STMWBERB-T CULirEE TBESIS BI FB.1NK G. C0BI1E6A5 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York. State Colleges OF . > " Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library SB 385.C82 Strawberry culture. The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003400029 STRAWBERRY CULTURE THESIS BY PRAKK G . OcORREGAN CI- IKDEX Introduction Page 1 History " 2 Botanical Hotes " 5 Species " 6 Chemical Composition " 8 Uses of Fruit " 12 Varieties " 12 Everlaearing: Yarieties " 16 Selection of Yarieties " 17 Propagation " 19 Climatic and Soil Requirements " 20 Selection of Site " El Preparation of Soil " 23 Planting Systems " 24 Laying out Pstcli " 30 Plants " 31 Plantimg " 32 Fertilizers "-33 Cultivation and Summer Care " 39 Mulching "• 40 Harvesting and Marketing " 42 Treatment after Harvest " 46 Insect Pests and Plant diseases " 48 Yields, Costs and Profits " 50 lall or Everhearing Strawherry " 53 Selected Bibliography " 57 PROLIFIC STRATMBERRY CULTURE. Introduction The strawberry is one of the most generally distributed crops in cultivation, it being universally grown in all countries having a temperate climate. Probably the reason for this wide range of distribution is its wide range of adaptability both as to soil and climate, its delicious flavor, and finally the small amount of space required to grow it in. According to the 1910 census, more than one half of the acreage in small fruits, including strawberries, dewberries, J black berries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, et al, is in strawberries. The relative value of strawberries to the total of small fruits is even greater. The leading states in the acreage of straw- berries in 1909 were Maryland, Tennessee, Missouri, New Jersey, and Michigan, In production, Maryland and New Jersey led, while in value of crop, New York was first followed by California, Missouri, Maryland, and Michigan, all having a crop valued at |l, 000, 000 or more, A glance at the states included in the above list will show the wide range of distribution in the United States. The table below gives the relative production and value of the strawberry crop in New York as compared to the United States. STRAWBERRY PRODUCTION 1909 n899 Acreage Production Value Acreage Production ^ OlA/yOVQ a C)5 ~ CVJ g -^ 1^ c^ ^ 5^ N 3 o CVJ M K ^:SJ.VAA ^ tv. ^r « ^ 00 ki QQ K: CO Oj 05 CQ CD 0) OD ^ CO UQ CD 00 QD ff^'9^A/ M <\J 9^ CO N N 5 (6 1 Sa /otf3i^n^-il^ " ^ 1 nr f/390ijXl/\J o * 2 5 M Q 1 1 K 1 5 Sfr' '>5 Q CVl 5 f atoy A CO -rt^^oj_ 5; U: cc § 5 ^ Q Q ■^ C 1 1 > ^ TJ ^ 0 •^ >: l^ 55 :i C-'^H) (V C3 cv C3 CO cc c< o >o J-A/30^3ci. a; 03 ex 0^ 0: 05 •0 05 s ^ Cfi o •O Co CO ^ fO <5lA/tfiJC^ ^ <« tc c*: lO CO C?D Mr> \. c "PcwFECT Fcowrir 18 The strawberry is a somewhat peculiar plant in that different varieties produce different kinds of flowers. Some varieties, as Senator Bunlap, are perfect flowered, that is, they bear both male and female organs and are capable of self-fertilization, ^ther varieties, such as the Warfield, have only pistilate or female organs in the flowers, hence in order to produce fruit must receive pollen from some other or staminate variety* If an imperfect variety is grown, care must be used to select a perfect variety to be planted with it. They should be set in from one to three alternating rows to insure fertiliza- tion. The perfect and imperfect varieties should bio cm at the same time and preferably the perfect should have even a longer blooming season than the imperfect so that ripe pollen will be available at all times. Bees and other insects visiting perfect flowers become more or less covered with pollen, which is left on the pistils of the next flower they visit. Incomplete fertilization is usually indivated by the presence of nubbins, berries with hard, greenish, undeveloped apex. Too much rain, frost, or cool temperatures, at blooming time, or the absence of insects, may greatly decrease the set of fruit. 19 Propagation . The strawberry is one of the easiest plants to propagate. There are two ways by which it may be propagated that are of value, first, by seeds, second, by runners. The first process, by seeds, is common with the wild berries. When the fruit matures and the seeds drop to the ground, they are partially covered, and if conditions are right they will germinate and produce a new plant that summer ; otherwise, the following spring. Propagation by seed is used by breeders in the production of new varieties. f^ErnooucTioM »y /^m.ams or rruMMEtts. For commercial growers, the second method, propagation by runners, is practiced. In this method, the mother plants are set out in rich, well prepared soil and allowed, in fact encouraged, to produce runners. The finer the condition of the soil, the better the root- ing system that will be developed by the young plants. 20 It is claimed, generally, that the first plant on a runner is the best ; it probably will be larger in fall because it has a longer time to develop, but for ability to produce fruit, probably the second or third plant is just as good. It is better to restrict the production of new plants by the parent ; few runners, with not more than two plants to each should return larger and healthier plants in the fall. After the new plants have become firmly establish* ed, the runner from the parent is broken, and from then on the young plant must make its own way. At this time, the young plant may be moved to its new bed. Examine plant and make sure that roots are uellow to whitish colored. This indicates a young plant; if roots are black it is a sign that the plant is an old one. Larger and better fruit is produced on the young plants. When the mother plant is producing plants, all blossoms should be pinched off and not allowed to fruit, as a good crop of young plants and a good crop of fruit can not be produced at the same time. Climatic and Soil Requirements . The strawberry has adapted ittelf to such a wide range of climatic and soil conditions that is is impossible to state what are the best general conditions for its culture. It is under cultivation in nearly every state in the Union. The succeeding discussion covers what appears to be the best conditions and practice for New York State. Selection of Site . The selection of a site for the strawberry patch is governed by several different factors, such as climate, slope or exposure, drainage, kind of soil, and the condi- tion of the soil. The strawbex^ry is adopted to a wide range of both climate and soils, hence it will be found growing throughout the United States. The site of the patch should be level or at most gently sloping and should never be located at the bottom of a slope, otherwise the danger of frost injury will be considerably increased. With a gentle slope the tendency of the cold air will be to move downwards and not settle over the plants. The strawberry is much more liable to suffer from frost injury than other fruits because of its being a low growing or prostrate plant. A gentle slope is also desirable in that it insures good drainage. The strawberry makes its best growth on well drained soils, only a few varieties being able to withstand wet, soggy soils. A southern slope will tend to produce an earlier crop and consequently should be avoided where there is danger from late frosts. In the latter case, a northern slope should be chosen. With southern slopes, heaving, resulting from alternate 22 freezing and thawing, is more likely to occur than on the colder northern slopes. Since the strawberry bed is kept clear of weeds only with difficulty, one prominent grower in Oswego County, N. Y. , advises selecting a site near the house and the public highway ; the house, because then the farmer will utilize his spare hours to good advantage in hoeing and caring for the patch ; near the road, because he will naturally desire to have his patch show off to the best swivantage, hence as a matter pride will take better care of the patch. Soil . Most any good soil will grow strawberries to some extent. Like other crops, however, they have their preferences. Light sand and gravel are best for early berries and such varieties as Stevens and Clyde will be found doing well on them. William Belt, Parsons, and Glen Mary, will do well on heavier soils. Heavy clay is hard to handle but when well drained it will produce the largest crops and the largest berries. In Oswego County, some of the best crops are produced on a loam so stony that there is hardly room for the plants to develop. The ideal soil is probably a well drained, rich, clay loam containing a good supply of humus. Some of the qualities necessary in a soil to a.^ obtain good results would be, ability to retain moisture, since the production of heavy crops demands a large supply of water. Under ordinary conditions, rains at fruiting time are insufficient. This is especially true if the soil is such that the greater part of the water is allowed to run off. The soil should be in condition to catch and hold the moisture. The soil texture and its organic content are controlling factors in this. A large part of the water held in the soil is in thin layers surrounding the soil particles, hence the greater the number of these particles the greater the water holding capacity of the soil. Lumpy, cloddy soils will lose their moisture much more readily than thoBe of fine tilth. Decaying vegetable (organic) matter in the soil increases its water holding capacity. It is also beneficial in that it assists in liberating food for the growing plant and fruit. The plant food content of the soil should not be overlooked ; compara- tively fertile soils are most desirable. If the soil is ideal in other respects, deficiency in plant food should not deter one as this may be overcome. Preparation of. Soil . If soil is wet and soggy, it must first of all receive proper drainage. The time of plowing is next to be considered, Pall plowing has several advantages over spring plowing in tiJiis State, the most important of which are : land is sure to be ready for spring planting, if fall plowed, and plants can "be set out in weather that would be too wet for spring plowing ; also, by fall plowing various insects are better controlled and weeds kept down. On the other hand, fall plowing may result in loss of soil and plant food erosion or the soil may become too dry. Contrasted with fall plowing, spring plowing offers the following advantages : harrowing and planting immediately follow plowing, decreasing the loss of soil moistiire ; permits a cover crop to remain on over winter, stopping erosion. On sandy soils, spring plowing should always be practiced. The harrowing should be done as soon as possible in the spring, and should be very thorough. Harrowing should first be done with a disk harrow, and later with a spring tooth harrow, both ways of the field. It should be set to dig quite deep but this should be decreased to about one inch at planting time because the strawberry being a shallow rooting plant it is desirable to have the soil moist as near the surface a& possible. This is accomplished by having a shallow soil mulch. Pleuiting Sys terns . Three more or less distinct systems of planting are in use, but these are subject to various modifications to suit the whims of the grower. r- S^5*>* IS— -is=^ ^^gslT .^^ m l*i!Er<^SSi»,rS»rs ■ ^^ 1^ s<*i= ^//.i. sysTSM OF- Cui.-rt VA T-IOM The hill system is distinct from all others in that only the original plant is allowed to develop, all runners being primed off as fast as they appear. Rows and plants are closer together than in any other system. The chief advantage clai-med for it is the greater size of fruit. The labor cost is very high in comparison with the other systems. There are two hedge row systems, the single and the double. In the former, two runners are taken from the mother plant and placed in the row on either side of the mother plant. The plants are set in rows two to three feet apart, the plants being twenty to thirty inches apart in the row. The double hedge row is a development of the single hddige row, in which the mother plant is allowed to set six runners two being placed as in the single hedge row and the others at an angle of sixty degrees on either side. These plants are trained to form three rows, one being in line with the older plants, and a row on each side of the mother plant. 25 26 The plants are set thirty inches apart in the row, the rows being three feet apart. Some of the advantages claimed for this system are : permits ease in hoeing and cultivation ; eliminates crowding and allows plenty of sunlight and air to reach each plant. ft '.J ^*»«. f^ ATT CO Row G UUTIViVrtCt*. The matted row system is the most popular with the commercial grower as it gives the greatest yield for the least expenditure of labor. In this system not only are the first runners used, but if necessary a second plant from the runner as well. The runners are allowed to develop as many plants as they will, the runners usually being spread about six to eight inches apart until they take up the entire area devoted to the row. Both wide and narrow matted rows are used, differing only in their width, the former being from twelve to eighteen inches wide, the latter two feet or 27 over. In cultivating, the machine is rvm in only one direction, and as the plants spread the cultivated space narrows down to twelve or fifteen inches. The following data from the results of an experiment conducted by the Ohio Experiment Station indicates the advantage of matter row over the hill system. In 1910, a dozen varieties were selected for hill and matted row culture, Por hill culture, rows were thirty feet long and contained twenty plants. Yield Variety Matted Row 20 Hills, 30 Feet 18 Feet (Quarts (Quarts Sample 6 2/3 10 7/12 Ekey 3 3/4 6 1/6 Buster 13 l/3 26 1/2 Stevens Late Champion 6 2/3 9 11/12 Marshall 5 7/12 4 (Thin stand) Senator Dunlap 6 7/12 3 Highland 10 2/3 10 1/12 The average per foot per row for the twelve varieties when the plants were set one and one-half feet apart was three-fourths of the average yield when grown in the matted row. 28 Hill culture produces earlier berries, the average being one and one half days for the first picking and seven days earlier for the last picking. No variety lasted as long in hill culture as in the matter row. The difference between plants varies primarily with the ability of the plant to produce runners, the system of planting, and method of tillage. The distance between plants in the row, except in the hill system, is most largely dependent upon the ability of the plant to produce runners. Some varieties, like Senator Dunlap, throw out numerous long runners and will need to be planted farther apart than Gandy, Rough Rider, and other shy plants-makers. Distance between plants in the row varies from fifteen to thirty inches. The distance between rows varies with the system of planting and tillage. Where hand tillage is practiced, rows in the hill and single hedge system may be thirty inches apart. Thirty inches is about the minimum for the double hedge row and the narrow matted row, and three feet for the wide matted row. If horse cultivation is used, these distances should be increased to six to twelve inches. The following table gives the usual distances for the various systems. 29 DISTANCE BETWEEN ROWS AND PLANTS System Distance Between Plants Distance Between Rows Inches Peet Hill 12 - 18 2.5 - 3 Single Hedge 18 - 30 3 Double Hedge 18 - 30 3 - 3.5 Matted row - narrow 18 - 30 3 - 3.5 Matted row - wide 18 - 30 3-4 The niuaber of plants per acre will depend upon the system of planting. The table below gives the number per acre. NUMBER OP PLANTS PER ACRE PLANTED IN HILLS, DOUBLE HEDGE Al«) MATTED ROW SYSTEMS Distance between Plants : Rows Tnche B Peet 12 r 3 12 ! 3.5 18 : 3 18 : 3.5 18 : 4 24 : 3 24 : 3,5 24 : 4 30 : 3 30 : 3,5 30 : 4 Plants 14,520 12,445 9 , 680 8 , 298 7,260 7,260 6,223 5,445 5,808 4,979 4,356 30 By means of the following simple rule, the grower can easily determine the number of plants for any system per acre. Divide 43,560 by the product obtained by multiplying the distance between plants, in feet, by the distance between rows, in feet. Example : If it is desired to set plants in rows three feet apart, plants one and one half feet in rows. 3 1/5 « 4/5 43,560 « 4.5 = 9,680 plants required. Laying Out Patch . Any method that will give straight rows may be used in laying out patch. Straight rows not only look better but they make planting, cultivation, picking, and all other operations, easier. In some cases the rows are located by shallow furrows, made with a plow, but these are seldom straight and increase the cost of plant- ing ; besides ridges are left throughout the field where furrows were turned up. A good method is to line in stakes along one side of the field and then follow the first mark with a horse marker. The common corn marker may be used if set at proper distances, A marker may be easily made of 2x3" scantling, 12-15' long, with pegs fastened at intervals at which rows are desired. These can be made to be drawn either by hand or horse. By keeping the outside of marker in first row the succeeding rows will always be straight with it. Plants. 31 The plants may be secured from any reliable nurseryman. In ordering, specify that new plants are desired, otherwise you may receive some old ones. As soon as plants arrive, they should be un- packed, moistened, and placed in a cool cellar or shed. Examine the roots of the plants. If they are black or dark colored, do not take them as they are old plants. The best plants should have light yellow to orange colored roots. In case planting is not to be done immediately, the plants may be healed in ; that is, trenched in close together in the garden and protected from sun and wind by some sort of covering. 'TkeAiCHiMe on l4mrm.>-IMe, |w.Pi-4/vrs. 32 Planting . Planting may be done either in the spring or late summer. Ho thing is gained by fall planting « and due to the liability of drought, the chances of failure are greatly increased. With fall planting, protection through the winter must be provided before a full crop is secured. Spring setting is usually preferable in New York State, as it shortens the time from planting to fruitage and at the same time secured better weather and soil conditions. Spring planting may be begun as soon as soil and plants are in good condition for the work. Planting at this time also gives an oppor- tunity to greatly reduce the number of weeds by thorough cultivation after growth begins and before setting the plants . Pruning is usually necessary before setting the plants. It consists in reducing the top and shortening the roots. Top pruning is usually done at planting. All dead leaves and all but one or two small healthy leaves should be removed. These will be sufficient for the needs of the plant at that time ; a larger number is apt to result in excessive transpiration. Root pruning consists in cutting off one-third to one-half of the root system. The extent of pruning 33 depends upon the vigor of the roots, being greater for vigorous and less for weak plants. Root pruning is usually done when the plants are heeled-in. If plants are to be left heeled-in for any considerable time, root pruning should be deferred until planting time. Three things are essential in setting strawberry plants : 1. The plants must be set at the proper depth. 2. The soil must come in firm contact with the roots. 3. Roots must not be allowed to become dry during the operation. The plant should be set so that the soil covers the base of the crown of the plant ; deeper planting covers the crown and the bud may not be able to push out of the soil, while shallow planting leaves the upper portion of the roots exposed. These soon dry out and the plant is killed. The soil should be firmed against the roots so that all points of the root are in contact, otherwise the plant will not be able to obtain enough water to support it. Better results are obtained if roots are spread out when planting is done. If roots are allowed to dry out during planting, it is usually fatal. Some means should be provided for keeping them moist. One way is by carrying them 34 to the field in a pail with the roots immersed in water, or they may be wrapped in a wet cloth. If a boy is employed to drop the plants ahead of the planter, he should not be allowed to get more than two or three plants in advance. There are various methods employed in setting out the plants, among the most common being the trowel or dibble, and the spade. In either case, the work must be carefully done to obtain satisfactory results. In dibble planting, each planter works in- dependently ; the dibble is thrust into the soil and by a sidewise movement an opening is made for the plant. The roots are thrust into the opening and the plant lowered somewhat below the height at which it is to stand. It is then raised to its permanent position so that the roots may be well spread out and placed naturally instead of being crowded into a bunch. The dibble is then thrust into the soil at a slight distance from the plant and the soil crowded firmly against the roots. The second opening may be filled by knocking loose earth into it. Planting by the spade method requires two men working together, one to handle the spade and one to prune and set the plants. A smooth, bright spade is necessary as the soil will stick to a rusty one. The 35 spade is thrust into the soil from two- thirds to three- fourths the length of the blade, the back of the spade being away from the operator. An opening is made in the soil by a forward and backward movement. The spade is then either wholly or partially removed, depend- ing upon how great a tendency the soil has to .fall into the opening. The man placing the plant works from the opposite side of the row. He grasps the plant between his thumb and the palm of his hand, and using his fingers to spread the roots, inserts them into the opening with a sort of swinging motion. The spade operator then pushes the spade into the soil about two inches from the plant forcing the soil against the roots. At the same tirae the man who places the plant presses the soil on the opposite side with his foot which insures a good contact between the soil and the roots. As with the dibble method the second hole made in planting is then filled. If the grower has used the furrow method of marking out his strawberry bed, he may set the plants as follows : The plants are set in the furrow and soil placed aroiwid the roots either with a trowel or the hands. The soil is firmed into place by using either the feet or the knees. There will remain a large amount of soil to replace ; this may be done with 36 a shovel toothed cultivator at very little cost. Jertilizers . Large crops of strawberries are prodiiced onlj hy the removal of considerahle plant food from the soil. If the elements required are not present in the first place, there can he no large crops. Growers will have to determine the limiting factors for theiaselvss by field trials and then supply the necessary element or elements. There are thrse common methods of fertilization open to the grower, "by the ase of (1) manure, (2) commercial fertilizs- er, (3) a comhination of the two. It is generally that for ordinary conditions, stable manure is the best. Manure pos- sesses several qualities that make it desirable for use. It not only increases the available plant food^ but also supplies all the necessary elements, apparently in sufficient quantities in most cases. It also, as has been said, in- creases the organic content and ivater holding capacity of the soil. By the use of commercial fertilizer, one or more elements may be supplied as needed. This is advantageous where a soil is noticeablTf lacking in one element. In most cases it is probably more economical to use commercial fertilizer in this way, rather than as a complete fertilizer. Practi- cally all soils if properly worked possess sufficient avail- able potassium. Nitrogen is probably best supplied by using stable manure or green manuring crops. Therefore only phos- phorus and lime need be supplied by commercial fertilizer 37 generally. Some growers claim straw"berries do better on an acid soil, hence there is some question as to the use of lime since its purpose is to correct acidity. The question of the strawherry doing better on an acid soil has never heeni carefully worked out, this should he done before it is gen- erally recoramendad. The amount of fertilizer to be applied will, of course, vary with the soil and the grower. Some growers be- lieve there is little or no danger of getting the soil too rich, othere, that enough is as good as a feast, and apply it accordingly. The amount of manure applied will vary from fouir to forty loads an acre, with an average often to fifteen loads, By using a complete fertilizer a 3-7-9 mixture is considered good, that is one containing 3^ of nitrogen, 7^ of phosphoric acid and 9^ of potash. This may be bought ready mixed, or the ingredients purchased and home mixed. The latter is the cheaper. The table below gives the quantity of various com" raon fertilizers necessary to furnish the desired amounts of plant food. 38 ^^ . ,^ Soine Fe rtilizers & Suggested Ratea of A ^Plication. l-ertilizar Present bounds :^omid8 . — . Strengt h p«r Acra alamast litrat« of Soda 15 N 200-350 30-52 U Sulphate of Araraonia 20 N 150-250 30-50 H \ Pried Blood 14 H 200-350 28-49 N Mwrrate pf Potash 50 K^O 150-250 62-104 K Siilphate of Potash 48 KjjO 150-250 60-100 K Bone Meal 21 P^^S 250-500 23-46 P Acid Phosphate 15 PjP5 350-700 23-46 P U - Nitrogen ; KjO - Potash ; Pj^OS - Phosphoric acid ; K - Potassiwa ; P - Phosphorus, From Wise, 248, In mixing these materials to make the 3-7-9 fertil- izer recommended, it is possible to adjust the proportions in various ways* Two such mixt^irea are given helow, Suiggested Fertilizer Mixtures. Fertilizer Per Cent Amount in Pounds of Strength p ounds plant food Nitrate of Sorta 15 H 100 15 » Acid Phosphate 15 P3,05 225 35 P^05 Sijlphate of Potash 48 KjO 95 45 KjO Dried Blood 14 M 150 21 M Bone Meal 21 P^OS 125 49 Pjj_05 Murrate of Potash 50 KjO 180 63 Kjjp From Wise Bui. 248 39 There is practically no danger from increasing any of the elements, except nitrogen, Nitrogen in excess has a tendency to cause excessive vegatative growth at the expense of fruit production. The time of application of fertilizer depends upon the kind of material used. Manures and slowly available feirtilizers should be applied to the preceding crops. Readily available fertilizers should be applied just before resuJ.ts are desired. Commercial fertilizers may be distributed broad- cast and harrowed in just before setting the plants, or scat- tered along the rows after planting. After a three-year esqperiment conducted in co-opera- tion with different growers, the Missouri Experiment Station recommended the following for light, gravelly soils on which experiment was conducted, 250-300 po^inds of acid phosphate, or probably steamed "bone meal, be used, preferably one year before the crop is harvested, on all but the very richest strawberry soils ; that no form of ni to rgen-b earing fertilizer be used except on a small tried plot ; that potassium be used only on small tried plots. Ctiltivation and Summer Care. Cultivate immediately after planting. This will help to consiAme moisture, increase the available food supply, and destroy the weeds. The conservation of moisture during the summer months is the most important result of proper cultivation. 40 Los8 of aoil moisture is much greater when soil is allowed to become compact at planting time or later. Cultivation breaks the capillary relation of upper soil and protects the moisttjre with a dijst mulch. Prequent ciiltivation is necessary to do this. CraltiTating every two weeks gives good results where possible. Cultivation should be shallow, one or two inches, otherwise, the roots of the strawberry plant which are always near the surface will be injured. Cultivate two ways until the formation of runners confines it to one direttion. Hoeing about the plants immediately after setting gives very good results. Cultivation should be continued until growth stops. Plants should not be allowed to fruit the same sea- son as planted, or the first season after planting if set in the Fall. The first year should be devested to producing good, vigorous crowns and strong runners, hence buds or blossoms should be removed as soon as possible after being formed. The best runner plants should be selected as soon as possible, they will plant in July. The distribution of run- ners will depend upon the system of planting. In matted rows the runners should not be closer than from six to eight inches. Mulching . Mulching is necessary to protect the plants during the winter months from sudden changes in temperature, to pro- tect them from heaving in the Spring when alternate freezing and thawing would tend to throv/ the plants out, to keep dowm weeds Ijy smothering them, to conserve the moisture and finally 41 to keep the fruit clean, A good mulch should be free from weed seed, spread •▼enljr and break up readily in the spring. Various materials «ijch as whttat or oat straw, strawy horse manure, mash hay etc., are commonly used for a mulch. Manure and mash hay do not break up as readily in the spring as does oat and wheat straw, but manure has the big advantage that it furnishes plant food. Oat straw is liable to contain many weeds, so should be used with care. Generally, the mulch is applied in the fall after the ground has frozen so that the plants are not injured by driving over theia. Some growers, however, prefer to apply it before freezing, claiming that there is less danger of in- jury to the plants. The depth of the mulch will, of course, vary with the different conditions. As a common practice an inch and a half to three inches should be enough, this will furnish all the protection required, and more might smother the plants. The time of removing the mulch will depend upon the weather conditions in the spring. By leaving the mulch on, blossoming may be retarded until all danger of frost injury is past. The mulch may also be used as a means of delaying fruiting by leaving on, in this case it should be left on until first leaves push through the mulch. If the mulch be a light one, about all that will tee necessary is to loosen it up some, so that plants may push through. If heavy, some must be raked off and placed between 42 the rowg. If the rows are too close, it may be necessary to draw some mulch from the field. All the mulch should not be removed from the plants. The plants should grow up through enough mulch to keep the ripened fruit from coming in contact with the soil. If chunks of muach are left over the plants, injury is very likely to result. Most growers let the mulch conserve the moisture and keep down the weeds until after fruiting. A few, on the other hand, practice cultivation as soon as soil is fit to work until berries are half grown. In latter case mulch must be removed and then replaced before fruiting time. At this time any large weeds should be pulled, care being taOcen not to pull the strawberry plants up at the same time. The weeds will pull much easier when the soil is wet after a heavy rain. Harvesting and Marketing. Harvesting is one of the most important operations connected with strawberry culture, primarily, because of the difficulty of securing reliable pickers. The strawberry must be handled carefully, if it is to reach the market in good condition. This is something the average picker does not seem to be able to realize. The berry should be picked by pinching off the stems, but the stems should hot be left over one -quarter of an inch in length. Pulling the "berrj from the plant should not be allowed, as many berries will be partly crushed and the stem and the calyx pulled out, either 43 or 1)0 th of which result in^rap id deterioration of fruit in transit. Fouft QuARX CAffWItR. Each picXcr should he supplied with a carrier hold- ing from four to six quart boxes, six when the picking is in full swing, four at the beginning and end of the season. The fruit should be placed in the shade as soon after picking as is practical. Strawberries left in the. sun will spoil in a rery short time. Grading should be done by special force, the average picker not being tnastworthy enough to do it as he or she picks, although some growers attempt to have the pickers grade the fruit as it is picked. In exceptional cases where the fruit is Trery uniform this may be feasible. The ripness of fruit when picked will depend upon varying conditions, the most important point is distance from market. i'or home use, the berry should be allowed to become fully ripe, as it will then have a better flavor. For local market the fruit shoiild be entirely colored, but showing light at the tip an€ on the lower side. Por distant markets the 44 fruit shorald be red on the exposed side and pink or slightly white on the tinder side or at the tip. Securing fruit at the right degree of ripeness will necessitate frequent pickings, either daily or at the longest every other day. Hot weather with the conseqaent rapid ri- pening will call for daily picking. The fruit should never be picked when wet. •>iXf- 7: Hot 6r>4DEd Sst-rc-rcD The time allowed to sorting and grading will depend entirely upon the individual grower, or if the fruit is handled through an exchange, lapon the exchange. Of course , some sort- fngand grading is always necessary, if a good, attractive product is desired for the market, A piece of cheesecloth fastened to a frame makes a good sorting table, , As a rule one ipacker can take care of three pickers and do very careful grading. The following rules for picking and handling straw- berries are in force in one of the Western Fruit Exchanges : (1) Berries «ust not be picked while there is moisture on the plants. (2) Berries should be pinked all over, or three-fourths red. 45 (3) Berries should be picked riper in cool weather than in wann, (4) A picker must not be allowed to hold more than one or two berries in his hand at the same time. (5) Filled carriers must not be allowed to stand in the sun. (6) Berries must be picked with a stem a quarter of an inch long, and not longer or shorter, (7) Sort out all green, overripe, misshapen and small berries. (8) Uo culls in boxes. Put in nothing but fair- sized berries. (9) Use clean crates and keep from being soiled, (10) Haul in spring wagon and cover to keep out the dust. These rules will apply ecLually as well to any indi- vidual grower in Uew York State. The fruit is usually packed in quart splint baskets, and these placed in slatted crates holding twenty-four or thirty-six quarts. It is then ready for shipment, For a distant market the crates should be placed on a refrigerator car for shipment. A temperature of about degrees is best for strawberries. Where it is possible, the crates should be placed in a cooling shed as soon as filled and while await- ing transport to local market or shipping station. Straw- berries in storage, deteriorate very rapidly, therefore, they should be disposed of as soon as possible. 46 In most of the strawlDerry centers of the State, buyers representing coimaission men from the larger cities are present during the harvesting season. These men will buy the fruit at the local market and relieve the grower of further responsibility. Those growers who prefer m&j ship their fruit to some coEmiisBion merchant in the city and let him dispose of it, however, it is generally more satisfactory to dispose of it to the local representative. In the last few years disposing of the strawberries to canning factories has become more or less important ±n some districts. Treatment after Harvest. The after treatment depends upon whether the grower is going to continue his bed another year or not. The advisa- bility of removing more than one crop depends upon the condi- tion of the bed. Some growers make a practice of obtaining two or even three crops from a bed, others remove one crop, then plow the bed lander. If the plants are niEnierous, vigorous and healthy, and weeds not too thick, they may well be left for a second crop. The berries ripen earlier are slightly smaller and are more apt to be troubled with insects and dis- eases if left for a second crop. The cost of cleaning out the old "bed in many cases is greater than that of setting a new plantation. If the strawberry vines are plowed under as soon as fruit is harvested, a second quick growing crop may be matured 47 "before winter, or clover may "bs sown as a cover crop to Toe plowed under the following spring. If the hed is to "be retained for a second crop, it must be thoroughly renovated. The primary consideration is to develope new growth. A considerable portion of the old foliage will he more or less injured during harvesting, and will also "become infested with insects and fungus diseases, hence it is desirable to get rid of the old foliage and allow new to develope. The most economical method is to mow the patch. This can be done with a mowing machine. After mow- ing the leaves are allowed to dry, also the mulch and litter between rows is stirred up and dried. A windy day is se- lected and fire started on the windward side of the patch so that it will burn over the patch quickly. Slow burning of leaves and litter over the plans is liable to injure the crowns. If the fire does not run well, the leaves may be raked between the rows and burned. The next operation in renovating is narrowing the rows. This may be accomplished by running a furrow down through the row or by running tv;ice through the row with a two-horse cultivator. In this way the row may be cut down to any desired width, lisually six to twelve inches. This should be followed by harrowing in the direction of plantirag first, then across the rows. The beds may be gone over several times until the soil is in good condition, using a spike-toothed harrow, with the teeth slanting backwards^ 48 A weeder inaj be msed with fairly good results. At this time it is a good plan to supply some fertil- izer. Well-rotted manure distributed broadcast oyer the plantation, and harrowed in will give good results. A small application of nitrate of soda (100 pounds per acre) will cause the plants to start growth quickly. The culture from here on is the same as for the first year. Insect ^ yas tB and Plant Diseases . The strawberry is troubled by a few serious pests and diseases. The worst pest is the white gruib, larva of the May beetle or June bug, others are the strawberry-leaf roller, the aphis and weevil. Of the diseases, strawberry leaf blight or spot is the most destructive. White grubs are the larva of May beetles or June bugs, having a life cycle covering three years. They are liable to accumulate in old pastures and meadows, and when these are broken and other crops put on the sodj^they. do considerable injury. The grubs eat off the roots of the strawberry plant. The eggs are laid in balls of earth in the ground, here they hatch and live lintil the second summer, eating and destroying the roots of tha plants. The larvae change to pupae in the soil and the paspae to beetles in late summer. The beetles emerge the following spring. Control. Do not follow sod land with strawberries. Put some cultivated crops between. The Strawberry Weevil injury is done by the adult 49 . taetle cutting off the flower stems early in the spring, Th« beetles emerge from their winter qiiarters in early spring. The female deposits her eggs in the tud of the strawberry, then cuts off the flower stem "below the biud. In a short time the bud falls to the ground. The gnab liyes on the pollen and changes to pupae from which the beetle later emerges. If possible, plant mostly pistillate varities, with just enough Btaminate varities to cross fertilize them, plant early- blooming Btaminate varities as trap crops and spray with lead assenate, place beds in open fields away from hedge rows, etc. Strav/berry Leaf Roller . Moths lay eggs on under side of leaves early in May, these hatch and the young larva feeds upon upper side of leaves for a few days, then folds the two halves over, ties them with silk and lives within fully protected from insecticedes. Moths appear in about a month. Maybe two or three broods per year. Control . Spray with lead assenate 5 pounds to 100 gallons of water within week after first moths appear and be- fore any leaves are rolled ; burn over the f iild after the crop is harvested ; plow up old abandoned beds. Strawberry Leaf Spot or Blight is a fungus attacking the leaves of the plants. Pirst indications are small dark red to purple on the upper surface of the leaves, these spots rapidly spread and enlarge. Iffhen firmly established diseased fiel4 is very conspicuous because of bright red color which the disease imparts to the leaves. The disease usually attacks 50 planti after fruit is harvested. It very seldom attacks young plants until leaves are nearly full grown. Control. Spray thoroughly with Bordeauac mixture 4-4-50, beginning when plants are young and continuing until the berries are ripening ; mow and burn over after harvesting, since the fungus is carried over the winter in these old leaves. Rotate the strawberry bed. Yields. Cost an d Profits. The yield per acre will vary widely for different localities, and for different growers within a given locality, also there is the climatic factor entering into the question. Dry weather will reduce the yields, wet weather, especially at fruiting, may give a large yield, but this will be reduiced by rot in many cases. Different varities will give different yields, etc. The costs will depend upon the distance from market, transportation facilities, scarcity of labor and various other factors* The following taken from Wilkenson's "Modern Straw- berry Growing" will give some idea of what should be expected in strawberry growing. "Letters from the North, South, West and East show that the average amount of money put into an acre of strawber- ries is about #100, some returns showing as low as #45 and as high as $150 per acre. The majority of these estimates, how- ever, do not include rental or interest on cost of land. 51 On« of the fcest worked-oiit estimates for one acre, Tallied at #200 is the following : Interest and taxes ^^ Plosighing, harrowing, etc. & Value of 12,000 plants at #6 per M 72 Maniire, 50 loads at |l 50 Marking ground and setting plants © Summer cultivation 10 Training runners around plants ® Winter covering and cost of putting k% 15 Taking off winter covering 5 Total $186 The actual cost in money to the fanner for just one acre would he something less than this because, generally speaking the plowing, harrowing, cultivating, setting, training, marketing, etc, can all be done without much, if any lay out of cash by the farm-sr. Also the cost of winter covering can be greatly reduced, as it would be "but a slight expense to raise enough rye oat, or barley straw for this purpose. In fact, the actual cash oajjliay for the farmer would figure out something like the following : Taxes $15 Plants 72 Winter cover(iiome raised) seed and Fertilizer ® Total |8"& Added to the above costs in both cases womJid be the expense of harvesting and marketing : 8,000 quarts at 2^1!' for picking $160 8,000 qt, "boxes @ $3.50 per M less 5^ 26.60 250 crates, 32 qt. size ® 30^ per 100 less 5% 71,25 Total $257.85 Total all costs figured in ^^^*ck Total farmer's costs 362.85 52 The returns wowld, of course, depend largely upon the yield, this may -vary from 3000 to 9000 quarts. The fruit will te sold for probably an average of 12^ per quart retail, or |2 per crate wholesale. Taking the wholesale figure, the returns would be : SOOO qts, (250 crates) 4 #2 500 500 Minus total costs 443.85 362.85 Het profit 56T1B ISr.lfe The profit per acre will vary, however, as some growers receive even lower than the above, while others will show a profit of $600 on an acre. Belcw are given the aver- ages from successful Missouri growers, from Mo. Bui, 113. Cost of growing. Plowing and preparing land $3.24 Plants 13.95 Setting and marking 5.21 Hoeing 12.96 Cultivating 6«99 Mulching material 2.53 HaMing and spreading mulch 5.61 Raking off mulch -^^ Rent ^•''S Cost of growing $56.29 Cost of Marketing Berries. Crates ^ *20.40 Shed hands, bosses, teams work, etc. 9.38 53 (Cost of Haarketing "berries continued from page 52) Picking $26.32 Depreciation on tools 1,80 Cost of marketing 60,97 Total cost of growing and marketing " $llg,00 Returns from one year old Bed. Total income per acre |135,61 Cost of growing and marketing 118,00 ¥et income per acre "^ ij^ l3,61 Price received per crate varied from 1,12 to 1,90, Income varied fromr-$30,98 to+|79,57 per acre. Cost of care of Bed Second Season , Items same as for 1st season, bwt no cost for new plants, plowing, setting, etc. Total cost of growing $15,22 " " " marketing 64,49 n n n growing and marketing $79,81 . ? income per acre $146,53 Met income per acre 68,72 Prom these figures the grower may ^udge somewhat of the profits to he expected from a strawberry patch. Pall or Everbearing Strawberry. Pall bearing strawberries are a rather recent, de- velopment of the strawberry industry. These varities differ from the ordinary ones in that they blossom contiraiowsly from 54 May until freezing weather eets in. Pew fall bearing varities bear their crop the same jear that the plants are set otit. The first varifety of everbearing or fall bearing strawberry of American origin, originated on the farm of Samuel Cooper, of Cattaraugus County, New York. In the autumn of 1898, Mr. Cooper while inspecting his patch came across a plant with runners, laden with blossoms and fruit in all stages of develop- ment. This variety was named Pan American -- it is probably a sport or mutation of the Bismark variety. The chief value of the Pan American lies in its being the parent of better Mr, Cooper has produced two or three better varities, among them, Productive and Superb, Besides Mr. Cooper, several others are working on fall bearing varities with more or less, success. Among them being Louis Kubach of Arkansas ; L. J, S'ainer, Pulaski, N, Y, and Harlow Rockhill of Iowa. The latter has been most suc- cessfiol, having produced a number of seedlings. Probably his best two are seedlings Nos, 1 and 2, now named Prancis and Americus. Treatment of Fallbearing Strawberry. Greneral cultural methods are the same as for spring varities. These fall bearing plants are set out in the spring if a crop is desired the same year. By the last of May or the first of June they will blossom. These blossoms should be removed, ^-or the next three or four weeks the plants will devote their energies to the production of runners, then they will begirt blossoming again, and continue to do so 55 ^ntil freezing weather sets in. The Mossoms should be re- moved mtil three weeks hefore plants are desired to fruit, usually until about August 1st. S-rom then on, the blossoms may be left and trnlt harvested from the latter part of Augt^st until November freeze up. Picking should be made two or three times per week at first, as the weather grows colder the amount of fruit produced will decrease. TlcHirJe OF The cost of producing fall strajftberries is considera- "bly greater than for spring, consequiently they must be sold for a correspondingly higher price. It is safe to expect at least 25j!C per quart under present conditions, and will hardly pay to raise them for less. The market for fall berries is more or less restrict- ed since few are produced, but growers should find little difficulty in disposing of their crop to hotels in nearby 56 cities or to a selected group of customers. The future of fall or everbearing strawberries is rather doubtful since they will have tc compete with meuay different fruits, such as plums, pears, apples, and peaches, which competition, the early to a large extent escape. 57 EilDliopraphy. Bailey, L. H. 1906 Evolution of Our Native Pruits. 1904 Cyclppedia of American Horticulture. Chandler, W. H, 1913 Coraraercial Fertilizers for Strawberries. Univ. of Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 113. Close, C. P. et al 1907 Strawberries, m, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 124. Puller, Andrew S. 1910 The Small Pruit Culturistt. Green, W. J. et al 1912 Strawberry Notes. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 236. V-Core, J. H. 1915 Strawberry Culture in Wisconsin. Univ. of Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 248. Shaw, G. W. 1900 Miscellaneous Investigations. Ore. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 62. Taylor, 0. M. 1908 Variety Test of Strawberries and Cultural Directions. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 309, 336, 364, 401. Wilkinson, Albert 1913 Modern Strawberry Growing. d