Cornell University Library GB 1025.W6W41 The underground and sufjace *a^^^^^^^^ 3 1924 004 999 474 (Rmmll Iftmrmitg JibtJ^g THE GIFT OF Xite .iiiwua^. o| f id^ f ncupoAu 43S.^&(c>i /LVJMlsk 7583 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004999474 WISCONSIN GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY Edw. A. BIRGE, Director Wm. O. HOTCHKISS. State GeoloEJit BULLETIN NO. XXXV ECONOMIC SERIES NO. il The Underground and Surface Water Supplies of Wisconsin BY SAMUEL WEIDMAN and ALFRED R SCHULTZ Wisconsin Geological and Natural History United States Geological Survey, Survey MADISON, WIS. Published by the State 1915 f.v. OEGANIZATION OF SURVEY BOARD OF OOnmiSSIOIVBRS EMANUEL L. PHILIPP, Governor of the State. CHARLES R. VAN HISE,' President. President of the University of Wisconsin. CHARLES P. GARY, Vice President. State Superintendent of Public Instruction. HENKY D. WARD, Secretary. President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. STAFF OF THE SirBVEV ADMINISTRATION: Edward A. I^irgg, Director and Superintendent. In immediate- charge of Natural History Division. William O. Hotchkiss, State Geologist. In immediate cliarge of Geology Division. L. M. Vebkhusen, Clerk. GEOLOGY DIVISION; x^ William O. Hotchkiss, In charge. T. C. Chambeklin, Consulting Geologist, Pleistocene Geology. Samuel Weidman, Geologist, Area! Geologj'. E. F. Bean, Geologist, Chief of Field Parlies. O. W. Wheelwright, Geologist, Chief of Field Parties. R. H. VVhitbkck, Geologist, Geography of Lower Fo.x Valley. Lawrence Martin, Geologist, Physical Geography. E. Steidtman, Geologist, Limestones. F. E. Williams, Geologist, Geography and History. NATURAL HISTORY DIVISION: Edward A. ISiugb. In charge. Ohancby Juday, Ijake Survey. H. A. SCHUKTTE, Chemist. DIVISION OF SOILS: A. R. Whitson. In charge. W. .(. Gbib,* Inspector and Editor. Gut Conret, Chemist. T. J. DuNNEWALD, Field Assistant and Analyst. Carl Thompson, Field Assistant and Analyst. C. B. Post, Field Assistant and Analyst. C. W. BOARDMAN, Field Assistant and Analvst. ^Scientist in Soil Survey, Bureau ot Soil-s, U. S. Department of Agriculture^ ?,J1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Illustrations ; - ^^' Tables .- ^^^ Preface ^^' imroduction 1~10 Work of A. R. Schultz 1 Work of S. Weidman 3 Object of the investigation 4 Geologic investigation of wells ' 5 Well records 5 Samples 6 Interpretation of records and samples 6 Preservation of records and samples 7 Chem'ical investigation of water supplies 7 PART I. THE GENERAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING WATER SUP' PLIES AND THEIR CHEMICAL QUALITY. Chapter I. Geography and Geology 11-43 General Statement ." 11 Private water supplies 11 Public water supplies 12 Conditions controlling water supplies 12 Geography 13 Topography , 13 Dominant topographic features 13 Minor topographic features 14 Glacial features 14 Hydrography 1& River systems 15 Lakes 17 Rainfall 18 ] Temperatnre 19 ' Evaporation 20 Run-oiJ 20 ,Absorption 22 Agricultural and_forest conditions 22 i Population 24 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chaptek I. Geogkaphy and Geology — Continued. ^ Page Geology 25 Outline of the geologic history 25 The PrejCambrian (Other than Keweenawan) 27 Relation of underground water to the Pre-Cambrian rocks 27 The Keweenawan System 29 Relation of the underground water to the Keweenawan rocks 29 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 30 Thickness 31 ; Underground water conditions 31 Lower Magnesian limestones : • 32 Thickness .' 32 Underground water conditions 33 St. Peter sandstone 33 Thickness 34 Underground water conditions 34 Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestones 35 Thickness 35 Underground watfer conditions 35 Cincinnati shale 36 Thickness 36 Underground water conditions 36 Clinton beds 36 Niagara limestone 37 Thickness 37 Underground water conditions 37 Waubakee beds 38 Milwaukee (Hamilton) shale 38 Pleistocene Formations 39 Glacial drift .' ._ 39 Thickness 39 Underground water conditions 40 Lacustrine and estuarine deposits 40 Underground water conditions 41 Valley alluvium 41 ' Underground water conditions 42 Loess T 43 Underground water conditions 43 Chapter II. Conditions Comtkoliing Underground and Artesian Water 44-62 Local underground water and artesian water 44 Local groundwater 45 Movement in the surface zone 45 Depth to groundwater level 45 Changes in groundwater level 46 Artesian water 46 Definition of artesian water 46 Artesian head 46 Measurement of head 46 TABLE OF CONTENTS V Chapter II. Conditions Controlling Underground and Artesl*.n Water— Continued. Page Conditions controlling artesian supplies ^^ Artesian basins and artesian slopes 48 Transmitting beds ■ *^ Available artesian head ^^ Confining beds ^2 Influence of the local groundwater table 53 Areas of maximum artesian head 55 Some problems relating to artesian well supplies 56 Yield of wells 56 Character and arrangement of wells 57 - Interference of wells • 57 Causes of decrease in flows 58 Methods of increasing supply from wells 59 Contamination of groundwater supplies 59 Pollution of farm wells, springs and cisterns 60 Cjiapter III. The Plowing Artesian Wells of Wisconsin 63-98 Flowing artesian wells from the St. Peter and the Upper Cambrian sandstone 63 Plowing wells along the Mississippi river valley 64 Plowing wells in valleys tributary to the Mississippi river 65 Chippewa valley 65 Red Cedar valley 66 Beef valley 66 Trempealeau valley 67 Black river valley. . . , 67 La Crosse valley 67 Coon Creek valley... ^^ 70 Kickapoo valley 70 Baraboo valley 72 Rock River valley 74 Pox River valley (of 111.) '. 76 Plowing artesian wells along Fox River valley to Green Bay. ... 76 Plowing wells along west shore of Green Bay 78 Plowing wells along the shore of Lake Michigan 78 Flowing wells from the Galena-Platteville limestone 81 Plowing wells from the Niagara limestone 81 Flowing wells from the crystalline rocks 85 Surface conditions 85 Underground conditions : 86 Plowing wells from the surface formations 87 / Plowing wells along Lake Michigan 88 Plowing wells in the Pox River valley 90 Green Bay, De Pere, Kaukauna 90 Appleton, Lake Butte des Morts 90 Omro, Omro to Berlin 91 Berlin and vicinity 91 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter III. The Plowing Artesian Wells of Wisconsin — Continued. Page Lake Poygan and vicinity ^^ Aurorahville and vicinity ^^ Plowing wells along Wolf River valley ^^ Shallow flowing wells in Rock River valley ^^ Plowing wells about Lake Koshkonong 9^ -Plowing wells along Lake Superior ^^ Isolated areas of surface flows ^^ Chapter IV. Prospecting fob Plowing Wells 99-113 The influence of the local water table on artesian pressure 99' Areas in which success is probable 102 Western Wisconsin • 102 Valleys in western Wisconsin in which flows may be obtained. . 106 Eastern Wisconsin south of Lake Winnebago 107 Eastern Wisconsin north of Lake Winnebago lOS Kewaunee-Door Peninsula *109' Rock River Valley 109 Prospecting for surface flows 110 Plows from the drift Ill Plows from the Niagara Ill Plows from the Pre-Cambrian 112 Methods of drilling for flowing wells 112 Packing and casing 113. Chapter V. Springs and Mineral Waters 114-126 Surface springs 114 Deep-seated springs 115 Distribution of springs . ; 115 Springs in the crystalline rocks 116 Springs in the Upper Cambrian sandstone and Lower Mag- nesian limestone 116 Springs in the St. Peter sandstone and Galena-Platteville lime- stone 117 Springs in the Cincinnati shale and Niagara limestone 11& Springs in the drift and other surface Jtormations 120 Mineral springs of Wisconsin 121 Mineral waters 121 Quantity and value 122 List of springs 123 Composition '. 123 Use of mineral waters. . . . ; 125 Medicinal water > 125 Table water 126 Chapter VI. The General Composition and Uses op Water Supplies 127-159 Source of matter contained in underground water 127 Materials in solution 127 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Chapter VI. The General Composition and Uses of Water Supplies — Continued. Page Water analyses ^^^' Sanitary analyses • 128 Mineral analyses 128- Solids 128 Silica, iron, iron and aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, carbonates and bicarbonates 129 Sulphates, chlorides, organic matter , 130 Gases l^*' Carbon dioxide 13" Ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen • 131 Hydrogen sulphide ^ 132: Public water supplies of Wfsconsin 132 ilunicipal and private ownership 133 Public water supplies (tabulated) 134-141 Uses of water 142 Standards for classification 142 Water for drinking and domestic purposes 143 Physical qualities 143 bacteriological qualities 143 Cliemical qualities 144 Salt waters 144 Hard and soft waters 145 Waters of high and low mineral content 146 Water for boiler use 147 Formation of scale 147 Corrosion 150' Foaming 152 Remedies for boiler troubles ■ 154 Boiler compounds 154 Water for Industrial uses 155 Effect of free acids 155 Effect of suspended matter 155 Effect of color 155 Effect of iron '. 156 Effect of calcium and magnesium 156 Effect of carbonates 156- Effect of sulphates 156 Effect of chlorides 156 ■ Effect of organic matter ; 15T Effect of other substances 15T Purification of water supplies 15T Sewage purification 15S ^iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page <:hapteb VII. Chemical Quality and Factors Affecting the Mineral- ^ 1 c(\ 202 izATioN OF Underground Water Supplies General chemical quality of the underground water • • Chemical composition of waters by districts - District A. Area of soft waters 1fi4 District B. Area of hard waters ^"' District C. Area of hard and very hard waters 166 District D. Area of very hard waters 1^^ Exceptional waters. Highly mineralized waters 170 Distribution of highly mineralized water I'^l Chemical quality of the underground water in relation to the ge- ological formations ^'^ Quality of water in the Pre-Cambrian rocks 173 Quality of water in the Lake Superior sandstone 174 Quality of water in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) and the , St. Peter sandstone 175 Quality of sandstone water in outcrop area of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) and Lower Magnesian . 176 Quality of the water in the sandstone in outcrop area of the Galena-Platteville limestone ^ 177 Quality of the water in the sandstone iinder the outcrop area of the Niagara limestone 178 Quality of the water in the Galena-Platteville limestone 179 Quality of the water in the Cincinnati shale 181 Quality of the water in the Niagara limestone 182 Quality of the water in the Surface deposits 183 Quality of water in the crystalline drift 185 Quality of water in the limestone drift 185 Quality of the water in the alluvial deposits 186 Quality of the water in lacustrine clays and silts 187 Summary of quality of water by districts 188 Summary of quality of water by geologic formations 190 Correlation of mineralization of the underground waters by dis- tricts and by geologic formations 192 Quality of water in the Pre-Cambrian 197 Prospecting for water supplies with respect to mineral quality. . . . 199 •Chapter VIII. Surface Water Supplies and theib Chemical Quality 203-222 Source of surface water 203 Character of surface water 204 Water supplies from rivers 204 Bacterial condition of streams 205 Water supplies from lakes 207 Character of lake supplies 207 Inland lakes 208 Data of surveyed lakes (tabulated) 208 Great Lakes 208 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Chaptek VIII. Surface Water Supplies and their Chejiical Qual- ity — ^Continued. Page Chemical quality of surface waters 210 River waters 210 Lake waters 214 Inland lakes 214 Great lakes 218 PART II. THE DESCRIPTION OP LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES BY COUNTIES. Adams County i - 225 Geological formations i 225 Water supplies for cities and villages 226 Quality of water and analyses 226 Ashland County 228 Geological formations 228 Water supplies for cities and villages 229 Quality of water and analyses 232 earron County 234 Geological formations 234 Water supplies for cities and villages 235 Quality of water and analyses 237 Bayfield county 2'37 Geological formations 238 Water supplies for cities and villages 239 Quality of water and analyses 240 Brown County : 241 Geological formations 241 Water supplies for cities and villages 243 Quality of water and analyses 249 Buffalo County 251 Geological formations 251 Water supplies for cities and villages 253 Quality of water and analyses 255 Burnett County 256 Geological formations 256 Water supplies for cities and villages 258 Quality of water and analyses 258 Calumet County f 259 Geological formations 259 Water supplies for cities and villages 263 Quality of water and analyses 265 Chippewa County 266 Geological formations .-. 266 Water supplies for cities and villages 268 ■Quality of water and analyses 269 TABLE OF C02i TENTS Page Clark County 270 Geological formations 270 Water supplies for cities and villages 271 Quality of water and analyses 273 Columbia County 274 Geological formations , 274 Water supplies for cities and villages 276 Quality of water and analyses 278- Crawford County ; 281 Geological formations 281 Water supplies for cities and villages 283 Quality of water and analyses 287 Dane County _ 288 Geological formations 289' Water supplies for cities and villages 291 Quality of water and analyses 298 Dodge County 301 Geological formations 301 Water supplies for cities and villages 303 Quality of water and analyses 307 Door County 31* Geological formations 310 Water supplies for cities and villages 313 Quality of water and analyses ' 313' Douglas County 314 Geological formations 314 Water supplies of Superior 316 Quality of water and analyses. 318 Dunn County 319 Geological formations 319- Water supplies for cities and villages 321 Quality of water and analyses 322' Kau Claire County 323- Geological formations 323 Water supplies for cities and villages 325 Quality of water and analyses 3 Florence County 3 Geological formations 3 Water supplies for cities and villages 3 Quality of water and analyses 3 Fond du Lac County 3 Geological formations 3 Water supplies for cities and villages 3 Quality of water and analyses 3 Forest County 3 Geological formations 3 Water supplies for cities and villages 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi .Page ■Orant County ^ 345 Geological formations ; 346 Water supplies for cities and villages 350 Quality of water and analyses 353 ■ -Green County 355 Geological formations 356 Water supplies for cities and villages 357 Quality of water and analyses : 359 •Green Lake County ' 361 Geological formations 361 Water supplies for cities and villages 363 Quality of water and analyses 364 Iowa County 365 Geological formations 366 Water supplies for cities and villages 368 Quality of water and analyses 369 Iron County 371 Geological formations 372 Water supplies for cities and villages 373 Quality of water and analyses 374 Jackson County 375 Geological formations 375 Water supplies for cities and villages 376 Quality of water and analyses 377 Jefferson County 378 Geological formations 378 Water supplies for cities and villages 380 Quality of water and analyses 385 Juneau County 389 Geological formations 389 Water supplies for cities and villages 391 Quality of water and analyses 393 ICenosha County 395 Geological formations 395 Water supplies for cities and villages 397 Quality of water and analyses 399 .Kewaunee County '. 401 Geological formations 402 Water supplies for cl'ties and villages 404 Quality of water and analyses 405 X.a Crosse County 406 Geological formations 406 Water supplies for cities and villages 408 Quality of water and analyses 413 Xafayette County 417 Geological formations , 417 Water supplies for cities and villages 419 Quality of water and analyses 420 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Langlade County 42L Geological formations 421 Water supplies for cities and villages 421 Quality of water and analyses 422 Lincoln County ■ — 423. Geological formations 424 Water supplies for cities and villages 424 Quality of water and analyses 425 Manitowoc County 42T Geological formations 427 Water supplies for cities and villages 431 Quality of water and analyses 433- Marathon County 435 Geological formations 435 Water supplies for cities and villages , 43ft Quality of water and analyses . . . : 439 Marinette County 441 Geological formations 441 Water supplies for cities and villages 445 Quality of water and analyses 446' Marquette County 44S Geological formations 448 Water supplies for cities and villages 449^ Quality of water and analyses 450- Milwaukee County 451 Geological formations 451 Water supplies for cities and villages 454 Quality of water and analyses 461 Monroe County 468 Geological formations 468 Water supplies for cities and villages. 473 Quality of water and analyses 475 Oconto County 477 Geological formations 478 Water supplies for cities and villages 481 Quality of water and analyses 482 Oneida County 483 Geological formations 484 Water supplies for cities and villages 484 Quality of water and analyses 485 Outagamie County 48S Geological formations 486 Water supplies for cities and villages 489 Quality of water and analyses -.- 492 Ozaukee County 494 Geological formations 494 Water supplies for cities and villages 498 Quality of water and analyses 498 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii Page I'epin County : 500 Geological formations 500 Water supplies for cities and villages 505 Quality of water and analyses 505 Pierce County 506 Geological formations 506 Water supplies for cities and villages 508 Quality of water and analyses 510 Polk County 511 Geological formations 511 Water supplies for cities and villages 514 Quality of water and analyses 517 Portage County * 518 Geological formations 518 Water supplies for cities and villages 519 Quality of water and analyses 520 Price County 52L Geological formations ^ 522 Water supplies for cities and villages , 522 Quality of water and analyses 523. Racine County '. 524 Geological formations 524 Water supplies for cities and villages , 526- Quality of water and analyses 530 Richland County 533- Geological formations 533 Water supplies for cities and villages 535 Quality of water and analyses 535 Rock County 536. Geological formations 537 Water supplies for cities and villages ,-. 539' Quality of water and analyses 541 Rusk County 544- Geological formations 544 Water supplies for cities and villages ■ 545 Quality of water and analyses 545 St. Croix County 545 Geological formations 546 Water supplies for cities and villages 549 Quality of water and analyses 55L Sauk County ' 552 Geological formations 553 Water suppjies for cities and villages 555> Quality of water and analyses 557 Sawyer County 559- Geological formations 559 Water supplies for cities and villages 560' Quality of water and analyses 56(^ xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Shawano County 560 Geological formations T 561 Water supplies for cities and villages 562 Quality of water and analyses 564 Sheboygan County 565 Geological formations 565 Water supplies for cities and villages 568 Quality of water and analyses 570 Taylor County 574 Geological formations '. 575 Water supplies for cities and villages 575 Quality of water and analyses 576 Trempealeau County 576 Geological formations 577 Water supplies for cities and villages 578 Quality of water and analyses 580 Yernon County ■ . 580 Geological formations 581 Water supplies for cities and villages 583 . Quality of water and analyses 584 Vilas County 585 Geological formations 585 Water supplies for cities and villages 586 Quality of water and analyses 586 Walworth County 588 Geological formations 588 Water supplies for cities and villages ■ 590 Quality of water and analyses ' 595 Washburn County 597 Geological formations 598 Water supplfes for cities and villages 598 Quality of water and analyses 599 Washington County 600 Geological formations 601 Water supplies for cities and villages 603 Quality of water and analyses ■. 605 W^aukesha County 607 Geological formations 608 Water supplies, for cities and villages 610 Quality of water and analyses 614 Waupaca County .- 618 Geological formations 619 Water supplies for cities and villages 620 Quality of water and analyses 622 TVaushara County 623 Geological formations 623 Water supplies for cities and villages 625 Quality of water and analyses 626 TABLE OF CONTENTB XV Page Winnebago County 627 Geological formations 627 Water supplies for cities and villages 630 Quality of water and analyses 634 Wood County 636 Geological formations 636 Water supplies for cities and villages 637 Quality of water and analyses 639 Index 639 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Piate I. Geological map of Wisconsin showing artesian conditions.. In pocket II. General geologic section of Wisconsin 26 III. Map of area of flowing wells in the Niagara limestone about Rockfield and South Germantown 84 IV. Map of area of flowing wells in drift about Mayfield and Jack- son 88 V. Map of Wisconsin showing average mineral content of under- ground waters in districts 162 FIGURES. Pig. 1. Diagram showing annual rainfall at Madison 20 2. Diagrammatic section showing the thick glacial drift over the rock 39 3. Diagrammatic section showing thin drift over the rock 40 - 4. Section illustrating the alluvial deposits and terraces along the Chippewa river below Eau Claire 42 5. Diagram illustrating relations of groundwater to streams and wells 45 6. Section of aii artesian basin 48 7. Section of an artesian slope ". 49 8. Diagram illustrating location of safe and unsafe wells 61 9. Diagram showing danger of. pollution where casing is carried only to rock 61 10. Section showing relation of the artesian profile to the surface of the La Crosse valley 69 11. Section showing relation 'of the artesian profile to the surface of the Kickapoo valley 71 12. Section showing relation of the artesian profile to the surface of the Baraboo valley 73 13. Section showing relation of the artesian profile, to. the lake level along the shore of Lake Michigan 80 14. Section illustrating a seepage spring fed from unconfined waters in porous sand 115 15. Section illustrating a fissure spring fed from underlying por- ous sandstone through fissures in overlying limestone 115 ILLUSTRATIONS Xvii Page 16. Section from central to eastern Wisconsin illustrating average mineral content of the underground water in the geologic strata and districts 193 17. Diagram illustrating progressive increase of mineralization of underground water with increase in depth of the sea of un- derground water r .^ . . 195 18. Geologic section, east-west, across central Adams county. . . . 225 19. Geologic section, north-south, along boundary of Ashland and Bayfield counties 228 20. Geologic section, east-west, across central Barron county .... 235 21. Geologic section, east-west, across central Brown county .... 242 22. Geologic section, east-west, across Buffalo and Pepin counties 251 23. Geologic section, east-west, across > Burnett, Washburn, Saw- yer, Price, Oneida, Forest and Florence counties 256 24. Geologic section, east-west, along southern boundary of Calu- met and Manitowoc, and northern boundary of Sheboygan counties 260 25. Geologic section, along Chippewa river in Chippewa county.. 266 26. Geologic section, east-west, across southern Clark county. . . . 270 27. Geologic section, east-west, across Columbia county 275 28. Geologic section, east-west, across Crawford county 281 29. Geologic section, north-south, across Dane county 289 30. ^ Geologic section of city well at Madison 294 31. Geologic section, east-west, across. Dodge county 302 32. Geologic section, east-west, along boundary of Door and Ke- waunee counties 310 33. Geologic section, north-south, across Douglas county 315 34. Geologic section, east-west, across Dunn county 319 35. Geologic section, east-west, across Eau Claire county 323 36. Geologic section, east-west, across Fond du Lac county 331 37. Geologic section across Grant county from Boscobel to Platte- ville 346 38. Geologic section, east-west, across Green county 356 39. Geologic section, east-west, across Green Lake and Marquette counties 362 40. Geologic section, north-south, across Iowa county 366 41. Geologic section, east-west, across Jackson and Trempealeau counties 375 42. Geologic section, east-west, across Jefferson county 378 43. Geologic section, east-west, across Juneau county 389 44. Geologic section, east-west, along boundary of Kenosha and Racine, and through central Walworth, counties 395 45. Geologic section, east-west, across La Crosse county 406 46. Geologic section, «ast-west, across Lafayette county 418 47. Geologic section, east-west, across Marathon county 435 48. Geologic section at Wausau 437 49. Geologic section at Mosinee 439 50. Geologic section, north-south, across Marinette county 442 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS Page 51. Geologic section, east^west, across Milwaukee and Waukesha counties 451 52. Artesian well sections between Waukesha and Milwaukee 460 53. Geologic section, north-south, across western Monroe county.. 468 54. Geologic section, east-west, across southern Oconto county... 478 55. Geologic section, from Kaukauna to New London, Outagamie county 486 56. Geologic section, east-west, across Ozaukee and Washington counties 495 57. Diagram illustrating proper and improper methods of casing artesian wells at Durand 503 58. Geologic section, east-west, across Pierce county 506 5S. Geologic section. Clear Lake to St. Croix Falls, in Polk county 511 60. Section illustrating source of springs at St. Croix Falls 514 61. Geologic section, north-south, along boundary of Portage and Wood counties 518 62. Geologic section of the vicinity of Stevens Point 519 63. Geologic section, east-west, across Richland county 533 64. Geologic section, east-west, across Rock county 537 65. Geologic section, east-west, across St. Croix county 546 66. Geologic section, north-south, across Sauk county.... 553 67. Geologic section, east-west, across Shawano county 561 68. Geologic section, east-west, across Vernon county 581 69. Geologic section, east-west, across Waupaca county, 619 70. Geologic section, east-west, across Waushara county 623 71. Geologic section, east-west, across- Winnebago county 628 72. Geologic section of the vicinity of Grand Rapids 637 TABLES (In Part I) Page Table 1. Monthly and annual precipitation for Wisconsin stations 19 2. Mean annual rainfall and runoff of rivers 21 3. Annual relation of rainfall and runoff on Fox and Chippewa rivers 21, 22 4. Mechanical analyses of typical soils of Wisconsin 23 5. Numbered as Plate II. General geologic section of Wisconsin 25 6. Showing elevation of the Pre-Cambrian in deep wells 28 7. Maximum head of flowing wells in Mississippi Valley." 64 8. Maximum head of wells in Chippewa Valley 65 9. Head of flowing wells in Trempealeau Valley 67 10. Head of wells in the La Crosse Valley 67 11. Head of flowing wells in Coon Creek Valley 70 12. Head of flowing wells in Kickapoo Valley 72 13. Maximum head of flowing wells in Baraboo Valley 74 14. Maximum head of flowing wells in Rock River Valley 75 15. Maximum head of artesian wells in Fox River Valley (of Illinois) 76 16. Maximum head of wells in Fox River Valley 77 17. Maximum head of artesian wells along west shore of Green Bay 78 18. Maximum head of artesian wells along Lake Michigan 79 19. Logs of flowing wells in Warren, Aurora and vicinity 94 20. Production and value of mineral waters in Wisconsin 122 21. Analyses of mineral waters 124 21A. Public water supplies of Wisconsin, source, pumpage, pres- sure and consumers 134-141 22. Average mineral content of underground water in District A 163 23. Average mineral content of underground water in District B 165 24. Average mineral content of underground water in District C 167 25. Average mineral content of underground water in District D 169 26. Showing locality and source of highly mineralized waters and salt waters 172 27. Average mineral content of water in the Upper Cambrian in area of the Potsdam and Lower Magnesian 176 28. Average mineral content of water in Upper Cambrian and St. J'eter sandstone under the Galena-Platteville lime- stone 177 XX TABLES Page 29. Average mineral content of water in Upper Cambrian and St. Peter sandstone under the Niagara and Galena-PlattevlUe limestone l'^9 30. Average mineral content of water in the Galena-Platteville limestone 180 31. Comparison of average mineral content of water in the Galena-Platteville limestone with that in the underlying Upper Cambrian and St. Peter sandstone 181 32. Average mineral content of water in the Niagara limestone. . 182 33. Average mineral' content of water In the surface deposits in the various districts of Wisconsin 184 34. Average mineral content of water in alluvial sand in Mon- roe and La Crosse counties, 187 35. Average mineral content of water from wells in the surface deposits and in the rock 189 36. Average mineral content of underground water of all the wells in Wisconsin 190 37. Average mineral content of water in the' sandstone, mainly Upper Cambrian 191 38. Showing relation of depth of sea of underground water to mineralization of the water in Wisconsin and Iowa 194 39. Bacterial content of Isar River, Germany 205 40. Chlorine and bacterial determination of water in Illinois River 206 41. Surveyed lakes in southeastern Wisconsin 208 42. Unsurveyed lakes in southeastern Wisconsin 208 43. Lakes of northeastern Wisconsin 208 44. Lakes of northwestern Wisconsin 208 45. Area and depth of Lake Superior and Michigan 209 46. Mineral analyses of typical creek and river waters 211 47. Mineral analyses of water from the Wisconsin river near Portage 212 48. Mineral analyses of water from Chippewa river near Eau Claire 213 49. Mineral analyses of water from inland lakes of Wisconsin . . 215, 216 50. Mineral analyses of water from typical inland lakes 218 51. Mineral analyses of water fr.om Lake Superior at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan 219 Mineral analyses of water from Lake Michigan at St. Ig- nace, Michigan 220 63. Mineral analyses of water of Lake Michigan at various lo- calities in Wisconsin 221 52 PREFACE The investigation which has led to the publication of the following report was started by the United States Geological Survey in 1903. The work was undertaken by Mr. Alfred B. Schultz, under the direc- tion of Mr. M. L. Fuller, at that time Chief of the Eastern Section, Division of Hydrology. The manuscript report of Mr. Schultz, en- titled "Underground Waters of the Wisconsin District", describing the area of northern Illinois and the Northern Peninsula of Michigan, as well as of Wisconsin, was completed for publication in 1905. The publication fund of the United States Geological Survey was exhausted at that time and the report was turned over to The Wisconsin Geolog- ical and Natural History Survey for publication. As a part of the manuscript dealt with territory outside of Wiscon- sin it seemed advisable to alter and amend the work to make it conform to the state boundaries before publishing it as a State Survey report. Unfoi'eseen circumstances arose to delay publication, and in the mean- time new facts were obtained in the course of work by the Wisconsin Survey which made it appear advisable to add to the report before pub- lication. This work was assigned to Mr. Weidman of the Wisconsin Survey in 1908, since which time he has devoted such time to this work as was not required by his other duties. He has collected additional data in parts of the state not visited in the original investigation, and has added to the descriptive details of other portions of the State. In revising the descriptive details, of localities, the data was rearranged and rewritten into separate county descriptions, as presented, in Part II. Additional mineral analyses of Wisconsin water supplies were collected and these, together with those of the original report were correlated with their geologic source and arranged by counties in order to be accessible and more convenient for local use. Mineral an- alyses of surface waters, as well as additional underground waters, have been compiled. Three of the chapters of the report, namely Chap- ter IV, "Prospecting for Flowing Wells", Chapter VU, "The Chem- Xxii PREFACE. ieal Quality and Factors Affecting the Mineralization of Underground Waters", and Chapter VIII, "The Surface Water Supplies and Their Chemical Quality", were added by Mr. Weidman. ^ Since the report is made up of important contributions by both, to the knowledge of water supplies it is issued under the joint authorship of Mr. Weidman and Mr. Schultz. ' E. A. BiEGE, Director. THE UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. BY Samuel Weidman and Alfred E. Schtjltz Wisconsin Geological and Natural United States Geological Survey History Survey INTRODUCTION. The investigation of the water resources of Wisconsin has been under" way for some time, having been carried on at intervals during the past ten or twelve years. Since the work was started the original plan of the investigation, has been altered with reference to the area described, and modified with respect to the various phases of water supplies dis- cussed. The Work of Alfred R. Schultz. During the summer of 1903, A. R. Schultz, was assigned by the United States Geological Survey to the study of the underground waters of Wisconsin, Northern Illinois, and the Northern Peninsula of Michigan,, tlie territory comprised being referred to as the Wisconsin District. The more important parts of the district were visited and examined and the remainder was covered as completely as possible by correspondence. In 1905 a brief account of the underground water conditions in the Wisconsin District by Mr. Schultz was published.^ In 1905 the prepar- ation of a report on this district was completed, which was then sub- mitted by the United States Geological Survey to the Wisconsin Geo- logical and Natural History Survey for publication. The manuscript report of Mr. Schultz consisted of something over 400 pages of typewritten copy and numerous illustrations, with tables U. S. Geol. Survey, W. S. P. No.. 114, p. 233-241. 2 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. of well records, and mineral analyses of underground waters. About one-half of this manuscript with the well records and analyses dealt with territory outside of Wisconsin. The following is quoted with but slight change from the introductory Chapter : "In the preparation of this report the writer has endeavored to use all the available data, including that derived from other observers, as well as that gathered during the present investigation. A number -of records for Illinois have already been collected and published by Mr. Leverett.^ These records have been used by the writer and compared with the records ,obtained through correspondence and all available ad- ditional data have been added. A large part of the earlier records in Wisconsin have been taken from the "Geology of Wisconsin" partic- ularly Vol. II, by T. C. C'hamberlin. The same report has repeatedly been referred to for the geology of the district. The Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota Survey reports have been consulted and the few records embodied in these reports, throwing light upon the condition in the Wisconsin district, have been utilized. A report by Prof. D. W. Mead on ' ' The Hydrology of the I'pper Mississippi Valley and Adja- cent Territory "'^ was furnished the writer by Prof. Mead and some data not previously obtained were taken from this source. "Prom the 12th of May to the 18th of July, 1903, the writer was as- sisted by Mr. G. W. Crane, who visited a large number of localities in the Green Bay Valley and southward along I^ake Michigan as far as Wauke- gan, Illinois. Mr. Crane obtained much valuable data concerning the dis- tribution of the drift wells, the description of wells from the various horizons west of Green Bay, and the logs of wells which throw consid- erable light upon the conditions of the St. Peter sandstone over its northward extension. The writer's observation covered the more im- portant parts of the remaining district in Wisconsin, while the outlying sections and those of minor importance were covered by correspondence. "The writer wishes here to acknowledge his indebtedness to the per- sons who aided him in the preparation of this report, either directly or by so generously responding to his letters of inquiry, without which much of the material could not here be presented. He is especially in- debted to Dr. Alfred C. Lane, State Geologist of Michigan, who by cor- respondence and published material, has presented valuable informa- tion regarding the underground waters in the Northern Peninsula of Michigan. Thanks are also due Mr. Henry Eettinghouse, Superintend- ' Seventeenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Gaol. Surv., Pt. 2, 1896, pp. 701-842: U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon.. XXXVIII 1899. 'Assoc, of Eng. Societies, Jour., Vol. 13, No. 7, 68 pp. 1894. INTHODVCTION. 3 ent of Bridges and Building for the Chicago North-Western Railroad, for numerous logs of wells sunk by that Company on the Ashland Divi- sion, and to Mr. W. G. Kirchoffer, Consulting Engineer of Madison, for many valuable records and suggestions on field observations. (The records and data of Mr. Kirchoffer were published^ in 1905 and have been freely utilized in the final preparation of this report.) '"The writer should also acknowledge his indebtedness to Prof. T. C. Chamberlin and Dr. W. C. Alden of the United States Geological Sur- vey, for the use of their field notes on southeastern Wisconsin ; to Mr. M. O. Leighton for the use of data turned over to him by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad ; to A. C. Veatch for numerous sug- gestions ; and to Mr. M. L. Fuller for suggestions on field work during the summer months." The Work of Samuel Weidman. As the original plan of the work of Mr. Schultz included ths investi- gation of the underground water resources of a large part of Illinois and Michigan, it was necessary, on this account, to alter and amend the -work very considerably in preparing it for publication as a report of the Wisconsin Survey. The labor of making the best use of the manu- script of Mr. Schultz, and the task of obtaining additional data to com- plete the work for publication was undertaken by Mr. Weidman in 1908 and has been carried on by him as the time available from other duties has permitted. The report, submitted by Mr. Schultz, has served as the principal basis for some of the chapters of the present publication, and has been used verbatim by Mr. Weidman whenever it was convenient to do so. It was found necessary, however, as already stated, not only to deduct the descriptive matter pertaining to Michigan and Illinois, but, also, to collect much additional data, and to greatly add to the descriptive matter of considerable portions of Wisconsin. In revising the descrip- tive details of localities, these were rearranged and largely rewritten in- to separate county descriptions. Many additional mineral analyses of Wisconsin water supplies were collected, and these were likewise ar- ranged by counties, in order to be more accessible and more convenient for local use as well as for the reason that such arrangement is more ap- propriate for scientific discussion and correlation. Mineral analyses of surface waters, as well as of additional undergx-ound waters, have been ' The Sources of Water Supply in Wisconsin. Bull. Univ. of Wis. No. 106, 1905. 4 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. compiled, one of the additional chapters of the work being on surface water supplies of the state. Besides Chapter VIII, "The Surface "Water Supplies and Their Chemical Quality", Chapter IV, "Prospecting for Flowing Wells", and Chapter VII, "The Chemical Quality and Factors Affecting the Mineralization of Underground Water Supplies", were added by Mr. Weidman. He also prepared most of the illustrations. Although the manuscript report submitted by Mr. Schultz contained many illustra- tions, only 4 of these could be conveniently utilized on account of changes in the scope of the report, these being Plates III and IV and Figures 30 and 57. Briefly stated, therefore, the original manuscript report of Mr. Schultz has been greatly revised and has been utilized by Mr. Weidman as a basis for a more complete report. Many additional facts have been compiled from both published and unpublished sources, as well as from original investigation, and the various data from all available sources regarding water supplies, artesian conditions and mineral analyses have been classified and correlated in as scientific a manner as possible, with their geologic and geographic environment. Object ob" the Investigation. The need of an investigation of our water supplies is obvious to all, as water is used for many industrial purposes, as well as for drinking and domestic use. The quantity of water available, as well as the qual- ity, are two prime objects that should be kept in mind by those in search of, a supply. Local well drillers, while quite fully conversant with local conditions for common farm wells, cannot be expected to know, either the quantity or quality of certain sources of supply, espe- cially of artesian supplies, or the depth at which they can be reached, for the larger use of villages and cities. For obtaining the largest and best supplies for municipal or industrial use there is needed the skillful interpretation of geologic data collected from a considerable area and a general acquaintance of the quantity and quality of the supply likely to be available in the locality. The detailed descriptions of local geological conditions and of the sources and character of water supplies presented in this work are for the purpose of furnishing to each county and locality the best'informa- tion and deductions available concerning the water resources in the various localities. For this purpose the general depth of the water- bearing strata in each county is given and illustrated by appropriate diagrams ; the character and thicltness of each water-bearing formation INTRODUCTION. 5 is described; the artesian conditions are discussed; and the mineral quality of the water in the various water-bearing formations is indicated. In addition more or less detailed descriptions of well sections and water supplies for each city or village are given as space available appeared to warrant and the data permitted. It should be stated that a large amount of data bearing on the subject of water resources has been compiled from various localities which it appears to b& unnecessary to publish. The data, however, have been studied and have been used as a basis upon which generalizations and deductions have been made concerning the local undergound conditioas. The value of this published investigation will depend largely upon its intelligent use by local well drillers, municipal officers, engineers and others in search of water supplies. If it is desirable to obtain additional information concerning certain localities, this information will be fur- nished by the State Survey from additional data, so far as available. Geologic Investigation of Wells. The records and logs of wells in various localities of the state furnish data of the greatest importance to the geologist or engineer in any in- vestigation of local water resources. While the geological structure of the state is relatively simple on account of the fact that the succes- sive strata overlie each other in regular order from the central to the outer portions of the state, like an imbricated pattern, and therefore the general geological relations and general thickness of strata are known in all parts of the state, yet the local conditions, depending upon various factors, are variable to a certain extent ; hence it is important to have as complete records of the strata as possible in each locality. While the approximate position and thickness of strata can be inferred from the position of local surrounding outcrops, the local well records are necessarily relied upon to furnish the exact data. Well Records — The data on which deductions concerning the artesian conditions in various parts of the state are largely or entirely based, have. been the records of wells put down in the various artesian dis- tricts and localities. A large number of these records are necessarily second hand and many are incapable of verification. In many instances, however, either the owner or the well driller has placed on record much valuable data as to diameters of the bore and casings, fluctuation of water in the tube, depth, discharge and head of water-bearing horizons, and in some instances the. driller's log and samples of the drillings have been obtained. It is unfortunate that little or nothing is now known ex- cept the present head and discharge of many of the artesian flowing 6 THE^ WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. wells of the state. Even where artesian wells are non-flowing or are now abandoned detailed information of such wells would be valuable for later use in the search of water in the same locality. Of equal importance with artesian phenomena is the value of ac- curate data as to the exact source of supply in the investigation of the chemical quality of the water for industrial uses. There are very gen- erally appreciable differences in the mineral content of water from vari- ous, water-bearing strata, hence it is of much importance to have all the information that is possibly available concerning the source of supply, in order to forecast the probable mineral quality of the supply that is obtainable. The well driller or the owner should compile and preserve the follow- ing data concerning each deep or otherwise important well drilled for a municipality, industrial plant, or other public or private purpose : 1. Ownership and location of well. 2. Location with respect to surface features (in a valley or upon a hill.) 3. Character and thickness of surface formation. 4. Character and thickness of first kind, of rock. 5. Character and thickness of each succeeding kind of rock. 6. Total depth of well. 7. Length and diameter of easing. 8. Diameter of well below, casing. 9. If an ordinary groundwater well, give depth of water in well. 10. If a non-flowing artesian well give depth or depths at which rise of water was obtained, and height at which water rose in the well, and depth of water in the well. 11. If a flowing artesian well give : — a. Depth at which first water rise was obtained and head of same. b. Depth of each succeeding rise and head of same. c. Artesian head above curb. d. Average discharge of well at curb. e. Change in head or dischargelf any noted. 12. Additional information or remarks. Samples of Drillings. — A full set of samples of the drillings of all the deep wells of the state should be preserved. The samples can be taken at intervals of preferably 5 or 10 feet and at every change in the strata and never less often than every 20 feet even in the same kind of rock. The drillings should not be washed, but transferred directly from the slush, bucket to a clean receptacle, and after drying, preserved in separ- IXTRODUCTION. q ate cloth bags or in one to four ounce bottles. When samples are prop- erly taken and labeled at once with the exact depth from which they are drawn they form a very valuable record of the strata penetrated. Interpretations of Records and Samples. — The rocks penetrated in deep well borings are often difficult to interpret from descriptions given by well drillers. Even a careful examination of well drillings under the microscope by a geologist sometimes does not suffice to determine the exact character of the formation from which such drillings are sup- posed to have been derived. Various modifications in the character of the formations tend to be misleading in the interpretations of well rec- ords, and hence a detailed geological knowledge of the locality and a careful examination of the well drillings, are usually necessary before exact horizons in deep well borings can be definitely determined. Preservation of Records and Samples. — The State Geological Survey or the Geological Department of the State University will be pleased to receive and preserve all records and logs of wells and the samples of drillings. The drillings and the geological strata penetrated may then be identified, and the samples preserved in uniform receptacles, and all data and samples filed and made readily accessible for present use or future reference. Upon application to this Survey sacks for preserving samples will be sent free of charge. The carefully made well records and the preservation of samples are not only of the greatest value in acquiring an understanding of the best available underground water resources of various localities in the state, fis described in a general report like the following, but the information compiled from these records and inferences based thereon are very often called for and utilized by many municipal authorities, either di- rectly or indirectly, in developing new or additional Avater supplies. The authors are indebted to Mr. P. T. Thwaites for the .compilation and interi)retation of many of the well records presented in this report. Chemical Investigation of the Water Supplies. , ri 3 a) D tit 0) c n s s Z S 0) 0^ P a a K c ^ b ^ < s < Qfj O 'A C ■< Feet. Ye'rs Ashland t>47 19 1.14 1.23 1.53 2.11 3.30 3.43 4.07 3.14 3.13 2.84 1.53 1.21 28,66 SOB 19 19 1.00 1.00 0.92 1. 28 1.90 2.33 2.04; 2.58 4.2V 4.37 4. 75 4.66 4.12 3.47 3.28 3.26 4.05 3.93 2.95 3.22 1.39 1.17 1.67 1.48 32.13 EauClaiie 32.96 Medford 1420 20 0.96 1.09 1.45 2.26 4.26 5.10 4.09 3.52 4.05 3.41 1.57 1.2£ 33.05 Koepenick KiSK 19 1.3t) 1.28 1.86 2.'/l 3.62 3.96 8.84 3.41 4.21 3.17 1.98 1.26 32.65 Florence 1203 18 1.08 1..S9 2.115 2.44 3.V6 3.53 4.10 3.20 3.27 2.60 2.11 1.54 31 07 r>a Crosse 681 37 1.12 1.06 1.61 2.. 39 3.V5 4. 38 3.93 3.66 4.08 2.39 1,59 1 ,.35 31.31 Lancaster 10711 IS 1.114 1.13 1.751 2.95 4.35 4.15 4.11 2.70 2.31 2.06 1.76 1.28 30.59 Madison 974 31 1 .63 1.S0 2,08 2.54 3.66 4.01 3.80 3.15 3. OS 2.32 1.76 1.72 31.25 Beloit 7D0 616 34 37 1.88 1.70 1.71 1.51 2.21 2.77 2.13 2.49 3.56 2.76 4.05 3.47 3.65 3.57 3.61 2.99 3.39 2.11 2.08 2.54 1.91 2.08 1.89 1.82 32.71 Manitowoc 30.18 Milwaukee 681 29 2.08 1.86 2.60 2.75 3.39 3.62 3.10 2.84 2.96 2.15 1.93 1.90 31.19 Means 1.33 1.33 1.93 2.52 3.75 4.09 3.82 3.23 3.38 2.73 1.77 1.49 31 48 ! From this table, it may be seen, that for the six months, April to September inclusive, a little over 65 per cent of the annual fall is reg- istered, while for the six months of winter, less than 35 per cent of the precipitation is registered. The amount falling in December, Janu- ary and February is less than 14 per cent of the annual. A consider- able part of the precipitation of central and northern Wisconsin falls in the form of snow. The amount of water falling annually as snow generally varies between two and ten inches, the average for northern Wisconsin being six or seven inches, and for southern Wisconsin two or three inches. The extreme conditions for precipitation as above stated are impor- tant factors to take into consideration in studying the various influ- ences affecting water supplies. At Madison, in the last forty-five years, the extreme variations in the total annual rainfall have been, from a minimum of 13 inches to a maximum of 52 inches, the minimum being only 25 per' cent of the maximum. (See Fig. 1.^ As a general rule, however, the minimum rainfall is about 50 per cent of the maximum in the upper Mississippi valley. Temperature. The temperature conditions that prevail in any region, are closely associated with and intimately related to precipitation, as influences on the amount of water absorbed by strata. The mean annual tempera- ture ranges from about 47° F., in southern Wisconsin, to about 40° F., 20 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. in the northern part, along the divide south of Lake Superior. The mean temperature for the winter months is about 12° to 30° F., and for the summer months, between 60° and 70° F. The extreme tem- peratures range from -30° to -50° in winter to over 100°F., in sum- mer. Temperature has its most marked effect on the relation of precipita- tion to run-off. This is especially true in the freezing weather of the winter months. Ordinary ground, even though pervious and unsatur- ated, may be rendered impervious by surface freezing and thus per- mit a rapid flow of the rainfall into streams. On the other hand, in eoinr p in o 1^ r^ (D ro CO 00 o 10 en cri . — Annual relation of rainfall and runoff' on tlie Fox Rii-er. Year. Rainfall Inches. Runoff Inches. Runoff in Per Cent of Rain- fall. 1897 26.08 26.15 29.74 36.76 30.27 30.50 38.75 25.31 36.87 36.36 32.62 6.04 5.47 6.26 6.70 8.07 6.66 9.00 9.27 11.97 10.81 10.48 23.2 1898 20.9 1899 21.1 1900 18.2 1901 26.7 1902 21.8 1903 24.1 1904 26.2 1905 . 32.3 1906 29.8 1907 32.1 ' Plow of streams and Factors that modify it in Wisconsin, Bulletin, Uni- versity of Wis., No. 425., p. 125. 22 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Table 3. Annual relation of rainfall and runoff on the Chippewa Iliver. — Continued Year. Rainfall Inches Eunoff Inches llunoff in Per Cent of Kaln- fall 1903 37.97 35.86 36.95 31.80 23.36 29.31 21.07 16.83 17.62 16.55 14.27 10.63 55.6 1904 47.0 1905 •. 47.7 1906 52.0 1907 61.0 1908 36.3 Absorption. A part of the rainfall sinks into the ground, and becames ground- water. The pores and fissures in the surface deposits and through the underlying rocks become saturated below a certain level, known as the groundwater level, or the groundwater table. The groundwater, after sinking below the surface, mainly moves downward to the ground- water level, below which all the pores in the rocks are filled. After it reaches the groundwater level, it flows mainly in a lateral direction in conformity with the dip of the rocks and the general trend of the surface drainage. The amount of rain absorbed by the soil and rock depends upon the porous character of the soil and of the underlying rock formation, and varies considerably in different parts of the state and within different drainage systems. The mechanical analyses of soils on page 23 illustrates the size of grain of the soil from which the size of pore space and capacity of the flow of water through such soils can be readily determined. The sand or sandy loam soils, consisting largely of coarse and fine sand, with relatively large pore-space, absorb the rainfall much more freely than the clay loams and clay soils, which consist largely of fine silt and clay particles, with only minute pore spaces between the soil particles. Agricultural and Forest Conditions. Soils. — The soils of Wisconsin vary from light sandy soils to heavy clay soils. Most of the farm lands are characterized, however, by me- dium phases of sandy loams and clay loams. The heaviest clay soils are the red lacustrine clays that lie along the shores of Lake Superior, Lake j\Iichigan, and Green Bay, and up the valleys of the Fox river, as well as to a limited extent over the limestone uplands in the eastern part of the state. The sandy loam soils occur over a large part of northern and central Wisconsin. The loams that predominate over most parts o"f the state are rich. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 23 fertile soils and are mainly of glacial or loessial origin. The soils in general are fertile, and are not subjected to conditions of erosion, be- cause of the favorable conditions of gentle slope and the general open physical texture of the soil. The following mechanical analyses of various types of soils, made by the U. S. Bureau of Soils, are compiled to show the approximate range in physical texture of the va^'ious common soils in the state. Table 4 Mechanical analyses of iyirical soils of Wisconsin. ■on ■a i-ti isa ci^. ■Co" °a ira General location Geological •ab "•iQ So So lofi =■ -• ill Wisconsin character (CO flf^ ■ =:,o ofci a;o S t,6 ElH o g '■^ K- m o Pr.ct Pr.ct Pr.ot Pr.ct Pr.ct Pr.ct Pr.ct Plainfleldsand... Central and nor- thern. Alluvial 0.5 17.8 30.9 33.9 5.8 6.5 4.5 Plain field sandy Central and nor- Alluvial 0.1 25.5 23.6 16.5 2.0 22.6 9.1 loam. thern. Boone fine sandy Western and Residual on 0.2 5.9 13.5 54.9 5.8 .14.7 5.1 loam. southern. sand stone. Chelsea (Coloma) Northern Granitic glaci'l 0.1 5./ 4.0 4.0 19.4 53.6 12.8 loam. drift. Colby silt loam... Northern Granitic glaci'l 0.1 .H.2 4.0 3.6 12.6 61.9 13,6 drift. 1 Loess 0.1 0.6 5 1.2 5.3 80.8 11.6 sciuthern Miami fine sandy Eastern and Limestone gla- 0.9 5.!t 9.4 24.6 18.5 3.H.1 7.4 loam. southern . cial drift. Miami clay loam. Eastern and southern . Limestone gla- cial drift. O.S i.a 4.0 11.5 12.4 43.2 23.2 Superior clay Adjacent to Great Lakes. Lacustrine 0.2 1.1 1.5 5.4 5.3 28.6 58,2 Besides these soils there are muck and peat soils, occupying bottom lands and marshes. Muck and peat consists of much organic matter, in the form of partially decayed vegetation, with which is mixed a var- iable amount of sand, silt and clay. The capacity of the soils to absorb and transmit water, depends di- rectly upon the size and amount of the pore spaces of the soils, as de- termined by the size of the grains. The coarse sand soils absorb and transmit water much more rapidly than the fine clay soils. However, the fine clay soils generally possess a larger total pore space than the sand soils and therefore are capable of holding a larger amount of water. Most of the rain that falls upon sandy soils, whether hilly or level, is immediately absorbed, readily transmitted downward to the water level, and thence moves off laterally and seeps out of the ground along the banks of rivers and streams and along the borders of marshes and lakes. Most of the rain, however, that falls on the clay soils, espe- cially if the clay lies on slopes and the rains are heavy, can be absorbed 24 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. only slowly, and is removed as surface run-off, and thus, almost immedi- ately, reaches the streams and rivers. Vegptation. — The native vegetation, originally developed over most parts of the state, consisted of mixed hardwoods and pine forests in the central and northern part, and a somewhat lighter growth of hard- woods in the southern part. Light forest growth, so-called "prairies," occurred in the southern and central counties only to a limited extent. Agriculture. — The principal agricultural industries are grain rais- ing and dairyng. Oats, barley, rye, and wheat are the principal small grains. Corn is raised, mainly, only in the southern and western parts of the state. Dairying and stock raising are important indus- tries over the entire state. Such special crops as tobacco, potatoes, sugar beets, and peas are also very important crops in certain parts of the state. The daily consumption of water by different crops at the average maximum development during the growing season is shown by the fol- lowing : Amount of Water Daily Required for Different Crops. Meadow grass 0.122 inches of water. Oats . 140 inches of water. Corn . 140 inches of water. There appears to be no close agreement in statements regarding the transpiration of forests. Some statements are to the effect that trees consume much more water than agricultural crops, and others that trees consume only from 50 to 100 per cent that of crops. Population. The population of .Wisconsin, as determined by the U. S. Census in 1910, was 2,333,920, an average of about 43 inhabitants to the square mile. The average distribution of the population, however, is irregular. In Sawyer county, settlement is least dense, there being but 4.6 people to the square mile, while in Milwaukee county the average is 1,856 to the square mile. The high average in the latter county is due, of course, to the large city of Milwaukee,' which has a population of 373,857 in 1910. The population throughout the well settled counties, in the southern half of the state, is rather evenly distributed, and is approximately 60 people to the square mile. GEOGRAPHY AXD GEOLOGY. £5 GEOLOGY. The indurated or hard rock formations of Wisconsin range in age from the Pre- Cambrian to the Devonian. The formations between the Devonian and the Pleistocene, or Glacial, are not represented, although certain high-level gravels have been interpreted as possibly of Tertiary age. The Pleistocene, or Glacial period, however, is represented over most of the state by a superficial mantle of glacial drift, except in the driftless area of about 10,000 square miles, located in the central and. southwestern parts of the state. OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY. The geologic history of Wisconsin, represented by the rock forma- tions, falls into three great periods which are widely separated from one another. The first, or earliest period, is the Pre-Cambrian ; the sec- ond, is the Paleozoic ; and the third, is the Pleistocene, or Glacial. The- various geological formations of Wisconsin, and their relative position in the complete geological series, is shown in the following table,. Plate II. The earliest, or Pre-Cambrian period, or era, is the oldest period rec- ognized in geology, and the various formations deposited in this period, represent portions of the oldest land areas in existence. The forma- tions are both sedimentary and igneous in origin. The sedimentary for- mations, now greatly metamorphosed, were originally deposited as sand- stones (now metamorphosed to quartzite), clays (now metamorphosed, to shales and slates), limestones (now metamorphosed to marble), and iron deposits (now metamorphosed to iron ore formations). The vari- ous igneous formations are such rocks as granite, trap, and porphyry, of both plutonic and volcanic origin. (Near the close of the Pre-Cam- brian, during the long period of the Keweenawan, extensive deposits of probable glacial drift and other land deposits were laid down in close- association with volcanic extrusions.) The various Pre-Cambrian for- mations are themselves widely separated in age and are divided into distinct series or groups, such as the Kewatin, Laurentian, and the two or three series of the Huronian, and the Keweenawan. The Pre-Cambrian was characterized by such activities as the deposi- tion of sedimentary rocks, the intrusion of volcanic rock, and the up- heaval and folding of the strata into mountain ranges. Before the beginning of the Paleozic age, a long period prevailed, oc- 26 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. cupied mainly by sub-aerial erosion ; and, as a result, the Pre-Cambrian land was reduced by erosion from a mountainous region to one of com- paratively gentle slope (a peneplain of erosion). In the general base- leveling of the Pre-Cambrian, only the hardest and most resistant for- mations were left as remnants projecting above- the plain. These pro- jections (Monadnocks) of the Pre-Cambrian are characteristic features of Wisconsin topography, and are illustrated by such well known ex- amples as the Baraboo Bluffs, the Rib Hill and associated group of quartzite mounds in Marathon and Wood counties. Flambeau Ridge, the Penokee Range, and the various mounds of granite and porphyry in the Fox river valley. After the Pre-Cambrian had been base-leveled, the waters of the early Paleozoic era encroached upon the land and approximately hori- zontal beds of sandstone and limestone were deposited. The earliest Paleozoic formation (excluding certain beds of sandstone Avhich are grouped with th'e Keweenawan) is the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. The deposition of the Upper Cambrian was followed by the successive depositions of the Oneota and Shakopee (Lower ilagnesian) limestone, the St. Peter sandstone, the Galena-Platteville limestone, the Cincinnati shale, the Niagara limestone, and some Devonian shale and limestone. Most if not all of these formations are marine deposits and contain marine fossils. It is probable that some of the earlier formations, such as the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam), may have extended over the entire area of the Pre-Cambrian; but if so, they were entirely removed from it in north- ern Wisconsin. The later formations (see the geologic map, Plate I), such as the Niagara limestone and the Cincinnati shale, occur only in the eastern part of the state and in occasional mounds in the south- western part. The later part of the Paleozoic era, the whole of the Mesozoic era, and most of the Cenozoic era are not represented by geologic forma- tions in Wisconsin. There are no records, therefore, of the geologic' history of these periods in the state, the time being apparently repre- sented by sub-aerial erosion. The Quaternary, or Pleistocene period, the latest of the Cenozoic era is well represented in Wisconsin by extensive deposits of glacial drift, alluvial deposits, and loess. These deposits overlie the uneven and deeply eroded surface of the older indurated formations, and represent the activities of several distinct and separate invasions of continental ice sheets, the extensive deposition by water of alluvial and lacustrine formations in the valleys and lowlands, and the deposits of loess made GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 27 by the wind, the latter being confined to the western part of the state, in the driftless and in the old drift regions. THE PRE-CAJIISRIAN ( OTHER THAN KEWEENAWAX ) . The rock formations of the Pre-Cambrian age occur at the surface, mainly, in the north central and the northern parts of the state. In other parts of the state, the Pre-Cambrian underlies the Paleozoic sand- stones and limestones. Isolated outliers of the Pre-Cambrian also are exposed Avithin the area of the Paleozoic, in the southern part of the state, as illustrated by the Huronian quartzites of the Baraboo Bluffs and the granite and rhyolite knobs of the Fox river valley. The Pre-Cambrian formations consist principally of crystalline or ig- neous rocks, and highly metamorphosed shales, sandstones and lime- stones, such as slates, quartzites and marbles. The Lake Superior and Baraboo iron ores, and the copper-bearing rocks are Pre-Cambrian for- mations. These igneous and metamorphosed rocks, as above stated, have been folded in an intricate manner by mountain making forces. RELATIONS OF UNDERGROUND WATER TO THE PRE-CAMBRIAN. While the Pre-Cambrian formations differ in character, their influence is much the same on groundwater conditions. ;\Iost of these forma- tions are very fine-grained and close textured, so that very little water percolates through the rocks. Continuous crevices and channels are abundant, usually, only at the surface. As a general rule, no large amount of water, such as amounts needed for villages or cities, can be obtained from this source. In very exceptional cases, however, consid- erable water may be obtained, and in one or two instances, artesian flows are known to occur in the Pre-Cambrian. Aside from furnishing a sufficient supply for domestic use on the farms in the northern part of the state where these formations consti- tute the surface rocks, the Pre-Cambrian crystalline formations exert an important influence on the underground water supply, as the rela- tively impervious basement controlling the abundant artesian flows in the southeastern, southern, and the southwestern parts of the state. In in other words, the hard fine-grained Pre-Cambrian rocks, which are of minor importance when considered as aquifers, or water-bearing for- mations, serve admirably as impervious basements for the higher water horizons. As the Pre-Cambrian, lying deeply buried below the surface in the ■eastern, southern and southwestern parts of the state, limits the depth 28 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. of the water-bearing horizons in those parts of the state,, it is important to know the approximate depth of the Pre-Cambrian impervious base- ment in those regions. As a general rule, the greater the distance of any locality from the area of outcropping Pre-Cambrian of northern Wisconsin, the greater is the depth of the Pre-Cambrian below the sur- face. The exceptions to this rule are the uneven surface features of the- Pre-Cambrian floor which may be caused by undulations in this floor by folding, after the overlying formations were deposited upon it, or to the unevenness in the surface of the floor due to unequal erosion, be- fore the overlying formations were deposited upon it. On the general geological map of the state, Plate I, is shown the ap- proximate elevation of the Pre-Cambrian above or below sea level, rep- resented by brown lines with the elevation indicated. In order^ to as- certain the approximate thickness of the water-bearing strata, in any locality or county, a comparative study should be made of the map with the general elevation of the land surface as described under the surface features of each county, and by comparison also with the geologic cross sections for each county. The approximate elevations of the Pre-Cam- brian, where deeply overlain by later strata, has been calculated from a study of many deep well records and from general knowledge of the thickness of the overlying strata at the outcrop. In the following table (Table 6), is shown the exact elevations of the Pre-Cambrian in vari- ous cities of the state, as determined by deep wells drilled down to the Pre-Cambrian : Table (J. Table shouting eleeation of the Pre- Cambrian in deep wells. Eastern Wisconsin. Marinette Green Bay Oshkosli h'ond du Lac Mount Calvary Two Rivers Milwaukee Soutliern Wisconsin Porta;^e Madison Watertown .Tanesville East Troy Deptli below Sur- face, in feet. Elevation above (+> or below (— ) Sea Level, in feet. 326— 311- 75+ 300- 116- 1,199- At least 1,430- .530 288+ 730 100+ 1,085 262— 1,087 SIS- 1,725 SOS- GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 29 Western Wisconsin. 400 375 8-U 524 (itir, 91!!: I.IOL' 1,71S 320+ H udson ' :-nii+ 110— LaCrossf - lx»+ Riclilanci Center 71 + 27ij Cassville 480— Platteville CIS— * The Tapper Cambrian at Hudson and II astinjs probably rests on Keweenawan sandstone and shale. KEWEENAWAN SYSTEM The rocks described as Keweenawan in northern Wisconsin appear to he referable to three divisions or groups. (1) LoM'er Keweenawan, con- sisting mainly of conglomerate and quartzitic sandstone or shale, (2) Middle Keweenawan, consisting of diabase and gabbro in the form of trap or volcanic flows, interstratified with beds of conglomerate, (3) Upper Keweenawan, consisting of conglomerate at the base overlain by red sandstone and shale, known as the Lake Superior sandstone. On the geological map of the state, Plate I, the Keweenawan trap (2), and the Lake Superior sandstone (3) are each shown as separate formations. 'The Lower Keweenawan -conglomerate and quartzite (1) are shown on the map with the Huronian quartzite, as final conclusions concerning correlation of ceriain quartzite areas, probably Lower Keweenawan, such as the Barron Quartzite, have not been reached. Relation of underground water to the Keweenawan rocks. — The char- acter of the Keweenawan formation with respect to groundwater con- ditions is very similar to that of the Huronian formation. This is espe- cially true of the ridges of Keweenawan trap rocks which appear at the surface or immediately underlie the drift in portions of Polk, Burnett, Douglas, Washburn, Bayfield, Ashland and Iron counties. The Lake Superior sandstone formation lying adjacent to Lake Sup- erior, mainly in Douglas and Bayfield counties, contain numerous beds of shale, and the formations as a whole is relatively impervious. It is usually a firm and well cemented rock, colored red or brown by iron oxide. While this formation attains a thickness of several thousand feet it is unimportant as a source of water supply. While sufficient water for farm use can usually be obtained in this formation, the drift overlying the sandstone is very generally a much "better source of water supply. Many of the deep wells that penetrate the sandstone in Ashland and Superior contain highly mineralized or brackish water and hence deep wells in this formation are generally ob- jectionable as a source of water supply. However, wells that reach only 30 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. a few hundred feet into the sandstone, very generally, obtain good fresb water of either low or moderate mineral content. THE UPPER CAMBRIAN ( POTSDAM ) SANDSTONE The Upper Cambrian or St. Croixan (Potsdam) sandstone occurs in nearly horizontal beds and rests uncomformably upon the Huronian crystalline rocks and the Keweenawan trap. The sandstone extends in a crescent-shaped area around the southeast, south, and southwest sides- of the Pre-Cambrian. The narrow northeast horn of the sandstone crescent extends through Oconto and Marinette counties, and into Mich- igan, while the much broader northwest horn abuts upon the Keweena- wan trap along the St. Croix river, in Polk county. The Potsdam sandstone outcrops over a large area in central Wiscon- sin and reaches a maximum north-south width of 100 miles or more^ while at the northeast horn of the crescent, the width dwindles down to 10 and even 5 miles, leaving only a, small exposure of sandstone be- tween the crystalline rocks and the later limestone formations. While the sandstone has usually been mapped as a single formation or group it really consists of several formations or groups each of which . possess a fairly distinct lithologic and f aunal ' character. It was only in certain parts of southern and eastern Wisconsin that certain hori- zons, such as the Madison and the Mendota beds were recognized and mapped, by Irving and Chamberlin, of the former State Geological Survey,^ 1874 to 1881. During the past season of 1913-1914, Dr. E. 0. Ulrich of the U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the present State Survey, has been investigating all the Wisconsin formations, from the Upper Cam- brian to the Devonian, for the purposes of correlating the seve.al for- mations within the various parts of the state as well as with formations of similar age outside the state. In a recent paper by C. D. Walcott,^ a provisional classification of the pre-Ordovician formations of the Upper Mississippi valley was suggested by E. 0. Ulrich which had been based on the short field study of 1913. From additional investigations carried on in 1914, it is evident that certain changes in the provisional classification will have to be made before the final conclusions concerning the thickness, character and correlation of the several formations below the Lower ]\Iagnesian dolomites can be reached. > Atlas of the Geol. Survey of Wis. Plates XIII and XIV. = Smithsonian Institution Collections, Vol. 57, No. 13, p. '354, 1914. GEOGRAPHY AKD GEOLOGY. 31 On the geologic map of the state, Plate I, the various forinations of the Lower Magnesian and the Upper Cambrian "Potsdam" are re- ferred to in the legend. As these names of formations are likely to be \ised to a considerable extent in subsequent geologic reports of the state, it seems advisable to present in the table, Plate II, the provi- sional or tentative classification of these Lower Magnesian and Upper Cambrian formations at the present time, with the understanding that changes are likely to be required in this classification as the several for- mations are later studied in detail. In the legend on the geological map, Plate I, the Mendota and Madi- son formations are described as overlying the Jordan and St. Lawrence formations. liowever, the formerly accepted correlation of the Madi- son as essentiallj' equivalent to the Jorda,n, and the Mendota as essen- tially equivalent to the St. Lawrence, is probably the correct interpre- tation, as is indicated in the general geologic section, Plate II. On the geological map of the state accompanjdng the present work on the water supplies, Plate I, the Upper Cambrian or "Potsdam" sandstone group includes all beds below the Oneota dolomite, and the Lower Magnesian group includes the two formations, the Oneota and the Shakopee dolomites as these two formations have not yet been mapped separately in the field. Much of the Potsdam sandstone where it forms the surface rock has been eroded, and in places entirely removed, so that the present area of outcrop, which is about 15,000 square miles, is much smaller than the original extent of the formation. These conclusions are supported by evidence of the occurrence of numerous Potsdam outliers found far out in the crj^stalline area. Thickness. — The thickness of the Potsdam sandstone on account of erosion varies greatly. From very thin eroded deposits along its con- tact with the much older crystalline rocks, the thickness increases, as the distance increases from the crystalline area. As estimated by Chamberlin, the average original thickness in east- ern and western "Wisconsin is betAveen 700 and 800 feet, the usual maximum thickness being about 1,000 feet. In southwestern Wiscon- sin, however, a maximum thickness of over 1200 feet is reached. In northeastern Wisconsin, the average thickness is between 400 and 500 feet. The thickness of the sandstone and its characteristics, as illus- trated by well records at various places, may best be obtained from the individual well records described later, under the county descriptions. Underground Water Conditions, — The Potsdam sandstone is usually poorly cemented and is unconsolidated and varies from a coarse gran- 32 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Tilar rock to one which is exceedingly fine-grained. Although, as a rule, it is so soft as to crumble in the hands under slight pressure, in a few places, the rock is so firmly cemented by silica or calcium carbonate that it is suitable for use as a building stone. The beds of shaley sandstone vary in thickness from a few feet to over 150 feet. The pore space between grains of sand in the sandstone, generally- comprise 25 to 35 per cent of the rock, in both the pure sandstone and" in the shaley sandstone beds. The size of the pores, however, are very much larger in the pure sandstone than in the shaley beds, hence the water-bearing capacity and ease of transmission of water is much greater in the coarse beds. The relatively impervious shale zones divide the sandstone into several water horizons. Although not everywhere continuous, these shales extend over large areas and influence the various heads to which the artesian water will rise in wells drilled into the sandstone within its outcrop area. Flowing artesian wells are found at various places, as at Sparta, Ar- cadia, Whitehall, Menomonie, Durand, Elroy, Eeedsburg and Baraboo. Conditions for flowing artesian wells are by no means confined to the outcrop area of the formation, but extend throtighout the state where the sandstone is covered by many feet of later formations. In a few places, the water from some of the horizons has a reddish color, and is unfit for drinking purposes. In most cases, it is not very difficult to drill through such horizons and shut off this unfit sup- ply by proper casing. In some localities, wells end in the upper or middle horizons of the Potsdam sandstone in order to avoid the waters highly impregnated with iron which are occasionally found in the lower horizons of this formation. LOWER MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES Lying on the Madison or Jordan sandstone, is a group of siliceous dolomitic beds, the Lower Magnesian limestones. It corresponds in part to the calciferous sand rock of Michigan, and essentially to the combined Oneota and Shakopee dolomites of Iowa and Minnesota. (See above classification in the geologic section PI. II). These formations of dolomite form a band on the convex side of the Potsdam sandstone. Their outcrop has a varying width from 10 or 15 miles in the northeastern part of the state to 40 or 50 miles in the south- western part and extends northward along the western part of the state as far as Polk county. ThicUness.- — ^In some localities, the dolomite beds of these formations are entirely lacking. At such places, the well records, as usually stated, OROGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 33 show the passage of beds directly from the overlying St. Peter sand- stone into the underlying Potsdam sandstone. In such cases there is a great thickness of St. Peter sandstone that occupies the usual horizon of the Lower Magnesian formations. The thickness of the Lower Mag- nesian varies greatly, but is usually between 150 and 250 feet. The variation in thickness of the Lower Magnesian and in content of sand- stone beds is sometimes very marked. Underground Water Conditions. — The Lower Magnesian is largely dolomitic limestone, but it also contains varying amounts of siliceous material in the form of scattered and aggregated quartz crystals and beds of flint or chert nodules and variously shaped masses. Beds of sandstone, also of local extent and sometimes of oolitic structure, are distributed rather irregularly throughout the formation. The presence of sandstone toward the base, makes it often difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish this formation in wells from the nearly conformable un- derlying Potsdam sandstone though a considerable break in sedimenta- tion occurs between. The passage of water through the limestone is greatly aided by systems of joints and fissures, both transverse and oblique to the bedding planes. The close association of the Lower Magnesian formations of dolomite with the thick Potsdam sandstone below and with the St. Peter sand- stone of quite variable thickness above, makes it difficult and usually impractical to consider them separately with respect to artesian condi- tions where overlain by the thick later formations in eastern Wiscon- sin. While there is usually an increase in artesian head in passing down from the St. Peter through the Lower Magnesian to the base of the Potsdam, there are many exceptions to the rule, on account of the irregularity in character and thickness of the Lower Magnesian and St. Peter formations. ST. PETER SANDSTONE The St. Peter sandstone lies on the eroded and somewhat uneven sur- face of the Lower Magnesian limestone formation. Along its contact with the underlying limestone beds, is more or less calcareous matter, derived from the formations below. At the base, a little ferruginous and clay material often mingles with the sand and calcareous ingredi- ents, and forms a variegated rock, not unlike the colored shales of the Potsdam. In the upper part of the horizon, usually occurs another shaly seam, very thin and mixed with clay material, upon which rests the Trenton limestone. Usually, however the transition beds are thin and abrupt. 3— W. S. 34 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The formation fringes the convex side of the Lower Magnesian lime- stone (see the geologic map, PI. I.). It extends under the later forma- tions and underlies the southeastern part of the state, both east and south of its outcrop area. The outcrop has been traced from Marinette county on the east, to Vernon county on the west side of the state. Small outliers are also found in Pierce and St. Croix counties, in the northwest part of the state, near the junction of the St. Croix and the Mississippi rivers. In eastern Wisconsin, its outcrop is very narrow, but it widens around the south end of the crescent, and in the vicinity of Jefferson, Edgerton, and Albany becomes rather extensive. TMckness.— The thickness of the St. Peter sandstone is very irregu- lar, the usual thickness ranging from 20 feet to 60 or 80 feet. The formation becomes somewhat thinner toward the northeast and prob- ably does not extend very far into the northern peninsula of Michigan. In many places, where tlie St. Peter sandstone rests directly upon sand- stone beds of the Lower Magnesian or the underlying Potsdam, it is im- possible to ascertain, in well records, the exact thickness of the St. Peter. Even where the Lower Magnesian limestone beds are present the thickness of the St. Peter apparently varies greatly. While the thickness of the St. Peter sandstone and of the underlying Lower Magnesian formation of dolomite is usually very irregular, on account of the erosion interval between them, their combined thickness is usually quite uniform. Where the St. Peter formation is very thick the Lower Magnesian formation is very thin, and where the former is thin, the latter is thick. Hence, in stating the approximate thickness of geologic strata in each county, the combined thickness of the St. Peter and Lower Magnesium is usually given as 200 to 250 feet, with the understanding that over such a large area as a county the combined thickness will represent quite variable thicknesses of each formation. Underground Water Conditions. — The St. Peter sandstone is usually composed almost exclusively of well-rounded quartz grains of medium sizes, in places very coarse and porous. It is weakly cemented by thin coatings of iron oxide and calcium carbonate, is porous and incoherent, and is usually not compact enough to allow handling without cnimbling. However, in certain localities, the rock is hard and compact, as at Red Rock, Lafayette county, where the St. Peter sandstone is used for build- ing purposes. The color is chiefly white, varied with yellow, bluish, and gray. The sandstone is somewhat broken and fissured, both transverse and oblique to the bedding. These fissures and the coarse porous nature of the sandstone make it an excellent water-bearing horizon, and in the GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 35 eastern and southern part of tlie state, it frequently furnishes artesian water, and numerous flowing wells. As referred to in the above description of the Lower Magnesian dolo- mites, the Upper Cambrian sandstones, the Lower Magnesian dolomites and the St. Peter sandstone, where overlain by the later thick forma- tions of dolomites and shales in the southern and eastern parts of the state cannot easily be considered separately in deep wells with respect to their artesian supplies, and for this reason the entire thickness of these sandstone and dolomite beds are conveniently referred to as a unit, or single group, in their relation to deep artesian supplies. GALENA-PLATTEVILLE (TRENTON) LIMESTONES The Galena-Platteville limestones consists of two well-defined mem- bers, both dolomitic limestones. The lower member, the Platteville, however, contains some pure limestones. In a considerable portion of the state, the Platteville and the Galena have not been mapped separately, and hence are shown by the came color on the accompanying geological map, and they will therefore, be treated as one formation in this report. In Pierce county, the Decorah shale, 30 to 40 feet, thick, is present, lying- between the Platteville and the Galena. In other parts of the state the Decorah appears to be represented by dolomite beds. The formations have a relatively large areal extent in "Wisconsin. They extend from Marinette County on the northeast, to the southwest side of the state near the Mississippi river in Central Vernon county. Small outliers are also found capping the hills in Pierce and St. Croix counties, northeast of the junction of the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers. Their extent and irregularities of outcrop as well as the man- ner in which they fringe the Lower Magnesium and St. Peter formations, may be seen best on the geological map. Thickness. — These formations, in common with the other sedimentary formations, dip gently to the east and southeast on the eastern side of" the state, and to the southwest on the west side. The thickness of the Galena-Platteville is somewhat irregular, but generally varies from 250 to 350 feet, where it is fully preserved, to only a few feet, where it has been largely removed by erosion. Underground Water Conditions. — The Galena-Platteville formations, consist of blue and buff dolomite, containing in the upper horizon many flint and cherty nodules. The texture is somewhat open, but becomes - more close-grained with depth. In the lower horizon the doloniite beds are interlaminated with beds of clay and shale several feet in thickness. The various shale beds and the oil rock form first-class impervious- 36 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. basements that largely control the underground circulation within this formation. Not infrequenth- in this formation, are interstratified beds of water bearing sandstone which are several feet in thickness and are composed of nearly pure sand. Over limited areas in eastern Wiscon- sin, these sandstone layers form an important part of the formation. They are usually thin, however, and of irregular distribution. The Galena-Platteville is an important water-bearing horizon, mainly, only in its general area of outcrop in southwestern Wisconsin. ' CINCINNATI SHALE The Cincinnati (Maquoketa) shales rests nearly conformably on the Galena-Platteville limestone. This formation is composed largely of blu- ish and greenish shale, Avith occasional thin beds of limestone. Some of the shales are fine, soft, and even texttircd and contain a little grit and sand. Others are more slaty in structure, and split readily into thin plates, while some are sandy and more closely resemble soft fine-grained sandstone. The softness of these shales causes them to be easily eroded and they are, therefore, seldom exposed, but lie close to the base of tiie overlying outcrops of Niagara limestone. This shale formation is found, mainly, in the eastern part of the state. Thickness. — The thickness appears to vary considerably. For the most part, it is 150 to 250 feet thick, but it increases in thickness to the northward. Along the east shore of Green Bay, it reaches a thickness of 540 feet as shown by the records of wells in this locality. Farther east at St. Ignace, Michigan, Dr. A. C. Lane estimates that the thick- ness may reach 600 feet or more. Underground Water Conditions. — This formation is of no value as a water-bearing horizon or stratum, but it forms a good impervious base- ment for the overlying water-bearing strata. Along its outcrop are located many fine springs. CLINTON BEDS The Silurian system is represented in Wisconsin by the relatively un- important beds of Clinton iron ore, and the very thick formation of Niagara limestone. The Clinton beds are very poorly represented within this state. The Clinton sandstones, shales,, and limestone, so -characteristic and well developed in New York and other Eastern ■states, are not represented in Wisconsin. The iron ore foi-mation at Iron Ridge and Mayville is about the only member of the Clinton epoch in Wisconsin. The ore rests upon the soft GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 37 Cincinnati shale at various places, being between the shale and the over- lying Niagara limestone. The ore deposits are peculiar in their occur- rence and distribution. They form irregular lenticular beds of iron ore, composed of small concretions of hematite, resembling "flax seed". Its maximum thickness of about 25 feet is reached at Iron Ridge, Dodge County. The beds seem to occupy limited depressions in the surface of the underlying Cincinnati shale. It is unimportant as a source of water supply. XIAGAKA LIMESTONE The Niagara limestone forms a broad belt in the eastern part of the state, along the shore of Lake Michigan. It extends as a continuous formation, from Door County on the north, to Kenosha County on the south, and forms the summits of isolated mounds farther to the south- west, as illustrated in the Blue ]\Iounds and the Platteville Mounds. The Niagara is a pure dolomite and in places it resembles the lime- stone of the older metamorphic formations very closely. The number of beds composing the formation is greater in the north-central part of the belt than farther south. Chamberlin, in his report on Eastern AVisconsin,"- divides the Niagara in the south, into four groups of beds, while in the north, he recognizes six. In some places these beds are uniform in color and texture, while in others they possess many irreg- ularities. The upper part of the Niagara limestone is highly siliceous and cherty. The limestone beds are of varying colors ; gray, blue, white, and buff being common. Thickness. — The thickness of the formations is somewhat irregular, varying from 200 feet in the southern part of the district to over 600 in the central and northern part. The greatest thickness apparently occurs at about the center of the limestone belt in the vicinity of She- boygan. North of Shcl)oygan only two wells have penetrated the Nia- gara limestone; one at Two Rivers; the other at Algoma. From these records it is apparent that the thickness in the northern half of the belt is considerably greater than in the southern half. Underground Water Conditions. — In places, the beds are coarse, cry- stalline, and granular, somewhat inclined to be soft, and occasionally earthj^. Other beds of siliceous limestone, closely resembling sandstone, are not infrequently entered by the drill. These sandy beds, and some of the more porous limestones, are the chief aquifers found in this hori- zon. The Niagara limestone, as a whole, is fairly well intersected by transverse and bedding joints, which greatly increase its permeability, ' Geol. of Wisconsin, Vol. II. pp. 335-390. 38 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIK. and it is, therefore, the chief source of water supply for many of the wells along the Lake Michigan shore. Flowing wells are obtained at various depths in this horizon in eastern Wisconsin. WAUBAKEE BEDS Near the village of Waubakee, in Ozaukee county, and also near North Milwaukee, are beds of brown shaly limestone having a total thickness exposed of 10 or 12 feet, whose stratifraphic position was formerly re- ferred to the Lower Helderburg, but which has recently^ been placed in the Cayugan group, and given the local name of Waubakee beds. Similar beds occur under the Hamilton cement rock in the quarry of the Milwaukee Cement Company. In the deep artesian well at Lake Park, about 30 feet of brown limestone was passed through, overlying the Niagara group, and about 10 feet of the same limestone lies between the Hamilton beds and the Niagara group at the intake tunnel at North Point. The Waubakee beds are correlated with the Silurian. The formation is not important as a water-bearing horizon. f HAMILTON SHALE FORMATION The Devonian system is very incompletely represented in Wisconsin. Only a few limited patches occur and these have only a local interest as water-bearing horizons. The Hamilton (Middle Devonian) occurs in two localities. Outcrops of Hamilton rock on the shore of Lake Michi- gan indicate an area of this limestone in the vicinity of Milwaukee^ and another area in the vicinity of Lake Church, ten miles north of Port ~Washington.^ These remnants in the vicinity of Milwaukee lie along the lake shore immediately north of the city limits and are exposed, in places, over an area about 6 miles in diameter. It rests in part upon the laminated Waubakee shales, in part upon the Niagara limestone. The deposits consist of a bluish-gray or ash-colored impure dolomite broken into layers by seams of clay. The limestone layers vary from homogen- eous to lumpy texture, and the upper layers are sometimes shaly. Their thickness varies from a few inches to 3 feet of heavy-bedded limestone. The intercalated clay seams vary from to 5 inches in thickness. The ^W. C. Alden, Prof. Paper 34, U. S. G. S. p. 13-14; Folio No. 140 U. S. G. S. - Teller, E. E., The Hamilton Formation at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. 1, pp. 45-56. = Monroe, Charles E., "A Notice of a New Area of Devonian Rocks in Wis- consin Journal of Geology, Vol. 8, p. 313, 1900. Clelland, H. F., "Middle Devonic of Wisconsin"., Bull. Wis. Survey No. XXI. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 39 total thickness is here about 26 feet, and the slight dip is southeastward. The shafts and tunneling for the present water supply of Milwaukee are, for the most part, in these rocks and in the underlying Waubakee beds. PLEISTOCENE FORMATIONS All the formations thus far considered consist of indurated or hard rocks. Lying upon the hard rock formations in most parts of the state, are glacial drift deposits consisting of unconsolidated clays, sands, gravel and boulders. While the indurated rocks were mainly deposited as marine sediments, the unconsolidated deposits were mainly the re- sult of glacial and river action. Three-fourths of the state, the southeastern, the eastern and northern parts are covered with a variable thickness of drift. In the central and southwestern parts, known as the "Driftless Area", no glacial deposits occur. In the driftless area, however, there is usually present on the uplands, a variable thickness of loess, or of residual or coUuvial soil, while the valleys are usually filled with thick deposits of alluvial sand and gravel. THE GLACIAL DRIFT The drift was deposited over the glaciated parts of the state by sev- eral ice invasions, probably four or five, separated by inter-glacial per- iods. The loose material deposited by the glaciers was distributed ir- regularly over the surface, either in the form of extended sheets of drift, or as terminal moraine ridges. The nearly level areas constitute the so-called ground moraines, composed of sand, gravel, boulders, and clay, variously arranged and spread irregularly upon the rock surface. The terminal moraines occur as small knolls and ridges and basins with a characteristic surface which is more or less undulatory. Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic section showing thick drift over rock. Thickness. — The thickness of the drift generally varies between a few feet up to 100 feet. In those glaciated parts of the state where pre- glacial valleys exist, or where the drift is in morainic ridges, the thick- ness usually exceeds 100 feet, and often reaches 200 or even 300 feet. The irregular thickness of the drift is illustrated in figures 2 and 3. 40 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Underground Water Conditions. — As much of the drift occupies the upland areas and the stream divides, it receives most of its water direct from the rainfall. The drift in valleys, however, doubtless receives an additional supply by seepage from the rock, and also from the drift lying on the higher slopes. Fig. S. — Diagrammatic section showing thin drift over the underlying rock. Much of the drift is composed of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, sand, and boulders, and the amount of water absorbed by the drift de- pends on the proportion of these constituents in the deposits. The larger the percentage of sand in the drift, the larger is the amount of water ab- sorbed, and the more readily it circulates through the deposits. In gen- eral the latest drift sheet, the Wisconsin, contains more sand, and is also less consolidated, than the older drifts, hence it is a better water-bear- ing formation than the older drift. In the low flat areas of drift the water table generally approaches very close to the land surface. The terminal moraine deposits which form the hilly and undulating "Kettle Range" of the state, generally consist of more porous drift than the level till plains, and are usually well supplied with groundwa- ter. These terminal moraine deposits overlie the older till plains, and springs often issue along their borders. The terminal moraines contain many basins occupied by lakes and marshes from which there may be seepage into the outlying lower drift. Most of the wells in the terminal moraines obtain their supply of water from the beds of gravel inter- stratified with the drift. The depth at which the water is obtained in the moraines, is somewhat irregular, but usually the water is found near a common level for any locality. LACUSTRINE AND ESTUAKINE DEPOSITS Associated with the terminal and ground moraines are those forms of deposits that have been modified by the glacial rivers or by local marginal lakes. In these deposits a portion of the glacial drift has been sorted h9- W Ui < > I en > T -t !» N a ^ u f* ^• Z J © Q -t 3 go o •Q ^ T3 t) -\ IT U) 03 H » ^, O (0 , — ? re H _ Ln ii "1 ^ CD d 50 Hi 1 o >=1 m V- 'H §s §2 H — 11 "> -n — o ? (- a o ^ - m ^ p >' B t. » ri » K Cashton 70 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Coon Creek Valley. — Plowing wells along the Coon Creek valley, are developed at Chaseburg and Coon Valley, with approximate heads as indicated in the following table : Table K Maximum initial head of floioing welU in Coon Greek Valley. Location. Head above sea level. Head above surface. Goon Vallev About 780 About 730 706 32 Chasebucff 30 Stoddard 60 Flowing wells occur as far up the valley as 3 miles east of the village of Coon Valley, at the farm of Eev. Rualkamm, where a head of 14 feet above the surface is obtained. In the village of Coon Valley, are 5 flowing wells, from 450 to 500 feet deep, each cased about 300 feet to the shale or "soapstone." Conditions appear to be favorable for ob- taining artesian flows 6 or 8 miles east of the village of Coon Valley, up to an altitude of 850 to 900 feet on low ground adjacent to the creek. Springs are abundant along the valley sides above altitudes of 900 to 950 feet, the highest springs at the source of Coon Creek being at eleva- tion of about 1100 feet. At Chaseburg, are several strong flowing wells, the pressure of one being utilized to operate a small motor plant at the Geo. Carson black- smith shop, and the pressure of another is used to operate a hydraulic ram which supplies water to farmhouses in the vicinity. The wells at Chaseburg are about the same depth as those at Coon Valley. At Stoddard are several flowing wells, ranging from 400 to 500 feet deep, eased about 130 feet, having heads of 50 to 60 feet above the sur- face. Two of these flowing wells are utilized for the development of power. Kickapoo Valley. — Artesian flowing wells are located at the lower end of the Kickapoo valley, and also in the upper half, but none are known along a considerable portion in the lower middle part. The maximum initial heads at various points in the vaUey are shown in the following table : THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 71 o o Ul H 05 O a , o i I '"■' a v. '" > 01 - -n E! o W 5 o 3 ?1 ua ^ ►a •< o o o o o o ^i Ltf) Farofi. l^m™^ Rockton 1: Wilton ^■^.u-:t.i.\^-;.i-v>;j-.<-i.-- O 3 \ ?3 Pray THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Table 13.— Maximum initial head of flowing wells in Kickapoo Valley. City. Head above sea level. Head above river. Head above curb. Wilton (3 miles north ol) About 991 2 on City 920 880 830 795 755 730 720 29 25 Ontario . . 10 32 LaFaree i9 16 Viola 4 to6 Keadstown. ..,,... .' ? •> fi!l!i 55 36 The highest head of a flowing well from the Potsdam aquifer in "Wis- consin, thus far recorded, appears to be in the upper part of the Kicka- poo valley, 3 miles north of Wilton, at an elevation of 991 feet above sea level. From the vicinity of "Wilton to La Farge, the valley declines nearly 200 feet in about 25 miles, establishing a gradient of about 8 feet per mile. From La Farge to Viola the valley slope is about 4 feet per mile. From Viola to the mouth of the river, near "Wauzeka, the slope of the valley is only 2 to 3 feet per mile, falling about 110 feet in about 45 miles. See the cross section. Fig. 11. The flowing wells along the Kickapoo valley, occur at "Wauzeka, at the lower end of the valley, and from Soldiers Grove, near the middle portion, up to "Wilton, with heads as indicated in the table. The arte- sian gradient from "Wilton to La Farge, closely approximates the valley slope of about 8 feet per mile. Below La Farge, at the Robinson farm above Readstown, and at Soldiers Grove, the altitude of the artesian head is not known, but the head very probably declines more slowly than in the section of the valley above La Farge. The high artesian head at Wauzeka, 34 feet above the curb and 55 feet above the river, seems to indicate the probability of favorable conditions for artesian flows throughout the gentle slope of this valley between Soldiers Grove and Wauzeka though none are now known to occur between these points. Favorable conditions for flows should occur at least as far up the val- ley as Barnum. Baraboo Valley. — Flowing wells from the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone, the artesian pressure, reinforced to a variable extent by the favorable character of the valley deposits, occur along the Bara- boo river, from Elroy to Baraboo, as indicated in the following table : THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 73 r 2 C 3 S n ►| o z o Q g a H a o o a c Q o g"- G W o H o '=3 a ■H B ■ M t^ M O O H 9 1 'S a 5 -■\ Ul r > N -^ Tl o -h R n U m -t r> ri m z rM 01 a »-^ O Q w Ci o 1=1 (I) § t-l U) H -^ DIVIDE '^4:mmM:^mmmmi:-: o Q 3 q' o o a 3 0) Si 3 a 01 -f o 3 CD <^^gi^;J::l;MJ-i^:t^ttj;tlS?;iaIl Wonewoc S Wonewoo Dam Tail Race 2 Mil.es West of LaVcille Z Miles East of La Valle 5 Miles East of La Valle Reedsburg '•:^:mMmmm&m:y:£^^ Akplemans North Freedom mm-am-- mmMMim-: ' ^Mmw:;mM^<:-:y::---}-.-s^ mmnm-mm^m^-:---^-^ Island Woolen Mill Dam Linen Mill Dam, Baraboo Wisconsin River Portage 74 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF, WISCONSIN. Table 13. — Maximum initial head of flowing welln in Baraboo Valley. City. Elro.r Wonewoc Reedsbuig Ableman North I'leedom Baraboo Head above Head above sea level. river. 950 12 910 •t 876 n 870 15 860 15 830 15 Kemarlcs. Head 2 ft. above crest o( dam. Head about 12 ft. above river below dam. Head about 15 ft. above crest of waterworks dam. The artesian head declines from an altitude of about 950 feet at El- roy, to about 830 feet at Baraboo, a fall of 120 feet in about 40 miles, as the railroad runs, indicating an average artesian gradient of 3 feet per mile, approximately the same as the valley gradient. Artesian flows have been developed in exploring for iron ores sev- eral miles below Baraboo, but they are not likely to be developed far down the river, not beyond the Lower Narrows, on account of the very gentle slope of this part of the valley, the descent of the river, below Baraboo, being only 13.7 feet in 24 miles, an average fall of only 0.6 feet per mile, as compared with a valley slope and artesian slope of 3 feet per mile above Baraboo. The relation of the valley gradient to the artesian gradient, along the Baraboo river, is shown in the accom- I)anying section. Fig. 12. Within the past two or three years, since 1911, the flowing wells in the vicinity of North Freedom, ^dthin one or two miles of the Oliver Iron mine, have ceased flowing, on account of the continuous pumping of Avater at the mine. Appreciable lowering of the artesian head in the village of North Freedom is reported, but no influence on the head of the flowing wells at Ablemens is noticeable. Should the pumping at the mine cease, the former artesian head will be regained. Rock River Valley. — Flowing artesian wells from the Potsdam aqui- fers, as well as from the overlying surface formations, are found along the valley throughout the entire course of the Eock river in Wisconsin, as well as in Illinois. The highest heads, above sea level, are found near the source of the head water streams, as at Waupun, Beaver Dam, Madi- son, and Whitewater, from which points, the artesian gradient declines down through the main valley of the river. The approximate maxi- mum initial heads at various points in the Eock river valley are indi- cated in the following table : THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 75 "Table 14. — Maximum initial head of flowing arte.4aii wellt in the Hock Hirer rallen and tributary valleys, north to nouth. City. Name of valley. [lead above sea level. Iliad above surface. 886 883 860 868 843 833 840 835 830 823 808 833 802 744 Waupun Koclv Elver (Wesi Branch) Roclc River Present head 879 only a few feet above river. Madison Yahara Itlver Yahara River Koclc Elver About 4" feet above Lalie Mendota. Stoughton Only a few feet above river. Cambridge Waterloo Whitewater Jefferstm Koshkonong Oreelc. Waterloo Creek Whitewater Creelc. Rock River About 6 feet above curb. About 9 feet above curb. About 19 feet above curb. About 29 feet above curb. Eock Elver Edgrertoii Rock Rivei" About 45 feet above river. Janesvllle Eocltford. Ill Rock River Rock River About 40 feet above crest of Monterey dam. About 44 feet above river. The decline in the artesian heads down the valley of the Rock, in a general way, is about 1 to 2 feet per mile, not only along the main val- ley but also along the tributary valleys. The relatively high head at Edgerton, at approximately the same altitude as at Watertown, "Water- loo, and Whitewater, is probably explained by the fact that Edgerton, though located on the present course of the Rock river, is really some distance from, and therefore outside the old pre-glacial valley of the Rock river. This pre-glaciaP valley, now filled with sand and gravel to a great depth, extends directly south from Fort Atkinson, and is about 6 miles east of Edgerton and very near to Janesville and Beloit. The bottom of the old valley lies about 300 feet below the present level of the Rock River between Ft. Atkinson and Beloit, and it is probably on accoiuit of leakage of the artesian w^aters into this old valley, that the heads of artesian wells outside the old valley are relatively higher than those within or near to the old valley. It is of interest to note that the artesian head at Whitewater east of the Rock river, is approximately the same as it is at Waterloo and at Cambridge on the west side of the river, showing, therefore, no apparent decline in the hydraulic gradient, in following eastward down the dip of the Upper Cambrian sandstone, and in increasing the distance from the area of outcrop. The artesian head of the Potsdam water .on the east side of the Rock river valley, is probably maintained by the influ- ence of the local, groundwater level in the upland divide, between the Rock river and the Lake Michigan drainage systems. ' See W. C. Alden, Professional Paper No. 34, U. S. Geol. Survey, PI. II. 76 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF -WISCONSIN. Fox Biver Valley {of III.). — The Fox Eiver of Illinois riges in north- western Waukesha county, and flows southward through the western parts of Racine and Kenosha counties. Flowing artesian, wells are known along this valley in the vicinity of Mukwanago, and at Burling- ton, and farther south in Illinois, at Elgin and Aurora, as indicated in the following table : Table 15. — Maximum initial head of artesian wells in the Foj; River Valley {of Illinois). City. Head above sea level. Head above surface. 830 795 739 710 About 15 feet. A bout 30 feet. Elffin 111 About 24 feet. About 60 feet. The decline of 35 feet in the artesian head, from Mukwanago to Bur- lington, indicates an artesian gradient of about 2 feet per mile in the upper section of the river, while the decline from Burlington to Elgin, and to Aurora, indicates an average gradient of much less than one foot per mile. Judging from the altitude of the artesian head at Mukwanago, of 830 feet, as well as that of the strongest flow in Milwaukee, at altitudes of about 790 feet, artesian flows from the Upper Cambrian sandstone should be obtainable on low ground along the Fox river in the city of Waukesha at altitude of 800 to 810 feet. However, while artesian flows have been obtained in Waukesha from the Niagara limestone, the head of the water in the sandstone, in one well drilled to depth of 1,500 feet was reported to have been as low as 60 feet below the curb. The failure to obtain a flow from the sandstone in Waukesha may be due to some un- favorable local condition, and may be exceptional. Flowing Artesian Wells Along the- Fox River Valley to Green Bay The Fox river, emptying into Green Bay, has artesian flowing wells from the Upper Cambrian sandstone aquifers developed along its course, from the vicinity of Berlin and Fond du Lac to its mouth at Green Bay, as indicated in the following table : THE FLOWING ARTESIAX WELLH OF WIUCONSiy. 77 Table 16 — Maximum initial head of wells in. the Fox Iiii>er Valley, south to north. City. Head above sea level. Head abo%'e curb, or the river or lake adjacent. SOO 765 760 730 660 Neenah About 15 feet above Lake Winnebago. Combined Locks About 8ifeet above foot of locks in Fox river Kaukauna About 35 feet above curb. Badj^^er Paper Co. 670 672 About 92 feet above Fo.\ river and Green Bay. The maximum initial head at Berlin, on the Fox river, was about 15 feet above the level of the river, and at Fond du Lac, at the head of Lake Winnebago, the maximum head recorded was 53 feet above the lake level which is about 35 feet higher than the head at Berlin. The artesian gradient along Lake Winnebago is relatively steep up to the divide between the head of the lake and the head of the Rock river drainage, this section of the valley having the usual characteristic steep artesian gradient at the head of a vallej'. The artesian gradient from Berlin to Appleton has a gentle slope showing a decline of about one foot per naile for a distance of 30 miles. From the rapids at Appleton to the foot of the rapids at Kankauna there is a sharp decline in the artesian slope of 80 or 90 feet in about 10 miles, in conformity with the steep valley slope, the section between Appleton and Kankauna being characterized by a series of falls and rapids. From Kaukauna to Green Bay there is only a slight decline in the artesian slope in conformity with the slight fall in the valley floor between these points. The relatively slight decline in the artesian slope down the Fox river valley between Berlin and Appleton, and between Kaukauna and G-reen Bay, is probably due, in part at least, to the fact that the valley follows a direction nearly normal to the inclination of the water- bearing strata rather than in the direction parallel to the greatest in- clination of the water-bearing strata. The sharp decline in the arte- sian slope in the vicinity of the rapids, between Appleton and Kau- kauna, is probably due, mainly, to the occurrence of a monoclinal fold of the strata in this locality, with the usually accompanying jointing and Assuring of the strata, allowing excessive leakage of the artesian supply. 18 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Flowing Artesian "Wells Along the "West Shoke of Green Bay. Flowing wells, with source of flow in the sandstone and also in the- immediately overlying Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone, occur along the west shore of Green Bay with approximate initial heads as- indicated in the following table : Table 17. Maximum initial head of artesian icella along the west shore of Green Bay ^ City. Head above sea level. Head above curb. 21 23 14 15 11 40 90 90 Head above Green Bay. 613 614 624 648 630 629 671 672 33 M arinette 34 Counter Line 44 68 Oconto 50 49 91 92 At Marinette, the artesian head when the wells were first drilled,, reached 30 to 35 feet above the level of the bay ; at Oconto the maximum heads reached 50 to 68 feet above the level of the bay; and at Green Bay,, the head was orginally 92 feet above the bay. There is very clearly a decline in the artesian heads in going north from Green Bay to Mari- nette, and this decline may continue for some distance farther north into Michigan, though the heads of the artesian wells in Escanaba, Glad- stone, and Eapid River appear to rise again, and closely approximate or slightly exceed those at Marinette and Menominee. The decline in the artesian head in going north of Green Bay to Mari- nette, is probably due to the decrease in the thickness combined with the relatively low altitudes of the sandstone in going northeast, as well as the- lower altitude of the land and consequently lower water table, in the dis- trict west of Oconto and Marinette as compared with the higher land and the higher water table in the vicinity both west and east of Green Bay. Flowing Artesian Wells Along the Shore op Lake Michigan The maximum initial head of artesian flowing wells along Lake Michi- gan, with source of flow in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) or St. Peter sandstone, is shown in the following table : THE FLOWING ARTESIAN ^YELLS OF WISCONSIN. 79 Table IS.'— Maximum initial head of floioing artesian wells from the St. Peter nr t?ii Upper Cambrian sandetone along Lake Miehigan. City. Owner. Depth of Well. Head above sea level. Head above curb. Head above Lake Michigan. City Well Citv Well 1,336 1,860 1,476 1,200 1,550 1,507 1,507 1,500 1,263 1,280 1,569 2,005 960 1,602 1,200 2,075 1 Flows from 1 the Niagara. 727 773 738 766 7ao 710 765 720 665 675 700 612 590 603 No pressure from the sandstone. 104 55 55 106 20 80 60 107 20 75 50 5 Non-flowing. Non-flowing. City Well 146 Sheboyg'n Falls Milwaukee Milwaukee Milwaukee Racine.. Corliss H. Giddings 192 Story Bros., Highbury PI. National Soldiers Home. Elm Grove Convent .1. J. Fox C. M. &St. P. Ry.Co... Pennoyer Sanitarium... Zlon Ass'n 158 186 210 130 185 Kenosha Zion City Waukeean 140 85 95 C. B. Farwell 120 Cltv Well 37 Chicago Harvey Union Stock Yards Waterworks 10 13 The productive area of flowing artesian wells with source of flow in the sandstone along Lake Michigan appears to extend from Sheboygan, or a short distance farther north, to Evanston, 111. (See fig. 13). Many of the earlier flowing wells with strong pressure have ceased to flow, on account of leakage through the weU casings and the interference of other wells. The maximum initial head in the various cities from She- boygan to Kenosha, appears to have usually ranged between 150 feet above the lake level near the shore, up to about 200 feet above the lake 5 or 6 miles west of the shore. The decline in the artesian gradient from west to east, towards the lake, is relatively steep, from 8 to 10 feet per mile, as indicated by the head of 773 feet at Sheboygan Falls, 6 miles from the lake, as compared with the head of 727 feet at Sheboygan, and also by the head of 765 at Corliss, about 6 miles from the lake, as compared with the head of 710 feet at Racine. South of Kenosha there is a rapid decline in the head, as available records appear to indicate that the strongest flows obtainable from the sandstone at Evanston is only 37 feet above the lake, while in Chicago no flowing wells are obtained from the Potsdam, although flows have been obtained from the Trenton with head as high as 110 feet above the lake. While the artesian head at the Union Stock Yards and at Harvey are a few feet above lake level, the pressure is too low to develop flows. At Lemont,^ 25 miles west of Chicago, the artesian head of the Potsdam has an altitude of 656 feet, developing a flow 60 feet 'W. C. Alden. Chicago Folio No. 81, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 13 80 THE s: Algoma o Two Rivers Sheboygan »= Milwaukee >) inosha A Rao\ne >4 Zion City:^' Wflukegan 4 \ Lake Forest "L ZvansXon >j in w^riJie SUPPLIES of Wisconsin. above the curb, and at Aurora, 40 miles west of Chicago, the artesian head is at an altitude of 710 feet, approximately the same as at Kenosha. The gradual decline in the artesian head in going south of Kenosha along the lake shore to the vicinity of Chicago is prob- ably due, in part to the greater distance of the Chicago district from the outcrop area of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone, as compared with the distance from those cities farther north along the lake, and in part to the lower land, and in con- sequence a lower groundwater table, about Chicago, as compared with the higher land and the higher water table, in the district farther north. Noi-th of Sheboygan, there appear to be no flowing wells with source of supply in the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian sand- stone, although flows from that region are often obtained from the overlying Niagara limestone. The lack of favorable artesian conditions in the Potsdam sandstone in this region is illustrated at Two Rivers and Algoma. Only, a small flow was obtained in the Niagara limestone and no flow from the underlying St. Peter and Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone in the Two Rivers city well drilled 1800 feet to the granite. At Algoma, the new city well drilled 1336 feet deep, 11 feet into the St. Peter sandstone, apparently obtains its en- tire flow with a head of 22 feet at a depth of 465 feet in the Niagara limestone. While only these two deep wells to the sandstone group have been drilled along the lake shore north of Sheboygan, both of these failed to -obtain flows from the St. Peter or the Upper Cambrian sand- stone. The unfavorable geological condi- tions for developing an effective ar- o o o o o o o tn aj - THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. gl tesian area in the Upper Cambrian sandstone north of Sheboygan county are as follows: (1) The gradual decrease in thickness of the sandstone (from 800 down to 400 feet) north of Fond du Lac and She- boygan counties, and the consequent decrease in the extent of the out- crop area in north-eastern Wisconsin; (2) the relatively low altitude of the sandstone outcrop in north-eastern Wisconsin; and (3) The great increase in thickness (from 300 to over 500 feet) of the Cincin- nati shale group in the Green Bay district. The three conditions are all probably influential factors in developing unfavorable artesian con- ditions in the sandstone group in Manitowoc, Kewaunee, and Door coun- ties. The third factor mentioned, however, the great thickness of the impervious shale, may have the most important effect in developing un- favorable artesian conditions within the sandstone, by preventing the transmission of pressure from the local groundwater table upon the water confined in the sandstone group. The profile of the artesian head along the shore of Lake Michigan is shown in the section, figure 13. Flowing Aktesian Wells from the Galena-Platteville Limestone The Galena-Platteville limestone is mainly important in the Wiscon- sin artesian system as a confining stratum of relatively impervious rock overlying the water-bearing sandstones. While a few flowing wells are obtained from the Trenton limestone, as at Oconto and Fond du Lac, the source of the flows are usually, if not always, from the joints and other openings leading up from the underlying sandstone group with- in which the artesian water is conflned. While artesian wells have pene- trated the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) to the underlying sandstone artesian waters iiumany localities, imperfect casing through the lime- stone formation has often allowed sufficient leakage from below to de- velop flows, when wells are later drilled into the limestone. In most cases, however, the artesian pressure is greatly increased by drilling through the Galena-Platteville limestone into the sandstone, thus indi- cating that the artesian supply in the limestone in eastern Wisconsin has its principal source in the artesian reservoir in the underlying Up- per Cambrian and St. Peter sandstone formations. Flowing Aktesian Wells from the Niagara Limestone. Water confined under hydrostatic pressure within the joints and other openings in the Niagara limestone is much more common than within the Galena-Platteville limestone. The thickly bedded imper- 6— "W. s. 82 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. vibus shales of the Cincinnati group, underlying the Niagara, offer an excellent lower confining stratum for the Niagara. It is not uncommon, therefore, to find strong flows from joints in the Niagara at or near the contact with the underlying shale formations. The red clays of eastern Wisconsin which overlie the Niagara, serves as an upper confining stratum and flows are often obtai]jed in the open- ings in the jointed and fractured limestone immediately underneath the surface clays on the lower slopes of many of the Niagara uplands. The presence of the overlying confining stratum of clay is not always essential, however, for the underground water in the Niagara ridges and uplands is also, undoubtedly, an important factor in developing' artesian pressure on the water confined in the joints and fissures of the limestone. The flowing wells in the Niagara and those in the overlying surface formations in eastern Wisconsin appear to be so closely related, that it does not appear practicable to separate them on the map (Plate I). The Niagara formation of jointed rock confined by relatively iin- pervious strata above and below, while furnishing adequate conditions within itself for the development of an artesian system, may also re- ceive important reinforcement in some localities by means of circula- tion from the underlying artesian reservoir in the Potsdam sandstone group. The reinforcement of artesian pressure in the Niagara through upward circulation from the Potsdam may, in only a few places, be sufficient to be an important factor in developing flows in the Niagara, but the fact that actual circulation of water or at least diffusion of mineral solutions through osmotic pressure operates throughout the deep artesian reservoir in the Potsdam and the shallow reservoir in the Niagara seems to be clearly indicated by the relatively uniform de- gree of mineralization of the deep and shallow waters in the regions of the Niagara outcrop, as well as in all other parts of the state. The fact, however, that there is very generally much irregularity in the head of the Niagara artesian supply seems to indicate that the ar- tesian conditions in this formation are largely dependent upon favor- able local conditions with reference to joints, topography, elevation and character of the surface deposits. In some places the artesian head of the Niagara is higher than the artesian head of the Potsdam, and in other places it is lower. Near the shore of Lake Michigan south of Manitowoc, the head of the Potsdam artesian supply is higher than that of the Niagara, but as the higher land is reached back from the shore on the divide, flows from the Niagara may be obtained at higher altitudes than from the Potsdam. However, near the shore north of THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 83 Manitowoc at Two Riyers and Algoma, flows of 10 to 20 feet above the lake are obtained f I'om the Niagara and no flows obtained from the St. Peter or Potsdam. A similar condition exists in the vicinity of Chicago, where much stronger flows have been obtained from the Nia- gara than from the deeper water horizons of the St. Peter and Potsdam. The numerous flowing wells in the vicinity of Eockfield and South Germantown, in southeastern Washington County, are about 160 tc 250 feet deep and get their water from the fissures in the Niagara lime- stone. There are also some springs in the Niagara in section 4 and 5 (see map Plate III). Eight of the springs out of a cluster of 10 on the farm of H. Kramer dried up two days after J. Buescher finished drill- ing his flowing well in section 16. The same well also dried up the spring on J. Klumb's farm in Sec. 9. List of floioing wells in the Niagara limestone shoicii on map of Oermantown, r. 9 iv. Ji. so E. Location in section. Depth. Artesian Owner. Drift, feet. Limestone, feet. liead, feet. Cen. 4 Cen. r, SE. i -^ SW. 1 5 NW.I 9 SW. i 9 N'E. i 9 NE. 1 9 SE. i 9 SE. 1 9 NW.J 10 SW. J 10 NW. J 11 SE. J 14 SW. i 14 SE. J 15 SE. J 16 NE. 1 20 SE. i 20 NW.J 21 NW, } 21 SW. J 21 SW. J 21 NW.J 22 SW. J 22 NW. J 22 NF. i 22 NW.J 23 NW.J 23 NE. J 27 NW. J 27 NE. J 28 NW. J 28 NE. J 29 NE. J 29 NW. J 29 NW.J 26 30 60 207 1.56 200 236 18 5 PhiHn Kraetsch Wm Kliimh . .. 200 220 30 F Kaul F Kaul 3 100 60 20 7 166 230 231 265 172 196 12 40 H Hinrich Tj Slatpr . 20 30 Tllrich Hubei- . Thos Trinwith 13 lis 40 8 2.5 196 * 193 197 170 191 180 160 173 184 .)acob Straub 5 30 65 And Kohl And. Mpi'kle 2 7 4-5 "David rC'lnmh 84 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Most of the flowing wells about Eockfield and South Germantown, shown on the map, were put down between 1898 and 1902. The first well striking a flow was drilled by the Chicago and North- western Railway Company at Rockfield, in 1898. Section of C. & N. W. Railway well, Roekfleld. Formation. Thickness, feet. Drift Soil 2 Niagara 78 Hard blue limestone 30 Very hard blue limestone ' 30 Softer limestone 40 20 Total depth 200 The altitude of the curb is 891 feet and the original head was 59 feet above the curb or 370 feet above the level of Lake Michigan, and flowed 1,300 gallons per minute. After other wells were' drilled, the head decreased and at present the well flows only part of the year and the water must be pumped to the tank. The other wells of the locality resemble this one very closely. Wells on lower ground take the flow from the higher ones and in some cases have dried them up entirely. At some places, as in Sec. 9, on F. Kaul's farm, the wells flow only occasionally. Most of the owners maintain the pressure of the well by reducing the cap and allowing only enough water to flow for their use. ■; The character of the Niagara limestone is such as to indicate that the movement of the underground water within it, is almost entirely through fractures, joints and fissures, hence the movement of the water is very likely largely local in extent. The head attained by the artesian wells, also is far above that at all likely to be developed directly or indirectly from the sandstone aquifers. The ready interference in the flow of the wells is also evidence of the essentially local origin of the artesian pressure. The artesian flows in the Niagara, about Rock- field and South Germantown, appear to illustrate very clearly the potent influence of the local groundwater table as the controlling factor in the development of artesian flows. Litigation relating to Flowing Wells. — ^In 1900 Andrew Merkel drilled his second well in the N. "W. 14 of Sec. 28 near the Menomonee river, (see map, PL III) at the lowest point at which a well had been "Wisconsin Survey Bulletin No. XXXV, Plate III TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF GERMANTOWN, WASHINGTON COUNTY. The map shows the location of flowing wells In the Niagara limestone repre- sented by the round heavy dots. Besides the lines representing the railroads, wagon roads, streams and marshes there are the contour lines of equal elevation indicating the topography. It will be observed that most of the flowing wells are located mainly along the lower slopes of the uplands, near the marshy tracts. See the list of wells, p. 83. THE FLOWINa ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. §5 sunk. Water was struck in a bed of soft rock, but in other places it seems to come partly from fissures in the limestone. This well was al- lowed free flow into the Menomonee river. This free flow, however, soon made itself felt throughout the district. In three weeks it had stopped the flow of U.' Huber's well, about a mile farther north, in the N. W. 14 of Sec. 21, which is located on land 20 feet higher, and had also affected most of the other wells of the surrounding area to a greater or less degree. About this time, an injunction was served upon Mr. Merkel by Mr. Huber, for the purpose of compelling him to check the flow of his well, and reduce it to a flow that would approximate that used by his neighbors, and also furnish a sufficient supply for his do- mestic use. The injunction case was tried in the Circuit court, and the decision was in favor of Huber, and Merkel was ordered to check the flow. The case, however, was carried to the Supreme Court^ where the law under which it was tried was declared unconstitutional, and the decision was reversed, granting Merkel the right to do with his well as he wished. Since this time very few flowing weUs have been drilled in this locality, unless the curb was as low or lower than at the Merkel well. It is unfortunate, that local parties will not agree to maintain so fruitful a source of water supply, by keeping the head throughout the district as high as possible. Flowing Artesian Wells from Crystalline Eocks The principles controlling the rare occurrence of artesian flows in the crystalline rocks are the same as those applying to artesian wells in the stratified rocks, but some of the conditions are quite different, as most crystalline rocks have a much closer texture than stratified rocks, and therefore they do not absorb as much water. As a result underground waters are very much less uniformly distributed in the crystalline rocks: than in stratified rocks and the chances for obtaining artesian watet, or in fact any large quantity of underground water, is relatively very slight. In view of the fact that large areas of crystalline rocks are either at the surface or immediately underlie the drift and other surface forma- tions in Wisconsin, a somewhat extended discussion of this phase of our- water resources appears to be warranted. Surface Conditions. — Sincethe crystalline rocks do not so readily ab- sorb and transmit water it is necessary that they should possess some means for allowing the surface waters to sink into them. These condi- ' Northwestern Report, Vol. 94, p. 354, and Wis. Reports, Vol. 117, p. 355. 86 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tions are nearly always present in the form of more or less nearly ver- tical joint fissures, crevices, planes of schistosity, and the like. The amount of water absorbed depends upon the number of such openings. These fissures, which are often not as broad as a knife's edg<2, carry off only a small portion of the wa,ter offered to them, but the amount of absorbed water may be increased if the crystalline rocks are covered by a more absorbent layer. In many places in Wisconsin the crystal- line rocks are more or less deeply buried under the mantle of drift. The drift varies in composition from place to place, but where no layer of clay intervenes between the crystalline rock and the looser-textured drift the water absorbed by the drift will tend to seep into the fissures of the crystalline rock and even be forced into it under pressure. The pressure would originate from the column of underground water main- tained above the crystalline surface in the drift. It would vary directly with the degree of saturation of the drift, with the porosity of the drift materials, and with the height of the column of water in the drift ; that is, it would depend upon the thickness of the drift and the amount of rainfall. Underground conditions. — The surface waters, conducted under- ground by the means above indicated, may move laterally, from place to place, along horizontal joints, fractures, or schistosity planes. Perhaps the most favorable channel for the lateral movement of these waters is along the line of intersection of one or more stee',>ly ineiijied joint planes with a more nearly horizontal plane. Here water may penetrate down- ward along two paths and be concentrated at their intersection where it may be led along horizontally for some distance. Since the crystalline rocks are generally very dense, the waters caught in their joints and fractures, and led or forced down deep enough to penetrate some of the horizontal fractures, will be confined to these lat- ter channels in part on that account alone. A second important factor, however, is the friction encountered by the waters in moving through such fine fissures. This friction, added to the downward pull of gravity, prevents the waters from rising to the surface again by means of the fine cracks. If one may assume here that la ws^ analogous to those hold- ing for pipes express the friction met with by water flowing in cracks of definite width, then it is easy to understand how these waters once slowly forced down by gravity against such friction can not easily rise again, except along unusually large fissures or channels. Besides these conditions, which may be designated internal, there iglichter, C. S., Water Supply and Irrigation Paper, U. S. Geol. Surv. is'o. 67, 1902, pp. 84 and following. THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 87 may occur external conditions tending to confine the ground waters in the fissures. Such favorable external conditions are well represented by beds of clay overlying much fissured crystalline rock. It is evident that if the pressure upon the buried waters was insufficient to overcome the friction within the layer of impervious clays which covers the crys- talline rocks their escape would be prevented. If an artesian well be driven from the surface of the overlying clays down into the fissured granites it is evident that the many small fissures opening into freer passage through the rock afforded by the well-bores must give up their contained waters, which will rise to a height in the well corresponding to the hydrostatic pressure under which they were confined below the clays. Even if the clay covering were absent, such a well by reason of its larger opening and consequently greatly decreased friction would afford relatively free passage for the waters of the granite. It is clear that the amount of water supplied to a well under these conditions, depends chiefly upon the number of water-bearing fissures opening into it. This number may be increased by any means calcu- lated to fissure the granite. The most common means is that of explod- ing a dynamite or other explosive cartridge at the bottom of the well. Even wells which originally yielded no water may be made productive in this way, because the artificial fissures connect the shaft of the well with important water-carrying seams in the rock. It is evident from the above description of conditions in the crystalline Toeks, that the water in these rocks must be irregularly distributed, de- pending entirely upon the courses followed by the water-bearing fis- sures. The water is concentrated into channels of greater or less im- portance, and the chances for striking such channels in crystalline rock is, of course, very small, as compared with the chances of finding a good supply of water in a widely distributed and fully saturated stratum of porous sedimentary rock, like the Upper Cambrian sandstone. Flowing wells in the crystalline rocks are known to occur only at Wittenberg, Shawano county, in fissured granite overlain by water-bear- ing drift, and at Penokee, Ashland county, in fissile slate standing at a very steep dip. Flowing Artesian Wells from the Surface Formations The artesian wells from surface formations occur wherever the condi- tions are favorable, but are most regularly and abundantly found in the region of the alluvial and lacustrine deposits near Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. They also extend up many of the rivers emptying into these lakes. Notably is this true for the Fox River in the Green Bay SS THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Valley, where hundreds of flowing wells obtain their supply from be- tween and beneath the alternating beds of clay and sandy gravel. The distribution of the surface flowing wells is shown on the map. (Plate 1). Flowing Wells from the Surface Formations Along Lake Michi- gan The surface beds of alternating sands, gravel, and clays which fringe the shore of Lake Michigan, give rise to favorable artesian conditions along the shore and up many of the rivers that drain into the lake. Whether flows can be obtained from these glacio-lacustrine deposits in any particular valley, depends upon the topography and the many other factors that affect artesian flows. In some places along the lake shore the gravel deposits have been completely removed, while at other places they have been so eroded that the waters are no longer confined be- tween the clay beds, but escape by surface streams into the lake. Lake Michigan and the other Great Lakes formerly covered a much larger area than at present, extending over the more prominent eleva- tions and filling the intervening depressions. Thus the waters in these larger valleys and those of the main lakes were connected and the de- posits were probably more or less continuous. The general distribution, structure, and composition of these glacio- lacustrine and alluvial deposits, and their artesian horizons are dis- cussed in an earlier chapter. The point at which these gravel beds out- crop or where they underlie porous sand and gravel is generally the gathering ground for the water in the artesian slopes. Usually the sand and gravel outcrops occur near the base of the moraines or drift ridges bordering the lake or river basins. Some of the outcrops where the rainfall enters may be several miles from the flowing wells, while others may be within a few hundred feet. Since the glacial, lacustrine, and alluvial deposits, quite generally fringe the shore of Lake Michigan, it might be inferred that artesian water could everywhere be obtained within the district covered by these deposits. This would likely be true if the deposits were uniform in thickness and were continuous over the entire region, but such is not the case. The gravel beds in many cases are entirely pinched out, in other eases the surface deposits rest upon rock which stand so high as to shut out the lower deposits, thus making it impossible for the devel- opment of artesian conditions. In other places. Lake Michigan waters have cut through the gravel beds, and have given the confined waters Wisconsin Survey Bulletin No. XXXV, Plate IV TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF VICINITY OF MAYPIELD AND JACKSON, WASHINGTON COUNTY. The map shows the locations of flowing wells In the drift represented by the round heavy dots. (See list of wells, p. 89) It will be observed that most of the flowing wells are on low ground along the streams, . below the 900-foot contour line. THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISGONSm. 89 a chance to escape. For these and other reasons, artesian water, there- fore, cannot be obtained everywhere from the surface formations. Flowing wells, except those derived from the tracts among the mor- raines of the "Kettle Range" are confined to low-lying lands along the river valleys and the great lakes. While the boundaries of the artesian areas can not be given exactly, wherever the gravel beds are present within the area of the low-lying lacustrine deposits, and ero- sion has not advanced so far as to furnish a lateral escape, water under hydrostatic pressure, or artesian water, ought to be obtained. In this connection the use of the published topographic maps is of considerable value in determining conditions most favorable for obtaining floAvs in any given locality. Since most of the flowing wells in the many small valleys in the east- ern part of the state, adjacent to Lake Michigan, are described under the county reports, they will not be referred to here. Relatively im- portant areas of surface flowing wells occur in the valley of the Pigeon river in, the town of Meeme, Manitowoc county, and in the town of Herman, Sheboygan county. In these areas is a large number of good flowing wells in the drift which are used extensively for farm pur- poses. Most of these wells are from 30 to 75 feet deep. Flowing wells having their source in the drift are very common on low ground along tributaries of the Milwaukee and Menomonie rivers m Milwaukee and Washington counties. The following wells in the drift about Mayfield and Jackson, Washington county, are shown on the map, PI. IV, and the location and depth of the various wells is shown in the following list: liist of flowing wells in the drifl shown on map of area near Mayfield and Jackson, T. 10 N., R. 19 and E. SO E. Owner. Location in section. Deptli feet Artesian Iiead feet. SE.i 14 Cen. 24 SW.i 24 SW.i 24 SE.i 24 SW.i 36 SW.i 18 NE.i 19 NE.i 19 SE.i 19 SW.i 19 NE.i 30 NW.i 30 SW.i 36 70 26 90 54 PhilliD Straus 1 Flowed 4 or 5 years. Wm Schmidt Mr Kany 137 87 135 90 40-.50 40-50 40-50 40-50 Mr RoseDdale 22 5 r 90 the water supplies of wisconsik. Shallow Flowing "Wells Along Fox River and Tributaries. In the drainage basin of the Fox river is the largest shallow artesian area in Wisconsin. It has an extent of several hundred square miles, mostly in the vicinity of Lake Winnebago and Lake Poygan. The formations in this valley are similar to those along the small rivers emptying into Lake Michigan. The wells derive their flow from the drift or from alluvial deposits between the impervious clays, and from the junction of the drift with the underlying indurated rock, the rock crevices in places being filled with the water from the gravel seams above, and from the rock below. Green Bay, Be Pere and Kaukauna. — On lower Fox River and its tributaries flows from glacial drift are obtained at various places at Green Bay and De Pere. At Kaukauna, both wells and springs sup- ply water from this horizon along the river banks. The water is often highly impregnated with hydrogen sulphide. In one of the small val- leys south of the Paper mill at Kaukauna several flows have been ob- tained. Some of these wells are as much as 50 feet above the lowest flows, along the Fox River bottoms. Flows have also been obtained from the same horizon east and south of Kaukauna, in the vicinity of St. John, Forest Junction, Chilton, and various other places on the divide in Calumet county. The lacustrine deposits on the divide lie relatively high and the flows are very irregu- lar. For the most part the alternating beach and lacustrine deposits do not occur, but the clay rests directly upon the rock, or upon a thin bed of sand or gravel over the rock, from which the water is obtained. Appleton. — At Appleton and vicinity flows similar to those at Kau- kauna have been obtained from the gravel seams. The well at Mr. Heid's farm may serve as a typical example. It is 55 feet deep and gets its supply from gravel below red clay. The clay is from 40 to 80 feet deep, beneath which leaves, twigs, and logs are often encountered. ' The water rises several feet above the surface and flows a strong stream. At Menasha and Neenah similar surface flows have been obtained. Lakes Buttes des Marts. — On both sides of the Upper Fox River, above Oshkosh, flows are obtained from the gravel seams and from the junction of the gravel with the underlying rock. About Big Butte des Morts lake, the area for artesian flows becomes very wide where the lowlands of the former lake basin extended back some distance from the present shore. The same is true for the vicinity of Little Butte des Morts lake. The artesia,n basin about these lakes extends under the lakes, as was demonstrated near Boone a few years ago, when during THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 9I the winter months a camp was established on the lake and in order to get good water a well was sunk through the ice into the gravels below the lake bottom. The water here rose twelve feet above the surface of the water in the lake and furnished an abundant supply for camp pur- poses. During the summer months the water continued to rise in the pipe and flowed into the lake. Omro. — At Omro, flowing wells have been obtained along the river banks and the low marshes bordering the river. In places these low- lands extend back several miles from the river, and flows are very gen- erally obtained around their margins. Within the city of Omro, flow- ing wells from drift are scattered along the Fox River and within the distance of a mile between the two creameries seven flowing wells have been di'illed. These wells get their supply from gravel after passing through 20 to 40 feet of clay, and those on the lowest ground interfere and check the flow of the wells on the higher ground. South of Omro about the large marsh, flowing wells are obtained at depths of from 40 to 60 feet. The water has a temperature of 48° to 50° F. and is said to be soft, while the water from wells in the rock is hard. 07nro to Berlin. — From Omro to Berlin, numerous flows have been struck on the flats along the river, the gathering ground lying near the margin of the valleys. At Eureka, the wells are very shallow on the east side of the river, some being only 19 feet deep, while west of the river, they are from 32 to 50 feet deep before striking the gravel seam. Six or eight wells have been drilled within the village of Eureka. Sotith of the village, between Eureka and Berlin, strong flows are ob- tained all around the south and east side of a large marsh. Near the margin of the marsh, in the vicinity of the large ridges, the water rises 2 to 4 feet above the surface, while on lower ground, it often rises 8 to 18 feet above the surface in 3 or 4-inch pipes. The wells from Eureka to Berlin are from 20 to 60 feet deep. The ridges bounding this marsh are composed of either limestone or gravel and sand. On some of these ridges the sand and gravel is 97 feet thick and affords an admirable catchment ground. Berlin and Vicinity. — In the vicinity of Berlin flowing wells have been obtained from the gravel and sand horizon at depths of 40 to 60 feet, but at present these flows are largely stopped by the city water- works plant near the river which draws out one-fourth of its supply from this gravel seam, and the remainder from the underlying Potsdam sandstone ; there is a very slight difference between the heads of the two horizons at this place the water being used from both horizons. South of Berlin along the Fox River much the same conditions exist 92 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. as between Berlin and Oshkosh. Flows from drift have been obtained near Princeton, and as far south as Puckaway lake, and are also ob- tained on the low lands still farther south, about Buffalo lake at Mon- tello, Paekwaukee and Endeavor. Lake Poygan and Vicinity. — Where Wolf river, from the north, emp- ties into Fox river, occurs the most extensive area of artesian water from the drift found within the Fox river and Lake Winnebago basin. This area occupies large tracts of lowlands about Lake Poygan, extend- ing far back to the ridges and hills surrounding the lake. Artesian areas also extend several miles up the stream that empty into the lake, thereby greatly extending the productive region, and increasing the irregularity of its boundaries. Three miles north of Berlin on the Aurorahville road is a broad low marsh. Along the lowlands surrounding this marsh and up a number of the valleys flows have been obtained. Some of the farms have three and four wells, but fail to get flows at the house or barn-yard because the elevation about the buildings is too high. Most of the wells are 2 inches in diameter either driven or l^ored, passing through 40 to 60 feet of clay, then into a gravel bed that supplies the water. From the vicinity of Berlin to Aurorahville, flows have been ob- tained everywhere along the road on low ground, while on the higher elevations the water rises nearly to the surface. Flows have also been obtained 2 miles west of Aurorahville, at Packerville, at Fargoville, and at Terrill. Aurorahville and vicinity. — The oldest well in Aurorahville was drilled about 1868 and is still one of the strongest flowing wells of the locality. It is located near the mill pond, opposite Well's store. The well is cased with 4-inch pipe for 10 feet and the remainder is 3 inch casing. The depth of the well is 95 feet, and the temperature of the water is 50 F. which is also the temperature of the other well waters. There are many flowing wells in the vicinity of Aurorahville. The water is struck at three or four distinct horizons separated from each other by beds of clay 20 to 60 feet thick. The wells usually range in depth from 25 to 350 feet without entering rock, but at some few wells the Potsdam sandstone is entered at 100 or 120 feet. No doubt this underlying sandstone helps to supply the gravel seams in certain locali- ties where the artesian head of the water in the gravel seams is lower than that in the Potsdam. Along the road 'from Aurorahville to Poysippi, the same type of sur- face flowing wells are seen on the lower elevations. As Poysippi is ap- proached, the ridge swings toward the east and confines the productive THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCO^-SIK. 93 area nearer to Lake Poygan. Numerous flows have been obtained in the village of Poysippi, near the banks of the little creek flowing through the town. Artesian flows'have been obtained for some distance up this little valley to the vicinity of Pine River and Saxeville. The productive area of flowing wells about Poysippi swings east- ward from Poysippi along the base of the ridge around the eastern pro- jection, and extends westward on the north side of the hill to a point within a few miles west of Brushville. Flows may be obtained any- where along the small creek between Brushville and Tustin. In the latter village it is claimed that no pumps have been used, all the water coming from artesian wells whose waters generally flow sev- eral feet above the surface of the ground. North of Brushville, in the vicinity of West Bloomfield, numerous ,flows are reported. At Fremont many similar flows are obtained. At Dale the wells range in depth from 72 to 300 feet, and obtain flows from the gravel seams. At Sledina a flowing well at the stock yards is 65 feet deep. Other ■flows have been obtained on favorable ground. Similar wells are struck in the vicinity of Medina Junction, particularly along the small streams. South of Lake Poygan, flows are obtained all along the lake from the Aurorahville marshes to Winneconne, at Borth, and at Poygan, and be- tween these places. The porus drift ridges surrounding the basin, furnish the gathering ground for the artesian waters. It is to be ex- pected that flows may be obtained wherever the topography is favorable -and the land is low. Within the towns of Warren (T. 18, R. 12) and Aurora (T. 18, R. 13) the flowing wells are numbered by the hundred, and the following records compiled in 1903 by A. R. Heald, driller, show the various kind of wells obtained. Water is struck in sand and gravel after passing through beds of clay of various thickness. For the most part only one of the gravel seams is used at a given well. 94 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Table Id— Logs of flowing wells in Warren, 'Aurora and viciniiy. (Authority, A. E. :peald. Driller). ■ Location. Year driled. Size, inches. Total depth, feet. Strata passed through Owner. T. 18 18, 18 19 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 11 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 E. 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 ■ 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 1.3 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 Sec. Clay. Sand or gravel, feet. Rock, feet. 12 1 1 3 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 B 6 6 7 7 7 11 11 13 14 14 17 17 19 20 20 21 22 26 29 29 .34 34 33 35 36 36 36 1 7 15 20 20 25 25 25 27 28 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 33 34 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 .35 3 2 2 2 2 2 60 115 101 72 96 98 213 58 125 1888 1894 1889 1895 1899 1899 1888 1888 115 100 72 96 98 213 58 120 30 S. A. Harrison P. Morrow . \V. n. Elmer E. Smith... 2 2 E. Chapin s. 5 Levi Warren E. B. Wells 1895 1894 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 124 290 95 89 s. 29 s. 170 Aurorahville Creamery.. Aurorahville School 31 1895 1895 1895 1896 1901 1899 1897 1901 1902 1895 1898 1903 1888 1888 1896 1888 1902 1902 1903 127 110 120 95 118 124 250 150 100 60 68 92 160 145 160 300 140 25 70 200 162 80 175 107 ■ 185 250 88 60 119 100 •40 368 127 168 55 80 181 190 100 80 80 55 90 80 277 311 133 170 175 170 133 224 231 SO 95 95 95 95 118 122 135 150 100 60 68 82 125 145 160 300 140 25 70 200 162 s. 22 s. 15 s. 20 J. W. HoUenbeck T, S. Hall J. Pralish g. 2 g. 115 J.J. Clark Geo. Eldredffe ' M. Elvers B. T. Davenport B. T Davenport M, Hoose T, Curren 35 Elliot Davis Dave Evans Wm. Owens M. Meesick Mrs. Crousi M, Elvers 2 A.Mehl.... A.Mehl 9. Ware 4 2 2. 2. E. M. Eovlile i892 1892 1892 l.-)0 95 130 250 60 60 119 100 s. 25 s. 12 s. 'i7> ■ E. M. Mathews E. M.Mathews, No. 2... A.Heald Mrs. Hearnsberg 2 ■J 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 ts 28 Chas. Benedict 1903 1902 1898 Chas. Eilet C. Eilet P. Hanson T.Schroeaden 1896 254 100 150 30 80 108 190 50 n. 70 S. 27 g. 18 g. 25 G. Schonscheck A. Borth 1895 1902 F. Cassady E.Gherkie Mrs. Gate 1896 1890 s. 83 Mrs. Gate Mrs. Blase g. 40 10 W.Cahin 3 i 3 2 2 2 2 •> 2 2 2 2 2 N. Pierce ' C. Rodencil 1901 1901 55 80 80 250 :-66 133 170 175 170 133 220 200 77 E. Gherliie ■ D.Thomas Mr. Rockitt iS96 1896 g 20 g. 45 Lew Dlpe M. Fralish Mr. Meshesin C.Hoeft Mr. Blam M. Pralish 1899 Mr. Buhrow g. 4 g. 31 R. Wilkie George Di.se 3 ss. THE FLOWING- ARTESIAN WELLiS OF WISCONSIN. 95 Table 19 — Logs of flowing loelU in Warren, Aurora and Hcinity — Concluded. Authorit.v, A. E, lleald, Driller, Location. Year drilled. Size inches. Total depth. Strata passed through. Owner. T. E. Sec. Clay. Sand or gravel feet. Rook feet. Mr Stermstki 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 36 36 36 36 36 30 30 30 7 2 162 113 270 248 96 182 190 175 120 69 51 110 87 69 40 37 64 85 106 53 94 45 45 150 33 250 235 45 150 100 100 50 58 16 105 63 9" 37 ■■■■32" 100 53 69 45 45 g. 12 g. 40 g. 20 g. 13 g. 50 s. 22 e. 90 g. 75 g. 70 g. 10 Mr. Belter 1895 1896 1899 1899 1899 40 Ss E Trehtow 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 9 2 2 W. Batkie Chas. Nitzki Chas. Nitzki 1894 1892 1892 1893 1893 1893 Mr. Palmeter Berlin Citi I L. Wares Eure Eure Eure Eure Eure Eure Eure ka... 35 H. Barden ka, , • 5 W. W. Noble ka. .. 24.1s. ka... g. 69 A.M. Goucher ka... 31. ss. ka... ka... g. 17 s. 43 Eureka Creamery 10. ss. R. Oaks Eure Eure Eusl ,ka... 6 A. Oaks ka... 25 M. Heisingrer/ Rushford . Mr. Zink Flowing Wells Along "Wolf Eiver and its Tributaries North of Lake Poygan along "Wolf river and its tributaries the lacus- trine deposits occupy a considerable area extending from Lake Poygan northward to and embracing Lake Shawano. This area has a width of 20 miles at the south, in the vicinity of New London, and about 12 miles at the north, near Shawano. The area extends on each side of the river bank to the sand ridges which form the divides and serve as a catchment ground. Over most of this area water under hydrostatic pres- sure is obtained, but flowing wells are chiefly obtained only on the low- lands along the "Wolf river and its tributaries. The depth of the wells ranges from 30 to 250 feet and water is drawn from three distinct gravel horizons. "Water is obtained at depths of 20 to 30 feet, of 120 to 150 feet and of 202 to 250 feet. The flows are generally small. They range however, from a stream which breaks into drops in falling, to strong flows filling a 3 inch pipe as in the case of Mr. Eamm's well of New London. The water is clear and wholesome, has a temperature of 48° to 50° F. and in some in- stances is impregnated with moderate amounts of iron and hydrogen sulphide. 96 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. In New London are a number of flowing wells in the surface forma- tions of sand clay and gravel drilled to a depth of 200 to 250 feet, strik- ing either the granite at bottom or a thin bed of sandstone overlying the granite. The National Condensing Milk Co. has a well 252 feet deep, 8 in casing, with average flow a few feet above the river of about 72,000 gallons per day. At the Chair Factory, water is piped from a flowing well having an estimated capacity of 36,000 gallons per day. Ramm's Fountain has a depth of 220 feet, 4 in. pipe, and a daily flow of about 30,000 gallons. The curb of this well is 20 or 30 feet above the river level. Shallow Flowing Wells in Rock Rivee Valley Flojying wells from the surface deposits are fairly common along the Rock River, and also along the many tributaries of the Roqk, the flows coming from the sand and gravel beds lying below impervious beds of clay. Flows are obtained irregularly along the banks of the Rock River from this horizon all the way from the mouth to the source. Flows of this kind are obtained at Dixon, Illinois, from wells 94 to 120 feet deep ; at Oregon, Illinois, where the supply may be in part from the under- lying St. Peter sandstone which in this locality helps feed the sand and gravel seam ; and at Beloit, Wisconsin where the supply again is partly from the St. Peter horizon. The water at Beloit is struck in a gravel seam below clay at a depth of about 90 feet. More than 36 of these wells have been driven within the city of Beloit. The water rises a few feet above the surface and in some cases as high as 8 feet. Flows are, however, confined to the lowest ground near the bank of the Rock river. Flowing wells from glacial drift are obtained all around Lake Kosh- konqng, and up Rock River and many of its tributaries. Flows have been obtained along the banks of the Rock, Koshkonong, Bark, White- water, Scupernong, and their important tributaries, covering a large area in Walworth, Rock, Waukesha, and Jefferson counties. Flowing WeijLS About Lake Koshkonong All these are on low ground about the lake or near the river bottoms. In this vicinity is a lake basin covering the area once occupied by the predecessor of the present Lake Koshkonong which extends up the present tributaries of the various streams that flow into the present lake. Flowing wells south, north and east of Whitewater, around Heb- THE FLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS OF WISCONSIN. 97 ron, west of Palmyra, as well as around Lake Koshkonong, do not strike roek. They are confined to the drift and are possible because the bed of lacustrine clay, forming the level plain about the present lake and along the river beds, rests upon the flank of much higher lying drift hills to the southeast with sandy and gravelly prairies behind them. These sandy and gravelly plains are admirably adapted to serve as col- lecting areas for the shallow artesian area. These collecting areas surround the entire basin and extend along the sides of the streams and are much higher than the region where flows are obtained. Strong flows are obtained as soon as the drill or auger passes through the clay bed into the gravel seam. South of Lake Koshkonong flows are struck at several coarse gravel horizons, at 40 feet, at 151 feet, and at 186 feet. At Koshkonong a deep well on the Black Hawk was drilled almost entirely through clay and shows the extreme depth of the clay deposits as well as the pinching out of certain gravel seams. Flows have been obtained at other points along Rock River, up such tributaries, as the Yahara and Crawfish rivers. At Madison a flow was obtained from the drift near Lake Monona at a depth of 119 feet. This well was drilled by the American Plow works in 1903. On Crawfish River flowing wells are struck at various places in the drift near the river banks. At Columbus many of the wells are in part, at least, fed by the underlying St. Peter sandstone which also furnishes good flows. Although no exact basin can be outlined for these wells, it seems probable from the data thus far gathered, that flows will be obtained from glacial drift at other favorable points along the Rock river and its tributaries, particularly along the low basins. Other flows have been obtained farther north on Rock River in the vicinity of Waupun, and on its tributaries as far up as Beaver Dam on Beaver Dam River, but not enough data are at hand to state whether they are all of the same general type. However, since most of them are struck along the river valley, or around lakes, it appears that they receive their flow from the deposits of sand and gravel beds covered with impervious clay that were laid down in these drainage basins. PLOwaNG Wells Along Lake Supeeior Along the south shore of Lake Superior are surface deposits like those that occur along the shore of Lake Michigan and of Green Bay. The general structure and geological relations are the same in the two regions, although the general distribution of the deposits is probably 7— w. S. 98 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. more irregular along the shore of Lake Superior than along Lake Michi- gan. The artesian slope along Lake Superior is mainly confined to the immediate vicinity of the lake. The alternating beds of sands, clays, and gravels fringe the shore of Lake Superior and dip toward the lake. The gathering ground for the waters lies between the lake and the prominent trap ridge some 10 to 20 miles south. These clays with in- terbedded gravels and sands extend from Superior, Douglas County^ Wis., eastward to Ontonogan county, Mich., and give rise to flowing wells along the lowlands bordering the shore. Farther back from the shore, where, the ground is considerably higher, the water usually fails to reach the surface. At Superior the water rises 22 feet above lake level, while at Ashland it rises 30 to 44 feet above lake level. These, however, are maximum initial heads and in most wells the present head is considerably lower. At other places various heads are maintained de- pending upon the local conditions. See also the local descriptions of Douglas, Bayfield, Ashland and Iron counties. Isolated Areas of Surface Flows While most of the surface flowing wells occur along the shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior and along the large river valleys of the eastern part of the state, occasionally favorable conditions in sur- face deposits are found elsewhere for the development of artesian flows. At Arkansaw in Pepin county on the banks of the Eau GaUe river, a good flow has been obtained at depth of 120 to 140 feet in the alluvial gravel under clay strata, At Hudson in St. Croix county, the trout springs along the Willow river are supplied by numerous shallow flow- ing wells consisting of pipes driven into the surface gravels and sands. In the vicinity of Osceola, Polk county, are numerous flowing wells along Osceola creek, in the surface formation, at depth of 10 to 20 feet. PROSPECTTNG FOR FLOWING WELLS. gc) CHAPTER IV. 1 PROSPECTING FOR FLOWING WELLS The head of any artesian well depends upon a number of factors, and cannot be predicted with any degree of accuracy, unless the local geological and topographic conditions, are fully considered in connec- tion with the general principles controlling or modifying artesian pres- sure. The influences of certain artesian factors are probably not as fully understood as they should be, and required data concerning the actual underground geological conditions is also not available in cer- tain localities, hence, it is necessary, to exercise considerable caution in making predictions in regard to flows. However, the prospecting for flowing artesian wells, as well as for non-flowing artesian wells, is an important practical problem, and the possibility or probability of ob- taining flowing wells has always attracted the attention of well drillers and property owners in search of the best available water supplies in. nearly every part of the state. In Chapter II, the general condition controlling or modifying artesian wells have been briefly referred to, and in Chapter III., the various flowing artesian wells over the entire state have been described. In the present chapter, a repetition of some of the statements already made will be necessary in connection with the discussion of prospecting for flowing wells. TJie influence of the local water table on artesian pressure. While Professor Chamberlin was probably the first to call attention to the in- fluence exerted by the local ground-water level on the artesian head, in his geological report^ of Wisconsin, he apparently, did not, at first, fully appreciate the importance o£"bhis factor. In his later work^ on artesian wells, ihowever, he called attention to the local groundwater table as exerting very favorable conditions for securing flowing wells. He stated : "I conceive that one of the most favorable conditions for securing a foun- tain is found when thick semi-porous beds constantly saturated with water » Geol. of Wis., Vol. 1, p. 689-70, 1881. ^ U. S. Geol. Survey, 5th Ann. Kept. pp. 125-173, 1885. 100 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. to a greater height than the fountain head, lie upon the porous stratum and occupy the whole country between the well and its source." Concerning the height of adjacent water levels M. L. Fuller^ has recently stated: "The height of the water table over any point in an artesian system may exert a material influence on the pressure. In fact, this may be a far more important factor than the pressure transmitted from the more remote catchment area." It is apparent when the distribution of the flowing wells in the water- bearing Paleozoic rocks in Wisconsin is considered, that the occurrence of many of the flowing wells at relatively high elevations can be ex- plained only on the theory that the local groundwater level in the over- lying strata is the principal factor in determining the artesian head. The influence of the pressure of the local groundwater on the ar- tesian head, is called especial attention to, as it undoubtedly, is not only- far more important in Wisconsin, than has been generally supposed^ but is, very apparently, far more important, in many other localities, than the factor of transmitted pressure from the more remote cateli- ment area of the various artesian systems involved. In considering the influence of the local groundwater level, the effect does not appear to be conditioned upon, or restricted to, the location of the groundwater table between the proposed well and the catchment or outcrop area of the water-bearing stratum in which the well has its source. The high water table may be located on either side of the pro- posed well with respect to the catchment area, and exert an equally potent influence on the local artesian head. The essential truth of this inference is based on such facts as the occurrence of the relatively high head attained by the flowing artesian wells in the Upper Camijjian (Potsdam) on the east side of the Fox river valley, at Beaver Dam, Waupun and Horicon, at elevations respectively of 886, 883 and 860 feet, as compared with the much lower artesian head, between the above flowing wells and the sandstone outcrop, of 765 feet at Berlin, and under 800 feet elsewhere farther up the Fox river valley. In a similar way, as high a head is maintained in the artesian wells at Whitewater, on the east side of the Eock river, as at/Waterloo and Cambridge, on the west side, though the latter places lie much nearer the sandstone out- crop than does Whitewater. Other conditions being equal, tJie greater tlie proximity of the 'local high neater tahle to the well, the greater is the ' U. S. Geol. Survey. Bull. 319, p. 31. pnospEcrixG Fui; flowjxo wellh. 201 influence exerted by tlie local water table on the artesian head of the well. For this reason, therefore, the artesian, or hydraulic gradient rises and falls with the height of the local Avater table, being lower within the valleys than upon the divides, causing the areas of estimated equal artesian pressure, indicated by artesian contours on the general map, to follow the general contours of the land surface, (see also page 55) therebj' developing regions of high artesian pressure on the high divides between the principal drainage systems of the state and regions of rela- tivclj' low artesian pressure within the adjacent low vallej^ plains. The factor of the increased pressure upon the artesian aquifers in consequence of the height of the local water table, therefore, must al- ways be taken into consideration in predicting favorable areas for ar- tesian flows. Because this factor was largely overlooked former estima- tions^ concerning the head of artesian wells obtainable in various parts of the state and especially in the Mississippi river district are far too low. In these earlier estimates, it was predicted, that although flows up to 200 feet, and even higher, might be secured in the Mississippi river district, the probabilities were fair for success, at elevations not more than 100 feet above Lake Michigan. Artesian flows, however, have been obtained at much higher eleva- tions than were predicted in 1881, the flows along the valleys tributary to the ilississippi being as high as over 400 feet above Lake Michigan, the flow at Wilton in the Kickapoo valley being at an elevation of 991 feet above sea level. Artesian flows in eastern Wisconsin, along the Rock river valley, and adjacent to Lake Michigan, are obtained at least over 50 feet higher than the usual maximum head formerly predicted, and may reasonably be predicted at still higher elevations. These former predictions, as alreadj^ stated, were largely based on the relative elevation of the outcropping edges of the water-bearing strata, as compared with that of the well from which the artesian water was ob- tained, after giving an allowance of about one foot per mile for the dis- tance between the collecting area and site of the well, for obstruction of- fered by the transmitting rock, and leakage of the confining strata. It now' appears, from later investigation and the development of many additional data concerning artesian wells, that the height of the water table over any point, very generally, is a far more important factor in AVisconsin in developing pressure in the artesian systems than the pres- sure transmitted from the more remote catchment aree^. ' Geol. of Wis., Vol. 1, p. 698. 102 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The following predictions, concerning areas in whieh success is prob- able, are based on the inference, that the pressure exerted by the local water table, is usually, the most important factor in developing condi- tions favorable for obtaining artesian flows. Areas in which Success is Probable The general geological map Plate I, in pocket, showing the artesian contours of the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam), artesian sys- tem, should be studied in any investigation of the artesian conditions of various localities of the state. The contours, as drawn on the map, are necessarily very much generalized, partly because sufficiently exact knowledge of the artesian conditions over considerable areas cannot be secured, and partly because of the small scale of the map. The artesian contour lines refer to the artesian head of the non-flowing as well as the flowing artesian wells, and, therefore, the contours do not themselves in- dicate the exact height at which flows are obtainable. It is usulaly only on low land, within the valleys, that flows are secured, the flowing wells being located where the bottoms of the valleys fall below the artesian contours thus bringing the artesian head above the land surface. Western Wisconsin. In western Wisconsin, in the valleys tributary to the Mississippi river, artesian flows from the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone have been obtained with head, in one instance, reach- ing an elevation of over 400 feet above the level of the Mississippi river. The relatively high heads of the artesian wells are not exceptional nor confined to any particular localized area in western Wisconsin, but are general over the entire territory. However, the artesian conditions of each valley, such as that of the main Mississippi river as well as that of each tributary, must be considered separately in any discussion of lo- cating artesian wells. The description of the artesian wells of the vari- ous valleys in which flows have been obtained, has been quite fully stated, and need not be repeated here, except merely to mention that flowing wells are common in the following valleys : The Mississippi val- ley ; the Chippewa valley ; the Red Cedar valley ; the Beef valley ; the Trempealeau valley; the La Crosse valley; the Coon Creek valley; the Kickapoo valley; and the Baraboo valley. (See pages 64 to 74.) The distribution of the flowing wells within these valleys, and their respective initial maximum heads, are fully described and explanation* offered for the non-productive sections of these valleys, and in some cases suggestions are made concerning the probability of success in lo- cating flows in portions of the valleys not already explored. PliOiSPUCTIXG FOR FLOWING WELLS. 103 The available head of flowing wells, within the Mississippi valley is usually from 25 to 100 feet above the river level adjacent, while the available heads in the tributary valleys are usually below 50 feet above the adjacent river level. The general range in artesian head in the small valleys, is usually, from a maximum of 50 feet above river level down to a minimum some distance below river level. The development 'of artesian flows along the Mississippi river and within the tributary valleys illustrate clearly the very potent influence of local geological and topographic features, and the consequent devel- opment of favorable local groundwater pressures on the artesian reser- voir. The artesian gradients, within the valleys, conform closely to the gradients of the valley bottom, and local conditions of valley topog- raphy are features of paramount consideration in predicting the loca- tion of areas, within valleys, where success in obtaining flows may be attained. While the artesian head is always higher in the uplands than within the valleys, as already stated, it is only on the low ground, with- in the valleys, that favorable conditions for obtaining flows above the surface are developed. In connection with the discussion of the subject of flowing wells in western Wisconsin, it may be helpful to point out at least two local conditions that should be taken into consideration in prospecting for ar- tesian flows. These conditions are undoubtedly applicable to all parts of the state, but they appear to be best illustrated along the Mississippi river, where the valleys have not been abruptly modified or blocked by glacial deposits. Sections of valleys wifh tJie average, or Mglier than tTie average slope, are more favorable for the development of flows, than sections wilfk little, or less than the average slope. — The distribution of flowing wells in the La Crosse valley and in the Baraboo valley, shows that the flat parts of these vaUeys are characteristically non-productive of artesian flows. The diagrams. Figs. 10 and 12, illustrate the artesian conditions in these valleys, and indicate how the artesian heads above the surface in the upper parts of the valley, decline at a relatively constant gradient in passing down the valley, and fall below the valley surface, where the latter is nearly flat for a considerable distance. In the La Crosse valley, the nearly flat section of the valley, lies in the lower-middle part of the valley, between Bangor and West Salem, while the nearly flat part of the Baraboo valley, lies at the lower end of the valley, a few miles below Baraboo, near the Wisconsin river. The head of the flowing wells in passing down the valleys declines at a certain fairly uniform rate, and this defeline is generally known as the 104 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. hydraulic, or artesian, gradient. The valley bottom in passing down the valley also declines at a more or less uniform rate, and this decline is generally known as the valley gradient, or the stream gradient. There is also a decline in the level of the groundwater, the surface of the groundwater table, conforming closely to, but located some distance be- low the land surface in passing down the valley, which may be conveni- ently referred to as the local groundwater gradient. \Vhile the pressure upon the artesian reservoir transmitted from the more remote catchment area, is an important factor, the height of the water table over any point usually exerts a still more powerful influence on the artesian pressure, and, therefore, the resultant artesian head in valleys is largely a function of the local groundwater level within each valley area. The artesian gradient, illustrated in the diagrams. Figs. 10, 11, and 12, is above the valley bottom in some sections of the valleys and below in others, depending upon the relative position of the artesian gradient to the slope of the valley. The artesian gradient, which is the head, or height the water under pressure will rise in the artesian wells, very ob- viously, forms a more uniform slope in some valleys than the local val- ley bottom, and hence, in those sections of such valleys that are nearly flat, or are below the average slope of the rest of the valley for a con- siderable distance, the more uniform and consistent artesian gradient will usually fall below the valley surface. It may not be out of place at this point, to refer to the generally er- roneous belief, that flat sections of valleys are more favorable for the development of artesian flows than the steeper slopes, whereas experi- eiiee has shown, that the flat parts of valleys, in most cases, as above in- dicated, are the least favorable for the development of flows. This er- roneous belief is based, in part at least, on the supposition that pressure within the artesian reservoirs was mainly transmitted from the more re- mote catchment area. While the dip of the water-bearing strata in the artesian system, and the consequent pressure transmitted from the catchment area, is undoubtedly a factor of some importance, it is, appar- ently, not so important in the semi-porous strata of the Wisconsin sys- tems, as the pressure exerted by the local groundwater table. Areas near Mgh uplands or at the base of blujfs in the valleys are more favorable for flows than areas more remote. — The location of flow- ing wells adjacent to high bluffs in valleys appiears to be due to the fact that these places are more favorably situated for receiving the pres- sure transmitted from the local high water table standing in the adja- cent bluffs and uplands than locations farther out in the valley that PROSPECTJXG FOR FLOWI,\(J ^\'ELL^. 105 are more remote from the high water table. The artesian gradient descends down the sides of valleys just as it descends down the middle of the A^alleys the descent down the sides of the valleys, however, being much more rapid than that down the middle of the valley. The differ- ence in head immediately adjacent to the bluffs and that out in the mid- dle of the valley may not be great, depending much upon the ^\•idth of the valley, but it may be sufficient to determine whether the well is of the flowing or non-flowing type. It is also very probable, that conditions for the maintenance of the artesian head, are much more favorable in locations immediately adja- cent to a high water table than in locations more remote from such a high water table. Favorable conditions for the maintenance of the ar- tesian head,' is undoubtedly, far more important than that of obtaining a high initial head. The difference in head, obtained by artesian wells along the ilissis- sippi river, is very probablj^ largely due to the relative position of the wells with respect to the adjacent upland, containing relatively high or low groundwater tables. The lowest artesian heads, attained along the Mississippi in Wisconsin, (See table 7 page 64) are those in the vicinity of La Crosse, where, on account of the great width of the valley and lower adjacent uplands, the most unfavorable conditions for rein- forcement of the artesian pressure from the more distant and lower groundwater table are developed. Farther north, at Red Wing, which lies at the base of the river bluffs, and also farther south, at McGregor and Dubuque, which also lie close against the high river bluffs, the ar- tesian head is high, because in these locations the conditions are very favorable for the utilization of pressure from the adjacent high ground- water table. The relatively strong artesian head of the wells developed at Du- rand on the Chippewa river, is undoubtedly due to the favorable loca- tion of the wells along the base of the high bluffs, where reinforcement of artesian pressure from the adjacent high water table is effective. The above described two sets of conditions are features generally characteristic of all the valleys of the state, and should be considered in prospecting for flowing artesian wells. There are various valleys in Wisconsin, in which no flowing wells have been located, but which appear from their location and topography to be favorable territory for exploration. The general statement should perhaps be made, that the localities for obtaining flowing arte- sian wells in Wisconsin are by no means exhausted. The prospect for finding flows in many valleys not yet productive appears to be good. In 106 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the following statement, some of the valleys where success is probable, will be pointed out. In many instances, the valleys or sections of val- leys Avhere prospects for obtaining flows are good, are also pointed out under the county descriptions. Valleys in Western Wisconsin in which Artesian Flows may he Ob- tained. — Flowing wells with source of flow in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone occur along the Mississippi and tributary valleys from Polk county on the north to Grant county on the south. Beginning at the north, flows are quite common along the St- Croix . river between Osceola and St. Croix Falls. The flowing wells in this district are generally shallow, usually less than 100 or 200 feet deep, and depend upon favorable local geological and topographic condi- tions. The source of the flows may be developed entirely within the sandstone formation, consisting of alternating shale and sandstone beds, or they may be developed at the contact of the sandstone formation with the underlying Keweenawan trap, the latter type of artesian well being illustrated by the flowing salt well, about 3 miles north of Osce- ola. While flows have not been developed along the St. Croix river at Hudson, the conditions being unfavorable, as described on page 548, it seems quite likely that flows with low head may be developed in ppr- tions of the Apple River valley, at favorable locations below rapids in the section of the river lying between the St. Croix river and the vil- lage of Star Prairie. Several flows have been ' obtained in the Kinnick- inick valley at .River Falls, and conditions appear to be favorable for obtaining additional flows on low ground, along the very narrow river valley below River Falls. Conditions should also be favorable for strong artesian flows near the mbuth of St. Croix river, below the Ilwa- co springs. Some of the valleys, tributary to the Red Cedar, Chippewa and Missis- sippi rivers in southern Pierce, western Dunn and western Pepin coun- ties appear to furnish conditions favorable for the development of flows. Most of these valleys head in, St. Croix county, but the valley bottoms in St. Croix county are probably too high in elevation for developing flows. Although no flows have been developed in these valleys, in sections of such valleys as the Trimbelle river, the Isabelle creek, Rush river, Plum creelv, Eau Galle river and lower tributary valleys, Gilbert creek, Wilson creek and Hay river, conditions appear to be favorable for obtaining flows. The flows probably will be restricted to the lowest ground along the valleys with head not exceeding 20 or 30 feet above the level of the river adjacent. The lower sections of the valleys mentioned in Pierce PifOWPL'Cr/.VG FOR FLO;\'lXa- M-ELLi>. 107 •county, 5 to 10 miles above the lower end, are probabh- the productive portions. Farther north along the Eau Galle, and in tributary valleys of the Red Cedar, the favorable sections may be located at various places farther up the valleys. South of the Chippewa river, flows are developed in certain sections ■of such valleys as the Beef and Trempealeau rivers, and it seems reason- able to believe that additional flows can be obtained in other section of "these valleys, and in favorable sections of the Waumandee valley, and other tributaries. Flows should also be obtainable on low ground up the Black river, probably as far as IMelrose, and up the La Crosse valley, several miles beyond their present development, west of Sparta. In Coon Creek valley is a very productive area of artesian flows ex- tending for 15 miles up the valley. Although no flows are at present known in the valley of the Bad Axe immediately to the south, it is rea- sonable to suppose that flows may also be developed some distance up this valley. East of the Mississippi along the north side of the Wisconsin river many flowing wells have been developed within the Kickapoo and Bar- aboo valleys. The productive areas of these valleys may be extended so .as to include the west branch of the Kickapoo, and some of the headwater tributaries of the Baraboo. No flowing wells are known to occur in the valley of the Eagle river .and of the Pine river in Richland county, although these valleys are located betwen the productive Kickapoo valley on the west, and the Baraboo valley on the east. While favorable conditions for flows may not be developed in the Eagle river valley, it seems reasonable to believe that flows may be obtained in the Pine valley, at least above Richland ■Centre. South of the Wisconsin river in Iowa, Grant and Lafayette counties, no flowing wells are known except those along the Mississippi river at Cassville, in Grant county, and on the Iowa side of the river, at Dii- buque. It seems verj- probable that conditions are not favorable for ob- taining flows in either Iowa or Lafayette counties, in valleys tributary to the Wisconsin river or within the Pecatonica valley which is a very Tound-about tributary of the Rock river. However, conditions appear to be favorable for artesian flows with reasonably strong pressure in "Grant county, within certain sections of the valleys of the Grant, the Platte and the Little Platte rivers which empty directly into the Missis- sippi. Eastern Wisconsin, south of Lake Winnebago. — In eastern Wisconsin, flowing wells with source of supply in the Potsdam and St. Peter sand- lOS THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. stone formations, occur at Waupun where a flow has been obtained with- head of 883 feet above sea level (level of Lake Michigan is 581 feet) , and farther east, near the lake at Sheboygan Palls, Avith head of 727 feet. Farther south flows have been obtained at AVhitewater with head of 839 feet, at Mukwanago with head of 830 feet, and at the Elm Grove Convent, west of Milwaukee, with head of 766 feet. The maximum initial head' of the flows obtained from the upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) aquifer, in southeastern Wisconsin, is about 250 feet above the level of Lake Michigan, while the maximum head of flows ob- tained farther north, south of Lake Winne'bago, is somewhat higher,, about 300 feet above the lake. The flowing wells back a few miles from the shore of Lake Michigan are all confined to the relatively low lands^ within the valleys, and the artesian head of non-flowing wells on the up- land divides is still higher than that of the flowing wells within the val- leys, though flows are not obtainable in the uplands, because of the re- latively high elevation of the land surface. In a general way, it may be stated, that south of Lake Winnebago,, in eastern Wisconsin, the probability of obtaining flows from St. Peter and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone are good, dependent upon favoi'able local conditions, up to 150 to 200 feet above Lake Michigan, within 5 or 10 miles of the lake shore, and up to 300 feet or over, in the- valleys within the higher upland divides, 30 to 50 miles west of the lake. It should be stated, perhaps, that flows from the drift and the Niagara limestone, with heads at still higher elevations than those from the sand- stone occur in vai'ious parts of this region. Eastern Wisconsin, north of Lake Winnebago. — North of Lake Winne- bago, the artesian head of the Potsdam water declines relatively rapidly in going north, down the valley of the Lower Fox river and along the shore of Green Bay. At the lower end of Lake Winnebago, at Neenah, the artesian head is 760 fet above sea level, at Green Bay, 672, at Oconto, G30, and at Marinette, 614 (for respective heads above the curbs see tables on pages 77-8) . The decline in the artesian head in passing down. the valley, while conforming closely to the slope of the valley, has a fall much less than the valley itself, as indicated by the fact that the initial head at Neenah was 15 feet above Lake Winnebago while the initial head at Green Bay was 90 feet above the bay. Between Green Bay and Marinette, the artesian head declines from 90* feet above the bay at Green Bay, to 50 feet at Oconto, and to 33 feet at ilarinette. While the decline in the artesian head along the west side of Green Bay may be partly due to the decrease in the thickness and in the extent of the outcrop area of the Upper Cambrian sandstone in go- PKOSPECTIXG FOR FLOTViyo WFLLti. 109 iug north, the decline in artesian head is probably mainly due, to the greater flatness of the area adjacent to the bay, and the consequently less favorable condition for reinforconicnt of artesian pressure from a iigh water table adjacent to the shore. In general, it may be stated, that north of Lake Winnebago in eastern Wisconsin, the probabilitj- of obtaining flows are good (with the ex- ception named below) from 100 to 200 feet above the level of Green Bay, in Brown and Outagamie counties, — probablj' abovit 200 feet being the maximum head in the valleys 20 to 30 miles back from the bay, and 100 ieet the probable maximum within 5 or 10 miles of the shore. Farther north, in the southeastern parts of Shawano, Oconto and Marinette counties, flows will probably not be obtainable over 100 or 125 feet iibove the level of the bay, probably from 50 to 125 feet above the bay, 10 or 15 mlies up the valleys leading back from the bay, and from 25 to 50 feet above the bay within a few miles of the shore. Kewaiinoc-Door Peninsula. — Although it was formerly predicted that flows would be obtainable from the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian sand- stones (Potsdam) for the whole of the border of Lake Michigan, subse- quent developments seem to indicate that the sandstone formations are barren of artesian pressure along the lake shore, north of Manitowoc. Wliilc slight flows of about 20 feet above the level of the lake have been obtained from the Niagara at Two Rivers and Algoma, no additional flow was obtained at either of these places, in a well that penetrated through the Potsdam to tlie granite at Two Rivers, and through the St. Peter to the middle part of the Lower Magnesian at Algoma. An explanation for the absence of artesian flows from the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian acquifers north of Manitowoc is offered on p. 81, three changes in the geological conditions being pointed out as un- fa voralfle to artesian development in ' the peninsular district east of fh'c^n Bay, as compared with the favorable conditions developed farther south. Whatever the principal causes operative in preventing the dev- elopment of flows from the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian at Two Rivers and Algoma, there is very apparently, in the peninsula east of Green Bay, a change in the geology and topography sufficient to develop con- ditions unfavorable for securing artesian flows. It is probable that f^ows may be obtained along the west shore of the peninsula, 5 or 10 miles north of Green Bay, but it is not likely that the productive area extends fai'ther north. Rock River Valley. — Iia the tributary valleys of the Rock River, flows have been obtained at Beaver Dam, as previously stated, with head 886 feet above sea level. It is reasonably certain that flows may be obtained 110 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. at still higher elevations near the summit of the divide surrounding the Eock river drainage basin. The areas of probable success are neces- sarily confined to the low ground within the valleys, and the available head in these favorable localities is not likely to be more than 10 or 1& feet above the curb or above the adjacent stream level, the artesian gra- dient following closely the gradient of the valley bottom. Local geologic and topographic features, favorable to the development of a high groundwater table in adjacent uplands, are essential requisites for the development of artesian flows at these higher elevations, and the favor- able conditions should be considered as having only local, and not gen- eral application. While it is not always possible to draw a sharp line between deep- seated surface flowing wells, as both classes depend largely on local con- ditions, and both often occur in the same localities, the foregoing state- ments have been confined to artesian wells having their source mainly in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, and to a minor extent in the overlying St. Peter sandstone or Lower Magnesian limestone form- ations, the latter formations being drawn upon, only in the eastern part of the state. Occasionally, artesian wells have been obtained from the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone where this formation is the bed rock in the valley bottoms, as in the upper part of the Fox river valley, illustrated by some of the artesian wells in Fond du Lac, but usually the source of the artesian flows in the Trenton is indirectly in the un- derlying St. Peter and Potsdam aquifers. Prospecting for Surface Flows. The surface flowing wells indicated on the general map are far more abundant and are scattered over a much larger area of eastern Wiscon- sin than the deeper-seated flowing wells from the St. Peter and Pots- dam horizons. In the southwestern one-fourth of the state, however, within the driftless or thin drift area, the surface-flowing wells are rcr latively rare. The surface artesian wells derive their flow from beds of sand or gravel, sandwiched between beds of clay within the surface formation, between the surface clay and the fractured rock below, and from within the fractured jointed rock underlying the surface formation. The frac- tured and jointed rock may be any formation, but it is usually the Niagara limestone, and only occasionally the Pre-Cambrian Crystal- line rock. The essentials of these surface artesian flows are as follows : 1. An adequate source of water supply, which is the precipitation. PROSPBCTiyCr FOR FLOWIKG WELLS. m mainly in the form of rain, that falls upon and sinks into the adjacent porous uplands. 2. A retaining agent, offering more resistance to the passage of water than the well, which is mainly a hed of clay or other relatively impervious material, overlying the water-bearing sand or gravel bed, or the fractured and jointed rock. 3. An adequate source of pressure, which is mainly the weight of the groundwater table in the adjacent uplands, pressing down upon the water confined within the water-bearing strata from which the flow is obtained. The surface flows are, therefore, local in origin and depend upon favorable underground and topographic conditions, developed within a few hundred feet to 5 or 10 miles of the well. The location of the flows is always confined to relatively low ground in valleys, or along the lower slopes of the uplands, or within the slopes of former lake basins. The available head is generally low, usually less than 20 or 30 feet, though occasionally 50 or 60 feet, above the lowest ground of the immediate locality. Floivs from the drift. — The surface flowing wells from the drift are cheaply obtained and are very serviceable. They wiR undoubtedly be found in certain parts of the state where not yet developed, and their areas may be extended in some cases much farther up the slopes and the valleys where already developed. No detailed statement of local areas in various parts of the state where success may be obtained is warranted. It may be well to point out, however, that the favorable areas for the surface flows in the drift, as may be inferred from the above described essentials, are necessarily located some distance below the general groundwater level of the adjacent uplands, and are confined to water-bearing surface formations of glacial, alluvial or lacustrine origin in which the water is capable of being held under hydrostatic pressure. Especially favorable places for the development of surface flows in the drift are in the sand, gravel and clay beds within the former expanded Great Lake basins and estuaries, adjacent to Lake Superior, Lake Michigan and Green Bay. Flows from tJie Niagara limestone. — Flowing weUs in the Niagara limestone are quite common in the general outcrop area of this forma- tion in eastern Wisconsin. The Niagara formation has a usual thick- ness of 300 to 400 feet, and overlies the impervious shale beds of the Cincinnati group. The numerous fractures and open joints in the Niag- ara formation, combined with the impervious shale at the base, undoubt- edly develops conditions favorable for artesian wells in some localities. 112 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WI8C0NSIK. entirely independent of the artesian conditions developed in the over- lying surface formation. The area of flowing wells about Rockfield and South Germantown, in southeastern Washington county, (see PI. Ill) is a good example of conditions under which flows from the Niagara are developed. In this area, flows with maximum initial head of 30 to 60 feet above the curb, or up to 370 feet above the level of Lake Michigan, were obtained. Many -of the artesian wells in the Niagara, however, appear to de- pend wholly upon favorable conditions developed in the overlying sur- face formation as the flows are obtained at the contact of the two forma- tions, and hence on the map (Plate I) the flowing wells in the Niagara and in the surface formations are classed together. Flows from the Pre-Camhrian Crystalline rock. — Occasionally flow- ing wells with low head have been found with source of flow in the gran- ite, slate or other Pre-Cambrian crystalline rock, the flows being usually, but not always, restricted to, areas where the latter is overlain by porous drift formations. The flows from the granitic rock are dependent upon the same conditions as those developed within the Niagara, or at the con- tact of the Niagara with the overlying drift. The flows from the granite and other crystalline rock are of interest as a type, but are relatively rare and unimportant in occurance, on account of the generally flat slope of the crystalline area, combined with the relatively shallow depth of the fractures and joints and the consequent shallow depth of the water-bearing zone in the granite. "While predictions can be made concerning favorable areas for obtain^ ing surface flows from the drift and from the Niagara, no predictions are warranted concerning surface flows from the crystalline rocks. On the contrary, it may be stated, that any general or systematic attempt to obtain flows, or even any considerable quantity of ordinary groundwa- ter, from the crystalline rocks is wholly unwarranted, and drilling should very generally cease within 10 or 20 feet after reaching this formation. ilETHODS OF Drilling for Flo^ving Wells. While driven wells are occasionally used in obtaining very shallow flows, the standard drilled well is the type very generally used in drill- ing for artesian and ordinary groundwater wells in Wisconsin. The driv- en wells consist of small iron tubes, usually 1 to 3 inches in diameter, provided with a point and screen. The well points are likely to become flogged in a relatively short period, and hence this type is used only in Ph'OSPECTIXa- FOR FLOWlXa WELLS. 1]3 ^•e^•y shallow wells, and to a limited extent where the well tubes can be readily replaced. The standard drilled well is the usual type in Wisconsin and is sunk by percussion of a heavy drill, usually 2 to 12 inches in diameter, lift- ed and dropped from a portable rig by means of power, generated by steam or gasoline engines. The drill hole is cased with iron pipe in the surface formation and soft rock, and is usually not cased in the rock. While the special operations in drilling of non-flowing and flowing wells is much the same, certain precautions are essential in drilling a well to obtain flowing water, that are not necessary in drilling ordinary groundwater wells. Packing and Casing. — In constructing a flowing well, it is very gen- erally necessary to make a water-tight joint between the well casing and the rock, otherwise the water ascending from below will find an outlet outside the casing and fail to reach the surface. In some instances, also, if porous rock is penetrated below the point to which the well is cased, it may be necessary to insert casing through such porous material to prevent escape of water. In other instances when a water bed is weak, it may be protected with casing perforated to admit the entrance of water. The proper method of casing artesian wells is illustrated on page 503. The diameter of artesian wells materially affects the yield, for the larger the diameter, the less the frictional resistance. The cross-section of a tube varies as the square of the diameter, and disregarding other factors, an 8-inch pipe would carry 16 times as much as a 2-inch pipe. Taking into account both the frictional resistance and the cross section, the discharge of a pipe has been calculated to vary as the 2.5 power of the diameter. While several small wells will yield a larger inflow than one large well, the yield of any well is controlled by the maximum diam- eter of the bore hole at the water-bearing stratum rather than the max- imum diameter at the mouth of the well. Records of flowing wells. — It is very impox'tant that drillers and own- ers of flowing wells should make and preserve the records of flowing wells drilled, as described on pages 5-7, in order that as complete in- formation as possible may be available for the future exploration of ar- tesian supplies in the locality. 8— w. s. 114 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. CHAPTER V. SPRINGS AND MINERAL WATERS Much underground water returns to the land surface through springs or by diffused seepage into lakes, rivers, and marshes. The supply of groundwater furnished to the surface run-off by springs varies greatly. In places the discharge is very limited and the water differs but little in character from ordinary seepage water, while in the other localities the water gushes forth in small streams. At many places the water bub- bles up through sand or gravel and the spring is not infrequently called a bubbling or boiling spring. Springs, like wells, are of two classes, surface and deep-seated. The- conditions giving rise to springs are in part the same as those for ar- tesian wells. The water of a spring flows out of the ground by natural processes alone, while in a flowing well the water is made to flow at the surface through the agency of man: In the case of some springs the water may move downward and have a free zone to escape above some impervious bed, while in flowing wells the water reaches the surface on- ly by hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure therefore may or may not be one of the requisite conditions of springs. In every case gravity forces the spring water to the surface. Surface Springs. Surface springs, or seepage springs, are usually associated with out- crops of impervious strata. In this class of springs the water escapes at the contact of an overlying porous bed with an underlying non-porous bed. See fig. 14. Seepage springs may also occur along the contact of the drift with underlying shale or limestone, the water flowing along the impervious basement until it reaches the lowest point of escape. Most of the springs in "Wisconsin are of the surface type. Many of them have dried up, and disappeared, but many others are still yielding large quantities of water and in thinly settled districts form one of the chief sources of domestic supply. During the unusually wet years, as- ■SPlUXaii AXD MiyERAL WATERS. 115 in 1903, many of the springs which had formerly gone dry began flow- ing again owing to the unusually heavy rainfall and the consequent rise in the water-table. Fig. 14. — Seepage spring fed from unconfined waters in porous sand. Deep-Seated Springs. In the deep-seated springs, the water rises to the surface along joint planes, fissure and f aiilt planes in bed rock. See fig. 15. The waters in the deep-seated springs are under hydrostatic pressure, confined in im- pervious channels or between impervious beds, and in their mode of origin are artesian springs. The temperature of the water from the deep zones of flow is more constant and, as a rule, somewhat higher than that of water from surface springs. Fig. 15. — Fissure spring. The water springs from the underlying sandstone up through fissures in the limestone. The conditions affecting the amount of groundwater available for springs are essentially the same as those already described for artesian wells. DlSTEIBUTIOX OF SPRINGS. Springs flow from all of the water-bearing horizons mentioned in the geological formations; but certain horizons are more important than others and give rise to a much larger number of springs. Although the various springs seem to a casual observer to be scattered promiscuously over the state, such does not appear to be the case when their distribu- 116 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tion is studied a little more carefully. Both classes of springs above referred to, originate in the various geologic horizons and owe their distribution and occurrence to a variety of geologic features. Springs in the Crystalline area. The springs in the cr3-stalline area are largely due to faulting and min- or displacements in the rock. The crystalline area abounds in springs which are often the chief source for domestic supply, but the springs have been very little studied and are scracely ever developed commer- cially. The crystalline area is so completely covered with drift that it is rather difficult to determine whether a particular spring derives its water from the underlying crystalline rock or from the overlying drift. Data that would throw light upon their source, are in nearly every case lacking and before such springs can be classified a much more extensive study is necessary. Springs in the Upper Cambrian Sandstone and the Lower .•,, .. Magnesian Limestone. The springs of note in this lower zone of water-bearing sedimentary rocks, are at the contacts of the relatively impervious and pervious shale- beds in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone formation and be- tween the sandstone and the overlying Lower Magnesian limestone. The contacts are the source of supply, although the springs may not always escape or rise to the surface near them. The water often flows under- ground several miles from the contacts before coming to the surface. This is notably true where the surface is composed of disintegrated sandstone which allows the water ready passage. A number of springs in the valleys rise from the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone where this formation has been eroded so as to ex- pose its impervious beds thus giving the water flowing along its eon- fining walls a chance to escape. A pecularity of some of the springs arising from the sandstone is worthy of mention. The point of escape or the location of the spring is often at the end of a projecting sandstone ridge that extends out into the valley, either along the side, or at the head of the main valley. The water follows the ridge as far as possible and finally, when no longer protected by the overlying caji. escapes to the surface, near the extrem- ity of the ridge projecting out into the valley. At the contact of the sandstone and the overlying Lower Magnesian limestone the water may come to the surface at the foot of a hill, where SPIliyaS AXD 3JiyEIfAL WATERS. 117 the two formations join, and then disappear, within a short distance,^ only to reappear again several miles farther down where the under- ground channels open into the river valley. A fine example of this may be seen on Silver Creek one of the tributaries of La Crosse River. Springs, may also escape at levels higher than the contact, by escaping through fissures or crevices in the limestone as illustrated by the Ilwaco springs on the St. Croix River west of River Falls. They then seem to come en- tirely from the limestone. The farther from the line of contact, the less numerous do the springs become, but there is usually a wide area along: this contact in which the springs arise or reach the surface. From the Lower Magnesian limestone springs arise that derive their water entirely from the limestone and are not connected in any way with those found at the junction of the sandstone and limestone. They ai-e, however, few in number and not important. The spring water from the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and Lower Magnesian limestone usually has a temperature of 48° to 50° F., is clear, sparkling, comparative! }• free from organic impurities, and usually low or moderate in mineral content. It contains small percent- age of lime and magnesium carbonates, little iron, some silica and alu- mina, with small amounts of chlorides. The water has a very pleasant' taste and the small amount of free carbonic acid makes it very palat- able. The springs arising from the Upper Cambrian and the Lower- Magnesian are not present along the eastern part of the state. (See Geological Map Plate I in Pocket) but are plentiful along those streams tributary to the Mississippi river, and especially along the St. Croix river, as at St. Croix Falls and Osceola. Although these springs are used very little at present for watering stock and general farm use, ex- cepting those at St. Croix and Osceola, they furnish favorable conditions for developing trout ponds and for domestic supply. The waters of the springs are far superior for domestic use to much of the shallow well waters used. Springs ix the St. Peter Sandstone and Galena-Platteville Limestone. The second horizon for springs, that of the middle zone of water-bear-- ing rocks, occurs near the junction of the St. Peter sandstone and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The shaly impervious stratum that usually forms the base of the overlying Platteville limestone, rest- ing upon the underlying St. Peter sandstone, divides this spring horizon into two classes, giving rise to springs either above or below this imper- 118 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIiV. vious stratum. Under normal conditions, the water descending; ifarongh the fissured limestone is caught by the shale beds and caried along their surface to some point where erosion has furnished a means of escape, thus giving rise to springs directly from the limestone flowing from above the shale. The springs from the St. Peter sandstone usually flow from the sand below the dense shaly beds. However, some of the water ■of the limestone may find an opening into the sandstone at some adja- ■cent higher level and thus give rise to springs from the limestone issu- ing below the impervious bed, while the sandstone water under certain favorable conditions may be the source of springs that flow out above the shaly beds. AS in the first horizon, there is a zone within which most of the springs are found, but a careful study of each spring is re- quired before its exact source can definitely be stated. A number of springs flow from different levels within the limestone, some from the contact of the Platteville and Galena beds, others from higher levels in the Galena but they do not appear to be confined to any well marked stratum. Although many are found within the Galena- Platteville water horizon, they are rather irregular in their distribution. The springs in this horizon are much less abundant than in the last men- tioned Upper Cambrian-Lower llagnesian horizon but the general char- acter of the water is very similar in both horizons. The quantity of mineral ingredients, however, in the water fiowing from the Galena- Platteville limestone springs is usually somewhat greater, and the waters as a whole are harder, than the spring waters from the Upper Cambrian- Lower Magnesian horizon. They furnish water of the most excellent quality and puritj-, that may be safely substituted for well water in these localities in which they occur. Springs in the Cincinnati Shale and the Niagara Limestone. In some respects, the most remarkable horizon giving rise to springs, is that found at the upper surface of the Cincinnati shale. The water flowing from the springs at this horizon, which maj' be called the upper zone of sedimentary rocks, all comes from the fissured, cavernous, and •decayed limestone of the Niagara formation. The direction of the fiow is along the surface of the beds of the upper portion of the Cincinnati shale, either along the dip of the strata, or in some other direction that sooner or later offers an opportunity of escape. The water that flows in the direction of the dip, gives rise to flowing wells farther toward the east and is the source of many of the springs scattered over the area Tjnderlain by Niagara limestone. SPRINGS AKD MINERAL WATERS. 119 The water that flows in the direction opposite to the dip of the shale strata finds an outlet along the western outcrop of the strata. The out- crop of the shale is exposed at frequent intervals along the east side of the Lower Fox and the Rock River valleys and forms a well defined zone along which the springs are located. In some localities, however, a heavy deposit of drift nearly conceals the horizon, while in others, a heavy mass of clay lies against the contact and prevents the escape of the water.' The water is then forced to rise higher and seek an outlet through joints in the limestone wherever opportunity offers. Where the glacial drift or rock fallen from the Niagara limestone cliffs above conceal the contact, the spring water may run in concealed channels down the slope, and issue some distance below its true point of escape from the shale strata. Some of these springs may, therefore, easily pass as drift springs, although their source is only indirectly in the drift. However, with a little care the line of contact itself, or its trace as indicated by the line of springs may be definitely followed. In most cases it is thus possible to determine the source of any spring' in the vicinity. In places along the east side of the Fox river valley, in the vicinity of Lake Winnebago, much of the water passing underground does not re- appear in the form of surface springs, but is caught beneath a clay bed of lacustrine or glacial origin, is once more confined, and later appar- ently carried in underground channels directly into Lake Winnebago. Along the east side of the Fox river valley, under the protection of the Niagara escarpment, are hundreds of springs marking this most re- markable horizon. Some of the springs are very small while others furnish sufficient power for small industries. As mentioned before, springs which flow from various hoi-izons within the Niagara limestone are scattered over the entire eastern district of Wisconsin. Their distribution, is irregular, depending somewhat upon the occurrence of flssures and character of the topography of the lime- stone. Their source is much the same as that of the artesian wells ob- tained from the limestone at Rockfield and South Germantown. A num- ber of these springs have dried up since the settlement of the country and the development of agriculture, but njany of the deeper-seated springs remain as strong as ever. These scattered springs from the Niagara horizon include some of Wisconsin's most famous springs, such as the noted springs at Waukesha. The water from these springs is clear, cool and refreshing, the tem- perature, ranging between 46° to 48° F., remaining rather constant throughout the year. The water, from springs in the Niagara, as a 120 ^'HE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. rule, is harder than other Wisconsin spring waters and contains con- siderable amounts of mineral matter. Within this horizon are found many travertine springs. Large specimens of the travertine have been picked up out of the streams and springs east of Fond du Lac. Springs in the Drift and Other Surface Deposits The foregoing springs all have their source in the bed rock. Besides these, however, there are a number of springs, both large and small, that issue from loose unconsolidated material, overlyiilg the bed rock. This- surface horizon gives rise to more springs than any other horizon con- sidered. They are, as a class quite superficial and are subject to great variations in volume. They are more liable to contamination from surface impurities, and the temperature of the water is more var- ied, than from springs that issue from the rocks. They are, also, the first to be affected by any deficiency in the annual precipitation, and are controlled more or less, by merely local ctinditions of the drift material. Some of the surface springs have their source in gravel and sand in- terbedded with layers of clay. Of this class, are those issuing under hydrostatic pressure from the junction of the porous and impervious beds of the lacustrine deposits, bordering Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. In places, a continuous line of small rivulets may be seen is- suing from the junction, either below or above the bed of clay. Other springs owe their origin to seepage and flow from loose mate- rial, which may give rise to seepage springs on the slope or at the base of hills, even if the loose material composing the slopes be of a homo- geneous nature. Between these two classes there is every degree of g)-adation. To the latter class of seepage springs, belong the vast num- ber of springs scattered over northern Wisconsin that help feed the numerous lakes, rivers, swamps, and marshes that abound in this region. They are, for the most part, of little importance and but seldom used. They belong to the class that will be affected most when the country is: opened up to agriculture. Even at the present in the forest areas some di>' up during long continued droughts. While, in general, the seepage springs, are small and subject to local surface conditions they are, occasionally, very large. In the glaciated area, most of the springs are found along the terminal moraines. The hummocky topography and porous drift of the moraines are well adapt- ed to catch and temporarily liold the precipitation, and finally discharge it through the springs at the foot of the range or in the flats adjacent to it, or at some other convenient point midway between the summit and the base of the drift hills. SPlilKGS AXD MIXERAL ^yATEl!l^. ]21 The numerous lakes that are distributed along the important terminal muraines are largely fed by springs that pour their water into the lake either directly along the shores or through small streams that have their source in springs some distance from the lakes. This accounts in part for the clearness and purity of the water found in many of the lakes. The number of springs opening into the lake below its surface level, is not known but is probably not large, although some of the very small lakes are probably maintained from this source alone. The "Kettle Range" is lined tliToughout its entire extent with springs, and it has been observed that where lakes are located on either side of the main terminal moraines the springs are most abundant on that side of the lake lying nearest to the moraines. Many of the springs, besides fur- nishing large quantities of water, are also very constant and uniform in both flow and temperature. Mineral Springs of Wisconsin. To give a detailed description of springs supplying mineral waters, their location and general features is beyond the purpose of the present report. However, a few of the more important springs are mentioned in order to show the importance of mineral springs in Wisconsin. From the drift are obtained the so-called sulphur springs, the water of which varies considerably in chemical composition. The sulphur exists as sul- phuretted hydrogen in the water and readily escapes on exposure to the atmosphere. Other springs are so charged with iron that they readily pass as chalybeate springs. The total mineral matter in spring waters may range from almost nothing to seyeal hundred parts per million, as shown by the table of spring water analyses. (Page 124). Mineral Waters. All waters are mineralized, as described on pages 127 to 132, but the term "mineral waters" is made to include only those that are sold on the market as such. Mineral waters include every gradation from waters containing a very low percentage of mineral in solution to those con- taining a very high percentage of dissolved substances. In addition to the natural composition, some mineral waters are subjected to artificial treatment, such as the addition of mineral salts or the addition of car- bonic acid gas, but so far as possible, waters that have been sub.jected to considerable change are excluded from this classification. On the basis of use, mineral waters are separated into two groups, — 122 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. those sold for their therapeutic value (medicinal water) , and those sold for use as drinking water (table water). Quantity and Value. — In 1863 the first attempt was made to collect statistics of mineral waters in the United States, and since that year, Wisconsin has ranked among the first states, both in production and value. "Wisconsin is generally considered the leading state iu the Union in Iho value of mineral water and third in the quantity of mineral ^vatcr sold on the market, generally ranking first in value of table waters and generally fifth in value of medicinal water. In- 1911 ^ the quantity of mineral waters sold in "Wisconsin was 5,716,162 gallons, the value of table water being $862,965, and of medicinal waters, $93,023. The production of mineral waters in "Wisconsin for the past seven years is shown in the following taible : Table 30 Production and value of mineral waters in Wisconsin, 1907 — 191S. Year. Springs I'eport- Ing sales. Quantity sold (gallon,s). Value. 1907 29 28 34 36 31 31 30 6,839,219 6,084,571 6,101,882 6,400,812 5,716,162 6,045,719 7,234,217 $1,526,703 1908 1,239,907 1909 1,132,239 1910 974,366 1911 9.55,988 1912 . . 869,495 1913 790,552 Thirty springs reported sales in 1913. There were resorts at four of the springs, which acommodated over 1,800 guests, and the water at ' three was used for bathing. In addition to the sales, more than 645,000 gallons "vieic used in the manufacture of soft drinks. Besides the quantity of water used in the manufacture of soft drinks, a large amount of water, usually artesian water, is annually used in Wisconsin in the manufacture of beer and other malt liquors. In the production of malt liquors, Wisconsin generally ranks about the 4th state in the Union, the quantity of beer, ale and porter produced in 1913 being 5,171,179 barrels, or 160,306,549 gallons. About three- fourths of the production is manufactured in Milwaukee, the water util- ized being obtained from artesian wells. About 92 per cent of fer- mented liquors consist of water, and the quality of the product depends much upon the character of the water. 'Production of Mineral Waters, Mineral Resources for 1911, Survey, Pt. II, p. 1173. U. S. Geol. 8PRIXG8 AND MINERAL WATERS. 123 The following list of 37 springs (including a few wells) have reported sales in the last 3 years, 1911-13 : List of Wisconsin Mineral Springs. AUouez Mineral Spring Co., Green Bay, Brown County. Arbutus Mineral Spring, Oconto, Oconto County. Badger State Mineral Water Co., Darlington, Lafayette County. Bay City Spring, Ashland, Ashland County. Bethania Spring, Osceola, Polk County. Bryant Silver Springs, Madison, Dane County. Castalia Spring, Wauwatosa, Milwaukee County. Chippewa Spring, Chippewa Falls, Chippewa County. Crystal Spring, Sheboygan, Sheboygan County. Crystal Springs, Waupaca, Waupaca County. Elysian Spring, Prairie du Chien, Crawford County. "Famous" Ginseng Bottling Co., Menomonie Falls, Waukesha County. Kusche Spring, Oshkosh, Winnebago County. "Lebenwasser" J. J. Handeln, Green Bay, Brown County. Maribel Mineral Spring, Maribel, Manitowoc County. Maskanozes Spring, Butternut, Ashland County. Nee-Ska-Ra-Spring, Wauwatosa, Milwaukee County. St. John Mineral Spring, Green Bay, Brown County. Sheboygan Mineral Spring, Sheboygan, Sheboygan County. Sheridan Mineral Springs, near Lake Geneva, Walworth County. Solon Springs, Solon Springs, Douglas County. Spring Grove Epsom Spring, Green Lake, Green Lake County. Wilmette Springs, H. Tolfson & Son's Cooper Station, Racine County. Waukesha Springs, Waukesha County. Almanaris Spring. Anderson's Spring. Arcadian Spring. Bethesda Spring. Clysmic Spring. Crystal Rock Spring. Fox Head Spring. Glenn Rock Spring. Horeb Crystal Spring. Minniska Spring. Roxo Spring. Silurian Spring. White Rock Spring. It is quite probable that a number of spring waters are sold in vari- ous parts of the state which are not included in the list of mineral springs above enumerated. In the various tables of mineral analyses of waters of the various counties of the state, is included a large num- ber of spring waters which have been placed on the market during the past years. Composition. Mineral waters represent rain water which has become mineralized in its journey underground, from the point at which it entered the soil to its point of recovery at the spring. The chemical character of the soil and rocks traversed, the length of the journey, the length of stay of the water underground, the depth, as affecting tem- 124 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. perature and pressure and the general mineralization of the surround- ing body of underground water are all factors influencing the character of the mineralization. Springs flowing from beds of sand and gravel, or from the sandstone, in those parts of the state where the body of un- derground water is relatively shallow, yield only slightly mineralized water ;.bQt springs that issue from rocks, the Avaters of which ava in con- tact with deep bodies of underground water, yield more highly mineral- ized waters. The mineral analyses of many of the spring waters in the abi.ve li&t of mineral springs are given in the following table : Table 21. Analyses of Mineral Waters. (In parts per million) Chippew Spring, CliipBewa Falls Bethania Spring, Osceola Arbutus IMlneral Sprinsr Oconto St. John Mineral Spring, Green Bay Bryant Silver Spring, Madison White Cross Spring, Madison Badger Mineral Spring, Darlington Maribel Spring, Maribel Nee Ska Ra Spring, Wauwatosa Bethesda Spring. Waukesha Arcadian Spring, Waulcesha Clysnaic Spring, Waukeslia Crystal liock Spring, Waukesha Fox Head Spring, Waukesha Horeb Crystal Spring, Waukesha..'. Minniska Spring, Waukesha Silurian Spring, Waukesha White liock Spring, Wauiiesha Sheridan Mineral Spring, near Lake Geneva. . SpringGrove Epsom Spr., Green Lake .^hebo.vgan Miner'l Water Sheboygan 7.3 8.7 16.8 20.0 16.6 18.0 10.4 14.0 12.4 12.7 11.5 11.8 8.1 16.7 12.5 26.7 12. 9.1 15.8 14. 15.8 7.0 1.1 2.1 2.1 1.5 2.0 1.5 7.1 4.0 1.5 10. 9 * 3 c a: So 5 4 1 1 735 Darllnerton Deerfield .Spring and wells Wells 6 129-152 De Forest ;.. Well 400 125-110 De Pere Wells ........'"■'.:: 800-1000 Dodgreville Wells 130-450 Durand Well 303 Easle Eiver* Well, river 12 E. Tro.y Well 1 103 1 690 Eau Claire Wells 40-70 Edgerton Well 1,000 ■ Report to the Railroad Commission for the j'ear ending June 30, 1914. *Eeport incomplete. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. SOURCE, PUMPAGE, PRESSUEE AND CONSUMERS.— Continued. 135 Averase Range of ordinary pressure In lbs. Range of fire pressure in lbs. Purilication System. Consumers. No. of meters Miles pump- age M. gallons. o 3 a 3 -a a Total. of dis- tribu- tion mains. 1 120-140 12 48 1 1 08 720 35- 44 60- 65 60-82 20- 65 60- 65 65 37 22i 95-110 45 90-110 90-110 60-82 80-125- 65- 90 6') 37 100 110-125 100 142 4 9 29 761 2,033 912 2,066 150 2,218 101 22 168 82 1,090 227 341 1,370 72 69 2,403 72 718 31 376 108 55 159 41 84 22 234 700 60 64 143 72 26 1,917 22 167 71 13 448 26 722 646 1 22 15 536 256 7 1 2,135 1 432 113 3 13 126 40 700 17 5 25 203 65 71 293 14 29 2,560 40 3.02 1,277 4 sand filters, covered total capacity, 4,000.000 261 51 1,906 30.7 2 8 ie" 1.18 20 2.05 9 0.7 700 14 21 1,055 14 36 90 3.4 103 5.02 703 50- 60 60- 76 55- 60 50- 55 100-125 100-120 55- 60 70- 90 13 1,357 16.67 20 1.83 10 1.35 1,679 Sand filter 48 32 2,323 28.68 10 1.55 171 48- 60 59- 80 75-100 65- 80 65- 75 60 80-100 90-120 75-100 65- 80 65- (5 60 99 13 606 9.58 20 .61 100 30 346 4.35 36 1.81 25 1,41 27 35 124 2.83 .67 io 35 60- 70 60- 80 65- 70 50-60 32- 38 18- 25 70-78 50 40- 75 40-50 60 55- 65 40 100-120 100-120 65-70 85- 90 48-50 18- 25 78-110 50 40-75 40-50 60 100-140 1.20 8 14 .54 332 5.62 211 2 14 684 14.06 21 1.42 20 0.57 18 3.69 2 00 .7 30 1,887 17.36 3 0.30 33 4.5 15 2.05 80 50- 65 1 387 7.75 21 54-56 54-56 208 405 224 466 37 53 422 700 112 35 45 405 224 201 423 293 112 35 1.32 9.05 35- 45 55-60 55- 60 40- 50 37- 50 35-45 2.80 145 .93 1.05 g 40- 50 170-180 1.71 7.2 130 700 11.13 51 70 65-85 70 75-95 2.43 3.2 223 6a 3,006 568 64 2,062 670 8.58 16 50- 55 70-80 66-70 60- 65 110-130 75-120 1.37 "> 500 29 62 51 56 2,926 480 42.69 'l31 7.06 136 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. TABLE 21, A. PUBLIC WATEE, SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN- Name ol Company . Source of Water Supply. Number. Depth, feet. Location. 71 a 6 s a Of wells. Elkhart Lake.... Municipal Water Works Elmwood Water Works. Municipal Water Works Municipal Water Works Green Bay Water Co Municipal Water Works Hillsboro City W.W.... Municipal Water Works Hurley Water Co Municipal Water Works Iron E.W.L.&P.Co.... Janesville Water Co Municipal Water Works City Water Co Lake Well 1 ...... 1 1 3 3 2 '"9" , 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 M'ny 11 1 3 1 1 2 3 4 15 4 1 1 1 3 ...... 2 20 9 "ii" '3-6" "h" 6-8 "ij" "35" Elkhorn 1,050 Ellsworth Well 609 Elmwood Well ... 180 Elroy* Wells 88-196 EvansviUe Wells 12 Fennimore Wells 250- 800 Florence Lake 1 lEes. 2 Fond du Lac Fort Atkinson.... Imp. res. and wells Eiver, wells 480-650 753 Frederick* Well 84 Fox Lake Wells. . . 129-165 150 Galesvllle Wells Gays Mills Well 200 Gleawood Well 200 Glidden Eiver well 1 1 20 Grand Eaplds River, wells 6-30 Green Bay Wells 850-933 ■ Greenwood Well 30 Hartford Wells 126 Hazel Green Well 197 Hillsboro Well 142 Horicon Wells 602 Hudson Wells .. . 350 364 Hurley Eiver 1 Independence.... Wells 50 Iron Rirer Wells 26 Janesville Jefferson Imp. res. and wells Well 25-1,160 782 332 Johnson Creek... Well Juneau Well 750 Kaukauna Wells 629-798 Kenosha Lake Michigan... Well 1 Kiel 29 Kilbourne Wells 360 La Crosse Wells. . . 120 Ladysmith Eiver. La Parge Well 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 11 7 1 18 6 2 10 11 Sev.S ••■j- 4 1 1 '"i" 5-25 21 500 186 1.12.1 Lake Geneva Wells Lake Mills Wells 380 Lancaster Spring 14 600 257 30 150-750 18-40 765 60-80 150-250 670-855 25 Linden Well... Lodi., Plowing well Loyal Well. . Madison Wells' Manitowoc Marinette Wells and well points. . . Eiver, lake and wells. . . Imp. res. and wells Wells 2 6 Marshfleld Mauston Municipal Water Works Peoples W.&Lt.Co Municipal Water Works Menomonie W . W . Co City Water Works Co. . . Municipal Water Works Milton Jet. Water Wks. Municipal Water Works Mayville Wells. . Mazomanie Well points Medford Wells...... ' 40-60 Mellen Imp. res. and wells Fox river 1 1 2 2 Menasha 12 10 2 'h-sb' Menomonie River and wells 355-375 Merrill Prairie River Merrillan Wells 28 200 200 Middleton Well Milton Jet Well .■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■;.'. Milwaukee Eiver, Lake Michigan.. Wells 2 Mineral Point 60-100 *Report incomplete. THE GENERAIj composition OF WATER SUPPLIES. SOURCE, PUMPA.GE, PRESSURE AND CONSUMERS-Continued. 137 Average Range of ordinary pressure in lbs. Range of lire pressure in lbs. Purification System. Consumers. No. of meters 6.3 277 124 Miles daily pump- age M. gallons. 3 1 Total. of dis- tribu- tion mains. 22 54- 60 45-57 4.5-110 117 90-110 60- 80 45-110 117 Sand filtration 7.';' 277 126. 28 1.54 140 5.42 11 2.2 .53 140 50 65- 75 40-80 50-60 30- 40 55- 65 65- 75 100-120 100-120 90-125 65-68 336 196 148 3,659 793 332 55 "'2,' 392 670 0.4 26 3.3 159 2.54 1,133 274 115 30 26 3,353 652 46.88 262 8.89 10 62 71 23 96 86 806 5,187 23 620 45 166 196 821 331 82 208 2,793 452 69 198 644 4,186 158 320 5,463 231 41 441 177 627 48 219 42 6.255 2,067 3,099 62 43 4 251 4.511 23 620 11 196 729 8 47 973 429 69 198 229 3,205 158 319 2,837 358 164 52 1) ,';,720 1,567 120 362 187 271 23 129 44 604 268 46 10 90 27 60.374 179 2.85 75 84- 93 106-110 10- 60 70 75- 92 40 50 40- 60 30 20- 35 60- 80 60- 85 70-100 70- 80 90-100 70- 73 40-64 84- 90 2.54 10 1.00 62 1.38 15 70 92-150 ICO 80 40-60 30- 35 70-120 60- 80 75-190 100-125 80-105 100-125 100-120 100-115 82 1.12 300 14.57 1,204 Sand filter 488 83 4,617 99.7 10 .41 191 3 18 599 8.95 25 .36 15 .26 36 2 75 3 194 743 6.4 598 8.75 145 SedimPTitation and mechani- 3.75 28 1.42 50 2.75 1,164 Sand filter 347 129 2,317 32.1 106 7.7 1.82 60- 65 30- 65 70- 75 45-62 75- 90 95-110 60- 65 65- 75 65- 68 45- 60 30-38 35- 40 SO 50- 60 80- 86 65- 70 35-45 60- 75 80 72- 75 80- 90 38- 40 60- 65 47-125 80-100 45- 90 90-135 95-100 60-125 75- 80 100 60-80 60-80 249 113 39 10 65 521 4,082 10.63 3,268 J 46.88 3.1 6. 3,131 596 116 4,751 66.3 100 2.49 36 1.24 136 86 6 349 7.82 62 6.25 11 11 605 9.55 .88 80 50-60 85-120 90-100 100-110 60-120 80 80-85 80-90 100-120 4.1 19 .96 2,207 1,205 535 10 294 80 94 53 5,640 1,963 2,752 75.96 32.82 1,355 34.28 150 4? 223 272 31 137 251 709 698 1,258 63 110 67 73,155 179 5.0 5.4 4 1.95 20 3.3 One open sand filter 24 109 141 198 11 26 23 17 216 574 534 1.043 3,70 336 50 - 66 85- 95 40-55 50- 52 41 25-80 15- 75 40-125 100 13.27 268 11 .38 967 40 16 80- 95 50-150 41 "40-125" 5 mech, open sand Biters, ca- pacity. 1,500,000 21.32 1.35 3.6 4 47,913 30 Use of HypocliloritH '3,'8i8 ■i,'745 67!592 1.5 507.91 138 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES OP WISCONSIN- Name ol Company. Source of Water Supply. Number. Depth, feet. Location . 1 ''3 ■*^ q Hit o S s g o Of well. Minocqua* Municipal Water Works Sand Eock Water Co.... Municipal Water Works Milw. Mun. Water Wks. Municipal Water Wks. . Oconto City W. Sup. Co. Municipal Water Works Oshkosh W. Wks. Co.... Municipal Water Works Municipal Water Works Phils,;L.W.Ht.&Pr.Co, Municipal Water Works Eacine Water Co Municipal Water Works Municipal Water Works Eipon Lt. & Water Co.. Municipal Water Works Sterens Point W. Co.... Municipal Water Works Lake and Well 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 20 "io" 172 Mondovl Well 415 Monroe Wells . ..... 250-1,000 Monttort Well 125 Monticello Wells 145 Mosinee Well 15 Neenah Wells 410-672 NeillsvlUe 1 Nekoosa* New Glarus Well 1 3 6 1 1 8 180 New Lonflon Eiver, Wells, 1 200 NewEichmond... Wells 57 No. Pond du Lac. Well 420 North Freedom... Wells North Milwaukee Lake Michigan Oconomowoc Wells 2 6 1 2 1 8 1 5-19 750-829 Oconto Klver and Wells 1 318-598 Oconto Falls Well 187 Onalaska Well 470-493 Oregon Well . 198 Oshkosh 2 280-960 Owen Well 30 Palmyra* Park Palls Eiver 1 7 2 4 ...„. 1 4 ...„. 1 5 "i" 1 4 3 1 1 28 ...... 1 4 1 1 2 2 3 15 6 '"i" 38 "46" "12" ■i2l46 18 '17126 "io" 5 Phillips River Platteville Wfclls 1,002 1,741 Plymouth Wells 20-458 Portage 3 1 PortWashlneton. Lake Michigan Prairie du Chien. Well 42 ■ Prairie du Sac*... Well 20 Prescott Dri\se Wells 16 Eacine Lake Michigan 1 Eandolph Well .'... .. 300 Eeadsiown WelLs 250 Eeedsbura Wells 150-500 Ehlnelander Eiver Well 1 Eice Lake 280 Eichland Center. Eicon Eiver Falls Well Spring and wells Wells 662 12-30 400 600 St. Croix Falls.... Well 100 610 ''1 Sharon Well Shawano Wells Sheboygan Lake Michigan 3 1 Shell Lake Lake ShuUsbarg Wells 275 SoldiPrs Grove... Well 254 So. Milwaukee.... Lake Michigan 2 Sparta Wells. 25-200 217 169 Spooner Well... Spring Valley....' Well Stanley Wells 30 20 30 Sterens Point.... 1 1 Stoughton Eiver, wells 37-1,010 *Eeport Incomplete. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 139 SOURCE. PaMl'AGE, PRESSURE AND CONSUMERS— Coiitiimea. 'Average Range o( ordinary pressure in lbs. Range of Are pressura In lbs. Puriflcalion system. Consumers. No. of meters Miles dally Dump- ase M gallons. o 3 3 3 Hi u go O Total, 3f dis- tribu- tion, mains. '5 55- 65 40- 70 135 725 38 52 66 600 52 3.05 k72 100-130 119 20 ■586 9.50 1.07 28 50- 85 56- 62 45- 50 50- 63 56- 62 70- 95 1.63 20 432 129 28 701 858 375 719 375 14.11 go 12.5 - 50 80- 85 60- 65 53- 62 25t 30 131 178 272 266 130 331 382 840 59 192 94 3,941 36 123 217 271 143 330 384 149 5 84 11 1,188 20 1.73 81 85-95 61- 80 50- 85 4 42 4 7 170 223 7.33 125 3.33 80 3.49 2.22 :::.:.:: 8.25 114 445 50- 55 30-- 50- 60 60- 65 48-50 35-40 40-60 100-110 90-130 100-125 4 145 4 10 374 685 8.74 14.59 Stillwell Filler 2.75 2.95 61 2,424 9 50- 80 90-115 2.0 15 open, sed. and mch fitters. Total capacity, 4,500,00. 520 91 3,330 60.34 2.06 60- 70 75-100 80- 90 70- 98 60-80 70-80 122-125 i66-i25 100-110 80- 90 70- O't 80-120 100-110 122-125 44 103 978 632 1,168 501 113 43 806 592 I 501 113 1.64 250 129 no 487 1.61 19 73 115 4 12 16 13 35 94- 543 1,040 462 15.22 4.43 3 covered sand and sponge fllter-i. 18.58 7.75 80 14.05 40-87 60- 80 60- 65 50 60- 65 45 - 54 60 66-72 36- 54 fO-80 75-95 60 90-125 100-130 60- 65 8 8,965 57 35 544 1,062 736 634 823 480 66 241 214 5,399 268 204 63 859 472 287 48 238 89f 93i 6,457 57 485 3 485 355 139 26 65 225 209 1,345 . 728 481 238 231 408 3.5 3,435 Hyp of Lime Filter 755 123 8,087 78.14 1 .85 •' 1.04 292 089 60- 65 100-140 60-100 7.05 163 86 14 124 54 20 20 15 8 4 879 630 605 691 422 15.37 330 10.66 7.85 292 239 90-120 11.65 5.16 11 21 90 75-95 60 80-100 80-110 90-110 80-140 105 60- 90 100-125 30-120 1.54 6.0 8 562 4 207 202 4,630 6.01 3,526 40-50 40-50 80-100 103 60-90 55-80 20-30 72.72 2.5 30 2.45 1.6i 688 298 466 18 3 COT. gravity sand filters capacity 1,500,000. 139 11 14 18 706 443 8.02 12.96 2.6 1 .5 60-65 50- 60 60- 70 125 65-100 70-120 5.4 652 288 17: 112 1 32 ' IS 69t 80" 16.4 13.94 140 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCON8I2f. PUBLIC ■WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN— Name of Compaiir. Sources of Water Supply. Number. Depth, feet. - Location. p o of well. Sturgeon- Bay Municipal Water Works Superior W.Lt. & P.Co, Municipal Water Worlts Union Grove W. Wlcs..., Municipal Water Works Washburn Water Wks. . Municipal Water Works Municipal Water Wks.. Milw. Mun. Water Wks. Municipal Water Wks.. Whitewater W. W. Co. . . Municipal Water Wlcs.. Bav and wells 1 5 2 107 2 4 2 3 1 1 3 "i" 1 3 5 41 8 18 "io" 4 "io" 36-250 Wells 712 12-46 Wells 25-28 Wells 30-100 16-21 Two Rivprs Wells 15 Well 30 Viola .. . . 500 Wells 302-568 3 Well 100 Well 120 Watertown Wells 760-1,032 1 2 1,000-1.500 WaupacEL Kiver. lake and wells... Wells 25-50 Waupun 75.5-965 1 32-135 Wauwatosa Well. .. 1,350 West Allis ■West Bend Well . ., 1,235 Westby* Wells 310-323 West Salem Well 420 Whitehall* Well 216 . Whitewater Wells 400-800' Winter Well 44 Withee* Well 140 Well 430 * Report incomplete. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. SOURCE, PUMPAGE, PRESSURE AND CONSUMERS-Contitiued. 141 Average Range of ordinary pressure in lbs. Range of fire pressure in lbs. ■ Consumers. No. of meters Miles daily pump- T gallons. Purificalion Hysteni. 3 Total. of dis- tribu- tion mains. 149 40-60 53- 63 45- 70 55-65 65- 75 50- 60 52 48 85-95 40-53 40-110 50-70 63- 67 75-85 60- 68 50- 55 52-60 55- 60 45- 90 100 120 28 6 82 116 24 1 84 123 58 5.05 2,020 80-135 100-110 85-100 125-130 110 48 90- 95 40-53 40-110 50. 70 63- 67 85 110 60- 68 50-150 52-60 100-120 45- 90 3 covpred sand filters, capac- ity 5,000,000. 871 56 5,537 6,464 91 781 634 743 136 87 559 487 5,191 413 24 743 37 2 35 92 1,276 1,900 52 349 109 652 1,367 302 22 141 68.41 1 00 78 50 85 4 14 20 705 570 638 7.71 165 Slow sand filtration 5.3 10 1 23 3 3 83 97 11 1 472 6 4 477 6 67 35 98 1.4X6 3 42 9 3.92 723 199 18 91 45 14 25 1.242 21 01 746 1,80I| 1,833 517 6.33 27.46 243 9.78 114 602 7 5 2,6.50 32 48 212 665 1,708 15 75 438 349 15 1.344 31 5 40-70 35-50 30- 80 60 70- 90 40- 70 35-50 50- 80 60 120-150 306 159 144 70 6 1 20 159 2.63 1 70 70 162 112 5 373 icn 185 8 13 •> Sand filtei- 16 .74 61 eo 145 3 142 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. 3. It is not necessary, with a municipal supply, to postpone improve- ments until there is a sufficient increase in the receipts of the company to insure dividends on the cost of extension. 4. As the public officers hold their position at the will of the people there is a tendency for them to furnish as good a water supply as pos- sible at a fair rate. For these and other reasons municipal ownership of public water- works has generally proved more satisfactory than private ownership in Wisconsin, as shown by the much larger number of municipal owned systems as compared with those of private ownership. Uses of Water. In judging the value of a water it is necessary to consider the sup- ply in relation to its use, as well as its relation to other available sup- plies. Besides the use of water for drinking and domestic purposes, it is also used extensively in developing power by steam making in loco- motives and in boilers in mills and manufacturing plants. In Wisconsin, waters are used extensively in direct manufacturing processes, in paper- mills, sugar factories, breweries, tanneries, creameries, canning fac- tories, woolen mills, soap factories, chemical works, and various other manufacturing plants. The medicinal properties of disolved minerals are supposed to give many waters special value. For every purpose the relative amounts of certain ingredients in the water determines its value. Considerable iron in a water may be harmful in an industrial process. The amount of suspended matter in a water may be very important and may determine its value for some purposes while for other pur- poses the importance of suspended matter may be insignificant. Standards for Classification. — Since the value of a water depends largely upon its use, it is necessary to apply classifications dependent upon specific purposes and discuss the analj^ses from dJ<¥crent points of view. It is essential to recognize that no one classification is con- stituted for all purposes. It is also essential to explain the classification adopted and define the usage of terms, and then apply the classification by hard and fast rules. The various classifications adopted may not be the best, but at least they will give definiteness to the descriptions of the quality of the water, assist in understanding their character, and give a better appreciation of the relative value of the various waters for spe- cific purposes. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 143 ^YATER FOR DRINKING AND DOMESTIC PURPOSES. The requirements for a drinking water are more precise than those preeribed in any other branch of water utilization. Water is necessary to the very existence of life and it powerfully affects human beings favorably or unfavorably, according to its character. Much of the water supply of Wisconsin used for drinking and domes- tic purposes is from underground sources. Groundwaters from wells are usually drawn upon in the rural districts and villages, and in many of the cities having a population up to 20,000 or 30,000. The largest cities of the state draw their water supplies from the large lakes. Lakes Mich- igan and Superior. The Great Lakes furnish more than one-half the public water supplies of Wisconsin, being used by a total population of about 565,000. The rivers and inland lakes furnish supplies to about 85,000. Groundwater supplies from deep wells and shallow wells sup- ply a total city population of about 460,000, and a rural population of about 1,225,000. (Estimated from the census of 1910.) To be wholly acceptable as a domestic supply, water should be free from suspended matter, color, and odor, and fairly cool when it reaches the consumer; it should be free from disease-bearing germs; and it should be low in dissolved mineral matter. The nearer a water ap- proaches these conditions, the more satisfactory it is. Physical Qualities. Suspended matter in water used for domestic purposes often causes stains in clothes and bad odors. The occurence of the bacteria Cren- othrix, forming a filamentous growth in water containing considerable iron gives the water an unsightly appearance, and causes rusty stains on clothes. Odors may be caused by various conditions, a principal cause being the content of free hydrogen sulphide (HgS) in the water. The presence of iron in Wisconsin water in sufficient quantity to be ob- jectionable is known to occur in only a few supplies. Well waters if properly cased are generally free from objectionable physical qualities, whereas, surface waters from the lakes and rivers are likely to contain sufficient suspended matter to be very objectionable. Bacteriological Qualities. Before a water is used for drinking or domestic purposes there should be reasonable certainity that it is free from disease-bearing germs. The 14J: THE WATER StJPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. disease germs most commonly carried by water are those of typhoid fever. The bacilli enter the water from some place infected by the dis- charge of persons sick with the disease, and while the germs cannot live long in the water, they persist in the fecal discharge and continue to infect the water. Wells should therefore be so located and construct- ed that infected waters cannot enter them (See under contamination of groundwater wells, pages 59 to 62). Chemical Qualities. The amounts of dissolved substances in water used for drinking and domestic purposes depends much on their nature. Not more than mere traces of barium, copper, zinc or lead are permissable, as these sub- stances are poisonous. However, these constituents are so rare in water that tests for them are not usually made. Any constituent, present in amounts sufficient to be perceptable to the taste, is objectionable. Iron is often present in water in sufficient quanity to be detected by the taste. Only two parts per million of iron makes water unpalatable to many people. Iron in small amounts also causes trouble by discoloring wash bowls, and in producing rusty stains on clothes. Waters contain- ing much iron cause an inky black compound with tannin to form in tea and coffee. Four or five parts per million of hydrogen sulphide are ob- jectionable to the taste, and this constituent also corrodes kitchen uten- sils. Only a few well waters of Wisconsin contain sufficient hydrogen sulphide to be objectionable. Small amounts of silica and aluminum are present in .all waters, but have no special significance in relation to drinking and domestic sup- plies. The alkali metals sodium and potassium, are usually low in Wis- consin water supplies, and therefore not of much significance in relation to domestic supplies. However, waters high in chlorides are very gener- ally also high in sodium and potassium, and approximately 250 parts per million of chlorine make waters taste somewhat salty, and less than this amount causes corrosion. In regions like Wisconsin, where the chlorine content runs as low as 5 to 10 parts per million in normal waters, the amount of chlorine may be taken as a measure of contamination by animal pollution. In only a comparatively few places in the state are there brackish or saline waters, and these, in nearly all cases, are found in waters whose source is in deep lying rocks, some distance below the surface. Salt Waters. — The distribution of salt water in Wisconsin is described more fully in another place, page 172. In this report waters ranging from 250 to 500 parts per million of chlorine are called salty, or brack- THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. I45 ish, and the term "salt water" is confined to those waters containing over 500 parts per million of chlorine. Because of the fact that the content of chlorine in most normal wa- ters is relatively low, the establishment of isochlors, or lines of equal chlorine, in Wisconsin is entirely practical and would be of much value in interpreting the chemical sanitary analyses of waters from various parts of the state. Hard and Soft Waters. — Calcium and magnesium, ' ' lime and mag- nesia", are chiefly responsible for what is known as the hardness of water. This undesirable quality is indicated by the increased consump- tion of soap and by the formation in kettles of scale composed almost entirely of calcium and magnesium carbonates and calcium sulphates. In washing, sufficient soap must first be used to precipitate these salts before lather is produced: Hardness, therefore, is measured by the soap consuming capacity of a water expressed as an equivalent of calcium carbonate (Ca COJ . The hardness can be computed from the amounts of calcium and magnesium in a water, as determined by the mineral an- alysis, or it can be determined by actual testing with a standard soap solution. The hardness of waters is of two kinds, — temporary and permanent. Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, and most of it can be removed by decomposing these salts by boiling the water and precipitating the normal carbonates. Permanent hardness is due to sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of cal- cium and magnesium, and these salts are held in solution, and can be precipitated only by adding certain chemical compounds, usually soda ash (sodium carbonate), to the water. The general meaning of the terms "hard" and "soft" waters is vari- able and depends upon local usage, as determined by the relative degree of hardness of the water in different regions. In New England, for instance, waters considered soft usually have less than 100 parts per million of total hardness. In Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Kansas, however, it would be difficult to find water with a total hardness of less than 100 parts per million, and yet many waters in the latter states are called soft. This illustrates the uncertain signifi- cance of general descriptive words in classifying waters, and emphasizes the need of defining the exact meaning of such terms. The general understanding of the terms ' ' soft ' ' and ' ' hard ' ' water in ■ Wisconsin appears to be much the same as in New England, and the general usage, therefore, appears to conform fairly well with the scien- tific requirements. For the present report, therefore, it seems advisable 10— "W. S. 146 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. to adopt the following classification of waters with respect to hardness, which is much the same classification as that used by the U. S. Geologi- cal Survey^' in discussing analyses : Classification of Water _ with respect to Hardness. Total hardness as Ca CO3 (Parts per million.) Classification. Not less than. Less than. 50 100 200 300 Very soft, Soft. Medium hard. Hard. Very hard. . 50 100 200 300 In the tables of mineral analyses of the separate county descriptions, the total hardness can be computed with a sufficient accuracy from the calcium and magnesium as follows : Total hardness as Ca COg =' 2.5 Ca -)-4.1 Mg. So far as possible this classification is followed in the usage of the above terms relative to hardness of the Wisconsin waters. In ac- cordance with this classification most of the waters of Wisconsin are hard waters. In central and northern Wisconsin, are many very soft and medium hard waters, while in the eastern part of the state are very hard waters. The water of Lake Superior is a very soft wa- ter, while that of Lake Michigan is a medium hard water, being very- near the dividing line between soft and medium hard water as classi- fied in the above table. Waters of HigTi and Low Mineral Content. — The classification of wa- ter in respect to mineral content is useful in determining the value of a water for domestic use. Waters of low or moderate mineral content could be accepted for drinking and cooking if they are also low in iron, below IV2 parts per million of Fe. Waters very high in mineral content will be unfit for drinking purposes, as such waters are usually brackish or salty. Waters of high mineral content might give trouble in cooking, although those with content up to 1,000 or 1,200 parts pei million could be used if no better supply is available. ' R. E. Dole, personal communication. ' THE GEXERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. Cla,^.iijif(itit>ii of waters with rcspeet to mineral content. 147 Total solids, irarls per million.) Classification Xot less than Less than 150 500 2,000 Low. Moderate. High. Very high. 150 500 2,000 Most waters of Wisconsin are either low or moderate in mineral con- tent. Only a few well and spring waters are very high in miner- alization. WATER FOR BOILER USE. The chief industrial use of water is steam making. The customary way of interpreting the value of water for boiler use is based on its ten- dancy to cause the formation of scale, and to cause corrosion and foam- ing. Formation op Scale. The most common trouble is formation of scale, the deposition of mineral matter witliin the boiler shell. >Yhen the water is heated and evaporated in a steam boiler, some of the mineral matter is thrown out of solution and solidifies on the flues or crown sheets, or within the tubes. The scale or incrustation includes practically all the suspended matter, or mud ; the silica, probably precipitated as silica ( Si Oj) ; traces of iron and aluminum; calcium appearing principally in the form of carbonate and sulphate; and the magnesium, principally in the form of the oxide, but partly in the form of carbonate. Calcium and magnesium are the principal bases in the scale forming salts, making up 80 to 90 per cent of the scale in most Wisconsin Avaters. If the magnesium and the sulphates are comparatively low, or if the suspended matter is com- paratively high, the scale is soft and bulky and may be blown or washed out from the boiler in the form of sludge. On the other hand, if the water is free from suspended matter and high in magnesium and sul- phates, a compact hard scale is formed, nearly as dense as porcelain, which offers great resistance to the transmission of heat and therefore causes great waste of fuel. The value of a water for boiler use, there- 148 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. fore, depends not only on the amount of scale produced, but also on the physical structure of the scale. The limits for the classification of water in parts per million, in re- spect to scale-forming ingredients, are shown in the following table : Glassification in respect to scale-forminr/ ingredients. Probable Sc»le— forming Ingredients (Parts per million.) Classification. Not less than . Less than. 90 200 430 680 Good. Fair. Poor. Bad. Verj- bad. 90 200 430 680 This classification ^ is the one offered by the committee on water service of the American Eailway Engineers and Maintenance of Way Association, reduced, to statement in parts per million. These limits must be interpreted liberally in practice, because of the comparative hardness of the incrustation. Stabler 's^ ^method for calculating the amount and character of scale likely to result from use of a water, are given as follows : A=.008333Sm+.00833Cm.+.0107Fe-f.0157A]H B=Sm+Cm+1.3Fe-fl.9A]-|-1.66Mg+2.95Ca. .0138Mg+.02-t6Ca. A represents pounds of scale per 1,000 gallons of water and B (com- puted from the preceding formula) represents parts per million of scale. Sm, Cm, Fe, Al, Mg, and Ca represent, respectively, the amounts in parts per million of suspended matter, colloidal matter (silica plus oxides of iron and aluminium), iron, aluminum, magnesium, and cal- cium in the water. In this formula Ca should not exceed .668CO3-J- .328HC03+.417SO^, in which CO,, HCO3, and SO^ represent, re- spectively, the amounts in parts per million of the carbonate, bicarbon- ate, and sulphate radicles present in the water as such excess would not be precipitated. It is sometimes uncertain whether iron and alumin- um are in solution or in colloidal state, but in applying these formulas to Wisconsin ground waters little error is introduced by assuming that Cm equals silica only. If it is desired to compute the scale-forming inv gredients of waters, whose analyses in this- report give no values for ■Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. & Maint. of Way Assn., Vol. V, 1904, p. 595. = Eng. News, Vol. 60, 1908, p. 355. Also U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 274, p. 176. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 149' silica, iron or aluminum, Cm may be taken as 10 and Fe and Al as zero, without introducing great error. In clear waters Sm would of course be zero; consequently for most Wisconsin ground waters the amount of scale may be estimated practically from the figures repre- senting silica, calcium and magnesium. In the following Stabler formula, C represents the amount of hard scale in pounds per 1,000 gallons of water and D the same in parts per million,, recomputed from the C formula ; SiOj, Mg, Ca, SO^, Na, and K represent the respective amounts in parts per million of silica, mag- nesium, chlorides, sulphates, sodiUm, and potassium. If the alkalies are not separated, the figures representing sodium and potassium together and computed as sodium may be used with 2.7Na coefficient in place of the last two terms of these formulas. C=Si02+1.66Mg+ (1.92Cl+1.42SOi— 2.95Na— 1.74K) . The ratio (b) between the amount of hard scale and the total amount of scale is an index of the probable hardness of the scale, expressed thus : b=^? CD If b is not more than 0.25 the scale may be classified as soft ; if between 0.25 and 0.5, as medium ; and if more than 0.5, as hard. For other for- mulas and the comnients on those quoted the original article should be consulted. The importance of scale formation and of means of preventing or re- ducing it in boilers, may be judged by considering the effect of a hard water like the Madison city artesian water, which is about the average composition of the water in the Potsdam and St. Peter sandstone, as well as that in the Lower Magnesian limestone of the state (see p. 177).. In such waters, under ordinary usage in boilers without condensers, it would form about 2.5 pounds of scale in 1,000 gallons of water. Be- sides the increased fuel consumption caused by this deposit, the scale itself would amount to nearly a ton in a 1,000 horsepower system for- every seven working days, and this mass would have to be shoveled, scraped, and hammered from the inside of the boiler. The State Capitol Power and Heating Plant uses Monona Lake wa- ter, taken at depth of 8 feet where the lake is 16 feet deep. No com- plete analyses of the Monona lake water is available, but it probably closely resembles the Mendota Lake water in mineral content (see table of analyses page 299) and is much lower in incrusting solids than the Madison City artesian water. A water softening plant was recently in- stalled at the Heating Plant and Supt. J. C. White estimates the savlng^ 150 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. due to the treatment in using about 48,000 gallons daily to be about $500 annually OA^er and above cost of the treatment, includiiig interest on the investment.. The medium hard water of Lake Michigan, which is taken as the stan- dard of comparison in the testing department of both the C. & N. W. Ry. Co., and the C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., would form only about 1.04 pounds of scale in 1,000 gallons. The water of Lake Superior, which is a very soft water, contains less than 0.50 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. Corrosion. Corrosion not only affects the iron of boilers when water is heated within them, but it is also a factor of great economic importfianee in the cold water of iron pipes in water systems. The corrosion under all conditions is largely influenced by the character of the water. The corrosion which takes place in water pipes is of various kinds, tuberculation being an important type of action. This tubereulaition not only deteriorates the pipe but it likewise decreases the efficiency of the pipe by interfering with the flow of water. The inadequacy of many water systems is due to this accumulation. The author is indebted to Prof. C. F. Burgess for the following re- sume concerning the corrosion affecting boilers : "Corrosion as it affects boilers may have various characteristics de- pendent not only upon the qualities of water but upon the types of boil- ers and methods of operation. The corrosion may be general over a large part of the surface, or it may be localized in the form of pits. In some cases the pitting may take the form of tuberculation in which an adherent quantity of rust or iron compound builds up over the corro- sion spot, forming mounds of considerable dimensions. In the locomo- tive type of boilers, grooving of the tubes is of frequent occui-rerce, this ta"king the form of a circular rim of corrosion of the tubes inside of the crown sheet. The corrosion may develop primarily on the bottoms of the boilers and where the heat is most intense, or in other cases it may be most marked at the water line and aroand the bolt heads, rivets and stays. That the constituents of the feed water may have an influence on the kind of corrosion is shown by the fact that some water may cause the most marked corrosion on the sides and crown sheets of boilera, while other kinds of water may have the greatest influence on the tubes. ' ' Corrosion or pitting is a result of galvanic action and controlled by the nature of the impurities in the water. Among the substances which THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 151 promote corrosion most rapidly are acids, hydrogen sulphides, dissolved oxygen, and such dissolved salts as produce acids upon heating. Numerous theories have been advanced to explain corrosion phenom- ena and among the leading authorities there is a wide variety of opin- ion. An interesting and valuable compilation of theories and data on corrosion is "The Corrosion of Iron and Steel" by J. Newton Friend.^ One important subject of controversy is whether the dissolved carbonic acid is an important factor affecting corrosion. The evidence on this point is contradictory. ' ' On the most generally accepted electrical theory of corrosion the non- uniformity of the iron, caused not only by impurities but by differences of physical conditions, such as strain, porosity, and the like, set up gal- vanic couples. The iron being the positive element acts as the anode and liberates hydrogen on the electronegative portions. This hydrogen acts as a polarizing material or as a retardent to the further action, but any substance in the water which will remove this hydrogen will acceler- ate the action. Dissolved oxygen will readily attack the hydrogen as Avill also various other oxidizing agents. It is in an indirect way, there- fore, rather than by direct solvent action, that the substances in the wa- ter affect corrosion. ' ' While some materials accelerate corrosion, others may retard it and depending upon this fact there are various meritorious methods of treating boiler water. Among the retardents of corrosion are soluble carbonates. ' ' There are so many factors influencing corrosion that a formulation of definite data to show the corrodibility of water cannot be made. At- tempts in this direction, however, are illustrated by the interesting an- alysis given by Stabler. ' ' It is very desirable in investigating the industrial value of a water to determine from the analysis of a water whether it is likely to be cor- rosive or not, but it is evident that the problem is somewhat complex. According to Stabler^ the following formula may be used to in- dicate whether a water is corrosive or not. c the coefficient of corrosion is computed thus : c=1.008 (rH+rAl-frFe+rMg— rCOs— rHCOs) =H+.1116Al+.0361Fe-j-.082Mg— .O336CO3— .OI65HCO3 In this formula r is the "reaction coefficient"^ of the respective ra- dicles with which it is associated and the reciprocal of the equivalents ^The Corrosion of Iron and Steel, J. Newton Friend, Longmans, Green & Co., 1911. = Water Supply Paper, U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 274, p. 175. ' For definition of "reaction coefficient" and discussion of the formula, see H. Stabler, U. S. Geol. Surv. W. S. Paper No. 274, pp. 165-182, and Bng, News, Vol. 60, 1908, p. 355. 152 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. of those radicles ; H, Al, Fe^ Mg, etc., are the weights of these sub- stances in parts per million as determined by the analysis. In interpreting the value of e the fact that calcium carbonate may be precipitated on boiling should be taken into consideration, since this carries out of the system the carbonate radicle CO3 with which the hy- drogen may unite to form carbonic acid. Assuming a maximum pre- cipitation of calcium carbonate and a minimum action upon the same, the effect of the carbonate radicle in the above formula to counteract corrosion will be reduced by 1.008 r Ca, or 0.503 Ca. "With these con- siderations three classes of waters with respect to corrosion may be dis- tinguished as follows : (1) Corrosive. If c be positive, the water will certainly corrode the boiler. (2) Noneorrosive. ' If C+.0503 Ca be negative^ no corrosion will occur on account of the mineral constituents in the water. (3) Semicorrosive. If c be negative, but c-j-.0503 Ca be positive, corrosion may or may not occur, the probability of corrosive action varying directly with the value of the expression C+.0503 Ca. There is reason to believe also, as stated by Burgess, that corrosion is facilitated by other conditions, such as the development of electrolytic action upon the metallic iron. Once the action of corrosion or rust is started, it is likely to continue and spread at that place producing a nodule of rust under which is a pit in the metal. A common illustration of this action of rust is shown by knife blades and other steel tools that remain bright as long as they are free from rust, but as soon as rust is developed the action will continue in spite of all ordinary attempts to prevent it. Foaming. Foaming is the formation of masses on the surface and above the sur- face of the water in boilers and it is intimately connected with prim- ing, which is the passage of water mixed with steam from the boiler. Foaming results when the free escape of steam from the water is pre- vented. It is usually due to the organic matter in suspensiqn, but a very common cause also is an excess of dissolved substances in the wa- ter, either from original sources or where the water has become very concentrated by the use of treated feed water and continual evapora- tion. The dissolved substances increase the surface tension and reduce the ease with which the steam bubbles break. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 153 The foaming tendency is commonly measured by the content of al- kaline salts in solution plus the organic matter, since these constitu- ents remain in solution in the boiler water. Nearly all substances dis- solved in the water, as well as the suspended and organic matter, in- crease the foaming tendency to a variable degree, and the exact calcu- lation, therefore, of this tendency is not a simple matter. It is the usu- al custom to attribute foaming to the sodium and potassium salts and the organic matter because these substances are highly soluble and their relative importance in different waters is easily determined from an- alyses. According to Stabler^, the, expression 2.7 Na (Sodium) -f-2K. (Potassium) will represent the sodium and potassium salts generally within 5 per cent and always within 15 per cent. In most of the analyses in this report the sodium and potassium salts are determined together, and in transforming the statemenet of the analyses in theoretical com- binations, in grains per gallon, to basic and acid radicles in parts per million, the molecular weight of sodium was used as if no potassium were present, because potassium occurs usually only in very small quan- tity as compared with sodium. For the general purposes of this report the expression 2.7(N-|-K) plus the organic matter may be used to calcu- late the foaming constituents. It will correspond closely to the "non-in- crusting solids" usually estimated from the hypothetical combinations, and is sufficiently accurate for practical use. The limits of classification in respect to foaming ingredients, as sug- gested by E. B. Dole^, may be summarized as follows : Olaisification in respect to foaming ingredients. Probable loaming constituents (Parts per million.) Classification. Not less than. Less tlian. 70 150 250 400 Very good. Good. Fair. Bad. Very bad. 70 150 250 400 To a very large extent Wisconsin watery are either very good or good in their classification with respect to foaming ingredients. It is usually- only in the highly mineralized waters of relatively rare occurrence that bad or very bad foaming waters occur. The bad foaming waters are 'Water Supply Paper, U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 274, p. 172. = Statement from correspondence. 154 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. mainly confined to tlie eastern part of the state, though they are also of isolated or erratic occurrence in other parts of the state. Some soft waters of moderate mineral content, in Kenosha county, are sufficiently high in the alkalies (pp. 400-1) to be classed as fair or bad with respect to foaming ingredients. Surface waters from the lakes and rivers, high in organic matter, will cause excessive foaming. Eemedies for Boiler Troubles The remedy for troubles caused by substances in bad boiler waters is the treatment of supplies before they enter boilers. Among the im- portant methods of treatment is the preliminary heating of a feed water to reduce the dissolved gases. This may be done in an ordinary heater under pressure, but preferably under a partial vacuum. Since dissolved oxygen is an important accelerator of boiler corrosion, the analysis of a water for boiler purposes should recognize this factor. The amount of oxygen depends to some extent upon the depth from which the water is secured and it is also influenced by the method of pumping. The air lift system for example, which has a somewhat extended use, increases the amount of dissolved oxj'^gen in the water. "When treatment of the water cannot be given there are various ways of partially reducing the injury. Low pressure large flue boilers are fre- quently used to reduce the trouble caused by bad water with high scale- forming ingredients. "Blowing off" is a practical way of preventing foaming, particularly in locomotive practice. Boiler Compounds. — Boiler compounds are widely used in regions where hard waters are abundant, but treatment within the boiler should generally be given only when it is impossible to purify the supply before it enters the boiler. Many substances have been recommended for such use, but only a few have proved to be economical. Soda ash, the com- mercial form of sodium carbonate (NajCOs) and lime (CaO) are the most valuable substances of this character. The proper amount and kind of boiler compound to be used is a question to be decided for each water from its chemical composition and the style of the boiler. The nature and reaction of various boiler compounds have been discussed at length in various publicationsS and it does not appear to be advisable to enter into details in this investigation. 'Gary, A. A., The use of Boiler Compounds: Am. Machinist, vol. 22, pt. 2, 1899, p. 1153. Palmer, Chase, Quality of the Underground Waters in the Blue Grass Region of Kentucky: In Water Supply Paper U. iS. Geol. Survey No. 233, 1909, p. 187. Stabler, Herman, The Mineral Analysis of Water for Industrial Purposes and its Interpretation by the Engineer: Eng. News, vol. 60, 1908, p. 355. the general composition of water supplies. 155 Water for Other Industrial Uses. The use of water in the various industries cannot be discussed at any length in a report of this nature. It is desirable, however, to point out the fact that for each specific purpose the influence of the dissolved sub- stances in the water should be thoroughly understood. The water used in every industrial plant should be analyzed and otherwise investigated and the quality of the supply, so far as it effects the product, should be thoroughly understood by those in charge of the manufacturing pro- cesses. The ingredients of natural waters affect the manufacture of many articles. In paper and pulp mills, dyeworks, canning factories, pickle factories, distilleries, breweries, woolen mills, starch works, sugar fac- tories, glue factories, soap factories, chemical works, tanneries, cream- eries, and many other manufacturing establishments, water becomes a part of the product or is essential in its manufacture. A principal function of water in many establishments is that of cleansing or as a vehicle for other substances, and as such the supply should be free from color, odor, suspended matter, microscopic organisms, especially bacteria from sewage, and fairly low in dissolved substances, especially iron. Water used in the making of beverages, starch, dairy or meat products, or wherever it forms, a part of food materials, should be hy- gienically acceptable. Effect of Free Acids. — Free mineral acids, such as sulphuric and hy- drochloric acid, usually present only in polluted waters, are especially injurious in paper and pulp mills, bleacheries and dyeworks, and gener- ally require purification. Effect of Suspended Matter. — Suspended matter, consisting of ma- terial of mineral, vegetable and animal origin, and mainly occurring in surface waters, is objectionable in all processes in which water is used for washing or comes in contact with food material. Water should be freed from suspended matter before being used for laundering, bleach- ing, wool-scouring, paper-making, dyeing, starch and sugar-making, butter-making, brewing and distilling, and other similar processes. Effect of Color. — Color in water is objectionable in water for use in the manufacture of fabrics, such as paper-mgking, and also in bleach- eries and dyeworks. Handy, J. 0., Water softening; Eng. News, May 26, 1904, p. 499. Davidson, G. M., the C. & N. W. Method of Water Treatment: Proc. Western Ry. Club, vol. 15, No. 6, Feb. 17, 1903. Booth, W. H., Water-softening and treatment, London, 1906. Collet, Harold, Water Softening and Fiirification, London, 1896. Christie, W. W., Boiler Waters, New York, 1906. 156 THE -WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Effect of Iron. — Iron is a very undesirable constituent in waters, and even if it occurs in comparatively small quantities the water must be- purified. Waters containing iron become turbid on exposure to the air. Such waters develop a growth of iron bacteria, Crenothrix that interfere in many industrial operations. Waters that contain iron as low as 1 to 2 parts per million have to be purified before being used industrially. Iron is especially objectionable in paper mills, dyeworks, tanneries, breweries,, and creameries, and in many other industries, by discolor- ing the manufactured product. In some Wisconsin waters iron occurs, in sufficient quantity to be objectionable. Effect of Calcium and Magnesium. — Calcium and magnesium are sim- ilar in their industrial effects. These constituents are present in all wa- ters in comparatively large amounts and are largely the cause of hard- ness in waters. In Wisconsin waters they form the predominating basic constituents. In all boiling processes some calcium and magne- sium compounds are precipitated on whatever is boiled in the water,, and this deposit may interfere with later operations. They are a cause- of waste, as they decompose equivalent amounts of many chemicals em- ployed in various industrial processes. The calcium and magnesium content of waters render an important effect in the processes of manu- facture of paper, pulp, distillery and brewery products, and in soap- factories and dyeworks. Effect of Carbonatesi. — Carbonates occur in the water mainly com- bined with carbonic acid fn the form of bicarbonates. In the table of" analyses, however, it is stated as the carbonate (CO3). If hard waters- are boiled, the bicarbonate is decomposed, free carbonic acid is given off, and the greater part of the calcium and magnesium is precipitated as carbonate. For this reason these carbonates in water give it the qual- ity of "temporary hardness" and hence such waters are generally more- desirable in many industrial processes than waters high in sulphates. Effect of Sulphates. — Calcium and magnesium sulphates in water cause "permanent hardness", as boiling does not pBecipitate these sul- phates, or at most only small amounts of calcium sulphates. Hard wa- ters with sulphates predominating are desirable in tanning heavy hides, because they swell the skins, exposing more surface to the action of the- tan liquors. Sulphates, on the other hand, interfere with crystalliza- tion in sugar-making, causing a larger amount of sugar to remain in solution in the mother liquor. High calcium sulphate is also objection- able in canning peas and string beans. Effect of Chlorides. — High chlorides in Waters are generally accom- panied by high sodium and potassium content. Appreciable amounts of " chlorides are injurious in many industrial processes. Wisconsin wa- ters high in chlorides are of relatively rare occurrence, and hence, troub- THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 157 les due to chlorides can usually be readily obviated by securing unob- jectionable supplies. The content of chlorides in shallow-well waters, however, should be closely scrutinized, as the amount, if relatively high, may be a fair index of the amount of pollution. Chloride waters have a, deleterious effect in tanning by causing the hides to become thin and flabby. Chloride waters effect the quality of sugar, and effect the growth of yeast, and the germination of the grain in the preparation of alcoholic beverages. The only effective way of removing chlorides in water is by distillation. Effect of Organic Matter. — Water containing organic matter that comes in contact with food products should be purified before being used. If the organic matter is due to sewage pollution it is dangerous. Care in this respect is particularly necessary in creameries, cheese fac- tories, slaughter houses, canneries, pickle factories, breweries, sugar factories, and starch works. Organic matter, not only may produce disease, but it may cause decomposition in fabrics manufactured by the use of such water. Effect of Otlier Substances. — Silica and aluminum are usually not present in sufficient quantities in water to be objectionable in industrial processes, and the same is generally true for the alkalies, sodium and potassium. -> Purification of Water Supplies. Purification of water supplies is the removal or reduction in amount of objectionable substances in the water. It is practiced for the pur- pose of rendering supplies safe and unobjectionable for drinking and to reduce the amount of dissolved minerals injurious to boilers, or other machinery, or to manufactured products. The most important purification plants are those installed for the pur- pose of making surface waters pure and sa;fe for drinking. The re- moval of bacteria causing disease, and the removal of turbitity, odor, taste, and iron, are the principal requirements in the purification of a municipal supply. The usual methods of purification are slow filtration through sand, and rapid filtration after coagulation, both methods be- ing combined with processes of sedimentation. The first method is known as slow sand filtration, and the second, as mechanical filtration. The efficiency of these filters stated in percentage of removal of bacteria should be as high as 98 and often reaches 99.8 per cent. Slow sand filtration consists of filtering the water downward through a layer of sand of such thickness that the removal of all suspended matter is accomplished. The filter consists of a water-tight basin, on 158 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the bottom of which perforated tiles are laid in the form of a grid^ over which is a one-foot layer of gravel graded in size from bottom to top, and over the gravel is a layer of sand 3 to 4 feet in depth. When the water is applied on the surface it passes through the sand and gravel and flows away through the underdrain. The filters require cleaning- at intervals, depending upon the amount of impurities in the water. Filters have been installed in a number of Wisconsin paper mills. Surface waters are usually screened of all coarse material, such as sticks and leaves. Very turbid river waters are usually allowed to stand in large sedimentation basins to reduce the cost of operating the filters. Supplies objectionable on account of their iron content are aerated' and allowed to trickle over rocks, allowing the oxidation of the ferrous carbonate in solution and the ferric oxide can then be removed by filtra- tion. The distinctive feature of a mechanical filter is the use of a coagu- lant and the high rate of filtration. Aluminum sulphate is the coagu- lant most commonly used. The water with the coagulant is allowed to- stand 3 or 4 hours in a sedimentation basin and is then passed rapidly through beds of sand or ground stone to remove the rest of the sedi- ment. If the alkalinity of the water supply is too low to give a proper- reaction with the coagulant, lime or soda ash is added. The perman- ent hardness of the water will be increased if an excess of lime is em- ployed. . Purification by the application of chemicals kills organisms that may cause disease or give bad taste or odor. Copper sulphate and cal- cium hypochlorite, and ozone, are the common disinfectants. Purifica- tion in this nianner must be done by the application of substances not Ijoisonous to animals. Use of HypocTilorites. — An exceedingly important method of water treatment is in the use of hypochlorites. This has become a widely ac- cepted method for bacterial purification of city water supplies, especi- ally of the Great Lake supplies. Since hypochlorites are active oxidiz- ing agents they are used for destroying organic matter and coloring ^ for bleaching, and other industrial uses of water. An excellent presenta- tion of the use of hypochlorites is given in the work of Albert H. Hook- er,^ "Chloride of Lime in Sanitation". Sewage Purificaiiion. — The problem of disposing of the sewage of cities is an important one with, respect to the health of the communi- (ies. The purification of water supplies for drinking purposes, and the purification of sewage, are everywhere closely related, for it is usaally ' Chloride of Lime in Sanitation, A. H. Hooker, Jno. Wiley & Sons, 1913. THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 159 the ease that only the sewage polluted water supplies require purifica- tion. In only a few cities of Wisconsin, (see reference below), is the sewage treated in some sort of a disposal plant before being emptied in- to the waterways of the locality. In most instances, where the public water supplies are obtained from lakes and rivers, the sewage is emptied into the source of the water supply, and in such instances the city us- ing a lake supply, pollutes its own water supply, while the city using a river supply pollutes the supply of the cities located farther down the river. The problem of sewage purification is outside the scope of this re- port. Occasion, however, is taken in this place to refer the reader to a bulletin by Davis and Bowles^, recently printed by the state, which adequately describes the sewage purification systems in "Wisconsin, and which should be in the hands of all those interested in the public health of our cities. 'Sewage Purification with Special Reference to Wisconsin Conditions, Bull. Univ. of Wis., No. 331, 1909. 160 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIK. CHAPTER VII. THE CHEMICAL QUALITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. The water supplies of Wisconsin, both surface and underground, show a considerable range in composition, the extent of mineralization vary- ing in different parts of the state. Since the mineral content of the surface waters of rivers and lakes is much less than that of the under- ground waters of the same locality and is determined by influences somewhat different from those affecting the rock waters, the surface waters are briefly described in a separate chapter. The present chapter therefore is mainly confined to a general discussion, or summary, of the chemical quality of the underground waters and the factors influenc- ing the degree of mineralization. The chemical data upon which the general discussion is based is fully stated in the tables of mineral analyses of each county in Part II, pp. 223 to 639. Information in regard to the analyses of both the underground and surface waters of the state is wholly the result of compilation from various sources. Some of the analyses quoted were made by chemists to determine the value of waters for public supplies for cities, and many were made by industrial chemists to determine the value of the waters for boiler use in railroad locomotives. A few of the analyses of spring waters and highly mineralized waters have been made for the purpose of showing the therapeutic value of these waters. Only a few have been made for purely research work. No analyses have been made in con- nection with the present investigation on the water supplies of the state. The mineral analyses, originally stated in the usual hypothetical combinations in grains per gallon or parts per million, have been recom- puted to the ionic form in parts per million, so far as possible, in order, that they may be compared with other analyses. The expression of the results of water analyses in- ionic form in parts per million is now quite generally adopted by sanitary and research chemists, and also by many technical chemists. THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. IQl The Chemical Quality op Underground Waters. The -aiidergrouiid waters of the state show a very great range in mineral content. Some of the soft water springs in the northern part of the state are very low in mineral content, as illustrated by such springs as that near Cedar, Iron county, containing only 22 parts per million of mineral matter, the well known Chippewa spring at Chip- pewa Falls with content of only 36 parts per million, and the Toma- hawk spring at Tomahawk with only 41 parts per million. On the other hand some very highly mineralized waters have been encountered in a few wells and mining explorations in various parts of the state. The highest mineralized water in the state, so far as known, was reached at a depth of about 2,075 feet below the surface in the Florence Iron mine at Florence in exploring for iron ore in the Pre-Cambrian formations. This water contained 18,799 parts per mil- lion of dissolved solids, and 5,122 parts per million of organic and vola- tile maater. See page 329. In exploring for copper ore near Osceola, a salt Avater was encountered at a depth of only 90 feet containing 16,995 parts per million of mineral matter. Salt waters containing over 10,000 parts per million of dissolved solids have been encountered in only two other places in the tate ; at Sheboygan, Sheboygan county, and at Pal- myra in Jefferson county. There are but few localities, only 18, in the state, however where un- derground waters have been found that contain over 1,000 parts pet million of dissolved solids. The relatively rare occurrence of these highly mineralized waters as well as their geographic distribution and geolo- gical source appear to indicate that they are exceptional rather than usual or common, and hence are considered as exceptional waters in the following discussion. Among the analyses of underground waters there are about 100 analyses of spring waters. As there is very slight difference in the mineral content of spring waters and of well waters of the same locality, the spring waters are included with other waters from underground sources. Leaving out of consideration the highly mineralized exceptional wa- ters, the average mineral content of about 600 waters from springs and from wells in the surface deposits and in the indurated rock, which range in mineral content from 22 to 1,000 parts per million, is about 327 parts per million. The degree of mineralization of the spring and well waters appar- ently depends, not so much upon the character of the geological forma- tions as determined by the chemical composition, as unon the general 11— W. S. 162 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. depth and thickness of the water-bearing strata in which is contained the body of underground water. The relative simplicity of the geo- logy of Wisconsin in its relation to the mineral quality of the under- ground water supplies, gives opportunity to divide the state into areas or districts characterized by waters of approximately equal degree of hardness and mineral content, the boundaries of such areas being deter- mined mainly, but not strictly, by the water-bearing geological forma- tions, as these increase in number and thickness in passing toward the outer boundaries of the state. To facilitate the study of the chemical quality of the underground waters, therefore, it is convenient to describe them first with respect to their areal distribution or by districts, and second with respect to their geologic horizons. Chemical Composition of the Underground Waters by Districts. The underground waters of Wisconsin with respect to their general mineral quality and. hardness can be divided conveniently into four areas or districts as follows : District A. Area of soft water.^ District B. Area of medium hard water. District C. Area of hard and very hard water. District D. Area of very hard water. These districts are shown on the accompanying sketch map, Plate IV. It should be understood, of course, that the boundary lines between the various districts are somewhat arbitrarily drawn, as there is only a gradual and not an abrupt change in the mineral content in passing from one district to the other. Within each distict, however, the de- gree of mineralization of the underground water is approximately the same. Such a map may conveniently be referred to, in a general way, as a "water-composition map", or, a "hijd rosy static- map". District A. Area of Soft Water. The area of soft waters, that is, with waters having a total hardness averaging below 100 parts per million, is mainly confined to the north central part of the state, as shown on the accompanying sketch map. (Plate IV). This area is underlain very largely by crystalline rock of the Pre-Cambrian formations and of (See geological map) relatively ' For the definition of soft and hard waters, see page 146. ' Hydrosystatic, from Greek, h^dra, water -f sy stasis, composition. THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 163 thin deposits of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone in the south- em and western portions. The surface deposits consist mainly of glacial drift of crystalline debris on the uplands, and of alluvial deposits largely of quartz sand and granitic gravel, in the valleys. The general character of the water in this area by counties is shown in the following table: Table 23. Aoerage mineral eonteni of underground water in the surface deposits- and in the roek, by counties, in District A . Parts per million. Wells in the surface deposits, Wells In indurated rock, sandstone alluvial and glacial formations. and granite. s "w F! 'ot D ^_^ 3 n (A CO u en SS n County. 6n a g s ■5 E B S 9 e s o 6 it m (\.n 1 ,33 a i 2 S 69 a IZ 2 8 a s 36 'i Q 10 a+ 3 a s p ■e 19 Mean 12 8 Is" 22 11 8 6 8 44 45 30 23 5 135 122 122 Average of 78 a nalysps for thft (iistr ct The analyses shown in the above table are mainly of shallow well- waters in surface deposits, a few analyses are of springs, and 9 are of ' waters from wells in the sandstone and in the granitic rock. The wells in the surface deposits range in depth from 10 feet to over 217 feet, while the deepest well in the sandstone reaches only 320 feet. For depths of the various wells, see the tables of mineral analyses under the county descriptions. Most of the wells in this district are less than. 50 feet deep, and relatively few are over 100 feet deep. In general the depth of the underground water over the district will probably average between 100 and 200 feet, as measured by the average thickness of the 164 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. water bearing formations which overlie the impervious Pre-Cambrian Crystalline formations. The mineral content of the underground waters in this district which comprises an area of about 20,000 square miles or 36 per cent of the state, so far as available analyses indicate, ranges from 36 parts per million in the Chippewa spring water to 278 parts per million in the water of the railroad well at Junction City in Portage county. The mean of 78 analyses shows an average content of 122 parts per million of mineral mater, which would-be "low" in the classification in respect to mineral content. The average water of the district according to the ■classification in respect to hardness adopted in this report is "soft" the average hardness being between 85 and 90 parts per million. It should be understood, of course, that many of the underground waters within this district are hard waters as the above table of mineral analyses clearly indicates. Usually however, the underground waters are likely to be low (below 150) in mineral content, and soft (below 100 parts of calcium and magnesium carbonate and calcium sulphate) and therefore would fall within the classification of soft wa- ters as defined. According to the analyses the amount of boiler-scale formed by these soft waters would usually be less than 1 pound in 1,000 gallons, below that of the water of Lake Michigan. It is undoubtedly true that many of the waters whose analyses are considered, are contaminated or polluted to a variable extent, and hence are somewhat higher in mineral content than the naturally pure water of the locality. To whatever extent the underground waters are con- taminated, therefore, they represent waters higher in mineral content than the pure waters of the district. District B. Area of Medium Hard Waters. An area of medium hard water, that is of water with a mean content between 100 and 200 parts per million of hardness, surrounds the area of soft waters in the north central part of the state. This area, except in the region adjacent to Lake Superior, is characterized by the out- crop of thick beds of the Upper Cambrian sandstone and the re- latively thin beds of the Lower Magnesian limestone (Oneota and Sha- kopee formations), and to some extent the overlying beds of the St Peter sandstone and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. Ad- jacent to Lake Superior the indurated rock in this district is mainly the Lake Superior red sandstone. The surface deposits consist of glacial drift containing limestone debris on the uplands except in the western .part within the drif tless THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 165 area where loessial deposits are prevalent. In the valley bottoms and adjacent to Lake Superior alluvial and lacustrine deposits are com- mon, the alluvial deposits being largely sand and gravel, and the la- custrine deposits being largely reddish and bluish calcareous clays. The wells in the valleys are quite shallow, usually less than 100 feet deep, while those on the uplands are relatively much deeper often from 200 to 300 feet deep. In general the depth of the body of underground water in the district is probably between 400 and 600 feet. The chemical character of the underground water in the surface de- posits and underlying rock within this district is shown in the follow- ing table: Table 2i— Average Mineral Content of Underground Waters in Surface Deposits and the Rock, by Counties, in District "2?" (Parts per mUlion). Wellsinthe Surface Deposits. Wells in the Rock. County. a 6 O 15 s 3 "3 E 3 V, s •if ■£0 — i-t ¥ ax. 3~ 5 © E 6 in vi V to >j d C < d Z 3 1 2 2 4 5 7 2 1 4 4 6 3 2 9 20 i s 3 37 33 ■3 s 3 '35 V c 22 14 Is !! 33 2 s 1 rt ■ •s8 82 85 IV u 3^ CO U 60 4 en 1 ■5 255 163 en 2 C 0) s Ashland' 1 1 5 2 2 16 1 8 1 3 2 1 t I 4 255 Barron 163 Burnett 16 "4' 15 13 36 14 18 29 32 14 5 4 14 12 9 7 6 1 6 82 40 38 77 80 11 14 13 3 1 2 7 184 72 91 142 162 184 Columbia 20 48 10 26 11 8 45 131 4 12 25 8 117 244 102 134 Iron 14? IfiZ 17 9 44 61 19 23 16 10 80 131 81 !30 16 8 287 283 ^87 LaCrosse 4 17 5 13 10 54 53 61 47 18 27 25 24 3d 9 17 6 9 1 3 131 140 144 149 43 39 12 11 12 7 10 1 3 295 257 268 258 100 293 257 Marinette ?6S ?58 Monroe Pepin 10 5 34 5 36 54 80 51 16 30 10 19 7 8 'io' 81 156 69 122 24 11 124 13 8 1 "9' 185 265 336 235 159 265 33fi Polli ^'i^ 3 17 9 10 37 17 58 45 16 8 32 28 26 5 8 6 104 58 168 117 16 11 21 22 1 4 10 224 112 292 235 ??4 St. Croix Sauk 12 12 44 34 17 16 9 3 116 91 10 2 7 3 217 162 196 1Q4 235 Trempealeau . 7 41 45 22 24 9 3 121 111 14 12 5 9 228 216 ??S Vernon,.., . .. . 216 16 43 19 4 109 2 I9" 3 8 208 ~224 'OS T I3" IT lo" "102 ~22 IT 'm Mean 51 7 42 20 ' 10 220 Average of 97 analyses for the district 8 43 17 10 106 20 10 220 This district comprises an area of about 18,300 square miles, or about 33.6 per cent of the state. While the maximum range in mineral con- tent is between 45 parts per million and 430 parts per million in well 166 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. waters, the usual range in mineral content is between 150 parts per million and 275 pai-ts per million. The mean of 51 analyses of water from surface wells is 224 parts per million and the mean of 46 analyses of water from wells bottomed in rock is 216 parts per million. Some of the springs within the district contain as low as 22 and 33 parts per million. The average of all the analyses of underground waters in the district is 220 parts per million. Calciimi and magnesium are the principal basic constituents and on- ly rarely are sodium and potassium more important than magnesium. Nearlj^ all are carbonate waters and only very rarely is sulphate more important than carbonate. The average hardness of the water of District "B" as measured by the calcium and magnesium carbonates and calcium sulphate is about 170 to 180 parts per million, and is therefore "medium hard" as de- fined in this report. See page 146. The average amount of encrusting solids in the groundwaters of the district is less than 2 pounds in 1,000 gallons, the usual range being between one pound and three pounds in 1,000 gallons. ^ ■ District C. Aeea of Hard and Very Hard Waters. An area with ground- waters having mineral content, appreciably higher than that in District B, lies to the east and south of the latter district. In this district there is a mean mineral content' of the ground- waters of 385 parts per million and of about 308 parts per million of those constituents causing hardness. , This district comprises an area of about 9,900 square miles, about 18 per cent of the state, and lies along the Fox river valley in the eastern part of the state and south of the "Wisconsin river below Portage in the southwestern part. This district is approximately co-extensive with the general outcrop area of the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone. The eastern botindary of the district lies some distance west of • the border of the Niagara limestone. The western boundary is a line approximating the western border of the relatively continuous out- crop of the Trenton, The indurated rock immediately underlying the surface deposits therefore, is very largely dolomitic limestone and only to a small extent sandstone. The surface deposits in the glaciated portion of the district consist largely of limestone debris. Iii the valley bottoms of both glaciated and driftless areas the surface deposits are lai'gely of alluvial origin and consist mainly of sand and gravel. Calcareous clays of lacustrine origin are common in the Fox river valley. THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 167 The wells in the vallc.ys are usually less than 50 oi' 100 feet deep, ■while those on the uplands are often 200 to 300 feet deep. The ap- proximate average depth of the body of underground water in the dis- trict, overlying the impervious Pre-Cambrian, is between 800 and 1,200 feet. The mineral content of the underground water in surface deposits ■and in the rock in the district, by counties, is shown in the following table : Table 24. — iverage mineral content of underground waters in the surface iepositt and in the 7-ock, by counties, in District Parts per mill on. Wells in the surface deposits. Wells in the indurated rocU. e o -; «" a o ~ t ) o ■o u 'O ■Ji ■Ji m o S" County. St S S o -a "3 bi S t o '3 5 a u s B 3 O a 'o 13 B 1 a it, as ^5 0) a o s d a O s > O o s =3 O S o a a a s 8+ Is 0) Is B u 1 5 C 1 z 03 o S aj o m o 20 H 419 2; 12 OD u 66 37 7 U 177 m 26 5 H 322 a Columbia ?. R8 40 15 180 86 336 Crawford 1 1 44 14 17 84 52 8 223 3 2 51 26 24 150 18 15 287 271 1) 1 6 22 6 64 76 7S 37 43 33 9 7 13 175 216 182 38 7 28 6, 11 9 388 351 12 4 7 8 11 68 72 70 38 42 34 lb 4 14 170 202 166 54 19 18 17 4 IS 374 363 331 361 Dodge ,368 <5reen 341 Green Lake... 4 Ifi 6.H 39 8 1.i2 76 4 362 1 24 59 32 2 158 18 1 308 351 Grant 4 in 5R 21 7 125 11 5 245 12 67 4(1 9 184 43 10 376 343 3 1(1 5 IS 56 67 28 32 17 7 151 177 18 12 13 4 289 321 11 17 73 68 43 33 11 11 178 181 63 20 17 6 396 336 3,37 Jefferson 330 Lafayette 4 fl 72 43 12 216 5 12 374 3 64 40 6 183 21 8 339 359 1 ?. 20 12 38 50 9 20 6 7 72 128 10 7 9 2 166 231 2 166 Oconto 35 18 26 63 67 29 250 241 ^ Ifi 70 41 3 188 33 5 360 36(1 Bock 14 4 7 69 35 12 167 44 7 342 10 1 6 19 59 51 34 31 10 14 169 154 .16 9 7 14 301 296 325 296 Waupaca Mean 1f< 6S •■(5 177 30 7 343 343 "es" lo" ~m IT 10 Tm IT 7 ~m ~95 "^ "ee" ~36" IT T74 Is" IT "339 Average of 160 ana yses for thfi distrif.t 160 8 66 35 11 172 32 9 335 335 While the mineral content in the various individual counties of the ■district ranges between 166 and 477 parts per million, the mean min- eral content of the entire district as shown by 65 analysis of water from springs and wells in surface deposits is 330 parts per million, and the mean mineral content as shown by 95 analyses of waters from wells in the rock is 339 parts per million. While the underground waters in the district show a considerable range in mineral content a large majority of the waters analyzed 168 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. closely approximate tlie average mean analyses, which, is about 335 parts per million of total dissolved solids, and about 308 parts per mil- lion of solids constituting hardness. In the classification adopted in respect to hardness, waters containing 200 to 300 parts per million of calcium and magnesium carbonate and calcium sulphate are hard wa- ters, and waters above 300 parts per million of these constituents are very hard waters, hence, the waters of this district, according to this arbitrary classification, consist of hard and very hard waters in about equal proportions. The mineral analyses show a mean content of about 3 pounds of in- crusting solids in 1,000 gallons, the incrusting solids usually ranging between 2 and 4 pounds in 1,000 gallons. District D. Area of Very Hard Water. The area with underground waters having the highest mineral con- tent in the state, lies in the eastern part of the state adjacent to Lake Michigan. In this district the mean content of dissolved solids in the underground water supplies is about 435 parts per million. The in- crease in the content of mineral matter in this district as compared with district C, is not very pronounced, but is sufficient to be character- istic for the area. This district, as outlined on the sketch map, PL V, comprises an area of about 6,250 square miles or about 11.5 per cent of the state. It occupies a belt along Lake Michigan, from Door county on the north, to Kenosha county on the south, and geologically includes the area occupied by the Niagara limestone with a strip of the underlying formations on the west. The surface formations are mainly glacial drift containing much limestone debris, and the red calcareous clays of lacustrine origin. The wells in the valleys are usually shallow, from 50 to 100 feet deep, while those on the uplands are quite deep, being usually from 100 to 300 feet deep. The depth of the body of underground water in the district in the water-bearing formations, overlying the impervious Pre- Cambrian granitic rock is approximately 1,600 to 2,000 feet deep. The chemical composition of the underground waters in the surface deposits and in the rock, by counties, in the district, is shown in the fol- lowing table : THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 169 Table 25. — Average mineral content of underground waier/< in the surface deposits and the rock, hy counties, in District D. Parts per million. Wells in the sur face deposits. Well sin the rock. County. c ^ <= s O ■Ji O ■3 B CD 3 oJ C3 Z 1 O "3 o a 3 o ■ O 6 1 ST. 1s~ lit & lie o 03 aj 3 '■"-' 3 a 1 o ■a ■a a; Dane 2 3 1 2 4 2 1 10 15 14 11 "io" 13 19 72 67 100 75 107 76 62 51 38 35 36 44 33 53 40 31 25 13 24 12 27 14 3 15 15 175 194 251 181 188 186 184 154 30 6 28 73 20 101, 15 10 43 10 6 11 33 17 3 14 397 Dodge 343 Fond du Lac 475 410 Green 411 461 Laf ayetie 328 Shawano 296 Mean 20 12 75 41 186 47 16 400 The water in the Galena-Platteville limestone within the outcrop area of this formation is very generally "hard" or "very hard" as classified in this report, the mean total mineral content in 20 analyses being 400 parts per million, the usual range in total solids being between 300 and 500 parts per million, While there are exceptions, it appears to be the general rule that the Galena-Platteville water is somewhat higher in mineral content than the underlying sandstone water. The somewhat higher mineralization of the water in the Galena-Platteville as compared with that in the underlying sandstone is perhaps fairly well illustrated by the analyses of water in these horizons in Iowa county and in Grant county as shown in Table 31. On the other hand the average of two analyses of water in the Galena-Platteville in La Fayette county (See Table 31) show a slightly lower mineral content than a single analysis of water in the underlying St. Peter formation. There is, therefore, veiy generally an appreciably higher mineral content in the Galena-Platteville water than in the water of the under- lying sandstone within the general outcrop area of these formations a,s shown in table 31. The higher mineral content in the Galena-Platte- ville water appears to be fairly well illustrated in the table by the av- THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 181 erage mineralization of 400 parts per million as compared with 352 parts per million in the sandstone water. Table 31. Gomparuon of average mineral content of water in the Galena-Platte- ville limestone loith that in the underlying Upper Cambrian and St. Peter sandstones. Wells In the Galena- limestone. Platteville Wells in the underli stone. ing sand- County. Number ot analyses areraged . Average depth of wells. Average mineral content. Number of analyses averaged. Average depth of wells. Average mineral oontent. 2 3 5 2 4 2 170 308 101 25 172 66 397 343 410 411 461 328 S 7 7 4 6 1 33 685 266 994 1000 208 300 333 426 318 Green 338 321 359 18 146 400 600 352 No analyses are available of waters from deep wells in the Galena- Platteville formations underlying the Niagara limestone, but it is very- probable that these waters are very generally higher in mineral content than the Galena-Platteville waters in shallow wells in the outcrop area of the latter. Quality of Water in the Cincinnati Shale The thick Cincinnati (Maquoketa) shale is practically negligible as^ a water-bearing horizon, but the impervious character of the formation forms an impenetrable floor for the Niagara and the drift waters above it, and it serves as confining strata for the underlying waters with- in the Galena-Platteville limestone and the sandstone group. While no analyses are available of waters obtained from this shale, it is believed that the shale waters, while very meager, are relatively much higher in mineral content than waters in the associated formations. The several analyses of well water at Oakfield, Fond du Lac county (See page 343), where the shale is the bed rock formation, show a rel- atively high content of dissolved solids which may be due to the shale. However, as this formation yields practically no water, the quality i» obviously unimportant. 182 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Quality of Watee in the Niagara Limestone Throughout its area in eastern Wisconsin, the Niagara limestone is almost exclusively the source of water supply in shallow rock wells. This formation is usually from 200 to 300 feet thick and it transmits water "very freely, not only through many small crevices but also through nu- merous large joints, cracks, and along bedding planes. The water in the Niagara is usually very hard water though of moder- ate mineral content. In a few instances, however, highly mineralized waters have been encountered, and in some instances very soft waters though of moderate mineral content have been obtained. Only a few analyses of water whoUy obtained from the Niagara are available but there are many analyses of waters from the overlying drift deposits made up largely of debris obtained from this formation, and such drift waters may be reasonably considered to closely reflect the general char- acter of the immediately underlying Niagara waters. The average mineral content of 35 analyses of waters from wells in the Niagara is shown in the following table : Table 32. Average mineral content of water in the Niagara limestone. (Parts per milliou,) County . Calumet Kenosha Manitowoc... Milwaukee... ■Ozaukee Kacine , Sheboygan... Washington.. Mean.., So 2 a . IS E 3 Sit ID oj on d d'-' 3 t,— 3 >-— a~- O z en O s cc o (K o H 1 fin 45 22 19,=; 31 9 1 9 3 1 149 195 9 2 ■* «5 43 12 161 78 » 13 68 33 38 11,=; 184 10 2 X 73 40 14 184 ,55 10 4 7i> 32 60 112 232 13 3 12 49 32 19 150 18 19 9 3 103 43 28 211 74 13 35 6 74 36 36 154 124 12 379 450 383 528 298 477 440" The average mineral content of the Niagara water is 440 parts per million, the usual range in mineral content being between 300 and 600 parts per million. As the wells from which the waters were analyzed .are necessarily cased through the overlying surface deposits and a few feet into the Niagara, the source may be considered as reasonably cer- tain in the latter formation. At Sheboygan, in Sheboygan county, and at Manitowoc, Manitowoc icounty, highly mineralized sulphate waters have been encountered in THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 183 the Niagara. However, these highly mineralized waters are believed to be ol; relatively unusual occurrences in this formation. In Kenosha county, very soft sodium carbonate waters have been en- countered in the Niagara and in the overlying surface deposits. It is a rather unique circumstance that the "softest" water in the state should be obtained from the Niagara limestone. This soft Niagara wa- ter, however, is not low but moderate in total mineral content. This water is apparently typical "alkali water". The mineral analyses of this soft Niagara water at Bassetts, Kenosha county, from a 224 foot well, also given with other analyses of the county table (page 400), is as follows : Mineral Analyses of soft sodium carbonate water in Niagara Limestone, Bassetts, Kenosha County. (Parts per million.) Source, Niagara Lime- stone Silica (SIO2) . Calcium (Ca). Magrnea- ium. (Mg). 1.3 Sodium and potas- lum (Na& K) 149.7 Carbon- ate (COB) . 195.5 Sulphate (SO4). Chlorine (CI). 2.1 Total dis- solved solids. Soft sodium carbonate waters of this type appear to be characteristic over a considerable area of the Niagara in the locality about Bassetts, Bain, and Bristol in southern Kenosha county, the source being in the upper portion of the Niagara and in a gravel bed immediately overlying the Niagara (See page 400) . Their occurrences suggests the possibility of other soft water areas within the Niagara district. However, these soft sodium waters, like the highly mineralized waters in the Niagara, may, under present knowledge, be considered as exceptional, the usual waters being very hard waters ranging between 250 and 500 parts of inerusting solids per million. Quality of Water in thS Surface Deposits The mineralization of the underground water in the unconsolidated surface deposits, is generally very similar in character and degree to the mineralization of the water in the underlying rock. This fact has al- ready been shown in the general discussion of the quality of the wa- ters in the various districts. There is a close similarity in the mineral 184 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. quality of the water in the surface deposits and in the undei'lying rock for two principal reasons ; first, the general similarity in chemical com- position of the surface deposits, especially of the glacial drift, and of the underlying rock ; and second, there is generally a very extensive inter- mingling and mixture of water and diffusion of dissolved salts through- out underground channels that extend up ito the surface deposits from the underlying rock. The average mineralization of the underground water in the surface deposits, mainly the glacial drift and alluvial deposits, is shown in the following table: Table 33. Acerage mineral content of water in the surface deposits in the various districts of Wisconsin. (Parts per million.) The table shows a progressive increase in the mineral content in the water of the surface deposits in passing from the north central part of the state to the eastern part, adjacent to Lake Michigan. The mineraliza- tion of the water in the surface deposits is much the same as that in the underlying rock of the several districts. However, while there is generally a close similarity in the mineral and chemical character of the surface deposits to that of the underlying rock, there are some exceptions to this general rule. Where there la a marked difference in the composition of the surface deposits and of the underlying rock, important differences may develop in the quality of the waters in the surface deposits and the rock in some localities. It appears to be quite often the condition in Wisconsin, that the com- position of the surface deposits may be of such a nature as to greatly modify or even to determine the general character of the rock waters in the region. In those portions of the state where glacial deposits con- sisting largely of limestone debris overlie the thin sandstone and Pre- Cambrian crystalline area, the hard waters derived from the limestone- THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 185 bearing drift may add appreciably to the average hardness of the water in the underlying rock. Quality of Water in the Crystalline Drift Those drift deposits of the state containing only the ground up rock- debris, derived from the Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks, very generally contain soft waters of low mineral content. The quality of water in the crystalline drift is fairly well illustrated by the table showing the aver- age mineral analyses of the ground waters in District A, the north-cen- tral part of the state. While many of the analyses of ground water in this district are from wells in alluvial deposits, the latter are closely as- sociated with the drift and the material of the alluvial deposits, such as gravel and sand, are very largely derived from the various crystal- line rocks. The average mineral content of the water in the crystalline drift may be considered as about 121 parts per million as illustrated by the analyses of the water of the surface deposits in District A in the preceding table (Table 33). Quality of Water in Limestone Drift The drift deposits of the state containing an appreciable content of limestone rock, derived from the limestone formations of Wisconsin and' the adjoining states, very generally contain hard waters or very hard waters of moderate mineral content. Where limestone drift overlies the crystalline area or overlies the sandstone formation, the ground water of the locality appears to be appreciably higher in mineral content than where such limestone drift is absent. Because of the work of the glac- iers the district of hard waters, District B, enroaches considerably upon the general area of the Pre-Cambrian in northern Wisconsin. The district of soft water. District A, would probably have been much larger if the ice sheets advancing from northeastern Wisconsin and up- per Michigan had not transported limestone bearing drift into the east- ern part of the crystalline area, into Forest, Langlade, Shawano, and Waupaca counties. To a certain extent, also, limestone bearing drift has been carried into northern Polk and into Burnett counties from northern Minnesota and Manitoba, thereby developing deposits con- taining a higher content of readily soluble mineral matter than would otherwise have obtained in that region. The character and extent of mineralization of the water in the lime- stone drift is fairly well represented by the mineral analyses of the wa- ter in the surface deposits in the eastern limestone portion of the state,. 186 I^HE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. as the southwestern limestone portion of the state is driftless. While a few analyses from the southwestern part of the state are included in table 33, they are not sufficiently different from those in the drift to affect the general averages. The average mineral content of water in the limestone drift is shown in the preceding table 33 as illustrated by the average mineralization of the water in the surface deposits of Dis- trict C to be 330 and of District D 408 parts per million. The table clearly shows an appreciable increase in mineralization of the limestone drift water in passing from the central portion of the state towards the eastern border. This increase, however, is probably not due to any change in the composition of the drift, for there is no appre- ciable change in character of the drift, but to the general increase in the mineralization of the underground waters throughout all the for- mations in the eastern part of the state. The increase in mineralization of the drift water in the eastern border of the state. District D, there- fore, is considered to be due to the general mixture and intermixture of the water and the general diffusion of mineral salts in the water from deep seated and underlying sources, along vertical joint and frac- ture planes, that extend throughout the indurated rocks and under the drift. Quality of Water in Alluvial Deposits The alluvial deposits consist mainly of river deposited sands and gravels in the valleys, not only in the driftless area, but also to a very large extent in the glaciated parts of the state. In the glaciated part^ of the state, the alluvial deposits are closely associated with the glacial drift and glacial outwash, and contain ground waters of similar min- eral quality as the associated drift. In the driftless area, the alluvial sands and gravels form important deposits in the lowlands and in the valleys, and the material of the deposits consists largely of quartz sand derived from the adjacent sandstone formations. While the alluvial sand contains water slightly less mineralized than that of the adjacent rock strata, there is apparently not a very notice- able difference in the various analyses of waters from these two sources in Wisconsin. This slight difference is very probably due to the "fact that the alluvial waters in the valley deposits are very largely seepage waters from the adjacent rock uplands and, therefore, are very largely rock waters flowing underground down the valleys. There is a considerable difference, however, in the degree of mineral- ization of the water in the alluvial sand of the broad valley bottom of the Wisconsin river, in Wood and Juneau and Monroe counties, and that in the alluvial sand in the narrow valleys farther south and west, in the THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATEl! 187 Tegion of the high bluffs of sandstone, or of sandstone capped by lime- stone. In Monroe county the underground water in this alluvial sand, in the broad valleys about Tomah and Sparta, is much lower in mineral content than the water in the alluvial sand in the narrow valley of La Crosse river as shown in the following table : Table 34. Average mineral content of water in alluvial sand in Monroe and La Crosse counties. County. Locality. Number of analyses averag-ed. Average total mineral content. Monroe Tonaah and Spavta n 16 ■ 103 295 While some of the analyses included in the averages of the .above table, may be of contaminated waters, the increase in mineralization on this ac- count is not sufficient to materially effect the average results. As shown in the table, the average mineralization of the water in the alluvial sand in the broad valley plain about Sparta, Tomah and Wyeville, is only about one third that of the water in the alluvial sand in the relatively narow valley of the La Crosse river, at La Crcsse. The higher mineral content of the underground water in the alluvial sand of La Crosse county as compared with that in the alluvial sand of Monroe county, shown in the table, is very probably due, as explained later, to the greater depth of the underground water at La Crosse as compared with that at Tomah and Sparta. While very generally the water in the alluvial sand is lower in min- eral content than that in the surrounding rock formation, in some local- ities, however, there is a strong tendency for a close similarity in min- eral content from these sources. These conditions are illustrated in various counties, but are especially well shown in Monroe county where the mineral content of the water in the alluvial sand is much lower than that in the rock, and in La Crosse county, at La Crosse, where the aver- age mineral content of the water in the alluvial sand is approximately the same as that in the sandstone. Quality of Water in Lacustrine Clays and Silts In the eastern part of the state, adjacent to Lake Michigan and Green Bay, and in northern Wisconsin, adjacent to Lake Superior, are surface deposits of red clays of lacustrine and estuarine origin closely inter- 188 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. stratified with sands and gravels of alluvial origin. The lacustrine clays contain considerable amounts of calcium and magnesium carbonate, and the formation of clay and fine silt, as a whole, is generally dark bluish in color, the red clays prevailing at the surface being only the weathered and oxidized portion of the deposits. These calcarceous clays and silts are relatively impervious and serve as the confining strata for the surface flowing wells associated with these formations. The quality of the water in the lacustrine clays and silts is very generally hard, on account of the lime content of the clays. In the glaciated parts of the. state the calcareous lacustrine clays form a variable and often important portion of the drift deposits. The lacustrine clays are also found to some extent in all parts of the state, including the driftless area and their presence in certain parts- of the state doubtless tends to increase the mineral content of the ground-waters wherever they occur. The occurrence of the red clays within the general area of the lime- stone portion of the state, adjacent to Lake Michigan, does not con- tribute materially to the relatively strong mineralization of the ground- waters in the eastern part of the state, and their occurrence within the area of the Lake Superior red sandstone probably does not contribute appreciably to the mineralization of the ground-waters adjacent to Lake- Superior. Generally, however, the occurrence of the red calcareous; clays in the soft water district of the state is likely to effect an impor- tant increase in the mineralization of the ground waters of the soft wa^ ter district. Summary of Quality of Water by Districts Most of the wells in the northern half of the state are relatively shal- low, generally less than 100 feet deep, the deepest wells being usually less than 400 feet deep. As the outer boundary of the state is approached; especially towards the south and southeast, there is a much greater range in the depth, the wells of relatively shallow depth being from 100' to 400 feet deep while those that penetrate through the entire thickness of water-bearing strata reach depths of 1,000 to 2,200 feet. It has not been found practical or convenient in Wisconsin, therefore, to separate the wells into shallow and deep wells in discussing the mineral content of the water. It is convenient, however, to compare the water in the surface deposits with that in the underlying rock. The wells in the surface deposits are always shallow while those in the indurated rock range from shallow to very deep. THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATEJ!. 189 The average mineral, content of tlie wells in the surface deposits and in the indurated rock is indicated on the sketch Plate V and is sum- marized in the following table : Table 35, — Afei\if/e mineral content of lo iter from ialls in thf nurface deposits and in the rock in Wiaeonsin. (Parts per million). District, Source, 2 ei O g 3 O s sit X lis o 45 44 45 109 102 106 168 174 172 184 157 172 X IB ,2- , 111 North Central District A, Surface deposits . . . Indurated rod; Mean 69 9 8 12 8 7 9 8 10 6 8 12 11 11 22 25 22 42 4S 43 66 66 66 75 88 81 7 11 8 20 14 17 34 36 35 39 32 36 8 6 8 10 10 10 10 U 11 21 30 25 22 30 23 19 22 20 31 33 '32 66 134 92 5 3 5 8 11 10 7 11 9 14 15 15 121 135 122 ■South Central and Western Surface deposits . . . Indurated locii ,, , , Mean 51 46 224 District b. 216 220 East Central and Southwestern District C, Surface deposits . . . Indurated rock Mean 65 95 330 339 335 Surface deposits . . . Indurated roclf 149 113 408 District D. 466 435 The table shows essentially the same degree of mineralization of the drift waters and of the underlying rock waters. It is only in the eastern part of the state, District U, that the mineralization of the water in the indurated rock is appreciably higher than that in the overlying drift of the same district. The table also shows a gradual increase in mineral content of the wa- ters in passing from the northern part, District A, to the eastern part, District D, of the state. This change in mineral content is progressive and not abrupt. For this reason, the boundary lines between the various districts shown on Plate V are more or less arbitrary and nowhere as drawn do they represent any abrupt change in the mineral content. The total change in passing from one district to the next adjoining is not great, but relatively slight, a difference of only 100 parts per million as measured in total solids, yet the percentage increase is sufficiently pro- nounced and so persistent as to enable one to readily divide the state into the various districts as described. In only a few other states in the Un- ion, such perhaps as those in the crystalline areas of New England, are the waters so low in mineral content. The average mineral content of the underground waters in Wisconsin per area is shown in the following table : 190 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Tablk 36 — Average mineral content of underground water of all wells in Wisconsin.. (Parts pel- million.) District. Area in sauare miles. 20,000 18,300 9,900 6,250 Area in per- cent- age. 36.7 33.6 18.2 11.5 Number of analyses con- sidered. 78 97 166 262 2 O a s IS 1a^ a on g fa- ce 6 n o 3 V North Central Dlstrict.A South Central and Western District, B East Central and Southwestern District. C Eastern District, D.. 8 8 8 11 22 43 66 81 44 8 17 35 36 8 lb 11 25 45 106 172 172 "ios" 23 20 32 92 5 10 9 15 122 220 335 435 State 54,450 100.00 597 8 19 11 32 9 230 This table shows the total area as well as the percentage area of eaclt of the districts into which the state has been divided and also the aver- age mineral content of all underground water in each district and for the entire state. While the average mineral content of the underground, water in the large soft water district A is 122 parts per million and that in the small very hard water district D is 435 parts per million, the average for the entire state is only 230 parts per million. As soft,, hard, and very hard waters are defined in this report, soft water is char- acteristic of a little over one-third, hard water of about one-third, and. very hard water of a little less than one-third of the state. It should be noted that the highly mineralized and salt waters from- 18 localities of the state are not considered in the calculations shown in this table. Considered per analysis the highly mineralized waters; would appreciably increase the average mineralization indicated, but considered per area affected, the influence of the salt waters in the cal- culations would be very slight. In obtaining water supplies in Wis- consin, the highly mineralized waters can usually be avoided, hence average conditions likely to be encountered are believed to be best rep- resented by the averag analyses shown in the table. Summary of Quai^ity of Water by GrEoiiOGicAL Formations The mineral content of the ground water in each geologic formation varies in different parts of the state. This fact is illustrated on compar- ing the mineral content of water in the sandstone mainly Upper Cam- brian in the various districts of soft and hard waters already described. The average mineral content of the water in the sandstone is shown in the following table : THE inj<;ERALIZATI01s! OF VT'iDERGROUND WATER. 19.1 Table 37. Average mineral content of water in the sandstone (mainly Upper Cambrian). Paris per million. Usual Number O ■3 E ^L c ?, Locality. depth ol wells ot anal- OJ s B^^ > - in feet. yses. o Ie m s| ©■a "1 cc U f^ UJ t» r^ General outcrop area ol the - 200-500 42 11 41 18 8 98 21 8 209 The sandstone under the Galena-PlatteviUe llme- 500-1000 98 8 67 U 15 168 40 12 349 The sandstone under the Niagara limestone. . , 1000-2000 47 12 107 29 28 143 181 12 509 In the above table is indicated the position of the sandstone with reference to the overlying formations, and the usual depth of wells be- low the surface. The average mineral content of the sandstone in its area of outcrop or where overlain only by the Lower Magnesian limestone on the upland divides is 209 parts per million; where the sandstone underlies the general area of the Galena-Platteville limestone, the min- eral content of the sandstone water is 349 parts per million ; and where the sandstone underlies the Niagara limestone the Cincinnati shale and the Galena-Platteville limestone the mineral content is 509 parts per million. There is, therefore, a progressive increase in the mineral con- tent of the water in the sandstone in passing from its area of outcrop, in central Wisconsin, to its position at greatest depth below the surface, in eastern Wisconsin. The mineral content of the water in the surface formation also varies in different parts of the state. In Table 33 the mineral content of the water in the surface deposits is shown to progressively increase from 121 parts per million to 408 parts per million in passing from District A to District D. It is impossible to make any instructive comparison of the mineral con- tent of the water in the Galena-Platteville limestone over any extended area, as this formation is confined to only the southern and eastern parts of the state, and most of the analyses of water from this horizon are from its area of outcrop in the southwestern part of the state. While this formation extends through the eastern part of the state, under- neath the Cincinnati shale and Niagara limestone, it is not drawn upon for water supplies, as the shallow wells in this region get their supply from the drift and the Niagara limestone, immediately underlying, while the deep wells usually penetrate clear through the Cincinntai 192 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. shale and the Galena-Platteville, and draw their suply from the under- lying Potsdam sandstone There can be little doubt, however, that the water in the Galena-Platteville, in eastern Wisconsin, under the Niagara, is more highly mineralized than that within its area of outcrop farther west, as indicated by the fact that the water-bearing strata, both above and below the Galena-Platteville in the eastern district, D, are higher in mineral content than that of the latter farther west. It is also obviously impossible to make any instructive comparison of the mineral content of the water of the Niagara limestone over any ex- tended area, as this formation is confined to only a relatively narrow belt on the eastern border of the state. It is worthy of note, however, that the mineralization of the water in the Niagara is appreciably high- er than in the Galena-Platteville and other limestone formations, farther west and northwest in the state. Correlation of the Mineralization of Underground Water BY Districts and by Geologic Formations It is shown, in the above summarization of the mineral content of wa- ter by districts, that there is a progressive increase in the mineral con- tent in passing from the north-central district of the state, District A, to the outer border, and especially to District D, the eastern border of the state. It is also shown that there is a progressive increase in the miner- al content of water by geologic horizons in passing from District A to District D, in all those formations, such as the sandstone and the sur- face deposits, that extend throughout these districts. If the increased mineralization of the water in the sandstone alone were considered, the conclusion might be reached that such increase was due to the increased depth of the sandstone below the surface, in pass- ing from District A to District D. However, it is to be observed that there is also a progressive increase in the mineralization of the water in the surface deposits in passing from District A to District D, and fur- thermore, the increase in the surface deposits very generally is nearly equal to that which takes place in the underlying sandstone or other un- derlying water-bearing formations as illustrated in the geologic sec- tion. Fig. 16. The mineralization of the water in any particular geological forma- tion appears, therefore, to depend upon some underground geologic con- dition, characteristic of the district or locality as a whole, rather than upon the local chemical, character or the relative position of the forma- tion in the geologic section of the locality. The progressive change in THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 193 mineralization varies in a hori- zontal direction with the geo- graphic district rather than in a vertical direction with the geo- logic column. The underground water con- dition that progressively ■changes, in passing from the north central part to the outer part of the state, is the gradual increase in the thickness and depth of the water-bearing for- mations. The least thickness of "water-bearing strata, and conse- quently the most shallow depth of the body or sea of under- ground water, is in the north central part of the state, District A, characterized by soft water. The greatest thickness of water- bearing strata, and consequently the greatest depth of the sea of -underground water, is in the ■eastern part of the state, District T), characterized by very hard -water. In the intervening dis- tricts, between the north central and the eastern, are intermediate thicknesses of the strata and cor- responding intermediate depths of the sea of underground water. Hence the inference is drawn that the controlling factor in the ■mineralization of the water in ihe several districts is the depth of the sea of underground water in the districts. The chemical character or the relative posi- tion of the water-bearing strata in the geologic section of the district, is, apparently, only an unimportant or minor factor in effecting the degree of minerali- zation. CENTTRAU WISCONSIN Marin fieitst 13— W. S. 194 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The relation of the progressive increase in the mineralization of the underground water to the progressive increase in the depth of the sea of underground water in passing from north-central to eastern Wis- consin is illustrated in the diagram, Fig. 17. That this progressive increase in mineralization with increasing depth of the sea of underground water also continues beyond the border of the state, is shown by a comparative study of the mineral content of the underground water in the adjoining states so far as these can be conveniently examined. In Iowa, the mineralization of the underground water^ by districts has been described, and while the basis of the forma- tion of the districts in the report of the water supplies of Iowa is not the same as that, adopted for "Wisconsin, the increase in the mineral content of the waters with depth of the underground water can be readily shown for purpose of comparison with the geological districts in Wis- consin. The increase in mineralization, with increased depth of the sea of un- derground water, in passing from Central Wisconsin to Southwestern Iowa, is shown in, the following table: Table 38. Showing relation of depth of sea of underground toater to the mineral- ization of the underground water in Wisconsin and Iowa. District. Approximate depth of sea of underground water or thick- ness of the water-bearing strata. Averase mineral content in parts per million. Central Wisconsin District A.. 100 to 200 feet. 400 to 800 feet Surface deposit wells... Itock wells . 121 . 135 Western Wisconsin, District B Surface deposit wells. . . Rock wells . 224 800 to 1,600 feet . 216 Southwestern Wisconsin, Dis- trict C Surface deposit wells. . . . 330 1,600 to 2,000 feet . 339 Shallow wells Deep wells Shallow wells..: Deep wells Shallow wells j. . 388 Central Iowa About 3, 000 feet. . . . . 351 873 South Central and Southwest- ern Iowa About 4,000 feet. .. 1,759 . 1,587 3,657 The deep wells in the districts of Iowa are defined as those that pene- trate at least the St. Peter sandstone and all other wells more than 700 feet deep. Shallow wells are those in the dirift and in rock generally less than 700 feet deep. " Geol. Survey of Iowa. Vol. 21, p. 205-211. THE MIXERALIZATION OF VKDERGROVND WATER. 195 The change in mineral content in lowa^ has been described as abrupt rather than progressive and yet this abrupt change to be observed in a certain portion of Iowa is of relatively minor importance when the total change in mineralization in passing from the more shallow sea, in northeast Iowa, to the deeper sea of underground water, in southwest Iowa, is taken into consideration. The table clearly shows a close conformity in the increase in mineral content with the increase in depth of the sea of ground waters in passing from the very shallow sea of ground water in central Wisconsin to the deep sea of ground water in southwestern loAva. District A Ave.min content I2£ Ave.deplhgrd water 200 Cenf-ro'/ IV/scon5/r. Eastern W/3cons/n District B Ave. min. content 220 Ave^depth gr'd water 600' District C Ave.min. content 335 AvB.depthgra waterlZOO' District D Ave.min content 4 35 Avadepth gr'd •Mer, ZQOO' Fig. 17. — Diagram showing the relation of the progressive increase in the mineral cofl- tent of the underground water to the progressive increase in the depth of the un- derground water. A table could be arranged showing the similar progressive increase- of mineral content with increase in depth of the sea of underground water, in passing from Central Wisconsin westward along the southern border of Minnesota,^ or the norther border of lowa.^ The progressive increase in mineral content, with increased depth of the sea of underground water, is likewise shown in passing from the northern part of Wisconsin southward to the southern part of Illin- ois*- In southern Illinois, there is a slight arching of the strata and a consequent development of shallow depth of groundwater over the arch which condition of underground structure appears to be reflected in the lower mineral content of the ground water over the arched dis- trict. In a general way, however, the mineral content of the under- ground waters of Illinois progressively increases in passing from the 1 Iowa Geol. Survey, Vol. 21, p. 205. -Underground Waters of Southern Minnesota, U. S. Geol. Survey. W. S. P.- £56, pp. 61-78. = Opus cited, p. 205-211. 'Illinois Water Survey, Bulletin, No. 4. 196 TBE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. more shallow sea of underground water, in the northern part of the state, to the deeper sea, in the southern part. The close relationship in the degree of mineralization to the depth of the sea of ground water in any district or region is, therefore, well illustrated outside of, as well as within Wisconsin. The various factors controlling the mineralization of ground water cannot be en- tered into in this paper but may be taken up for a more complete dis- cussion at another time. It may be sufficient to state, that the deeper the sea of underground water, the more important become the sulphates and chlorides, and the less important, relatively, become the carbonates or bicarbonates. There are a great many factors that influence the mineralization of ground waters, and while change of pressure and temperature due to change in depth of the sea of ground water, are relatively important, they may sink to secondary importance, because of variable underground geolo- gical conditions that characterize the various districts. In this respect, reference should be made to pressure other than that directly due to weight of the water column, such as that due to earth stresses, to weight of rock, and to content of natural gas. For the present purposes it is only needed to point out that pressure other than that due to weight of the water column is apparently not important in Wisconsin. In regions of natural gas, however, as in parts of Indiana, Illinois and Ohio, where very highly mineralized salty water is the invariable associate of natural gas, the factor of gaseous content of the underground water is probably a very important and dominating factor to be considered. It will be observed, therefore, from the foregoing discussion of the gradation in the mineralization of the underground water shown by the several districts of Wisconsin, that the mineral content is very ap- parently closely related to the depth of the sea of underground water in each district, the general increase in mineralization being in conform- ity with the general increase in depth of the sea of underground water. While there are many other factors modifying mineralization, the in- crease in pressure and temperature due to the increased depth, and the direct influence of these factors on the rate of diffusion of salt solu- tions throughout the sea of underground water, appear to be the con- ■ trolling factors in the mineralization of the anderground water of the several districts into which the state has been divided. To whatever extent the mineralization of any water varies from the average normal of the district, to that extent the mineral content may be stated as being influenced by local underground geologic conditions THE MINEKALIZATION^ OF UNDERGROUND WATEl!. 197 other than those directly or ipdireetly affecting the local pressure and temperature. Among other important modifying factors and condi- tions that may be mentioned are the differences in the chemical compo- sition of the rock, and the changes of variable conditions favorable or unfavorable to the underground circulation of water and to the molecu- lar diffusion of mineral solutions, in both horizontal and vertical direc- tions. But without further discussion of the causes of mineralization, it seems far more important, from the practical point of view, that the mineral content of any underground supply should be considered with respect to its environment in the particular district in which it occurs, rather than with reference to its source in any particular geological horizon. The underground water of any particular geological stratum cannot be dissociated from its environment unless impervious strata of wide extent separate it from all associated water-bearing strata. This fact is well illustrated by the low mineral content of water m the Upper Cambrian sandstone in Central Wisconsin as compared with its high mineral content in the same formation in Iowa, or by the low mineral content of the water in glacial drifts in Central or East- ern "Wisconsin as compared with the high mineral content in the drift of Central and "Western Iowa. The mineralization of the ground water of any water-bearing strata in a district of shallow ground water, there- fore, is quite different from that of the same water-bearing strata in another district of deep groundwater, and this characteristic applies equally well to shallow water-bearing strata and to deep water-bearing strata. It is incorrect, therefore, to state, as is often done, that the mineral content of the water in a limestone, sandstone, or shale is typical for limestone, sandstone or shale in general; it is typical or characteristic only for these formations in the same district, or in another district in which the general conditions of pressures and temperature affecting the underground water are equivalent. The principal of the close depend- ence of the mineralization of the groundwater in any water-bearing strata, upon its environment is important and should not be overlooked in making a comparative study of the underground waters of adjacent districts and regions. Quality op Underground "Water in the Pre-Cambeian Formations. In the foregoing discussion of the relation of the degree of mineral- ization of the underground waters in the geologic horizons of the vari- ous districts of the state, very little or no consideration has been given 198 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. to the underground waters of the Lake Superior red sandstone or of the Pre-Cambrian crystalline formations. This lack of consideration is partly due to the fact that these formations are of relative unimpor- tance as sources of water supply, and in part to the fact that very few mineral analyses of waters from these formations are available. However, the same factors very probably affect the mineralization of the relatively meager underground waters of these older formations as affect the very abundant underground waters of the later Palrozoic formations of sandstone and limestone, and the superficial deposits. With respect to the quality of the underground water in the Lake Superior sandstone, it is usually very highly mineralized, so far as available analyses and numerous qualitative tests appear to indicate. The red sandstone in the Lake Superior basin probably attains a very great thickness, usually estimated to be over 20,000 feet, hence so far as the red sandstone beds are water-bearing and hold underground wa- ter of great depth, a high degree of mineralization should characterize the underground water throughout this very thick formation. The brackish and salty waters obtained from the red sandstone at Ashland and Superior are very probably, therefore, not of unusual or rare oc- currence but indicate the usual brackish quality for the entire red sand- stone formation. With reference to the Pre-Cambrian crystalline formations, includ- ing) the Keweenawan trap and the Huronian metamorphic sedimen- taries, all of which are of complex structure and are relatively imper- vious formations, they are affected by somewhat different underground conditions from those that affect the relatively undisturbed and semi- porous Lake Superior sandstone. There are usually only meager amounts of underground water in the Pre-Cambrian formations. While large amounts of water may be pumped from some of the iron mines in the Pre-Cambrian districts, this mine water, in most cases at least, is probably largely drawn down from the surface water-bearing hori- zons of the locality. The impervious character of the Pre-Cambrian rock, the water con- tained being confined only to the fractures and other open spaces so far as these are developed, prevents the ready circulation of the under- ■ ground waters and greatly hinders the movement of mineral solutions by osmosis. In the superficial zone of abundantly fractured crystalline rock, usu- ally within 100 feet of the surface, the groundwaters are likely to be only slightly mineralized, due to the shallow depth of the ground wa- ter. THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. igg In many instances however, there may occur in the Pre-Cambriali deep underground waters held under hydrostatic pressure, and where such are encountered, usually in deep mining explorations, they are likely to be highly mineralized, as are the deep-seated waters which characterize the more abundantly water-bearing horizons of the Paleozoic strata. Examples of especially highly mineralized water in the Pre-Cambrian are the salt water encountered in the bottom of the Florence iron mine and the salt waters^ very generally found in the deep iron and copper mines of Upper Michigan. These highly mineralized waters in the Pre- Cambrian, are usually, if not always, derived from deep lying sources, and are very probably primarily due to their physical environment, and only secondarily to the general chemical character of the rocks in which they may be imprisoned. Prospecting for Water Supplies \vith Respect to Mineral Quality The prospecting for the best available water supplies in any locality is important, and is not as fully appreciated as it should be by many of those who have charge of securing supplies for manufacturing plants or cities. The large corporations, such as the railroad companies, usu- ally appreciate the value of securing the best available supplies for in- dustrial use, and for this reason, maintain laboratories for testing wa- ter and for the purpose of determining the proper treatment to be ap- plied to supplies in case treatment is necessary. Many manufacturing plants, however, pay little attention to the character of the water, and in many instances, use supplies in boilers that have been rejected for lo- comotive use by the railroads. In some instances, it is not possible, for local plants to obtain a better supply with lower degree of hardness, but in most instances, better supplies from an available source are readily obtainable. In case good supplies are not obtainable, special treatment of the water should be applied, and for the determination of the proper treatment mineral analyses are necessary which can be furnished by chemical laboratories at a relatively low cost ($10 to$20), as compared with the saving result- ing from the treatment of the supplies. The general uses of water and processes of treatment are given in Chapter VI. With respect to the securing of the best available supplies for in- dustrial use in various localities the descriptions of. the local county supplies should be examined, and the quality of the water, as given in the county tables of mineral analyses of water, should be studied. ^ A. C. Lane, "Mine Waters" Lake Superior Mining Institute, Vol. XIII, p. 63- 152. 1908. 200 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONS^IN. The mineral analyses quoted may be considered as fairly representa- tive of the character of the local supplies. A larger number of analyses, especially for certain parts of the state, are perhaps desirable, and yet the average conditions appear to be fairly well indicated by the data presented for the various parts of the state. That the mineral analyses compiled are sufficient for judging the quality in the various districts appears to be well illustrated by the fact that only slight changes in an earlier calculation of the average mineral content of the water in the various districts, and the geological strata, were necessary, after com- piling an additional number of about 250 analyses which later became available. In the earlier calculation, 29 analyses of water from the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone, in the outcrop area of this formation, gave an average total mineral content of 210 parts per million, and in the final calculation, 42 analyses gave an average total mineral content of 209 parts per million. In the earlier calculations, 52 analyses of sandstone water, under the Galena-Platteville limestone, gave an average total mineral content of 367 parts per million, while the final calculation of 98 analyses, gave an average of 349 parts per million. The first calculation of the average mineral content of 13 analyses of water in the Galena-Platteville limestone gave an average of 397 parts per million, while the final calculation on 20 analyses gave an average of 400 parts per million. The first calculation on 12 analyses of water in the Niagara limestone gave an average of 430 parts per million, and the final calculation on 35 analyses gave an average of 440 parts per million. The analyses compiled therefore appear to be representative, and the average mineral content, as well as the general range in mineral con- tent, as described, can be taken as a sound basis for estimating or judg- ing the probable quality of supplies obtainable in the various districts, and counties of the state. While the hardness of the underground water of all water-bearing strata progressively increases in passing from District A to District D, the water-bearing or geologic strata in each district have an individual- ity of their own which should be fully understood by those in search of the best available supplies in any locality, county or district. An in- dustrial plant in District D, in eastern Wisconsin, will not be able to get as soft a water supply as a plant in District B or C, nearer the central part of the state, yet a much better supply can often be obtained in some of the water-bearing strata than in others in District D. THE MINERALIZATION OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 201 A comparative study of the mineial content of the Avater of the sev- eral important water-bearing strata has already been presented, but cer- tain generalizations are well worthy of repetition here in connection with the subject of prospecting for water supplies. 1. The water of relatively shallow wells in alluvial sand is very generally less mineralized than that in the associated indurated rock of the same localitj^ in all districts. 2. The water in the sandstone group (Upper Cambrian and St. I'eter sandstone, and Lower Magnesian limestone) is very generally less min- eralized than that in the overlj-ing Galena-Platteville limestone within the general outcrop area of the Galena-Platteville, mainly in Dis- trict D. Or stated contra-wise, tlie mineral content of water in the Galena-Platteville limestone is generally higher than that in the under- lying sandstone in the outcrop area of the Galena-Platteville. This re- lationship is shown in table 31, the average content of water in the Galena-Platteville being 400 parts per million and that in ths under- lying sandstone 352 parts per million. 3. In certain counties, where limestone drift is abundant overlying the sandstone, as in Dane and Eock counties, the mineral content of ihe water in the drift is generally slightly higher than that in the underly- ing sandstone. 4. The mineralization of the underground water in the important wa- ter-bearing strata of District D, in the general area of the Niagara limestone in eastern Wisconsin, appears to be consistently different for' each watei'-bearing group, the average mineral content generally ap- proximating 408 parts per million in the drift and associated surface deposits, 440 parts per million in the Niagara limestone, and 509 parts per million in the underlying group of water-bearing sandstone, the Potsdam and St. Peter formations. (See Fig. 16.) 5. The mineral content of the water of creeks and z'ivers varies greatly, depending much on the stage of the river. (For description of the chemical composition of river and lake waters see the following chapter. Chapter VIII). In general, also, the waters of creeks and rivers are much lower in mineral content than the local underground waters, the former usually being from 25 to 50 per cent lower in mineralization than the underground waters of the same locality or district. (See p. 214). 6. The water of deep inland lakes, those over 50 feet deep, are very generally less mineralized than the streams that flow into them, while the water of shallow lakes is much the same as that of their affluents. 7. The water of Lake Superior is soft, and low in mineral content, about 60 parts per million, while that of Lake Michigan is medium hard. 202 THE -WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. though low in mineral content, containing about 134 parts per million. The water of the Great Lakes is much lower in mineralization than that of the surrounding body of underground water or that of the streams flowing into them, apparently having only an indirect or somewhat re- mote relation to the degree of mineralization of the surface water of the streams or of the underground waters of the adjacent rock formations. The relatively slight differences in the average mineralization of cer- tain water-bearing strata above pointed out, maj^ or may not be im- portant, for this will depend much upon the specific use of the water or the quantity required. There are also some exceptions to the general averages above given for various localities which should always be taken into consideration. If the supply from the overlying water-bearing strata is unusually high in mineral content, as compared with the average in such strata, the well should be sunk to the next underlying strata in case the average mineralization for the imderlying strata is appreciably less than that already obtained in the overlying strata. Likewise, if a supply is ob- tained from the overlying strata with a much lower mineral element than the average, and also lower than the average for the underlying usually less mineralized strata, then it is not advisable to drill deeper in search of a better supply. ^ For each localitjr and district the average quality of water in each water-bearing strata should be understood, for it is only on the basis ,of the average conditions that predictions can be made concerning the quality of water most likely to be obtained in each locality. To ascer- tain the average quality of the water in various formations, counties and districts, the Tables, 22 to 38, and the illustrations, PL IV, and Figs. 16 and 17, should be consulted. The practical aid obtainable in prospecting for water supplies will depend very largely upon the intelligent use of the data presented in this report, relating to the quantity, the chemical composition, and the general character of the water from the various geologic sources in each county and locality described. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 203 CHAPTER VIII. SURFACE ^YATER SUPPLIES AND THEIR CHEMI(L\L QUAL- ITY Besides the underground water, including that derived from .shallow wells, deep artesian wells, and springs, an important source of water supply for domestic use and drinking purposes is the surface water of lakes and streams. In rural communities the water from lakes and streams is generally used only for stock, the water for drinking and do- mestic use being drawn from underground sources. Cities, however, es- pecially* those of large population, usually draw upon the surface waters for their public supplies. Many of the cities along the shore of Lake Michigan, such as Milwau- kee, Racine, Sheboygan, and Kenosha, draw their public supply from Lake Michigan; and many of the inland cities, such as Portage, Osh- kosh. Fond du Lac, Stevens Point, and Merrill, draw their supplies from the rivers or lakes on which they are situated. Considering the to- tal supply of all potable water, the surface waters are a less important source of supply in Wisconsin than the underground and artesian wa- ters. Considering only the public supplies for city populations, however, the surface waters are a much more important source of supply than both shallow and deep underground waters. For this reason, therefore, a statement of the general character of the surface waters seems war- ranted in any discussion of the water supplies of the state. SOURCE OF THE SURFACE WATER The source of the surface water is directly from rainfall upon the sur- face of lakes and streams, and indirectly from the surface run-off, and from underground waters through seepage, and from the flow of springs. The principal problem connected with surface water supplies is not concerned with the quantity available and the m-ethod of obtaining and distributing the supply, but is mainly concerned with the quality of the supply and its freedom from sources of contamination. 204 the water supplies of wisconsin. Character of Surface Water Some impurities are absorbed by the rain as it falls through the air^. many of which, however, are lost as soon as it comes into contact with the ground ; but in its course over the surface of the ground as surface drainage or as run-off in streams or rivers many more impurities are gathered up and carried along either as matter in suspension, or as matter in solution. The suspended matter is both inorganic, or mineral,, such as sand, clay and various pulverized minerals, and organic matter, both animal and vegetable. The animal matter in suspension includes; living microscopic animals, dead fish and other animals that lived in the water ; decayed animal refuse ; manufacturing wastes such as wool scour- ings ; blood from slaughter houses, etc. ; and the excrement from public- and private sewers. The vegetable matter that is carried by the surface water includes such matter as dried leaves, grass, and flowers, decayed wood, peaty matter, algae and other living plant life, including bacteria' and disease germs ; wastes from pulp and paper mills, linen mills, brew- eries, etc. The dissolved matter in the surface waters is both gaseous and solid,, from inorganic as well as organic sources. For various reasons' the use of surface waters, particulaiiy from the- streams flowing through densely populated districts or through cities, is a menace to health, unless they are subjected to some method of puri- ficaiion. As a rule the lake waters, especially the waters of the Great. Ijakfs, are naturally of much better quality than runnins^ waters that, carry off the surface waters from the near by populated land areas. Water Supplies from Kivers A number of cities in Wisconsin, such as Stevens Point, Merrill, Port- age, and Rhinelander on the Wisconsin river, obtain their water supply,, wholly or partly, from the rivers, upon which they are located. Many- small cities of the state use river water for fire protection only. Invariably, these rivers are used as a sewer, as well as a source of wa- ter supply. In many parts of the country, because of the large amounts of water required by large cities or because of unfavorable conditions for obtaining an underground water or a lake supply, the rivers are the only adequate available source of supply, and will always remain so. But this condition does not appear to be true of Wisconsin cities at the pres- ent time. All those cities now obtaining the whole or a part of their- supplies from rivers could readily obtain adequate supplies from under- ground sources. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 205 It is possible to purify sewage before discharging it into the rivers. If all cities and towns purified their sewage, and if all manufacturing plants, which often contribute more to the pollution of the streams than do the cities, purified their waste and refuse, the rivers would be more desirable as sources of public water supply. Bacterial Condition of Flowing Streams The development of bacterial organisms including disease germs in surface waters directly depends upon the amount of organic matter which is available as food for these organisms. It is a well known fact that the bacterial pollution of a stream is always greater during high wa- ter stages, when the waters are turbid and carry large amounts of sus- pended matter than in low water stages when the water is clear. Much of the bacteria, of course, is washed into the streams from the soil and land surface during heavy rains. According to investigation of Johnstone^ the bacterial content of uninhabited streams, like the Saguenay in Can- .ada, is not materially different from that of rivers flowing througli farm- ing regions. However, where a stream flows through a city or tOAvn of •considerable size and receives the sewage of the same, the e.^tent of pol- lution is greatly increased. This fact is well illustrated bj- the following conidtions, described by Prausnitz^, of the Isar river, at Munich in Ger- many : Table 39. Bacterial content of Isar River, Germany. Number of bacteria per c. c. Above the city of Municli 150 feet abor* sewer outf a 11 Directly opposite sewer outfall 450 feet below sewer outfall Ismauiner (8 miles below sewer outfall). Freising (20 miles below sewer outf ail) 531 1,339 121,861 33,459 9,111 2,378 This table not only shows a marked increase of bacterial content of the river at Munich, but also shows that a laisge part of this pollution is lost in a comparatively short time, by the time the water reaches Freising, 20 miles below. In this instance about 50 per cent of the bacteria in- troduced in the sewage was eliminated in a flow of about 12 miles. A number of American streams have been studied recently by sanitary sur- 'Hyg. Rund. B. V. p. 796. " Quoted from Public Water Supplies, Turneaure & Russel, p. 14S. ' 206 THE WATER 'SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. veys. A most comprehensive study of the effect of the Chicago Drainage Canal on the water of the Illinois river has been made, a part of the re- sult being indicated in the following table^ : Table 40. Chlorine and Bacterial Determination of Water in Illinois Rivei: Miles below Kridgeport. Chlorine, parts per million. Bacteria, per c, c. Bridgeport 29 33 57 81 95 123 159 165 175 199 318 119.2 117.4 104.8 68.1 58,5 46.1 44.2 40,9 40.1 .S8,4 36.2 18.3 2.8 1,245,000 650,000 Joliet . 486,000 Morris 439,000 27,400 La Salle .. . 16,300 11,200 Avery ville. 3,660 Wesley City 758,000 492,600 Havana ... 16,800 Grafton 10,200 7,600 The extent of the natural purification of the Illinois river can be seen from the above table, table 40.' The decrease in amount of chlorine is; steady all the way from Bridgeport, where a large proportion of the Chicago sewage is present, to the Mississippi river. The bacterial dim- inution is also steady down the river, until the river receives at Wesley City a large amount of refuse from Peoria. * There are various factors entering into the problem of the pollution, and the purification of flowing stream waters that cannot be touched upon in this report. Enough has been said, however, to show that sur- face water supplies are naturalh- always subjected to conditions of con- tamination and pollution, and that while self purification of the waters takes place by the action of dilution, sedimentation and sunlight, some- effects of the pollution always remain. It has been a disputed question among sanitary engineers whether, in general, it is more economical to purify the sewage before emptying in- to the rivers, or to purify the water supplies obtained from the rivers.- The answer to this problem very probably would depend very much up- on local conditions. But in general, the inevitable tendency is toward a requiremnet of the treatment and purification of the sewage before its disposal into natural water ways of the state, not only for the purpose of preventing- the pollution of possible sources of potable water supplies, but also for the purpose of preventing the development of local nuisances, such as- ' Quoted from Public Water Supplies, Turneaure & Russel, p. 151. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 207 the discoloration of the water, the general occurrence of refuse floating on the water, the deposition of sewage mud on the bed of the river, and the production of offensive odors. All of these nuisances tend to make the river undesirable for bathing, boating, fishing, navigation, business, residence, and in various other ways less useful to the public and to those living in the locality. Practically all of our cities and villages are located upon waterways, either rivers or lakes, and the practice has been to empty the city sewage into these waterways regardless of the health and convenience of other communities. In recent years, many of our Wisconsin cities have come to realize the danger and folly of such action, not only on account of the public health, but also because of its effect upon the value of prop- erty ; and as a result, methods of sewage purification have been installed by the more progressive and enlightened communities. These methods of sewage treatment installed, such as septic tanks and filter beds, are not intended as a rule to completely purify the sewage, but mainly to bring it to a state of reduction in the number of bacteria present and put it into a more soluble form tending toward a more rapid purification by the stream^. In the description of local water supplies by counties the method of sewage disposal by the various cities is briefly indicated. It will be seen that many of our cities empty their raw sewage, without treatment, into the natural water ways of the state. Watek Supplies from Lakes While the many lakes of Wisconsin offer an abundant supply of sur- face water for public or private use, only the largest cities, mainly those on Lake Michigan, draw upon lake water for their supply. Lake Mich- igan, therefore, is the most important source of lake supply, the other lakes drawn upon being Lake Superior by the city of Ashland and Lake Winnebago by Oshkosh. As already stated, because of the large size of the city of Milwaukee and other cities on Lake Michigan, the lake sup- plies are the most important source of public water supplies in the state. General Character of Lake Supplies The waters of lakes are subjected to the same general influences as the surface waters of rivers, but in general the waters of an open expanse, such as one of our inland lakes, are less likely to show marked pollution 'For a more complete discussion of Wisconsin's sewage plants, see Davis Bowles, Bulletin Univ. of Wis., No. 331. 208 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. than flowing streams, because in quiet waters there is less suspended matter and therefore less turbitity and less food for bacterial organisms. In large bodies of water, such as the Great Lakes, the effect of pollution is mainly restricted to the shore regions. Inland Lakes. — ^In general the water supply from small lakes may. be quite unlike that obtained from one of the Great Lakes. In small lakes and artificial reservoirs some satisfactory protection of the catchment area is necessary, and such conditions as the stagnation and putrifioation of the bottom water and the growth of organisms in the top water affect the character of the water supply. These periods of stagnation in the inland lakes in which there is no vertical circulation occur in the winter and summer. Between these periods there is an "overturning", that is, a vertical circulation due to changes in tefmperature.^ In the following tables, 41, 42, 43 and 44, much information concern- ing many of the inland lakes of Wisconsin is summarized. The features of all the lakes referred to in the tables have been investigated to a vari- able extent by the State Survey, and the results published in a recent report. Bulletin XXVII, and to this work the reader is referred for further detailed information concerning the natural history of these lakes. The many inland lakes of the state are of interest as available sources of water supply for potable and industrial purposes. In Tabic 41, the data concerning the surveyed lakes of southeastern Wisconsin are sum- marized, the location, areal extent, depth, volume, development, length of shore line, mean slope of bottom, elevation above sea level, and refer- ence to the published hydrographic maps are given. In Table 42, the surveyed lakes of southwestern Wisconsin, Table 43, the lakes of northeastern Wisconsin, and in Table 44, the lakes of north- western Wisconsin, are given data concerning the location, length, breadth, area, and maximum known depth. Great Lakes. — The water in the Great Lakes at 5 to 10 miles from the shore is, generally crystal clear and essentially pure. The distance to clean water from the shore, however, depends upon the nature of shore deposits and the depth of water. The shore deposits of both Lake Sup- erior and of Lake Michigan are often red clay, and the shallow water over these red clays is often rendered turbid during storms. The water in Lake Superior at Superior and Ashland is often turbid 6 to 10 miles from the shore. There is a marked diminution in the germ content of the water in 'See "Inland Lakes", Birge and Juday, Bull. Wis. Survey, No. XXII. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 209 large lakes as the distance from the shore increases. Except in the case of inflow of rivers of considerable size, the evidence of land pollution ■does not extend far, because out in the deep quiet water the matter in suspension falls to the bottom where the organisms lose their vitality. The area, depth, and elevation of the lakes, Superior and Michigan, are given in the following table : Table 45. Area, depth and elevation of Lakes Superior and Michigan. Area in square miles. Maximum depth in feet. Elevation above sea level. 31,200 22,450 1,008 870 602 Lake Michigan 581 Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water on the globe. Both lakes are drawn upon for public water supplies by many of the cities on the lake shores. While there is a strong tendency for the natural purification of the waters of the Great Lakes, the effects of sewage pollution are matters of great importance for the cities on the Great Lakes as invariably the cities put their sewage into the same water from which their supplies are taken. There is not so much danger of one city polluting the water supply of an adjacent city along the shore, as there is of a city polluting and in- fecting its own supply. There is often, also, more danger of the smaller cities mingling their sewage with their own water supply than of the larger cities, as in the smaller cities less money is available for water -works ; their intakes do not go out so far into the lake ; and their sewers are therefore more likely to discharge near the intake. Milwaukee, popu- lation 373,857, draws its water supply from Lake Michigan, the present intake extending out 8,500 feet at a depih of 58 feet. Kenosha draws its lake supply from a 5,000 foot intake, at a depth of 35 feet. Sheboy- gan obtains its lake supply from 3 intakes at depths of 12, 27 and 47 feet. None of these cities treat the sewage in any manner before emptying it into the lake. In general no serious trouble has been directly attri- buted to the water supply for these and most other Wisconsin cities us- ing lake supplies. And yet the experience at Chicago and the adjacent cities and towns in the North Shore district^ seems to indicate that the utmost care and watchfulness should be applied in safeguarding the wa- 'See Bng. News, Vol. 64, p. 325, "Quality of Lake Michigan as a Water Supply for the North Shore District." 14— W. S. 210 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. ter supply of those cities that put their raw sewage into the same water from which their supplies are taken. Chemical Quality of Surface "Waters The mineral content of the waters in our lakes and rivers, ranges from 16.4 parts per million in the water of the lake at Woodruff, Vilas county to over 200 parts per million in many of the rivers of the eastern part of the state. The waters of lakes and rivers are somewhat unlike in their mineral content, hence they are described separately. RIVER WATERS The chemical quality of the water of creeks and rivers changes some- what in the course of the flow from source to mouth. Small streams are the most affected by local conditions. A large river is the average of all its tributaries and, as a rule, the composition of the large rivers the more nearly resemble one another. The water of rivers consists of ground water plus rain, and contains as already stated a variable amount of suspended matter washed from the land and of dissolved sol- ids due to contamination by sewage and refuse from towns and factories. The waters from creeks and rivers in the state range from 28 parts per million of mineral matter in Morrison creek in eastern Jackson county, and 43 parts per million in the Wisconsin river at Tomahawk, Lincoln county, to 395 parts per million in the Root river at Racine. The high mineralization of 500 to over 1,000 parts per million in the water of the Menomonie River at Milwaukee, and of some streams in other cities and villages is obviously due to pollution from sewage or manufacturing plants. The average mineral content of creek and river waters from various parts of the state, as determined from about 85 analyses of probably nearly pure waters, is about 150 parts per million. The maximum range in mineral content of unpolluted creek and river waters, is prob- ably between 25 parts per million in the northern part of the state to 350 parts per million in some of the small rivers in the eastern part. The mineral content of the water of the Mississippi river at La Crosse is 142 parts per million, of the Chippewa river at Eau Claire 90 parts per million, of the Wisconsin river at Portage 98 parts per million, and of the Rock river at Watertown Jet. 241 parts per million. The analyses of the river waters are given in tables under the county description, but in order to show the general range in the composition of the river wa- SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 211 ters of the state, representative analyses of creek and river waters are also given in the following table : . Tablb 46 —Mimral aiiityisi of typical creek and river waters. ( Parts per million . ) s ?. en 3 ■a ■O 1 B o O ~ „ ?^ ■s Creel; or Kivor. Location. „ O £ ■O-- Pv 9. o O ^3 > B 1 a+ go £0 C8 5 w 3 o3 o "d S ?£ C3 '^ on a o V* EfS o ■in U <= C/J cq o 10.4 m o ^ o H Morrison Creek Sec. 21. T.21, E.l, Jackson Co 3.4 7 5,1 4,3 0.5 1 28 Creek Near Cedar, Iron Co n 8 4 n 2. 23 36 3 5 54 8 'ia' 17. 16 13 7. 7. 4.7 0.7 .5. 8.1 "48!' 37. 38. 4.1 7. 14, 2.3 5. 1,1 72 Black river* North La Crosse. Eau Claiie 79 Chippewa river^ 3. 90 13 in 14 29 7. 9 8. 8 58. 65 17 12 2. 5 .9 4. 8 98 Mississippi river* La Crosse 142 32 48 37 17 28 26 11 8 6 94 140 93 9 8 35 5 6 20 168 Rock river* 241 Sheboyean river Shebo.vpan 10 13 232 Milwaukee river' Milwaukee 5 44 ,24 6 115 20 8 22 225 Hoot river Racine 10 74 Iss 18 169 75 8 395 ■■■•| ' Average of 3 analyses. ^ Average of 35 anaLvses, ^ Average of 24 analyses. < Average of 3 analyses. ' Average of 4 analyses. " Average of 3 analyses. ' Average of 4 analyses. It will be observed in the above table that the river waters of the north central part of the state are much less mineralized than the river waters of the eastern and southern part. There is also an appreci- able increase in the proportion of sulphates as compared with carbon- ates in going from the northern part of the state towards the southeast- ern part. The mineral content of river waters per volume is less in stages of high water than in stages of low water. This fact is well shown in the following tables^ of mineral analyses of water from the Wisconsin river at Portage, table 47, and of the Chippewa river at Eau Claire, table 48. ' Quoted from U. S. Geol. Survey, W. S. P. No. 236, pp. 55 and 113. 212 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Table 47. Mineral analyses of water from Wisconsin River nej,r Portage, Wis."' (Parts per million unless otherwise slated.) Date. (1906-7). u D EH u a % •a a a> a s CE 0) c o 1 ii o s O s '5 a S 13 o a o O "3 S s ■be as 7.3 B 9.2 1- Is o 0.0 1 k 1! 66 s ■So z 1.3 5 e p ■§ § 0.8 i g» O tr. B 117 .a "3 From— To- 0^ Sept 11 Sept. 20 10 7.6 0.76 2fi 0.25 14 5.2 Sept. n Sept. 30 1.1 0.6 .64 16 .40 14 '7,2 9.2 .0 68 13 .9 2.b 109 b.3 Oct. 1 Oct. 11 10 4.0 .40 13 I'r. 16 8.5 7.3 .0 66 13 .b 1.5 lOb 4.8 Oct. ^?. Oct. 22 ^ 5.6 1.12 15 .30 16 8.3 10 .0 ■/b 16 .5 1.0 98 4.9 Oct. ?.?. Oct. 31 s 9.2 1.84 1!) T7-. 16 8,9 7.6 .0- 60 24 Tr. 4.0 108 6.b Nov. 1 Nov. 10 5 5.6 1.12 17 'I'r. 15 7.3 7.1 .0 51 15 Tr. 2.5 100 6.1 Not. 11 Nbv. 21 in 6,0 .60 6,6 .10 14 6.2 7.8 .0 49 11 .4 1.5 100 b.V Nov. ?2 Dec. 1 10 4.n .40 fi.4 .10 13 5.4 7.6 .0 48 14 .4 6.0 93 6.8 Dec. •>. Dec. 11 10 in 1,00 16 .30 4.9 9.V .0 43 19 1,3 1.3 89 6.8 Dec. n Dec. 22 in 5,6 .56 22 .40 13 2.4 11 .0 59 19 .4 3.2 112 6.b Dec. ?.n .1 ?..n ,40 15 .40 14 6.8 .0 48 25 Tr. .9 105 Jan. r Jan. 11 s Tr. 16 .40 15 7.6 7.8 .0 72 19 .4 1.8 106 Jan. n Jan. 22 a 1.6 .32 15 .20 7,2 ■I.H .0 72 23 1.4 2.8 102 Jan. n Feb. 1 5 Tr 13 .25 16 9.6 5.9 .0 VI Tr. 1.8 105 Feb. I Feb. 12 5 9,2 1,84 13 .40 18 6.7 13 .0 76 25 2.4. 108 Feb. u Feb. 23 5 2,0 .40 13 .■i{) 7.6 10 .0 V2 15 2.2 4.5 98 Feb. Z4 Mar. 6 5 Tr, n .18 17 8,3 12 .0 75 23 1.6 2.1 109 IVIar. 7 Mar. 17 10 10 1 .00 10 .'23 15 11 .0 73 1.9 1.8 107 6.4 IVTar IK Mar. 28 10 14 1.40 9,0 .20 11 7.2 5.1 .0 47 13 1.9 1.8 78 V.7 Mar. n Apr. 7 .") Tr. 5.8 .20 S).i 2.8 4,3 .0 26 11 1.7 1.2 6b 12.3 Apr. 8 IS Apr. 17 Apr. 27 10 5 18 11 .15 .20 11 10 4.8 4.9 '5',9' .0 .0 49 37 21 16 1.0 .5 .6 1.9 96 78 9.-; Apr. Tr. 7.8 Apr. zx May 7 .■i Tr. 7.6 .25 11 5;n 5.7 .0 ,35 17 Tr. 8V V.9 May 8 May 17 Tr 7 Tr. 4.6 .86 6.8 13 .20 14 5.5 6.8 4.6 8.1 .0 .0 43 58 11 17 Tr. .9 1.5 88 98 7.2 .22 2.1 Per ct. of anhy- (3 rous 14.3 C.3 15.4 7.5 8.9 31.5 18.8 1.0 2.3 a.Analysis September 11, 1906. to February 12. 1997, by W. H. Barr; February 13 to March 6, 1907, by H. S. Spauldinj: March 7 to May 17. 1907. by Walton Van Winkle. bGaging station at Nccedah, Wis., 50 miles above. oFezOs. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 213 Table 4S. Mineral analyses of water from Vldjyfcwa Hirer near Eav, Claire, Wis. '^ (Parts per million, unless otherwise stated. . Date (1906-7) From— To- Sept. 14 Sept. 24 Oct. 4 Oct. 14 Oct. 24 Nov. 3 Nov. 13 Nov. 23 Dec. 3 Dec. 14 Dec. 26 Jan. 5 Jan. 18 Jan. 28 Feb. 8 Feb. 19 Mar. 1 Mar. 11 Mar. 21 Apr. 1 Apr. 11 Apr. 21 Hay 1 May 13 May 23 June 2 June 12 June 22 July 3 July 13 July 23 Auff. 3 Aug. 14 Aug. 24 Sept. 3 Sept. 23 Oct. 3 Oct. 13 Oct. 23 Nov. 2 Nov. 12 Nov. 22 Dec. 2 Dec. 13 Dec. 25 Jan. 4 Jan. 17 Jan. 27 Feb. 7 Feb. 18 Feb. 28 Mar. 10 Mar. 20 Mar. 31 Apr. 10 Apr. 20 Apr. 30 May 12 May 22 June 1 June 11 June 21 July 1 July 12 July 22 Aug. 2 Aug. 13 Aug. 23 Sept. 2 Sept. 12 Mean Per ct. of anhy- drous residue., 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 15 10 5 5 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 20 10 5 Tr. Tr. 5 5 5 5 5 10 5 7 5 20 5 5 "To Tr. Tr. Tr. 4.8 9.6 '4.8 Tr. 6.4 4.8 2.8 Tr. Tr. 6.4 Tr. 4.0 Tr. Tr. 3.2 34 10 7.6 Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. 9.2 Tr. Tr. Tr. 22 Tr. Tr. 3.7 o 92 56 64 80 10 97 24 11 5. 16 15 12 12 16 17 15 15 10 12 15 15 15 18 12 4.1 6.i 6.8 12 15.5 d U (D P !^ ^ . a o lA ^ o 0.20 11 .,H0 12 .20 12 .\h 13 .15 10 'I'r. 16 Tr. 12 Tr. 10 .40 12 .30 14 .25 14 .25 16 .40 15 .25 17 .15 17 .25 17 .6 19 ..HO 14 .37 .19 6.2 .15 11 .18 9.8 .24 .18 8.2 ,19 V.O .16 10 .25 10 .18 15 .20 13 .30 14 .21 17 .15 16 .19 16 .09 IS .12 16 .22 13 b.4 16.8 3.7 4.0 5.1 6.3 5.2 5.2 4.2 4.4 6.9 .2 6 7.5 9.2 10 7.3 13 5.6 11 8.7 7.6 9.1 5.4 5.2 8.5 4.6 4.4 '4'.9' 4.3 5.9 9.5 7.6 7.3 .10 8.6 11 13 111 TT 10.5 0) 73 u a 03 0) p3 ■ «9 ■ °8 0>i ^8 e8-- ■So ■Am %% U S X o.n 45 12 .0 44 9.0 .0 45 14 .0 59 19 .0 39 16 .0 41 13 .0 33 14 .0 39 17 .0 40 19 .0 .S3 17 .0 36 .0 58 13 .0 61 9.9 .0 70 12 .0 66 10 .0 65 12 .0 68 15 .0 60 16 .0 25 15 .0 18 .(I 22 14 .0 29 17 .0 39 16 .0 28 11 .0 28 9.9 .0 38 8.7 .0 46 15 .0 56 14 .0 45 15 .0 10 .0 59 9,9 .0 61 .0 55 12 .0 ,59 12 .0 72 15 .0 48 14 30.5 18.0 S) '^ o (U '^'ot a V^n u ^K is u Tr, 3.2 1.8 2.1 Tr. 1.2 Tr. 1.3 ■I'r. 2.9 'I'r. 2.H Tr. 1.5 .0 .9 .0 1.2 .0 2.0 .9 1.5 Tr. .2 2.7 .8 .4 1.4 .6 1,8 1.6 1.2 1.5 2.1 2.3 1.2 1.5 1.1 .4 ,9 .1 Tr. .7 Tr. Tr. Tr. .1 Tr. 2.4 .8 Tr. Tr. .2 1,2 ,8 1.0 .2 ,5 .3 Tr. .3 4.4 ,3 Tr. Tr. .4 .3 .3 1.0 .6 1.1 .8 1.4 O r. EH 108 90 6.4 6.1 5.0 4.9 7.8 6.8 6.4 6.5 5.4 5.2 5.0 4.9 aAnalyses September 14, 1906. to Feb. 7, 1907. by W. M. Barr; February 8 to February 28, 1907,. b T H. S. Spauldine; March 1 to September 12, 1907, by Walton Van Winkle, bFeaOs. 214 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. A fairly close similarity in the mineral content of the creeks and rivers and of the underground waters of the same localities may be ob- served on examination of the tables of analyses under the county de- scriptions. In general the surface waters are much less mineralized than the underground waters, the mineral content of the surface wa- ters usually amounting to only 50 to 75 per cent of that of the under-i ground waters in the same district. In the average composition of the underground waters as shown by the districts of soft and hard waters (See Plate V), therefore, the usual mineral content of the creeks and rivers in these districts may be taken at 25 to 50 per cent less than the average given for the under- ground waters. LAKE WATERS The waters of lakes are similar to the waters of rivers in being lower in content of mineral matter than underground waters of the locality, and also are like the river waters in the constant and appreciable con- tent of organic and suspended matter which they carry. Inland Lakes.— The content of mineral matter in our inland lakes very generally is below that of the rivers that flow into them. The dif- ference in some instances is only slight but in other instances the min- eral content of the inland lakes is at least 35 per cent below that of riv- ers that flow into them. A similar difference is to be noted in the lower mineral content of the Great Lakes, as compared with that of their affluents. The recent study of the inland lakes of Wisconsin by Birge and Ju- day^ shows that the water of many of our lakes, those having proper depth and contour, become stratified during certain seasons of the year, "tiirn over" in the spring and autumn, and have in general an ap- preciable increase of mineral content with deptli. These changes are di- rectly due to the warming and cooling of the water thrt)ugh the warm and cool seasons of the year. These changes probably influence tJie liv- ing organisms in the lake and the bio-ehemieal reactions that are devel- oped. The mineral analyses of the water of 19 inland lakes of Wisconsin, samples taken at various depths, are shown in the follOAving table: » Inland Lakes of Wisconsin, Wis. Survey Bulletin No. XXII. SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 215 Table 49' — Mineral analyses of water from inland lakes of Wisconsin. Analyses stated in parts per million. Date. Depth 2 S cn 0) 3 c it •Si < s "3 s s D a en 0.3 a 0.0 (S 1 1 0.6 7.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 1 +3 43 Date (1906-7) . S s ID -a c s 9 s 1 O s a •s ll li '0 IS 1 o rf . ■go .s? o 5 ■§ 1 rtcS H m m 1— 1 O s ai o ffl CO z o H S Sect. 20 17 0.02 27 7.7 4.9 5.9 109 6.6 0.20 2.6 126 581.08. Oct. 20 9.2 .02 26 7.4 4.4 6.6 103 6.5 .30 2.6 115 580.85. Nov. 20 Tr. 9.n .05 28 8,8 3.4 2.4 117 6.4 .35 2.9 120 580.72 Deo. 20 10 .06 25 7.1 4.7 t.6 104 6.2 'I'r. 2.6 108 580.67 Jan. 20 ti.2 .04 26 8.1 3.2 1.6 110 6.2 .4 2.8 110 580.62 Feb. 19 12 14 8.4 .03 .03 .04 26 25 26 8.4 7.9 8.1 5.4 5.0 4.7 3.4 Tr. .0 113 111 112 7.6 7.9 9.5 .35 .4 .3 2.8 2.6 2.4 120 117 115 580.64 Mar. 20 580.67 Apr.y .580.83 May 25 9.5 .03 27 8.7 5.4 2.6 115 7.8 .25 2.5 121 581. or June 20 8.6 .04 26 8.4 6.6 4.5 116 7.7 .55 3.0 120 581.42 Aug-. 20 11 .04 28 9.4 4.2 3.5 2 9 120 7.4 .4 ■3.2 123 581 51 Mean Tr. Tr. 10 ,04 26 8 ? 4 7 112 7 2 3 2 7 lis Per ct. of anhydrous 8.5 ».o 22.2 7.0 4.0 49.6 6.1 0.3 2.3 1 Analyses by E. B. Dole and M. G. Roberts. TJ, S. Geol. Survey, W, S. P. 236 p. 73. ' Gaging station at Mackinaw, Mich., 5 miles away. ' FeaOs The 11 analyses of samples shown in the above table range from 108- to 126 parts per million of total dissolved solids, the mean of the total dissolved solids being 118 parts per million. Quite invariably, however, the analyses of Lake Michigan water of samples taken adjacent to the lake shore, in eastern Wisconsin, show an appreciably higher mineral content than that indicated in the above table. The analyses of Lake Michigan water are given under the county descriptions, but for pul'- poses of comparison with those of the above table are compiled in the following table: SURFACE WATER SUPPLIES. 221 TabIjE 5:) Mineral analyses of water of Lake Michigan at (Parts rer Million.) various loMlities. ^ O Fi 7) c.=" 3 ^ Locality. 0) pi 3 o o O O B si o S ,2 1 3 c in a 15 II 0) II i a o o be P 1. > Analysts. Cu iS <; s ■L 5i^ O -.7^ ^ z 5 tH Feet. Port Washing- 18-3U 5.6 2.4 30.8 9.2 b.'/ 66. 9. 4 V 134 C. & N. W, Ey. Co.. f Nov. 1907. ■ ' ■ '.50 16. 6 6 ■■'iia 34. 33 9 10.2 11,9 1.5 2,2 72. 66 6. 21,6 3. 3.5 142 148 G. Bode. Before 1877. ti'. Dearborn D. & C. Co., Mar. 1912. m S 6 l.S m 6 11 3 6 1 68 8 II 3 5 1 131 Dearborn D. & C. Co., Milwaukee i 1.5 31.6 10.5 3.4 70. 6.9 2.9 127 Sept. 1907. C. W. &,St. P. Ry. Co. July 1889. 4.5 34.0 11.2 4.8 V6. 8.1 3.1 142 C. M. &St. P. Ey. Co. Dec. 1894. 50 31.8 10.6 6.7 71. 9,0 7.2 136 C. M. &.St. P. Ey. Co. Aug. 1907. 47 2,1 1.2 30.! 10.7 5.6 66. 12 2 7. tr. 13b Dearborn D. & C. Co. Feb. 1892. 34 5.4 1.8 32.9 10.6 5.2 68 Ibl 5.3 6. 145 Dearborn D. & C. Co. Dec. 1911. 30-50V 5.1 .3 32,1 10.9 3.1 73 6.8 2 3 134 .1. H. Long 111. State Board of Health. The mineral analyses of Lake Michigan water in Table 53 are ap- preciably higher in mineral constituents than those of Table 52. The higher mineral content of the lake water at the south end of the lake, as compared with that near the outlet in the Straits of Mackinac, has been suggested^ as possibly due to the- higher mineral content of the streams that enter the southern end of the Lake, as compared with those of the northern end, and also^ as possibly due to cu'rrents from Lake Huron, bringing into the Straits of Mackinac the less mineralized water of Lake Huron. While both of the explanations may be applicable to a certain extent, the writer is of the opinion that the depth at which the samples were taken is a controlling factor and should be considered, in any study of the composition of the lake water. It has already been pointed out, and it is clearly shown in the analyses of the water of the inland lakes (Table 49), that there is a tendency for the lake waters to become stratified there being a fairly constant increase in the mineral- ization of the water in approaching the bottom of the lakes. It seems 'State Water Survey of Illinois, Bull. 8, p. 35. =R. B, Dole, Waters of the Great Lakes, Jour, of N. Eng. W. W. Ass'n. Vol. 23, p. 259. 222 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. reasonable to believe that a somewhat similar increase in mineralization with depth is also true for the waters of the Great Lakes. Most, if not all the waters analysed for city supplies, in the above table, 53, are from the bottom of the lake, at depths ranging from 30 to 50 feet, while those analyzed from the Straits of Mackinac are from the surface of the lake. The difference in degree of mineralization shown at the north and the south ends of the lake may be entirely due, therefore, to the difference in source of the various samples analyzed, relative to depth, to the sur- face, and to bottom of the lake. In the same manner may be explainable the lower mineral content of the water of Lake Superior taken at the outlet, from the surface of St. Mary's river, as compared with the higher mineralization of the water taken from the bottom of the Chequamegon Bay at a depth of 26 feet at Ashland, referred to on p. 219. PAET II THE DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES BY COUNTIES Under Part II the description of the local water supplies of each county is given separately, under the following headings : Surface features Geological formations Water-bearing horizons Flowing wells • Springs Water supplies for cities and villages ' • Quality of the water Mineral analyses of the water supplies i DESCRIPTIOy OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 225 Adams County Adams County, located in the central part of the state, has an area of 682 square miles and a population of 8,604, About 70.3 per eent^ of the county is in farms, of which 46.2 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FKATURES The surface of Adams County is mainly a broad valley bottom plain. Into this plain, the Wisconsin River, along the western boundary, has entrenched itself to a depth of about 150 feet, while the short tributary '^^^^^^mmMvf§mMl??^^ V V V V V V '^'V'V'l'' ''J"'0"'V\» vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv s/vvvvvv\/ vv/vvvvvvv yic_y.„v . V . V >' VJ/ VVVVVVVVVVVVVV' vvvvvvvvv f^/voaf77^/'/a/7 cr^^^/Te\/ vvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvyvvvvvvvv^vv SeaLeral Fig. 18. — Geologic section, east-west, across central Adams county. streams in the western part of the county have cut down to grade with the Wisconsin. The abrupt sandstone mounds and castle rocks are strik- ing scenic features and generally rise from 100 to 250 feet above the al- luvial plain. The terminal moraine in the southeastern part is formed of glacial drift hills, which rise from 50 to 75 feet above the general lev- el of the plain. The altitude along the Wisconsin Kiver bottoms ranges from about 850 feet in the southern part of the county to 950 feet in the northern part. ' The altitude of the alluvial plain ranges from 1,000 feet in the southern part to 1,100 feet in the northern, while the sand- stone mounds rising above this plain reach altitudes of something over 1,200 feet above the sea level. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations of the county are the Upper Cambrian "Potsdam" sandstone, the glacial drift, and the sandy alluvial forma- ^The per ceat of land in farms and of land under cultivation in each of the, counties is taken from the U. S. Census for 1910, Vol. VII., pp. 916-920. 15— W. S. 226 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tion. The sandstone is the bed rock formation of the entire county and projects up through the overlying alluvial sand and the glacial drift. The alluvial sands and loams form the level plains. The glacial drift forms a belt of terminal moraine of irregular hills and basins, associated with swamps and lakes, crossing the southeastern part of the county. The geological structure is illustrated in Figure 18. The thickness of the surface formation varies greatly, and probably reaches a maximum of 250 to 300 feet in the valleys. The thickness of the sandstone also varies greatly on account of the extensive erosion of this formation. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Adams County. Formation. Surface formations Upper Cambrian ^/^AV^^V-■^^':^■ ^''^''"^'■•'^'^^^^^'■^''^■^'' ''''•'" ''"' l/'l/'^J WJ/ WW vV\/ W X/ S/ vvvvvvvv V V V ' V _v v^vvyvyvvvvvvvvv /vvvyvvvvvv ^^tf* ca^y7J>rya^ ^rgyryre v v v v v v v ^etr/.erai Fig. 22. — Geologic section, east-west, across Buffalo and Pepin counties. stream valleys are relatively narrow. The altitudes range from less than 700 feet along the Mississippi river to 1,200 or 1,300 feet on the uplands. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The rock formations are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and shale, with the Lower Magnesian limestone capping the highest Tidges in all parts of the county, except the northeastern corner. The surface formations are the loess on the uplands and the alluvial deposits in the valley bottoms. The geological structure is illustrated in Fig. 22. The thickness of the alluvial deposits in the valleys may possibly Teach a maximum of 200 feet. The thickness of the Upper Cambrian sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. The complete thickness of the sand- stone is present only where protected Ijy the overlying Lower Magnesian 252 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. limestone formation. The limestone attains its greatest thickness on the highest ridges. The depth at which the Pre-Cambrian granite floor is reached is 418 feet below the surface of the valley bottom of the Beef River at Mondovi, and about 500 feet below the surface along the valley bottom of the Mississippi. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness oj formations in Buffalo County. Formation. 'J'hiclcness. Surface formation Feet. 0—200 0—200 300—800 The Pre-Cambrian Granite PRINCIPAL WATER-BEAEING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone and the alluvial sands and gravels. The wells upon the- limestone divides quite generally have to go down a depth of 300 to 400' feet to the general water level in the Upper Cambrian sandstone to ob- , tain a supply. Along the Mississippi river bottoms the wells are shal- low, generally from 20 to 100 feet deep. In Nelson the wells are usually in sandstone from 25 to 50 feet in depth. In Cochrane, . the wells are- from 15 to 35 feet in sand. PLOWING ARTESIAN WELLS Flowing artesian wells in the Potsdam sandstone, at Fountain City in the valley of the Mississippi, and at Mondovi and north of Alma in the valley of the Beef River, are important sources of supply at these localities. Artesian flows have apparently not been sought at any other place- along the Mississippi River in Buffalo county than at Fountain City. It is to be expected, however, that flows can be struck all along the river- on low ground above Fountain City, similar to the flows obtained be- tween Fountain City and La Crosse. The underground conditions at Fountain City are about the same as at La Crosse and Onalaska, and Vinona, Minnesota, where important flows are obtained. The maximum head at Fountain City is about 40 feet above the Mississippi River.- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 253 Plows should be obtained not only on the low ground of the jMississippi ■flats, but also on the tributaries of the Misissippi, or in the "coolies" leading up into the ridges from the main valley. Flows have been struck in some of the larger valleys, as illustrated by the flowing wells near the mouth of the Beef River and at Mondovi, far up the valley. This region promises good retvirns to the careful prospector. Further details coh- cerning the flowing wells in Fountain City and Mondovi are given on the following pages. Since the above statement was .sent to the press it has been learned that during 1913 and 1914 about 20 flowing Avells were drilled in the Beef Valley within 5 or 6 miles above and below ]Mondovi. The wells are usually drilled through the sandstone to the granite, to depth of 400 to 450 feet. The artesian head is usually 6 to 8 feet, in some wells reaching up to 10 feet, above the well curbs and about 30 to 40 feet above the level of the Beef river adjacent. The maximum pressure is said to be reached in many of the wells at depths of 280 to 300 'feet. The bottom lands throughout the Beef valley, and also in many of the tributary valleys, should be favorable localities for the develop- ment of flowing artesian wells. The wells should be properly cased so that the artesian heads will be preserved at the maximum heights. The water from the artesian wells should not be allowed to run to waste but the flows should be shut off when not in use, otherwise the artesian pressure in the district will be gradually lowered until the wells cease to flow. Automatic pumps, a modiflcation of the hydraulic ram, are installed at many of the wells for the purpose of driving the water from the ar- tesian wells up into the farm-houses and barns. These automatic pumps produce 10 or more gallons per minute from a 5 or 6-foot head and are reported to be satisfactory in all respects. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Almn. — Alma, the county seat, on the Mississippi Eiver, has a popula- tion of 1,011. The city is built on a relatively steep slope bordering the river, on the outcroppjng Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and shale. The private wells obtain their supply from the sandstone and are generaly from 10 to 100 feet deep, depending upon elevation above the river. A flowing artesian well was recently obtained on the farm of F. Glei- ter about three miles north of Alma on the Beef River. The formations penetrated are as follows : 254 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Log of F. Gleiters flowing well near Alma. Formatipn. Thickness. Feet. 103 Blue Eock 90 Sandrock 207 Total deBtu 400 The water flows about 24 feet above the level of Beef River. The first flow was struck at a depth of about 207 feet and a second flow at depth of about 250 feet. Fountain City. — This city, located on the Mississippi river, has a pop- ulation of 1,031. The city supply is obtained from a 4-inch artesian well 300 feet deep. Four of the artesian floAving wells in Fountain City" are as follows i Owner. Artesian wells in Fountain City. City John Baecheler... Brewing- Company Creamery When Size Depth Depth Elevation drilled. ■ (in.) feet. to rock. of curb. 1895 4 300 75 670 1900 6 36.5 80 663 1896 6 350 80 685 1900 4 220 80 665 Water rises above curb. 20 25 13 All these wells are cased to rock. The city well ordinarily has a flow- ing capacity of 383 gallons per minute. The temperature of the water is 51° F. Most of the water supply for the city is derived from private- wells about 50 feet deep in the gravel and sand. The artesian wells at Fountain City get their supply from the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. The first 75 to 80 feet in surface de- posits is reported as sand, clay and gravel, mostly gravel. The Pots- dam sandstone is mostly a white sandstone. The water from the lower horizon contains more iron than that from the upper horizon and for this reason was not used at the city creamery. All of these wells show a marked increase in flow and pressure when- ever the river is high, Avhich indicates that there is considerable influence exerted by the weight of the groundwater on the artesian head. This fluctuation may be best observed in the city fountain where the flow is comparatively small due to the higher elevation. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 255 ilr. Baecheler's well is on the lowest ground, and if allowed to flow fi-eely will stop the flow in the city well and greatly reduce the heads of the other wells which lie within a tvw blocks of it. The four artesian flowing wells are within a few blocks of each other. Mondovi.- — ^Mondovi, located on Beef River, has a population of 1,325. The public water supply is obtained from a 10-inch well 418 feet deep. The well penetrated 68 feet of sand and gravel, and 350 feet of sand- stone, striking granite at bottom. Water was first struck at 28 feet ; at 200 feet water began to rise in the well ; at 300 feet it reached the surface of the ground ; and at depth of 360 feet tlie well flowed 75 gallons per minute. The well has yielded 400 gallons per minute under suction for 10 hours. Continuous pumping for four or five hours lowers the water in the well so that it does not flow for one-half to two hours after pump- ing is stopped. Another similar well was drilled on Mr., Meyer's place. The well is not quite so deep and is located too high to flow at the sur- face. Other flows could be obtained on low ground in the village and for some distance up and down Beef River. The city sewerage is emptied without purification into the river. QUALITY OF THE WATER iS'o complete analyses are available of the water supplies of Buffalo County. It seems very likely, however, that the water obtained from the alluvial sand, as well as that from the sandstone formation, will be found to be hard water. The groundwaters are likely to cod tain only 200 to 300 parts per million of dissolved solids. The groundwater sup- plies are likely to be somewhat more highly mineralized than the sur- face waters from the Mississippi and other rivers. Very little water is probably obtained from the limestone formation capping the upland areas, but where the limestone or the underlying sandstone is the source of supply it is very probably hard water, like that in wells at La Crosse (see page 416.) 256 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. I- 1 I I. J4-- . >>>>>> ^> >>>>>> tif>>i>>»y> >^v>>>|>v>> ft >^> > > > > > >>>»»?> > >>>>>>> > >>>>>> >>>>>>> >^> > > > > > >^> > > > > > .x> > > > > a o ^■^ ga ■29 fa i o S Ul '^>- rs S: ID Burnett County Burnett County, located in the north- western, part of the state,^has an area of 881 square miles, and a population of 9,026. About 40 per cent of the county is in farms of which about 25 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is quite level throughout, the only exception being the broad ridge of Keweenawan trap, ex- tending northeast tJirough the south- eastern part of the county. Much of the central and western parts is a broad sandy plain. The St. Croix River is in- trenched deeply in the plain on the west- em boundary. The general altitude of the plain about Grantsburg is 900 to 1,000 feet while altitudes on the trap ridge reach 1,200 to 1,300 feet. The principal drainage lines are the "Wood, Clam and Yellow rivers, flowing west and northwest to the St. Croix. Many lakes lie in the southeastern and northeastern parts, among which may be mentioned Trade, Big "Wood, Clam, Big Sand, Yellow, Fish and McKenzie lakeig. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations of the county are the trap in the southeastern part, and the Upper Cambrian sand- stone in the western part, and the sur- face formations distributed over the en- tire county. The sandstone, however, is effectually covered with surface for- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 257 ination, with exception of a few outcrops along the St. Croix r.iver. The surface formations consist of glacial drift, mainly confined to the morainic ridges in the southeastern part, and the broad, nearly level plain, consisting oi sand, gravel and stratified clays, in the central and western parts The thickness of the various formations varies greatly. The Keweenawan trap formation is practically un- limited in depth, as this formation is erupted from deep seated sources ; hence, it is useless to attempt to penetrate through this for- mation when encountered in drilling wells. The sandstone forma- tion, underlying the surface deposits in the central and western parts, probably does not exceed a thickness of 100 to 200 feet, and is probably underlain either by the trap or by granitic formations. The glacial drift, consisting of boulders, sand and gravel mixed with some clay, ranges in thickness from a few feet up to 100 or 300 feet. The surface sand, usually underlain by the stratified clay deposits, , forming the broad, level areas of the county, is variable in thick- ness on account of the iineven surface of rock upon which it was de- posited. The sand and clay formations usually range in thickness from 50 to 200 feet, and may reach 300 feet in places. The geological structure of Burnett and other counties in the north- ern part of the state, where only the surface formations overlie the Pre-Cambrian granite, is illustrated in Fig. 23. The approximate range in thickness of the formations in Burnett County. Formation. Surface formation. Sandstone Keweenawan trap. Thickness. Feet. to 300 to 200 PEINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal source of water supply is the surface formation of sand and gravel. Where the sandstone is reached in some of the deeper wells a good supply is readily obtained. The trap, however, is relatively im- pervious and furnishes a small supply only where much' fractured. A good supply can generally be obtained at the contact of the trap with the overlying surface formation, where the latter has a thickness of 20 or 30 feet, or more. 17— "W. S. 2.58 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. ^YATEK SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Grantsburg. — This city (population 721) is located upon the Wood river in western Burnett County. No city water supply system has been installed. The formation is stratified alluvial sand and clay to a prob- able depth of at least 100 feet, overlying the sandstone. An abundant supply of water is easily obtained from this alluvial sand formation. Wells are generally from 10 to 75 feet deep. QUALITY OF WATER SUPPLIES Only one analysis of the water of Burnett County is available, namely that of a well water at Grantsburg which is hard water. Where the wa- ter supply is obtained from formations directly or indirectly asso- ciated with the stratified clays which are calcareous, or with the lime- stone-bearing glacial drift, the water is probably hard water. Where the supply is obtained. from nearly pure sand overlying the clay, or from very sandy drift, the supply is likely to be soft water. The water obtained from the trap rock may be highly mineralized in some places and in other places may contain only a small amount of mineral matter. Mineral analyses of water in Burnett County. (.\nalyses in parts per million.) Surface deposits . 1 Depth of well fepf 20 Silica (Si02) 15.9 Aluminium andiron oxides (A-l203+i'e903) 1.1 Calcium (ca) 36 14.4 Podium and potas^-ium (Na+K) 8.8 Carbonate radicle (CUg) 82.5 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 11 2 Chlorine (CD 13.8 184. 1. Well at Grantsburg. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Jan. 2G,- 1905. W!SVNYP>iiiO\ OF LOCAL WATEl! SUPPLIES. 25a Calumet county Caliamet ^OsMmty, located in the eastern part of the state, east of Lake "W^innebago, has an area of 317 square miles, and a population of 16,701. A;bout 94.8 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 73.4 per cent is under cultivation. ■' SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is a relatively high undulating plain, with a gentle slope in the'centrai and eastern part towards Lake Michigan, and a more abrupt slope to the west in the western part towards Lake "Winnebago and the valley of the Fox river. The central and eastern part is drained mainly by the Manitowoc river flowing eastward to Lake j\Iichigan. The western part is drained by short streams flowing inta Lake Winnebago and tikie Fox river. Upon the relatively high upland portion of the central and eastern, part of the county the altitudes of the valley bottoms range from 800 to • 950 feet, while the upla,iad ridges along the divides reach up to 1,000 and 3ver 1,200 feet. The higkest Land in the county is in the southwestern piart, a short distance east of Lake Winnebago. The surface of Lake- Winnebago has an altitude of 747 feet, and the broad valley bottom at; the north end of the lake lies between 750 and 850 feet. The most prominent relief in the countj^ is the steep escarpment or- ridge of the Niagara limestone on the east side of Lake Winnebago,, which rises abruptly 200 to 400 feet above the lake. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The principal rock formation in the central and eastern paxi; of the county is the Niagara limestone. On the low ground in the western and ' northwestern part adjacent to Lake Winnebago is a narrow belt of Cin- cinnati shale and north of the lake is an area occupied by the Galena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The drift is generally quite abundant over the entire county. The geological structure along the southern - boundary of Calumet and Manitowoc counties is illustrated in Fig. '24., The thickness of the drift is variable but is generally much greater in : the Fox River vallej' than on the high upland to the east. In the vicin- ity of Forest Junction are many wells 50 to 200 feet deep in the drift " without striking rock. At Brillion many of the wells strike rock at. 100 to . 260 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. 150 feet. Most of the surface drift of the county is red clay mixed with some stone and gravel. The Niagara formation of limestone lies east of Lake Winnebago, Sherwood and Forest Junction. The formation varies in thickness from less than a foot along the western margin of its outcrop to a probable maximum thickness of 300 or 400 feet on the upland ridges in the east- ern part of the county. Fig. 24.- -Geologic section, east-west, along southern boundary of Calumet and Manitowoc and northern boundary of Sheboygan counties. The Cincinnati shale which underlies the Niagara limestone and out- crops in a belt one to five miles wide along the western border of the Ni- agara has a known maximum thickness of 300 feet where uneroded, as shown by the deep well at Chilton. Along the east shore of Lake Winne- bago, south of Clifton, about 175 feet of this formation is exposed above the level of the lake. The altitude of the contact with the Niagara at Lake Winnebago is about 920 feet, and at Chilton 679 feet. The shale is a relatively soft formation and therefore is easily eroded. The forma- tion is impervious. The Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone, within its area of out- crop north of Lake Winnebago in the Fox Eiver valley is eroded to a variable extent. Where uneroded it has a known thickness of 225 feet. The approximate range in thickness of the formations in Calumet County may be summarized as follows : Probable range in thiclcnees of formations in Calumet Count}/. Formation. Surface formation Niagara limestone CinoinngJ^l shale Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Magneslan formation. Dpoer Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone I're-Cambrlan granite Thickness. Feet. to 300 to 400 to 300 200 to 250 200 to 250 500 to 600 DE8CRIPTI0K OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 261 PRINCIPAL, WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formations are tlie surface deposits, the Niagara limestone in the central and eastern part, and the Trenton lime- stone in the northwestern part. The drift is the most common source of supply, the water level being near the surface in the valleys and usually less than 100 feet from thq surface on the slopes of the hills. Shallow open dug wells are common in the drift on the uplands in aU parts of the county, the depths of the wells being 10 to 40 feet. In recent years, however, most of the new wells are being drilled, the supply being obtained at greater depth in the drift or from the underlying rock. Between Chilton and BrUlion are many drilled wells from 100 to 200 feet deep. The Niagara limestone is an important source of supply on the high uplands. The formation contains numerous open fractures and fissures and on the gentle slopes of the hills where the drift is 50 or 60 feet thick, abundant supplies are usually obtained from this formation. The Cincinnati shale is impervious to water, hence no supplies are ob- tained from this formation. The shale, however, exerts a strong influ- ence on the underground water supply because of its impervious char- acter. Hundreds of springs issue along the outcrop of this formation, the source of the supply being in the overlying drift or Niagara lime- stone. Wells within striking distance of the shale generally obtain an abundant supply when this formation is reached. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells in the surface deposits and in the Niagara limestone are an important source of water supply in various parts of Calumet county. Along the northeast shore of Lake Winnebago no flows are obtained except in the vicinity of Stockbridge. A mile north of Stockbridge the high cliff leaves the lake and swings toward the east, leaving a somewhat level area between the ridge and Lake Winnebago. Along this gentle slope flowing wells are struck on the low ground along the east shore of the lake as far south as Fond du Lac, and south of the lake as far as Byron and Oakfield. The wells in the vicinity of Stockbridge and Brothertown range in depth from 60 to 90 feet, none of them striking rock. Nearly all of the flowing wells lie on the west side of the old Military Road leading from Stockbridge to Fond du Lac. A few flows have been obtained east of this road, but for the most part the land is rather too 262 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. high for flows. Between Stockbridge and Brothertown about 25 or 30 of these flowing wells may be seen along the road. Some of the wells are decreasing in rate of flow, others are as strong as when originally drilled. Flows ought to be obtained on low ground east of the road ■along the small valleys and streams. In places they are obtained as high as 100 feet above the level of Lake Winnebago. As a rule the flows on the higher land are weak, the water rising only a few feet above the sur- face. As along the Fox river, the local topography must always be taken into consideration before predicting a flow. (For description of :flowing wells south of Brothertown, see under Fond du Lac County, •pages 335-6) . In the northeastern part of the county at Brillion, located in a smajl valley tributary to the Manitowoc river, local conditions favorable for an artesian slope are developed in the surfoce deposits overlying the Ni- agara limestone. The flowing wells are from 50 to 150 feet deep, the source of the flows being in gravel beds underlying clay seams, and in the underlying shell rock. The heads are relatively low and the wells usually interfere with one another. An account of these wells is given under Brillion and Forest Junction on the following page. Flowing wells, with source of supply in the sandstone strata under- lying the Trenton limestone, are not likely to be developed in Calumet County, on account of the relatively high altitude of the land surface. In one of the deep wells of the Malting Co., at Chilton, which penetrates through the overlying formations and reaches into the St. Peter and Lower Magnesian, water was found in the Trenton, which rose to with- in 32 feet of the surface, but dropped to 75 feet below the surface on en- tering the St. Peter sandstone, where it remained ' SPRINGS The important spring horizon, found at the upper surface of the Cin- ^igjjj^^jiti shale, extends across Calumet Cotinty along the foot of the " "ledges' ■'-~®^®* °-^ Lake Winnebago. While springs are common in this "horizon,, tkey arg not sw flTJUierous as they would be if it were not for the ^im^crv'ious covel'iflg d sUfW drift that overlies the shale. While there «rp manv springs on the weSt slope of the ridge that help feed the gravel beds much of the water from the contact zone between the Niagara hme- stone and the Cincinnati shale usually does not come to the surface, but renins beneath the clay strata in the drift and furmshes the supply ^^^rLgrarTaTso quite common in the area of the Niagara limes,V«e ^iftin the lower slopes of the valley of the Manitowoc nver and it^tribu, DE8CRIPTI0X OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 263 taries. In many places the springs issue from the limestone, where over- lain by the clay drift, as at Brillion. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Chilton. — Chilton, situated on the Manitowoc river, has a population -of 1,530. It has no municipal water supply and sewage systems. The water in the rock at Chilton generally stands from 30 to 75 feet below the surface. Wells in the drift strike water nearer the surface, and flow in a few eases. In the Malt Company 's two wells as already stated the water from the Trenton limestone rose to within 32 feet of the surface, but dropped to 75 feet below on entering the St. Peter sandstone, where it remained. The water is raised by means of an air compressor. The water is used for malting purposes, and contains only a normal amount of carbonate of calcium and magnesium, as indicated by the analyses. The folowing material was passed through in drilling the deeper well : Section of the Ohilton Malting Co. well No. 2 — Altitude of curb S77. Formation. Pleistocene. Ked clay Light clay Niagara. Limestone .- •Clnclnuatl. Blue and green shale Galena-PlattevlUe (Trenton). Limestone St. Peter. Sandstone Reported as Potsdam but probably Lower Magneslan (127 feet). Red shale Red sandstone Limestone Blue shale Limestone Ked marl Limestone Cherty limestone Sillclons material (quartziie) Total depth Feet. 10 18 170 300 225 47 12 5 53 5 22 6 6 6 12 897 The silicious material at the bottom, reported as -quartzite, may be on- ly hard, compact sandstone. Brillion. — The population of Brillion is 998. At Brillion flowing wa- ter is obtained from the gravel below the clay, from the drift, and from the Niagara limestone. A good supply is often found in the Niagara ;shell-rock only a few feet below the drift. Probably the water tinder 264 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. pressux'e in the gravel seam below the clay, and that in the shell-rock, have the same source. Most of the wells are from 50 to 150 feet deep, and are from the same water vein. All wells interfere with one another, but the Chicago and Northwest- ern Railroad Company's well affects the others most. When pumped hard it lowers the head of all the others, and if the pumping continues long enough, stops the flow from all the wells near it. The railroad com- pany 's well is as low as the other wells, and water is allowed to escape as soon as the reservoir is full. Measurements on city wells, taken while the railroad tank was being filled, showed that before pumping began the water at the railroad well was flowing over the surface, through the trough, and all the wells in the vicinity were flowing. After one and one-half hours pumping the water in the railroad well was lowered two feet four inches, while in a well 50 feet south, and in one 350 feet south, the water had fallen an equal amount. After two and one-half hours of . pumping the water in the railroad well had fallen three feet nine inches, while the other two wells were lowered the same amount. Further low- ering in the reservoir had no effect upon the level in the other two wells, since the casing of the well that supplied the railroad reservoir was at this level and water had to rise to this height before it could flow into it. The 8-inch pipe supplied a full stream, but it did not flow quite as fast as the water was pumped out, several hours being required for the water to regain its original head. Several of these flowing wells have not been properly cased and have since lost their flow. The consideraTsle leakage from some of the wells has greatly increased the surface supply. In other cases part of the wa- ter rises to the surface outside of the casing and is a source of annoyance. The source of the flowing water is from the gathering ground to the north and west of Brillion. Numerous springs are also found in this vicinity. East of Brillion similar wells are struck, but do not flow on account of the higher elevation of the land surface. Forest Junction. — At Forest Junction the drift is very deep, being, in many places, over 200 feet thick. The water comes from quicksand and gravel. Here, too, are found several flowing wells from drift, and often gas is encotintered in the drift. The pressure at the curb of some of the wells is as high as 22 pounds per square inch, and in one of the wells, it is reported, the gas was thrown up 50 feet and burned steadily for two days before the well was shut off. The gas comes from the seams below the clay, and very likely resulted from the decay of vegetable growth, since logs and twigs are often encountered in drilling wells. It is neces- sary to case through this gas vein and then water is obtained from quick- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 265 sand below. Some oil has also been struck in these wells, but not as fre- quently as gas. Similar drift conditions are found at other points in the Fox river valley. New Eolstein. — The population is 839. The water supply is obtained from private wells 60 to 100 feet deep. Sewage is disposed of in open drains. The formation is clay loam over the Niagara limestone. The limestone appears at the surface in places, but usually it is covered with 30 to 40 feet of drift. Hilberi. — The population is 572. The water supply is obtained from private wells 12 to 40 feet deep in drift overlying the limestone. Some of the wells are drilled to depth of 128 feet in the underlying limestone. QUALITY OF THE WATER The water of Calumet County, at least that obtained from the surface formations and the Niagara limestone, as shown in the follow- ing table is hard water of moderate mineral content. They are carbonate waters with calcium as the predominating constituent, and magnesium generally second in importance. Water from the deeper seated forma- tions may, or may not, have a higher content of mineral matter. The water of the flowing wells at Brillion, No. 1, contains 2.52 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Calumet County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Surface Deposits. Ni- agra lime- stone. St. Peter sandstone. Depth of well feet. . Silica (Si02) Aluminum and iron oxides (AI2O3+ FeaOs) Calcium (Ca) .Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-l-K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Total dissolved solids 120 25 52 15.41 20.7 3.91 64.2 56.3 55.6 33.4 36.5 44.2 6.4 29.0 19.4 225.9 196.3 199.0 19.4 22.8 4.1 8.9 2.8 19.7 254 undt. 55 44 22 194 31 377. 365. 342.' 358. 740 20. 12. 67. 13.1 22. 118. 28.: 35.' 319. 897 18. 48.7 41.7 14. 157.3 30.9 21. 340. 1. Flowing well at Brillion. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Aug. 17, 1893. 2. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Hilbert Jet. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, July 7, 1891. 3. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ky. Co., Hilbert Jet. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Mar. 7, 1900. 4. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Hilbert Jet. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 12, 1913. 5. Well No. 1 of Chilton Malting Co., Chilton. 6. Well No. 2 of Chilton Malting Co., Chilton. 266 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Chippewa County Chippewa County, located in the northwestern part of the state, has an area of 1,022 square miles, and a population of 32,103. About 58.4 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 50.5 per cent is under culti- vation. The most thickly settled portion is the southwestern part, only a sparse population being in the northeastern part. SURFACE FEATURES The southwestern portion of the county, occupied by the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone, has the hilly features characteristic of the sandstone outcrop. The thick drift covered portion of the county, the northeastern two-thirds, is an undulating plain. The belt of choppy t//>v /^a/Zs /^fi/ca/n^e < C/^//^^M'0 ^7f//ir V V \/ ^„_„^ . . . \/ V V V V \/ vvvvvvvv 2jiiji„._— _^ . '0 V V vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv "^."V V V vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv 'Vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv/vvvvvvv/vvvvvv /.VVVVVVV VVVVVV sJ/=^/y-B VVVVVVVV VVvVV\/VVVVV\/\/\/VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV /vvvvvvvvvvvVvvvvvvvvvvVvvvvvvvv VVVVvVVVVVVN/VVVVVVVVVVVVVV/VVVyvN/ /oeo' Fig. 25. — Geologic section along Chippewa river in Chippewa county. moraine lies diagonally across the county, extending northwest and southeast, in the central part, crossing the Chippewa Eiver at Jim Falls. Numerous picturesque lakes lie in the north central part. Altitudes generally ^ange from 800 to 1,050 feet along the Chippewa Eiver to 1,000 and 1,200 feet over the inter- valley areas. Flambeau Ridge, an isolated hard quartzite ridge in the northern part, reaches and altitude of about 1,500 feet. The soil is usually a sand loam along the Chippewa in the southern part, and silt loam in other parts of the county. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks iii the northeastern part, and along the Chippewa River, as far south as Chippewa Falls, and the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone in the southern and western parts of the county. Glacial drift in thick ridges of terminal moraine extends across the northeast portion. Alluvial sand and gravel fills the valleys in the southwestern portion. The cross section (figure 25) parallel to the Chippewa River, illustrates the geological structure of the county. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 26T The thickness of the surface formations of glacial drift in the morain- "ic ridges, in the northeastern part, probably reaches 100 to 150 feet. Tte thickness of the extensive filling of sand and gravel probably reaches, 200' to 250 feet in the deepest portions of the pre-glacial valleys. The thick- ness of the sandstone ranges between wide limits on account of the ex- tensive erosion of the strata. The complete thickness of the sandstone is nowhere preserved within the county. The approximate range in thiek- ijiess of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Chippeica County. Formation. Thickness. Surface formation Feet. to 250 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone ... to 500 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The chief water-bearing horizons are the sandstone, the glacial drift and the alluvial formations. A small amount of water only can usually be oTstained from the granite. The amount obtained is generally suffici- .ent for farm purposes but is wholly inadequate for villages or city sup- plies. The small amount of water obtainable from the crystalline rock ;is well illustrated by a well 333 feet deep recently drilled in granite for- :mation at Cornell. This well as shown by a test showed a production ■ of only a little over 6 gallons per minute or a daily capacity of only 8,- 640 gallons. By continuous pumping for many days this production would undoubtedly be greatly reduced. It may therefore be considered ^as very impractical to attempt to obtain more than small amounts of -water from the Pre-Cambrian crystalline formations. Most of the wells in the county are relatively shallow, from 10 to 40 feet deep. On hilly land the wells are deeper, from 40 to 100 feet or more, depending upon elevation above the general level of the streams of the locality. Springs mainly occur only along the lowest portion of the Chippewa valley, where the sandstone formation, containing shaley stra- ta, outcrops along the river bank, as illustrated by the well known ('hip-, pewa Mineral Spring at Chippewa Falls. 268 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Chippewa Falls. — Chippewa Falls, situated on the site of extensive water power on the Chippewa river, has a population of 8,893. The city is located upon sandy, gravelly terraces of alluvial origin, which overlies the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and the Pre-Cambrian gran- ite formations. The granite and sandstone formations are well exposed in Irvine Park. Formerly the city water supply was derived from 36 six-inch driven wells, but this system was abandoned because of insufficient supply. At present the supply is derived from a sand and gravel bed lying along the- Chippewa River about a mile above the city. The water level in this bed is 8 feet above the usual level of the river. Five steel cylinders, 5 feet in diameter, were sunk into this bed to a depth of 16 feet, probably to the granite. The water comes in from the bottom and from i/^ inch holes drilled into the cylinders. The capacity of the five wells is 2,000,000 gal- lons per day ; the average daily consumption is about 500,000 gallons. About 80 per cent of the houses are connected with the water system. Sewage is emptied, without purification, into the river. About 10 per cent of the families have cess pools. Private wells are from 10 to 100 feet deep in the gravel and sand, the depth depending upon elevation above the river. Stariley. — This city, situated on the "Wolf River, a small branch of the Eau Claire, has a population of 2,675. It is located on glacial drift. The Pre-Cambrian granite is generally struck at a depth of 60 to 80 feet. The sandstone overlies the granite in places attaining a thickness of 30 or 40 feet. The city has a water supply system, which, until very recently, was used for fire service only. The city supply is obtained from two large wells 30 feet deep in the drift. The private wells average about 25 feet deep. Sewage is discharged, without purification, into the river. About 40 per cent of the houses have sewer and water connections. About 75 per cent of the families have cess pools. The present city supply (1913) is reported to be inadequate and a new source is being investigated. A very good and sufficient supply should be obtainable from the sandstone underlying the surface drift. CadoU, — Cadott, population 765, located on the Yellow River, has a water system for fire purposes only. Private wells in drift and crystal- line rock are from 10 to 40 feet deep. Boyd. — Boyd, population 527, situated on Hay Creek, has a water supply system for fire purposes. Private wells are from 20 to 40 feet deep generally. Sandstone underlies the drift in this locality. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 269 Bloomer. — Bloomer, situated on Duncan Creek, has a population of 1,204. This place is located upon the sandstone formation. A city wa- ter supply has been installed. The private wells are generally from 10 to 40 feet deep. On the low ground about Bloomer, and on Eagle Prai- rie, wells are generally from 16 to 20 feet deep to water. The city sup- ply is obtained from two wells, 130 and 207 feet deep. QUALITY OF THE WATER The water of Chippewa County is but slightly mineralized, as indi- cated by the available chemical analyses. The shallow depth of the water-bearing formations indicates that only slightly mineralized water, ■ though somewhat higher in mineral content than that analyzed in the table, is likely to occur in most parts of the county. The water of the well known Chippewa Mineral Spring at Chippewa Falls is very soft water. The analysis shows a content of only 36 total solids in 1,000,000 parts, and it is probably one of the softest, if not the softest spring water in the United States extensively placed upon the market. The city water supply at Chippewa Falls is also soft water. The water from the sandstone in the railroad well at Bloomer contains only 0.61 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Chippewa County. (Analyses In parts per million.) Spring. Surface deposits. Upppr Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 1. 2. 3. Depth of well feet . . 16 18.6 0.8 169 Silica (8i09) 7.3 26 8 5.5 Alutninu m oxide ( A I2O3) :l 5.5 2.2 2,0 .6 15.0 1.9 .8 .3 None. Calcium (Ca) io.8 4.9 [ 4.2 !- 28.8 4.0 3.5 8 S Magnesium iMg") 5 Sodium (Na) ■Carbonate radif^le {CO3) 24 Sulohate radicle (SO4) 2 6 Chlorine (CD 1 3 Phosphate radicle (PO4) Total dissolved solids 36. 75. 75 1. Chippewa Spring, Chippewa Falls. Analyst, Chas. W. Dreed. 2. City Supply, Chippewa Falls. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chemical Co., .Tan. 16, 1908. 3. Well of C. & N. W. P>y. Co. at Bloomer. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Aug. 29, 1910. 270 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Clark County Clark County, located in the north central part of the state, has an area of 1,200 square miles and a population of 30,074. Neillsville is the principal city with a population of 1,957. Prominent villages are Ad- botsford, Greenwood, Loyal, Colby, Thorp, Withee, Dorchester, Hum- bird, and Owen. About 52.8 per cent of this county is laid out intO' farms of which 36.9 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The topography depends upon the character of the underlying rock: formation. The northeastern two-thirds of the county ocupied by thick: drift over sandstone, is quite level. The southwestern part of the coun- yys///s)^///e . -VVVVVVVV V V VVVVVVVVVVVVvv ,'VVVV VVVVVVVVVS/ 'tf/7 o^/'tr>7/^/c y^l^r^^Jtt/^ytfyJS \/ V V V VVVVVVVVVVVv/VVV V V V V V V V ^sao' KbaveseaLere/ Fig. 26. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern Clark county. ty, occupied by the very thin drift over sandstone, is characterized by hills of sandstone and broad level sandy valley bottoms and gentle slopes. Some of the highest sandstone mounds reach 150 to 200 feet above their immediate surroundings. The land gradually rises from an altitude of 900 feet in the southern part to over 1,200 feet in the northern part of the county. The difference in elevation between val- ley bottom and adjacent uplands is generally less than 100 feet. * GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are mainly the Upper Cambrian (Pots-- dam) sandstone, with the outcrop of the underlying crystalline rock ex- posed along the Black river, and in various places in the eastern part of the county. Glacial drift is abundant in the northern and northeast- ern parts of the county. Clay loam soil predominates over the thick drift covered portions, and sandy soils or sandy loams in the thin drift area in the southwestern part. The geological structure is illustrated in figure 26. The thickness of the glacial drift probably does not exceed 200 feet. There appear to be no deep valleys of pre-glacial origin filled with al- luvial sands and silts in this county. Hence, the surface formation is probably thickest in the old drift ridges. The sandstone occurs only as relatively thin remnants overlying the crystalline rocks in the northeast- DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 271 ern part of the county, and in somewhat thicker and more Avidespread areas in the southwestern part. The maximum range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate ranr/e in thickness of formationn in Clark County Formation. Tiiickntss Feet. to 200 to 200 The Pie-Cambrian grraiiite PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The ground water supplies are derived from the crystalline rock, from the sandstone and from the glacial and alluvial formations. Most of the wells in this county are shallow, usually less than 100 feet deep, but along the thick drift ridge east of Neillsville are a number of wells from 100 to 150 feet deep. The depth of the wells in eastern Clark County is shown on the map, Plate 50, in Wisconsin Survey Bulletin. No. XVI. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Xeillsville. — The source of the city water supply at Neillsville, popula- tion 1,957, formerly was a large open well on the bank of the Black river, 35 feet deep, 20 feet being in glacial drift and 15 feet in the un- derlying granite. At present the supply is obtained from the Black river at a depth of 20 feet. The average daily pumpage is 90,000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the houses connect with the city supply. A number of private wells in the city are from 75 to 100 feet deep in drift. The city sewage is emptied without treatment, into the Black river. Ahhottsford. — The deepest wells in Abbottsford, population 947, pass through 30 to 40 feet of glacial drift and about 40 feet of sandstone, striking granite at 80 to 85 feet. An abundant supply of good Avater for the city can be derived from the sandstone beds. In the southwest part of the village, at Paul Wooche's, is 34 feet of drift and 2 feet of sand- stone. At another place on Main Street is 29 feet of drift and 1 foot of sandstone. The railroad water tank well is reported to be 85 feet deep, 40 feet of drift, 40 feet of sandstone, and 5 feet of granite at bottom. Dorchester. — The deepest well in Dorchester reported is at Keen's Planing Mill, wliich is drilled 34 feet in drift and 6 feet in rock, probab- ly granite. Most of the Avells in this village are about 16 feet deep in drift. 272 THE -WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Colby. — The population is 869. Most of the wells in Colby are shallow wells. In the northeastern part of the city, at the stave factory, is a well 101 feet deep in drift, striking hard granite at the bottom. The city supply recently installed is obtained from a 30-foot well. Curtiss. — Most of the wells in Curtiss are shallow wells. At the saw- mill is a well 107 feet deep, 100 feet in drift and 7 feet in rock, probably sandstone. Loyal. — The population is 677. A public water supply was recently installed, the supply being obtained from one well 16 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep. The average daily pumpage is 19,000 gallons. About 40 houses connect with the city-supply. Private wells in Loyal strike sandstone at variable depths, from 5 to 65 feet. At C. Ehlerts, half a mile east of the village, is a well 89 feet in drift. At the Lutheran Church is 84 feet of drift. The average depth to sandstone is said to be about 60 feet. An abundant supply of good water can be derived from the sandstone beds under the drift in Loyal. Greenwood. — Along the Black river at Greenwood granite is exposed; but many of the wells in the village on higher ground strike sandstone at depth of 10 to 30 feet. In a few wells the drift rests directly on the granite. A good supply of water is derived from the sandstone. The known maximum thickness of sandstone is 32 feet. A city supply was recently installed, the supply being obtained from a well 30 feet deep. WitJiee. — The village of Withee has a public water supply, recently installed. The supply is obtained from a well 140 feet deep, 80 feet in glacial drift and 60 feet in the underlying sandstone. The diameter of well is 12 inches in the drift and 5 inches in the sandstone. Casing ex- tends to depth of 90 feet. The water level is about 25 feet below the sur- face. By pumping 16 gallons per minute the water is lowered to depth of 60 feet in 20 to 30 minutes, at which depth it remains stationary. Only a small proportion of the houses are connected with the system. Private wells are generally 35 to 40 feet deep, striking water at 25 feet in the drift. Owen. — Owen, with a population of 745, is installing a water supply system (1912), and plans to have a groundwater supply. At present the city mains are filled with water from the river and is utilized for fire protection only. A partial sewage system is installed on Main Street, with connections with 15 or 20 houses. Wells strike sandstone in Owen at depth of 45 feet. Most of the wells are shallow, from 10 to 30 feet deep. The latest report states that the city supply is obtained from a well 30 feet deep. TTiorp. — The population of Thorp is 741. Sandstone is struck in two of the wells in Thorp, at depth of 8 and 22 feet. The city supply is de- rived from a large open well 12 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep, the DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 273 lower 15 feet being blasted out of the granite. The water in the city well is obtained from fissures in the granite and is under light pressure, the well overflowing through a one-inch pipe when not being pumped. Granton. — Sandstone underlies the drift at Granton, with granite out- crops only along the valley bottom of O'Neill Creek. At F. W. Davis' place, below the hill, near Granton, the well is 16 feet deep in drift, but on the hill in the northeast comer of Section 2 is a well 60 feet deep, with 16 feet of sandstone at the bottom. At J. E. Lee's is a well 65 feei deep, 34 feet of drift, 6 feet of sandstone, and 25 feet of hard granite. At Nelson Marsh's place the well is 67 feet deep, 7 feet of drift and 60 feet of sandstone. CJiili. — In Chili wells are generally from 15 to 25 feet deep. Sand- stone is struck after penetrating clayey drift at a depth of 18 to 22 feet, from which good supplies of water are obtained. QUALITY OF THE WATER Only three analyses of the water supplies of Clark County are available, namely those of the railroad wells at Lynn. The water from these wells is probably fairly representative of the quality of the groundwaters over the entire county. The average quality is ap- parently close to the dividing line betwen soft and hard waters and thus closely approximating the water of Lake Michigan. Analyses No. 1 is medium hard water, while No. 3 indicates soft water. The groundwa- ters of the county will probably very generally contain from 100 to 200 parts per million of mineral matter while the surface waters in the creeks and rivers will probably generally contain less than 100 parts per million of mineral matter. Mineral analyses of water in Clark County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Depth of well feet.. Silica (SiOs) / Aluminium and iron oxides ( Al203-|-Fe203) f Calcium 58 17.0 2.1 .9 4.6 SuUiliate radicle (SO4) 5.2 3.5 4.0 4.9 4.1 2 1 Chlorine (CI) .7 2 1 Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids 98. 44. 83. 79. 168. 146 Depth ol well feet Silica (SiOs ) Aluminum and iron oxides (AlsOs + t>!03) Aluminum oxide (AI2O3) iTOn(Fe) Calcium (Ca) MaKnesium ( Mg) Soaium and potassium (Na + K) Carbonate radicle (CU3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Surface deposits. 17. I undet. Total dissolved solids. 96.0 49.2 15.7 190.9 124.3 21.5 20. 70.6 32.4 14.5 171.4 49.1 2.0 341. 30. undet.. 14.7 5.4 7.2 40.3 2.5 2.8 Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone. 10 65. 15.4 73. 2.5 .4 65.2 34.9 8.2 190,0 6.4 1.9 325. 63.9 36.8 4.4 186.9 8.2 302. 85. 2.7 65.5 39.1 3.0 105.1 4.6 1.3 311. 1. Wisconsin river, near Portage. Mean of 24 analyses, tl. S. Geol. Survey, W. S. P. No. 236, p. 113, 1906-7. 2. Wisconsin river. City water worlss, Portage. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Nov. 8, 1900. 3. Wisconsin river. City Water Works, Portage. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Mar. 16, 1891. 4. Wisconsin river. City Water Works, Portage. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Dec. 12, 1903. 5. Silver Lake, Portage. Analyst, G. N, Prentiss, Dec. 12, 1903. 6. Silver Lake, Portage. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 3, 1888. 7. Well of C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Poynette. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Dec. 12, 1902. S. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Clipnogeu side track. Sect. 4, T. 12, R. 11. An- alvst, G. N. Prentiss, Sept. 10, 1889. 9. Well oif City Water Supply, Kilbourn City. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Nov. 4, 1903. 10. Well of J. C. Brill, Columbus. Analyst, G. Bode. 11. City well at Columbus. Analyst, H. B. Smith. 12. Railroad well at Columbus. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Jan. 16, 1891. 280 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in ColumMa County — Continued. Upper Cambrian (Potsd am) sandstone. 13. 60 [ 2.1 62.8 36.9 2.1 178.3 12.7 1.8 14. 15. 16. 17. Depth of well feet. . Silica (SiOa) 75 .8 63.9 37.2 4.5 187.1 83^ .8 55 2.7 65.6 39.4 6.5 199.6 4.6 1.4 ro undet. 47.6 26.9 3.2 131.3 4.1 8.1 168 undet. 49.0 Aluminium and iron oxides (Al2O3+Fe20s) • • Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) : 26.7 6.4 Carbonate radicle '{CO3) ' 115.3 Sulpliate raaicle (SO4) 25.5 Chlorine (CD 9.1 Nitrate radicle (NOS) 15.7 297. Total dissolved solids! ^ 302. 320. 221., 248. Depth feet.. Silica (Sni2)...- : ) Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2U3,- + Fe203) \ Al iiminium oxide ( AI2O3) Calcium (Ca> , Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+ K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 18. 140 undet. Total dissolved solids.. 11.2 4.0 8.6 33.9 2.0 3.0 19. 46 undet. 54.9 30.4 10.9 156.1 8.6 11.0 '272. 20. 135 1.2 28.6 16.8 13.8 58.6 6.0 47.3 172. 21. 310 1.0 07.3 62.4 9.2 205.5 112.4 14.2 492. 325 1.7 97.4 51.7 13.9 210.5 111.4 14.3 501. 23. 212 15.9 1.0 60.2 33.7 5.8 169.5 6.4 8.9 301. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Columbus. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Mar. 16, M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Analyst, Chemist, C. Mar. 2, 1896. M. & St. P. Ry. Well of C 1899. City well, Columbus, Analyst, Chemist, C Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Columbus. Co,, Jan. 30, ISBO. Well at stock yards, Poynette. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Dec. 7, 1905. Well at stock yards, Arlington. Analyst, ,G. N, PrentLss, Mar. 28, 1907. Well at Kilbourn City, open well 80 ft. by 6 ft. drilled 60 ft. by 6 in. Analvst, G. N. Prentiss, Nov. 4, 1903. Well of Louis Sevenson, Bast Eio. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Mar. 15, 1906. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Railroad well at Kilbourn City. Feb. 15, 1890. Private well at Doylestown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St P. Rv. Co., Mar. 16, 1899, Railroad well at Doylestown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co.. Feb. 15, 1890. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co,, I^odi. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct 6, 1896. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 281 Crawford County Crawford Comity, located in the southwestern part of the state has an area of 557 square miles, and a population of 16,288. About 92.6 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 44.8 per cent is under cultiva- tion. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Crawford County is a dissected upland plain, charac- terized by deep and narrow valleys and long upland slopes with nearly level summit ridges. The Mississippi river on the western border, and the Wisconsin river on the southern border, lie in flat-bottomed valleys, with precipitous valley sides or bluffs rising 300 to 400 feet above the river. The Kickapoo valley in the eastern part of the county has a nar- Fig. 28. — Geologic section, ea^st-west, across southern Crawford county. row bottom, generally less than one mile wide and from 300 to 400 feet below the general level of the uplands. The altitudes along the Wiscon- sin and Mississippi bottoms are generally between 620 and 640 feet, while that along the Kickapoo ranges from 640 at Wauzeka to 740 at Soldiers G-rove. The highest uplands, a few miles from the rivers, reach altitudes of 1,200 to 1,300 feet above sea level. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations of this county are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, the Lower Magnesian limestone, the St. Peter sandstone, and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone occurs only along the lower slopes of the 282 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. prmcipal valleys, such as the Mississippi, the "Wisconsin and the Kick- apoo rivers. The Lower Magnesian limestone is the formation of most common outcrop. The area of the Platteville and Galena formations, (Trenton) is mainly west of the Kickapoo river. The geological struc- ture is illustrated in Fig. 28. In the valleys is a thick deposit of alluvial sand and gravel, probably attaining a thickness of 200 to 300 feet, and upon the uplands is a vari- able amount of loess, usually from 1 to 5 feet thick, overlying the bed rock. The rock formations vary in thickness on account of the extensive erosion of the strata It is only where a formation is protected by the next overlying formation that the complete thickness is preserved. The maximum range in thickness of the geological formations may be sum- marized as follows : Approximate range in thickness nf formation x in Crawford County. Formation. Surface formation ■. . . Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Magnesian formations.. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone The Pre-Cambrian granite Tliiclfness. Feet. to 300 lo 150 O'o -250 500 to l.COO PEINCIPAL WATER-BEAKING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cambrian sand- stone, the Lower Magnesian limestone and the St. Peter sandstone. The alluvial sand is a common source of water in shallow wells in the valleys. The depth to water level is generally from 10 to 40 feet in the valleys and from 100 to 400 feet on the uplands. Near Steuben, in the eastern part of the county, several of these wells are from 350 to 400 feet in depth, with only a few feet of water in them. The great depth of the water table in the hilly uplands is due to the steep slopes, from which the water readily drains into the valleys. At A. Kopon's farm 3 miles south of Steuben, Sec. 19, T. 8 No., R. 4 W., a well is drilled on a hill to a depth of 374 feet. The water was struck at 355 feet in limestone (Lower Magnesian) and must be pumped from 345 feet, the water in the well being only 29 feet deep. The well is cased 158 feet, but rock was struck 12 feet below the surface. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 283 FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells are common along the valley bottoms of the J\Iississippi and the Wisconsin, and also up many of the side valleys leading from these main streams. Most if not all the flowing artesian wells get their supply from the Upper Cambrian sandstone. At least five water hor- izons are found in the Upper Cambrian at Prairie du Chien. Most of the wells range in depth between 30 to 1,000 feet. In Prairie du Chien there are four deep flowing wells and 30 or 40 flowing wells ranging in depth between 350 and 400 feet. One of the first, if not the first, artesian welP in Prairie du Chien, was drilled in 1875-76, depth 959 feet, diameter 5% inches. The water in this well, when first drilled rose about 100 feet above the level of the Mississippi river, having a pressure of 40 pounds per inch, and a daily flowage of 869,916 gallons. Along the Wisconsin river valley flowing wells from the Potsdam hor- izon may be had all the way from Wauzeka to Prairie du Chien. Along the Kickapoo river, north of Wauzeka, within Crawford County water is pumped from shallow wells, but there is no reason why flows should not be obtained in the lower part of the valley, south of Barnum, as well as at such places as Rockton and Ontario, at the upper end of the valley. The distribution of the flowing artesian wells in the Kickapoo valley and the probable explanation of the absence of flowing wells be- tween Soldiers Grove and Barnum is given on pages 71-2. Additional data concerning flowing wells are referred to on the f'll- lowing pages. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Prairie du Chien. — This city, having a population of 3,149, is situated at the junction of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers. Prairie du Chien was one of the first cities in the state to have a public water sup- ply, mainly because of the occurrence of strong artesian flows. The wells developed sufficient pressure for a direct pressure system lik? that later developed at De Pere. This supply was in use for many years until the pressure decreased so much that it would no longer supply the de- mands. At present the water supply is principally from private wells. Recently the city has developed a groundwater supply, drawn from an open dug well in alluvial sand, 30 feet deep, into the bottom of which are driven 4-inch well points 8 feet long. Only about 10 per cent of ■Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 61. 284 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the families use the city water. The city sewers empty into the Missis- sippi river. About 25 per cent of the families have cess pools. Although pure artesian water may be obtained, there are many shallow wells in use from 10 to 30 feet in depth. Even the city supply, as above stated, is drawn from an open well only 30 feet deep. Since this formation is a sandy alluvial deposit, an old river bar, or filled bank, there is nothing to prevent the well water from being contaminated at any time. A much better, and certainly as cheap a supply might have been derived from the sandstone formation, with much safer water and nearly as free from iron. All the artesian wells get their supply from the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and none have struck crystalline rock. At least five good water horizons are found in the sandstone at Prairie du Chien, and possibly more, since, no detailed record is available below 990 feet. Mr. Winnegar, however, stated that the flow continued to increase between 1,000 and 1,044 feet, clearly showing that there is at least one more wa- ter vein below 990 feet. , Flowing irells in Prairie du Chien, Owner. Stock Company P. L. Winnegrar I''. L. Winnegrar F. L, Winnegrar Sanitarium I. B. Bpunsen T.L. Bower C. M.&. St. P. Ry. Co. H . L. Housman H. L. Dousman Dia of LenETlh When Depth. of drilled. feet. inches. casing, feet. 1876 960 6-41 148 1878 ! 1,017 6 118 1878 1.044 8 115 1884 500 8 115 1903 990 6 147 187!) 37.^ 4 n5 1880 3.50 4 132 1880 371 4 120 1882 374 4 116 1881 365 4 In 1905 Head ahove surface fent. 18 60 60 30 24 25 29 41 43 12 Flow per minute, gallons. 540 540 20 150 97 160 192 218 Temper- ature, F° 57 57 54 ,57 54 54 54 54 In order to show the relations of the various beds the section of the new well at the Sanitarium is given.^ A set of samples of the new well may be seen in the Geological Museum at the University of Wisconsin. * For description of the old well see Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. IV, p. 61. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 285 Section, of sanitiviiitn artesian, well, Prairie da Chien, Altitude (153. Formation. Depth. ThicknesN. Kemarks Alluvium. I'-eet . - .-,.-. 5.1-147 147 -1.12 152 -273 273-290 290—449 449-500 500-515 515-560 560-620 (i2l)-720 720—805 805-806 806-945 945-990 Feet. 5,1 92 121 17 159 51 15 45 60 100 85 1 139 45 Water rises to and supplies the wells. No water. Stroner flow. Dry. Much water. Water vein. Much water. Coarse ri ver-washed hand CpDer Cambrian (Potsdam) 11 ard chei'ty limestone (Mendota) most of 'Gray greenisli sliale , Bluish green sandy sliale..., Very coarse yellow sandstone .... Fine pinkish white sandstone. . . Blue shale , Total depth... ... . ' 990 The iron and saline properties of the waters corrode iron pipes so rap- idly that it was found necessary to line them with copper. It is also stated that the copper lining in the old city well did not extend quite to the bottom of the iron casing and a slight leak may occur at this place. Proper tests at the well would soon prove this. The water from the old city well has been used at the Sanitarium, but a new well drilled at the new Sanitarium furnishes practically the same kind of water. The two wells at Mr. Winnegar's mill are used for water power. The pipes corroded in two years and new pipes with copper lining were put in, which have remained until the present time. These wells are on the lowest ground in the city and will stop the flow of other wells in the city if opened and allowed to run at their full capacity. The two wells at Winnegar's mill have a capacity of 144 cubic feet per minute and approximately force enough for a 30-foot head. About 8- horse power is developed. A 10-inch turbine wheel was put in in 1878, and has been doing the grinding at the mill ever since. In 1894 auxiliary steam power was added. This however, is used only during the busy season. The third well, a 500 foot well, is not used at present. It seems most probable that the decrease in the old Stock Company well is largely due to the Winnegar wells, for the head in the new San- itarium well is approximately the same as the wells at Winnegar 's mill, while the first city well, is somewhat less, due partly to 5 feet of filling and to leakage at the place where the copper lining did not cover the iron casing. If the wells at the mill are allowed to flow freely the well 286 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. at the courthouse will stop flowing in about 3 hours. There are several wells 300 to 400 feet deep, as at the C. M. & St. P. R. R. Stock Yards, which are more or less neglected and allow water to escape at lower levels' tending to reduce the head. It appears that in the deep wells, the head has decreased about 20 feet, while in the shallower wells it has not dim- inished and in some cases has increased. In some wells, however, the flow has stopped entirely, owing to neglect. It', therefore, seems prob- able that as more deep wells penetrate the lower horizons water may es- cape into the higher horizons which have a lower head, and thus de- crease the head in the lower horizons, but increase the heads in the up- per horizons. After ejiough holes have been drilled the heads from the lower and the upper horizons will be approximately the same. To avoid loss in the various flows this leakage from the lower horizon ought to be confined to their respective horizons by means of proper casing. The deeper waters contain much more iron than the shallow waters, and also- much more saline mineral matter. Prairie du Chien to Be Soto. — ^North of Prairie du Chien, along the Mississippi river, wells much like those at Prairie du Chien are obtained, and therefore.no detailed record of each well is necessary. Although none of the wells at Prairie du Chien, and in Crawford County, have struck granite, those farther north frequently penetrate through the sandstone and reach the granite. Wauzeka. — Mr. Steisel 's well is at the highest point in the village but gives a fine flow. Section of A. W. SteiseVs well at Wauzeka. Formation . Thickness. Remarks. AHuvial. Sand Feet. 24 151 100 150 175 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) Shale, blue Water rose li feet in this Sandstone, blue sand. At 300 feet dropped 6 feet. At 470 feet stood at 3 feet. Total depth 600 At 600 feet a strong flow. The water in all the wells at Wauzeka comes from the Upper Cam- brian sandstone. In some of the wells crevices occur in the upper part of the formation, and in order to maintain a flow wells must be packed at proper places and kept in repair. Some of the wells have been re- packed several times and are as strong today as ever. These fissures may account for the lower head from the upper part of the horizon. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 287 Soldiers Grove. — This village, with a population of 667, has a public water supply obtained from an 8-inch well, 250 feet deep. The daily pumpage of water is about 5,000 gallons, about one-third of the houses being connected with the water supply. The average depth of the pri- vate wells is about 40 feet. Gays Mills. — The village well is an 8-inch well 202 feet deep. The supply is mainly used for fire protection. The private wells are gener- ally from 30 to 40 feet deep. QUALITY OF WATER The mineral content of the waters of Crawford County are fairly well shown in the table of analyses. The waters from the sandy alluvial de- posits along the Mississippi, Wisconsin and Kickapoo rivers are likely to be somewhat lower in mineral content than the waters obtained from the sandstone as illustrated by the old railroad well at Lowertown. The water from the upper horizons of the Upper Cambrian sandstone is likely to be hard water of only moderate mineral content. The waters from one of the beds in the middle horizons of the sandstone is of a salty character at Prairie du Chien, as shown in analysis No. 5 of the deep artesian well. At McGregor^, Iowa, on the west side of the Mississippi River opposite Prairie du Chien, salt water was struck at a depth of a little over 520 feet below the surface, the total depth of the well being 1,006 feet. This deep well contained 2,789 parts per million of mineral matter, while a well only 520 feet deep at McGregor contains only 495 parts per million. The salt^ water of the artesian well at Prairie du Chien, analyses No. 5, was obtained afdepth of 514 feet. The source of the salt water at Prairie du Chien and McGregor is very apparently the same bed in the sandstone formation. The salt wa- ter occurs only in a restricted area, as it is not encountered in deep wells farther east in Wisconsin or farther west in Iowa, which penetrate the same strata. While the source of the salt water at Prairie du Chien is very ap- parently a water-bearing stratum at depth of about 514 feet, the escape of the salt water from this depth into the upper horizons through the numerous deep wells that are now abandoned or are improperly cased has polluted the fresh water supplies in the upper horizons. This is shown by the fact that many of the shallow wells at the present time con- tain salt water. 'Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. XXI, p. 352. ' Geoi. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 61. 288 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN.- Mineral analyses of water in Crawford County. (Analyses in parts per million.) ' Alluvial sand. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 1 2 3 4 5 Depth of well feet. . Silica (9i02) 1 30 1.2 300 2.4 371 2.0 203 Undt. 960 65 1 Aluminium and iron oxides. (Al203+Fe203) 1 Iron (Fe) 1 2 44,5 14.4 17.7 84.4 52.7 8.3 53.2 33.0 4.0 161.7 7.1 0.9 57.6 26.2 39.9 151.2 29,0 40.1 44.6 19.6 29.1 136.8 19.6 4.1 79 9 54.6 Sodium (Na) (. (677.9 1 34.0 140.8 Potassium (K) , ..( Carbonate radicle (CO3) 333 4 Chlorine (CI) 967 1 Total dissolved solids 223. 262. 346. 254. 2352 1. Well of C. M. &t St. P. Ey. Co., Lowertown, Prairie du Chien. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 3, 1890. 2. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Wauzeka, flowing well. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., May 29, 1890. 3. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Prairie du Chien, flowing well. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 26, 1894. 4. Village well. Gays Mills. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Dec. 7, 1907. 5. Park well of Stock Company at Prairie du Chien. Analyst, G. Bode, prior to 1873. Dane County Dane County, located in the southern part of th^ state, has an area of 1,188 square miles, and a population of 77,435. About 95.7 per cent of the county is in farms of which 72.5 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE features The surface is an undulating plain with gently sloping hills and broad valleys in the central and eastern part where glaciated, and relatively rough topography with narrow valleys and abrupt slopes in the western part where unglaciated. Most of the county is drained by streams flow- ing southeastward to the Kock river, only the northwestern one-fourth being drained by streams flowing west to the Wisconsin. The most conspicuous elevation is the Blue Mounds on the western boundary, the highest point in southern Wisconsin, reaching an eleva- tion of approximately 1,700 feet above the sea level, being about 500 feet above the general level of the summit of the surrounding upland area, DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 289 and nearly 1,000 feet above the Wisconsin river ten miles to the north. The uplands in the northeastern part of the county reach in general a maximum altitude of 1,000 feet and in the southeastern part about 1,100 feet, while those in the western part reach up to 1,200 feet. The general altitude of the valley bottoms in the eastern part ranges from 800 to 860 feet, the altitude of the lakes in the Yahara valley being as follows : Lake Kegonsa, 824 ; Lake Waubesa, 844 ; Lake Monona, 845 and Lake Mendo- ta, 849. The valley bottom along the Wisconsin river on the northwest boundary of the county reaches an altitude of only about 740 feet, about 60 to 100 feet lower than the lowest valley bottom in the eastern Fig. 29. — Geologic section, north-south, across Dane county. part. The difference in altitude between valley bottom and adjacent up- land ridge in the eastern part is usually therefore less than 200 or 250 feet, while in the western part the difference in elevation is often over 400 or 450 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations outcropping in the county (see map) are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, the Lower Magnesian lime- stone, the St. Peter sandstone and the Platteville and Galena limestones. The northeastern part of the county, east of Cross Plains, Verona and Brooklyn, is covered with glacial drift. In the Blue Mounds the over- lying formations of Cincinnati shale and Niagara limestone are repre- sented. A belt of terminal moraine marks the border of the glaciated area. The southwestern part is driftless. The geological structure is illustrated in fig. 29. The thickness of the surface formation of glacial drift varies greatly on account of the very uneven surface upon which it is deposited, and on account of inequalities in the accumulation of drift in ridges and de- pressions through the direct work of glacial deposition. Along the line of the Yahara valley the thickness of the drift is from 200 to 300 feet, 19— W. S. 290 fTHE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the surface of the bed rock in the old pre-glacial valley being about 250 feet below the present level of the Yahara. The thickness of the rock formations is also variable between wide limits on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. The complete thickness of any formation is preserved only where protected by an over- lying formation. The Pre-Cambrian granite floor at Madison lies at a depth of about 740 feet below the level of L^ke Mendota, which is about 500 feet below the bottom of the pre-glacial valley of the Yahara. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be sum- marized as follows : Approximate range in .thickness of formations in Dane County. Formation. Surface formation Niagara limestone (only in Blue Mounas). Cincinnati shale (only in Blue Mounds).... tralena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone... . St. Peter and Lower Mag:nesian formation. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone The Pre-Gamhrian granite Thickness. Feet. to 350 II to 200 (1 to 200 to 800 (1 to 250 500 to 850 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS All the geological formations are drawn upon for water supplies, but the principal water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cambrian sandstone and the surface gravels and sands. The St. Peter sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone, and the Galena-Platteville limestone, are important sources for domestic and farm supply within the area of these formations. The water level is near the surface in the valley bottoms and on the lower slopes of the uplands, and at various depths below the surface on the hills and uplands, depending on the elevation above the adjacent valleys. In general the water level is usually less than 100 feet below the surface in the eastern part, but in the western part, where the hills rise higher above the level of the running streams, many wells reach depths of 200 to 300 feet to obtain a sufficient supply. Shaly strata, or other relatively impervious formation within the rock formations, strongly influence the underground water levels, and tend to hold up the water relatively high in the hills. This condition is il- lustrated by the city well at Mt. Horeb, the altitude of the curb being 1,200 feet, the water being obtained from the St. Peter sandstone undei?- lying the Galena-Platteville limestone, the water standing at depth of only 90 feet below the surface. DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL ^rATER SUPPLIES. 291 FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells occur in both the surface deposits and the underlying^ Tock in Dane County, but are unimportant as sources of water supply. Surface flowing wells furnish the city water supply of the village of Mazomanie, the source of the supply being the gravel beds underlying clay. Deep seated flows from the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone were developed in Madison and Stoughton when the city wells were flrst drilled, but the initial head was sufficient to yield only a small supply. AYhen city well No. 1 was drilled in Madison in 1882, there was sufficient pressure to raise the water in the well 41/2 feet above the surface of Lake Mendota, to an altitude of about 853 feet. The artesian head though not high enough to dcA^elop flows above the surface reaches higher as the land surface rises, and the distance from the lake and Ya- hara river increases, as shown by the head of 12 feet above the lake level at the Slichter cottage on the north shore of Mendota, and the head of 16 feet above the lake level at the State Capitol. The new city well in Stoughton, altitude of curb about 842 feet, drilled in 1910, when com- pleted flowed at the rate of only 10 gallons per minute. SPRINGS Springs are quite common in Dane County, on the lower slopes of the valleys. A state fish hatchery is located at the site of a small group of springs four miles south of Madison. These springs issue from the drift. One near Mt. Horeb is used to run an electric light plant. Several springs, including the ^Merrill and the Livesey springs, are lo- cated on the west shore of Lake Mendota. The Bryant Mineral Spring^ near Madison supplies a large demand for spring water in the local market. The Keyes spring is located on the east side of Lake Monona.. Other springs occur on many of the small streams that flow into the Yahara lakes, and along Black Earth Creek. The White Cross spring also supplies the local Madison market. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Madison. — This city, having a population of 25,531, the capital of the- state, has a water supply and sewage system. The sewage is treated by a system of septic tanks and trickling filter, and empties into the Yahara- river. About 84 per cent of the houses are connected with the sewage sys- tem. About 86 per cent of the houses are connected with the water sup- ply system. The private wells are few, usually being from 20 to 40 feet 292 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. deep in sandy and gravelly drift. The use of these surface wells is ob- jectionable, as the water is in much danger of contamination. The water supply system at Madison has had an interesting growth,- and as it represents the various stages of development, with the diffi- <;ulties usually encountered in pumping large quantities of water from .artesian sources, a brief review may throw considerable light upon un- derground water supply conditions elsewhere. Madison, at present, has probably the best developed artesian supply in "Wisconsin, with an avail- able daily capacity, as the pumps are now placed, of about 5,000,000 gal- lons. Under the present power development, however, as reported by City Engineer Icke in 1912, the daily pumpage capacity was about 3,- 000,000 gallons. A total of 535 hydrants are now in use (Feb. 1914) . The approximate average daily consumption in 1910 and 1911 was 1,800,000 gallons, the consumption during sohie of the summer months closely ap- proximating the pumpage capacity. A greater amount of water for city purposes, over 700,000,000 gallons, annually, is pumped for artesian wells only by Rockford, Illinois, where the shaft and tunnel system are in use. In 1913, 776,157,750 gallons of water were pumped, an increase of 61,- 220,650 gallons over the preceding year. The average daily pumpage, in 1913, was 2,126,000 gallons and the cost was five cents per 100 gal- lons. In the summer of 1914, the usual daily pumpage was 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 gallons. In 1881, when Madison decided to put in a system of waterworks, two artesian wells had been drilled in the city, one at the capitol, and the other at the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway station at West Madison, so that the underground conditions were fairly. well known. See the geologic section. Fig. 30, illustrating cliaracter of the strata in the Madison eity wells. Sections of wells at Madison. Capitol Park C.M.&St.P.R.V.Co CIt.v wen No. 4 Drift. i:i6 7.5 105 Upper Cambri- an (Potsdam) sandstone. 679i 715 645 Archean crystalline. 2094 Total depth . 1,015 795 750 The first city well. No. 1, was drilled in 1882 on the present water- works block, 6 inches in diameter and 751 feet deep to granite. The well was full of water all the time, and when completed the water rose 4^ DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 293 feet above the surface of Lake Mendota. The same year, another 6-ineh well. No. 2, was drilled 55 feet northeast of the first and to the same depth. Well No. 2 seemed to interfere with No. 1, but the amount was not determined. A third well, No. 3, was then drilled in 1883, 55 feet north of east from the second well, and upon completion the total ca- pacity of the three wells was about 600 gallons per minute, and the three wells furnished, per well, only 4/7 of the amount furnished by the first well. Another well, No. 4, was then drilled in 1883, 8 inches in diameter, 77 feet northeast of well No. 2. This well interfered with the well in the Capitol grounds 2,063 feet away, where the pumps had to be lower- ed 5 feet. As the supply was still insufficient in 1885 another 8-inch well, No. 5, was drilled 1,225 feet northeast from the third. On the advice of experts another 8-inch well. No. 6, was drilled in 1885, 700 feet east of well No. 3, and 700 feet south of well No. 5. This new well interfered with the flow of well No. 5, and only netted a gain of 80,000 gallons per day. By this time it was learned that the flow of the underground water furnishing the supply was moving from north to south, so the next step was to sink two wells in 1886, No. 7 and No. 8, only 226 feet deep, and drawing water through a depth of only 8 feet, the remaining 218 feet being shut off by casing. Each of these wells gave 80,000 gallons per day. At this time it was discovered that the laterals supplying the wells with water, fed from within a radius of about 400 or 500 feet. In drill- ing the next two wells in 1894 this information was made use of with remarkable results. The ninth well, No. 9, 10 inches in diameter, and 821 feet deep, was located 1,050 feet east of well No. 5 and 2,275 feet from the pumps. In a 48-hour test of this well the water receded to 18 feet from the surface, where it remained stationary and showed a capac- ity of 589,040 gallons of water in 24 hours. The tenth well. No. 10, 10 inches in diameter, was located directly east of well No. 9 at a distance of 1,235 feet, or 3,500 feet in direct line from the pumping station. This well, with the same test as well No. 9, showed the same capacity. Well No. 11, located on Patterson St., 15 inches in diameter, and 760 feet deep, was drilled in 1909. It will be noticed that each of the last two wells supplied about 390 gallons per minute more than the first well, which indicates that at the same head no marked interference resulted at this distance. The extra- ordinary dry season of 1901 conclusively proved the need for more wa- ter. To increase the yield of the present well system two methods were possible, — one to pump the water from a greater depth in the wells, the other to sink more wells at a considerable distance from those in opera- 294 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. DEPTH THICKNESS Feet Feet 4-12 12-40 40-SO 80-100 135-180 180-182 182-185 185-210 210-230 230-235 235-580 580-600 600-620 620-630 630-«80 680-700 700-728 728-730 730-731 731-736 28 40 - — 20- 45 . 2 -, frSS S ■ 25 - 20 — 5 — 20 10 60 — to - 28 .. 2 . . 1 -0- I — " ess ■-'- DESCRIPTION --Sandy loam """Calcareous clay — Sand and fine gravel — Calcareous sand Sand and gravel — White coarse-grained sandstone Yellow sandstone -Green shale -Arenaceous limestone -Calcareous sandstone -Calcareous lerruginous shale -Calcareous sandstone — Speckled white sandstone S 55 O O F4 ■"White sandstone ' Coarse-grained calcareous sandstone Speckled white sandstone • Ferruginous sandstone —-Coarse-grained calcareous sandstone - Ferruginous sandstone ,.Highly ferruginous sandstone .,','.HighIy ferruginous shale -—Much decomposed diabase — Pre-Cambrian Fig 30.— Geologic Section Illustrating Ch of Ma DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 295 tion. Experience indicated that it would not be economical to sink more in connection with the present system, as the influence of the present well extends over a considerable distance, which may be seen Uy the fol- lowing summary of the tests made. Tests Showing Interfei-ence of Madison Wells. Gallons per day. One well at the pumping station 350, 000 Four wells at the pumping station . . 1.000.000 Pour wells at the pumping station and four wells scattered along a line within 3,000 feet 1.750.000 Four wells at pumping station and one remote well 1,300,000 Tests of the artesian well at the C. M. & St. P. roundhouse, a mile dis- tant, failed to show any effect of the pumping at the city wells. Additional wells could, therefore, be drilled at a distance of about a mile in either direction from the present system of wells at right angles to the direction of the flow without any decrease at the present wells. This plan, however, would necessitate a subsidiary pumping station, and was not resorted to. To pump water from an increased depth there are two praticable methods. First, by sinking a large shaft and placing ordinary suction pumps at the bottom, and then connecting by tunnels to a sufficient num- ber of wells: second, by using so-called deep-well pumps, which are designed to be placed at any desired depth. Four deep well pumps were recently installed. These pumps have very large capacities and can readily be applied to the present system. The efficiency of the deep-well pumps installed is about 50 per cent, con- siderably above the theoretical requirements. One of these pumps has been installed at well No. 10, and another at the remote 8-inch well. No. 5, thereby increasing the capacity of the system from 1,750,000 to 4,000,- 000 gallons per day. In 1911 deep-well pumps were installed at well No. 9,' and in the new well. No. 11. This new well. No. 11, is located about half a mile from the watenvorks station, and has an estimated daily ca- pacity of 1,000,000 gallons, the well being lowered about 18 feet when pumped at this rate. That the capacity of the Madison system could be further increased and made to furnish double the present supply by in- stalling a first-class shaft and tunnel system can scarcely be doubted. Of the 700,000,000 gallons used in 1911, about one-third was pumped by the direct suction system from the 7 wells located on and near the water- 296 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. works station, and about two-thirds, by 4 deep-well pumps at the 4 wells located some distance from the station. In 1914, 90 per cent of the supply was pumped by deep well pumps, and 10 per cent by the new air lift system. In 1911, and also previous to that time, tests were made as to the san- itary condition of the water supply. In the examination made by the State Hygienic Laboratory in 1911 it was found that the supply from the wells on the direct suction system was never uniformly good, but that the bacterial content of the water from these wells seemed to in- crease after heavy rains, indicating some connection with contaminated groundwater. It is the general opinion that contaminated surface water is likely to be drawn into the artesian water supply when pumped by the direct suction system. StougMon. — This city having a population of 4,761, has a water sup- ply and sewage system. The water supply is obtained from two artesian wells, each 1,011 feet deep. An auxiliary supply from the Yahara river, one intake at a depth of 6 feet, is also available. The daily pumpage is 88,000 gallons. About 800 houses are connected with the supply. Sew- age is emptied, without treatment, into the Yahara I'iver. The section of the city well. No. 2, is as follows: Section of well No. S at Stoughton. Formation. Thickness. Drift Feet. 201 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone 810 Total 1,011 Sun Prairie. — The population of Sun Prairie is 1,119. The Sun Prai- rie city supply is from a 10-inch well, 712 feet deep, cased to a depth of 153 feet. Formerly the supply was taken from a well 212 feet deep, im- properly cased, the supply being contaminated with marsh water. Dur- ing a period of three years the level of the marsh water was lowered about 13 feet. The new supply is very satisfactory and has a capacity of 500 gallons per minute. The city uses a Wood's deep well pump, and raises the water 60 feet. Pumping lowers the water about 15 feet. The average daily pumpage is 123,000 gallons. The total number of service connections is 176^. *For details of water pressures In this well, see W. G. KirchofEer, Bull. (Jniv. of Wis. 106, p. 232. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 297 Sectio/i of the city well of Sun Prairie. Formation. Thickness. Pleistocene Drift.... Feet. 38 Lower Magnesian 52 Upper Cambrian ( Potsdam) Sandstone (lost 19 feet of water) 32 'fi Grev limestone ... 6 Reddish sandstone .' 67 15 Ked sandstone... 50 White sandstone 6 Pink shale 38 g 48 Coarse sandstone . 7 Total 712 Oregon. — The population is 712. The city water supply is obtained from a 6-inch well, 175 feet deep, in drift and sandstone. The estimated daily capacity of the well is 100,000 gallons ; the daily pumpage is about 60,000 gallons. About 50 per cent of the houses connect with the city supplj^ The private wells vary in depth from 40 to 200 feet. Mount Horeb. — The population is 1,048. The city water supply is ob- tained from an 8-inch well, 217 feet deep. The water is obtained from the St. Peter sandstone, the water level standing 90 feet below the sur- face. Camiridge. — The population is 507. The city supply is obtained from an 8-inch well, 200 feet deep, from the St. Peter sandstone. Mazomanie. — The population of this village is 917. The village sup- ply for both fire and domestic use is obtained from 10 driven wells, 25 feet deep, spaced 8 to 10 feet apart, in two parallel rows. The water is obtained from a gravel bed. The average daily pumpage is 4,000 gal- lons. There are 30 service connections. Black Earth.— The population of Black Earth is 479. The water sup- ply is obtained from private wells, driven about 20 feet into a bed of sand and gravel. Middletoti.—The population of this vilage is 679. The village supply is obtained from a 10-inch well, 200 feet deep. The estimated capacity is 80,000 gallons; the daily pumpage is 17,000 gallons. About 50 per cent of the houses are reported to connect with the village suply. Deerfidd.—The population is 533. The village supply is obtained from two wells, 6 and 8 inches in diameter, 129 and 152 feet deep, 20 298 T^E WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. feet in drift and the I'emainder in rock. About 50 per cent of the houses are reported to connect with the supply. Private wells are from 20 to 80 feet deep. QUALITY OF THE WATER The waters of Dane County are either hard or very hard waters, though almost wholly of only moderate mineral content. The surface waters, those of the lakes and rivers, are appreciably lower in mineral content than the groundwater supplies. The water from the Galena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone, and the St. Peter sandstone, appears to contain the highest content of mineral matter. The Madison artesian water supply, obtained from the Upper Cambrian sandstone, contains approximately the same amount of mineral matter as the water of wells in surface deposits. Most of the waters from various sources throughout the county are carbonate waters and are much the same in chemical com- position. Only two of the waters analyzed, Nos. 7 and 8, from surface deposits, are sulphate waters. The lower content of mineral in the Lake Mendota water than in the surrounding gi-oundwater and spring supplies, is very apparently due largely, though not wholly, to the loss of lime, either through the work of organisms or through chemical precipitation in the lakes. In all the groundwater of Wisconsin of carbonate character there is very generally an excess of lime over magnesia in the proportion of 2 to 1. In the lake wEiter, however, through the growth of chara and the shells of molluscs, a certain amount of lime carbonate is utilized, and hence, the lake wa- ters and the Yahara River water, as shown in the analyses, contain a smaller amount of lime than of magnesi^a. In general there appears to be a loss of from 25 to 50 per cent of the calcium, through organic and chemical changes wrought within the body of the lake. The water from the Yahara River, analyses No. 3, contains 1.48 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons; that from the artesian well in Madison, No. 9, contains 2.46 pounds in 1,000 gallons, while that from the well at Mt. Horeb, No. 8, contains 4.13 pounds in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 299 Mineral analyses of water in Dane County. (Analyses in parts per million.) River. LaUe. Spi ins. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silica (SiO>) 0.3 1 0.3 i" 33!6 26.2 7.5 108.0 11.4 9.2 15.2 2.2 16.6 4.3 Aluminum and iron o.xides {AI2O3 1-Fe203) Aluminum oxide (AI2O3) 11.1 54.8 29.9 5.1 161.0 trace 1.8 19.8 21.6 3.6 2.2 77.2 15.3 3.0 57.3 32.0 \ 3.4 185.8 3.7 5.2 17.4 Magrnesium iM?' 42.0 1.9 Sodium (iVa) J Potassium 'K; 1 Carbonate radicle (CO;;) 213 5 7 6 Clilorine (CD 7 Organic matter. 264. Total dissolved solids 196. 160. 288. '<7' Deptliof well feet.. Silica (SC02) Aluminum and iron o.xides. (Al2G3+Fe203) Alummum oxide ( AI2O3) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mtr) Sodium (Na) Potassium (lil Carbonate radicle (GO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Total dissolved solids. 2.2 67.2 33.8 192.4 4.7 1.5 311. Surface deposits. 14 14.9 2.9 29.5 32.6 112.8 18.8 9.1 227. 1.5 238 2 2 14.4 172.7 14.5 11.5 305. - 87.4 41.7 18.4 234.4 55.9 7.4 447. 10. 28 undet. 94.9 46.5 9.3 173.1 13.S.8 458. 1. I'ahala River at Madison. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, for C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Mar. 1894. 2. Blaclt Earth Creek at Mazomanie. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 3, 1891. 3. Lalie Mendota — Mean of two Analyses. Analyst, E. B. Hall and C. Juday, Wis- consin Survey Bull. 22, p. 170, Sept. 9, 1907. 4. Bryant's Silver Spring, Madison. Analyst, Paul Fisher. 5. White Cross Spring, Madison. Analyst, Columbus Laboratories, Jan. 7, 1914. 6. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Cross Plains. Analyst. Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 3, 1891. 7. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Riley. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 2, 1909. 8. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Mazomanie. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., June 3, 1893. 9. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry., Stoughton. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Sept. 20, 1889. ,„„„ 10. Well of C M. & St. P. By. Co.. Stoughton. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 6, 1902. 300 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Dane County — Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) Galena-Platteville dolomite. St. Peter Sandstone.- 11. !?• 13. 14. Depth ol well feet. . Silica (SiOz) 188 5.9 1.0 72.2 37.3 \ 44.0 172.2 16.5 77.7 153 14.9 1.2 72.0 40.2 5.8- 178.9 45.1 8.9 60 16.1 20.9 79.8 25.7 37.7 72.6 ,177.0 5S.0 35.9 214 17.9 Aluminium and iron oxides (Al203+l'e203) Calcium (Ca) 2.7 74.8 Masrnesium (Mg) 64.8 Sodium (Na) Potassium(K) 9.7 167.9 Sulohatei-adirlp (ROa) 166 6 Chlorine (CD 15.0 Orgranic matter .... Total solids 427. 367. 488. 520 Upper Cambrian ;Potsdam) sandstone. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Depth of well feet. . Silica (Si02) 736 7.0 1.3 751 Trace 1.015 26. 6. 1.011 2.7 10.5 85 15.51 2.8 800 undet. 749 undet. 332 Aluminium and iron oxides (AkOs+FeaOs)... Aluminium oxide (AloOs) undet. Iron ( Fe) 1.1 64.4 36.5 194.7 5.6 3.0 Calcium (Ca) 63.6 34.1 [ 5.8 154.1 25.5 8.2 58.5 35.4 28. 198.2 19.2 7. 60.2 41.^ 2.2 184.4 12.0 3.5 61.6 35.9 17.8 168.8 48.2 5.3 74.3 41.2 5.2 191.2 43.8 74.6 38.9 12.6 195.0 35.3 8.2 57 5 32 6 Sodium (Na) Potassium (K)I 7.2 Carbonate radicle (CDs) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 169.9 Total solids 300. 316. 378. 317. 355. 356. 365. 11. Well of Hanson & Schneider's Mill, Mt. Horeb. Analyst, G. M. Davidson. 12. Well of C. & N. W., Blue Mounds. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 22, 1909. 13. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Klevenville. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 30, 1909. 14. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Stock Yards, Mt. Horeb. Analyst, G. M. Davidson,. May 9, 1909. 15. Artesian well, Madison. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Mar. 1894. 16. Well of City Water Supply, Madison. Analyst, W. W. Daniells. 17. Well of State Capitol, Madison. Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, p. 32, 1877. IS. Well of City Water Supply, Stoughton. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Jan. 15, 1903. • 19. Well in city quarry, Madison. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Mar. 22, 1912. 20. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Madison. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 9, 1902. 21. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Madison. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 11, 1911. 22. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Windsor. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Mar. 22, 1907. DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 30I Dodge County Dodge County, located in the southeastern part of the state, has an area of 884 square miles and a population of 47,436. About 90.4 per cent of the county is in farms, of Avhieh 75.1 per cent is under cultiva- tion. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Dodge County presents no prominent reliefs, but con- sists mainly of broad valley bottoms and gently sloping uplands. The en- tire county is occupied by drift largely deposited by the latest glacial in- vasion. Undrained marshes and lakes are common. Fox Lake and Beaver Lake are prominent lakes located in the northwestern part of the county. Rock river and its tributaries, Beaver Dam river and Craw- fish river, are the principal streams. The valley bottom of the Rock river at Watertown is a little above 800 feet above sea level. The gen- eral level of the Horicon marsh, which covers an area of about 50 square miles along the west branch of the Rock, north of Horicon, is about 860 feet. Mud Lake, Beaver Dam Lake and Fox Lake on the Beaver Dam river are respectively 780, 873 and 895 feet above sea level. The land in the eastern part of the county on the divide between the Rock river and the Lake ilichigan drainage, is higher than that of the central and west- ern part, the divide usually reaching 1,150 to 1,200 feet above sea level. The uplands are usually less than 200 feet, and rarely exceed 300 feet, above the adjacent valley bottoms. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations range from the Lower Jlagnesian limestone in the western part of the county, through the St. Peter sandstone, the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone and the Cincinnati shale np to the Niagara limestone on the eastern border. In the southwestern part of the county at Waterloo are a few outcrops of the Pi-e-Cambrian quartzite. Glacial drift of variable thickness overlies the several bed rock formations, and a variable amount of alluvial sand and gravel as- sociated with the drift fills the valleys. The geological structure is il- lustrated in Fig. 31. The thickness of the surface formation is quite variable on account of the uneven surface upon which these deposits were laid down. In the 302 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. filled valleys of the pre-glacial rivers a thickness of 250 to 300 feet of sand and gravel may be expected, while on the uplands the usual thick- ness of the drift is probably less than 100 feet. The thickness of the rock strata is also quite variable on account of the great diversity in the amount of erosion. As indicated in the cross section of the formations, Figure 31, it is only where a formation is protected by the next for- Fig. 31. — Geologic section, east-west, across central Dodge county. mation above that the entire or maximum thickness is preserved. In the western part of the county the complete thickness of only the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is usually preserved, while in the east- ern part, where the Niagara limestone caps the uplands, the complete thickness of all the strata under the Niagara is present. The approximate range in thickness of the formations in the western half of the county, and also in the eastern half, may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in western half of Dodge County. Formation. Tliickness. Surface formation Galena-l^latteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Maerneaian fcroi ations. . Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrian granite or quartzite .'. Feet. Oto 300 etc 200 Oto 250 500 to 800 Approximate range in thickness of formations in eastern half of Dodge County. Formation. Surface formation Niagrara limestone Cincinnati sliale Galena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Magnesian tormations. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrian granite Tliickness. Feet. to 300 Oto 200 Oto 220 100 to 250 200 to 250 600 to 800 DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 303 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the St. Peter sandstone, the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone and the glacial drift. The other geological formations especially the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone also furnish an abundant supply wherever they can be convenient- ly drawn upon-. The county as a whole is relatively flat lying, and us- ually wells are shallow, varjdng from 20 to 60 feet in drift or in the un- derlj'ing rock. FLOWING WELLS Plowing wells from the surface deposits occur at Herman, and from the underlying sandstone, the St. Peter, Lower Magnesian and Upper Cambrian horizons along the Rock liver and its tributaries. The flows are not as strong as those farther down the Rock river valley in Jeffer- son County. Flowing wells occur at Reeseville and Beaver Dam, as de- scribed on the following pages. (See also pages 75 and 97. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Beaver Dam. — The population of Beaver Dam, situated on Beaver Dam Lake, is 6,758. The city has both a ground water and artesian wa- ter supply. The ground water well is 20 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, and supplies 450,000 gallons per day, not sufficient for the ordin- ary demand, which is about 700,000 gallons per day. The sewage, with- out treatment, is drained into the Beaver Dam river. About 80 per cent of the people use the water and sewage system. The artesian water supply is obtained from two 6-inch artesian wells, one 308 and the other 504 feet deep. The elevation of the curb is 885 feet, and the water flows a foot above- the surface from the 504 foot well, and rises to the surface in the 308 foot well. The artesian water is said to carry much iron in solution, and to be brown in color. The two waterworks wells are cased to rock, but P. Spellman's well which is 208 feet deep and flows 2 feet above the surface, is cased only through 20 feet of clay, though it is reported not to have struck rock until 80 feet of clay and gravel were passed through. The flow in Spellman's well was considerably increased after drilling the deep waterworks well, the latter no doubt partly feeding the upper strata of the sandstone. 304 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Section of the Beaver Bam Water Go's. well. Formations. Clay and marsh muck Galena-Trenton limestone Sandstone, red brown Sandstone, coarse white, much water. Sandstone, yellow Sandstone, hard white Total Thickness. Feet. 20 55 175 15 110 129 504 The surface formations in the river valley at Beaver Dam either lies directly upon the Trenton limestone or the St. Peter sandstone, and the latter rests upon sandstone of the Lower Magnesian and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) horizons.. The ridges are capped by Galena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone and most of the wells on higher ground get their supply from this formation. Mayville. — The population is 2,282. The city has a water supply and sewage system, recently installed. The water supply is obtained from two artesian wells 670 and 855 feet deep, 8 and 9 inches in diam- eter. The source of supply is mainly from the St. Peter and Potsdam sandstones. The yield is reported to be 144,000 gallons per day. The average daily pumpage is about 50,000 gallons. Total number of wa- ter connections is 270. The sewage is pumped to a system of sedimen- tation, the capacity of the settling basins being 30,000 gallons. Horicon. — The population is 1881. The city has a municipal water supply but no sewage system. Private sewers empty into the river. The water system was completed in Nov. 1912 and a sewage system will soon be installed. The water supply is obtained from two flowing wells 600 feet deep, 10 in. diameter for 100 feet, and 8 in. diameter the remaining distance. Both wells flow sufficiently for present require- ments (Dec. 1912). The pumpage capacity is 600 gallons per minute. A large per cent of the houses have already been connected up with the water system. The log of the city wells is as follows: DE8CRIPTI0X OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 305 Log of tioo Iloricon city wells. Formation. Surface formations GalPna-Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter (and Lower Magrnesiau) sandstone. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Total Thicljness. li'eet. 60 190 250 200 600 Reeseville. — The population is 352. The water is obtained from the Trenton limestone, or from its contact with St. Peter sandstone. Flows are struck on low ground. Wells range in depth from 20 to 200 feet. Section of Well owned by P. Bunkle, ReeteviUe. Formation . TMclcness. Clav Feet. 20 62 Gravel 15 ' 'Shell Rocli" 13 30 Total 140 Juneau. — The population of Juneau is 1,003. The city water sup- ply is obtained from a 6-inch well 350 feet deep, cased 30 feet. The wa- ter in the well stands 70 feet below the ground, and the average daily pumpage is about 20,000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the families use the city water. No sewage system is installed. At Burnett Junction the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad well is about 50 feet deep and flows one foot above the surface. At Lowell, the well of Gr. Ganes is 380 feet deep, obtaining water from the St. Peter sandstone horizon. At Clyman the deepest wells are 144 and 150 feet deep in the Trenton limestone. Randolph. — The population of Randolph is 937. The village has a public supply, mainlj^ for fire purposes, obtained from an 8-inch .well 300 ft. deep, daily capacity 140,000 gallons. Only a small percentage of houses connect with the system. Private wells are generally from 30 to 60 feet deep. The drillers log of the 240 foot well at South Randolph, a station on the C. & N. W. Ry. is as follows : 20— W. S. 306 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Driller's log of O. & N. W. By. Co. well at South Randolph. Formation. Thickness. 1 Glacial drift Feet. 38 ? 108 H. 2 4 Blue sandstone 2 !) Green sandstone 5 6 70 7 Green sandstone 6 8 9 Total \ 240 Analyses of this water is No. 29 in the table. No. 2 in the above log is probably the Lower Magnesian limestone, and Nos. 3 to 8 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. This well supplied, on a pumping test, 62,000 gallons in 10 hours. Clyman Jet.— The well of the C. & N. W. Ry. Co. at Clyman Jet., depth 335 feet has the following section : Drillers log of G. (SiN. W, well at Glyman Junetion. Formation. Thickness. 1. Loose earth Feet. 30 238 3. Sandstone 67 Total 335 No. 1 is glacial formation, No. 2 is Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone, and No. 8, St. Peter sandstone. The water analysis of this well is No. 28 in the table of analyses. AsMppun. — At Ashippun station two wells were drilled in 1912 by the C. & N. W. Ry. Sections of these wells, 345 and 458.3 feet deep, have the following driller's logs: DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 307 Driller's logs of two C. & N. W. Ry. wells at Ashippun. Formation. Black soil Quicksand Shale Shale and blue clay Lime rock Sandstone Green shale Hard crystallized limestone Green shale and calcite crystals . Total These wells are 160 feet apart. The 458.3 foot well differs from the 345 foot Avell in having a very thick sandstone bed represented by- No. 6. Nos. 1 and 2 are glacial and alluvial formations. Nos. 3 to 7 are probably within the Cincinnati shale group, the transition beds be- ing represented by 6 and 7. Nos. 8 and 9 are probably within the Gal- ena-Platteville (Trenton) group. The analyses of water from these wells are shown in the table of analyses, Nos. 20 and 21. Both are hard carbonate waters and contain a email amount of hydrogen sul- phide gas. Water in the 345 foot well rises within 13 inches of top of well. i , ^:^ QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral content of the M-aters of Dodge County is shown in the several tables of analyses. About one-half the waters analyzed are hard waters, and one-half are very hard waters. The waters from the rail- road wells at Juneau and Rubicon are unusually hard water from the surface formations, which may be due to the occurrence of material from the Cincinnati shale formation in the surface deposits at these places. Most of the waters are carbonate waters. Analyses No. 13, 16, 26 and 21 are of sulphate waters. The creek waters, Nos. 3 and 4, are relatively high in mineral matter for surface waters in Wisconsin. The water from the creek at Burnett Jet., No. 4, contains 2.77 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons ; the water from the C. & N. W. By. well at South Randolph, No. 29, contains 2.64 pounds in 1,000 gallons; and that from the railroad well at Juneau, No. 8, contains 4.74 pounds in 1,000 gallons. 308 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Dodge County. '(Analyses in parts per million.) Eiver. Creel;. Spring's. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Silica (SIO2) 14.0 ■ 2.0 14.9 1.5 22.0 1 AlumlnJum and iron oxides (AhOa+FezOa) J- 12.2 4.5 .5 76.1 43.9 7.3 216. 7.8 11.2 2.9 Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) isi.f 46.1 3.7 175.7 15.7 8.3 49.5 37.4 6.6 151.4 26.3 8.2 72.6 37.4 4.1 177.4 34.3 6.3 71.7 37.7 10.3 186.6 20 1 15.8 66. i 33.8 1.6 179.5 5 4 2.4 65.3 Maffnesium (Mg) 36 7 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 6 6 Carbonate radicle (COs) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD 167.0 30.8 9 9 Total dissolved solids. . . 299. 279. 348. 359. 389. 292. 329. Surface deposits. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Depth of well feet.. Silica (Si02) 14 15.5 1.0 20 40 40 J 16 4 24 1 }• midet. i 24 Aluminium and iron o-xides ( AbOsJ+FeoOs) i 1.7 Iron (Fe) .9 •Calcium (Ca) 120 3 62.0 40.5 278 1 102.8 53.7 58.9 32.0 10.4 166.7 17.0 4.4 90.8 53.0 15.5 204.7 119.7 9.6 109.2 55.0 6.8 210.5 144 7 10.4 37.0 29.0 4.2 127.3 2.6 4.4 113.0 61.2 9.6 180.1 222.6 14.7 86.6 Maernesium (Mgr) 43.5 :Sodium and potassium (Na+K') 6.4 Carbonate radicle (COs) Sulphate radicle (S04) Chlorine (CD 186.5 79.8 10.0 Total dissolved solids. . . 674. 290. 493. 537. 209. 601. 414. 1. Eocli River at Horicon Junction. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, April 3, 190S. 2. Kocl; River at Mayville. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Oct. 5, 1910. .3. Honey Creels near Lowell. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 22, 1910. 4. Creels at Burnett Junction. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 23, 1896. 5. Peerless Spring, Fox Lalte. Analyst, G. Bode. 6. Woodland Spring, Woodland. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July 9, 1889 7. Spring of Paul O. Hustings, Mayville. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co. 8. Well of C. & Nj W. Ry. Co., Juneau. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 23, 1896. 9. Railroad well at Fox Lake Junction. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Sept. 30, 1889. 10. Private well at Horicon. Analyst. Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., May 9, 1901. 11. Railroad well at Rubicon. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 19, 1902. 12. Railroad well at Mayville. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Aug. 10, 1889. 13. City well at Mayville. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Sept. 14, 1905. 14. Railroad well at Horicon Junction. Analyst, Chemist C, JI, & St. P. Ry. Co., July 8, 1889. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 309 Mineral analyses of water in Dodge County — ^Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) Surface deposits. Galena-Platteville limestone. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 DcDth of well 25 - undet. 109.9 57.8 6.8 211.0 145.0 17.3 40 > undet. 101.5 46.3 17.6 165.3 197.9 42 undet. 115.1 60.7 18.2 211.2 34.9 .50.2 144.7 40 17.1 1.5 62 6 44.9 5.3 201.9 12.6 2.0 120 22.2 .5 S4.5 39.3 10.8 190.6 5.2 14.0 345 11.8 1.0 68.0 ,.37.9 20.9 211.5 6.0 8.7 458 3 Silica (SiO«) 12 5 Aluminium and iron o.xides (AlaOi+FesO'iC 4.9 69.5 Masfnesium (Mff) 30 1 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 8,1 Carbonate radicle (CO3).... Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 180.1 7.4 5.6 Nitrate radicle (NOq) Total dissolved .solids. . . 548. 529. 635. 348. 347. 366. 318. Lower Majf- nesian lime- stone . .St. Peter and Upper Cambrian (Potsd am) san d stone. 22 33 24 23 26 27 28 29 Depth of well feet.. Silica (SiOs) 154 9.9 1.5 234 13.1 .5 1.30 12.0 2.0 2.2 98.0 61.0 1.0 287.0 2.36 18.0 1.5 21 i!4 2.3 232 1 > un- \ det. 426 ••!•■■• 1 8.6 335 14 .9 1.0 240 19 a Aluminium and iron oxides (Al^O^+Fe-jOi) 7 65.3 31.4 4 3 165.1 67.1 35.5 1.8 181.8 61.1 32.0 11.6 170.4 82.6 39.6 13.3 132.3 110.7 40.6 99.0 173.6 68.2 36.2 2.2 185.4 62 4 39.2 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 2.9 170 8 Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs) 19.2 4.6 12.7 1.7 14.7 7.0 141.0 18.8 328.1 18.9 i2..3 2.0 31.2 Chlorine (CI) 4.6 Nitrate radirle (NOi ) 4.3 Total dissolved solids 301 314. 485. 301. 432. 780. 322. 331. of Rubicon Malt & Grain Co., Rubicon. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 19. 1902. C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Horicon Juhction. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, April 11,. 1902. of Joseph Hauser, Rubicon. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb.. 19, 1902. of A. Swenson, near Asbippun. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 14, 1910. of .1. Drew near Ashippun. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, N6v. 14, 1910. of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Ashippun. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, May 6, 1912. of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Ashippun. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, May 29, 1912. of .T. Kuhlman, Lowell. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 22, 1910. of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., South Randolph. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 13,. 1911. of Woolen Mill at Beaver Dam. Water Supply, from Wells, Beaver Dam. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Jan. 21, 1910. of C M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Horicon Junction. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss,. Mar. 18, 1912. well Mayville. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Sept. 14, 1905. of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Clyman Junction. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 25,. 1911. of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., South Randolph. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 6,. 1911. 15. Well 16. Well 17. Well 18. Well 19. Well 20. Well 21. Well 22. Well 23. Well 24. Well 25. City 26. Well 27. City 28. Well 29. Well 310 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCOI^SIN. Door County Door County forming the main body of the peninsula between Green 53.4 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES -r^ n r.ur with the exceptiou of its southern boundary adjacent west adjacent to Green Bay. , .>,. 3.-Geo:o.. section, east-west, -n.^t.e .oun^a. ot Boo. ana Kewaunee In the narow northern part of the county the" surf ace is rough and xugged while the broader southern part is more leve and roUmg. Elevens in the northern part ^^^^^^1^]-^'''':^^^^^^ ern part rarely exceed 300 feet above the level of the la^e The dramag is verj largely by streams flowing southeast to Lake Miclngan. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS ■ WUh the exception of a narrow belt of Cincinnati shale in the south- wlte'nplro't county, adjacent to Green Bay, the -ck formation t th. Irface is wholly the Niagara limestone. Outcrops of the Ime- :tonear?verV common in the northern part, but south of Sturgeon iav over Ih/more level portion the drift covering is more abundant Sdertle suSace deposits of glacial drift, there are thick deposits o tal graves and lacustrine clays adjacent to Lake Michigan^ The geological structure is illustrated in figure 32, a cross section east and west along the boundary of Door and Kewaunee counties. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL, WATER SUPPLIES. 311 The thiclmess of the surface deposits is variable but apparently not as great anywhere in the county as in the counties farther south. Over much of the peninsula, no surface deposits overlie the rock, and the maximum thickness of drift is probably not more than 150 or 200 feet. The thickness of the Niagara limestone, however, is probably as great as in the counties further south. No records of weUs are avail- able which have pene^ated through this formation in the eastern part of the county where the greatest thickness is likely to be attained. On the upland areas, however, many wells have been drilled to a depth of 200 feet into this formation. At Algoma, (see p. 403), a short distance south of Door County, a thickness of 485 feet of Niagara was penetrated in the new city well. The maximum thickness in Door County is very probably between 450 and 550 feet. The Cincinnati shale outcrops only in the southwestern part of the county adjacent to Green Bay. The exposed thickness under the Ni- agara, ranges from about 15 feet at its most northern point of outcrop, south of Little Sturgeon Bay, to 50 or 60 feet at the southern border of the county. In this locality the formation is a hard compact fine grained calcareous shale showing abundant mud cracks. East of Green Bay on Door Peninsula, three-fourths of a mile from the shore and, 18 miles southwest of Sturgeon Bay, a well was drilled by the Calumet Land and Oil Company of Calumet, Michigan, of which the following record was obtained : Record of well of Calumet Land & Oil Co. Sec. S4, T. 27 N. R. S3 E. Formation , Thickness. Feet. 6 .540 120 90 30 175 Glacial Sand and gravel Cincinnati Soft greenish blue shale Galena- Plalteriile (Trenton) Limestone and soapstone Sandy limestone (water bearing) Kiatey limestone St. Peter Sandstone (water bearing) , Total depth , 961 The thickness of the Cincinnati shale formation in Door County, and for some distance farther south in Kewaunee and Brown counties, as illustrated in the deep well of Joe Vandermessen, near Dyckeville, is of special interest, as stated on page 405. Another well was drilled near by when prospecting for coal, the ma- terial penetrated as reported by Mr. Burns being as follows: 312 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Section of well in Sec. U, T. 21 N. R. S3 E. Formation. Thickness. Pleistocene Soil Feet. 5 Cincinnati ghale , : 516 Galena-PIatteville (Trenton) '■ 200 St. Peter 80 Remainder ( Beds ol limestone, sandstone, soapstone, slaty shale, clay, ending in a clay bed) . 239 Total denth . . . . 1,040 The approximate thickness of the geological formation from the sur- face down to the Pre-Cambrian in Door County may be summarized as follows : Approximate thickness of formations in Door County. Formation. Surface formation Niagara lim.estone Cincinnati shale Galen a-Platteviile (Trenton) limestone.. St. Peter and Lower Magrnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone.. Pre-Cambrian granite Thickness. Feet. to 200 to 550 500 to 550 200 to 250 200 to 250 300 to 500 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS The principal sources of the water supply are the surface deposits and the Niagara limestone. Water can generally be obtained from the gravel seams in the drift and lacustrine deposits where the surface for- mation attains a thickness of 30 or 40 feet or more. The Niagara limestone -furnishes a good supply of water at depths of a few feet up to 200 feet. On the limestone ridges most of the wells are from 100 to 200 feet in rock. The Cincinnati shale is impermeable to water and hence no appreci- able supply is obtained from this formation. In the small area of out- crop of this formation abundant water is found in the surface gravels overlying the shale. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 313 WELLS IN THE RURAL DISTRICTS The depth of the wells in Door county is quite variable. In the town of Forestville the wells are 60 to 80 feet in rock ; in Jacksonport 50 to 200 feet in rock ; in Sawyer 20 to 80 feet in rock ; in Sister Bay 50 to 200 feet in rock ; and in Vignes 10 to 200 feet in drift and rock. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Sturgeon Bay. — The city of Sturgeon Bay, located on Sturgeon Bay,. an inlet of Green Bay, has a population of 4,262. The city -has a sys- tem of waterworks, recently installed, the water supply being obtained from the bay, through one intake, laid at a depth of 8 feet, and from five wells, each 250 feet deep. No records of the wells are at hand, but they probably reached to the approximate base of the Niagara lime- stone formation. The average daily pumpage is 150,000 gallons, there being about 80 service connections. There are a number of shallow flowing Avells in the city, ranging from 25 to 30 feet deep in the gravel and the Niagara limestone. These wells are located on ground 5 to 10 feet above the level of the bay and flow as high as 10 feet above ground. QUALITY OF THE WATER No analyses of the water supplies of Door County are at hand. The water of Lake Michigan containing about 140 parts per million of min- eral matter, is shown in the table, page 221. The water of Green Bay is likely to be only slightly higher in mineral matter than that of Lake Michigan. The groundwater derived from the surface formation and Niagara limestone are likely to be hard waters ,while that derived from the formations underlying the Cincinnati shale may be very hard wa- ter, high in mineral, like that from the Stephenson well at Marinette, or it may be hard water of only moderate m.ineral content, like that from the new city well at Algoma. 314 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Douglas County Douglas County, located in the northwestern corner of the state, on Lake Superior, has an area of 1,319 squtoe miles, and a population in 1910 of 47,422. Only about 10.8 per cent of this county is laid out in- to farms, of which 21.5 per cent is under cultivation. The principal portion of the population is in Superior, a rapidly growing city of 40,284. SURFACE FEATURES The principal topographic feature is the ridge extending east and west across the middle part of the county, separating the drainage flowing to Lake Superior on the north from that flowing to the Missis- sippi River on the south. The elevations vary from 602 feet above sea level on the shore of Lake Superior to 1,200 to 1,500 feet on the divide, about 20 miles to the south. The surface is very gently sloping in the vicinity of Superior, but farther south, and to the east, the land rises more abruptly to the summit of the divide. The slope north of the di- vide, towards the lake, is relatively steep, while that south of the di- vide, to the south, is relatively gentle. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the Keweenawan trap, the Lake Sup' erior red sandstone, and the surface deposits of lacustrine and glacial clays and gravel. The most common formation is the Keweenawan trap. The Lake Superior red sandstone forms a belt of variable width near the lake. The surface deposits on the slope towards Lake Superior, especially fringing the lake, consist of alternating beds of clay, sand and gravel, which dip toward the lake. In the southern part of the county irregu- lar deposits of glacial boulders, sand, and gravel predominate at the surface. The accompanying section (figure 33) illustrates the geological for- mations along a north-south line through Douglas County. The thickness of the geological formations is quite variable through- out the county. The granite and Keweenawan trap, which un- derlie the Lake Superior sandstone and the surface deposits, as elsewhere are of great depth, as they are empted from deep seated DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 315 sources. The thickness of the sandstone at Superior is probably be. tween 5,000 and 10,000 feet, thinning out rapidly towards the trap range. The glacial deposits over the trap range, and in the southern part of the county, probably vary in depth from to 200 feet. Along the shore of the lake, over the Lake Superior sandstone, the surface de- /oao' Fig. 33. — Geologic section, north-south, across Douglas county. posits of stratified clays and gravels in places attain a very great thickness. The maximum thieknes of the surface deposits is attained in the old buried valley under the St. Louis river where it is known to have a thickness of nearly 600 feet. The county may be summarized as follows : Probable range in thickness of formations in Douglas County. Formation. Thiclcness. Surface formation Feet. to 600 to 10,000 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the surface formations of glacial drift, and the stratified sands and gravels. Small amounts of water may be obtained from the fractured portions of the trap rocks. The Lake Superior red sandstcTne contains a variable amount of water, which at Superior appears to be highly mineralized and of salty char- acter, and hence, is generally unfit for use, either for industrial or drinking purposes. FLOWING ^VELLS Plowing wells occur along the shore of the lake, and for some dis- tance to the south on the Superior slope. The source of these flows ap- 316 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. pears to be wholly within Jthe surface deposits. The alternating beds- of sand, clay and gravel fringe the shore of Lake Superior and dip to- ward the lake, developing a typical artesian slope. The gathering- ground for the water lies south of the lake, on the north slope of the dividing trap ridge, some 15 to 20 miles south of the lake. At Superior and south of the lake shore, where the artesian slope is developed, much of the water supply is drawn from relatively shallow wells in the superficial deposits of gravel and sand, or from the imme- diately underlying sandstone and the Keweenawan trap 'formations. At Itasca, flowing water is obtained at 30 feet, and at Plum Grove, at 40 feet. South of Superior there are flowing wells in sections 22, 27 and 28 of T. 47, R. 14. The wells of H. D. Coyne, John Anderson and Olaf Olson, are in sand and gravel after passing through clay and hard pan, and are 40 to 53 feet deep. There are also some strong chalybeate springs in this locality. An artesian well is also located at Frank Des-- ijiond's, 60 feet in gravel, in section 24, T. 47, R. 13. WATER SUPPLIES OF SUPERIOR Private wells in and about the city vary in depth from 100 to 500' feet, most of them getting their supply from the gravel beds. Most of the wells along the docks on Lake Superior, and on St. Louis Bay, are, or have been flowing wells, the water rising from 10 to 20 feet above the level of the lake. Similar wells are scattered over various parts of the city, but most of them are not flowing, since the ground lies too high, being for the most part 30 to 60 feet above lake level. The irregular thickness and variable depth of the water-bearing gravel in Superior is shown by the following experiences. On the same property two wells were put down, the first one to a depth of 181 feet without striking either water or gravel, and after getting- salty, red water at 700 feet in the red sandstone the well was abandon- ed. A new well, started 275 feet from the former, struck the gravel bed carrying an abundant supply of pure, cold water at a depth of 196 feet. On the next block a similar well of abundant good water was obtained after penetrating 110 feet of clay and 45 feet of sandj^ gravel. In general there is porous sandstone underlying the drift in the eastern part of the city, and impervious shale beds under the drift in the western part; hence, if water is not struck in the overlying drift in the western part, conditions are unfavorable for getting a supply from the shale beneath. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 317 The log of the Great Northern Elevator Company' well, on St. Louis IBay, is as follows: Log of Gfeat Northern Elevator Co. well. Formation. Thiclcness. Clav Feet. 83 Drift, sand and gravei 325 Sand witli hard pan strealvs 111 Gravel and water-bearing sand 4 Total deptli 525 At the Hotel Supreior, about a mile from the lake shore, Mr. J. A. Colwell drilled five wells without getting a good supply of water; in most of these wells the drift or gravel material was over 225 feet in •depth, but was nearly dry. No doubt this material was of the same nature as the drift above the gravel seam furnishing the water at the Great Northern Elevator Company's well. One of the wells at the hotel was put down to a depth of 420 feet. Here the sandstone, or rather, shale of the Superior sandstone formation, was encountered, at 245 feet. Into this shale the well was drilled 175 feet, obtaining but little water, which gave a saline taste. The city water supply of Superior has had a varied history. (For de- tails see W. G. Kirchoffer, Bulletin 106, Univ. of Wisconsin, p. 188-9.) 'The city supply is obtained from 107 wells, from 40 to 45 feet deep, spaced 12 to 15 feet apart, with 4, 6 and 8 inch diameters, with the lower 20 feet of Cook points in sand and gravel. The wells are located on Minnesota Point, a sand spit extending across the mouth of Superior Bay. These wells furnish an abundant quantity of water, and would have been a very simple solution of the water supply problem of Sup- erior had it not been for the fact that the water contains iron in solu- tion, which, on standing, deposited iron oxide, besides supporting a growth of CreiwtJirix in the suction and city mains. To remedy this the company has constructed a sand filter with suitable aerator to re- move the iron. The capacity of the aerating and filtering plant is five million gallons per day, and the daily consumption varies from 1,500,000 to.2,500,000 gallons. The sewage is discharged without puri- fication into Superior Bay. About 30 or 40 per cent of the houses have water and sewer connections. Gordon and Solon Springs. — At Gordon there are dug and driven wells 10 to 80 feet deep, in gravel ernd sand. At Solon Springs, the wells are generally from 20 to 40 feet deep in the drift. At this place 318 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. is a well known mineral spring, from which a large amount of spring- water was sold a few years ago. QUALITY OF THE WATER No analyses of water from the wells of Douglas County are avail- able. In the table the analyses of the city water supply of Superior from Lake Superior and the water of Lake Superior at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, is quoted. The water of Lake Superior is soft wa- ter and essentially uniform in low content of mineralization through- out. However, wherever the sewage of cities and refuse from mills, is emptied into the lake it becomes polluted and unsafe for drinking purposes. The water supply obtained from wells in the surface deposits and crystalline rocks is undoubtedly of good quality and is very likely re- latively soft water throughout. On the other hand, the water obtained from the Lake Superior red sandstone, is very likely to be highly min- eralized, of salty character, and therefore unfit for industrial and drinking purposes. No mineral analyses of salty water from the sand- stone in Superior are available but waters with strong saline taste have been reported from various wells in the city. The occurrence of saline water in the sandstone, however, may be of only local distribu- tion and not of general occurrence throughout this formation. In some of the shallow wells in Ashland fresh water of excellent quality is obtained from the sandstone. (See Analyses 6, 7, and 8, page 333). Mineral analyses of water in Douglas County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Silica (Si02) Alumiaum and iron oxides (AI2O3 + Fe203) . Iron ( Fe) Calciunn (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na + K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (8O4) : Chlorine (CD Nitrate radicle (CO3) Suspended matter Organic matter Total dissolved solids.. Lake Superior. 5.9 2.2 12.4 3.6 7.4 31.4 Trace . 70. 7.4 .06 13. 3.1 3.2 56. - 2.1 1.1 .5 Trace . .* 60. Creek. 19.5 5.9 7.9 1.0 33.5 1.5 33.5 1. City Water Supply of West Superior — Lake Superior. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chemical Co., May 8, 1899. 2. Water from Lake Superior at Saulf Ste. Marie, Mich., mean of 11 analyses, U. S. Geol. Sur. W. S. P. No. 236, p. 101, 1906-7. 3. Water from Bluff Creek at Itasca. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., July 25, 1901. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 319 Dunn County Dunn County, located in the northwestern part of the state, has an area of 844 square miles and a population of 25,260. About 83.5 per cent of this county is laid out in farms, of which 52.8 per cent is un- der cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Dunn County is generally hilly and uneven, its prin- cipal rock outcrop, the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, being deeply trenched by rivers and valleys. In the northern part, the val- leys are relatively narrow, while in the southern part, especially along the Chippewa river, the valley plain is broad. Rusk Prairie, the for- . -V — 7 V V V V V vvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvs/vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvvvv Vy.^_,-^»" x^,X,ife«x>^>>,' vvvvvyvvv Fig. 34. — Geologic section, east-west, across central Dunn county. mer course of the Red Cedar, is a broad valley bottom plain, lying east of the narrow valley, now occupied by the Red Cedar. The south- western part of the county is the eastern portion of the limestone up- land extending west across Pierce and St. Croix counties. The alti- tudes generally range between 800 and 1,000 feet in the valley bot- toms to 1,100 and 1,200 feet over the inter-valley areas. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations in the county are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone. The latter occurs only in the southwestern part. Glacial drift occurs in most parts of the county, but is present in only very small quantity, with the exception of a few places on the limestone uplands. Alluvial sand and gravel forms a thick formation along the Chippewa and Red Cedar rivers, and their tributaries. The geological structure is illus- trated in the cross section, Fig. 34. 320 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The surface formation, consisting mainly of the alluvial deposits, has a probable maximum thickness of 200 or 250 feet in the deepest parts of the valleys. The thiclmess of the hard rock formations is quite variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. The complete section of the sandstone is preserved only where protected by the overlying Lower Magnesian limestone on the highest upland ridges. The approximate range in thickness of the geological forma- tions may be summarized as follows : ' Approximate range in Mekness of formations in Dunn County. Formation. Thickness. Surface formation Lower Magnesian limestone Upper Cambrian (Potsdamj sandstone. Tlie Pre-Cambrian granite Feet. to 250 to 150 300 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The water-bearing strata are the sandstone and the alluvial forma^ tions. On the valley bottoms wells generally go down 10 to 20 feet for water. On the limestone uplands, especially in the southwestern part of the county, the wells are often 100 to 200 feet deep. flowing' wells Flowing wells, so far as known, have been developed only at Meno- jnonie in drilling for the city water supply. Conditions, however ap- pear to be favorable for obtaining artesian flows on low ground along the narrow valley of the Eed Cedar river, between Menomonie and Dunnville. It is barely possible also that flowing wells may be ob- tained up some of the tributary valleys of the Red Cedar, on the west side of the river. The artesian head in Dunn county is not likely to be more than 10 or 15 feet above the valley bottoms. springs Springs are quite common in the western part of the county at the base of the Lower Magnesian limestone, and at the horizon of shale strata within .the sandstone formation. The springs are located on the lower slopes and in the bottoms of the valleys, and' are often the start- ing point of the permanent streams. Many of the farm houses are located near springs, which furnish an excellent supply of water for •domestic use. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 321 WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Memmonie. — This city, the countj' seat of Dunn, situated on the Red Cedar river, has a population of 5,036. It is located upon an alluvial terrace of sand and gravel overlying the Potsdam sandstone, the latter formation being exposed quite generally along the Red Ce- dar river. The city water supply is obtained from two 12-inch wells, 330 and 360 feet deep, (also reported 380 and 412 feet deep), reaching the granite. The elevation of the surface at the wells is 810 feet and the water, when the wells were first drilled, rose 10 feet above the sur- face. The wells are 500 feet apart, and directly connected with the pumps and to each other. An intake connects with the river, and is used only in case of emergency. The average daily pumpage is estimated at 268,000 gallons. There are 537 service connections. The water contains sufficient hydrogen sulphide to produce a strong odor on com- ing in contact with the air and leaves a yellowish brown stain wherever evaporation takes place. The sewage, without purification, empties into the river. Knapp. — At Knapp a deep well was drilled for oil several years ago. The depth of this well is reported to be 635 feet, striking granite at ■630. Only about 20 feet of surface sand and gravel was passed through before striking the shale and sandstone. The elevation of the surface at the well is about 970, about 40 feet above the railroad station. The water rises in the well to 40 feet below the surface. The wells in Knapp are generally from 20 to 50 feet deep, depending upon the elevation above the creek. Meridean. — At Meridean on the Chippewa river is a deep well reach- ing the granite. The log of this well is as follows : Log of well at Meridemi,. Strata. Thickness. Feet. 140 Gravel 25 Sandstone 187 60 Total 412 The surface of the well is at the same elevation approximately as the railroad station, 746 feet. Graiiite was struck at 362 feet, or 42 feet higher than the granite at Durand. The shale beds penetrated by wells in Durand have obviously been eroded away at the Meridean. 21— W. S. 322 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. well, their horizon being occupied in the valley by alluvial sand and gravel. Colfax. — Golfax, having a population of 701, is located on the Red Cedar river. The formation is alluvial sand and gravel, essentially a level plain. The city has under consideration the installation of a wa- ter supply and sewerage system. A good supply of water could un- doubtedly be obtained by a proper system of wells sunk to a depth of 100 to 150 feet in the alluvial sand and gravel. The private wells in the city are usually from 20 to 40 feet deep. QUALITY OF THE WATER The chemical composition of the water supplies from various places in Dunn County is shown in the table of mineral analyses. The water is usually soft in the alluvial deposits within the general area of the- sandstone outcrop. The water in the sandstone is hard within the area of the limestone at Weston and also in the deep city wells in Men- omonie. The spring water at Meridean, where source of supply is in the sandstone, is very soft water. The water of the Red Cedar river at Menomonie, Analysis No. 1,. contains 0.89 pounds of incr'usting solids in 1,000 gallons, while that of the railroad well at Weston, Analysis No. 7, contains 2.14 pounds in, 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Dunn County. (Analyses in parts per million.) River. SpTitigs. Surface deposits (alluvial). Upper Cam- brian (Pots- dam) sand- stone. 1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8. Depth ol well feet.. Silica (SiOs) 1.7 i 21.7 11.0 4.7 64.1 3.5 4.8 1.4 5.7 .7 6.7 18.2 !9' 2.4 19.5 6.9 6.2 51.8 2.1 1.2 18 5.9 18.9 5.6 5.5 22.3 42.4 .9 14 5.6 35.9 6.4 5.6 74.7 4.0 4il 3.7 14.1 3.1 7.8 22.7 24.5 1.3 140 11.9 2.2 53.6 30.0 .9 146.9 12.1 1.4 400 Dndet.. Aluminium and iron oxides (Al50s+Fe203) Undet. Calcium (Ca) 43.5 Magrnesium (Mg;) 21.1 Sodium and potassium (Na.+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) 15.7 116. 11.9 Chlorine (CD 16.3 Total dissolved solids . . 120. 34. 90. 102. 132. 77.6 259. 224 1. Red Cedar river at Menomonie. Chemist, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 26, 1912. 2. Meridean Spring at Meridean. Chemist, C- M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 22, '1891. 3. Downsville Spring at Downsville. Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Nov. 30, 1891. 4. Railroad well at Meridean. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Nov. 22,. 1891. 5. Railroad well at Caryville. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Sept. 2^ 1892. 6. Railroad well at Red Cedar. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Sept. 3,. 1892. 7. Eailroad well at Weston. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co. S. City well, Menomonie. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Dec. 5, 1903. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. S2'S Eau Claire County Eau Claii-e County, located in the northwestern part of the state, has ■an area of 620 square miles and a population of 32,721. About 73.1 per cent of the county is in farms of which 62.2 per cent is under cul- tivation. About one-third of the county, northeastern part, is sparsely settled. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Eau Claire County is quite uneven and hilly over most parts of the county, being typical erosion topography developed in the sandstone formation. A quite level valley bottom tract lies north- east of Augusta along the Eau Claire river. Altitudes generally range _„____^^_ ^Xf— V^lT V V V V V ij_»-=iJ=— — & V ~V^~V" V V V V vvvvvvvvvvvv X7 1/ V \/ V V V V V V V V v\/vvvvvvvvvvv V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V_ \X,^^/ ■ V V V V V V V V vvvvvvvvvvvv v v vy >, »/ u V V V V V V V V V V V V V V VVVVVVVVVVVVV, V V Fig. 35. — Geologic section, east-west, across northern Eau Claire county. from 800 to 900 feet along the valley bottoms of the Chippewa and Eau Claire rivers to 1,100 and 1,200 feet upon the summits of the sandstone divides. The soils along the Chippewa and Eau Claire riv- ers are sands and sandy loams. On the uplands sandy loams and silt loams prevail. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The outcropping rock formations are the Pre-Cambrian granite rocks along the rivers and streams in the northeastern part, and the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone over the remaining portion. Alluvial sand and gravel is a widespread formation, along the Chippewa and Eau Claire rivers, and principal tributaries. Glacial drift, in thin de- posits, of one of the early drift sheets, is distributed over the entire county with the exception of the southwest corner, which is driftless. Deposits of loess are common over the uplands in the southwestern part. The geological structure of the county is illustrated in the cross section,, fig. 35. 324 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The thickness of the surface formations, consisting mainly of the al- luvial filling in the valley, is variable, but probably reaches a maximum of 200 to 250 feet in the deepest parts of the filled valleys. The al- luvial formation at Altoona is at least 168 feet thick. The thickness of the rock formations is also variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. Some of the highest divides in the southwestern part of the county are capped with thin beds of limestone, which may belong to the Lower Magnesian formation. It is only in these highest upland ridges that the complete section of the Upper Cambrian sand- stone is preserved. The approximate range in thickness of the geo- logical formations may be summarized as follows: Approximate range in thickness of formations in Eau Claire County. Formation. Thickness. Surface formation Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. The Pre-Cambrlan granite Feet. to 250 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEAEING HORIZONS ^ The chief water-bearing strata are the sandstone in the uplands and the alluvial sands and gravels in the valley bottoms. Both these formations are quite porous and furnish abundant supplies. In gen- eral a common water level prevails, approximately on a level with the flowing streams of the immediate locality, to which the farm wells hiust be drilled in order to secure an abundant supply. Occasionally shale beds within the Potsdam sandstone and lying above the general wa- ter level develop an impervious basement for the accumulation of suffi- cient ground water to supply shallow open dug wells. The wells in the valley bottoms are usually from 50 to 100 feet deep, while those on the sandstone uplands are often from 100 to over 200 feet to water. SPRINGS Springs are located along the stream valleys where there are out- cropping beds of sandstone. Several large springs of this type occur along the Chippewa river below Eau Claire. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 325 WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Eau Claire. — Eau Claire, situated at the junction of the Eau Claire and Chippewa rivers, has a population of 18,310. The city is located on terraces of river gravel and sand, with the underlying Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone exposed in many places along the river and on the hills back of the city. The city water supply is from a system of 100 wells, 40 feet deep, six inches in diameter, located about 2 miles above the city near the Chippewa river. The supply is furnished by the Eau Claire Water Co.,^ and the source of supply has been changed several times. It was originally taken from springs, but on account of the in- sufficient quantity was changed to the Chippewa river, being filtered and treated with chemicals for purification. The river water being un- satisfactory, the source was changed back to the springs supplemented by ground water supply from 100 wells in the gravel. The water has a low mineral content and a small amount of organic matter, except in summer, on account of the presence of algae. The average daily pump- age is about 2,000,000 gallons. There are 2,922 service connections, about 80 per cent of the population being supplied. The city sewage, without purification, empties into the Chippewa river. Cess pools are allowed. Private wells are from 20 to 140 feet deep, depending upon elevation above the river. Granite lies at a depth of 82 feet (also re- ported 108 feet) at the Brewing Company well, the elevation of the sur- face of the well being about 790 feet above sea level. The city water supply of Eau Claire is said to be not wholly satis- factory, though geological conditions here are very favorable for secur- ing an abundant supply of good water, low in mineral content. Augusta. — This city, situated on Bridge Creek, has a population of 1,405. The city water supply is obtained from two wells 20 fee^ deep, in sand and gravel. Private wells are from 10 to 20 feet deep usually. No sewage system is installed. About 35 per cent of the houses are con- nected with the water supply system. FaircMld. — This village has a population of 678. The water supply if from relatively shallow wells 20 to 40 feet deep, in sand and the sandstone formation. * Altoona. — Altoona, a village of 821, has no public water supply. The village is located on a sandy alluvial terrace, and the private wells are generally from 20 to 60 feet deep, in sand, gravel, and sandstone. The well of Aug. Rahn is a 4-inch driven well, 168 feet deep, through 80 feet of sand, then clay, and then through gravel and sand. ' Changed in 1911 to a municipal system. 326 THE WATER SUPPLIES OP WISCONSIN. QUALITY OF THE WATER Only five analyses of the water supplies of Ean Claire County are available. The water of the Eau Claire spring at Eau Claire, the source of supply being the sandstone, is very soft water. The Chippewa riv- er water near Eau Claire is soft water. The city water supply at Augusta, obtained from the surface sand, is a hard water of moderate mineral content. The' other waters analyzed are soft waters. The wa- ter throughout the county is very probably either low or moderate in mineral content. The water supply at Augusta is relatively high in chlorine and may possibly be contaminated. The series of mineral analyses of water of the Chippewa river, sam- ples taken at the Shawtown bridge, extending throughout an entire year, 1906-7, is given on page 213. The series of analyses illustrates the variation in chemical character of the river water at various intervals, the river water being more highly mineralized at low water stages than at high water stages. The water of the spring, analyses No. 2, of the table, contains 0.67 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and that of the city water works in Augusta, No. 4, contains 1.13 pounds in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Eau Claire County. (Analyses in parts per million.) River. Springs. Surface deposits. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 19 9.7 168 Silica (SlOi) : 12. 17. i .6 24.6 AlumiDum and iron oxides {AI2O8+ F62OS) 2.6 .3 Iron (Fe) 0.2 13. 4.7 8.1 14.7 5.3 7.8 23.6 10.2 3.7 8.1 33.0 27.0 2.3 12.6 45. 12.1 4.6 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 8.3 14.2 Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 48. 14. 1.1 .6 3.7 Sulphate radicle (9O4) 2.5.0 7.7 .5 ' 1.3 41. 19.4 29.6 Chlorine (CD 9.2 Nitrate radicle (NO3) 17.5 22.6 Total dissolved solids 90. 101. 60. 167. 103. 1. Chippewa River near Eau Claire, mean of 35 analyses, TJ. S. Geol. Sur. W. S. P. No. 236, p. 55, 1906-7. 2. Spring in bank of Eau Claire River near Altoona. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 6, 1911. 3. Eau Claire Spring at Ban Claire. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 27, 1891. 4. Well of city water works, Augusta. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, May 24, 1900. 5. Well of August Rahn, Altoona. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 6, 1911. DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 327 Florence County Florence County, located in the northeastern part of the state, has an area of 498 square miles, and a population of 3,381. Only about 9.2 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 29.1 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES Florence County is a plain with minor undulations of drift hills and ridges of crystalline rock. The main drainage line is the Pine river, fiowng east through the central porton. The Menominee river and the Bois Brule river are on the eastern and northern boundary. Important lakes are Long lake and Fay lake in the western part, and Spread Eagle in the eastern part. The elevation above sea level is generally between 1,000 and 1,500 feet. The soils are mainly sandy loams in the eastern part and silt loams in the central and western part. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations consist of Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks overlain by glacial drift . The crystalline formations contain iron ore deposits, which are being mined in the vicinity of Florence and Com- monwealth. The glacial drift is of variable thickness and very gen- erally covers the crystalline rock, except in the eastern portion. See Fig. 23. PRINCIPAL WTATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizon is the surface formation of drift, containing numerous beds of sand and gravel, in which an abund- ant supply of good water can be obtained. The massive rock of the crys- talline formation, such as the granite and greenstone, contain only a small amount of water, but the soft and schistose rocks, such as the iron ore formation and associated slates, usually contain an abundant wa- ter supply, as shown by the large volume of underground waters in the iron mines. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Florence. — Florence, the county seat, has an estimated population of 1,500. It is located on the site of iron mines, near Fisher Lake, at an el- 328 THE WATER SVPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. evation of 1,200 feet. The city water system oljtains its supply from the lake through a 10-inch intake extending 200 feet from the shore. The supply is used for fire and domestic service but is not used for drink- ing. The average daily pumpage is 75,000 gallons. The drinking wa- ter is mainly from wells 12 to 28 feet deep in the sandy and gravelly drift, and caution should be observed in using such well supplies as they are likely to be contaminated. QUALITY OF THE WATER Only two analyses of the water of Florence County are available; that of the water of Long Lake and that of a deep mine water at Flor- ence. The water of Long Lake is hard water of low mineral content. The water in the surface formation, and most of the crystalline rocks, is likely to be soft or hard waters low in mineral content throughout the county. Water obtained from graphitic slates, associated with deep iron ore deposits, may, however, show a high content of mineral mat- ter, and may be even salty in places, as illustrated by the analysis of the mine water described below. Mineral analyses of water in Florence County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Lake. Pre-Cambrian graphitic schist. 1. 2. Depth of well '. feet,. 2,075 Silica {SIO2) 8.0 .5 18.1 8.8 5.0 48.9 Calcium (Ca) ." 1,270. 987. Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 4,494. Carbonate radicle (CO3) 14. Free carbonic acid 416. Sulphate radicle (8O4) 2.1 7.7 20.2 • 43. Chlorine (CI) 11,991. 3,722. 99. 18,799. 1. Long Lake. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Oct. 5, 1907. 2. Water from diamond drill hole in Florence Iron Mine. Analyst, Bird Archer, Compound Co, 1910. SALT WATER IN FLORENCE MINE A chloride water very similar to that from a flowing well near Osce- ola in Polk County was recently struck in drilling a deep hole in the DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 329 Florence Iron Mine. The analysis of this water made by the chemist of the Bird Archer Compound Co. in 1910 stated as salt compounds in grains per gallon, (see also the above county table) is as follows : Anali/sis of salt water from Drill Hole 95 9th Level, Florence Mine. Oreanic and volatile matter. Sodium chloride Calcium carbonate Calcium sulphate Calcium chloride Magnesium chloride Free carbonic acid Total - In grains per gallon. 299.12!) 666.159 1.238 3.572 200.998 225.780 24.324 1,421.196 The description of the source of this chloride water furnished by Mr. 0. W. Wheelwright is as follows : "This water is an artesian flow from a diamond drill hole drilled vertically from the 9th level of the Florence Mine to a depth of 1,494 feet. The 9th level at this point is 581 feet below the surface making the bottom of the hole approximately 2,075 feet from the surface. It is not known that this water flowed from the hole before its completion. The work was completed on June 15, 1910, and the water is still flow- ing (Dec. 21, 1912) at the rate of probablj^ 20 gallons per hour.^ The material crossed by the diamond drill hole was ore and iron formation to a depth of 150 feet and black graphitic slates and pyritic cherty car- bonates for the remainder of the distance. The hole still gives off con- siderable quantities of gas which I assume to be marsh gas. It comes up in such quantities that the water oozing over the top of the casing has the appearance of violently boiling water. The gas burns with a slight blue flame and has a tendency to explode when slightly mixed with air and ignited. "The water has a very distinctly saline taste. So far as I am aware there is nothing unusual about the ordinary mine water of the Flor- ence Mine. I have drunk water from horizontal drilled holes on the 7th level without tasting anything unusual." Somewhat similar chloride waters containing much calcium chloride have been observed in deep wells and mines in other parts of the Lake Superior region.^ ^ It is reported, Jan. 23, 1915, that the water has ceased to flow, but gas still issues from the pipe. ' See Data of Geol. Chemistry, U- S. Geol. Survey Bulletin 330, p. 144. 330 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The high content of organic and volatile matter and free carbonic Acid in the Florence mine water appears to be unusual. These constitu- ■ents are very probably derived from solution of minerals in the graphi- tic and pyritic slates with which the waters come in contact while im- prisoned under high pressure. Fond du Lac County Fond du Lac County, located at the south end of Lake Winnebago, in the eastern part of the state, has an area of 720 square miles, and a population of 51,610. About 95.8 per cent of the county is in farms of which 72.5 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Fond du Lac County is usually gently sloping throughout, the notable exception being the relatively steep escarp- ment of limestone east and southeast of Lake -Winnebago. The land is -also quite undulating in the vicinity of Ripon in the northwestern corner of the county, and ridges of limestone are also abundant in the •eastern part in the area of the Niagara limestone. A belt of hum- mocky drift hills trends north and south across the western part of the county. The central and northern part of the county is drained by streams flowing northward into the south end of Lake Winnebago, and the eastern part by streams flowing eastward into Lake Michigan, the southern part by streams flowing south into the Rock river, and the western part by streams flowing west into the Fox river. The surface of Lake Winnebago is 746 feet above the sea, about 166 feet above Lake Michigan. The general elevation of the upland divides is 1,000 to 1,150 feet with some of the highest ridges in the eastern part of the county rising to 1,150 and 1,200 feet. The limestone escarpment east of Fond du Lac rises abruptly 150 to 250 feet above the low land to the west, but the usual range in elevation of upland ridges and ad- jacent valleys is between 100 and 150 feet. GEOLOGICAL FOEMATIONS The geological formations are the same as those of Dodge county and range from the Lower Magnesian limestone in the northwest corner of the county up through the St. Peter sandstone, the Galena-Plattevillo DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 331 OI7 StC/oua Fig. 36. — Geologic section, east-west, across northern Fond du Lac county. The thickness of the surface formation of glacial drift, lacustrine and alluvial deposits, is variable between wide limits on account of the very uneven surface upon which it is deposited. The greatest thick- ness probably occurs in the pre-glaeial valleys, where the filling may reach 300 to 350 feet. Upon the inter-stream area the usual thick- ness of the surface deposits is between 50 and 100 feet. The thickness •of the rock formations is also variable on account of the extensive ero- sion of the strata. The complete thickness of any formation is preserved ■only where protected by the next overlying formation. The approxi- mate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows: Approximate rangs in thickness of formations in Fond du Lac County. Formalion, Surface formation Niagara limestone Cincinnati sliale Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime-itonp. St. Peter and Lower Masfneslan Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... Tile Pre-Cambrian granite Tliickne^n Feet. to 300 to 400 to 250 to 2.50 to 250 300 to 600 332 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS All of the geological formations are drawn upon for water supplies, but the most important water-bearing horizons for the deep wells are' the sandstone strata underlying the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone formation. The sandstone strata comprise the St. Peter and Up- per Cambrian (Potsdam) formations, as well as some sandstone of the- Lower Mangesian. As illustrated at Fond du Lac and Waupun, there is- apparently much St. Peter sandstone and shale beds in the usual place- of the Lower Magnesian limestone rock. The rock formation immediately underlying the surface deposits of glacial drift and stratified sand and clay is limestone throughout the- county, except in deeply filled valleys along .the Fox river, either the Lower Magnesian, the Trenton, or the Niagara, and these limestone formations furnish an abundant supply in common shallow wells in the rural districts within the area of their respective outcrops. In the val- leys the water level is near the surface, and even upon the gently slop- ing uplands it is usually less than 100 feet below the surface. Relatively impervious strata, at, or near the junction of the several geological for- mations tend to hold up the water level in the upland areas. The im- pervious Cincinnati shale formation, lying below the Niagara limestone,, and above the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone, in the eastern and southeastern part of the county, exerts an appreciable influence on the maintenance of the water level within the overlying Niagara forma- tion, as illustrated at the St. Lawrence College well at Mt. Calvary, the water level in which dropped from 90 feet to 110 below the surface, after passing through the shale into the underlying Trenton limestone and the St. Peter sandstone. SPRINGS Springs are common in Fond du Lac county on low ground within the general outcrop area of the Cincinnati shale. These springs are es- pecially abundant along the base of the escarpment of Niagara lime- stone east and southeast of Fond du Lac. The springs in Taycheedah are especially important. The shale or clay is an impervious stratum and above it lies a varying thickness of fissured Niagara limestone, through which the water descends till its progress is arrested by the shale from the surface of which it flows out wherever opportunity offers. The springs may issue either from the shale directly or from the over- lying surface deposits of drift on lower ground after flowing some dis- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 333 tanee underground along the surface of the shale under the drift. In some instances, also, the springs issue from the overlying Niagara. There are important springs also which issue from the horizon at the junction of the St. Peter sandstone and the overlying Trenton limestone in the western part of the county, as illustrated by the springs at Ripon, some of which furnish the city water supply. FLOWING WELLS In number and variety of source, the flowing wells of Fond du Lac Jo. 19. Nos. 1 and 2 are alluvial formations, and the elevation of the contact between the Upper Cam- brian and the Lower Magnesian about 4 miles south of Boscobel is about 860 feet ; hence the total thickness of the Upper Cambrian sand- stone in this locality is probably about 1,100 feet, about the same as ^t Platteville. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 353 Fennimore. — The population is 1,159. The city water supply is ob- tained from two wells, 250 and 800 feet deep. No sewage system is in- stalled. Montfort. — The population is 558. This village has a water supply system mainly for fire protection, obtained from an 8-inch well, 114 feet deep. Forty-six houses are reported to be connected with the wa- ter system. The deeper wells penetrate through the Galena-Platteville limestone into the St. Peter sandstone. Hazel Green. — Hazel Green, population 621, has a city water supply obtained from a well 190 to 195 feet deep. Only a small per cent of the population use the city supply. QUALITY OF THE WATEK The water supplies of Grant county are hard waters of moderate min- eral content throughout, and quite uniform in composition, as indicated in the following table of mineral analyses. Most of the supplies from the deep wells at Fennimore and Platteville, though such wells reach the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, receive their supply mainly from the St. Peter sandstone. No analyses of water from the Maquo- keta shale are available, but water from this shale or immediately as- sociated formation is likely to contain a higher content of mineral mat- ter than that from the other formations. All the waters analyzed in the above table are carbonate waters with the exception of No. 5 from the Galena formation at Fennimore. The water from the Galena-Platte- ville limestone is very generally much higher in sulphate than the wa- ter from the underljdng sandstone formations. Calcium and mag- nesium are the predominent basic constituents. The water from the city well at Platteville, analyses No. 14, con- tains 2.80 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and that from the city spring at Lancaster No. 2 contains 2.38 pounds in 1,000 gal- lons. 23— W. S. 354 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Grant County. (Analyses In- parts per million.) Spring. Alluvial sand. 1. 2. 3. 4. 21 Silica (Si02) 16.5 11.5 12.5 1.0 11.5 I y 4.7 .6 Trace i 28.7 6.9 1.6 47.7 19.7 2.5 31.2 69.5 26.1 1.3 156.9 i'.b ■■■■ 67.7 23.9 1 14.8 1 2.9 r 161. 13.3 14.9 46.5 Magnesium (Mg) 24.9 Sodium (Na) 1 10.2 135.9' Potassium (K) ( Sulphate radicle (SO4) . 10.9 CMorine (CI) l.Z 135. 269. 311. 235. Depth of well feet SiUca (Si02) Aluminum and iron oxides (AI2O3+ Fe203) Calcium (Ca) Masrnesinm (Mg) Sodium (Na) I Potassium (K) ( Carbon ate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Total dissolved solids 101 26.0 24.5 96.1 52.8 14.8 156.5 ■ 188.7 22.8 582. Galena-Platteville dolomite. 40 1.0 87.9 47.7 8.6 207,8 67.6 12.7 433. 40 5.6 67.4 41.3 9.2 203.4 12.7 4.7 344. 135 8.4 72,0 39.3 153.6 83.3 9.0 374. 190 3.6 3.1 53.7 39. 17.2' 184.5 13.6 7.0 322. 1. Spring of C. & N. W. Ky. Co. near Werley. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Aug. 24, 1911. 2. Spring supplying city water works, Lancaster. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 22, 1909. 3. Klondyke Spring at Lancaster. Analyst, A. S. Mitchell. 4. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Blue Elver. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Dec. 29, 1891. 5. Well of C. & N. W. E. Co., stock yards, Fennimore. Analyst, G. M. Davidson^ Aug. 24, 1911. 6. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Platteville. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., May 12, 1899. 7. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Platteville. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 28, 1891. 8. Well of city water works, Montfort. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct. 22, 1901. 9. Village well. Hazel Green. Analyst Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., April 29. 1905. IDEWRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 355 Mm/eral analyses of water in Grant County — Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) Depth ot well feet.. Silica ides (Al203+Fe20s) ) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorioe ^t-sive erosio^^^^^^^ strata. It is only where the formations are protected ^y t^ie °ve W formations that the complete sections are preserved The Maquoketa shale occurs only in the Blue Mounds and in a small area a few miles fortlast of Mineral Point. The Niagara limestone formation occu onVy on the summit of the Blue Mounds. The '^^^^If^ t^^^^e^oi rhTGalena-Platteville is usually between 250 and - '^^ Hatte- viUe beds being 50 to 60, and the Galena, 220 to 250 feet thick. Ihe 1 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 36T usual thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as fol- lows: Approximate range in thickness of formations in Iowa County. Formation. Surface formation Niagara limestone (only on Blue Mounds), Cincinnati shale (Maauoketa) Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone.... St. Peter and Lower Magneslan Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone The Pre-Cambrlan granite Thickness. Feet. to 300 to 200 to 200 to 300 Ota 250 600 to 900 PRINCIPAL WATEE-BEAKING HOKIZONS All of the geological formations from the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone up to the Galena limestone are drawn upon for water supplies in various parts of the county. Over most of the uplands in the central and southern part of the county abundant supplies are ob- tained from the Galena-Platteville limestone. The relatively impervi- ous strata at the base of the Galena limestone and at the base of the Platteville limestone control the underground circulation in these for- mations. In the valleys in the southern part shallow wells 10 to 40' feet deep generally find abundant water either in alluvial sands or in St. Peter sandstone. In the northern part of the county the St. Peter sandstone lies upon the upland ridges and where of sufficient thickness furnishes a good supply. Many of the wells in the northern part, how- ever, are in the Lower Magnesian limestone and range in depth be- tween 20 and 200 feet. Adjacent to the "Wisconsin river the wells are generally in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. In the val- ley plain along the Wisconsin, water is generally obtained at depth of 10 to 30 feet in the alluvial sand. SPRINGS No flowing wells are known to occur in the county, but numerous springs occur, most of which are seepage springs having their sources at the bases of the St. Peter sandstone, the Platteville limestone, and the Galena limestone. On the Blue Mounds numerous springs occur at the contact of the Cincinnati shale with the overlying limestone. The bed of blue shale overlying the St. Peter sandstone is a very common source of springs. Many of the springs are the heads of running 368 TSE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. streams and furnish an excellent supply of cold water for domestic use. The springs often determine the location of the farm houses. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Mineral Point.- — The population of Mineral Point is 2,925. The city water supply is obtained from an 8-inch well, 150 feet deep, from the St. Peter sandstone. The average pumpage is 30,000 gallons per day. The city has no sewage system. About 20 per cent of the houses con- nect with the water system. Private wells are generally from 60 to 150 feet deep. The city well was started near the contact of the Platteville limestone and underlying St. Peter sandstone. The curb of the well is about 25 feet above the bottom of the valley. The Mineral Point Zinc Co. has 6 wells, from 110 to 140 feet deep. Five of the wells are on the west side of the stream, and one on the east side, at the zinc oxide plant. The suction pipes in these weUs ex- tend down only 25 feet, but the water has never been lowered to this depth. During the running of the pumps about 20,000 gallons an hour were pumped from the wells. The water in the weU on the east side is at the same height as that in the wells on the west side of the stream. After the pumps were stopped for 20 minutes the water stood 12 and 8 feet below the surface respectively, and at the end of forty minutes it had practically regained its normal head, being respectively 10 feet and 51^ feet below the surface. At the Ice Company 's plant the water is pumped from a well similar to the city well, and the water used in the manufacture of ice. The St. Peter sandstone, furnishes abundant quantities of water. Dodgeville. — This city has a population of 1,791. The city water supply is obtained from three 8-inch wells, 130, 300 and 450 feet deep. The 300 foot well passes through the Galena-Platteville limestone, and into the St. Peter sandstone about 100 feet. The average daily pumpage is reported to be only 50,000 gallons, there being less than 100 houses connected with the system. The city has no sewage system. Many private wells are reported 200 to 300 feet deep. Highland. — Highland is located on the divide between streams flow- ing north to the Wisconsin river and those flowing liouth to the Platte and Pecatonica rivers. It has a population of 1,096. The highest part of the village is a little over 1,200 feet above sea level. The St. Peter sandstone lies at an altitude of 1,070 feet in the adjacent valley. An abundant supply of water can be obtained from wells reaching the St. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 369 Peter sandstone at depths of 50 to 130 feet, depending on the altitude of the surface. Linden. This village, population 580, has a public water supply obtained from a 10-ineh well, 575 feet deep. The well probably reaches 150 to 200 feet into the Potsdam sandstone. No sewage system is in- stalled. About 25 per cent of the houses are connected with the water system. Private wells generally vary from 80 to 100 feet deep. Avoca. This village is located in the valley of the "Wisconsin river. The population is 436. The water supply is obtained from private wells, generally quite shallow, from 10 to 30 feet deep, in sand and gravel. A public supply was recently installed, obtained from a well 50 feet deep. QUALITY OF THE WATER The composition of the water supplies of Iowa county is shown in the following table of mineral analyses. In general the water from the St. Peter sandstone, and that from the surface deposits, is hard water and much less mineralized than that obtained from the Trenton lime- stone, which is very hard water. The greater softness of the water in the St. Peter sandstone as compared with that in the Trenton limestone, seems to indicate that it is generally advisable to driH wells through the limestone and draw the supply from the underlying sandstone formation. The water in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is also very likely to be appreciably softer than that in the Trenton. All the waters analyzed are carbonate waters, though all those from the G-alena-Platteville (Trenton) are relatively high in sulphates. The alkalies are subordinate to calcium and magnesium. In this connection reference should be made to the analysis No. 5 of water from a 14-foot well near stockyards at Mineral Point. The water from this well showing high chlorine and other constituents is undoubtedly contaminated from surface sources, and does not repre- sent a pure water of the locality. The water from the railroad well at ]\Iontfoi"t Jet., Xo. 12, from the St. Peter sandstone, contains 2.35 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while that from the railroad well at Barneveld, No. 8, from the Galena-Platteville limestone, contains 3.84 pounds in 1,000 gallons. The softest water analyzed in the county is from the well in alluvial sand at Avoca, No. 3, which contains about 1.5 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. 24— W. S. 370 THE WAfEB SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Iowa County. (Analyses In parts per million.) Depth of well ieet. . Sllici (Si02) Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ PeaOs) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mgr) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine.(Cl) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids. Creek, undet. 64.7 40.6 21.0 168.0 39.1 32.2 376. Spring-. 13.0 3.0 54.5 29.8 12.6 144.9 29.1 7.0 294. Surface deposits (alluvial). 25 1.3 35.7 8.8 20.3 82.7 20.3 7.5 177. 18 2.0 77.3 44.3 18.2 225.8 4.9 24.4 397. 14 undet. 159.2 60.7 76.6 38.2 415.8 118.8 64.5 934. Depth of well feet.. Silica ( Si02) Aluminum and iron oxides (AI2OS+ FezOs) Calciuni (Ca) Maenesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Organic matter Total dissolved solids. Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone. 142 5.1 9.0 75.0 40.8 3.6 155.6 90.7 5.4 385. 198 7.7 8.0 83.0 55.5 24.0 188.9 133.1 24.2 524. 170 20.0 3.6 64.5 67.1 15.5 189.5 117.0 24.1 501. 180 2.0 81.3 47.6 13.5 209.2 63.8 16.5 443. 3 1. Peter sand- stone. 10. 260 7.9 7.9 59.7 32.6 3.1 156.1 22.4 4.7 294. 11. 252 9.1 1.0 65,5 38.9 2.2 185.0 19.5 3.4 14.5 325. 1. Creek at Mineral Point. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, July 10, 1912. 2. Spring at Cobb, depth 10 ft. in Trenton limestone. Analyst, G. M. Jan 29 1909 3. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Avoca. Analyst, Chemist. C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 23, 1891. 4. Well of O. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., at Mineral Point. Ey. Co., Nov. 3, 1891. 5. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Mineral Point. 1912. Davidson, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, May 8> 6. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Dodgeville. 7. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Barneveld. 8. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Barneveld. 9. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Barneveld. 10. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Eewey. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 22," 1909. 11. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Eewey. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 28, 1903, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 2, 1909. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 3, 1909. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 29; 1909. Analyst, G. M Davidson, May 28, 1895. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 371 Mineral analyses of water in Iowa County — Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) St. Peter sandstone. 12. 13. 14. 15. . 16. 17. 18. Depth of well feet.. Rilioa fSiO'/l 224 19.4 6.3 55.5 31.5 12.0 150.4 9.0 1.7 140 1.2 152 152 208 220 220 Alumiuum and iron oxides {Al20;':,»/-<:^oiwi'^'y?^.^v/AU4lii-r^-Tr^^ vvvvvvvvvvvvvvv ^^.^^^.^■■■■■^ml^Ui^^Tf^rTTy^'^, vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv ■ • : ; • ■£ (A.l20+Fe203) \ 13.6 0.4 0.3 Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) 67.2 36.3 10.1 186.9 .7.3 6.1 43.4 18.2 8.2 114.3 4.6 3.9 .H2.6 28.6 6.6 119.1 3.5 6.8 66.6 34.1 7.6 133.0 88.8 6.4 68.3 33.8 2.7 1.9 179.2 14.5 3.0 1 6 Sodium (Na) 1, Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sul Dhate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Phosphate radicle (PO4) .... Total dissolved solids. . . 324. 195. 204. 342. 279. 318. 320. 1. Kocl5 River, Watertown Junction. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ev. Co., Nov. 4, 1903. 2. Eocls Elver, Watertown Junction. Analyst, Chemist C. M & St. P. Ey. Co., S^pt. 14, 1891. . 3. Rock Elver, Watertown Junction. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 1, 1891. 4. Eock Eiver, Jefferson. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 23, 1896. 5. Great Geyser Spring, Palmyra. Analyst, E. G. Smith. •6. House Spring, Palmyra. Analyst, E. G. Smith. ■J, Mineral Park Spring No. 1, Palmyra. Analyst, E. G. Smith. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 387 Mineral analyses of water in Jefferson County — Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) Springs. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, Silica 0102) 1 13.9 0.4 n.3 70.5 39.4 3.8 2.2 184.6 12.6 1.9 1.3 14.4 0.6 1.4 71.3 37.1 3.3 1.5 191.1 16.7 2.2 1.6 13.0 0.8 2.9 71.9 35.5 2.7 1.9 190.4 17.7 2.2 0.1 15.0 0.6 4.8 61.4 32.9 2.9 1.6 va. 6.2 2.2 0.5 15.3 0.4 4.1 59.4 30.5 2.5 2.1 168.8 4.3 2.2 0.5 15.6 3.8 "■ 58.4" 28.8 j- 5.9 153.5 14.1 4.5 Aluminum and iron oxides > A1^3+Fe203) \ 20. Tron(Fe) €alclum (Ca) 'Magnesium (Ma) 90.8 30 Sodium (Na) Potassium (Kl •Carbonate radicle (CO3).... Sulphate radicle (SO4) Clilorine (CI) 26. 220. 14.2 14 Pliosphate radicle ( PO4) Total dissolved solids. . . . 325. 341. 339. 281. ■ 290. ■284. 419. Drift or limestone. St. Peter sandstone. / 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Depth of well feet . . SiU'ca (SIO") 1 55 14.0 2.5 187 17. 4. 290 9.5 189 5.2 0.5 51.1 16.5 8.81 0.4f 129.4 0.5 230 Aluminum and iron oxides V (AlzGs+PeaOs) I 6.6 Calcium (Ca) 64.9 45.8 14.1 158.6 90.6 15.8 77.1 36.0 9. 200. 27.6 2. 95.3 26.4 12.1 204.7 6.0 18.6 1.8 101.0 25.5 Sodium (Na) 19.6 207.9 Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (COs) Sulpiiate radicle (SO4) 49.7 1.5 5.9 , 406. 373. 373. 212. 4l2. S. Mineral Park Spring No. 2, Palmyra. 9. Mineral Park Spring No. .S, Palmyra. 10. Mineral Park Spring No. 4, Palmyra. 11. Mineral Park Spring No. 5, Palmyra. 12. Mineral Park Spring No. 6, Palmyra. 13. Zeuobia Spring, Palmyra. ' Analyst, G. Analyst, B. G. Smith. Analyst, E. G. Smith. Analyst, E. G. Smith. Analyst, E. G. Smith. Analyst, E. G. Smith. Bode. Geol. of Wis, Vol. 2, p. .31, 1877. p. 31, 1877. June 23, 1896. 14. Lowes Spring. jPalmyra. Analyst, G. Bode. Geol. of Wis., Vol. 2, 15. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Watertown. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Flows 2,500 gals, per hour. 16. Magnetic well. Watertown. Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis., Vol. 2, p. 32, 187(. 17. Well of F. Miller, Watertown. Analyst, J. W. Tescja. 18. Buchert's Fountain Well, Watertown. Analyst, L. Brandecke, Geol. of Wis., Vol. 2 n 161 1877 19. Bailroad Well,', Watertown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co. 388 THE WATER SUPPLIES OP WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Jefferson County — ^Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) St. Peter sandstene. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 215 undet. 100 19.3 1.4 517 10.9 1.9 7E0 11.4 2.4 600 Silica (SIO2J undet. undet. Aluminum and iron oxides J (Al20s+Fe208) 1 8.0 0.8 71.6 38.3 24.7 225.9 6.6 4.0 48.1 46.9 30.6 213;7 11.9 9.1 65.3 35.3 7.7 181.8 11.9 6.1 60.5 31.0 10.0 173.5 8.4 2.0 9.0 57.0 28.6 3.5 .142.8 25.6 5.5 46.0 31.9 4.1 132.6 24.7 6.3 64.3 ■34.8. Sodium (Na) 5.7 1.0 Carbonate radicle (COs) .... Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (Ci) 174.5 7.7 14.6 Free (COi). Total dissolved solids... 371. 360. 308. 315. 276. ;5J. 311. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Depth of well feet. . 1,145 1.1 4.4 3.4 70.9 32.4 3.2 1.1 181.6 15.1 4.9 400 2.2 1,145 5.3 1.200 undet. 1,345 2.7 750 18.8 Silica (SiOa) i Aluminum and iron oxides )- (/i.l20s+Fe203) ) Aluminum oxide AI2O3) .... 24. Iron (Fe) > Calcium (Ca) 74.6 35.0 7,. 3 198.0 11.7 , 2.7 73.7 34.2 3.9 188 4 1,4.9 2.6 74.2 34.2 8.4 190.1 16.2 7.2 73.3 33.2 6.9 187.6 15.9 3.1 564.2 233.1 3,542. ■"764:o" 6,461.0 .228 121. Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) 311.01 55. Carbonate radicle (COa) . . . . Sulphate radicle (8O4) Chlorine (CI) ;.... Free (COs) '.... 340. 163.6 657.6 Nitrate (NOs) 469. Lithium (Li) 3.6 Total dissolved solids. . . 318: 332. 323. 330. 323.7 11,583. 2,368. 20. Well No. 1, Watertown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Oct. 2, 1895. 21. Well No. 2, Watertown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 2, 1896. 22. Well, Watertown Junction. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Nov. 4, 1903. 23. Well of C. Stoppenbach's Sons, Jefferson Junction. Analyst, V. Lehneir, May 4, 19X0. ' 24. Well of City Water Works, Jefferson. Analyst, G.,M. Davidson, June 2S, 1901. 25. City Artesian Well, Fort Atkinson. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 21, 1902. 26. Well of City Water Works, Watertown. Analyst, B. G. Smith. 27. Well of City Water Works, Watertown. Analyst, W. W. Daniells. 28. Well, Watertown Junction. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Sept. 13,. ■ 1892. I .. , .r 29. Well of City Water Works, Watertown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co.^ Jan. 17, 1896. 30. City well of Watertown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 4, 1903. 31. City well, Watertown. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., May 27, 1896. 32. Artesian well. Palmyra. Analyst, P. Schweitzer. Also contains Li. CI. 5.3 and Na. Br. 5.1. 33. Artesian well, Waterloo. Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis., Vol. 2, p. 31, 1877. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 389 Juneau County / Juneau county, located in the south central part of the state, has an area of 790 square miles, and a population of 19,569. About 67.1 per cent of the county is in farms^ of which 47.1 per cent is under culti- vation. surface features The surface of Juneau county is a broad valley bottom plain in the northern two-thirds, and a deeply dissected upland plain in the south- western one-third. The alluvial plain in the northern part contains isolated mounds and ridges of sandstone that generally rise from 100 to 200 feet above the general level of the plain. The hilly southwestern part, capped with the Lower Magnesian limestone on the uplands, is . V V V VVVVVVVV . \, vvvvvx/VVVVVV V * ^*'"*-^-"'-'v V'^V V V V \A V V V vyvvvvvvvvvvv y'^y V V V V v^v V V V V v^^^/^Jfl Fig. 43. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern Juneau County. deeply dissected by small streams flowing southward into the Baraboo river and northward into the Lemonweir river. The altitude of the valley botom plain is about 875 feet along the Lemonweir river in the southern part, and about 975 to 1,000 feet in the vdlleys of the northern part. The highest mounds in the alluvial plain reach an altitude of over 1,200 feet, while some of the uplands of the limestone divide, in the southwestern part, reach , altitudes of over 1,300 feet. The alluvial bottom lands are mainly sand and sandy loams, while the upland soils are generally silt loams. geological formations The geological formation of this county is mainly the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone. The Lower Magnesian limestone extends over only a small area of the uplands in the southwestern part of the 390 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. county. A few small knobs of Pre-Cambrian quartzite occur at Ne- cedah and in the vicinity of Babcock. The northeastern two-thirds, of this county is a comparatively flat valley-bottom plain of alluvial sand formation, dotted here and there with isolated sandstone ridges and mounds.' The alluvial sand and clay varies in depth from a few feet up to over 200 feet. The cross section, Fig. 43, illustrates the geologi- eal structure. The thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. It is only where the sandstone is capped with the overlying Lower Magnesian limestone that the complete thickness of the former is preserved. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Juneau County. Formation . Surface formation LowRr Magnesian limestone Upper Oambri an (Potbdam) sandstone. The Pre-Cambrian granite ; Thicl;ness. Feet. to 250 to 100 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cambrian sand- stone and the alluvial sand. In some places on the upland ridge of the southwestern part of the' county, shallow wells are developed in the surface silt loam of loessial origin. The wells on the uplands, however, generally ranged from 100 to 250 feet in depth. Those on the sandy bottom lands are usually from 10 to 30 feet deep. FLOWING \VELLS Flowing wells in the surface deposits, and from the underlying Potsdam sandstone, are an important source of water supply on low ground in the Baraboo river valley at Elroy and Wonewoe. The head of these flowing wells is usually only one or two feet above the sur- face of the curb, and is lowered rapidly in conformity with the slope of the valley down the river. Flowing wells are not known to occur in the surface deposits along low ground in the Lemonweir valley, but it seems possible that sucb DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 391 may be developed in favorable localities. The flowing wells at Elroy and Wonewoc are described on the following page. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Elroy. This city, with a population of 1,729, situated on the Bara- boo river, has a water supply and sewage system. The water supply is obtained from three 6-inch artesian wells, 88, 96 and 198 feet deep. The daily pumpage is about 140,000 gallons. About 80 per cent of the houses are connected with the system. The sewage is emptied without treatment into the river. At Elroy about thirty artesian wells have been drilled along the flat north of the river, particularly in the northwest part of the city. Most of the wells along this valley pass through a black loam or marshy muck 6 to 14 feet deep, fine clay 10 to 20 feet deep, and then enter a bed of sand and gravel over sand rock. This bed of sand and gravel is the source of the artesian water, which rises to the surface, and in places 1 to 2 feet above. The water in this gravel and sand bed comes from the outcrop along the valleys and in part from the sandstone hills and from the underlying Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone upon which the sand and gravel rests. The city water supply of Elroy is pumped from three wells sunk into the sandstone. The altitude of the curb is 936 feet. . The pumps are attached direct to the casing of the well, thus forming a continuous suction pipe. The wells flowed before the ground around the pump- ing station was filled in, but now stands 3 feet below the present sur- face. The wells are arranged in an east-west direction at intervals of about 40 feet, the middle one being below the pumps. Besides these deeper artesian wells, which formerly flowed, there are several shallow artesian flows from the soil overlying the rock. The water from all of them as stated, is obtained from a seam or gravel or layer of sand and gravel over rock, after passing through black muck and fine clay. The weUs are affected by dry seasons and also slightly by heavy continued pumping at the waterworks plant, which seems to indicate that most of the supply at the water works plant comes from, the underlying sandstone. Wonewoc. The population of Wonewoc is 789, The city artesiam well, 428 feet deep, has a normal head of 3 feet above the surface, and a flow of 60 gallons per minute. When pumped it furnishes 242 gal- lons per minute under a 14 foot l^ead. The formations passed through in this well are as follows : 392 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Log of Wonewoc city well. Formation. Tlilckness. Alluvial clay and sand ' Feet. 54 374 Total ' 42S In the vicinity of Wonewoc are numerous flowing wells from 40 to 60 feet deep, in the alluvial sand in the valley of the Baraboo river. When the deeper city well is heavily pumped, most of the shallow wells cease to flow, one well 413 feet deep up the valley loosing 18 inches of head, and one 150 feet down the vaUey loosing 30 inches of head. These facts indicate that the flow from the .alluvial sand very prob- ably depends upon tlie pressure from the sandstone below. Mansion. The population of Mauston-is 1,701. The city water sup- ply is obtained from six 6-to 8-ihch wells from 143 to 220 feet deep in the Upper Cambrian sandstone. A sewerage system was installed a few years ago. The sewage is emptied, without treatment, into the Lemonweir river. The general water level is about 10 feet below the surface, and at the city wells only 7 feet below the surface. Private wells are generally driven from 30. to 100 feet in the alluvial sand formation. New Lisbon. The water supply of New Lisbon, population 1,074, is taken from private wells, either drilled or ^ug, and generally vary from 20 to 50 feet in depth. Necedah. The population of Neceda^h is 1,054. The city water sup- ply obtained from the Yellow river is used for fire protection olily. Private wells are generally from 20 to 40 feet deep in sandy alluvial formation. The alluvial sand and gravel at Necedah varies in thick- ness from 30 to 198 feet, and an abundance of water for a city supply could easily be obtained from this alluvial sand formation or from the sandstone below. The Pre-Cambrian granite, a short distance from the quartzite knobs, lies at a depth of 200 to 210 feet.^ The section of the C. & N. W. Ey. well at Necedah, drilled in 1911, generalized from description of samples made by F. T. Thwaites, is as follows : ' Bull. XVI, Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey, p. 519. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 393 Log of O. & N. W. Ry. well at JS'ecedaJi . li'ormation. Depth. Thiolcness. Pleistocene (Alluvial sand I Fine brownish yellow sand Same as above Gray clay, very calcareous and apparently without any grrlt. Same . Pinlclsh gi'ay auartz sand Fine gi'ayish-white auart/sand with black specks.. Same. ...i Same Course-grained white sand witti specks of pink feldspar Same as last Same but finer grained Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) Sandstone White sandstone ■Fine-grained sandstone Nearly white 8ne Quartz sandstone Much coarser grained sanustone. color a light .vellow ,. Ver.y fine grained pinkish white pure quartz sandstone >. Variable grain yellowish sandstone with specks of iron oxide... Sa fame Same About the same as atl70, but coarser grained, pinkish white quartz Same. Malnl.y ver.v fine, but some medium grained pinkish white auartz. Rather fine but variable grained yellowish sandstone Almost white quartz (sand) rather fine grained Same, more yellowish About the same as at 250 Extremely fine quartz sandstone, wiih occasional larger grains. nearly white in color Same but slightly more yello wish Slightly coarser grained but lighter colored '. Fairly coarsegrained quartz sandstone Pre-Cambrian Light pinlcish-gray "shale" Weathered red granite Total depth.. Feet. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 315 320 Feet. 120 190. 10 320 QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of the water supplies of Juneau county are shown in the following table. The water obtained from the Yellow river and the sandy formation of the alluvial plains about Babcock, Mather, and Neeedah is soft, while that obtained from the Upper Cam- brian sandstone is hard water. In all the waters, lime greatly predomi- nates over the sodium. All the waters are carbonate waters except that from the railroad wells at EIroy, Nos. 8 and 9, which are sulphate waters containing considerable alkalies. The large amount of organic matter in the city water supplies of Elroy, No. 7, indicates a contami- nated source of supply at the time the sample was taken. The soft waters of the Yellow river at Neeedah, No. 4, contains 0.66 pounds of inerusting solids in 1,000 gallons. The soft water from the well of T. Williams at Neeedah, No. 7, contains 0.74 pounds in 1,000 gallons, while the hard waters from the city wells at Elroy, No. 12, contains 1.36 pounds in 1,000 gallons, and the hard water from the rail- road well at Elroy, No. 14, contains 2.78 pounds in 1,000 gallons. 394 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Juneau County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Creeks. Rivers. Surface deposits (Alluvial sand). 1 2 3 4 5 6' 7 Depth of well feet Silica (SiOa) \ 5.0 19' well and creek. 8.7 19' well and creek. 2.2 f 8.4 0.5 17.2 7.0 0.7 37.4 9.2 0.9 12.1 11.1 5.6 18.4 7.1 2.3 28.4 27.0 3.6 10 1.5 70 8.9 Aluminum and iron oxides (AlpQf! + Fe^On) 1.0" Calcium (Ca) i5.2 6.2 7.6 37.9 12.0 2.8 22.2 .6 4.1 24.5 23.0 1.4 14.5 7.0 3.4 39.0 4.1 2.3 25.7 6.7 13.6 36.4 49.5 6.6 18.1 9.8. Sodium and potassium (Na + K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 6.6 51.5 10.1 Total dissolved solids... 87. 84. 72. 81. 103. 140. 106, Surface Deposits (Alluvial sand— Continued. '' Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone. • 8 9 10 11 12- 13 14 15 Depth of well feet Silica (Si(i2) 17. 7.0 67. 3.2 17. 8.0 17. 2.9 75 to 180 14.4 5.6 33.4 17.1 21.5 115.5 0.0 7.8 150. 16.4 3.2 48.0 24.3 11.9 80.9 1.57.3 18.4 150. 20.1 1.8 68.6 23.2 19.4 61.0 162.4 27.4 46.6 67. undet.. .- Aluminum and iron o.\- ides (AlaO^i + FeeO^i). • 18.8 4.5 9.8 3.7 64.6 5.8 14.1 6.9 6.2 44.2 1.7 1.2 23.0 6.0 10.3 '"m.s .4.2 11.5 3.0 7.6 6.8 39.0 3.9 26.5 Masnesium (Ms) Sodium and potassium (Na + K) 12.9 13.5 Carbonate radicle (CO3).. Sulphate radicle (SO4I .... Chlorine (CD 77.4. 3,7 10.4 / Total dissolved solids. 114. 77. 146. 75. 215. 360. 384. 144. 1. Small Creek, Lyndon. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 1, 1890. 2. Webster Creek and well 19 ft. deep, New Lisbon. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P, By. Co., Feb. 2, 1890: ~ • 3. Webster Creek and well 19 ft. deep. New Lisbon. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., April 1, 1890. 4. Yellow River, Necedah. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 16, 1910. 5 Yellow River through city water works at Necedah. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct., 1899. 6. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Necedah. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Aug 14, 1882. 7. Well of T. Williams, Necedah. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 16, 1910. 8. Railroad well, Mather. Analyst, Chemist C. M.& St. P. Ry. Co., June 20, 1895. 9. Railroad well, Babcock. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry.^Co., Jan. 30, 1896. 10. Railroad well, Mather. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Aug. 6, 1892. 11. Railroad well, Mather. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., June 5, 1894. 12. Wells of Citv Water Supply, Elroy. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec, 1900. 13. Well, C. & N. W. Ry. shops, Elroy. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 23. 1909. 14. Two wells, C. & N. W. roundhouse, Elroy. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 15, 1907. 15. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., New Lisbon. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 1, 1910. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 395- Kenosha County Kenosha County, located in the southeastern corner of the state, has an area of 274 square miles, and a population of 32,929. About 90 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 74.2 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Kenosha county is a gently undulating plain sloping eastward towards Lake Michigan. The valleys and ridges trend north and south, parallel to the lake shore. The drainage is mainly to the Oa^a/T^^/A/ter/f J. a/re /^/refo Bi/r/m/^fff/f ^/r/a/? tfr^fg CorZ/ta /fac//!e\ I ^ Fig. 44. — Geologic section, east-west, along the boundary of Kenosha and Eacine and through central Walworth counties. south into Illinois, through the Des Haines river in the central part, and through the Fox river in the western part, both rivers being tribu- tary to the Mississippi. The surface of Lake Michigan is 580 feet above sea level. The alti- tude of the -valley bottom of the Des Plaines river is about 700 feet, and of the Fox river, about 750 feet. The upland ridges in the eastern part of the county, adjacent to Lake Michigan, reach elevations of 700 to 740 feet ; those in the central part reach 840 to 880 feet, and those in the western part reach over 900 feet. The usual range in altitude in' all parts of the county rarely exceeds 150 feet, and is usually less than 100 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The rock formation immediately underlying the drift is the Niagara' limestone. The geological structure of Kenosha, Racine and Walworth counties is illustrated in Fig. 44. The drift is generally from 50 to 100 feet deep, 'and in many instances it is 100 to 200 feet deep. The terminal moraine, consisting of alDrupt hills and depressions, lies across the western part of the county, west of the Fox river. .396 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCO'NSIN. The thickness of the Niagara is variable on account of the unequal erosion of the surface in preglacial time. The known maximum thick- ness is 280 feet in Kenosha, but it is quite probable that a thickness of ^50 to 400 feet occurs where the drift is relatively thin on the upland ridges. The minimum thickness in pre-glaeial valleys is probably not less than 50 or 100 feet. The probable range in thickness of the geological formations in Ken- -osha county may be summarized as follows : Probable range in tMcknesa of formations in Kenosha County. Formation Thickness. Surface formation Feet. to 300 Niasrara linacstODe 100 to JiOO to 75 Cincinnati shale \ 150 to 200 Galpna-Platlevillp (Trenton ) Um>-slone ' 250 to 350 St. Peter and Lower Magnesian formation , Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone -. 200 to 250 800 to 1000 Pre-Cambrian granite PRINCIPAL WATER BEARING HORIZONS The water bearing horizons for the shallow wells are the drift and the Niagara limestone, and for the deep wells the underlying St. Peter sandstone and the Potsdam sandstone. FLOWING WELLS Along the shore of Lake Michigan flowing wells are obtained at vari- ous places in the drift. In the vicinity of Winthrop Harbor, 111., sev- eral flows have been struck in gravel at a depth of 126 to 130 feet. North of Kenosha in the valley of Pike Eiver surface flows have been obtained. Similar flows can probably be obtained over much larger •areas in this little valley. Strong flowing wells from the deep-seated rock, the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, occur in Kenosha, the wells ranging in depth from 1,000 to 1,800 feet. The normal head above lake Ifevel appears to increase from about 80 feet in the St. Peter sand- stone to as much as 120 feet near the base of the Potsdam sandstone. The head should increase with the distance from the lake, and hence •deep-seated flowing wells may be expected along the valley of the Des Plaines river, up to altitudes of 750 feet, and in the valley of the Fox, Tip to altitudes of 800 feet. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 397 WATER SUPPUES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Kenosha. Kenosha, situated on Lake Michigan, has a population of 21,371. The water supply is obtained from seven artesian wells, and from Lake Michigan, mostly from the latter source at present. The intake is 24 inches in diameter and extends 5,000 feet into the lake at a depth of 34 feet. Estimated daily capacity of the -lake supply is- 8,000,000 gallons; the average daily pumpage is 3,268,000 gallons. The sewage, without purification, empties into the lake. The analysis of the lake supply shows at times some contamination from sewage. The underground water conditions at Kenosha are similar to those at Eacine, although not as many wells have been drilled. The city formerly pumped its supply from seven artesian wells, ranging in depth from 1,300 to 1,850 feet. Most of the wells have a pressure of" 25 to 30 pounds when first put in. The flow from the St. Peter sand- stone was 250 gallons per minute, while that from the Potsdam was nearly 500 gallons per minute. Most of the water for the city supply is now pumped from Lake Michigan, and the wells are nearly abandoned. The'' pipes have partly rusted and there is considerable^- leakage. The artesian conditions here are favorable for a good supply of water from the St. Peter and Potsdam sources, and with little diffi- culty a good supply could be obtained equal to the Madison supply. However, the cost of pumpage would probably be greater than at Madi- son, and the mineral quality of the underground supply less favorable>- The section of the Pettet Malt House well is as follows : Log of Pettet Malt Go. well, Kenosha. Formation . Thickness. Drift Niagara limestone Cincinnati sliale tialena-Platteville (Tjenton) limestone. St. Peter sandstone Lower Magnesian limestone Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone.. Total Feet. 86 280 180 340 160 80 477 1,603 The log of the well of Louis Turner, 3 miles southeast of Kenosha,, is as follows: 398 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Log of L. Tamer's well, S miles S. W. of Kenosha. Formation . -Surface formation . Clay, sand, etc.. no water , Niagara limestone., Hard, gray limestone, no water -Cincinnati shale. Bl'ilsh shale and ^me limestone, no water Trenton limestone, water Total Thickness. Feet. 138 249 21S 173 773 Ranney. — The log of the C. & N. W. Ry. well, one-half mile from Hanney, is as follows: Log of C. & N. W. liy. well at Ranney. Formation. Thickness. Pleistocene. Brownish calcareous clay with some sand and pebbles Niagara limestone. Gra.y magneslan limestone Cincinnati shale. Calcareous shale •Galena-Platteville limestone. Gray dolomite limestone Depth (unfinished) Fppt. 1.52 260 118 180 710 Bristol. — Most of the water in the village of Bristol is pumped from wells 125 to 280 feet deep that reach to the Niagara limestone. The Bristol Creamery well is the deepest; it gets its supply from the St. Peter sandstone. Log of Bristol creamery well. Formation. Drift Niagara limestone ■Cincinnati shale Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter sandstone St. Peter or "Potsdam" sandstone Total depth Thickness. Feet. 195 105 70 311 70 149 900 Somers. — Near Somers, Sec. 14, T. 2, E. 22, is the deep well of Her- man Kreuder, which shows an interesting section, as follows : DESClilPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 399 Loy nf Hm-man Kreuder's well, Somers. Formation. Pleistocene. Drift Niagara, White limestone Blue limestone Clierty limestone Clinton . Reddish purple limestone.. Iron ore Cincinnati. Blue shale Soft blue shale Galena- Platte ville— (Trenton) Limestone Porous limestone (water)... Blue shaly limestone Sand Hard gray limestone St. Peter. White sandstone . . , Total depth Thickness. Feet. 171 13 15 100 32 18 50 150 50 100 170 10 20 10 911 This record is valuable in showing the Clinton iron ore beds at the base of the Niagara limestone. The Clinton group certainly occurs ■elsewhere, but it is usually not recognized where common churn drills are employed. This section also shows the bed of sand that is so often encountered near the base of the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- .stone. QUALITY OF THE WATEK The mineral analj'ses of the various waters of Kenosha county are ;shown in the following table. The waters of the surface deposits and ■the Niagara limestone are both soft and hard waters, while that from -the deep wells in the St. Peter and Potsdam sandstones are more high- ly mineralized and should be classed as very hard water. All the wa- ters analyzed from Kenosha are somewhat unusual, as compared with waters from other parts of the state, in their relatively high content _ •of sodium and potassium as compared with calcium and magnesium. All the waters from the shallow wells in the surface deposits and the Niagara limestone and the spring at Bristol, in respect to chemical character should be classed as sodium waters, while those from the ,'. W. Ry. Co. at Bassetts, IJ in. diameter. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Mar. 27, 190(1. ,•<. .\rtesian .well of "Park City Water Co." at Kenosha. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 23, 1891. 9. Citv well at KenoHlia. Analyst, E. G. Smith. 10 Weil of C. & N. W. Ry. Co. at Bain, H to 12 in. in diameter. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Mar. s, 190(;. Kewaunee County Kewaunee county, located in the eastern part of the state, on Lake ^Michigan, has an area of 327 square .miles and a population of 16.784. About 97.3 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 68.5 per cent is under cultivation. sukfa'ce features The surface of the county is an undulating plain mainly sloping southeast towards Lake Michigan. In the northwestern corner, bor- dering on Green Bay, is a relatively steep slope to the northwest. The central part of the county is drained by the ^Kewaunee river, the northeastern part by the Ahnapee river, and the southern part by the Twin rivers. The Kewaunee river has a prominent valley throughout most of its course. The dissected upland plain is slightly modified by a belt of 26— W. S. 402 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. hummocky drift hills, a continuation of the Kettle Range, extending northeast, through the central part of the county. The altitudes range from 581 feet, the level of the lake, to a maxi- mum of 900 or 950 feet in the western and northern parts of the county. The general level of the highest parts of the county is be- tween 850 and 900 feet. The main valley of the. Kewaunee river does not reach above 200 feet above the lake level. The most prominent re- liefs are the hi^h banks along the shore of Lake Michigan in the east- ern part and on Green Bay in the northwestern part, which reach from 100 to 200 feet above the level of the lake within 3 or 4 miles from the shore. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS "With the exception of the northwest corner bordeinng on Green Bay where the Cincinnati shale is present the county is underlain by the Niagara limestone. The drift and other surface deposits overlie the limestone in variable but considerable thickness. The geological struct- ure is illustrated in Fig. 32. Adjacent to the shore of Lake Michigan is a considerable thickness of lacustrine clay and beach gravels, associated with the glacial drift. The thickness of the surface deposits is variable, but has a known max- imum thickness at Algoma of 140 feet. It is very probable, however, that the thickness of the surface deposits greatly exceeds this in vari- ous parts of the county. The Niagara limestone, as elsewhere in the eastern part of the state, contains occasional strata of fine-grained shaly limestone which exert a marked influence on the movement of underground waters. The thickness of the Niagara formation is variable on account of erosion. The known maximum thickness at Algoma is 485 feet." The usual thickness of the formation within the county is probably between 200 and 500 feet. The Cincinnati formation consists of fine-grained impervious clay and shale beds, and outcrops only along the Green Bay shore at the base of the Niagara limestone ledge. From 50 to 60 feet of the for- mation is exposed above the level of the bay. The thickness of this formation where uneroded is known to be 518 feet at Algoma, and from 500 to 550 feet in Sec. 7 near Dyckesville. A short distance north of Kewaunee county, in Door county, along the shore of Green Bay, in Sec. 24, T. 27, E. 22 E., two deep wells were drilled to the St. Peter sandstone, and in these wells the thickness of the Cincinnati shale was reported to be 516 and 540 feet, see pp. 311-12. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 403 The description of drillings mainly of the Cincinnati shale, from the new city well of Algoma, drilled in 1912, samples and record sent by J. 0. Posson, and drillings described by F. T. Thwaites, is as fol- lows: Log of well of City Water & Light Plant, Algoma Wisconsin. , Formations . Depth. Thickness. 0-27 27—512 512-1,030 730 740 825 850 870 915 930 1,030-1,225 1,125 1,185 1,200 1,225 1,225-1,336 1,230 1,336-4" '7 485 OinciQnati shale 518 Soft bluish shale Same described as "soft and sticlcy until it strilces the air whenlt Soft blue shale ' Bluish shale Galena — Platte ville (Trenton) limestone 195 Same St. Peter sandstone 111 Fine grray sand Lower Magnesian red shale Total depth 1,336.4 The approximate thickness of the geological formations in Kewau- nee county may be summarized as follows: Approximate thickness of formations in Kewaunee County. Formation . Surface formation Niagara limestone Cincinnati shale Galena^Platteville (Trenton) limestone.. , St. Peter and Lower Magnesian TTpper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... Pre-Cambrian granite Thickness. Feet. to 300 to 550 300 to 550 150 to 250 150 to 250 400 to 500 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS The usual sources of the ground-water supply are the surface de- posits of glacial drift, lacustrine and beach deposits, and the Niagara limestone. Abundant water can generally be obtained from the surface forma- tions at depths varying from 10 or 15 feet up to 100 feet. There are many shallow dug wells on the upland area from 20 to 40 feet in the 404 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. drift. Drilled wells, however, are generally deeper and usually reach 100 to 150 feet, either wholly in the drift or some distance into the un- derlying rock. Wells obtain an abundant supply of good clear water in the Niag- ara limestone, the" source of supply being in the open fractures and seams. The water level varies from a few feet below the surface in the valley bottoms to, 100 feet below the surface on the broad upland areas, and somewhat deeper on the narrower and higher ridges. The Cincinnati shale is unimportant as a source of water supply, but within the area of this formation, adjacent to Green Bay, abun- dant water is found at the contact of the shale and overlying surface gravels. The deep-seated strata of sandstone are drawn upon only in the deep city well recently drilled in Algoma. (See under Algoma).. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells very probably occur in various parts of Kewaunee county, in the surface deposits and at the contact with the underlying rock. Flowing wells of this type occur at Kewaunee, at depth of 40 to 60 feet, the water rising to 7 feet above lake level. Flowing wells from the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone formations are very probably not obtainable along the shore of Lake Michigan apld Green Bay in Kewaunee county. Only one well reaching into the St. Peter sandstone has been drilled, namely the new city well in Algoma, which developed a head of 22 feet above the surface of Lake Michigan. This well, though it reached 111 feet into the St. Peter sandstone, apparently receives its flow from the lower part of the Niagara limestone, at a depth of 465 feet. The explanation of the unfavorable artesian conditions of the sandstone formations is given on page 80. WATER SUPPLIES FOE CITIES AND VILLAGES Kewaunee. — This city located on the shore of Lake Michigan has a population of 1,839. The city has no water works system and no sew- age system. The surface sewage empties into sthe river. Cesspools are allowed. Private wells are from 20 to 60 feet deep. The W. F. Wain- niger Co. have a flowing well, 49 feet deep in drift, that flows 41/2 feet above ground. At Kewaunee, in- the depression formed by the Kewau- nee river where it enters the lake, are several flowing wells, deriving their flows at the surf ace of the limestone or a few feet within it. The water in these flowing, wells rises to seven feet above the lake. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 405 Algoma. — The population of Algoma, located on Lake Michigan, is 2,082. The city watci' supply is mainly obtained from wells, one deep artesian well and one shallow well. The shallow well has a depth of 16 feet, and diameter of 21 feet, and daily capacity of 100,000 gallons. The artesian well has depth of 1,336 feet, diameter of casing 6 in. and daily capacity of 125,000 gallons. The deep artesian well has a head of 22 feet above lake level, source of flow at 465 feet in the Niagara limestone and flows under its own head into a reservoir, from which it is pumped into the transmission system. The average daily pumpage is 50,000 gallons. About 200 houses are connected with the city water works, about 60 per cent of the population being supplied. Only about 30 houses are connected with the sewage system. The sewage, without treatment, is emptied into the Ahnapee river. The city water works is connected with a 12 inch pipe extending 360 feet into the lake, used in case of fire emergency and for use in boilers. The private wells in the city are generally shallow and range in depth between 20 and 40 feet. The log of the deep city well is given on page 403. In the village of Casco, population 350, are many wells from 20 to 30 feet, in the drift. A well 540 feet deep, belonging to Joe Vandermessen of Dyckesville, in Sec. 7, T. 25, R. 23, on the ghore of Green Bay, is reported to be drilled all the way in blue shale, which is very thick at this place, is very impervious, and yields no water. QUALITY OF THE WATER No complete mineral analyses of the water of Kewaunee county are available, but judging from the character of the geological formations, it seems very likely that the supplies obtained are very generally very hard waters of moderate mineral content. A chemical sanitary analysis of the water from the new city artesian well of Algoma, drilled in 1912, was made, sample being taken when well was drilled to depth of about l,O0O feet (though it is the opinion of the water works superintendent that the water came from a depth of 465 feet, near the base of the Niagara limestone) and showed a total mineral content of 368 parts per million. The content of chlorine was 5.22. The total solids consisted of calcium, magnesium and sodium carbonates. No salt water was encountered in drilling this well and the water now is without taste. The mineral analyses of the water from Lake Michigan, an impor- tant source of supply for cities located along the lake, are cited on page 221. 406 THE WALTER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. La Crosse County La Crosse County, located in the western part of the state, has an area of 475 square miles, and a population of 43,996. About 89.9 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 54 per cent is under cultiva- ' tion. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of La Crosse county is broken and hilly. The level land is mainly confined to the principal valley bottoms, and the summits of the upland areas. The La Crosse river, tlowing westward across the 1 /Tj^S^ y^^ /^^ /''.''I'l'iV /^ 5 /;;^;vV^';vv:-'V;''V,___^.C:i;- %/,eyC::/'t:?ss& ^-i i f-^ ^•;:;v;o.^\\vv.v- :■/.■>:•;•■;;>;; •v-'\:;\:;--vu;:;';vA-.'.'-v;'-> gTZfiC V:■■:■.■^■>:•^^^;'^■.;■■V^;/ir/^';3;05^:V:;'/{^,V^■;V;^^ SOO' i^■■■.■v■■;■■■■■'•v•■.•^■^■;i ■;:-■■'.•■;:. ■■■;;■, .-\v;;:' ^;:;:^v.^v"^•v^^^Vr■;^•..-.v■-■V :-V '.:*'■ ;:^^^^■■o■■V.;^■':■:■ •■:-.■.■:-.■;■.: :-:v^:-":\--...^-"; ■;".■.■■;■":"■•.■■■..'■.■■■.':■;■.■ •■.■■■;.::■.-■:.■;.■■ "■;■■.■■■.■■.■.■■;•{-.'■:-.■■■■■:■'.'■ ■:■ ■ ■■.■■■;■■.■:■.■.■'.■:.■'■.■■■■:■.•.■.■:'■'■.■,■.■.■.■-■:-••. ■;.■•.■ ' ' ''' 'V V V V V V v-v%^v-v-v-/''rf-.-^-<7«^-'e^->^-^<^\,^v^v^v^v^v^V^v\,^^^.yj;v Fig. 45.-^Geologlc section, east-west, across soutliern La Crosse County. central part of the county, has throughout a flat bottomed valley from one to three miles wide. The bottom laijids along the Mississippi and the Black rivers occupy considerable areas in the western part. The altitudes generally range from 650 to 750 feet along the prominent valley bottoms, to 1,300 and 1,360 feet on the relatively level narrow- topped uplands. The soils in the valleys are mainly sands and sandy loams, and upon the uplands, either sandy loams or silt loams of the loessial type. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The indurated geological formations are the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone, and the Lower Magriesian limestone, the latter be- ing confined to the summits of the uplands in the southern and north central parts of the county. The limestone in the north central part forms the summit of the divide between the drainage of the La Crosse and Black rivers. Alluvial sand and gravel fills the valley to a prob- able maximum depth of 200 to 250 feet. A fairly abundant deposit of loess loam, from 5 to 10 feet thick overlies the uplands. The geo- logical structure is illustrated in Fig. 45. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 407 The thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone is variable on account of the extensive erosian of these formations. The complete thickness of' the Upper Cam- brian is preserved only' where overlain by the limestone formation. The limestone reaches its maximum thickness on the highest upland areas. The Pre-Cambrian granite floor lies at a depth bf 520 feet be- low the valley bottom at La Crosse. The approxipiate range in thick- ness of the geological formations may be summarized as foUowsi: Approximate range in, thickness of formations in La Crosse county. Formation. Thickness. Surface formation Lower Magnesium limestone DDPer Cambrian (Potsdati) sandstone. The Pre-Cambrian granite Feet. to 2.50 to 200 400 to 800 t: PKINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cambrian sand- stone and the alluvial sands and gravel. The limestone is an impor- tant source of supply only on the uplands in the southern part of the county. In the larger valley bottoms most wells reach abundant wa- ter in the surface formations at depths of 20 to 40 feet. In the nar- row valleys many of the wells are from 30 to 50 feet deep. On the limestone uplands the wells are much deeper, most of them being 100 to 200 feet in depth and very generally reaching down some distance- into the underlying sandstone. FLOWING WELLS Considerable interest was aroused 30 or 40 years ago conceiming' the artesian conditions in La Crosse. The first well was drilled in 1876 on the corner of Fourth and) Main streets. A flow was not obtained because of the high altitude. Since then it has been repeatedly demonstrated that artesian flows can be obtained from the sandstone on lower ground in and about the city. The original head was 20 to 30 feet above the Mississippi river, about 660 to 670 above sea level. Near the center of the city, where most of the wells are located, the head is now very low, due to the great num- ber of wells and to the heavy pumping at the water-works to supply 408 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the 20 public artesian fountains in various parts of the city. The mills and breweries also draw heavily upon the artesian supply and tend to keep the heads below the surface, except on low ground. It has been observed that when new wells are sunk between Tenth Street and Mississippi river, where all of the flowing wells in La Crosse have been drilled, the new wells get their supply partially at the expense of the older ones. Within this limited area the overdrafts are noticeable, but not so outside. South of La Crosse, on the Mormon Cooley road, there are flowing artesian wells 400 to 500 feet deep on many of the farms. Sortie of these wells are on the lowlands of the Mississippi and generate power enough to drive hydraulic rams which raise the water to the houses and barns. These artesian flows are not merely confined to the Mississippi river banks, but are struck on comparatively high ground in the valley bas- in, and also at points. one or two miles east of the river, on the banks x)f the streams that empty into the Mississippi. The rich farming lands of the "coolies" are also supplied with flowing wells, which penetrate the sandstone to some depth. Usually, however, the wells do vot enter the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone deep enough to get a flow, .even where the land is low enough. The present heads of the wells increase and reach a height of 650 to 700 feet 'above tide, a short distance south of La Crosse. This is doubtless partly due to the high range of bluffs to the east. A safe estimate would place the average head south of La Crosse at about '680 feet above tide. The absence of flowing wells at West Salem and Bangor in the La •Crosse valley, although flowing wells are abundant farther up the val- ley at Rockland and Sparta in jMonroe county, is referred to under Monroe county, page 472. The explanation of the absence of favor- able conditions for the development of flows about West Salem and Bangor is given under the general description of the flowing wells in La Crosse valley on pages 67-9. '^. WATER StiPPLIES FOK CITIES AND VILLAGES La Crosse, — ^La Crosse, located on the cast bank of the Mississippi river, at the mouth of the Black and the La Crosse rivers, has a population of about 30,417. It is located on a flat, sandy alluvial for- mation with relatively high uplands of sandstone capped with lime- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 409 stone, lying immediately to the east. The city supply until very re- cently was obtained from the Mississippi river, from a point about 200 feet from the bank, where the water is about 8 feet deep. In times of high water the river is tui'bid with sediment, causing the intake to «log. The water was not purified and has been used principally for in- dustrial purposes and tire protection. The pumpage is about 3,000,000 gallons per day. About 60 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. The drinking water is obtained mainly from shal- low wells and a few artesian wells. About 30 per cent of the houses are connected with the sewage system. The sewage is emptied, without purification, into the river below the intake pipe. After considerable agitation extending over a period of several years the city finally decided to change its source of water supply from the Mississippi river to a ground water supply. At the present time (March 1913) the new system is being installed on the low ground ad- jacent to the La Crosse river in the northeast part of the city. The new supply^ is obtained from the alluvial sand and gravel deposits which attain a general tliickness of 110 to 200 feet in the valley at La Crosse. The water is obtained from a .system of 5 groups of 4 wells each; each well being 10 in. in diameter, eased 100 feet with 25 feet of No. 20 Johnson strainers attached to the end of the casing. The well groups are spaced about 800 to 900 feet apart. The wells in each group are placed about 100 feet apart. Each group of wells is to be. operated by a vertical electric driven centrifugal pump of 2,- 000,000 gallons capacity, against a head of 40 feet, delivering water into a 1,000,000 gallon reservoir at the pumping station in Mj^riek Park. See also the table, page 136. A 20 day test of one of the 10 in. wells was made with the following result : Summnrii Test of One 10 in. Well January JOth to .WtTi. 191.i. Time — .Jan. lOtli morning to Jan. 30th evening 21% days Total water pumped 11,397,900 gals. Average rate, gals. 24 hours 531,000 gals. Average rate gals, per minute 372 gals. 'Data obtained from plans submitted by Messrs. Alvord & Burdick. 410 THE WATER SUPPLIES yOF WISCONSIN. Observations of Rate and "Drawdown" Date. Kate, gals, per min. Drawdown in ft. Specific capacity. 473 390 495 473 525 12.9 10 6 13.7 13.4 14.75 36.6 Jan. 23...... 36.8 Jan. 23 36 1 Jan. 25 35.8 Jan. 30 35.6 36.2 Note:— Water recovered its original level 40 to 48 hoars alter pump stopped. ' Upon the results of this >test it is calculated that this system of 20 wells would have a capacity of 10,000,000 gallons per day. However, there will be interference in the well supplies when all the wells are continuously drawn upon, and- hence the total daily capacity will probably be much less than 10,000,000 gallons for any extended period. In determining the amount of available ground water supply with- in the new well tract, observations were made by engineers to deter- mine the general direction and rate of underground flow. For this pur- pose the ground water level in about 30 wells located in North La- Crosse and in South La Crosse north of Main St. was measured. The observations were made as rapidly as possible on April 9th and 10th, 1911 when both the Mississippi and La Crosse rivers were higher than normal. / The observations made on the ground water levels indicated as would be expected, that in North La Crosse the flow of ground water is al- most directly westward from the La Crosse to the Black river, the La Crosse river being about 14 feet higher than the Black where it emerges from the bluffs, the distance between the two rivers at this place being about one and one-third miles. In general the data in- dicated that the flow was toward the west in North La Crosse, and southwest in South La Crosse. In the vicinity of the Interstate Fair Grounds the ground water is apparently being replenished by a flow coming out from Miller's coulee. There are many private .wells in the city that are from 10 to 30 feet deep that get their supplies from the sand formation along the Missis- sippi river. The water in these shallow wells may easily be contamin- ated and in many places it is dangerous to drink it. Good .pure water is obtainable from private artesian wells, and from many public foun- tains supplied by the waterworks from the two deep city artesian DESCRIPTION .OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 411 wells. In 1899 these two wells were tested and yielded 763,200 gallons in 24 hours. The wells are only a few feet apart and readily inter- fere with one another. Within a block northeast of the city wells are also the Listman Milling Company's well, from which about 200,000 gallons are pumped daily, and the Edison Light & Electric Company's, well, which has not been used recently. At Gund's brewery are three deep wells, the water being raised from one of the wells by means of an air lift 140 feet down in the well. The other two wells have the suction pipe attached to the casing and furnish about 650,000 gallons per day. These wells are so close together that they interfere with one another,, and if the well, containing the air lift, is worked to its full capacity the other two will be of litle value. The water stands 23 feet below the surface at present and the above pumpage causes the water to lower about 15 feet in the well. By pumping from great- er depth, as is done at Madison, the capacity of one of these wells might be made to equal approximately a million gallons per day. For a complete record of the first artesian well drilled in 1876 see Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. 4, page 60. In this well the surface sand has a thickness of 170 feet. Samples of the city wells drilled in 1889 may be seen at the office of the City Engineer of La Crosse. The log of one of the city weUs and of the well at Grand Crossing, owned by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railway Company, are given below. These records may be taken as representative records of the La Crosse wells. Many of the deeper wells strike granite, and all show the bottom of the old valley to be at a considerable depth below the- present surface. Logs of artesian wells in 'La Qrosse. Fornaation. City well drilled in 1889. C E B. &Q. E. well. Thickness. Thickness. Alluvial sand : River sand Feet. 146 8 150 50 25 105 40 2 at Feet. 91 CJoarse pebbles 53 Quicksand 9 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone: White sandstone - 56 87 Yellow sandstone (coarse) 111. Brownish sandstone (coarse) 28 36 Pre-Cambrian srranite bottom. Total depth 526 471 412 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Onalaska.— At Onalaskk, population 1,146, a few miles north of Grand Crossing and La Crosse, the artesian conditions are the same as at North La Crosse and Grand Crossing. The public water supply is obtained from two flowing wells 8 inches in diameter and 470 and 493 feet deep. The supply is obtained from the sandstone, and the average daily pumpage is 45,000 gallons. About 50 per ecnt of the houses are connected with the system. The log of the Onalaska city well as determined from examination of samples by F. T. Thwaites is as follows: Log of Onalatka city well. li'ormatioij. Alluvial Sand. Sand . No sample Coarse reddish sand Coarse gi-avel. Water at river level Fine gray sand (gravel) Upper Cambrian. I Potsdam) sandsioue Same, coarser grained Very fine tfraiued shaly gray sandstone Gray calcareous shale Coarse white sandstone Same Finer grrained sandstone Brown shale Medium giauied white oaifd-.lone Very i.oacse white sandstone, some pink feldspars... Same. (Thought to be within 30 feetof ihe granite.). Total depth. Depth. Feet. 0— 40 80^105 105-125 li!5-14S 148-180 180-200 2 0-250 250- -285 285—305 305-335 335-365 365-370 .370-410 410-440 440-445 Thlelcness Feet. 148 297 445 West Salem. — West Salem, population 840, has a public water sup- ply obtained from one well 8 inches in diameter and 400 feet deep. The formations peneti-ated consist of 120 feet of sand and the remainder the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. About 33 per cent of the population use the public supply. A sewage system is installed, with which about 40 houses are connected. The sewage has outlet through settling basins to the La Crosse river. The private wells vary ' in depth from 8 feet, near the river, to 30 and 40 feet further back from the stream. Most of the wells do not enter rock. On the lime- stone ridges, in the vicinity of West Salem, toward the south, the wells are much deeper, 100 to 200 feet in depth, but in the small valleys they are from 30 to 50 feet in depth. In the County Asylum well a strong flow was obtained at a depth DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 413 of 23 feet, from fissures in the Potsdam sandstone. The fissure strikes in a northeast-southeast direction. The present head of the water is reported at 44 feet below the surface. Section of W. A. Houghton well, West Salem. Formation. Thickness, Red clay Feet. 20 Hand and clay 40 10 Sand 42 Potfiidam sandstone .... 18 Total depth 130 Conditions about West Salem are about the same as at La Crosse. The old valley is filled with sand and clay to a depth of 100 to 200 feet, but the surface is overlain by thick beds of clay so the water from sand beneath these clay beds is as pure as from the sandstone. Thus far no artesian flows have be6n obtained, and it is likely that no flows will be struck on the lowest ground in this vicinity, see page 68. Bangor. — This village, population 692, like West Salem, mainly de- pends upon private wells for water. The wells generally vary between 10 and 40 feet, in sand formations, and increase in depth farther back from the river. R. B. Johns^ reports that granite was struck in the railroad well at depth of 400 feet, about 34.5 feet above sea level. For water supply for public use the village depends upon the Hus- sa Brewing Company's two 7-iiich artesian wells, 135 feet deep. About 60 houses are connected with the public water supply. QUALITY OF THE WATEE The available mineral analyses of the water supplies in La Crosse and the city water supply at Onalaska are shown in the accompanying tables. The water is generally hard water from both river and ground- water sources though the river water is much lower than the ground water in hardness. The river water from the Mississippi and La Crosse have about the same content of mineralization .as Lake Michi- gan water. The water of Black river is soft water and appreciably lower in mineral <2ontent than the water of the Mississippi and La Crosse rivers. ' R. B. Johns, Thesis, Univ. of Wis., 1900. -414 - THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The mineralization of tlie water supplies in the surface sand is much the same as that from the underlying sandstone. The table of anal- yses shows a number of mineral analyses of 'ivater from the city test wells at a depth of 100 feet. The samples analyzed in Sept. 1911 are very uniform in chemical composition and show a low normal content of chlorine. However, the high content of chlorine and nitrates in, samples 15 and 17 in table analyzed in April, 1908 indicate a contam- inated source of supply at that time. If those analyses in the table that appear to be of polluted supply are not considered in the gen- eral averages, the content of mineral in water of the surface sand de- posits, would be about 268 parts per million compared with about 282 parts per million in the indurated sandstone. The similiarity in the •composition of the water from the surface deposits and that from the rock is probably due to the fact that most of the water in the surface deposits in the valleys is ground water from the sandstone bluffs. It may be stated as a general, observation that the alluvial sands in the broad level alluvial tracts in central and northern Wisconsin are very generally characterized by soft waters. On tl^e other hand, the al- luvial sands in narrow- valleys adjacent to the sandstone uplands cap- ped with limestone are very generally characterized by waters min- eralized to the same extent as water in the adjacent sandstone up- lands. In general the water at La Crosse from the Mississippi river con- tains about one pound of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while that from the ground Avater supplies contains about two pounds in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 415 Mineral analyses of water in La Crosse County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Rivers. 1. 2. 3. 4. . 5. 6. 7. «ilica (Si02) 11.2 1.6 30.1 12.4 7.6 76.0 6.4 7.0 24.0 9.5 1.5 21 8 9.9 4.2 .!!5 n 2.6 1.5 28.8 13.8 4.2 76.4 7.7 1.7 ' Aluminum and iron o.xides (AhOs+FeaOs) undt. 13.1 5.8 4.5 33.2 4.8 4.1 undt. 21.3 8.8 5.0 45.8 13.0 7.2 'Galcium (Ca) 14 1 Magnpsium (Mg) 7.9 8-1 5 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 6.4 47.1 13.0 6.8 9.8 72.3 16.3 2.4 7 1 Carbonate radicle (CO3) ■- Sulphate radicle (SO4) Clilorine (CD 35.4 4.2 4 1 Nitrate radicle (NOs) 1.0 ... 152.3 Total dissolved solids. . . 114.0 159.0 136.7 65,5 101. l; 69.9 ' Rivers. Surface di-posit.s. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Depth of wpII feet 25 ( 30 30 35 80 -Silica (SiOs^ j 15.0 16.00 9.0 Aluminum and iron oxides (Al203+Fe203) . .. \ 4.1 undt. undt. undt. 22.4 Iron (Fe) .07 40.0 14.0 10.0 92.6 18.0 1.6 1.4 7.9 .39 33.00 13.00 10.00 74.80 24.00 3.70 1.80 106.00 Oalcium (Ca) 52.4 16.3 22.0 126.0 17.6 12.6 72.2 21.4 .30.6 98.0 164.3 undt. 69.2 21.2 28.6 98.1 151.4 undt. 64.7 21.7 16.6 117.9 51.5 25.5 56.7 Masrnesium (Mgf) 31.4 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) ■Carbonate radicle (CO3) ■Sulphate radicle (SOj) Chlorine (CO.. . . 4.6 145.3 34.5 2.2 Nitrate radicle (NOs) Total dissolved solids 192.67 176.69 251.0 386.5 368.5 297.9 306.1 1. Mississippi River at La Crosse. City Water Supply. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chemical Co., Nov. 12; 1907. 2. Mississippi Hiver at La Crosse. City Water Supply. Analyst, W. G. KirchofEer. 3. Mississippi River at La Crosse. City Wa^er Supply. Analyst, Floyd Davis. 4. La Crosse River at La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chemical Co. .5. Black River at North La Crosse. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Sept. 3, 1907. • 6. Black River at North La Crosse. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Sept. 12, 1910. ■7. Black River at North La Crosse. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, June 24, 1904. 8. Mississippi River at Minneapolis, Minn. Mean of 35 analyses. U. S. Geological Survey. U, S. P. No. 236, p. 75. 1906-7. 9. Mississippi River at Mollne, 111. Mean of analyses. U. S. Geological Survey. U. S. P. No. 236, p.. 117, 1906-7. 10. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co. at La Crosse. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 1, 1890. , „ „ „ ^. 11. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Oo. at North La Crosse. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Nov. 4, 1900. „ , „ .. 12. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co. at North La Crosse. Analyst, G. X. Prentiss, Nov. 15, 1900. ' „ „ X, .. 13. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co. at North La Crosse. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 28, 1907. 14. Copeland Well, Myrick Park. Analyst, Davis, 1905. 416 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in La Crosse County — Continued. (Analyses in parts per million.) Surface deposits. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 1 Depth of well feet. . Silica (Si02) Aluminum and iron oxides (AlaOa+FeaOa) 100 13.7 1.9 34.7 19.0 45.4 102.0 12.4 48.8 8.1 286.0 100 2.6 1.5 28.8 13.6 4.2 76.4 7.7 1.7 100 2.3 6.9 37.7 21.0 65.5 115.0 12.8 75.0 8.2 100 3.7 2.1 54.9 27.0 5.0 144.0 18.0 1.7 100 1.6 2.1 59.1 30.7 5.0 156.4 18.2 3.5 100 4.0 2.1 58.6 29.3 6.9 157.2 18.3 3.5 100 5.5 2.0 57.5 2S.6 9.1 157.0 15.5 3.5 100 6.8 2.0' Calcium iCa) 55.4 Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K). 28.1' 6.2 150.0 Sulpliate radicle (SO4) 13.6 Chlorine (01) 3.5 Nitrate radiplp fNO't) 1 Total dissolved solids 136.5 3.54.4 256.4 276.6 279.9 278.7 265.6 Surface deposits. Uppe r CambriaiT (Potsdam) sand- stone. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Depth of well feet.. Silica (Si02) . ... 100 5.5 - 2.0 100 6.0 2.1 110 2.6 4.3 471 1.7 "i'.h" 52.4 31.9 4.4 147.1 16.6 6.8 471 24.0 3.0 493 2.0 1.9 500 6.0 16.0 526 9 7 Aluminum and iron oxides Al20s+Fe208) 6 6 Calcium tCa) 57.0 28.7 8.8 154.9 17.6 3.5 54.7 27.0 5.8 146.6 16.0 3.5 56.5 23.7 5.6 143.4 6.9 3.5 66.3 25.3 2.2 130.1 55.9 . .. 60.2 22.3 8.6 135.2- 24.9 7.0 39.0 16.0 25.2 71.9 - 32.9 19.3 15.1 86 6 21 7 Sodium and potassium (Na+K). 8.9 173 Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 22.7 8 Nitrate radicle (NO3) ' 19: Total dissolved solids ; . . . 278.0 262.6 246.5 263.5 306.8 262.14 242.3 339.1 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 26. 27. 28. 29. City Test Well No. 1, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co. Apr. 24,. 1908. City Test Well No. 2, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearbol-n Drug & Chem. Co. Apr. 9, City Test Well No. 2, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co. Apr. 24,. 1908. City Test Well No. 2, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co. Sept. 9,. 1911. City Test Well No. 3, La Crosse.' Analyst, Dearborn Drug k Chem. Co. Apr. 28,. 1908. City Test Well No. 4, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co. Sept. 9,. 1911. City Test Well No. ."1, La Crosse. Ahalyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co. Sept. 9, 1911. City Test Well No. 6, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Sept. 9; 1911. City Test Well No. 7, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Sept. 9, 1911. City Test Well No. 8, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co. Sept. 9, Well at Rubber Mills, La Crosse. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Sept. 10, 1911. Well of C. B. & Q. Ry. Co. at La Crosse. Analyst, Chemist, C. B. & Q. ^y. Co. Well of C. B. & Q. Ry. Co. at La Crosse. Analyst, Chemist, C. B. & Q. Ey. Co. City Water Supply, Oualaska. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chemical Co., March 12; 1910. Well of Michel Brewing -Co. Analyst, Murphy, Sept. 18, 1911. <'ity well at Club House, La Crosse. Analyst, P'loyd Davis. 1905. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 417 Lafayette County Lafayette County, located in the southwestern part of the state, has an area of 634 square miles, and a population of 20,075. About 92.8 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 78.2 per cent is under cul- tivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Lafayette county is a deeply trenched upland plain, the uplands rising to a general elevation of 1,100 feet above sea level. Above this general elevation the Platte Mounds, in the northwestern part of the county, rise about 300 feet, the highest mound reaching an alti- tude of 1,430 feet. Tlie Pecatonica river has a flat-bottomed valley gen- erally less than half a mile wide. The main valleys are generally nar- row, with continuous slopes upward from the streams. The altitude of the valley bottom of the Pecatonica ranges between about 780 feet below Gratiot to 880 feet at the Iowa county line. The greater part of the land of the county is therefore less than 300 feet above the valley bottoms. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the same as those in southern Grant and Iowa counties. The Platteville-Galena limestone (Trenton), forms the main bed rock of the undulating uplands. The Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is nowhere exposed at the surface. Along the principal valleys, such as the Pecatonica and the Fever rivers, only the Platteville-Galena limestone and the St. Peter sandstone usually occur, and occasionally the Lower Magnesian formation. Southeast of Shullsburg the Maquoketa shale (Cincinnati) group forms the sum- mit of the upland ridges. The valleys are filled with abundant alluvial deposits, and upon the uplands loess loam is commonly present. In the southeastern corner of the county are a few scattered boulders of glacial drift. The geological structure is illustrated in Fig. 46. The surface deposit, mainly consisting of loess, on the uplands, is relatively thin, usually ranging between to 5 or 10 feet in thick- ness. In the valley bottoms, however, the river deposits of sand and gravel probably attain a maximum thickness of 200 to 300 feet. The |:hickness of the rock formations is also variable, on account of the ex- 27— W. S. 418 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tensive erosion of the strata. The complete section of the Platteville and Galena beds, is preserved only where this formation is protected by the overlying beds of Maquoketa shale, in the Platte Mounds and in the southern part of the county. Where the section of the Galena- CuiaC'f-t |;^!j■:■Syi^jv■Kw}j■:oy}lvv^:■^^^ !^S ^AH■^^j/((-::^vA■i^■:!j;j^?joj^^l^:0^ Fig. 46. — Geologic section, east-west, across central Lafayette County. Platteville (Trenton) formation is complete the usual thickness is from 250 to 300 feet. The complete thickness of the Cincinnati (Ma- quoketa) shale is preserved only where protected by the overlying Ni- agara limestone in the Platte Mounds. Tlie approximate range in thickness of formations in this county may be summarized as follows: Approximate range in thickness of formations in Lafayette County. rormatiun. Surface formation Niagara limestone (oiil.v on Platte Mounds) . Cincinnati slialfe (Maauolteta) Galena- Platteville (Tr>>nton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Mas-nesian (Ipper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone The Pre-Cambrian granite Thicline.-s. Feet. to 300 ft to 100 to 160 Oto 300 100 lo 250 750 to 1100 PKINCIPAL WATER-BEAKING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the Platteville-Galena limestone and the St. Peter sandstone. Some wells obtain their sup- ply from the Lower Magnesian, but no records of wells penetrating to the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) are known in the county. The wells throughout the county generally vary from 20 to 40 feet deep along the valleys up to 250 feet upon the limestone uplands. The groundwater supplies of Lafayette county are controlled by the same beds of shale at the base of the Galena and Platteville limestone DESCRIPTION OP LOCAL WATER SOPPLIES. 419 and at the base of the St. Peter sandstone as in Grant county. The water level in most of the lead and zinc mines in the southwestern part of the county is 60 or 70 feet, and only rarely over 100 feet, be- low the surface. Some wells in the eastern part of the county, as on the uplands near Darlington and Blanchardville, are 200 to 250 feet deep, probably getting their supplies either from the St. Peter or Low- er Magnesian formations. SPRINGS No flowing wells are known to occur in the county, but springs are common where the shale strata outcrop in the valley. A well known mineral spring is located in Darlington, and the public supply of this city is also obtained from a large spring issuing from the base of the Platteville limestone. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Darlington. — The population of Darlington is 1,808. This city has a water supplj- system, the M'ater being obtained from a spring in the city limits. The spring has a diameter of 27 feet and depth of 21 feet, the water standing 8 feet below the surface. About 75 per cent of the houses are on the water system. No sewage system is installed. About 20 per cent of the houses have cess pools. Private wells in the city are reported at 20 to 150 feet in the rock, the deepest wells prob- ably drawing supply from the Lower Magnesian limestone. The well of James Smith, near Darlington, has a depth of 213 feet in Lower Magnesian, and that of Charles Johnson, 220 feet, reaching the St. Peter sandstone. ShvUlsburg.— The population is 1,063. The city water supply is from an open well, 10 feet in diameter, 38 feet deep, from the bottom of which a 6-inch well, 265 feet deep, is drilled. The average daily purapage is 30,000 gallons. The city has no sewage or disposal plant. BlanchardvUle.—The population of Blanchardville is 643. Private wells in Blanchardville are reported to be from 40 to 200 feet deep. This village has a public water supply and partial sewage system. The water supply is obtained from one Avell, 6 inches in diameter, 7.5 feet deep in the surface sand and gravel. The average daily pumpage is 24,000 gallons. The sewage is emptied, without purification, into the East Pecatonica river. 420 THE WATER 8VPPLIE8 OF WISCONSlif. QUALITY OF THE WATEK The available mineral analyses of the water supplies of Lafayette county are shown in the following table. The waters from the sur- face deposits, the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone^ and the: St. Peter sandstone are either hard or very hard waters. The waters from the St. Peter sandstone appears to show about the same degree of hard- ness as that from the limestone. Water obtained from the Maquoketa (, Cincinnati) shale is likely to show a higher content of mineral than that obtained from the ofher formations of the countj'. All the waters analyzed are carbonate waters with calcium and magnesiuin as the im- portant constituents. The water from the railroad well at Ipswich, No. 6, contains 2.59 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and that from the "300 foot well" at ShuUsburg, No. 7, contains 2.76 pounds in 1.000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Lafayette County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Spring. Surf ace depo.sits or Galena- Platteville limestone. Galena-Platte- ville limestone, St. Peter sand- stone. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. T)pDtli of well feet.. 16 - 18.3 3d 2.2 21 10.4 Ill J 15.4 1 1.0, 300 Silica (9102) ) Aluminum and iron o.x-V Ides (AhOs+FesOs) . .) A.1umlnum oxide (AlaOs).., 10.4. '■■■'i.i" .5 59.4 l-l 8 200.9 4.0 4.1 8.5 1. 6.3 11.2 0.5 59 3 45.7 J 4.7 1 0.7 201.5 3 9 4.1 Trace. Calcium (Ca) 67.5 32.1 \ 9:1 186.7 7.4 1.5 70 1 34.9 6.4 191.5 9.7 2.8 90.7 61.2 27.7 287.5 1.5 41.5 64.3 35.7 I 1.3 168.0 , 26.7 2.0 68.6 40.2 Sodium (Na) 1 Potassium (K) ( Carbonate radicle (CO3) .... Sulphate radicle (9O4) Chlorine (CD .... Phosphate radicle (PO4) .... 11.3 180.4 34 1 17.1 Total dissolved solids.. 332. 323. 318. 519. 34 2. 314. 359. 1. Badger Mineral Spring at Darlington. 2. Bailroad well at Calamine. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 28, 1891. .3. Railroad well at Gratio. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Oct. 6, 1891. 4. Railroad well at ShuUsburg. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 3, 1891. 5. City water supply at Darlington. Analyst, W. W. Daniells. 6. Railroad well at Ipswich. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Jan. 22, 1909. 7. Well, "300 feet deep" ShuUsburg. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Mar. 22, 1905. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 421 Langi-ade County Langlade County, located in the northeastern part of the state, has an area of 855 square miles, and a population of 17,062. About 23 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 37.1 per cent is under cultivation. SUEi'ACE FEATURES The southwestern part of the county, in the vicinity of Antigo, and westward, is quite level,, while the southeastern, eastern and northern parts are relativelj' quite undulating on account of the terminal mor- aine hills that characterize those portions. The northeastern part is drained by the Wolf river flowing southeast, while the western part is drained by the Eau Claire and Pine rivers flowing southwest. The altitudes above sea level generally range between 1,400 feet about Antigo to 1,800 to 2,000 feet in the undulating hills on the divide in the northern part. The soil is generally a loam, with subsoils of gravel and sand over most of the county. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The principal formation is the glacial drift and associated alluvial sand and gravel plains, which quite effectually cover the older rock formations. In only a few places are there outcrops of the underlying granitic formations. The drift is generally from 50 to 200 feet thick. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formation is the surface deposit of drift, gravel and sand. This formation very generally furnishes an abund- ant supply at relatively shallow depths of 20 to 50 feet. Very few wells in the county are over 100 feet deep. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Antigo. — Antigo, the county seat, has a population of 7,196. It is located on a plain, with a sandy, gravelly subsoil, and sandy loam sur- face soil. The elevation of the railroad station is 1,483 feet. The 422 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. thickness of the sand and gravel formation is 58 feet, as shown by the boring of the city well. The city supply was originally drawn from a single large open well, 20 feet in diameter and 25 feet deep, dug through 5 feet of gravelly clay loam and 20 feet of white sand and gravel. Kecently a new sys- tem was installed, consisting of 8 tubular screen wells, 6 inches in di- ameter with 5 foot screen, laid out 8 feet below the surface, and one rectangular well, 22 feet wide, 80 feet long, and 5 feet deep. This sys- tem is laid adjacent to Spiring Brook Creek and approximately on the same level. The average daily pumpage is about 720,000 gallons. The city sewage is emptied, without purification, into the creek. Some years ago there was an unsuccessful attempt made to sink an artesian flowing well at Antigo. The well was put down with a churn drill to a depth of nearly 400 feet, wholly in granite below a depth of 58 feet. Only a very small amount of water was obtained from the granite. QUALITY OF THE WATEK The water of Langlade County, as shown by the analyses, is mainly soft water. The analyses, Nos. 2 to 4 of the Antigo" well waters, may be considered typical for the formation about Antigo. The high con- tent of chlorine in No. 3 is probably due to a contaminated source of supply. The hard water, No. 5, obtained from the glacial drift' at Elton, may indicate the presence of limestone in the drift of that local- ity, as the source of the drift in that vicinity is from the eastern part of the state, where limestone is abundant. All the waters are likely to be carbonate waters with calcium predominating. The soft water of Summit Lake contains only 0.47 pounds of incrust- ing solids in 1,000 gallons. The city water works well of Antigo, Analysis 2, contains 0.74 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while the hard water at Elton, No. 6, contains 2.02 pounds of incrust- ing solids in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 423 Mineral analyses of loater in Langlade County, (Analyses in parts per million.) Depth of wfill Silica (SIO2) Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ FesOs) Calcium (Ca) Maenesium (Me) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) — Carbonate radicle (COa) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Oreranic matter Total dissolved sc lids . Lake. 1.3 U.3 3.8 3.1 14.3 19.4 4.6 12.5 Surface deposits (alluvial) . 25 17.4 2.5 17.1 7.2 3.2 41.7 2.7 4.9 97. 27 10.6 3 4 23.8 7.5 26.4 42.2 22 » 38.3 18.6 3.4 22.2 10.5 5.6 58.4 3.6 7.0 175. 129. 126 12.3 1.8 34.8 18.7 1.3 98.5 2.0 13.0 169. Glacial drift. 24 17.8 0.3 53.9 25.4 5.8 140.1 7.1 7.0 257. 1. Summit Lake at Summit Lake. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 24, 1909. 2. Well of City Water Works, at Antigo. Anayst, G. M. Davidson, March 1896. 3. Drive well in Antigo. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Ang., 1902. 4. Well at Antigo. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., June 7, 1909. 5. Railroad well at Malcolm, 4 ft. diameter. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Aug., 1902. 6. Railroad well at Elton, 17 ft. diameter. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., May 28, 1907. Lincoln County Lincoln County, located in the north central part of the state, has an area of 885 square miles, and a population of 19,064. About 21.6 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 26.8 per cent is un- der cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface is mainly a gently undulating plain. The kettle mo- raine, a belt of hummockly drift hills extends east and west across the central part, north of Wood river, and in the vicinity of Schultz Spur and Dunfield. The northern half of the county is usually very gently sloping, while the southern and southeastern part is more undulating. The principal river is the Wisconsin, flowing southward through the central portion. The soil is generally a loam, with the exception of the northeastern part, where sandy loam and sandy soil prevails. The altitudes generally range be'tween 1,250 and 1,600 feet. 424 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS Most of the county, except the southeastern part, is quite effectually covered with glacial drift and the associated alluvial sands and gravels. In the southeastern part of the county, where the surface is character- ized by relatively prominent valleys, the drift overlying the granite is relatively thin in many places. Rock rapids occur at Merrill and at Grandfather Falls, and at many places along the tributaries of the Wis- consin, such as the Prairie, the Pine and the Copper rivers. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formation is the surface formation of drift and alluvial sand and gravel, which very generally furnishes an abundant supply at a relatively shallow depth of 20 to 50 feet. Only rarely are the wells over 100 feet in depth. Where the underlying crystalline rock is near the surface it must be relied upon to furnish local supplies. While an abundant supply is not usually obtained from the crystalline rock, very generally an amount can be obtained sufficient for stock and domestic use on the farms. The water in the crystalline rock is wholly within the fractured zones, and the more the rock is f r&3- tured the larger is the supply obtainable. Where the crystalline rock is massive, and free from fractures, very little or no water is obtain- able. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Merrill. Merrill, the county seat, located at the junction of the Prairie and Wisconsin rivers, has a population of 8,689. The city is located upon gravelly and sandy terraces of the river formation. The city water supply is obtained from the Prairie river, at a point where it is about 100 feet wide and from 2 to 5 feet deep, the water being taken in at the bank through a screen. The average daily pumpage is 967,000 gallons. In the spring and fall, during times of high water, the water is purified by a set of gravity filters having a capacity of 1,500,000 gallons per day. Sulphate of aluminum is used to remove the suspended matter and vegetable stain. The sewage, without ti-eat- ment, is discharged into the Wisconsin river. The private wells iii the city vary in depth from 10 to 90 feet. An insufficient supply for the city from 17 six inch wells, put down 25 feet in the drift, was abandoned a few years ago. It is reasonable DESCIilPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 425 to believe, however, that an adequate gi'oundwater supply could eas- ily be obtained at Merrill by a properly arranged system of wells at depth of 50 to 100 feet in the sand and gravel. Tomahawk. This city has a population of 2,907. It is located on the Wisconsin river, at an elevation of 1,450 feet. The formation is a sand plain of glacio-alluvial origin approximately level and about 10 or 15 feet above the level of the river above the Tomahawk dam. At Tomahawk the supply is obtained from springs located near the edge of a swamp. The system of waterworks was installed in 1891. A well 30 feet in diameter was sunk to a depth of 18 feet over the site of the spring, and when not pumped the water flows over the top of the well. The swamp is filled with numerous springs, and a small stream of water flows by the well, almost touching its walls, clearly showing the natural drainage in the direction toward the well. The supply of water is limited, and only by judicious pumping can a sufficient supply be obtained. The average daily pumpage is about 165,000 gallons. A second shallow well was recently put in. About 70 per cent of the houses have water and sewage connections. The sewage, without treatment, is discharged into the Wisconsin river. Most of the private wells are drive wells, ranging in depth from 10 to 80 feet. Many private wells vary from 10 to 20 feet deep in sand and gravel. A few wells have a depl^ of 50 to 80 feet, being cased down nearly to the bottom in order to obtain a deeper and more pure supply. At Irma, wells in the drift are from 10 to 40 feet deep. At Heaf- ford Junction the wells are from 20 to 40 feet in sand and gravel. At Gleason and Bloomville the wells are generally from 20 to 40 feet in the drift. QUALITY OF THE WATER The water supplies of Lincoln County, as shown by the analyses in the following table are usually either very soft water, or soft water, as should be expected from the shallow depths and non-calcareous char- acter of the water-bearing formations from which the supplies are ob- tained. The water of analysis No. 11 is probably contaminated, as in dieaied by the high content of chlorine. 426 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Lincoln County: (Analyses in parts per million.) Kivers. Springs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Silica (SiOa) ) Aluminum and iron ox-V ides(Al203 + Pe203)....( Calcium (Oa) 0.9 23.1 8.4 10.4 64.3 i.l undt.... 7.4 2.8 5.4 19.1 4.1 4.1 2.7 5.6 2.3 6.6 22:2 0.7 0.8 7.0 6.4 2.5 7.7 24.0 1.0 1.2 2.7 5.9 2.5 9.7 26.8 trace.. 2.7 5.6 2,3 7.1 22.3 0.7 0.8 undt.... 38 Masrnesium (Mgr) 10 Sodium and potassium (Na + K) 5.4 81.7 4.3 4 1 Carbonate radicle (COa) .... Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Total dissolved solids. . . 113. 43. 41. 50. 49. 41. 143. '• / Surface depo.-iits. .^:l '■■: "• 9. 10. 11. 12. Bepthof well feet Silica (SiOz) i ....i 41. ■ 21.7 24.6 2.8 •2.7 43.9 0.9 3.5 14. 4.2 18.4 6.2 ■2.0 43.1 1.5 2.0 28. 0.5 15.8 5.7 12.3 43.6 15.1 0.9 23. 2.2 25.8 11.7 19.4 78.8 5.1 29.6 30. Aluminium and iron oxides V (AI2O8 + FeaOs) ( 8.2 Calcium (Ca) 24 3 10.1 Sodium and potassium (Na + K) Carbonate radicle (CDs) II.3 Sulphate radicle (SO4) iie A Chlorine (CI) 1 4 Total dissolved solids 100. 77. , 94. , 173. 139 1. Prairie River, City Water works, Merrill, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 7. 1896. 2. Wisconsin River, Tomahawk, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 22, 1904. 3. Tomahawk Spring, Tomahawk, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. Ey. Co., July 16, 1904. 4. Spring, City Water Works, Tomahawk, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 15, 1892; ;. 5. Spring, City Water Works, Tomahawk, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., June 7, 1894. 6. Spring, City Water Works, Tomahawk, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Oct. &, 1896. - 7. Spring at Harts' Spur, Merrill, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Feb. G, 1904 . ' ■' . 8. Railroad well at Tomahawk, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Dec. 24, 1887. 9. Private well at Merrill, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Mar. 24, 1«88. 10. Private well at Irma, Analyst, Chemist O. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 9, 1896. 11. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Merrill, Analyst, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 1, 1889. 12. Well of C, M. & St. P. E. Co., Irma, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 15, 1892. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 427 Manitowoc County Manitowoc county, located in the eastern part of the state, on Lake Michigan, has an area of 590 square miles and a population of 44,978. About 93.3 per cent of the comity is in farms of which 68.7 per cent is nnder cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface is a moderately undulating plain, rising to a common level in the central and western part, and sloping towards Lake Michi- gan in the eastern part. The county ie drained by the Manitowoc river flowing east to the lake in the central and western part, and by the East and West Twin rivers in the northeastern part. The valley of the Manitowoc is quite prominent throughout its course. The Kettle Range of drift hills extend northeast across the central part of the county. The land along the East and West Twin rivers is gently sloping, the land in the northeastern part of the county being much lower than that in the western part. The altitude of the valley bot- tom of the Manitowoc river in the western part is between SOO and 850 feet above sea level and the upland ridges are generally less than 200 feet above the valley. geological formations The only rock formation is the Niagara limestone, over which usually lies a variable amount of glacial drift. The geological structure is illustrated in Fig. 24, showing a cross section along the southern bor- der of the county. Besides the glacial drift, there are gravel deposits and lacustrine clays in Considerable thickness adjacent to the lake shore. In the western part of the county red clay is abundant over the upland areas. The Kettle range consists of hummocky drift hills that are usually 50 to 100 feet above the surrounding lower land, being much less prominent in relief than the range farther south in Sheboygan and Washington counties. The Niagara limestone is generally effectually covered with the surface deposits, but in many places along the abrupt ridges or along streams the formation is well exposed. Many quarries are developed along the limestone ridges for the purposes of burning lime. 428 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. An interesting record probably showing the complete thickness of the Niagara formation is that of the well of the Northern Grain Co. lo- cated near Manitowoc. The following is the record of this well, with the geologic correlations of the various formations by E. 0. Ulrich of the U. S. Geol. Survey, from samples submitted: ^Record of well of Northern Grain Company, in Sec. 31, T. 19, R. 2Jf. Near Manitowoc) Formation . Depth. Thick nes.s. Di-ilt: Yellow sand , Feet. 3- 6 6- 20 20- 85 85-90, 90-148 148-180 180^95 195-230 230-237 237-287 287-315 315-410 410-450 450-470 470-505 505-513 513-735 735-825 825-880 880-986 Feet. 8 14 Medium-hard blue clay 65 No sample • .i 5 Niagara : Ittedium hard to very hard brownish and grayish limestone 58 32 Medium hard brownish and grrayish limestone 15 35 Hard gray limestone; water stands witliln 30 leet of surface Vei'y hard white limestone ^ ' Soft gray limestone.. > ^...i Hard grayish and brownish limestone, fossiliferous at 328 to 350 and 398 to 410 feet: sulphui- water at last depth Hard grayish and brownish cherty limestene; water stands within 26 feet of surface at 450 feet ...,.:.... 28 95 40 Very soft gray limestone 20 Hard grayish and brownish limestone; water stands within 22 feet of surface at 505 ft 35 Softgray llm«stone 8 ■ Soft and very soft grayish limestone: hard' stratum at 630 to 650 feet.......; .U 222 Hard gray limestone: water stands within 14 feet of surface Clinton :2 9C 55 Maciuoketa (or Cincinnati) shale: Very soft gray limy shale 106 Total depth 986 ' Bulletin 298. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 295. ' The Clinton is described by F. T. Thwaites as iron ore. Another possible interpretation ife to place the 105 feet of brownish and grayish limestone associated with the sandy limestone and gray shale, depth 90 to 195 feet, with the Milwaukee (Hamilton) shale for- mation of the Devonian, as the latter is known to overlie the Niagara at various places .farther soath along the lake shore in Ozaukep and Milwaukee counties. Accordijag to this interpretation the complete thickness of the Niagara at this place would be 63Q feet. The Niagara formation is of variable thickness on account of ero- sion. The thickness at Chilton in Calumet county under 28 feet of drift is 170 feet, and , at Two Elvers, under 92 feet of drift, 280 feet, and near Manitowoc under ,90 feet of drift , at least ,630 feet. The minimum thickness in the county is probably not less than 150 feet, and the maximum thickness of the ridges may reach over 600 feet. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 4-29 The second city well of Two Rivers shows a thickness of 670 feet of Ni- agara. The approximate thickness of the formations in Manitowoc county from the surface down to the Pre-Cambrian granite based on the logs of various deep wells may be summarized as follows: — Approximate thickness of formations in Manitowoc County. Formation . Surface deposits Devonian shale (proba ily DresHiil) Niagara llmostone Cincinnati shale Galena— Platteville (Trenton) limestone. St . Peter and Lower M agnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrlan granite Thicliiiess. Feet. to 200 to 150 150 to 650 280 to 300 200 to 250 200 to 250 600 to 650 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizons are the glacial drift and the Niagara limestone. In a few very deep wells the formations underly- ing the Niagara are drawn upon. The glacial drift consists of clay, sand, gravel and boulders indiscriminately mixed to form the glacial till which was deposited directly by the ice, and distinct beds of sand and gravel interst-ratified with clay which were deposited by water as- sociated with the ice. It is in the beds and seams of clear sand and gravel that water in the drift is found in abundance, at depths rela- tively near the surface. The wells in the drift are generally quite variable in depth, being deeper on the uplands than on the lower slopes of the valleys. Open dug wells are usually shallow, but drilled wells in order to obtain a good supply generally reach about 100 feet on the uplands, obtaining their supply in gravel beds near the underlying roek, or from a short distance into the rock. The wells in the Niagara limestone obtain an abundant supply of good clear water from the numerous fractures and open fissures that permeate this formation. "Wells in the limestone are drilled to vari- able depths depending on their location on the uplands or in the val- leys. The water level is near the surface in the valleys and on the uplands is usually less than 100 feet below the surface. -1.30 ^HE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells are common over various parts of Manitowoc county in both the surface deposits and in the underlying Niagara limestone. The flowing wells in the drift have their source of supply in gravel beds underlying clay and between beds of clay on the slopes of the up- lands and in the valley bottoms. There are a number of flowing wells in the city of Two Rivers, from 75 to 100 feet deep, in gravel or the un- derlying limestone, the head being 4 to 20 feet above ground. In the village of Cleveland is a flowing well 23 feet deep owned by J. Hill. This well passed through 18 feet of clay and 5 feet of gravel hardpan. The water was struck in the gravel and rises 4 feet above the surface, but ceases to flow during the dry season. Northeast of Cleveland near the Lake in Sees. 14 and 15, T. 17 N., Ei. 23E., Centerville, are four copious flows which spring from the gravels overlying the rock. The depth of wells is greater than that of the Pigeon Valley wells, averaging about 130 feet. The wells have high pressure and strong flows. There are other good wells in this vicinity and in the town of Mosel to the south, which draw their water from the Niagara limestone. In the town of Two Creeks, on the lake shore, about hali way between Manitowoc and Ke\Taunee are four flowing wells about 80 feet deep. Three of these wells owe their flow to a water bearing bed of gravel just above the rock, while the fourth is fed from crevices a few feet within the Niagara limestone. The surface of the Niagara limestone, at the city of Manitowoc as elsewhere along the eastern part of the county, is thickly covered with impervious drift and lacustrine clays, and the rock strata beneath rise to the westward and readily transmit the water from the up- lands, so that the requisite conditions for flowing wells are found in many places on the slope at no great distance within the limestone. The flowing well of J. Haltz, 203 feet deep, and that of the Manitowoc Malting Co., 110 feet deep in Manitowoc, ar,e of this type, the artesian heads being 24 and 3 feet respectively above the surface. The water in the deep seated strata of St. Peter and Potsdam sand- stone is very probably not under sufficient pressure along the lake shore north of Ma,nitowoc to develop a head above the level of the lake. The deep city well in Two Rivers drilled to the pre-Cambrian granite, at depth of 1,800 feet, failed to obtain a flow from the deep sandstone horizons, though a small flow was obtained from the Niagara limestone at depth of 230 feet. No other weUs are known to reach the sandstone in this county. The explanation for the absence of artesian flows from the sandstone, north of Manitowoc, is given on pp. 80-1. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 43]^ SPRINGS Springs arc a common source of w ater supply along the lower slopes of the hills, especially near the contact of the drift and the underlying rock, or directly from the rock. The fact that the water in many places on the lower slopes is held under pressure develops conditions favorable for springs. The Maribel Mineral Spring near Manitowoc furnishes a large supply of mineral water for the trade. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Manitowoc. — Manitowoc, situated on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Manitowoc river, has a population of 13,027. The city water supply is obtained from two large wells, 25 feet in diameter, and 20 feet deep on the shore of the lake. The well water is obtained from layers of gravel between red clay. An auxiliary supply is obtained from two intakes extending into the river at depth pf 5 feet. The average daily pump- age is 1,200,000 gallons. The sewage, without purification, empties into the river near its mouth. About 60 per cent of the houses are connected w^ith the water and sewage systems. Continuous pumping for a few hours will exhaust the well supply. There are many private wells in the city from 20 to 60 feet deep in drift. There are also a number of deeper wells that penetrate some dis- tance into the Niagara limestone. The two best wells furnish about 200,- 000 gallons in 24 hours each. William Rahr's well, 210 feet deep, when heavily pumped, yields as much as 500 gallons per minute. No meas- urements as to lowering of water have been taken, but it has been noted that these wells affect others on higher ground. William Rahr's well and the Manitowoc Glue Company's well interfere with each other as shown by test, but as they are both on the same level and heavily pump- ed one well does not take the water at the expense of the other. The wa- ter for the most part comes from the Niagara limestone and some of it is too hard for boiler use. (See table of analyses, No. 3 and No. 4.) The logs of other wells at Manitowoc, many of which are flowing, are on file in the office of the State Survey. Two Rivers. — This city located on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of Twin river, has a population of 4,850. The city water supply is ob- tained from 3 large open wells on the bank of the lake into which the water filters from the lake. The sewerage empties into the Twin river. About 45 per cent of the houses hiave water and sewer connections. The average daily pumpage is 108,000 gall&ns. Many of the private wells in the city are from 20 to 40 feet in the 432 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN-. gravel and sand. There are also a number of flowing wells in the gravel and underlying limestone, from 75 to 100 feet deep. These wells flow from 4 to 20 feet above the ground. The deep city well was drilled in 1898byF.M. Gray of Milwaukee. At a depth of 230 feet in the limestone a flow was struck that yielded one-fourth inch stream but the water from the deeper horizons failed to flow. Mr. Dunn, who helped drill the well, rie(ports the following section : Section of Two Rivers City Well. Formation. Sand and clay ( Pleistocene) Lime:itoae ( -llasara) Slate or shale (Oincinnatt ) LiJftestone {Galena Trenton) [Sand rock (dt. Peter, Lower Magruejiani Alternating sand'ftone and limestone { Potsdam) Uranlte (Pre-Cambiian) Total depth Thickness. FePt. ,'92 280 3Q0 250 250 628 60 1860 Another well was drilled by the city in 1914 to depth of 1,640 feet, striking, however, highly mineralized water, as indicated on the fol- lowing page. This well passed through a mvich greater thickness of the Niagara limestone than the former city well, as is shown in the follow'ing log: Log of well at City Water Works, Two Rivers, Wis. " Drilled by W. H. Gray Bros., 1914. Samples sent by Geo. H. Wehauhcn. Samples examined by 'F. T. Thwaltes, Jan., 1915. Formation. Depth. Thickness. Glacial dritt and lake deposit: Sand 0^ 16 15- 17 17- 32 32- 100 100-560 660-620 62(K*770 770- 950 950-1100 1100-1295 1295-1340 1340-1595 1695-1610 1610-1640 Hardpan Quicksand Dry red clay 100 Niagara limestone: Hard gray dolondite with chert towards bottom 670 Cincinnati shale: Bluish gray clay shale 330 Galena-Trenton limestone: Grayish-blue to brownish dolomite 195 St. Peter: Fine to medium grained grayish ferruginous sandstone Reddish yellow fine sandstonfe, to yellowish gray in some layers and light reddish 300 Lower Magnesian: Dark reddish sandy dolomite shale 15 Potsdam: 30 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 433 The second city well is located 1,750 feet east of the first well, the curb is 6 feet above Lake Michigan, and the head of water is level with the lake. Kiel. — ^Kiel, population 1,244, recently installed a public water sup- ply system, the supplj' being obtained from one well 29 feet deep. About 40 per cent of the population utilizes the system. The average daily pumpage is about 50,000 gallons. The log of the city well in. Kiel, drilled in 1905, which did not fur- nish sufSeient water for a city supply, is as follows: Log of city well of Kiel. Formation. Surface (no record). Niagara limestone.. . Cincinnati ^lialu Total depth. Thickness. Feet. 150 304 17 471 A sufficient artesian water supply could verj' probably have been ob- tained if the well had been drilled to a depth of about 1,200 feet and drawn its supply from the undei'lying St. Peter "sandstone. QUALITY OF THE WATER The available mineral analyses of water supplies of Manitowoc county are shown in the following table. The water obtained from springs, and from the wells in the surface deposits and the Niagara limestone, is usually of moderate mineral content. Some of the wa- ters, however, obtained from the Niagara, even in relatively shallow wells, as illustrated by No. 5 and No. 6 in Manitowoc, are very high in mineral content and contain large amounts of calcium sulphate, gypsum, in solution. The amount of chlorides is relatively small as compared with the sulphates. The water from the well recently drilled by the city of Two Eivers, in 1914, to depth of 1,640 feet, is high in calcium and sulphate, and is much like the highly mineralized water from the wells in the Niagara in Manitowoc. The analyses of two samples of this water made by Hantke's Brewer's Laboratory, of Milwaukee, Sample No. 1, taken 28— W. S. 4Si THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. after plugging well at 800 feet, date of analysis Nov. 25th; 1914, and sample No. 2, taken at 1,640 foot level, date of analysis Dec. 4, 1914, is as follows : Analyses of icaier of Ttco Rivers city well. (Analyses stated as salts in parts per million) No. l- ■ No. 2 Silica (SiO«) ,70.8 92.5 1,860.0 835.0 20<0 Aluminum and iron oxides ( AI2O3 Fe203) trace 2,307.1 Magrnesium sulpliate 200.4 161.2 Magnesium dliloride .. 154.5 Sodium cliloride. ... 169.6 519.'7 405.0 Total 3,547.6 3,257.2 The Manitowoc city well water. No. 4, contains 1.73 pounds of in- crusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and the artesian well water at Cleve- land, No. 7, contains 3.67 pounds in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Manitowoc County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Rivers. Spring. Sur- face de- posits. Niagara limestone. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Depth of well ; 20 7.8 1 ,0.3 ■■■47:2' 20.6 [ 17.5 106.8 25.1 26.9 110 i 10.6 1.7 0.6 570.9 99.3 J 62.9 1 11.6 • 142.6 1538.7 105.5 150 20. 219 j 20.0 1 0.8 472 Silica (S.Oa) Aluminium and iron oxides (Al203-|-li"e203) [ undt. 2.6 14.0 2.1 1.4 46.1 27.0 J 46 1 2.2 141.5 2.9 7.0 >■ undt. Iron (Fe) 46.6 24.9 [ 32 107.2 45,2 42.8 26 7 8.6 138.2 2.3 1.5 602.6 165. 205.7 5.8 259. 1790. 196. 78.8 49.7 [ 13.1 157.4 144.8 12.1 50.8 Magnesium (Mg) 35.9 Sodium (N a) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (COs) Sulphate radicle (SO4) 10.7 164.3 12.5 Chlorine !C1) 7.2 Total dissolved solids 227. 223. 249. 252. 2544. 3244. 477. 281. 1. Sheboygan River, Kiel. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, April 8, 1901. 2. Sheboygan River, Kiel. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July 8, 1891. 3. Maribel Springs, Maribel. Analyst, W. W. Daniells 4. Well of City Water Works, Manitowoc, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct. 19, 1907. 5. Well of Manitovfoo Malting Co., Manitowoc, Analyst, B. G. Smith. 6. Well of Rahr & Sons, Manitowoc, Analyst, G. Bode, Gcol. of Wis. vol. 2, p. 31, 1877. 7. Artesian flowing well, Cleveland, 800 feet north of station. Analyst, G, M. David- son, May 2, 1907. 8. City well, Kiel. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Sept. 21, 1905. DESCFIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 435 jMarathon County Marathon County, located in the north central part of the state, the largest county in the state, has an area of 1,532 square miles, and a population of 55,054. About 53.6 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 34.6 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES Marathon County^ is a dissected upland plain, the uplands gen- erally ranging from 1,300 feet in the southern part to 1,500 feet in V V V 'v/ V V V' V ■'VVVVVVVVVVvvyjIf V VVVV'»-'V v t ti j j v v v v V V vvvvvvvvvvvv f/ry vvvvvvvv ///((y v v v v v v /ooo VVV V^VVV VVVVV" .AMJl .,ww.../w vvvvvvvvvvvv VVVVVVVVVV' • ■ ■ Fig. 47. — Geologic section, east-west, across Marathon County. the northern part, with the valley bottoms and slopes lying from 200 td 300 feet below these altitudes. The quartzite hills below referred to extend above the general level of the upland plain, Rib Hill reach- ing an altitude of 1,942 feet. The soils are generally loams, with sandy soils along the Wisconsin river. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formation is principally the Pre-Cambrian granite. In a few places only, namely in the southeastern and in the western parts of the county, occur small outcrops of the overlying Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone. Glacial drift is abundant in the eastern, northern and western parts of the county. The alluvial formation of sand and gravel has a considerable width along the Wisconsin river in the southern part of the county. Rib Hill, Mosinee Hills and Hard- wood Ridge, southwest of Wausau, are prominent topographic feat- ures. The cross section, Fig. 47, illustrates the geological structure. The thickness of the glacial drift is variable and probably reaches a maximum of 150 to 200 feet in some of the morainic ridges. The al- ' For topography of Marathon County see the Wausau and the Marathon special maps published by the U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 436 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. luvial filling of sand and gravel in the valleys is Imown to be over 130 feet at Wausau, and may reach 150 to 200 feet in the deepest parts of the old channels. The Potsdam sandstone occurs in only a few localities, and nowhere exceeds a thickness of 50 feet. The approxi- mate range in thickness of the formations overlying the Pre-Cambrian granitic formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Marathon County. Formation. Thickness. Surface form ation . Feet. to 200 to 50 Tiio Pre-Cambrian cranita . . PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The source of the groundwater supplies is in the crystalline rock, the glacial drift, and the alluvial sand and gravel. Only a limited supply is derived from the cracks aaid fissures of the crystalline for- mations, but this is quite genejally sufficient for domestic purposes on the farms and in the small villages. The glacial drift is relatively abundant in the eastern, northern and western parts of the county, and generally a sufficient supply for domestic purposes is obtained in the drift or at the contact of the drift and underlying granite, where the drift is 20 feet or more in thickness. The sandy alluvial forma- tions are an important source of the supply for those cities located along the "Wisconsin river and tributaries. As most of the cities like Wausau are located on rivers on the sites of water powers, the alluvial sand and gravel formation is an important source of water supply. Figures 48 and 49 illustrate the geological relations of the alluvial for- mations to the Pre-Cambrian granite at Wausau and Mosinee. The Potsdam sandstone, which is an important source of water supply m Clark County, is drawn upon in only^ a few farm wells on the west- ern margin of Marathon County. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Wausau. — Wausau, with a population of 16,560, is located on al- luvial terraces of the Wisconsin river, at the site of extensive water power. Most of the city lies on the valley bottom, but a portion lies ott the slopes of the valley carved out of the crystalline uplands. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 437 Most of the private wells in the city, either dug or driven, range in depth from 20 to 60 feet, depending upon their location and elevation with respect to the level of the river. Prior to 1907 the city supply of water was derived from a well located 150 feet from the Wisconsin river, which was 35 feet deep and 40 feet in diameter, and had con- nected with it a 24-inch vitrified pipe, 180 feet long, laid parallel to the river, and 20 feet below the surface of the ground. The water con- tained a large quantity of iron in solution, which supported a- copious growth of crcnothrix, the growth of which seriously clogged the city- mains. In some instances the small pipes, l^A to 2 inches in diameter, were entirely filled. It became imperative, therefore, that either the Waussu Fig. 48.- -Geologic secton at Wausau showing relations of tlie alluvial sand and gravel to the Pre-Cambrian granite. objectionable effect of the iron in the water would have to be remedied or a new supply of water obtained. Fortunately in this case, a good supply of water e-ssentially free from iron was readily obtained in the deeper strata of alluvial sand and gravel. The old supply of water was therefore cut off and the new supply from a system of 40 six-inch wells, 135 feet deep, was connected up to the city mains in 1907. The new supply of water is derived from wells located east of the old open well, which is now used as a storage re- servoir. We are indebted to Mr. C. A. Nutter, City Engineer, for maps and data regarding the present supply. One of the wells struck granite at 134 feet, but the others did not reach the granite at this depth. It is likely that the old valley, now- filled with the alluvial gravel, extends to a maximum depth of nearly- 200 feet at Wausau. The character of tlie formation, essentially uniform in all the wells^ is as follows: 438 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISC0N8I.N. Section of Wausau city wells. Formation. Coarse gravel and sand Finer gravel and sand Stratum of hard Dan Pine gravel and sand Very large coarse gravel, some sand Total depth Thiclcness. Feet. 20 55 1 44 14 134 The chemical composition of the old supply of water showed an average of 0.7 to 0.8 parts per million of iron in solution; the new supply contains from 0.05 to a small trace per million, and the chem- ists comment upon the extreme purity and softness of the new supply of water. ^ The temperature of the old supply was 49°. The lower temperature of the new supply is the only bad feature. It is reported that the new supply is rapidly clearing out the pipe system. The available supply from the new system is estimated at 6,000,000 gallons at the normal water stage. The average daily pumpage in 1913 was ^,650,000 gallons. About 85 per cent of the people use the water supply and sewage system. The water works is connected with an intake extending into the river. No cess pools are allowed where sewer connections are possible. The sewage, without treatment, is emp- tied into the "Wisconsin river. Edgar. — The population of Edgar is 746. The wells in Edgar strike granite at depths of 10 or 15 feet. • Although no marked difficulty is experienced in obtaining sufficient supplies for domestic or general farm purposes, the supply is not sufficient for large quantities. The C. & N. W. R. R. has two wells here, neither of which supply a sufficient amount of water for the locomotives. The swampy ground to the west shows many small springs, and offers a possibility of finding a much greater underground supply. It has not, however, been investigated. The deepest well, at C. Du Longs, is as follows: Log of Du Long's Well, Edgar. Formation. Soil and drift Granite, disintegrated (meager supply) Granite hard (water from Assures) Total depth Thickness. Feet. 8 12 61 81 DE8CRIPTI0K OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 439 Marathon City. — Marathon City, population 656, is located on gran- ite rock, on the south side of the Rib river. The wells are generally rel- atively shallow, from 10 to 40 feet deep, drawing the supply from fissures in the granite. It is probable that any large supply of water for this city would have to be derived, either from the Rib river or from the alluvial gravel and sand on the north side of the river. ilosinee. — Mosinee, like Wausau, is located upon the terrace of the "Wisconsin river, at the site of an extensive water power. An abundant water supply for domestic purposes can be obtained at depths of 15 to 40 feet in the alluvial sand and gravel, depending upon the eleva- tion above the river. An abundant supply, for public uses, could be obtained here and" elsewhere along the Wisconsin river, like that re- cently developed at Wausau. See Pig. 49. A city supply was recently installed, being obtained from a well 15 feet deep. Mosinee 2 miles Fig. 49. — Geologic section at Mosinee showing the alluvial sand and gravel overlying the Pre-Cambrian granite. Athens. — The village of Athens, population 904, is located on the crystalline rock on Black Creek. There is a covering of a variable amount of drift over the crystalline formations, so that many wells derive their supply at the contact of the drift and the underlying granite. The wells are generally from 15 to 40 feet deep. Any large supply of water probably, such as would be required for a public sys- tem, would have to be derived from the surface formation in the valley northwest of the village. QUALITY OF .THE WATER The mineral analyses of water of Marathon county, are shown in the following table. The surface water of creeks, as well as that obtained from shallow wells in the surface deposits varies from very soft to hard water. It is very likely that the waters analyzed are typical for the entire county, and that fairly soft water generally occurs in all the geological formations. All the waters are carbonate waters with calcium as the predominating constituent, and the alkalies mainly so- no THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. diuni, relatively important. The organic matter in the city water sup- ply of Wausau indicates a contaminated water supply at the time the sample was collected, probably on account of water obtained either directly or indirectly from the river. The city water of Wausau, No. 4, contains 0.65 pounds of iiicrus'ting solids in 1,000 gallons, the water from Scott creek at Marathon city. No. 1, contains 0.41 pounds in 1,000 gallons, and that from the creek at Stratford, No. 2, contains 1.39 pounds in 1,000 gallons. Mineral Analyses of water in Marathon County. (Anaylses in Darts per million.) Creeks. Surface deposits. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.H4 14.3 Trn -e 16 4 4 9 4.2 28.9 18 2.7 13.8 5 67 37 20.9 2 54. 16 6 5.1 116.3 9.4 7.8 35 Silica (SiOa) 10.4 8.7 9.3 1.3 8.0 13 8 19.8 2.4 10.9 5 1 55.2 11.-8 11.5 104.1 18.3 16 32.7 18.0 5.4 7.5 8.08 2.5 2.2 9 2 Aluminium and lion oxides (AI2O3+ rezOg) Trace Cilcium (Ca) 12.6 2.6 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (OO3) 9.6 34.6 2 3 Chlorine (CD , 1.7 Total dissolved solids 74 218. 233. 89 131. 73. ^urface depcsits. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. nenthof well feel.. Silica (SiOs) Eiver 30 ( 3.9 17.5 23 1.0 14.5 3.6 12 6 35.0 12 5 51 23 20 "\ 60 20 5 14.1 4.2 4 6. 24 Aluminium and Iron oxides (A12084 PesOs) 3.6 15.2 48 6.9 40.5 30 1.4 Trac 11.4 3.5 12.1 29 4 12.8 4.5 Undt. Calelnm (Ca) Matrnesium (Me) 21 8 6.4 Sodium and potassium (.\a+K) 45 • 22.1 6.7 7.0 21.0 23.2 Sulphate radicle (9O4) 84.0 Chlorine (CD Total dissolved solids 75. 62. 85. 74. 38. 156. 4, (1'. 7. .S. 9. 10. 11. 12. Scott Creek, 2^4 miles W. of Marathon City, .\nalvst, G M. Davidson, Nov. 15, 1904. Creek at Stratford, .\nalyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept 27, 1909. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Edgar, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 19, 1895. City Water Supply, Wausau; Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 13, 1909; Citv Water Sn.nply, Wausau, Analyst, B. Q. Smith. Well of City Water Supply, Wausau, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 4. 1892. Well of City Water Supply, Wausau, Analyst, CheiMist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Oct. 7,. 1890. Private well, M'ausan, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co, July 26th, 1880. Well of the C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Mosinee, Analyst, Chemist i . M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Oct. 22, 1896. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Mosinee, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 18, 1892. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Dancy, -Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Mar. in. 1897. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Dancy, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., April 13, 1900. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAV WATER SUPPLIES. 44]^ Marinette County. Marinette County, located in the northeastern part of the state on Green Bay, has an area of 1,396 square miles and a population oi 33,812. Only 24.2 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 36.2 per cent is under cultivation. Most of the improved farm land lies in the southeastern part, adjacent to Green Bay. SURFACE FEATURES • The surface of Slarinette county is a gently undulating plain slop- ing down to the southeast. The Menominee river and tributaries and the Peshtigo river are the drainage lines. Thunder Mountain and Sil- ver Cliffs are prominent quartzite hills in the western part of the county. Along the shore of Green Bay, between Marinette and Peshti- go, is a broad low tract of land from 10 to 20 feet above the level of Green Bay. The northwestern part of the county has a somewhat steeper slope to the southeast than the northeastern part. The altitude of the low land along Green Bay is only slightly above 580 feet, the level of the bay. The general altitude of the upland plain in the northwestern part of the county is between 1,200 and 1,600 feet. The Peshtigo river flowing southeast down this slope is characterized by a series of rapids 10 to 40 feet in height, falling about 550 feet from Taylors Falls to the Lower Sandstone rapids, a distance af 43 miles. From the Lower Sandstone rapids to the mouth, a distance of 50 miles, the fall is only about 100 feet GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS 111 the northwestern half of the county the formations are granite and other cr.ystalline rocks ; in the southeastern half are the overlying Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. Lower Magnesian limestone, St. Peter sandstone and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone formations. The bedrock formations are quite generally covered with glacial drift and alluvial deposits. The soils in the northern part are generally sandy, while those in the southern part are generally loams with the exception of a broad sandy and marshy tract between Peshtigo and Marinette. The geolog- ical structure is illustrated in Fig 50. :I42 THE Water sj^pplies of wiscoNsm. ' The thickness of the surface formation is quite variable on account of the irregularity in the surface of the rock on which it was deposited. The drift attains its greatest thickness in the belt of hummocky drift hills in the northern part of the county. The alluvial sand and gravel attains its greatest thickness in the pre-glacial valleys, which extend acfoss the county. i The thicknesg of the stratified rocks is also quite variable on ac- count of the extensive erosion of the formations. The complete thick- ness of the formations is preserved only where they are protected from erosion by the overlying strata, as indicated in the cross section. The thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) is somewhat variable on V V V v ~'y^ g-i"i l rliM.j'..j^'^ , .-,,..^__^ 1 S* vvvvvvvv V v^*''=*3gjr:5s,,__;^ S/Z/si/cf- Man/fffft ? VVVVVVVVVVV 11 rv~Ti ■ I .1,1 I -T.^ 1 * VV V VVVVVVVVVVV V**'"'^ ^'^^^^ ■" — '^ ^ — ■ VVVV VVVVVVVVVVV vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV V V V V V V vvvvvvvvvv-vvvvvvvv soo Fig. 50. — Geologic section, north-south, across Marinette County. account of the uneven surface of the Pre-Cambrian floor, upon which it was deposited. The uneven floor of the Pre-Cambrian is illustrated by the occurrence of the mounds of quartzite at Thunder Mountain and Silver Cliff, which project several hundred feet above the general plain-like surface of the surrounding Pre-Cambrian. In the city of Marinette the deep artesian wells evidently strike a buried mound of hard granite or quartzite, which stands about 200 feet above the gen- eral level of the surrounding buried Pre-Cambrian at Oakwood Beach. As in many other localities, the thickness of the St. Peter sandstone and Lower Magnesian formations is difficult to determine in the records of deep wells. In most of the deep wells in the city of Marinette, a considerable thickness of Lower Magnesian limestone is reported, and very little or no St. Peter sandstone. However, in a few of the wells the Lower Magnesian limestone strata are instratified with beds of sandstone a few feet thick, and in the well drilled for, oil and gas, two miles south of the I. Stephenson well, samples preserved by Mr. H. B. Simcox, shows the St. Peter sandstone well marked at depth of 325 to 400 feet. The section of the Marinette city well, as interpreted by Dr. W. C. Alden, is as follows : DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIEti. 443 Log of Marinette City Well. Formation. Depth. Ttlclcness. Pleistocene Feet. 1-70 70-85 85-144 144-196 196-240 240-250 250-320 320-450 450-550 530-560 560-.560 560-670 670.685 687-712 712-716 716- Feet. 85 Galena limestone 59 Trenton limestone Cbipping limestone coarse .... Chippinsr limestone "Slate" light blue and white 176 (Base ol Trenton uncertain. St. Peter sandstone absent.) Lower Magnesian limestone Chippingr limestone coarse Coai'se chippingr limestone Hgrht colored, and dolomite 230 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) group White sandstone, very white, mealy looking, White and greenish, calceraous sandstone White sand 162 Huronian or Archean 4 Total depth 716 The following record of the Oakwood Beach well is very similar to the above, the principal difference being the greater thickness of the Potsdam formation in the Oakwood well. In the Oakwood Beach well a continuous thickness of 334 feet of limestone was penetrated beloAV the surface deposits, and assuming approximately the same depth for the base of the Trenton as assumed by Dr. Alden in the city well, this thickness of limestone is divided between the Trenton and Lower Mag- nesian, as interpreted in the following record. Log of Oakwood Beach Well. Formation . Glacial and alluvial. Sand and gravel Clay Galena— Platteville (Trenton) . Limestone. • about 3t. Peter sandstone (absent). Lower Magnesian . Limestone, about Sandstone Red marl Gray limestone Unper Cambrian (Potsdam I. r'olored sandstone White sand.stone Pre-Cambrlan granite at Irottom., Total depth. Thicliness. Feet. 90 21 214 1!!0 25 15 25 355 57 917 4-14 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSW. The approximate range in thickness of the formations in the county- may be summarized as follows : Approximate thickness of formations in Maiinette County. formation. Surface formation Galena— Platteville (Trenton) limestone. St. Peter and Lower Magneslan Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrian granite Thickness. Feet. 10 350 to 250 to 250 to 500 1* PRINCIPAL WATKR-BEABING HORIZONS The principal wate-r-bearing formations in the southeastern part of the county are the Potsdam sandstone, the St. Peter sandstone and the Lower Magnesian and Trenton limestone formations, and the surface formation of drift and alluvial sand. In the northwestern part the surface deposits of drift and stratified sands are the most important sources of supply, the granite furnishing only small amounts. The general water level is usually only 10 to 40 feet below the sur- face over most of the county. The wells in the rural districts of the county are of variable depth, depending upon whether their location is on rhe upland slopes, in the valleys, or on the level plains. Very few wells are more than 100 feet deep, and most of th-em are only from 15 to 40 feet in depth. Within the area of the level sandy tract in the town of Peshtigo the water level is generally from 5 to 15 feet below the surface, and open wells are generally only from 10 to 20 feet deep. By the use of driven pipes better water, less liable to contamination, could be obtained from greater depths, from depth of 20 to 30 feet. In the town of Grover most of the farm wells obtain sufficient water in the drift overlying the limestone at depths of 15 to 30 feet. Most of the drilled wells are deeper than the open dug wells and pen- trate the limestone to a variable depth sometimes reaching 100 to 150 feet. In the towns of Pound and Beaver the wells are generally from 20 to 30 feet deep in the low and level tracts and somewhat deeper on the higher lands. FLOWING WELLS Flowing artesian wells occur along the shore of Green Bay deriving their flow from the sandstone strata, either the St. Peter or the Pots- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIEH. 445 dam underlying the impervious Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone. The flowing wells in the city of Marinette draw their supply from the Lower Magnesian formation and the Potsdam sandstone, the head of the water being 20 to 25 feet above the surface, or from 30 to 35 feet above the level of the bay. At County Line on the boundary of Marinette and Oconto counties is an artesian well 210 feet deep, which flowed when first drilled about 14 feet above the surface. The elevation of the curb is estimated to be about 30 feet above Green Bay. This well was drilled in 1904, and is cased only 25 or 30 feet and has lost considerable pressure. At this place the Trenton limestone was reached at depth of 10 feet, and the underlying sandstone, the St. Peter, from which the flow is obtained was reached at 190 to 200 feet. Flowing wells with head ranging from 30 to 50 feet above the level of Green Bay should be possible in the southeastern part of Marinette county. The head at the Oakwood Beach well in Marinette is about 35 feet above the level of Green Bay and at County Line, 3 miles from the baj^, about 40 to 45 feet, the head gradually rising as the distance from the shore increases. In the village of Peshtigo wells apparently have not been drilled through the Trenton limestone, the deepest wells being only 120 feet deep. The elevation of Peshtigo is only 20 or 30 feet above Green Bay and artesian flows should be obtainable from wells that penetrate the Trenton to the underlying water-bearing sand- stone in the vicinitj' of Peshtigo. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Marinette. — This city, population 14,610, is located on the Menomi- nee river, where it enters into Green Bay. The city water supply is mainly taken»from Green Bay, one-half mile northeast of the old Pem- berthy dock, at a depth of 22 feet. A part of the supply is also re- ported to be taken from the Menominee river, and a part from an ar- tesian well, 765 feet deep. The average daily pumpage is 1,355,000 gal- lons. The sewage is filtered by the Jewel gystem of filters and emptied into the Menominee river. About 95 per cent of the houses are reported to have water and sewer connections. Many private wells in Marinette are from 15 to 25. feet deep in sand. There are several deep artesian flowing wells of interest in the city, al- ready cited. Some of these wells are from 700 to 917 feet deep, reach- ing through the Potsdam sandstone. The section of the Oakwood Beach well, altitude of curb 591 feet, depth 917 feet to granite, and flowing 23 feet above the surface is given above. 446 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Peshtigo. — The city of PesMigo, population 1,975, has no public wa- ter supply system. There are from 25 to 35 private wells in the city, four to five inches in diameter, having depths of 40 to 120 feet, strik- ing the Trenton limestone rock at a depth of about 25 feet below the surface. The general water level in Peshtigo is from 10 to 20 feet be- low the surface, and it is probable that many open wells are only from 15 to 25 feet deep. Conditions appear to be favorable in Peshtigo for obtaining artesian flows in wells that penetrate the Trenton limestone and reach into the underlying sandstone. A partial sewage system is installed along the main streets, the sewage being emptied into the Peshtigo river below the city. Wausaukee. — The water supply of the village of "Wausaukee is ob- tained from private wells from 30 to 40 feet deep in gravel and sand. In the western part of the village, on the uplands, are some wells 125 to 150 feet deep, which reach the sandstone at 60 to 70 feet. In Coleman and Pound the wells are generally from 20 to 40 feet deep in sand and drift. In Amberg the wells vary in depth, on ac- count of the proximity of granite, but are generally from 20 to 40 feet deep in sand and gravel. In Pembine, wells are generally from 25 to 30 feet deep in sand and gravel. In the southeastern part of Dunbar, some of the wells reach an impervious clay bed before striking water. Considerable difficulty has been encountered in obtaining a sufficient supply from the clay or the underlying hard granite at Dunbar. QUALITY OF THE WATER The analyses of the water from different parts of Marinette county are shown in the following table. The waters from the surface deposits are hard waters of moderate mineral content, while that obtained from the Stephenson artesian well, mainly from the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone, is a very hard water high in mineral content. In the Stephenson well. No. 6, the sulphates greatly predominate over the carbonates and the chlorides, a characteristic of the deep artesian wa- ter across the river in Menominee, Mich. Waters from the surface de- posits are all calcium carbonate waters. The water from the railroad well in Marinette, No. 2, contains only 1.26 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while the highly mineralized water from the Stephenson artesian well. No. 11, contains 9.11 pounds in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 447 Mineral analyses of water in Marinette County. (Anaylses in parts per million.) ' Eiver. Surface formation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 0. Depth of well feet.. 9 20.2 38.4 9.8 6.1 72.1 10. 9.3 15.9 14 4.0 55.6 21.4 8.7 136.4 13.6 3.4 20 3.9 60.9 23.5 9.9 148.5 12.3 7.4 20 undt. 86.5 24.3 3.7 159.9 7.5 24 Silica (SiOa) i 3.6 15.2 4.8 6.0 40.5 3.0 1.4 Aluminum and h-on oxides (AI2O3+ FesOs) 7.6 Calcium (Ca) 32.3 Magnesium (Mg) , 11.6 Sodium (Na) ..../ Potassium (K) f Carbonate radicle (COs) 8.1 75.6 Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) .... . . . . 8.7 8.2 75. 166. 244. 266. 262, 152. Surface formation. Upper Cambrian sandstone. 7. 8. 9. ' 10. 11. Depth of well feet.. Silica (SJO2).. 22 > undt. 60 5.3 25 5.1 48. undt. 716 Aluminium andiron oxides(Al203+ FeaOa).... Aluxninlnm. oxide (AleOs) 5.1 29.4 Iron (Fe) 2.9 Calcium (Ca) ; 55.4 26.0 4.8 80.1 27.0 26.7 70.5 24.7 7.9 68.1 34.5 6.7 213.9 Mtenesiuiri (Mg) 63.1 Sodium (Na) 51.4 Potassium IK) 9.0 126.2 28.0 11.2 186.4 7.5 36.2 167.2 8.2 2.7 158.3 7.8 36.8 25.7 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 686.5 Chlorine (CI) 131.0 Total dissolved solids 252. 369. 286. 312. 1218. 1. Wausaukee KlTer, Wausaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July 10, 1897. 2. Well of C. & N. W. By. Co., Marinette, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, March, 1888. 3. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Ellis Junction. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July 14, 1891. 4. Well of C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Pembine. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Oct., 1902. 5. Two wells of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Ellis Junction. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, March 6. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Amberg. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Julv 28 1891 7. Well of C. M.'& St. P. Ry. Co., Wausaukee. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Mar. 28, 1905. 8. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Coleman. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., 9. Well of C. M:.'& St. p. Ey. Co., Coleman. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., 10. Well of C. M & .St. P. Rv. Co., Coleman. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss. Mar. 27, 1905. 11. Artesian flowing well of I. Stevenson, Marinette. Analyst, W. W, Daniclls. J48 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCOXSIX. Marquette County Marquette county, located in the south central part of the state, has an area of 451 square miles and a population of 10,741. About 91.2 per cent of the county is in farms of which 47.6 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE features The surface of the county is very gently undulating and is character- ized by many level sandy tracts ana broad marshy areas. The broad valley of the Fox river lies across the southeastern part of the county. Meean river, Montello creek and Neenah creek flowing southeast are the principal tributaries of the Fox. Buffalo Lake, a shallow expansion of the Fox river, constitutes an important part of the, river in Mar- quette county. The highest land lies in the northwestern part of the countj^ the general slope being to the southeast. The limestone bluffs in the north- west corner reach an elevation of about 1,300 feet above sea level, about 150 feet above the general altitude of the surrounding area. Observatory Hill, a high mound of porphyry in the southeastern part, reaches an altitude of 1,100 feet, about 100 feet above the general level. of the sandstone and drift uplands. In general, the valley of the Fox has an altitude of about 780 feet, while the upland areas generally reach up to 1,050 and 1,100 feet in the northeastern part, and from 1,100 to 1,200 feet in the northwestern part. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are mainly the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone and the surface deposits of drift and alluvium. A few outcrops of Pre-Cambrian porphyry and granite widely separated lie along the Fox river valley. The highest mounds in the northwestern part of the county are capped with the Lower Magnesian limestone. The geological structure is illustrated in Fig. 39, which shows a cross section of both Marquette and Green Lake counties. The thickness of the geological formations varies considerably in different parts of the county, on account of unequal erosion. The us- ual range in thickness of the various formations may be summarized as follows: DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIEtS. 449 Probable range in thickness of formations in Marquette County. Formation. Thickness. Feet. to 300 Lower Magrnesian limestone (only on mounds In N. W. part) to 30 to 750 Pre-Oambrian granite PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and overlying surface deposits of gravel and glacial drift. Most of the wells in the county are relatively shallow. FLOWING WELLS Along the Fox river are many artesian flowing wells in the gravel and sand. In the village of Oxford the wells are from 12 to 30 feet deep, some of which are flowing. In Packwaukee, there are flowing wells near the lake, the water rising 5 or 6 feet above the level of Lake Buffalo. In Montello, Endeavor and Westfield are many flowing wells as described below and on the following page. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Montello. — The village of Montello. located at the east end of Lake Buffalo, has a population of 1,104. In Montello are at least 12 good flowing wells, ranging in depth from 80 to 140 feet. The wells are in the vaUey of Montello creek, which enters the lake at this point. They are the, same type as those described on the Fox river in the' vicinity of Berlin. It is very likely that other flows will be obtained about Buf- falo Lake, particularly on the marshy flats and lowlands surrounding the lake and along Montello creek and its tributaries. Endeavor. — At the upper end of Buffalo Lake, in the vicinity of En- deavor,, several artesian flows have been obtained during recent years. The wells range in depth from 20 to 40 feet. There is little doubt that in the future many more flowing wells will be drilled in this locality and farther up the Fox river. How much farther up the river these conditions extend has not been determined; but about Buffalo Lake and the Fox river, south of the lake, the low flats and marshy lowlands are the most favorable areas for obtaining flows. The local conditions will determine the elevations at which the flows may be obtained. 29— W. S. 450 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. West field.— The popidation of Westfield is 729. Within the village of Westfield, Sec. 12, T. 16, N. R. 8 B., are at least 12 flowing wells, which obtain water entirely from the alluvial sand or drift. The strong- est and deepest of these, that of A. P. Wooster, is 125 feet deep, and flows 12 feet above the surface. The wells are grouped in a general way along the valley of a small stream. On the south of Main street, where it runs parallel to the brow of the hill, are four good flowing wells in close proximity. Just north, across the street, perhaps 5 feet higher, are several wells parallel to the four wells above mentioned, which do not flow, and which entered rock a few feet below the surface. These wells appear to be on the edge of a buried cliff, while the flowing wells are in the alluvial filled valley. ^ QUAUTY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of water supplies of the pond and from sur- face deposits in the vicinity of Oxford, are shown in the table. The waters analyzed are hard, of either low or very moderate mineral con- tent, and are very probably typical for the surface waters and for wa- ters from the surface deposits throughout the county. Waters of slightly higher content of mineral probably occur only in close associa- tion with the limestone formation. The water from the pond, near Oxford, No. 3, contains 0.93 pounds of inerusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and that from the well on the Nunn farm. No. 5, contains 2.14 pounds in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Marquette County. (.^.naylses in parts per million.) _ . . _ Lalies. Surface deposits. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Depth of well feet.. 125 Silica (SIO2) 6.1 1.7 40.4 26.6 1.3 119.3 11.2 2.1 8.5 . 10.0 0.5 38.3 17.9 1.6 98.1 6.0 2.5 6.8 8.0 2.5 36.6 21.4 1.3 101.5 6.1 2.0 sJ"' .6 24.2 12.8 6.9 65.8 3.4 . 10.6 13.7 Aluminium and Iron oxides (AI2O3-I- FezOs) 2.7 47.2 35.2 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) .8 149.7 Sulphate radicle (SO4) .....' 7.4 Chlorine (CD 1.3 Organic matter Total dissolved solids 209. 176. 179. 128. 258. 1. Biid'alo Lake, Fox Kiver, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 22, 1912. 2. Mill Pond, Oxford, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 22, 1912. 3. Mill Pond, Oxford, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, April 27, 1911. 4. Pond % mile S. W. Oxford station, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, April 27, 1911. 5. Well of Nunn farm, Oxford, .Snalyst, G. M. Davidson, April 27, 1911. DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 451 Milwaukee County Milwaukee County, located in the southeastern part of the state, has an area of 228 square miles and a population of 433,187. Most of the population is in the city of Milwaukee and in the outlying suburbs. About 65.2 per cent of the rura;l district is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Milwaukee county is a gently undulating plain, with- out prominent relief, sloping eastward towards Lake Michigan. The county is drained by the Milwaukee and Menominee rivers, flowing in- WflUKESHfl CO. MILWAUKEE CO Fig. 51. — Geologic section, east-west, across Waukesha and Milwaulsee counties. to the lake at Milwaukee, and the Root river flowing into the lake at Racine. The surface of Lake Michigan is 581 feet above sea level. The small valley bottoms of the county reach up to 750 feet above sea level, while the upland slopes reach altitudes ranging between 700 and 850 feet. The most striking features of topography are the high banks along the shore of Lake Michigan which usually reach from 80 to 120 feet above the lake. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The rock immediately underlying the drift is mainly the Niagara limestone. In a few places in Milwaukee and vicinity are beds of De- vonian shale and limestone overlying the Niagara. The geological sec- tion of Milwaukee and Waukesha counties is illustrated in Fig. 51. The known thickness of the surface deposits of glacial drift, alluvial and lacustrine formations ranges, from zero up to 176 feet, but it is 452 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSm. quite probable that the surface deposits in some places may be of much greater thickness, perhaps 250 or 300 feet. The thickness of the Niag- ara is also variable on account of erosion, the known range in thick- ness being between 230 and 425 feet. The maximum thickness in the county probably does not exceed 450 to 500 feet. The thickness of the Devonian limestone deposits in Milwaukee is only 25 feet at the Milwaukee Cement quarry, where this formation is exposed, but some well records appear to show the presence of at least 138 feet. The thickness of the formations underlying the Niagara lime- stone, viz. the Cincinnati shale, the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone, the St. Peter sandstone, the Lower Magnesian limestone and the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is shown in the well records of deep wells in the city of Milwaukee, cited on the following pages. In most of these deep wells there appears to be no limestone in the horizon of the Lower Magnesian group, the entire strata below the Trenton being sandstone, and for this reason it is practically impossible to distinguish the exact boundaries between the formations below the Trenton in the deep wells. That St. Peter sandstone in place of Lower Magnesian limestone should largely or entirely occupy the usual hori- zon of the Lower Magnesian is quite common as observations show a similar development in various other parts of the state. The probable range in thickness of the formations in Milwaukee county may be summarized as follows : Range in thickness of geological formations in Milwaukee County. Formalions. Surface tormations Devonian limestone Or shale Niag'ara limestone Cincinnati shale Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. St, Peter and Lower Magnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone.. Pre-Cambrian granite Thickness.- Feet. to 300 to 150 200 to 500 140 to 200 250 to 350 200 to 250 800 to 900 PEINCIPAL WATEK-BEARING HORIZONS All of the geological formations are drawn upon for water supplies but the most important sources are the surface deposits of drift and the Niagara limestone. It is only in the deep artesian wells in Milwau- kee and suburbs that the water-bearing strata underlying the Niagara is drawn upon. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 453-, A very large number of wells in the rural districts obtain their water- supph' from the drift at depths less than 80 feet, only a few wholly in drift exceeding this depth. The supply in the drift is generally ob- tained from gravel beds at the contact of the drift and the underlying rock, at which horizon gravel often occurs. These drift wells have furnished a large part of the water supply since the settlement of the country, but farmers now often find this source to be inadequate, and during the last few years the drift wells have been deepened and now draw water from the underlying rock. Wells drawing their supply from the underlying limestone Tange in depth from 20 to 365 feet, and penetrate the rock from 1 to 270 feet. Although they are usually more expensive than the drift wells, their water is of better quality, and their supply is larger and more con- stant. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells have been obtained in both the surface deposits and the underlying rock. Only a relatively few flowing wells of shallow depth have been obtained from the drift in Milwaukee and vicinity. These wells depend on local conditions, and generally derive their sup- ply from a sand or gravel stratum that underlies a bed of relatively compact clay. Adjacent weUs often interfere with each others flow as illustrated by the flowing wells in the southeastern part of Sec. 33, T. 8, R. 21 E., where one well flowed until another well 80 rods distant was bored at a somewhat lower level. There are a few surface flowing wells in Sec. 6 of the town of Wauwautosa, one at a place one-fourth mile north of Butler, one at the St. Francis Art Institute and one on the Green Bay road one mile east of North Milwaukee. Flowing wells in the Niagara limestone are not known to occur in the immediate vicinity of Milwaukee, but flows of this type occur in con- siderable abundance in the northwest part of the county. At Granville, wells somewhat similar to those at South Germantown in Washington County are obtained. The water at Granville does not rise as high above the surface as at South Germantown. Most of the wells in this vicinity draw their water from the Niagara limestone at various depths. Flowing wells are struck on low ground all the way from West Bend to points south of Granville. 454 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Record of flowing well owned hy Peter Schmidt, Granville. Formation. Thickness. Soil Blue clay Niagara limestone (not through; . Total depth Feet. 2 60 150 Deep artesian flowing wells obtaining their supply from the sand- stone strata underlying the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone occur in many favorable localities in Milwaukee and the surrounding suburbs, some of which are referred to on page 79, and are more fully described under the water supplies for cities and villages. The head of several of these artesian wells is given in Table No. 18. The head of the deep flowing wells in Milwaukee, when first drilled ranged from 50 to over 100 feet above Lake Michigan. Many of the wells that origin- ally flowed have ceased flowing or have much lower head on account of improper casing and increased draft upon the artesian reservoir. SPRINGS Springs occur in various parts of the county, most of which have their source in the drift, but some have their source in the Niagara limestone. There are several well known mineral springs locatd at "Wauwautosa, among which may be mentioned the Nee-Ska-Ra spring and the Elim Mineral Spring which supply the market at the present time. Waters for the market have been supplied from a large number of mineral springs in Milwaukee county, among which may be men- tioned the Eureka spring and the Sylvan Spring of Milwaukee ; Hack- ett's Spring at Hales Corners; Schweichardt 's Spring, Sparkling Spring and Castalia Spring at "Wauwautosa, and the "Soda Lithia" spring northwest of Fussville on the Fond du Lac Road. WATEK SUPPLIES FOE CITIES AND VILLAGES Milwaukee. — Milwaukee, situated on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Menomonee and Milwaukee rivers, has a population of 373,857. The city water supply is obtained from Lake Michigan at a point about a mile and a half from shore. The sewage, without purifleation, emp- ties into the Milwaukee river and thence into the lake. About 90 per DESCIUPTIOy OF LOCAL WATElt t^UPPLlEH. 455 cent of the houses are connected with the water supply and sewerage systems. The average daily pumpage in 1914 was 47,913,000 gallons. There has been much discussion at various times concerning the pur- ity of Milwaukee's public supply of drinking water. While it is very generally conceded that the supply is not entirely free from pollution, it is also generally contended that the supply is not dangerous because no cases of typhoid have been directly traced to the water supply, though various epidemics of intestinal troubles may be traceable to it. The source of the pollution of the water is due to the city sewage that is emptied into the lake. While the intake for the water supply is located out in the lake about a mile and a half off shore, a certain amount of polluted water reaches the intake, the amount of pollution depending upon the direction of prevailing winds with reference to the location of the sewage outlets and the water intake. Under the present method of emptying the city sewage into the source of the water supply there is constant danger to the health of the city. As the amount of sewage emptied into the lake increases on account of the increase in population there is constantly increased danger in using the lake water supply. Some efficient method of disposal should be adopted and al- so the intake should be extended into the lake to a distance beyqnd which polluted water does not extend. The recent report of the spe- cial sewage commission recommends that the raw sewage be no longer emptied into the lake. The future growtli of the city would require the provision for water supply and sewage as estimated by G. A. Geiger in the following table : Estimated future requirements of water supply and sewage in Milwaukee. Year. Population. Dally consump- tion of water in gallons. Total sewage per day estimated. Total spwag-e yer day estimated by commission. 1910 375.000 480,000 585,000 720,000 850,000 42,000,000 54,000.000 67,000,000 84,, 00, 000 102,000.000 00,000.000 77,000,000 96,ooo,nro 121.000.000 146,000,000 61.000.000 1920.... 1930 .. . 100,000,000 1940 .. 1950 155,000,000 When the present pumping station was located at the foot of North avenue on the lake shore of Lake Michigan, in 1871, an intake, con- sisting of a 36-ineh cast iron pipe, starting at the pumping station and running out into the lake at right angles to the shore a distance of 2,000 feet was laid. At that time the building of sewers had just begun and 456 THE -[VATER SUPPLIES OF WISCOXSIK. the water supply was pure and wholesome. As the building of sewers continued from year to year, discharging their contents into the river and then into the lake, the water at the intake became contaminated and finally this intake had to be abandoned. A new intake, consisting of a TiA-foot underground tunnel 3,200 ft. long, ending in a shaft from which extend two 5-foot pipes 5,000 ft. long laid on the bottom of the lake, was started in 1890 and finished in 1895. The approximate cost^ of constructing this intake was $575,000. This intake starts at the pumping station and runs due east out into the lake, a distance of 8,200 feet, ending in a sub- merged crib and taking water at a depth of 50 feet below the lake surface. While this new intake gave pure water at the time, it is now occasionally contaminated, due to sewage entering the lake, and it has been decided that this intake will also have to be abandoned. It was urged that an entire new plant, consisting of an intake and pumping station, with new machinery and force mains, is necessary, and that it should be located so that it will supply the city with pure and good water for a long time to come. That, however, cannot be done by going only a short distance away from the present contaminated intakes. The proper location for this new intake was said to be at Pox Point, which would place it about ten (10) miles awaj' from the mouth of the river, and make the supply safe for a number of years. If in the meantime the sewage of the entire city is purified before it reaches the lake, the city would have an inexhaustible, permanent pure supply of drinking water. The present city administration of 1914-15, realizing the need of a better water supply, have begun the construction of the third in- take located about a mile north of the present one. The third in- take extends 6,300 feet northeast of Lake Park froan a point oppo- site Linwood Ave. and consists of an underground tunnel, 12 feet In diameter and 4,000 feet long, ending in an intake shaft, from which extend 4 lines of 6-foot pipe, 2,300 feet long, laid on the bot- tom of the lake and ending in s\ibmerged cribs at depth of 60 feet. This new intake located about 4 miles from the mouth of the river, ficeording to past experience, may furnish pure water for a short time, probably only for a few years, as the location istoo close to the mouth of the river. If the city sewage is purified, however, the pollution of the new source of supply may be prevented. Many artesian wells for private water supplies have been drilled ' Eng. News, vol. 34, p. 187-190, 1895. DESCRIPTIOK OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 457 in or near Milwaukee, but no accurate information can be obtained concerning most of these wells, and little is known of their present condition. IMr. F. M. Gray, well driller, reports that the Lower Magne- sian limestone is absent in many wells, and that according to the usual interpretation, the St. Peter rests directly upon the Potsdam. For other records, however, it appears that some limestone of the Lower Magnesian horizon is present in' places. The artesian head has de- creased considerably, but the exact amount could not be determined since the variation was not consistent. The heavy drafts made upon the wells at the breweries and other manufacturing establishments re- sult in bringing about the same conditions 'here as at Green Bay. When so many wells are grouped within a small radius, as is the case at some of the breweries, they greatly interfere with one another. If heavily pumped they will draw upon the neighboring wells. Many of the wells were originally packed to insure good flows, and the failure of those may be due entirely to displacement of the packing. In most of the well records the Lower Magnesian limestone ha^s not been recognized, . and the statements of the most experienced and re- liable drillers generally agree in this regard. Thus it would seem that this formation is either not present or is maiul}' sand and shale and lacking the limestone beds in this locality. In drilling the third arte- sian well at the Forest Home Cemetery in 1902, a stratum very closely resembling the Lower Magnesian limestone was struck. The drilling was given up on account of a stratum of caving sand. r Section^ of Well at Forest Home Cemetery, Milwaukee. Formation. Thiclvness. Drift and fine sand Feet. 100 Niagara; shell rock 80 hard limestone 230 Cincinnal i shale 1»0 250 St. Peter sand and Lovver Masneslan 23.5 40 sandy limestone .... .... 60 caves badly: sand luns in (cased) 131 Total dept h 1.316 ' (Authority of F. P. Miller, driller.) The thickness of the St. Peter combined with Lower Magnesian indi- cates that the limestone (40 feet) might be the Mendota limestone. The "shell rock" in this record may be Devonian shale, the Milwaukee for- mation. It will be of interest to compare with this record a rather complete record of E. P. Allis' well, drilled in 1902 at West Allis. 458 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Section of Well of E. P. Allis at West Allis. Formation. Thicktiess. Pleistocene: Cla.7 Feet. 18 Blue clav .. 54 Gravel 58 Niagara: Limestone .' . . . 285 Cincinnati; Shale 160 Galena-Trenton : 246 St. Peter: (V) 225 Potsdam: Red marl . ... 25 Red sand 120 Sand 60 White sand 49 Total depth 1,300 Tlie following log of the Pfister and Vogel Leather Co. well shows the detailed character of the Pleistocene formation in Milwaukee. The well is located on Vogel 's Island, on 3rd Ave. sonth of Canal St. The samples, described by F. T. Thwaites, are on file in the State Univer- sity. Log of Well of Pfister & Vogel Leather Co., Milwaukee. lormation. Depth. ThicU-ne.-,!,. Pleistocene: Feet. )0 - 5 15- 12 12 - 14 14 - 30 30 - 53 53- 55 55- 65 65 - 70 70 - 90 90- 94 96 - 103 103 - 112 112 - 135 135 - 146 146 - 150 150 - 167 167 174 174 - 177 177 183.5 183i- 193 193 - 201 201 - 435 435 - 635 635 - 860 860-1,167 1,167 -1,195 1,195 -1,700 Feet, Gray-t)rown calcareous clay Marsh muclc. 'shells and fine brown calcareous clay Soft grrav calcareous clay... Gray calcareous clav "Hard pan'', hard gray sand, waterbearing Gra.v pebbly clay "Till" light blue hard calcareous clay Sandy, pebbly gray clay Very hard, blue sandy calcareous clay Very hard blue calcareous clay Soft blue clay (poor sample) Hard blue clay ("till") 183.5 Niagara limestone : IJard gray lime tone No samples below this. 251.5 Cincinnati shal#» 200 225 St. Peter sandstone 307 ■^8 505 Total depth li700 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 459 The sections in the table below leave very little doubt of either the absence or very slight thickness of the Lower Magnesian limestone beds. The St. Peter sandstone is encountered usually between 800 to 1,000 feet, but it is impossible to state how much of the sandstone should be classed as St. Peter and how much as Lower Magnesian and Potsdam where the formations are similar in character. Sections of Wells in and about Milwaukee. Milwaukee. Wauwatoaa. West 4 His I " Itl IV V VI VII VIII IX X Xt 590 590 670 1«0 122 340 180 330 9.58 650 40 660 680 710 660 728 730 Drift 176 170 165 100 70 100 40 142 130 Niagara limestone .314 170 245 602 267 165 253 193 310 210 250 686 340 160 330 660 ,350 175 250 425 425 175 375 120 685 ■■■950 '■■4,50 280 140 320 577 254 174 260 2 285 160 Galena-Trenton limestone.. 247 225 254 Total depths 1,497 1,048 1,621 2,100 1,530 1,300 1,850 1,500 1,357 832 1,300 I. E. P. Allis. VII. StoTV Bros. II Market Square. VIII. Mr. Ludinsrton. III . Forest Home Cemetery. IX. Wauwatosa Water Works IV Lake Park. X. E. P. Allis. V. Miller Brewing Co. XI. E. P. Allis. VI. Mr. Dixon. In the illustration/ Fig. 52, artesian well sections from Waukesha to Milwaukee show the underground geologic relations. Cuddhy. The city of Cudahy, population 3,691, has a public water supply obtained from Lake Michigan, from the Milwaukee water works. The average daily pumpage is about 300,000 gallons. A sewage system is installed, the sewage being emptied into the lake. About 40 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply, and about 60 per cent of the houses are connected with the sewage system. South Milwaukee. Population 6,092. The city water supply is ob- tained from Lake Michigan through two intakes extending about a mile from the shore, at depths of 17 and 26 feet. The sewage empties into the lake, about four-fifths of a mile from- the intake for the water supply. About 75 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply and 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the sewage system. The average daily pumpage is 476,000 gallons. North Milwaukee. Population 1,860. The village has a water sup- ply obtained through the Milwaukee system and have plans under way 'After Wm. C. Alden, Milwaukee Geologic Folio, U. S. Gaol. Survey, Folio No. 14U. 4m THE WATER SUPPLIES OF, WISCOySlX. DESCRIFTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SC/PPLiA'i,'. 4gi for a sewage system. It is proposed to install a plant to treat the sew- age before discharging it into a small tributary of the Milwaukee river. West Allis. West Allis, a suburb of Milwaukee, has a population of 6,645. The public water supply is obtained through the Milwaukee city system. A sewage system is installed. East Milwaukee. East Milwaukee, population 707, obtains its pub- lic water supply through the Milwaukee city system. Wauwatosa. Population 3,346. This city, a suburb of Milwaukee, has a public water supply derived from a 10-inch flowing well 1,357 feet deep, reaching the St. Peter sandstone. The elevation of the curb is 660 feet, the head being 27 feet above the surface. The water flows into a covered I'eservoir, from which it is pumped into the city mains. The daily capacity of the flow is 516,000 gallons, and the average daily pumpage is about 212,000 gallons. The sewage is treated by septic tanks and sand filters before emptying into the Menomonee river. Most of the population utilize the public water supply and sewage sys- tem. QUALITY OF THE WATER The water of many of the springs about Milwaukee have been drawn upon at various times for both domestic and medicinal purposes. See table of minex-al analyses. Most of the spring waters have only a moderate content of mineral, though in respect to hardness, all would be classed as hard waters. The Eureka Spring water, however, is un- usual in its very high mineralization, and is distinctlj' a salt water. The source of most of these springs is not known. Some of them may be in the Niagara limestone, but most of them are probably in the sur- face formation. The source of the Elim Spring is in a gravel bed. It is quite possible that the Eureka Spring water is obtained from a deep well rather than a spring, as saline water is characteristic of many of the deep wells in this locality. The water of Lake Michigan is of low mineral content, though it is classed as medium hard water as defined in this report; The water of Milwaukee river is higher in mineral content than the lake water, but somewhat lower than that of the springs and the wells. Several of the analyses of the waters of the Menomonee river, especially, Nos. 6 and 7, indicate extreme pollution, due to refuse from the sugar factory, at Menomonee Falls. The water of the relatively shallow wells in Milwaukee, with source of supply either in the surface formation or the underlying Niagara limestone, have a moderate content of mineral, but the two railroad wells at the Granville station one in the surface deposits. No. 39, the 462 THE WATEP; SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. other in the Niagara limestone, No. 47 have a high content of mineral, and are very hard waters. The waters of the very deep wells, those obtaining their supply from the St. Peter and Potsdam sandstone, are very generally much higher in mineral content than the waters from shallow wells in the surface and Niagara formations. Of 6 waters analyzed from wells in the surface deposits 1, or only 16.6 per cent, contains more than 500 parts per million of mineral content; of 15 waters from the Niagara limestone 5, or 33.3 per cent, contain more than 500 parts per million of mineral ; and of 18 waters analyzed from the St. Peter and Potsdam sandstones, 12, or 66.6 per cent, contain more than 500 parts per million of mineral matter. While only a few of the deep-seated waters appear to be sufficiently high in chlorine to be salty, all contain relatively large amounts of sulphate. In prospecting for underground water supplies in Milwaukee, the above indicated progressive increase in mineral content in passing from the surface deposits down to the Potsdam sandstone, should be taken into consideration. All the underground waters of Milwaukee county are either hard or very hard waters. The best supply for steam mak- ing in boilers is the lake water. There are 1.04 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons of Lake Michigan water, in No. 21 ; 2.68 pounds in 1,000 gallons of the water of the Menomonee Creek, near Granville, No. 5; and 3.66 pounds in 1,000 gallons of the water of the deep well at Kawson, No. 68. Mineral analyses of water in Milwaukee County. (Analyses in parts per million.) Silica (Si02> Aluminum and iron oxides (AhOs-t-FesOs) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-I-K) : Carbonate radical (CO3) Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Organic matter Total dissolved solids... Milwaukee River. 5.5 47.4 29.6 i.6 140.4 11.1 2.4 239.9 4.80 2.06 42.30 19.10 6.62 93.13 29.47 10.18 31.85 207.66 5.83 2.06 43.42 20.70 6.00 96.70 31.25 9.42 60.20 215.38 7.2 44.1 26.5 131.2 8.0 8.9 235.5 Menomonee Eiver. 16.9 1.0 91.2 31.7 3.7 204.9 21.5 1.9 373.8 9.95 44.50 356.87 79.78 18.20 675.17 91.61 28.15 2,505.82 1,304.23 10.09 2.56 110.76 51.73 4.96 216.97 122.86 7.71 159.94 527.64 Analyst, G. Bode, Geology of Wistfonsin, Vol. 2, p. 32, Analyst, 1. Milwaukee River above daiil. 1877. 2. Milwaukee River, Milwaukee, % mile south of C. & N. W. Ry. Station. G. M. Davidson, Nov. 8, 1911. 3. Milwaukee River, Milwaukee, % mile south of C. & N. W. Ry. Station. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 8, 1911. 4. Milwaukee River at Sanderson's Mill, Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 22, 1888. 5. Menomonee Oeek at Granville. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July, 1897. 6. Menomonee River at Butler, 15 miles below beet sugar factory at Menomonee. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 7, 1912. 7. Menomonee River at Butler, 7 miles below beet sugar factory at Menomonee. .Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 3, 1911. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 463 Mineral analyses of water in Milwaukee County — Continued. Menomonee Uiver. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Aluminum and iron oxides (Al203+Fe203) 10.6 74.4 35.5 11.3 154.5 75.4 13.9 2.7 104.0 37.5 18.2 162.0 150.8 18.7 undt. 116.0 37.9 undt. 165.1 162.9 undt. 4.1 118.7 45.2 19.4 184.1 181.8 19.4 undt. 125.7 43.7 undt. 180.8 183.9 undt. undt. 51.3 20.0 10.9 90.8 79.9 undt. Calcium (Ca) 75.1 Sodium and pota,sslum (Na+K) 11 4 Carbonate radicle (COs) .... Sulpliate radicle (8O4) Clilorine (CD 134.4 103.6 Total dissolved solids . . . 375.6 493.9 481.9 572.7 534.1 252.9 3.53.8 Menomonee Eiver. Lal^e Mlchiiran. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Silica (SiOo) 16.0 5 1 Aluminum and iron oxides (Al203+Fe203) undt. 68.3 34.0 15.3 166.4 62.6 undt. undt. 115.5 46.8 16.9 184.8 200.9 undt. undt. 113.4 47.2 21.8 178.5 218.2 undt. undt. 16.4 7.2 3.0 38.6 12.9 undt. undt. 74.9 48.2 11.2 181.2 83.0 14.3 0.3 Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and ixjtasslum (JJa+K) 34.6 10.2 1.5 72.0 6.0 3.0 32.1 10.9 3 1 Carbonate radical (COs) Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CD 73.4 6.8 2.3 Total dissolved solids. . . 346.6 564.9 579.1 78.1 412.8 142.7 134. 8. Menomonee River at paint shop, West Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 12, 1888. 9. Menomonee River at bridge foundry, West Milwaulsee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Jan. 6, 1899. 10. Menomonee River at bridge foundry. West Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. il. & St. P. Ry. Co., Jan. 12, 1899. 11. Menomonee River at paint shop. West Milwaukee. P. Ky; Co., Jan. 6, 1899. 12. Menomonee River at paint shop. West Milwaukee. P. Ry. Co., Jan. 12, 1899. 13. Menomonee River at paint shop. West Milwaukee. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 2, 1899. 14. Menomonee River at paint shop. West Milwaukee. P. Ry. Co., Mar. 27, 1899. 15. Menomonee River at paint shop, West Milwaukee. P. Ry. Co., June 2, 1899. 16. Menomonee River, 33" deep at paint shop. West Milwaukee. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July 28, 1899. 17. Menomonee River 29" deep at paint shop, West Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Dec. 6, 1899. 18. Menomonee River at paint shop. West Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 8, 1900. , „ „ „ 19. Menomonee River near Falks, Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., June 6, 1910. „ „„ ^„„ 20. Lake Michigan. Analyst, G. Bode, Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. 2, p. 32, 1877. 21. Lake Michigan. Analyses of water from the lake at Chicago adopted as standard for comparison by C. & N. W. Ry. Co. Analyst, J. H. Long. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. Analyst, Chemist, C. JI. & St. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. Analyst, Chemist, C. 464 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WI8C0NSIX. Mineral analyses of water in Milwaukee County — Continued. Silica (SIO2) Aluminum and iron oscides AhOs+FeaOa) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Me) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radical (CO3'. Sulphate radical (SO4) Clilorine (CI) Organic matter Total dissolved solids. Lake Michigan. Spr ngs. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 6 6 5.6 1.9 26.6 11.3 6.1 68.0 8,0 3.5 1.0 11.78 1.32 74.72 28.12 3.75 174.83 15.46 3.04 16.0 1.6 33.6 11.9 2.2 66.7 21.6 3.5 Trace. 1.5 31.6 10.5 3.4 70.2 6.9 2.9 4.5 34.0 11.2 4.8 76.6 8.1 3.1 undt. 31.8 10.6 6.7 71.0 9.0 7.2 5.0 70.4 32.0 11.3 167.4 12.8 2.4 148.0 131.0 127.0 142.3 136.3 313.07 317.3 Sprinss. Creek and surface well. 29. 30 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Silica (SiOa) 35.0 3.6 82.0 44.3 8.7 236.0 6.8 ■ 2.4 12.4 2.0 83.4 36.3 U.l 178.6 58.1 17.1 13.7 2.9 66.8 32.2 9.0 180.3 5.4 9.9 ' 123.0 188.0 163.6 52.9 18515 2,030.0 10.0 10.4 3.4, 133.5 64.5 51.0 268.1 . 209.6 31.6 Aluminum and iron oxides (AhOs+FeaOs) 7.0 Calcium (Ca) 90.0 38.8 29.5 241.0 ' 33.7 9.6 41.8 Magrnebium (M'gr) 37.4 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 24.3 Carbonate radical (CO3) Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CD ; 60.9 180.8 14.3 Total dissolved solids . . . 418.8- 399.0 320.2 ■ 4,643.1 452.6 772.1 366.5 22. Lake Michigan. City water supply o( South Milwaukee. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chemical Co., March 5, 1912. 23. Lake Michigan. Direct from city mains, Milwaukee. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Sept. 6, 1907. 24. Lake Michigan. City supply for Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July, 1889. 25. Lake Michigan. City supply for' W. Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Dec. 15, 1894. 26. Lake Michigan, Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Aug. 13, 1907. 27. Blim Spring, IVa' miles w^st of Brown Deer. Analyst. A. S. Mitchell, Aug. 4, 1896. 28. Hacketts Spring, Hales Corners. Analyst, G. Bode. Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. 2, p. 32, 1877. „ . 29. Schweickardt's Spring, Wauwautosa. Analyst, G. Bode. Geology of Wisconsin, p. 32, vol. 2, 1877. 30. Nee-ska-ra Spring, Wauwatosa. Analyst, Frank Kramer, Jan., 1912. 31. Nee-ska-ra Spring, Wauwautosa. Analyst, J. H. Long. 32. Eureka Spring, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. Bode. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, p. 31, 1877. . , „ 01 33. Siloam Spring, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. Bode. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, p. 31, 1877 84. Spring near C. & N. W. E. Pass. Depot, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 16 1898 35. Creek and Well at North Milwaukee, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co. Analyst, G. N. Pren- tiss, July 9th, 189T. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLItJS. 465 Mineral analyses of water in MilwauCkee County — Continued, Creek and surface well. Surface deposits. 36. 37, 38. 39, 40. 41. 42. npDth of well feet 28 24 U.9 1.0 151.3 53.4 116.4 343.7 146.5 87.8 24 undt.. 30 42 janii^A fSi09) Aluminum and iron oxldps (AloO'i+E'esOi) 3.8 49.1 27.4 43.5 87.5 167.1 6.5 undt. 54.9 27,7 55,5 94.9 204.8 undt. 2.7 53.6 24.0 46.5 87.6 174.0 3.5 1.5 72.4 38.1 30.4 168.4' 109.0 6.2 5.1 Calcium (Ca) 66.6 39.0 33.3 150.4 143.5 undt. 57.6 35,4 Sodium and potas.sium (Na+K) Carbonate radical (CO3)., Sulphate radical (SO4) CMorlue (CD 32.3 148.2 106.0 . 6.7 Total dissolved solids 384.9 437.8 391.9 912.0 432,8 426.0 386.3 Surface deposits. Niagara limestone. 43, 44. 43. 46. 47. 48. 49. Dfinth of wpll feet 28 66 130 2874 140. ,„ 73 52 Silica (Si02) Aluminum and iron oxides AliOa+FejOs) Calcium fCa) 12.50 1.54 93.50 55,84 4,99 228,94 78,07 7,71 36.49 2.7 53.6 24.0 46.5 87.6 174.0 3,5 3,6' , 66.5 36.9. 34.0' 148.5 132,4 3,7 1,4 36.6 36.4 29,6 129.0 17.3 32.8 55.5 36,3 15.3 172.8 22.5 2.6 155.6 49.8 6,9 173,7 295.8 7.0 , 52,4 24,5 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 43.1 Carbonate radical (CO3) Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CD 85.6 169.0 4.3 Organic matter T )tal dissolved solids. . . 483,09 391.9 281.7 333,4 '688.8 424.6 380.3 36. Creek and well at North Milwaukee, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co, Analyst, G. N. Pren- tiss. .TulT 2.S. ]R97. 37. Creek and well at North Milwaukee, C, M, & St, P. Ry. Co. Analyst, G. N. Pren- tiss ,Feb. 12, 1899. 38. Well of C. M. & St. P. Rv. Co., North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St, P. Ry, Co,, .Tuly 8, 1889. - . ,„,„„. 39. Well of C. & X. W. Ry. Co. at Granville. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, ,Tuly 23. lS9i. 40. Well of C. M & St. P, Ry. Co., Oakwood. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 5, 1900 41. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Oakwood. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Dec. 19. 1894. 42. Well of C, M. cSi St. P. Rv. Co., Oakwood. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, May 2,, 1898. 43. Well of C. & N. W. Ry, Co., Coal Chute, Butler, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. .!, 1911 44. Well of C M & St. P. Ry. Co., North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 8, 1889. 45. Well of B. P, Allis, Milwaukee. Analyst, McLaren. 46. Well of Plankington, Milwaukee, Analyst, D, Fisher, . , „ ,r . c^ t, „ 47. Well of C. M. & St. P, Ry, Co, at Granville, Analyst, Chemist, C, M. & St. P. Ry. 48. Well of C, M,'& St. P, Ey, Co,, Oakwood, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., 49. Well of Mr. Poppert, North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St.' P.' Ey. Co., Feb. 12, 1899." 30— ■W, S. i63 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Milwaukee County — Continued. Niag-ara limestone. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. Depth of well feet.. Aluminum and iron oxides (AlsOs+FeaOa) 53 undt. 60.6 27.2 55.5 80.8 238.3 undt. 65 undt. 85.5 33.4 48.6 88.8 295.5 undt. 80 - undt. 48.5 35.1 50.1 93.0 209.2 undt. 80 undt. 51.1 25.6 45.5 84.9 182.1 undt. 94 undt. 52.4 26.2 46.2 88.2 183.4 undt. 94 undt. 55.3 27.4 44.4 85.2 196.7 undt. 122 undt. Calcium (Ca) 103:2 42.6 Sodium and potassium iNa+K) 59.5 Carbonate radical (CO3) . . . . Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 104.5 371.1 undt. Total dissolved solids. . . 462.4 551.8 435.9 389.2 396.4 409.0 680.9 Depth of well feet. . Silica (SiOa) Aluminum and iron oxides (AlzOs+FejOs) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) : Carbonate radical {CO3) Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CD Total dissolved solids. Niagara limestone. 160 undt. 209.5 79.6 243.0 41.0 1,254.4 undt. 1,827.5 58. 160 undt. 183.4 76.6 163.8 43.6 998.6 10.2 1,476.2 59. 150 undt. 63.1 37.1 25.3 168.4 83.3 undt. 377.8 St. Peter and Upper Cambrian sand- ^5tone. 60. 1,357 8.8 132.6 26.2 14.9 129.2 230.3 8.7 550.7 Milwaukee. 61. 62. 1,200 40.5 3.7 109.8 18.8 55.6 102.2 277.9 617.3 1,048 41.0 195.8 103.2 166.1 503.0 136.0 274.0 1,419.1 63. 1,600 ■ 7.8 218.0 27.9 i2.fr; 133:3 430.8 12.0 842.4 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 5R. S9. 60. 61. 62. 63. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Well of Mr. Miller, North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Rv. Co , July 31, 1899. Well one block east of Poppert's, North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ky. Co., Feb. 15, 1899. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., North Milwaukee. Ky. Co., Apr. 5, 1899. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., North Milwaukee. Ry. Co., Apr. 12, 1899. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., North Milwaukee. Ry. Co., Apr. 21, 1899. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. R.V. Co., July 31, 1899. Well of Mr. Wasserburger, North Milwaukee. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 15, 1899 Well of Mr. Hoyt, North Milwaukee. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, July 31, 1899. Well of Mr. Hoyt. North Milwaukee. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Dec. 27, 1901. Well of Schlltz Brewery, Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Dec. 29, 1898. Well of City Water Works, Wauwautosa. Well of W. H. Jacobs, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. Bode. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, p. 164, 1877. Market Square Well, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. Bode. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, p. 31, 1877. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., March 14, 1895. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 467 Mineral analyses of water in Milwaukee County — Continued. St. Peter and Oppei- Cambrian sandstone. Milwaukee. Kawson N. Milwaukee. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. Depth of well feet . . 1,600 1,600 1,569 20.5 0.8 110.7 25.9 31.9 145.5 171.8 22.2 1,600 Silica (9i02) Aluminum and ii-on oxides (MsOi+FeeOO 2.1 212.1 27.6 13.0 140.1 411.0 11.7 tindt. 2.38.6 28.5 17.8 111.4 542.6 undt. 3.9 158.2 33.6 13.8 142.6 293.6 12.6 2.2 207.5 33.2 15.4 127.8 436.7 13.3 undt. 296.6 44.6 37.0 126.0 761.8 undt. undt. Calcium (Ca) 92.9 35.2 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 54.7 Carbonate radical (CO3) Sulpliate radical (SO4) Clilorine (CD 88.3: 332. S Total dissolved solids. . . 817.6 939.9 658.3 836.1 529.3 1,266.0 603.9 St. Peter and Upper Cambrian sandstones. Butler. 71. 72. 73. 74. 1,000 8.88 1.03 62.58 32.28 14.56 121.06 105.68 6.50 75. 76. 77. Depth of well feet.. Silica (Si02) A-luminum and iron oxides (AlaO'i+FesO'i) . 670 12.70 1.71 62.91 39.57 20.60 151.62 98.62 6.50 394.23 1,003 15.07 1.02 72.46 31.88 21.61 124.82 140.38 4.09 1,093 13.30 25.21 52.07 21.75 27.02 109.27 82.74 7.05 1,025 13.01 1.71 119.38 47.96 28.78 133.57 315.43 4.97 1,024 15.09 2.06 90.07 43.51 9.20 149.50 162.54 4.05 665 9,78 1.03 Calcium (Ca) 65.53 Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 36.62 22.42 Carbonate radical (COs) ... Sulphate radical (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 146.57 108.76 4.28 Total dissolved solids. . . 411.33 338.50 352.57 664.81 476.02 394.99 64. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ily. Co. shops, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 11, 1890. 65. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co. shops, Milwaukee. Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 11, 1890. 66. Well of Milwaukee C. W. & T. Co., Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Jan. 30, 1890. „ „ ^ 67. Well of Milwaukee C. W. & T. Co. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Feb. 11. 1890. ,„„„ 68. Well of C. & N. W. Ev. Co.. Eawson. Analyst. G. M. Davidson, Feb. 6, 1906. 69. Well of Melselbach & Co., North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Feb. 15, 1890. . , , „^ . , 70. Well on the site of old pocketbook factory, North Milwaukee. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., .Tan. 13, 1902. „ .., ^ ,^ ^ ^ ■,-, 71. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., No. 1, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 11, 1913 72. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., No. 2, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec. 24, 1912 73. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., No. 2, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, May 8, 1912 74. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., No. 2, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 11, 191.S 75. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., No. 3, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 11, 1913 76. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., No. 3, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct. 18, 77. Well of C. & N W. Ey. Co., Yard, Butler, Wis. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 3, 1911. 468 , THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIX. Monroe County Monroe County, located in the west central part of the' state, has an area of 915 square miles, and a population of 28,881. About 79.4 per cent of the county is laid out into farms of which 48.7 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Monroe county is quite uneven and hilly in the south- em part, but quite level in the northeastern and northern part. Val- ley bottom land characterizes the Lemonweir river north of Tomah \:A))''^'i[i/::^}//:i:JJM-'!'^ <^-^^^ ... V V V V V vvvv/vs/vvvvvvvv i/VVVVVVVVVVVVVVvV/VVVVVVVVVV . - . vvvvvvvv V js.^y^y^'^j/^v ^^^j/^^v v v v v v v v vv vvvv\/vvvv ^ V V /^rcoayyf/i/'/a^ a^^a/7/re vvvvvvvv ■ ^/vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv JeaLeyrl. Fig. 53. — Geologic section, north-south, across western Monroe County. and also the La Crosse river in the vicinity of Sparta. The southern part, of the county is an elevated tableland deeply dissected by val- leys. The valley bottoms range in altitude between 800 and 1,000 feet, and the uplands, between 1,200 and 1,350 feet. The soils are generally sands and sahdy loams in the alluvial bot- toms and silt loams on the upland area. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone, generally outcropping in the northern half of the county and the Lower Magnesian limestone overlying the sandstone only in the southern half of the county. The coUnty contains no glacial deposits, but the broad, fiat-bottomed valleys are filled to a variable depth with alluvial sand and gravel, and the uplands are covered with a variable amount of loess. The cross section (Fig. 53) illustrates the general geological structure of the county. The thickness of the alluvial deposits in the valley bottoms very probably reaches a maximum of 200 to 250 feet in the middle of the DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 459. old channels. The thickness of the "Potsdam" sandstone and the Lower Magnesian limestone varies betwen wide limits on account of the extensive erosion of these formations. The complete thickness of the sandstone formation is preserved only in the uplands of the south- ern part of the county, where overlain by the limestone. It is only in some of the deeper wells drilled in the cities and villages, located in the valley bottoms, that the Pre-Cambrian granite has been reached. At Tomah the granite is reached at depth of 400 feet ; at Sparta, about 425 feet ; and at Oil City, at 490 feet. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations maj^ be summarized as follows: Approximate range in thickness of formations in Monroe County. Formation. Thickness. Feet. to 250' Lower Magnesian limestone to 150 200 to 800 The Pre-Cambrian granite. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The chief water-bearing horizons are the Potsdam sandstone in the upland areas and the alluvial sand and gravel in the valley bottom areas. The limestone is a source of supply on the uplands south of Tomah and Sparta. South of Tomah, on the Lower ]\Iagnesian limestone ridge, most wells are from 100 to 300 feet in depth. Some of the wells, those less than 100 feet deep, get their supply from within the limestone. A few shallow wells get their supply from loess clay over the limestone, but the quantity of water from this source is very limited. Near the con- tact of the Lower Magnesian limestone and underlying sandstone, are many fine springs. FLOWING WELLS An interesting area of flowing wells is found at Sparta and vicinity, including Angelo, Trout Falls, Farmers Valley, Leon, Rockland, and Melvina. The first of these wells was sunk as an experiment at Sparta in 1867. The area of flowing wells extends from Rockland up the La Crosse river to Trout Falls, and up Little La Crosse river as far as Melvina. It also extends up the various tributaries of these streams for a considerable distance. Small artesian areas are scattered along 470 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the rivers in the townships of Leon, Adrian, Sparta, Angelo, and La- fayette. The flows are strong and the water is good, although some of it contains considerable iron. Between 200 and 300 flowing wells have been drilled in Sparta and vicinity. In the city of Sparta and the village of Angelo, are nearly 100 flow- ing wells. Many of them have stopped flowing, some because other wells at lower levels lowered their head, others on account of leak- age because the pipes have rusted, and some because the water escapes between the pipe and the shale. One of the best wells was put down in 1872 on Milo Babcock's property, in the vilage of Angelo. This well seems to affect several in this vicinity. When the pipe was rusted off the well ceased flowing until new casing could be put in. During this time a number of wells not far distant started flowing or increased their flow but decreased again as soon as the casing was inserted in the old well and allowed free flow. The well drillers at Sparta claim that at Sparta, Leon, Rockland, and as far north as Trout Falls, they usually pass through two beds of shale, but in some places only one bed of shale, in drilling deep wells. In the city of Sparta the first shale bed is struck at about 250 feet. Its thickness, is from 2 to 10 feet, while the lower shale bed is struck at about 300 to 310 feet, and varies in thickness from 12 to 15 feet. There are no samples or logs of wells available. Artesian flows have been obtained between these shale beds, below the second shale bed, and in a few cases before striking any bed of shale or clay. Northward a shale or clay bed comes nearer the surface, and in the vicinity of Trout Falls the upper shale- bed lies at a depth of only 80 or 90 feet. At Hanchett's farm, about half way be- tween the Falls and Sparta, the shale is 175 feet below the surface. Artesian wells are obtained all the way up the valley. Their deptk^ are usually between 260 and 300 feet. The water in the artesian wells in the vicinity of Sparta and Angelo rises to an elevation of about 798 feet above sea level. At Leon, where the vaUey is wide and the limestone ridges are far back from the river, the head, as shown by Mr. George Kidney's well is 796 feet above sea level. Farther up the valley near Melvina a well was drilled oh John Steele 's farm to a depth of 260 feet with head of 806 feet or 11 feet above the surface. Farther Tip the river the heads are still higher. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 471 Log of well of John Steele, Melvina. Formation . Thlckne.sB. Clay , Feet. 17 Soil, sand 15 244 Blue clav and shale 1 Total depth 277 The following record, with the one of Mr. Steele's well at Melvina, will explain the general sectpns in the vicinity of Sparta, and Angelo. It should be remembered, however, that many of the wells also pene- trate the second shale bed and get their flow from the sandstone below it. The casing, however, seldom extends below the first rock, thus offer- ing much freedom to the waters in selecting their upward paths. Log of well of Judge McCoy, Sparta. Formation . Thickness . Alluvln m UpDer Cambrian (Potsdam Sandstone Shale Sandstone ~ . ■ ■ Total depth Feet. 60 no 40 40 A comparison of these two records with the reports of the drillers regarding the shale beds at Sparta indicate that there is a marked ir- regularity in thickness and depth of the shale. The McCoy well is 6 miles east and the Babcock well about 3 miles east of Sparta. How- ever, this shale bed may be present at Sparta, and not always reported. Before the structural relations of the clay or shale beds can be defi- nitely worked out it is necessary to obtain more accurate logs of the wells in various parts of the slope than are now at hand. The head is highest at the upper end of the valley. The head de- creases down the valley in the same manner as in the Kickapoo and Baraboo river valleys. Plows need not be looked for on any of the streams, unless it be on the lowlands or plains along the river valleys. The nearest wells in the vicinity will offer much information along this line. There are many places along these streams where much stronger flows can be obtained than any thus far struck. 472 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF,WISGONSW. Wherever a shale or clay bed is passed through and a flow obtained beneath it the casing should be extended into the shale or clay bed and a firm contact made, if the best and most permanent flows are desired. If this precaution is neglected much of the water necessarily escapes into the porous sandstone above the clay bed and fails to rise to the surface and sooner or later the flow may cease entirely. A little more expensive method, but one that will well repay the investment made, is to drill the well a few inches larger in diameter down to the clay or impervious shale and drive the casing down into this for- a short distance, then decrease the drill hole and insert a new casing inside of the outer one and extend it through the impervious bed to the water bearing horizon. A filling with Portland cement, for a few feet between the two pipes prevents all escape between the rock and casing and shuts out all lateral escape into the overlying sandstone and the inner tubing can easily be repaired. If this precaution had been taken for all the fiowing wells at Sparta and vicinity many of the wells would not need to be pumped and the artesian basin would today be much stronger. Another precaution that ought to be insisted upon is that wells on lower ground reduce their flow to a minimum so as not to interfere unduly with their neighbors flows on higher ground. The area of flowing wells about Sparta extends down the La Crosse river only to the vicinity of Rockland. Farther down the valley, at Ban^Or and West Salem, in La Crosse county, no flowing wells occur. Various reasons have been given for the absence of favorable conditions in this portion of the valley, but the probable explanation appears to be that given in the general description of the artesian wells in La Crosse valley, on pages 67-9. The Kickapoo Valley has many features in common with the La Crosse and the Baraboo valleys. The Kickapoo river flows through- out its entire extent in the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and is bordered on both sides by bluffs capped with limestone. The ground- water in the bluffs is a controlling factor in the development of the high heads noted in the flowing wells in this valley. Flowing wells may be obtained on low ground nearly all the way down the valley to Wauzeka, where the Kickapoo enters the Wisconsin river. At Wilton,' near the head of the Kickapoo valley, is the highest arte- sian head found anywhere within Wisconsin in wells whose waters rise and flow from the Potsdam sandstone. The artesian water at Wilton rises to an elevation of 980 feet above tide. On going down the Kickapoo valley the head decreases as in the Baraboo valley, and at Wauzeka, it is only 687 feet above tide. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATEK SUPPLIES. 473 Flowing M-ells about Wilton, with heads of 980 feet above tide, are owned by A. J. Dix, Rudolph Green, Willie Arndt, J. E. Egan, and others. They are all 6-inch wells and were flowing strongly in 1905, nearly filling the 6-inch pipes. At Oil City was drilled the first artesian well in the Kickapoo val- ley by oil prospectors from Sparta. Section of loell drilled in 1866 at Oil City. Formation Thickness. Remarks. Feet. 10 12 20 30 228 4 186 20 Gravel Sandstone, compact At 90 ft. Ihe water rose 5 ft. above Sandstone, liard and compact "Granite" 510 The water rises 25 ft. above sur- face. 920 ft. A. T. WATER SUPPLIES FOK CITIES AND VILLAGES Sparta. — The population of Sparta is 3,973. It is located on sandy, alluvial bottoms lands in the valley of the La Crosse river. The city has a water supply and sewage system. The water supply is derived mainly from two groundwater wells,^ and to a small extent from two artesian wells, which are 6 inches in diameter and 200 feet deep. One of the groundwater wells is 12 feet in diameter by 20 feet deep, and the other, 31 feet in diameter and 23 feet deep. The open ground- water wells yield most of the supply. The average daily pumpage is 298,000 gallons per day. The supply from the smaller of the two wells can be .exhausted by about four hours pumping. The sewage, without treatment, empties into the La Crosse river. About 50 per cent of the houses have water connections, and 20 per cent are on the sewage system. About 30 per cent of the hou^^es have cess pools. Tomah. — This city, having a population of 3,419, is situated on the broad sandy plain bordering the south fork of the Lemonweir river. The city has water supply and sewage systems. The water supply is derived from two 8-inch wells 172 and 150 feet deep cased 40 feet. The "Kirchofeer, W. G. Bulletin, Univ. Wis. No. 106, p. 221. 474 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. log of the City Park well is as follows: (See also under Tomah, page 140). Log of Tomah City Park Well. Formation . Tliickness. Feet. 25 Upper Cambiiain (Potsdam) sandstone 375 Pre- Cambrian granite 92 Total 492 The private wells are from 10 to 30 feet in depth; some are in the alluvial sand and others in the Potsdam sandstone. Cashton. — ^In Cashton, population 568, wells are reported to be 200 to 250 feet deep in Lower Magnesian limestone and Potsdam sand- stone. Cashton has a public water system and has two wells, although only one is used at present. The well in use is 81/4 inches in diameter and 275 feet deep. The formations penetrated are as follows: Log of Cashton City Well. Formations. 3 urf ace clay Soft rock Limestone and flint. Lower Magnesian Sandstone ( Potsdam) Total depth '. Thickness. Feet. 15 60 70 1.S0 275 The daily average pumpage of water is about 18,000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the population use the city water. ■Kendall. — ^Kendall, with population 477, has a waterworks system now being installed. (Dec. 1912). The supply is obtained from an 8- inch well about 200 feet deep in sand and sandstone. The private wells are generally from 20 to 220 feet deep. In Norwalk the private wells are generally from 40 to 50 feet in the sandstone. At "Warrens the wells are generally from 15 to 30 feet deep in sand and sandstone. DE8CBIFTI0K OF LOCAL WATER ISUPPLIEH. 475 QUAUTY OF THE WATER The analyses of water supplies from springs, rivers, surface deposits, and the sandstone from various parts of Monroe county are shown in the following table. The spring and surface waters, except where pol- luted as well as nearly all the waters from wells in the alluvial sand an- alyzed are carbonate waters and have a low mineral content and are soft waters. The railroad well in the surface formation at Kendall, though of low mineral content, should be classed as f hard water. Most of the waters from the Potsdam sandstone are also of low mineral con- tent, though nearly all should be classed as medium hard waters. The various analyses of surface waters at Tomah are of interest, as they show a eonsidearble range in the mineral content in water taken from the same source but at different dates. The railroad well at Wyeville, No. 14, contains only 0.39 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while the railroad well at Kendall, No. 25, contains 1.05 pounds in 1,000 gallons, about the same as that of Lake Michigan water. Many of the waters analyzed in ^Monroe county, contain much less incrusting matter than Lake Michigan wa- ter. Mineral analyses of water in Monroe County. (.\na5lses in parts per million.) C ■eek-s and Rive 'S. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. fi. 7. 8. fliUca (Si02) U4.O 26.0 12.3 1.4 68.8 1.5 1.5 5.0 18.7 8.6 6.1 45.0 17.6 1.8 18.2 26.4 8.2 7.4 2.2 101.6 4.0 5.0 24.2 12.5 4.9 69.0 5.2 1.1 5.3 24.4 12.3 4.8 . 68.7 5.0 1.1 5.6 20.0 3.9 5.0 1.6 66.3 3.2 9.2 11.2 5.2 1.0 17.3 3.8 1.6 Aluminium and iron oxides (AhOa-l-FezOs) 12.8 Calcium (Ca) 10.7 Magmesium (Mgr) 5.1 Sodium and Potasium (Na-HK) . 2.1 28.4 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 2.8 ■Chlorine (CD 1.2 Total dissolved .solids 126. 103. 169. 122. 122. 106. 49. 63. 1. Sparta Creek, Sparta. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., August, 1888. 2. Council Creek, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist- C. M. & St. P. Ky. Co., Feb. 1, 1890. 3. Ditch near Railroad track, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., April 1, 1893. 4. Council Creek, above ditch and below bridge, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 9, 1892. 5. Council Creek, above ditch and below bridge, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 9, 1892. 6. Pool in ditch emptying into creek, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 9, 1892. 7. Conncll Creek above the ditch, Tomah. Analyst, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Mar. 29, 1893. 8. Council Creek at Intake, Tomah. Analyst, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., .\pril 1, 1893. 476 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyzes of lo (iter in Monroe County. — Continued. Depth of well feet Silica {SIO2) Aluminium and iron oxides (AhOs+PeaOs) , Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Ms) Sodium and Potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle ( SO^) : . Chlorine (CD Total dissolved solids). Creeks and Rivers. Spring. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. i ■(i3:.5"| V 3.6 Undt. 8.6 ] J 5.0 28.2 11.8 29.1 20.5 10.5 14.8 5.1 12.7 10.2 4.5 5.1 6.4 4.2 1.9 2.8 78.8 24 4 54.0 51.7 26.8 ■9.2 2.24 39.6 8,0 3.5 1.1 Undt. 1.8 2.0 1.8 141. 70. 1.50. 109. 55. Surface deposits. 14. 12 i 5.5 I 1.0 14.6 0.7 1.5 21.4 3.6 2.6 51. 15. 30 .9.0 2.5 23.2 10.3 3:9 55.2, 12.0 3.4 120. 16. 16 7.1 1.2 7 7 1.7 1.8 4.7 17.9 2.8 45. Surface deposits. Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Depth of well feet.. Silica (Sioz) 20 i 3.6 11.1 5.6 3.5 30.5 6.0 0.9 74/ 2.9 7.2 3.0 14.6 23.3 2.3 14.9 70 111.4 1 1.8 25.9 6.6 3.9 50.4 7.8 6.0 ll"". 28 14.0) 1.5f 24.1 14.1 3.8 68.9 3.5 5.9 20 153.8 17.6 1.4 8.1 18.0 25.8 7.4 20 4.6 47.2 16.9 8.7 29.8 145.9 2.6 1.9 22.1 6.8 21.3 29.5 39.0 27.0 185 J 11.8 I28.7 13.9 5.9 2.7 23.3 17.1 4.2 340 18.6 Aluminium and iron ox- ides (AhOs-l-FeaOs)... 17.4 38.7 19.6 Sodium and Potassium (Na+K) 4.9 Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) . . Chlorine (CI) 96.3 16.3 7.5 Total dissolved solids 61. 68. 136. 132. 256. 148. 108. 219. 9. Council Creels at proposed Intake for city water works, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co.. Nov. 12, 1894. 10. Council Creek, City Water Works, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Nov. 6, 1900. 11. Council Creek and well, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., May 20, 1893. 12. North Branch, Lemonweir River near Wyeville. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec. 9, 1910. 13. Spring at Tunnel City. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P, Ry. Co., April 5. 1899. 14. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Wyeville. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec. 16, 1910. 15. Well, Sparta, Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., June 1, 1900. 16. Well at Contractor's Camp, % mile west of McCoy. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec. 20, 1910. 17. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Tomah. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., June 8, 1901. 18. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Tomah. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., June 23, 1893 19. Well at Robert McMullen's farm near C. & N. W. Ry. Co. station, Tomah. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct. 3, 1910.- 20. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., 1500 feet south of station at Kendall. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 28, 1896. 21. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. bridge shop, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Oct. 17, 1890. 22. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Bridge Shop, Tomah. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., June 14, 1892. 23. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry, Bridge Shop, Tomah, Analyst, Chemist C, M. & St P. Ry, Co., May 18, 1893. 24. Well of Winston Bros., Contractors, 1500 feet west of C, & N, W, Station, Tunnel City, Analyst, G, M, Davidson, Dec, 9, 1910, 25. Well of C, & N, W, Ry. Co., Kendall. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Mar. 12, 1902. ' Xo. 21. Oxides a little higli. There is some clay in it but no figures given. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 477 ilineral Analyses of Water iii- Monroe County — Continued. UDper Cambrian (Potsdam) "sandstc ne. 26. 27. 28. 29, 30. 31. 32. 33. Depth of well feet.. 240 15.9 , 1.3 262 7.7 5.5 200 1.0 8.5 300 9.9 31.3 8.6 3.9 49. 31.7 12.3 "is;"' 5. 307 i 5.0 Silica (SIO') 4.3 Alaminlum and iron oxides (AlaOs+FesOs) 11.3 Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) iVla£rDesium (Mar) ii.7 5.2 1.6 20.3 16.1 2.5 9.6 3.6 1.3 18.5 6.3 2.1 18.2 36.2 18.6 15.6 76.3 20.0 19.7 30.5 10.8 3.7 50.3 32.6 7. 45.7 20.6 4.6 111.2 15.9 4.3 25.6 15.6 10.2 70.8 21.4 7. 43.9 20.6 7.8 115.3 17.5 7 Sodium and Potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Total dissolved solids 75. 54. 196. 151. 153. 207. 155. '17 26. Well of TJ. S. Government, Camp McCoy. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 4, 1911. 27. Well of C. & N. W. Hy. Co., McCoy. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 22, 1912. 28. Well of City Water works, Sparta. 29. Private well, Sparta. Analyst, G. Bode. 30. Court House well, Sparta. Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis., vol. 2, p. 32, 1877. 31. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Sparta. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P., Aug. 1888. 32. Well of City Water works, Sparta. Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 20, 1895. 33. Artesian well Sparta near Wlnship house, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 29, 1903. Oconto County Oconto countj^ located in the northeastern part of the state on Green Bay, has an area of 1,080 square miles and a population of 25,657. About 39.8 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 47 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is quite gently undulating, \vith some- what broken and hilly areas in the northwestern part. The land slopes to the southeast towards Green Bay. The most prominent relief in the county is the range of quartzite hills east of Lakewood extending into Marinette county, which reach 300 or 400 feet above the surrounding area and attain an elevation of 1,600 to 1,700 feet above sea level. The prevailing altitude of the northwestern part of the county is 1,200 to 1,600 feet, gradually falling to 800 and 600 feet for a large portion of the southeastern part. Oconto river drains the principal part of the county. This river has a fall of 756 feet in the, distance of 54 miles be- tween Wabeno, a short distance north of the county, and Underbill, 478 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. and a fall of 190 feet in its lower course of 33 miles between Underhill and its mouth at Oconto. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are essentially the same as those of Mar- inette county, the northwestern part of the county showing the out- crop of Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks, and the southeastern part the overlying formations of Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, Lower Magnesian limestone, St. Peter sandstone and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The soils are largely loams and sandy loams with the usual areas of wet and swamp lands characteristic of recent glaciated drift districts. A strip of sandy loam soils 8 to 12 miles wide extends northeast and southwest through the central part of. the county along the outcrop of Potsdam sandstone (See map, PI. I). Glacial drift and alluvial sand are abundant surface deposits. A belt of hum- mocky terminal moraine extends northeast through, the vicinity of Gillett. The cross section, extending northwest-southeast through the county, Fig. 54. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern Oconto County. (Fig. 54), illustrates the relations of the geological formations and shows the position of the chief water-bearing horizons. In many wells drilled within the area of the Trenton limestone no marked division of strata is noted below the St. Peter sandstone. Some wells pass through sandstone throughout, thus making it almost im- possible to separate by the drillings the St. Peter, the Lower Magnesian and the Potsdam formations. The thickness of the surface formations of alluvial and glacial de- posits is variable between wide limits, as in other parts of the state. In the old pre-glacial valleys, river deposits have accumulated to a deipth of over 300 feet, as illustrated by the railroad well at Northern Junction. Outside of the old valleys, however, the glacial and alluvial deposits are usually less than 100 feet thick. DESCRlPTlOy OF LOCAL WATEl! SVPPLIJSS. 479 The thickness of the hard rock formations is also variable on account of the great diversity in amount of erosion. The Pre-Cambrian gran- ite floor of relatively impervious rock lies immediately under the sur- face formation in the northwestern part of the county and is within striking distance in moderately deep wells in the southeastern part. The Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone in Oconto county, and adjoining counties, is not so thick a formation as it is in the southeast- ern and southern parts of the state. The combined thickness of the St. Peter and Lower Magnesian formations is also probably less in the northeastern part of the state than elsewhere. The complete thick- ness of the Trenton formation is probably not present anywhere within the area of its outcrop within the county. The approximate range in thickness of the formations in the county may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Oconto County. Formations. ^ui-face fornialion GalPna-Platteville (Trenton) limestone St.. Peter and Lower Magnesian formations. UpDer Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrian granite Thickness, Feet. to 350 to 200 to 150 to 500 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The chief water-bearing formations are the surface deposits of drift and stratified sands and gravels, and the formations of Upper Cam- brian sandstone and St. Peter sandstone. The Lower Magnesian is also an important source of supply. The Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone contains only a small amount of water and is usually drawn upon only in shallow wells within its area of outcrop. In the northwestern part of the county within the general area of the crystalline and granite rocks, the surface deposit of drift is the important source of supply. WeUs in the crystalline rock are also com- mon, the supply being obtained from open fractures and fissures. In the southeastern part of the county abundant water can be ob- tained from the sandstone formations, as well as from the surface de- posits of drift and alluvium. The general water level is usually not far below the surface. Few common wells on the uplands are over 100 to 200 feet in depth, a ^80 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. sufficient supply being generally obtained at less than 100 feet. In the valleys the water level stands near the surface and wells are usually only from 10 to 40 feet deep. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells confined to the southeastern part of the county, are obtained mainly from the rock formations, although in some important instances at least, as at Stiles, the favorable conditions for the develop- ment of the artesian flows are due to the impervious character of the surface deposits of clay and drift overlying the rock formations. The water in the sandstone beds underlying the Trenton limestone is very generally under strong pressure and in low ground, as at Ocon- to, Abrams, Brookside and Little Suamico, rises some distance above the surface. At Lena and Hickory, however, the artesian head stands a few feet below the surface. At Abrams and Little Suamico flowing wells are obtained from several horizons, from within the Lower Magnesian limestone, at the contact of the Trenton and Lower Magnesian above, and at the contact with the St. Peter sandstone below, and from within the Upper Cambrian sandstone. The strongest and best flows^ are obtained from the Upper Cambrian sandstone at a depth of about 300 feet. The heads as now observed are very irregular, for the packing in some cf the wells is no longer in place, and the water escapes into the crevices and fissures of the upper horizon of the Trenton limestone. To get good flows at the surface it is necessary, therefore, to pack the wells at a point some- where below the Trenton limestone. Usually the packing is placed be- tween 60 and 100 feet below the surface. It has been observed that wells drilled east or southeast of older wells affect the flow percep- tibly, and in some cases have stopped their flow, although the later wells were put down as jnuch as two miles or more to the southeast, while those wells drilled to the north or northeast do not have this effect, clearly showing that the pressure comes from a north west direc- tion. The great variation in head, as shown by these wells, and others along the Green Bay shore, both north and south, are due, not so much to a deflcient supply of water as to leakage in the well or to a neigh- boring well which draws down the water. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 431 WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Oconto. The city of Oconto on Oconto river, about two miles from its outlet into Green Bay, has a population of 5,629. The city water supply, furnished by a private company, is obtained from three 6-inch artesian wells, 309, 318 and 596 feet deep, cased 40 feet to rock. (Al- so reported as obtained from six wells). These wells flow at the sur- face, elevation of curb being 590 A. TJ The 596 foot well checked the flow from the other two wells and furnishes about half the supply. The city supply is connected with the Oconto river through one intake, used probably only in case of emergency. The average daily pump- age is about 445,000 gallons. About 60 per cent of the houses are con- nected with the water supply, and about 40 per cent, with the sewage system. The sewage is emptied, without treatment, into the river. Information concerning the strata passed through in the city wells is rather indefinite. The thickness of the Trenton limestone is usually between 80 and 140 feet. Below this limestone is a white coarse sand- stone, which resembles the St. Peter sandstone, and is from 12 to 30 , feet thick. This sandstone furnishes the supply for a number of wells, although similar flows are obtained in the Trenton limestone. Oconto Falls. The population of Oconto Falls is 1,427. The city water supply is obtained from a well 187 feet deep. The average daily pumpage is 30,000 gallons. About 30 per cent of the houses are con- nected with the system. Private wells are usually 15 to 30 feet deep. Some wells are drilled deeper. The well of the Oconto Palls Mfg. Co. is 270 feet deep, formation not' reported. St^es. The wells at Stiles, population about 500, are for the most part very shallow. The water is obtained from the upper horkon of the Lower Magnesian limestone. Mr. Scherer of Oconto, who drilled most of the flowing wells in Stiles, states that in each case the surface sands were underlain by bowlder clay which was very difficult to drill, below this was a pure red clay, easily bored, and this was underlain by limestone which gave a flow which was weak at flrst, but which in- creased on going deeper into the limestone. Water comes from crev- ices in the rock and subsequent drilling over 200 feet in Potsdam sand- stone did not increase the flow. Lena and Hickory. At Lena a well passed through 91 feet of Lower Magnesian limestone, while at Hickory a well was put down 330 feet all the way in sandstone after passing through the drift. These wells are artesian, although the water stands a few feet below the sui'- 31— W. S. 48-2 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. face. "Water under pressure is obtained from all the formations, the Trenton, the St. Peter, the Lower Magnesian and the upper Cam- brian, and often 3 to 5 different sources of supply in the same well are struck. Northern Junction. At Northern Junction an unsuccessful attempt was made by the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Company to se- cure a water supply sufficient for use of its locomotives, by drilling a deep well. The strata encountered during the drilling was as follows: Log of G. & N. W. Rw. Well at Northern Junction. Formation. Sand Clay Sli ale rock Quicksand Clay Quicksand Clay Quicksand Clay Quicksand, to bottom of drilled hole Total Thickness. Feet. 75 18 2 78 2 3 107 5 11 19 .S20 QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of some of the waters of Oconto county are shown in the following table. The waters of the creeks, rivers and lakes, as well as that from the surface deposits, is of low mineral con- tent, though somewhat too high in mineral to be classed as soft water. The waters from the limestone area, as at Oconto, in both springs and deep wells reaching through the limestone to the St. Peter and the Potsdam, are of moderate mineral content and distinctly hard waters. In general, the water supplies from the northwestern part of the county are likely to possess a much lower degree of hardness than the waters from the limestone district of the southern part of the county. The water from the Oconto river at Oconto, No. 3, contains 0.98 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while that from the arte- sian wells, furnishing the city water supply, No. 7, contains 1.52 pounds in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 483 Mineral analyses of water in Oconto County. (Analyses in parts per million) Depth of well feet Silica (Si02i Aluminium and iron oxides (Al203+Fe203) Aluminium oxide (AI2O3) ... Iron(Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Organic matter Creeks and Rivers. 0.5 31.3 14.3 ■ 3.2 75.3 1.7 4.8 Total dissolved solids. . 141. 138. 5.8 0.6 30.5 15.0 1.0 82.0 1.3 1.6 15.0 7.8 0.3 26.0 10.5 6.4 52.1 20.7 9.8 18.6 Lake, Spring. 6.4 0.5 28.1 19.1 0.9 89.3 134. 1.4 28.2 146. 16.8 2.7 0.1 64.5 27.2 J 8.6 1 1.2 163.7 14.8 4.0 Sur- face de- posits. 304. 16 8.0 36.6 13.9 4.7 93.3 2.5 0.9 160. St, Peter and Upper Cam- brian sandstone. 309-596 6.6 1.5 31.7 19.1 32.3 65.0 66.9 28.1 251. 309-596 6.9 1.6 39.2 18.5 20.5 61.8 68.7 31.5 249. 1. Creek at Kingston, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Aug. 1897. 2. McCassling's brook, lya miles N. of Lakewood, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ky. Co., Mar. 31, 190«. 3. Oconto river at Oconto, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 1892. 4. Lake at Gillette, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Sept. 30, 1902. 5. Arbutus Mineral Spring at Oconto, Analyst, A. S. Mitchell, Aug. 1898. 6. Railroad well at Oconto Junction, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Juljr 13, 1891. T. Artesian wells of City Water Works at Oconto, 3 wells, 309, 318 and 596 ft. deep. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 1892. 8. City Water Supply, Oconto, Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Feb. 26, 1903. Oneida County Oneida county, located in the northeastern part of the state, has an area of 900 square miles, and a population of 11,433. About 13.6 per cent of the county is in farms, of Avhich 22.7 per cent is under culti- vation. surface features The surface of the county is a gently undulating plain, dotted with numerous lakes and swamps. In the northeastern part are some rela- tively prominent drift hills. The county is drained by the Wisconsin River and its tributaries. The soil varies from a fine sand to sandy loam and loam. The elevation is very generally between 1,500 and 484 I'HE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. 1,700 feet above sea level, most of the land being very little higher than the level of the lakes and streams. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the surface formations of glacial drift and associated sand and gravel plains, and the underlying gra- nitic formation. The surface formation, very generally, covers the granite rock, the latter being exposed only rarely along the river bot- toms. The drift is of variable thickness, but is usually from 50 to 200 feet thick. For geologic section, see Fig. 23. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizon is the surface formation of drift, in which an abundant supply can generally be obtained at rela- tivf?v shallow depths. The water level is very generally near the sur- face throughout the county. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES RJiinelander. Rhinelander, the county seat, located on the site of extensive water power on the Wisconsin river, has a population of 5,637. Its elevation is 1,550 feet above sea level. Until recently the city supply was obtained directlj^ from the Wis- consin river, and at times the water was highly colored and ;full of organic matter. At present the supply is obtained from a large shal- low well, 30 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, located beside the river, the well being supplied with a number of well points leading from the bottom of the well to the bed of the river which discharge into the well when the water is drawn down. The present supply is mainly river water and contains much organic matter. The average daily pump- age is about 989,000 gallons. A large per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. The city sewage is emptied with- out purification into the river. The private wells are generally shal- low, from 20 to 50 feet deep. Minocqua. Minocqua, situated on Lake Kawaquesagon, has an esti- mated population of 750. The elevation is 1,603 feet. The underlying formation is a sandy drift. A public water supply system has been in- stalled, the supply being obtained from a 172-foot well, in the drift, and from the lake at a depth of 20 feet, 300 feet from the shore. The daily consumption of water is 25.000 gallons. About 25 per cent of the houses connect with the city supply. The private wells are relatively DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 485 shallow, generally from 15 to 25 feet deep. The sewage is emptied into the lake. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of water in Oneida county shows the water to be soft and hard water. Soft water of relatively low mineral content is likely to occur throughout the county in all the lakes, streams, and in the surface deposits. There are, however, exceptions to this gen- eral rule as indicated in the table of analyses. The content of organic matter in the city water supply at Rhinelander, as shown by the the analysis, No. 6, indicates that the supply is largely drawn from the river, or that the ground water source is contaminated. The wa- ter of the railroad well at Pelican is largely from a ground water source, rather than from the lake, though this was not intended when the res- ervoir well was constructed. When the pump is not working a con- stant stream goes through the pipe from the reservoir into the lake. The water from the Pelican railroad well No. 5 and that from the creek at Monico Jet. are unusually hard waters in this locality. The city water supply of Rhinelander contains 0.55 pounds of in- crusting solids in 1,000 gallons while that from the railroad well at Pelican contains 1.55 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Oneida County. (Analyses in parts per million) Creek. Lake, Spring. Surface Deposits. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Depth of well . feet 20 18.3 0.8 43.8 17.4 5.4 92.5 15.7 6.7 20 8.7 1.0 16.9 4.1 1.7 35.7 ••••j^j- 28.6 120 .Silica (Si02) 18.6 37 34.5 14.3 { 4.4 60.7 41.5 6.8 27.0 4.0 1.7 8 0.8 4.7 4.7 24.0 ■"ii'.s' 22.9 8.5 4.5 2.2 J 4.5 1 4.5 11.6 8.2 5.6 2.6 12 6 3.4 [ 4.8 31 9 1 3 0.7 7.5 ""s.i' 1 6 13.1 19 5 15 8 1.6 1 Aluminium and iron oxides (AlaOs+FeaOa) y 5.3 Calcium (Ca) 9.7 3.6 Sodium (Na) 18. 3 Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CO;;) 22.1 Sulphate radicle (S04) 19.5 Chlorine (CD 3.1 Total d issol ved solids 185. 49. 72. 57. 66. 201. 71. 74. Creek, Monico Junction, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 24, 1909. Small Lake near Worden, eight miles from Pratt Junction, Analyst, G. M. DaTid- son. July 17, 1909. Two Sisters Lake, sample taken at 62.1 ft. (19 m.) Analysts, B. B. Hall and C. Juday, Aug. 27, 1907, Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. Minocqua Lake, Minocqua, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Aug. 18, 1892. Cassian Spring, Cassian, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Mar. 15, 1897. Reservoir and Lake at Pelican, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 17, 1909. Well of City Water Works, Rhinelander, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Aug. 26, 1909. Well of C. M & St. P. Ry. Co., Goodnow, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Aug. 15, 1892. 486 TBE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Outagamie County Outagamie county, located in the east central part of the state, has an area of 684 square miles, and a population of 49,102. About 81.3 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 66.6 per cent is under cul- tivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is quite gently sloping and without prom- inent relief. The Fox river flows northward across the southeastern part and the Wolf river flows southward across the northwestern part. The divide between these rivers, forming the highest land in the county, extends northeast-southwest diagonally across the central part of the it£*jeMSl» Fig. 55. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern Oconto County. county. Probably the highest part of the county is in the southwest part, in the vicinity. of Medina, which locality has an elevation of 850 to 900 feet above sea level. The lowland along the Fox and the "Wolf rivers is a little above 750 feet, hence the maximum range in elevation is between 100 and 150 feet. A belt of undulating drift hills extends northward along the divide, through the vicinity of Greenville and Black Creek. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone, the Lower Magnesian limestone, the St. Peter sandstone, and the Galena-PlattevHle (Trenton) limestone. These indurated rock forma- tions are quite generally covered with glacial drift on the divides, and with alluvial sand and gravel, and glacial drift in the valleys. The red lacustrine clay deposit is generally present in the valleys, associ- ated with the stratified sand and gravel, and its stony counterpart worked into the glacial drift is very generally distributed over the up- land divides in the southern part of the county- The geological struc- ture is illustrated in figure 55. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 437 The Lower Magnesian formation is variable in character, consisting largely of limestone in some places, as at Kaukauna and Combined Locks, and largely of sandstone and shale in other places, as at Apple- ton Jet., and Appleton. The most complete well record available ap- pears to be that of the Paper Company well at Combined Locks, which reached the Pre-Cambrian granite after passing through the Trenton, St. Peter, Lower Magnesian and Upper Cambrian formations. In this well (see page 4901 there are 28 feet of St. Peter sandstone, 130 feet of Lower Magnesian limestone, and 420 feet of Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone, the thickness of the St. Peter and Lower Magnesian being essentially the same as in the city well at Kaukauna. These thicknesses for the St. Peter, Lower Magnesian and Upper Cambrian therefore may be taken as fairly representative of these formations in this part of the state. In the Appleton Jet. well no limestone of the Lower Magnesian was struck, (see page 490) and similar conditions appear to prevail in Appleton. All of the geological formations have been greatly eroded; hence, there is a great diversity in the thickness of the strata. The usual range in thickness of the geological formations in Outagamie county may be summarized as follows : Probable range in thickness of formations in Outagamie County. Formations. Surf ace formation Galena^PlatteviUe (Trenton) limestone. St. Pet«r and Lower Mai^nesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... Pre-Cambrian graniie Thicljness. Pfipt . to 300 10 259 to 250 100 to 500 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal source of water supply in Outagamie county are the surface deposits of glacial drift and associated alluvial formations, and the sandstone formations underlying the limestone in the southeastern part of the county and immediately underlying the surface drift in the northwestern part. The general water level is usually less than 100 feet below the sur- face on the upland slopes and less than 30 or 40 feet from the surface in the valleys. The groundwater in the alluvial deposits in the valleys 488 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. an4 low areas is often under sufficient artesian pressure to develop flowing wells. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells occur in Outagamie county in both the surface de- posits and the underlying rock strata. Along the Wolf river and tributaries, surface flowing wells occur at New London, Horton- ville, Shiocton, Dale and Medina Jet. and many other places. These wells are generally from 30 to 150 feet deep, the source of the supply being the sand and gravel seams underlying and interstratified with relatively impervious clay beds. These have flows with heads rang- ing from one to thirty-five feet above the surface. Along the Fox river, in the vicinity of Appleton, are also maily shal- low flowing wells that obtain water from gravel seams in the sur- face formation. The well at Mr. Heid's farm 55 feet deep, which gets its supply from gravel below red clay, is an example. The clay in this locality is often 40 to 80 feet deep, beneath which leaves, twigs and logs are often found. The water in Mr. Heid's well rises several feet above the surface and flows a strong stream. There are also many deep artesian wells in Appleton and other cities and villages along the Fox river, that draw their supply from the St. Peter, Lower Magnesian and Potsdam formations, as described on the following pages. Several of these wells in Appleton reach depths of 600 to over 800 feet, the head in most favorable places being 10 to 20 feet above the surface. At Kaukauna, down the river from Appleton. the artesian wells that reach through the Treiiton and Lower Magne- sian limestones have strong flows, rising as high as 35 feet above the surface in the most favorable localities. Flowing artesian wells are also common in Combined Lock and Little Chute. SPRINGS Springs are a common source of water supply in this county. An especially large spring is located in the northwest quarter of Sec. 28, and some small ones in the northeast corner of Sec. 18, of the town of Hortonia, along the Wolf river. There arc numerous springs along the Fox River, the springs issuing at the contact of the limestone with the overlying drift, or directly from the limestone formation. Some of the springs in Appleton contain hydrogen-sulphide (H2S). A spring in the southwest quarter of Sec. 31, Town of Grand Chute, eon- tains considerable iron. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 439 WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Appleton. The city of Appleton, located on the Fox river, has a population of 16,773. The city virater supply was formerly obtained from three artesian wells, but on account of apparent lack of sufficient water the supply was changed to Fox river. There are two intakes, one of which extends to the center of the south channel of the river to a depth of 8 feet. The average daily pumpage for 1914 was 2,560,000 gallons. The water is filtered by a Jewell mechanical filter of the pressure type. The city sewage empties, without purification, into the river below the intake. It is reported that 90, per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply and sewage systems. It is also reported that the city supply is used mainly for commercial and do- mestic purposes, and not for drinking. The three city wells are 6-inch Avells, as follows: No. 1, 475 feet, drilled in 1881 ; No. 2, 675 feet, drilled in 1884 ; and No. 3, 822 feet deep drilled in 1886. No. 1 is cased 400 feet, and No. 3, 600 feet. The sec- ond water works well in Appleton is located about 75 feet east of the first, and the third is about 150 feet northeast of the first, and thus un- fortunately so placed as to readily intei'fcro with one another. No separate tests were made of the wells, but at first they furnished col- lectively about 694.4 gallons per minute, and later decreased to about 520.8 gallons. This decrease in supply is no doubt due largely to the increase in the number of wells put down in the locality, and in part to leakage at the well. These city wells, as above stated, are used very little, or not at all, at present. The Wisconsin Malt and Grain Company raise their water from a depth of 250 feet by means of an air compressor and get a sufficient supply. This well, the one at George Walters Brewery, and the three at the Fox River Paper Mill, are the heaviest users and keep the water down. In all these wells all surface water is shut out by proper cas- ing, and in some cases the St. Peter supply is also cased oE. There are about ten flowing wells that enter the St. Peter sandstone and re- semble the Appleton Machine Company's well. Wells of this type are located all along the banks of the Fox river and on the islands in the river. The supply from the St. Peter sandstone is obtained at a depth of about 100 feet, the quantity increasing as the depth in sandstone in- creases. The main flow from the Potsdam sandstone occurs at about 520 feet. Most of the wells in the St. Peter sandstone are packed, but it is noticeable that wells at low elevations interfere with those at higher elevations. The wells at the Paper Mill, just east of the waterworks wells, have taken considerable of the flow of the latter. The city wa- 490 "^HE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. ■ ter company abandoned the artesian wells and is now pumping water from the Fox river, which is said to be not satisfactory. It has gen- erally been noted that the sinking of deep wells east of Appleton has lessened the head at Appleton. This was particularly noticeable with the Badger well at Kaukauna, and the well at Combined Locks. From the study of the various wells along Fox river it appears that at Apple- ton a system could readily be developed by which the city might be supplied entirely with artesian water. This might necessitate, how- ever, a lowering of the head to considerable depth, and would then in- terfere somewhat with the available artesian supply at the various fac- tories. Appleton Junction. At Appleton Junction, on the farm of G. H. Murphy, a well 350 feet deep struck no limestone of the Lower Mag- nesian horizon. Section of G. H. Murphy well at Appleton Junction. Formation. Thickness. Feet. 75 200 75 Total depth 350 No accurate record was available of any of the Appleton city wells, so it was impossible to say whether Lower Magnesian limestone is present or not, but from the above record, and those farther east, it appears that the St. Peter formation, (including some Lower Magne- sian sandstone) usually rests directly upon the Potsdam in this local- ity. Combined Locks. The following is the section of the Paper Com- pany's well: Log of Well of the ComMned Locks Paper Company. Formation. Drift Galena-Plalteville (Trenton) limestone . St. Peter sandstone ■ Lower Magnesian limestone Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... Bottom (in granite) Thickness. Feet. 21 191 28 130 420 790 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 49^ Another well put down 40 feet east of, and about 20 feet higher than the Paper Co. well, struck its first flow at a depth of 240 feet in the St. Peter sandstone and flowed only a few inches above ground. The well probably ended before passing very far into the Potsdam. Kaukauna. This city, with a population of 4,717, is located on the. Fox river, about 7 miles below Appleton. The city water supply is ob- tained from three artesian weUs, the two first drilled being 8-inch wells, 643 feet deep. The third well is 798 feet deep. The wells flow into a reservoir 60 feet ■ in diameter and 15 feet deep. The aver- age pumpage is about 249,000 gallons. About 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the city supply. The city has a sewage system, the sewage being emptied, without purification, into the Fox river. At Kaukauna the first two wells put in by the city in 1896 gave the fol- lowing log: Logs of City Wells, Kaukauna. Formation. Thickness. Soil Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. , St. Peter sandstone Lower Ma^nesian lime.stone Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. . . Total depth Feet. 22 176 25 118 302 643 The natural flow of each well yielded 5 gallons per minute at 285 feet, 25 gallons at 370 feet, and reached 200 gallons at 550 feet. The Potsdam was not passed through. Hard pumping draws water down about 2 feet. These deep wells lowered the two old city wells, which are located on the north and south banks of the valley, about 50 feet higher than the city wells, so that the water in the old wells stands about 20 feet below the surface. A well was put down for the Badger Paper Company, which has a strong pressure at present, but is not used extensively, part of the water being piped to the adjacent mill and used for drinking and condensing purposes. Numerous other wells have been put down to the St. Peter sandstone. The wells when allowed to flow continuously interfere with each other. The best wells are packed at a depth of about 100 feet. Little Chute. Population, 1,354. The water is obtained from pri- vate wells, many of which are flowing. The Little Chute Paper Com- pany's well is 360 feet deep, obtaining its supply from the St. Peter sandstone. 492 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Hortonville. Population, 863. The water supply is obtained from common wells from 40 to 150 feet deep. On low ground there are a number of flowing wells, ranging in depth between 37 and 113 feet. The water in the flowing wells is obtained from sand and gravel, with head from 4 to 20 feet above the ground. QUALITY OP THE WATER The mineral analyses of various water supjjlies of Outagamie county are shown in the following table. Most of the waters analyzed are hard with a moderate mineral content. The waters of highest mineral eon- tent are from the southeastern limestone-covered portion of the county. In the northwestern part of the county, adjacent to and west of the Wolf river, where there is no limestone, waters of appreciably lower mineral content are likely to prevail. Of the waters analyzed, the sur- face water from the Fox river has the lowest content of mineral mat- ter. The appreciable content of organic matter in the Appleton city water supply is characteristic of river water. The water from the shal- low flowing wells at Hortonville, all probably in the surface deposits, as well as that from the spring at Appleton, are much lower in mineral content than the deep artesian wells at Appleton, which draw their sup- ply from the sandstones underlying the Trenton limestone. The higher content of mineral in the deeper water is due to the increase in sul- phates rather than chlorides. As most of the well waters analyzed in the above table are from flowing wells, and therefore likely to be un- contaminated by seepage of surface waters, the variable content of chlorine is noteworthy. Waters unusually high in mineral content are from shallow wells 8 feet deep in the Trenton, No. 8, and from the deep artesian wells from the sandstone, No. 12. The Fox river water at Kaukauna, No. 7, contains 1.36 pounds of in- crusting solids in 1,000 gallons. The railroad well at Hortonville, No. 4, contains 2.95 pounds in 1,000 gallons, while the deep flowing well at Kaukauna, No. 10, contains 5.49 pounds in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 493 Mineral analyses of water in Outagamie County. (Analyses in parts per million) Depth of well feet.. Silica mOi) Aluminium aud iron oxides (AI2O3+ li'e203) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium ( M?) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Organic matter Total dissolved solids.. River. 0.8 32.3 19.1 10.1 80.3 36.4 6.7 192. 11.2 6. 30.4 13.7 4.4 79.4 6.8 20. 152. Sprina 15. 2. 24. 16. 32. 128. 16. 4. 11. 237. Surface deposits. 20 16.4 0.3 69.6 43.4 5.0 190.8 34.6 367. 15.9 2.0 70.2 35.9 1.0 188.2 9.3 1.5 324. 16.9 3.4 71.5 46.3 4.4 187.2 54.9 6.8 391. Surface Deposits, Depth of well Peet. . Silica (Sio) Aluminium and iron oxides {AI2O3+ FesOs) Calcium (Ca) Masrnesium (Mgr) Sodium (Na) Potassium ( K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4' Chlorine (CD Total dissolved solids. 15.0 Trace 77.3 38.5 ■ 5.5 155.1 79.6 8.5 380. Galena or Cin - cinnati lime- stone. .86 3.17 410.95 115.56 i 63.78 I 68.66 311.08 1,133.89 25.0 2133. St. Peter and Dnper Cambrian Sandstone. 119.2 15.2 2J.8 120.0 194.7 8.4 482. 10. 59.D 8.4 1.0 198.5 20.4 26.3 210.1 273.7 1^.8 ' 75i7~ 600 4.4 158.2 31.3 2.2 3.9 146.6 296.0 7.1 6477 798? 27.95 1.88 272.36 20.57 ■ 146.36 265.80 603. .59 12.22 10. 11. 12. Fox River at Kaukauna, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 26, 1909. Fox River, City Water Supply at Appleton, Analyst, Dearborn Drug Si Chem. Co., Oct. 2, 1901. Mineral Spring, Appleton, Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, p. 32, 1877. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Hortonville, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Aug. 1, 1894. Artesian well at HortonvUle, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, March 2, 1900. Well at Mortonvllle, 500 feet S. B. of C. & N. W. Station, Analyst, G. M. Davidson. Aug. 1, 1894. Well at Appleton, Analyst, Mil. Ind. Chem. Institute. Well on farm of Thomas Fox in town of Buchanan, .Vnalyst, Victor Lehner, Jan. 8, 190:j. Well of A. A. Kern, Kaukauna. Flowing artesian well, Kaukauna, Analyst, G. M. Davidson. Well of George Walters, Appleton, Analyst, American Brewing Academy. Well of City Water works, Kaukauna, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, April 26, 1911. 494 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Ozaukee County Ozaukee county, located in the southeastern part of the state, on Lake Michi^jan, has an. area of 276 square miles, and a population of 17,123. About 94 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 78 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is an undulating plain sloping eastward towards Lake Michigan. The upland ridges and the stream valleys trend north and soilth, approximately parallel to the shore of the lake. The principal drainage line is the Milwaukee river, which enters the county from the west in the northwestern part and flows south through the central part. The Cedar Creek is the principal tributary. The elevation of Lake Michigan is 581 feet above sea level. The ^.Iti- tude of the uplands adjacent to the lake is between 700 and 800 feet, while altitudes of the upland ridges 6 or 8 miks farther west, along the western border of the county, usually reach up to over 900 feet, the highest points located in the north western part, in Saukville and Fredonia, being 1,000 feet. The altitude of the valley bottom of the Milwaukee river, which is relatively broad and shallow, is about 660 feet at the southern boundary of the county and about 800 feet in the northwestern part west of Fredonia, the valley of the Milwaukee river at Saukville only about 3 miles west of the lake shore at Port Washington being nearly 200 feet above the level of Lake Michigan. The most prominent reliefs are the steep banks of the shore of Lake Michigan which are from 120 to 140 feet high as far north as Port Washington, north of which point they gradually descend to a gently sloping shore. In the northwestern part of the county the difference in elevation is generally 100 to 200 feet.. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The rock formation throughout the county is mainly the Niagara limestone. In the northeastern part of the county, south of Lake Church, are deposits of Devonian limestone. The surface formations of glacial drift and lacustrine deposits overlie the limestone. The geo- logical structure is illustrated in the cross section, Fig. 56, extend- ing east and west through Ozaukee and Washington counties. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 495 The surface deposits as usual vary greatly in thickness in various parts of the county, but are usually from 50 to 100 feet thick. In many places, however, the drift is very thin and in places the limestone out- crops at the surface. The known maximum thickness of the surface de- posits is 150 feet, but in some of the drift ridges, or in the pre-glacial valleys, a thickness of 200 or 250 feet may be expected. WASNINSTDN CO. OZAUKEE CO. Fig. 56. — Geologic section, east-west, across northern Washington and Ozaukee Counties. The thickness of the Niagara limestone is also variable on account of the extensive erosion of this formation before the surface deposits, and also probably before the overlying shales, were laid down upon it. On- ly one complete record of a well that has penetrated through the Ni- agara has come to hand in this county, namely, that of the C. & N. W. Ry. Co. at Mequon. The log of this well as interpreted by F. T. Thwaites, from a fairly complete set of samples, is as follows : Log of Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co. at Mequon. Formation. Surface levonian gray sl:ale (Hamilton) Niagara hard gray limestone Clncinn ati shale Galena-l'latteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter Lower Masrnesian and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. Thickness. Feet. 194 141 300 216 219 B50 1,420 It is of special interest to note the presence of 141 feet of gray shale beds of Devonian, overlying the hard gray limestone of the Niagara, which has a thickness of only 300 feet. The formations below the Tren- ton are wholly sandstone, the Lower Magnesian horizon, as at Milwau- kee, being wholly represented by sandstone strata. Judging from the thickness of the Niagara formation in this well and the adjoining coun- ties to the south, west and north, a minimum thickness of 200 feet may 496 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. be expected, while the maximum thickness may reach 450 to 550 feet. The small deposits of Devonian (Hamilton shale) which overlie the Niagara at Druckers quarry and the Lake Shore Stone Co. quarry, south of Lake Church, show a thickness of only 12 or 13 feet. These deposits of the Devonian limestone, and that recorded in the Mequon well, are the only ones known to occur in the county. The formations underlying the Niagara probably attain the usual thickness of these formations in adjacent parts of eastern Wiseonisn. The usual thickness of the formations from the surface down to the Pre- Cambrian granite may be summarized as follows : Thickness of Geological Formations in Ozaukee County. Formation. Thickness. Surface deposits Hamilton shale {Milwaukee formation).. Niagara limestone Cincinnati shale Galnna-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. St. Peter and Lower Magrnesium UpperCambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... The Pie-Cambrian granite Feet. to 300 to 200 200 to 550 'i!00 to 250 200 to 250 200 to 2.50 600 to 700 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formations are the surface deposits of glacial drift and the Niagara limestone. The formations underlying the Niagara, so far as known, have not been drawn upon for water sup- plies. The permanent water level in both the drift and limestone is near or at the surface in the valleys and very generally less than 100 feet below the surface on the slopes of the upland ridges. For many years shal- low open surface wells in the drift only 10 to 30 feet deep on the up- lands supplied sufficient water for domestic purposes. In recent years, however, most of these wells have been deepend by drilling down to the rock, and now obtain the supply from the permanent water level in gravel beds which usually overlie the limestone rock. Wells in the limestone range in depth from 10 to 150 feet, obtaining an abundant supply from the open fractures and fissures which per- meate the rock. Wells in the limestone are likely to be more constant in the supply and of better quality than those obtained from the drift. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 497 FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells arc obtained in Ozaukee county in the surface deposits of gravel and sand underlying clay and also in the underlying lime- stone rock. In the valley of the small stream which empties into the lake at Port Washington, are 12 or more artesian wells that derive their flow from the water bearing gravel at the junction of the drift with the indurated rocks below. These wells range in depth from 320 to 150 feet according to their elevation above the lake and the thickness of the drift, and the water flows from 5 to 25 feet above the surface. General Section of Flowing Wells at Port Washington. Formation. Gravel Hardpan Blue clay . . . Beach sand. Porous rock . ThicU-ness. Feet. 0-10 40-60 40—50 30—60 0- 5 The beach sand and porous rock are the water-bearing strata. In most cases a good flow is obtained in the sands at the surface of the rock, but in few instances where these sands are troublesome in clogging the pipes the wells are sunk a few feet into the rock where the same water is found in crevices, clear and free from sediment. The water on the upland ridges west of the lake is obtained from the limestone, but fails to rise to the surface. There are many rather shallow dug wells in the county, the deeper drift wells being, for the most part, confined to the valleys where flows may be obtained. Shal- low flowing wells are found at various places between West Bend and Port Washington. Shallow flowing wells are also obtained along the river bottoms and lowlands as far inland as Newberg in Washington county. The wells are of the same general character as those at Port Washington and West Bend. Deep artesian flowing wells obtaining their supply from the strata underlying the Niagara limestone and Cincinnati shale have not been drilled in Ozaukee county, but flowing wells of this type may reason- ably be expected up to the altitudes of 100 feet above Lake Michigan 32— W. S. 498 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. and may be possible up to over 150 feet. The county, however, is gen- erally above this altitude, as already discribed, except along the lake shore. SPRINGS Springs issue in various parts of the county from the drift and the limestone. The Hilgen Spring at Cedarburg issuing from the drift is a well known spring. A number of springs also occur in the vicinity of Port Washington. Many of the small streams that flow into the Milwaukee river are fed by springs, as. illustrated in the vicinity a mile east and 2^4 miles southeast of Fredonia. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Port Washington. This city located on Lake Michigan has a popula- tion of 3,792. The city recently installed a water supply system and sewage disposal plant. The water supply is obtained from the lake, the intake pipe extending 1,500 to 2,000 feet into the lake at a depth of about 38 feet. The sewers empty into the harbor, and if the water becomes polluted from this source, filter beds or septic tanks will be used to treat the sewage before it is emptied into the lake. Flowing wells from the Niagara limestone similar to those at Man- itowoc are obtained at Port Washington. Numerous flowing wells are also obtained from the drift, as at other points along the lake shore. The Niagara limestone is the chief formation upon which to depend for water both north and west of the city. The well owned by the Biederman Brewing Company is the strongs est in the city, and when allowed to flow freely T7ill drain most of the wells at a higher level. Cedarburg. Cedarburg, population 1,777, is located on Cedg,r river. The water supply is obtained from private wells reported to be from 10 to 40 feet in the rock, the average depth being 20 feet. Fredonia. Water in Fredonia is supplied from private wells 15 to 125 feet in rock. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of various waters of Qzaukee county are shown in the folowing table. The waters from the surface deposits and Ni- agara limestone are hard or very hard waters of moderate mineral con- tent and are "calcium carbonate" waters, while that from the 1,420 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 499 foot well at Mequon, from the St. Peter and Potsdam sandstone, is highly mineralized and is distinctly a "calcium sulphate" water. The latter water is suitable for both drinking and boiler use. The water of Analysis No. 8, contains 19.62 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons as compared with 2.88 pounds in 1,000 gallons from the well at Port "Washington, No. 7, and with 0.99 pounds in 1,000 gallons of Lake Michigan water, No. 1. Mineral analyses of water in Ozaukee County. (Analyses in parts per million) Depth of well feet.. Silica (SiOa) Aluminium and iron oxides (AhOs+FezOa) Calcium (Ca) Maffuftsium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (S04) Chlorine (CD Organic matter Total dissolved solids., Lake. 5.61 2.4! 30.8 9.2 5.7 66.7 9.4 4.7 135. Spring. 6 68.4 24.4 7.8 167.4 7.6 1.2 282. Surface deposits. 13.8 1 0.8) 83.1 37.0 5.3 168.9 78.1 5.8 34.6 427. 14 77.6 35.9 14.6 183.4 35.9 20.9 377. 19.3 66.0 33.8 16.9 104.5 14.8 1.3 347. Niagara limestone. 170 6.5 77 5 38.5 16.0 199.7 35.0 12.9 245 ( 5 68.8 40.9 12.3 167.8 74.9 6.6 13.0 381. St. Peter and Upper Cambri- an sand- stone. 1420 19.0 6 8 452.1 55.7 69.3 152.7 1769.1 27.7 2552. 1. Lake Michigan, City Water Supply, Port Washington, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 27, 1907. 2. Spring, Thiensville, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 6, 1891. . 3. Flowing well, Port Washington, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Nov. 22, 1907. 4. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Saukville, Analyst Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 7, 1891. 5. Flowing well, Wilson Hotel, Port Washington, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co. 6. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Saukville, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. Oct. 19, 1894. 7. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Port Washington, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, April 27, 1907. 8. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Mequon, .Vnalyst, G. M. Davidson, May 7, 1907. 500 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Pepin County Pepin county, located in the west central part of the state, has an area of 239 square miles and a population of 7,577. About 89.8 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 51.7 per cent is under cul- tivation. SUKFACE FEATURES The surface of Pepin county consists in about equal proportion of low valley bottom land and dissected upland plain. The valley bottoms lie along the Mississippi and Chippewa rivers and their tributaries. The principal tributaries of the Chippewa are the Eau Galle river and Plum Creek on the west and Beaver Creek on the east. The altitude of the vaUey bottoms is a little less than 700 feet and of the uplands a little over 1,200 feet. The valley sides are quite abrupt, especially adjacent to the larger rivers. The soils in the valley bottoms are mainly sands and sandy loams, and those upon the uplands are heavier silt loams. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations as shown in Fig. 22 are the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone, the Lower Magnesian limestone, and the alluvial gravel and sand along the Chippewa and Mississippi rivers. Some glacial drift is present on the uplands in the western part of the county. The contact of the Upper Cambrian sandstone with the over- lying limestone a short distance southeast of Durand is at an elevation of 1,090 to 1,100 feet above sea level. The contact of the sandstone with the underlying pre- Cambrian granite in the Court House well is 400 feet below the surface, at an elevation of 320 feet above sea level (See diagram figure 22) which makes a total thickness, of 770 feet for the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone formation at Durand. The surface formation, consisting mainly of the alluvial deposits in the valleys, probably reaches a maximum thickness of 200 to 250 feet in the middle of the Chippewa river channel. The thickness of the rock formations is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. It is only on the summits of the uplands that the Lower Magnesian limestone is present, and the complete thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is preserved only in those ridges capped by the DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 501 limestone. The approximate range in thickness of the geological for- mations may be summarized as follows: Approximate range in thiclcness of formations in Pepin County. Formation. Surface formation Lower Ma^nesian limestone TJpDer Cambrian (Potsdam)- sandstone. Tlie Pre-Cambriaii granite Tliickness. Feet. to 250 to 200 200 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The important sources of the water supply are the alluvial sands and gravels and the sandstone. There are some shallow wells upon the up- lands, as at Lund, which vary in depth from 20 to 35 feet, obtaining the water supply from the clay and loess overlying the limestone. Wells that penetrate the rock on the highest elevations, however, generally have to go down to the general water level, to a depth of 200 to 350 feet. Along the river bottoms the wells are generally less than 50 feet deep and obtain their water supply from the alluvial sands and gravels. FLOWING. WELLS V Flowing wells occur in the valley bottoms, in the surface formation and the underlying sandstone. The strongest flows g,re obtained from the sandstone, the normal head at Durand being 30 to 40 feet above the level of the river, an altitude of about 735 to 740 feet above sea level. The log of the artesian well at the County Court House in Durand, furnished by 3Ir. Bowman, which gives an accurate statement of the formations, is as follows : Log of Pepin County Court House Well, Durand. Formation. Soil and surface Upper Combrian (Potsdam) : Shale (relativel.v impervious) Shale and sandstone (transition beds) Sandstone, brownish Sandstone, coarse Pre-Cambrian: Granite, decomposed, soft Grahite, hard Total Thickness. Feet. 12 190 10 160 30 7 437 502 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The elevation of the curb of the Court House well is 720 feet above sea level and the water will rise 17 feet above the curb. At the Durand Brewing Company well, the formations are the same, passing through 30 feet of soft decomposed granite before striking the hard granite at bottom. At the Stokes Hotel, the artesian well is drilled 444 feet deep, stopping in hard granite. The first flow is struck after passing through the relatively imper- vious shale and striking the sandstone at a depth of about 200 feet. The first fiowing wells were drilled in 1900 and all the earlier ones were drilled down to granite. Many of the later ones, however, were drilled only 200 feet and obtained as strong a flow as the deeper ones. There are now probably 25 or 30 flowing wells in the city. Some of these have a less depth than 200 feet, stopping in the shale, and probably obtain their flow from leakage into the shale from the deeper wells. The wells vary from 2 to 6 inches in diameter. The temperature of the water is 51° F. The Durand wells are all fed from the same horizon and interfere greatly with one another. The best 'pressure on the lowest ground is ].4i/^ pounds, while on the high ground it is much less. By opening to continuous flow any one of the 6-inch wells on low ground the flows of the wells on higher ground would be decreased or destroyed. All the wells show about the same series of strata. There are slight differences in head, however, unless proper precautions are taken to prevent leakage at a number of the wells. Instead of casing the weUs into the impervious shale and making a firm contact the water of some of the wells is allowed to escape in the soft porous sandstone above the shale, That some of the wells are not properly cased at present may be seen by the leakage around pipes where a good sized stream comes up on the outside of the casing. In others, as at Robert Kroeft's well the leakage into the sand rock over the shale was so great as to cause an old well sunk into this stratum to flow shortly after the flow was struck in the artesian well. Nearly all of the shallow wells have much morf water now than before artesian wells were sunk, and some of the base- ments are kept moist from the leakage at the artesian wells. Unless these defects are remedied, all the wells will suffer from the earlessness of a few of the owners of flowing wells. The shale is hardest near the center of the bed and into this the casing ought to be sunk. The accompanying diagram Fig. (57) shows the leakage at some of the wells, due to improper casing, and shows at the same time how this con- dition affects wells in the vicinity. On the same figure is shown a well which is properly cased so as to avoid all leakage and in which the pipe may be easily repaired. DESCJtIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 503 Well "b" on the lot of Eobert Kroeft was drilled first, and by pump- ing yielded only surface water from sandy soil and soft underlying sand and rock. After drilling well "c" in which artesian water was obtained, well "b" also began flowing, showing that the water escapes into the soft sand rock through the lack of proper casing. The casing should extend several feet into the impervious shale. Fig. 57. — Diagram showing proper and improper Casing of artesian wells at Durand. (After A. R. Scliultz) a := properly cased well. b = shallow well. c — improperly cased well. In well "a" the outer casing has been extended into the shale, then the bore of the well was decreased and the inner caising extended down to the hardest portion of the impervious shale. The contact between the two casings is further sealed by a few feet of cement, thus making a joint secure against any of the water working up along the outside of the casing. A well cased in this manner will last for years and is easily repaired in case the inner tubing corrodes so as to allow too much leakage. The two casings are not necessary to insure a properly cased well if the pipe is extended well into the shale and cemented near the base to avoid leakage. At the home of W. Basting's, Sec. 7, T. 25, E. 14, seven miles west 50-1- THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. of Durand, near Arkansaw, in the valley of the Arkansaw Creek, a well was drilled to a depth of 257 feet, 145 feet in alluvial gravel and 11^ feet in the Potsdam formation, a flow being obtained at 120 to 145 feet. Other artesian flows have been obtained in this locality in the valley deposit, having a maximum flow of 6 feet above the Creek level and 6 in. above the well curb. The underground water conditions similar to those along the Arkan- saw Creek which have developed artesian flows are not uncommon in Wisconsin. ■ The essential factor in developing artesian conditions in the valley of the Arkansaw, and other valleys similarly located, is thick relatively impervious clay deposit overlying g, water-bearing sand bed, as illustrated by the following section of Mr. Hasting 's well : Log of W. Hasting's Flowing Well, near Arkansaw. Strata. i Thickness. Alluvial. Clay soil Sandy clay Coarse sand (source of flow) Upper Cambrian sandroclc. soft Blue sandy shale SandrocU, grayish white Total :lepth Fept. 15 257 Another flowing well, reported depth 100 feet, was drilled on lower ground on the north branch of the Arkansaw creek on the farm of Her- man Ogallie, which proves conclusively that under favorable conditions flows can be obtained up the minor vaUeys of the Chippewa, as indeed up all the minor valleys of the Mississippi river, and at considerably higher elevation than along the main streams. The valley fill in this locality, at the mouth of the Arkansaw creek and in the Eau Galle river valley, has a known maximum depth of 185 feet The strata of alluvial deposit in the valley have a well defined inclination down the valley, and hence a typical artesian slope is de- veloped, the water in the underlying pervious sand strata being held under pressure, by the relatively impervious overlying clay strata. It^ is possible that water under pressure from the Potsdam sandstone seeps into the valley deposit and thus moderately assists in developing ar- tesian conditions. However, the structure of the valley deposits them- selves is amply competent to furnish artesian flows of the character dev- eloped in these valleys. (Compare with shallow artesian wells in the Fox and Rock river valleys, pages 90-7). DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 505 WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Durand. Durand, the county seat, on the Chippewa river, has a population of 1,503. A public water supply was recently installed. The supply is obtained from a 10-inch well, 301 fee't deep. Sandrock was struck at depth of 6 feet. The well flows with pressure of 12 lbs. at the curb. Shallow wells in this city obtain water at depths of 20 to 40 feet, depending upon the elevation above the river. There are also a number of flowing artesian wells in this city, as already described. QUALITY OF THE WATER Only two analyses of water of Pepin county are available, namely, those of a spring and a well at Durand. The source of the spring water is the Upper Cambrian sandstone. The water is hard carbonate water of moderate mineral content. The water from wells in the alluvial sands along the Chippewa river and main tributaries is likely to eon- tain a smaller amount of mineral than this spring water, while that from the sandstone, where overlain by limestone, is likely to contain a slightly larger amount of mineral. Mineral analyses of water in Pepin County. (Analyses in parts per million) Spring-. XJpwr Cambrian Sandstone. 1. 2. Depth of well feet... 172 Silica 1 Si02) 1 2.5 43.5 25.1 8.4 133.4 6.0 1.5 Aluminum and iron oxides (Al903-t-Fe''C>;;) .• ( 7.0 Calcium (Ca) 64 5 Magnesium (MgJ 34.4 7.8 Carbonate radicle {CO3) 180 Sulphate radicle iSUt) 15.0 Chlorine (CD 0.6 Total dissolved SDlids 220. 310. 1. Durand Spring, at Durand, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Dee. 5, 1891. ■2. Railroad well at Durand, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Apr. 6, 1891. 506 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Pierce County Pierce county, located in thfe northwestern part of the state, ihas an area of 543 square miles, and a population of 22,07^. About 96.4 per cent of the land of this county is in farms, of which 58.7 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Pierce county is an upland plain moderately dissected in the northern part, but deeply trenched by the southward flowing streams in the central and southern part. The main upland in the central and eastern part has a prevailing altitude of about 1,200 feet, Fig. 58. — Geologic section, east-west, across Pierce County. descending somewhat to the west towards the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers, where only the mounds retain this altitude. The lowest valley bottoms usually range between 680 feet along the Mississippi to 900 feet up the tributary valleys. The valley sides of the St. Croix and Mississippi rise abruptly from 300 to 400 feet above the river bottoms. The soils are generally silt loams on the uplands aiid sandy loams in the valley bottoms. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations beginning at the bottom are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, the Lower Magnesian limestone which includes the Shakopee and Oneota formations, the St. Peter sandstone and the Galena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The two latter forma- tions occur only in the highest elevations. Grlacial drift and loess are quite abundant over most parts of the county. Alluvial sand and gravel is present in the valley bottoms. The geological sturcture is il- lustrated in figure 58. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 507 The thickness of the surface formations of glacial drift, mainly con- fined to the uplands, and of the alluvial filling, mainly confined to the valleys, is quite variable but probably reaches a maximum of 200 to 250 feet in a few places, though in general it, is much less than 100 feet. The thickness of the rock formations is variable on account of the ex- tensive erosion of the strata. The complete thickness of a formation is preserved only where protected by the next overlying formation. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Pierce County. Formation. Thickness. 3urf4ce formation Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone . St. Peter and Lower Magneslab Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. . . The Pre-Cambriah granltfe Feet. , to 350 to 150 to 300 400 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The water-bearing horizon is principally the Upper Cambrian sand- stone formation, though all the other formations furnish a supply wherever favorably situated. Springs are numerous along the valley bottoms. An especially favorable source for springs is along the con- tact of the Lower Magnesian limestone and underlying Upper Cam- brian sandstone, and also within the sandstone formation. Wells vary in depth from 10 to 20 feet, along the valley bottoms, to 300 and 400 feet, upon the highest uplands. On the uplands open dug wells often find sufficient water in the overlying drift or St. Peter sandstone where these attain a sufficient thickness. FLOWING WELLS A flowing well occurs at River Falls, the source of the flow being in the Upper Cambrian sandstone. The flow at River Falls is of relatively low pressure, the head being only 10 feet above the curb in the city well. No. 3, an altitude of about 878 feet. Only one other record of a flowing well is at hand, namely that at Maiden Rock. Other flowing wells could undoubtedly be developed on low ground adjacent to the Mississippi river, as well as up the tributary valleys. A deep artesian flowing well was recently drilled for the Maiden Rock Lumber Co. at Maiden Rock by Bowman & MacMahon of Durand, having the following log : 508 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Log of Maiden Rock Lir. Co.'s Artesian Well, Maiden Rock. Formation. Thickness. Feet. 80 Upper Cambrian saudslone 552 Total depth ,.. 632 The elevation of the curb is about 10 feet above Lake Pepin. Two flows were struck, one at 200 feet, raising the water 4 feet above the curb, and the other at 632 feet, raising the water 34 feet above the curb. The first flow was shut off by a 6-inch casing, and below this ex- tends a 4-inch casing to the second flow. The head of the second flow is therefore about 44 feet above the level of Lake Pepin. On the Minnesota side of the Mississippi flows have been obtained at Hastings^ with normal head of 14 feet above the surface, and at Red Wing^ the original head being as high as 75 feet above the surface. The strongest head in Red Wing at present, that of the C. & G. "W. R. R., is repoi-ted to be 28 feet above the surface. Flowing wells in the surface formations of the alluvial filled valleys may be reasonably expected in various parts of the county where the alluvial deposit contains relatively impervious strata of silt or clay, either overlying or interstratified with water-bearing sand and gravel. SPRINGS A few springs occur at the horizon of shale at the base of the Platte- ville limestone and at the base of the St. Peter sandstone. The largest and most important springs, however, occur near the base of the Lower Magnesian limestone. Springs of this type are the source of many of the permanent streams of the county, and are distributed along many of the stream bottoms. These springs are a common source of water supply for many of the farmhouses and often determine the location of the farm buildings in the valley bottoms. WATER SUPPLIES FOE CITIES AND VILLAGES Ellsworfh. Ellsworth, the county seat of Pierce county, has a popu- lation of 1,005. It is located upon the upland, capped with G-alena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The St. Peter sandstone is exposed along the side of the valley in the eastern part of the city, and the » Minn. Geol. Survey, 13th Ann. Rept. 1884, p. 56-57. = U. S. Survey Water Supply Paper 256, p. 194. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 509 Lower Magnesian limestone along the bed of the adjacent Isabel Creek. The elevation of the railroad station is 968 feet, the top of the upland is about 1,200 feet. The city -supply is derived from the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone, from a 6-inch well, 609 feet deep, located on the ridge. A limited sewage system is installed, the sewage being emptied into a ravine. About 50 per cent of the houses connect with the city water supply. Private wells are from 14 to 150 feet deep. River Falls. River Falls, situated on Kinnickinick river, has a popu- lation of 1,991. The city water supply is derived from three 8-inch wells, as follows : River Falls City Wells. Well. When drilled. Diameter, inches. Depth, feet. Elevation o( curb. No 1 1893 1898 1902 8 8 8 504 396 020 893 No. 2 893 No. 3 868 In wells 1 and 2 the water originally flowed at the surface, but at present only rises to 6 feet of the surface, and in No. 3, the normal head is 10 feet above the surface. "Well No. 1 is eased 100 feet, and No. 2, 240 feet. The logs of wells No. 1 and No. 3 are as follows : Logs of River Falls City Wells. Formation, Well No. 1. thickness. Well No. 3. thicltness. Pleisiocene. Feet. 5 256 60 12 53 26 90 Feet. 9 Lower Magnesian. 240 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam). 50 20 Sandroolc (firstfiow) 75 12 202 12 Total death 504 620 Wells No. 1 and No. 2 are within 80 feet of each other, and No. 3, about three-fourths of a mile distant, below the dam. "Water under sufficient pressure to flow was struck in No. 1 and No. 2 at a depth of 390 to 400 feet, with no perceptible increase in pressure after that. After No. 3 was drilled, the water sank in earlier drilled wells to 6 feet below the surface. The flow in the new well is at least 200 gallons per 510 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. minute, and will stand pumping at that rate for 20 hours, though it is not known how much the water level drops. Private wells in the city obtain water from depth of 20 to 30 feet, depending upon elevation above the river. About 60 per cent of the houses have water connections. The sewerage, without treatment, emp- ties into the Kinnickinick river. Spring Valley. — Spring Valley situated upon the Eau Galle river, has a population of 972. The city is located on alluvial gravel and sand in the valley bottom. The city supply is obtained from an 8-inch well 169 feet deep in the gravel and sand. Estimated daily capacity of the city well is 130,000 gallons, the average daily pumpage is about 18,000 gallons. No sewerage system is installed. About 30 per cent of the houses connect with the city supply. Private wells are from 30 to 160 feet deep. Prescoit. This city, situated on the Mississippi river at the mouth of the St. Croix, has a population of 936. A city water supply system was recently installed, the supply being obtained from 4 drive wells 16 feet deep, located near the river. The private wells are from 10 to 100 feet deep in gravl and limstone. Elmwood. Blmwood, population 585, has a public water supply, ob- tained from a well 180 feet deep, mainly in sandstone. QUALITY OF THE WATEK Only one complete analysis of the waters of Pierce county is at hand, namely that of water from city well No. 1 of River Falls. Judg- ing from the geological formations, all the waters from the surface formations, as well as that from the underlying rock, are likely to be hard waters of moderate mineral content in this county. Mineral analyses of water in Pierce County. (Analyses in parts per million) 1. Depth of well fBBt.__ 504 Silica (SiOj) 34.2 Iron oxide (FezO") ' 18.1 Calcium (Ca) 80.1 Magrnesium (Mgr) .. 10.9 Carbonate radicle (OO3) 68.1 Sulphate radicle (9O4) 124.4 ChlQi-lne (CD Total dissolved solids 337. 1. City Water Supply, River Falls, Analyst, W. Lehnen. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 511 Polk County Polk county, located in the northwestern part of the state, has an area of 933 square miles and a population of 21,367. About 63.2 per flcent of Polk county is laid out in farms, of which 39.6 per cent is un- der cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The topography is undulating, quite deeply trenched along the St. Croix river, but usually a nearly level plain in the interior of the county. The drift is characterized by choppy morainic features in the 7^ '^T^^ ^p^fh^'/'/a/i.^ ^i^..'.'. r('^'-.-.- ■ Viv. ■ ■ ;':V. T f -r , -r -1- . -r -r -t- -r -r ^- J,freiree/7aifa/:> JroB ^. 4 4. , + , -1- + ^^^^ w?rr77:T■^■^■^^: -■.';• ;S >'-V v V V v V . + 4 4 + +, + ,+ -I- 4 + +, + ,+ ,+ ,v V V V V V' V V \J V,\i V ,v V v' V , V V Fig. 59. — Geologic section, Clear Lalse to St. Croix Falls, across Polk County. central and eastern parts. Elevations above sea level vary from 900 feet to 1,200 feet over most of the county. A narrow strip along the bottoms of the St. Croix river below St. Croix Falls is a little less than 700 feet above sea level. The soils are mainly sandy loams and silt loams. A large area of sandy soil lies in the northwestern corner of the county. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are the Keweenawan trap, the Upper Cam- brian sandstone formation, and the Lower Magnesian limestone. The Keweenawn trap ridges extend northeast through the central part of the county. The limestone formation is present only in the south- em part of the county. The glacial drift is abundant and is quite gen- erally present, over the entire county. The geological structure is Il- lustrated in the cross section, Fig. 59. The thickness of the surface formations of glacial drift, and alluvial filling in the valleys, varies between wide limits. The d^viit is rela- 512 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tively abundant over the entire county, many wells showing a thickness of 100 to 150 feet, the maximum thickness probably reaching 200 to 250 feet in the old valleys and in the morainic ridges. The deposits of lacustrine clays and associated silts and sand in the sandy track in the northwestern part of the county probably reaches a depth of 200 to 250 feet in deepest parts of the filled valley. The thickness of the rock formations is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. The complete thickness of the Upper Cambrian sandstone is preserved only where protected by the overlying Lower Magnesian limestone in the southern part of the county. The surface of the Ke- weenawan trap, upon which the sandstone rests, is very, uneven, and where the trap underlies the sandstone the latter is correspondingly less in thickness. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be .summarized as follows: Approximate range in thickness of formations in Polk County. Formation. Thiclmess. Surface formation Feet. to 250 to 150 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone to 800 Pre-Cambrian formations PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The water-bearing beds are mainly the sandstone and the glacial drift. The Keweenawan trap is practically impervious and water is obtained from it only in the open fractures and fissures. The lime- stone, quite generally much fractured, furnishes abundant water. There are many wells in the surface formation of drift, which are rela- tively shallow, sufficient water being obtained in open wells at depth of 20 to 40 feet. There are many drilled wells in the southern part of the eouiaty, however, that are from 100 to 200 feet deep, which draw their supply from the underlying rock, usually from the Potsdam sandstone or from sandstone beds within the Lower Magnesian forma- tion. FLOWING WELLS In the vicinity of Osceola is a local artesian area, in the surface for- mation, along Osceola Creek. By driving one-half or two-inch pipes DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SVPPLIEH. 513 into the ground 15 or 20 feet, good flows of ^vatcr are obtained. The pipes are driven through 3 to 4 feet of black muck and clay, such as is generally found along meadow brooks, then through 10 to 15 feet of clay, into a bed of gravel and sand, below which the supph- of water is obtained in varying quantities. In places these wells are diiven only 3 or 4 feet apart. In some of the strongest flows water rises 12 to 15 inches above the mouth of the pipes. The difference in the flow at these wells depends upon the porosity of the gravel beds, and the quan-' tity of water obtained increases as the well pipes are kept open. Some pipes are nearly "choked" and consequently furnish no flows. It is essential, therefore, that the pipes be cleaned and made as open as pos- sible if a strong flow is desired. Water in the underlying sandstone may help supply the artesian pressures. The water, however, is im- mediately derived from the gravel beds and sands along the sides of the valleys. Although not extensively developed at present, it seems probable that artesian flows from the sand and gravel horizon, may be had throughout the little valley of Osceola Creek, which is about 8 miles long. Numerous springs and small streams occur all along the St. Croix river at Osceola, for a distance of 15 miles up and down the river, and wherever the clay and muck forms the surface, flowing wells of the above type may be obtained in favorable places, by driving points 10 to 20 feet into the sand and gravel beds. Gustavo Hanson has three flowing wells near Osceola, the supply be- ing derived from the Upper Cambrian sandstone. The first two wells were drilled 175 and 450 feet deep in the shale and sandstone. A third well was drilled on the loAvest ground about 200 feet away from the second and just about two feet above the trout ponds. The third well flowed best of the three but took the wat.er from the others. < These wells clearly show interference. If the same head is desired, or a flow at the higher well is desired, the flow from the lower one should be partially reduced. At the trout hatchery of Dr. O'Hage four miles west of Osceola there are between 40 and 50 flowing Avells, the pipes being one and one-half to two and a half inches in diameter. SPRINGS Springs are mainly confined to low ground along the St. Croix river and along the Apple river. The springs along the St. Croix river, be- • 33— w. s. 514 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tween St. Croix Falls and Osceola, issue from the sides of the valley, either at the contact of the beds of shale with overlying beds of sand- stone, or at the contact of the shale with the overlying drift, or through the openings in the shale or drift anywhere below the shale contact. The springs in St. Croix Falls, and within the area of the Interstate Park, are especially large, and furnish not only a copious supply of Fig. 60. — Geologic section illustrating the source of the springs at St. Croix Falls. good clear water for drinking and domestic purposes, but are also uti- lized to some extent for the development of water power at the flour mill in the village. The source of these springs is indicated in the sec- tion. Fig. 60. The Bethania Mineral Spring, near Osceola, is utilized for the exten- sive manufacture of soft drinks. WATER SUPPIJES FOB CITIES AND VILLAGES St. Croix Falls. St. Croix Falls, located on the St. Croix river, has a population of 569. The city is located on a rather steep slope of the narrow, valley, on the Keweenewan trap and Upper Cambrian sand- stone formation. In the upper part of the city glacial drift is rela- tively thick. A city water supply was installed in 1907. The water is obtained from a well about 100 feet deep, curb about 150 feet above the level of the river. The well was drilled about 60 feet into the trap rock, but the main supply of water comes from the contact of the shale beds with the overlying sandstone at depth of about 40 feet. There are many large springs in St. Croix Falls and within the area of the In- terstate Park, as described above. Osceola. Osceola, population 634, is on the St. Croix river at the mouth of Osceola Creek. This village, has no public water supply or sewage system. Many of the houses in Osceola are supplied' from springs that issue near the river. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 5^5 Amery. Amery, population 659, is situated on the Apple river. The city water supply is obtained from an 8-inch well, 312 feet deep, 112 feet in drift and 200 feet in the sandstone. The well is cased to the sandstone. IMany of the private wells in the city are from 40 to 60 feet deep in sand and gravel. Lucl-. This village, population 383, is located on a level tract on Butternut lake. Water is supplied from private wells, dug in sand, gravel and drift, to a depth of. 20 to 30 feet generally. Clear Lake. Clear Lake, population 498, is located on a glacial drift ridge. The private wells are generally from 20 to 60 feet deep in the drift. A public supply was recently installed, being obtained from a well 200 feet deep Frederick. This village is located on a small lake. Coon Lake, and has a population of 511. The village water supply originally was ob- tained from a 12-inch well, 120 feet deep, and later the supply was ob- tained f ron} the lake. The supply at present is obtained from a well dug 5 feet in diameter and 72 feet deep, with 5 well points 12 ft. long driven in sand and gravel at the bottom. The well can be pumped dry in about two hours. Average daily pumpage 10,000 gallons, capacity of reservoir 30',000 gallons. Practically the entire population use the city supply, there being only one private deep well in the city. No sew- age system is installed. The village water supply can be increased, either by drilling the pres- ent well deeper, to the trap rock, or by drilling an additional 10 in. or 12 in. well, several hundred feet from the present well. SALT WATER FLOWING WELL About 5 miles north of Osceola in Sec. 1, T. 33, R. 19, at the Cooper cottage, a mining exploration shaft for copper ore was sunk under the general management of H. Holbert in 1909. At a depth of 60 feet in this shaft water was struck under pressure, and rose to within 25 feet of the surface. A short distance south of this shaft, on lower ground, a diamond drill hole was sunk to depth of about 700 feet. In this drill hole water under pressure was struck at a depth of about 40 feet and ro£o a few fc-t above the surface, developing a flowing well, the water having a strong salty taste. The composition of this salt water, stated in theoretic combination in grains per gallon, (see also table of analyses) is as follows: 516 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Analysis* of Salt Water, 5 miles north of Osceola. In grains per gallon. C alcium chloride Sodium chloridu lUagnesiutn clilorlde Gailcium sulpliate Siiica ' Ferric-oxide and Alumina.. Total 583.10 320.58 18.08 6.07 2.97 ♦Analysis by J. H. Long, for H. Holbert. The formations penetrated in this deep well are a few feet of glacial drift, followed by sandstone, and sandstone conglomerate containing trap boulders, to depth of 95 feet. At 95 feet relatively massive Ke- weenawan trap rock- is struck, from which probably very little or no water is obtained. The source of the salt water, therefore, is in the flow obtained at depth of 40 to 90, feet, overlying the Keweenawan trap. Conditions favorable to the developing of flows at this place are due to the occurrence of relatively impervious shale beds within the sand- stone formation overlying and interbedded with porous conglomerate at the contact of the underlying Keweenawan formation. Water from a depth of 50 feet in the nearby exploration shaft was analyzed and showed a mineral content of 1,457 parts per million, mainly sulphates, while the water at only slightly greater depth in the drill hole (mainly within depth of 95 feet) had a mineral content of 16,995 parts per million, the increase in amount being chlorides of cal- cium and sodium. The most important constifuents of the salt water are chlorides of calcium and sodium. The high content of mineral matter is unusual. The source of the mineralization is not understood. It is a noteworthy fact that the Keweenawan trap and associated red sandstone forma- tions in the Lake Superior region often contain waters highly charged with calcium chloride salts. This is true in deep mine waters of the Keweenawan copper-bearing rocks of northern Michigan, as shown by Dr. A. C. Lane.^ It is possible, therefore, that other occurrences of highly mineralized waters in the Keweenawan and associated strata may be found. ' Lake Superior Mining Inst. VoL XIII, p. 63-152. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER 80PPLIES. 517 QUALITY OF THE WATER With the notable exception of the highly mineralized water (salt water) above described, the water of Polk county is only moderately mineralized. In the area of outcrop of the limestone in the southern part of the county, the water probably is quite generally a hard water, though of only moderate mineral content, as shown by the Bethania Spring waters. No. 1, in the table of analyses below. The water from the Bethania Springs is used for the manufacture of soft drinks. Mineral analyses of water in Polk County. (Analyses in parts per million) Syrings. Upper Camb ian Sandstoiii-. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Deptliof well feet.. 50 700 Silica (SiOa) 8.7 4.5 8.4 8.0 trace 9.0 trace 103 Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ Fe203) 152.7 24.5 50 7 1.3 0.8 70. S 28.8 31.9 18.5.8 15.6 37.8 Iron (Pe) Calcium (Ca) 47 4 20.6 7.0 126.5 6.1 5 trace 40.2 13.0 trace 82.4 16.4 trace 46.6 14.5 trace 95.6 16.1 trace sis.o 13.1 1 50.4 1 19.7 93.9 788.2 3912.7 Magnesium { M^) 82 7 Sodium (Na) 1 Potassium (K) f Sulphate radicle (SO4) 750,9 Clilorine (CI) 9040.7 Organic matter trace trace .379. 221. 160. 181.8 1457. 16995. 1. Bethania Spring at Osceola. 2. St. Croix Minerol Spring at Osceolo, Analyst, J. V. Z. Blaney, Geol. of Wis., Vol. Ill, p. 374, 1879. 3. Spring of H. Holbert, 5 miles north of Osceoia, Analyst, H. C. Carol, May 1900. 4. Spring of H. Holbert, 3 miles north of Osceola, Analyst, H. C. Carel, May 1900. 5. Well, (Exploration shaft) of H. Holbert, 5 miles north of Osceola, Analyst, L. A. Harding. 6. Exploration drill hole, flowing well, Smiles north of Osceola, .Vnalyst, J. H. Lckng, Dec. 1901 (water from sandstone at depth of 40 to 90 feet). 518 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WlSCONSm. Portage County Portage county, located in the central part of the state, has an area of 800 square miles, and a population of 30,945. About 79.1 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 53 per cent is under culti- vation. SURFACE FEATURES The northwestern part of the county is a gently undulating upland plain. The eastern part, traversed by the glacial moraines, is quite choppy and uneven. The southwestern part is a broad level alluvial r - ^ — ^ III I ii • i/M»er Caf77br/tm Jf; vvvvvvvvv I I I > « y i iii i IK ■^ ■ ' ■ I 'T? .-. -..-,., J vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv JjJ J Jv V v 'T \i / V v^/ V v.v V V V y/J fyj/ V V v V V V V V \/ V V V V V V ^/-e CamSz-ya^ O-yofr^/^o \j ^ y ^'r/r // V V V v V v \/ v V vvvvvvvvvvvv/vvvvvv SI ia)^ne.sian .. Sandstone and shale (fotadam). Total deptli. Thickness. Keet. 120 160 720 1000 This well flows 200 gallons per minute at the surface, and yields, when pumped, 450 and 550 gallons per minute at 12 and 20 feet below the surface respectively. In drilling this deep city well the head at the old city well dropped 14 feet. The old city well is 495 feet deep ; 140 feet in drift and 355 feet in rock. In order to get a flow at the latter well it was necessary to pack the well at a depth of 480 feet; then the water rose 12 feet above the surface. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway well drilled in 1908 by W. L. Thorn is 508 feet deep, 108 feet in drift, and 400 feet in sand- stone. The elevation of the curb is 825 feet and the water stands 14 feet below the surface. Evansville. The population is 2,061. The city water supply is ob- tained from two wells, 8 feet in diameter, and 27 feet deep. The wells are 30 feet apart, sunk in gravel beds. The average daily pumpage is 53,000 gallons. Aboiit 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. The city has no sewage system. Clinton. This village, population 897, has a public water supply obtained from a well 6 inches in diameter and 900 feet deep, the source DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 54]^ being the St. Peter sandstone. The average daily pumpage is 30,000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. Milton Junction. Milton Junction has a public water supply ob- tained from a well 220 feet deep. The average daily pumpage is about 4,000 gallons, about 35 houses being connected with the system. No sewage system is installed. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of water supplies from various parts of the county are shown in the foUowiaig table. All the waters, except one, are of moderate mineral content, and all would be classed as hard wa- ters rather than very hard waters. All are carbonate waters, in which calcium and magnesium greatly predominate over sodium. The rail- road well at Bdgerton, No. 6 high in 'mineral content, contains much more than the average amount of chlorine, indicating a considerable amount of pollution from contaminated sources. The Rock river water at Rockford, Illinois, is included in the table, since the river water at Rockford is likely to be much like that at Be- loit and Janesville. The river water, it will be noted, is almost as hard as the well waters. The well waters from the surface deposits are somewhat higher in mineral content than that from the deep wells in the underlying Potsdam sandstone. Most of the waters analyzed ap- pear, however, to be either from sandy surface deposits or from the underlying sandstone, and hence, are very probably not quite so hard as those water supplies obtained from either the Lower Magnesian or the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone formations. In the city water supplies of Janesville and Beloit there is an aver- age of about 2.25 lbs. of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. In the city water supply of Evansville, No. 4, there are 2.80 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,00Q gallons. 542 THE WATER SUPPfAES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Roolc County. (Analyses in parts per million) Creelf, River. Spring. Surface deposits. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Depth of well feet Silica (SiOa) 1 Undt . . . 29. 17.9 8.9 30. 17.4 2.0 28. 15. 13.0 2.2 Aluminium and iron oxides V (AI2O1 + FesO'i). I 1.0 0.2 61.5 34.8 ( 3.0 1 2.3 179. 4.6 3.5 0.1 0.44 45. 25. 10. 123.9 22. 4.6 Calcium (Ca) 52.4 33.3 13.2 162.0 15.4 7.3 68.2 36.4 I 2.1 173.4 30.2 7.6 38,0 43.0 8.8 140.8 48.4 6.9 112.4 67.6 Sodium (Na) 1 25.8 303.3 Potassium (K) f Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) 61.7 32.7 92. 4.1 Nitrate (NOii) Total dissolved solids 283. 250. 303. 345. 306. 606. Surface deposits— Continued. 7. 8. 1 9. 10. 11. 12. Depth of well feet Silica (Si02) 48. 5.3 48. "■ Undt... * ' 60. 1.3 72. Undt... 25. Undt... 25. Undt... Aluminium and iron oxides (AlaOi + FesOq) Calcium (Ca) . . . . 79.5 38.0 14.6 194.3 41.2 14.6 98.6 49.1 48.9 163.3 269.5 Undt... 65.1 30.7 10.9 173.7 16.1 4.9 99.6 34.4 2.8 165.9 42.4 Undt... 51.0 26.5 3.6 122.3 19.2 6.2 13.2 56.0 Magnesium (Mg-) 27.8 Sodium and potassium (Na + K) 6.5 142.0 Sulphate radicle (9O4) 19.6 Chlorine(C]) Nitrate radicle (NO3) 7.3 Total dissolved solids 387. 628. 307. 315. 242. 259. 1. Turtle Creek, Beloit, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, June 22, 1912. 2. Eock Elver at Eockford, 111., Average Mineralization, Analyst, E. B. Dole, U. S. Geol. Sur. W. S. P., No. 236, p. 118, 1909. 3. lodo-MagnesIum Spring, Beloit, Analyst, C. P. Chandler, Wis. Geol. Sur., Vol. 2, p. 8, 1877. 4. City Wells, Bvansville, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 1902. 5. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Koshkonong, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 23, 1896. 6. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Bdgerton, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Sept. 20, 1889. 7. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Janesville, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co.. Oct. 5, 1891. 8. Well of C. M. & St P. Ry. Co., Janesville, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., June 8, 1900. 9. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Milton, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Aug. 28, 1889. 10. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Milton, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. 6, 1902. 11. Well of H. Miller, Beloit, Analyst, G. N. Pentiss, July 10, 1912. 12. Well at Fair Ground, Beloit, Analyst, G. N. Pentiss, July 2, 1912. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 543 Mineral analyses of water in Rook County — Continued. Surface depo.sits— Continued. 14. 15. Upper Cambiian sandstone. 17. Depth ot well feet Silica (SiOa) Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3 + Fe203) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na + K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (01) Nitrate radicle (NQS) Undt. 100. 5.9 100. 1.7 45.3 23.0 5.1 105.4 20.1 6.2 14.4 61.0 25.6 5.2 153.8 8.0 2.1 64.7 28.9 6.9 162.4 18.4 4.4 100. 59.6 31.6 18.2 167.5 23.6 10.5 189. Undt. 88.2 48.3 11.7 219.4 74.6 Undt.. Total dissolved solids.. 219. 261. 287. 322. 442. 500. 70.7 15.5 100.3 9.2 24.0 220. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Depth of well feet Silica (Si02) 650. Undt. 1,160. 1,087. 9.1 6.8 0.4 50.4 35.9 J 5.4 1 0.8 165.6 5.6 4.9 I.IOC. 9.4 1.5 1,300. 7.0 2.0 1,160. 2.2 3.1 1,087. 8.4 1,031. Undt. 1,452. 8.4 Aluminum and iron oxides Iron (Fp) Calcium (Ca 1 48.7 32.4 10.4 152.9 10.7 7.0 64.1 37.9 \ 5.5 180.4 14.4 8.5 54.2 38.5 3.7 175. T 2.1 3.i .53.7 39. 17.2 184.5 13.6 7.0 50.3 34.3 11.5 163.3 8.4 6.7 63.5 38.4 5.3 187.4 14.0 Undt. 50.3 Maerneslum (Mg:) Sodium (Na) 1 34.3 11.5 163.3 Potas!3ium (K) f Carbonate radicle {CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD 8.4 6.7 Total dissolved solids 262.1 285. 321. 287. 320. 285. 309.6 285. 13. Well of J. C. Cressinou, Beloit, Anailyst, G. N. Prentiss, July 10, 1912. 14. Well of CitT Water Supply, Beloit, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., April 9 1891 15. Well of City Water Supply, Beloit, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Jan. 9. 189-5 16. City Water Supply, Beloit, from main .Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., Oct. IT. Well of' C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Bdgerton, Analyst, G.N. Prentiss, February 8, 1902. 18. Well of T. F. Knipp, Janesville, Analyst, A. Fisher. 19. Well at Crooke's Brewery, Janesville, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 12, 1906. 20. Well of City water supply, Janesville, Analyst, B. G. Smith. ^ ^ „ ^^ -j 21. Two wells of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Eound House, Janesville, Analyst, G. M. David- son, June 23, 1896. ,, ^ .^ „.. lono 22. Artesian well of City Water Co., Jancpville, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb., 1892. 23. Artesian well of City Water Co., Janesville, Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Chem. Co., 24. City well, janesville. Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Dec. 2 1891. 25. City well, Janesville, Analyst, Chemist. C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., June 8, 1900 26. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Janesville, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, May 14, 1906. 544 '^HE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. KusK County Rusk county, located in the north central part of the state, has an area of 916 square miles, and a population of 11,160. About 19.2 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 22.8 per cent is under culti- vation SURFACE FEATURES The surface is mainly a broad undulating plain, with the exception off the northwestern part, which is characterized by prominent rock ridges. A belt of terminal moraine extends northAvard across the western part. The county is traversed by the Chippewa and Flam- beau rivers, flowing south through the central portion. The altitude of most of the county lies between 1,100 feet in the southern part and 1,300 feet in the northern part. The high ridges in the northwestern part probably reach up to elevations of 1,500 and 1,600 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS , The principal formations are the deposits of glacial drift, sand and gravel. The underlying rock consists of granitic formations, mainly outcropping along the river, and the high ridges of quartzite in the northwestern part of the county. The surface formation is of variable thickness, probably reaching a maximum of 200 or 250 feet in places. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing horizon is the surface formation of gla- cial sand and gravel. The wells are generally quite shallow, usually from 20 to 40 feet over the entire county. At Tony wells are from 10 to 25 feet deep in the drift, the water level standing from 10 to 20 feet below the surface. The railroad well in Glen Flora is 120 feet deep, wholly in drift. At Glen Flora the wells are generally from 20 to 40 feet deep. In Ingram no deeper wells than 24 feet were found, and these wholly in drift. In Hawkins most of the wells were less than 21 feet deep, wholly in drift. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 545 WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Ladysmith. Ladysmith, the county seat, is the principal city, with a population of 2,352. It is located upon the Flambeau river, on the site of a water power. The elevation at the top of the dam is 1,115 feet above sea level. The city is built upon land rising up to 60 to 80 feet above the level of the Flambeau river. The formation is a sandy, and a clayey, gravelly drift. The city has a public water supply and sewage system. The city supply is obtained from the Flambeau river and is not very satisfactory. The daily consumption of water is about 100,000 gallons. About 25 per cent of the houses connect with the city supply. The private wells in the city vary in depth between 25 and 80 feet. The sewage, without treatment, is emptied into the Flambeau river. Bruce. Bruce has a population of 565, elevation, 1,098 feet. It is located on the west bank of the Chippewa river, on a sandy gravelly plain, with sandy loam soil. Private wells are generally from 15 to 30 feet deep. In 1908 a waterworks system was installed. The supply is derived from two 6-inch wells, 43 feet deep, in sand and gravel. The water level stands 16 feet below the surface. The daily capacity of the wells is 60,000 gallons. The wells can be emptied in about three hours. QUALITY OF THE WATER No analyses of the water of the county are at hand, but judging from the character of the geological formations, the supplies are very likely to be mainly soft water of low mineral content throughout the entire county. St. Croix County St. Croix county, located in the northwestern part of the state, has an area of 711 square miles, and a population of 25,910. About 88.8 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 71 per cent is un- der cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of. the county is mainly an undulating upland plain on the Lower Magnesian limestone formation. In the western part are a 35— W. S. 546 TBE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. few mounds of the Platteville (Trenton) limestone extending above this general plain. Over a considerable part of the southern half of the county the surface drainage is carried off by temporary streams. The valleys are deeply incised only within a few miles of the St. Croix river, which lies in a deep and narrow trench 200 to 300 feet below the upland immediately adjacent, and 400 tg 500 feet below, the upland in the eastern part of the county. The altitudes generally range from 700 feet along the St. Croix river bottom to 1,000 and 1,200 feet on the upland plain. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations are similar to those in Pierce county, and consist, from the base upward, of the Upper Cambrian or St. Croixan (Potsdam) sandstone. Lower Magiiesian limestone, St. Peter sand- stone and the Platteville (Trenton) limestone. Glacial drift is abund- ant over most parts of the county. A belt of thick drift hills, terminal moraine, extends northeast across the northwest part of the county. The geological structure is illustrated in figure 65. fVaa^y///e /fffrsei/ '■::v}}::'^^\--"v y''--'-'^^^/-:: 'iy/.y^' '^'' '' y f'/Z"'''' .'r'5????^'^— i? A;^;':,vjjv>Vv:v;:;;;;;;:! V V V V V V V V V\ V _ -V — ^ V V V V vvvvvvvvvvvv Fig. 65. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern St. Croix County. 'iiie thickness of the surface formation of glacial drift is variable on account of the irregularities in the rock surface upon which it was de- posited, as well as the irregularity in the deposition of the drift in the form of ridges, depressions and level tracts. There are many wells in the county which have penetrated 200 feet of drift, but the usual thick- ness is 25 to 100 feet. At the railroad shop well in Hudson, about 104 feet of surface deposit was penetrated before striking the rock forma- tion. This well is situated on the bottoms of the St. Croix and indi- cates that the old pre-glacial channel is at least 100 feet below the pres- ent level of the St. Croix, a condition closely corresponding to that of the old channel of the Mississippi at St. PauP. The thickness of the 'U. S. Geol. Survey, W. S. P. 256, p. 302. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 547 rock formations is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. The complete thickness of any formation is preserved only where protected by the overlying formation, as indicated in the cross section. The approximate range in thickness of the geological forma- tions may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in tJiicJcness of formations in St. Croix County. Formation. Surface formation Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Magnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. The Pre-Cambrian formation Thickness. Feet. to 350 to 150 to 300 300 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATEK-BEARIXG HORIZONS The water supplies over the upland plain are obtained mainly from the Lower j\Iagnesian limestone horizon and from the overlying glacial drift. In the deeper weUs, those from 150 to 250 feet, deep, the under- lying Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is drawn upon. In the northern part of the county, where the Upper Cambrian or St. Croix- an (Potsdam) sandstone is usually near the surface, this formation is the common source of supply. The cities of Hudson and Glenwood, located in the valleys, obtain their supply from the Upper Cambrian sandstone, while New Richmond, located on the upland plain, draws its supply from sandstone beds within the Lower Magnesian horizon. FLOWING WELLS Artesian flows in surface formations supply the trout springs, lo- cated in the valley of the "Willow river, near Hudson. The well pipes extend to a depth of 12 to 18 feet, the water generally rising a foot or two above the general level of the ponds. The wells are driven through a clayey stratum, into the underlying sand and gravel beds, where the water is under pressure. The alluvial formation has developed an ar- tesian slope the head rapidly decreasing in conformity with the slope down the valley. The absence of flowing wells on low ground, along the St. Croix rii^- er, at Hudson, in view of the fact that flows are readily obtained along the Mississippi river at St. Paul, 18 miles to the west, with head 40 to 60 feet above the level of the St. Croix river at Hudson, and at River 548 THE WATER 8VPPLIE8 OF WISCONSIN. Falls, only 12 miles to the southwest, with head nearly 200 feet above the level of the river at Hudson, may be worthy of a brief discussion in connection with a description of the water supplies of this locality. The reason for the absence of flowing wells in the rock formation at Hudson is apparently due to unfavorable underground conditions, to dislocation in the rock strata, as Hudson is located on an uplifted zone or segment of the strata. This uplifted segment has an approximate width of about 4 miles at Hudson and extends northeast and south- west across the northwest part of St. Croix county. The eastern) boundary of this uplifted segment is fairly well defined, being marked by a zone of faulting or sharp folding extending through t^p Incalifrs of the Ilwaco springs on the St. Croix, to Willow river Failo, at BurK- hardt, and to Little Falls on the Apple river, in southern Polk county, and apparenly continuing for an undetermined distance farther northeast. South of the locality of the Ilwaco Springs the boundary of this dislocated zone, which is marked either by a series of short ■ faults or by a sharp monoclinal fold, has been recognized at Point Douglas, near Hastings, as described by N. H. WinchelP and also by Owen^ at a much earlier date. Within this uplifted segment the Upper Cambrian sandstone strata stand 200 to 300 feet above the equivalent strata to the east, at Chapman and River Falls, and 200 to 400 feet above the same strata to the west, at Stillwater and St. Paul. The soft sandstone in this uplifted belt, being of softer rock than the hard lime- stone lying to the east and to the west, has led to the development of a deep valley at Hudson within the sandstone belt, which valley, as al- ready referred to, is at least 100 feet, and possibly much deeper below the present surface of the St. Croix river. The discontinuity of the rock strata within this dislocation zone, with that outside of it, has been the principal factor in destroying the conditions for development of artesian flows from the sandstone strata at Hudson, and a minor factor tending to destroy favorable artesian conditions may also have been the subsequent location of a deeply eroded valley within the same area. Conditions appear to be favorable for the development of flowing wells along the St. Croix river, south of the fault at Ilwaco springs. 'Geology of Minnesota, Vol. 2, page 384. =Owen's Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, p. 46, Geol. Beet. No. 5. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 549 SPRINGS Springs are relatively rare in the interior of the county on the sum- mit of the upland plain, but are quite common near the outer border of the county, along the streams whose valleys head in the upland plain. The springs in fact, are usually the starting point of the per- manent streams that occupy these valleys. Springs are common in the eastern part of the county, along the streams iiowing eastward to the Red Cedar river, such as the Bolan Creek, Sandy Creek, Tifftany Creek, Beaver Creek, and Wilson Creek. In the southern part of the county springs are common on the val- ley bottoms and along the tributary valleys of the Eau Galle, Ejush and Kinnikinnic rivers. In many instances the springs determine the location of farm houses, and furnish an excellent supply of water for domestic use. Springs are also quite common along the St. Croix valley, wherever the rock formation is exposed, as illustrated at Hudson, where condi- tions are favorable for the issuance of springs at the contact of the shale and sandstone beds. The Ilwaco Springs on the St. Croix issue from the base of the Lower Magnesian limestone and are utilized as a summer resort. There are a few springs along the Willow river, and also some especially large springs along the Apple river. An important spring flows into the Apple river, near Star Prairie, at a place locally known as New Saratoga Springs. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Hudson. Hudson, situated on Lake St. Croix, an expansion of St. Croix river, has a population of 2,810. The city is located on the side of the valley, on outcropping sandstone, only a thin coating of alluvial formation being generally present. The public water supply of Hud- son is obtained from two 6-inch artesian wells, stated to be 375 and 658 feet deep, and located about 75 feet apart, near the shore of Lake St. Croix. The two wells are connected with a pipe 7 feet below the sur- face and this pipe is connected with suction pipes at the pumps. The water in the two wells drops 23 feet when pumping at the rate of 450 gallons per minute, but the normal head returns shortly after pump- ing stops. The supply is somewhat short, but may be increased by pumping from a greater depth. The average daily pumpage is 598,000 gallons. Nearly all the houses are connected with the city supply. Only a limited sewage system is installed, which empties into the St. Croix river. A third well was recently drilled for the city supply. 550 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. No record of the formations passed through in drilling the city wells has been kept, but from description the sandstone formation was en- countered near the surface, and a hard rock formation was struck at depth of about 375 feet. The first well was drilled 658 feet, about 300 feet into this hard rock without increase of water; hence, the second well was stopped at 375 feet. The hard formation is evidently an old- er formation than the Upper Cambrian sandstone, probably the same as that struck below the Upper Cambrian (St. Croixan) sandstone at Stillwater, described^ as the "red clastic series." The well of the C, St. P., M. & 0. Eailway at the railroad shop yards, 12 inches in diameter, 450 feet deep, capacity 300 gallons per minute, has the following log : Log of Well of G. St. P,, M. & 0. Ry. at shop yards, at Hudson. Formation. Surface formation— Feet. Sand 5 Coarse gravel 3 Sand 21 Clay Sand and gravel 54 Cla.v 14 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) .sandstone formation Sandstone with thin strata of shale ° Shale 9U 240 Thickness. Sandstone Total depth. 450 The curb of this well is but a few feet above the St. Croix river. The thickness of the surface formation is 104 feet and indicates that the bottom of the old channel is at least 100 feet below the present river level. New Richmond. New Eichmond, located on the Willow river, has a population of 1,988. The public water supply is obtained from 6 wells from 57 to 110 feet deep. The first 20 or 30 feet is sandstone, below which is limestone. The water rises to 12 or 14 feet of the surface. The average daily pumpage is 125,000 gallons. About 30 or 40 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. No city sewage system is installed. Many of the private wells in the city are shallow, from 10 to 30 feet deep, in drift and rock. Wells in the city are from 'U. S. Geol. Survey, "W. S. P. No. 256, p. 366. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 55]^ 20 to 60 feet deep and get their siipply from the limestone. Quite gen- erally, on the prairie about New Richmond, the wells are from 10 to 30 feet in the drift and gravel overlying the Lower Magnesian lime- stone. Glenwood. Glenwood, a city of 954 population, is situated on the Tiffany Creek. The city water siipply is from a well 280 feet deep, with about 50 feet surface gravel, and 230 feet of sandstone. About 25 per cent of the families use the city water. The average daily pump- age is 62,000 gallons. No sewage system is installed. The private weUs in the city are generally from 20 to 60 feet deep, -lepending up- on elevation above the creek. Some of the wells on the uplands, north- west of G-lenwood, are 200 feet deep. Baldwin. This village, population 594, has a city water supply ob- tained from two 6 to 8-inch wells, 117 and 132 feet deep. The es- timated capacity is 25,000 gallons per day; the daily pumpage is 20,- 000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the houses connect with the city wa- ter supply. Private wells are generally about 100 feet deep. Hammond. This village, population 408, has a city water supply used mainly for fire protection. . Burkhardt. In Burkhardt the wells are from 75 to 110 feet deep in drift and limestone. QUALITY OF THE WATER 3Iineral analyses of water of the spring at Saratoga Springs, and of the railroad wells and city wells at Hudson, are shown in the following table: The water of Saratoga Springs, analysis of which was made many years ago, 1870-75, is apparently very high in iron and should be classed as a chalybeate water. The analyses of waters from the railroad and city wells in Hudson are essentially identical. These are hard calcium carbonate waters of moderate mineral content. The amount of incrusting solids in the city water calculated from the above mineral analyses. No. 4, is 1.61 pounds in 1,000 gallons. The waters obtained from wells in the limestone are very probably only slightly higher in mineral content than those of the above table, from wells in the sandstone. 552 THE WATER SUPPLIES OV WISCOA'SIN. Mineral analyses of water in St. Croix County. (Analyses in parts per million) Spring. Tipper C ambrian "Potsdam" sandstone. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. . 300 14.27 1.88 450 9.42 7.36 375 11.81 1.88 375 Silica (SIO2) 17.6 12.67 Aluminium and Iron oxides (AlaOs+FesOa) 2.23 4.0 16.9 8.7 5.1 58. 9 1.4 45 96 20.35 11.52 126 80 12.38 6.75 44. i2 16.01 12 05 126.35 10 65 7.46 43.97 15.85 8.56 102.80 12.11 6 85 42.82 Magrnesium (M^) 20.04 Sodium and potassium ( N a + IC ) Carbonate radicle (CO3) 4.99 109.74 Sulphate radicle (3O4) 5.56 Chlorine (CD 7 68 Total .solids 113. 240. 233 204. 206. New Saratoga Springs, Sec. 6, T. 31, H. 17 W, Analyst G. Bode, Sept. 9, 1875, Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 145. Well ot C. St. P. M. & O. railroad shops, Hudson, sample taken at depth of 300 feet, Analyst, G, JI. Davidson, July 21, 1910. Well of C. St. P. M. & 0. railroad shops, Hudson, sample taken at depth of 450 feet. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, ,Tuly 2, 1910. Wells of city water supply, Hudson, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Mar. 18, 1909. Wells ot city water supply, Hudson, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 9, 1909. Sauk County Sauk county, located in the south central part of the state, has an area of 820 square miles, and a population of 32,869. About 93.4 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 56.2 per cent is under cul- tivation. SURFACE FEATURES The most prominent topographic feature of the county is the Bara- boo Bluffs^, which attain a lieight east of Devils Lake of over 1,620 feet above sea level, and about 800 feet above the adjacent valley bot- toms of the Baraboo and Wisconsin rivers. The Baraboo valley extends east and west through the county, a lar^e portion lying between the north and south ranges of the Baraboo Bluffs. The Wisconsin river has a broad flat valley along the south- ern boundary of the county, and on the northeastern boundary. The 'For details of the geology of the Baraboo region, see Bulletins V and XIII, Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 553 western part of the county is a broad tableland deeply dissected by valleys. The uplands generally reach an altitude of 1,100 to 1,300 feet, parts of the Baraboo quartzite bluffs rising still higher. The bottom lands along the Wisconsin river are usually about 800 feet above sea level and along the Baraboo river from 800 to over 900 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations outcropping in this county are the Bara- boo quartzite, the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, and the Lower Magnesian limestone. The quartzite, of Pre-Cambrian age Fig. 66. — Geologic section, nortli-soutli, across central Sauk County. forms the prominent Baraboo Bluffs, two parallel ridges extending east and west across the central part of the county. The Upper Cam- brian sandstone flanks these ridges and forms the main outcrop in the northern part of the county and in the valley bottoms in the southern and western part. A few occurrences of the Mendota dolomite occur near Baraljoo. The Lower Magnesian limestone forms the main up- land area of the western part of the county. Glacial drift is an abun- dant formation in the eastern part of the county.. Alluvial gravel and sand fills the principal valleys, such as the Baraboo and Wisconsin rivers, to a depth of 50 to over 200 feet. The general geologic structure is illustrated in Fig. 66. The thickness of the surface formations is quite variable, due to uneven surface upon which they are deposited, and to the unequal amounts of glacial drift in the terminal moraine that extends north and south across the county. The thickness of the rock formations of Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and Lower Magnesian limestone also varies greatly, due to the extensive erosion of these formations since they were deposited, as well as to the very uneven surface of the ri54 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Pre-Cambrian quartzite bluffs, upon which they were deposited. The maximiiin thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) formation is probably developed nowhere immediately, adjacent to, or within the quartzite ranges, but ma^' attain a complete section a few iniles out- side the ranges. There is very thick sandstone in the vicinity of the quartzite ranges in Pine Bluff near the Lower Narrows. The approxi- mate range in thickness of the formations may be summarized as fol- lows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Sauk County. Formation . Surface formation Lower Magnesian limestone Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrian anartzite and slates in the Baraboo Bluffs over 5000 or 6000 feet thiclf. Thickness. Feet. to 300 to 200 to 900 PKESrCrPAL WATER-BEABING HORIZONS Water is obtained from all the geological formations of the district, but the most important water-bearing horizons are the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone and the alluvial and glacial deposits. On- ly a small supply can be obtained from the quartzite of the Baraboo bluffs, but where an appreciable thickness of sandstone or drift over- lies the quartzite, enough for domestic purposes on the farms is readily available. Some of the wells in the quartzite on the Baraboo Bluffs reach a depth of 500 to 600 feet. On the lower uplands of sandstone, outside of the quartzite bluffs, sufficient water is obtained at the pre- vailing groundwater level of the region. FLOWING WELLS On low ground along the Baraboo river artesian flows are obtained. On the higher slopes of the uplands the water in many places in deep wells is under pressure, but does not rise to the surface. Along the Baraboo valley east of Ablemans, flows have been obtain- ed from the alluvial sand and the underlying sandstone. In the vicin- ity of Keedsburg and Wonewoc flows have been obtained from sand and gravel beneath beds of clay. The flows are confined for the most part to the lowland along the Baraboo river as far east as the Lower DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 555 Narrows. In La Valle, the non-flowing wells are generally from 15 to 30 feet deep in sand, or sandstone and the flowing wells much deeper. AUemans. At Ablemans a well 69 feet deep flows about 7 gallons per minute. The water is obtained from the sandstone. Common wells in Ablemans vary from 25 to 60 feet in sand and sandstone. There are several flowing wells in the village, the artesian heads reach- ing 15 to 20 feet above the river level. NortJi Freedom. There are many flowing wells within the district prospected for iron ore in the vicinity of North Freedom^. In fact, most of the drill holes sunk on low ground in prospecting for iron ore give rise to flows from the surface sand and the sandstone. Common wells in North Freedom generally range between 25 and 50 feet in sand. There are also some flowing wells in the southwest part of Sec. 17, T. 11, R. 5, and at various other places in the Baraboo valley. For additional data concerning flowing wells in the Baraboo Valley see pages 71-3. WATBK SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Baraboo. This city, having a population of 6,324, located on the Baraboo river, has a water supply and sewage system. The present water supply is taken from two round open wells and three oblong covered springs or surface wells. The waterworks is also connected with an intake from the river, used only in case of emergency. The open wells are 15 and 23 feet deep and 15 and 20 feet in diameter re- spectively. The three surface weUs or galleries are 100, 50 and 110 feet long, and 23, 21 and 21 feet wide, with depth of 5 feet below nor- mal water level. The three are located on low ground, where springs appeared. This spring water comes from a sand and gravel stratum in the drift formation, and very probably is the underground flow of the creek that enters thie river at this point. In times of very highest water the water supply is in danger of being flooded by polluted river water. The daily pumpage is about 700,000 gallons. The sewage is emptied, without purification into the Baraboo river at various places. Most of the private wells are from 40 to 130 feet in drift, the deeper ones having been drilled to a depth of 100 to 130 feet. The J^ormations passed through in the city test well, altitude of curb, about 856 feet, located about 1,320 feet west, and 200 feet south of the depot, are as follows: "For further details see Bulletin XIII, Wisconsin Survey, pp. 79-89. .)JD THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Log of the City Test well, Baraboo. Formation , Drift: Clay and sand Bowlders Sand and gravel Bowlders and sand Qulclcsand Upper Cambrian (Potsdam): Yellow sandstone Various colored sandstone. Coarse sandstone Pre-Cambrlan : Quartzlte Total Thickness. Feet. 40 10 43 120 46 93 70 4 428 Upon completion the water stood 27 feet below the surface. Al- though the well did not flow, it furnished 125 gallons per minute, and the water was lowered only 10 feet. Reedsburg. Reedsburg, population 2,615, has a water supply and sewage system. The water supply is from 5 wells, 6 and 8 inches in diameter, drilled to a depth of 125 to 500 feet into the sandstone. The average daily pumpage is about 300,000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the houses are connected with the water system. The sewage, without treatment, empties into the Baraboo river below the dam. Cess pools are not allowed. Most of the private wells used are from 30 to 60 feet deep in sand. The log of one of the city water works wells is as follows: 1.051 of Reeilsliurg City Well. Formation . Blue clay Hand with white flint gravpl Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Total depth Thicline.ss. Feet. 25 35 192 252 Water rises nearly to the level of the railroad track, about 876 feet above sea level. The natural flow is 194 gallons per minute about 15 feet above river level. Prairie du Sac and Sauk City. The villages along the "Wisconsin river, such as Prairie du Sac, Sauk City and Spring Green, are sit- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 557 uated on sandy alluvial terraces and obtain an abundant supply of wa- ter at depth of the adjacent river level. In Prairie du Sac the wells are generally from 40 to 60 feet deep, and in Sauk from 20 to 40 feet. A public water suply was installed in Prairie du Sac in 1913, the sup- ply being obtained from a shallow well 15 or 20 feet deep, located on the bank of the river, in the northern part of the town. Spring Green. In Spring Green, situated about a mile from the river, the wells are generally from 15 to 30 feet deep. The deepest drilled well in the village shrws a thickness of about 150 feet of al- luvial sand overlying the Potsdam sandstone. The viUage of Spring Green has a water supply for fire protection obtained from driven wells with 8-inch Cook points. North Freedom. North Freedom, population 647, has a water works system, the water supply being obtained from a well. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of water supplies from various parts of the county are shown in the table below. All the waters are carbonate wa- ters of low or moderate mineral content, and all the ground waters are hard, except that from the Oliver mine, which is soft. The waters analyzed have an average content of 3.6 parts pre million of chlorine. Amounts of chlorine in excess of 6 or 7 parts per million probably indicates contamination from polluted surface waters. The water from the Baraboo river, at Baraboo, Analyses No. 1, con- tains 1.26 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, that from the C. & N. W. R. well a Baraboo, No. 2, contains 2.26 gallons in 1,000 gallons, and that from the city v/ater supply of Reedsburg No. 4 con- tains 1.82 pounds in 1,000 gallons. The water of Devils lake is very soft. 558 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Sauk County. (Analyses in parts per million) Depthofwell feet.. Silica (SiOa) Aluminium andiron oxides (Al203+Fe203) Iron (Fe) , Calcium (Ca) Magrnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (304) Chlorine (CD Total solids. Lake. Eiver. 2.2 0.7 3.2 1.1 undet. t undet. i' 4.1 8.1 8.2 28. .... I 2.9 1' 29.1 21.5 7.2 4.6 7.7 170. Surface deposits. 2.5 3.9 60.6 33.4 11.0 173.3 14.1 303. 23 14.9 .5 2.0 55.7 31.3 2.7 3.0 162.2 7.9 1.9 282. Depth of well feet. Silica (Si02) Aluminium and iron oxides (AlaOs+FeaOs) : . Aluminium oxide ( AI2O3) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Mat^nesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CF3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Total solids. , Upper Cambrian sandstone. 150 & 250 17.9 2.5 46.3 23.5 3.4 125.4 1.0 5.2 225. 350 S 2 i\ 46.1 18.6 1.3 115.3 0.0 3.1 195. 340 13.0 0.1 1.'. 45.7 19.6 1.7 0.5 118.4 0.5 2.3 203. 85. 10.3 0.5 1.4 10.5 5.6 2.3 1.2 31.9 1.3 2.8 Pre Cambrian iron formation. 105 11.9 0.1 0.9 33.7 11.2 2.7 0.5 75.9 6.8 3.6 147. 10. 380 10.3 0.1 0.8 23.8 15.9 2.3 0.8 77.2 0.2 2.8 124. 1. Devil's Lake, Sample from Surface Analysts, E. B. Hall and C. Judav, Nov. 1908. Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. 2. Baraboo Eiver, Baraboo, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, August 1887. 3. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Baraboo, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 1SS7. 4. City water supply, Baraboo, quoted from W. G. Kirchoffer. 5. Wells of city water supply, Reedsburg, Analyst, 6. M. Davidson, Nov. 10th, 1894. 6. Water from Exploration drill hole. North Freedom, Analyst, G. II. Davidson, April 7th, 1904. 7. Water from Exploration drill hole. North Freedom, Analyst, W W. Daniells, Bull. No. 13, Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist. Sur. p. Ill, 1904. 8. Water from Oliver Iron Mine, North Freedom, Analyst, W. W. Daniells, Bull. No. 13, Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist. Sur., p. Ill, 1904. 9. Water from Illinois Iron Mine, North Freedom, Analyst, W W. Daniells, Bull. No. 13, Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist. Sur., p. Ill, 1904. 10. Water from Illinois Iron Mine, North Freedom, Analyst, W. W. Daniells, Bull. No. 13, Wis. Geol. Nat. Hist. Sur., p. Ill, 1904. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 559 Sawyer County Sawyer county, located in the northern part of the state, has an area of 1,342 square miles, and a population of 6,227. Only 5.1 per cent of the land of the county is in farms, of which only 24.2 per cent is under cultivation. The Lac Court Oreille Indian Eeservation, containing about 1,000 Indians, is located in the west central part of the county. SXJKFACE FEATURES Sawyer county is a great undulating plain throughout most of Its; area. In the southwestern part are some relatively high ridges of quartzite. Lakes are a prominent feature of the northwestern part. The principal rivers are the Chippewa and Flambeau. The northwest- ern corner is drained by the Nemakagon, a tributary of the St. Croix. The altitude of Sawyer county ranges between a little below 1,200 feet to 1,432 feet, (at Beaver Lake), along the Chippewa river, to 1,400 and 1,600 feet on the divide between the rivers. At Hayward, on the Nemakagon river, the altitude is 1,186 feet. Lac Court Oreille, the iiead of Couderay river, a tributary of the Chippewa, lies at an eleva- tion of 1,287 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The principal formations are the surface deposits of glacial drift, and alluvial sand and gravel. Along the Chippewa and Flambeau rivers are numerous rapids caused by outcrops of granitic rocks. In the southwestern part are some high ridges of Pre-Cambrian quartzite formation. For the geologic section, see Fig. 23. The surface formation is quite generally very thick throughout the coiuity, ranging from a few feet up to 250 feet in thickness. WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal source of water supply are the deposits of sand and gravel in the surface formation. The water level is generally near the surface and abundant water can generally be obtained at depths of 15 to 40 feet in the surface deposits. Shallow open wells should be avoided as much as possible, and drilled or driven wells properly 560 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. eased to depth of 25 or 30 feet, substituted in their place. The cas- ing should extend 15 or 20 feet below the water level to insure a pure water supply. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Hayward. Hayward is the county seat and principal town, with an estimated population of 2,500. It is located upon the Nemakagon river, at an elevation of 1,186 feet above sea level. At Hayward, the city water supply, for fire protection mainly, is taken from the Nemakagon river, which is very turbid during the spring log drives. A change from the river to a spring source would be ad- visable, although thus far no sickness seems traceable direct to the river water supply. Wells usually are from 15 to 25 feet deep, and are usually open dug wells drawing their water from a sandj' loam. There are numerous springs in this locality, and one owned bj^ A. C. Wightman could readily supply enough water for a small town. A partial sewage system is installed, which empties into the river. QUALITY OF THE WATER No analyses of water from this county are at hand, but judging from the character of the geological formations, the water supplies are very probably soft and of low mineral content throughout the county. Shawako County Shawano county, located in the east central part of the state, has an area of 1,135 square miles and a population in 1910 of 31,884. About 51.4 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 44.7 per cent is under cultivation. The Menominee Indian reservation occupies a considerable area in the northern part of the county. SURFACE FEATURES The southeastern part of the county is somewhat hilly and rolling while the northwestern part is somewhat more level. There are two belts of terminal moraine extending across the county, one in the north- western part, the other in the southeastern part, east of Lake Shawano. The slope of the land to the southeast is steeper in the northwestern part than in the southeastern. The general altitude of the vallej^ bot- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER iiCPPLIES. ^Qi torn of the Wolf river, below Shawano, is about 800 feet, while the gen- eral altitude of the northwestern part of the county ranges between 1,300 to 1,600 feet. The Wolf river which drains the principal part of the county, has a fall in its upper course of 774 feet, 9.7 feet per mile for the 80 miles between Lenox (in Oneida county) and Shawano, while between Shawano and Lake Winnebago, an equal distance of 80 miles, the total fall is only 42 feet, only a little over one-half foot per mile. Below Shawano the banks of the Wolf are low, and in high Avater the surrounding flats are often overflowed for several miles in width. The soils are mainly loams with a belt of sand and sandy loam along the Wolf river south of Shawano. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS That part of the county west of Wolf river and north of Lake Shawa- no is underlain with Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone and the Pre-Cambrian crystalline formations, while in the southeastern part of the county, the outcropping rock is the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, the Lower Magnesian limestone, the St. Peter sandstone, and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. These rock formations are overlain with a variable thickness of glacial drift on the uplands and' of alluvial deposits in the valleys. (See section Fig. 67). vvvvvvvvvv V \^^=S' ^^^*^]^Vtg g^a&v-...a~...2,^y:-''V'^t!r>^^^ VvVs/VVVVVVVVV V \^~^r^^^^=«S2?.^S3ftT^7^c,;^>^>^^^T^^^^ vvvvvvvvvvVvvVvvvv v^&^iiii;.-.;--.v?'?e^i7jp^WvWi;:-.' VVVVVVVVVVVV/VVVVVv/VV ••J^!^^'^J-Lh;-\--:T>f!^A^,i^^^^ vvvvvvvv/vvvv V vv v V v'vvvv V vV^:i.;.u;' ■.■•■■ ::-'t^ J vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvVvvvvvvvv v"'-^*^~ii\\".-.-;;: VVVVVVVVVV V-V vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv SeaLefs/ Fig. 67. — Geologic section, east-west, across Shawano County. The thickness of the rock formations is quite variable on account of the unequal erosion of the formations, the complete thickness being present only where the formation has been protected from erosion by the overlying strata. The approximate range in thickness of the geolo- gical formations in the county may be summarized as follows: 36— W. S. 562 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Approximate range in thickness of formations in Shawano County. Formation. Thickness. Surface formation Galena-Platteville (Treiiton) limedtone . St. Peter and Lower Ma^nesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandscon . . , Pre-Cambrian granite Feet. Oto 350 to 100 to 200 to 500 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formations are the surface deposits of drift and alluvial sand, and the Upper Cambrian sandstone. In the northwestern part many farm wells draw their supply from the granite, and in the southeastern part, southeast of Lake Shawano, the limestone formations are drawn upon. The water level is usually not far below the surface, an abundant supply being obtained generally at depth of less than 100 feet. FLOWING AVELLS Flowing wells in surface deposits occur in Cecil at the east end of Lake Shawano. While the water in the sandstone underlying the Tren- ton limestone in the southeastern part of the county is under pressure, the altitude is too high to obtain artesian wells flowing above the sur- face. A shallow flowing well at "Wittenberg is developed in fractured granite overlain by water-bearing gravel. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Shawano. Shawano, located on the "Wolf river, has a population of 2,923. The city water supply is obtained at present from twenty-eight 2-inch drive wells. The wells are 21 feet deep and the well points are 4 feet long. The wells are located in two parallel rows with a spacing of 14 feet. Under a suction of 11 feet the wells supply 320 gallons per minute. This supply is inadequate for the needs of the city and at present a new system of supply obtained from deeper wells is being in- stalled. The test wells put down in 1909 for this purpose struck the granite at 135 and 142 feet after passing through surface sand and gravel. The waters stands at 8 feet below the surface at the water sta- tion. The average daily pumpage is about 90,000 gallons. Only about 25 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. Many private wells in the city are from 10 to 30 feet deep in the sand and gravel. The city sewage, without purification, empties into the river. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 563 Wittenberg. The population of Wittenberg is 1,090. At "Wittenberg most of the wells are open dug wells and range in depth from 10 to 60 feet, depending entirely upon location. A few are from 100 to 150 feet deep. On the hill one-fourth mile southwest of the railroad station and about 50 feet above it, on the property of the Wittenberg Academy, is probably the deepest well in the granite. Section of well at Wittenberg Academy. Formation. Thickness. Clay duif 4 feet SQuare Feet. 56 6 Granite (5-incli drill hole) 223 Total 285 The water is of excellent quality, although limited in quantity, for under the present arrangement, only about 17 barrels or 500 gallons can be pumped from the well at a time. The dug wells at the Wittenberg Indian School, west of the station are typical drift wells of moderate depth, 30 to 50 feet. At the Wittenberg creamery is one of the flowing wells from granite rock, the only one of its kind in the vicinity. The wells after passing through blue clay to a depth of 29 feet struck granite, from which the water supply is obtained. Cecil.— In the village of Cecil at the east end of Lake Shawano, popu- lation 351, there are seven flowing wells reported from 30 to 40 feet deep in sand and gravel. The maximum head is 5 feet above ground. The artesian slope is developed in alluvial formation similar in character and origin to the artesian conditions in the valley of the Fox and the Kock rivers. (See pages 90-7). Pulaski. — The log of the C. & N. W. Ry. well at Pulaski station, as interpreted from samples by F. T. Thwaites, is as follows : Log of well of G. & N. W. By. Co. at Pulaski. Formation. Pleistocene. Reddish and grayish drift Galena^Platteville. Brownish limestone Bluish shaly limestone... Bluish gray limestone Lower Magnesian. Grayish limestone No sample Total Thickness. Feet. 34 7 40 120 14 254 564 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of various surface and well Avaters in the county are shown in the following table. The river waters analyzed are of low mineral content, though a_ little too high in lime and mag- nesia to be classed as soft waters. The railroad well at Pulaski, in the limestone, is a hard calcium carbonate water, such as is usually found in this formation. The analysis of the city water supply of Shawano, with its high content of chlorine, and the undetermined soluble matter very apparently indicates a contaminated water supply at the time sample was takeni. The water from the "West Branch of the Embarrass river at Tigerton, No. 1, contains 1.07 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and that from the railroad well at Bland Junction, No. 4, contains 2.29 pounds in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Shawano County. (Analyses in parts per million') Elvers. Surface deposits. Galena and Platte- ville lime- stone. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Depth of well feet. . 23 11.9 1.0 60.6 28.5 5. 141.9 30.6 8.9 15 9.9 1.3 77.0 28.6 22.3 123.9 98.9 33.3 254 Silica (Si02) 7.3 0.6 25.3 12.6 3.5 48.0 83.9 5.5 26.2 13.3 15.2 0.5 18.1 21.4 7.0 80.1 2.5 8.9 37.2 8.0 2.4 30.3 18.4 6.9 92.5 12.5 10.6 19.7 Aluminium and iron oxides (Al203-f Pe203) 1.0 Calcium (Ca) 35.7 51.1 Magnesium (Mgr) 31.4 Sodium and potassium (Na-hK) 8.6 47.6 31.9 11.5 64.3 14.9 Carbonate radicle (COs).... Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD 154.1 9.9 14.1 Orsranic matter " 90.8 Total solids 137. 148. 154. 288. 395. 181.6 296. 1. Pond on West Branch of Embarass River,. Tagerton, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 16, 1909. 2. Branch of Embarass River at Eland Junction, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 7, 1900. 3. North branch, Embarass River at Bowler, Analyst G. M. Davidson, Aug. 6, 1907. 4. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Eland Junction, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Feb. 5, 1896. 5. Wells of city water supply, Shawano, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Mar. 26, 1908. 6. Well at Shawano, Analyst, Mil. Ind. Chem. Institute. 7. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co. at Pulaski, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, July 22, 1907. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 555 Sheboygan County Sheboygan county, located in the eastern part- of the state, on Lake Michigan, has an area of 540 square miles and a population of 54,888. About 91.8 per cent of the county is laid out in farms, of which 74.2 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is an undulating plain sloping down to- wards Lake Michigan. The slope is relatively uniform throughout the county, the highest land being in the west central part, west of Ply- mouth. The principal drainage line is the Sheboygan river with its tribu- taries, the ^Mullet and Onion rivers. The southwestern part of the county south of the high upland is 1 drained by the headwaters of the Milwaukee river. The valleys and uplands are broad and gently sloping and have a tendency to trend in a northeast-southwest direction parallel to the lake shore. In the western part of the county is a belt of hummocky drift hills generally known as the Kettle Range. Elevations range from a little below 600 feet above sea level ad- jacent to. the lake to over 1^200 feet in the northern part of the town of Mitchell and adjacent part of Greenbush. Definite information is not available but it seems quite probable that many high points along the Kettle Range may reach altitudes of 1,100 to 1,200 feet. The shores along Lake Michigan are steep and usually 40 to 60 feet high. The most prominent reliefs lie in the central and western parts of the county where differences in elevation between valley bottom and ad- jacent ridges range between 200 and 300 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations that appear at the surface in Sheboygan county are the superficial deposits of glacial drift and associated la- custrine formations, and the underlying rock formation of Niagara limestone. The drift as usual is of variable thickness and consists of clay, sand, gravel and boulders. Outside of the belt of drift hills in the Kettle Range the drift is usually from 20 to 100 feet thick. In the morainic ridges of the Kettle Range there are many wells 180 to 200 feet deep that do not reach the rock. 566 T^^ WATER SUPPLIES, OF WISCONSIN. The thickness of the Niagara limestone in Sheboygan county is ap- parently greater than it is in any other part of Wisconsin. This fact is indicated by the records of the deep wells bored through this forma- tion at Sheboygan Falls and at Sheboygan, in which thicknesses of 538 feet and 719 feet, respectively, were penetrated. At Plymouth a thick- ness of 422 feet is reported but it is not known whether the entire for- mation was drilled through. At Mt. Calvary, a short distance west of the northwest part of the county, the thickness of the Niagara is 231 feet. The minimum thickness of the Niagara in Sheboygan county, prob- ably occurring in the northwestern part, may be about 200 feet while the maximum thickness adjacent to Lake Michigan is over 700 feet. "With reference to the maximum thickness, the possibility should per- haps be taken into consideration that the unusual thickness in Sheboy- gan may not comprise the Niagara alone but may be due to the occur- rence of Devonian limestone overlying the Niagara, such as that occur- ring a short distance farther south at Lake Church in Ozaukee county. In this connection it is of interest to note that the deep well at Sheboy- gan Falls, only six miles west of Sheboygan shows a thickness of 538 feet of Niagara, while the first deep city well at Two Kivers, 30 miles north of Sheboygan, shows a thickness of only 280 feet of the Niagara. The general thickness of the formations in Sheboygan county, indicated by the deep wells at Sheboygan Falls and Sheboygan may be summar- ized as follows : Thickness of geological formations in Sheioygan County. Formation. Thickness Surtiice formation Niagrara limestone (probably including some Devonian}. Cincinnati shale Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone St. Peter and Lower Masneslan tipper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone Pre-Cambrlan granite Feet. to 250 200 to 750 200 to 250 200 to 250 200 to 250 600 to 700 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal sources of the underground water supply are the sur- face deposits of drift and the Niagara limestone. The drift contains seams and beds of sand and gravel which are usually filled with abun- dant water at depths of less than 100 feet from the surface. In the dirift of the Kettle Range, however, west of Plymouth some of these DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 567 wells are 180 to 200 feet deep. It is quite common to find sufficient water in the drift on the slopes of the hills in open dug wells from 20 to 30 feet deep. Drilled wells, however, generally go to depths of about 100 feet to obtain a sufficient supply at the permanent water level. Many of the drift wells have been deepened by drilling and now ob- tain their water supply near the contact of the rock and overlying drift or from a short distance into the limestone. The limestone eon- tains beds of shaly formation, relatively impervious, and the shaly strata have a strong influence in controlling the underground supply. Abundant water can usually be obtained in the limestone at depth of less than 100 feet on the slopes. In the valleys the water level is near the surface in both the drift and the rock. FLOWING WELLS Plowing wells are obtained from the drift, from the Niagara lime- stone, and from the deep seated strata of St. Peter and Potsdam sand- stones. Along the Sheboygan river and its tributaries as far west as Ply- mouth and some distance beyond, flows are obtained at various places, the source of the flows being in gravel seams below clay beds. In the valley of Pigeon river in the towns of Meeme, Manitowoc county, and Herman, Sheboygan county are a large number of good flowing wells in the drift which are used extensively for farm purposes. Most of these wells are drilled, and range in depth from 30 to 75 feet. They have comparatively small flows, usually rising less than 5 feet above the surface, and draw their water from beds of sand and gravel between layers of impervious clay. In the vicinity of Cedar Grove, near the shore of Lake Michigan, are several strong flowing wells in the drift, the strongest having a flow of 30 feet above the surface. The city well of Plymouth draws its supply from a depth of 422 feet in the Niagara limestone, the head being 16 feet above the ground. There are doubtless many other flowing wells in the county that draw their supply from this formation, though definite information concern- ing them is not now at hand. Some of the flowing -ivells in the drift may receive their supply from the underlying Niagara and an increase in the flow could be obtained if drilled ' deeper. Conditions, however, are likely to be variable because both these types of flowing wells are due to local conditions of the topography and rock formations. Flowing wells in the deep seated strata of St. Peter and Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone have been obtained at Sheboygan Falls and Sheboygan, as described under these cities on the following pages. The 568 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. normal head of the deep flowing well at Sheboygan when first drilled was 104 feet above the surface, or 146 feet above the lake, the first flow being struck in the St. Peter sandstone at depth of 1,340 feet. The well at Sheboygan Falls, 1,200 feet deep, probably obtains its flow from the St. Peter sandstone. The chance for obtaining artesian flows from the St. Peter and Up- per Cambrian (Potsdam) formations in Sheboygan county are good up to elevations of at least 200 feet above Lake Michigan, and are fair up to 250 feet, and may be possible, in some places, above 250 feet. Lo- calities favorable for deep-seated flows are generally confined to a nar- row belt, 3 or 4 miles from the lake shore, but may also extend much farther up the Sheboygan river to the mouth of the Mullet, a distance of about 13 miles. The artesian head rises rapidly to the west, and hence flows from the sandstone may be found at still higher elevation. SPRINGS Springs are quite common along the foot of the drift hills of the Kettle Range in the western part of the county. They also occur along many of the valeys where rock ledges are abundant. Mineral water from the deep well in Sheboygan, which furnishes a strong saline water, is sold on the market and is also used for bathing purposes. (See table of analyses)., WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Slieboygati. The city of Sheboygan, on Lake Michigan at the mouth of Sheboygan river, has a population of 26,398. The city water supply is obtained from Lake Michigan, from 3 intakes located some distance from shore at depths of 12, 27 and 46 feet. The average daily pumpage is reported to be 3,526,000 gallons. The sewerage without purification empties, into the lake. About 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the water and sewer systems. In the city well drilled in 1875, as reported by Prof. Chamberlin,^ the material passed through is as follows : ^ Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, p. 164. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 569 Section of Sheboygan City ^Vell. Formation. Thiokness. Drift Feet. 92 Niaj,'"ara limpstone 719' rinciiHian shale 240 213 St. Pettr sandstone 212 Total depth 1,476 ' This thickness of Niagara may include some Devonian overlying the Niag- ara. It was reported that granite was struck in the city well, but this is very doubtful since the well drilled at Sehreier's Brewery did not reach granite at a depth of 1,782 feet. The water from both of these deep wells is decidedly salty and corrodes the pipe very readily. The well casing at the brewery has not been lined with copper, and the pipe is now corroded so that there is considerable leakage. Many of the more shallow wells have subsequently been abandoned because the leakage at the brewery well has made the water salty. No record was kept of the brewery well, but it is reported that the well passed through sandstone immediately below the St. Peter, and hence, the limestone of the Lower ilagnesian horizon is apparently absent in this locality. The water from the old city well is reported to have a uniform tem- perature of 60° F., and is now bottled and sold extensively for meditiu- al purposes and also as a table water by the Sheboygan Mineral "Water Company. This company was established in February 1876, and in- corporated under the laws of Wisconsin in November 1881. There is a pipe line from the city well to its bottling establishment. For min- eral analysis see Nos. 26 to 30 in the table. SJieboijgan Falls. The population is 1,630. The water supply is ob- tained from private wells, generally from 20 to 100 feet in the drift. The deep artesian well of H. Giddings has the following section: Section of H. Giddings' well, Sheboygan Falls. Formation. Drift Niasara limestone Cincinnati sliale Galena Trenton limestone St. Peter sandstone Total depth Thickness. Feet 117 478 26.5 3.'0 10 1200~ 570 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. The altitude of the curb is 718 feet, the artesian pressure being suffi- cient to develop a head 55 feet above the curb. The source of the flow is probably the St. Peter sandstone. Plymouth. — This city located on Mullet river has a population of 3,094. There were two wells,^ one 127 the other 473 feet deep, in con- nection with the city supply in 1904 but only the deepest well was used. At present, 1914, the city supply is obtained from 4 wells, reported as 12 to 458 feet deep. About 75 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply. The deep well is 10.8 and 6 inches in diameter. It flowed 60 gal- lons per minute 16 feet above ground. In the bottom of the reservoir 16 feet deep the flow was 300 gallons per minute. A sewage disposal plant was recently installed. Sewage is treated before being emptied into the MuUet river. The deep city well is of special interest as the source of the water found is in the Niagara limestone, the material penetrated being 51 feet of clay, sand, and gravel, and 422 feet of Niagara limestone. No effect has been noticed at the various wells in the way of interference. Oostiurg. The log of the C. & N. W. Ry. well at Oostburg, samples of which down to a depth of 454 feet are in the University collection, is? as follows: Log of G. & N. W. Ry. Well at Oostiurg. Formation. Pleistocene : Eed and blue calcareous clay containing a few pebble beds and with fine gravel at bottom Niagara: Grayish limestone containing some shaly beds No samples Total depth '. Thickness. Feet. 142 312 96? 550 The analysis of the highly mineralized water from this well is shown in the table as No. 18. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of various waters of the county are shown in the following table. The character, as well as the amount of mineral- ization, is quite variable. Carbonate, sulphate, and chloride under- ground' "waters occur, with content of mineral ranging from a little ' W. G. Kirchoffer, Bull. "Wis. "Univ. No. 106, p. 221. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 571 over 200 parts per million in ease of carbonate water, to over 10,000 parts per million in ease of the chloride waters. The surface water from the lakes and the river, as usual, are lowest in mineral content, though sufficiently high to be classed as hard wa- ters. The water supplies from the surface deposits and the Niagara limestone are generally carbonate waters of moderate mineralization, though in places there are exceptions, as illustrated by the highly min- eralized sulphate water in the 550 foot well at Oostburg. The geologic source of the water in the Oostburg well is not definitely known, but the well is reported to be in "limestone and sandstone", probably reaching the base of the Niagara and top of the Cincinnati shale. The deep seated waters from wells 1,038 to 1,476 feet deep, which reach into the St. Peter and Lower Magnesian sandstones, are very highly mineralized with salt water at Sheboygan and Sheboygan Falls, and also highly mineralized with sulphate waters at Random Lake. The analyses and information concerning source of the water appear to indicate, therefore, that the strong saline waters in the St. Peter and Lower Magnesian may be characteristic over considerable parts of Sheboygan county. The highly mineralized waters oceafeionally found in the Niagara probably have theitf source in the more deeply lying strata of Lower Magnesian and St. Peter formations. The analyses of t'he salt waters at Sheboygan Falls and Sheboygan made by G. Bode and C. F. Chandler, were made many years ago, — probably between 1870 and 1876. Those of more recent date, made jn 1907 and 1909, show a much lower content of mineral, which may be due to a change in the chemical character of the original deep source of supply, or the change may be due to the infiltration of less mineralized water from higher horizons. The water from the Born Park Sanitarium is used for bottling and bathing purposes, and that of the Sheboygan Mineral Water Co. is mainly bottled and sold. The water from the Sheboygan river at Sheboygan, No. 1. contains 1.69 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons; that from the well in Plymouth, No. 16, contains 3.10 pounds in 1,000 gallons, while that from the well at Oostburg, No. 18, contains 7.39 pounds in 1,000 gal- lons. 572 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Sheboygan ■ County. (Analyses in parts per million) Kiv'er. Lakes. 1.. 2. 3. 1 4. 5. 6. Pilica (SiOs) 10. 6J 2.9) 37.1 26.8 \ 6.0 93.5 35.5 20.1 13.6 0.8 34.0 23.6 3.8 107.7 6.4 2.1 Undt. 44.6 37.9 3.1 159.5 6.5 Undt. 2.4 41.7 34.8 3.3 140.3 11.5 5.0 Undt. 54.4 36.9 4.7 172.4 9.9 Undt., Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ FeaOs) . : 2.1 Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) 28.7 31.1 2.9 Carbonate radicle (GO3) 117.8 Sulphate radicle (S04) 4.7 Chlorine iiim ( Mg) ,. Hodium (Na) Potassium ((C) Carbonate radicle iC J31 Suloliate radicle (SUi) : Chlorine (Q) Organic matter Total dissolved solids. i^-pring 1.0 2 fi 1.4 57.6 27.9 5.5 1.4 157.1 2.6 8 4 265. Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone. 4. a 3 6 14.3 27.5 23.1 J18.6 I 118.2 22.7 1 8 8.2 "2357" 200 16.4 1.8 37.1 17.3 ] 2.9 88 9 15.7 4.2 184. 1. .Arctic Spring at Galesville, Analyst, W. W. Daniells. 2. .Tordan Mineral well at Galesville, Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV. 1882. 3. City wells at Galesville, 2 wells, 20O feet deep, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec. 18, 1899. Vernon County Vernon county, located in tlie southwestern part of the state, has an area of 792 square miles and a population of 28,116. About 92.8 -per cent of the county is in farms of which 53.9 per cent is under cultiva- tion. SCKFACE FEATURES The greater part of the county consists of a relatively high upland plain deeply dissected by valleys. The Kickapoo river which drains the eastern half of the county is a prominent valley with steep slopes DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 581 leading up to the even >summitted upland. The western part of the county is drained by streams flowing into the Mississippi, mainly the Bad Axe and the Coon rivers. The valley bottom plain along the Mississippi river has a general altitude of about 650 feet. The valley bottom of the Kiekapoo ranges in altitude between about 750 feet at Reedstown to probably about 900 feet at Ontario. The altitudes on the dissected upland generally ranges between 1,200 and 1,400 feet. The soils are generally sandy loams and silt loams on the uplands and sands, sandy loams and occasionally silt loams in the valley bot- toms. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The principal geological formation is the Lower Magnesian limestone. Along the deepest and most important valleys the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is present, and upon the uplands, overlying the Lower Magnesian formations in the southwestern part of the county is the St. Peter sandstone, and occasionally upon the latter on the very highest points is the Platteville (Trenton) limestone. In the valleys is the usual amount of alluvial sand f ormatiom and on the uplands is a fairly common deposit of loess loam. The geological structure is illustrated in Fig.. 68. Fig. 68. — Geologic section, east-west, across central Vernon County. The thickness of the alluvial sand and silt in the valleys is variable, but probably attains a thickness of 200 to 300 feet in the mid-channel of the Mississippi valley. The thickness of the loess upon the upland is variable, but usually does not exceed 5 or 10 feet. The thickness of the rock formation is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata. It is only in the highest uplands of the southwestern part of the county that remnants of the St. Peter sandstone and the Platteville (Trenton) limestone are still preserved.. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : 582 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Approximate range in thickness of formations in Ternon County. Formation. Surface formation Platteville (Trenton) limestone (of rare occarreuce) . . St. Peter and Lowe'r Magneslan Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone The Pre-Oambrlan granite X . Tliiciness. Feet. Oto .SOO. to 40. to 250. 400 to 800. PRINCIPAL WATEE-BEARING HORIZONS The water supply is derived from all the geological formations, the most important sources being the Lower Magnesian limestone and the Potsdam sandstone. The alluvial sands and gravels are an important source of water supply in the valleys. The wells in the valleys usually reach abundant water in the sand at depth of 20 to 40 feet. The wells upon the uplands often penetrate the rock to depth of 300 to 400 feet and contain only a few feet of water. Depth of Wells in Villages, Vernon County. Vlllagre. Source. Depth in feet. Roclc 200-500 De Soto 15 80 HiUsboro Rocli 40-200 Laf argre Sand 20-40 20-100 Readstown Sand rock 30-80 Eoclr 75-200 FLOWING WELLS Flowing weUs are a common source of water supply along the Mis- sissippi river. The artesian head along the Mississippi is quite uniform and is generally 50 to 60 feet above the immediately low ground, and is much as 60 or 70 feet above the level of the Mississippi river. The flows are obtained mainly if not entirely from the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. At Stoddard the flowing wells are generally be- tween 400 and 550 feet deep. The flowing wells are not confined to the banks of the Mississippi river, but are also obtained up the larger and some of the smaller tri- butaries of the Mississippi river. Several of these flows have been struck at Chaseburg some distance up Coon creek. The wells at Chase- DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 533 burg are from 400 to 500 feet deep and at least two flows have been ob- tained. In Coon Valley are 5 flowing wells 450 to 500 feet deep. Flowing wells in the Potsdam sandstone are quite common in the Kickapoo valley. In the vicinity of LaFarge there are 6 deep flowing wells ranging in depth between 128 and 465 feet, and with heads rang- ing from 3 to 16 feet above the surface. In Rockton and vicinity there are about 25 flowing wells with heads of 20 to 32 feet above the curb. In Ontario flowing wells are also a common source of water supply. Several flowing wells have been drilled in Viola by W. P. Shilling. They are of the same general type as those above described. Farther south along the Kickapoo river at Readstown and Soldiers Grove a few deep flowing wells have been drilled. AYater is generally pumped from wells 10 to 40 feet deep. Two miles east of Soldiers Grove, om considerably higher ground a well 200 feet deep flows part of the time. For detailed description of artesian wells in Kickapoo valley and Coon Creek valley, see pages 70-2. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Tiroqua. Viroqua, the county seat, has a population of 2,059. It is situated upon the high divide between the Bad Axe and Kickapoo riv- ers, at an elevation of 1,280 feet above sea level. The city has a water system but no sewerage system. The water supply is derived from three 8-ineh wells from 200 to 559 feet deep, which penetrate through the Lower Magnesian limestone, (see Fig. 68) into the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone, thus deriving the water supply from the latter formation. The average daily pumpage is about 100,000 gallons. About 70 per cent of the houses are connected with the water system. Westb-if. Westby has a population of 902. The city water supply is obtained from two 81/2-inch wells, 310 and 325 feet deep, each reaching through the Lower Magnesian limestone and penetrating the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone about 100 feet. The estimated daily capacity is 100,000 gallons ; the daily pumpage is about 18,000 gallons. Private wells are generally from 200 to 235 feet deep. De Soto. De Soto has a public water supply obtained from a flow- ing well, 440 feet .deep, the rate of flow being about 172,000 gallons per day. In the village are several artesian wells and a few are located north and south of the village. The wells are between 400 and 550 feet deep, wholly in the Upper Cambrian sandstone, the head being about 25 feet above the surface. It is thought that the decrease in the 584 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WI8C0NSIK. heads at Me Auley 's and Johnson 's wells, and the village wells, is chiefly because the easing- was discontinued as soon as rock was entered. At Genoa and Victory are flowing wells of the same class as those at De soto. Stoddard.— There are a number of flowing artesian wells in this vic- inity. Most of the wells are used for farm or dairy purposes. The wells are wholly in the sandstone after striking rock, and the water rises to approximately 694 feet above sea level, about 70 feet above the Mississippi river. Hillshoro. This village has a population of 804. The city well is an 8-inch well, 149 feet deep, in the UpiJer Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone. The average daily pumpage is 15,000 gallons. Private wells in the village are generally from 50 to 85 feet deep in the sandstone. Readstown. Readstown, population 515, has a public water supply from a 6-inch well, 210 feet deep. The daily capacity of the well is 50,000 gallons. About 20 per cent of the houses connect with the city supply. Private wells are generally from 30 to 60 feet deep. Ontario. There are about 24 flowing wells in Ontario and in the ad- jacent bottom of the Kickapoo valley, both up and down the stream. The shallow flows, at 80 to 90 feet in Ontario, contain less iron than the deeper flows. In the deep wells, two, three or even four strong wa- ter horizons are passed through. The sa,me .applies to wells north and south of Ontario, along the Kickapoo river. Rockton. There are about 25 flowing wells in this vicinity. Some of the farmers have two and three flowing wells on their fairms and all get water from the Potsdam sandstone. The flowing wells are founci only near the river on low ground. Back nearer the hills the same wa- ter horizon is struck, but the wells do not flow. QUALITY OF THE WATER Only two mineral analyses of the water supplies of Vernon county are available, but judging from the character of the geological forma- tions, hard waters of moderate mineral content are very probably pre- valent throughout the county. Water obtained from the limestone .strata is likely to be only slightly higher in mineral content than that from the alluvial sand and the sandstone. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 585 Mineral analyses of water in Vernon County. I Analyses in parts per million) Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) sandstone. 1. 2. Depth of well fBPt. 300-325 \ Undet. 41,4 23.9 4.fi 99,6 6.6 15.7 19.5 600 Silica 'Si02) Aluminium and iron oxides (Al-jOij-i-FeflOs) Undet. Calcium (Ca) 49.6 Magnesium (Mg) 25 12 1 6 Carbonate radicle (CO3) 123 7 Sulpliate radicle (SO4) 18 8 Chlorine (CD 3.0 Nitrate radicle (NO3) 211. n-f 1. CitT Water Supplv, Westby, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, April 10,1912. 2. Railroad well at La Farge, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 4, 190S. TiLAS COUXTY Vilas County, located in the northern part of the state, has an area of 907 square miles, and a population of 6,019. Only 3.6 per cent of this county is laid out in farms, of which only 23.9 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The county is nearly a level pl^in, dotted with numerous lakes at the head waters of the Wisconsin river. The altitude is mainly be- tween 1,600 and 1,700 feet. The soil is generally a sandy soil or £andy to silty loam. Probably not more than 30 or 40 per cent of this county will eventually be brought under cultivation. It is a region well adapt- ed to summer resorts, fishing and hunting. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formation is principally the surface formation of glacial drift, associated with plains of sand and gravel of alluvial or glacio-alluvial origin. Underlying the surface formation are the gran- ite and associated crystalline rocks. The surface deposits quite effect- ually cover the hard rock throughout the county, and usually vary in depth from 50 to 200 feet. 5So THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCUXSIN. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formations are the surface deposits of drift, sand and gravel, which very generally yield an abundant supply of water at shallow depth. The water level is very generally near the surface, and wells are usually only 15 to 40 feet deep. Caution should be observed iri the use of shallow water supplies. The best practice is to use drilled or driven wells, properly cased to a depth of at least 20 or 30 feet below the general water level. ^YATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Eagle River. Eagle River, the county seat, has an estimated popula- tion of 1,200. It is located on the site of water power on Eagle River. Its elevation is 1,142 feet above sea level. The city has a water sup- ply mainly for fire service, the supply being taken from a large open well, 12 feet deep and 30 feet in diameter, located on the bank of the river. About 40 per cent of the houses connect with the water supply system. The average depth of the private wells is about 20 feet in sand and hard pan. Arhor Vitae. Arbor Vitae, located on Arbor Vitae lake, has a popu- lation of about 1,250. Its altitude is 1,630 feet. No city water or sewage system is installed. Wells are from 15 to 40 feet deep in a sandy gravel' formation. QUALITY OF WATER SUPPLIES The analyses of water supplies from lakes, creeks, and surface de- posits, shows a remarkably low content of mineral matter, the average mineralization of the 5 waters analyzed being appreciably less than that of Lake Superior water. Very soft, or soft water is very probably characteristic for the entire county, though occasionally hard waters may be found as in Oneida county. The water of the lake at Woodruff contains only 0.11 pounds of in- crusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while the city water supply at Eagle contains 0.43 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 587 Mineral Analyses of Water in Vilas County. (Analyses Id parts per million) Lakes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silica (SiOa) 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.3 und't. und't. 5.4 5.3 4 5 16.5 6.2 7.2 2.8 2.6 1.7 15.2 7.9 2.7 13. 1.1 6.7 2.5 0.8 0.3 11. 6.4 3. 5. 5. 0.6 1.2 0.31 0.6f 1 7 1.4 2.5 4.1 trace Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ FesOs) Calcium (Ca) 2.4 .6 Magnesium {Ms) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) 1.2 Carbonate radicle (CO3) 3.3 2.8 1.8 10 Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Orgranic matter Total solids 18- 63. 45. 18. 16. Depth of well feet. . Silica (8IO2) Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ Fe20.3) Calcium (Ca) M agnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Organic matter Total solids, . Creek. 1 1.7 4.8 9.8 3.3 3.2 22.9 4.4 1.6 52. Surface deposits. 7. 8. 12 4.6 36 12.5 1 2.7 11 4 4.3 .7 ( 8.2 1.5 2.0 3.7 10.2 56. 60 8.5 7.0 1.5 1.6 3.7 2.7 13.5 9.1 4.1 3.9 21.4 8 .53. 46. 1. Clear Lake, near Minocqua. Sample from surface. Analysts, B. B. Hall, and C. Juday, Sept. 1907. Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. 2. Lake Kewaugesaga, near Minocqua. Analysts, E. B. Hall and C. Juday, Aug. 20, 1907. Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. 3 Trout Lake, south part, sample analyzed from surface. Analysts, E. B. Hall and 0. Juday, Aug. 19, 1907. Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. 4. Bass Lake, sample from surface. Analysts, E. B. Hall and C. Juday, Sept. 1907. Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. ^ „„,„„, r,. Lake at Woodrufe, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Dec. 23, 1904. 6. Creek at Fosterville, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Sept. 29, 1909. 7. City Supply at Eagle River well 30 ft. diameter, 12 ft. deep, on bank of Eagle river. Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Aug. 1909. 5. Railroad well at Lac du Flambeau, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ry. Co., May 29 1909 9. Railroad well at Aiva, Analyst, Chemist C. M. & St. P. By. Co., May 11, 189.5. 588 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Walworth County Walworth county, located in the southeastern part of the state, has an area of 562 square miles and a population of 29,614. About 94 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 72.2 per cent is under cul- tivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is a gently undulating plain with broad valley bottoms and gently sloping hills. Broad marshes along the streams are a characteristic feature. Lakes are common, the most im- portant and best known being Ijake Geneva, Delavan Lake, Lauderdale Lakes, and Lake Beulah. The county is drained by streams flowing westward to Eock river, the Turtle Creek and Whitewater Creek, and streams flowing eastward to the Fox river (of Illinois), the White river and Honey Creek. Belts of terminal moraine, the Kettle Range, cover a considerable part of the county. The elevation of Lake Geneva is 862 feet above the sea, 282 feet above Lake Michigan. The elevation of Delavan Lake is about 920 ; of Lake Beulah about 810, and of the Lauderdale Lakes about 882 feet above sea level. These lakes are from 50 to 65 feet deep. The lowest land in the western part of the county at Whitewater is about 829 feet, and along Turtle Creek at Fairchild about 880 feet, while the lowest land in the eastern part, along the White river, near Burlington, is about 760 feet above sea level. The highest uplands reach an altitude of a little over 1,000 feet, a much larger proportion of the land of the western part reaching this altitude than of the east- ern part. The maximum range in altitude between the highest hills and the adjacent valleys is less than 200 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological strata outcropping at the surface or immediately un- derlying the glacial drift are the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone, the Cincinnati shale and the Niagara limestone. The Galena and Cincinnati area of outcrop is only in the western part of the county and that of the overlying Niagara in the central and eastern part. The section. Fig. 44, illustrates the geological structure of Walworth, Racine and Kenosha counties. DESCRIPTIOy OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 539 Glacial drift and alluvial deposits of variable thickness, up to over 300 feet, fill the pre-glacial valleys, and in thinner deposits, usually less than 100 feet thick, overlie the slopes and summits of the hills. Two belts of terminal moraine, the Darien and Elkhorn moraines, consisting of hummocky drift hills and associated depressions extend across the county in a crescent-shaped zone through the vicinities of Lake Geneva, Delavan, Kichmond, and La Grange Centre. The thickness of the Niagara limestone, Cincinnati shale, and Gal- ena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone varies on account of erosion where- ever these formations outcrop at the surface or underlie the drift. The formations underlying the Trenton vary in thickness only to a slight extent, due to inequalities in the original deposition. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations in the county may be summarized as follows: Approximate range in thickness of formations in Walworth County. Formation. Surface formation Niagara limestone Cincinnktl shale Trenton limestone St, Peter and Lower Ma^nesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. Tue Pre-Cambrlan Thickness. Keet. to350 to 350 to 225 50 to 250 1.50 to 250 800 to 1,000 PRIXCIPAL WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS All of the geological formations are drawn upon for water supplies, but the most common source is the drift overlying the rock formations. Wherever the Galena-Platteville limestone and Niagara limestone are near the surface, abundant supplies are drawn from them. The water level in the drift is generally near the surface except on the summits of the isolated ridges. The depth of wells in the drift, however, is quite variable as illustrated in Elkhorn, where on a very gently slop- ing area, the wells range from 10 to 150 feet deep. The Cincinnati shale lying between the Niagara and the Galena- Platteville limestone forms an impervious basement for groundwater m the overlying Niagara lim.estone and glacial drift. 590 '^SE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. FLOWIXG WELLS While the water in the sandstone underlying the Galena-Platteville limestone is held under hydrostatic pressure, the land surface is gen- erally too high for the development of flowing wells from the sand- stone. It is only on the lowest ground of the county, therefore, that artesian flows are obtainable from the underlying rock strata. "At Whitewater the city is supplied from flowing wells, altitude of curb 820 feet, with 19-foot head, the source of the flow being in the Galena-Platteville limestone and the St. Peter and Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstones, the pressure increasing with depth. In the val- ley of White river at Burlington flowing wells are obtained with a 30- foot head, the altitude of the curb being 765 feet. Flows from deep seated strata can probably be obtained up the White river valley where the altitude of the surface does not exceed 800 feet. At Lake Geneva the artesian head is at 790 feet, 59 feet below the surface, and at East Troy 820 feet, 40 feet below the surface. Flowing wells from the surface deposits of drift or within the Ni- agara limestone occur at much higher altitudes, depending upon local conditions. Flowing wells of this type occur southeast of Elkhorn, and between Elkhorn and Eagle, and in other parts of the county. SPRINGS Springs are an important source of water supply on low ground ad- jacent to the terminal moraines, and especially where the drift over- lies the shale. Springs are especially abundant at the horizon of the outcrop area of the Cincinnati shale which forms a belt two to six miles wide across the western part of the county, Numerous springs occur in the vicinity of Whitewater, within the area of artesian flowing wells. ThQ city supply of Delavan is obtained from springs, and a well known mineral spring, the Sheridan IMineral Spring, is located near Lake Gen- eva. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Lake Geneva.^ This city located at the east end of Lake Geneva, has 3 population of 3,079. The city has a water supply but no sewage sys- tem. The water supply is obtained from three wells and a reservoir well fed from an intake leading from a spring. For a number of years, the water was obtained from a large open reservoir well, 30 feet in di- ameter and 30 feet deep, but this source was unsatisfactory. Two of DE8CRIPTI0X OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 591 the earlier city wells were 186 and 210 feet deep in red clay and gravel at bottom. Recently the city supply was increased by adding a deep well 12 inches in diameter and 1,119 feet deep. The estimated daily capacity is over 1,000,000 gallons. The new well is supplied with a compound centrifugal pump. About 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the city water supply. Most of the private wells are about 35 feet deep, and vary between 20 and 150 feet. The detailed section of the deep city well is as follows : Log of Lake Geneva City Well. Formation. Thickness. Drift: Gravel and water Feet 20 15 5 55 85 20 23 34 15 76 83 63 92 10 106 5 95 55 20 17 19 35 57 39 14 54 7 1,119 ] Clay Gravel and a little water Clay mixed with stone 9'X^ Cincinnati: P'l Galena-Trenton : Blue shale Limestone with streaks of shale '48 St. Peter: 106 Lower Magnesian: Sandy shale Rock Phale Honeycombed rock with flint moulds, and sand in the pockets. This source of 19;> Upper Canabrian (Potsdam): Shale 2Z5 Total dPDth T1T9 The log of a well three miles southwest of Lake Geneva owner, M. W. Ryenson, driller, M and L. E. Trow as determined from samples by F. T. Thwaites, is as follows : 592 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WIS€0K8I2i. Log of ivell of M. W. Ryenson, new Lake Geneva. Formation. Pleistocene : Brownish red olay Gray fine sand Light reddish clay Bi-ownlsh gray clay Sand and gravel Sandy clay, brownish Sand and gravel Same as at 80-115 No sample. Sand Same as at 80-115 Sand and gravel Dark clay, no sample Niagara Limestone: White cherty limestone, much broken Light brown limestone : . . • Same as above Cincinnati ^hale : Greenish gray soft shale Gray and red shale Hard white limestone Total depth. Depth. Feet. 1— 5 5-23 2S-35 35- 70 70- 80 80-115 11.5-140 lCO-185 185-195 19)— 230 230-240 240— 2J4 244—285 285-305 305—315 320-322 322—335 835-543 Thic]ine.ss. Feet. 244 343 Elkhorn. This city, the county seat, has a population of 1,707. The city water supply is obtained from a l6-ineh artesian well, 1,040 feet deep. The elevation of the curb is about 1,010 feet above sea level, and the water stands 145 to 160 feet below the surface. The water is pumped by an air lift system. The estimated daily capacity is 150,000 gallons, and the average daily pumpage is 140,000 gallons. About 60 per cent of the houses are connected with the city supply. A sewage system was recently installed. The sewage is purified by residential septic tanks and emptied into the marsh. The section of the city well is as follows : Log of Elkhorn City Well. Formation Drift Clay and gravel Cincinnati Soft slate shale Shale and limestone Galen a-Trenton I.imestone Blue limestone Buff limestone and sandstone ■ St. Peter Sandstone Lower Magnesian Limestone and sandstone Hard limestone Tlppf r Cambrian (Potsdam) Soft sandstone (drill drooped 3 feet in cavity) Pink and cream sandstone Brown sandstone Total depth Thickness. Feet. 213 119 48 185 50 35 50 50 19 146 100 25 "iojo DESCRlPTIOy OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 593 Flowing wells arc obtained between Elkhorn and Eagle from both Niagara limestone and glacial drift. Similar conditions prevail south- east of Elkhorn. In Elkhorn, private wells vary from 10 to 150 f(!et ill depth. Whitewater. The population of Whitewater is 3,224. The city has a water supply, and a sewage system. The water supply is obtained from i artesian welLs from 250 to 9.')7 feet deep. The first two artesian wells were drilled 957 and 565 feet deep. The first well, 957 feet deep, G inches in diameter flowed 19 feet above the surface. The fir'st flow was obtained in the Trenton limestone at 142 feet, the second in the St. Peter sandstone at 175 feet. The flow continued to increase to the bot- tom of the Potsdam. When completed, the well flowed 115 gallons per minute arxd varied with the pressure of the atmosphere from 104.6 to 115.9 gallons per minute. The second well, 10 inches in diameter and 565 feet deep, flowed 275 gallons per minute at the surface. The water is stored in an uncovered reservoir having a capacity of 885,000 gallons. The average daily pumpage is about 162,000 gallons. About 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the city supply. The log of the 957 foot well is as follows : Log of WhitcKatcr Citi/ Well. Formation. Pleistocene . Blue cla.v Galena-Trenton . Blue limestone Buff limes "One St. Peter. Lower Maernesian and Potsdam. Sandstone Lim estone Sandstone Limestone .''and Blue shale Sandstone Sllicious sandstone Pine sandstone Ked sandstone Blue shale Silicious sandstone (strong flow) Fine sandstone Red macl Red marl and sand Coarse silicious sand Thickness. Feet. 16 37 96 85 7 9 4 9 31 109 53 24 79 231 38 25 42 Total , 957 Bclavan. The population of Delavan is 2,450. The city water sup- ply is obtained from two 110 and 125-foot wells. The sewage, without purification empties into Turtle Creek. About 60 per cent of the houses are on the water system and 50 per cent on the sewage system. An ar- 38— "W. S. 594 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. tesian supply of water could readily be obtained by drilling a 10 or 12-incli well 800 to 1,000 feet deep and obtaining a supply from the Potsdam sandstone. East Troy. The village of East Troy has a population of 673. The village has a public water supply system, obtained from one well about 700 feet deep, and 8 and 6 inches in diameter. The capacity of the reservoir tank is 30,000 gallons. About 60 houses at present are con- nected with the system. The depths of private wells in the village are generally 30 to 40 feet. About a mile east of the village of Bast Troy is an interesting well 2,200 feet deep, owned by Stephen A. Field. The elevation of the curb is 860 feet, and the water stands 40 feet below the surface. The record of this well is as follows : Log of S. A. Field's Well, East Troy. Formition. Pleistocene. 1 jJrift Galena-Trenton. 2 White limestone 3 Blue Limestone 4 Grey cherty limestone St. Peter. 5 White sandstone 6 Brown sandstone Lower Magnesian and Potsdam- 7 Blue shale 8 Buff limestone 9 White limestoneO 10 Hard sray limestone 11 Bed limestone 12 White sandstone 15 Brewn yellow sandstone 14 Pine sandstone 1.5 Flesh red sandstone 16 Brown limestone and sandstone 17 Red marl 18 Brown limestone and sandstone 19 Red marl 20 Ked and brown sandstone 21 Whi te. slightly red sandstone 22 White sandstone 23 Buff sandstone 24 White sandstone 25 White and brown sandstone 2fi Coarse l^uff sandstone 27 Flesh tinted sandstone 28 Eed marly sandstone 29 Flesh tinted sandstone 30 Pine white sandstone 31 Buff sandstone (coaree) 32 Blue slate sandstone 33 Brown sandstone 34 Gray white sandstone 35 Buff sandstone 36 Pink sandstone 37 Fine Dink saLdstone 38 Buff sandstone 39 Pink sandstone 40 Li^ht buff sandstone 41 Pink sandstone 42 Coarse buff sandstone 43 Limestone Sandstone 44 Ferruginous sandstone lu bottom, no samples Total depth Thickness. Feet. 330 80 50 116 104 16 3 21 20 20 50 30 10 40 20 10 20 40 15 20 5 45 5 10 10 60 40 35 25 30 20 10 65 110 15 75 35 4 11 20 55 15 10 435 2,200 DESCRIPTIOX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 595 In the above log of the S. A. Field well, the Lower Magnesian (Sha- kopee and Oneota) may extend down as far as bed 19 or 20, indicating a thickness of about 300 feet. The Upper Cambrian (Potsdam), in- eluding the Madison and Mendota beds, may comprise the remainder of the section, indicating a thickness of about 1,200 feet, which is un- usual for this part of the state, though a similar thickness of the Up- per Cambrian appears to be developed farther south in northern Il- linois. It is possible also that bed 44 may be in part Pre-Cambriau formation. Walworth. Walworth, a village of 755 population, has no public wa- ter supply or sewage system. The depths of private wells are reported to be from 70 to 80 feet, the fix'st 8 feet in clay and loam, and the re- mainder in sand and gravel. Sharon. Sharon, with a population of 879, has a public water sup- ply obtained from a flowing well, 8 inches in diameter and 610 feet deep. The average daily pumpage at present is 21,000 gallons. About 80 per cent of the houses are connected with the supply. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of waters from various springs, creeks, lakes, and wells of Walworth county are shown in the following table. The waters of lowest mineral content are from the surface supplies of Nip- persink Creek and Lake Geneva. The water of the lake shows a lower content of lime than of magnesia, very probably due to the abstraction of lime by lime-secreting organisms living in the lake. The spring waters are all very hard carbonate waters. The analysis of the water of the Richmond spring at Whitewater, No. 9 made many years ago, seems to indicate, by the high content of the chlorine and or- ganic matter, that the spring was polluted by contaminated surface water. The analyses of well waters from the surface deposits and the sand- stone underlying the limestones of the county are much the same in character and content of mineral matter. All are either hard or very hard waters of moderate mineral content. The water supplies obtained from the Cincinnati shale, or from formations closely associated with it, are likely to be more highly mineralized than those shown in the table. The water from Lake Geneva, No. 2, contains 1.54 ipounds of incrust- ing solids in 1,000 gallons, while that from the railroad well at Lake Geneva, No. 11, contains 2.46 pounds in 1,000 gallons. 596 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF W18C0NSI\. Mineral analyses of water in Walworth County. (Analyses iu parts per million) in Lakes 3pring .. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Silica (SIO2) 13.3 2.0 3.6 0.5 9.5 1.1 i- 13. 2. 2.5 70.4 35.1 8.4 193.4 11.8 4.8 24. "ki.i I 225.2 12.8 4.2 12.5 0.8 0.9 93. 50. 3.8 255. 20.8 3.2 4. 15.8 0.7 0.5 113.6 62.3 25.2 345.6 7.7 6.5 Aluminium and iron oxides )■ (AI2O1 + FesOq) 20. Iron fPe) 3.8 Calcium (Ca) 61.7 26.7 7.5 153.4 32.4 3.2 4.2 29.6 30.0 8.5 115.0 11.4 8.8 26.7 26.9 ) 4.3 1 2.5 92.3 13.2 4.2 39.3 36.2 j- 14.8 160.0 7.5 2.4 114. 54.5 17.6 323.6 Potassium (K) f Carbonate radicle (00^) . Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD 2.7 29.5 43. 341. Total dissolved solids 300. 207. 175. 262. 400. 440. 578. 565. 1. Xippersink Creek, Genoa Junction, Analyst. G. M. Davidson, May 9, 1901. 2. Lake Geneva, Williams Bay, Analyst, G. JI. Davidson, July 9, 1909. 2. Lake Geneva, mean of four analyses at various depths. Analyst, E. B. Hall and C. Juday, Sept. 26, 1907, Wis. Sur. Bull. 22, p. 170. 4. Cravath Lake, Whitewater, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P., Sept. 20, 1889. 5. Gihon Spring, Delavan, Analyst, G. Bode, Geoloyy of Wis. Vol. 2, p. 146, 1877. 6. East Troy Spring, East Troy, Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, p. 31, 1S77. 7. Sheridan Spring, Lake Geneva, Anayst, G. Bode. 8. Sheridan Spring, Lake Geneva, Analyst, E. G. Smith. 9. Richmond Spring, Whitewater, Analyst, J. E. Garner, 1873, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, P. 31. Mineral analyses of loater in Walworth County— -Continued. Surface deposits. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Depth of well feet Silica (SiOs) 1 35. 6.7 52.9 25.9 9.7 112.6 66.0 1.3 8. 14.9 2.9 62.1 32.8 19.4 158.8 43.0 16.1 62. 26.2 13.3 65.6 34.6 0.2 159.9 38.2 0.3 7.3 75. 8.7 81.9 28.2 8.3 187.3 20.8 3.1 68. Undt . 70. 93. 144, 156. Aluminium and iron oxides > (AI2OS + FeaOs) I 0.9 69.0 34.7 2.3 176.4 19.2 3.6 Undt... 67.9 33.3 1.9 174.8 14.9 2.1 12.4 81.3 42.6 15.1 210.6 50.8 4.9 Undt. Calcium (Ca) 62.4 33.0 a. 3 159.7 43.2 Undt... 75.6 MaGfnesium (Mff) 41.0 Sodium and potassium 1 (Na+IO f Carbonate radicle (OO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD 23.1 212.8 38.7 9.4 rgranic matter Total dissolved solids 275. 350. 345. 338. 308. ,306. 295. 418. 401. 10. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Aliens Grove, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. April 11, 1891. 11. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Lake Geneva, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Sept. 1891. 12. Flowing well of Godfrey Price, Genoa Junction, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 11, 1908. 13. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Trov Center, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Uy. April 10, 1891. 14. Well of Chicago & L. G. Ey. Co., Walworth, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St P. Ey. Co., Aug. 27, 1900. 15. Well of Chicago & L. G. Ry. Co., Walworth, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. R.y. Co., Oct. 4, 1901. 10, AVell of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Walworth, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., July 20, 1901. 17. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Elkhorn, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co. ; Mar. 27, 1891. 18. Well of C. M. &,St. P. Ey. Co., Elkhorn, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. By. Co., Jan. 20, 1910. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 597 Mineral analyses of water in Walworth County — Continued. St. Peter sandstone. Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Depth of well feet 200. 315. 10.0 764.. 13.1 990. 1.3 957. 7.8 1,100. Silica (Si02) ; t'ndt... 0.9 Undt... (AI2O3+ FcOs) 1.3 0.3 65.4 39.9 3.4 194. 7.7 10.5 Iron (Fe) 1.5 67.3 33.9 6.9 0.9 193.5 3.0 1.1 Calcium (Ca) Maernesium (M") 79.4 36.4 \ 7.8 210.6 7.2 4.1 70.3 35.6 67.6 .WO 66.5 36.3 6.5 182.5 9.6 10.0 57.4 30.7 |- 28.5 ! 10.5 231.4 1 184.1 Trace 8.3 Trace; 16.2 Potassium (K) 41.6 209.9 Sulpliate radicle (S04> Chlorine (CO Trace.. 6.2 Phosphate radicle ( PO4) Organic matter. . 69.7 Total solids ' . 345. 318. 37Q 323. 330. ■ 312. 346. 1». Well of Wehver Wagon Works, Wbitcwater, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Dec. 2:j, 1909. f>0. Well of Mr. Blackman, Whitewater, Analyst, E. G. Smith. 21. Well of Yerke's bservatory, Williams Bay. 22. Private well, Whitewater, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Nov. 12, 1889. 23. Well of City Water Supply, Whitewater, Analyst, W. W. Daniells. 24. Well of City Water Supply, Whitewater, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Nov. 11, 1890. 25. City well Blkhorn, Analyst, G. X. Prentiss, Jan. 26, 1910. Washburn C'ouxty Washburn county, located in the northern part of the state, has aii area of 834 square miles, and a population of 8,196. About 27.2 per cent of the land is laid out in farms, of which 28.6 per cent is under cultivation: .SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is gently rolling, and is characterized by belts of drift hills and areas occupied by numerous lakes. The soils vary from silt loams to sandy gravelly soils. The principal rivers are the Totogatic, Nemakagon and Yellow, flowing westward to the St. Croix. Important lakes of the county are Spooner Lake, Shell Lake, Long Lake, Gilmore Lake and Pokegama Lake. The depths of some of the lakes are as follows : Pokegama, 22 feet ; Gilmore, 33 feet ; Shell Lake, 80 feet ; Long Lake, 78 feet. The highest portion of the county is in the southern part, in the vicinity of Shell Lake, Sarona, and farther east, where the general al- 598 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. titude is between 1,200 and 1,400 feet above sea level. Farther north, in the broad valleys of the Yellow, Nemakagon and Totogatic, the gen- ei'al altitude is between 1,000 and 1,200 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The glacial drift, and alluvial sand and gravel are the principal for- mations appearing at the surface. Only a few outcrops of crystalline rock appear along the river bottoms. The surface formation is usually very thick throughout the county. Many wells are from 50 to 100 feet deep without striking rock. In the southern part of the county the drift is usually from 100 to 200 feet thick. At Spooner the gravel and sand is at least 217 feet thick. The section. Fig. 23 illustrates the geo- logical structure of. Washburn and adjacent counties. WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The principal water-bearing formation is the thick mantle of sur- face formation overlying the crystalline rock'. This formation consists of abundant deposits of sand and gravel containing large supplies of good water. It is quite likely that there are beds of sandstone, in a few places, underlying the surface deposits and in such cases the sand- stone will furnish an additional supply. Abundant water is generally found at depths of 20 to 50 feet. In the valley bottoms the water level is near the surface. On the broad up-; lands about Sarona, Shell Lake, and Barronett there are manj^ farm wells from 75 to 125 feet deep in the drift. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Spooner. Spooner has a population of 1,453. It is located upon a nearly level, relatively sandy tract, bordering Yellow river, the outlet, of Spooner Lake. Its elevation is 1,094 feet above sea level. A public water supply was recently installed, but no general sewage system has been put in. The supply is obtained from the river, and a 217-ft. well, with 12 inch casing to bottom. Elevation of the curb is about the same as at station, 1,094 feet. The formation is mostly fine sand and gravel, with a gravel bed at the bottom. Estimated capacity of well is 300,000 gallons per day, and the daily pumpage is about 460,000 gallons. About 75 per cent of the houses are reported to connect with the city water supply. The sandy, gravelly formation, upon which the city is located. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUrPLIES. 599 furnishes an abundant supply of water at relatively shallow depths. The private wells are generally from 20 to 50 feet deep. The log of the Spooner City well showing the character of the sand and gravel formation, as determined by samples in possession of thie- Universitj', is as follows: Log of Spooner City Well. Formation. Sand DO sample Medium brown sand Pame. coarser and lighter Sand and sravel, pebbles of quartzite. trap and icranite Sandy calcareous clay Sand and gravel, pebbles of auartzite, sandstone trap and granite . Same but finer Same, finer red sand Pink quartz sand Coarse darlc red sand and fine gravel, quartz (and diorite) pebbles Coarse pinlj quartz sand Total depth. Depth. Feet. 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-140 140-160 160-180 180-200 200-215 215-217 217 Shell Lake. Shell Lake has a population of 902. It is located on Shell Lake, a body of water 4 to 5 square miles in extent. Its elevation is 1,241 feet above sea level. Water works, for fire protection and dom- estic services only, obtains its supply from the lake through an 8 inch intake 275 feet in length. The average daily pumpage is about 46,000 gallons. About 80 per cent of the population use the city supply. No sewage system is installed. The city is located upon an undulating shore reaching from 40 to 80 feet above the lake. The formation is a sandy loam soil with sandy, gravelly subsoil. The private wells are from 20 to 60 feet deep. QUALITY OF THE WATEE The water of Washburn county from ground water as well as surface sources is likely to be soft water throughout, essentially similar to that at Spooner, as indicated by the folloAving analysis. The city water at Spooner contains 0.88 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. 600 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Washburn County. (Analyses in parts per million) Surfaci' deposits. 1. Depth of well Silica (Si02) feet.... 217 16.8 Aluminium and iron oxides (Al -'Oj-f-PcOs) 1 5 Calcium (Ca) 24 5 7.2 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 1 8 Carbonate radicle (COs) 43 8 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 1 2 Chlorine (CI) 2 9 99 1. City water supply at Spooner. Analyst, G M. Davidson, C. & N. W. Ky. Co., July 1, 1902. "Washington County Washington county, located in the southeastern part of the state, has an area of 423 square miles and a population of 23,784. About 95.3 per cent of the county is in farms of which 66.1 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is an undulating plain sloping southeast- ward, being more undulating and hilly in the western part than in the eastern part. The cenrtal and eastern parts are drained by the Cedar river flowing south and east to join the Milwaukee, a tributary of Lake Michigan. The western part of the county is drained by the headwa- ters of the Rock river, flowing westward. Pike lake and Cedar lake, and a prominent belt of drift hills, the Kettle Range, are located in the western part. The valley bottoms of the eastern part of the county reach altitudes a little above 800 feet, about 200 feet above Lake Michigan, while those in the western part are between 900 and 1,000 feet. The upland ridges in the eastern part rarely exceed an altitude of 1,000 feet, while those in the western part generally reach 1,100 to 1,200 feet and in a few DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 601 places over 1,300 feet. The high drift hills of the Kettle Kangc south- east of Hartford in several places exceed 1,300 feet, the highest point, Holy Hill, reaching an altitude of 1,361 feet, about 360 feet above the valley bottom at the foot of the hill. Holy Hill is the highest point in southeastern Wisconsin, east of the Rock river valley. The range in the elevation in the eastern part is generally less than 150 feet, while the range in elevation in the western part is often 200 to 250 feet, and in a few places 300 to 350 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The geological formations of the county are the Niagara limestone and the overlying surface deposits of glacial drift. It is only along the Rubicon river west of Hartford that the Cincinnati shale is present. The drift is of variable thickness ranging frpm zero up to 150 or 200 feet. There are many places in this county where the drift is either not present or it lies in very thin deposits. The belt of irregular drift hills associated with small marshes, lakes and depressions, the Kettle Range trends northeastward across the western part of the county through the vicinity of Schleisingerville, West Bend and Kewaskum. The Niagara limestone is also of variable thickness on account of its general erosion before the drift was deposited upon it. The known maximum thickness of the Niagara is only 250 feet at West Bend but it is very probable that this formation may attain a thickness of 400 to 450 feet in many places in the county. The thickness of the Cincinnati shale at West Bend is reported to b? 200 feet. While this is probably the usual thickness it may slightly ex- ceed this in some places. At Hartford a well was drilled in 1900 to a depth of 890 feet striking hard quartzite rock at depth of only 541 feet. A well recently drillcil by the railroad at Rugby Jet., struck hard rock at depth of 840 feet. Ordinarily the depth to the granite floor in thi.s localit}- would be about 1,300 or 1,400 feet. The unusual nearness of the Pre-Cambrian at the above places is probably due to the fact that there are buried mounds of quartzite at theSe places, similar to the partially buried mounds and knobs of granite and quartzite that protrude up througli the sandstone and limestone formations farther west in the Pox river valley. The usual range in thickness of the formations in Washington county may be summarized as follows: 602 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Probahle range in thickness of formations in Washington County. Poi'mation. Surface deposits Ni agara limestone (partly eroded) Cincinnati stiale Galena-PlalteviUe (Trenton) limestone. St. Peter and Lower, Magnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. . Pre-Cambrian granite Thickness. Feet. to 250 200 to 450 180 to 220 200 to 250 200 to 250 600 to 800 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS All the geological formations are drawn upon for watef supplies, but the usual sources are the surface deposits of glacial drift and the under- lying Niagara limestone. It is only in a few deep wells that the for- mations underlying the Niagara limestone are drawn upon. In the val- ley bottoms southwest of Hartford, the source of supply is in the shale or the overlying drift. The drift wells obtain their supply from porous beds of sand and gravel in the drift at depths usually varying from a few feet up to 100 feet. Relatively shallow wells from 10 to 40 feet were formerly very common in the drift but the supply in the shallow wells is often inade- quate and many of the drift wells have been deepened and obtain their supply from the underlying rock, or at the contact of the rock and the drift. The Niagara limestone formation contains numerous Avater Ijearing fissures and wells are very common at depths varying from a few feet up to 100 feet. The drilled wells in limestone are more expensive than the shallow drift wells, but the water is usually of better quality and the supply larger and more constant. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells having their source in the drift and in the Niagara limestone are common on low ground adjacent to the Milwaukee anid Menomonee rivers and tributaries in the southeastern part of the county. In the city of West Bend and vicinity in Sections 14, 23 and 24, are numerous flowing wells from 15 to 150 feet deep, the source of the sup- ply being in gravel underlying relatively impervious glacial clays. These flowing wells depend on local conditions and flow under variable DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 603 pressure, the original head when first drilled being from 1 to 20 feet above the surface. In West Bend and also south of West Bend, the Niagara limestone under the drift yields flowing wells at various places. About Rock- field and South Germantown, over 30 flowing wells have been struck in Niagara limestone within an area 21/2 by 5 miles square. (See map PL III. and accompanying description of flowing wells, pages 83-4) . While flows are obtained in the drift (See PL IV.) and in the Niag- ara limestone (See PL III.) the water from the deeper lying strata such as the Galena-Platteville (Trenton), St. Peter and Upper iCambrian (Potsdam) is not under sufficient pressure to be brought to the surface anywhere in the county on account of the relatively high altitudes. This condition is shown by the deep city well in West Bend, the temporary flow of which was apparently derived from the Niagara formation. The artesian head of the St. Peter and Potsdam water probably does not reach the surface anywhere in Washington county. SPRINGS Springs are a quite common source of water supply in various parts of the county. They are quite common at the base of the drift hills of the Kettle Range in the western part, and are also abundant in the southeastern part in the drift and in the underlying limestone. Springs are also abundant along the Rubicon and Oconomowoc rivers within the horizon of the Cincinnati shale formation. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES West Bend. This city, situated on Milwaukee -river, has a popula- tion of 2,462. The city has a water supply and sewage system recently installed. The daily pumpage is 75,000 gallons. About 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the supply. The sewage is treated in septic tanks before emptying into the river. The weU for the public supply, 1,206 feet deep, was drilled by the city in 1900, showing the following section : 604 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Section of West Bend City Well. Formation. Drift; Soil Blue clay Hard pan Grayel Niagara: Linoestone Cincinnati: Shale Sandstone? Trenton, St. Peter, Potsdam Total depth Thickness. Feet. 50 5 250 200 691 1,206 Upon completion the water rose to within 4 feet of the surface. After 36 hours pumping the water rapidly dropped 16 feet, or to a depth of 20 feet below the surface. This heavy pumping, however, materially affected the wells at the brewery and other private wells, proving that considerable water was obtained from the Niagara horizon. It stopped the flow for a time of the West Bend Brewery Company's well at the malt house east of the river, but the latter regained its flow shortly after pumping ceased. Hartford. The population of Hartford, situated on Eubicon river, a branch of the Rock, is 2,982. The city has a water supply obtained from a well 126 feet deep. The sewage is emptied without pur- ification into the mill pond and river. Five hundred and seventy-five houses are connected with the water supply and many have sewer con- nection. The daily pumpage is about 200,000 gallons. The well from which the city supply is obtained is reported to be dug 10 feet in diameter for 66 feet, and drilled 60 feet in the drift. In 1900 a city well was drilled to a depth of about 900 feet, striking hard quartzitie rock, probably Pre-Cambrian quartzite, at about 500 feet. The incomplete record of this well is as follows : Log of Hartford City Well. Formation Thickness. Drift Feet. Niagrara limestone 30 4 507 159 Sandstone, taken for the St. Peter formation iO 159 Total depth 899 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. gQS F. M. Gray, Avell driller, states that "white quartz" was struck at 490 feet, and was drilled into for 500 feet without obtaining an ade- quate supply. Samples of drilling sent to the University, from 541 to 750 feet, are described as "quartzitic rock," varying in color from gray to red. A well drilled at flartford in 1911 is reported to have struck hard quartzite at 500 feet. It is apparent, therefore, from the records of several deep wells, that the normal thickness of the water-bearing strata is not obtained at Hart- ford, because of the occurrence of buried knobs of Pre-Cambrian quart- zite or granite similar to those that project above the surface at Bar- aboo, Waterloo, and in the Fox River valley. QUALITY OF THE WATER Analyses of various water supplies from the drift and the Niagara limestone are shown in the following table. Nearly all the waters an- alyzed are either hard or very hard, calcium carbonate waters. Most of the waters are of moderate mineral content. Six of those analyzed, however, should be classed with waters of high mineral content, and these are characterized by a relatively high content of sulphates. The waters analyzed in the table may be considered typical for the county. Waters from the Cincinnati shale and the underlying Galena- Platteville (Trenton) limestone are likely to be much higher in mineral content than those obtained from wells of moderate depth in the Ni- agara limestone or in the surface deposits. Waters from the underlying St. Peter and Potsdam sandstone may be only moderately mineralized or they may be highly mineralized, as illustrated in various localities ' of eastern Wisconsin. The water from the Creamery well at Jackson, No. 13, contains only 2.07 pounds of inerusting solids in 1,000 gallons, while that from the railroad well at Rockfield, No. 22, contains 4.53 pounds in 1,000 gallons, and the flowing well at Rockfield, No. 21, contains 9.21 pounds in 1,000 gallons. 606 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of water in Washington County.- (Analyses in parts per million) Mill Pond. Spring. Surface deposits (drift). 1. 2. 3, 4. 5. 6. 7. 14 2.4 83.5 38.9 7.6 179.1 66.4 11.6 14 Undt. 249.5 94.6 54.9 263.6 584.8 39.7 26.4 14 Undt. 231.9 86.6 37.2 248.5 572.3 Undt. 35 Silica (Si02) [undt 98.4 57.0 40 299.5 64.4 XJndt. Undt. 26.5 13.3 9.1 56.9 24.8 13.6 1.7 67.7 19.5 1.1 196.1 5.4 1.8 Aluminium and iron oxides (AI2O3+ PesOs) Undt. 122.7 Magnesium (Mff) 60.2 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 27.1 200.8 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 265.6 Chlorine (CD Undt. Nitrate radicle (NO3) 390. Total dissolved solids 559. 144. 293. 1314. 1177. 676. Surface deposits (drift). Niagara limestone. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Depth of well feet.. Silica (SIO2) 18 ( 20 Undt. 35 38 4.9 11.6 66.6 39.7 9.1 172.5 45.7 10.4 8.2 14 Undt. "ii'.i" 43.1 '5.2 187.7 68.4 45 20.0 1.0 37.8 36.8 10.5 137.8 19.0 12.1 51 Undt. 84 Undt. Aluminium and iron oxides (Al203+Fe2O3) Calcium (Ca) 97.4 42.0 11.5 204.9 72.2 17.7 65.8 43.9 9.3 182.7 30.5 14.4 75.5 44.3 18.6 181.5 80.3 20.7 98.9 52.8 ' 19.3 181.3 •136.0 43.4 78 4 43.4 Sodium and potassium (Na+K),. Trace. 181 2 Sulphate radicle (S04) 49 Chlorine (CI) 14 Total dissolved solids 446. 347.6 421. 361. 383. 275. 532. 366. s. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Mill Pond in Rubicon ri\er, Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 28, 1902. Mill Pond in River, Hartford, -inalyst, G. N. Prentiss, March 19, 1912. Richfield Spring, Richfield, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Rv. Co., July 9, 1889. Well & Pond, Hartford, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., July 10, 1889. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 15, 1902. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 28, 1902. Well at Malt House, Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, January 28, 1902. Well "Soo" Ry. Co., Schleischingerville, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 19, 1902. Well of Dow Maxon Creamery, Schleischingerville, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 19, 1902. Well of J. Grimm, Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 28, 1902. Well of Creamery at Germantown, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 6, 1900. Test well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Germantown, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 23, 1900. Well of Creamery at Jackson, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct. 15, 1896. Well of Hartford Plow Works, Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 15, 1902. Well of F. Hill, Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Jan. 15. 1902. DESCRIPTIOy OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 607 Mineral analyses of ivater in Washington County — Continued. Niagara lime»tone. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Depth of well feet.. Silica (Si02) 146 1- 202 1.4 164 54 5.9 1.0 75.4 49.6 11.0 212.8 36.6 16.9 58 7.0 1.3 75.4 49.2 16.1 225.2 16.1 24.9 130 7.3 1.0 283.5 61.0 89.0 311.5 176.2 5.9 200 10.4 Aluminium and iron o.xides {AI2O3+ FeaOa) 1.0 Caleium (Ca^ 65.6 16.8 95.0 208.4 85.7 1.6 64.1 32.3 13.3 187.9 4.4, 2.3 66. i 35.9 1.7 184.8 5.4 2.2 122.4 49.0 Sodium and DOtassium (Na+K) 5.0 Carbonate radicle (COa), 210.1 Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (Oil 156.7 3.9 Total dissolved solids .479. 306. 296. 409. 415. 936, 559. 16. IT. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ey. Co., Hartford, Analyst. G. N. Prentiss, Oct. 16 1902. Well. owner.unknown, Hartford, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, January 28, 1902. Well of Charles Stark, Schlelschlngerville, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 19, 1902. Farm well sixty rods from station, Rockfleld, Analyst, G. M. Davidson. Farm well eight rods east of Rockfleld Station, Analyst, G. M. Davidson. Farm well % mile west 'of Hockeld station, flowing well, analyst, G. M. Davidson. Artesian well 36 rods north of Eockfleld station, flowing well. Analyst. G. M. Dav- idson, Oct. 1897. Waukesha County Waukesha county, located in the southeastern part of the state, has an area of 562 square miles and a population of 37,199. About 93.9 per cent of the county is laid out in farms of which 69.9 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is a gently undulating plain mainly slop- ing southward. There are only a few points of prominent relief and these are located in the western part. A belt of hummocky drift hills, the Kettle moraine, associated with numerous lakes, lies across the west- ern part of the county. In the eastern part the valleys are broad and the uplands gently sloping. In the western part the topography is more abrupt. The county is mainly drained by the Fox river (of Illinois) whose headwaters gather in the central part and flow south. The eastern part is drained by streams flowing eastward to Lake Michigan, and the west- em part by streams flowing west to the Rock river. There are numer- 608 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCO^JSIN. ous lakes in the county, the principal ones being Muskego lake in the southeastern part, and the large group of lakes in the nortliwcstern part, between Pewaukee and Oconomowoe. The lowest altitiides in the county are in the southeastern and eastern parts, about 760 feet above sea level along the Fox river and in the vicinity of Muskego Lake, and along the Menominee river bclo^\- Men- ominee Falls. The altitudes of the lakes in the northwestern part are as follows: Altitudes of Lakes in Waukesha County. Pewaukee Lake. . . Naeawicka Lake. . Oconomowoe Lake Okauchee Lake... Pine LakB Nehabin Lake Nashotah Lake , . . . North Lake Lake Keesus Feet above sea level. 852 890 862 873 903 870 871 897 958 The upland ridges in the eastern part reach altitudes of 950 to 1,050 feet, while the uplands in the western part often reach 1,050 to 1,150 feet. The highest point in the county. Government Hill, reaches an altitude of 1,230 feet, 343 feet above Pewauked Lake, two miles to the north. While the range in elevation in the county is nearly 500 feet, the usual difference in elevation between valley bottom and adjacent upland is less than 150 feet and rarely exceeds 250 feet. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The Niagara limestone is the bed rock formation in the eastern three- fourths of the county. Along the western border is a belt 5 to 10 miles wide of the Cincinnati shale and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) lime- stone. The glacial drift of variable thickness overlying the rock forms a well defined belt of terminal moraine extending north and south in the western part of the county. The geological structure is illustrated in Fig. 51, p. 451. The thickness of the Niagara limestone is variable on account of the extensive erosion of this formation. At Waukesha it has a known thick- ness of 230 feet, but the probable maximum thickness on ridges thinly covered with d^-ift may reach 350 to 400 feet. The total thiclmess of DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER HUPPLIE8. ggO the Ciiicinuati shale is probably 150 to 200 feet, and of the Galcna- Platteville (Trenton) limestone 250 to 300 feet. In the western part of the county where these formations outcrop or underlie the drift, the entire formations are not present on account of erosion. The thickness of the St. Peter sandstone and Lower Magnesian lime- stone formations combined is about 250 feet, and of the Upper Cam- brian (Potsdam) sandstone 800 to 900 feet. The probable range in thickness of the geological formations in Wau- kesha county may be summarized as follows : Probable range in thickness of formations in Waukesha Comity. Formation . Surface formation Niagara limeslone Cincinnati shate Galena-Platteville iTrenton) limestone. St. Petpr and Lower Magnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone.. Pre-Cambrian granite Tliicliness, Fept. to 300 to 400 140 to 200 250 to 350 2t0 to 250 700 \o900 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARIX(3 HORIZONS The water-bearing horizons are mainly the Niagara limestone and the glacial,drift. In the deep wells the underlying sandstone of the tSt. Peter and the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) formations are drawn upon. Tne water level in the drift is generally less than 100 feet below the surface on the uplands and very near the surface in the valleys. An abundant supply of water can usually be obtained within the porous drift or in the upper surface of the immediately underlying formation of rock. FLOWING WELLS Both surface and deep flowing wells occur in Waukesha county. Plowing wells, however, are not abundant, and those that have been developed generally flow at low pressure. Several flowing wells have been drilled at Pcwaukee from 25 to 125 feet deep, the source of the flow being at the contact of the drift with the underlying Niagara limestone. The wells are cased 25 to 35 feet to the limestone and the water rises only 2 to 4 feet above the surface. 39— W. S. 610 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. There are several shallow flowing wells at Waukesha. A surface flow- ing well, 114 feet deep, 100 feet in the Niagara limestone, is reported at Waukesha having a flow of 11 feet above the surface. Similar flows occur near Big Bend, at Stone Bank and near Fu^sville. It is quite probable that other surface flowing wells occur in various parts of the county on low ground adjacent to lakes, streams and marshes, but information concerning them is not now at hand. Flowing wells from deep wells drawing their supply from the St. Pe- ter and Potsdam sandstones are known to occur only at one place in the county, at the Gault farm near Mukwonago. The head of this well is about 10 feet above the surface, an altitude of about 830 feet. , Lo- calities favorable to the development of flows may prevail along the Fox river valley up to altitudes of 830 feet. On the other hand, the water in the deep city wells at Waukesha, altitude of curb 815 feet, stands 40 feet below the surface, or only reaches a head of 775 feet, 20 feet lower than at Burlington, and over 50 feet below that at Muk- wonago. In the deep wells at Eagle, Menominee Falls and Oconomowoe the water stands from 38 to 15 feet below the surface. SPRINGS Springs are an important source of water supply in Waukesha county. They are especially abundant in the v.-estevii part of the county in the zone of the outcrop of the Cincinnati shale. These springs issue either directly from the shale or from the overlying drift, or from the overlying Niagara limestone near the contact with the shale. Near the base of the drift hills of the Kettle Range in the western part of the county springs are also of common occurrence. Mineral springs furnishing large supplies of mineral water for the market are important, the various mineral springs at Waukesha being well known throughout America. (See list of Waukesha Springs, page 123). The Waukesha springs are examples of the numerous lime car- bonate springs that issue at various points from the Niagara limestone. Mineral springs that formerl.y supplicil the market arc Icc.itcJ in th-^ vicinity of Pewaukee and Oconomowoe. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND MLLA(5ES Waiikesha- Waukesha, located on the Fox river, has a population of 8,740. The water supply is obtained from the river and five artesian wells. The average daily pumpage is 746,000 gallons. The sewage is DESCRIPTJON OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. QH discharged into the Fox river, after being treated in a septic tank or filter bed. Only about 75 per cent of the houses are connected with the water supply and sewerage system. The well water supply is obtained from 5 artesian wells, one 41/2 inches in diameter and 1,500 feet deep, and four 6 to 10 inches in di- ameter and 1,000 feet deep.^ The water stands 40 feet below the surface when not pumping. With the air lift system, three of the 1,000 foot wells yielded 700 gallons per minute and the 1,500 foot well 225 gallons, at which rate the water was lowered 55 feet, to a depth of 95 feet. The expense of operating the air pump was so great that two new wells were drilled, 12 feet apart, in which two continuous air pumps were installed, which furnished 700 gallons per minute with a lowering of 55 feet. The strata passed through in the 1,500 foot well as reported by F. M. Gray of IMilwaukee are as follows : ]j< g of Waukesha Well. Aliitude of curb S15 feet. Formation, Drift Niasrara limestone Cincinnati shale < Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. St. Peter sandstone Lower Maernesian limestone Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... Total depth Thickness. Feet. 230 160 300 60 80 670 1,500 Oconomoicoc. Oconomowoc situated on Lac La Belle, has a popula- tion of 3,054. The city water supply is obtained from a 10-inch well, 828 feet deep. The average daily pumpage is 114,000 gallons. A sew- erage system was recently installed. The sewage is emptied without treatment into the Oconomowoc river a branch of the Rock river. About 50 per cent of the houses are connected with the M'ater supply. Heavy pumping in the city well has not lowered the water more than 15 feet. The supply is used for all city purposes. Shallow private wells draw their water chiefly from the drift, and range in depth from 100 to 150 feet. A second well, 750 feet deep, was recently drilled for the water works. Montgomery Ward has two deep wells at his summer home near the city, the logs of which are as follows : ^W. G. Kirchoffer, Bui. Univ. Wis., No. 106, p. 223. 612 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Logs of Wells of Montgomery Ward, Oconomoivoc. Formation. Well No. 1. lhicUue». WfU No. 2. thickness. Feet. 890 40 100 254 100 6 Feet. 896 Pleistocene. 30 Hard pan 120 Galena-Trenton, 260 St. Peter. 80 lied sandstone Depth 500 Lower Magrnesian. 100 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam . 310 Red marl .■ 50 495 Hard gTi,v rock -■ 15 Pre-Cambrian. Very hard gray and red rock in layers of varying color 190 Depth 1650 Menomonee Falls. The population is 919. The Wisconsin Sugar Company in 1896 sunk a well in which it is rcpoi'ted, granite was struck at 1,375 feet. No record of the well is available, but the reported gran- ite may be a buried knob similar to those occurring in the Fox river valley. It is possible also that the rock was a very hard sandstone such as that encountered in some of the wells farther south. In the latter case it is very probable that all the available water bearing rock was not penetrated, since the well had not penetrated more than the upper portion of the Potsdam sandstone. Besides this deep well the company has 4 other Avells sunk into the limestone. An attempt is now being made to increase the supply to 400 gallons per minute by lengthening the pump shaftings and pumping the water from greatei depths. In the above 1375 foot well, F. M. Gray reports that 400 feet of sand- stone was struck at 775 feet, and hard granite from 1175 to 1375 feet. Eagle. Mr. W. L. Thorn, a driller at Whitewater, put in an artesian well at Eagle for the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Eailway Com- pany in 1903. Pumping 6,000 gallons per hour drew down the w^atcr from 38 to 87 feet below the surface. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 613 Log of C. M. & St. P. R. R. Well at Eagle. Formation. Clay and gravel Cincinnati shale, soft (cased) Galena-Trenton . Light colored limestone. . Blue limestone St . Peter sandstone Depth Thickness. Feet. 130 120 50 237 20 557 Hartland. Hartland, with a population of about 800, has no public water supply. The wells are in drift and are usually about 30 to 60 feet deep. Pewaiikee. Pewaukee, located at the east end of Pewaukee lake, has no public water supply. The wells are usually in drift and are gener- ally 20 to 40 feet in depth. The well at the Bdgewood Farms near Pewaukee has the following log, as interpreted by F. T. Thwaites from examination of the driller's record and samples: Log of Edgewood Farms Well, Pewaukee. Formation. Pleistocene : Gravel Niagara : Very hard dolomite • Cincinnati: Shale with beds of 1 imestone Galen a-Platteville : Very hard dolomite St. Peter; White sandstone with seams of shalb , Lower Ma^nesian: Sandstone with seams of limestone and shale Potsdam : White sandstone Bed sandstone with seams of marl — ■ . ■■ Hard white to brownish sandstone, flne-erained and calcareous Hard ffra.y to brownish sandstone, somewhat coarser grained. . . Pre-Cambrian : Gray blotite granite Total depth Thickness. Feet. 50 130 205 215 59 76 119 50 146 165 33 1,248 In this well, it will be observed, the Pre-Cambrian was struck at a depth of 1215 feet without having penetrated the normal thickness of the Potsdam sandstone, indicating the presence of a buried knob of granite in this locality similar to those exposed in the Fox river valley 614 T^E WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. and encountered in some of the wells at Hartford and Menomonee Falls. QUALITY OF THE WATER Mineral analyses of various water supplies of Waukesha county are shown in the following tables. Many of the analyses, it will be noted, are of the various well known mineral springs located at "Waukesha and in other parts of the county. Some of the analyses were made 40 or 50 years ago, while some are of recent date. In some instances where more than one analyses of a spriiig water is available, these show a close similarity in mineral content, while in other cases, considerable differ- ence in the mineral content is indicated by the analyses. All of the spring waters are calcium and magnesium carbonate wa- ters, and in respect to hardiiess should be classed as either hard waters or very hard waters. Nearly all are of moderate mineral content, gener- ally ranging between 254 and 462 parts per million. Two of the analy- ses, Nos. 9 and 17, are unlike the others in respect to mineral content as well as composition; No. 9 being very high in iron, and No. 17 high in magnesium sulphate. It is possible that these two may not repre- sent natural waters but may have been treated in preparing for the market. The mineral analyses of the well waters from the surface deposits and from deep wells reaching the St. Peter and the Potsdam sandstones show much the same content and characters of mineralization. All the well waters are calcium and magnesium carbonate waters of moderate mineral content, and nearly all are very hard waters. Waters obtained from the Cincinnati shale or adjacent formations are likely to be more highly mineralized with sulphates than those shown in the tables. The water from the well of the Waukesha Spring Brewing Co., No. 33, contains 3.30 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons, and that from the C. & N. W. Ry. well at Sussex No. 47, contains 4.26 pounds in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 615 Mineral analyses of icater in Waukesha County. (Analyses in parts per million) Springs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Silica (SIO2) Aluminium oxide ( AhOs) Iron (Fe) 12.7 2.1 0.2 68.2 35.2 1 17.7 f 3.5 200.8 9.6 8.0 34. 9.6 1.6 0.3 58.3 26.1 \ 6.8 158. 4.2 trace 5.3 12.5 4.0 trace 73.6 34. 8. 194.5 14.3 1.8 2.6 12.3 3.1 70.6 37.3 (48.3 7 6.2 218.9 68.4 13.0 trace 25.8 trace trace 87.9 41.3 10.8 7.4 186.2 75.1 28.0 trace 14.4 4. 19. 12. 10. 1.1 Calcium (Ca) 65. 30. 21. 179.8 11. 7. 70.6 40.2 16.5 216.2 12. 3. trace 67.9 Masrnesiutn {M.g) 33 6 Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) 14.7 186.5 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 3.4 Chlorine (CD 19.9 Organic matter Total dissolved solids 358. 265. 343. 481. 463. 332. 378. 740. Silica (=102) Aluminium oxide (AI2O3) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium { K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) •■ Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Total dissolved solids. . 20.8 7. 64.4 79.1 46.4 76.8 1- 302.1 96.8 46.9 740. 10. 16.7 7.2 trace 44.0 32.3 2.8 1.3 140. 10.9 4.2 259. 11. 2.6 0.6 74.5 38.4 10.8 2.2 208.8 2.8 14.9 12. 18. 365. trace 80. 26.4 22.7 195. 12.6 12. 367. 13. 1.0 0.1 47.6 30.8 92.7 53.7 38.8 287. 8.1 1.5 56.9 27.1 19.0 15.9 149.1 35.3 14.5 328. 11.3 1.5 0.3 68.7 31.0 7.1 3.5 179.8 14.8 3.2 321. NOTE: Phosphate radicle (POJ 0.5 in No. 4. trace in Nos 1, 5, 11, 13, 14, 1.5. Lithium (Li) 0.17 in No. 26, Trace in Nos. 10, 11. ,- , o „ tap 1. Bethesda Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, C. F. Chandler, Geol. of Wis. \ol. 2, p. 146, 1877 2. Fountain Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, J. V. Z. Blaney, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, p. 146, 1877 - 3. Horeb Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis., Vol. 2, p. 146, 187 1 4. Hygeia Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, O. A. Thiele. 5. Hygeia Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, W. S. Hames 6. Lathean Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, G. Bode Geol of Wis Vol 2 p. 7 Mineral Rock Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, G. Bode, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, 8. Silurian Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, W. S. Haines. TJr.»r,H« 9 Waukesha Imperial Iron Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss. 10. Waukesha Imperial Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, B. Hautke. 11. Waukesha Lithian Spring, Waukesha, Analyst W. S. Haines. 12. White Rock Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, G Bode, Geol. of Wis. Vol. 2, p. 146, isd. 13. White Rock Spring, Waukesha, Analyst, O. Textor, 1»»9- 14 Crystal Rock Sprine, Waukesha, Analyst, Davenport Fisher. 15. Arcadian Spring, Waukesha. 32, 1877. ■p. 31, 187T. 616 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. Mineral analyses of tcater in Waukesha County — Continued. Springs. 16. 17. 18 19. 20. 21 22. Silica (SIO2) 11.8 20.4 ( - 9.1 6.6 26.7 16.7 I Aluminium and iron oxides / AloOR-!-Fe')0aeo ;-t..... m:- vvvvvvvvvvv vvvvvvvvvvvvv VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVv VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV V V V V - » » V — ^i- V. vyvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv v v v v v v v v'v'v'v^ VV^/VVV^/V^ /V v.y v y y w \l V V V V V V V V V V V s>.^/,X./ Kg. 69. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern Waupaca County. The thickness of the surface formations is variable on account of the uneven surface upon which the deposits were laid, and also on ac- count of the unequal deposition of drift. The known maximum thick- ness of the surface deposits is 214 feet at Weyauwega, but the pre- glacial valleys are likely to be over 300 feet deep. The thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is quite variable on account of the extensive erosion of this formation. The complete thickness of the sandstone is preserved only in the southeast- ern part where it is protected by the overlying Lower Magnesian lime- stone. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations in the county may be summarized as follows : Approxiviate range in thickness of formations in Waupaca County. Formation . Surface formation Lower Magnesian limestone Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. Pre-Oambriaii granite Thlclcness. Feet. Oto 350 Oto 100 to 500 620 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The chief water-bearing horizons are the "Potsdam" sandstone and the surface deposits of sandy alluvium and the drift. Most of the wells in the county are relatively shallow. The deepest wells range between 200 and 250 feet in depth. FLOWING WELLS At New London and Weyauwega and many other places along the Wolf river valley, artesian flows are obtained. Most if not all the flawing wells obtain their supply from the surface deposits. Most of these wells have a low head less than 10 feet above the surface. At Northport, however, the head of some of the important wells is between 25 and 30 feet above the surface. See also "Flowing wells along the Wolf river valley," pages 95-6. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Waupaca. The population if Waupaca, located on Waupaca River, is 2,789. The city water supply is obtained from a mill pond in the cen- ter of the city, and from a system of driven wells, and is pumped to a storage reservoir at a high elevation. The public water supply is used only to a very small extent for drinking purposes. The average daily pumpage is 243,000 gallons. The river supply is not filtered or other- wise purified^ and is not satisfactory. The supply from ground water sources is from 20 wells, about 50 feet deep in sand. The Pre-Cam- brian granite lies at the surface and immediately beneath the surface at Waupaca ; hence ground water must be obtained at relatively shallow depths in the surface sand. With a properly arranged system of wells, however, there is no reason why an adequate supply of good ground- water cannot be obtained. Private wells are generally from 10 to 30 feet deep. A sewage system was recently constructed, the sewage now being treated in two septic tanks and emptied into the Waupaca Riv- er. A large per cent of the families use the city water, and many have private sewers. New London. New London, population 3,385, is located on Wolf River. This city has a city water supply and sewerage system. Former- ly the water supply was obtained from Wolf River which did not prove satisfactory. An artesian source of water supply from flowing wells about 200 feet deep was recently placed in operation. The average DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 621 daily piimpage from the river was formerly about 80,000 gallons and only about 5 per cent of the residences connected with the city supply. Since the new artesian supply has been installed the use of the city sup- ply has been greatly increased. A sewage system was recently installed, the sewage being emptied, without purification, into the river. The water supply for drinking purposes, before the new artesian sys- tem was installed, was mainly taken from wells 20 to 40 feet deep. Some of the artesian wells on low ground near the river flow as high as thirteen feet above the surface. There are a number of flowing wells ranging from 110 to 220 feet in depth in the sand and gravel. (See Artesian Flows along "Wolf River, pp. 95-6). ClMonville. Clintonville, with a population of 1,747, has water- works and sewage systems, the water being obtained from 6 shallow wells. About 35 per cent of the houses are connected with the water- works. The sewage is emptied, without purification, into the Pigeon River. Weya^lwega. This village located on the Wolf river, has a popula- tion of 967. The water supply is obtained from open dug wells, many of which are 20 to 30 feet deep. There are a few bored wells 50 to 60 feet deep. There are a few flowing wells from the drift ranging in depth from 22 to 214 feet. Two of the flowing wells, 212 and 214 feet deep, reached the granite. The water in five of these flowing wells rises from 18 to 25 feet above ground. Three wells on IMain Street, 30 feet deep, are used for fire purposes. Nortliport. Population about 185. In Northport are four flowing wells owned by S. W. Fenton, H. M. Taylor, M. Babeock and Wm. J. Barlow, in which the water has a head from 20 to 27 feet above the sur- face. These wells are in sand and gravel from 60 to 110 feet deep. Fremont. Population about 300. Two flowing wells in this village, 133 and 226 feet deep flow respectively 8 and 3 feet above ground. Manawa. Population 820. The water supply is obtained from com- mon wells 15 to 75 feet deep in sand and drift. lola. The village of Tola, population 850, is located on the south branch of the Little Wolf river. The water supply is obtained from common wells 30 to 70 feet deep, in clay and gravel. Marion. The village of Marion, population 798, obtains its water supply from private wells 25 to 150 feet deep, in drift and granite, the latter forming a prominent ledge in the village. 622 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. QUALITY OF THE WATEK The mineral analyses of water supplies at New London and Clinton- ville are shown in the following table. The waters analyzed are hard waters of moderate mineral content, calcium and magnesium carbonates being the predominating constituents. These waters are quite similar in character and content of mineralization, and are probably typical for only a portion of the geological formations of the county. The sup- plies obtained from the granitic rocks, or from sand not associated with the red clays, or limestone-bearing drift, are likely to be less mineral- ized than those quoted in the table, and more like the waters analyzed from Waushara County, (p. 626). The water from Wolf River, and other surface supplies, probably contain about one-half as much min- eral matter as the spring and well water quoted in the table below. The spring water of analysis No. 1, contains 2.87 pounds of incrust- ing solids in 1,000 gallons of water; No. 2, contains 1.92 pounds, and No. 3, 1.72 pounds of incrustiug solids in 1,000 gallons, and all would be classed as poor for boiler use. Mineral analyses of water in Waupaca County. (Analyses in parts per million) Lalies. Spring. Surface depOMts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Depth of well feet 32 21.7 3.7 70.9 38.0 9.0 163.3 59.1 13.9 20 Silica (SiOo) 22.6 2.2 45.7 27.9 2.4 2.0 133.0 10.5 2.4 18.2 2.5 31.8 17.7 3.0 3.1 8a. 10.4 2.5 19.4 2.2 22.2 16.0 2.3 3.3 69.2 8.8 4.2 i 14.05 63.87 31.85 2.91 "m.u" 22.42 4.45 J 19.5 1 3.0 67.5 34.0 [ 5.2 191.9 32.3 4.8 18.5 Aluminiam and iron oxides (Al20a + Fe203) 2.0 69.5 M ag'nesium ( Ms) 37.3 Sodium (Nal 191.9 Sulphate radicle (904) 6.9 Clilorine (CD 6.9 Total dissolved solids 249. 178.2 147.6 300. 358. 380. 338. 1. Lake Beasly, mean of 3 analyses, Analysts, E. B. Hall and C. Juday, Sept. 9, 1907, Wis. Survey Bull. 22, D. 170. 2. Long Lake„ mean of 2 analyses. Analysts, B. B. Hall and C. Juday, Sept. 9, 1907, Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. .". Eainbow Lake, mean of 2 analyses. Analysts, B. B. Hall and O. Juday, Sept. 10, 1907, Wis. Survey Bull. 22, p. 170. 4. Spring of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., New. London, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, May 28, 1912, 5. Spring of Wisconsin Chair Co., New London, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Oct., 29, 190S. 6. Well of C. & N. W. Ey. Co., Clintonvllle, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, May 24. 1909. 7. Drive weU 75 ft. W. of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Freight Depot, Clintonvllle, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Aug. 1895. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 623 Waushara County Waushara county, located in the central part of the state, has an area of 639 square miles and a population of 18,886. About 88.6 per cent of the county is in farms of which 61.8 per cent is under cultiva- tion. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Waushara county is undulating, consisting of valley bottom lands and sloping uplands. The western border of the county in the locality of Plainfield and Hancock is a level alluvial plain, like that over much of Adams county. The billowy drift hills of the ter- :':• V: '.4^i^f^t'.<^i^4'/^f^?7^.^:'ff\; vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv 7^) V v/ V V"v" V vvvvvvvvvvvv^' ^6-^' '^VfVVV'VVVVVVVVVV V V V V V V V V V V V V V ^re £^»^^fva/r vvvvvvvvvvvvv, v Fig. 70. — Geologic section, east-west, across central Waushara County. minal moraine of the Green Bay lobe extend north and south across the western part of the county at Coloma, and a short distance east of Plainfield. West and north of Wautoma the land rises in a series of bluffs reaching its greatest height about ten miles from Wautoma and forming the divide between the waters of the Wisconsin river flowing towards the west and those of the Wolf river flowing towards the east. To the south and east of Wautoma the land descends to the Fox river and Lake Poygan in the eastern part of the county. The altitudes range from about 750 feet along the Fox river and Lake Poygan to about 1,200 feet in the western part on the divide be- tween the Wolf and the Wisconsin rivers. In the valley bottoms near Fox river and Lake Poygan red and dark colored clay soils occur. Over the remaining parts of the county, loams, sandy loams and sandy soils prevail. GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS The principal geological formations outcropping at the surface or lying immediately beneath the surface deposits of drift and alluvium is the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. The only other rock for- 624 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. mation in the county is the granite occurring as isolated mounds and knobs in the vicinity of Red Granite and Pine River. The geolog- ical section is shown in Fig. 70. Red lacustrine clays are quite prevalent in the valleys in the eastern part of the county. The clays appear at the surface and are also in- terstratified with beds of sand and gravel to a variable depth, develop- ing good artesian slopes in which numerous excellent surface flowing wells have been obtained. The thickness of the surface clays and grav- els in the valleys is variable and probably reaches a maximum of 250 to 300 feet. The thickness of the glacial drift ranges from a few feet up to over 100 feet in the morainic belt, extending across the western part of the county. The thickness of the sandstone is very irregular on account of the extensive erosion of the strata before the surface f orma-^ tions were deposited upon it. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Waushdra County. l''orma ion. Surface formation Upper Cambrian (Potsdam sancliioin') Pre-Carabrian trranite Thiclcness. Feet. to 300 to 7.50 l=RINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The water-bearing formations are the "Potsdam" sandstone and the surface deposits of the glacial drift and the alluvial sands and gravels. These formations are excellent water bearing strata and furnish an abundant supply of water. On the top of the divide between the Wolf and Wisconsin rivers the depth to water is 100 to 150 feet, the wells gen- erally penetrating some depth into the sandstone formation. On lower ground in the valleys shallow wells in the surface deposits are most common. The granite formations outcropping in the eastern part of the county can furnish but a small supply, though, where necessary, sufficient for farm purposes can.be obtained. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 625 FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells from the surface deposits in the wide valleys adjacent to Lake Poygan constitute an important source of supply. In this locality artesian slopes are deveolped by the superposition of relatively impervious clay beds over pervious beds of sand and gravel, the strata dipping gently down the valleys towards the lake. The water in the sand and gravel under the clay beds is under sufficient pressure to rise above the surface a few feet on the bottom and lower slopes of the val- leys. The flowing wells at Aurorahville on Willow Creek have been in use for many years. This area of flowing wells in eastern Waushara county is characteristic of large portions of the Fox River valley and is more fully described in another place (See pages 92-5). SPRINGS Springs are a common source of water supply in the valleys in the eastern part of the county. On higher land in the central part where sandstone outcrops along the streams| springs are likely to occur. A well known mineral spring is located at Wautoma. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Wautoma. The population of Wautoma is 964. The wells are gen- erally driven wells. There are some very low places in the village where the water level is very close to the surface, but in most places it is-^t a depth of from 10 to 20 feet. The fire department, equippea with a gasoline engine, obtains its water supply from a well about 15 to 20 feet deep and 10 to 12 feet in diameter. The well has not been pumped dry, although at times it is drawn down about 10 feet. Plainfield. The population is 723. The water supply is obtained from private wells, 20 to 60 feet deep in sand and gravel. Aurorahville. There are a number of flowing wells in Aurorahville that obtain their supply from alluvial sand and gravel. The wells are in the shallow artesian slope in the valley of Fox River and are more fully described in another place. (See page 92). 40— W. S. • 626 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. QUALITY OF THE WATER The mineral analyses of the various water supplies of Waushara coun- ty are shown in the foUowingf table. All the waters are hard waters of moderate mineral content. Calcium carbonate is the predominant constituent. The spring water at Wautoma is the highest in mineral content and is relatively high in iron and manganese. The surface waters from White River and the creek at Red Granite Jnnction are very similar in content of mineralization to the well watci's in sur- face, deposits. The various analyses in the table are probably typical in a general way for most of the county. Waters from deep wells in the sandstone, or from surface sands associated with or below red clays, are likely to be higher in mineral content than those quoted in the table. The water from the well in Wautoma, No. 4, contains 1.33 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analyses of water in Waushara County. (AiiaI.VM>~! in part.^ per million) Eiveis. Spring. Surface deposits. • 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Tipnth of well feet 28. 12.0 35.6 94. 12.1 3.4 297. Silica (9102) Aluminium and iron oxides (AlsOaH- FeaOa) 13.9 1.5 11.4 Trace. 27.9 12.3 1.8 4.2 6 2.1 50.8 23.8 J 4.11 I 1.5f 142.1 • !•? .5 258. Trnn C Pp) 46.4 26.3 135.5 35.0 18.7 7.5 82. 10.8 2.8 44.3 8.7 5.2 85.2 10.5 3.5 31.6 18.6 3.3 83.5 44.8 MagnesiaP (Mg) 25.2 Sodium (Na J 1.5 129.2 Sulnhatp radicle fSOi) Chlorine (CD 2.8 5.2 2.4 Total dissolved solids 228. 168. 233. 158. 217. 1. White River, Wautoma, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Marcli. 1901. 2. Creek outlet of lalte at ISed Granite .Tct, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Dec. 1901. S, Rainbow Spring , Wautoma, Analyst, W. W. Daniells. 4. Well of C. & N. W. Rv. Co.. Wautoma, Analyst, G. M. Davidson. Marcli. 1901. 5. Well of C. & N. W. Ky. Co., Wild Rose, Analyst. G. M. Davidson, Feb. 11. 1901. 6. Well of C. & N. W. Ry. Co., Wild Rose, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, Jan. 1902. DBSCRIPIUON OF LOCAL WATER SVPPLIES. g27 Winnebago County AVinuebago county, located on the west side of Lake Winnebago in tlic east central part of the state, has an area of 472 square miles and a population of 62,116. About 88.7 per cent of the county is in farms, of which 72 per cent is under cultivation. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of the county is quite gently sloping with slightly un- dulating and hilly areas in the western part. The land has a gentle slope to the east toward Lake Winnebago. The broad gently sloping depression occupied by Lake Butte des Morts, and Lake Poygan ex- tends westward through the central part. A belt of hummocky drift hills trends north and south through the central part. The elevation of Lake Winnebago is 746.1 feet and of Lake Poygan 746.6 feet above the sea, about 166 feet above Green Bay and Lake Mich- igan. The land surface is characterized by moderate reliefs only, the highest ridges and uplands probably rarely exceeding 200 feet above Lake Winnebago. GEOLOGICAL FORilATIONS The geological formations are the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sand- stone, the Lower Magnesian limestone, the St. Peter sandstone and the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone. The area of outcrop of these formations forms belts trending northeast-southwest, the Upper Cam- brian sandstone being in the western part of the county and the Ga- lena-Platteville limestone in the eastern. Over these rock formations is a variable amount of glacial drift and river sand, and silt. The red lacustrine clay is the prevailing surface formation, very generally oc- cupying the basin of Lake Winnebago and the Fox river. The geo- logical sti'ucture is illustrated in Fig. 71. The thickness of the surface formations is variable on account of the uneven surface of the rock formation upon which they are de- posited. In the valleys of the pre-glacial rivers a thickness of 200 to 300 feet of river sand, gravel and clay may be expected. This con- dition is indicated by a deep well at Winneconne, which penetrated 190 feet of alluvial deposit before reaching the sandstone. Outside 628 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. the buried pre-glacial valleys the glacial drift and other surface de- posits are usually less than 100 feet in thickness. The thickness of the rock formations is also quite variable on account of the unequal erosion of the strata, and also in part on account of vari- ation in thickness of strata originally deposited. The Pre-Cambrian Fig. 71. — Geologic section, east-west, across southern Winnebago County. granite floor lies at a depth of 426 feet below the surface at Winnecon- ne, and at a depth of 680 to 714 feet below the surface at Oshkosh. The character of the Lower Magnesian and St. Peter varies as in all other parts of the state, and consists largely of limestone in some places, and largely of sandstone and shale in other places. In some of the weUs in Oshkosh, as at the city well on Algoma street, the Lower Magnesian formation consists largely of limestone, but in most other wells in the city the Lower Magnesian horizon appears to be largely sandstone and shale. The base of the Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone in Osh- kosh appears to be reached at a depth of 70 to 125 feet below the sur- face, below which the strata are usually, as shown in the well records cited on page 631, either sandstone or sandstone and shale, until the Pre-Cambrian is reached. The approximate range in thickness of the geological formations in the county may be summarized as follows : Approximate range in thickness of formations in Winnebago County. Formation. Tliiclcness. Surface formation Galena-Platteville (Trenton) limestone . St. Peter and Lower Magnesian Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone... Pre-Cambrian granite Feet. to 300 to 200 150 to 200 400 to 500 DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 629 PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING HORIZONS All the geological formations are drawn upon for water supplies, but the most important sources are the surface deposits of sand and gravel under the red clay, and the sandstone which outcrops in the western part of the county and underlies the limestone in the eastern part. The limestone of the Lower Magnesian and the Galena-Platteville forma- tions in the areas of their respective outcrop also yield abundant sup- plies from the open fractures and fissures which extend throughout these formations. Most of the wells in Oshkosh, as at Fond du Lac, ap- pear to indicate that the usual horizon of the Lower Magnesian forma- tion is occupied by the St. Peter formation and conists largely or entirely of sandstone strata as the wells after passing through the Tren- ton limestone, penetrate a thickness of 300 to 400 feet of sandstone. The Pre-Cambrian granite in Oshkosh is struck at depth of about 700 feet. FLOWING WELLS Flowing wells are quite common in Winnebago county on low ground adjacent to Lake Winnebago, Lake Poygan and the Fox and Wolf riv- ers, the flows being obtained from the surface deposits and from the un- derlying rock. The head of the sandstone water is relatively low, us- ually not exceeding 10 or 15 feet above Lake Winnebago at Oshkosh and Menasha, but rising higher up the valley of the Fox, being about 17 feet above the river at Omro. The head, however, is controlled largely by local conditions within the surface deposits of sand and red clay. (See pages 90-2). The water in the many flowing wells in Oshkosh is obtained from three horizons, namely : from gravel beds at base of the drift — from the limestone — and from the sandstone, either from the St. Peter or the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam), or both combined. The flows from the drift are obtained chiefly on the south bank of Fox river, many being located between Nebraska, Oregon, and East Main streets. Most of the other wells have their source in the underlying sandstones. Many of the wells would not flow until packed, owing to leakage in the lime- stone. 630 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. SPRINGS 8prings are quite coinmon in "Winnebago county on low ground ad- jacent to the Fox river. Near Oshkosh are several well known mineral springs supplying a large local demand, as well as outide markets. The springs issue either at the contact of the Trenton limestone with the overlying drift, or from the limestone. WATER SUPPLIES FOK CITIES AND VILLAGES Oshkosh. This city, located on Lake Winnebago, at the mouth of the upper Fox River, has a population of 33,062. The city water supply, originally, was wholly obtained from eight artesian wells 300 to 900 feet deep, but on account of apparent lack of sufficient quantity, most, if not all, the supply is now taken from Lake Winnebago. The lake ivater is obtained from a point 1,000 feet from shore, at a depth of 18 i'eet, about as deep as any place in the lake. The average daily pumpage is 2,424,000 gallons. A filter was' recently installed, which has been in- creased in capacity to 4,500,000 gallons per day, and settling basins have been constructed. The city sewage is emptied, without purification, into the lake and the Fox river. Outside the business district only 30 or 40 per cent of the houses have sewer and water connections. At Oshkosh • between 25 and 50 flowing wells have been obtained. Most of these within the city are located south of the river in Soath Osh- kosh and along the river banks. The lowlands in the vicinity of Ore- gon and Nebraska streets, as well as nearer the lake and river, are fav- orable for flows and within this area 20 to 25 wells have been drilled. There has been coiisiderable discussion as to the thickness and strati- graphic position of the formations penetrated in the artesian wells drilled in Oshkosh and vicinity. (See accompanying table of Oshkosh wells). Until this matter is decided it is unnecessary to enter into the details of the problem in this report. There appears, however, to be only about 400 feet of the Potsdam at Oshkosh. DESCRIPTWX OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 631 Sections of Wells at Oshkosh, Records Furnished lyy G. Muttart. Owner. Drift. Lime- stone. Sand- stone. Granite. depth. Winnebaeo Asylum .' Feet. 30 30 10 20 50 present . . 20 50 80 10 60 25 106 100 95 10 50 39 40 60 92 Feet. 40 42 40 50 60 present . . 100 BO 30 58 30 100 Feet. 150 184 40 385 313 136 90 95 16 Feet. Feet. 220 Winnebagro Poor Farm Winnebaffo Worlfshop 90 J.P.Gould 455 Kadford Bros 423 W-n. Gladts 4^6 M. Hooper ; Gillan Bros 205 126 Tremont House C. Foster 68 Hollister Ames 85 70 129 78 39 180 315 175 Lutheran Cemetery 195 Judge Washburn 234 Commercial House 178 Fowler House 134 100' 60 present . . 41 ,240 208 S. Hollister 425 Benderov, Chase Co 185 Ed. Couske.... 81 Northern HospitaUM 414 380 248 15 962 Algoma Street (^) ... 695 ' Geology of Wisconain, Vol. 1 1, py. 156-1.58. Winneconne. The population is 940. The water supply is from private wells, 20 to 40 feet deep, many of which are flowing. The re- cord of one of the flowing wells, one foot head, drilled by Wm. Miller, is as follows : Section of icell drilled iy IFire. Miller, 1888. Formation. Clay ■ Gravel and sand (abundant water rose to 6 feet). Clay, gravel. (Travel and sand (flowV) Upper Cam l)iian( Potsdam) sandstone, flows at 210 feet, rise to 2 feet above curb. Graniie, (bottom of well) Total . Thickne.ss. Feet. 30 6 84 40 30 236 426 Further drilling did not increase the head, but there was a decided increase in quantity. Many other flowing wells are found in and about Winneconne that get their flow from gravel and sand seams in the drift. (See page 93). Omro. At Omro the water supply is obtained from three sources, the Potsdam sandstone, the Lower ]Magnesian limestone, and the sand 632 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. and gravel seams in the drift. Since the limestone in the valley is only 10 to 20 feet thick and the water is obtained from crevices, it may be supplied either by sandstone below or by gravel above. Numerous shal- low artesian wells are found along the banks of the Fox river. Between the two creameries, a distance less than half a mile, are seven flowing wells. In the shallow flowing wells are found about 20 feet of red clay, over- lying 6 feet of hard pan', and 2 feet of sand. Section of Abe McAssay's, Artesian Well, Omro. strata. Th ckness. Clay Hai'dpan Lower MaffuHsian limestoae ■ Tipper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. Depth Ptet. 30 48 20 360 Neenah- The population of Neenali is 5,734. The water supply was originally taken from Lake Winnebago, but at present it is obtained from three 6-inch ai'tesian wells, one 400, the others 622 and 672 feet deep. The average daily pumpage is 432,000 gallons. About 40 to 50 per cent, of the houses are connected with the city supply. The sewage, without treatment, empties into the lake. Cess pools are not allowed. The three city wells draw their water from both the St. Feter and Upper Cambrian horizons. The level of the water in the wells varies with the elevation of the water in the lake. "When a strong wind from the east or' southeast drives the water higher against the shore the water in the wells rises. Since the well casing extends a short distanca into the rock the water readily finds a passage through the porous sandstone or limestone into the lake, and therefore, will not lise higher than the lat- ter. A part of the water may thus be lost by seepage into the lake either from the sandstone or from the Trenton limestone. There is little doubt but what the water in the lake maintains the head of the water in the wells, although the well water is entirely supplied by the St; Peter and Upper Cambrian aquifers, unless through pumping the water in the wells is kept far below the surface. The wells are 50 feet apart in a northwest-southeast direction, and the water flows into a reservoir 20 feet deep -that rests on rock and holds 190,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 633 The pipe by which the water from the new well enters the reservoir is 8 feet higher than the pipe from the old well which enters at the bot- tom of the reservoir 20 feet below the surface. When the water is pumped down to the bottom of the reservoir the new well is shut off and only the supply from t]ie old well is used, since lowering the water in one well lowers it an equal amount in the other. The daily capacity of the wells is about 800,000 gallons. Log of Neenah city well. foimation. Thick tHS.s. Drift Feet. 18 Galena-Platteville (Tj-enton) limestone 87 St. Peter sandstone 27 Lower Maffnesian limestone 116 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone. Bed marl 33 28 Red sandstone andmarl 43 56 Blue limeston e 8 206 Total depth 622 Besides these city wells there are a few others that get their supply from the Trenton limestone or pass ^ireetly from the drift, which here varies greatly in thickness, into the St. Peter sandstone. Three records will be given showing these conditions. The two wells of G. Donald's flow 5 feet above the surface. Sections of Neenah wells. Owner. Drift. Trenton limestone. St. Peter sandstone. Total depth. Mr Davis Feet: 32 113 113 Feet. 48 Feet. Feet. 80 83 92 196 G Donald 205 Metuislia. The population of Menasha is 6,081. The city water sup- ply is obtained from the Fox river, depth of intake being 12 feet. The average daily pumpage is 336,000 gallons. About 35 per cent of the 634 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. houses are connected with the city supply. The sewage, without treat- ment, empties into the Fox River, below the intake. There are several flowing wells in Menasha. The well drilled by the Gilbert Paper Company, 575 feet deep, was never cased and soon filled up. There was too much iron in the water to use it for paper manu- facture, but for drinking purposes the water was excellent. In the other deep wells the water is obtained from the St. Peter sandstone, as in that of V. Landgi'af, 275 feet deep, and of Wm. Hewitt, 500 feet deep. The conditions for underground water supplies, iii Menasha are the same as in Meenah, as above described. QUALITY OF THE WATEK The mineral analyses of various water supplies of Winnebago county are shown in the following tables. Nearly all the waters analj'zed are hard calcium and magnesium carbonate waters of moderate mineral content. The surface waters from the Fox river and Lake Winnebago, which furnish the city supplies for Menasha and Oshkosh, contain about one-half as much mineral matter as the well waters of the adjacent locality. For boiler purposes, therefore, the surface waters are better than the well waters, but surface waters are likely to become polluted by organic matter and the development of bacteria, and hence do not furnish as good a supply for drinking purposes. There are about 1.36 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons of the Lake Winnebago water, as shown in No. 8, only slightly more than that in Lake Michigan water, while the well waters generally contain 2 to 3 pounds of incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. DESCRIPTION OB' LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 635 Minei-al Analyses of Water in Winnebago County. (Analyses in parts per million) Fox River. 5. Lake Winnebago. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. 8. 9. Depth of well feet undt. 33 9 19.0 18.5 110.8 6.0 6.1 undt. 34.4 18.4 4.2 90 11.9 5.2 _? Silica (SiOo) i undt. 34.0 19.1 14.4 107.0 6.6 5.1 undt. 26.2 12.4 6.7 66.4 10 9 6.2 4.4 10. 23.0 15.6 14.1 83.8 7 6 3 5 10. 6.9 3.6 35.4 20.4 8.7 101.8 13.9 5.3 8. 8.9 2.4 32.8 16.2 5.9 61.6 49.3 5.3 8. 12. 3.9 1.5 33.4 19.0 9 4 88.4 20.2 6.4 Aluminium and iron oxidts-; (AI2O3) 1 Calcium (Ca) undt. 26.2 12.4 Sodium and potas&ium ( N a+ tv J Carbonate radicle (CO3) 6.9 66.4 Sulphate radicle (SO4) 10.9 Chlorine (Cl) 6.Z 1947 leiT T9"2~ Total dissolved solids ., 186. 129. 162. 196. 182. 129 Depth ol well feet.. Silica ^Si02) Aluminium tnd Iron oxides (AI2O3+ Fe203) Iron (Pe) Calcium (Oa) Magnesium (Mg) •■•••■ Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Sulphate radicle (.SO4) Chlorine (Cl) Nitrate radicle (NO3) hiirface (lfpo.-)it&. 10. 26 3.4 Total . 106.0 53.5 25.3 277.7 58.2 12.2 536. 14 7.5 15.1 53.0 58.9 142. 137. 3.2 417. 16 8.5 0.4 83.5 16.0 3.7 253.0 5.2 1.8 372. 22 2.3 34.6 42.8 4.6 159,0 7.5 1.5 251. 12 11.4 66 7 39 1 15.0 191.8 31.8 5.5 361. 15. 25 undt. 73.1 48.2 5.5 173.2 61.0 18.8 15.0 395. 16. 95 77.5 37.6 9 5 190 3 30.7 14.6 364. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15, 16, Fox River at Menasha, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feb. 6 1909. Fox Elver at Oshkosh, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, April 28, 191d- Fox River at Menasha. City Water Supply, Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Cbem. Co., City Water-supply,' Menasha, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, Feli^ fi 3 909 Citv Water Supply, Menasha, Analyst, G. N. Prentiss, June 29, l91l- „ Lake Wlnnebafo, City Water Supply, Oshkosh, Anolyst, Dearborn Drug & Cbem. Lake*^Winnlbago^'city^lupply after passing through water works filter system. Analyst, Dearborn Drug & Cbem. Co., Nov. 21, 1911. Lake Winnebago, Oshkosh, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 23 lB9b. Lake Winnebalo, city water supply. Oshkosh from Paine Lumber Co., Analyst, (.. well of CM^'&'st^'RRy.'Co.! Menosha, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Well of'^ m' i^lt.' P. Ry. Co., Menasha, Analyst, Chemist, C. >i. & St. P. Ry. Co., Sept. 8, 1889. „ ... . Well of Mr, Wadkins, Oshkosh, Analyst. A. R. Mntze. n M A =!t P Rv Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Winneconne, .\nalyst. Chemist, C. M. & bt. P. Ky. Weli?f"C^T&'st^R Ry. Co., Oshkosh, Analyst, Chemist. C. M. & St. P., Aug. well of'c^T& St. P. Ry. Co., Oshkosh, Analyst, G. N. Prenf-ice, Mar. 21, 191^ Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Picketts, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry., Aug. 12, 1889. 636 THE WATER SUPPLIES .OF WISCONSIN. Wood County Wood county, located in the central part of the state, has an area of 785 square miles, and a population of 30,583. About 54.8 per cent of this county is laid out in farms, of which 38 per cent is under cultiva- tion. SURFACE FEATURES The surface of Wood county is a nearly level plain gradually rising to the highest land in the northwestern part of the county, where the glacial deposits are relatively thick. The southern part of the county is a level sandy plain containing large areas of marsh land requiring drainage. Elevations vary from 1,000 feet in the southern part to over 1,300 feet above sea level in the northwestern part, about Marsh- field. Powers Bluff, near Arpin, is a prominent ridge of quartzite, ris- ing 300 to 400 feet above the adjacent area. The upland soils are very generally silt loams and sandy loams. Light phases of sandy soils char- acterize the level plains in the southern part of the county. GEOLOGICAL. FORMATIONS The geological formations (see Fig. 61) are like those of Portage county, the crystalline formation either outcropping or being near the surface in the northeastern part of the county. Glacial drift is in thick deposits only in the northwestern part of the county, and the alluvial gravel and sand is abundant along the Wisconsin and Yellow rivers , in the southern part of the county. The thickness of the surface formation of glacial drift and alluvial sands is quite variable. The maximum thickness of the drift is between 150 and 200 feet, and a similar thickness of the alluvial filling in the principal valleys also prevails. The thickness of the Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone is variable on account of the extensive erosion of the strata, the greatest thickness being preserved in the sandstone mounds and ridges. The approximate range in thickness of the geolog- ical formatiiins may be summarized as follows: DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES. 637 Approximate range in thickness of formations in Wood County. Formation . Thickness. Purface formation Feet. to 250 Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) sandstone to 250 Tile Pre-Cambrian granite WATER-BEARING HORIZONS The water bearing strata are mainly the alluvial sands, the glacial drift and the sandstone formation. Most streams have cut down to the crystalline rocks and most wells are very shallow. On the highest drift covered uplands near Marshfield, a few wells are from 100 to 200 feet deep in drift. WATER SUPPLIES FOR CITIES AND VILLAGES Grand Rapids. This city having a population of 6,521, is located on the "Wisconsin river, on the site of extensive water power. Crystal- line rock, partly weathered to clay, outcrops along the bed of the river. No sandstone is reported in the city, but a few miles to the north and the west it forms prominent ridges. Alluvial sand and gravel lies di- wl Wis n . Grand Rspids E ///// WJJjffffrfnffj ////// Pre-Cambrian//// Wff. .y^i A/fuv/um ;\:7\:l\v y/r/Wy^-r--r-N7 rioo 1000 900 600 smiles Fig 72. — 'Geologic section in the vicinity of Grand Rapids showing the relation of the alluvial sand and gravel to the Pre-Cambrian granite. rectly upon the crystalline rocks to a depth of 10 to 30 feet in the east- ern part of the city, and gradually increases in depth to the south and east. See Fig. 72. The private wells are from 20 to 40 feet deep. At the present time the city water supply recently installed is obtained from a system of shallow weUs or springs 6 to 24 feet deep, located near the river. An intake from the river is connected with the sys- tem to be used in case of emergency. The average daily pumpage is 538 THE WATER SUPPLIES OF WISCONSIN. 300,000 gallons. About 40 per cent of the houses are connected with the city supply. The sewage is emptied into the river. The city supply was increased in 1913 by installing a pumping sta- tion connected with a system of shallow wells in the sand in the eastern part of the city. Marshfield. Marshfield, having a population of 5,783, is located up- on a relatively thick clayey drift ridge, which gently slopes towards the south and the north. The private wells in the city vary in depth from 10 to 20 feet up to 95 feet. The depth of drift over the granite varies from 40 to 90 feet. The large well of the Upham Manufacturing Company, the deepest well in the city, has a total depth of 130 feet, 90 feet in drift and 40 feet in the granite. An increase in the supply was obtained up to a depth of 20 or 30 feet in the granite, but little or no increase beyond that depth. The present city water supply^, reconstructed in 1907 and 1908, consists of a tubular well system connected with an impounding re- servoir located in the southern part of the city. There are 16 wells, 12-'inch casing, driven to the granite rock 58 to 70 feet deep, spaced 35 to 40 feet apart. The drainage area feeding into the surface gravel and sand, in which the system is located, is about 417 acres. To provide for impounding the surface water to form an auxiliary supply, a dam 1,700 feet long was built across the small creek valley. The avei-age iaily pumpage is 350,000 gallons. The sewerage i:-i treated with septic tanks and filters, and empties in- to the creek below the dam. Pittsville. Pittsville, (]i;pulation 450) is located on a plain on Yel- low river. Granite outci'ops along the river, but away from the river the granite is usually effectually covered with the beds of sandstone, and shallow deposits of surface clay and sand from 5 to 15 feet thick. The wells are quite generally shallow, from 10 to 30 feet deep. Nekoosa. Nekoosa (population 1,750) is located on the Wisconsin river at the site of extensive water power. Granite forms the bed of the river, with the formation of sandstone and alluvial sand and gravel overlying the granite. The wells are generally shallow, from 10 to 30 feet deep. A city supply was recently installed, the supply being obtained from a 60 foot well, 40 feet in sand and gravel and 20 feet in the underlying granite. This supply, however, was unsatisfactory, the water being high in iron. A new and satisfactory supply is now being installed, the source of the supply being several springs located near the western part of the village. 'W. G. Kirchoffer, Wis. Municipality ,Vol. XI, pp. 114-119, 1911. DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL WATEIt SUPPLIES. 639 QUALITY OF THE WATEE The mineral analyses of various water supplies of Wood county arc shown in the following table. Some of the waters analyzed are hard waters, while some are soft. All arc calcium carbonate waters of either low or moderate mineral content. Alkalies are a relatively important constituent on account of the presence of the crystalline schists and granitic formations that are generally near the surface. The analyses, Nos. 1 and 2 are of the former city water supply of Grand Eapids. Analysis No. 3, is of the present city supply of Marsh- field and shows this water to contain only 1.41 pounds of Incrusting solids in 1,000 gallons. Mineral analysis of water in Wood County. (.Analyses in parts per million) Depth of well feet.. Silica (SIO2) I Aluminium and iron oxides - (Al203+Fe203) ) Calcium iCa) Ma^esium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Carbonate radicle (GO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CD Organic matter Total dissolved solids., Wisconsin River. 3.S 13.6 5.5 6.0 39.4 1.5 1.4 15.92 .51 11.80 5.63 3.38 25.70 15.90 .40 10.44 79. 188 36 18.32 39.52 14.77 7.82 99.29 2.12 5.49 Surface Deposits— alluvial sand. 22 8.38 71.29 20. .59 17.99 96.13 109.95 19.38 22 16. P 61.0 16.9 23.3 99.6 83.0 13.0 344. 313. 376. 299 3.9 75.3 21.9 21.6 87.3 151.5 14.7 22 10., 0.9 7.2 3.1 5.1 23.3 1.5 1.1 42. 60 19.0 6.9 13.4 59.61 2.1 1.6 105. 61 & 74 2.7 15.5 7.6 6.3 45.4 4.4' 1.4 1 Wisconsin River, City Water works. Grand Eapids, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry., Nov. 30, 1895. 2 Wisconsin River, Reservoir of City water works, Grand Rapids, Analyst, G. il. Davidson, Mar. S, 1901. 3 Well of city water works, Marshfleld, Analyst, G. M. Davidson, June 11, 1909. 4 Well of C M & St. P. Ry. Co., Grand Rapids, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Rv. Co. Oct. 7, 1896. 5 Well of C M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Grand Rapids, .Analyst, Chemist, 0. M. & St. P. Ry. Aug. 5, 1892. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Grand Rapids, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ry., June 5, 1894. 7 Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co, Grand Rapids, .Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. V. Kv. Co., Nov. 30, 1895. 8. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Babcock, Analyst, Chemist, C. M. & St. P. Ky. Co.. 9. Well of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Babcock, Analyst, Chemist, C. II. & St. P. Rv. Co., 10 Two wells of C. M. & St. P. Ry. Co., Babcock, .Vnalyst, Chemist, C. M, & St. P. Ry. Co., Feb. (i, 1890. INDEX. A. Page Abbotsford, wells at 271 Ablemans, flowing wells at, head of 74, 555 Abrams, flowing wells at 480 Absorption of rainfall 22, 23 Adams County, description of.... 225-227 geology of 225 water-bearing strata of 226 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 220 analyses of, table of 227 average mineral content of . . . 163 Agriculture 24 Albany, wrlls at 359 Alden, W. C. referred to... 3, 7."., 4-k2, 4.->li Algonia, artesian conditions at. . . . 79, 80, 109 public water supplies at 134, 405 wells at 405 record of 403 water of. analyses of 405 Aliens Grove, water at, analyses of 596 Alluvial deiJD'iits, description of 41-42 flowing well< in S7-98 water in 42 quality of 186, 187 Kef also Surface formations ; par- ticular counties. Alma, wells at 253 record of ■ 254 Alma Center, public water supplies at 134, 377 Almond, wells at 520 Altitudes, of counties See iimler Surface Features of particular counties. Altitudes, of certain lakes See Table 41. Altitudes, generalized, of the buried Pre-Cambrian See the Geologic Map. Plate I. Altoona, wells at 325 water of, analyses of 326 Alumina, in water 129 effect of 157 Alva, well at, water of, analyses of 587 41— W. S. Page Amberg, wells at 446 water of, analyses of 447 Amery, public water supplies at. . 134, 515 wells at 515 Amherst, wells at 520 Amherst Junction, wells at 520 Ammonia, in water 131 -Analyses, of water, description of. . 128 See also particular counties, places, rirers, lakes, etc. *\ngelo, flowing wells at 470 head of 67 Antigo, public water supplies at 134, 421, 422 wells at 422 water of, analyses of 42.3 Appleton, flowing wells at, in sand- stone .'....:. 77 in surface formations 90' public water supplies at 134, 489 wells at 489 water of, analyses of 492 Appleton Junction, wells at, record of 490 Apple River Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 100 Arbor Vitae, wells at 586 .-Vrcadia, publijc water supplies at. 134, 578 wells in, records of . 578 artesian head of 67 Arliansaw, flowing well at 98,504 record of , 504 Arkdale, wells at 226 .Arlington, water at, analyses of.... 280 Arnott, wells at 520 Artesian, definition of 46 Artesian basin, description of. . . . 48, 49, 51 Artesian head, description of 46 availability of 51 maximum areas of 56 measurement of 40 tables of in various valleys and places 64-8f> See also under particular valleys and places. Artesian slope, description of . . . . 49, 51, 53 642 mDEX. Page Artesian water, conditions control- ling, description of 47-55 confining beds of 52 influence of local groundwater level upon 53-55, 99-102 transmitting beds of 49-51 Artesian water, quality of See Underground water, quality of ; particular counties and Artesian wells, general problems re- lating to 56-59 arrangement of 57 casing of 113 decrease in flows of 58 diameters of 113 increasing supply of 58 interference of . .' 55 at Green Bay 244 at De Pere 246 at Madison 295 at Milwaukee 457 methods of drilling 112 yields of 56, 113 Artesian wells, flowing, of Wisconsin, description of 63-98 See also under particular valleys, places, etc. Artesian wells, flowing, in the Ga- lena-Platteville limestone.. 81 in the Niagara limestone 81-85 list of in Germantown 83 plate illustrating 84 in Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks 85-87 surface conditions 85 underground conditions 86 in the Upper Cambrian (Pots- dam) and St. Peter sand- stones 63-81 in Baraboo Valley 72-74 diagram illustrating 73 in Beef (Buffalo) Valley 66 in Black River Valley 67 in ChippewA Valley 65-66 in Coon Creek Valley 70 in Fox Valley (of 111.) 76 in Pox Valley (of Wis.) 76, 77 in Kickapoo Valley 70-72 diagram illustrating 71 in La Crosse Valley 67-69 diagram illustrating .... 69 in Mississippi Valley 64 in Red Cedar Valley 66 in Rock River Valley 74-75 on west shore of Green Bay . . 78 on shore of Lake Michigan . . 78-81 diagram illustrating 80 Pa^o Artesian wells, in surface formations 87-98 adjacent to Lake Koshkonong. . . 96 adjacent to Lake Michigan .... 88, 89 adjacent to Lake Superior 97, 98 ' in Pox River Valley 90-93 in Wolf Elver Valley 95, 96 in Rock Eiver Valley 96 Artesian wells, litigation relating to 84, STi Artesian wells, prospecting for.... 99-113 conditions of topography favor- able for 99-106 Ill in drift in eastern Wisconsin, north of Lake Winnebago 108 in east(;rn Wiscohsin, south of Lake Winnebago 107 in Kewaunee-Door Peninsula . . . 109 in Niagara limestone m in Pre-Cambrian rock 112 in Rock Eiver Valley 109, 110 in western Wisconsin, valleys of 106, 107 .ishippun, wells at, record of 307 water of, analyses of 309 Ashland, public water supplies at. 134, 230 Keweenawan sandstone at 29 salt water at 172 233 wells at 9s^ 229-231 record of 233 water of, analyses of 233 Ashland County, description of.. 228-233 geology of 228 water-bearing strata of 229 water of, quality of 2H' analyses of, table of 233 average mineral content of. 165, 233 Askeaton, wells at 248 records of 248 salt water of 172 water of, analyses of 250 Athens, wells at 439 AugTista, public water supplies at 134, 325 wells at 325 water of, analyses of 326 -Vurora, logs of flowing wells in 94 .Aurora, 111., head of wells at 76, 80 Aurorahville, flowing wells at . .Oi, 94, 62r, -ivoca, public water supplies at. . . 134, 369 w^'lls at 3B,, water of, analyses of 370 Babcock, water at, analyses of . . . 394, 639 Bacterial analyses of water, descrip- tion of . . . . .~ 128 INDEX. 643 Pago Bacteria! content, of flowing streams, description of 205-207 of Illinois Elver, 111 206 of Isar River, Germany 205 Bacterial content of lalses 208, 209 Bacteria, crenothrix, see Iron Bac- teria. Bad River, water of, analyses of . . . . 233 Bain, wells at, water of, analyses of 400, 401 Baldwin, public water supplies at.. 134, 551 wells at 551 Bancroft, wells at 520 water of, analyses of 521 Bangor, public water supplies at. . 134, 413 wells at 413 Baraboo, public water supplies at 134, 555 wells at 555 htad of 74, Sri.'i records of o.^'ij water of, analyses of ij.'iS Baraboo quartzite 27, 274, 553 Barron, public water supplies at. . 134, 236 wells in 236 Barron County, description of.... 234-237 geology of 234 springs in 235 water supplies, quality of 237 analyses of, table of 237 Barron quartzite 29, 234 Barneveld, well water of, analyses of 370 Bassetts, wells at, water of, analyses of 401 Bass Lake, near Minocqua, descrip- tion of, Table 43 water of, analyses of 215, 239 Bass Lake, of Langlade Co., descrip- tion of. Table 43. of Waupaca Co., description of, Table 41. Bayfield, public water supplies at. . 134, 239 Ba.vfield County, description of... 237-240 geology of 238 water of, quality of 240 analyses of, table of 240 Beasley Lalte, description of. Table 41. water of, analyses of 215, 622 Beaver Dam, public water supplies at 134, 303 wells at 75,97,109,303 head of ■, '^5 records of 304 water of, analyses of 30!1 Beef Valley, flowing wells in. . 66, 253, 578 prospecting for 107 I'ago lieloit, public water supplies at. . . 134, 539 wells at 96, 539 head of 'ji3 water of, analyses of 542, 543 Belleville, public water supplies at. . 134 Belmont, public water supplies at. . . 134 Benolt, wells at 231J Benton, public water supplies at . . . 134 / Berlin, public water supplies at. . 134, 363 flowing wells at, in sandstone... 77 in surface formation 06 wells at 363 records of 364 water of, analyses of 365 Bibon, wells at 239 Bicarbonates in water 129 effect of 156 in temporary hardness 145 Big Suamico, wells at 248 Birch, wells at ■_>:-yj Birge, E. A., referred to 8, 208, 214 Birnamwood, public water supplies at 134 Blacl; Earth, wells at 297 Black Earth Creek, water of ana- lyses of 299 Black River, water of, analyses of 211, 415 Black River Falls, public water sup- plies at 134, 376 Black River Valley, prospecting for flowing wells in 107 Black River System, description of . . 16 Blair, public water supplies at... 134, 579 wells at 579 Blanchardville, public water supplies at 134, 419 wells at 419 Bloomer, public water supplies at 134, 269 wells at 269 water of analyses of 269 BloomvlUe, wells at 425 Blue Mound, altitude of 14 Blue Mounds, water at, analyses of 300 Blue River, well at, water of, analyses of 354 Boiler Compounds ! 154 Boiler troubles, remedies for 154 Boiler waters 147 ■S'ce Water for boiler use. Boscobel, public water supplies at 134, 351 wells at, record of 352 water of, analyses of 355 Borth, flowing wells at 93 Bowler, river at, water of, analyses of 564 Bowles, J. T. B., referred to 159 Boyd, public water supplies at. . . . 134, 268 wells at 268 f)44 INDEX. I'age Brandon, wells a,t 340 water of, analysis of '''-i-, •"•-13 Brillion, wells at 2G3-264 waters of, analyses of 265 Bristol, wells at, record of 398 Brodhead, public water supplies at 134, 358 wells at, record of 35S water of, analyses of 3G0 Brookfleld, spring at, analyses of . . . . 616 well water of, analyses of 617 Brown county, description of 241-250 geology of 241-242 flowing wells in 243 prospecting for 108, 109 springs in 243 water supplies of. quality of 249 analyses of, table of 250 average mineral content of. . . 169 Browntown, water at, analyses of . . . 360 Bruce, public water supplies at. . . 134, 545 wells at 545 Brushville, flowing wells at 93 Bufltalo county, description of . . . . 2.11-255 geology of 251 flowing wells in 252 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 255 Buffalo Lake, water of, analyses of. . 450 Burgess, C. F., referred to l.'iO, 151 Burkhardt, wells at 501 Burlington, public water supplies at 134, 528 wells at, record of 528 head of 7t' water of, analyses of 33]- Burnett County, descriptiou of . . . :i."i0-258 geology of 256 water supplies of, quality of 258 analyses of, table of 2.58 Burnett Junction, wells at 205 Bntler, wells at, waters of, analyses of 46^'i, 46T Buttes des Mortes Lakes, description of. Table 42 flowing wells near 90 C. C'adott, wells at 268 Calamine, water at, analyses of . . . . 420 Calcium, in water, effects of, in form- ing hardness and scale. . 129, 145 in industrial use of water ISO Calumet, flowing wells at 335, 336 records of 335 Calumet County, description of... 2.'i0-265 geology of 2.-.0-260 water-bearing strata of 261 flowing wells in 201-262 Pajie Calumet County, water supplies of, quality of L'(i."i analyses of, table of 2(15 average mineral content of . . . 169 Cambria, wells at 278 Cambrian rocks. See Upper Cambrian. Cambridge, public water suijplies at 134, 297 head of wells at 75 Cameron, public water supplies at 134, 236 wells at 236 Carbon Dioxide, in water 130, 131 Casco, wells at 405 Cashton, public water supplies at. . 134, 474 wells at, record of 474 Cassian, siiring at, water of, analyses of . . .■ 485 Cassville, public water supplies at 134, 351 water at, analyses of 355 Carbonates in water 129 effect of 156 Caryville, water at, analyses of . . . . 322 Catawba, wells at 522 Cecil, flowing wells at 563 Cedarburg, wells at 498 Cedar, creek near, water of, analyses of 211, ■.\H Chamberlin, 1". C. referred to 2, 30, 31, 47, 53, 334 Cl^aseburg, wells at 582 bead of 70 Chelsea, wells at 575 Cbequamcgon Bay, water of, analyses of 233 Cbetek, public water supphes at.. 134,236 wells at 2:;6 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Kailroad, referred to 8 Cjlcago and Northwestern Railway, referred to 8 Chicago, artesian conditions at 79, 80 Chili, wells at 273 Chilton, flowing wells at 90 wells at 26.". records of 2B3 water of, analyses of 265 Chippewa County, description of. . 266-269 geology of 266 water-bearing strata of 267 water supplies of, quality of 269 analyses of, table of 269 average mineral content of . . . 163 Chippewa Palls, public water sup- , plies at 134, 268 wells at 2i;.s water of, analyses of 260 Chippewa Kiver, water of, analyses of 211, 213, 326 INDEX. 645 PllgO Chippewa River system, description of ir, rainfall and run-off of 21, 22 Cliippewa springs, analyses of 124 Chippewa valley, flowing wells in . . Co, 66 prospecting for 106 Chlorides, in water 130 effect of 156 Chlorine, in water, presence of .... 144 sn- Chlorides. Clarlv county, description of 270-273 geology of 270 water supplies of, quality of.... 273 analyses of, table of 273 average mineral content of . . . 103 Clear Lake, public water supplies at 134, 51.J wells at ,515 Clear Lake (Vilas Co.), water of, analyses of 21.5, 5S7 Clelland, H. F., referred to 38 Cleveland, well at, water of, analyses of 434 Clinton formation, description of... 36 Clinton, public water supplies at., 134, 540 wells at 540 Clintonville, public water supplies at 134, 621 water at, analyses of 622 Clipnogen, water at, analyses of . . . . 270 Clyman, wells at .305 Cl.A-man Junction, wells at, record of 306 water of, analyses of 309 Cincinnati shale, description of . . . 36 Cincinnati shale, springs in.... 118,119 Cisterns, pollution of 60-62 Cobb, spring at, water of, analyses of 370 Colby, public water supplies at. . . 134, 272 wells at 272 Coleman, wells at 446 water of, analyses of 447 Colfax, wells at 322 Columbia County, description of.. 274-280 geology of 274-275 flowing wells in 276 water supplies of, quality of 278 analyses of, table of 279-280 average mineral content of 165, 167 Columl)us, public water supplies at 1.34, 277 wells at 277 flowing well at !I7 water of, analyses of 279-280 Combined Locks, wells at, record of 490 head of "^^ POKC Coon Creek valley, flowing wells in, 70, 107, .582, 583 head of 70 Coon Valley, wells at 70 Corliss, public water supplies at.. 134, .530 wells at, records of 529 water of, analyses of 532 Cornucopia, wells at 239 Corrosion, description of 150, 1.52 Council Creek, water of, analyses of 475 Crandon, wells at 344 water of, analyses of 345 Crane, G. W., referred to 2 Crawford County, description of. . 281-288 geology of 281 water-bearing strata of 282 flowing wells in 283 water supplies of, quality of 287 analyses of, table of 288 average mineral content of . . . 167 Cravath lake, water of, analyses of, 218, 596 Crivitz (Ellis Junction), well waters of, analyses of 447 Cross Plains, well water of, analyses of 299 Crystalline drift, quality of water in 185 Crystalline rocks, artesian conditions in 85, 87, 112 quality of water in 198 sec Pre Cambrian formations. Cuba City, public water supplies at 134, 351 wells at 351 I \idahy. public water supplies at 134, 469 Cumberland, public water supplies at 134, 236 wells at 236 water of, analyses of 2.^7 Curtis, wells' at 272 Custer, wells at 520 D. Dale, wells at 93 Dallas, wells at 237 Dancy, well at, water of, analyses of 440 Dane County, description of 288-300 geology of 289 water-bearing strata of 290 flowing wells in 291 springs in 291 water supplies of, quality of.... 298 analyses of, table of 299-300 average analyses of 167 Daniells, W. W., referred to 8 046 INDEX. Page Darlington, public water supplies at 134, 419 wells at 419 water of, analyses of 420 Darton, X. H., referred to 50 Davidson, G. M., referred to 8, 155 Davis, G. J., referred to 159 Dearborn Drug & Chemical Works, referred to S Deerfleld, public water supplies at 134, 297 wells at 298 DelafieW, spring at, water of, analyses of 616 Delavan, public water supplies at 134, 593 spring at. water of, analyses of. . 596 Denmark, wells at 248 records of 248 water of, analyses of 250 De Pere, flowing wells at, from sur- face formation 90 from the sandstone 77, 246 public water supplies at 134, 246 wells at 246-248 records of 247 water of analyses of 250 De Soto, public water supplies at. . . 583 wells at 583 head of 64, 5S3 Devil's Lake, description .of. Table 41. water of, analyses of 21.5, 558 Dodge County, description of . . . . 301-309 geology of 301-302 water supplies of, quality of 307 analyses of, table of 30S-309 average analyses of 167, 169 Dodgeville, public water supplies at ^ . .' 134, 368 wells at 368 water of, analyses of 370 Dole, R. B., referred to 8, 126, 146, 153, 218, 221 Door County, description of 310-313 geology of 310-312 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 313 wells of, records of 311-312 Dorchester, wells at 271 Douglas County, description of . . . 314-318 geology of 314-315 flowing wells in 315-316 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 318 analyses of, table of 318 Downsville, spring water at, analyses of 322 Doylestown, water at, analyses of.. 280 Drift, character and thickness of . . . 39 flowing wells in 88, 89 prospecting for flowing wells in 111 Page Drift, quality of water in 185 springs in 120. 121 underground water of 40 See also Surface formations ; particular counties and places. Drift, border of, See Geological Map, Plate I. Drummond, wells at 239 Dubuque, Iowa, artesian head at... U4, 65 geological section at 348 Dunbar, wells at 446 Dunn County, description of 319-322 geology of 319 water supplies of, quality of.... 322 analyses of, table of 322 average analyses of 165 Durand, flowing wells at 6.i, 501-503 records of 501 water of, analyses of 505 public water supplies at 134,505 Dyckesville, thickness of Cincinnati shale near 402 E. Eagle, wells at ' 612 records of 613 water of, analyses of 617 Eagle River, public water supplies at 134,586 wells at 586 water of, analyses of 587 Bast Milwaukee, public water sup- plies at 134, 461 East Rio, water at, analyses of . . . . 280 East Troy, public water supplies at 134, 592 wells at, record of 594 spring at, analyses of 596 Eau Claire, public water supplies at 134, 325 wells at 325 spring at, water of, analyses of. 326 Eau Claire County, description of 323-320 geology of 323 water supplies, quality of 326 analyses of, table of 326 average analyses of 163 Eau Galle River Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Eden, spring at, water of, analyses of 342 wells at, water of, analyses of . . 34.'; Edgar, wells at, record of 4.38 water of, analyses of 440 INDEX. 647 Pase Edgerton, public water supplies at 134, 540 wells at, artesian head of 75,540 record ot 540 water of, analyses of 542, 543 Eland Junction, water nt, analyses ot 564 Eleva, flowing wells at 66, 578 Elevation, of Pre Cambrian in deep wells 28, 29 See tilso tile (Jeolosic Jlap, riatc I. See also particular counties and places. Elevation, of counties, certain lakes. •See Altitudes. Elevation of artesian head. See Artesian head. Elgin, 111., head of. wells at 76 Ellihart Lake, public water supplies at 136 water at, analyses of 37:5 Elkhorn, public water supplies, at 136, 592 wells at, record of 592 water of, analyses of 596,597 Ellis Junction (Crivitz), wells at, waters of, analyses of . . . 447 Ellsworth, public water supplies at 136, 509 wells at 509 Elmwood, public water supplies at 136, 510 Elroy, public water supplies at... 136,391 wells at 391 head of 73, 74, 391 water of, analyses of 394 Elton, water at, analyses of 423 Embarass River, water of, analyses of 564 Endeavor, flowing wells at 92, 449 Engoe, wells at 240 Evanston, 111., artesian head at 79, 80 Evansville, public water supplies at 136, 540 wells at 540 water of, analyses ot 542 Evaporation, description of 20 Estuarine deposits 40, 41 underground water of 41 quality of 187 See also Lacustrine deposits ; Sur- face formations. Eureka, flowing wells at 91, 95 F. Fairchild, wells at Fargoville, flowing wells at. 325 92 Page Fennimore, public water supplies at 136, 353 wells at, water of, analyses of 354, 355 Flambeau Kiver, rainfall and runoff of • 21 Fifield, wells at 523 Filters, description of 157-158 Fisher, Richard, referred to 8 Florence, public water supplies at 136, 328 salt water at, analyses of 329 Florence County, description of.. 327-330 geology of 327 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 328 analyses of, table of 328 Flowing artesian wells, described... 63-98 See Artesian wells; also particu- lar rock formatl^nSj coun- ties and places. Flowing wells, litigation relating to 84-85 Flowing wells, prospecting for .... 99—112 See Artesian wells, prospecting for. Foaming of water, description of. 152,153 Fond du Lac, public water supplies at 136, 336 wells at - . . 81, 337 records of 337 water of, analyses of 343 Fond du Lac County, description of 330-343 geology of 330-331 water-bearing strata of 332 springs in 332 flowing wells in 333-336 water supplies of, quality of.... 341 analyses of, table of 342, 343 average analyses of 169 Forest County, description of.... 344-345 water supplies of, quality of.... 345 analyses of, table of 345 average analyses of 165 Forest Junction, wells at 90,259,264 Fort Atkinson, public water supplies at 136, 380 wells at 380 water of, analyses of 388 Fosterville, creek at, water of, analyses of 587 Fountain City, public water supplies at 254 wells at 254 head of 64, 254 records of 254 Fox Lake, public water supplies at. . 1'16 Fox Lake Junction, water at, analyses ot 308 Fox River, water of, analyses of 211, 250, 493, 617, 635 648 INDEX. Page Fox Biver system, description of . . . . 15 rainfall and runoff of 21 Fox River Valley, artesian w^ls of, in sandstone 76-77 in surface formations 90-95 Pox River Valley (of 111.), artesian wells in 76 Fredonia, wells at 498 Frederick, public water supplies at 136, 515 wells at 515 Fremont, flowing wells at 93, 621 Friendship, wells at 226 water at, analyses of 227 Fuller, M. L., referred to 3, 47, 48, 54 Fussville, spring at, water of, analy- ses of 616 Galena formation, description of . . . . 35 referred to in Plates I and II. iSee Galena-Platteville limestone ; particular counties. Galena-Platteville limestone, descrip- tion of 35-36 artesian wells in 81 springs in 117, 118 underground water in 35 analyses of 180', 181 quality of 179-181 prospecting in respect to. . 201 See also Plates I and II ; particu- lar counties. Oalesville, public water supplies at 136, 579 wells at 579 water of, analyses of 580 Garvin Lake, water of, analyses of 215, 617 description of, Table 41. Gays Mill, public water supplies at 136, 287 wells at 287 water of, analyses of 288 Geography, description of 13-24 ^ee also particular counties. Geology, description of, 25-43 See also General Geologic section, Plate II ; the Geologic Map, Plate I ; geology of parti- cular counties. Geologic history, outline of 25—26 Geologic sections. See particular counties. Genesee, water at, analyses of 617 Genoa, wells at 584 artesian, head of 64 Genoa Junction, creek at, water of, analyses of 596 Page Germantown, flowing wells in 83, 84 Map showing location of 83 Germantown (South Germantown), water at, analyses of 606 Gillette, lake at, water of, analyses of 218, 483 Gilbert Creek Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Gilman, C. F., referred to 338 Glenwood, public water supplies at 136, 531 wells at 551 Glidden, public water supplies at 136, 232 wells at , 232 Glen Flora, wells at 544 Glacial drift, description of '39 See Drift; Surface formations; particular counties. Glacial topography 14 Gleason, wells at 425 Goodnow, water at, analyses of.... 485 Gordon, wells at 317 Grand Rapids, public water supplies at 136, 637 wells at 637 water of, analyses of 639 Granite. See Pre-Cambrian forma- tions ; particular counties. Grant County, description of.... 34'5-355 flowing wells in , 349 prospects for , 107 geology of 346-348 water-bearing, strata of 349 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 353 analyses of, table of 354—355 average analyses of 167 Grantsbiirg, wells at 258 water of, analyses of 258 Granton, wells at 273 Granville, water at, analyses of ... . 465 Gratio, water at, analyses of 420 Green Bay, public water supplies at . , 136, 243-244 artesian wells at . . 78, 00, 108. 2-14, 24."> wells at, records of 244-245 water of, analyses of 250 Green County, description- of 355-360 geology of 356 water supplies of, quality of ... . 359 analyses of, table of 360 average analyses of 167 Green Lake, wells at. 364 spring at, analyses of 365 Green Lake, description of. Table 41. water of, analyses of 215, 365 Green Lake County, description of ..'. 361-365 geology of 361 INDEX. 649 ra;;o Grecn Lake County, water supplies of, quality of 364 analyses of, table of 365 average analyses of 167 Greenleaf, water at. analyses of . . . 25(1 Greenwood, public water supplies at 136, 272 wells at 272 Ground water, movement of 45 f'ce Underground water. Ground water level, depth to 45 changes in 46 influence of, on artesian head 53-55, 99-106 Groundwater wells, contamination of 59-60 diagrams illustrating 61 see Wells. H. Hamilton formation, description of 38 referred to as the Milwaukee for- mation on Plates I and II. Hammond, public water supplies at 551 Hardness, of water, description of 145, 146 Hartford, public water supplies at 136, 604 wells at 601, 604, 605 records of 604 water of, analyses of 606, 607 Hartland, wells at 613 Hastings, Minn., wells at, head of 64, 508 Hawkins, wells at 544 Hay Elver valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Hay ward, public water supplies at. . 560 wells at 560 Hazel Green, public water supplies at 136, 353 wells at, water of, analyses of 354 Heafford Junction, wells at 425 Hickor.v, wells at 481 Highland, wells at 368 Hilbert, wells at 265 water of, analyses of 265 Hillsboro, public water supplies at 136, 584 wells at 584 Hinkle, wells at 373 Hixton, wells at 376 Hooker, A. H., referred to 158 Horicon, public water supplies at 136, 304 wells at, record of 305 water of, analyses of 308-309 Hortonville, wells at 492 water of, analyses of 493 Houghton, wells at 239 Pi IK.' Hudson, public water supplies, at. . . 349 wells at 550 artesian wells, absence of, in sandstone, explained . . . 547, ."14.^ in the surface deposits 98, . "147 records of 550 water of, analyses of 552 lluronian formations, described 2.", 27 referred to, in Plates I and II. .''ee also Pre-Cambrian. Hurley, public water supplies at. . 136, 373 water at, analyses of 374 Hydrogen Sulphide, in water 132, 143 Hypochlorites, use of, in water 158 I. Ilwaco Springs, description of 549 Independence, public water supplies at 136, 579 Ingram, wells at 544 lola, wells at 621 Iowa County, description of 365-371 geology of 366 water-bearing strata of 367 water supplies of, quality of ... . 369 analyses of, table of 370 average analyses of 167 Ipswich, water at, analyses of . . . . 420 Irma, wells at 425 water of, analyses of 4LMi Iron, in water 129 effect of 156 Iron, in water supplies, at Nee- koosa 638 at Ontario 584 Iron bacteria, in water 156 in water of lakes 217 in water supplies, at Superior... 317 at Wausau 437 Iron County, description of 371-374 geology of 372 water supplies of, quality of.... 374 analyses of, table of 374 average analyses of 165 Iron Ridge, ore deposits at 37 Iron River, public water supplies at 136, 239 wells at 239 Irving, wells at 376 Irving, E. D., referred to 30 Isabelle Creek valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Itasca, creek at, water of, analyses of 318 650 INDEX. Pacro Jackson, flowing wells at 89 water at, analyses of 606 Jackson County, description of . . . 375-377 geology of 375 water supplies of, quality of.... 377 analyses of, table of 377 Janesville, public water supplies at 136, 539 wells at 539 head of 75, 539 water of, analyses of 542, 543 Jefferson, public water supplies at 136, 380 ■wells at 380 bead of 75 records of 381 water of, analyses of 388 Jefferson County, description of.. 378-380 geology of 378 flowing wells in 96, 379 water supplies of, quality of.... 385 analyses of, table of 386-388 average analyses of 167 Jefferson Junction, water at, analy- ses of 388 Johnson Creek, public water sup- plies at 136, 385 wells at ' 385 Jordan sapdstone, description of . . . 31 referred to in Plates I and II. Juda, water at, analyses of 360 Juday, C, referred to 8, 208, 214, Table 41 Junction City, water at. analyses of 521 Juneau, public water supplies at 136, 305 wells at, water of, analyse^ ' f. . 308 Juneau County, description of . . . . 389-394 geology of 389 flowing well in 390 water supplies of, quality of.... 393 analyses of, table of 394 average analyses of 165 K. Kaukauna, public water supplies at 491 wells at 491 artesian, in sandstone 77 in surface formation 90 records of 491 water of, analyses of 493 Kendall, public water supplies at . . . 474 well water of, analyses of 476 Kawaguesaga Lake, description of, Table 43. water of, analyses of 215, 587 Kennan, wells at 522 ! Page i Kenosha, public water supplies at 136, 397 wells at, head of 79, 80, 397 records of 397, 398 water of, analyses of 401 Kenosha, county description of . . . 395-401 geology of 395 flowing wells in 396 water supplies of, quality of.. 339-400 analyses of, table of 400 average analyses of 169 Kettle Range, description of 41 See Terminal moraine ; particu- lar couniies. Kewaunee, wells at 404 Kewaunee County, descriptioin of 401-405 geology of 402 flowing wells In 404 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 405 Kewatin formations, description of. 25 See also Plate II. Keweenawan system, description of 25, 29-30 underground water of 29 quality of 174, 198 See also Lake Superior sand- stone ; particular counties and places. Kiel, public water supplies at ... . 136, 432 wells at, record of 433 water of, analyses of 434 Kilbourn, public water supplies at. . 277 wells at 277 water of, analyses of 279-280 Kimball, springs at 373 ■Kingston, creek at, water of, analy- ses of 483 Kirchofter, W. G., referred to 3, 296, 317, 336, 558, 638 Klevenville, water at, analyses of.. 300 Knapp, wells at 321 Knight's Lake, description of Table 41 water of, analyses of 215 Koshkonong, water at, analyses of 542 L. La Crosse, public water supplies at 409, 410 depth to Pre-Cambrian at 29 water at, analyses of 415,416 wells at 410, 411 head of 64, 67 records of 411 La Crosse County, description of. . 406-416 geology of 406 flowing wells in 407, 408 water supplies of, quality of. . 413, 414 analyses of, table of 415, 416 average analyses of. . ., 165 INDEX. 651 Page La Crosse River, water of, analyses of 415 La Crosse Valley, artesian wells in 67-69 head of, table of 67 artesian profile, diagram of 69 Lac du Flambeau, water at, analyses of 587 Lacustrine deposits, description of.. 40,41 underground water of 41 quality of 187, 188 Ladysmith, public water supplies at 136, 545 wells at 545 La Farge, public water supplies at 136 wells at, depth of In surface sand 582 head of, in sandstone 72 water of, analyses of 582 Lafayette County, description of. . 417-420 geology of . 417, 418 water supplies of, quality of.... 420 analyses of, table of 420 average of, analyses of 167 Lake Beasley, description of Table 41 water of, analyses of 215,622 Lake Elkhart, description of Table 41 water of, analyses of . . . . 215, 218, 572 Lake Forest, 111., artesian head at 79,80 Lake Geneva, description of Table 41 water of, analyses of.... 215,218,596 Lake Geneva, public water supplies at 136, 590 wells at, records of 591, 592 water of, analyses of 596 Lake Mendota, water of, analyses of 215, 299 description of Table 41 289 Lake Michigan, area and depth of. . 209 mineral content, discussion of 220, 222 water of, analyses of 220-221, 463, 464 Lake Mills, public, water supplies at 136, 384 Lake Povgan, flowing wells near. ... 92 Lake Superior, area and depth of . . 209 water of, analyses of. 219,233,318 quality of 201, 219 Lake Superior sandstone, descrip- tion of 29 underground water of, quality of 174, 175, 198 See also Plates 1 and II ; particu- lar counties. Lakes, as geographic features, de- scription of 17, 18 For locations, area and depths of many inland lakes see Tables 41, 42, 43 and 44, I Page Lakes, elevations of, in Dane County. 289 in Waukesha County 60^ See also Table 41. Lakes, water supplies of, description of 207-210 general character of . . .■ 204, 207 chemical quality of 214, 222 Lakes, water of inland lakes, descrip- tion of 20S chemical quality of 201,214,218 mineral analyses of, tables of 215, 21ij, 218 See also particular lakes and counties. Lakes, water of Great Lakes, descrip- tion of 208-210 chemical quality of 201, 218-222 mineral analyses, tables of 219, 220, 221 pollution of, by city sewage 209 purification of, by hypochlorite. . 1.58 See also particular lakes and counties. Lake Winnebago, description of 17, 330, 627 water of, analyses of . . . . 218, 342, 635 See also Table 41. Lakewood, creek near, water of, analyses of 483 Ladysmith, public water supplies at 130, .543 wells at 545 Lancaster, public water supplies at 136, 351 water of, analyses of 354 Lane, A. C, referred to 3, 174, 199 Langlade County, description of. . 421-423 geology of 421 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 422 analyses of, table of 423 Lannon, water at, analyses of 618 La Pointe Indian Reservation, wells in 2.32 Laona, water at, analyses of 345 Lasche Institute, referred to 8 Laurentian formations, description of 25 See also. Plates I and II. Leighton, M. O., referred to 3 Leverett, F., referred to 2 Lemonweir Hiver, water of, analyses of 476 Lena, wells at 481 Lemont, III. , artesian head at 79 Leon, flowing wells at 470 Linden, public water supplies at. . 136, 369 wells at 369 652 INDEX. rage lyincoln County, description of . . . . 423-426 geology of 424 water supplies of, quality of.... 425 analyses of, table of 426 average analyses of 1 03 Lithium, in mineral water 125 Little Chute, wells at 491 Little Suamico, flowing wells at... 78,480 Loess, description of 23, 43 water in 43 Lodi, public water supplies at ... . 136, 277 wells at 278 water of, analyses of 280 Lone Hock, water at, analyses of.. 536 Long Lake (Florence County), water of, analyses of 218,328 Long Lake (Waupaca Co.), analyses of, water of 215, 622 description of, see Table 41. Long Lake (of particular counties), description of, See Tables 42, 43 and 44. Lowell, analyses of 305 wells at creek near 308 Lower Magnesian limestone, descrip- tion of 32-33 springs in 116, 117 water in 33 quality of 1 75, 176, 191 See also. Plates I and II ; par- ticular counties. Loyal, public water supplies at. . . 13(1, 272 wells at 272 Luck, wells at 515 Lyndon, creek near, water of, analyses of 394 Lynn, water at, analyses of 273 JI. McCoy, water at, analyses of 477 McGregor, Iowa, artesian, head at. . 64, 65 source of salt water at 287 McKenna, water at, analyses of... 377 Madison, public water supplies at 136, '291-296 rainfall at 19, 20 springs at 291 wells at, artesian, in drift 97 in sandstone 7."i, 1293 interference of liyS records of 292, 204 water of, analyses of 300 yield of 59, 292, 293, 295 Madison sandstone, description of. . 30, 31 See also. Plates I and II. Page Magnesium in water 1 29 effect of, in boiler use 148-152 in industrial uses , . . . 156 Maiden Eock, flowing wells at, head of 04 record of 508 Malcolm, water at, analyses of 423 Manawa, wells at 621 Manitowoc, public water supplies at 136, 431 salt water at 172, 433 wells at 431 records of 428 water of, analyses of 434 Manitowoc County, description of 427-434 geology of 427-429 flowing wells in 430 wateri supplies of, quality of . . . . 433 analyses of, table of 434 average analyses of 169 Maquoketa shale, description of . . . 36 See Cincinnati shale ; Plates I and II. Marathon City, wells at 439 creek near, water of, analyses of 440 Marathon County, description of. 435-440 geology of 435 ' water-bearing strata in 436 water supplies of, quality of . . . .. 439 analyses of, table of 440 average analyses of 163 Marengo, wells at 232 Maribel, spl'ing at, water of, analyses of 434 Marinette, public water supplies at 136, 445 salt water at 172, 447 wells at 445 head of 7S. 1 08, 445 records of 443 water of, analyses of 447 Marinette County, description of. . 441-447 geology of 441-443 water-bearing strata of 444 flowing wells in 445 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 446 analyses of, table of 447 average analyses of 165 Marion, wells at : 621 Markesan, wells at 364 water of, analyses of 365 Marquette County, description of. 448-450 geology of 448 flowing wells in 449 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 450 analyses of, table of 450 Marshes, description of 18 INDEX. 653 Page Marshfield, public water supplies at 136, 638 wells at 638 water of, analyses of 639 Masou, wells at 240 Mather, water at, analyses of 394 Mauston, pulilic water supplies at 13il, 392 wells at 392 Mayfleld. flowing wells at 89 Mayville, public water supplies at 136, 304 water at. analyses of 308 Mazomanie, public water supplies at 136, 297 water at, analyses of 299 Mead, D. W., referred to 2,21 Medford, public water supplies at 136, 575 wells at 575 Medina, flowing well at 93 Medina Junction, flowing wells at. . 93 Mellen. public water supplies, at. 136,232 Melvina, flowing wells at 68, 69, 470 record of 471 Menasha, public water supplies at 136, 633 wells at 634 water of, analyses of 635 Mendota formation, description of. . 30, 31 Menominee Itiver system, descrip- tion of 15 rainfall and runoff of 21 Menomonie, public water supplies at 136, 321 wells at 66, 321 water of, analyses of 322 Menomonee Falls, wells at 612 water of, analyses of 618 Menomonee River, water of, analyses of 461 Mercer, creek at, water of, analyses of Meridean, Avells at ''■ Milton .Tunction, public water sup- plies at 136, .''i41 wells at .j41 Milwaukee, artesian wells at 4."i(i-4.">9 head of 7!l, 108, 4.">(; records of 457-459 diagram illustrating 400 Milwaukee, public water supplies at 136, 4.j5, 4.-.6 future requirements of 455 salt water at 1T2, 4112 water at, quality of 461, 462 analyses of 462-467 Milwaukee County, description of 4.">l-467 geology of 4.11-4.:i2 flowing welLs in 453 water supplies of, quality of. . . 461-462 analyses of, table of 4(;2-4i!7 169 8 .462 463 374 , 321 record of ^^^ water of, analyses of 322 Mequon, wells at, record of ' 495 salt water at 172, 499 water of, analyses of 499 Merrill, public water supplies at. . 136, 424 wells at *24 water of, analyses of 426 Merrillan, public water supplies at 136, 376 376 wells at Middleton, public water supplies at 130, 297 Mills Center, well at, record of 249 Millston, wells at ^'^^ Jlilton, well water at, analyses of 542 average analyses of Milwaukee Chemical Institute, re- ferred to Jlilwaukee River, water of, analyses of 211, Mineral Point, public water supplies at 136, 368 wells at 368 water of, analyses of 370-371 Mineral springs, description of... i;;i-126 list of, reporting recent sales of water 12:; Mineral waters, description of . . . 121-12i) analyses of, table of 124 composition of 123-12.") quality and value of uses of, as medicinal water as table water Minocqua, public water supplies at 138, wells at lakes near, water of, analyses of Minocqua Lake, water of, analyses of Mississippi River, water of, analyses of . . , 211,415 Mississippi, River Valley, artesian wells in 64 head of, table of 64 in valleys, tributary to 0.";-7ri prospecting for artesian wells in 102-107 Mondovi, public water supplies at 138, 25.j wells at 255 flowing wells at 66, 253, 255 Monico Junction, creek at, water of, analyses of 48."; .Monroe, C. E., referred to 38 122 12.-, 12.1 ,484 484 .587 485 654 INDEX. Pago Monroe, public water supplies at 138, 357 wells at 357 record of 358 water of, analyses of 360 Monroe County, description of . . . . 468-477 geology of 468 flowing wells in 469-473 records of 471 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 475 analyses of, table of ' 475-477 average analyses of 163, 165 See also. La Crosse Valley. Montello, flowing wells at 92, 449 Montfort, public water supplies at 138, 353 water at, analyses of 354 Montfort Junction, water at, an- alyses of 371 Montict'llo, public water supplies at 138 Montreal, wells at 373 Montreal Elver, water of, analyses of 374 Morrison Creek, water of, analyses of 211, 377 Mosinee, public water supplies at. 138,439 wells at 439 water of, analyses of 440 Mount Calvary, wells at, record of. . 340 Jit. Horeb, public water supplies at 297 spring at 291 water at, analyses of 300 Slukwonago, artesian wells at, bead of 76, 108, 610 Muscoda, public water supplies at.. 351 wells at 351 N. ' Necedab, public water supplies at. . . 392 wells at, record of 393 water of, analyses of 394 Neenab, public water supplies at. 138, 632 wells at 632 records of ,. 633 Nekoosa, public water supplies at 138, 638 wells at 638 Neillsville, public water supplies at 138, 271 wells at 271 New Glarus, public water supplies at 138, 359 water of, analyses of 360 New Holstein, wells at 265 New Lisbon, wells at 392 water of, analyses of 394 New London, public water supplies at 138, 620 flowing wells at 95, 96, 621 springs at, analyses of 622 Page New Richmond, public water supplies at 138, 550 wells at 550 Niagara limestone, description of . . 37 springs in 118, 119 water in 37 analyses of, tables of 182,183 quality of 182, 183 wells in, artesian 81-85- prospecting for Ill See also Plates I and II ; particu- lar counties. Nitrogen, in water 131 North Freedom, public water sup- plier at 138, 557 flowng wells at 73, 74, 555 water at, analyses of 558 North Fond du Lac, water at, analyses of 343 public water supplies at 138 North Lake, water of, analyses of 216, 617 description of Table 41 North Lake station, water at, analyses of 617 North Milwaukee, public water, sup- plies at 138, 469 water at, analyses of 46.5-466 Northern Junction, well at, record of 482 Northport, flowing wells at 621 Norwalk, wells at 474 O. Oakfield, flowing wells at .■;34 water at, analyses, of 343 Oakwood, water at, analyses of . . . . 465 Oconomowoc, public water supplies at 138, 611 wells at 611 record of 612 water of, analyses of 617 Oconomowoc Kiver, water of, analyses of 617 Oconto, public water supplies at. . 138,481 wells at, artesian 81, 480, 481 head of 78, 108 water of, analyses of 483 Oconto County, description of . . . . 477-483 geology of 478 water-bearing strata of 479 flowing wells in 480 prospecting for 108, 109 water supplies of, quality of.... 482 analyses of, table of 483 average analyses of 167 INDEX. 655 Oconto Falls, public water, supplies at 138, 481 wells at 481 Oconto Junction, water at, analyses of 483 Oconto Elver, water of, analyses of 483 Oconto Elver system, description of 16 Odanah, flowing wells at 232 river water at, analyses of 233 Ogema, wells at 522 water at, analyses of 623 Oil City, artesian wells at 71, 72, 473 head of 72, 473 record of 473 Okauchee Lake, description of... Table 41 water of analyses of 216/ 617 Omro, flowing wells at 91 Onalaska, public water supplies at 138, 412 wells at, records of 412 water of, analyses of 416 Oneida County, description of . . . . 483-485 geology of 484 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 485 analyses of, table Of 485 average analyses of 163 Oneota dolomite, description of . . . . 32 See also Lower Magnesian ; Plates I and II. Ontario, flowing wells at 71, 72, 584 head of 72 Umro, flowing wells at. . . 91, 629, 631, 632 Oostburg, wells at, records of . . . . 570 water of, analyses of 573 Oregon, public water supplies at. 138, 297 wells at 297 Organic matter, in water, presence of. 130 TaKO Oxford, water at, analyses of 450 lake near, water of, analyses of 218, 450 Oxygen in water, presence of 131 effect of, in corrosion 151 Ozaukee ' County, description of . . . 494-499 geology of 494, 495 flowing wells in 497 springs in 498 water supplies of, quality of.... 498 analyses of, table of 499 average analyses of 169 Pac-kerville, flowing wells at. Packwaukee, flowing wells at. Palmyra, wells at, record of. . water of, analyses of. . 92 92 385 388 salt water at 172, 386 springs at, analyses of 386, 387 Pardeeville, wells at 278 Park Falls, public water supplies at 138, 522 wells at 52K Pauls Lake, water of, analyses of 218, 342 Pelican, water at, analyses of 485 Pepin County, description of. . .'. . 500-506 geology of 500 flowing wells in 501-504 prospecting for water supplies of, quality of . . . . analyses of, table of average analyses of Pembine, wells at water of, analyses of effect of 153, 157 I Penokee, flowing well at Orienta, wells at 239 Osceola, wells at, artesian 512, 513 salt well, near 515, 516 water of, analyses of 516,517 springs at 514 water of, analyses of 124, 517 Oshkosh, public water supplies at 138, 630 wells at 630 records of 631 water of, analyses of 635 Outagamie County, description of 486-493 geology of 486, 487 flowing wells in 488 prospecting for 109 water supplies of, quality of . . . . ,492 analyses of, table of 493 average analyses of 1C7, 109 Owen, public water supplies at 272 wells at 272 Owen Lake, description of, in Table 44. water of, analyses of 216,240 103 505 503 165 446 447 87 446 Peshtigo, wells at Peshtigo Elver system, description of 15 rainfall and runoff of 21 Pewaukee, wells at, record of 613 water of, analyses of 618 spring at, analyses of 616 Phillips, public water supplies at. 138,522 wells at 522 water of, analyses of 523 Picketts, water at, analyses of 635 Pierce County, description of . . . . 506-510 geology of 506 flowing wells in 507,508 prospecting for 106 water supplies of, quality of.... 510 analyses of, table of 510 description of Table 44 Pike Lake, water of, analyses of t . 216, 240 Pine Elver, flowing wells at 93 Pittsville, wells at 638 656 INDEX. Page Plainfleld, wells at 625 PlattevlUe, public water supplies at 138, 350 wells at, record of 350 water of, analyses of 354-355 Platteville limestone, description of 35-36 See Galena-Platteville limestone ; Plates I and II ; particular counties. Pleistocene formations, description of 26, 39-43 See also Plate II. See Surface formations ; Drift ; Alluvium ; Lacustrine de- posits. Plover, wells at 520 Plum Creek Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Plymouth, public water supplies at 138, 570 wells at 567, 570 water of, analyses of 572, 573 Polk County, description of 511-517 geology of ". . , 511 flowing wells in 98,100,512,513 prospecting for . . ., 106 salt water, well in .'15, 516 springs In 513, 514 water supplies of, quality of ... . 517 analyses of, table of 516, 517 average analyses of 165 Population of Wisconsin 24 Population, of counties and places. See particular counties and places. Portage, public water supplies at. 138,276 wells at, record of 276 water of, analyses of 279 Portage County, description of . . . 518-521 geology of 518, 519 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 520 analyses of, table of 521 average analyses of 163 Port Washington, public water sup- plies at 138, 498 flowing wells at, records of . . i 497, 498 water of, analyses of 499 Port Wing, wells at 239 Potsdam sandstone, description of. 30-32 See also Plates I and II. See Upper Cambrian sandstone ; particiilar counties. Potassium, in water 129 effect of 153 Pound, wells at 446 Poygan, flowing wells at 93 Poynette, water of, analyses of . . . 279-280 Poysippi, flowing wells at 92 IMge Prairie du Chien, public water sup- plies at 138, 283 salt water at, source of 172, 28'^ wells at 284-286 head of 64, 65, 284 records of 284, 285 water of, analyses of . 288 Prairie du Sac, public Wfiter sup- plies at 138, 557 wells at 557 Prairie Farm, wells at 237 Prairie River, water of, analyses of 426 Prentice, wells at 522 Prentiss, G. N., referred to 8 Prescott, public water supplies at 138, 510 wells at 510 Pre-Cambrian formations, descrip- tion of 25-29 See also Plates I and II. Pre-Cambrian formations, artesian conditions of 85-87 elevation of, deep wells 28, 29 also shown on geologic map, Plate I. flowing wells in 87 prospecting for 112 springs in 116 water in 27, 28 quality of 173-174, 197-199 See particular counties. Precipitation, relation to water sup- plies , . 18, 19 table of, at Wisconsin stations.. 19 See Rainfall. Price County, description of 521-523 geology of 52:.' water supplies of, quality of . . . . 522 analyses of, table of 523 Princeton, wells at. 92, 364 water of, analyses of 365 Public water supplies, municipal ownership of, advantages of 133 private ownership of, advantages of 133 statistics of, table of 134-141 See particular counties and places. Pulaski, wells at, record of 563 water of, analyses of 564 Puipps, automatic 253 See Rams, hydraulic. Pumpage, average daily, of public water works. 134-141 Purification, of water supplies, de- scription of 157-159 of sewage 158, 159 iifDE:S:. 657 4- Page Purlflcatlon systems, of public water works 134-141 Q. Quartzite, origin of 25 PreCambrian 25, 26, 27, 28 See Baraboo quartzite ; Barron quartzite. Quality of water. See Underground water, quality of ; Lake water, quality of ; River water, quality of ; particu- lar counties and places. R Racine, public water supplies at. . 138, 526 wells at, records of 527, 528 head of 79, 527 water of, analyses of 531, 532 Racine County, description of.... 524-532 geology of 524-525 flowing wells in 525-526 water supplies of, quality of 530 average analyses of 169 analyses of, table of 531-532 Racine .Tunction, water at, analyses of 531 Rainbow Lake, water of, analyses of 216, 622 description of, Table 41. Rainfall, amount of, in relation to water supplies 18, 19, 20 at Wisconsin stations, table' of 19 absorption of, description of.... 22 effect of soils on 23 effect of temperature on ... . 19 evaporation of, description of . . . 20 fluctuation of, at Madison dia- gram of 20 Rainfall and runoff, description of.. 20—22 effect of temperature on 20 on Wisconsin rivers, tables of... 21—22 Haras, hydraulic, used at artesian wells 70, 253 Randolph, public water supplies at 138, 305 Random Lake, water of, analyses of 218, 572 Random Lake station, water at, analyses of 172, 572, 573 Ranney, wells at, record of 398 Readstown, public water supplies at 188, 584 wells at 584 head of 72 Red Cedar, water at, analyses of . . . 322 42— W. S. Page Red Cedar River, water of, analyses of 322 Red Cliff, wells at 239 Red Granite Junction, creek at, water of, analyses of.... 626 Red Wing, Minn., flowing wells at. . 508 head of 64 Reedsburg, public water supplies at 138, 556 wells at 556 head of 74, 556 record of 556 water of, analyses of 558 Reeseville, wells at, records of 305 Rewey, water at, analyses of 370 Rhinelander, public water supplies at 138, 484 wells at 484 water of, analyses of 485 Rib Lake, public water supplies at. 576 wells at 576 Rice Lake, public water supplies at 138, 235 wells at 236 Richland Center, public water sup- plies at 138, 535 water at, analyses of 536 Richfield, spring at, water of, analyses of 606 Richland County, description of . . . 533-536 geology of 533, 534 prospects for flowing wells in. . . . 107 water supplies of, quality of.... 535 analyses of, table of 536 Riley, water at, analyses of 299 Ripon, public water supplies at. . . 138, 338 wells at, analyses of 342, 343 River Falls, public water supplies at 138, 509 wplls at, records of 509 water of, analyses of 510 River systems of Wisconsin, descrip- tion of 15-18 Rivers, water supplies of, description of ; . 204-207, 210-214 bacterial content of 205-207 chemical quality of 210^214 mineral analyses of, tables of. 211-213 purification of 157, 158 See particular rivers. Rock County, description of 536-543 geology of 537 flowing wells in 538 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 531 analyses of, table of 542-543 average analyses of 167 658 INDflX. Page Rock River, water of, analyses of 211, 308, 542 Rock River system, description of.. 16 rainfall and runoff of 21 Rockfleld, flowing wells at 83-84 record of 84 water at, analyses of 607 Rockford, 111., head of, wells at. . . . 75 Rookla,nd, flowing wells at 67, 68 head of 67 Rockton, flowing wells at 71, 72, 584 head of 72 Root River, water of, analyses of. 211, 531 Rosholt, wells at 520 water of, analyses of 521 Rubicon, water at, analyses of 308 Rubicon River, water of, analyses of 606 Rugby, Junction, wells at 601 Rushtord, flowing wells at 95 Rush River Valley, prospect? for flow- ing wells in 106 Rusk County, description of 544, 545 geology of 544 water supplies of, quality of 545 S. St. Cloud, lake at, water of, analyses of 342 St. C'rolxan sandstone. See Upper Cambrian. St. Croix County, description of. . .545-552- geology of 546 flowing wells in 98, 547, 548 prosppoting tor 106 springs in 549 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 551 analyses of, table of 552 average analyses of 165 St. Croix Falls, public water supplies at 138, 514 springs at 117, 514 St. Croix River system, description of 16 rainfall and runoff of 21 St, Croix River Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 St. Lawrence formation, description of 31 See also Plates I and II. St. Peter sandstone, description of. . 33-35 springs in 117, 118 water in 34 quality of (considered with Upper Cambrian) 175-179 Page St. Peter sandstone, wells in, arte- sian (with Upper Cam- brian) 63,79-81 prospecting for 109,110 See also Plates I and II, par- ticular counties. Salt Water, description of 144, 145 location and source of 172 at Florence 328, 329 at Prairie du Chien 287 at Sheboygan 571, 573 near Osceola 516, 517 Sanborn, wells at 232 Sawyer County, description of . . . . 559-560 geology of 559 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 560 Sauk County, description of 552—658 geology of 553, 554 flowing wells in 554—555 water supplies of, quality of. . . . 557 analyses of, table of 558 average analyses of 160 Sauk City, wells at 557 Saukrille, water at, analyses of.... 491 Saxon, wells at 373 water of, analyses of 374 Saxeville, flowing wells at 93 Scale, formation of 147-150 classification of water, in respect to 148, 149 prevention of 149, 154 in water at Madison 149, 150 Schleiscbingerville, waters at, analyses of 606, 607 ScUultz. .\. 1!., work of, description of 1-3 indebtedness to 8 Sewage purification, description of 158, 159 fiee particular cities. Shakopee dolomite, description of . . 32 See Lower Magnesian ; Plates I and II. .'Aharon, public water supplies at. . 138, 595 Shawano, public water supplies at 138, 562 wells at , 562 water of, analyses of 564 Shawano County, description of. . 560-564 geology of 561, 562 water supplies of, quality of 564 analyses of, table of 564 Sheboygan, public water supplies at 138, 568 wells at 569 head of 79, 80 record of 569 water of, analyses of 573, 574 mineral water at 569, 574 INDEX. 659 Page Sheboygan County, description of 565-574 geology of 565, 567 flowing wells in 567, 568 water supplies of, quality of.. 570,571 analyses of, table of 572,574 average analyses of 169 Cheboygan Falls, wells at 569 artesian head of 79, 108 record of 569 water of, analyses of 574 Sheboygan Itiver, water of, analyses of 211, 4.34, 572 Shell Lake, public water supplies at 138, 599 wells at 599 ShuUsburg, public water supplies at 419 water at, analyses of 420 Silica, in water 128 eff'Jct of 157 Silver Lake (at Portage) water of, analyses of 279 Silver Lake, description of, of various counties, in Tables 41, 42 and 43. Slichter, C. S., referred to.. 47,50,56,58 Smith, B. G., referred to 8 Sodium, in water 129 effect of 156, 157 Soils, description of 22, 23 mechanical analyses of 23 Soldier's Grove, public water supplies at 138, 287 wells at 71, 72, 287 Solon Springs, wells at 317 Somers, well at, record of 399 South Germantown, flowing wells at 83-85 South Milwaukee, public water sup- plies at 138, 469 water of, analyses of 464 South Randolph, wells at, record of '. 306 water of, analyses of 309 Spai^ta, public watei- supplies at.. 138,473 wells lit, artesan G7, 69, 470-472 hcarl of 67, 470 record of 471 water of, analyses of 475, 477 Spooner, public water supplies at. 138, 598 wells at, record of 599 water of, analyses of 600 Springs, description of 114,121 deepseated 115 seepage 114, 120 in drift 120-121 in Xiaraga limestone 118-119 in Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks 116 in St. Peters, sandstone 117-118 in Upper Cambrian sandstone 116-117 See particular counties. Page Springs, mineral, description of. . . 121-126 analyses of, table of 124 list of 123 See .Mineral Waters. SprinKs. pollution of 60-61 Spring -'cc Pleistocene formations ; allu- vial deposits : Lacustrine deposits ; Drift ; Loess. Surface formations, flowing wells in. 87-98 near Lake Michigan 88-89 near Lake Superior 97-98 in Fox river valley 90-95 in Ifock river valley 96-97 in Wolf river valley 95 prospecting for flowing wells in 110, 111 springs in 120, 121 660 INDEX. Piige Surface water, description of 203-222 chemical quality of 210-231 See Lake Water Supplies ; River Water Supplies. Water supplies of particular coun- ties. Sussex, water at, analyses of 618 T. Taylor, wells at 376 Taylor County, description of 574-576 ■geology of 575 water supplies of, quality of.... 576 Teller, E. E., referred to 38 Temperature, relation of, to precipi- tation and runoff 19, 20 relation of, to evaporation .... 20 Terminal moraine, character of.... 39,40 effect of, on artesian wells 89, 93 effect of, on springs. . 40, 120, 121, 380, 603, 610 See also Kettle Range. Terminal escapes, of artesian water, effect of 52, 53 Terrill, flowing wells at 92 Thiensville, spring at, analyses of. . 499 Thorp, public water supplies at.. 140,272 wells at 272 Thwaites, F. T., referred to, 7, 357, 383, 392, 403, 432, 458, 495, 527, 613 Tlgerton, river at, water of, analyses of 564 Tomah, public water supplies at. . 140,473 wells at 474 records of 474 water of, analyses of 475, 476 Tomahawk, public water supplies at 140, 425 wells at 425 water of, analyses of 426 Tony, wells at 544 Topography of Counties. See under Surface Features of par- ticular counties. Topography of Wisconsin, descrip- tion of 13, 14 Trempealeau County, description of 576-580 geology of 577 flowing wells in 577, 578 water supplies of, quality of.... 579 analyses of, table of 580 average analyses of 165 Trenton limestone. See Galena- Platteville limestone. Trimbelle River Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Page Trout Falls, flowing wells at 67, 470 Trout Lake, description of Table 43 water of, analyses of 216, 587 Troy Center, water at, analyses of 596 Truesdell, water at, analyses of . . . . 400 Tunnel City, water at, analyses of. . 476 Turtle Lake, wells at 236 Tuscan, flowing wells at 93 Two Rivers, public water supplies at : . 140, 431 unfavorable artesian conditions in sandstone at 80,81,109, 430, 432 wells at 430, 431, 432 flowing wells in limestone and gravel 430, 432 records of 432 water of, analyses of 434 Two Sister Lake, description of.. Table 43 water of, analyses of 216,485 U. Underground water, mineralization of, described 160-202 corr'elation of by districts and geologic formations .... 192-197 factors influencing mineraliza- tion 196 relation of mineralization to depth of 193-197 Underground water, quality of, in districts 188, 190 District A soft water 162-164 table showing average quality in counties 163 District B medium hard water. 164-166 table showing average quality in counties 165 District C hard and very hard water 166-168 table showing average quality In counties 167 District D, very hard water... 168-170 table showing average quality in counties 169 summary of quality of by dis- tricts , 188-190 table showing average quality by districts 189, 190 diagram showing 193, 195 map showing Plate V. Underground water, quality of, by geologica) formation. . . . 173-188 in alluvial deposits 186,187 in Cincinnati shale 181 in crystalline drift 185 INDEX. 661 Page Underground water, in Galena-Platte- ville limestone 179-181 table showing aTerage quality in counties ISO, 181 in Lacustrine formations 187 in Lake Superior sandstone.... 174 in limestone drift 185-186 in Lower ilagnesian formations 176-179 in Niagara limestone ' 182, 183 table showing average quality in counties 182 in Pre-Cambrian rocks 173-174 in St. Peter sandstone 175,179 in surface desposits 183-185 table showing average quality in districts 184, 189 in tipper Cambrian sandstone. 175—179 table showing average quality in counties 176, 177, 179, 181, 191 summary of quality of, by geo- logic formations 190-192 Underground water, quality of, in counties. See particular counties; particu- lar districts; particular .geologic formations. Underground water, quality of, in localities. tiee particular counties and places. Underground water, quality of, pros- pecting with respect to. 199-202 tSee also Water Supplies, pros- pecting for Underground water, source of 44 See also Artesian water ; Water Supplies. Ulrich, E. 0., referred to 30 Union Grove, public water supplies at 140, 529 wells at, record of 529 water of, analyses of 531, 532 Upper Cambrian, description of, Plate II 30-32 distribution of, Plate I, map in.. Pocket springs in 116-117 See particular counties. Upper Cambrian, water in, under- ground conditions of 31-32 quality of and analyses 175-179, 191, 193 in area of Upper Cambrian 176, 191 in area of Galena-Platteville 177-178, 191 In area of Niagara 178-179, 191 Page rndiTKiound wat^r, prospecting for. 201 Xcc also Underground water, quality of ; particular coun- ties and places. Upper Cambrian, wells in, artesian, description of 63-81 Sec Artesian wells in Upper Cam- brian and St. Peter. See also particular counties and places. Upson, wo'lls at 373 V. Veatch, .\.. C, referred to 3 Vernon County, description of . . . . 580-585 geology of 581 flowing wells in 582, 583 water supplies of. quality of . . . . 584 analyses of, table of 585 average analyses of 165 Victory, wells at 584 Vilas County, description of 585-587 geology of 585 water supplies of, quality of.... 586 analyses of, table 587 average analyses of 163 Viola, public water supplies at. . . 140, 535 wells at, head of 72 Viroqua, public water supplies at 140, 583 wells at 583 W. Wabeno, water at, analyses of 345 Walcott, C. D., referred to 30 Walworth County, description of. 588-597 geology of 588, 589 flowing wells in 590 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 595 analyses of, table of 596, 597 average analyses of 169 Walworth, wells at 595 water at, analyses of 596 Warrens, wells at 474 Washburn, public water supplies at 140, 239 Washburn County, description of. 597-600 geology of 598 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 599 analyses of, table of 600 Washington County, description of 600-607 geology of 601, 602 flowing wells in 602, 603 water supplies of, quality of 605 analyses of, table of 606, 607 average analyses of 169 G62 INDEX. Page Water analyses 128 See tables of mineral analyses of particular counties, rivers and lakes. Water, hardness of, defined 145 classification in respect to . . 14R mineral content of 146 classification in respect to . . 147 purification of 157 uses of 142 standards of classification of.... 142 Water, highly mineralized 170-173 table showing source of 172 te'ee Salt Water Water, mineral 121-126 ;See Mineral waters ; Mineral springs. Water, quality and mineralization of 160-222 See also Water supplies ; Under- ground water ; Lake water ; Eiver Water. Particular counties, lakes, rivers, and places. Water, for boiler use 147-154 corrosion 150 foaming 152 classification in respect to... 153 scale formation 147 classification in respect to. . . . 148 troubles of 164 remedies for 154 Water tor drinljing and domestic use . 143-14T bacteriological qualities of 143 chemical qualities of 144 physical qualities of 143 Water, for Industrial uses 155-157 effect of acids 155 ejll'ect of calcium and mag- nesium 156 eri'ect of carbonate's 156 effect of chlorides 156 efEect of color 155 efffot of iron 156 effect of organic matter 157 effect of sulphates 156 effect of suspended matteT .... 155 Water level, changes in 12, 46 depth to 45 diagram illustrating 45 Water level, infiuence of, on artesian head 53-55,90-102 Water supplies, chemical investiga- tion of 7-8 si'neral conditions effecting .... 12 private, source of 11, 12 public, source of 12, 134-140 See also Public water supplies. Page Water supplies, prospecting for with respect to quality 199-202 in Upper Cambrian 200 in Galena-PIatteville 200 in Niagara limestone 200 general considerations of 201, 202 purification of 157, 159 See also Artesian water ; Under- ground water ; Lake water ; River Water. Water sup- plies of particular counties and. 'Places. Water table. See Water level. Waterford, public water supplies at 140 Waterloo, public water supplies at 140, 141, 384 salt water at 172, 386 wells at 384 water of, analyses of 388 Watertown, public water supplies at 140, 381 wells at 379, 382, 383 head of 75, 382, 383 records of 383, 384 water of, analyses of 387,388 Watertown Junction, water at, analyses of 388 Waubakee formation, description of 38 See also Plate II and Fig. 51. Waukegan, 111., artesian head at... 79,80 Waukesha, public water supplies at 610, 611 wells at, re'cord of .' 611 head of 76, 610, 611 springs at, water of, analyses of 615, 616 wqll waters at, analyses of . . . 617. 618 Waukesha County, description of 607-618 geology of 608 flowing wells in 609, 610 springs in 610 water supplies of, quality of 614 analyses of, table of 615,618 average analyses of 169 Waukesha springs, list of 123 water of, analyses of.... 124,615,616 quality of 125 source of : 119 Waupaca, public water supplies at 140, 620 wells at 620 Waupaca County, description of. . 618-622 geology of 619 flowing wells in 620 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 622 analyses of, table of 622 average analyses of 167 WDEl. 663 Page Waupun, public water supplies at. 140, 338 wells at 97, 333, 340 head of 75, 100, 108, 339 records of 339-340 water of, analyses of 342 Wausau, public water supplies at. 140,437 wells at 437 records of 438 water of, analyses of 440 Wausaukee, wells at 446 water at, analyses of 447 Wausaukee River, water of, analyses of 447 Waushara County, description of. 623,626 geology of 623, 624 flowing wells in 625 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 626 analyses of, table of 626 average analyses of 165 Wautoma, wells at 625 water of, analyses of 626 Wauwautosa, public water supplies at 140, 461 wells at, head of 461 records of 459, 460 springs at 454 Wauwautosa, township of, flowing wells in 453 Wauzeka, flowing wells at 283, 286 WPlls at, hc^ads of 71, 72 records of 280 water of, analyses of -88 Wells, artesian, arrangement of . . . . 57 decrease in flows of 58 Increasing supply of 59 interference of 57 investigation of 57 torpedoing of 59 yields of 56 Itee also Artesian wells ; particu- lar counties and places. Wells, flowing, drilled and driven. ... 60 methods of drilling 112,113 packing and casing 113 See also .Artesian wells ; Flowing wells ; particular counties and places. Wells, head of, defined 46 See also Artesian head ; particu- lar counties and places. Wells, open, contamination of 60 Wells, on farms, pollution of i . . . . 60-62 diagram illustrating 61 Wells, records of '. 5, 6, 7, 113 See also particular counties and places. Wells, yield of, at La Crosse 409, 410 at lladison 295 Page Wei'ley, spring near, water of, anal- yses of 354 West Allis, public water supplies at 140, 461 wells at, records of 458, 459 West Bend, public water supplies at 140, 603 wells at 602, 603 record of .'. 604 West Bloomfleld, flowing wells at. . 93 Westboro, wells at 575 Westby, public water supplies at. . 140, 583 wells at 583 water of, analyses of 585 Weston, water at, analyses of 322 Westfleld, flowing wells at 450 West Milwaukee, river at, water of, analyses of 463 West Salem, public water supplies at 140, 412 wells at, head of 67 record of 413 Weyauwega, wells at 621 Wheelright, 0. W., referred to 329 White Creek, wells at 226 Whitehall, public water supplies at 140, 578 wells at 579 Whitewater, public water supplies at 140, 593 wells at, flowing, head of 75, 96, 108, 590, 593 records of 593 water of, analyses of 597 White River, water of, analyses of, at Odanah 233 water of, analyses of, at Drum- mond 240 Wild Rose, water at, analyses of . . . . 626 Willow, water at, analyses of 531 Wilson Creek Valley, prospects for flowing wells in 106 Wilton, flowing wells at, head of. . 72, 472 Williams Bay, water at, analyses of 597 Winchell, N. H., referred to 548 Windsor, water at, analyses of 300 Winnebago County, description of. 627-635 geology of 627, 628 flowing wells in 62& water supplies of, quality of.... 634 analyses of, table of 635 average analyses of 169 Winnebago Park, flowing wells at.. 336 Winneconne, flowing wells at 93,631 record of 631 water of, analyses of 635 Winona, Minn., artesian head at. . . 64, 67 Winter, public water supplies at. . . . 140 664 INDtlX. Page Wisconsin River, water of, analyses of 211, 212, 279, 426 Wisconsin River system, description of 15 rainfall and runoff of 21 Withee, public water supplies at. . 140, 272 wells at 272 Wittenberg, wells at 59, 87, 563 Wonewoc, wells at, head of . . . 74, 391, 392 record of 392 Wood County, description of 636-639 geology of 636, 637 water supplies of, quality of . . . . 639 analyses of, table of 639 average analyses of 163 Woodland, spring at, water of, an- alyses 308 Woodruff, lake at, water of, analyses of 218,587 Woodworth, spring at, water of, an- alyses of 400 1 Page Worden, lalje near, water of, an- alyses of 218, 485 Wrightstown, wells at 248 WyevlUe, water at, analyses of . . . . 476 Yahara River, water of, analyses of 299 Yellow River, water of, analyses of 211,394 Yield of wells 56 measurement of 57 at La Crosse 409, 410 at Madison 295 Z. Zion City, 111., artesian head at.... 79,80