this movable end of 
 the connecting bar and the long end at the fender post, 
 the feed can be varied by the sawyer at will. 
 
 The evener for an English gate is generally a lever of 
 the first kind : that is, the fulcrum or bearing is passed 
 through it near the middle, while the hand that pushes 
 the wrag-wheel around is attached to the lower end. For 
 a gang, it is generally a lever of the second kind, the 
 fulcrum being at the lower end, and the hand attached 
 near the middle; the power, in both cases, being applied 
 to the upper end, through the connecting or feed bar. 
 
 The wrag-wheel is a wooden wheel about four feet in 
 diameter, with iron ratchet teeth or notches around its 
 circumference for the hands to catch against and push 
 it around. It is attached by four or six arms to the 
 wrag-shaft, which lies across under the carriage. If this 
 shaft is of iron, it has two pinions keyed to it, corres- 
 ponding with, and gearing into, two cast-iron cogged 
 racks placed along the bottom of each side piece of the 
 carriage. These racks are placed so as to fit close along 
 the inside of the ribbons or ways upon which the car- 
 riage runs, and thus serve the double purpose of feeding 
 the carriage forward, and gigging it back by the pinions, 
 and also of keeping it true and parallel in its motions. 
 
 If the wrag shaft be of wood, it may have cogs mor- 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 199 
 
 tised into it in two rows, two inches apart, to straddle 
 the ribbons, six or eight in each row, and so stepped off 
 that the cogs in one row will be exactly in the spaces of 
 the other row. Thus the two separate rows of six or 
 eight each, are equal to one continuous row of twelve or 
 sixteen, and being divided in this way leave sufficient 
 space and whole wood between. These cogs must not 
 be left nearly square at the ends like ordinary cogs in 
 wheel work, but having to step into mortise holes in the 
 straight line of the carriage, they must be of a peculiar 
 curve, and terminate almost in a point. To mark this 
 shape, step the rough cogs upon the pitch line to divide 
 them equally, and mark the outsides at this line ; then 
 wind a line around the shaft, and fasten a scratch-awl in 
 it so as just to reach the mark on the further side of the 
 cog; begin at the root of the cog and mark as the line 
 unwinds to the point ; move round to the next cog and 
 mark the same, until one side has been marked ; then 
 reverse the string and mark the other side the same 
 way. A piece of small wire is handier and safer than a 
 line, as it will not stretch, and by sticking a tack through 
 a loop in the other end, it is more easily managed. 
 
 With exactly the same step as these cogs, the mortise 
 holes for them to catch into the carriage must be stepped 
 and laid out. And as there is nothing to keep the car- 
 riage true and parallel, the two inch space between the 
 two rows of cog-holes must be rabbited out to the depth 
 of three-eighths or half an inch, to correspond with the 
 ribbons on which it slides. 
 
 A better, because a more accurate and durable way 
 of making this wooden shaft and gearing, is to put the 
 cogs into the carriage, a row on each side of the ribbon, 
 and cut recesses out of the shaft for the cogs to step into, 
 leaving round ledges between these recesses for the cogs 
 
200 SAW-MILLS. . 
 
 to catch and work upon, The almft, in this case, must 
 be enough larger to correspond with the step of the cogs 
 in the other plan ; or in other words, the working surface 
 of the rounds in the shaft must be the «ame distance 
 apart as the working surface of the cogs in the carriage. 
 These rounds are sometimes turned in a lathe, and 
 fitted around the shaft, with an iron band around each 
 end to keep them in place, like an old-fashioned trindle 
 head. In this way they are easily removed, which is a 
 desideratum, as one set of cogs in the carriage will wear 
 out several sets of rounds. 
 
 The carriage consists of the two side sticks already 
 alluded to, about five inches deep, and eight wide, and 
 about twenty-four feet long. This is sufficient for any 
 ordinary length of log, up to eighteen feet, for when 
 timber longer than this is to be sawn, it is more con- 
 venient to extend the length by attaching a movable 
 piece which can be laid aside when the common lengths 
 are resumed. These side sticks are connected by a cross- 
 bar mortised through each end; the tail block is also 
 pinned firmly down upon the end of these side pieces, 
 but the head block is only notched down an inch or 
 two, leaving a shoulder inside at both ends, to keep it 
 from shifting endways ; this leaves it free to move the 
 other way, to suit the various lengths of logs. These 
 guiding shoulders soon get bruised and worn, both on 
 the carriage and head block, and allow it to vary, and 
 sawdust and bark, or slivers get between the block and 
 carriage, and impair the accuracy of the work. To ob- 
 viate this disadvantage, the sides of the carriage are 
 sometimes made with a high ridge along the centre, and 
 bevelled off straight and equally on both sidies. To do 
 this, strike a line along the top at the centre, and another 
 line along each side, say two inches from the top, and 
 
I THE ENGLISH GATE. 201 
 
 dress oflf from the centre line to each of the others ; then 
 notch out the ends of the head block to fit this saddle, 
 and its own weight, with the weight of the log will 
 always keep it in its proper place, while the incline of 
 the surface will keep it free from sawdust or other 
 accumulations which would disturb its accuracy. 
 
 The track upon which the carriage moves is made in 
 diflFerent ways ; a simple way is to take pieces of hard 
 wood about three inches thick and five wide, and key 
 them into the sills and overlays on their edges. This 
 is done by striking a line the whole length of the mill, 
 to mark the outside of each line of ribbons ; another line 
 is struck inside of each of these at a distance of about 
 five inches from the others. The first (outside) line is 
 sawed down plumb, and straight with the line, two inches 
 deep, the other (inside) is sawed a little under and dove- 
 tailing, to admit a key to the same depth. The piece 
 is cut out with an adze, and the rough sawed pieces for 
 the ribbons placed along the outside of these gains, and 
 keys driven in along the inside in every gain, to tighten 
 the pieces. Two lines are then struck along the top of 
 these, two inches apart, to mark the ribbons, and the 
 surplus wood dressed off. The line is then stretched 
 along the side, at the height of the ribbon, and raised 
 crowning a little at the middle, and when jointed off to 
 this last line the ribbons are completed. 
 
 Another plan is to key strong foundation pieces into 
 the overlays, and dress them off true on top, then gauge 
 the ribbons and dress them off to the proper width and 
 thickness, and pin them on to these pieces by lines 
 struck the whole length. When these ribbons get worn 
 and out of true, they can easily be stripped off and re- 
 newed. The new track should always be made a little 
 
202 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 high at the middle (the saw), as it works better, besides 
 it has a constant tendency to work down at this point. 
 
 The evener, when hung by the middle, has its fulcrum 
 supported by a short piece of plank on each side ; these 
 are either mortised into the fender post, or into a separate 
 post put up for that purpose, as may best agree with the 
 line of the wrag-wheel. 
 
 Below the movable hand already mentioned, is another 
 stationary one, attached by the back end to the post, by 
 two staples or eyes, the other end or point resting on 
 the wrag-iron. Its purpose is to hold the wrag-wheel 
 from turning back by the recoil of the wheel and the 
 force of the saw, while the feeding hand is drawn back 
 to make the next stroke. These two hands should be 
 connected together by a small chain, or otherwise, and 
 both attached to the end of a light beam above, which 
 is hung by the middle, and the other end should extend 
 over to the outside of the carriage. To this end is hung 
 a piece of scantling heavy enough to overbalance the 
 weight of the hands and chain ; this scantling stands 
 upon the floor, beside a hole, when the hands are on or 
 working, leaving a little slack to the chain. When the 
 carriage is fed forward to the proper extent, a piece at- 
 tached to it for that purpose, pushes the scantling into 
 the hole, and thus lifts both hands clear of the wrag- 
 wheel, and leaves it free to be gigged back. After it is 
 gigged back until the saw is clear of the log, the drop is 
 raised up to the floor, and this movement lets the hands 
 down on the wrag-wheel again. 
 
 The tail block is generally made of a single piece of 
 hard tough wood, seven or eight inches thick, and eigh- 
 teen or twenty wide ; a piece is cut out along the upper 
 corner, about two inches deep and six wide, upon which 
 the end of the log rests ; a single dog, with two tines to 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE, 203 
 
 drive into the log, is hinged on behind the ledge by two 
 eye-bolts passing down through the block, and secured 
 below by two nuts. The head block is similar to the 
 other, but a little wider, and a notch is cut out in the 
 middle to allow the saw to come back clear of the log ; 
 it has two dogs, one on each side of the recess for the 
 saw. This recess cuts the block so nearly through, that 
 it is liable to be split by turning down a large log upon 
 it ; to strengthen it some builders dovetail pieces across 
 it, others put several large pins through ; perhaps the 
 best way is to put iron bolts through, as these can be 
 tightened as the block shrinks by seasoning. The other 
 plans do not admit of tightening, and rather encourage 
 it to check. The space between the dogs and the recess 
 in the block is generally made wide enough to admit of 
 a span of saws being used, as these will cut about double 
 in the same time that a single saw will cut, while one- 
 half of the time occupied in gigging back and setting is 
 saved. And the span is generally used when the kind 
 of stuff made admits of it. 
 
 The process of gigging back is next to be considered. 
 There are many ways of accomplishing this, varying 
 according to circumstances. If there be an edging cir- 
 cular saw in the mill, or anything else requiring a hori- 
 zontal motion, both the gig motion and that for hauling 
 in logs may be got from the same horizontal shaft, by a 
 belt or chain, to be tightened or slacked by a movable 
 tightener. If no such motion be required for other pur- 
 poses, and a gig wheel has to be made for that express 
 purpose, then it is best to put a small water wheel on 
 an upright shaft, under the wrag-wheel; the shaft to 
 reach up and come in contact with the side of the wrag- 
 wheel. Both shaft and wheel must have a particular 
 bevel, proportioned to the relative diameter of each, in 
 
204 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 order that the whole surface of contact in both may 
 move at the same velocity. If the bevel be too much or 
 too little, the upper and lower edges of contact will move 
 with different velocities, and cause a constant slipping 
 and grinding of the surface, which increases as the pres- 
 sure is increased, and soon wears the face of both wheel 
 and shaft so uneven as to be unfit for use. 
 
 A failure to proportion the bevel of this wheel and 
 shaft to each other, is the most common defect met with 
 in ordinary cheap saw-mills, and has contributed more 
 than anything else, to prevent this mode of gigging 
 back by friction from coming into more general use. It 
 certainly is the handiest and cheapest of any yet in use, 
 and if the wheel be bevelled to half the diameter of the 
 shaft, and the shaft bevelled by half the diameter of the 
 wheel, it will be more durable. 
 
 To do this, place a straight edge or line across the 
 face of the wheel at the centre, then measure out from 
 that line one-half the diameter of the shaft, and at that 
 point place a sweep, and bevel the face of the wheel 
 until the sweep agrees with the face all around. If 
 the wheel be on the shaft, and the shaft in the way, 
 measure its diameter, and allow for it, and make a mark 
 around the shaft with that allowance to set the sweep. 
 With the shaft, proceed the same way, measure out from 
 its centre, and in a line with its shaft, one-half the dia- 
 meter of the wheel, and at that point set the sweep, 
 dress off the same as with the wheel, until the sweep 
 agrees with it all around, and the bevel will agree with 
 the wheel. Both surfaces should be turned, to insure 
 their accuracy. 
 
 This bevelled friction wheel and shaft work upon the 
 same principle as the bevel wheel and pinion in cog 
 gearing, and are governed by the same laws. Any kind 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 
 
 205 
 
 of water wheel may be put upon the lower end of the 
 friction shaft, to give it motion ; the wooden centre- vent 
 or scroll wheel being as convenient and cheap as any. 
 This is made by squaring the end of the shaft to six 
 sides, and bolting, or otherwise attaching a short piece 
 of plank or float to each square, with the outer ends 
 pointing in the direction the wheel is intended to turn. 
 The scroll may be made of four pieces of timber of the 
 proper depth, framed together, with one side falling out 
 
 me. 35. 
 
 from the square, and leaving an opening for the admis- 
 sion of the water ; the scroll mark is struck around upon 
 this, cutting a portion of the circle out of each piece, 
 and the corners are filled out to the same line. A bot- 
 tom and cover are spiked on, each having an opening 
 around the shaft to discharge the water. 
 
 The following method of making a scroll is in some 
 
206 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 respects, preferable : make a square platform of plank 
 for the bottom, a little larger than the outside of the 
 scroll; make a centre mark in this at the point which 
 the centre of the shaft will occupy ; then with a radius 
 or sweep from this centre draw a circle to correspond 
 with the outside circumference of the wheel (floats), and 
 from the same centre draw another circle about two- . 
 thirds of the diameter of the wheel, for the opening for 
 the shaft, and discharge water ta pass through. Now 
 mark off the width of the throat for the admission of 
 water, commencing at the circle for the wheel, one side 
 of this throat is the commencement of the scroll, the 
 other side its termination. (See Fig. 35.) 
 
 To mark out the scroll, make a small wheel, the cir- 
 cumference of which is exactly equal to the width of 
 the throat; the wheel may be tested by measuring 
 round it with a string, the length of which is equal to 
 the width of the throat, or by making a mark on one 
 side of the wheel and placing that mark at one side of 
 the throat, and rolling it (the wheel) across the space to 
 the other side. If the mark, when the wheel has made 
 its revolution, comes exactly on the other side mark of 
 the throat, it is right; if it overruns that, the wheel is 
 too large, if it falls short, it is too small. Fasten this 
 wheel upon the centre of the bottom, and attach a line 
 or a small wire to the edge of it, stretch the wire tight 
 and fix a scratch point in it at the outside line of the 
 throat, now draw the scratch round, keeping the wire 
 tight, to the place of beginning, and the point will mark 
 the scroll, terminating at the inside. Or, you may 
 wind the wire round the wheel, and begin at the inside 
 to mark, allovying the wire to unwind as you describe 
 the scroll, which in this case will terminate at the out- 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 207 
 
 side; for this, like other good rules, will work both 
 ways. 
 
 Now lengthen the wire an inch and a half, or two 
 inches, and describe another mark parallel with the first, 
 and cut the space between, out to the depth of half or 
 three-fourths of an inch. Cut planks of a length equal 
 to the intended depth of the scroll, and circle them like 
 staves, then fit them into this space all around until the 
 scroll is complete, and lastly, make a top or cover the 
 exact counterpart of the bottom, and place on to these 
 staves, and bolt or otherwise fasten the top and bottom 
 together at each corner, and the curb or scroll will be 
 complete. The throat, or opening for the admission of 
 water, is connected by a spout with an opening in the 
 flume, which is covered by a gate inside. The lever, or 
 gate handle, for moving this gate should be brought 
 conveniently to the wrag-wheel, and another lever with 
 a short purchase, to throw the head of the gig-shaft in 
 and out of contact with the wrag-wheel, should be within 
 the sawyer's reach at the same place ; as it is most con- 
 venient when he can have one in each hand at the same 
 time. 
 
 The pull wheel, or bull wheel, as it is generally called, 
 is similar to this gigging apparatus just described, the 
 principal difference being that where the gig wheel has 
 cog-gearing upon its horizontal shaft, to run the carriage 
 back, the bull wheel has a chain winding around that 
 shaft to haul the logs in. There is also this further dif- 
 ference, that while the gig wheel moves its load upon a 
 smooth and level track, the bull wheel must haul its 
 load upon a roCigh track, and up a steep incline. The 
 wheel upon the horizontal shaft should be larger in 
 diameter for this reason, to increase the purchase, and 
 if driven directly from the upright shaft of the water 
 
208 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 wheel, both wheel and shaft should be furnished with 
 cogs to match ; because the motion obtained by friction 
 which answers admirably for a light free movement, is 
 not reliable where a power like this is required. 
 
 The slide upon which the logs are drawn up out of 
 the water, is sometimes made of two large sticks flattened 
 upon two sides ; these are placed on edge, at a distance 
 apart equal to the intended width of the slide, and bars 
 or slats mortised through them at convenient distances, 
 upon which a flooring of plank is pinned or spiked. The 
 butt or strongst end is placed upon the sill of the mill, 
 the small end running down obliquely into the water, 
 and either resting on the bottom, or upon an a abutment 
 of stones or wood prepared to receive it. This slide is 
 frequently made altogether of round sticks of timber, a 
 large stick being placed at each outside, and the space 
 fllled with smaller sizes, which makes it high at the 
 edges to prevent the logs falling over. These sticks are 
 all mortised to correspond, and slats driven through 
 them, the outside ones pinned through the slats, as in 
 the other case, td keep all secure. This makes a stronger 
 slide than the other, but either is strong enough to carry 
 any load of logs, while neither is suflBcient to withstand 
 the ice in many situations, if the water is drawn down. 
 Where such an occurrence is anticipated, the slide must 
 be well supported by posts, or otherwise, as without this 
 precaution, th& slide might be broken or the mill itself 
 disturbed by the oblique pressure of the ice. 
 
 All the various parts and pieces comprising the 
 machinery of a saw-mill should be of good material, and 
 accurately made and combined, no need of fancy finish- 
 ing anywhere, but the movements adjusted correctly by 
 the plumb and level. The water-wheel (crank shaft) 
 level, with " dead wedges" (wedges the same thickness 
 
THE e:»gush gate. 209 
 
 at both ends) between the binders and the plumb-blocks, 
 so that the binders may be keyed down firmly without 
 pinching the shaft, the saw-gate parallel with that shaft, 
 and plumb above it ; the centre of the gate at the noddle- 
 pin and stirrup exactly over the centre of the crank- 
 wrist. The gate must be hung plumb, each way, upon 
 the friction rods or guides ; to insure this, these guides 
 must be placed upon the fender posts by a line, both 
 ways, to get the two upon each post perfectly true with 
 each other, then the boxes that attach the gate to these 
 guides should also be placed by a line to get them 
 parallel and true with each other. When this is done, 
 fasten one fender post solidly in its place, the rods plumb 
 each way, but do not key the other fender post until 
 the gate is set up, and the boxes are put on to attach it 
 to the guides ; tighten up the screws of the boxes, then 
 key the other fender post, now slack all the boxes and 
 place dead wedges between to give the necessary freedom 
 to the rods. After tightening all up again, the gate 
 will be ready to run. The noddle-pin boxes, which 
 attach the gate to the pitman, must also have dead 
 wedges placed between them in order that the connect- 
 ing straps may be firmly screwed up, and at the same 
 time admit of the necessary freedom of motion. 
 
 When all these various points of motion are right and 
 tight, the gate will play up and down freely, and with- 
 out any jolt or noise, in reversing at the upper and 
 lower extremity of the stroke ; but if it binds and is 
 hard to start, then it is too tight somewhere, and the 
 tight spot must be ascertained and slackened, and thicker 
 dead wedges introduced and all made fast again. If it 
 jolts and makes a thumping noise at every revolution, 
 then it is slack somewhere, and to ascertain the point, 
 take a short lever, pry open the gate (sawyers generally 
 14 
 
210 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 catch a tooth of the saw with the mill bar on top of the 
 log for this purpose}, and move it up and down as far as 
 the slack play admits, another person examining the 
 different joints will easily detect the loose one, which 
 must be slackened, the dead wedges taken out and 
 dressed thinner, then replaced and tightened as before. 
 
 When the lower end of the pitman wears loose upon 
 the crank wrist, it is tightened by simply driving the 
 key above the box. If this key is mortised through 
 crosswise of the box, the projecting point will do no 
 harm; but if it passes directly through on the top of the 
 box and in the same mortise, then the point must be 
 cut close off every time it is driven, otherwise the pro- 
 jecting end will come in contact with the balance as it 
 comes around, and in this way the pitman sometimes 
 gets broken. 
 
 To hang the saw, place it in position in the stirrups, 
 with the upper and lower ends at the same distance 
 from the friction rods or guides upon which the gate 
 works, then feed the carriage forward its full extent 
 until the tail block comes in contact with the saw, and 
 mark this point permanently upon the tail block, or 
 better on the dog, for after use in hanging the saw. Now 
 gig the carriage back to the length of the saw logs and 
 fasten a line upon the mark just made upon the dog, 
 stretch this line along both sides of the saw, both at top 
 and bottom, and shift and secure the ends of the saw by 
 wedges or otherwise in the stirrups to range exactly 
 with the line. Some prefer a short straight edge to the 
 line as being equally true and more expeditious. This 
 is applied first to one side of the saw then to the other, 
 and the wedges (or screws) manipulated until the straight 
 edge points equally from both sides and both ends of the 
 saw to the mark on the tail block and dog. Now see 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 211 
 
 that the saw has the requisite " rake," that is, that the 
 lower end be hung back three-eighths or three-fourths of 
 an inch further than the upper end, according to the 
 quantity of feed carried ; this rake is required to enable 
 the log to feed forward against the saw, without the 
 teeth catching or cutting in the upward stroke, and 
 should be nicely graduated to the feed. If a saw has too 
 little rake, for the feed put on, then the teeth will catch 
 during the upward stroke, and as they cannot cut on 
 account of their position and hooking shape, they catch 
 and lift upon the log, jerking it loose and disturbing its 
 position, besides greatly retarding the velocity of the 
 motion. If too much rake be given, the saw will recede 
 too far from the log in its upward motion, and be partly 
 down again before the teeth touch, the under ones 
 never touching at all ; and the upper ones having to do 
 all the cutting, will strike in so sudden and deep that 
 the whole cut will be rough and coarse, and the lower 
 edges torn and splintered, making a rough and ungainly 
 description of lumber even out of the best of timber. Too 
 much rake also produces a concussion or shock at each 
 stroke of the saw, which is very disagreeble, besides being 
 injurious to the saw and all the movements and their 
 fastenings. 
 
 This subject, of the proper rake for saws hung in a 
 gate, either singly or in gangs, is very important, and is 
 much neglected and but indiiFerently understood by 
 many otherwise good sawyers. It is quite common to 
 meet with sawyers who file and set a saw well, and hang 
 it to range right in its track, and yet have so limited an 
 idea of the importance of this subject, that they use but 
 one rake for all kinds of wood soft or hard, and all kinds 
 of saws long or short, and every length and strength of 
 stroke. When a saw is hung to range plumb and true. 
 
212 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 both ends maintaining the same parallel cut, and with 
 the proper rake so that every tooth cuts its equal share, 
 then it will work with less set, having no sideway vibra- 
 tion, less waste of wood and power, the saw draft being 
 narrower, and less filing, the wear and tear being equally 
 distributed among all the teeth. At the same time the 
 lumber cut will be much truer and smoother, requiring 
 but little labor to plane or dress it. Surely these con- 
 siderations are sufficient to induce sawyers and particu- 
 larly owners, to pay more attention to this subject. 
 
 Filing and setting the saw is also of great importance. 
 The saw cutting only during its descent wears the points 
 of the teeth mostly on the under side j this, particularly 
 in knotty and hard wood, gives a constant tendency to the 
 teeth to turn up at the point ; whereas, to cut easy, the 
 sharp peak point should come in contact with the wood 
 first, to shear its portion from the solid mass, rather 
 than force it off by the level under surface of tooth, which 
 is a common practice. To allow the point of the tooth 
 to touch the wood first, and thus enable it to shave its 
 proportionate slice off by a clean cut, requires the teeth 
 to stand hooking downward. If this position of the 
 teeth, and their sharp points, had to be maintained 
 altogether by the file, in opposition to their constant 
 tendency to turn up at the point, it would involve a 
 great expense of labor and files ; but by the judicious 
 use of a small hammer, and a steel upset with a crotched 
 end corresponding in shape with the point of the teeth, 
 the points may be upset and the ends brought down to 
 the proper shape, leaving the under side of the teeth 
 straight and true, and requiring only a slight touch with 
 the file to complete the edge. The teeth have, in addi- 
 tion to the tendency to turn up at the point, another 
 tendency equally troublesome and fully as difficult to be 
 
THE ENGLISH GATE. 213 
 
 overcome by the file, that is, the continual narrowing of 
 the points as they wear, which if not counteracted, 
 makes more sett necessary in order to cut a sawdraft 
 wide enough for clearance. The remedy for this is the 
 same as for the other, upset the points ; this not only 
 widens and shapes the teeth, but if carefully done by an 
 experienced hand, it consolidates and hardens the point 
 and makes it wear better. On the other hand, if it be 
 carelessly and bunglingly done, the ends will be bruised 
 and slivered and broomed up so that the cure may be 
 worse than the disease. 
 
 A sawyer who can use the little hammer and upset 
 properly and makes a free and judicious use of the 
 gumming machine, to remove superfluous portions and 
 maintain the proper length and form of teeth, need spend 
 but little time in filing. In finishing up the tpeth with 
 the file, great attention and care are required by some 
 persons to get the habit of carrying the file perfectly 
 level or at a right angle across the tooth ; this is particu- 
 larly essential on the under side, as a very slight bevel 
 caused by carrying either the point or handle of the file 
 highest in the process of filing will cause the saw to 
 "run" towards the lowest and sharpest side of the 
 tooth, everything else being right. The sawyer not 
 suspecting the real cause, is tempted either to set the 
 teeth a little more on the other side or veer the whole 
 saw slightly to that side, to overcome the tendency to 
 run. This setting of the saw to one side, inclines it to 
 run to that side, while the bevel on the under side of the 
 teeth inclines it to run to the other side. This is balanc- 
 ing one error by another instead of rectifying the first 
 one, and they are constantly contending against each 
 other, with varying success, as the kind of wood and 
 rate of feed are varied, each having the ascendency by 
 
214 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 turns, and the saw veering slightly from one side to the 
 other^ as one tendency or the other prevails. 
 
 This condition of the saw is the cause of much of the 
 unequally sawed lumber that is made. And it is singular 
 how many good sawyers err in this respect, particularly 
 when filing with the saws hung in the gate, which is the 
 common practice with the English gate ; it is still more 
 singular how diflScult it is to convince such of their 
 error in this particular. We have frequently tried to 
 persuade a man that he was carrying the file too high 
 at the heel or point, and bevelling the teeth, but could 
 not convince him without applying a square to his file 
 and the saw, to show the variation. We have held the 
 square to the saw to enable hitn to get the true level by 
 comparison, and in three minutes after the square was 
 removed, or as soon as he had resumed his natural gait 
 of filing, the file would assume the old position. The 
 only safe way for such a man is to file one half of the 
 teeth from one side, and the other half from the other, 
 taking particular note by trying with a square to have 
 these alternate teeth lowest and sharpest on the outside, 
 that is, on the side they are bent towards by the sett ; 
 this will insure equality and accuracy and the bevel, 
 when thus distributed, is in many kinds of wood a posi- 
 tive advantage, enabling the saw to cut smoother and 
 more easily. 
 
 The common recourse of the sawyer in this dilemma 
 is, to increase the tension of the saw by straining it 
 tighter in the gate. This will in a measure control its 
 wavering erratic course, but it is always injurious, both 
 to the saw and gate, to stretch it thus (like a fiddle 
 string) and also dangerous, because a slight extra strain 
 which is liable to occur at any time by various casual- 
 
THE MULLEY SAW. 215 
 
 ties, is likely to break the lug pins or stirrups holding 
 the saw, or the saw itself. 
 
 We would advise any sawyer who is anxious to per- 
 fect himself in the management and control of the saw, 
 to practise a while upon the muUey saw, which being 
 uncontrolled by strain or other influences, shows the ef- 
 fect of any variation in the bevel of filing or setting 
 most minutely, and will give him a better idea of the 
 importance of this subject than he is likely to obtain 
 by long practice with saws that are strained tight in a 
 gate. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 The Mnlley Saw. 
 
 This is an upright saw driven by a crank, and almost 
 identical with the English gate, except that the gate or 
 sash of the latter is omitted, the mulley being simply 
 the naked saw running between, and kept in place by 
 guides ; the crank, pitman, and the noddle pin, having 
 no gate and very little more than the weight of the saw 
 to carry, are quite light. There are many different 
 ways of connecting the saw and pitman, some of which 
 are very ingenious, but the most common plan is to 
 place a short piece of wood between two round or square 
 friction rods or guides, similar to those upon which a 
 gate runs, and attach the pitman and saw to this piece 
 as to the under bar of a gate. We have seen mulleys 
 working lately with the lower end guided and controlled 
 by a working beam and rods, similar to the "parallel 
 motion" in Watt's steam-engine, and so arranged as to 
 
216 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 give the lower end of the saw a slight jerk back just as 
 it turns to go up, whiph clears the teeth from the log 
 and leaves it perfectly free in the upward stroke. These 
 were complicated and expensive, but might easily be 
 simplified so as to be a very valuable improvement, as 
 the mulley, when it can be got to take the upward stroke 
 safely and surely without increasing the thickness of the 
 saw, is the most economical of all saws. 
 
 The upper end of the saw has generally two small 
 pieces of wood clamped on and running between two 
 turned or planed guide rods similar to the lower ones. 
 Sometimes these upper guides are only half or three- 
 quarter inch iron rods, stretched tight, by nuts on the 
 ends, to keep them straight. A pair of wooden gauge 
 or guide blocks are placed just below the log, one on 
 each side of the saw, which help to keep it in place 
 and insure accuracy; another similar set are applied to 
 the saw just above the log, but made so as to rise and fall, 
 and provided either with a lever or screw to bring them 
 either up or down, to accommodate the size of the log. 
 The saw is thus confined to its track both above and 
 below the log, but notwithstanding this, it is found im- 
 practicable to run saws in this way without using a 
 thicker gauge of saws than when strained in a gate. This 
 causes both a waste of wood and power, in cutting out the 
 extra breadth of kerf for the thick saw, and has so far 
 prevented the mulley from coming into more general 
 use, and given rise to several ingenious expedients to 
 obviate the difficulty ; one of these we have already men- 
 tioned, another is to attach a strong spring to the top of 
 the saw, which is generally done by placing a large 
 spiral steel spring on end above the centre of the saw. 
 The lower end of the spring is made fast to the beam 
 upon which it stands, the upper end is bent inward to 
 
THE MULLET SAW. 217 
 
 the centre of the coil composing the spring, and a half- 
 inch rod is made fast, one end to this upper turned-in 
 end of the spring, the other to the top of the saw, thus 
 running through the centre of the coil, and joining it 
 and the saw together. Now -suppose the saw to be set 
 in motion, if it was clear down when the attachment 
 was made, then the saw would have to stretch the spring 
 the whole length of its stroke ; if it was clear up, then 
 it would have to compress it to the same extent. This 
 last would appear to be the best position in which to 
 place it, as the spring, being fully compressed, strains 
 upon the saw and is ready to exert its whole force to 
 start the saw back at the return, and assist it in the up- 
 ward stroke ; but practically it is found that the full 
 compression soon destroys the elasticity of the spring, 
 besides the rake of the saw clears the teeth entirely 
 from the cut at half way up, and then its momentum is 
 sufficient, not only to make the rest of the ascent safely, 
 but also to stretch the spring from one-third or one-fourth 
 of its range upward. For these reasons it is found best 
 to place the spring so as to be two-thirds compressed, and 
 one-third stretched ; in this position it not only helps to 
 clear the saw and commence its upward stroke, but also 
 assists to make the return at the upper range of the 
 stroke. Any person who has noticed the effect of a 
 spring upon a swift reciprocating motion, such as the 
 whiffers of a carding machine, or shaking screen in a 
 grist-mill, will easily understand this. 
 
 The best arrangement we have ever tried is the fol- 
 lowing, which answers the purpose admirably ; the only 
 peculiarity that will prevent its general application 
 being, that it is only applicable to a double mill and in- 
 admissible in a single one. The crank shaft must be 
 of suitable length, and the two carriages placed side by 
 
218; SAW-MILLS. 
 
 side and parallel with each other, both cranks placed on 
 the same shaft, that at one end being exactly up when 
 the other is exactly down. The whole arrangement 
 from these cranks to the top of their respective saws 
 differs in no respect from the ordinary mulley, but in- 
 stead of the spiral spring last described being attached 
 to the top of each saw, a single wooden spring reaching 
 across from one to the other is placed overhead ; this 
 spring is made stiff and light, and hung by its centre upon 
 a bearing like an engine walking beam ; each end of this 
 spring is attached to the top of its respective saw by a 
 small iron rod, and the post supporting the central bear- 
 ing being made to slide either up or down, is provided 
 with either a lever power or screw, by which the spring 
 is raised to give the saws the proper tension or strain. 
 
 In order to get the necessary strength, and at the same 
 time maintain the requisite lightness, the two rods con- 
 necting the saws with the ends of the spring must be . 
 joined together by a similar rod, which is carried over a 
 short post on the centre of the spring. This spring, or 
 walking beam it might rather be called, is of consider- 
 able length, and being elevated considerably above the . 
 top of the saws, the side swing of the connecting rods 
 is so little that it does not disturb the top of the saws. 
 
 By using a very short crank shaft, or what would be 
 better, a return crank, with one or both bearings outside, 
 like the crank of a fulling mill, both saws might be 
 made to work on the same carriage, the carriage of course 
 would have to be made proportionately wider, and the 
 logs both of the same length. We have never tried this, 
 but where a deficiency of room or other reason makes 
 the double mill inadmissible, we are satisfied that this 
 could be done. The double mulley being so light and 
 
THE MULLET SAW. 219 
 
 equally balanced in all its parts, the journals and bear- 
 ings small, causing little friction, while at the same time 
 it provides the requisite strain, to admit of the use of 
 ordinary saws, and makes good lumber ; all these con- 
 siderations taken together, render it the most economical 
 method of sawing which we have either tried or seen, 
 as almost the whole power employed is applied to thft 
 work of cutting. When the power is very much limited, 
 it may be still further economized by dispensing with 
 the gig wheel and nearly all its machinery, in the fol- 
 lowing manner : Place the carriage upon rollers, or small 
 wheels, like the large circular saw-mill carriage, and 
 make any kind of wrag wheel that is suificient to carry 
 the wrag iron for the feed hands ; the wrag wheel must 
 be placed upon a wooden shaft of the ordinary form and 
 size, but neither shaft nor carriage requires any kind of 
 cogs or gearing, but, instead of gearing, fasten a strong. 
 rope on the cross-bar at the front end of the carriage 
 and then wind it three times around the wrag shaft, and 
 pass it along to the back end and wind it two or three 
 times around the cross-bar at the end ; extend the rope 
 back to the extreme limit of the range of the carriage 
 in that direction, and pass it over a pulley and down 
 through the floor. If there should be sufficient height 
 from this pulley to the bottom, all that would now be 
 necessary would be to hang a sufficient weight upon the 
 rope to bring back the carriage and log, but as a suffi- 
 cient height is seldom found, and for other reasons, the 
 end of the rope had better be carried back eight or ten 
 feet further and make fast to a timber of the floor, or 
 anything else that may be convenient at that point. 
 This end of the rope must be fastened at such a length 
 that when the carriage is fed forward its full extent, 
 with the tail block up to the saw, the rope between the 
 
220 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 end fastening and the pulley over which it works behind 
 the carriage will be stretched up almost, but not quite 
 straight. Here upon this part of the rope between the 
 pulley and the end, the weight must be hung, by a roll- 
 ing pulley, like the weight of an eight-day clock. A 
 considerable force is required to start the carriage at first, 
 Ifht after it is in motion, if the same force were con- 
 tinued, it would gain and come back with too much 
 velocity. This method of fixing the rope and weight 
 meets these conditions exactly. When the carriage is 
 ready to be started back, the rope with the weight 
 upon it is stretched up nearly level, and that weight 
 in such a situation will exert a force upon the carriage 
 several times greater than its actual weight, but after it 
 is started, and as it progresses back, the rope slacks 
 down more and more, and as it does so, the weight pro- 
 duces a correspondingly less effect, and the carriage 
 comes to its place moderately and with little shock. 
 
 A person who never saw an arrangement of this kind 
 working a saw carriage would think that it must feed 
 hard, having such a weight to bring up behind it, but 
 such is not the case : the wheels under this enable the 
 hands to feed it along just as easily as the ordinary car- 
 riage upon the naked slides, which has to be started 
 anew at every stroke of the saw. A carriage upon rollers 
 like this cannot be used and fed in the ordinary way with- 
 out such a weight, or a brake of some kind, because the 
 hand gives the feeding push so suddenly and quickly that 
 the log will be forced against the saw at every stroke, 
 and as the feed is made during the ascent of the saw, 
 this will spoil its operation, the ordinary carriage travel- 
 ling as it does like a sleigh upon bare ground, needs no 
 other brake. 
 
 The mulley having no gate, the feeding gear cannot 
 
THE MULLET SAW. 221 
 
 be driven from ii in the usual manner. It is customary 
 therefore to take the requisite motion from the pitman, 
 in much the same "way that it is taken from the gate in 
 the other case, that is, by first driving a rocker from the 
 pitman, and then from that rocker work the evener 
 that carries the feed hands. The Strokes of the mulley, 
 however, are so very rapid, that when fed in this man- 
 ner, a continuous movement is kept up, and it is pre- 
 ferable, when the nature of the machinery admits of it, 
 that is, when a motion can be had from some other part 
 of the driving machinery, to diminish a motion by belt 
 and gear to feed the carriage forward with a smooth 
 and equal motion. In this case a pair of cone-shaped 
 cylinders or drums must be placed parallel with each 
 other, and connected by a belt and a hand staff or some 
 other convenient means provided to reach this belt, to 
 move it towards one end /or other of these cylinders, as 
 the feed may require to be increased or diminished. 
 These cylinders are driven by the large end of the first 
 one, which always turns at the same velocity the feed 
 is driven from the large end of the second one, which 
 turns with a varying speed, according as the belt is 
 shifted towards either end. These are not the ordinary 
 belt cone, composed of graduated pulleys, each pair vary- 
 ing their relative proportions and answering the same 
 length of belt, but they are smooth continuous tapering 
 cylinders, placed with the small end of one to the big 
 end of the other, and the belt fitting the same upon them 
 at every spot in the whole length, so that it can be 
 moved and the speed changed as little or as much as 
 may be required, with ease and precision. 
 
 An improvement in the hanging of mulley saws 
 has been patented, by which the saw has a swinging 
 circular motion imparted to it as it ascends and descends, 
 
222 SAWMILLS. 
 
 like the rocking motion given to the whip-saw by hand. 
 This rock is given to the saw by bending the guides which 
 direct its upper end like the segment of a large circle, 
 which of course causes the top of the saw to describe a 
 similar curve, and gives the face and teeth of the saw 
 the rocking rounding motion in passing through the cut, 
 which it is claimed enables the teeth to cut more equally, 
 and during the whole downward stroke, and at the same 
 time gives them more freedom in the upward stroke, 
 and facilitates the discharge of the sawdust. 
 
 We have seen only one of these, and it running empty. 
 Its motion is graceful, and it makes its bow both rapidly 
 and politely, but whether its performances will justify the 
 high superiority claimed for it by the inventor and his 
 agents we cannot say, as we have never seen it actually 
 at work. 
 
 The mulley saw is gaining in favor and coming into 
 more general use. There are also more varieties, and 
 more differences between these various muUeys in the 
 amount of work performed, and the power applied, than 
 in any other saw-mill, and lastly, there is still a better 
 chance for making improvements in this than in all the 
 other kinds of saw machines, as the mulley is yet far 
 from having reached the state of perfection which the 
 principle admits of, and we expect to see it so much 
 improved, and its present well-known useful peculiarities 
 combined and concentrated until it is the most economi- 
 cal and most common of all saw-mills on a small scale. 
 
GANGS. 223 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 Gangs. 
 
 What is understood by " gang" in saw-mills, is a gate 
 or sash containing a sufficient number of saws to cut up 
 the whole log at once passing through. There are seve- 
 ral different kinds of gangs, known by different names, 
 according to the peculiarities of their construction, and 
 the use to which they are put ; they are all provided 
 with some means of feeding the logs through, but as they 
 pass through in a continuous line, and are finished at a 
 single operation, they require no provision for returning 
 the logs in the opposite direction. 
 
 The live gang is used mostly for logs of different 
 qualities and sizes, and not sufficiently uniform for the 
 other gangs. The logs are fed through this by revolving 
 iron rollers, which instead of being fluted, are provided 
 with large and strong spikes, upon the sharp points of 
 which the knotty and crooked logs that are sawed in 
 this gang are carried and held steady. They are merely 
 split through and through in one direction, and are after- 
 wards edged by circulars. For this purpose there are 
 frequently two circulars placed upon the same arbor, one 
 stationary and the other movable. The sawyer lays 
 the board upon the table with one edge to correspond 
 with the fixed saw, and by turning a winch at the end 
 of the table, he moves the other saw to the proper width 
 to edge the other side, and lets it go and picks up another 
 to send after it as it feeds itself. 
 
224 SAW MILLS. 
 
 The slabbing gang and the stock gang are always 
 used in connection, as each performs half of the work of 
 or for the other. 
 
 The slabber has an open space left in the middle of 
 the gate without any saws, of the same width as the 
 stock, that is, the width the square edged lumber is in- 
 tended to be, which is generally ten inches ; on each 
 side of this space enough saws are hung f o cut the rest 
 of the log into the intended thickness of lumber, and the 
 sidings thus cut off are edged by circulars; the stock or 
 square portion of the log is passed over on to the rollers 
 of the stock gang to be finished. 
 
 Two iron tracks about eight inches apart run through 
 the centre of the gate, passing through the space alluded 
 to between the saws, and between these tracks the dogs 
 or head blocks which hold the log travel; these dogs 
 are not only held up by the ways, but held down, to 
 prevent the logs from being lifted by the saws as they 
 go up, so that the dogs can only be got in or out of the 
 track at either end. 
 
 The dogs are three in number, each double, and hold- 
 ing the end of two logs at once which meet upon them; a 
 high ledge stands up across the dog, between the end of 
 the two logs, and strong sharp spikes run through this 
 ledge and into both logs, the spikes being sharpened at 
 both ends, and thus secure the logs to the dogs. 
 
 These dogs travel steadily along, holding and carry- 
 ing the logs with them, and as soon as one of them 
 arrives at the end of the ways, it is pried out from the 
 log and carried back to the other end of the ways, and 
 another log placed upon it when it immediately resumes 
 its journey. These head blocks or dogs are sometimes 
 moved forward by a large screw placed between the 
 ways and right under the dogs, which then have three 
 
GANGS. 225 
 
 oblique cogs across their under side, at both, ends, which 
 mesh into the threads of the screw, and as it turns it 
 screws the dogs steadily along the ways ; the screw only 
 reaches a part of the length of the ways, one log push- 
 ing another before it to make the rest of the distance. 
 
 The screw is driven by a small bevel pinion on the 
 end, and the pinion is driven by a bevel wheel upon the 
 wrag wheel, and the wrag wheel is pushed around by a 
 hand in an evener, the lower end of which is hinged, 
 and the upper end moved from a rocker as in the Eng- 
 lish gate ; the different leverage of the evener adding to 
 its power upon the wrag wheel and enabling it to turn 
 the screw with great power. This great power' is not 
 requisite to feed the log against the saws, which if the 
 teeth be properly shaped and sharpened, and the saws 
 hung with a proper rake, offer but little resistance to the 
 progress of the log : but it is required to impale the logs 
 sufficiently firm upon the spikes or dogs of the head 
 blocks. These cannot be driven in with the end of a 
 bar, as they are with the English gate, because the dog is 
 solid and the spikes are immovable, and they are inserted 
 into the log by pressure, this is accomplished by holding 
 the foremost head block with a bar, while the one newly " 
 placed behind is pushed forward by the screw until the 
 dogs are pressed deep enough into the ends of the log 
 to hold it secure. When the Ipg comes through the 
 saws, the sidings and slabs cut from each side are lifted, 
 and the log, when it arrives at the proper place, is loosened 
 from the dogs and tumbled over upon the rollers of the 
 stock gang to be cut up and finished. The screw used for 
 carrying these head blocks is about eight inches in dia- 
 meter, and causes a great amount of friction, as the threads 
 of the screw must move through a great distance, and 
 travel comparatively fast, to give the head blocks the 
 15 
 
226 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 necessary speed. For this reason, the screw is now 
 superseded to a considerable extent by an endless belt 
 chain, made with open links, which are of an equal dis- 
 tance apart and pass over and hold upon knobs or pro- 
 jections upon a small clutch wheel or pinion placed upon 
 the wrag wheel shaft. This chain passes over and is 
 held extended by a similar wheel at the end of the ways, 
 and the head blocks, instead of the oblique cogs upon 
 their under surface to catch in the screw, have project- 
 ing toggles that catch in the open links, and attach them 
 to the chain. The strain upon the chain in the process 
 of dogging referred to, is so great as sometimes to break 
 it, but if new links or portions of good chain are at hand, 
 the delay and expense of repairing it are trifling, and it 
 works so much more directly, and with so much less fric- 
 tion, that it is now generally adopted in almost all new 
 mills. When the chain is used, the wrag wheel, feed 
 hands, &c., are placed near the gate, a short distance 
 from the front of the saws ; when the screw is used, the 
 wrag wheel and its accompaniments must be placed at 
 the extremity of the ways, in either case the conveying 
 power, whether screw or chain, must terminate at least 
 a couple of feet before it comes to the saws. This is 
 necessary in order to allow the foremost head block to 
 be held back, until the one holding the hind end of the 
 log is crowded up sufficiently to dog the log before it 
 comes in contact with the saws. While both blocks are 
 on the screw or chain it is impossible to dog the log, as 
 both are held and travel at the same relative distance 
 and speed. But when the foremost one gets beyond the 
 reach of the chain or screw, it can be held back while 
 the other continues on its way, and forces the dogs into 
 the log until it is secure, when the front one is liberated 
 and is pushed along by the log and the other block. 
 
GANGS. 227 
 
 The Stock Gang. — The saws used in this gang are 
 comparatively short, being only four feet, or at most 
 four and a half feet long ; these are hung at the proper 
 distance apart for the intended thickness of the lumber, 
 and in number sufficient to cut up the largest log that is 
 expected to be sawn. The log or "stock" is fed for- 
 ward upon three parallel fluted cast-iron rollers, eight or 
 ten inches in diameter; these are geared together by small 
 cog-wheels, which are so connected with the wrag wheel 
 that it gives them all a uniform motion in the same 
 direction, and at thewsame speed. Two of these rollers 
 are placed in front of the saws, and feeding towards them; 
 the other is on the other side, and bears up the sawed 
 log or lumber, and carries it through. Above this fluted 
 roller, and over the stock, a smooth roller is placed in a 
 press frame and raised or lowered by a screw. As soon 
 as the stock enters under this roller, it is tightened down 
 upon it by the screw, to increase the grip of the fluted 
 roller underneath, the weight of the log not being suffi- 
 cient for that purpose. Another similar roller is placed 
 over the stock as it feeds in, in front of the saws between 
 the two fluted rollers, and when this one is screwed 
 down tightly it presses the stock down upon both of 
 these to increase the hold. In frosty weather, when the 
 flutes become clogged with sawdust, and especially when 
 the saws are not kept in proper order, the whole power 
 of the screw pinching the stock between the two sets of 
 rollers will not prevent a little slip in the feed ; and for 
 this reason short sharp spikes (like those in the live 
 gang rollers) but smaller, are sometimes drilled into the 
 roller next to the front of the saws. 
 
 The press frame of the roller behind the saw is mor- 
 tised and keyed solidly into the ways upon which the 
 fluted rollers rest, that in front of the saws would be in 
 
228 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 the way of the sawyer in hanging the saws or pointing 
 the teeth, and it is either hinged to the ways with strong 
 iron clamps, or hung by a roller overhead, in either case, 
 admitting of being swung back out of the way, and 
 easily straightened back into its place. 
 
 The fluted rollers are supplemented out to each end of 
 the ways with smooth ones, generally of wood, to com- 
 plete the support of the stock both ways. All these 
 gangs are frequently fitted to take through two logs at 
 once, and when the grade of logs is very small, they 
 sometimes pass three logs abreast. • 
 
 " The Yankee gang" is a compound of the last two ; 
 the saw gate being double, containing a gang of long 
 saws for slabbing on one side and a gang of short stock 
 saws on the other, with an upright stile between, making 
 a division in the middle; the ways are also double, 
 having a set of head blocks carried by a screw or chain, 
 on the slabbing side, and a set of rollers upon the other 
 side. These are each complete in its details like the 
 slabber and stock gang, but combined in the same gate 
 and carried by the same power. 
 
 The logs are generally drawn in and placed upon the 
 slabber head blocks at the up-stream end of the ways, 
 then passed through the slabbing side of the gate and 
 canted on to the stock rollers, when they pass back in the 
 opposite direction through the stock saws in the other 
 side of the gate and are finished ; the slabbing saws are 
 thus facing up stream and the stock saws down stream, 
 with a steady stream of logs passing through the gate 
 in both directions, when it is at work. 
 
 The Yankee gang requires no further description, as 
 each side is exactly like its single counterpart already 
 described ; and its peculiarity consists in combining both 
 in the same gate to be carried by the same power. All 
 
GANGS. 229 
 
 these gang gates are made in the same way, the cross- 
 bars being double, with a space between for the stirrup 
 irons, that hold the saws, to pass through. 
 
 Each saw is drilled through both ends, and a lug pin 
 about half an inch in diameter, and three-quarters long, 
 is fastened into the hole by riveting. The stirrup irons 
 are made with a slit in the end to admit the end of the 
 saw, each side being turned in a hook-shape to catch 
 upon each end of the lug pin ; the lower stirrups have a 
 cross head that is slipped down between the bars, and 
 then turned crosswise, when they hold upon both bars 
 alike. The upper ones have a key way made through 
 the end about two inches long, and wide enough to 
 admit a key made of saw plate. The keys are cut about 
 ten inches long, one and a quarter inches wide at the 
 point, and two and one-fourth at the head ; these keys 
 are driven through the head of the upper stirrups to 
 strain the saws, holding upon the cross-bars of the gate. 
 
 The saws must be arranged and kept in place by 
 some kind of gauges. These consist of either blocks of 
 wood of equal and proper thickness placed between each 
 saw at both ends, or iron gauges reaching across all the 
 saws, one behind and another in front, -at both ends. 
 The iron gauges have deep slits cut into them by machi- 
 nery, of the right width to slip into the saw plate, and 
 graduated to the proper distance apart, for the intended 
 thickness of the lumber, that is, the thickness of the 
 stuff and about one-twelfth part of an inch additional 
 for set or clearance on the saw draft. These gauges 
 are made of broad flat bar iron, and have a gauge for dif- 
 ferent thicknesses cut in each edge, so that each piece 
 of gauge will answer for two different thicknesses of stuff, 
 by merely turning it over. 
 
 A crotched iron is bolted on to the gate stile at each 
 
230 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 end of the gauge, to which they are fastened, by the 
 ends passing through the slit or crotch, and these ends 
 being rounded and screwed, have each two nuts upon 
 them, one on each side of the crotch. By turning these 
 nuts, the gauges are shifted until the saws are brought 
 plumb and true, and are then fastened by tightening the 
 nut against the crotches. Only the two gauges holding 
 the backs of the saws require this provision for shifting, 
 those holding the fronts are bolted flat on the two cross- 
 bars of the gate, and being placed carefully and true at 
 first, they do not require to be shifted. These gauges 
 are expensive, as the iron of which they are made must 
 be pretty thick to be safe against accidents, to which 
 they are continually liable, by the sidings or slabs getting 
 loose or split and coming in contact with them. This 
 thickness makes the cutting of the recesses for the saws 
 a tedious process, and a complete set of this kind of gauges 
 for all the various thicknesses cut for both slabber and 
 stock gang, would amount to quite a sum, and it is cus- 
 tomary to have these only for some of the most com- 
 mon thicknesses, and then use wooden gauges for all 
 other grades of lumber. 
 
 The wooden gauges or blocks between the saws answer 
 the purpose when once in and tightened up all right ; 
 but the great objection to their general use is, that they 
 require too much time to change the set of saws, and 
 thus furnish the constant temptation to run the saws too 
 long without changing or sharpening. 
 
 The saws in a gang are so close together that they 
 cannot be filed in their place like a single saw ; besides, 
 there are so many of them that it would cause too much 
 Waste of time to have the mill idle and the rest of the 
 hands waiting until the saws are filed ; hence it is cus- 
 tomary to have two sets of saws, one set being filed and 
 
GANGS. 231 
 
 fitted while the other set is at work. When provided 
 with these iron gauges, an expert hand will change a gang 
 in twenty or thirty minutes, or while the other hands 
 are at their meals, and then it is customary to change 
 two or three times in the twenty-four hours, but when 
 the wooden blocks are used for the gauges, it takes 
 several hours to make the change, and the sawyer will 
 point the teeth, once at least, and perhaps two or three 
 times in the gate to get the saws to run as long as possi- 
 ble without changing. 
 
 Many years ago we used a very simple iron gauge 
 which answered the purpose well, and the same gauge 
 could be adjusted to any thickness. Why it has never 
 come into use, is a question for solution. It was made 
 of a piece of round iron of the proper length, screwed 
 from end to end the whole length ; this was fastened in 
 two crotch irons at the end like the other, and the saws 
 had a slit cut in them by drilling a hole at the proper 
 place and cutting the edge through to it with the gam- 
 mer. The screwed rod passed along in this slit, and a 
 nut on each side of each saw was adjusted to the required 
 gauge or thickness, which secured the saws in place. A 
 wooden gauge or pattern was required, with the saws and 
 spaces marked upon it, for expedition and accuracy in 
 setting these for any particular thickness of stuff, but 
 when once set, there was no further trouble with them 
 more than the other kind, until a different thickness of 
 lumber was required to be sawn, when the nuts were re- 
 adjusted by the pattern representing the grade wanted. 
 
 The wooden gauge blocks referred to are made of 
 cherry, or some other good and moderately hard wood, 
 about six inches long and three and a half or four inches 
 wide, and one-twelfth of an inch thicker than the stuff 
 intended to be sawn. 
 
232 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 A piece is cut out of both sides at the middle to clear 
 the stirrups, and a hole bored through, opposite the lug- 
 pins. These clearances are required, to let the blocks 
 come in contact with the saws. One corner is also 
 bevelled off from each piece, from about the middle of 
 the end to the middle of the edge, of all the upper blocks, 
 for clearance and convenience in placing and removal. 
 To hang the saws with these, the outside saw is placed 
 and adjusted by four set screws, that are screwed into a 
 thick plate sunk into the stile of the gate ; the heads of 
 these bolts are square for convenience in turning, and 
 stand out so as to come in contact with the saw, or 
 rather with a block that intervenes between the bolt 
 and saw, when the first one is hung in. These bolts, 
 two above and two below, are screwed in or out until 
 that saw is made plumb and true, then a. pair of gauge 
 blocks are placed, and another saw alternately, until all 
 are hung in place, when the last one is secured by the 
 four set screws and intervening blocks, the same as on the 
 other side ; each saw is then strained or tightened sepa- 
 rately by driving the key through the head of the upper 
 stirrup, as already indicated. The stirrups used for the 
 upper ends of the saws are, so far as we have seen them, 
 nearly all alike, but there are different ways of attaching 
 the lower end of the saws to the bars of the gate, one at 
 least of which is more convenient than the long loose 
 stirrups we have described. This consists of a piece of 
 strong iron, like boiler plate, with the upper edge curled 
 over in the shape of a hook, and then bolted on to the 
 gate bar ; this makes one continuous hook from end to 
 end, on any part of which there is a good grip and free 
 chance to shift either way. To match this, the saws 
 have each a short hook stirrup, fastened permanently on 
 the lower end, and this is slipped down and hooked into 
 
GANGS. 233 
 
 the hooking edge of the boiler plate, and is easily ad- 
 justed to the gauges when they are applied, 
 
 A gang gate when made of wood must be of good 
 timber and well put together ; it must be ironed along 
 all the bars where the stirrups have their bearings, 
 besides being well bolted and clamped together at the 
 corners and all the principal joints ; otherwise the strfiin- 
 ing of so many saws in it with the jamming and banging 
 it has to endure, independently of accidents, soon wears 
 it out, especially if the sawyers are principally rough 
 green hands. Although such a gate is considerably the 
 cheapest at first, an iron gate is certainly the cheapest 
 in the end. An iron gate is simple in construction, the 
 main item of expense being in the weight of the mate- 
 rial, and is not affected by wear and tear like the wooden 
 ones. A good one will wear during the life or running 
 of an ordinary mill, and then be worth nearly as much 
 as at first, to put into another mill. 
 
 All the details of the gang machinery, aside from the 
 gate and gig-back works, are identical with those of the 
 English gate, only on a larger scale. The power of 
 wheel, and strength of shafting, crank, pitman, &c., are 
 about double those of the English gate. The crank used, 
 however, is shorter in the stroke than that of the English 
 gate, being from eight to eleven inches, while the other 
 is from eleven to fifteen ; this gives it more purchase on 
 the pitman and gate, and helps to account for its carrying 
 so many more saws and so much more weight, at nearly 
 the same speed, as the English gate carries its single 
 saw, and all this with only double the power of the 
 other. 
 
 The gang, taken altogether, is the most economical 
 method yet devised for making lumber on a large scale. 
 
 The saws used are thinner than any others, either up- 
 
234 SAW-MILLS. 
 
 right or circular, the difference being sufficient to average 
 at least one piece more lumber out of each log. The 
 saving of this extra piece of lumber is a consideration, 
 but scarcely as much as saving the power and wear, and 
 tear that are otherwise required to cut that extra piece 
 into sawdust. Again, all the time and labor consumed 
 in gigging back and setting the log over for the other kinds 
 of saws is saved, with the power and wear and tear that 
 that process requires. The hands attending are also more 
 economically employed, having only to supply and feed 
 the stream of logs passing through and carry away the 
 lumber. When we add to these considerations the fact that 
 only double the amount of power is generally applied to 
 the gang carrying two or three dozen saws that is ap- 
 plied to the English gate with a single one, and little more 
 than half the power generally applied to the large circu- 
 lar, the economy of the gang will be apparent. In addi- 
 tion to the economy of the gang in power and timber, we 
 have another point worthy of regard, namely, the supe- 
 rior quality of the lumber made. Gang sawn lumber, as 
 a general rule, is truer, more equal, and smoother, than 
 that sawn by either the English gate, mulley, or the big 
 circular, the difference being sufficient to average one 
 cent in value upon each piece in favor of that sawn by 
 the gang. This preference is partly due to the gang 
 cutting completely through and leaving no stubshot end. 
 
 The big circular of course cuts through the same way; 
 but, on the other hand, the lumber made by it is the 
 roughest and hardest to dress or plane, as it is always 
 more or less circled and ridged by the variations of the 
 saw in its revolutions. 
 
 The form and construction of the wooden gang gate 
 will be understood by the following description : The 
 upright stiles may be of spruce, it being stiff and light, 
 
THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 235 
 
 about six inches by seven, the cross-bars of good hard 
 wood, three inches thick and about a foot wide : these 
 three-inch bars are notched intb the seven-inch stiles, one 
 on each side, and made even and flush outside, which will 
 leave an inch space between for the saw stirrups. The 
 size must be determined by circumstances, that is, the 
 height must be made to answer the length of saws in- 
 tended to be used, and the width by the number of saws 
 intended to be hung in it, or, rather, by the general size 
 of the logs to be sawn in it, and whether intended for a 
 single log or two abreast. 
 
 The Yankee gang has a third upright stile dividing it 
 in the middle, and two short bars mortised in below the 
 upper cross-bar, to shorten the space for the stock saws. 
 The common width for each side of the Yankee is thirty 
 inches clear space, the centre dividing stile being the 
 same width as the others, but only three and a half or 
 four inches thick. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE CIECULAR SAW-MILL. 
 
 The large circular saw used for cutting ordinary round 
 saw logs into lumber, is from forty inches up to six feet 
 in diameter, according to the size of logs intended to be 
 worked up. The saw is hung upon a horizontal arbor, 
 and generally made of cast steel, about three inches in 
 diameter, and six or seven feet long. This arbor, as 
 well as the feed and gig-back shafts, is hung in a wooden 
 or iron frame, about four feet wide and seven long, and 
 from nine to twelve inches deep. This central frame 
 
236 THE CIECULAE SAW-MILL. 
 
 is made of four, or sometimes six pieces, fastened at the 
 corners with bolts, so that it can be taken to pieces, to 
 ship or move from one place to another. The collars, 
 securing the saw on the arbor, are generally of wrought 
 iron, the movable one being tightened against the saw 
 with a screw nut. The a,rbor runs in adjustable babbit 
 boxes, both being sometimes cast in a movable piece 
 which reaches across the main frame, and can be shifted 
 to give the saw more or less lead. 
 
 The feeding works consist of a cone of three pulleys, 
 for a three-inch belt, placed upon the saw arbor; a 
 similar cone is placed upon a small shaft lying parallel 
 with the arbor, the two cones being connected by a belt. 
 On the other end of this small shaft is a small leather 
 pulley three inches in diameter ; under this last shaft is 
 a third one, with a small pinion on the end, which 
 reaches under the carriage, and gears into its rack of 
 cogs. Directly under the small leather pulley, and on 
 the last-named shaft, is a large iron pulley, turned true ; 
 along side of this is another pulley of the same size, with 
 flanges to keep on a belt which hangs loosely around 
 this and a small one on the saw arbor. These are con- 
 trolled by two levers; one presses the small leather 
 pulley in contact with the large iron feeding pulley, thus 
 feeding the carriage forward ; the other presses a tight- 
 ener against the slack belt, and thus gigs the carriage 
 back. The two levers are placed so that the sawyer can 
 both feed and gig back without changing his position. 
 
 The head blocks are of iron, and the more modern 
 are shifted and set by screws ; experience having proved 
 the screw to be the most reliable and accurate device for 
 that purpose. 
 
 The carriage is made in sections, for convenience in 
 transportation ; it is set upon small wheels which run 
 
THE CIBCULAE SAW-MILL. 237 
 
 upon an iron track, and is generally made to cut stuff 
 twenty-four feet long. By lengthening the carriage and 
 track it can be made to cut any reasonable length. 
 
 A portion of the centre of every circular saw is covered 
 by the collar which secures it upon the arbor, and it is 
 only the depth from this collar to the circumference 
 of the saw that is available for the cut; therefore a large 
 diameter of saw is required to cut very large logs. This 
 necessary increase of size causes a large increase of origi- 
 nal cost, in the first place, and it also involves a corres- 
 ponding increase of thickness in the saw, which increases 
 the width of kerf, and consequently waste of wood and 
 driving power, in like proportion. These limit the 
 economic application of the circular saw to about five 
 feet diameter; and when deeper cutting than this size 
 will reach is required, it is found to be more economical 
 to use two saws, one of four feet or less, placed in the 
 ordinary position under the log, and a' smaller one on an 
 arbor above, and a little behind, and parallel with the 
 lower saw, to complete the cut. 
 
 The sizes of these two saws should be graduated by 
 calculating the probable average sizes of the logs to be 
 sawn ; the lower one should be large enough to cut all 
 the medium and small-sized logs, and the upper auxili- 
 ary one only large enough to complete the cut of the 
 lower one through the larger logs. By this arrangement 
 a thinner and cheaper gauge of saws is used, with less 
 waste of timber and driving power, and less danger of 
 kinking or buckling the saws. And as the greater part of 
 the work is performed by the lower saw, while the upper 
 one remains idle, they are also much easier kept in order 
 than the very large single saw which would be required 
 to do the work. For these reasons the double saws are 
 much used in California and the Western States, and 
 
238 
 
 THE CIECULAR SAW-MILL. 
 
 X5 
 
 O 
 
 
 3 *5 
 
 
 o 
 
 n3 -d. 
 
THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 239 
 
 ■wherever the growth of timber is large ; while in the 
 Northern and Eastern States and adjoining British Pro- 
 vinces, where the timber is lighter, the single large cir- 
 cular is much oftener used. 
 
 It would be a useless occupation of tim^ and space to 
 enter into a fuller or more minute description of these 
 machines, as they are now made in regular machine shops 
 by experienced workmen, who understand all the details 
 of their parts and construction much better than we do, 
 and as they are all completed and ready to set to work, 
 the ordinary millwright or sawyer has nothing to do to 
 one when it arrives from the shop but to put it properly 
 together and run it. We will, therefore, only give such 
 instructions as will enable the millwright or sawyer 
 to do this. 
 
 First place the ways for the iron track perfectly 
 raight and level, parallel with each other, and out of 
 wind ; then strike two chalk lines upon each way, the 
 width of the iron track apart, for a guide by which to 
 place the pieces of track. Place the track to balance 
 equally between these two lines, but before fastening it 
 down, stretch a line the whole length along the guiding 
 corner of the track, if it be a square one ; if V shaped, 
 along the apex, and regulate any inequalities in the dif- 
 ferent portions by this line. Next place the sides of the 
 carriage in position on the track, and then place the 
 centre frame carrying the saw-arbor and machinery upon 
 these, taking particular care to have the track and the 
 arbor at right angles with each other. See that the 
 arbor turns free in its boxes, without being loose. The 
 saw collar makes a shoulder against the box, to prevent 
 the arbor from shifting endways in that direction ; a 
 movable collar at the other side of the box forms the 
 other shoulder; this should be placed about one-twentieth 
 
240 THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 
 
 of an inch clear of the box, to admit of end play, and 
 made fast by its set screw. The nut and loose collar 
 may now be taken off, and the saw tried on ; it should 
 be a little slack, both on the arbor a^d bolts, otherwise 
 if the arbor should heat it might injure the saw. The 
 loose collar may now be put on and tightened up by the 
 nut; see that the collars fit perfectly true and even 
 upon the saw ; the fast collar should be true next the 
 saw, but the loose one may be slightly concave. If they 
 do not embrace the saw equally, rings of paper should 
 be interposed to perfect the bearing, and the nut again 
 tightened, now hold a gauge firm upon the saw guide 
 against the side of the saw, and turn it round by the 
 pulley and see if it runs true ; if not, slips of paper must 
 be put between the collar and saw at the point to which 
 it inclines, until it does run true. When thus adjusted, 
 to train true by the gauge all around, take hold of the 
 saw and jerk it back to make it grip tight on the driving 
 bolts, and tighten up the nut. It will facilitate the 
 hanging of the saw at any future time, to mark it and 
 the fast collar, so that the same side of each can be 
 placed together every time it is rehung. 
 
 The saw should be perfectly straight and true on the 
 side next the log, all the dish or convexity being on the 
 slab side ; you should test this by a straight edge before 
 attempting to try it in a log. We^have known several 
 sawyers to be perplexed by getting the saw with the 
 dish to the wrong side, when everything else about the 
 machine was correct ; and they were trying in vain to 
 find the fault in something else. 
 
 The metallic disk in front of the saw, which carries 
 the board, also springs it out from the cut, and relieves 
 the saw on the slab side. This gives it a slight tendency 
 to run towards that side, and to counterbalance this, the 
 
THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 241 
 
 saw must be set (hurig) with a slight inclination towards 
 the log. To do this, run the carriage up until a head- 
 block is opposite the cutting side of the saw, measure 
 the distance exactly from this side to the block, then 
 move the head-block forward to the back side of the saw 
 and measure the distance there. The distance at this 
 side should be about the twentieth part of an inch more 
 than at the cutting side ; this is the average difference, 
 but circumstances may require this to be varied, some 
 requiring more and some less. 
 
 These saws should be geared so that the teeth will 
 travel at the rate of about seven thousand feet per minute, 
 when cutting ; and to obtain this working velocity with- 
 out an excessive and dangerous speed when running 
 empty, the water-gate should be regulated by a governor, 
 to control the speed, the same as when driven by steam. 
 The want of this is the most common defect in circular 
 saw-mills, when driven by water. A circular saw-mill 
 when driven by water, and maintaining anything near 
 a uniformity of motion when working, and running idle, 
 is very rarely seen; in»fact a great proportion of them 
 check up very perceptibly in running through an ordi- 
 nary cut, and many will almost or quite choke in a deep 
 hard cut, requiring the feed to be stopped and perhaps 
 the log slacked back, to allow it to gain speed and 
 momentum suflScient to carry it through .the cut. 
 
 This is a great source of trouble to the sawyer, and 
 injurious to the saw and machinery, and when a man 
 has gone to the expense of starting a circular saw-mill 
 thus defective, the best policy he can pursue is, to lay 
 out enough more upon it to furnish a sufficient power 
 and some convenient method to control and regulate the 
 power to the varying requirements of the machine. The 
 large and unwieldy gate supplying the water to most of 
 16 
 
242 . THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 
 
 the wheels used for driving the circular saw-mill does 
 not admit of control by a governor ; but several of the 
 wheels used admit of an additional chute and gate, and 
 in this case the original gate should be opened to its full 
 extent, and the small additional one regulated to furnish 
 or withhold the auxiliary power, as required. When 
 this plan is not admissible, then a small additional wheel 
 may be put in, and the governor attached to its gate, for 
 it is worth considerable trouble and expense to get rid 
 of such a nuisancej especially where the water is limited 
 in quantity or duration, for the water must be econo- 
 mized in order to cut out the quantity intended, while 
 on a large and durable stream the sawyer may balk 
 and bungle with a mill defective in power, and yet cut 
 out a good stock of logs. Many good millwrights err in 
 thus furnishing too little power to the circular, expecting 
 to economize the water, but it is mistaken economy ; it 
 is like sending a small team to transport a heavy load 
 over a long journey — they will stick in every mud-hole, 
 and balk at every hill, while a team a few hundred 
 pounds heavier would walk comfortably along with the 
 same load. 
 
 The power required to drive the circular saw depends 
 on its size and the quantity of lumber it is intended to 
 cut. Thus, twelve horse power will drive a forty inch 
 saw, and cut about 2500 feet of soft wood lumber in 
 twelve hours ; fifteen horse pqwer will drive a four foot 
 saw, and cut about 4000 feet in the same time ; twenty 
 horse power will drive a four and a half foot saw, and 
 cut from 6000 to 7000 feet in twelve hours. Twenty- 
 five horse power will drive a five foot saw, and cut 8000 
 to 9000 feet of soft lumber per day. Thirty horse power 
 will drive a six foot saw, and cut from 9000 to 11,000 
 feet per day. Forty horse power will run the largest 
 
THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 243 
 
 saws that are made, and cut from 12,000 to 18,000 feet 
 per day. This is about the average amount of soft wood 
 lumber that each will cut when in ordinary condition, 
 in a day of twelve hours, including all ordinary stoppages. 
 
 In Order to ascertain how many horse power any par- 
 ticular head and quantity of water will furnish, see 
 Tables in another part of this work. 
 
 We neglected to give in the proper place the necessary 
 directions for setting and sharpening circular saws. The 
 saw is set by bending each alternate tooth to one side, 
 about one-sixteenth of an inch ; the intermediate teeth 
 being of course bent to the opposite side the same dis- 
 tance, the amount of set must be varied according to the 
 kind of wood and other circumstances. The most con- 
 venient set is an iron about ten inches long, with a slit 
 of the proper depth and width, cut out of the end, the 
 bottom or termination of the slit being drilled out, or 
 widened to save the corners of the teeth by griping 
 clear of the point. This should be bent to a right angle 
 near the slit end, so that the strain of bending the tooth 
 will be applied in the direction of the saw plate, instead 
 of sideways. A very hard saw may be set more safely 
 by holding the outside of the tooth against a suitable 
 iron, and striking the other side near the point, with a 
 hammer. Some kind of gauge should be used, to insure 
 equality in the set, particularly with circulars, as these 
 cannot be accurately tested either by the eye or a straight- 
 edge. A good gauge is made of a thin piece of hard 
 wood cut in the shape of a coffin, about six inches long, 
 and three wide; four small wood screws are inserted 
 into this, for legs, the two at the shoulders and the one 
 at the foot being exactly level, but the one at the head 
 say one-sixteenth of an inch lower (shorter) than the 
 others. Place this gauge with the first three nail-heads 
 
244 THE CIKCULAR SAW-MILLj 
 
 against the side of the saw, and the fourth short one in 
 a line with the point of the tooth, and adjust all the 
 alternate teeth on both sides of the saw to the short nail- 
 head. 
 
 To true the points of the teeth, hold a piece of stone 
 firmly on the saw guide, and let the saw run about half 
 speed, move the stone carefully forward until the longest 
 teeth are ground off, and the shortest one touches the 
 stone ; then file all the points or under sides of the teeth 
 first, and, in doing this, the caution given for filing th« 
 under side of upright- saw teeth must be strictly at- 
 tended to, as a slight bevel to the cutting side of the 
 teeth of a circular will affect its running as much as a 
 mulley saw. 
 
 The arbor in this case furnishes a constant source of 
 comparison by which to regulate the bevel of the file ; 
 then file the backs of the teeth down until the ground 
 points are just visible. 
 
 The teeth of the circular have the same tendency to 
 wear off in front, and narrow at the point, as upright 
 saw teeth, and require the upset punch and little ham- 
 mer to be used freely ; the latter in the hand of an 
 experienced sawyer, with a six square steel mandrel to 
 hold against the under side of the tooth, is the best. 
 This mandrel, if eight or ten inches long, and tapering 
 from two inches in diameter at one end, to three-fourths 
 of an inch at the other, will answer for any pitch of 
 teeth. See remarks on this subject in the article on 
 upright saws. 
 
 The Edging Circular. 
 
 The Table for the edgi-ng saw is from 24 to 30 feet 
 long: 2 J to 3 feet high, and about 2i feet wide. It is 
 made with two parallel sticks, four inches thick and six 
 
THE EDGING CIRCULAR. 245 
 
 or eight deep, supported upon legs of the same material 
 at suitable distances. 
 
 The box or bearing of the arbor next the saw is set 
 into the back stick of this frame, the saw running over 
 it into the inside. 
 
 A short counter frame is extended out from the centre 
 of the main one, supported on two extra l6gs, into which 
 the other box of the arbor is set. The arbor, with its 
 pulley and driving belt, is thus outside of the main 
 frame, leaving the space between the parallel sticks clear 
 for the carriage and its supporting rollers or tramways. 
 
 Sometimes parallel wooden rollers are hung upon iron 
 journals between these sticks for the carriage to traverse 
 upon. Sometimes iron wheels are placed, two upon 
 each iron journal or shaft, instead of the wooden rollers ; 
 in either case, the table must be furnished with these at 
 suitable distances, its whole length. A preferable way, 
 because more accurate and durable, is to place four small 
 cast-iron wheels under each side of the carriage, and 
 either a square or V-shaped track under the wheels, the 
 whole length of the table ; in this case a piece should 
 either be rabbeted out of the upper inside corners of the 
 two sticks composing the frame, or a piece spiked on to 
 the inside of each to place the iron track upon, as the 
 carriage would be too high above the table if the track 
 were placed on top. 
 
 When the carriage is completed and located on its 
 track, a board or plank must be placed along the back 
 stick of the frame to level it up to the surface of the 
 carriage, or rather one-eighth of an inch lower ; this is 
 required to support the edgings or strips .cut off by the 
 saw, which are behind it, and consequently over the 
 back edge of the carriage. When a circular is to be 
 used for splitting wide stuff down the middle, the saw is 
 
24:6 THE CIRCULAR SAW-MILL. 
 
 sometimes made to run iu a slit in the middle of the 
 carriage. In this case the parallel wooden rollers re- 
 ferred to above are the best for transverses, as they sup- 
 port the carriage equally along its whole width, and this it 
 requires, because the slit in which the saw works divides 
 the carriage in two, and prevent any cross connection 
 except at the ends. The wooden rollers furnish the 
 necessary support to the middle of the carriage, which 
 otherwise would bulge down by its own weight, and that 
 of the stuff to be sawn. 
 
 It is the practice of many mills merely to straighten 
 both edges of the stuff as wide as the piece will make, 
 one edge being first cut off, and the piece turned over 
 and run through again, to straighten the other edge; 
 this saves all the square part in one piece, but without 
 any regard to width, or having the two ends equal. 
 
 At other mills, the stuff is slit down to a certain width 
 and parallel, the surplus pieces cut off being worked up 
 by other saws into fencing, strips, laths, &c. When this 
 is done by a single edger, two gauge-pins are set into an 
 iron plate, one near each end of the carriage, and sunk 
 down in a groove in which they can be moved and set 
 by a marked scale to any required width. 
 
 In some large mills two saws are hung side by side, 
 one being secured on the arbor in the usual way, the 
 other movable and made to slide closer to, or farther 
 from the fast one. This is moved by a handle projecting 
 from the end or side of the table, and set each time to 
 suit the varying width of stuff: this is generally geared 
 to feed itself, and of course edges both sides at once, both 
 edges being made parallel. 
 
 The same rules for hanging, setting, and sharpening 
 the large circular, will apply to the edger, shingle, or 
 lath saws, and need not be repeated, except that circu- 
 
LOG TABLE. 247 
 
 lars for cross-cutting should be filed with more or less 
 bevel according to the kind of wood and work, and the 
 forward hook of the teeth dispensed with; the front 
 pointing to the arbor, instead. of to a circle two-thirds of 
 the diameter of the saw, which is the best rule for the 
 front of the slitting teeth. In some circumstances the 
 teeth of a cross-cut circular may be slanted equally from 
 both sides like the teeth of a hand cross-cut, and will 
 work safer and better, it then crowds the wood slightly 
 away from it, which tends to regulate the feed, or rather 
 admits of greater freedom and safety in feeding. The 
 velocity at which the edging circular should be run 
 depends upon the size of the saw, the amount of power, 
 and the work intended; in ordinary circumstances a 
 fifteen inch edger should make from fifteen to eighteen 
 hundred revolutions per minute. It is desirable that 
 the edger, like the circular, the barley millstone, smut 
 mill, and all other swift revolving machines, should be 
 geared to increase the speed as little as possible whea 
 running empty. 
 
 Log Table. 
 
 "We give below a Table of Logs reduced to inch board 
 measure, showing the amount of one-inch stuff that can 
 be cut out of logs of various lengths, from ten to twenty- 
 five feet, and of different diameters from twelve up to 
 forty-four inches. 
 
 To find the amount of lumber a log will make : First 
 find the length of the log in the first, or left-hand column ; 
 then on the top of the page to the right, find the dia- 
 meter, and under the diameter, opposite the length, will 
 be found the quantity that length and diameter of log 
 will make. 
 
248 
 
 THE CIECTTLAR SAW-MILL. 
 
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250 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 There is no rule that can be set down as of general 
 application for the consti?uction of the building for a 
 grist-mill. Each new site selected to build upon, the 
 millwright will find different in some respect^from every 
 one he has ever before built upon; and there are so 
 many contingencies to be considered, and harmonized, 
 that he will have full scope for all the ingenuity and 
 common sense he may possess, to reconcile these conflict- 
 ing considerations, and determine all the points involved, 
 to the best advantage. First, are the height and features 
 of the bank, then the height, entrance, and exit of the 
 water ; the road or approach, for the convenient delivery 
 and loading of the grist, next the kind and quantity of 
 work, or grinding intended to be done ; and the kind, 
 quantity, and position of the machinery required to do 
 that amount of work, with this particular head and 
 quantity of water ; lastly, the material of which it is 
 to ba composed. 
 
 Here we may remark that whatever material may be 
 selected for the main structure, the foundation should, 
 if practicable, be of stone at least as high as it will be 
 exposed to water, and the height will depend in a great 
 measure upon the kind of water-wheel used. With any 
 of the different turbine wheels (wheels upon a vertical 
 shaft) a low basement, barely suflSoient to work con- 
 veniently in, will suffice ; as the flume can be carried 
 up through the lower floor of the first story, containing 
 
PLANNIKG — GEARING. 251 
 
 the bridge trees and machinery ; or it may be outside, 
 or in a detached space and the water carried under 
 this floor to supply the wheels. 
 
 When the overshot wheel is used, and placed inside 
 the mill, the stonework should extend at least to the 
 height of the wheel, and the spout or flume supplying 
 it with water, and the stones, bolts, &c., should if possi- 
 ble be placed above this level, because when the dust 
 accumulates in contact with the spray, or dampness from 
 the water, a fermentation ensues which soon affects 
 woodwork and everything else susceptible of decay. 
 But this arrangement might clash with another conside- 
 ration equally important in the construction of a custom 
 mill, which is, that the main floor occupied by the stones, 
 &c., should be at the proper height to correspond with 
 the road and mill-yard, for the convenient loading and 
 unloading of teams at the door ; this is best accomplished 
 by extending a platform around the door at a convenient 
 height for a wagon, and this platform should agree 
 with the mill floor, so that a truck or other wheel con- 
 trivance may be used for carrying the bags. 
 
 We have geared several mills lately, with from four- 
 teen to thirty feet head of water, the water being con- 
 veyed along the bank behind, in a canal, and the build- 
 ings on a flat below, with the mill-yard and road only a 
 few feet above the level of the tail-race ; some of these 
 were driven by overshot wheels, varying from fourteen 
 to twenty-seven and a half feet, and others by turbines 
 of various kinds. When turbines were used the flumes 
 were always placed behind and outside the mill, the 
 water being conveyed to the wheels through the open- 
 ings left in the foundation walls for that purpose. When 
 overshots were used, they were placed in a separate 
 wheel-house, also behind, and between the mill and the 
 
252 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 bank ; these were geared by placing spur geared seg- 
 ments around the outside of the rim of the water wheel 
 next to the mill, with a pinion working in these ; this 
 pinion was placed on the descending side of the wheel 
 and near the bottom; a shaft from this pinion was carried 
 through an opening in the foundation wall to the inside 
 of the mill where a bevel wheel was placed upon it. This 
 wheel geared into a bevel pinion on an upright shaft 
 which carried either a spur wheel or belt-drum, from 
 which the spindles and stones were driven. A small 
 shaft was coupled on to the top of the upright shaft and 
 carried up through the mill, to drive the bolts, eleva- 
 tors, &c. 
 
 This upright movement is sufficient for two run of 
 stones, or three at most ; where more are intended, the 
 horizontal shaft is extended further into the mill and 
 another set of bevel gearing, upright shaft, &c., similar 
 to the first is set up, and the work divided between the 
 two. 
 
 We have also geared some overshot mills where the 
 road and mill-yard were on the bank, and the wheels 
 inside of the mill, and underneath the machinery ; two 
 of these are belt-mills and were geared in the following 
 manner : A bevel gearing was put on, the whole size of 
 the water wheel, by bolting segments around the outer 
 face of the rim holding the buckets ; to do this we placed 
 an extra thickness of plank around that rim, four inches 
 larger in diameter than the original rims, and thus pro- 
 jecting two inches past the wheel all around. In this 
 was turned out a groove or recess the exact size and 
 shape of the segments, the outside of the groove being 
 equal to the circumference of the wheel ; this was neces- 
 sary in order to get a substantial shoulder bearing in 
 the wood for the segments (without which, the bolts 
 
GEARING. 253 
 
 alone Would not last long) arid at the same time allow 
 the holts to pass through near the outer edge of the rim 
 to clear the buckets. A bevel pinion matching into 
 these segments, was placed upon an upright shaft resting 
 on a bridge tree along side of thei water wheel, and a 
 drum built upon this shaft carried the belts for three run 
 of stones and a smut machine ; a small shaft was coupled 
 on to the drum-shaft, as in the others, to drive the ele- 
 vators, &c. ; each belt had a bearer under it to keep it in 
 place when slack and idle. These bearers were let into 
 a groove turned in the drum for that purpose, and thence 
 extended to the sheaves upon the spindles and around 
 under these. A movable tightener was hung between 
 two horizontal arms in an upright shaft, standing outside 
 of each belt, on the slack side between the drum and 
 sheave ; these were brought against the belt by a weight 
 attached to a rope passing over a pulley, and the other 
 end made fast to the tightener frame. By this means 
 the belt was tightened and the spindle and stone set in 
 motion ; by withdrawing thie tightener and raising the 
 weight, the belt was slackened and rested upon the bearer, 
 and the stone was stopped ; another rope was attached to 
 the opposite side of the tightener frame, and passing up 
 through the floor was connected with a windlass or hand- 
 staff convenient to the stone. Thus the tightener is 
 controlled, and a run of stones can be started or stopped,, 
 while the rest of the machinery is in full motion. 
 
 Another mill, driven by a twenty foot overshot, was 
 geared in the following manner : An extra rim was put 
 around the arms seventeen feet in diameter, and bevel 
 gearing put upon this ; a crown, wheel or pinion four 
 feet in diameter to match this gearing was put upon an 
 upright shaft, and upon this shaft a spur wheel, nine feet 
 and five inches in diameter, was placed, working above 
 
254 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 the water wheel, and gearing into pinions of twenty-two 
 inches in diameter on each spindle. These pinions are 
 thrown out of gear by a long lever working under each, 
 a hand-staff attached to the long end reaching up through 
 the floor for convenience in throwing them out or in 
 gear. This requires the whole machinery to be stopped, 
 either to stop or start a run of stones, and the miller 
 has generally to go below and shift the pinion a little 
 that it may enter the cogs before it can drop into gear. 
 Another objection to this arrangement is, that the miller, 
 anxious to save time, will sometimes drop the pinion 
 before the spur wheeLis entirely at rest, and break the 
 corners off the cogs. 
 
 The stonework of this mill is twenty-four feet high 
 at the end where the wheel is situated, the other end 
 running upon the bank where the wall is only three or 
 four feet above the surface. A wooden (frame) building 
 is set upon this, in which the stones, bolts, &c., are 
 placed. 
 
 Another overshot mill is geared in the following 
 manner : the wheel is twenty feet in diameter with three 
 rims, and two tiers of five feet buckets. It is placed close 
 to the end wall, and around the rim next the interior is 
 a spur gear of heavy segments; at the descending centre 
 of these segments a shaft is placed, with a pinion on one 
 end gearing into these, and a bevel wheel on the other, 
 this bevel wheel drives a bevel pinion and upright shaft 
 carrying a spur wheel, seven feet in diameter. This 
 spur wheel drives two pinions secured upon two spindles, 
 each spindle being supported upon its respective bridge- 
 tree under the stones; these spindles, however, do not 
 carry their mill-stone upon a bail and driver in the ordi- 
 nary way, but terminate in a true turned cone at the 
 top. This cone is surmounted' by another concave por- 
 
MILL GEARING. 255 
 
 tion, or hollow cone, which fits it exactly, and is at- 
 tached to the running mill-stone. 
 
 To start these stones, the pinion and lower or conical 
 portion of the spindle being in motion, the bridge-tree 
 supporting these is raised, thus bringing the cone and 
 socket in contact, and driving the mill-stone by friction ; 
 to stop the stone, let down the cone until out of con- 
 tact, and the stone will remain at rest, while the cone 
 continues to revolve with the rest of the machinery. 
 On the other, or ascending side of the wheel, and at the 
 same height (the centre), is another pinion working in 
 the segments, and having its shaft, bevel gearing, and 
 everything else, exactly like the other set, and driving 
 two more run of mill-stones in the same manner. At 
 the highest point of the wheel above is a third pinion, 
 working in the same segments, and driving an upright 
 shaft which carries the smut machine, and all the machi- 
 nery above. This appears to be a substantial and dura- 
 ble combination of machinery, and provides for stopping 
 or starting a run of stones, with the other machinery in 
 motion, as conveniently as the belt gearing, and when all 
 the stones and machinery are in operation, it answers 
 the purpose well ; but when only a part, or say one run 
 of stones is working, all the other pinions, and shafts 
 and wheels, are running empty and idle, and this in- 
 volves a considerable waste of power, and useless wear 
 and tear of machinery. 
 
 We intended ending our observations on the difierent 
 plans of constructing these overshot mills with this 
 one, but since there is such a variety of these it may 
 contribute something to assist in determining the most 
 suitable arrangement for a new mill. We will describe 
 a few more variations in detail, and we do this the more 
 willingly, from a consideration of the fact, that much of 
 
256 GEIST-MILLS. 
 
 the difference in mills occurs among these overshot?, 
 those driven by the various wheels of modern invention 
 admitting of much more uniformity of construction. 
 
 The following method of belt gearing was introduced 
 several years ago by Columbus Smith, a celebrated 
 American millwright. He geared several mills with 
 wheels varying from sixteen to twenty-four feet in dia- 
 meter, each having three rims with two tiers of buckets, 
 varying from five to eight feet in length, and driving 
 from three to six run of stones each. These wheels had 
 a spur gearing of segments placed, around one rim, with 
 a pinion to match, placed about the centre of the descend- 
 ing side; this pinion drove a long heavy shaft extend- 
 ing through the lower story of the mill, and parallel 
 with the husk-timbers, and bridge-trees; upon this 
 shaft a long continuous drum (or several short ones) was 
 placed, about eight feet in diameter ; a bevel pinion was 
 put on each spindle, and another bevel pinion gearing 
 into these was placed upon a short horizontal shaft at the 
 foot of each spindle, and lying parallel with the large 
 drum. Upon the short shaft a sheave or pulley was placed 
 along side of the bevel wheel and a belt passing around 
 this pulley and the big drum connected them together ; 
 the driving side of this belt was below, and a heavy 
 tightener was placed upon the upper, or slack belt, to 
 start or stop a run of stones. 
 
 To effect this, a rope was made fast to the frame of the 
 tightener, and the other end attached to a windlass above, 
 near the stones. By slacking down the rope by the 
 windlass the weight of the tightener upon the belt 
 caused it to gripe and start the pulley, thus the whole 
 rig was set in motion ; by winding up the rope the tight- 
 ener was raised, the belt slackened, and the pulley with 
 all its dependencies would remain at rest. It is claimed in 
 
BELT GEARING. 257 
 
 favor of this mode of belt gearing that it relieves the 
 spindle of the side strain caused by the tightening of 
 the belt ; this strain, however, is not got rid of, but only 
 transferred from the upright spindle to the horizontal 
 shaft, which is more liable to cause trouble than the spin- 
 dle itself. These horizontal bearings are pretty large, 
 and they revolve at such a velocity that they require 
 constant care and attention to keep them oiled, the oil 
 being liable to leak off; we have seen a set of the brass 
 boxes in which they run, cut out and destroyed in a very 
 short time, by an occurrence of this kind, the brass being 
 thrown out in particles like filings and resembling gold 
 dust. 
 
 To reduce the velocity of these shafts and obviate 
 this tendency, Mr. Smith made the bevel wheel on the 
 shaft larger by one-third thaji the one on the spindle, 
 but this, while it reduced the velocity, increased the 
 pressure in the same proportion, and in a measure neu- 
 tralized the intended advantage. It is found in practice, 
 that a spindle and millstone driven by a pulley and belt 
 instead of a cog-pinion, is not disturbed by the side 
 strain of the belt, if the pulley be large enough ; and it 
 should never be less than thirty-three inches for an ordi- 
 nary sized stone, and as much larger as may be desired. 
 
 A belt will run on a large pulley with a swift light 
 motion, perfectly cool and safe and perform a certain 
 amount of work with ease and satisfaction, and without 
 any perceptible injury to the belt; bat reduce the size 
 of the pulley (and drum of course to match) say to one- 
 half, and try to do the same work with the same belt. 
 It must be very tight, still it will slip, and heat, and 
 burn, and tear out the lacing and rivets, and run off the 
 pulley; in short, it will be a continual bother as long as 
 it lasts, and will soon go to destruction. The extra 
 17 
 
258 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 strain upon the bearings is not the least of many disad- 
 vantages. With a large enough pulley on the spindle, 
 the side strain of the belt is only sufficient to keep the 
 bearings of the spindle at the toe and collars always firm 
 to the same side, and insure a steady smooth motion, 
 when these bearings wear loose and would otherwise 
 have some side play ; this is the reason given by millers 
 and mill owners who have tried both cog gearing and 
 belts, for preferring the latter. The cog gearing is gene- 
 rally the cheapest, it is much less troublesome to keep 
 in order, and more durable, but the belt motion is so 
 much smoother that they get from one pound to one and 
 a half more flour from a bushel of wheat, and the dress 
 in the stones will last considerably longer. 
 
 We once geared an overshot mill with the water- 
 wheel and drum shaft exactly like those of Mr. Smith's, 
 but we dispensed with the horizontal shaft and bevel 
 gearing. We placed a pulley on each spindle, and fixed 
 the upper surface of the drum exactly on a level with the 
 centre of the sheave on the spindle. The driving belt 
 passed straight and level from the driving side of this 
 pulley to the top of the drum, taking a quarter twist in 
 that distance, i. e., it left the pulley upon edge, but fed 
 on to the top of the drum flat; it passed around the 
 drum and up over a tightener set at an angle which re- 
 turned the quarter twist to the belt, and fed it on at the 
 proper height and up on edge ready to pursue the course 
 indicated. 
 
 It requires some calculation and care to locate these 
 difierent parts aright with respect to each other, but 
 when this is attained, the belt works just as well this 
 way as any other ; and we never geared a mill before 
 nor since, where the same expense of money and water 
 would do more work, if as much. It may assist any 
 
GEARING OVERSHOTS. 259 
 
 one intending to run a belt in this way to note, that a 
 plumb line hung at the driving side of the pulley should 
 range exactly with the centre of the drum, and a level 
 set on top of the drum should point to the middle of 
 the sheave ; this allows the driving belt to work straight 
 and without angle or slip, and leaves all the angle to 
 the slack belt, where it is accommodated by the incline 
 of the tightener which directs it in the proper position 
 and height to feed around the pulley. This plan of belt 
 gearing is, in common with Smith's, subject to the objec- 
 tion that the weight of the slack belt hanging upon the 
 revolving drum causes a useless wear upon the belt and 
 drum, injurious to both, and a slight waste of power. To 
 obviate this, we have fixed a convenient plan for hitch- 
 ing the belt up clear of the drum when slack, which 
 answers well. 
 
 Another overshot mill of four run of stones is geared 
 by Mr. Messenger, a contemporary of Mr. Smith, and 
 from the same " school," in the following manner : The 
 wheel is thirty feet in diameter, and set down in a natu- 
 ral gulley in the rock, improved by blasting, almost to 
 the shaft ; a cog gear is put around the outside of the 
 rim next to the interior, and the motion taken from this 
 by a heavy crown wheel or pinion placed in the centre 
 at the descending side. The shaft of this pinion is ex- 
 tended the whole length of the mill, just above the lower 
 floor, on the timbers of which the shaft bearings are 
 fixed ; this shaft from the pinion to the next bearing is 
 about eight inches in diameter; here a bevel wheel about 
 three feet in diameter is placed upon it, driving a pinion 
 of about two feet, on an upright shaft. From this bevel 
 gearing to the next bearing the lying shaft is about six 
 inches in diameter, and here another set of bevel gear- 
 ing and an upright shaft are placed, like the first ; at this 
 
260 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 point another portion of shaft about four inches in dia- 
 meter is coupled on, extending about twelve feet further, 
 wh'fere it drives another and smaller set of gearing and 
 upright shaft which carries the smut machine and clean- 
 ing apparatus. The other two upright shafts have each 
 a double drum, from which two belts with their bearers 
 and tighteners run off in opposite directions to their 
 respective stones. These shafts, running as they do 
 along the centre of the mill, admit of an equal and con- 
 venient distribution of the stones and bolts, a bolt being 
 placed in each corner of the building, and the stones so 
 located with respect to these as to communicate by the 
 elevators in the most direct manner. 
 
 The mill floor is just above the wheel and spout at 
 that end, and a little above the mill-yard at the other ; 
 the lower part being of stone and the upper of frame. 
 This is a good mill, but upon a very small stream, and 
 is often deficient in water, and this defect is somewhat 
 aggravated by over gearing, from the old but mistaken 
 notion that the slower an overshot wheel turns the 
 more work it will perform with the same water. (See a 
 previous chapter on water-wheels on this subject.) The 
 stones make about ninety-six turns for one of the wheel, 
 and to accomplish this the pulley on the spindle is made 
 too small. To compensate for this, the belts are made 
 exceedingly wide and heavy (from nineteen to twenty- 
 four inches wide and very thick). Still they would slip 
 and heat, so that the owner told us that he insisted 
 upon the pulleys being made six square to enable the 
 belt to hold upon them ; this, however, the millwright 
 refused to do, and although the owner assured us that 
 he would still have it done, we think the foolish experi- 
 ment was never tried. The extra stiiFness and weight 
 of. a belt beyond what is necessary involves a slight ad- 
 
GEARING OVERSHOTS. 261 
 
 ditional Tvaste of power. It requires a certain force to 
 bend a belt short and suddenly, and a like force to 
 straighten it again or bend it in the opposite direction, 
 and this force is in proportion to the weight and stiffness 
 of the belt. Now there are in each belt three points 
 where the bending and three other points where the 
 straightening process is constantly progressing like the 
 undulations of a wave, and with a rapidity equal to the 
 velocity of the drum, and sheave, and tightener, as the 
 belt enters upon and leaves each of these. This waste, 
 with an ordinary belt and ample motive power, is not 
 taken into account ; but when the power is limited, and 
 the belt very stiff and heavy, it will be found to detract 
 very sensibly from the working of the machine. 
 
 We once astonished a friend who was incredulous and 
 "couldn't see the point," by stretching a large heavy rope 
 tight around several pulleys, turning freely on their 
 bearings, to one of which a hand-crank was attached ; 
 we requested him to turn the crank until a velocity was 
 imparted to the rope equal to that of the belt in ques- 
 tion. The experiment satisfied him that a great power 
 was absorbed somewhere, but he was still incredulous 
 as to the actual point of absorption. 
 
 The last illustration we will give of the various ways 
 in which overshot mills are geared, is a small mill of 
 two run of stones, all the movements, heavy and light, 
 being made with cast-iron cog gearing, to the total exclu- 
 sion of belts. This mill was geared and is owned by an 
 old Scotch millwright. The wheel is twenty feet in 
 diameter, and is partly sunk under the foundation like 
 the last one, by blasting out the rock; the wheel inside 
 the mill, and with the spout, comes up to the mill floor ; 
 an extra rim is bolted on to the arms of the water-wheel 
 fourteen feet in diameter and about six inches thick ; a 
 
262 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 spur gear is put around the outside of this rim, and a 
 pinion gears into it at the descending side at the centre. 
 (Both this wheel and that last described are placed 
 down stream sufficiently to bring the shafts to the centre 
 of the building, and turn up stream towards the enter- 
 ing water, and technically called " pitchback.") This 
 pinion drives a horizontal shaft, on the other end of 
 which is a bevel wheel working into another the same 
 size (mitre wheels) upon an upright shaft. On this 
 vertical shaft is a cast-iron spur wheel six feet in. dior 
 meter, working in a pinion upon each spindle about six- 
 teen inches in diameter, which drives the stones. A 
 small shaft is coupled on to the top of the spur wheel 
 shaft and is carried up to the next floor ; this shaft, by a 
 series of small wheels and shafting which intervenes, car- 
 ries both bolts, with their respective elevators, and the 
 smut mill grain elevators, together with a variety of 
 saws, lathes, and other machinery in an adjoining work- 
 shop; near the lower end of the spur wheel shaft is 
 another set of bevel gear, driving a long horizontal shaft 
 which extends to another workshop, at the other end 
 of the mill, containing larger circular saws, and a plan- 
 ing machine ; from this last shaft the smut machine is 
 driven. 
 
 This is a substantial little mill, the movements being 
 wholly of iron ; but, like the one last described, it is over- 
 geared. The circumference of the water wheel moves 
 only three feet per second, and acting upon the pinion 
 with a lever purchase as it does, the pressure upon the 
 cogs and bearing of this small pinion is so great that 
 they are compelled to keep the gearing constantly 
 greased, and being so nearly in contact with the water, 
 it is a constant source of trouble and expense. With 
 all this care, the pinion is soon worn out and has to be 
 
OVERSHOTS. 263 
 
 replaced by a new one. We tried to persuade the owner 
 to enlarge this pinion, and thus increase the purchase, 
 and allow the wheel to move with a lighter, freer motion. 
 But this is the millwright referred to in a former chapter, 
 who wants " thirty yards of the stream on his wheel at 
 once." We have since been informed that he enlarged 
 the pinions once or twice when he renewed them ; this 
 would indicate that experience has taught him the same 
 lesson that we failed to impress upon him. This mill, 
 like most of those described, is built of stone to the main 
 floor, which is above the level of the mill yard three feet, 
 the upper part being a wooden frame building one story 
 and a half high. 
 
 From a review of all these various methods of gearing 
 an overshot grist-mill, not to mention the still more 
 complicated methods now nearly obsolete, of extending 
 the water-wheel shaft and gearing from it by a pit-wheel, 
 &c. &c., it is obvious that the simplest possible arrange- 
 ment involves such an amount of cumbrous and compli- 
 cated machinery, expensive at first, and requiring con- 
 tinual care and expense to keep the whole in working 
 order, and replace the wear and tear, that the overshot 
 wheel should not be used where the water power is suf- 
 ficient to do the required amount of work with any of 
 the simpler wheels. It may be further observed that 
 great additional expense and inconvenience are incurred 
 in making room for this kind of machinery, either within 
 the mill itself, or in an additional wheel-house, and in 
 conveniently adapting the whole to the situation — the 
 mill-yard and other approaches ; whereas all the varieties 
 of modern wheels adapted as they are to run upon ver- 
 tical shafts, admit of so much uniformity in their appli- 
 cation to grist-mills, that the building may be planned 
 for all other conveniences without regard to the particu- 
 
264 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 lar kind of wheel to be used, and any of these that may 
 be selected as the most suitable in other respects, will 
 answer the building ; a longer or shorter shaft furnish- 
 ing the necessary accommodation. Or one kind of wheel 
 may be taken out and replaced by another without 
 materially disturbing any of the other arrangments. 
 
 We began this particular division of the work by 
 trying to give a description of the building necessary, or 
 suitable for a grist-mill, but have inadvertently wandered 
 so far among the mazes of these wheels and the dark 
 recesses containing them and their machinery, that we 
 have lost all hold of the " thread of the discourse," and 
 find it impossible to get hold of it again ; we must there- 
 fore dismiss the subject with a few general observations 
 applicable to any custom-mill building, and proceed 
 to give some account of the various parts required to 
 constitute all the movements and fixtures inside of an 
 ordinary grist-mill. We have already observed that the 
 lower story of the building up to the floor containing the 
 stones, should be of stone if practicable ; if no*^ it should 
 be as solid and substantial as possible. 
 
 This part, unless for some special reason already re- 
 ferred to, need not be more than eight to ten feet high ; 
 all the husk timbers supporting the stones and machi- 
 nery, as well as those supporting the floors in this story, 
 should be placed so that they may be taken out and re- 
 placed by new ones when they decay, without disturbing 
 the walls or upper portion of the building. Second, 
 the building above this floor containing the stones, bolts, 
 &c., being away from the water, and only required for 
 storage and shelter, need not be so substantial, and may 
 be of any material that taste or convenience may dic- 
 tate. This story should not be less than nine or ten 
 feet between floors, to allow sufficient height for bolt 
 
THE BUILDING. 265 
 
 chests, hoisting crane, &c. The chamber, if not intended 
 for conveyor or bolts or something extra, need only be 
 high enough for convenient grain bins or other storage. 
 If the whole building be of stone, or solid brick walls, 
 the timbers should all be placed so that in case of fire 
 they might burn and fall off without disturbing or pry- 
 ing down the walls. We owned a grist-mill built of 
 sandstone, that was burned a few years ago. The walls 
 were but little injured. The wall up to the main floor 
 was thirty inches thick ; here a ledge of six inches was 
 left, and the timbers rested upon this ledge at each end 
 and a heavy trimmer supported on a stone pillar at the 
 middle. The wall through this story was two feet 
 thick, and again six inches were left to support the next 
 timbers, above which it was only eighteen inches; a 
 stone lintel was placed over each door and window out- 
 side, but extended into the inside of the wall with wood ; 
 the whole interior of the walls was plastered with a 
 heavy coat of mortar upon the stone without lathing. 
 The fire cleaned the woodwork out' to the foundation, 
 but did little damage to the walls, except that it peeled 
 off the plaster (which had saved the stones from injury) 
 and damaged the inside of the door and window heads ; 
 six days' work of a mason renewed the walls and chim- 
 ney tops nearly as good as ever. 
 
 This mill was driven by an overshot wheci twenty- 
 seven and a half feet in diameter, placed in a separate 
 wheel-house, built of stone, between the mill and a bank 
 thirty feet high, upon which the water was brought by 
 a canal. The wheel was kept running thoughout the 
 whole continuance of the fire, and was saved, although 
 the upper story of the mill was occupied by a Daniel's 
 planer and several circular saws and lathes, and also con- 
 tained the whole woodwork for a new building, with the 
 
266 GKIST-MILLS. 
 
 exception of the frame; the burning timbers fell down 
 upon it and around it, at times stopping it altogether, 
 but it would gain in power as the buckets filled and 
 started again. Timbers supporting the flume finally gave 
 way, and the whole remaining fabric fell upon the wheel 
 and was carried down with a crash, sending up a volume 
 of fire, steam, and cinders like a volcano. A temporary 
 board spout was applied to send on the water, and the 
 wheel when all was over was none the worse except one 
 broken arm, and is now as good as ever. This fire 
 occurred in October, and although we had no insurance, 
 and but little means for such an emergency, by saving 
 the walls and the wheel, we were enabled by the as- 
 sistance of the neighbors to have the mill in operation 
 again by the first of January. 
 
 We mention these facts in order that others may profit 
 by our experience, in the construction of new mills, as we 
 have seen two stone grist-mills that were burned since, 
 where the walls were almost totally demolished by the 
 timbers being built into them. When these timbers 
 burned so that they fell, their remaining weight acting 
 with a lever purchase by their ends in the walls, brought 
 the walls down with them, and nothing remained but a 
 pile of ruins. The walls built in this way are so much 
 thicker at the bottom than at the top, that they should 
 be built with a regular incline outside, especially where 
 one side or end is built against a bank, to balance the 
 incline or " batter" as it is called inside, and bring the 
 centre of gravity upon the foundation equally. This pre- 
 caution may be disregarded in an ordinary building, and 
 the outside carried up plumb, but in a mill it is essen- 
 tial, as the jar and tremor caused by the machinery af- 
 fect the building, and give it a tendency to crack, and 
 especially to bulge out. And, third, as to the size of the 
 
THE HUSK TIMBERS, ETC. 267 
 
 building: tins-last mentioned mill is forty-five feet long 
 by tbirty-five feet wide outside, and is large enougb for 
 three run of stones, with their bolts and other append- 
 ages. We have geared some small mills, with only two 
 run of stones each ; two of these are twenty-six by thirty- 
 six feet, and two others are thirty-four feet square. 
 One of these last has had a third run for grinding feed 
 put in since, one of the bolts being removed upstairs to 
 make room, and provided with a screw conveyor and 
 spouts to bring the flour down again. This mill does a 
 large amount of work, both custom and manufacturing, 
 but lacks room. It is to be enlarged the ensuing sea- 
 son. Several mills with three and four run of stones 
 around here, are forty by fifty feet; others with four to 
 six fun, are forty by sixty feet. Much depends upon 
 the convenient grouping of all the different parts ; a pro- 
 per attention to this makes some small mills appear 
 roomy and commodious, while its neglect or a confused 
 arrangement of the machinery and fixtures in others of 
 a large size, makes them appear crowded and unhandy. 
 
 The Husk Timbers, &c. 
 
 These consist of two parallel sticks of large timber 
 extending from side to side of the building, and three 
 or four feet apart, placed at the level of the floor, imme- 
 diately under that upon which the stones are placed, 
 and directly under the stones. These foundation sills 
 should be solidly supported, either upon stonework or 
 sufiicient posts, and the bridge tree posts tenoned into 
 these ; these posts extend from these sills up into and 
 support the meal beams, which are two very large 
 sticks running parallel with the first two and placed 
 under the next floor. Upon these meal beams the bed 
 stones are placed, and exactly under each bed stone are 
 
268 
 
 GEIST-MILLS. 
 
 the two, or sometimes four bridge tree posts already al- 
 luded to, which support the bridge trees upon which the 
 spindle stands. The bridge tree is hung upon a pivot at 
 the back end, and the front end is supported by a lighter 
 rod ; a rod of iron attached to a tenon on the end of the 
 bridge tree, and running up through the floor to a con- 
 venient height where it terminates in a screw and nut. 
 On this nut a small hand wheel or other convenient 
 wrench is placed, and by turning this in one direction, the 
 lighter rod and bridge tree, with the spindle and runner 
 stone are let down, and by turning it in the opposite 
 direction they are raised up. 
 
 Pig. 37. 
 
 A step ; £ toe; O spindle ; D collar ; £1 driver ; I" bail. 
 
 "When the bridge tree is supported by a single post at 
 each end as in fig. 37, then the back end is made with 
 
THE BRIDGE-TREES. 269 
 
 two tenons, two or three inches thick, according to the 
 size of the stick, and these are put through correspond- 
 ing mortises in the post ; a counter mortise is put through 
 the post in the opposite direction, about two inches wide 
 and five deep at the lower end of the other two. This 
 cross mortise is made square at the lower end, but round 
 at the top, and a key (or two heads and points are bet- 
 ter) is made to fit this mortise in thickness, but slack in 
 width, and tapering. A half-circle is cut out of the 
 lower edge of the double tenons on the bridge tree to fit 
 the round top of this key ; the tapering key is driven 
 into its place under these tenons, until the bridge tree 
 is raised up and rests upon the round edge of the key 
 which keeps it in place, at the same time forming the 
 pivot for this end to work upon ; the front end has a 
 single large tenon let through a suitable mortise in the 
 front post, in which it is raised or lowered at will by the 
 lighter rod. These mortises in the fender posts must all 
 be deeper than the depth of the tenons, to admit of play, 
 and the bridge tree must be kept as nearly level as possi- 
 ble by driving or slacking the key under the back end. 
 
 When four bridge tree posts are used, the two behind 
 are placed one on each side of the bridge tree, and a 
 short bar is mortised across between the two close above 
 the bridge tree, the end of which is hung up to this bar 
 by two sets of screw eye-bolts ; by slacking or tighten- 
 ing the nuts on these eye-bolts, the bridge tree is kept 
 level. The front end passes between the two front 
 posts, instead of through a mortise in the single one, 
 and is guided by the lighter rod as in the other case ; 
 the two posts are connected by screw bolts, which are 
 tightened if the bridge tree gets loose by it and the posts 
 shrinking by seasoning. 
 
 Although it is essential that the bridge tree should 
 
270 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 have a free chance to raise and lower, it is equally im- 
 portant that it should be perfectly solid every other 
 tvay. A board may be placed between each pair of these 
 posts in a groove made near the outside corner of each 
 for that purpose, one board passing behind the back end 
 of the bridge tree, and the other having a mortise slit 
 for the lighter tenon of the bridge tree to pass through ; 
 this will both help to steady the whole concern when 
 the bolts are tightened, and improve the appearance. 
 
 In the upper side of the bridge tree, and near the mid- 
 dle, a piece is cut out about two inches deep and a foot 
 wide, into which the step for the spindle foot is placed, 
 and fastened by four dovetail tapering keys ; two of 
 these go across the bridge tree in the notch for the step, 
 one on each side, the other two lengthwise of the bridge 
 tree, are driven between it and a projecting ledge dlong 
 each end of the step which runs over each side of the 
 bridge for that purpose. By slacking one of these keys 
 and driving the one opposite, the step is shifted in the 
 direction necessary to "tram" the spindle. This step 
 has a square or round box on the centre, called the oil 
 pot, about four inches wide and the same in length. A 
 flat piece of steel is placed in the bottom of this, and 
 another similar plate with a hole through the centre is 
 placed above the first, with a space between for oil, 
 and also some provisions made for the free passage of^ 
 the oil through the upper plate. The cast-steel toe or 
 pivot upon which the spindle runs passes through the 
 upper plate which keeps it in place, and turns upon the 
 lower one; both these and the pivot being hardened 
 to the same temper. The upper end of the spindle 
 where it passes through the eye of the bed stone, has an 
 enlarged collar about seven inches long and turned true, 
 around which the boxes are placed which secure the 
 
THE STEP 271 
 
 spindle in the eye of the bed stone, and furnish its upper 
 bearing. 
 
 Mill spindles were formerly made of wrought iron with 
 this collar of steel welded on ; the steel toe was also 
 welded on, and they were more expensive than th« cast- 
 iron spindles now used, and did not keep so true. The 
 welded collar had always hard and soft portions, and soon 
 wore unequally, while the cast collar wears equally all 
 around and keeps true. The welded toe is also inferior to 
 the modern practice qf turning a toe of cast steel and set- 
 ting it in a tapering hole drilled in the end of the spindle. 
 These require to be Well fitted to bear equally the whole 
 distance ; the point must not touch thef bottom of the 
 . hole, as in that case it will get loose, and Spoil the 
 spindle in a short time. It is customary to wash with 
 pickle or other stuff to cause the toe to rust in. An in- 
 experienced mechanic will generally get the point or toe 
 too large for the guide plate in the step ; this is a cause 
 of frequent annoyance and mischief, and occurs by rim- 
 ming out the hole in the plate to fit the turned pivot 
 when both are annealed and in a soft state. Then in 
 the process of hardening, the shrinkage of the large plate 
 diminishes the size of the hole more than the small 
 pivot is diminished, and it will be found too tight or 
 large for the hole, unless some allowance has been made ; 
 but this is not all, for the hardened pivot may be ground 
 down until it will turn in the plate, and when first set 
 in motion, with the weight of the mill-stone, spindle, &c. 
 upon it, and the friction upon the bearing plate, the pivot 
 will heat and expand and pinch in the guide plate, which 
 increases the heat and expansion still more, while the 
 plate having no weight or friction upon it, except at the 
 pivot, is not heated or expanded except at that spot ; but 
 there the heat will increase so rapidly that we have fre- 
 
272 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 quently seen the pivot welded into the step within 
 twenty minutes after starting. When this occurs it 
 must either turn on the pivot inside of the spindle or 
 shaft, in which case the hole is soon spoiled, or it must 
 break the pivot, or stop the machinery; we have seen 
 all these issues from that occurrence, and had our own 
 share of trouble with each. 
 
 In one instance in starting a new overshot mill, the 
 pivot of a spur-wheel shaft driving three run of stones 
 welded in this way in this guide plate, and turned in 
 the shaft. The crown-wheel or pinion driving this was 
 only twenty-six inches in diameter, and therefore the 
 side strain upon the pivot was considerable; it had only 
 run about half an hour altogether when it was noticed, 
 but in that short time the pivot had worn for itself a 
 good half inch of play. To remedy this we had to raise 
 up the shaft and take out the pivot and step together, 
 then heat the guide plate and pivot to a red heat, and 
 cool the pivot suddenly to shrink it while the plate re- 
 mained hot. By this means we got them apart but 
 with small fragments of each splintered off and sticking 
 in the other; we then took a piece of cedar that was 
 soft and fitted it into the enlarged hole in the shaft by 
 filing away the marks and rings shown upon this, by 
 turning it in the hole, which, although ridged, was still 
 tapering, we got an exact pattern of the hole. By this 
 pattern we had a new pivot turned, and perfected the 
 fit by grinding it into the hole with emery and oil; 
 this was done by putting a wooden pulley on the lower 
 end of the pivot to give it motion, and pressing it tightly 
 up into the shaft, adding more emery during the opera- 
 tion until the fit was complete. This made a good job, 
 and although it was considerable trouble and expense, 
 
THE SPIKDLE. 273 
 
 it was much less of either, than to demolish the whole 
 concern, and send the shaft back to the machine shop. 
 
 In this connection we will mention another trouble 
 we had with a similar spur-wheel shaft. This was an 
 old shaft and pivot, the step and guide plate only being 
 renewed ; the guide plate, as in the other instance, had 
 been fitted too tight to the pivot, and they heated and 
 welded, or stuck fast. In this case the shaft and pivot 
 had run so long that the heating and cooling so often 
 repeated, and with so much jarring and weight upon 
 them, had settled the two together so firmly that the 
 pivot could not turn in the shaft, but broke off outside, 
 and the problem was how to get the piece out, to put in 
 a new pivot. We tried the usual recourse in such a 
 case, i. e., heating the shaft, but without effect, and had 
 to drill a small hole into the shaft at the upper end of 
 the pivot, and prick in gunpowder through this hole 
 until the cavity at the end was filled ; the explosion of 
 the powder removed the obstacle. When anything of 
 this kind occurs with a spindle it is easier rectified, as 
 it can be taken out more readily, and sent to a shop for 
 the necessary repair. 
 
 The spindle head extends about six inches above the 
 collar and bed-stone, this part tapering, and four, six, or 
 eight square, has the driver which turns the running 
 stone fitted on to it, and a small steel pivot drilled 
 into the top, on which the bale and running stone are 
 balanced. This pivot, or cock head, as it is called, is 
 rounded off to a point, and a corresponding depression 
 is countersunk in the bale to fit it. This cock head 
 should not be tempered, as it has sometimes to be turned 
 anew, or altered in shape to fit and balance the bale upon 
 it ; this can be done by fixing a solid rest of any kind at 
 the point, and applying a steel cutter, or if but little is 
 18 
 
274 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 to be taken off, a sharp file held against the point by 
 this rest will turn and fit it. We have drawn the tem- 
 pef of these cock-heads, to refit the bale, by heating an 
 old driver, and placing it upon the square spindle head, 
 until the latter was well heated, and then applying the 
 hot bale to the pivot, for some machinists persist in 
 hardening the pivot although there is no friction upon it, 
 except balancing the weight of the stone, and when the 
 rest of the spindle is all right, there is no other necessity 
 for taking it out. We have frequently drilled the 
 spindle head for the pivot by keying a suitable drill 
 into a piece of plank or other lever, and shoring this 
 properly down with the drill to the centre of the spindle, 
 which is then set in motion, until the hole is of the pro- 
 per depth and shape. 
 
 The bed stones are placed upon the meal beams, the 
 large upper timbers of the husk. Some merely notch a 
 couple of pieces of short plank or timber across between 
 these beams at a proper distance apart, and lay the back 
 of the stone flat upon them, inserting thin wedges 
 between the back of the stone and these pieces and 
 beams, to raise and level the stone. A better way is to 
 make a square frame of four wide pieces of plank, framed 
 together at the corners, and fit this frame to the back 
 of the stone, either by planing off the high spots, or by 
 interposing a thin bed of soft mortar between. Under 
 each corner of this frame cut a space out of the meal 
 beams to admit a wide key, and by driving or slack- 
 ing these keys the bed-stone is levelled and kept true. 
 We have seen the bed-stones hung upon the point of 
 four large screws, one at each comer of such a frame, 
 but prefer the keys. The stone should be kept free and 
 clear of the floor, and the space between covered by a 
 rim of plank about six inches wide, fitted flour tight 
 
THE BED-STONE. 275 
 
 all around the stone, and resting upon the floor, the outer 
 edge being champered off to diminish the jog. The 
 curb rests upon this rim, and three or four shott pieces of 
 circle, wide enough to fill the space between the stone 
 and curb are nailed on this rim, at equal distances 
 and close to the bed-stone to locate the curb and keep 
 it in place. The precaution of keeping the bed-stone 
 clear of the floor, and dependent wholly on the husk 
 timbers, is necessary to prevent the working of the stones 
 from being disturbed by the yielding of the floor, when 
 larige piles of bags and grain are placed upon it, and rais- 
 ing when these are removed. The spindle and running 
 stone rest upon the bridge tree, and the space between 
 it and the bed-stone while grinding is so minute and so 
 accurately graduated that a rise or fall of the bed-stone 
 by the floor, of only a small part of a hair's breadth, 
 would make the flour too coarse or too fine. 
 
 The running stone has a bale sunk in from the face 
 of the stone by cutting two grooves in opposite sides of 
 the eye, and a little larger than the ends of the bale, to 
 admit of moving and making it true to the centre of the 
 stone. This is done by a sweep stick half the diameter 
 of the stone, with a pieCe attached to one end, reaching 
 down the eye of the stone, to the countersunk centre 
 of the bale in which it is fitted. By keeping the point 
 of this steady in the bale, and moving the other end of 
 the sweep around the skirt of the stone, it will show 
 which way to move the bale to bring it to the centre. 
 When fairly in the centre, and true with the face of the 
 stone, it should be fastened by wedges to keep it steady, 
 and the bottom and skirts of the grooves closed with 
 clay or mortar, and the spaces run full of lead. Great 
 care should he taken to lay out these recesses for the 
 bale true to the centre, and of the right depth. The first 
 
276 GEIST-MILLS. 
 
 is done by fitting a board in the eye and making the 
 centre on it by a sweep and laying out the recesses or 
 grooves by that centre. The same centre will be needed 
 to lay out the grooves for the driver, if that kind is 
 used, and also to lay out the dress in the stones. The 
 proper depth for the bale might be found either by hang- 
 ing it in its place on the pivot of the spindle, and mea- 
 suring from the ends to the face of the bed-stones, which 
 will give the depth to which these should be sunk below 
 the face of the runner, or by laying a straight edge 
 upon the pivot of the spindle, and measuring from it 
 down to the bed-stone : which will give the depth from 
 a straight edge laid upon the face of the running stone 
 to the socket for the pivot. 
 
 There are several ways of fixing the driver. A very 
 common way is to place a straight driver of either 
 wrought or cast iron upon the tapering part of the spindle 
 head j if that be square, the squares secure it ; if round, 
 it is secured by a key. This driver is placed at right 
 angles with the bale, under the bow of which it passes, 
 and is let into a recess in each side of the eye, cut for 
 that purpose. The ends of the driver, however, must 
 not be fastened in the stone like those of the bale, but 
 must have considerable clearance to allow the stone to 
 balance freely on the bale. Particular care is neces- 
 sary to get both ends of the driver to catch the atone 
 exactly alike, because if one end touches a hair's breadth 
 before the other, it will tip the stone up on that side, 
 and bring the opposite side in contact with the bed-stone, 
 and a constant vibration and rumbling are the conse- 
 quence, which almost every miller has observed, and in 
 many instances is wholly unable to account for. 
 
 The ordinary method of locating this driver is as fol- 
 lows : Place the runner stone face up and level ; then 
 
THE DRIVER. 277 
 
 secure the driver firmly in its place on the spindle, and 
 stand the spindle up plumb, with the lower pivot up 
 and the upper pivot down in its socket in the bale; make 
 it secure in this position, with the ends of the driver in 
 their respective gains in the stone. Next fix a tram, 
 one end with a bearing on the toe of the spindle, now 
 turned up, the other end to sweep the face of the stone 
 close to the skirt. Fix another piece, one end with a 
 half-circle to fit and bear upon the collar; the other end 
 fastened to the end of the first piece, at the skirt of the 
 stone. By turning this tram round, and shifting the 
 toe and spindle until the tram sweeps the face of the 
 stone all around equally, the spindle is gotten true with 
 the stone, and both are in the same position with respect 
 to each other which they will occupy while grinding. 
 
 You may now place the iron boxes or "thimbles" 
 which line the recesses in the stone so that they will 
 both touch the ends of the driver exactly alike on the 
 driving side, then move the ends of the driver back, and 
 fit them by chipping, filing, or otherwise, to the back 
 side of the thimbles also. This back fit is only of use 
 when the " backlash" caused by stopping the machinery 
 occurs ; in this case, the stone being raised clear of the 
 bed-stone and no grain . between, becomes the driving 
 power, until its accumulated momentum is overcome by 
 the resistance of the machinery. And while this is 
 going on, if one end of the driver only touched the stone, 
 it would tip on the bail as in the other case, and spoil 
 the dress and face of the stones. With all this care, in 
 fitting the bearings of this kind of driver, it will in 
 some instances still be imperfect, and may be completed 
 by marking the inside of the thimbles with paint, after 
 the spindles and other things are in place, and letting 
 the stone carefully down upon its place without touch- 
 
1^78 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 ing the driver; then turning it each way until the paint 
 marks the points of contact upon the driver, and then 
 taking up the stone carefully, and filing off the paint 
 marks. Of course the thimbles are fastened securely in 
 the stone before this operation is performed ; these are 
 fastened like the bale by securing first with iron wedges, 
 and then running the cavities full of lead. 
 
 We once fixed a driver of this kind that had baffled 
 several first-class millers and millwrights, and rendered 
 the best wheat stones in the mill useless for several years. 
 The stone had been rehung and balanced anew during 
 this time by several adepts, and, among others, by the 
 celebrated Mr. Brown, mentioned elsewhere in this 
 work, as having reduced the balancing of mill-stones to 
 an invariable rule, which before had to be accomplished 
 by repeated trials. The real source of trouble had 
 escaped their investigations, and by some it was attri- 
 buted to witchcraft. We examined the machinery, and 
 everything appertaining to these stones, and found all 
 in perfect order, except that the driver was worn upon 
 one end more than on the other. This end was chipped 
 and filed, and by a few applications of paint as above 
 directed, and a little more filing, we succeeded in mak- 
 ing a perfect fit, which may be known by both ends 
 equally holding a slip of thin paper inserted between 
 these and the thimbles. We started the stone, it being 
 just clear of the bed-stone, and saw that it ran true, 
 and was in perfect balance both running and at rest, 
 and told the owner he might now put in a grist of wheat 
 and we would warrant it to grind all right. He advised 
 letting the stones come together before the curb was put 
 down, as he had seen them run just as well before, when 
 high and free, and the witch only interfered when the 
 stones were set to work. We took his advice, but when- 
 
THE DRIVER. 279 
 
 ever the runner touched the bed-stone it began to rumble 
 and shake bo violently that it stopped the stone, water- 
 wheel, and all in a few revolutions, and with a noise like 
 thunder. We then made a close investigation of the 
 driver and spindle, which were round, and the driver 
 fastened by a steel key next to one end. That end was 
 held tight by the key, and the whole driver was appa- 
 rently tight, but by striking the other end with a heavy 
 inaul, first on one side, then on the other, we discovered 
 that the hole was too large for the spindle, and allowed 
 that end to shift when the straiia of grinding came upon 
 it. This was the cause of all the trouble, and the owner 
 remembered that the original driver of that run had 
 been broken and a new one cast for it just about the 
 time it took the caper; we cut another key seat, and 
 put another key in that end, and fitted the driver anew, 
 and the trouble ceased. 
 
 This kind of driver is in general use throughout the 
 country, although in addition to the practical inconve- 
 niences already enumerated, there is still another, which 
 is, that the ends of this driver, entering the stone at 
 right angles with the bale, causes four obstructions to 
 the grain entering the eye, instead of two only, by the 
 driver next described. This makes the grain, and espe- 
 cially feed or foul grain, more liable to lodge and be car- 
 ried round by the centrifugal force, and thus clog the 
 eye, which is a source of considerable annoyance. The 
 next driver to be considered, and the one which we pre- 
 fer, consists of a round block of cast iron, fitted on to 
 the tapering top of the spindle, which for this purpose 
 should be eight square, and reaching from the collar 
 nearly to the upper surface of the bale. The top of this 
 block is round, something like the round crown of a 
 "Jim Crow hat," and has a recess cut out across the top 
 
2b0 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 to admit the bale, which should hang free in this recess, 
 touching the pivot upon which it balances. This bale 
 should be made deeper and thinner than the ordinary 
 square one, which allows more strength and room to the 
 driver. This can be fitted easily and perfectly, both 
 on the driving and backlash sides, before the bale is fas- 
 tened in the stone, and being in the centre of the eye, 
 in sight, and within reach, there is no trouble in getting 
 the bearing alike on both sides, and when once fitted, 
 there is no further trouble. This plan, we need hardly 
 say, drives by the bale, and leaves the eye with only 
 two obstructions. 
 
 In some instances where the eye of the stone was 
 very small, we have had the driver very small, and cast 
 solid with the spindle, or a wrought iron band has been 
 shrunk on to insure suflBcient strength. This we would 
 not recommend, as the fixed driver is in the way of 
 placing or removing the bush, boxes, and collar, around 
 the spindle, in the eye of the bed-stone. It is better to 
 have it movable, but as small as is compatible with suffi- 
 cient strength ; the strength may be increased by band- 
 ing with wrought iron, as indicated. There are several 
 other forms of drivers used which need not be described. 
 One of these is similar to that first described, but shorter, 
 and instead of being let into recesses, cut in the stone for 
 a driving hold, it clutches upon the lower corners of the 
 bale. When stopped, this allows the stone to turn nearly 
 a half revolution before it backlashes, and when started 
 the driver comes around the same distance before it 
 comes in contact, which causes a shock in starting the 
 stone which is injurious to the machinery. 
 
 Another kind, a modification of the last, has a, clutch 
 on both sides of the angle of the bale; this is an improve- 
 ment, as it is easily fitted, both for driving and back- 
 
THE DRIVER. 281 
 
 lashing, and obviates the mischievous shock induced by 
 the other ; but it obstructs the eye more, and the clutch 
 end in front of the bale forms an angle with it, in which 
 the grain lodges and forms a nucleus for clogging, which 
 is encouraged by the centrifugal force, and is sometimes 
 a source of annoyance. 
 
 The " Stiff Eyne" is not used to any extent, at least 
 in this country, except for hanging the stones used for 
 shelling and grinding oats in the manufacture of oatmeal, 
 and will be described under that head. The next ma- 
 chine in order is the Dansil. Its business is to shake 
 the shoe, and induce a regular feed of the grain, and for 
 this reason it is sometimes called the feeder. It is 
 coupled on to the centre of the bale, and stands directly 
 above and in line with the spindle, the upper end turn- 
 ing in a bearing made in the centre of the cross-bar of 
 the frame supporting the hopper. It is generally at- 
 tached to the bale by a crotch, or forked end, which 
 straddles the bale in a recess made to fit it ; and to insure 
 accuracy a small hole is drilled in the centre of the lower 
 end between the forks, and a corresponding hole is 
 drilled in the centre of the bale. A short dowel-pin of 
 iron is placed or fastened in the bale, and the hole in 
 the end of the dansil dropped on to the projecting end 
 of this dowel secures it in place. Sometimes the dowel 
 is fastened in the dansil, and dropped into the hole in 
 the bale ; but this should never be done, as the hole in 
 the bale is liable to get filled with dust and grain, and is 
 troublesome to clean out, while no occurrence of that 
 kind takes place with the dansil. There are several 
 ways of making the body of the dansil. An old-fash- 
 ioned plan is to weld three, and sometimes four suitable 
 rods together, leaving six or eight inches at the height 
 of the shoe not welded. These are spread apart equally, 
 
282 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 and as they revolve in contact with the end of the shoe, 
 they increase the shake and feed of the grain. Another 
 plan is to place small iron disks at a suitable distance 
 apart ; these have six small holes drilled near the cir- 
 cumference of each, and at equal distances apart, and 
 small polished rods are inserted in these holes reaching 
 from one disk to the other. These have a hole in the 
 centre, and are slipped on to the dansil and keyed at 
 the proper height; the dansil in this case being a round 
 turned rod. 
 
 This rig resembles an old-fashioned spindle, with its 
 trindle or lantern for the wooden cogs, on a small scale, 
 and being all turned and polished presents a fine appear- 
 ance. But it is more fanciful than useful ; things some- 
 times get caught in these little rungs ; in one instance 
 the button of a miller's shirt sleeve was caught, and the 
 sleeve taken off to the shoulder in an instant. Had the 
 material been strong enough, it might have taken the 
 arm with it. Sometimes the grain strikes in among the 
 lower ends of these rods and is thrown over the stone : 
 we know several mills where they have sewed a cover- 
 ing of leather over these rods to guard against such 
 occurrences. Another plan is to fasten four sgaall rounds 
 close upon a round central shaft like the last one ; this 
 is done by drilling holes through the shaft at suitable 
 distances, and turning the ends of these rounds at right 
 angles, and inserting them in these holes where they 
 are secured by riveting. This arrangement resembles 
 the old-fashioned wooden dansil with iron knockers now 
 nearly obsolete, or only used in some old oatmeal mills. 
 The cheapest, and probably the best dansil, is simply a 
 piece of iron about an inch square, with the ends as 
 described, and the sharp corners slightly taken off, and 
 the whole finished in a workmanlike manner. 
 
THE BOXES. 283 
 
 The bush in the bed-stone through which the spindle 
 passes is frequently made of a skeleton framework of 
 iron, with suitable spaces for the four wooden boxes and 
 keys which form the upper bearing of the spindle. The 
 form of this skeleton bush is so nearly like the wooden 
 one, that a description of each would be needless, and 
 we will, only describe the ordinary wooden bush. To 
 make this, take a square piece of wood large enough to 
 fill the eye, which is generally about ten inches, and 
 cut it off a little longer than the thickness of the stone. 
 Fit this into the eye, then take it out and centre both 
 ends, and from this centre strike a circle mark, a little 
 larger in diameter than the collar of the spindle ; strike 
 another circle upon the upper end the exact size of the 
 spindle, draw two parallel lines square across the end, 
 each cutting the outsides of this last circle, which will 
 make them just the width of the spindle apart; now 
 draw two other lines exactly like these across in the 
 other direction, or at right angles with them, and ex- 
 tend all these lines down the outside of the block four 
 inches, and square these across on all the four sides to 
 this depth. The centre must be cut out to the largest 
 circles to admit the spindle, and the four spaces cut out 
 to these last marks, to admit the boxes and keys. 
 
 To make the boxes, take a piece of poplar or bass- 
 wood, or any soft wood, and dress it to the size of the 
 collar one way, and to the depth of the recesses, or spaces 
 which we have made four inches in this case. Set the 
 compasses to the size of the collar and mark out the 
 four boxes on the top of this piece, one end of each being 
 circled by the dividers, and the other square, and allow- 
 ing half an inch short at the end of each for keys ; now 
 square the stick across, and lay them out all the same 
 on the opposite side and work them out. The bush 
 
284 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 having been slipped over the head of the spindle and 
 driven down into the eye to its place, these boxes may 
 be put in, and two wedge keys at the end of each, one 
 with the head down, and the other with the point down. 
 These last four may now be driven lightly and equally 
 down until all is tight ; care being taken to have these 
 wedges the right size, so that they may go to the bottom 
 of the boxes without being too tight, which would cause 
 the spindle to heat and burn loose. We forgot to men- 
 tion that when the boxes are to be tightened by these 
 wooden wedges, a space should be cut out of the bush, 
 from the box down through, for the last key at least, 
 and for convenience in driving them out. We rather 
 prefer to leave the bush whole below the boxes, and in- 
 stead of wooden keys pack the space between the end of 
 the boxes and stone with something more elastic than 
 wood, which is apt to get too tight at first, and cause 
 the spindle to heat and swell. When this occurs, the 
 spindle will be loose when stopped and cooled, and will 
 continue to get worse, unless tightened again immedi- 
 ately. With elastic packing, the spindle will not heat 
 so as to make it swell and shrink, and if it did, the 
 packing would close the boxes around it again, and save 
 the trouble of taking up the stone to tighten it. 
 
 Several diflferent substances are used for this packing, 
 India-rubber being the best. Old rubber boots or shoes 
 answer well; these are cut in strips as wide as the boxes, 
 and driven in with a wooden rammer. Strips of flannel 
 or any woollen fabric may also be used. We have used 
 woollen flyings from the carding-mill, and several packed 
 in the following manner many years ago remain as good 
 as ever, only requiring occasionally to be rammed down 
 and a piece added to fill up the space. We cut an old 
 linen salt sack into strips the width of the boxes, and 
 
BUSHES. 285 
 
 began by pushing one end of the strip to the bottom of 
 the space, and continued pushing down six or eight 
 inches at a time, and ramming till the spaces were 
 packed full, and then fastened a little piece of wood on 
 top of each by a small nail. When the boxes require 
 to be taken out, draw the nail and remove the piece ; 
 then take hold of the end of the strip and pull it out, if 
 more remains take a sharp hooked point of some kind 
 and hook the next end until all is pulled out. It is 
 handier removing these when each space is filled by 
 a single piece, and if one piece is not sufficient they may 
 be sewed together ; when fed in and packed regularly, 
 they come out quite freely, and more time is often spent 
 in getting out a single wooden wedge than all of these. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion among millers as to 
 the proper height to place the bush. Some want it higher 
 than the face of the bed-stone, and the corners rounded 
 off to clear the ryne and running stone; others want 
 it just level, and are very particular to keep it just so, 
 while another class must have it considerably below the 
 level. The first is defended on the plea that it leaves no 
 chance for the lodgement of the grain, which is swept 
 off clear by the irons at every revolution, and for this 
 reason is preferable where small grists of different kinds 
 of grain have to be ground in the same stones. The 
 last has a recommendation exactly opposite and equally 
 important, which is that the space below the level of the 
 face of the stones, and below the reach of the irons, by 
 being filled with shorts or other soft stuff, will catch 
 nails or thrashing-mill teeth and nuts or other iron that 
 get accidentally into the grain, and thus spare the dam- 
 age and danger occasioned by these getting between the 
 stones. These sometimes break the stones and cause 
 much mischief. The skeleton metallic bush mentioned, 
 
286 GKIST-MILLS. 
 
 will be understood by its figure, and the boxes can be 
 fitted in by any miller who has the use of tools; a 
 yacant space in each corner has also to be filled with 
 wood to nail down the leather cover or collar. Some 
 of these have patent metallic covers, as well as metallic 
 boxes of various kinds; wood, however, makes good 
 enough boxes, and leather a good etoough cover. A re- 
 cess should be cut around the boxes at the spindle, and 
 tallow shaved fine and piacked into it, before the leather 
 is nailed down ; and a further protection to it from grit 
 and dust will be to slip a piece of woollen stocking leg 
 on above the tallow ; this, being elastic, hugs the spindle 
 and absorbs the grit. 
 
 The curb inclosing the millstones is gener'ally made 
 to clear the stone about an inch and a half all around : 
 thus its inside diameter is about three inches more than 
 the diameter of the stone ; the height being sufficient to 
 clear the top of the stone two or three inches. There 
 are many diflferent ways of making the cutb, among 
 which the following is perhaps the best : — 
 
 Take good inch boards of sufficient width to make 
 the top of four pieces, without other seams ; theSe for 
 an ordinary sized stone would require to be aboilt twenty 
 inches wide. To lay out the top, strike a circle on the 
 floor the same diameter as the stone, then strike another 
 outside of this, say an inch and a half, for clearance ; 
 then another three-fourths of an inch, or seyen-eighths, 
 outside of this again, for the thickness of the sides, and 
 another an inch and a half outside of that, for the pro- 
 jection of the top over the sides. Next divide the last 
 circle into four equal parts, and draw lines from one of 
 these points across through the centre mark to the 
 other mark opposite ; draw another line the same across 
 this one, connecting the other two points; this will divide 
 
THE CDRB. 28? 
 
 the circle into four equal portiotis. Now place a board 
 on one of these divisions, the outer edge even with the 
 last (largest) circle, and strike that same circle upon the 
 board ; cut the board off by the circle, and use it for a 
 pattern by which tt» cut the three other pieces ; joint the! 
 inner straight edges of these and lay them dot^n upon 
 these quarters, two upon the floor on opposite sides of 
 the circle, the other on top and across the ends of these. 
 They must be laid carefully to the outer circle, and 
 divided exactly alike by the corner lines. Now mark by 
 the straight edge of the upper two across the lower two, 
 and also by the straight edge of the lower ones across 
 the upper ones, for they must be halved together to these 
 marks. It may be advisable to mark the face sides 
 now, as they have to be gauge-marked around the edges, 
 and cut away, and then fitted together again ill the 
 same position ; they may be glued together, but should 
 be riveted at the inside; the -outside, being nailed down 
 upon the staves, cannot give way. This makes a light 
 cover, and being double at the corners, and each piecei 
 bearing its whole length upon the sides, it is also strong ; 
 the rim put around inside also adds to the sti-ength of 
 the top. This is about five inches wide, and one and a 
 half thick, square on the outer edge and bevelled off a 
 little around the inner edge ; it is generally made of 
 six pieces, and halved and lapped at the ends for addi- 
 tional strength. To place this rim, lay the cover down 
 with the inside up, and strike a circle upon it corres- 
 ponding with the one which marks the inside of the 
 staves in the draft upon the floor, and fasten it around 
 to the inside of this mark. 
 
 The perpendicular sides of the curb are composed of 
 staves, and to mark these out properly a pattern is made 
 by laying a thin piece of board upon the draft on the 
 
288 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 floor, and drawing the scratches upon it, corresponding 
 with the out and insides of the staves in this draft ; now 
 mark both ends by this pattern ; hew oflf the surplus 
 wood pretty close to these marks, with an axe, then 
 dress the outside and edges by the plane, using another 
 pattern with a projecting erid to test the bevel of the 
 edges and insure accuracy, then gauge the thickness all 
 around and dress off the inside. These are sometimes 
 dowelled together, but it is better to run a small groove 
 in the edges and put in a tongue or feather, which makes 
 a better joint ; these are fastened at the top by nailing, 
 first through into the inside rim, and then down through 
 the cover. A thin moulding, about two inches wide, is 
 afterwards bent around to cover the nails and make a 
 finish. The lower end is secured and finished by shrink- 
 ing on a round iron band of half an inch in diameter, 
 about four inphes from the end, and bending a piece of 
 wood around to cover the. space from the band to the 
 end, similar to the upper one. The iron band in this 
 case forms the " bead" around the edge of this mould- 
 ing ; the ends of these wooden bands should be spliced 
 by a thin plate of iron set in and secured by screws ; 
 this makes a light strong curb, and if made of nice wood 
 and tastefully stained and varnished, it looks well and 
 is durable. 
 
 There are many fancy curbs made generally of circles 
 and squares alternately, and resembling panel work; 
 these are more or less double, with many seams, and 
 empty spaces in which the dust lodges and accumu- 
 lates, and soon makes them heavy to handle, besides 
 the steam generated by the heat and damp grain, in 
 the process of grinding, condenses in these cavities 
 and induces fermentation, and the consequence is a 
 speedy decay of the woodwork, of the curb. We have 
 
THE HOPPER. 289 
 
 seen some of these fancy curbs composed of wood and 
 zinc, covered on top with oil cloth, that were so rotten 
 in a few years, that they would scarcely bear to be lifted, 
 and soon went to pieces. The other being thin and sin- 
 gle, is easily swept and kept clean, and will last like 
 other inside fixtures, until it meets with an accident. 
 
 The opening in the centre of the cover is about thirty 
 inches across; it may be marked and cut to the circle 
 after it is fastened on, and a thin moulding nailed round 
 inside and projecting with a round edge above the cover 
 to protect the corners, and prevent anything being sWept 
 in upon the stone. 
 
 The hopper frame is about four feet long and two 
 wide, with a bar across each end, and one in the middle. 
 In the centre of the middle bar is the bearing of the top 
 of the dansil, and between this and the hind bar the 
 hopper is placed ; between this and the front bar, a roller 
 is placed across, upon which the string supporting the 
 front of the shoe is wound ; by turning this roller one 
 way, the string is slackened and the feed increased, and 
 by turning it in the opposite direction the string is tight- 
 ened and the feed diminished. The frame stands four- 
 teen or fifteen inches above the curb, and embraces the 
 hopper near the middle. It is supported upon four legs, 
 two near each end ; these are generally turned, although 
 when made to match the fancy curbs referred to, they 
 are scolloped out into a kind of scroll shape. 
 
 To locate the hopper frame in its place, set the curb 
 in its proper position with the outlet on the meal spout, 
 then set on the frame in the position it is to stand, and 
 hang a plumb down through the centre of the dansil 
 bearing in the centre-bar, and shift the frame until the 
 point of the plumb-bob is in line with the centre of the 
 cock head of the spindle ; mark around the legs on the 
 19 
 
290 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 top of the curb and cut out the holes for them. The 
 legs should have a shoulder to rest upon the curb, and 
 a round tenon to slip into these holes. 
 
 The hopper is a troublesome article for an inexperi- 
 enced hand to make, although it looks quite simple. 
 The first one that a man might make without any direc- 
 tions from a practised hand would show him some wrin- 
 kles in angles and their combinationSj that he probably 
 never thought of. It may trouble us not a little to give 
 any directions that will be sufficiently intelligible to be of 
 much use. We tried years ago to find some rule of easy 
 application, which could be remembered, to get the pro- 
 per bevel to cut the boards by, and the proper one to 
 dress the corner cleats to, instead of the intricate process 
 in trigonometry by which we now obtain them, but 
 failed to hit upon any that was perfectly accurate. The 
 following rules are applicable, although they bath re- 
 quire a little dressing off to complete the fit :— r 
 
 To get the bevel to cut the side boards, strike a cir- 
 cle, and step the circumference at five times ; draw lines 
 from these five points to the centre, and any one of these 
 divisions is the angle to cut the boards. 
 
 To get the bevel for the corner cleat, strike a small 
 circle, and divide it in three ; one of these is the bevel 
 for the corner posts, nearly. We have sometimes made 
 these by turning a suitable sized stick in the lathe and 
 marking it out in three equal divisions, and slitting to 
 the centre at these three marks. These have to be 
 dressed and fitted to the corner. 
 
 The following directions are reliable, and will make 
 an ordinary square hopper to hold about six bushels, 
 which may be made larger or smaller by preserving the 
 same proportions : To cut the side boards, measure off 
 along the edge of the board (or a line representing it) 
 
THE HOPPER. 291 
 
 three feet and six inches, and at the centre of this dis- 
 tance draw a perpendicular. Measure up this perpen- 
 dicular two feet and four inches, and from that point 
 draw a scratch to each end of the base line. These will 
 mark one side of the hopper, the other three being the 
 same. Three inches in width, on the perpendicular, 
 may be left off from the point of each piece to make the 
 hole in the bottom ; and if a single board can be gotten 
 wide enough to make each side of one piece, it is prefer- 
 able ; if they must be spliced, do it at the point. Mitre 
 these together equally at the corners, and fit in the cor- 
 ner posts, which should be of good wood and no larger 
 than actually necessary to hold the screws. 
 
 We would advise the setting of the bevel by the cor- 
 ner itself, as the best rule, then work the corner pieces 
 by this bevel inside as well as out. It is easier' than to 
 round them by hand, and they are better. It will im- 
 prove the appearance of the hopper, and diminish the 
 liability of grain to be spilt over, to put a large rounded 
 moulding around the upper edge. 
 
 Some millers prefer a round hopper. These resenible 
 a reversed cone instead of a pyramid, and are made of 
 tapering staves with the wide ends up, and the narrow 
 ends meeting in a cast-iron ring to which the points are 
 fastened ; this ring forms the hole in the bottom. A 
 round rim of felloes is ptit around the top like a mould- 
 ing to which the staves are secured, and a similar one 
 is fastened round the middle. A board cover is laid on 
 the hopper stand with a circular hole in its cfentre, into 
 which the hopper is dropped down to the centre rim' 
 upon which it rests. This allows the hopper, board and 
 all, to be slid forward to increase the feed, or back to 
 stop the feed when the stones are stopped, just as the 
 square hopper can be slid upon the naked frame. 
 
292 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 The ordinary shoe that is hung under the hopper to 
 control the feed may be made as follows : Take a piece 
 of hard wood about twenty-two inches long, five inches 
 wide, and one and a half thick. Round off the front 
 end tastefully and work a mortise through it five or six 
 inches long, leaving two inches of whole wood at the 
 round front end and an inch and a half at each side ; 
 this is for the dansil and grain to pass through. Now 
 bevel both sides to the distance of fifteen inches from the 
 back end, and also the back end to the same angle as 
 the hopper, and nail sides, six or seven inches deep upon 
 these bevel edges, and an end behind to correspond 
 with these sides, the end being rounded up in the middle, 
 and the sides rounded down in front. Slant off the 
 bottom down to the lower edge at the hole, to encourage 
 the flow of the grain and the shoe will be complete. 
 The back end should be nicely poised upon a pivot, 
 fastened to the top of the curb, or hung upon a strap 
 of leather or iron attached to the hopper stand. 
 
 The last is the most convenient arrangement, as the 
 shoe in this case is lifted off with the stand. In the 
 other case, the person lifting the stand must either lift 
 the shoe with one hand, or unfasten the string in front, 
 and lift the shoe by itself The front end of the shoe is 
 hung, as already indicated, by a string wound around a 
 roller placed across the hopper frame. This string is 
 attached to the roller near one end, and by drawing ob- 
 liquely, keeps the side of the shoe in contact with the 
 revolving dansil, and produces the necessary shake to 
 cause the grain to feed. 
 
 The shoe is sometimes made by nailing the two side 
 boards together at the bottom at a right angle, and cut- 
 ting one off before it reaches the dansil, to discharge the 
 grain. A point of the other board extends past the 
 
MILL-STONES, 293 
 
 dansil, and to this the feed cord is attached ; the hind end 
 of this is boarded up like the other. This is a simple 
 way of making the shoe, and if a small piece is fitted in 
 to fill the sharp corner at the bottom, it answers a good 
 purpose. We have seen cast-iron shoes used, but would 
 not recommend them. They are heavy, and produce a 
 lumbering unpleasant noise when the mill is working. 
 
 We will next make a few observations on the mill- 
 stones, as these are the most important parts of the mill. 
 The quantity and quality of the work done depend very 
 much upon the kind of stones selected, and the condi- 
 tion in which they are kept. 
 
 Formerly millstones were made of granite, or some 
 other flinty conglomerate rock. Not unfrequently from 
 boulders found in the vicinity where the mill was built, 
 and in those days the millwright and miller's trade in 
 eluded the making of these. These stones are scarcely 
 ever used at the present day, except in very remote new 
 settlements, being almost entirely superseded by the 
 French Behr, or '"'burr stones." This displacement, 
 however, has been gradual, and one kind of these rock 
 stones, known as Esopus or " Soper" (Yankee) stone, 
 maintained its ground against the burr stone innovation 
 until very recently, and a few of these still linger in 
 good mills, in various parts of the country, to the present 
 time. These stones resemble in texture a bed of small 
 white pebbles congealed together in a darker matrix, 
 which completely fills the interstices, and leaves no empty 
 cells like those in the burr, the sharp edges of which 
 perform so important a part in the process of grinding. 
 The Esopus stone has therefore no cutting edge except 
 the dress made by the mill pick, and when this is worn 
 out, it takes a polish as smooth as glass, and to grind 
 with it in this condition would be like trying to saw 
 
294 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 with the back of a saw. It is also much softer thau 
 the burr stone, and for this reason the dress is much 
 sooner worn out ; but this softer nature tells in its favQr 
 in one respect, that it is far easier to dress than the burr 
 stone, and this fact helps to reconcile millers to its use. 
 
 The last Esopus stones that we used were placed for 
 bed-stones under very open burr runners. We expected 
 that the harder burr stone would switch the dress off 
 from these bed-stones in a short time, but such was not 
 the case. The close soper stone had so much more 
 wearing face than the open burr, that they wore nearly 
 equally. 
 
 The following method of using rock and burr stone 
 together we have heard highly recommended : Make 
 the eye and a portion surrounding it of good quality of 
 rock stone, and of such diameter that one tier of burr 
 blocks put around the outside will make the stone of the 
 intended size, hoop and finish up like ordinary burr 
 stones. It is claimed in recommendation of this plan, 
 that the flouring is all done near the outer skirt of the 
 stone, and the portion around the eye, having only to 
 crack the kernels, without coming in contact with the 
 opposite stone, requires frequent dressing down with 
 the pick to maintain the necessary clearance or " bosom" 
 as it is called, Also, that this rock stone around the 
 eye is so much softer than the burr stone at the skirt, that 
 they will wear down nearly equally, and little more is 
 required to keep the stones in order, than to keep the 
 furrows in shape, and the dress sharp. But the mak- 
 ing of mill-stones is now a separate branch of business, 
 and as such it is brought to greater perfection than could 
 have been expected had it continued to be one of the 
 millwright's many responsibilities. 
 
 This consideration will render a chapter on making 
 
MILL- STONES. 295 
 
 mill-stones unnecessary, which in our younger days 
 would have been as interesting to the millwright as any 
 other in the book.*. 
 
 The millwright, until recently, had often to do all the 
 turning, boring, and fitting for the whole mill,' tphich is 
 now done in the finishing shops, and is another import- 
 ant relief. 
 
 In selecting new stoneSj particular attention must be 
 paid to the kind of grain intended to be ground, as the 
 texture of the burr most suitable for one particular kind 
 of grain) wouM be found totally unfit for other varieties. 
 For some hard, dry, flinty varieties of wheat, such as 
 the " Black Sea," a very close compact stone is required 
 to reduce the grain sufficiently soft and fine without cut- 
 ting the bran up too much. Such etones> unless very 
 carefully kept, Would be liable to heat and kill other 
 soft varieties, particularly of winter wheat, and would 
 neither grind such wheat so fast nor so well as a more 
 open and a sharper variety of burr. Again, for corn and 
 other coarse grains, a moderately open stone will grind 
 faster and easier than such a close on^, besides being 
 much less difficult to keep sharp. On the other hand, 
 we have often iseen stones so open in texture, and with 
 so little good face that it was impossible to grind these 
 coarse grains sufficiently equal. And at the same time 
 these very open stones, almost resembling a honey comb, 
 Would grind oats, and barley^ and mixed grain, suffi- 
 ciently fine for feed, as fast as it could be run into the 
 stones and got away again, and rasping up the hulls 
 among the meal, in a manner quite impossible with 
 close-grained stones. 
 
 New stones should therefore be chosen with a due re- 
 gard to the kind of grain they are intended to grind, 
 bearing in mind that it is desirable to have the whole 
 
296 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 face of the stone as nearly alike as possible, as every large 
 hole is so much lost to the face, and every perfectly 
 close spot is also a loss, because there are no cutting edges 
 in it except such as are made by the mill-pick, which is 
 a very tedious and expensive process. If all the time 
 that has been spent in work with the mill-pick, upon an 
 old run of close burr stones, were counted and figured 
 up at a moderate price, the sum would buy new stones 
 a great many times over. On the other hand, we know 
 of several runs of the honey-comb kind that are worn 
 out, or nearly so, that never cost an hour's work in 
 sharpening or dressing. All that they ever require being 
 an overhauling once in several months, to furrow them 
 out and true the face a little. 
 
 The only rule that we could give for selecting a run 
 of burr stones, aside from their adaptation to a particu- 
 lar kind of grain, would be to get them with as many 
 cells, and these as small as possible, and nearly equal 
 throughout, any excess of cells being more admissible, or 
 less damage in the runner, than in the bed-stone. 
 
 With regard to facing and dressing the new stones, we 
 would observe that all new burr stones require a con- 
 siderable depth taken off the face after they are put 
 together, to fit them for taking the proper dress. One 
 reason for this is, that the workman in facing and fitting 
 the blocks must strike pretty heavy blows in order to 
 make reasonable progress with his work. These heavy 
 strokes fracture and splinter the surface considerably, 
 below the portion actually taken off. Besides, in dress- 
 ing off the edge to fit the blocks together, this hard 
 splintery stone cannot be worked up to a true straight 
 corner next the face, like a piece of wood or metal. But 
 after the blocks are together, and the cement between, the 
 corners are supported, and will bear to be worked down 
 
MILL-STONES. 297 
 
 true like the rest of the stone, by a sharp light mill-pick. 
 For these reasons the whole face of the stone must be 
 picked off to a coa^derable depth with the pick ; this is 
 generally done, in part-at least, at the factory where the 
 stones are made, and to complete the face, and take it 
 out of wind, the following is the common practice : — 
 
 Procure two straight edges parallel and straight on 
 hoik edges and of exactly the same width. Place these, 
 one on each side of the stone parallel with each other, 
 and halfway from the eye to the outside, mark along the 
 sides of both of these, with a pencil or red chalk, sight 
 across the top of these to see which end requires to be 
 most settled into the stone to bring them true on top, 
 then lift them, and go to work with the pick between 
 the pencil marks, until you settle these marked portions 
 to a good face and true with each other. After picking 
 down roughly to near the depth, paint the straight edge 
 and rub it lengthwise in the track upon the stone, to 
 show the high spots and pick these down, until the face 
 in these two channels is completed. 
 
 Now place the two paint staffs across the stone in the 
 opposite direction, and in the same position, and mark 
 out two other channels across the first, and settle these 
 down with the pick, the same way until the paint shows 
 on the crossing. Next place these across the corners 
 and mark and pick down as before, until these channels 
 meet the others, and so continue to mark and pick off, 
 until the superfluous stone is removed to the proper 
 depth, using the first four channels for a guide; and 
 then rub the paint staff lightly over the whole surface 
 and pick off the marked spots until the face is com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Some use three parallel sticks and place them in a 
 triangle to sight across, and take the face out of wind, 
 
298 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 but two are preferable. "We have sometimes faced new- 
 stones by a machine called a tram. This is a heavy 
 paint staff of hard wood, hung at the middle upon a true 
 - turned standard fastened firmly at the centre of the eye, 
 and raised or lowered by a thumb screw at the top. 
 This was painted on the lower side, and slipped on to 
 the standard, and the height gauged by the thumb-screw, 
 so that the paint would just touch the highest points on 
 the face of the stone. These marked points were cut 
 down by the pick, and the tram lowered by the thumb- 
 screw until it marked again ; this process was continued 
 until the tram swept the face of the stone all around. 
 
 This plan answers very well when the stone is nearly 
 true, and requires but little taken off, but when there is 
 considerable to be taken off, the process is too slow, as 
 the whole surplus stone must be picked into dust, by 
 going over and over the same ground, perhaps a hun- 
 dred times ; while by the other process the depth to be 
 cut away is shown at first, and can be mostly knocked 
 off in larger chips and splinters almost to the full depth 
 at once. 
 
 It will facilitate the reduction of the face to a proper 
 finish to rub the surface over with a burr block, or other 
 hard stone with a good face, to smooth down the sharp 
 points, which will otherwise keep up the paint stick 
 and tend to scratch and spoil its surface. 
 
 Some put the stones down in this condition and grind 
 them together to finish and fit the faces, and then take 
 them up and furrow and dress them for grinding. Others 
 furrow them out first roughly, and then grind and fit 
 the faces, and take them up and finish the furrows, and 
 crack and dress for grinding. By the last plan, less 
 grinding will suffice, because the furrows being cut out 
 it leaves only the lands between to be ground down, in- 
 
MILL-STONES. 299 
 
 stead of the whole surface of the stone ; but, on the other 
 hand, we have frequently seen the furrows carefully 
 marked and dug out before the stones were ground 
 together, which were either almost or altogether ground 
 out and obliterated, and had to be marked and made 
 anew. We are not disposed to argue this point, and 
 will merely remark that the process of grinding down 
 the face is slow and tedious, if the naked faces of the 
 stones are ground in contact, but by interposing a small 
 stream of dry sand, or clean water it is done more quickly 
 and better. Never try wet sand or sand and water. 
 We were once persuaded to use this, but the friction and 
 heat reduced the wet sand into clay or mud, and packed 
 every crevice in the stones full, and everything around 
 was daubed full and plastered with it. 
 
 When dry sand, or clean water is used it is easily 
 controlled. You may place a belt on edge around and 
 near the stone, and, if sand is used, collect it inside of this, 
 and keep pouring it into the eye again. If water, fill 
 the eye around the spindle with mill dust to keep the 
 bush dry, and lay a ridge of similar dust around inside 
 of the belt, and make one or more little spouts from this 
 to discharge the water, which may either be caught 
 under these in a vessel or run away. The water may be 
 poured into the same spot in the eye from a tea-kettle, 
 a piece of rag being laid under the small stream to save 
 the dust from washing. If no belt or other convenience 
 can be had to place around the stone, then the curb 
 must be put on, for without some kind of fence the sand 
 or water would be scattered all over the mill. 
 
 The stones having been brought to a proper face, the 
 furrows are next to be laid out. To do this, fit a piece 
 of board into the eye level with the face of the stone, 
 and find the centre by moving a sweep around the skirt. 
 
300 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 and from this centre draw a circle upon the board with a 
 radius equal to the intended draught of the furrows. Step 
 the circumference of the stone into as many divisions as 
 there are to be quarters in the dress, and mark each of 
 these divisions on the hoop of the stone with a cold 
 chisel. Now lay a furrow pattern from each of these 
 marks on the hoop to the outside of the draught circle, 
 on the board, and mark the furrows on the face of the 
 stone by this pattern. 
 
 These will indicate the leading furrows, and to mark 
 the short furrows place another pattern representing the 
 land, along side of the leading furrows, and the pattern 
 for the furrow beyond that again, and so on alternately, 
 marking the furrow and the land each time until the 
 whole quarter is laid out. 
 
 We give an engraving of a stone with a dress of eigh- 
 teen quarters or sections, and also one of a stone with a 
 dress of twenty-one quarters or sections, which we think 
 will be suflBcient to illustrate, and assist in explaining 
 the remarks we have already made and those which 
 are to follow on this subject. 
 
 The rule for laying out the dress of mill-stones, as 
 above stated, will be understood at once, by every miller, 
 but to the uninitiated it will be incomprehensible with- 
 out the following explanation : — 
 
 When the grain falls into the eye of the stone it is 
 swept around by the revolving irons until caught between 
 the stones, and here the process of grinding commences. 
 At first the grain is only cracked, and a motion given to 
 it, which increases with every revolution as it is driven 
 around between the stones, and reduced finer and finer 
 as it approaches the circumference where it is discharged 
 as flour or meal. This velocity, and the ratio of its in- 
 crease, can neither be measured nor computed by any 
 
UILL-STONES. 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 301 
 
 Pig. 39. 
 
802 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 known process, but as it is urged onward by the motion 
 of the runner, and retarded by the quiescent bed-stone, 
 its revolving velocity at every point is somewhere be- 
 tween these two extremes. Its progress towards the 
 circumference, by the centrifugal force, is also modified 
 by these two contingencies, and the problem to be solved 
 is, to proportion the draught of the furrows, and the 
 bosom and dress of the stones, so that the grain in 
 travelling from the eye to the circumference, in this 
 complicated and undefinable course, will be thoroughly 
 ground, and no more, when it comes through. 
 
 It has been already mentioned, that if too long con- 
 fined, the flour will be heated and killed, so that it will 
 not raise and make bread ; on the other hand, if it pass 
 through too rapidly it will not be sufiBeiently ground, 
 and part will pass over with the bran, and cause a 
 waste. 
 
 We have also said that this subject of furrows and 
 their draft was understood by every miller ; this will 
 seem incompatible with the vague uncertainty expressed 
 in these last paragraphs, and be received with some 
 modification, as it is the result and not the principle that 
 is understood. And even results are very vaguely and 
 differently understood by different millers. 
 
 Here is an example : — We once heard two first-class 
 millers discussing the propriety of using an Esopus bed- 
 stone under a burr runner. The advocate for this 
 arrangement stated with perfect confidence that the 
 running stone performed two-thirds of the work in 
 grinding. The opponent disputed the allegation, and 
 challenged its proof, at the same time remarking that 
 it was impossible to get between the stones to see which 
 did the most work, but this much he knew, that when 
 a run of stones, both alike in quality, lyas dressed 
 
DRAUGHT. 303 
 
 alike, the dress in the bed-stone would be worn out 
 first. This observation we have often seen verified since, 
 but the theoretical demonstration as to its cause we 
 leave to philosophers. 
 
 Again, we employed a stone-dresser, reputed to be a 
 first-rate workman, and he deserved the reputation so 
 far as the mechanical part was concerned, who took 
 great pains to impress the younger workmen with the 
 importa^nce of cutting the deep edge of the furrows steep 
 and sharp, beca,use, he said, it was these sharp edges 
 that broke and cut the grain. How any man, of good 
 judgment otherwise, could nourish such a fallacy through 
 so many years of experience, is a mystery not easily 
 explained, especiftUy as he must have seen these steep 
 corners which he. advocated, invariably filled up with 
 dust, to an angle less than half as steep as that which 
 he insisted upon. 
 
 We mention these difierences and difficulties to show 
 the uncertain and variable data upon which this problem 
 depends, and instead of ofiering any particular rule as 
 applicable under all circumstances, we will only give 
 some general observations on the most popular dresses 
 and draught in use, and advise any miller to depend 
 rather upon his own judgment and experience than any- 
 thing we can suggest, to determine the dress most suita- 
 ble for the particular case in hand. 
 
 The dress most popular in our younger days was a 
 quarter dress, consisting of either seven or nine quarters ; 
 the rule being to give the leading furrows an inch of 
 draught for every foot in diameter of the stone, but this 
 reminds us, that we undertook to explain the meaning 
 of this dra%ght, and have failed to fulfil the promise. ' 
 
 The furrows do not run from the skirt of the stone 
 direct to the centre, but obliquely to one side, and the 
 
304 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 distance of the inner end from the centre is the measure 
 of the draught. These furrows point to the right or left 
 of the centre, according to the direction in which the 
 stone is to revolve, whether with, or against the sun, 
 the object being to sweep the grain outward from the 
 eye, and assist its progress through the stone. The dress 
 is laid on both stones alike, with the face of both up, 
 and when the runner is reversed and laid upon the bed- 
 stone, the furrows cross each other at an angle, like the 
 blades of a pair of shears while closing. But although 
 the closing or crossing of the furrows, like that of the 
 shears, commences at the centre and progresses outward, 
 they never come together, like the shears, but every 
 furrow in the runner is constantly sweeping across the 
 corresponding furrows of the bed- stone, with this closing 
 progressive motion, shearing the grain finer between the 
 inclined planes of the furrows, and carrying it over the 
 intervening lands, the sharp and even faces of which 
 complete the reduction of the particles to the proper 
 grade, and finish the process of grinding. 
 
 We knew a man, the owner of a mill (his own mill- 
 wright and miller, said to be very ingenious, and a real 
 "jack of all trades"), who changed the breast-wheel 
 which drove his mill into an overshot; this reversed 
 the motion of the machinery, and turned the stones in 
 the opposite direction. To adapt the stones to this re- 
 volution he altered the shape of the furrows, by deepen- 
 ing the inner edge, and turning the feather edge of the 
 inclined plane to the opposite side, but left the draught 
 and position of the furrows the same as before. When 
 the stones were started the furrows gathered the grain 
 toward the centre, instead of sweeping it outward, and 
 thus counteracted the centrifugal force, instead of helping 
 it ; and the flour, instead of discharging as it was ground, 
 
DRAUGHT. 303 
 
 was retained between the stones until it heated and 
 was baked on to the surface, clogging and stopping the 
 motion. The stones were raised to free them, but the 
 flour was baked on more and more, until they were 
 taken up and the paste picked off with the miU'picks. 
 He tried them several times, but always with the same 
 result, the trials occupying several days, for it was a 
 tedious job to pick the paste out of the furrows. The 
 man was very superstitious, and as there were several 
 reputed witches in the neighborhood, he charged them 
 with trying to annoy him. 
 
 We were engaged with a gang of hands on a mill 
 eight miles distant, and he came over to see if we or any 
 of our men could help him out of his dilemma. We in- 
 quired if he had changed the furrows in the stones, he 
 said that he had, and we failed to make out by his ac- 
 count what the trouble was, and sent a miller over with 
 him to reconnoitre, and he found the stones as we have 
 described, and pointed out the remedy. 
 
 We mention this circumstance for the double purpose 
 of illustrating the importance of this subject of draught, 
 and also to verify a remark that we have often had oc- 
 casion to make, which is, that a man to make a good 
 and successful millwright, or even millpr, must have 
 more than an ordinary share of judgment and common 
 sense ; and many that would make first-class mechanics 
 in almost any ordinary trade, would, if they choose this 
 occupation, often meet with circumstances and unfore- 
 seen occurrences that would tax their patience and 
 ingenuity to the very utmost, and be a frequent source 
 of perplexity and annoyance. 
 
 The dress we began to describe as consisting of only 
 seven or nine quarters, had of course only that number 
 of leading furrows meeting in the eye, to admit the grain 
 20 
 
306 GEIST-MILLS. 
 
 between the stones, but this deficiency was balanced by 
 the hosom, which at that time was always given to the 
 running stone. The bed-stone was faced true and level 
 throughout, as at present, but the runner, after being 
 faced true by a real straight edge, was then gone over 
 with another that had a swell at the eye of from an 
 eighth to a quarter of an inch, and ran out to nothing at 
 a certain distance from the skirt; this had a hole through 
 the middle, and was slipped on to a pin in the centre of 
 the eye to keep it true, and being painted below and 
 turned round upon the centre-pin, the paint marked the 
 stone around the eye, which was picked off, and the pro- 
 cess repeated until the bosom was excavated to the shape 
 of the swelled straight edge or mould. 
 
 This open bosom admitted the grain between the 
 stones as freely as the increased number of furrows now 
 generally used, with little or no bosom, the grain at its 
 entrance being only cracked, and then reduced gradually 
 as the bosom contracted to its termination. From this 
 point to the skirt, both stones were perfectly true, and 
 this was called the flour or face of the stones, it being 
 the part where the actual flouring was performed, and 
 the only portion of the faces that could come in contact. 
 This flouring face was left of various widths, according 
 to the fancy or experience of diffierent millers, and modi- 
 fied to suit the kind of grain and the quality of the 
 stones. Sometimes it extended only five inches from 
 the skirt, while under other circumstances it continued 
 half way to the eye. 
 
 Since that time the bosom has been more or less dis- 
 carded, the number of quarters and leading furrows being 
 proportionately increased. Another modification has 
 also taken place, which is, that the short furrows are 
 now generally cut through into the leaders, making an 
 
DRESSING THE STONES. 307 
 
 open communication with these, which greatly increases 
 the draught. Formerly a whole land intervened be- 
 tween, against which the short furrows butted, and 
 over which the grain had to pass to get into them. 
 This left a whole unbroken land on both sides of the 
 leading furrows, and made some kind of bosom indispen- 
 sable. In order to understand this subject perfectly, 
 the reader must study the drawings, for without having 
 recourse to these we cannot convey our ideas intelligi- 
 bly. 
 
 Some enterprising miller ventured to increase the 
 number of quarters from nine to eleven ; another with 
 still more self-reliance raised them to thirteen; then 
 another bolder than either got them up to fifteen ; the 
 next one to seventeen, and so on, still preferring the odd 
 numbers, until twenty-one was the favorite number. 
 During the progress of this improvement, the short fur- 
 rows were gradually cut through into the leaders, until 
 that practice is almost universal; and the bosom ha,s 
 been reduced, generally to the thickness of a sheet of 
 paper, and by some good millers it is dispensed with 
 altogether. The most popular rule, and probably the 
 best one, is, to place a sheet of writing paper under the 
 straight paint-staflf, and have it draw freely out all around 
 the eye. 
 
 While these transitions were progressing, the ratio of 
 the draught to the diameter of the stone was frequently 
 modified ; when the quarters were about fifteen, and the 
 short furrows cut through into the leaders, an inch to 
 the foot was found to be too much, but when the whole 
 land was intervened, this draught was not sufficient. 
 Up to about this number, and above this, the furrows 
 are generally cut through. The necessity for these vari- 
 ations will be understood by consulting the cuts; the 
 
308 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 fewer leaders, the more short furrows must intervene, to 
 fill the quarter, and the draught of every one of these 
 increases as they increase in number. The actual ob- 
 struction interposed by the whole land between will also 
 be seen. The average draught now used with the in- 
 creased number of leading furrows, and the short ones 
 cut through, may be said to be the old rule of an inch 
 to the foot. 
 
 One cause for these alterations in the dress of mill- 
 stones may be found in the increased power now applied, 
 and the greater quantity now ground in a given time 
 by each run. That this was the principal cause will be 
 still more apparent, when we remember that the size of 
 the stones now used to grind this greater quantity is 
 much smaller than those formerly used to grind the less 
 quantity. The stones formerly used varied in size from 
 four and a half up to six feet ; those now in use vary 
 from four and a half dawn to sizaes ridiculously small for 
 the quantity of work expected of them. A five foot 
 stone could afford to have a part of its face wasted in 
 bosom, and a little more wasted in extra wide lands, 
 and yet grind five or six bushels in an hour; but when 
 a four foot stone has to grind ten or twenty bushels in 
 the same time, there is little margin for waste, and both 
 the miller and millwright are put upon their mettle to 
 meet the altered contingency. 
 
 This subject reminds us of an idea prevalent among 
 the uninitiated with which we have often been " bored," 
 viz., that where the power is limited, small stones should 
 be used to economize that power. This is a fallacy, a 
 certain number of superficial feet of face must pass each 
 other in order to grate and grind a given quantity, 
 whether the stone be large or small. If the stones be 
 large, fewer revolutions will pass this number of feet, 
 
THE SICKLE DRESS. 309 
 
 and the driving pulley or pinion on the spindle will be 
 large and have a strong purchase to turn, it ; but if the 
 stones are small, it will take more revolutions to dp it, 
 and the pinion or pulley must be proportionately smaller, 
 and have less purchase. If the small stones be half the 
 superficial face of the large ones, then they must make 
 twice as many revolutions, and with only half the pur- 
 chase of the large ones ; this would make them equal, 
 but the small ones have a decided disadvantage in hav- 
 ing to perform the same amount of work upon one-half 
 of the surface. All the economy then that we can see 
 in using small stones is, that they cost less^ occupy less 
 room, and are more easily moved and handled. 
 
 There is another kind of dress used to a considerable 
 extent in some localities, called the "sickle" dress, or 
 circle dress. This, as the name would indicate, is com- 
 posed of a series of circles, resembling the reaping sickle, 
 instead of a combination of straight lines like the other. 
 These circles commence in the eye and extend to the 
 circumference in a peculiar curve, corresponding with the 
 draught of the other leading furrows, and balancing the 
 angle of the short ones in the quarter dress, a single 
 short furrow, agreeing with these, is generally intervened 
 to divide the space between at the outer ends. This dress,j 
 when carefully laid and worked out, gives a regular and 
 equal draught throughout its whole length, and con- 
 sidered theoretically, it is the most perfect dress. 
 
 But there are certain practical objections to it, which 
 have hitherto prevented it from coming into general use, 
 and tend to give the quarter dress the preference. One is, 
 that having so many furrows crowded into the eye, these, 
 inner ends must be the smallest, and being only half the 
 number, and the whole grain having to pass through 
 them in this limited space, they ought, like the leaders 
 
310 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 in the quarter dress, to be largest next the inner end. 
 Another is, that the varying curve of this dress prevents 
 the use of the painted furrow patterns to true and finish 
 the furrows and keep them of the proper size and shape. 
 
 This is a serious objection, although those millers who 
 only dress out their furrows once or twice a year may 
 not consider it so. This practice is far too general, and 
 is like that of a sawyer who would keep his saws filed 
 and sharp, but would only set them once or twice a 
 year, and at these setting times give them an extra allow- 
 ance to help them over the long interval ; this policy 
 of the sawyer would be absurd, but no more so than 
 that of the miller in the parallel case. The true policy 
 for the sawyer is, when he files the saw, to examine the 
 set, and spread a point here, and bend a tooth there, and 
 thus keep the set triie and sufficient ; the true policy for 
 the miller is, when he picks the stones to rub the painted 
 pattern in the furrows, and pick off the marks left, 
 deepening a spot here and widening a spot there, and 
 thus heeping the, furrows true and sufficient. 
 
 This is even more imperative with the stone than with 
 the saw, because it is the feather edges of the furrows 
 that break and reduce the particles of grain, therefore 
 these edges soon wear smooth, while it is important that 
 they should be kept sharp. The system which we ad- 
 vocate insures this, as these feather edges are more or 
 less sharpened every time the stones are picked, while 
 by the other system they soon become smooth as glass 
 and are allowed to continue so until the great furrowing 
 out time (like Aunt Dinah's great " daring up time") 
 comes round. 
 
 It has been already intimated that the sickle dress 
 does not admit of this plan of keeping the furrows, and 
 this has contributed more than any other cause to in- 
 
THE SICKLE DRESS. 311 
 
 augurate the systerii which we deprecate, of leaving the 
 furrows untouched until worn shallow and smooth, and 
 then dig them out again. 
 
 Some make another objection to the sickle dress, of 
 the apparent difficulty of tracing the proper curve. This 
 alone should not deter any one from using it. The rule 
 in trigonometry by which it is arrived at is rather intri- 
 cate, and would hardly be" understood by one miller in a 
 hundred, if we should give it here; but any one may 
 get it from another miller, or from the patterns used in 
 some other mill, or failing these sources, let him lay out 
 two leading furrows of the quarter dress upon the new 
 stone, or on the floor, and fill up the intermediate space 
 with lands and short furrows to match. Now take a 
 suitable piece of thin board and lay upon this quarter, 
 and trace the intended curve upon it, by balancing the 
 draught of the leader, and the angle of the different 
 short furrows, and splitting the difference as nearly as 
 possible by the eye. Cut off" the outer edge of the board 
 to this curve, and then test and correct it by the follow- 
 ing process : Lay the curve thus made upon a clean part 
 of the stone (or floor), the inner end with the intended 
 draught, and mark it plainly; now reverse the curve the 
 other side up, and with the draught right to represent a 
 furrow of the runner, and move it slowly across th,e 
 curve on the bed-stone, like an opposite furrow, and 
 measure the angle at which they cross all the way from 
 the eye to the circumference. 
 
 If the angle between the round sides as they close 
 like a pair of shears all the way out be the same, the 
 curve is right and the draught equal ; if the angle varies, 
 the curve must be altered until the above result be at- 
 tained. This curve will now be the outside of the re- 
 quired pattern ; to finish it, mark or gauge from this side 
 
312 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 the intended width of the furrow u{)on the board, and 
 cut it away to the mark, and the pattern will be finished, 
 except that a piece must either be left on or attached to 
 the inner side at the {nneif end, wide enough to mark 
 the draught distance upon, and a hold bored through it 
 exactly at the centre of the Stone to be slipped on to a 
 pin at that spot to keep the pattern true. Every lead- 
 ing furrow patteifn requires this pivot, and to lay out 
 the furrows it is only necessary to move the outer end 
 from one mafk to the nexlt one on the hoop to lay out 
 the divisions, the pivot keeping the inner end always 
 right. 
 
 There is another dress wLich is a sort of eompromise 
 between the quarter dress and the sickle. It proceeds 
 in a straight course from the eye to within six inches 
 of the skirt, and then turns a corner, resembling the 
 short furrows of the quarter dress from this point. It 
 was, no doubt, intended to combine all the good points 
 of both the others, but fails to attain those of either. It 
 has neither the even regular draught of the sickle dress, 
 nor the straight freedom of farrows of the other, while 
 it combines the disadvantages of both. 
 
 The actual width of the furrows and lands, and the 
 relative proportion- of these to each other, is another 
 point equally vague. We have seen furrows of every 
 intermediate width from three-quarters of an inch up 
 to two inches, and lands varying from thi?ee-fourths of 
 an inch to four inches, and these jumbled together in 
 every conceivable proportion, without any resemblance 
 to a rule to regulate the relative breadth of each to the 
 other. The greatest curiosity in this direction ie this, 
 that each individual miller considers his own system 
 right, and every other miller to be more or less in error 
 in proportion as they differ from him, and if a man were 
 
' BALANCING THE RUNNER. 313 
 
 to assail his system' and try to persuade him to change 
 it, it would be like trying to make a proselyte in reli- 
 gion. All the benefit likely to result in either case 
 would be from a casual random remark that might set 
 him to thinking. 
 
 These considerations, and the great length to which 
 this article has already expanded, have tired us of the 
 subject, and as the reader must be equally tired, and 
 we have yet to consider the subject of balancing the 
 running stone, we will appeal to Mr. Littlejohn to help 
 us through this part of the subject. We saw an article 
 from him published some years ago in the " Scientific 
 American," which expressed our ideas and experience 
 so much better than we could, that we will transcribe a 
 portion of it for the benefit of our readers. 
 
 It may be remarked, however, that the breadth of the 
 land is now generally made to approach much nearer to 
 that of the furrow than formerly, some good millers 
 making them equal, that is, half furrow and half land, 
 while others, like Mr. Littlejohn, make the farrows the 
 widest. But this reduction of the land must be modi- 
 fied by the quality of the stone, and the kind and condi- 
 tion of the grain expected to be ground. The " dress" 
 cracked into the lands by the mill-pick to give the re- 
 quisite sharp cutting surface, is also modified by these 
 considerations, and still more by the fancies and capaci- 
 ties of the different millers. These combined give it a 
 range from four cracks to the inch, up to about thirty- 
 two } the best plan is to have them as close as will leave 
 each one distinct from the next, with an unbroken line 
 of face between. 
 
 The process of balancing the running-stone by the 
 bale upon the pivot of the spindle is now, by the im- 
 provements introduced by the makers, easily accom- 
 
314 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 plished. This pivot, or point of suspension, is near the 
 average height of the burr blocks composing the face of 
 the stone, but these blocks are of very different thick- 
 nesses and weights, and formerly no attention was paid 
 to this difference ; the result was that the burr portion of 
 the stone below the point of suspension was frequently 
 much heavier and thicker on one side than the other. 
 Then in backing up the stone to the full thickness, large 
 blocks of stone were frequently placed in, over the thin 
 side ; these were above the point of suspension, and being 
 heavier than the plaster which filled the opposite side, 
 the stone would be heavy at one side next the back, and 
 at the other next the face, and thus it was easy to 
 balance it when at rest; but when set in motion, the 
 heavy side next the face would be drawn in that direc- 
 tion by its centrifugal force, while the opposite side, 
 being heavy next the back, would be drawn in the 
 other direction. These centrifugal forces, being equal 
 and opposite, one above and the other below the point 
 of suspension, or top of the spindle, the stone would be 
 tipped over, and one side would drag upon the bed-stone 
 whenever it was set in motion. This drag would in- 
 crease in weight as the velocity increased, and diminish 
 again with the velocity, until with it, it finally sub- 
 sided. 
 
 This condition of the running-stone has caused much 
 perplexity and loss, on account of the diflBculty of deter- 
 mining the precise spot to place the lead to balance it. 
 It would be easy to give it a running balance by placing 
 the lead inside the hoop at the top, on the high side, but 
 this would disturb the standing balance, and that side 
 would drag every time both in stopping and starting. 
 Unless a stone be balanced in both conditions, it is im- 
 possible to keep it in perfect order to do first-class work, 
 
BALANCING. 315 
 
 although many good stones are used and worn out that 
 never were perfectly balanced in both of these states. 
 
 The best means employed to attain both of these 
 balances, before the introduction of Mr. Brown's system, 
 was, to dig out either three or four large holes, at op- 
 posite sides, through the backing of the stone down to 
 the burr blocks, and close to the hoop. In each of these 
 place a sheet iron canister the whole depth, and fitting 
 to the hoop outside, the other sides of any shape ; place 
 an iron spindle, screwed the whole length, down the 
 centre of each canister, and having free bearing in the 
 bottom and top, with some provisions for turning it at 
 top, and on this spindle place a heavy chunk of lead, 
 fitting the canister around the sides, but free to screw 
 up or down by turning the spindle. Particular care 
 must be taken in building these in, to obtain the stand- 
 ing balance. This is attained by placing stone or iron 
 around the boxes to fill vacancies on the light side of 
 the stone, and pieces of wood, or, in extreme cases, var 
 cancies covered by wood, in the heavy side, filling and 
 covering the whole with plaster. 
 
 The stone may now be set in motion to ascertain the 
 condition of the running balance. When the heavy and 
 light sides are determined and marked, the stone may be 
 stopped and the balance adjusted by screwing up the 
 lead weights at the light side, and letting them down at 
 the heavy side ; these trials must be repeated, and the 
 weights manipulated until the proper running balance 
 is attained. This raising and lowering of the lead 
 weights will not disturb the standing balance, but should 
 it vary, as it is likely to do by the drying of the new 
 plaster at first, or by wearing unequally afterwards, it can 
 be readjusted by adding to or diminishing the weight of 
 the lead at the high or low sides. When this occurs, of 
 
316 GBIST-MILLS. 
 
 course the lead weights must be regulated anew to re- 
 establish the running balance. 
 
 This mode of balancing a stone involves considerable 
 expense of time and trouble. We have frequently had 
 to dig out whole blocks of cull burr stone in making the 
 holes for these canisters ; at other times we have en- 
 countered large slabs of building etonesj and in some 
 cases it would be easier to remove the whole backing, 
 hoops and all, and back the stone anew. But it is 
 better policy for the miller to spend any amount of time 
 and patience upon it and get it right, than to run it 
 with one side constantly trailing upon the bed-stone. 
 
 The following method is that referred to as being in- 
 troduced by Mr. Brown. We have used it for several 
 years, and find it as reliable and much more expeditious, 
 than the last described : Get two pieces of thin close- 
 grained board about four feet long, and six inches wide ; 
 plane these and gauge and dress them down to about 
 three-eighths of an inch throughout, raise the runner 
 about half an inch clear of the bed-stone, and slip these 
 pieces between, one at each side and about half way 
 from the spindle to the outer edge ; slip a piece under 
 each projecting end of these to fill the space between 
 them and the floor, and drive a nail dovm through to 
 keep them all firm. Now set the stone in motion, and 
 let it down until it scrubs upon the boards, and while 
 it is fitting and polishing the surface of these, fit a 
 plank across the top of the stone in a convenient posi- 
 tion for a rest, and turn the whole back oflf perfectly 
 true. This, if the face be kept down tight to the boards 
 during the operation, will make the back agree exactly 
 with the face, and this is the main point gained by 
 Brown's system, as will be seen by the other part of the 
 operation. 
 
BALANCIJSfG. 317 
 
 The stone may now be stopped and raised up and 
 the boards removed, and when started again at the 
 working velocity and clear of the bed-stone, it will as- 
 sume its regular running position, and the light side 
 may be marked by holding a lead pencil against the rest 
 plank, and moving it carefully down until it touches the 
 new turned back of the stone. 
 
 The stone being stopped, a portion of the plaster may 
 be dug out of the back next the hoop, at the side marked 
 by the pencil, and the space filled with lead. It may 
 now be started again, and the result tested by the pencil, 
 as before, and lead put in the same way next the new 
 pencil mark. This must be continued until the pencil 
 will mark equally all around the back, when the stone 
 may be let down to its place, and as the face agrees ex- 
 actly with the new turned back, it will run true with 
 the bed-stone as long as the motion is kept up; but when 
 the motion subsides, one side of the stone will drag 
 upon the bed-stone, unless it be also at the true standing 
 balance, which is very unlikely. 
 
 The problem now to be solved is, how to obtain the 
 standing balance without disturbing the running one ? 
 We have already mentioned the pivot in the top of the 
 spindle, as the point of suspension, and intimated that 
 an extra weight in any part of the stone, above or below 
 this point, would disturb the running balance by its 
 centrifugal force ; but we did not mention (unless by 
 implication) that a weight added exactly on a level with 
 that point, could not disturb the running balance in any 
 way. This, however, is a fact, and this fact furnishes a 
 solution of the problem. 
 
 The following is the mode of operation : Raise the 
 stone clear of the bed-stone, and with a hand on each 
 side move it each way until it is clear of the driver, and 
 
318 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 free to balance every way upon the pivot ; now try it 
 all round until you discover the light side, and place 
 weights upon that side, until it balances alike. Mark 
 the side across the hoop, and turn the stone on edge, 
 with that side up, and measure the distance from the 
 face of the stone to the pivot socket in the bale, then 
 measure the same distance from the face on the edge of 
 the stone, and mark that upon the hoop. The intersection 
 of these two marks will designate the centre of the spot 
 where the lead weight should be put in tJieoretically, but 
 practically this is near the upper edge of the hole, in- 
 stead of the centre, as the lead must be placed two inches 
 below the point designated. The reason of this is, that 
 the driving force is applied at an average of four inches 
 below the point of suspension, and as the centrifugal 
 force is affected by this, the neutral point is a medium 
 between these. It may be difficult to explain this phi- 
 losophically, but our own experience corroborates that 
 of Mr. Brown, and establishes the fact beyond a ques- 
 tion. 
 
 To complete the operation, determine the number of 
 pounds in the weights required to balance, and take the 
 same weight of lead and estimate the size of the hole re- 
 quired to hold it when melted and run in solid ; lay out 
 the hole at the part indicated, of an oblong form, if it 
 must be large, and chisel it out the proper size ; add more 
 lead to balance the weight of hoop, stone, and plaster 
 excavated, and melt the whole and pour it in. This will 
 complete the standing balance. We have sometimes 
 found it expedient to extend the lead outside of the 
 hoop with rivets, but this is only necessary when the 
 quantity required is very great. 
 
 It may be useful, in this connection, to mention some 
 peculiarities with respect to the plaster used in these 
 
BALANCING. 319 
 
 operations. In balancing an old stone by tbe last 
 method, it is frequently necessary to cover the back 
 anew, either in part or wholly with new plaster ; this, 
 as well as covering the lead or other holes in the back- 
 ing, may be done by mixing the calcined plaster with 
 clean water. Everything must be convenient, and 
 much expedition should be used in applying it, or other- 
 wise a considerable quantity will be wasted. The ^old 
 plaster must be wet before the new is applied, and to 
 make the adhesion certain, bit holes may be bored a 
 short depth into the old surface, and where holes and 
 angles occur nails should be driven in various directions, 
 taking care to have the heads below the surface of the 
 new plaster when it is applied. 
 
 To build in the canisters used in the other method of 
 balancing, more care and time are required in order to 
 arrive at the proper balance, and for this reason some 
 kind of sizing must be used in the water, as this will 
 prevent the plaster setting so fast. Common glue or 
 isinglass, or failing these, milk to the water may be era- 
 ployed. Many never use sizing of any kind, but mix 
 the plaster with urine instead of water, and this answers 
 well. Alum mixed in the plaster makes it close and 
 hard; some use this in the last coat of backing. A better 
 way is to wash the newly-finished back with a strong 
 solution of alum water several times in succession ; cold 
 water will not hold much alum in solution, but hot 
 water will hold sufficient to make the plaster polish 
 almost like marble. 
 
 It is sometimes difficult to obtain the ordinary cal- 
 cined gypsum of commerce, and as only a small quantity 
 is required for any of these operations, it may be pre- 
 pared from the ordinary plaster of Paris used upon land. 
 To do this, place a small quantity in a clean dry kettle 
 
320 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 upon the stove and boil it until it settles and lays still. 
 The kettle must not be full, because it boils like soap, 
 or sugar, and would be liable to run over ; it should be 
 stirred occasionally until sufficiently cooked, when it 
 will settle down and remain at rest. 
 
 The stones referred to as so difficult to balance were 
 built without any regard to balancing the different strata, 
 or courses, of which the atone was composed. Sometimes 
 they were built on a solid plank platform of the size and 
 shape of the stone, but a more popular way was to build 
 them on edge, setting the face by a straight-edge, and the 
 skirt by a sweep from the centre. This mode was found 
 convenient in fitting, as the seam could be seen on both 
 sides, or through from one side to the other : it was also 
 convenient in cementing, as the weight of the block was 
 a convenient help to press and retain it in place while 
 the cement was hardening, and for this reason the stone 
 was rolled around as the blocks were fitted on, to keep 
 the vacant side always up. 
 
 The process of making burr stones, as has been 
 intimated, has undergone a decided improvement, and 
 is conducted on a more enlightened principle than for- 
 merly. They are now made upon a true turned and 
 adjusted cast-iron plate, this plate being itself balanced 
 upon a pivot at the centre, like the running mill-stone. 
 The blocks are first fitted upon this plate, and equipoised 
 every way, and then each one of the strata of which the 
 filling and back are composed, balanced as they are put 
 on ; thus every different course is balanced by itself, and 
 the whole stone fully adjusted before it leaves the stocks, 
 and all the further balancing it may require when hung 
 upon the bale will only be so much as the socket in the 
 bale might vary from that of the cast plate upon which 
 it was built, or so much as the miller might take off one 
 
BOLTS. 321 
 
 side more than another in dressing. And for the ad- 
 justment of any little variation from, these causes, three 
 or four small cast boxes are placed inside the hoop at 
 equal distances, and having openings through the hoop, 
 which are opened and closed by a screw. A little shot 
 (lead) da introduced into these boxes to perfect the bal- 
 ance, which can be altered or regulated at any time by 
 removing a little of this shot from one of these boxes, 
 to another with a teaspoon. 
 
 The process of bolting may now be considered, it 
 being the last operation in manufacturing the grain into 
 flour, and that by which the different qualities of flour 
 are separated from the bran and shorts. Within the 
 past twenty-five years this has undergone greater im- 
 provement than even the process of grinding. 
 
 The bolt consists of a long reel covered with some 
 kind of sieve, or bolting cloth, the texture of which is 
 fine next the head where the flour enters, but coarser 
 towards the tail end, where the meshes are wide enough 
 to pass the shorts through, leaving the bran . to pass 
 through the whole length and be discharged at the 
 lower end. The reel thus constructed forms a kind of 
 cylinder, which is hung and made to revolve horizontally 
 upon a bearing at each end ; that supporting the head 
 where the flour enters being about six inches higher 
 than the one at the tail end where the bran escapes. It 
 is this inclination of the reel which causes the contents to 
 progress towards the tail end as it revolves, and by the 
 sliding and tumbling it undergoes during this progres- 
 sion, the flour is sifted through. The finer portions being 
 the heaviest and consequently next to the cloth find 
 their way through first, and fall near the head, while 
 the coarser fall next, and as the particles remaining are 
 coarser and lighter, they pass through further and 
 21 
 
322 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 further down until near the tail end they approach the 
 grade and gravity of bran, and find their way through 
 the coarse cloth as " canaille," or shorts. 
 
 The oldest kind of bolt reel that we ever fitted up 
 was covered with brass wire cloth ; it was made to re- 
 volve pretty rapidly, and had another reel revolving 
 slowly inside, the ribs of which were composed of brushes 
 the whole length ; these brushes swept the flour through 
 the wire cloth and kept the meshes open. The reel was 
 "not six square like the modern one, but circular, and 
 coniposed of two corresponding halves, which could be 
 put together over the brushes, or taken apart conveni- 
 ently. It was about six feet long and about two in dia- 
 meter, and was composed of rims or semicircles fastened 
 about six inches apart around the inside of longitudi- 
 nal ribs which held them in place, and left the inside 
 free and clear upon which to nail the wire cloth, and also 
 allowed the hair brushes to revolve inside. One of these 
 wire cloth and brush bolts (we have forgotten the tech- 
 nical name) would bolt for two or three run of stones. 
 
 Another, called the "English" or "Bag Bolt," was 
 more extensively used than the wire cloth. The reel for 
 this kind was about the same size as the other, but was 
 made and operated on a very different principle. It 
 was composed of six large round ribs placed lengthwise 
 upon arms mortised through the shaft, like the modern 
 reel, but the cloth was different, being both longer and 
 wider than the reel, and woven throughout without a 
 seam, of some kind of thread approaching silk in strength, 
 but much coarser and firmer in texture ; it was said at 
 that time to be composed of the inner bark of some kind 
 of nettle, but we have met with nothing since either to 
 confirm or confute that opinion. 
 
 The coarse tail end of this bag without a bottom was 
 
BOLTS. 323 
 
 trimmed or bound with chamois leather, and had six 
 loops which were slipped on to the ends of the ribs when 
 it was drawn over the reel ; the head end was bound 
 with this leather much wider, and a noose made around 
 the edge for a strong cord to pass through, by which to 
 draw it together, leaving only a hole large enough to 
 feed the grist. Being larger than the reel, and the whole 
 driven at a great velocity, the cloth bulged out con- 
 siderably beyond the diameter of the reel, and a round 
 smooth bar was placed along each side against which 
 the projecting cloth rubbed ; this answered the same 
 purpose as the brushes. 
 
 The bolt chest in which both of these kinds were in- 
 closed were nearly alike, and made high enough to admit 
 of collecting and conducting the two kinds of flour, and 
 the shorts and bran by funnel-shaped spouts into sepa- 
 rate bags. The grist did not generally pass directly 
 from the stones to these bolts, but was elevated to an 
 upper floor where it was spread and cooled, and after- 
 wards shoved into another large hopper, from which it 
 was fed into the bolt ; this feeding was always attended 
 with more or less trouble, from the tendency of the grist 
 to pack and remain stationary. A peculiar kind of shoe 
 was used for this purpose, more like a bellows than an 
 ordinary grain shoe, being mostly composed of leather, 
 and resembling an ordinary shoe in shape. (This similar- 
 ity in shape and material was no doubt the origin of the 
 name now given to this article.) It hung loosely behind 
 by the leather of which it was composed, and the point 
 which conducted the grist inside of the bolt cloth rested 
 upon the shaft of the reel, which had iron strikers at- 
 tached to shake the shoe and encourage the discharge. 
 The shoe was large, and the velocity of the reel so great 
 that the strikers rattled and banged at such a rate 
 
324 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 against the shoe that little else could be heard about the 
 premises while the bolt was going. 
 
 Another machine was made to revolve over the cool- 
 ing floor with a draft towards the centre, that collected 
 the grist into this hopper, and stirred the contents to 
 help it to feed, thus dispensing with the services of the 
 boy whose business it was to attend to that part of the 
 operation. This circumstance gave the name of " Hop- 
 per Boy" to a similar machine since used for cooling 
 and collecting the bolted flour, in the modern packing 
 machine. 
 
 The English bolt, like the Brush bolt, was capable 
 of bolting fast enough for several run of stones, and even 
 then it did not require to run all the time that the stones 
 were grinding. They are scarcely ever used at the pre- 
 sent day in the United States, although a few of them 
 may still be found in some of the British provinces. 
 
 A first step toward the use of the present bolt and 
 Dutch cloth was made by stretching the English bolt- 
 ing cloth upon the long modern reel, and tacking it to 
 the reel as at present. Instead of the English bolt cloth, 
 a kind of smooth hard book muslin was frequently used ; 
 to shake the flour through, and prevent it sticking to 
 the cloth, a knocker was fixed upon the tail end journal, 
 which raised and dropped that end of the reel, about an 
 inch four times during each revolution ; in addition to 
 this, another knocker, and sometimes two were placed 
 on top of the reel outside. This was a light piece of 
 wood placed across the reel, the back end hinged upon 
 a pin, leaving the front end free to move up and down ; 
 a piece of wood was fastened upon each of the six ribs 
 of the reel under this striker to protect the bolt cloth, 
 and as the reel revolved each of these pieces raised and 
 dropped the striker as they passed under it ; this kept 
 
BOLTS. , 325 
 
 up a continual pounding upon the ribs of the reel, at the 
 same time that the dumper on the lower end kept rais-, 
 ing and dropping that whole end, and between the two 
 they managed to shake through the greater part of the 
 flour. When several of these were in operation at the 
 same time, they made considerable racket and noise. 
 These precautions, moreover, did not prevent the cloth 
 from being gradually filled and clogged up with dust 
 and beards, and other accumulations which prevented the 
 flour from getting freely through, and had occasionally 
 to be removed. This cleansing of the bolt was attended 
 with a good deal of trouble, especially in the muslin 
 cloths, the texture of which was tender and the meshes 
 easily displaced. The first resource was generally to 
 brush it carefully with a stiff hair brush ; this removed 
 anything loose, with the dry dust, but the beards stuck 
 through the cloth, and the dust more or less pasted into 
 it by sweating or moisture and could not be removed by 
 the brush, and it required considerable ingenuity to get 
 rid of these. ' 
 
 One effectual, but tedious method of removing the 
 beards was to shave the cloth all over with a razor ; this 
 cut the beards close to the outside of the cloth, and by 
 rubbing it over with the hand or a brush, the inner ends 
 dropped through to the inside. When this was care- 
 fully done by an expert hand, the cloth kept cleaner 
 afterwards, as it shaved off all projecting hairs or nap 
 from the outside, and there was always more or less of 
 this upon these cloths. Another expedient was to fix 
 a soft piece of chamois leather or India rubber in a 
 suitable, cushion or the palm of the hand, and sweep this 
 dexterously over the cloth, bringing it across a piece ot 
 sheepskin at each return stroke to remove the beards 
 adhering to it. These beards are all toothed along the 
 
326 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 edges, the teeth, or barbs rather, all lying in one direc- 
 tion, like the barb of a fish-hook or spear. This arrange- 
 ment of the barbs allows the beard to pass through 
 anything freely with one particular end foremost, but 
 never allows it to back up. We have seen many fowls 
 killed by swallowing the beards of a new kind of wheat 
 along with the grain ; these worked their way through 
 the crop in every direction, many of them coming out 
 through the skin and feathers at the breast ; it is this 
 peculiarity that enables the chamois or rubber to catch 
 the serrated edge of the beard and jerk it out through, 
 and drop it again so readily by the back stroke. 
 
 Another plan for removing the beards was to sew a 
 breadth of cotton cloth by the edge to a small rope,^ 
 long enough to reach the whole length of the bolt ; this 
 was hung up along side of the reel on the descending 
 side, and in such a position, that it might drag lightly 
 upon the bolt cloth as it revolved. 
 
 This is the easiest plan, and the one most generally 
 used at the present time. It is injurious to the bolt 
 cloth if kept continually dragging upon it, and as an 
 occasional sweeping is found to be sufficient, it is fixed 
 so that it can be drawn up or let down at pleasure. 
 When first let down after being long withdrawn, the 
 bolt should be run empty for a considerable time, and 
 then carefully shaken down and swept out. From a 
 want of this precaution we have seen many a good large 
 grist spoiled. 
 
 To remove the pasted flour from these cloths, spirit 
 of wine or turpentine was used, applied to the pasted 
 portions plentifully with a sponge, and when perfectly 
 dry, as it would be in a few minutes if the spirit was 
 pure, the part was switched smartly and lightly with a 
 small switch until it was clean. There was no danger 
 
 ■■o^ 
 
BOLTS. 327 
 
 of injuring the English or muslin cloth by the concen- 
 trated spirit, but it must be sparingly and carefully 
 applied to the Dutch anker cloth, or it will dissdve 
 and destroy the sizing which glazes the thread, and 
 fastens the meshes of these cloths, and constitutes their 
 superiority and the great secret of their manufacture. 
 
 The safest and best application we have ever used is 
 clean cold water, the only draw back being the difficulty 
 of its application. We have in some extreme cases 
 taken the cloth off; this is the most effectual means of 
 cleansing it, but it involves much time and trouble, and 
 great care must be taken to keep it thoroughly stretched 
 while drying, or it will be too small for the reel. The 
 Dutch anker cloth being now almost exclusively used, 
 and the silk threads composing it being glazed smooth, and 
 cemented at the crossings to preserve the meshes intact, 
 they are neither liable to get very foul nor to be dis- 
 turbed by brushing, and all that is required to keep 
 them in good working order is the occasional use of the 
 cloth sweep referred to, such washing as that referred 
 to being only rendered necessary by an accident or ex- 
 treme negligence. 
 
 The case was very different when the other substi- 
 tutes were used for bolting cloth, and the smutting and 
 cleaning apparatus was equally defective ; the clogging 
 of the bolt cloth was then a frequent occurrence, and 
 this made the miller expert at cleaning it ; but millers, 
 like other craftsmen, are reticent of the particular sleight 
 of hand they may acquire individually in such emer- 
 gencies, and do not make it public. We mention these 
 things because we have seen modifications of all these 
 devices offered as new discoveries, and certain sums of 
 money demanded for the receipts and right to use them, 
 by speculators who had got hold of the ideas by some 
 
328 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 means, and sought to make money of them. But we 
 have said enough on these introductory subjects, and 
 will now proceed to give a description of the bolt as it is 
 now made. 
 
 The reel is from twelve to eighteen feet long, and from 
 two and a half to three feet in diameter ; the shaft from 
 four to six inches in diameter, is made of some light 
 stiff wood, either six sided or round, with iron journals 
 in each end, and the ends banded with iron ; three or 
 four sets of arms are mortised through this, one set near 
 each end, and the other dividing the distance between 
 these ; each set is not placed around on the same line 
 like the spokes in a wheel, but a single mortise running 
 through is only made at one place, and a piece the whole 
 diameter of the reel run through this to the centre 
 makes two arms ; another of the same kind on each side 
 of this completes the set ; they are put through in this 
 way to be strong and light, and to avoid weakening the 
 shaft. The ends of these six rows of arms are tenoned, 
 and ribs the same length as the shaft mortised on to 
 them. An end composed of six pieces of half inch boards 
 is put around the head end ; these are halved together 
 at the ends for additional strength, and straight from 
 rib to rib around the outside, but circled out round in 
 the middle to admit the grist spout ; this is fastened 
 upon the end of the ribs, and six other pieces about four 
 inches wide are nailed around the outer edge of these, 
 feach piece reaching from one rib to the next one, the 
 ends being fitted and fastened to these. This makes a 
 strong light corner on which to tack the head end of the 
 bolt cloth; the tail end requires only straight strips 
 nailed on from rib to rib to fasten the cloth, and leave 
 the inside clear for the bran to pass out. 
 
 There are several ways to put the cloth on to the reel ; 
 
BOLTS. 329 
 
 sometimes the cloth is split lengthways in strips a little 
 narrower than the distance between two ribs, a piece of 
 strong double cotton is sewed in between each of these 
 to correspond with the ribs, and through which the tacks 
 are driven ; the last two^edges have a strip of the same 
 sewed upon each, and along the edges of these a row of 
 eyelet lace holes are wrought to lace it together. A 
 piece of the same cotton is sewed around the head end 
 wide enough for the grist spout to discharge upon, and 
 a narrow piece around the tail end. 
 
 To put it upon the Reel. 
 
 Take the cloth and fold or roll it up to the middle, 
 beginning at both ends; take this roll and fasten the 
 end to a rib near the middle of the reel, and turn the 
 reel round, keeping hold of the roll until the first end 
 comes round within reach ; draw a lace through a couple 
 of the eyelet holes about the middle of the cloth, and 
 fasten the two ends of the roll together, and turn that 
 splice side down. Now take hold of the head end of the 
 cloth at the top of the reel, and draw it along to the 
 head end and fasten it with a few tacks; stretch out the 
 other end to the tail of the reel the same way, and fasten 
 it slightly ; now draw the edges together by the eyelets, 
 a loop here and there will answer, and begin at the cen- 
 tre of the head end to fasten permanently around the 
 end rim each way, drawing the laces near the end to 
 bring the cloth to the proper tension before the tacks are 
 driven. When the head is all securely nailed, send a 
 man to the tail end to draw the talks holding that end, 
 and have him pull upon the cloth at the centre rib while 
 you commence at the head upon that rib and rub hard 
 with the palm of the hand along the reel toward the tail 
 end, repeating the rubbing and continuing the pulling 
 
330 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 until all the wrinkles are out, and the cloth is tight 
 enough; then that spot may be fastened, and all the other 
 ribs served the same way until that end is fastened all 
 round like the other. The two sides may now be tightly 
 laced and drawn together, to stretch it sufficiently the 
 other way, and the whole nailed to every rib, the whole 
 length, with six ounce tacks, three or four inches apart. 
 The ribs should always be made of soft wood, because 
 the spring of the unsupported portions between the arms 
 is so great that it is difficult to drive the tacks into hard 
 wood ; besides, it is almost impossible to get the tacks out 
 of hard wood without tearing and injuring the cloth, 
 when it has to be taken offi 
 
 This method of putting on the cloth requires the reel 
 to be accurately made, and the measurements very cor- 
 rectly taken, and very carefully worked out upon the 
 cloth, in order to have it all come out right ; in fact it 
 requires a good seamstress to sew all the diflFerent strips 
 together without gathering or puckering, even when they 
 are all cut out right, and a greenhorn would make bung- 
 ling work of it. 
 
 When a reliable hand was not to be had to prepare 
 the cloth in this way, we have frequently put it on 
 as follows : Take a tape or other line that will not 
 stretch, and measure round the circumference of the reel, 
 and cut the cloth in lengths half an inch over the length 
 of this line j have all these sewed together side and side 
 in the order, with respect to the number and quality of 
 cloth, in which they are to be placed upon the reel, and 
 have a wide strip of fiotton, as in the other plan, sewed 
 on the head (fine) end, and a narrower piece on the tail 
 end. Place this upon the reel like the other, and take 
 a large needle and good double thread and draw the 
 edges together over the last rib, folding or rolling the 
 
BOLTS. 331 
 
 two edges together and sewing "over and over" as it is 
 called, until it is drawn sufiBciently tight. Stretch a 
 piece of tape, or strip of double cotton along each rib and 
 around both ends, and nail through these, and the job will 
 be finished. This is more easily done, and will last fully 
 as long, probably longer, as the cloth always gives out 
 next the seam of the double cloth first, on account of 
 the accumulation of dust and worms, and other vermin 
 which invariably breed here. We used formerly to paste 
 strips of cotton along all the ribs before we put the cloth 
 on, but found these to be a damage, for the above rea- 
 son. 
 
 With respect to the selection of the numbers or quali- 
 ties of cloth most suitable, the quality or proportion of 
 each kind, and the most proper distribution of these num- 
 bers upon the reel, much diversity of opinion exists among 
 millwrights and millers. Some place very fine numbers 
 next the head of the bolt, and coarser and still coarser 
 as they approach the tail end. Others will place three 
 or four medium Nos. (eight or nine) all together, and all 
 alike, reaching from the head as far down as the flour is 
 fit to mix, or use, and then a No. seven and a No. five 
 to sift out the coarse flour, and a narrow strip of No. 
 to separate the shorts. Another plan is to place one 
 width or two of No. 8 next the head, and two or three 
 widths of No. 9 adjoining this and reaching as far as 
 the flour is fit to mix, filling out the tail end like the 
 others. 
 
 In order to determine the best selection and arrange- 
 ment of cloth for any particular case, we must consider 
 the kind of flour principally to be made, whether one or 
 more qualities, and also take into account the following 
 principles and peculiarities in the process of bolting : — 
 
 When the grist is run into the bolt it is a mixture of 
 
332 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 particles of very different degrees of fineness, and these 
 are quite as different in their degrees of weight; this 
 difference of weight is made to perform an important 
 part in the separation of these particles, by gravity ; the 
 difference in size completes the separation, mechanically, 
 by the intervention of the different sized meshes of the 
 bolt cloth. When the mixture falls upon the bolt cloth, 
 the fine flour, being the heaviest, strikes it first, and the 
 particles of coarser flour, shorts, and bran, being lighter 
 and larger, strike on top of the flour, and as they slide 
 round on the inside of the cloth as it revolves, the dif- 
 ferent qualities maintain the same position with respect 
 to each other, the finest being always next the cloth. 
 Thus the finest of the flour will always sift through first, 
 whatever the texture of the cloth may be, and the 
 coarser, with specks of shorts and bran in it, cannot get 
 through until the fine which intervenes between the 
 cloth and it, is out of the way ; but now the coarser 
 flour and shorts falling and sliding in actual contact 
 with the cloth, a grade of flour will pass through too 
 coarse and full of specks to be mixed with the rest, un- 
 less the cloth be very fine, and hence the propriety and 
 policy of interposing a finer breadth of cloth at this point. 
 We have sometimes added from one to two pounds to 
 the average yield of good flour from a bushel, by taking 
 out a breadth of cloth here, and introducing one a num- 
 ber or two finer, and oftener made the necessary im- 
 provement by exchanging the coarser number here for 
 the finer one next the head. Interested parties are slow 
 to comprehend this subject, and persist in placing the 
 finest cloth where the finest flour will come, without 
 testing the matter either by experience or philosophy. 
 
 We may mention here another contingency with re- 
 spect to bolts, although it might rather be mentioned in , 
 
BOLTS. 333 
 
 connection with the machinery for driving them. It is 
 this, the bolt machinery should be so connected with 
 that driving the stone, that when the stone is stopped 
 the bolt will also be stopped, or if the stone has to grind 
 other kinds of grain not requiring to be bolted, then some 
 provision should be made for throwing the bolt out of 
 gear. If this precaution be neglected, and the bolt run 
 after the grist is done feeding in, the contents will all 
 be sifted through, and the remaining light stuff, having 
 no flour between it and the bolt cloth, will be partly 
 sifted through, covering the flour with specks and spoil- 
 ing its appearance and quality. The same thing will 
 occur with the first entrance of the next grist run 
 through it, a part of the light stuff will drift along the 
 naked cloth, in advance of the main stream, and pass 
 through the cloth in specks like the other; this ending 
 and beginning will affect on an average half a bushel of 
 flour, and where it often occurs it becomes a serious 
 item. From these considerations, and a pretty exten- 
 sive experience, we would recommend the distribution 
 of the cloth as last indicated, for an ordinary custom 
 mill, to be modified of course by circumstances, such as 
 the quantity to be bolted in a given time, the kind of 
 wheat or grain chiefly to be ground, &c. 
 
 We might give as an example of a bolt for an ordinary 
 run of stones, say eighteen feet long, one width of No. 
 8, three of No. 9, half a breadth of No. 7, half a breadth 
 of No. 6, and half a width of something coarser to let 
 through the shorts. This would bolt faster to put on 
 two widths of No. 8 and two of No. 9 ; the quality will 
 also be finer the faster it has to bolt, and of course the 
 flour will be coarser the smaller the quantity passing 
 through it. The like alteration of coarser and finer can 
 also be made from the same bolt, by elevating or de- 
 
334 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 pressing the tail end, thus causing the contents to pass 
 faster or more slowly through. The quantity of each 
 kind of cloth is easily computed ; it will average three 
 feet three and a half inches in width when sewed to- 
 gether, and if the reel be thirty inches in diameter, it 
 will take two and a half yards to go round it ; if thirty- 
 three inches, two and three-quarter yards; and if thirty- 
 six inches, three yards. 
 
 The bolt should make from twenty-eight to thirty- 
 three revolutions per minute, according to its diameter ; 
 but there is more damage done by running it too fast 
 than too slow, because the centrifugal force prevents the 
 contents from falling and sliding upon the cloth; the 
 proper motion allows the stuff carried up by the ribs to 
 fall down again about the centre of the bottom ; if much 
 is thrown on to, or against the shaft, the motion is too 
 rapid. The best method of gearing a bolt is to take 
 the motion from the spindle of the stones connected with 
 it ; to do this, place an upright shaft at the head end of 
 the bolt with a large and light belt wheel two and a half 
 or three feet in diameter upon the lower end, place a 
 small sheave to correspond with this upon the spindle; 
 this is best done by turning a pulley the right size, 
 marking the size of the spindle upon both ends, and 
 also a seat for a narrow band upon each end, then split 
 it into two pieces, and dig out the centre to the spindle 
 marks, then put the two halves together on the spindle, 
 and put on the two bands (previously fitted) one above 
 and the other below the pulley, rivet the ends together 
 upon the spindle, and drive them on to tlieir places; 
 place a bevel pinion on the upper end of this shaft, and 
 another gearing into it upon the shaft that carries the 
 elevators. Place a light spur wheel upon this shaft, and 
 a corresponding one upon the journal of the bolt shaft ; 
 
BOLTS. 335 
 
 these two may be geared together, but it will give more 
 room for the elevator spout, and bring the motion of the 
 reel in a better direction, to interpose another wheel. 
 The intermediate wheel may be made to slip endwise out 
 of gear with both the others ; or it may be permanently 
 geared into the elevator wheel, and the end of the bolt 
 shaft with its wheel made to raise and lower, into, and 
 out of gear. This is done by hinging the back end of 
 the supporting bar on a pin, and raising or dropping the 
 other end by a handle fixed for that purpose, slipping a 
 key under, when it is up and in gear, and the same key 
 over the bar when it is down. 
 
 By this arrangement the same stones and elevators 
 may be used to grind Indian meal or feed, by having a 
 crotched spout at the discharge of the elevators with a 
 swing gate or trap valve to throw the grist either way, 
 into the bolt or the meal box. The bolt is frequently 
 driven from the elevator shaft by a belt, but this is more 
 troublesome, and not so reliable, besides the slight jar- 
 ring of the cog gearing is an advantage, and tends to 
 keep the cloth clean. The elevator shaft should turn 
 faster than the bolt reel, otherwise the upper elevator 
 pulley must be inconveniently large to give the cups the 
 requisite speed; both pulleys should be a little larger 
 than the space between the two interior sides of the 
 cases, to clear the belt 6f the corners ; the belt should 
 also be a little narrower than the cases, and the cups 
 narrower than the belt. An elevator should always, if 
 possible, be driven by the upper pulley. 
 
 The most common material used in making the cups 
 is tin, this is the best for grain, and in ordinary circum- 
 stances for flour and meal also; but when damp grain is 
 ground rapidly, and elevated through a cold atmosphere, 
 a steam is generated which condenses upon the cups 
 
336 GEIST-MILLS. 
 
 and causes the dust to adhere, forming a paste which 
 accumulates and fills them up, and is a source of con- 
 siderable annoyance ; in such a case leather is preferable 
 to tin. When well made of good leather, they answer 
 the purpose well, but we have often seen them of such 
 a make, and of such material, that they were a great 
 nuisance. For such situations, the cups are frequently 
 made of wood. To make these, take a strip of bass- 
 wood, buttonwood, or poplar, two inches thick, and the 
 width of the required cups ; bevel off the corner some- 
 thing like the shape of the ordinary cups, and saw it into 
 lengths ; a little under the breadth of the belt ; hollow 
 them out slightly above and behind in imitation of the 
 tin cups, and fasten them by small nails screwed or 
 driven through the belt. These are not liable to clog 
 up nor catch in the cases, and may be placed on the 
 belt close enough to make them carry as fast as re- 
 quired. 
 
 The bolt chest may next be considered. It incloses 
 the bolting reel or cylinder, and confines and collects 
 the flour as it sifts through the bolt cloth into the inte- 
 rior of the chest, from whence it is shaken out into the 
 flour through in front, by drawing up a range of slides. 
 In this trough the flour arrives exactly in the same 
 order that it passes through the cloth, the finest next 
 the head, and the grade becoming gradually coarser as 
 it approaches the tail end where the bran and shorts are 
 discharged. This enables the miller and owner (cus- 
 tomer) both to examine and select the most suitable 
 point to divide the flour, or determine how much coarse 
 should be taken off to suit the customer's taste and econ- 
 omy. This is a great advantage in a custom mill, where 
 almost every grist differs in some respect, and where 
 
BOLTS. 337 
 
 such a diversity of opinions is held by the different 
 owners. 
 
 One is a poor man, or what amounts to the same 
 thing here, a tight man, he wants every pound of flour 
 mixed in that is fit to use ; the next one is not particu- 
 lar about the quantity of flour, but wants it of the very 
 best quality ; here the miller can suit both these cus- 
 tomers, and have their own judgment and sanction to 
 back his own, which, is a good recompense for the extra 
 trouble of mixing and filling the flour by hand. To 
 shirk this labor, and have the flour mixed and filled 
 into the bags by a conveyor, the miller must forego the 
 satisfaction of pleasing his customers, and suffer the 
 positive annoyance of not being able to suit himself in- 
 stead of suiting his customer in many instances. This 
 is more particularly felt in grinding small grists, when 
 he may examine the flour and set the slides differently, 
 and find out about the time the grist is done how he 
 might have done better, but instead of profiting by the 
 discovery, he must now put in another grist of a dif- 
 ferent quality, and for a different customer, and go over 
 all these manipulations again, probably with a similar 
 result. 
 
 The screw conveyor bolt, in addition to this uncertainty 
 as to the proper point to divide the flour, has another 
 objection, which is that it mixes two succeeding grists 
 together, so that when the grists are small it is impos- 
 sible to give a customer the product of his own grain. 
 This would be of little consequence if the grain were 
 alike, but when one is clean perfect wheat, and the other 
 a mixture, of comparatively little value, then it is a 
 positive injustice : because the man who has a small 
 grist of good wheat ground after that of inferior quality, 
 22' 
 
338 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 gets inferior flour, while tlie next, with a small grist of 
 poor stuff, perhaps will get his good flour. 
 
 For this reason, the conveyor bolt, which mixes the 
 flour so perfectly, and saves so much labor in filling 
 when large grists of a similar quality are manufactured, 
 should never be used for a custom mill, where small 
 grists of different qualities are often ground. 
 
 We are anxious to place this subject plainly before 
 parties intending to build, for the reason that a kind of 
 mania for this kind of bolt passed through some sections 
 of the country many years ago. These have nearly, but 
 not all, been superseded by or altered to the trough bolt ; 
 and in making these alterations we have had our full 
 share of trouble. The mania appears lately to have 
 broken out again in other sections, and we would re- 
 commend parties interested to consider the peculiarities 
 and contingencies, which are here briefly pointed out, 
 before deciding which kind will answer their particular 
 purpose best. 
 
 The medium size and proportion for an ordinary 
 trough bolt chest, is about eighteen feet long, three and 
 a half wide, and nine feet high, the bottom of the trough 
 about two feet from the floor, and the upper commence- 
 ment of the angle for the slides about two feet above 
 the bottom of the trough ; the trough is about fourteen 
 inches wide at the bottom, and twelve deep, the front 
 flaring out three inches further at the top than the bot- 
 tom. The front is sometimes made of panel work of 
 two inch plank filled out with inch boards; a more 
 common, and probably the best way, being to make the 
 framework of scantling, the front and ends boarded on 
 the outside, and the back on the inside of these frames. 
 The slanting portion which gathers the flour forward to 
 the trough should commence pretty high on the back. 
 
BOLT CHESTS 339 
 
 and terminate on a perpendicular rise of three or four 
 inches at the back side of the trough. This is necessary 
 to get the incline steep enough to cause the flour to run 
 freely down into the trough, and the perpendicular rise 
 at the back is an advantage in mixing and shovelling 
 out the flour. 
 
 It would be difficult to describe the exact form and 
 construction of the framework of the chest, but it is not 
 requisite, it being generally understood by practical work- 
 men. A range of doors should be made along the front, 
 opposite the reel, and corresponding with the flour slides 
 below. These are required to get at the reel, and should 
 be large enough to allow a person to work with freedom. 
 A light neat covering for them is a frame made like a pic- 
 ture frame, and covered on the inside with pink or fancy 
 colored cambric, which should be hung by hinges at the 
 upper edge, or otherwise fastened by a neat fancy button 
 at each end. Such doors are preferable to any that can 
 be made of wood, because they tend to cool the flour by 
 the ventilation they induce, and at the same time sufli- 
 ciently confine the dust. The top of the bolt chest 
 should project over the front a little further than the 
 trough, otherwise the worms, insects, and mice working 
 upon the top will push over dust and dirt into the flour 
 or empty trough. This projection may be carried round 
 the ends, and a tasteful moulding put around it like a 
 cornice, costs but little and improves the appearance. 
 
 Another very necessary appendage of the. bolt chest, 
 and one that is often neglected, is the "Speck box." 
 When the grist enters through the end of the reel, it is 
 carried up by the revolving ribs continually, and falls 
 down again past the opening in the end, and a portion 
 of the fine light stuff dusts out through the opening. 
 Among this dust there are always thin light flakes of 
 
340 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 bran and shorts, which show themselves among the flour 
 by the contrast of color. The ordinary method of board- 
 ing up the end of the bolt chest on the outside of the 
 frame, gives a good chance to make a little box or divi- 
 sion to intercept these, by boarding up on the inside of 
 the end frame, and rounding out and fitting the upper 
 edge to the circle of the reel. This speck box must have 
 an outlet at the lower point, outside, and a small spout 
 to convey the contents down into the lower or back side 
 of the elevators. Although the utility of this speck box 
 is so obvious, and its construction so simple, many first- 
 class millwrights neglect to put it into custom mills, 
 and leave these drift specks to mix with the flour. 
 
 Before leaving this subject, we might mention a few 
 of the accidents by which the bolt cloth is most liable 
 to be damaged or destroyed, as it is a very fragile fabric, 
 as well as very expensive, and should be very carefully 
 protected. The most common accident to which it is 
 subjected is by some heavy sharp instrument, such as a 
 chisel or file, being dropped into the spout, elevators, or 
 on to the running stone, and carried through the bolt. 
 We once saw a bolt cloth badly cut by a sharp-pointed 
 jack-knife which the miller dropped upon the stone ; he 
 supposed that it lodged between the stone and curb, and 
 did not stop the mill until he discovered by the bran 
 among the flour, that it had passed through the bolt and 
 cut a number of small holes in it. In another instance 
 a small newly ground mill-pick passed through and 
 mangled the cloth badly; many of the blemishes which 
 this caused were so small that they escaped detection 
 for some time, and after frequent examinations. 
 
 We have seen several bolt cloths pasted and totally 
 clogged up, by standing idle and partly open in cold 
 weather, and having a door or hatchwny communicating 
 
SMUr MACHINES. 341 
 
 with the water spray carelessly left open ; the steam or 
 dampness in the atmosphere condensed upon the cloth, 
 in small needles, tangled together and forming a kind of 
 frost rhime. This could all have been absorbed and re- 
 moved by circulating cool dry air through the bolt and 
 apartment, leaving the cloth unharmed. But the injury 
 was done by not knowing, or not minding this, and thaw- 
 ing it out suddenly so that the moisture completely 
 saturated the cloth ; the dust adhering to it rendering 
 the whole as impervious as pasteboard. These were the 
 cases referred to, where the cloth had to be taken off 
 the reel and washed out with cold water. Only one 
 case ever occurred to our knowledge of a bolt cloth being 
 destroyed by fire ; that was at the time when muslin was 
 used for bolt eloth, and is not likely to occur with Dutch 
 cloth, which burns like woollen or feathers. The cir- 
 cumstance referred to took place with a brother of ours. 
 We were attending a mill for our father, and being only 
 boys we had to assist each night alternately; my brother 
 was grinding a grist of very dry buckwheat, and running 
 it through a muslin bolt kept for coarse grain ; some black 
 specks in the flour showed a defect in the cloth, and he 
 opened one of the doors to ascertain the cause, while the 
 bolt was still in motion ; as he raised the candle or lamp 
 up near the cloth the dust took fire like a flash of pow- 
 der or gas, and both dust and bolt vanished in an instant, 
 in a cloud of smoke, leaving not a vestige of the cloth, 
 and only the naked skeleton of the reel. 
 
 We have never seen or heard of a similar accident 
 since. But anything that has once occurred may occur 
 again under similar circumstances, and for that reason 
 it may be worth recording. 
 
 Another important apparatus in the grist-mill is that 
 used for cleaning and scouring the grain preparatory to 
 
34i GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 the grinding. There is an almost endless variety of 
 these machines, constructed on many different princi- 
 ples, and known under the general name of smut ma- 
 chines and separators. Many of these are patented, 
 and some are very excellent machines, leaving little 
 more to be desired in the way of improvement, and in a 
 measure relieving the millwright of another important 
 branch of the business which formerly devolved upon 
 him ; for the making of these machines is also a separate 
 branch of the business, carried on in distinct factories. 
 
 For this reason it will not be necessary to give a de- 
 tailed description of the origin of these, nor to trace them 
 through the various modifications they have undergone 
 within the last forty years in their progress towards their 
 present degree of perfection. We have within that 
 period made not less than ten or twelve different kinds 
 of smutters, some of them running horizontally, but 
 more vertically, and have seen at least ten times as many 
 varieties made by other parties. A detailed description 
 of the most important of these might be interesting to 
 some readers, but as they are mostly superseded and out 
 of use, we will not attempt to rescue them from oblivion, 
 as the benefit could hardly be sufficient to repay the 
 time and space thus occupied. 
 
 We will, therefore, only briefly describe the process 
 undergone by the grain for its purification, and the prin- 
 ciple upon which these machines are constructed. The 
 first operation is that of screening. To effect this, the 
 grain is passed through a coarse screen, the openings of 
 which are only large enough to admit the passage of the 
 grain, and exclude everything else larger, which must 
 pass over instead of through, and is thus separated. It 
 is next passed over a finer screen, the openings of which 
 will not admit a kernel of grain, which has therefore to 
 
SMUT MACniMES. 3-43 
 
 pass over it, while everything smaller than the grain, 
 drops through and is also separated ; by this part of the 
 process everything larger and smaller than the particles 
 of grain is separated. But the "smut" proper is the 
 same size and shape as the grain, and cannot be screened 
 out, and therefore the principal business of the smut 
 machine is to demolish and separate these "balls" or ker- 
 nels of smut. These are covered by a husk or hull, 
 similar to the grain, but the inside is filled with a soft 
 black powder resembling snuflf, and it is the softness and 
 friability of the interior of these balls that is taken ad- 
 vantage of to effect their separation from the grain. 
 
 The machine consists of a cylinder which is made to 
 revolve inside of a stationary case ; the grain is admitted 
 into the space between these at one end (the top), and 
 works its way through to the other end where it is dis- 
 charged. Both case and cylinder are furnished with 
 angles for the grain to strike against, and the velocity 
 must be suflBcient to break the balls of smut against 
 these angles, but not sufficient to break the grain, which 
 would thus be wasted ; the breaking of these balls libe. 
 rates the smut, which must be instantly separated by a 
 blast of wind, or otherwise it will be daubed on, and ad- 
 here to the grain, from which it can only be removed 
 by a mixture with lime or other similar absorbent ; and 
 on the speed and perfection with which this separation 
 is efiected, the main difference of the various machines 
 depends. 
 
 A scruffy outside portion of the bran, particularly at 
 the blow end of the grain, is also detached by the bat- 
 tering which it undergoes, and this, together with the 
 broken and imperfect grains, passes off in the blast of 
 wind with the smut. Hence another criterion by which 
 to decide the relative merits of the various machines, is 
 
344 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 the degree of perfection with which they separate and 
 save the useful portions carried out by this blast, and 
 confine and dispose of the smut and useless matters 
 which when blown about the mill are a great nui- 
 sance. 
 
 It is impracticable to describe all the good sraut-mills 
 which are for sale, and to single out one or two would 
 subject us to a charge of partiality which we do not 
 care to incur, particularly as this branch of the business 
 is in a manner removed from our particular province, 
 and is established as a separate branch of manufacture. 
 We prefer therefore to leave parties to make their own 
 selection, having stated the principle upon which they 
 Avork, and indicated the essential points to be regarded 
 in comparing and choosing. All that is necessary will 
 be to get a pamphlet with descriptions of good machines, 
 etc , which will enable each inventor to show up the 
 peculiar merits of his own machine. 
 
 The screen is not so easily disposed of; it has not 
 been improved like the machine itself, and several that 
 were sent along with some of the best and most expen- 
 sive machines that we ever set up were not used at all ; 
 nor would they have been used by any good millwright 
 forty years ago. These were shaking screens to be 
 driven by a crank ; they were three feet long and one 
 foot in width, the upper (coarse) one of zinc punched, 
 the lower one of wire cloth. The material and make of 
 these were well enough except that the upper one was 
 too coarse to do any good, and the lower one so small, 
 that one grist mixed with small seeds or shrunken grain, 
 l)assing over it would fill every mesh in the wire, and 
 after that the grain might as well be screened over a 
 board. Had these contained thirty-six superficial feet 
 each, instead of three, then the upper one could be 
 
SCREENS. 345 
 
 punched fine enough to screen everything out that was 
 larger than the grain, and yet allow the grain to pass 
 through fast enough, and the lower one would not get 
 altogether choked up until the miller would get time to 
 brush it out, by rubbing the under side with an old 
 broom or piece of wood. 
 
 The shaking screen is much more liable to clog up in 
 this way than the rolling one, and for that reason it 
 should always be placed so as to admit of being conve- 
 niently brushed out. Zinc or tin evenly punched, with- 
 out burr or bulging, is the best material, particularly for 
 the upper coarse screen. This, with a proper motion 
 and declivity, enables nails, sticks, or straws, or even 
 oats, to sail along and pass over, which would drop end- 
 wise through the same size of holes in a rolling or re- 
 volving screen. There are many ways of hanging these, 
 but the simplest and best is to hang them on the top 
 of four wooden springs. These should be made with a 
 true taper the whole length, the butt (thick) end mor- 
 tised into something substantial on the floor, and the 
 screen poised upon the thin ends above. This may be 
 driven easily and steadily by a single crank attached to 
 it by a connecting rod (pitman), while many of the 
 other modes require a double crank, that is, a crank on 
 both ends of the same shaft, and two connecting rods to 
 insure a steady motion. Sheets of zinc or tin can be 
 bought already punched by machinery, or if not, they 
 may be punched by hand, with a steel punch upon a 
 large cake of lead, or upon the end of a large block of 
 hard wood. The wood must be cut off occasionally when 
 it gets indented too much by the punch, and the lead 
 must be hammered smooth. 
 
346 GRISTMILLS. 
 
 Merchant, or Manufacturing Bolts. 
 
 Although the principle by which the Merchant bolt 
 separates the different grades of flour from the bran and 
 other offal is the same as that by which the little cus- 
 tom mill bolt effects the same purpose, yet the con- 
 struction and details of the one diff'er greatly from the 
 other. The constant and rapid rate at which the first- 
 named works, and the perfection with which it is required 
 that each ingredient must be separated, and conveni- 
 ently disposed of, make it necessary to employ an ex- 
 tensive combination of complicated machinery, quite 
 different from the simple single reel and chest which suf- 
 fice in a custom mill. 
 
 The vast competition in milling makes it necessary 
 that the machinery by which the flour is made be such 
 as will yield the greatest quantity of the best quality 
 of flour from the wheat, and that in the shortest time 
 and with the least expense in the operation. 
 
 Recently a great many improvements have been pro- 
 posed and tried in bolting; some of them are patented, 
 but most are improvements only under certain circum- 
 stances, while some are worthless. One mill man will 
 approve of one of these, that another of equal experience 
 will condemn. This is owing to the different conditions 
 of the mill in which they are tried ; one patent is for 
 inside knockers on a bolt reel : small iron weights to 
 slide on iron rods, fastened one end in the shaft and the 
 other end in the rib ; as the reels revolve, the weights 
 slide down the rod from the shaft and strike the rib in- 
 side, jarring the flour through the cloth; this is of use 
 where there is too little bolting capacity, and it fails to 
 clean the offal. Perhaps the miller in one establishment 
 has allowed the stones to get smooth, the agent putting 
 
MERCHANT OR MANUFACTURING BOLTS. 347 
 
 in the improvement will see that thej are well dressed 
 and balanced, and will then start the mill with plenty 
 of bolting room ; while another miller, having plenty of 
 bolting capacity, and the stones in good order, might 
 apply these knockers, and they would spoil the flour, by 
 jarring through the specks. 
 
 Where a mill has too much bolting surface and makes 
 the flour specky, it may be cured by putting the cloth 
 on the inside of one rib, and the outside of another, so 
 that the flour will slip over each alternate rib without 
 being lifted ; the flour will be cleaner, but it will not 
 bolt so fast. Sometimes the cloth is put around inside 
 of all the ribs; of course this doubles the efiect of the 
 other plan in the same direction. 
 
 The process of bolting seems to admit of more varia- 
 tion than any other branch of milling ; the speed, for 
 instance, may be varied from eighteen or twenty revolu- 
 tions per minute, to thirty-four or thirty-six revolutions, 
 without apparently making much difiierence in the work. 
 Close observation might detect an error in such wide 
 variations, and they would be inadmissible in merchant 
 bolts where the load and quantity ground are kept almost 
 constantly the same. It is believed by many good mil- 
 lers that the merchant bolt has not been brought to the 
 perfection it might be, and that some ingenious mill 
 man will yet perfect it and make a fortune by it ; our 
 opinion, is, that he who attempts it had better try to 
 devise some entirely new system, as there is a danger of 
 the old getting too complicated if it be much further 
 improved. 
 
 The object to be kept in view in constructing these 
 bolts, is to make a complete separation of the meal at 
 one 'operation, dusting the middlings at the same time. 
 After middlings are separated from the flour and bran, 
 
348 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 a good deal of fine flour, which ought not to be ground 
 over, can be sifted out by passing over fine cloth ; the 
 same is the case with the bran. This fine dust cannot 
 be separated so easily while the bran and shorts are 
 together, because a portion of the dust as it is detached 
 from the middlings adheres to the bran, and it would 
 have to pass over a great amount of cloth in that situa- 
 tion to separate it ; this holds good with middlings and 
 flour, and the sooner they are partially separated, the 
 better. Separating the bran before bolting has been 
 tried ; we have had no experience with this plan, but 
 think it will eventually be adopted to a certain extent. 
 
 In every merchant mill, some kind of apparatus must 
 be made to intervene between the grinding and bolting, 
 to cool the meal. There are some extra millers and 
 millwrights who say that the best way to cool the flour 
 that can ever be devised, is not to Jieat it; that is im- 
 practicable, if not impossible, and we must either select 
 one of the several ways now in use, or else provide a 
 better. Many of the large merchant mills still use the 
 old-fashioned cooler, similar to that previously described 
 in the chapter on grist-mills, the only alterations we 
 notice being unimportant, as the cams for shaking the 
 feeding shoe, and sometimes a new-fashioned rotary 
 device for that purpose. The cooler answers as a reser- 
 voir for the meal, when the miller does not grind as fast 
 as he wishes to bolt, which is often the case. Some use 
 lines of open conveyors for coolers ; the principle is as 
 good, or perhaps better, than the old way, but lacks the 
 reservoir, which might be provided with a proper garner 
 above the bolts. 
 
 A better plan is, a blast of air, similar to the fan ele- 
 vator, only do not attempt to raise the flour through 
 three or four stories, and perhaps blow it as far horizon- 
 
MERCHANT OR MANUFACTURING BOLTS. 349 
 
 tally, but raise it up through one story by the blower, 
 and carry it the remainder of the distance by elevators. 
 This will allow the fan to run at a moderate speed, and 
 cool the meal perfectly, besides drying it, which is also 
 very necessarj', especially at the West, where grain is 
 not housed before threshing, and often indifferently 
 housed afterwards ; the consequence is that the flour, if 
 barrelled immediately and shipped, is liable to sour. 
 
 This drying process helps to whiten the flour, and 
 j)assing through the ftin at a very rapid motion, scours 
 the bran; the only objection is, that in cold weather the 
 steam condenses on the inside of the tin pipe and clogs 
 it up ; this can be prevented by covering the pipe with 
 some non-conducting material. Some provision should 
 always be made for regulating a cooler to the amount 
 required, as too much stirring and cooling in very dry or 
 cold weather make the meal bolt too freely, and the flour 
 specky ; this can be tempered in the fan cooler by taking 
 the air at times from the curb, or from the outside at- 
 mosphere. In concluding these remarks, we may say 
 that the principle of the fan cooler is good, but the de- 
 tails must be carefully managed ; and finally we would 
 advise the avoidance of heating as much as possible, by 
 keeping the stones sharp, true in face, and well hung, 
 for no matter how the flour is stirred and cooled, if it is 
 not properly ground it will not bolt well. 
 
 We may here mention a simple and useful device for 
 carrying the steam and dust away from the curbs and 
 conveyor in front of the stones, by which means the 
 mill apartment and everything it contains are easily kept 
 clean. A suction fan is placed in the upper part of the 
 building, with a pipe leading from it to the top of the 
 conveyor in front of the stones ; this pipe passes perppn- 
 dicularly from the conveyor through the floor above, 
 
350 GRIST-MILLS. 
 
 where it is discharged into an air-tight room; another 
 pipe is taken from another part of this room to another 
 similar room, and from thence to the fan, and thence 
 out through the building where it discharges. The air- 
 tight rooms retain and deposit all the dust and flour 
 that are carried from the conveyor. This arrangement 
 also tends to modify the heat generated by the friction 
 and pressure of grinding, as it increases the circulation 
 of air within the curb and around the stones, and this, 
 with its cleanliness, will insure its general use in well 
 j&nished mills. 
 
 There are several variations in the structure of these 
 bolts, some having whole chests containing five or six 
 reels, arranged and so connected that each performs its 
 part in unison with the others, and the process is com- 
 pleted at a single operation. In others the reels are di- 
 vided into half chests, or otherwise, the operation being 
 divided in like proportion. A five reel full chest is fre- 
 quently made with four reels, thirty inches in diameter, 
 and twenty feet long, the two upper reels covered with 
 No. 10** cloth, the entire length; the next two with No. 
 12** cloth, the entire length; the middlings and bran 
 falling together from the tail of these last reels, into a 
 separating reel and duster. This last is forty-four inches 
 in diameter, the head covered with No. 10 cloth, and 
 the tail end, where the middlings are separated from the 
 bran, with No. 5. 
 
 We give the plan of a six-reel whole chest merchant 
 bolt; it is similar in most respects to that just com- 
 pleted in the River Street mill, Milwaukee, Wis., by 
 Henry Smith, Jr. The reels are forty-four inches in 
 diameter, and twenty feet long, and being all in one 
 ^chest, make it very high, and it extends up into the 
 next story of the mill ; the two upper reels are used as 
 
MERCHANT OK MANUFACTURING BOLTS. 351 
 
 flour reels, taking nearly the entire length, covered with 
 Nos. 10 and 11 cloth. It will be seen by the drawings 
 that what falls over the tail end Of the upper reels drops 
 into the return reels directly under the others ; two- 
 thirds of these are covered with fine cloth, the balance 
 with No. 5, which separates the middlings from the bran. 
 The middlings are carried to the tail end of the return 
 reels, both joined in one spout, and thrown into one of 
 the two remaining reels, called the middlings dusting 
 reel, which is covered with very fine cloth ; the bran falls 
 over the tail end of the centre or return reels into one 
 spOut, and is carried into the remaining reel, which is 
 also covered with very fine cloth, and is called the bran 
 dusting reel, this makes the full complement of six reels. 
 
 The return business is so managed that all the stuff 
 coming through the return reels proper, and what is 
 dusted in the remaining two reels, is carried to one spout 
 on the bolt floor, discharged thence into the conveyor 
 in front of the stones, and carried back into the cooler. 
 This arrangement is capable of working over five hun- 
 dred barrels per day, and is the handiest merchant bolt 
 that we have seen. 
 
 The greatest trouble in all large mills appears to be 
 the working up of middlings. In good milling times 
 owners can afford to make one first-class grade of flour 
 by grinding high and taking only the head of the bolts, 
 and then making two or three other grades of flour out 
 of the middlings ; but when flour is cheap, and there is 
 little demand for inferior flour (or in fact at any time), 
 the object is to get all the first quality flour out of the 
 wheat without injuring its color. 
 
 The following arrangement is the best we could devise 
 for this purpose : Presuming a mill has seven run of 
 stones, five for wheat and two for middlings, it would 
 
352 GKIST-MILLS. 
 
 require one full chest of bolts similar to Smith's plan for 
 the wheat stones, and a half chest of bolts for each of 
 the middling runs, and three coolers. One run of mid- 
 dling stones should grind up the middlings as they come 
 from the first bolts, just fast enough to keep up, and no 
 more ; these would yield a grade of flour clear enough 
 to mix with the first flour without rebolting. There 
 would still be another grade of middlings left, and 
 another run of stones and half chest of bolts left to work 
 these up. 
 
 A separate grade of flour may be made out of these 
 last middlings, or it may be run into the first and keep 
 a XX grade up, by bolting in this half chest and run- 
 ning the flour back into the cooler, and rebolting with 
 the meal from the wheat stones. Thus the whole can 
 be run into one grade and still ground high enough not 
 to injure the color of the flour. 
 
 The attempts made to grind close and soft enough 
 the first time, bolt close, and only grind the middlings 
 once, and clean them, running them all into one grade, 
 have generally failed, and cannot be relied upon, being 
 successful only when all the circumstances are favorable. 
 
 We intended to insert a plan and description of a half 
 chest bolt, which answers well in mills doing both mer- 
 chant and custom work, and also some further informa- 
 tion on cooling and packing machinery ; but millwrights 
 superintending the erection of such mills are generally 
 quite competent, and frequently have their favorite sys- 
 tems — to such, this chapter will be of little value, and 
 will be more useful to young men, and those of limited 
 experience ; for these reasons we will add no more here. 
 
THE OATMEAL MILL. 353 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE OATMEAL MILL. 
 
 The process of manufacturing oatmeal is but little 
 known or practised in these United States, although it is 
 carried on to some extent in the adjoining Dominion of 
 Canada. The first essential part of the operation is -to 
 divest the grain of its outside hull, and clean the kernel 
 of the stratum of dusty down in which it is enveloped. 
 When this is accomplished, it is ground and sifted like 
 Indian meal, only much faster and with less power. 
 
 The first preparation requisite, is to expel the mois- 
 ture from the grain, until the kernel is hard, and the 
 hull stiff and rigid. In this condition the hulls are 
 easily knocked off in passing through the shelling stones, 
 and the down referred to, is displaced and reduced to 
 dust by the attrition undergone during the operation. 
 As this mixed mess leaves the shelling stones it is passed 
 over a shaking screen of fine wire, that separates the 
 dust and any small pieces that may be broken from the 
 grain; it then passes through a winnowing machine, 
 similar to an ordinary fanning mill, which blows out the 
 hulls, and delivers the grain clean and ready to grind 
 into meal. 
 
 Although the grinding of oatmeal requires less power 
 than Indian or other meal, it also requires more atten- 
 tion and care. As it is dried and divested of its cover- 
 ing, it is easily ground to powder, but for excellence 
 and long keeping it requires to be ground coarse and 
 23 
 
354 THE OATMEAL MILL. 
 
 round ; and for these reasons the best oatmeal is ground 
 either in shelling stones, or in stones dressed and hung 
 similarly to them. That is, the stones are dressed as 
 sharp as possible, with a little bosom, but otherwise 
 true and equal on the face, without any furrows, and 
 hung upon a stiff ryne instead of a balance. 
 
 When ground, the meal is sifted through several sieves 
 of sheet metal, punched with round holes. These are 
 placed one above another, in the same frame, which is 
 hung by four slings from above, and a rotary swing given 
 to it by a short stroke crank, the axis of which is per- 
 pendicular and above the centre of the sieves. 
 
 The Eiln. 
 
 The kiln is the most important and expensive appa- 
 ratus required in the process of manufacturing oatmeal. 
 It is built of stone or brick, from sixteen to twenty-four 
 feet square, and about twelve feet high, without any 
 other opening than the furnace door, which is generally 
 walled back in a recess about six feet toward the centre. 
 Here the furnace proper commences and runs back to the 
 centre, where it is extended up and spread out into a 
 lantern. This lantern, like the furnace, is built of brick, 
 and provided with small flues, which scatter and distri- 
 bute the heat equally throughout the interior. The 
 beams and joisting to support the floor are of bar iron, 
 supported at intervals on iron posts, and the floor is 
 either composed of large square tiles or sheet iron, in 
 old kilns, or cast-iron plates in the more mcdern. Of 
 whatever material the floor is composed, it must be 
 thickly perforated with funnel-shaped holes, the wide end 
 down, to allow the heat and smoke to pass up and pre- 
 vent the oats and dust from passing through or choking 
 the holes. 
 
PROCESS OF DRYING. 355 
 
 The walls are generally built about three feet above 
 the kiln head or floor, and a pavilion roof, like a hopper 
 reversed, covers the whole, from these walls to near the 
 centre, where an opening about four feet square is left 
 for ventilation ; this ventilator is roofed over some dis- 
 tance above, and its four sides are inclosed with lattice- 
 work to exclude the rain and snow. A small ventilator 
 should also be made over the centre of each wall (the 
 door answering for one), the other three should be pro- 
 vided with a shutter hung by a horizontal axis through 
 the centre ; these will be shut or opened by the kiln- 
 man to admit air and light, according to the direction 
 of the wind. 
 
 In Canada, these kilns are generally heated by fires 
 of wood, but some of the best millers have introduced 
 the old country system of drying with the shelling seeds, 
 or hulls of the oats. These being previously kiln-dried, 
 produce little smoke, and no steam, which is a great 
 nuisance when drying with wood. The objection to this 
 plan is that it requires the constant attendance of a 
 person to scatter in the seeds, and stir up the fire, but 
 American ingenuity would soon obviate this objection 
 by delivering this fuel through a tube, by a blast of air 
 or otherwise, and thus save the expense of fire wood, and 
 at the same time use up the oat hulls, which, when al- 
 lowed to accumulate, soon become a great annoyance.* 
 
 Process of Drying. 
 
 When the kiln head is hot enough to hiss when water 
 is sprinkled upon it (most kiln-men spit upon it for this 
 test) the oats are spread on to the depth of five or six 
 
 * Under a proper and economical system of agriculture, these, if 
 not nsed for fuel, should go on to the compost heap to form manure, 
 and thus return to the soil its constituents. 
 
356 THE OATMEAL MILL. 
 
 inches, making from fifty to two hundred bushels, accord- 
 ing to the size of the kiln, and the depth of the batch ; 
 the fire is kept up, and the moisture expelled from the 
 oats next to the iron, condenses in the upper and colder 
 stratum; this is called sweating, and after it has advanced 
 considerably, the kiln-man, to expedite, the process and 
 equalize the heat, turns the whole batch over by tossing 
 it up, a little at each flirt of his wooden shovel. Each 
 batch is turned in this way several times, which helps to 
 dissipate the moisture and prevent the lower strata from 
 being scorched. 
 
 When suflBciently dried, which is soon learned by 
 practice, the batch is removed and immediately replaced 
 by another. The time varies according to circumstances, 
 three batches per working day being about the average ; 
 the oats require time to cool before they are fit to shell. 
 
 The stones best adapted for shelling are a coarse, free, 
 and moderately soft sandstone, those from the Newcas- 
 tle quarries, in England, having the best reputation ; 
 although there is no doubt that stones of an equally 
 good quality may be found in this country, while all 
 that we have thus far seen from American quarries are 
 too hard, and have a tendency to glaze. 
 
 Dressing and Hanging the Stones. 
 
 The stones used for shelling are about the same dia- 
 meter as the ordinary burr mill-stones, but not so thick 
 and heavy, as either shelling or grinding requires but 
 little pressure, and any weight beyond that required for 
 strength and safety is an incumbrance. The bed-stone 
 is faced perfectly true, but the runner has a space or 
 bosom at the eye, of about three-sixteenths of an inch 
 running out to nothing at about two-thirds of its diame- 
 ter, the outer third being ground true upon, and agreeing 
 
DRESSING AND HANGING THE STONES, 357 
 
 with, the face of the bed-stone. Both are picked rough 
 with sharp, square-pointed picks, but have no furrows. 
 The bed-stone is laid like a flouring stone, but the runner 
 is placed upon a stiff ryne, with three, or sometimes four 
 horns, the ryne keyed tight upon the spindle, and the 
 horns let into open gains cut in the stone. (See Fig. 40.) 
 
 The stone and spindle must be carefully adjusted to 
 the face of the bed-stone as follows : Turn the stone 
 round slowly, and lower and move the spindle by the 
 step under it until the lowest edge of the running stone 
 touches the bed-stone equally all round ; then the spin- 
 dle is tram or true with the bed-stone, and the runner 
 must be set perfectly true with both of these. To ac- 
 complish this conveniently, the runner should be drilled 
 through over each horn of the ryne, and a screw bolt 
 with a squaVe head passed down through these holes, 
 the nuts being fitted and fastened with lead in the stoue 
 above each horn, and the round point of each bolt resting 
 on these horns. Raise the runner one-fourth of an inch 
 clear of the bed-stone, and hold a thin piece of wood 
 on the bed-stone between, then have the runner turned 
 slowly round and mark the lowest or closest place, tighten 
 the screw bolt over the horn next the low side, or slacken 
 the opposite ones with a wrench, and turn and try, and 
 shift again until the stone scrubs the stick equally all 
 round, and it will be ready to run. 
 
 If no screws are put in to adjust the stone in this way, 
 it is much more difficult to hang, as the low edge of the 
 stone must be pried up, and pieces of tin or sheet iron, 
 and lastly, slips of paper inserted between it and the, 
 ryne to bring it true. 
 
 In the process of shelling, the stones must be the length 
 of a kernel of oats apart. The hulls are knocked off as 
 the grain is canted over endways between the stones. 
 
358 
 
 THE OATMEAL MILL. 
 
 in its whirling progress from the eye toward the skirt ; 
 the stones haying no furrows to assist the outward 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 O, spindle ; D, collar ; H, stiff ryne. 
 
 draught of the oats, they are impelled through by the 
 centrifugal friction of the runner only, at the same time 
 being retarded by the quiescent bed-stone, and each 
 kernel further interrupted by those in advance of it and 
 those tumbling over it from the rear. That this is the 
 
DRESSING AKD HANGING THE STONES. 359 
 
 necessary condition of their progress through the stones, 
 in the act of shelling, is proved by the fact that the 
 shelling cannot be eflFected with an ordinary grinding 
 feed, but the feed must be increased until the confused 
 interruption indicated takes place, when every kernel 
 has to turn one or more somersaults before it makes its 
 exit, and thus the hulls are split off. 
 
 Many good millers run the oats through the shelling 
 stones twice ; the first time the stones are set high, the 
 second time a little lower. By this means the oats are 
 shelled cleaner, with less broken grains and waste. The 
 duster and fan for blowing out the hulls are simple af- 
 fairs, which may be made to answer the situation and 
 circumstances, and are already sufficiently described. 
 
 It has been stated that the best oatmeal is generally 
 ground in the shelling stones, or in stones dressed and 
 hung in a similar manner ; but if we were fitting up an 
 oatmeal mill for our own use, our present experience 
 would make us change the old practice slightly, for the 
 following reason : The shelling is best performed when 
 the face of the stones are as sharp and rough as possible, 
 the friction upon and commotion among the grains as 
 described above being thus increased ; but for grinding, 
 a smoother and finer face answers, better, and it im- 
 proves the shelling stone face for grinding, to run them 
 slightly together, and thus face down the sharpest points 
 before commencing to grind meal; and further, the 
 meal is not benefited, like, the shelling, by being re- 
 tarded in its passage through the stones, but injured, 
 as a greater proportion is reduced to flour, and for this 
 reason the draught should be assisted by leading furrows. 
 
 We said the dried and shelled oats were easily ground ; 
 of course then the grinding is performed with little sur- 
 face of stone, and this little surface is obtained in large 
 
3G0 THE OATMEAL MILL. 
 
 stones by a large eye, and cutting out the bosom. We 
 have seen a shelling stone with an eye twenty-two inches 
 in diameter, almost large enough for the stones required 
 to do the grinding; this stone was cut away at the eye 
 one-quarter of an inch, and running out to a true face 
 at two-thirds of the radius, the other third only being 
 available for grinding and equalizing the meal; and to 
 this point we wish tp call particular attention. The 
 grinding being performed between two narrow surfaces, 
 tliese require to be perfectly true, and exactly the same 
 distance apart at every point, as the stone revolves, in 
 order to insure equality in the grist, and this is more 
 easily attained in small stones and near the spindle, than 
 in the skirt of large ones and far away from it. 
 
 To make this plainer, suppose the large stone be one 
 hair's-breadth out of true at one-third its radius from the 
 centre, it will be twice as much at two-thirds, and the 
 breadth of three hairs astray at the skirt. Now it must 
 be admitted that it is possible to tram and hang a large 
 stone as true as a small one, but it is not possible to keep 
 it so true when working. We seldom see a stone that 
 has been run for any considerable length of time with- 
 out the spindle requiring to be trammed anew, and the 
 stone is equally liable to get out of true on the ryne or 
 spindle ; and when any of these things occur, the faces 
 of both the runner and bed-stone get worn more on one 
 side than the other. When all these contingencies are 
 combined, it will be seen how difficult and next to im- 
 possible it is to keep these narrow ledges of face around 
 the skirts of large stones sufficiently true and parallel 
 with each other when working. 
 
 For these considerations then we would use separate 
 stones for shelling and grinding, and instead of having 
 the shelling stones from four to six feet in diameter, we 
 
DRESSING AND HANGING THE STONES. 361 
 
 would have them from three and a half to four feet, and 
 those for grinding from twenty-eight inches to three feet, 
 according to the quantity to be made, and other circum- 
 stances. Of course this diminished size of stone would 
 involve a corresponding diminution of eye and bosom. 
 The power required to work these two run, with the 
 necessary cleaning and sifting apparatus, elevators, &c., 
 would be about that required for one run of flour or corn 
 stones. 
 
 We have heard of shelling stones made of wood and 
 faced with a composition of emery, which are said to 
 keep sharper, and shell better than any natural stone ; 
 we have never seen these, but have no doubt that the 
 emery will keep sharp and stand the friction of shelling 
 well enough ; yet it might be more diflBcult to re-face 
 such stones equally and truly with the emery, than to 
 sharpen and true the natural stone with the pick ; besides 
 the natural stone answers well enough, and its first cost 
 is not more than that of the artificial. We have seen 
 such a wood and composition stone tried for making 
 pearl barley, not because it was cheaper or better, but 
 because of the danger of the natural stone being thrown 
 into pieces by the centrifugal force, two stones having 
 thus exploded in that same mill within three months. 
 (See the article on barley mills.) No such reason ex- 
 ists for making the oatmeal mill-stones in this way, as 
 they can be banded with iron around their circumference, 
 for safety, while the principle of the barley mill does 
 not admit of such bands. 
 
 The oatmeal sifter is perhaps three and a half feet 
 long, and two and a half feet wide, generally with three 
 sieves of tin or zinc punched with round holes of a suit- 
 able size, and space enough between the holes for the 
 long hulls to slide along, without being canted up end- 
 
362 THE OATMEAL MILL, 
 
 ways and passing through. These sieves are placed a 
 few inches apart, one above the other in the same frame, 
 each having an outlet for the bran or hulls at one end. 
 This bran is sometimes caught in a spout and passed 
 through a small fan to clean out and save the broken 
 kernels which were too coarse to pass through the sieves ; 
 this is necessary only when the stones are imperfectly 
 faced or hung. The bran sifted out has a portion of dust 
 among it, which makes it good feed for animals, and a 
 palatable and nutritious food is extracted from it by 
 soaking in water, and straining it through a cloth or fine 
 sieve ; the liquid thus obtained is then boiled and has 
 the appearance and consistency of cooked corn starch, 
 but is of a bluish color and pleasant sourish taste, and is 
 called sowens. The dust sifted out of the shellings is 
 poor feed, and if it were not for the points of grain that 
 are broken off in the process, it would be nearly worth- 
 less. The shelling is worthless, except for fuel, or for 
 packing and protecting eggs, etc. 
 
 A valuable improvement has been made in the con- 
 struction of the kiln for drying oats, by substituting for 
 the old kiln a set of sheet-iron cylinders on the principle 
 of the bolting reel. The iron covering is punched full 
 of holes to facilitate the ventilation and escape of vapor, 
 and the reels are inclosed in a brick furnace or oven, 
 under which the fire is made, and through which it cir- 
 culates. The cylinders are placed one above another, 
 and revolve by gearing on the ends of their central shafts, 
 which project through the brickwork for that purpose. 
 The reels are hung with an incline in such a position 
 that the grain fed into the high head of the upper one 
 is passed gradually along the interior and drops into the 
 high end of the next one, through which it passes back 
 in the opposite direction, and is either let out dried, if 
 
DRESSING AND HANGING THE STONES. 363 
 
 the two cylinders are long enough, and the motion slow- 
 enough, or drops into another cylinder and is again 
 traversed through the length of the kiln. Thus it will 
 be seen that the number of cylinders and their length 
 must be proportioned to the velocity at which the grain 
 passes through, and the heat used, so that the oats will 
 be just dried aright when they drop from the last cylin- 
 der. Simple arrangements are made to vary the declivity 
 of the cylinders and the rate at which they revolve, and 
 also to regulate and control the degree of heat. 
 
 The advantages of this plan over the old kiln are, 
 that every part of every grain is dried equally, and in 
 the shortest possible time, while in the old kiln some of 
 the oats were constantly in contact with the hot plates 
 and got scorched, while the greater part never touched 
 the kiln at all. A further advantage is that the damp 
 oats enter the upper cylinder, and the moisture is gradu- 
 ally expelled as they progress lower and nearer the fire, 
 until they approach the lower end of the last cylinder 
 immediately over the fire, where they fall out dry. To 
 understand the full benefit of the gradual increase of 
 heat thus applied, place a handful of damp oats on a 
 hot shovel, or griddle, and many of the kernels will 
 pop open being burst by the sudden expansion of the 
 moisture within ; but if the heat be raised and applied 
 gradually, the same oats will stand any degree of heat, 
 up to the point of scorching, without injury. 
 
 When steam is used as the motive power for working 
 an oatmeal mill, the heat and smoke, after leaving the 
 boiler, together with the exhausted steam, can be applied 
 to heat the drying kiln. A brother of ours who owns 
 the Barre Mills, near Lacrosse, Wisconsin, sent us a de- 
 scription with a plan and section of a kiln to be built 
 over the boilers and furnaces, supplying the heat and 
 
364 THE OATMEAL MILL. 
 
 steam in the manner indicated. The furnaces to dis- 
 charge the remaining heat and smoke into the inclosed 
 space under the kiln head, which in this case is not per- 
 forated, but steam-tight, the smoke, &c., circulates under 
 the iron of the kiln head, which it heats and is then 
 collected in a flue along the back side of the kiln close 
 to the iron, and conducted into the chimney. This plan 
 combines economy in the expense of construction, with 
 an equal economy in the expense of working, and will, 
 no doubt, come into general use where steam is the mo- 
 tive power. 
 
 Manufacture of Split Peas. 
 
 The manufacture of split peas of commerce is another 
 branch of the milling business closely allied to the 
 making of oatmeal and pearl barley. 
 
 The mysteries of this process are still less known and 
 practised in the United States than either of the others, 
 and we can think of some parties who would like the 
 mystery to be continued, and will not like to see it dis- 
 sipated by our publication of the process and machinery 
 by which the peas are split and hulled. But in treating 
 of all the various subjects, so far, we have withheld no- 
 thing essential that occurred to us at the time of writing, 
 and know of no good reason why we should suppress 
 information on this particular branch of manufacture. 
 
 The first part of the process consists of soaking the 
 peas in a tank of cold water, or water slightly tepid, if 
 the weather be cold. This must be continued until the 
 farinaceous part within the hull is moistened and swelled, 
 when the hulls being oily and less affected by the ab- 
 sorption of hioisture, will burst and be loosened by the 
 unequal expansion. The water is then drained off, and 
 the peas elevated to a floor where they are spread out 
 
MANUFACTUKE OF SPLIT PEAS. 365 
 
 until the superfluous water ia dried off, when they are 
 afterwards thoroughly dried in a kiln. 
 
 This drying must be accomplished without contact 
 with smoke, or the color and flavor of the grist will be 
 injured. When split peas are made in connection with 
 oatmeal, the drying is generally effected by hurrying a 
 batch of oats from the hot kiln and withdrawing the re- 
 maining fire ; the peas are then spread upon the kiln, 
 and turned and shifted round until sufficiently dried by 
 the remaining heat in the kiln. Sometimes cylinder 
 driers are used for this purpose; these are a kind of 
 cross between the cylinder oat kiln drier before described, 
 and that used for roasting coffee. After being dried and 
 cooled, the peas are split and hulled in the shelling 
 stones which fiinishes the process, except that the hulls 
 must be blown out. 
 
 When split peas are made apart from the oatmeal 
 business, they are sometimes split and hulled between a 
 conical cylinder and case, made of strong sheet iron and 
 punched, the rough faces placed together and the peas 
 passing down between these, the space being enlarged 
 or contracted by raising or lowering the revolving cone. 
 Another plan we have seen used for splitting peas, and 
 hulling buckwheat, is a stone, like a barley mill-stone, 
 or thick grinding stone, and hung like these on a hori- 
 zontal shaft. It has no case round it, but only a con- 
 cave made of similar stone, and resembling the water 
 trough under a grindstone ; this incloses one-fourth or 
 more of the circumference of the stone, and is hung in an 
 adjustable frame, one end having a permanent axis, and 
 the other being set by a screw, either closer or further 
 from the stone, as required. The motion of the stone 
 draws the peas in at the movable end of the trough, and 
 throws them out split at the other end on to a small 
 
366 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 sieve, which lets through any small fragments and saves 
 them. A small fan then blows out the hulls, and the 
 peas are ready for market. 
 
 This stone and its concave are both picked in small 
 lines, commencing at each edge and running obliquely 
 to the centre, where they meet; those cut in the stone 
 with the wide end of their triangle foremost, and those 
 in the concave, in the opposite direction. This arrange- 
 ment of the lines gathers the peas toward the centre 
 where they are thrown, out in a round stream. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVIII. 
 
 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 This is a machine for removing the hulls and tough 
 bran or skin in which the grains of barley are enveloped, 
 leaving the kernel clean and white, in which condition 
 it resembles the hulled rice of commerce, and is called 
 pearl or pot barley. 
 
 The barley mill or machine by which this is accom- 
 plished consists of a simple stone hung on its edge upon 
 a horizontal spindle, like a grindstone. The stone used 
 is a sharp, soft, and rough sandstone, similar to those 
 used for hulling the oats in the manufacture of oatmeal. 
 It is made from eight to sixteen inches thick, and from 
 three to four feet in diameter, according to the fancy of 
 the millwright or proprietor. The stone is inclosed in 
 a case of sheet iron perforated with holes to let out the 
 dust as it wears off, and not large enough to let the grain 
 through. In punching the iron a rough burr is formed 
 around the under edge of the holes ; this rough side is 
 
THE BAELET MILL. 
 
 367 
 
 placed inwards, and assists the stones very materially in 
 the process of scouring the grain. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 A, one-half of case, which is in two parts; £, flange for driving 
 end ; C, collar for driving end ; J), flange for feed end ; £, collar 
 for feed end. 
 
368 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 The case is placed about three-fourths of an inch clear 
 of the stone at each side, and an inch clear round the 
 circumference, and the contents of this space is the 
 quantity put in for each charge or grist. The stone is 
 geared to revolve as fast as it is considered safe to run 
 it without throwing it to pieces by the centrifugal force ; 
 this velocity must be graduated with regard to the dia- 
 meter and texture of the stone, an average being about 
 five hundred revolutions per minute. A strong compact 
 stone of small diameter will bear to be geared to a higher 
 working velocity than this, but a soft tender- stone, es- 
 pecially if it be of large diameter, should not be geared 
 to work as high as five hundred, because allowance must 
 be made for the increase of speed when the stone runs 
 empty, which it is sure to do some time or other in spite 
 of every precaution, and the utmost vigilance. 
 
 The case revolves in the same direction as the stone, 
 but very slowly ; it has a spur gear of segments around 
 the circumference at one corner, and a small pinion 
 working into this gear is connected with the driving 
 shaft by a belt or otherwise, so as to drive, or rather 
 liold lack, to a velocity of between one and two feet per 
 second. 
 
 The case is made in halves to admit of taking off and 
 replacing without disturbing the stone or spindle. A 
 semicircle, of a radius equal to that of the stone, and 
 one inch added for clearance space, is made of good well 
 seasoned hardwood, not liable to warp, and two inches 
 thick. Each semicircular frame is of a half-circle three 
 inches wide, with a base piece the same width running 
 across the centre, and joining its two ends, and by bolting 
 these base pieces of two semicircles together the whole 
 circle is completed, or the two halves of the case fastened 
 too'ether. These base or centre pieces must be made wide 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 369 
 
 at the centre in the form of a large circular hub to adiilit 
 of a hole being cut out of each side for the spindle to pass 
 through, and around which the flanges or ledges of iron 
 are fastened, upon which the case hangs and turns. 
 Two or three pieces, according to the length or number 
 of felloes composing the outside circle, three inches wide, 
 must be mortised in between the hub and outer circle, 
 like spokes or arms in a wheel. These are necessary 
 for strength and also to splice and nail the sheet iron 
 lining to. The hole through the ends of the case re- 
 ferred to, should be about five inches at the end next 
 the driving pulley, and eight or nine in diam.eter at the 
 other end, as a scoop-shaped spout is fixed in this open- 
 ing to feed the grain. 
 
 The ledge or flange upon which the case hangs and 
 turns, is of the same size as these holes, around which they 
 are placed ; they are of cast iron, in two halves to admit 
 of each being fastened to its respective half of the case ; 
 the portion projecting horizontally, which jnakes the 
 bearing, is about two inches wide, and should be turned 
 around the outside and edge; the other portion turns out 
 at a right angle with this bearing, and so fits flat upon 
 the outer surface of the ends of the case. It is also about 
 two inches wide, with screw-nail holes through it to 
 fasten it on ; it should be sunk into the wood its own 
 thickness, to help the screws and insure its stability. 
 
 The boxes or bearings in which these turn, are made of 
 hard wood, about three inches thick, the recess for the 
 bearing cut out of the solid wood to the proper depth 
 and circle to fit the flanges, that is, two inches deep, and 
 to the circle of the outer turned circumference or bearings 
 of the flanges. These bearing boxes only require to be 
 a semicircle below, the weight of the case being alvyays 
 sufficient to keep it steady and secure in its place. The 
 24 
 
370 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 boxes are sometimes bolted on to the inside of the beam 
 or timber of the frame upon which the spindle rests, but 
 it is better to have that beam of the frame close enough 
 to admit of dovetailing the boxes into it three-fourths or 
 an inch deep, and fixing a key below, and one at each 
 end of the box, by which means it can be shifted very 
 easily and accurately, and also held safely and securely 
 as it is placed. This easy control of the boxes is found 
 to be a great convenience in adjusting the case to be 
 perfectly true with the stone ; and upon this the perfec- 
 tion of the work greatly depends. 
 
 Another item requiring strict and careful attention, 
 is the manner of closing the space between the spindle 
 of the stone, and the flange bearing upon which the case 
 turns. This is sometimes closed by metallic collars, but 
 the spindle turns at a great velocity, and being of con- 
 siderable size, never less than three inches in diameter, 
 the friction is so great that these collars wear and cut 
 somewhere or other, in spite of every precaution ; the 
 spindle, being horizontal, does not admit of a supply of 
 oil being kept around it, and the collars are so much 
 exposed to the barley dust, that oil applied to them is 
 soon thickened and dried up. 
 
 Experience has taught us that the following arrange- 
 ment is best : Suppose the opening in the end next the 
 driving pulley to be five inches, then have a collar made 
 by bending a piece of iron one and a quarter inch wide, 
 and one quarter thick, edgeways, seven and a half out- 
 side diameter. This will allow it to reach out between 
 the bearing flange and the wood three-fourths of an inch 
 all around, and the wood must be cut away under the 
 iron to admit it into this situation. This collar must 
 have small holes drilled through it all around its inner 
 edge, and about half an inch apart, and the sides and 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 371 
 
 outer edge should be turned smooth and true to allow it 
 to revolve freely in its recess without admitting the grain 
 between. 
 
 Now take a piece of thick, strong stocking leg, about 
 three inches long, or a piece of new knitted stuff of the 
 same shape, made for the purpose, and sew one end of 
 it around the inner edge of the collar with a thick 
 woollen cord made by doubling and twisting several 
 strands of yarn together; this is done by drawing the 
 woollen cord through the knitted stuff and the holes 
 drilled through the collar by a large needle. This should 
 be sewed on to the collar so that the loose end will stand 
 in towards the stone, and when slipped on to the spin- 
 dle and in its place, if it is not suflBciently tight or 
 elastic to prevent the grain from working out, it must 
 be tightened by passing a piece of the woollen cord 
 several times round it, drawing it through the knitted 
 stuff at intervals to prevent it slipping off. The space 
 referred to, when fitted up in this way with a good piece 
 of knitted woollen fabric, will last for several years, re- 
 quiring no care or attention, as the friction and dust 
 appear to fill it up and thicken it rather than to wear 
 it, and it never wears or cuts the spindle like the iron 
 or brass collars. 
 
 Those millwrights who use metallic collars to close 
 the space referred to in the back end of the case, gene- 
 rally close that in the front end in the same way, and 
 make a small hole through, which is furnished with a 
 small spout spread out in the form of a hopper at the top 
 to feed in the grain. These collars are liable to all the 
 objections urged against those at the other end, besides 
 another very serious one, which is, that they close up 
 the centre and exclude the cool air, a strong draught of 
 which is essential to keep the interior cool, and should 
 
372 THE BARLET MILL. 
 
 be admitted here. The open space in the front end 
 should not be less than eight or nine inches in diameter; 
 this should be furnished with an open ring or collar like 
 the other, its outside diameter an inch and a half more 
 than the inside of the bearing flange supporting the 
 case, behind which it is placed in a recess cut out of the 
 wood to admit it, like the other. It should also be 
 turned off true around the sides and outer edge, and 
 drilled around the inner edge for rivets, about three- 
 fourths of an inch apart ; this one should be of heavier 
 iron than that we proposed for the other end, because it 
 must have two standards welded solidly into it at oppo- 
 site sides, and standing out at right angles from its face, 
 and long enough when it is in its place to reach out and 
 pass through a projecting lug standing up from each end 
 of the cast box upon which the spindle turns. These 
 lugs upon the box and the diameter of the collar must 
 correspond, so that the standards may pass straight and 
 level through the holes in the lugs ; the standards are 
 screwed at the end, and two nuts placed upon each, one 
 behind and the other before the lug referred to, and by 
 turning these nuts one way or the other, the collar is 
 adjusted to its place and fastened. The standards should 
 also be made to bear near the collar upon the edge of 
 the wooden box which supports the flange and case ; 
 this support being near the root of the standard, secures 
 the necessary stability to the collar. 
 
 This collar, instead of having the piece of woollen 
 stuff to close the space, has a zinc spout riveted on with 
 copper rivets around its inside ; this spout should rise 
 up at an angle of about forty-five degrees. It should be 
 a whole spout down next to the case, that is, it should 
 be riveted on all around the inside of the collar, with 
 the seam up; but the top may be cut out, commencing 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 373 
 
 about four inches up from the case and scolloping it 
 with an easy curve upward until only the under semi- 
 circle is left, and this may be rounded off gradually to 
 the; end like a meal scoop, at the height of about two 
 feet from the collar. This can generally be still more 
 shortened by observing how far the barley works up 
 along the spout when the machine is operating, when it 
 may be cut off at a few inches beyond the point at which 
 the grain arrives, which will shorten the scoop to about 
 fifteen inches. 
 
 It is important to have the scoop as short as possible, 
 as the miller needs to put his hand down into it and 
 take out some of the barley to see how it is progressing, 
 and when it is thoroughly made and fit to be taken out. 
 The machine is charged through this scoop, the best 
 way being to elevate the grain into a store hopper over 
 head, and let it down through a spout by opening a small 
 valve or gate ; but it can also be filled into this scoop 
 by hand. This scoop spout remaining always open, ad- 
 mits a current of cool air, which is drawn into the inte- 
 rior by the centrifugal force engendered by the rapid 
 motion of the stone, and counteracts the tendency to 
 heat, which the spindle, stone, grain, and everything 
 inside of the case has in a degree, from the great amount 
 of friction. 
 
 A small door is made through the outside circum- 
 ference of the case to let out the charge of barley when 
 it is finished; this door is hung by hinges at one edge, 
 and when closed the other edge is secured by two but- 
 tons. To unload a charge, a box or drawer is slipped 
 in under the machine on the floor, the small pinion con- 
 trolling the case is thrown out of gear by a lever fixed 
 for that purpose, and the case is turned by hand until 
 
374: THE BARLEY MILL, 
 
 the door is below, when it is opened and the case is 
 moved backward and forward, until it is emptied. 
 
 The little door, as well as the whole circumference of 
 the case, requires to be strong, as the grain occasionally 
 is liable to pack between it and the stone, so suddenly 
 and solidly that it will stop the whole machinery, water- 
 wheel and all, as short as if it ran against a stump. For 
 this reason the iron covering of the case requires to be 
 secured and strengthened by strips of tough wood, two 
 inches wide and one thick, bent round each corner, 
 and strongly fastened with screws. Cross-bars are also 
 put across between these bent pieces, at equal distances, 
 their ends being held by these, and the iron is nailed to 
 these bars from the inside, before the two halves of the 
 case are put together. 
 
 The process of punching the iron by hand is slow and 
 tedious, and it requires to be carefully done to avoid 
 stretching and puckering the sheets out of shape. The 
 iron should be regularly laid out and marked by a 
 straight edge, with a red lead pencil, both lengthwise 
 and across the sheet, and the punch driven through the 
 angle formed by the crossing of the lines. The holes 
 should be placed in lines zigzag, that is, the holes in one 
 line should be intermediate between those in the adjoin- 
 ing line, and thus break joints. Some millwrights make 
 small round or three square holes, and quite close 
 together; we prefer making the holes oblong, from 
 three-eighths to half an inch long, and as wide as may be 
 to prevent the grain passing through. 
 
 The punch for making these holes should be carefully 
 made and tempered, in order to cut the piece out clean 
 and equal, as sharp, ragged, unequal projections cut, 
 scratch, and waste the kernels of grain, besides spoiling 
 the appearance of the finished barley. This is the rea- 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 375 
 
 son, we conceive, why a case punched with these long 
 openings, their length of course running crosswise, is 
 found to make better work than those with round or 
 square ones. By better work we mean that the grain 
 is cleaned with less reduction of size and weight, and 
 retains the natural oblong form of the kernel better. 
 The punch should be filed or ground very square to the 
 size of the intended holes, and also back parallel each 
 way to the same size as the point, as far as it will be 
 driven through the iron ; this is necessary to avoid bulg- 
 ing and stretching the iron out of shape. Some punch 
 the sheet clear to the edge to avoid puckering it, but it 
 is stronger and better to leave a selvage as wide as the 
 wood upon which it is to be nailed ; if carefully punched 
 as here directed, a little hammering of the selvage upon 
 an anvil will bring all right. 
 
 The punching may be done upon smooth blocks of 
 hard wood, endways, or upon a block of lead, and it is 
 good economy for the workman to practise at the com- 
 mencement until he can drive the punch clean through 
 at one stroke of the hammer. He will do it so much 
 better, and more expeditiously, that he will soon make 
 up the time spent in acquiring the proper sleight and 
 weight of stroke. "When the surface of the wood becomes 
 too much damaged, the end must be sawed off and 
 dressed anew with a plane ; when that occurs with the 
 lead, it may be hammered smooth again. 
 
 In some of the last and best working mills that we 
 have fitted up, the iron lining the ends of the case was 
 not punched at all. The reason of this will be explained 
 when we come to consider the working of the machine. 
 We will try to give a description of a barley mill which 
 we fitted up for John McKenzie, of Burke, N. Y., it 
 being the last one we wrought upon, except some alte- 
 
376 THE BAELET MILL; 
 
 rations made upon one in Ogdensburg, N. Y., last sum- 
 mer. 
 
 McKenzie's new mill is a double one, and consists of 
 two distinct and separate machines, placed side by side, 
 and parallel with each other, the driving pulleys of both 
 being inward, and tiieeting so closely and exactly that they 
 resemble a true and false pulley upon the same shaft. 
 The driving belt comes up around these from the story 
 below, from a small drum, which is also double, having 
 two swelled tracks for a belt, one at each end, corres- 
 ponding with the two pulleys on the machine above. 
 This belt is laced pretty slack, and tightened to the 
 working grip by a tightener that lies upon it, the tight- 
 ener also being of double length, but parallel throughout^ 
 as the tightener should always be. 
 
 When one machine is working and the charge it con- 
 tains is finished, the miller withdraws the tightener to 
 slack the belt, and shifts it over on to the pulley of the 
 other machine. The tightener is then let on again, 
 and the other machine proceeds to work off its charge, 
 while the miller is einptyihg out the finished charge of 
 the first machine, and refilling it to be ready when that 
 in the other machine is completed. By thus shifting 
 from one to the other alternately, one is kept constantly 
 working *phile the other is at rest, and the finished 
 charge is being withdrawn and replaced by a new batch 
 to be ready. This arrangement has another advantage 
 over the single machine, which is, that a little time is 
 gained at each change, for the machine to stand and 
 cool; the making of a batch requiring about twenty 
 minutes, while unloading and refilling only occupies 
 about five. 
 
 These two machines are exactly alike, except that 
 they both face outward, the driving pulleys being together. 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 377 
 
 The stones are thirty-seven inches in diameter, and fif- 
 teen inches thick. The cases were placed three-fourths 
 of an inch clear of the stoiie, at each end, and an inch 
 clear around the circumference ; but the space gradually 
 enlarges as the stone wears, and is dressed off with the 
 mill pick to keep it true. The bridge beams upon which 
 the spindle rests in the frame, are twenty-four and a half 
 inches apart ; that is, fifteen inches for the thickness of 
 the stone, one and a half for clearance, four inches for 
 the thickness of the two sides of the case, and two inches 
 clearance for the box bearings and flanges which support 
 the case each side. These boxes are three inches thick, 
 and are dovetailed into the bridge beams one inch deep. 
 The upper surfaces of the bridge beams, where the spin- 
 dle bearings are placed, are thirty-two inches from the 
 floor, which leaves about a foot of clearance between the 
 case and floor for the box or drawer to be slipped under, 
 to receive the charge of barley. 
 
 The length of the frame is just suflicient to clear' the 
 cases comfortably; the corner posts reach up a little 
 higher than the top of the case, and a small beam is 
 mortised in between each pair of inside posts near the 
 top, above and parallel with the bridge beiams ; in these 
 are placed the bearings for the shaft of the small pinions 
 which mesh into the gearing around the cases. A large 
 pulley is placed upon this shaft, between these two bear- 
 ingSj and a belt connects it with a small sheave on the 
 drum-shaft below, to give it the requisite slow motion. 
 The gearing is on the outside of both cases, and a universal 
 joint at the bearing of the shaft referred to, joins another 
 piece to it at each end, upon which the pinions are 
 placed. These jointed pieces of shaft have each a bear- 
 ing in a lever outside of their respective pinions, by 
 which they are thrown in and out of gear. The pinion 
 
378 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 is placed near the top of the case, a little behind the 
 centre, and the back end of the controlling lever is mor- 
 tised through the top of the back post of the frame, and 
 a pin put through the end. This pin is the fulcrum or 
 hinge upon which that end of the lever works. The 
 other end is rounded down to a convenient size and 
 shape to take hold of to move it. When this small end 
 of the lever is brought down under a pin or other catch, 
 the pinion is held in gear ; when thrown up above that 
 catch it is held out of gear. 
 
 The frames of these machines are made of spruce, 
 eight inches square ; the tenons are supplemented with 
 heavy joint bolts, as it is essential that the frames and 
 floor upon which they stand should be perfectly solid. 
 The iron forming the circumference of the cases is 
 punched with holes three-eighths of an inch long, the 
 rows being that same distance apart both ways. For 
 convenience in laying these out, we stepped the distance 
 on a strip of wood the length of the sheets and marked 
 both edges and both ends by this, and ruled across from 
 mark to mark both ways, using a soft red lead pencil. 
 
 The iron lining the ends is not punched at all. The 
 iron is nailed on to the wooden frames with small 
 wrought clout nails (tacks) five-eighths or three-fourths 
 of an inch long ; they should not be longer than three- 
 quarters, as the iron will wear out before the wooden 
 framework of the cases, and the nails should be of a 
 length that would admit of their being drawn when the 
 iron has to be renewed. 
 
 The spindles upon which the stones are hung are 
 round, three inches and a half in diameter, with a cast- 
 iron block five inches square and fourteen inches long 
 keyed on, upon which the stone is placed. The keys 
 should run clear through the blocks, and the key-way 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 379 
 
 in the shaft should be cut a little longer than the blocks, 
 to admit of shifting them either way to get everything 
 to agree. The eyes through the stones are five and a 
 half inches square. To get the stone true and secure 
 upon the block, we placed the spindle upon two bear- 
 ings upon which it could turn freely, with the stone 
 upon it ; we then made eight long thin wedges of dry 
 wood, an inch and a half wide, and entered two of these 
 in each square between the cast-iron box and the stone, 
 one with the head each way, all around; then turned 
 the stone round, marking the high places with a piece 
 of chalk held firmly upon a rest, and drove the wedges 
 in, or slacked others back, as the case required, until the 
 stone was true. We closed the opening all around at 
 one end, and turned the other end up, and filled the rest 
 of the space between the stone and box full of melted 
 lead. 
 
 It is not possible for a miller to dress such stones per- 
 fectly true before they are hung, and for that reason he 
 should take a bar of iron, and by holding the end against 
 the stone and over a solid rest, turn a number of rings 
 or creases a little distance apart all around the stone, 
 after it is set in motion. With these turned creases for 
 a guide, he can dress ofi" the intermediate spaces suffi- 
 ciently true with the mill pick. Some millers dress the 
 stone with a pointed pick, such as is used upon an oat 
 shelling stone ; others crack them with a flat pick like a 
 flouring stone, making the cracks to run across the stone 
 around the circumference, and from that to the eye on 
 both sides. This is done under the impression that it 
 will hull the barley quicker and better; but, as far as 
 our experience goes, such is not the case, and to rough 
 the stone in this way has an effect upon the grain simi- 
 lar to that of the sharp points inside of the case made 
 
3^0 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 by punching the iron with a round or square point al- 
 ready referred to, that is, the grain is wasted and worn 
 o£F, more particularly the ends of the kernels, which if 
 made in a machine with both case and stone made rough 
 in this way, will be worn off so as to look like small 
 peas before the hull is all cleaned out of the little crease 
 (eye) running down the side of the kernel. 
 
 This not only makes a great waste, but it spoils the 
 appearance of the barley, and is caused by the little 
 corners or angles made by the pick catching the ends of 
 the kernels next to the stone and canting them over 
 endways like the oats in the process of shelling. To 
 avoid this, the stone should be dressed as true as possi- 
 ble, and depend upon the sharp sandy natural grit of 
 the stone for scouring ; the pick should never afterwards 
 be used upon the stone except to reduce any high hard 
 spots, and break the glaze upon the surface when it 
 occurs. 
 
 In addition to this, it is necessary in order to insure 
 the best of work, that the space between the stone and 
 case should be kept packed as full as possible all the 
 time the machine is working ; and in order to keep it 
 so, it must be filled up once at least (twice is better) 
 during the making of a batch. For this purpose a sup- 
 ply of barley partly made, should be kept convenient to 
 fill in, when it becomes slack by the dust sifting through 
 the case. It is well known to barley millers that the 
 tighter it is kept packed in this way, thp less waste will 
 occur in making, and the better the barley will retain 
 its natural shape. The hard outside hulls of the grain 
 perform an important part in the process of scouring ; 
 these, when examined by a microscope, are seen to be 
 serrated along the outside edges, like a new file or very 
 fine saw-teeth, and being quite hard and sharp, they 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 381 
 
 assist very materially in rasping off the thin tough 
 cuticle which envelops the kernel inside of the rough 
 hulls. If these little rasping hulls were hlown out, or 
 otherwise separated from the mass as soon as they are 
 loosened from the grain, the process of scouring would 
 neither he so well nor so expeditiously done ; as these 
 answer the same purpose here that the emery does in 
 the revolving iron cylinders in which the brass clock 
 machinery, iron gimlet handles, and a hundred other 
 similar small articles, are smoothed and polished. 
 
 We have alluded to the injurious effect of allowing 
 the grain to get slack as the making progresses, that is, 
 an empty space forming at the top of the stone by the 
 diminution of the bulk of the charge, as the dust is worn 
 off and sifted out through the case. At this empty 
 space, the grain being unconfined is made to revolve or 
 spin round rapidly by the friction and velocity of the 
 stone, and the ends being weaker and more exposed than 
 the middle of the kernel, are rounded off, and it is re- 
 duced to the form and appearance of a small while pea, 
 before the seam in the side is thoroughly cleaned out. 
 The motion of the case and stone keeps the grain con- 
 tinually shifting, so that the whole charge is soon sub- 
 jected to this triturating process unless the empty space 
 be filled up. The effect upon the barley is very similar 
 to that referred to as being produced by the sharp angles 
 sometimes made in the surface of the stone by the pick. 
 
 To obviate this difficulty, the most improved machines 
 are made with the stones of small diameter and greater 
 thickness, and consequently breadth of circumference, 
 to make up the necessary working surface. This admits 
 of running the machine much more densely packed with 
 grain than when the stone is of large diameter and 
 thin, besides diminishing the amount of end face, and 
 
382 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 increasing that of the circumference is a profitable ex- 
 change, as the principal part of the work is performed 
 by the circumference, and but little by the ends, par- 
 ticularly near the centre. 
 
 Of several barley mills that have been fitted up within 
 the last three or four years, the smallest diameter of 
 stone used that we have known of, is three feet, and 
 fifteen and a half inches thick ; the largest is five feet in 
 diameter, and ten inches thick. Several are from four 
 to four and a half feet in diameter, and only eight or 
 nine inches thick. We have examined the working of 
 all these at various times, and the result is invariably 
 as indicated above, that is, the smallest diameter and 
 broadest circumference face does the best work, the barley 
 being finished more uniformly, with less waste. 
 
 Uniformity in size and appearance of the kernels of 
 pearl barley is desirable, but cannot be attained with 
 any barley as it comes from the threshing machine, for 
 the reason that the grains do not grow equal in size, 
 neither are they equal in shape or hardness, and the 
 mill cannot equalize these difierences. The difierent 
 grades must therefore be separated by screening. This 
 is done by passing it slowly through a screen composed 
 of four difierent sheets of zinc, each punched with a 
 different size of holes — the coarsest being uppermost 
 takes out any foreign matter larger than the barley, and 
 a few overgrown kernels of it — the two middle screens 
 make the different grades of barley, and the lower one 
 lets through all grains that are too small, and also bro- 
 ken pieces. This screen is best driven by a double 
 crank, one on each end of the shaft, and of very short 
 and rapid stroke. The grain should be passed through 
 a screen as it is delivered from the elevators into 
 the stone hopper above the machine ; and also subjected 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 383 
 
 to the action of a suction or other fan to clean out the 
 dust, &c., before it is let into the machine. 
 
 On the question whether to punch the iron, lining of 
 the ends of the case, or leave it plain, our experience has 
 not been suflBcient to enable us to decide, or scarcely to 
 oflfer an opinion. It is claimed by the advocates of the 
 smooth iron that the barley is made with less waste, 
 and retains its natural form better ; on the other side, it 
 must be admitted that it will make faster and keep 
 cooler by having the iron punched. 
 
 We have alluded to the danger of the stone explod- 
 ing by the accumulation of centrifugal force, when the 
 velocity of the stone is very much increased, by its run- 
 ning empty or by other accident. Several instances of 
 this have occurred lately. In one case a boy was left to 
 attend a run of flour stones and barley mill at night — the 
 same undershot wheel drove both — it was geared by a 
 pit-wheel on the water-wheel shaft, working in a crown- 
 wheel upon a spur-wheel shaft. The spur-wheel was 
 ten feet diameter, and drove four run of burr stones, 
 besides the smut machine and this barley mill. The 
 boy fell asleep, and the flour stone ran empty; the 
 charge of barley soon became so much reduced by 
 wearing and sifting through the case that it offered but 
 little resistance to the power upon the wheel, and there 
 was so much gearing intervening between the wheel and 
 the barley mill, each set gaining speed, that the velocity 
 of the barley-mill soon increased until the centrifugal 
 force overcame the cohesion of the stone, and it parted 
 in three pieces. 
 
 The stone was about fifty inches in diameter, and was 
 drilled through from the circumference to the eye at 
 three equi-distant places, and three iron bolts put 
 through these holes to strengthen it, the flat heads of 
 
384 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 the bolts being countersunk into the stone at the out- 
 side, and the points tightened in the iron box at the 
 centre by a screw nut. The stone parted at these three 
 bolts — one piece passed obliquely up through the floor 
 into the story above, cutting its way completely through 
 a large beam over the boy's head, and waking him up ; 
 another piece passed down through the floor into the 
 basement, and the third piece went out through the 
 stone wall of the mill into the river. 
 
 The next accident of this kind we have to record oc- 
 curred in McKenzie's celebrated barley mill, at Burke, 
 near Malone, Franklin Co., N. Y. It is the same dou- 
 ble mill described in detail in this chapter, and was built 
 as an addition to, and adjoining a grist-mill, of three run 
 of burr stones, which does an extensive business both in 
 custom and manufacturing work. It is upon a small 
 but durable stream, and in order to economize the wa- 
 ter and other expenses both were driven by the same 
 overshot water wheel, the barley mill being worked onlj' 
 at night after the day's work in the grist-mill was 
 finished. In consequence of this arrangement the bar- 
 ley miller could only sleep in the day-time, and fre- 
 quently did not get sufficient sleep ; at all events, he fell 
 asleep while one machine was running. This mill, like 
 that driven by the undershot, had so much intervening 
 machinery between it and the water wheel that it mul- 
 tiplied the velocity to such a degree as the case worked 
 empty, that when the miller awoke the stone was hum- 
 ming like a circular saw. McKenzie, who is posted in 
 these matters, and the best barley miller that we know 
 of, had frequently warned him, that in case of falling 
 asleep, or otherwise letting the stone run away, never 
 to shut the water-gate down suddenly, but throw in a 
 little grain and check the water a little, alternately, and 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 385 
 
 gradually, until the speed was reduced to a safe rate, 
 and then stop the machinery altogether. 
 
 But the niiUer being stupefied by sleep, and fright- 
 ened, did noi think of the warning, but ran to the gate, 
 which was kt the further side of the grist-mill, and 
 slammed it clown. This checked the water wheel sud- 
 denly, whiih, being the slowest mover and the driving 
 power, hito gradually accelerated the velocity of the 
 interveniilg machinery and stone, until the latter had 
 attained the maximum velocity, and was running in 
 unison With the rest of the machinery. The wheel 
 checked the intermediate machinery up to the stone, 
 which, being the swiftest mover, and very heavy, had 
 accumulated a tremendous velocity and momentum as 
 a fly wheel, and now suddenly became the driving 
 power. The shock occasioned by the back-lash of this 
 reversal overcame the little remaining cohesion of the 
 stone, and it parted into four equal pieces, from the four 
 comers of the eyeft It demolished the case and frame, 
 of course, but damaged the building less than might have 
 been expected ; one quarter passed out through the end 
 of the mill, and over the river, landing on the opposite 
 bank. 
 
 The miller was so frightened and chagrined that he 
 would not attend the other machine any longer, but ex- 
 changed places with another young man who attended 
 the grist-mill, and who was conceited enough to think 
 that the like never would have taken place with him. 
 He was doomed, however, to have this conceit very 
 suddenly taken out of him ; for when he had run th'ie 
 single machine about six weeks or two months he fell 
 asleep at his post, and the same thing occurred with 
 him-^-every circumstance being almost identical with 
 the previous accident. It is astonishing and difiicult to 
 25 
 
386 THE BARLEY MILIJ. 
 
 account for the infatuation that could impel him, when 
 he awoke and found that the mill had run away, to run 
 to the gate and shut it down the first thing, especially 
 after he had heard the philosophy of the whole occur- 
 rence discussed and explained, and been warned against 
 the immediate cause of the other accident, to wit, the 
 back-lash by the sudden check of the machinery. But, 
 by his own account, he ran directly to the gate and shut 
 it down ; and, before he had time to move from where 
 he stood, or take his hand off the gate lever, the ex- 
 plosion occurred. 
 
 The second accident caused considerably more damage 
 to the building than the first one ; one quarter of the 
 stone struck the main beam in the end of the building 
 and smashed it out; another broke through the lower 
 floor, and the case and frame were broken in fragments. 
 The interior of the building presented the appearance 
 of having been struck by lightning, or blown up with 
 gunpowder, and had the accident occurred in daylight, 
 with the mill full of people, as it frequently was, the 
 damage to life and limb might have been very serious. 
 
 When this second and last stone went to pieces, Mc- 
 Kenzie tried the experiment of a composition stone. 
 For this purpose, he had one made of dry hard wood ; 
 it was made of disks or layers of two inch plank, well 
 jointed, and pinned through, the joints being filled and 
 the pins driven with white lead for cement. The out- 
 side was then turned off to the size and shape of the 
 other stones and covered over with several coats of glue 
 and emery. This was put on in a severe frosty time, 
 and in a hurry, the "stone" being placed near the mill 
 stove to keep it from freezing, and hasten the drying ; 
 but parts of the composition were frozen before drying, 
 and other parts overheated and dried too suddenly. 
 
THE BARLEY MILL. 387 
 
 It was hung in place and set to work immediately, 
 and found to hull and scour the barley faster and better 
 than any natural stone, but when examined after run- 
 ning a while, portions of the composition were scaled oflf. 
 It was afterwards coated anew, the emery this time 
 fastened by a "patent" waterproof glue; this was applied 
 to the stone in its place late in the afternoon, and the next 
 morning it was set to work. Although hot irons were 
 placed under and around the stone to hasten the drying, 
 still it was not so dry as it should have been when set to 
 work, and the consequence was that a good deal of the 
 composition again wore off. 
 
 The manufacture being depressed, no further attempt 
 was made to run it, and McKenzie has sent to Scotland 
 for two more stones from the same quarry ; and this 
 summer (1869), having a new building and water-power 
 fitted up a little below the grist-mill, which will use the 
 same water over again, he intends to transfer the 
 barley mills into this and run them with a small tur- 
 bine wheel, geared in such a way that the velocity of 
 the stone will be but little accelerated when running 
 empty. 
 
 We were sorry that McKenzie should have abandoned 
 this experiment without giving it a fairer chance of trial, 
 as from what we saw of the working of the artificial 
 stone, we were satisfied that it would work faster and 
 better than any natural stone that can be found, and 
 still believe that if the composition were applied in warm 
 weather, and suflScient time was allowed for it to dry gradu- 
 ally and thoroughly before it was set to work, it would 
 stand the frictioii well. We have often made and used 
 emery wheels and cylinders for many different purposes, 
 where the grinding and abrasion were all confined to one 
 spot, or to one side of the cylinder, as in grinding cast- 
 
388 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 iron rollers, or machine cards, and found it to stand the 
 friction well ; and can see no good reason why it should 
 not stand for a barley mill-stone, where the friction was 
 equally distributed over its whole surface, and could not 
 be sufficient at any point to make much impression 
 upon an emery coating carefully put on and sufficiently 
 dried before using. 
 
 Some readers may think that we are occupying too 
 much time and space with these details, and consider 
 them frivolous ; but for those owning, making, or run- 
 ning such machines they may be sufficiently interesting 
 to require no apology, and under cover of this remark 
 we will mention only one more accident that occurred 
 with a barley mill, which illustrates the necessity of 
 having the barley stone, or any other heavy machine 
 revolving at a swift velocity, perfectly balanced. 
 
 The stone referred to was of unequal texture, one 
 side being closer in the grain, and consequently heavier 
 than the rest of the stone ; this denser side was also 
 harder, and wore away more slowly than the other. It 
 was balanced by cutting a hole in the light side and 
 running in lead, and a similar hole in the heavy side, 
 which was filled with plaster. Although accurately 
 balanced at first, the balance gradually varied by the soft 
 side of the stone wearing away until it was perceptibly out 
 of balance when running swiftly. In this condition it 
 was left to stand idle for a while, being in gear just as 
 it was run. During the night the rats chewed off the rope 
 which held a waste gate open in the spout which sup- 
 plied the overshot wheel ; this let the whole water on to 
 the wheel, and as it had nothing to drive but the empty 
 barley mill, of course it drove it in a very lively manner. 
 
 It was not heard nor noticed until a girl, early in 
 the morning, went down the ravine some distance below 
 
THE BiRLEY MIJ.L. 389 
 
 the mill for spring water. Here she heard a tremendous 
 crash, and at the same time something like a streak of 
 lightning enveloped in a small cloiid, and smelling 
 strongly of sulphur or gunpowder, which passed her so 
 close that it threw her down, although it did not touch 
 her. She sprang up, and looking down the ravine she 
 could distinctly see the barley mill-stone as it was running 
 directly away from her. She described it as running in 
 a direct line, neither veering to the right nor to the left, 
 but every little while jumping straight up into the air, 
 sometimes as high as ten or twelve feet. Some of these 
 jumps, which appeared to her to be perpendicular, were 
 afterwards measured and found to clear from twenty to 
 forty-three feet. After running a quarter of a mile 
 down the hollow it came to an up grade which checked 
 its speed, and it finally brought up against a steep bank. 
 It was not broken, but the corners were chipped and 
 rounded off suflGciently to preclude its ever again being 
 used as a barley mill-stone, a purpose for which it never 
 was fit, and never should have been employed. 
 
 The explanation of its thus deserting its post was, 
 that its being empty, somewhat heavy on one side, and 
 the journals and bearings all dry, the great velocity and 
 weight soon heated the spinule and bearings, and they 
 began to wear and cut ; this gave some play to the spin- 
 dle and stone, which increased the power of the heavy 
 side for mischief, and encouraged the wear of the bear- 
 ings still more. Thus the two defects, mutually helping, 
 soon increased the swing and jolt, until the strain broke 
 the spindle, and the stone being liberated took its de- 
 parture; the accumulated rotary power within itself 
 furnishing ample motive power for the purpose, and the 
 friction of its weight upon the floor gave it the requisite 
 forward motion to enable it to jump through the window 
 
390 THE BARLEY MILL. 
 
 and continue its course down the ravine, like a cart 
 wheel along the road, until its rotary force and acquired 
 headlong momentum were both gradually overcome. 
 
 It is rather singular that all these accidents should 
 have occurred and no persons be killed or hurt by them; 
 however, this result is due, not to the harmless .nature 
 of the accidents, which are really as much to be dreaded 
 as the bursting of a cannon or the explosion of a bomb- 
 shell, but to the fact of their occurring when no one 
 happened to be in the way. 
 
 But this circumstance should not deter any one who 
 may be interested in fitting up such machines, from 
 using every precaution against the possibility of such 
 an occurrence taking place. The most effectual safe- 
 guard is to gear the stone to the wheel in such a way 
 that in case of the stone running empty its velocity 
 cannot be increased much beyond double its working 
 speed. Gearing thus with some kind of wheels would 
 involve a waste of water ; where this cannot be afforded, 
 we would advise, either using a different wheel, or other- 
 wise providing the wheel with a reliable governor to 
 control the speed by the water-gate. 
 
 Whether any reliable addition can be made to the 
 strength of the stone by drilling and placing screw bolts 
 through it, from the iron in the eye to the circum- 
 ference, as described in the first accident, we very much 
 doubt. It would be only reasonable to think that the 
 hole drilled out of the solid stone would weaken it as 
 much at that point as the iron would strengthen it; 
 besides, the bolt cannot prevent it separating along its 
 course, which the hole has rendered the weakest part, 
 and therefore most liable to give way. And again, in 
 case of the stone running empty, which is the only 
 danger, the bearings become dry and the spindle and 
 
WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DRESSING. S91 
 
 box in the eye heat and expand before the stone is 
 heated, and iron being a better conductor than stone, 
 the bolt is also heated and expanded in a slight de- 
 gree, but is still suflBcient, with the expansion of the cen- 
 tral irons, to slacken the grip of the bolts> and leave the 
 weakened stone to its own resources. For these reasons 
 we have never put through any such bolts, and cannot 
 recommend them. 
 
 There are some secrets known only to those thoroughly 
 initiated, that are insisted on as being of importance in 
 order to manufacture a first-class article of pearl barley, 
 and are guarded with such care that some crack millers 
 exact an oath of secrecy from their apprentices, in order 
 to preserve them in their craft. All we can say is, that 
 there is nothing in them requisite to make a really good 
 article, but the pretended sleight consists in making per- 
 haps a nicer looking article, although not in reality any 
 better for use or consumption. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH PULLING AND DRESSING 
 
 This business is frequently carried on in connection 
 with gristing and other branches of the milling business, 
 and the same millwright is required to. set these in ope- 
 ration. The carding machines are furnished complete 
 from factories, and the millwright has only to adapt the 
 proper power and speed to the driving belt to set them 
 to work, and occasionally to assist the carder to turn 
 the cylinders anew, and fit on and grind the new cards. 
 But the fulling mill has to be made on the spot, and be 
 
392 TfOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DRESSING." 
 
 adapted to the situatioij, circumstances, and power 
 by which it is to be driven, and we have seen many a 
 good millwright sorely perplexed and puzzled to recon- 
 cile all the contingencies, and give the trough and ham- 
 mers the right curves and angles required, to get the 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 stock of cloth to turn just fast enough, and not too fast, 
 to full equally and quickly. When the mill is made 
 single, that is, to full only one stock at a time, this is not 
 so diflScult, because the distance of the hammers from 
 the curved head block can be varied, and the angle at 
 
TTOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DRESSING. 393 
 
 wbicfe-tiigy strike the cloth altered by shifting the axis 
 above, upon which the handles are hung. But the 
 double mill, for two stocks, admits of no such adjust- 
 ment, as any alteration made to benefit one end alters the 
 other end in the opposite direction, so that the benefit to 
 one is made at the expense of the other, and the only 
 remedy is to take it down and make the necessary al- 
 teration. 
 
 The original cause of the trouble is undoubtedly the 
 apparent simplicity of the whole concern, which tempts 
 a man to go right to work and make it, forgetting, or 
 rather never noticing or knowing, that the fulling mill, 
 like other machines, works upon fixed mechanical prin- 
 ciples. The first and most important of these is, that 
 the point of each hammer, as it moves, describes an arc of 
 a circle, the radius of which is the direct distance from the 
 point of the hammer to the axis on which the handle is 
 slung, and the length of the arc described, or rather its 
 chord, is the stroke of the crank; therefore the bottom 
 of the trough must be marked and curved by this radius 
 from the point of suspension indicated, and for a dis- 
 tance at least equal to the length of stroke. Behind 
 this curve the bottom should be continued straight, and 
 a little descending to the end if it be a single mill, or 
 to the middle if it be a double one. The descent is re- 
 quired to let the scouring water run oflf and to ventilate. 
 
 Above this curve, at the point of the hammers, the 
 head block should curve up rather abruptly until past 
 the perpendicular, and then extend nearly straight, and 
 inclining back over the points of the hammers as shown 
 in Fig. 42. 
 
 The hammers are about 12 inches thick and 21 deep, 
 the ends bevelled off to an angle of 40 degrees, and the 
 incline cut in notches like saw teeth through the whole 
 
WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DRESSING. 
 
 thickness. These teeth crowd the under side of the stock 
 of cloth forward into the short curve at the foot of the 
 headblock, up which it rises, and falls back from the over- 
 hanging upper end upon the withdrawn hammer, which 
 shoves it up again, and the two hammers repeat the 
 operation alternately, the cloth turning a little eacli 
 time, until every part is equally and suflQciently fulled. 
 The under sides of the hammers are circled a short dis- 
 tance back from the point by the same radius as the 
 bottom, and from the same centre — the point of sus- 
 pension — they are otherwise straight below. 
 
 The handles are put through a mortise in the centre 
 of the hammers, and pinned fast ; if for a double mill, 
 the ends must pass down through the bottom of the 
 trough, and the pitmen from the cranks be jointed on to 
 these ends. For a single mill a slit is cut out of the 
 back ends of the hammers to admit the ends of the pit- 
 men, and a noddle-pin is inserted to hinge them toge- 
 ther. The crank in either case should be placed so that 
 the pitmen will work horizontal and parallel — the crank 
 working freer, and keeping better, by having a bearing on 
 both sides of the pitmen. If both are on the same side, 
 they should be a considerable distance apart, otherwise 
 it is difficult to keep them tight and true. We once 
 cured a crank which was condemned, because the bear- 
 ings were only eleven inches apart, and could not be 
 kept tight, by substituting an old barley mill-stone for 
 the driving sheave. We covered the circumference with 
 a thick coat of plaster and glue, and turned it oflf. It 
 made a good sheave, and its weight kept the short shaft 
 steady in its bearings, besides it answered the purpose 
 of a fly-wheel. 
 
 The first fulling mills we made we mortised the bottom 
 piece and tenoned the head-blocks directly into it; but 
 
"WOOL CAEDING AND CLOTH DRESSING. 395 
 
 this cuts the wood too short across the grain at the most 
 particular part of the curve, and it does not stand well. 
 All we have made for many years were both bottom 
 and head -blocks tenoned into a cross timber at each end, 
 in which the shortest part of the curve is cut as shown. 
 These cross sticks are made long and large enough for 
 supporting sills, and a pair of posts are set into the pro- 
 jecting ends of each, these posts holding the sides, of 
 the trough in place, and also supporting the frame upon 
 which the axis of the hammer handles is placed. 
 
 Fulling depends upon a series of microscopic barbs 
 similar to that on a fish-hook, but continuous along the 
 whole length of each fibre of wool or fur, and too mi- 
 nute to be seen by the naked eye ; these admit of the 
 fibre moving and tightening up in one direction, but, 
 like the beards of grain, they hold all they gain in that 
 direction. By agitating a fabric composed of such mate- 
 rials, as in a fulling mill, and saturated and slippery with 
 soapsuds, the fibres are more and more entangled, and 
 the fabric concentrated and thickened, with a corres- 
 ponding contraction in length and breadth, until the 
 texture and appearance of the cloth are changed. The 
 principle is the same as that of felting, by which cloth 
 is made without spinning or weaving, and the fur and 
 woollen hat bodies are made in this way. 
 
 This peculiar tendency to condense into a thick mat 
 is possessed more perfectly by some kinds of wool and 
 fabrics than others, and this difierence must be under- 
 stood by the fuller, and modified accordingly. A piece 
 of cloth possessing a tendency to full rapidly frequently 
 gets into folds and wrinkles, and these, if not watched 
 and straightened out, soon become fulled and matted as 
 if grown together, and the cloth is spoiled. To guard 
 against this, and full each piece aright,' the fuller with- 
 
396 WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DRESSING. 
 
 draws each stock once or oftener, stretching each piece, 
 and leaving some out for a time to allow the others, 
 more tardy in the process, to catch up. When the whole 
 batch is fulled sufficiently a stream of clean water is 
 run in among the cloth and the mill kept running until 
 the soap is washed out and the cloth left clean, when 
 it is taken out and hung over a pin to drain the water 
 off, and is then stretched out on the tenter bars to dry. 
 
 Tenter Bars. 
 
 The tenter bars, on which the fulled cloth is stretched 
 and dried, are placed either in a long open shed, 
 through which the air has a free circulation, or as 
 frequently in the open air. They are composed of two 
 tiers of scantling, about four inches square, placed upon 
 posts six feet high above ground. The upper tier of 
 bars is fastened to the top of the posts in a straight 
 uninterrupted line; but the other tier, the breadth of the 
 cloth below these, is jointed together by a double tenon 
 made on one end, and a single one on the other, which 
 is placed between the two, with a pin inserted through 
 these at. the centre, which forms the hinge. Tenter 
 hooks are driven into the ranges of bars, about three 
 inches apart and the entire length, to hook the edges of 
 the cloth on to ; the hooks are of galvanized or tinned 
 iron to prevent rust, which would stain the cloth. The 
 lower bars are fitted to slip freely up or down on slats> 
 four inches wide and an inch thick, which pass through 
 mortises in each bar, opposite the posts ; the upper and 
 lower ends of these slats are fastened to the posts, the 
 middle being left free for the bars to move upon. To place 
 the cloth upon the tenter bars it is neatly folded (not 
 rolled up) and carried upon the left arm, the end is 
 hooked on to both bars at the corners, and the piece is 
 
THE SHEARING MACHINE. 397 
 
 carried along and hooked at intervals to the bars by the 
 right hand until spread out to its full length ; the ope- 
 rator then commences at the first end, and stretches 
 both edges out lengthways, and fastens upon every 
 hook ; he then passes along and crowds the lower bar 
 down, and slips a pin through it into each post, which 
 keeps it down and stretches the width of the cloth. It 
 is left in this position until dry — the length of time de- 
 pending more on the circulation of the air, and the pre- 
 sence or absence of moisture in it, than on the tem- 
 perature; as the cloth will dry well, although it be 
 frozen hard all the tints, provided the air be dry and 
 circulate freely. 
 
 The Shearing Machine. 
 
 With the operation of shearing which the cloth under- 
 goes the millwright has little to do, as the machine by 
 which this is performed, like the carding machine, is 
 furnished ready for use, and it has only to be located 
 conveniently, and in a proper position, and the necessary 
 motion imparted to its driving belt. The shears, how- 
 ever, require to be ground and sharpened occasionally, 
 and as this is a particular job which has to be done 
 when distant from the factory where they are made, we 
 will try to describe the principle on which they operate, 
 and the method which we have employed to sharpen 
 them. 
 
 The revolving shears are plates of steel wound spirally 
 round a small cylinder, their length being equal to the 
 widest clqth to be shorn. These blades are sharpened 
 on thp foremost corner of the outer edge, and when 
 Working, sweep obliquely across the sharp corner of the 
 straight blade beneath them, the progressive motion of 
 the revolving blades along the stationary edge being 
 
398 WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DRESSING. 
 
 similar to that of closing the blades of ordinary shears. 
 The cloth is wound upon a roller and the end passed 
 over a square corner directly behind the cutting edges 
 of the shears, and fastened on to another roller on the 
 other side ; this last roller has a slow revolving motion 
 given it which winds the cloth Upon itself, and draws it 
 from the first roller and over the corner mentioned, 
 which keeps the cloth tight and equally up to the shears, 
 and these clip oflf all the projecting wool to an equal 
 length as it is thus presented to them. 
 
 The ordinary sharpening of the shears is performed 
 by running them backwards and applying flour of emery 
 and oil to the passing edges with a rag or brush ; by 
 this method of sharpening and the wear of working, the 
 blades get to be uneven on the edges, and require to be 
 ground true. To grind these shears a stone of fine and 
 equal grit is required; it must be hung true and firm in 
 its bearings, and the circumference turned ofi" true; a 
 thin stone answers best. The shears must also be hung 
 in a temporary frame, with true guides to keep it paral- 
 lel with the stone, and at the same time admit of mov- 
 ing endways the whole length of the blades ; the stone 
 should have a pretty swift motion, and the shears a slow 
 motion in the same direction, and the shears must be 
 kept slowly moving from end to end, to insure an equal 
 and true edge. When this is accomplished, the station- 
 ary blade must be trued the same way, and when put 
 in place they must be ground together with emery and 
 oil as before to complete the fit; after grinding with 
 emery the edges should always be finished by rubbing 
 both angles lengthways with a torquois or Washita oil- 
 stone. It is always best to send the shears to the fac- 
 tory for grinding when it can conveniently be done. 
 
THE CLOTH PRESS. 399 
 
 The Cloth Press. 
 
 After the cloth is sheared it is curried over with a 
 card and brush ; these are driven over it always in the 
 same direction, in order to lay the incline of the nap or 
 projecting wool all one way. The cloth is then carefully 
 folded with a press-board of smooth paper pasteboard 
 between ; plates of heated cast iron are also placed at 
 intervals between the folds, and the mass sometimes 
 still further heated by being placed on a thick cast-iron 
 plate, with a furnace under, in which fire is placed. In 
 this situation it is subjected to a great pressure by a 
 strong screw, and left under that pressure for a con- 
 siderable time, the screw being tightened occasionally 
 during the interval; the pressure and heat, with the 
 smooth press-boards intervened between the folds, give 
 the cloth a smooth and glossy finish, and improve the 
 texture as well as the appearance. 
 
 The structure and fitting up of the cloth press are sim- 
 ple ; the frame consists of two strong posts of hard wood 
 about eight feet long, with two equally strong beams 
 framed across between with double tenons, the top of 
 the lower about twenty inches above the floor; the upper 
 beam, in the centre of which the nut of the screw is 
 sunk, is placed a little more than, the length of the screw 
 above the other one. A strong cast-iron socket or fol- 
 lower is fixed under the round pivot of the screw, to 
 which it is attached by a swivel. This iron follower is 
 bolted to a wooden one of strong plank, with a tenon 
 on each end. These tenons traverse up and down in 
 grooves cut in the posts for that purpose ; this allows 
 the plank to follow the screw up or down, but prevents 
 it frpm turning as the screw is turned. Two holes 
 through, near the butt end of the screw, at right angles 
 
400 WOOL CARDING AND CLOTH DEESSING» 
 
 with each other, admit of a bar being thrust through, by 
 which it is worked. 
 
 With the coloring or dyeing, which is a chemical busi- 
 ness, the millwright has little to do except to fix curbs 
 and conveniences around the copper boilers, and suit- 
 able reels for overhauling and handling the hot cloth, 
 and for these, the manufacturer himself will give better 
 directions than we can. 
 
 The same remark might apply to our proposed di- 
 rections for turning the card cylinders, and grinding and 
 pointing the teeth of the new cards ; but as the process 
 of turning these cylinders and that of turning surfaces 
 true by an emery wheel or cylinder, are applicable to 
 many other purposes than those under consideration, we 
 will try to give an idea of both here. 
 
 To turn such cylinders true from one end to the other, 
 it is necessary to have a gauge or guide to control the 
 turning tool, that is true, and also a tool that is adapted 
 to the control of such a guide. The guide is made of a 
 piece of clear and dry scantling about four inches square, 
 and long enough to reach and rest upon the frame at 
 both ends; this must be jointed true on the top and 
 outside, and notched down on the frame two inches, 
 with a mortise made down through one end at the 
 shoulder, through whidi a key is driven to keep it firm 
 in its place. This piece of scantling makes the rest, as 
 well as the gauge or guide for the tool ; the tool used is 
 either a large jointer plane-iron, or a tool of similar form 
 made for the purpose ; instead of the iron caps being 
 screwed on above the plane-iron, a wooden guide is 
 screwed on crossways below; this guide piece is adjusted 
 to the back edge of the rest, like the stock of a T square, 
 and at such a distance on the iron as to allow the cut- 
 ting edge to reach the cylinder. If now the guiding 
 
THE CLOTH PRESS, 401 
 
 corner of the rest be set parallel with the axis of the 
 cylinder, and the cylinder be set in motion, it may be^ 
 turned true and straight from end to end by moving the 
 Cutting tool carefully along the guiding rest. 
 
 The emery cylinders for grinding the cards mey^ b6 
 ten or twelve inches in diameter, and the full lengffi of 
 the card cylinders ; they should' be made of dry pine, 
 upon an iron shaft, with room for a driving pulley on 
 one end; they are turned true by the process just de- 
 scribed. To put on the emery coating, the cylinder 
 should be heated to preserve th6 glue in a soft state until 
 the emery can be applied ; they are covered with a coat of 
 liquid glue, and the emery sifted on equally all round; 
 it should be pressed into the glue by rolling on a smooth 
 surface, and when sufficiently dry, another similar coat 
 added, until the covering is thick enough. Care must 
 be taken to put on the coating equally, as the cylinder 
 must be true when finished, and this is attained by 
 adding more glue and emery on the low places, which are 
 shown by turning it round against a straight rest. We 
 ~ have succeeded in turning these true by laying a large 
 heated bar of iron behind, and holding a burr block 
 against the high places, but it is a tedious process, dnd 
 injures the coating. The composition Is strengthened 
 and wears bettelr by having some emery flour mixed in 
 with the liquid glue 
 
 The cards are ground by running them backwatds, 
 and running the emery gylinder swiftly figainst the 
 pcrints of the teeth. They are sometimes ground against 
 an emery board. After being ground until the teeth 
 are equal and sharpened, there is a little rough point or 
 hdok left on the inner corner of the wire that catches 
 the wool, and makes trouble at first; these are like the 
 wire edge on a new-ground tool, and should be brushed off 
 26 
 
402 
 
 ■WINDMILLS. 
 
 by placing the teeth of two cylinders slightly in contact 
 and running them backward ; this must be done care- 
 fully and well, and is then a great improvement. Such 
 emery cylinders are frequently used to grind cast-iron 
 cylinders that are too hard, or rods that are too slender 
 to be cut by a turning tool, and this is an easy and ex- 
 peditious way of truing such. 
 
 CHAPTEK XX. 
 
 WINDMILLS. 
 Fig. 43.* 
 
 * This mill, from Fairbairn's " Mills and Millwork," is therein de- 
 scribed as follows : — 
 
 " D is the cap moving on rollers ; s the shaft carrying the sails, SS 
 and the bevel-wheel aa, gearing into another bevel-wheel h, on the 
 
■WINDMILLS. 403 
 
 We have tried to study out the reason why wind has 
 been almost entirely abandoned in this country as a 
 motive power for propelling machinery, while nearly 
 every other source of power has been improved and 
 brought to such perfection. We remember many years 
 ago, while young, in passing down the St. Lawrence 
 River from Lake Ontario, that windmills were seen busy 
 at work on almost every prominent point; and after 
 getting down into the valley of the St. Lawrence, the 
 windmill was the most picturesque feature in almost every 
 landscape view. Lachine and Laprairie had their wind- 
 mills, and Montreal not less than half a dozen in a cluster, 
 around the point where the Lachine Canal now disburses 
 its last and greatest water power. That the water-power 
 furnished in such abundance by that canal, should sup- 
 plant the use of the fickle and less reliable wind on that 
 particular point, is natural enough ; but why windmills 
 in other localities where no other power has been sub- 
 stituted instead, should be abandoned to ruin and decay 
 is not so easily understood ; and it is still more difficult 
 to find a satisfactory reason for the fact that windmills 
 are so little used on the great prairies of the west, where 
 water can seldom be had, and fuel for the generation of 
 steam is equally scarce. That this oldest and most 
 universal of all motive powers, should be so little em- 
 ployed on these prairies appears still more strange when 
 
 mill-stone shaft. The wind acting on the fan F, communicates motion 
 to the bevel-wheel and spur pinion e, which, acting on the spur wheel 
 or rack fixed on the summit of the tower, causes the revolution of the 
 cap. The sails of the fan are constructed so that when they lie in the 
 plane of the wind they are not affected ; but as the wind shifts, it 
 strikes them obliquely and causes the revolution of the cap till they 
 are again in the plane of ihe wind." — Fairhairn's Mills and MiU- 
 work, Part I. pp. 277-8. 
 
40 1 WINDMILLS. 
 
 we consider that the wind blows over these vast plains 
 in a steady and almost uninterrupted breeze for a great 
 portion of the year without local obstruction, having 
 neither mountain nor hill and scarcely a tree to interrupt 
 or disturb its course. 
 
 It is these disturbing influences which abound in the 
 Eastern and Northern States that render the wind too 
 unsteady to be relied upon for driving machinery. These 
 objections will always tend to prevent the use of wind 
 for driving machinery in all extensive manufacturing 
 establishments in the east or north. We have been in- 
 formed by old country millwrights and millers of ex- 
 tensive experience and observation, that nowhere on 
 the eastern part of this continent does the wind blow 
 sufficiently steady to be reliable for driving extensive 
 machinery. If this is the case, some cause more potent 
 than the local interruptions must interfere to disturb 
 the progress of the wind over the continent. It is said 
 to be an established fact from meteorological observa^ 
 tion, that the prevailing winds come from the northwest 
 during three-quarters of the year on an average, over 
 the whole North American Continent. This is the reason 
 given for the average winter temperature being ten de- 
 grees colder on the Atlantic than on the Pacific coast in 
 the same latitude. This northwest wind that visits us 
 comes from the northern regions of the Pacific, over the 
 Alaska purchase and the Kocky Mountains. As it passes 
 over the latter obliqiiely, its course is interrupted and 
 changed, and still more modified and broken by the peaks 
 and passes, and perpetual snow of those mountains. 
 The wind inay continue to be affected by these disturb- 
 ing causes as it passes over the prairie regions and until 
 it arrives among the local obstructions of hills and hoi- 
 
"WINDMILLS. 405 
 
 lows, forests and fields. We cannot vouch for the en- 
 tire correctness of this theory, but have always been 
 told by the millers attending the windmills on the St. 
 Lawrence, that the only wind they could rely upon, for 
 running steadily, was that blowing down the river to- 
 ward the great Gulf. And repeated observations have 
 made us familiar with the effect produced by wind 
 blowing obliquely against a mountain range. Our prin- 
 cipal falls of snow come from the east, but the drift 
 seldom takes place until the wind changes to its ordinary 
 point a little north of west. In any level valley where 
 the wind has its free course, the snow drifts follow this 
 direction, but in southwestern New York the wind is 
 turned aside by the Alleghany Mountains, and the drift 
 crosses an east and west road obliquely from the south. 
 The same thing occurs along the whole northern frontier 
 of New York State, where the Adirondac Mountains 
 cause a northern slope^that extends from their base be- 
 yond the Canada line ; and throughout this whole region 
 the deflection of the wind by these mountains is indi- 
 cated by the direction of the snow drifts, which diverge 
 more or less towards the north according to circum- 
 stances ; the influence being perceptible far beyond the 
 inclined base of the mountains, upon the level plain. 
 This divergence causes eddies and conflicting currents 
 of wind, which are shifted by the slightest variation of 
 intensity or direction of the breeze, and must tend in a 
 great measure to destroy its useful effect as a motive 
 power. Another effect, still more potent, by which those 
 mountains influence the action of the wind over this 
 northern slope and the contiguous valley, is, that a strong 
 wind from any southern point is thrown upward by the 
 mountain, as a similar volume of water is thrown up by a 
 like sloping obstruction interposed in its chute, the water 
 
406 WINDMILLS. 
 
 is soon brought down again by its gravity to the direct 
 course ; but it is different with the wind, which has no 
 such tendency to make it resume its original course, and 
 it continues upward, crossing and mingling in with the 
 uninterrupted current above, and thus forming whirl- 
 winds and eddies, with partial vacuums intervening, 
 which reach the slope and the valley, sometimes inten- 
 sified, and always in the wildest confusion, and fre- 
 quently at a great distance from the mountains. It i^ 
 these southern winds, coming over the mountains, that 
 unroof buildings and uproot the trees throughout all 
 this section, and not the uninterrupted winds from any 
 other quarter. A question of the greatest importance 
 to eny one contemplating the building of a windmill on 
 any of the western prairies is, how far and to what- 
 extent these disturbing influences affect the prevalent 
 westerly winds in their passage over the Eocky Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 We have been consulted as to the expediency of 
 erecting large grist and saw-mills on the western prairies, 
 and explained these theories in detail, the mere outlines 
 of which we have given here, advising the parties to 
 investigate thoroughly before deciding either way. The 
 result was, that after exploring a great portion of the 
 prairie regions, making observations and collecting in- 
 formation from various sources, they gave up the pro- 
 ject and returned home. But their investigations were 
 too superficial, and the data upon which they founded 
 their conclusions too vague and unsatisfactory to be re- 
 liable ; and it still remains in our mind a question, that 
 is yet to be solved by a more competent and careful 
 investigation, to what extent these disturbing pheno- 
 mena affect 'the wind as a motive power, and how far 
 their influence extends. 
 
WINDMILLS. 407 
 
 This is an important problem for any person who 
 meditates the building of a windmill anywhere in this 
 country, and one which we are not competent to solve. 
 This much we may say, that although this continent is 
 not so well adapted to windmills as Holland, or some 
 other countries or islands but little elevated above the 
 sea, yet there are no doubt many localities where these 
 would work and pay well. It would require careful 
 and matured observation, with good tact and discrimina- 
 tion, to determine the most suitable site, otherwise as 
 great a disparity would be found between different wind 
 powers, although the machinery were all alike, as is 
 found between diflferent water powers with every variety 
 of machinery. 
 
 Thus far we have only contemplated the employment 
 of wind for driving heavy and extensive machinery on 
 a large scale, requiring great and constant power, and 
 involving a corresponding amount of expense, hence the 
 prominence given to the selection of a site where the 
 strongest and the steadiest power might be obtained; 
 and to the effect of outside interferences, that might ob- 
 struct the full development of these. We will now con- 
 sider it the medium by which motion may be given to 
 light machinery, adapted to an almost endless variety 
 of purposes and manipulations, which are generally 
 performed by manual labor or horse power. To many 
 of these operations we have seen these small windmills 
 applied, with little expense and labor ; they are especi- 
 ally iadapted to farmers and mechanics in country places 
 and small villages, for threshing and winnowing grain, 
 driving a corn-sheller or straw or root-cutter in the 
 barn, to saw wood, pump water, drive the grindstone, 
 churn, or washing machine, at the wood shed, or to drive 
 every description of light machinery in a work-shop. 
 
408 WINDMILLS. 
 
 such as lathes, circular, jigger, scroll, and butting saws, 
 bellows, trip hammers, or any other machinery employed 
 by the tradesman that does not require to be run con- 
 stantly. We have seen nearly all such operations per^ 
 formed by wind. A little experience soon teaches a 
 man the probable and proportionate time the machinery 
 will run, and he learns to calculate hia work accordingly. 
 A farmer whose barn and wood shed are furnished with 
 such wind power, can do up all his indoor work in 
 storiny weather, when little can be done to advantage 
 in the open air. 
 
 We will endeavor to give such a description in detail 
 as will enable a man of ordinary abilities to construct 
 and set up the wind-wheel required for such a machine 
 as will furnish from one to four horse power in an or- 
 dinary stiff breeze, and also instructions for attaching it 
 either by bevel gearing to communicate a revolving 
 motion, or by a crank to produce a reciprocating mo- 
 tion. 
 
 Any ordinary building, as a barn, wood-shed, or work- 
 shop is strong enough to carry such machinery. In, 
 commencing to erect the necessary elevation above the 
 roof upon which to place it, the first thing is to make a 
 hole through the ridge of the roof, as if for a chimney, 
 about three or four feet square, and set up four posts' 
 through this hole reaching from the floor or beams below 
 to seven or eight feet above the roof. Eound spruce poles 
 five or six inches in diameter make good posts ; these 
 should be placed two and a half or three feet apart at 
 the upper end, and secured by caps, framed square on 
 the inside, and circled on the outside. This forms the 
 foundation for the track on which the turn-table with 
 the wind-wheel and its machinery traverses. The lower 
 ends of these posts should be placed about eight feet 
 
WINDMILLS. 409 
 
 apart, and framed into silla fastened to the beams or floor 
 on which they rest. One or more sets of girts may be 
 spiked on to these posts at a proper height to lay a floor 
 upon, for convenience, and to strengthen the frame. 
 
 There are many different ways of making the wind- 
 wheel, all more or less self-regulating. Some are placed 
 upon a perpendicular shaft, and the vanes revolve hori- 
 zontally, but the greatest number, and those giving the 
 best results, revolve vertically upon horizontal shafts. 
 The one we prefer, and which admits of the easiest con- 
 trol, is made and regulated as follows : — 
 
 The arms are made of two pieces of oak, elm, or ash 
 scantling, fourteen feet long and four inches square; 
 these are halved or notched across each other at the 
 centre, and make the four arms. The arms are left the 
 full size one foot from, the centre, and from there they 
 are tapered down to two inches at the end, the tapered 
 part being rounded. Three bearings two inches long, 
 like journals, are made on the round part of each, by 
 leaving a portion of the corners for a shoulder : one 
 eighteen inches from the centre, another on the small 
 end near the point, the third one half way between the 
 others. Cross-bars are fitted on the face of each of these 
 bearings, and secured by a cap screwed on behind, the 
 bar next the centre eighteen inches long, the middle one 
 twenty-four, and that at the point thirty inches long. 
 
 The sails, made of thin boards, are nailed upon these 
 cross-bars, which are placed upon the arms so that the 
 sail is not equally balanced, being only nine inches 
 wid^ from the arm to the weather or foremost edge, while 
 the extra width at the outer ends is all to the rear side 
 of the arm. It will be seen by this arrangement that 
 the sails, if not otherwise controlled, when exposed to the 
 wind, would turn their edges towards it, the long corner 
 
410 WINDMILLS. 
 
 being blown to leeward like the tail of the vane, or 
 weathercock; this describes the principle by which 
 this kind of wind-wheel is regulated and rendered safe. 
 The sails thus hung are held more or less obliquely to 
 the wind according to its intensity and the amount of 
 power required, or left free to resume the >yeathercock 
 position described, and when thus situated they have no 
 power to turn even in a gale of wind. The power to 
 regulate and control the sails is applied through the 
 centre of the main shaft, which is made hollow for' this 
 purpose, and an iron rod with a double cross bead, which 
 makes four projecting arms, ia poked through the hol- 
 low until the cross arms are immediately in front of the 
 sails; each of these arms is connected by a jointed rod 
 or link to the rear corner of each sail. The central rod 
 projects through the other end of the main shaft, and is 
 pivoted to the end of a bent steelyard lever. A weight 
 hung upon this lever, like that on a safety valve, gradu- 
 ates the power of the wind and the work as required, 
 and is removed to stop the machine. 
 
 An old friction rod, or guide for a saw gate, makes a 
 good shaft for a wind-wheel of this size and construc- 
 tion. A thick disk of plank should be pinned on to the 
 back side of the arms at the centre to strengthen and 
 give suflScient bearing, as the arms should be left whole, 
 except the small hole through which the regulating rod 
 passes. Then an iron flange should be bolted on behind 
 the wooden disk to fasten the whole together when 
 keyed to the shaft. A bevel wheel is placed on this 
 shaft so as to gear into and traverse around a pinion of 
 smaller size on the top of the upright shaft. The upper 
 bearing of the upright shaft is in the centre of the cross- 
 bar of the circular cap which supports the turn-table 
 and close below the pinion. A band of iron two inches 
 
WINDMILLS. 411 
 
 wide and three-eighths of an inch thick is put around 
 this cap, standing nearly half its width above the wood; 
 this forms the track on which the table carrying the 
 wind-wheel traverses. This table is set upon four rol- 
 lers or small cast-iron wheels with grooves cut in them 
 to fit and hold upon the track. A clamp attached to 
 the table at each wheel, for safety, passes down outside 
 the track, and hooks loosely under the circular cap. A 
 large vane or tail of thin boards is attached to the turn- 
 table opposite the wind-wheel, to keep the latter fair to 
 the wind, and is called a director. The bent lever al- 
 luded to, for regulating the sails to the wind, has a pin 
 through the corner for its fulcrum, a socket at the short 
 perpendicular end, for the end of the regulating rod to 
 turn in, and a weight hung on the long horizontal end, 
 to be graduated to suit the wind and work. The motion 
 can be taken from any part of the central upright shaft 
 by a belt. If for a horizontal motion, the belt must be 
 put on with a half twist, and the slack side brought to 
 the proper line by a pulley set at an angle, the driving 
 side being straight (see the article on belt grist-mills). 
 Or a horizontal motion may be taken by bevel gearing, 
 if required or preferred. A reciprocating or oscillating 
 motion may be taken from any of these revolving mo- 
 tions by a crank. 
 
 A crank is sometimes made in the centre, on the 
 wind-wheel shaft, in place of the bevel wheels, and 
 the motion transmitted down through a pitman and 
 connecting rod, jointed together by a swivel ; but the 
 motion is too slow for ordinary purposes, and we have 
 never seen this plan used except for pumping. When 
 the power has to be transmitted to a greater distance 
 than shafting, belts, or chains admit of, it can be easily 
 and cheaply done through the medium of wire. If a 
 
41 2 WINDMILLS. 
 
 reciprocating, for sawing, churning, pumping or the like, 
 it may be transmitted from one oscillating lever (walk- 
 ing beam) to another, by connecting both ends of the 
 two levers with wire, and giving out the motion as 
 shown. 
 
 If a revolving motion is to be transmitted, a continu- 
 ous wire is used, and passed around two light wheels, 
 but large in diameter, the wire in this case driving like 
 a belt. Sometimes the wire is passed clear round the 
 wheels in a groove, sometimes only half round, like a 
 belt, and the groove edge of a tightener pressing it against 
 the back of each wheel to give it sufficient bite; but the 
 best way is to cover the edge of both wheels with a 
 strip of sole leather or Indian rubber, and the wire will 
 hold sufficiently either cross or open banded, the weight 
 of the stretches of wire suspended between giving suffi- 
 cient friction and elasticity. 
 
 By these wire connections a light and easy movement 
 may be carried to a distance of several hundred feet, 
 but when a single wire is used, the size of the wheels 
 around which it works must be increased as the thick- 
 ness of the wire is increased, because the bending of the 
 wire must not be so acute as to permanently affect its 
 elasticity. And when a considerable amount of power 
 and velocity is thus transmitted, a wire rope made of • 
 several strands of small wire must be used. In all cases 
 where the distance is very great, the slack of the wire 
 must be held up by intermediate pulleys. 
 
 By erecting a suitable wind-wheel on this principle, 
 in a central situation, with a judicious distributio» of its 
 power by the means indicated, to the different buildings, 
 all the operations about a farmer's premises may be per- 
 formed in their turn by the same wheel, and a great 
 amount of hard labor saved. 
 
WINDMILLS. 413 
 
 This is a power that every person owning a farm or 
 building possesses, although some localities are better 
 situated than others for obtaining a steady wind power, 
 and we firmly believe if it were less common, and oc- 
 curred only here and there at wide intervals like water 
 power, it would be more valued and more used. 
 
 Sails made like those described are sometimes regu- 
 lated by heavy cast-iron balls hung to the outer end of 
 each arm by bent levers, which turn the face of the 
 sails away from the wind by centrifugal force. Other 
 sails are made of small pieces of thin boards hung in a 
 frame similar to window blinds. These blinds are con- 
 nected together at the e(iges by strips running the whole 
 length of the arm, and all moved at once by a centrifugal 
 governor driven by the machinery inside. 
 
 The oldest method we have seen is a wooden rack 
 with a canvas sail spread upon it, the canvas being more 
 or less twisted up or spread out at the inner end to vary 
 the amount of surface exposed, according to the wind. 
 
 These are sometimes furled or twisted up by a gover- 
 nor driven by the machinery, but more frequently this 
 is done by hand. It will be observed that none of these 
 methods of regulating have any control over the sails^ 
 except when under full motion, and are therefore of no 
 use in stopping the machine or saving it in a gale when 
 standing idle. 
 
 Sometimes the lath sails alluded to become so en- 
 crusted with ice, in a cold storm of rain and sleet, that 
 the hundred journals upon which the slats turn are 
 frozen firmly in their sockets, with ho means of stopping 
 the mill but by applying the brake, and a general break- 
 down is often the consequence. Such a condition of 
 things prevents the furling of the canvas sails, and pro- 
 duces a similar result. 
 
414 WINDMILLS. 
 
 If the !3ails of a windmill were placed with their faces 
 perpendicularly to the wind, it would have no power to 
 turn them either way, therefore the sails must be set at 
 a certain angle. This is called the weathering of the 
 sails, and the degree of inclination should vary at dif- 
 ferent distances from the centre. It is found in practice 
 that the angle need not be varied much for the first 
 half from the centre, on account of the interruption 
 which the wind meets with from the hub and frame- 
 work, and the close proximity of the different sails. An 
 angle of about eighteen degrees with the plane of mo- 
 tion will answer well for the inner half. From the cen- 
 tre of the sail the angle should begin to diminish until 
 not more than eight degrees at the extreme outer end. 
 This furnishes a clue to the reason why such a wind- 
 wheel revolves so much faster and stronger than one of 
 equal area of sails will revolve horizontally. The verti- 
 cal wind-wheel is held and revolves in the same plane, 
 with the inclined face of every sail constantly exposed 
 to the force of the wind throughout the whole circuit, 
 and the velocity of its motion is thus screwed up beyond 
 the velocity of the wind that drives it, and the number 
 of its revolutions is increased in proportion to the ob- 
 liquity of the inclined face of the sails. When the 
 horizontal wind-wheel is compared with this kind, its 
 disadvantages are apparent ; in the first place the wind 
 can only act upon one side, and that side receding away 
 from the wind, while the opposite side must move di- 
 rectly against it; then the velocity with which the 
 working sails move must be deducted from the velocity 
 of the wind, and the balance is all the velocity with 
 which the wind can impinge upon the sails. And as 
 the sails recede all on the same level, and near the same 
 line, those behind intercept and break the force of the 
 
WINDMILLS. 415 
 
 wind before it strikes the sails in advance, and thus in- 
 stead of intercepting the full force of a cylinder of wind 
 equal to the whole circumference and area of the wheel 
 like the other, the horizontal wheel only intercepts a 
 portion of the area of one side, and even that side in a 
 confused and broken manner. Add to all these disad- 
 vantages, the continual clanking and cracking of the 
 sails as each one changes its face and edge alternately 
 to the wind, in passing the two centres, also their 
 liability to get out of order, and the reason will be 
 suflBciently obvious why every experienced millwright 
 condemns this' method of applying the wind to drive 
 machinery, and the horizontal wind-wheel is only used 
 by amateurs or visionaries. 
 
 Perhaps we might be able to convey a more intelligi- 
 ble idea of the philosophy of the weathering or oblique 
 action of the vertical sails, by comparing these to similar 
 contrivances embracing the same principle, both in 
 nature and art ; the wings of a bird and the fins and 
 tail of a fish exhibit the principle to perfection, but these 
 being equally balanced, as attached to the fowl and fish, 
 the identity is less apparent, A better illustration of 
 the principle is shown by the revolutions of the seeds of 
 the maple, and some other forest trees, in descending 
 from the branches to the ground ; each seed is furnished 
 with a wing or fin (sail) resembling the wing of a dragon- 
 fly, and as the seeds which grow in pairs break apart 
 when ripe, and fall singly, the wing or sail revolves 
 rapidly around the seed as a centre, and thus sails to a 
 great distance from the tree before touching the ground. 
 This is a mechanical provision, by which nature assists 
 the wind to scatter those seeds over the earth, and no 
 doubt furnished the aborigines of Australia with the 
 idea which they developed in the boomerang. 
 
416 WINDMILLS; 
 
 The rapid facility of revolution which these winged 
 seeds and the boomerang exhibit in their progress through 
 the air, probably originated the idea of navigating and 
 steering a balloon by means of similar revolving wings 
 or sails, propelled by some light and strong motive 
 power ; and this idea has a better prospect of being suc- 
 cessfully employed to accomplish that purpose than any 
 other yet proposed. 
 
 Perhaps a still better illustration of the power which 
 the wind pessesSes to impa,rt a rapid motion when ap- 
 plied obliquely to the plane of that motion may be seen 
 in its action upon the sails of a vessel on the water, or 
 an ice boat on the ice. When the vessel or boat is 
 moving in the same direction as the wind, its sails are 
 in the same predicament as those of the horizontal wind- 
 mill, that is, they are moving away from the wind, and 
 their velocity is deducted from that of the wind as it 
 impinges upon them, and the rear sails obstruct the 
 wind and lessen its eflfect upon those in advance ; but 
 when the vessel or boat is moving in a line obliquely to 
 the direction of the wind, the sails are situated like those 
 of the vertical windmill, that is, they are held to the 
 wind by the keel ot the vessel, and the runners of the 
 ice boat, as the sails of this kind of windmill are held 
 by the shaft, and thus get the full unobstructed force of 
 the wind upon each sail, with the increased velocity 
 due to the obliquity of their position. 
 
STEAM POWER. 417 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 STEAM POWER. 
 
 The application of steam in propelling machinery has 
 been so much improved, and its production and manage- 
 ment have been brought under such control, that it is 
 rapidly approaching a degree of perfection that has al- 
 ready enabled it to supplant, in a certain degree, all other 
 motors, whether of wind. Water, or animals. ' This, with 
 its adaptation to all situations where water and fuel can be 
 had, and its unlimited range as to the amount of power, 
 will enable it to supersede these old motive powers still 
 more in the future than it does at the present time. 
 
 The wind, although it costs nothing, and is so univer- 
 sally distributed, is proverbially unsteady, and therefore 
 not sufficiently reliable to drive the machinery for this 
 progressive age and nation. Water powers, although the 
 steadiest of all powers, occur only in a comparatively 
 few localities, and these are often in remote, and fre- 
 quently almost inaccessible situations, far from the great 
 centres of population, and therefore the greatest and 
 best water powers always have been, and possibly always 
 will be, unoccupied. We have little to say of the com- 
 parative convenience or cost of animal power, because 
 the evident repugnance of the animals as they toil and 
 sweat to give motion to machinery, will always tend to 
 prevent their general employment, where inanimate 
 forces can be used. 
 
 With regard to the comparative cost of any given 
 amount of power to be furnished by these different mo- 
 27 
 
418 STEAM POWER. 
 
 tors, it is not possible to find any data that would be 
 generally applicable for eyen an approximate estimate. 
 Each particular situation, >with all the circumstances and 
 contingencies affecting it, inust form an item in such cal- 
 culations. 
 
 The wind costs nothing, whatever amount may be 
 used, but a suitable wind-wheel and machinery to em- 
 ploy it are expensive ; then a building sufiiciently high 
 and substantial upon which to secure it in the neces- 
 sarily elevated situation, with the vanes and machinery 
 required to keep it right to the wind — these are items 
 of first cost ; then the expense of running and keeping 
 it in repair. Against these expenses, the profits on the 
 probable amount of work performed are to be placed, 
 making due allowance for delays and the expense and 
 loss when thus idle. 
 
 It is still more difficult to estimate the actual average 
 cost of a^given amount of water power ; the range of 
 all the contingencies in each particular site being so 
 much more varied. There is the dam, an important 
 item ; then the excavation for the foundation and mill- 
 race ; the building with its yard and approaches — these 
 are frequently very expensive items ; and lastly, the 
 water-wheel and necessary machinery. These, when 
 accurately found, and all added together, will show the 
 first cost of the water power. To this must be added 
 the probable expense of working and repairs. With this 
 aggregate, the profits estimated, as in the other case, 
 with due regard to contingencies, must be balanced and 
 compared. 
 
 The first cost and working expenses, as well as all the 
 ordinary contingencies affecting the operation of a steam 
 engine, of a power equal to these wind and water powers, 
 can be more easily and accurately calculated, because 
 
STEAM POWER. 419 
 
 the steam engine is now reduced to fixed rules of weight 
 and measure by which its cost and power may be rela- 
 tively estimated. Its expenses in working, although 
 much greater than either of the others, can also be more 
 accurately figured up, as the contingencies are subject 
 to human control in the engine, being nothing more than 
 generating the proper supply of steam. 
 
 In comparing and deciding upon the most suitable of 
 these powers for a particular business, in a given locality, 
 all the various items of expense, and all the contingen- 
 cies afiecting each, must be carefully noted as they occur 
 in that locality; and when this is done by a competent 
 person, having reliable data, it will be found that wind 
 is the most economical for a certain business and loca- 
 tion, water for another, and steam will be decided upon 
 as the' most suitable agent as. often as both the others. 
 With regard to the liability to accidents, the three may 
 be put on a par ; the probability and effect of a hurri- 
 cane on a windmill, a freshet on a water-mill, and an 
 explqsion on a steam-mill being about equally balanced. 
 
 In general terms, it may be said that where water 
 power can be had to do the required work, it is to be 
 preferred before all others. Where water power cannot 
 be had without going into inconvenient situations, and 
 fuel to generate steam is plenty, then a steam-engine is 
 preferable, as, the free selection of the site is often of 
 much more value than the fuel. For instance, a person 
 will go back into an out-of-the-way ravine and build a 
 saw-mill, where the clearing away and burning of the 
 slabs and edgings will cost as much as the firing of an 
 engine. Then all his lumber must be hauled out to 
 market, and his supplies hauled in, his logs costing per- 
 haps as much there as they would cost at a village or 
 depot, or navigable point of a river, where the slabs and 
 
420 STEAM POWER. 
 
 edgings would bring an annual revenue, which, with 
 the cost of hauling saved, would make a handsome profit. 
 Experience shows that the sawdust and waste bark are 
 mortf than sufficient for the firing; and the first cost of 
 the steam-mill would generally be less than the other. 
 
 When the work has to be performed in the absence 
 of water power, and where fuel for the generation of 
 steam is too scarce and dear, then the clearest and most 
 elevated situation should be selected, and a windmill 
 built of sufficient capacity. This will furnish a large 
 amount of power in the course of a year, at little ex- 
 pense; but calculations must be be made to "bide its 
 time," and something provided to employ the hands 
 while thus waiting. 
 
 The various methods, of applying water and wind for 
 propelling machinery have already been mentioned ; the 
 steam-engine furnishes the method of applying steam to 
 that purpose. But we do not propose to give any par- 
 ticular description of this motor, because its details are 
 much better described by able engineers than we could 
 expect to give them ; and the millwright has little busi- 
 ness with it further than to set it in proper position and 
 connect it, as he would a water or wind wheel, with the 
 machinery to be driven. 
 
 There are many different kinds of engines, and the 
 makers generally furnish directions more to the purpose 
 than we could give for setting their particular engine 
 up and working it. We would therefore mention, as the 
 most important point to be determined, after deciding 
 to use steam, which of all the various kinds of engines 
 will best suit the situation and circumstances ? If fuel 
 be expensive and room valuable, then a flue or tubular 
 boiler embracing more or less of the locomotive princi- 
 ple should be used. We have seen a partly worn rail- 
 
STEAM POWER. 421 
 
 way locomotive boiler, considered unsafe for the road, put 
 to a stationary use, and answer a good purpose for many 
 years'. For driving a saw-mill or other wood working 
 machinery that will furnish its fuel in sawdust or other 
 refuse, or in the woods or coal regions, where fuel is 
 cheap as well as room, a less delicate and more substan- 
 tial form of boiler and engine, with a more capacious 
 furnace and grate surface, will be more suitable. 
 
 There is such a wide diflference in the plan and con- 
 struction of the various engines, and boilers, and fur- 
 naces, and also in the kind of work and situation in 
 which they are to be employed, that the selection of the 
 kind most suitable in every respect is an important 
 question, which should never be decided by mere acci- 
 dent, as it frequently is ; but the assistance of a compe- 
 tent person and reliable information should be had to 
 decide this point. 
 
 It may be said to be established by experience that 
 steam cannot compete successfully with water power on 
 equal terms, for driving heavy machinery, even where 
 fuel is cheap. But the facility which steam power 
 gives of selecting the most suitable situation for carry- 
 ing on a particular business gives it a decided advantage 
 over water power, especially for light machinery. A 
 man in a city or village can set up a small engine, and 
 thus enlarge his former business, or start a new one, 
 with little or no expense for new buildings. A heavy 
 I business, as a grist-mill, may also be established where 
 
 the saving of transhipment and hauling, added to the 
 better market and enhanced value of the bran and offal, 
 would give a good margin for profit in favor of steam 
 over the nearest water power. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 MERCHANT BOLT. 
 
 CONSTRUCTED BY HENRY SMITH, Jr., MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN. 
 
 ' DESCEIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Showing Machinery Posts and Pitch Lines of Wheels. 
 
 A. Posts and caps, 6 x 10 inches. 
 
 B. Bridge trees, with keys. 
 
 C. Spur wheels of 140 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2| inches face, 3 
 
 feet 8 inches and ■j%*g diameter. 
 a a. To drive upper reels fox flour. 
 
 I h. To drive lower reels, or return reels. 
 
 cc. Main driving wheel; on same shaft is a spur wheel, D, of 
 114 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2 inches face, 3 feet yYc i^^cl^ 
 diameter, which connects with a spur wheel marked j&, 
 of 50 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2 inches face, which drives 
 flour conveyor, being fastened in wooden conveyor 
 shaft by a gudgeon. (See figs. 5, 6, 7.) 
 
 F. Intermediate spur wheels of 60 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2 
 
 inches face, 1 foot 1 ^^xi ^^^^^ diameter. 
 
 G. Spur wheels of 60 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2 inches face, driv- 
 
 ing return conveyor. On same shaft is a spur wheel 
 marked H, which has 50 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2 inches 
 face, 1 foot 4 inches diameter, which connects to a spur 
 marked HH, which is attached to cut-off conveyor. 
 J. Floor place on joist marked K. 
 L. Beams, 12 x 12 inches square. 
 dd. Spur wheels driving dusting reels, which are driven b/ 
 spur wheels marked N, oi 96 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2:^ 
 
 (423) 
 
424 APPENDIX. 
 
 inches face, 2 feet 6jYij inclies diameter. This spur 
 wheel is driven by an upright shaft running in front of 
 chest, and connects with a pair of bevels at the shaft 
 that drives wheel marked cc in upper chest. See fig. 5, 
 KK, and LL. 
 M. Spur wheels of 82 teeth, 1 inch pitch, 2 inches face, 2 feet 
 2tV(j inches diameter. These two wheels drive conveyor 
 for dustings. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Showing the end of Bolt Chest next to Machinery Posts, 
 which will be seen by comparing the Bridge trees, except 
 the lower one where the shaft rests in the Conveyor Case, by 
 means of a Box fitted into Conveyor end; this end of chest is 
 the front. 
 
 A. Posts and caps 3 x 12, with bridge trees marked B. 
 G. This is the discharge end of upper reels or flour reels. 
 
 E. This is a board partition around flour reel, giving the 
 
 reel J inch play ; all that is discharged from flour reels 
 runs down spouts E, into the return reels marked D. 
 
 F. Are the cant boards leading flour in flour conveyor marked 
 
 G. gg are 2x4 pieces put underneath cants F to stiffen 
 and support them. 
 
 H. Is the support of flour conveyor, is a 2 inch plank made 
 to rest on cant boards J. 
 
 J. Are lower cant boards, supported in the centre by means 
 of a 4 X 6 inches marked K, bevelled on upper edge 
 and resting on posts of 4 x 4 inches marked L. 
 
 M. Eeturn conveyor showing how cut-off spouts are con- 
 structed. These cut-oft" spouts are placed at a distance of 
 10 inches, and are 7 inches in the clear. This conveyor 
 is for the purpose of grading returns. 
 
 N. Cut-off conveyor receives all that is cut off from return 
 conveyor and the middlings, also partly conveyor re- 
 turns as seen in the side view fig. 5, and discharged 
 by spouts bb into main meal elevator, and returns to 
 cooler. 
 
APPENDIX. 425 
 
 -Z". Discharge spout from upper reel, and also feed spout for 
 
 return reel D. Compare E in fig. 2. 
 Small fig. 1 in side view are the two spur wheels marked 
 
 a a in fig. 1. 2 is spur wheel marked c c in fig. 2. 3 
 
 is spur wheel Ih in fig. 1. 4 compare with i^'in fig. 1. 
 
 5 with in fig. 1. 6 with dotted lines D in fig. 1. 7 
 
 with dotted lines E. 8 with dotted lines H in fig. 1. 9 
 
 with HH in fig. 1. 
 I b. In fig. 5 is a conveyor that receives the flour from chest 
 
 by spout SS, and conveys the same into packer chest. 
 Eed lin€s in fig. 1 show distances in feet and inches, the 
 
 same in fig. 5 show the centre of shafts. 
 The arrows in fig. 5 show which way conveyors carry. 
 The bridge trees are made of pine, 9 inches wide and 3 
 
 inches thick, the boxes are let into the same, and are 4 
 
 inches long, with an } inch tenon on each end. 
 
 Cap let into bridge- 
 tree, i inch deep. 
 
 0. In fig. 2 are the beams in mill building, 12 x 12. 
 
 P. Dusting reels for bran and middlings. P 1 is bran duster, 
 on tail end of same is 2 feet of wire cloth to remove 
 dough balls, &c. &c., and prevent the same from enter- 
 ing bran duster. They are discharged from chest by 
 spout F. The bran after it leaves reel drops in spout 
 U, to bran duster W. 
 P 2, is middling duster, the dusted middlings drop from 
 reel into spout P, to elevator S^ to be carried off the 
 middling stone. 
 
 Q. Forms the discharge spout around reels or partition, as 
 seen in side view fig. 5, marked g g. 
 
 T. Dusting conveyor, conveys all dustings to main meal ele- 
 vator and returns to cooler by spout T 2, the dustings 
 from conveyor marked 72, drop into a spout and meet 
 spout T2. 
 
426 APPENDIX. 
 
 X. Girts to support conveyors, &c. &c. (See side view, P P.) 
 Z. Partition between the reels made of one incli lumber, 
 
 matcbed. 
 Y. A^:s.^ wbole length of chest to support cant boards, &c. &c. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Showing Bach of Chest. 
 
 A. Posts and caps in frame. 
 
 B. Bridge tree, 6 inches higher than the bridge tree on front 
 
 of chest. 
 D. Flour reels, showing the head where flour enters from 
 cooler by spouts G. E^ forms speck box around reels, 
 giving reels \ inch play, and made of 1 inch lumber, 
 matched. (See fig. 5, a a.) This catches specks and 
 drops them in the return conveyor by spout E. (See 
 also TT, in fig. 5.) 
 
 F. Cant boards, 1 inch lumber matched, stiffened by 2 x 4, 
 
 marked dd. 
 
 G. Flour conveyor discharge by spout H, on fig. 5. (See 
 
 spout s s.) 
 
 J. Eeturn reels lower end, or discharge end. The bran comes 
 out of tail end, and is collected and dropped by parti- 
 tion K, and spout K, from two reels in one dusting 
 marked B. 
 
 L. Bridge tree, 6 inches lower than at head. 
 
 M. Cant boards. N. Eeturn conveyor. 0. Middlings con- 
 veyor. 
 
 P. Middling spouts to middling duster. P 2 can be changed 
 so as to come under conveyor, or to receive from con- 
 veyor 0. 
 
 JR. Showing bran duster reel head, by circle lines. P 1, in 
 fig. 2, is same reel. 
 
 S. Middling duster reel. Conforms with P 2, in fig. 2. 
 
 T. Bridge tree, 6 inches higher than same in fig. 2. 
 
 V. Beam in mill. 
 W. Partition between reels. 
 
 X Cant boards, supported in centre by means of a 4x6 
 marked T, 
 
APPENDIX. 427 
 
 Z. Dusting conveyors. (See Tl, and ^2, fig. 2.) 
 a a. Girt, same as X in fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Oround Plan, showing the placing of Posts of Frame. 
 
 A. Corner posts on chest, 3 x 12. (See side view A) 
 5. 3 X 6 Posts. (See fig. 5, small post marked A.) 
 G. Machinery post, 6 x 10. (See fig. 1 A.) 
 
 Fig. 5. — Side view of Chest. * 
 
 A. Posts of frame. 
 
 B. Bridge trees, end view. 
 G. Upper or flour reels. 
 
 D. Eeturn reels. 
 
 E. Dusting reels. 
 
 F. Flour conveyor with drop slides, as seen at O ; they are 
 
 handled by small lines running over sheaves abdve 
 every slide, and running out of chest at back end. 
 
 H. Eeturn conveyor with cut-off slides, seen at h h, let in J 
 in bottom of conveyor so as to make slide -f of an 
 inch thick. These slides are made to cut off returns 
 if too coarse, and put into middlings by dropping into 
 conveyor below marked J, which carries the same 
 into middling duster reel by spout Z. Compare with 
 P, in fig. 3. - 
 
 K. Eeturn spout, carrying returns to meal elevator. This 
 spout runs through floor and along side lower reels 
 and drops in conveyor N', and from conveyor If by 
 spout Y. (See 2^2, fig. 2.) Also back of spout Z7in 
 fig. 2, there is the same spout which runs into spout 
 T 2, in fig. 2, next to floor. 
 
 L. Floor of mills laid double of 1 inch boards. 
 
 M. Joist 3 X 12. 
 
 0. Girt extending the whole length of chest, supporting 
 cross girts P P; this long girt is supported by small 
 posts marked 'J. 1, which are fastened to joists above, 
 
428 APPENDIX. 
 
 the whole of which carries the conveyors and cant 
 boards. 
 P. Beams in mill, 12 x 12. 
 
 B. Bridge pot, or step for upright shaft, marked R B, by 
 
 red line, which upright is driven by bevel wheel 
 
 KK, on bevel pimon LL, connecting on lower chest 
 
 by JSrH, on MM. 
 
 KK.. Is a bevel wheel of 70 teeth^ If inch pitch, 3| incheg 
 
 face. 
 LL. Is a bevel pinion to match, 60 teeth, If inch pitch, 3f 
 
 inches face. 
 N N. Is a bevel wheel of 65 teeth, \\ inch pitch, %\ inches 
 
 face. 
 MM. Is a bevel pinion of 52 teethj \\ inch pitch, 3J inches 
 face. 
 S. Eeel shafts. Shafts made out of 8 x 8, 22 feet long, six 
 
 square, which is at the option of millwright. 
 T. Feed spout from cooler ; bolt is through this spout by 
 
 means of shoe or Cornwell's feeder. 
 W. Speck spout. Compare with small e in fig. 3. 
 
Sra/r z'^' o/ffj^'oof. 
 
FigZ 
 
Srf/fc 'j o//f' /'oof . 
 
FiG.3 
 
Sra/r h one Foot . 
 
1^^ 
 
 DO 
 
 00 
 
 if- 
 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 1^ 
 
 > 
 
CD 
 
 DO 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 tx> 
 
 CD 
 
Fig 5 
 
 u. 
 
 RR 
 
 KK 
 
 \ 
 
 SI 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 U 
 
M 
 
 M 
 
 r. RounrumLith :i20 rheshmt S^PMr. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Accidents in curbs, 186 • 
 
 to barley mills, 383, 388 
 to bolt cloth, 340 
 
 Action, 54 
 
 of oar on water, 55 
 
 Adam's mill, 142 
 
 Air, compressed, 68 
 
 Apparatus, Leloup's, 75 
 
 Appendix, 423 
 
 Apron, 174 
 
 Armor, curved plate, 58 
 
 Arrangement of bolting-cloth, 331 
 
 Axle and irheel, 38 
 
 Bag bolt, 322 
 Balance, saw-mill, 190 
 Balance-wheels, 46 
 Balancing a stone, 315 
 Barker's wheel, 117 
 Barley mill, 366 
 Bars, tenter, 396 
 Beards, remoying, 825 
 Bed-stones, 274 
 Behr stones, 293 
 Belt gearing, 256 
 
 grist-mills, 252 
 Blasting rocks, 60 
 Bolt chest, 823, 336 
 
 cloth, damage to, 340 
 
 for ordinary run of stones, 383 
 
 merchant, 846, 423 
 
 reel, 822 
 
 screw conveyor, 337 
 
 the, 321 
 Bolting, 321 
 Bolting- cloth, 324 
 
 selection of, 831 
 Booms, 173 
 Boring pump-logs, 125 
 Bosom of Dullstone, 294 
 Boxes, 283 
 Breakwaters, 173 
 Bridge trees, 269 
 
 Brown's method of balancing, 316 
 Brush bolt, 322 
 Building a dam, 167 
 
 of a grist-mill, 264 
 
 Bull-wheel, 39, 207 
 Burr stones, 293 
 Bushes, 285 
 Business, lumber, 177 
 
 Card cylinders, 400 
 
 grinding, 401 
 Carding wool, 891 
 Carriage of a sawmill, 200 
 Cause of channels drying, 172 
 Central discharge wheels, 126 
 Centrifugal force, 50 
 
 gun, 52, 61 
 
 pump, 52 
 Chain gearing, 153 
 Chute, 174 
 Circle dress, 309 
 Circular motion, 50 
 
 saw-mill, 235 
 
 the edging, 244 
 Cleaning grain, 341 
 
 the mill, 849 
 Cloth dressing, 391 
 
 fulling, 391 
 
 press, 399 
 Combination of levers, 25 
 Comparative cost of powers, 417 
 Compressed air, 68 
 Computing balance, 47 
 Construction of overshot wheels, 105 
 Conveyor bolt, 837 
 Cooler, 848 
 Cord and pulley, 40 
 Crank, 42 
 Crib-work, 166 
 Cups of elevator, 835 
 Curb, 286 
 
 Curbs, accidents in, 186 
 Curved plate armor, 58 
 Cylinders, card, 400 
 
 Damage to bolt cloth, 840 
 
 Dams, 156 
 
 Dansil, 281 
 
 Description of merchant bolt plate, 423 
 
 Direct rotary motion, 71 
 
 Disadvantages of windmills, 405 
 
 (429 ) 
 
430 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Draught of furrows, 302 
 Dressing cloth, 891 
 
 stones, 296 
 
 oatmeal stones, 856 
 Driver, 276 
 Drying oatmeal, 865 
 
 process, 348 
 Dutch cloth, 324 
 
 mills, 154 
 
 Eccentric, 45 
 Edging circular, 244 
 Eels, clogging wheels, 140 
 Kjfect of friction, 64 
 Elevator, 835 
 Emery cylinders, 401 
 Engine, recoil steam, 60 
 Engines, 420 
 English bolt, 322 
 
 gate, 177 
 Error in ploughing, 24 
 Esopus stone, 293 
 Estimation of central force, 58 
 Evener, 198, 202 
 Experiments with wheels, 114 
 Explaslou of millstones, 883 
 
 Facing stones, 296 
 
 Falling water, velocity of, 87 
 
 Farm windmills, 408 
 
 Feeding works, 236 
 
 Feed-pole, 197 
 
 Fender-posts, 196 
 
 Filing a saw, 212 
 
 Filling sills under water, 81 
 
 Firing, 419 
 
 Five-reel chest, 850 
 
 Flutter-wheel, 96 
 
 Fly-wheels, 46 
 
 Force, centrifugal, 50 
 
 Foundation for a dam, 162 
 
 washing out, 82 
 Frame, hopper, 289 
 Friction, 63 
 
 uses of, 65 
 Fulling, 395 
 
 cloth, 391 
 Furrows, 302 
 
 Littlejoha on, 313 
 
 Gaining power, 138 
 
 speed, 138 
 Gang gate, 233 
 Gangs, 223 
 Gate, English, 177 
 
 gang, 233 
 
 head, 185 
 Gauges, 229 
 Gearing a bolt, 334 
 
 belt, 256 
 
 Gearing chain, 153 
 
 overshots, 256 
 Gigging back, 203 
 Grain, purification of, 342 
 Grinding cards, 401 
 
 oats, 859 
 Grist-mills, 250 
 Gun, centrifugal, 52, 61 
 
 recoil of, 69 
 
 Steam, 60 
 
 Hanging oatmeal stones, 356 
 Hare's mill, 142 
 Head gate, 185 
 Heating avoided, 849 
 Holland mills, 154 
 Hopper, 288 
 Hopper-boy, 324 
 Horse-tread powers, 65 
 Howd's wheel, 138 
 Hulling barley, 366 
 Husk timbers, 267 
 
 Ice, care against, 208 
 Improvement in drying cats, 862 
 Improvements in bolting, 346 
 Inclined plane, 29 
 
 Jack-screw, 35 
 Jonval wheel, 143 
 Jordan's mill, 142 
 
 Kiln for oatmeal, 354 
 Kinds of levers, 20 
 
 Laohine water-wheel, 97 
 Law of motor power, 62 
 Lcffel's turbine, 136 
 Leloup on compressed air, 75 
 Levels, taking, 79 
 Lever, 20 
 
 Little giant wheel, 139 
 Littlejohn on furrows, 313 
 Live gang, 223 
 Log dams, 1 57 
 table, 247 
 Lubricators, 64 
 Lumber business, 177 
 
 Machines for cleaning grain, 342 
 
 shearing, 397 
 Manufacture of split peas, 864 
 Manufacturing bolts, 346 
 MoKenzie's barley mill, 376 
 Meal, cooling the, 348 
 Measuring a sti-eam of water, 92 
 Mechanical powers, 17 
 Merchant bolts, 846, 423 
 Messenger's gearing, 259 
 Middlings, 351 
 
INDEX. 
 
 431 
 
 Mill, Adams', 142 
 
 barley, 366 
 
 dams, 156 
 
 fulling, 395 
 
 Hare's, 142 
 
 Jordan's, 142 
 
 Lachine, 97 
 
 oatmeal, 353 
 
 race, washing out, 82 
 
 Rood's, 142 
 
 spindles, 271 
 
 stones, 293 
 
 explosion of, 383 
 
 Tucker's, 141 
 Mills, Dutch, 154 
 
 grist, 250 
 
 saw, 177 
 • wind, 402 
 Motion, circular, 50 
 Motive power, transmission of, 66 
 Motor power, law of, 62 
 MuUey saw, 190, 215 
 Muskrats in wheels, 141 
 
 Oar, action on water, 55 
 Oatmeal mill, 353 
 
 sifter, 361 
 Object in bolting, 347 
 Objection to undershot wheels, 99 
 Objections to windmills, 405 
 Oils, lubricating, 64 
 Overshot grist-mills, 258 
 
 wheel, 100 
 Overshots, gearing, 266 
 
 Packing, 284 
 
 Paddle-wheel, 95 
 
 Pearl barley, 382 
 
 Peas, split, manufacture, 364 
 
 Peculiarities of water, 76 
 
 Piers, 171 
 
 Piston, Leloup's, 75 
 
 Pitman, 193 
 
 Plane, inclined, 29 
 
 Ploughing, error in, 24 
 
 Powder, recoil against water, 60 
 
 Power for a saw, 241 
 
 gaining, 188 
 
 law of motor, 62 
 
 of undershot wheels, 97 
 
 transmission of motive, 66 
 Powers, horse-tread, 55 
 
 mechanical, 17 
 
 to gain, 27 
 
 transportation of, 66 
 Precautions in building a saw-mill, 209 
 Press, screw, 35 
 
 the cloth, 899 
 Pressure of water, 84 
 Properties of water, 76 
 
 Pulley and cord, 40 
 Pull-wheel, 39, 207 
 Pump, centrifugal, 52 
 logs, boring, 125 
 Punching a screen, 345 
 Putting the cloth on the reel, 329 
 
 Quarters on stone, 307 
 
 "Kake" for saws, 211 
 Rapids, wheels for, 98 
 Rate of overshot wheel, 103 
 Reaction, 54 
 Recoil of a gun, 69 
 
 steam-engine, 60 
 Reel, 328 
 
 Removing beards, 325 
 Retarding effect of friction, 64 
 Revolutions of bolt, 334 
 Riche's wheel, 139 
 Ring wheel, 139 
 Rock and burr stones, 294 
 Rocker, 197 
 Rocks, blasting, 60 
 Rods to transmit motion, 67 
 Rood's mill, 142 
 Rose wheel, 149 
 Rotary motion, direct, 70 
 Round hopper, 291 
 Rule for laying out dress of stone, 300 
 
 for selecting stones, 296 
 Rules for the hopper, 290 
 Running stone, 275 
 
 Sails of windmills, 413 
 Sash, saw-mill, 196 
 Saw, circular, 235 
 
 mills, 177 
 
 mulley, 190 
 
 "rake" for, 211 
 
 setting and filing, 212 
 
 the mulley, 215 
 Scouring grain, 341 
 Screen for smut, 344 
 Screw, 34 
 
 conveyor bolt, 337 
 
 flood wheels, 150 
 
 press, 36 
 Scroll, marking a, 205 
 Selecting stones, 295 
 Selection of bolting- cloth, 831 
 Setting a saw, 212 
 
 circular saws, 243 
 Shafting, 66 
 Shaking screen, 344 
 Sharpening circular saws, 243 
 
 shears, 398 
 Shearing-machine, 397 
 Shelling oats, 356 
 Shoe, 292 
 
432 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sickle dresB, 303 
 Sifter, oatmeal, 361 
 Sills, fitting under water, 81 
 Six-reel chest, 350 
 Slabbing gang, 224 
 SUde for logs, 208 
 
 of a dam, 174 
 Sluicing, 82 
 Smith's gearing, 25S 
 Smut, 343 
 Smnt-machine, 841 
 
 mills, 844 
 Soper stone, 293 
 Sowens, 362 
 Square hopper, 290 
 Shear sharpening, 898 
 Speed, gaining, 138 
 Speck box, 33d 
 Spindles, 271 
 
 Spiral discharge wheels, 145 
 Split peas, manufacture of, 364 
 Steam gnu, 60 
 
 power, 417 
 
 recoil engine, 60 
 Step, 271 
 Stiff ryne, 281 
 Stock gang, 224, 227 
 Stone, balancing, 31& 
 
 dams, 163 
 Stones, bed, 274 
 
 divided by wedges, 33 
 
 for oatmeal, 3d6 
 
 mill, 293 
 
 running, 275 
 Stream of water, measuring, 92 
 Substitutes for bolting-cloth, 325 
 Suction fan, 849 
 
 Table for edging saw, 244 
 Tables, log, 247 
 
 of velocity of water, 89 
 Tail-block of a sawmiU, 202 
 Taking levels, 79 
 Tallow as a lubricator, 64 
 Teeth of a saw, 212 
 
 of circular saw, 244 
 Tenter bars, 896 
 Thimbles, 277 
 Thread of screw, 35 
 Track of a saw carriage, 201 
 Transmission of motive power, 66 
 Transportation of power, 66 
 JVomAfi, 76 
 Trough bolt, 338 
 Tucker's mill, 141 
 
 Turbine, Leffel's, 136 
 Tyler wheel, 189 
 
 Undershot weel, 94 
 Uses of friction, 65 
 
 Variations in bolts, 350 
 Velocity of falling water, 87 
 
 Washing out a mill-race, 82 
 Water as a lubricator, 64 
 
 bellows, 76 
 
 measuring a stream of, 92 
 
 peculiarities, &c. of, 76 
 
 preferable as a power, 419 
 
 pressure of, 84 
 
 recoil of, 60 
 
 recoil of powder against, 60 
 
 sills under, 81 
 
 velocity of falling, 87 
 
 ways, 183 
 
 wheels, 94 
 Ways, water, 183 
 Weathering windmill sails, 415 
 Wedge, 32 
 Wheel and axle, 38 
 
 Barker's, 117 
 
 Howd's, 138 
 
 .little ^ant. 139 
 
 Riche's, 139 
 
 overshot, 100 
 
 the Jonval, 143 
 
 Tyler, 139 
 
 undershot, 94 
 Wheels, balance, 46 
 
 central discharge, 125 
 
 choked, 140, 141 
 
 experiments with, 114 
 
 fly, 46 
 
 pull or bun, 207 
 
 ring, 139 
 
 rose, 149 
 
 screw flood, 150 
 
 spiral discharge, 146 
 
 water, 94 
 
 wrag, 198 
 Whipple's sluicing, 82 
 Windmills, 402 
 Wooden gang gate, 234 
 Wool-carding, 891 
 Working up middlings, 861 
 Wrag-wheel, 198 
 
 Yankee gang, 228