ti'^ aj*; 4- >. 4 \4 >*>■ M M 4 %m %% ^ -l- . !m)- im ?K^';¥^. ; MM Mifata, Sietn f ntk SOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 '-A414 .ftfsT" """'^"'•y Ubran, Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032697942 Rural Schools in Canada THEIR ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION BY JAMES COLLINS MILLER, Ph. D. TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLVMBU. UNIVERSITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, No. 61 PUBLISHED BY Ceacliersi CoUese, Columbia tHmbersttp NEW YORK CITY 1913 Rural Schools in Canada THEIR ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION BY JAMES COLLINS MILLER, Ph.D. TEACHEBS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, No. 61 PUBLISHED BY tlcacftcrss College, Columbia tHnibe«it? NEW YORK CITY 1913 /\.3TH-2.Sa' Copyright I9I3 By JAMES COLLINS MILLER PREFACE The quickening of national consciousness in Canada during recent years is a natural outcome of the remarkable development of the past decade. The growing realization of the extent and variety of her natural resources has been accompanied by such a rapid increase in population bent upon their appropriation that the problems of utilization, cultivation, and conservation are being forced upon the consciousness of the people. Rich as Canada is in minerals, in forests, in fish, and in sources of mechanical power, her agricultural possibilities are, and will continue to be, her chief source of wealth. For many decades the majority of her people will be immediately dependent upon agriculture and its related industries. It is but fitting, therefore, that the question of education for those engaged in agricultural pursuits and those being reared in rural communities should receive a generous share of the attention of educators and liberal support from both the Federal and Provincial governments. The welfare and efiiciency of our rural population is economically and socially at the very basis of our national life. Our leaders in educational work must come to realize more fully that, while it may be necessa'ry to work through the mediums of provincial and local machinery, our educational problems are as truly national as provincial and need to be viewed and under- stood from the wider as well as the more limited points of view. The mastery of the detail and policy of a local provincial situa- tion is not enough, if we are to have educational statesmen capa- ble of meeting the large opportunities for fruitful service during this, the early period of our national growth. A sympathetic and intelligent appreciation of the special problems and diffi- culties of all parts of the Dominion and a thorough grasp of the general problems common to our country as a whole ought to be one of the presuppositions of any adequate leadership. The present study represents the writer's initial effort to con- tribute something toward the attainment of this wider view. The material to be found in the study could not have been iv Pre/ace obtained without the generous co-operation and continuous courtesy of a large number of educationists. I am especially indebted to the Inspectors who so generously gave of their already overcrowded hours to answer the somewhat extended questionnaires. My indebtedness to the Dominion Department of Agriculture, the Provincial Departments of Agriculture, and the Faculties of the Agricultural Colleges is apparent. To the Deputy Minis- ters and Provincial Superintendents of Education I owe special thanks for supplying data and answering many letters of inquiry. I hesitate to mention one person more than another for everyone approached was generous and helpful. Special acknowledgment, however, is due to Inspector Hall-Jones of Manitoba, for data regarding Rural School Consolidation in Manitoba; Professor McCready, Provincial Director of Elementary Agricultural Education in Ontario; Dr. Parmelee, English Secretary to Department of Education, Quebec; Inspector McCormac of Prince Edward Island, Dr. McKay, Superintendent of Educa- tion, Nova Scotia. Acknowledgment must also be made of the professional comradeship displayed by the staffs of the different rural and consolidated schools visited during my trips of inves- tigation. To Dr. James W. Robertson, formerly Dominion Commis- sioner of Agriculture and organizer of the educational work fostered by Sir William Macdonald which culminated in the establishment of Macdonald College, then principal of Mac- donald College, and now chairman of the Dominion Royal Com- mission on Technical and Industrial Education, special words of appreciation are due for supplying the source material for a com- plete survey of the Macdonald Movement and for personal interviews in regard to the conclusions resulting from the ex- perience gained therein. My indebtedness to the Faculty of Teachers College can be estimated and appreciated only by those who have had the pleas- ure and privilege of pursuing advanced work under their guidance and encouragement. Any special merits the study may have must be credited to their instruction and suggestion; the defects, such as they may be, are due to a failure on my part to measure up to the high standards of professional scholarship which they so continuously urge. To Dr. James Earl Russell, Dean of Preface v Teachers College, Professor Frank M. McMurry, Professor George D. Strayer, and Professor Paul Monroe special indebted- ness is gratefully acknowledged for aid bearing directly on the investigation. James Collins Miller. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PiOE Statement of Problem — Sources and Methods of Investigation ix PART I SURVEY OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF CANADA IN THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO RURAL EDUCATION Section I Provincial Systems as Related to Rural Schools Chap. I. Units op Organization and Control 1 Provincial. — Ministers of Education, Deputy-Ministers of Educa- tion, Superintendents of Education, Councik of Public Instruction, Advisory Councils, Inspectors of Schools. Local. — County, Town- ships, Rural Municipalities, School District or Section, Assisted or Poor School. Chap. II. Financial Support 13 General Statement. — District or Section Taxation. — Relationship of Township and Rural Municipalities to Support of Schools. — Counties and School Support. — Provincial School Funds. — ^Appor- tionment of Township, Rural Mxmicipality, County and Provincial School Funds. Chap. III. Rural School Teachers 50 Prerequisite Academic and Professional Training. — Distribution of Teachers in Service by Sex and Rank. — ^Teachers' Salaries. — Teach- ers' Income Compared with Income in other Occupations. — Experi- ence, Permanency of Position, and Conditions of Living. Chap. IV. Courses of Study 67 Provincial Standard Courses. — ^Amount of Variation. — Place of Nature-Study, Elementary Agriculture, and School Gardening. — Suggestions regarding Courses of Study in General, Courses of Study for Rural Schools, and Courses in Nature-Study, Elementary Agri- culture, and School Gardening. Chap. V. Attendance 81 Laws and Regulations of the Different Provinces. — The Actual Attendance in the Schools. — Discussion of Attendance Laws, Enforce- ment of Attendance Laws, School Census and Enrollment, Length of School Services, Periods of Attendance by Pupils, Rural versus Urban Enrollment. — Percentage of Attendance, Relation of Government Grants to Length of Term and Regularity of Attendance. Chap. VI. Buildings, Equipment, and Libraries 91 School Sites. — School Grounds. — School Buildings. — Equipment. — Libraries. — Improvements and Efforts to Standardize. viii Contents PAGE Chap. VII. Conveyance of Pupils and Consolidation op Schools. . . 100 Laws and Regulations. — ^Accomplishment. — School Property, Teachers, Attendance, Conveyance, and Consolidation in Manitoba. — ^Hillsboro Consolidated School, Prince Edward Island. — Teachers, Attendance, Financial Support, District Assessments. — Observa- tions and Suggestions. Chap. VIII. Advanced Classes and Sbcondaby Schools 117 General Situation in each Province. — Relationship to Rural Edu- cation. — Special Work of Ontario. — County Representatives of Department of Agriculture. — Observations and Suggestions. Section II Educational Agencies Outside of Provincial Departments of Education Chap. IX. Agricultubal Departments and Agbicultubal Colleges 130 Dominion Department of Agriculture. — Provincial Departments of Agriculture.^General Functions. — Special Educational Activity. — Agricultural Colleges, Agricultural Publications, Special Societies and Associations. — The Problem of Cooperation between the Depart- ments of Agriculture and Education in Providing Secondary Educa- tion for Rural Youth as well as Agricultural College Work. PART II Chap. X. Inspection and Supervision op Rural Schools 143 Sec. I. Appointment of Inspectors 143 Selection, Appointment, and Qualifications. — Previous Contact with Rural Life. Sec. II, Duties of Inspectors 149 Sec. III. Conditions under Which Inspectors Work 151 Number of Schools and Number of Teachers per Inspector. — Time Distribution between Administrative Duties, Supervisory Duties, and Travelling. — Salaries and Expenses. — Correlations between Net Salaries, Number of Schools, Number of Teachers, and Travelling. Sec. IV. Methods of Inspecting and Supervising 162 General Procedure. — Special Methods used to Improve Efficiency of Teachers who are Capable and of Teachers who are weak. — Means and Methods used in Cultivating Public Opinion Regarding Educa- tional Means, Methods, and Policies. Sec. V. Professional Improvement of Inspectors 178 Leaves of Absence and Vacations. — Special Training for Old and New Responsibilities. — Contact with Normal Schools or Faculties of Education. — Professional Reading. — Special Training since Ap- pointment. — Conferences. PART III General Summary and Conclusion op Study 191 APPENDICES A. Questionnaire No. 1 209 B. Questionnaire No. II 222 C. Bibliography 227 INTRODUCTION Statement of Problem Anyone undertaking to study the educational situation in Canada is immediately impressed with the absence of literature on the subject. Nowhere can there be found a statement of any -aspect of educational work considered from the point of view of the Dominion as a whole. Indeed, even within Provincial limits but few studies are available. Dr. Bryce of Manitoba, Dr. Rexf ord of Quebec, and Dr. MacKay of Nova Scotia have written brief historical sketches of the educational development in their respective Provinces. Dr. Coleman's "Public Education in Upper Canada 1791-1841" and the collection of Educational Documents assembled by the Provincial Historographer of On- tario, Dr. Hodgins, represent more intensive studies. The re- port of Professor John Adams on the Protestant Schools of Quebec reveals clearly their condition at that time. The history of education among French Canadians has been somewhat more fully treated by Gosselin in " L'instruction au Canada sous le regime frauQais 1635-1760" and by M. ChauVeau in "L'instruc- tioD publique au Canada, precis historique et statistique" 1876. Morice in his " History of the Cathohc Church in Western Canada" is careful to make mention of the early establishment of schools, their growth, and multiplication. Sadler's Reports and Mon- roe's Cyclopedia of Education contain valuable sketches of provincial systems and individual educational institutions. The report of the Royal Commission on Industrial and Technical Education now in course of preparation will doubtless be of ex- ceptional value and significance in the development of tiaese as- pects of educational work. No doubt the report will analyze the problem in its national scope as well as in the narrower ranges of the particular provinces and of the particular trades and industries.' 1 C!omplete bibliography given in Appendix C. X Rural Schools in Canada The present study represents the first effort from within the profession to gather together a statement of the inter-provincial situation with regard to any aspect of educational work. Rural Education was selected because of personal interest and a realiza- tion of its special significance in the economic and social develop- ment of Canada. Briefly stated the problem undertaken is (1) to survey the educational systems of Canada in their relationship to rural education, (2) to present an intensive study of the inspec- tion and supervision of Canadian rural schools, and (3) to discover and state facts and problems having a significant bearing upon future progress in rural education in Canada. Sources and Methods of Investigation To survey the educational systems of Canada in their relation- ship to rural education necessitates, in the first place, a study of the school laws and the regulations of the departments of educa- tion of the varioute provinces and in the second place, a considera- tion of the various special modifications of law, regulation, and provision made for the specific purpose of strengthening educa- tional agencies in rural communities. The educational activity of the departments of agriculture and the agricultural colleges requires examination, especially in its bearing upon rural schools. No study of rural education in Canada would be complete with- out a careful review of the efforts of Sir William Macdonald and Dr. Jame^ W. Robertson who have contributed in a most gen- erous way to the improvement of rural schools and agricultural education.' The study of inspection and supervision is based primarily upon the returns from two questionnaires. In this connection also the school laws and regulations relating to inspection and supervision and the annual reports of the inspectors, as contained in the annual departmental reports, have been carefully examined.' These sources and methods have been supplemented by data &p.d suggestions obtained while visiting rural schools, consoli- dated schools, normal schools, agricultural colleges, and the de- partments of education and agriculture. The most pleasant experience during the whole investigation was that of conferring > See Master's essay by the writer — Teachers College Library. • Appendix A. Introduction xi with educational officials and leaders, with school principals, college professors, and rural school teachers and trustees. Every- where one met nothing but courteous and cordial cooperation. Such visits and conferences were essential if any degree of personal appreciation of the local provincial needs and difficulties were to be obtained. Lastly, in order to get a view of rural education other than that represented by Canada, an effort has been made to become some- what famihar with the rural educational situation in the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland. While such data are not used to any extent in the study, they are of definite service in offering suggestion and aiding in evaluation. Before closing this reference to sources, attention should be called to the unfortunate difficulty of securing the necessary facts as to the actual results of laws, regulations, plans and provisions. There is more than ample indication of the need for a more uniform as well as a more adequate and scientific method of re- porting upon educational matters. The need is greater in some provinces than in others, but it is present in all. The scientific analysis of our educational procedure for the purposes of dis- covering the real relationship between the raw materials, the process and expenditures, and the resulting products, is as yet a matter of the future in Canada. RURAL SCHOOLS IN CANADA PART I Survey of the Educational Systems of Canada in their Relationship to Rural Education CHAPTER I UNITS OF ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL A. Provincial In British Columbia* the central authority in educational matters is the Executive Council which, when dealing with the educational affairs of the Province, constitutes the Council of Public Instruction. It employs as its ex-officio secretary and chief executive officer a Superintendent of Education who, aided by a staff of clerks and the school inspectors, has immediate charge of the administration of the provincial school system. In Alberta,^ Saskatchewan,' Manitoba,* and Ontario,* the Minister of Education, in each case a member of the Provincial Cabinet or Executive Council, is the administrative head of the educational system of his province. As a member of the Cabinet and the head of a department of Civil Service, he bears the same relationship to the Executive Council as a whole as do the other ministers. The governments are responsible to the legislatures for the policy, legislation, and efficient administration of all departments of the public service. The respective ministers represent their departments in the legis- lature and are held responsible for their efficiency. In each of three provinces there is a deputy minister, a departmental staff, and a corps of inspectors. In Saskatchewan and in Ontario a Superintendent of Education is associated with the deputy minister in aiding the Minister of Education to administer the system. ' British Columbia: The Public Schools Act of 1905, Sec. 4-7. ' Albebta: The School Ordinance, Sec. 3-11. » Saskatchewan: The School Ordinance, Sec. 3-11. 4 Manitoba: The Education Department Act, Sec. 1-26. s Ontario: The Department of Education Act, Sec. 1-29. 2 1 2 Rural Schools in Canada In Alberta and in Saskatchewan there is also an Educational Council of five members (of which at least two must be Roman Catholic) appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council. While the appointment is valid for only two years, unless renewed, the date of appointment of individual members is so arranged that there may be, if desired, some change in the personnel of the Council from year to year. Its duties and powers are purely advisory. The Minister may at his discretion refer matters to the Council for its advice, but he is not obliged to follow its sug- gestions unless he deems it wise to do so. In reality the functions of the Council are more or less nominal as far as the general ad- ministration of the school system is concerned. In Manitoba there is an Advisory Board of twelve members, eight of whom are appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council (at least two of these must be chosen from trustees of rural schools), two are elected by elementary and intermediate school teachers with permanent professional standing, one is elected by the high school and collegiate institute teachers, and one by the public and high school inspectors. This combination of appointment and election is also found in Ontario in forming the Advisory Council of Education. The president of Toronto University is chairman, the Superintendent of Education (without vote) represents the Minister of Education, the senate of the University of Toronto elects three members; the senates of Queens University, McMaster University, Ottawa University, and Western University, each elect one member; the high school teachers, two members; the public (i.e., elemen- tary) school teachers, four members; the separate school teachers, one member; the public school inspectors, two members; and the school trustees of the province, two members. In both Manitoba and Ontario the duties, powers, and influence of these advisory bodies are more definite and extensive than is the case with the educational councils of Alberta and Saskatchewan. The educational organization of Quebec * is complicated by the problems of language and religion. The Lieutenant- Governor in Council appoints the voting members of the Council of Public Instruction, the Superintendent of Education, the English-Protestant Secretary and the French Roman Catholic "Quebec: The School Law of the Province of Quebec, Title First, pp. 8-29. Units af Organization and Control 3 Secretary, and the School Inspectors. The superintendents, secretaries, and inspectors have their duties assigned by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council and the Council of Public In- struction in accordance with the school laws. School matters concerning Roman Catholics and Protestants collectively are dealt with by the Council as a whole with the Superintendent of Education as its chairman. The Council is composed of an equal number of Roman Catholics (laymen) and Protestants. For purposes of dealing with the school questions of exclusive concern to Roman Catholics and Protestants respectively, the Council is divided into two sub-committees, one Roman Catholic and the other Protestant. The Roman Catholic Committee has control of the Catholic school, and the French Catholic deputy acts as its secretary; the Protestant Committee has control of the Protestant schools and the English-Protestant deputy acts as its secretary. These committees make the regulations re- garding the organization, administration, and discipline of the schools under their control. Each committee has several ex- officio or associate members,— in the Catholic Committee the bishops, ordinaries, and apostolic vicariates; in the Protestant Committee six selected by the committee itself and one elected by Provincial Association of Protestant Teachers. The superin- tendent and the secretaries are essentially executive officers of the Government, Council, and Committees. The central educational authority in New Brunswick ^ is the Board of Educa,tion, consisting of the Lieutenant-Governor, the Executive Council, the Chancellor of the University of New Brunswick, and the Chief Superintendent of Education; in Prince Edward Island,* the Board of Education consisting of the Executive Council, the principal of the Prince of Wales College and Provincial Training School and the Chief Superintendent of Education; in Nova Scotia ' it is the Council of Public Instruction consisting of the members of the Executive Council with the Superintendent of Education as its secretary and chief adminis- trative officer. In each of these three provinces also the Super- intendent has a corps of inspectors in the field. ' New Bbunswick: The Schools Act, Sec. 3-11. • Prince Edward Island: The Public Schools Act, Sec. 1-7. ■ Nova Scotia: The Education Act, Sec. 4-6. 4 Rural Schools in Canada B. Local I. British Columbia: In British Columbia the local units of organization for educational purposes in rural communities are as follows: (1) Rural Municipality School Districts. The more settled rural " districts are organized into Rural Municipalities for pur- poses of local government." The schools within the rural munici- pality '^ are under the control of a municipal board of trustees (five) elected at large by the electors of the mimicipality." The location, erection, equipment, maintenance and general management of the schools and the appointment and payment of the teachers are its chief functions." It secures the necessary funds through the Municipal Council ^^ and the Department of Education.'' (2) Rural School Districts. Outside of the city, town and rural municipalities the Rural School District organized under the supervision of the Department of Education is the unit. Within the district there must be at least twenty children between six and sixteen years of age and an assessment sufficient to assure adequate local support." Each rural school district elects a board of trustees (three) '^ which becomes responsible for the usual duties allotted to school boards.^' The local school tax is voted by the rate-payers and collected by the cooperative effort of the board of trustees and provincial assessor .2" (3) Assisted Schools.^^ These rural school districts on account of sparseness of settlement and limited assessable property need and receive special aid from the government imtil such time as they may be able to assume the full responsibilities of a regular rural school district. Their organization is much the same in form as that of the standard rural school district. The majority " "Rural" applies to all areas outside of corporate limits of City or Town Municipalities. » B. C— Public Schools Act, 1905, Sec. 2. "Ibid., Sec. 13 (4). '• Ibid., Sec. 25-37. " Ibid., Sec. 38-48. » Ibid., Sec. 38. " Ibid., Sec. 17. "Ibid., Sec. 6 (a) and (b) and Sec. 12 (b). '• Ibid., Sec. 71-94. >• Ibid., Sec. 92-102. »" Ibid., Sec. 49-70. " Ibid., Sec. 6 (e), 15, 22-24. Units of Organization and Control 5 of the resident parents must apply to the Department to secure the erection of the district and there must be between ten and nineteen children between the ages of six and sixteen resident within the proposed district. An average attendance of eight must be maintained to keep the school in operation.^^ The school inspector reports as to when a rural school district should pass, from or to, the "assisted" rank, and he is also the representative of the Department of Education in the organization of such school districts.''' The "assisted" schools have an elected board of trustees whose functions are, as far as is possible, similar to those of the trustees of regularly organized rural school districts.^^ II. Alberta: In Alberta the local units for civil government outside of the city, town, and village municipalities are the Local Improvement Districts and the recently (1912) organized Rural Municipalities. As yet, the local units of organization for school purposes bear no relationship to these civil units. Any school district wholly outside the limits of a city, town, or village municipality is known as a rural school district.^' In any portion of the province not exceeding five miles in length or breadth (except by special ruling of the Minister) three qualified residents — those liable to assessment if district be formed — may form themselves into a committee and petition the Minister of Edu- cation to have a school district formed.^* If the proposed dis- trict contains four of such qualified residents and eight children between the ages of five and sixteen inclusive the organization of the district is proceeded with.^' In accordance with a regular procedure the rate-payers ^' elect a board of trustees (three) ^^ to take charge of the erection, main- tenance and general management of the local school.'" They have the usual powers of borrowing, selling of debentures, and of levying and collecting taxes.'' To provide against the pos- " B. C— "Public Schools Act, 1905"— Sec. 7 (k). ■3 Ibid., Sec. 8 (e), (f). " Ibid., Sec. 82 A. " Ai/TA. — The School Ordinance, Sec. 2, Sub-Sec. 6. " Ibid., Sec. 13. " Ibid., Sec. 12. » Ibid., Sec. 12-45, 61-68, 100-105. » Ibid., Sec. 2. "Ibid., Sec. 95-98. •ilbid., Sec. 106-130, 98 (2), 60 (3)-(4). 6 Rural Schools in Canada sibility of any district being without a school, through the in- difference or lacli of intelligence on the part of the people therein, the law provides that if any portion of the province, not exceed- ing five miles in length or breadth, has not been erected into a school district, and is found to contain twenty children between the ages of six and sixteen inclusive, and ten residents liable to taxation if district be formed, and six thousand acres of assessable land, the Minister of Education may require the district to organ- ize and to maintain a school in accordance with the departmental regulations.^^ III. Saskatchewan:"^ In Saskatchewan "rural district"" has the same meaning as in Alberta, and the local units for civil govern- ment are the same for rural areas. The provisions relative to the formation of rural school districts are also much the same except that a minimum of ten children instead of eight within the proposed district is required and in the case of areas within rural municipalities'* the petition asking for organization must be pre- sented to, and be dealt with by, the Municipal Council.'' These districts within the rural municipalities, while they remain as independent district organizations and decide their own budget and school tax rate, must depend upon the Municipal Coimcil for assessment and for the collection of the school tax.'' The same provision as in Alberta is made for the compulsory organiza- tion of schools.'^ IV. Manitoba: In Manitoba, the rural areas," i.e., those out- side of cities, towns, or villages are organized into rural munici- palities or remain as "unorganized territory" — as far as local civil government is concerned. Within the rural municipalities the municipal council (as in Saskatchewan) attends to the ques- tion of the organization of school districts.*" In the " unorganized " Alta. — The School Ordinance, Sec. 39. "Sask. — Note: Until 1905 Alberta and Saskatchewan were under one Territorial Government — hence the foundations of their educational sj^stems are much alike. " Sask.— The School Act, Sec. 2, Sub-Sec. 6. " Sask. — The Rural MunicipaUty Act. The Local Improvements Act. "Sask. — The Schools Act, Sec. 12-24 and "An Act to Amend the School Act" 1911, Sec. 1-4. "' Sask. — The School Assessment Act, Sec. 5-24. "AnActto Amend the School Assessment Act" 1911, Sec. 1-2. Rural Municipality Act, Sec. 296-299. «> Sask.— The Schools Act, Sec. 39. ■• Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 2 (b), (c), (d), (g). "Ibid., Sec. 5. Units of Organization and Control 7 territory" the local school inspector receives organization peti- tions, investigates, and if approved takes the necessary steps to have all arrangements for the erection of school district and the maintenance of the school completed.*' No rural school district either in rural municipalities or in "unorganized territory" may be formed *^ unless the proposed district be not more than twenty square miles and contain at least ten resident children of school age (5-16 yrs.).*' Within the rural municipalities the school districts bear the same relation to the municipality regarding assessment and tax collecting as pertains in Saskatchewan.^* Districts in "unor- ganized territory" have the same general financial powers as do rural school districts in Alberta.*^ In all rural districts the usual board of trustees (3) is elected by the rate-payers and performs the usual duties.*^ In special cases the Department of Education may take the necessary steps to provide an ele- mentary education for the children in places outside of organized school districts. The expenses so incurred become a charge against the land in the locality thus served and must be repaid to the Government when the district is organized.*' V. Ontario: In Ontario the local civil units are the counties. These are divided into townships, villages, towns, and cities. The towns and cities are, of course, independent municipalities. The villages fall under the jurisdiction of the county and town- ship councils. In the regions outside of this definite organiza- tion are found what are termed either "unorganized townships" or "unsurveyed districts." (1) Unsurveyed Districts:*^ In any unsurveyed part of Ontario five of the local adult inhabitants may call a meeting to consider the organization of a local school. The school inspector directs as to the requisite notice of meeting and supervises the whole procedure of organization. This meeting — if decision is to or- ganize — elects the board of trustees (3) for the school section. When the inspector reports to the Department of Education that " Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 49-70. «7Md., Sec. 5 (a), (b). " IJnd., Sec. 211. "7Wd., Sec. 48 (c). « Ibid., Sec. 56-70, 144, 157-164. « lUd., Sec. 20-48, 51-70, 175-187. " Man. — The Education Department Act, Sec. 6. " Ont.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 38. 8 Rural Schools in Canada the organization is completed and suitable accommodation and equipment are provided the section becomes legally entitled to recognition and to its share in the government grants. (2) Unorganized Townships:*^ On the petition of five heads of families resident within the territory affected, the local inspec- tor of schools may form the desired section, provided such school section be not more than five miles square. The section having been technically formed, any two of the petitioners may call a public meeting for the election of the board of trustees (3) which, as in the case of districts in "unsurveyed territory," has the usual duties and powers including that of taxation and borrowing. (3) Organized Townships: The township council is required to divide the township into school sections.'" All sections less than four square miles in area must have at least fifty children, between five and twenty-one years of age, whose parents or guard- ians are residents within the section. If physical conditions of the county make this provision impracticable a smaller area with fewer children may be organized or the Minister of Education may require the already existing section to open a second school for the accommodation of such children as may be unable to attend the existing school. '^ These school sections within the organized townships also elect their own board of trustees (3) " to look after the local school affairs.*' While they prepare their own budget they must leave to the township council the assess- ment and the collection of taxes.*^ VI. Quebec: In Quebec that portion of the province outside of city, town, or village municipalities is either unorganized or organized into "county municipalities." '* The term "county municipality" includes and means parish municipalities, munici- palities of a parish, of a township or part of a township, and gen- erally every local municipality other than city, town, or village municipalities.*^ Each county municipality elects its school commissioners,*' who have power to divide the municipality into " Ont.— The PubHc Schools Act, Sec. 32-38. " Ibid., Sec. 15-17, 48. " Ibid., Sec. 31. »' Ibid., Sec. 49-54. " Ibid., Sec. 72. " Ibid., Sec. 47. " Quebec: The School Law of the Province of Quebec, Art. 5. " Ibid., Art. 5. " Ibid., Art. 145-174. Units of Organization and Control 9 districts for school purposes " and to levy and collect the neces- sary taxes for the support of the schools under their jurisdiction.^' Except for special reasons no school district may contain less than twenty children from five to sixteen years of age, or be larger than five miles in length or breadth.'" If desirable the commis- sioners may maintain more than one school in a district. The local schools not under the jurisdiction of the school com- missioners of the municipality are there for the religious minority or the "dissentient" inhabitants and are under the control of a board of school trustees " elected by such " dissentients." These school trustees bear the same relation to their electors as do the school commissioners to the majority. If the "dissentients" by redistribution of population become the majority, they elect the commissioners and those now in the minority elect the trus- tees. Ample provision seems to be made for these " dissentients " in districts where there are not enough such to form a local school, either by arrangements for attendance in a neighboring district school of like religious faith, or by protection of children if such are compelled to attend the school provided for the majority. VII. New Brunswick: In New Brunswick the power of forming and changing the local school districts rests with the Provincial Board of Education. The law requires that due regard be paid to the number of children and the ability of the district to main- tain an efficient school."'' While the local units of civil government, the county or parish, have a financial relationship to education " they do not supervise the formation of the local districts. All districts of less than three and one-half square miles must contain at least fifty resident children between six and sixteen years of age.'' A minimum of twelve resident children and the maintenance of an average attendance of at least six is required to justify the opening and maintenance of a district school. If a district finds itself unable to meet this requirement it may provide for the transportation of such children as it may have to the neigh- boring school or the Board of Education may grant it special " QtTEBEc: The School Law of the Proviuce of Quebec, Art. 112-122. " Ibid., Art. 236-244. "Ibid., Alt. 112-122. " Ibid., Art. 123-140. " N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 6 (3), as amended in 1910, and Sec. 6 (7). "/6id., Sec. 14r-22. 10 Rural Schools in Canada permission to continue its own school. If any district fails to provide for the education of its children, the Board of Education through the Chief-Superintendent and inspectors can compel it to do so or dissolve the district and annex it to another.^^ Each school district elects its own board of trustees to which are assigned the usual powers and duties.** The "poor districts" on recom- mendation of the inspector receive special provincial aid.*' The district trustees and rate-payers determine the local school budget. In levying the district tax, however, the assessment roll prepared by the parish or county assessors must be used, and the tax is collected by the parish or county collector.*' VIII. Prince Edward Island: In Prince Edward Island as in New Brunswick, the power to form school districts and to alter the boundaries of existing districts rests with the Provincial Board of Education.*^ Any district containing less than four square miles must have a minimum of forty resident children between five and sixteen years of age. In the formation of the districts the people of the locality take the initiative and through the local inspector secure the formation or re-arrangement of the district by the Provincial Board.*' The elected local board of trustees has the usual duties and powers.'" In Prince Edward Island they also have immediate control over the levying and collection of the local district tax.'^ On the recommendation of the inspector "poor districts" receive special government aid.'* If the daily attendance falls below an average of twelve, special arrangements between the Provincial Board and the local trus- tees must be made." IX. Nova Scotia: In Nova Scotia the local organization is some- what different. The Council of Public Instruction divides the province into large district units and appoints the District Board of School Commissioners (7)." These district boards have the power to divide their districts into school sections, to alter, divide, " N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 121. •' Ibid., Sec. 42, 45-84. •• Ibid., Sec. 44. " Ibid., Sec. 76-86. •• P. E. I.— The People's School Act, Sec. Ill (c). •» P. E. I. — Regulations of the Board of Education, Sec. 80. '• P. E. I.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. XLII-LXXV. " Ibid., Sec. VIII-XXXVIII. n/bid.. Sec. Ill(h). '• /bid.. Sec. VII (e). '< N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 4, 5, (6) (9), 8-17. Units of Organization and Control 11 or unite such sections subject to the ratification by the Council of Public Instruction. ''« They are required to pay due regard to the number of children and the ability of the section properly to support a school. These local school sections elect their board of trustees to look after the up-keep of the school. '« They levy and collect the "sectional" school tax but are required to use the assessment as given in the municipal assessment. To borrow money or issue debentures they must secure the approval of the district commissioners. Upon the recommendation or report of the inspector the district commissioners determine what schools are to secure special aid as poor sections. ''^ They also may make such arrangements as they may deem necessary to provide at least four month's schooling a year for the children in sparsely settled regions or more remote islands.^' Discussion and Suggestion A careful consideration of the foregoing reveals a number of significant facts regarding the educational policy of the provincial governments and general organization of the educationl systems. (1) The definite policy of providing at least some measure of educational opportunity for all the people, even those in the most remote and sparsely settled regions, is common to all the provinces. (2) In each province the central educational authority has power "to compel the organization of a school district and the mainte- nance of a local school under circumstances which justify the use of such authority. This provision has special significance in relation to the problem of making intelligent and patriotic Cana- dian citizens out of the children of the immigrants as well as in dealing with districts with a non-tax-loving group of rate-payers who fail or refuse to meet their obligations. (3) In every province the general policy of cooperation between the local community and the more inclusive governmental units lies at the very basis of the whole educational scheme. (4) The close relationship between the Provincial Executive Council and the highest authority in control of the educational system, provides a ready means of keeping the general system " N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 1 (a). » Ibid., Sec. 18-66, 77-100. " Ibid., Sec. 14r-76. " Ibid., Sec. 17. 12 Rural Schools in Canada under the control of the representatives of the people. It is true that this close relationship leaves an opening through which political considerations may enter educational administration. The elaborated school laws and regulations in large measure reduce the possibility of political influence having a detrimental effect upon the functioning of the educational system. In addi- tion Canadian public sentiment is very strongly opposed to per- mitting politics to affect the schools. Even with the safeguards of laws, regulations, and public sentiment, however, there is at times definite evidence of the need of greater self-restraint in this matter on the part of political leaders. (5) Manitoba and Ontario are the only provinces which provide for the election of representatives of the various groups of teachers, inspectors, and trustees to sit as members of the Advisory Coun- cils with laymen appointed by the Government. The justice of this to the profession and the additional advantage, to the central authority itelf , in thus having available expert, as well as lay, advice ought to commend the practice to other provinces. (6) In the local organization, the experience and the judgment of nearly all of the administrations interviewed are most emphati- cally in favor of a larger imit for administrative purposes. The extension of the Rural Municipal School Board as foimd in British Columbia, would seem to be the most practicable for those provinces as yet without county organization. The introduction of the county school board to replace the present small district boards in the older provinces is the reorganization most favored. It would lead not only to a more equalized and adequate financial support but would also make possible a much more effective scheme of administration and supervision. The possibilities of a better distribution of schools, of conveyance of children, of school consolidation, of cooperation for purposes of secondary education, all point to the county unit as the one with the greatest promise of efficiency. CHAPTER II FINANCIAL SUPPORT For their mutual safety and welfare the people of the various provinces through their governmental organization more or less definitely insist that all their children shall receive at least & minimum amount of education. Not only is this insistence fundamentally necessary in any self-governing community but this minimum requirement must also continually advance as the complexities, opportunities, and responsibilities of life increase. Further, in the industrial and commercial rivalry, and in the advancing social and humanitarian conceptions of modern society the governments find ample justification for an active and even an aggressive policy in fostering those further purposes which determine in such large measure the place of any people in the world of to-day. In other words, people are willing to support the government in demanding not only that citizens be intelligent and law-abiding but also that they become efficient and aggressive in the pursuit of all that leads to the advancement of human welfare and the up-building of the nation. In Canada, one of the most important means used to con- tribute toward the attainment of these purposes is the cooper- ation of the provincial governments and local communities in providing the necessary financial support for public education. The increasing assistance rendered by the central government has been accompanied by increased governmental control and centralized authority in educational matters. At present it is this central authority in each of the provinces which determines the training and qualifications of the teachers, the nature of the courses of study, and the general organization and super- vision of the school system. From such revenues as may have been set aside for educational purposes, and from the general revenues of the provinces, the provincial legislatures annually vote such sums as may be neces- 13 14 Rural Schools in Canada sary to meet the statutory grants and the additional demands to which they may have given their approval. The local school districts of sections either directly, or indirectly through the local municipality of which they form a part, levy and collect the annual school tax needed to enable them to meet their finan- cial obligations. In Ontario and Manitoba the townships or rural municipalities are required to raise by a general tax — based on an equalized! assessment — funds for the purpose of provid- ing a township or municipal grant to each of the school dis- tricts or sections within their jurisdiction. In Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia the counties must levy a similar tax to provide a county fund to be apportioned to the schools within the county as directed by the provincial regulations. In general, all local school districts must provide the grounds, buildings, equipment, and general expenses of the school. The provision for the payment of teachers varies somewhat. In British Columbia the grants are almost wholly for that purpose, but they pass through the hands of the local school boards who are immediately responsible to the teachers for payment of salaries. In New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, the salary grant goes direct to the teacher and the local trustees are supposed to supplement this minimum salary. In the other provinces the grants usually go direct to the school boards to help them to meet the general expenses of the district including the teacher's salary. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, if a teacher has finished her engagement with the local board but has not received the full salary due her, the Government sends direct to such teacher such portion of the grant earned by the district as may be necessary to complete the payment of her salary. The borrowing of money and issuance of deben- tures by school boards to raise funds for permanent improve- ments or temporary needs, is carefully regulated and supervised in each of the provinces. While the discussion of these grants will be limited primarily to such as affect directly the rural schools, it is well to keep in mind the fact that government aid is not so limited. The normal schools are provided and maintained by the provincial governments with the exception of the School for Teachers at Macdonald College, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec. This in- stitution, in which the teachers are trained for service in the Financial Support 15 schools under the control of the Protestant Committee of the Council of Public Instruction, is provided and largely main- tained through the generosity of Sir William Macdonald. In all the provinces the salaries of the inspectors are paid in full by the governments with the one exception of Ontario where in the organized counties the county pays one-half of the salary of the local inspector. Inspectors not serving in organized counties are paid in full by the Government. Provincial grants are paid to other branches of the educational sys- tems — secondary schools, higher education, technical and in- dustrial education in day and evening classes, agricultural colleges, public libraries, etc. In all cases the local authorities concerned must comply with provincial laws and regulations before such grants are paid. The relative distribution of the financial responsibilities for public expenses, other than educational, between the provin- cial and local units of government, while affecting the distri- bution of the educational burden cannot be discussed in the present study. It is well to remember, however, that it has a definite bearing upon any inter-provincial comparison of pro- vincial grants for educational purposes. It has special signifi- cance in comparing Quebec with other provinces. With this preliminary statement we may now proceed to an examination in detail of the ways in which each province deals with the question of the financial support of its schools. I. British Columbia In British Columbia the general provincial grant is appor- tioned as follows:^ A per capita grant of $360 for cities of the first class, $420 for cities of the second class, $465 for cities and towns of the third class and $480 for rural municipalities or rural school districts, based on the actual number of teachers, and manual training and domestic science instructors employed either in the public or high schools of such city, town, muni- cipality or district, is paid by the government to the respective local authorities. In any case, the government grants on this basis must not exceed two-fifths of the total salary schedule in the case of cities of the first class. This proportion may be increased up to four-fifths in the case of rural school districts. ■ B.C.— Public Schools Act, 1905, Sees. 16-24, 111 C. 16 Rural Schools in Canada In the case of the "assisted" schools, the salary of the teacher is fixed and paid in full by the government. If any rural school board increases the salary of its teacher or teachers, the govern- ment supplements such increase with an equal amount (in munic- ipalities one-half of the amount) up to a maximum supplement of one hundred dollars per annum. At the discretion of the Council of Public Instruction a reduction of the provincial grant may be made in cases where the average attendance for the year has been less than 40 per cent of the enrollment for the year, or where the teacher has failed to teach the requisite number of days. Ordinarily, the district school must be in ses- sion for at least six months in the year in order to qualify for the grant. Districts needing special aid over and above the afore- mentioned grants are reported upon by the inspector. After due consideration the Council of Public Instruction may grant such additional aid as it deems necessary. If any district votes money for a school library the government will add a supplemental grant, equal to fifty per cent of the amount so voted, up to a maximum of fifty dollars.^ II. Alberta In Alberta the government grants ' are based on the district assessment, attendance, grade of teacher, general efficiency, and special improvements. (1) Assessment: Each district containing 6,400 acres of assessable land gets $1.20 per day for each day school is kept open; each district containing less than 6,400 acres of such land gets one cent more per day for each 160 acres or fractional part thereof; and each district containing more than 6,400 acres of such land gets one cent less per day for each additional 160 acres or fractional part thereof. In any case the grant under this provision must not be less than 90 cents per day for each day that school is kept open. (2) Attendance: Districts which keep their school open more than 160 days in the year receive an additional grant of 40 cents a day for each day in excess of the 160 days up to fifty such days — a total of 210 days per year being the maximum number > B. C— Public Schools Act, 1905, Sec. 102 A. ■ Alta. — The School Grants Ordinance, Sec. 1-18. Financial Support 17 for which any grant is paid. A grant on the percentage of at- tendance * is paid according to the following schedule : — Percentage of Attendance Amount per Day DuRiNa WmcH School is in Operation (1) 40 % to 50 % inclusive 5 cents per day (2) 51 % " 60 % " 10 " " " (3) 61 % " 70 % " 15 " " " (4) 71 % " 80 % " 20 " " " (5) 81 % " 100 % " 25 " " " (3) Grade of Teacher: The engagement of a teacher with a first class certificate brings an additional ten cents per day for each day such teacher is actually employed in the school. (4) General Efficiency: This grant is based on the inspector's report regarding the nature and condition of the grounds, build- ings and equipment, and upon the general progress of the school. It can go as high as 15 cents per day for each day the school is open. One half of such grant must be spent in the purchase of books for the school library, or, upon the recommendation of an inspector and the approval of the Minister of Education, in the purchase of equipment or apparatus. If more than one teacher is employed, each class room maintaining an average attendance of at least twenty becomes the unit for estimating the grants. In no case may the total amount of the above grants to any district exceed seventy per cent of the salary paid to the teacher.* If one district arranges to transport its children to the school of a neighboring district and provides approved transportation facilities, it receives a grant of 60 cents a day for each day upon which such transportation is provided. If the number of chil- dren so transported falls below an average of six for any term the grant is paid in the proportion that the average number of children actually conveyed bears to six. The district agreeing to receive and provide school facilities for such children receives a grant of 4 cents per day for each pupil in average daily attendance who has been so conveyed. This grant must not exceed 40 cents • Average attendance for any calendar month is found by dividing the aggregate days' attendance during the month by the number of days school is open during month. Percentage of Attendance for any month = average attendance for such month -i- number of pupils in actual attendance for such month. Percentage of attendance for any term = sum of monthly percentages of attendance -i- the number of such monthly percentages of attendance. » Atla. — The School Ordinance, Sec. 165. The School Grants Ordinance, Sec. 10. 18 Rural Schools in Canada per day unless the presence of these additional children necessi- tates the employment of one or more additional teachers, in which case the total amount thus earned is paid. In contrast, the provincial grants to villages, towns and cities are somewhat lower. Those based on the grade of teacher, the percentage of attendance, and general efficiency run on the same schedule as for rural districts. However, instead of the grants based on assessment and on length of term a flat rate of 90 cents per day, for each school day each class room (with one teacher and a minimum average attendance of twenty) is kept open, is paid. Each village, town or city maintaining one or more rooms exclusively for pupils in grades above the public school (i.e., Grades IX-XII) receives a grant of $75 per term for each such room, provided the daily average attendance for any such room or rooms is at least twenty, — the pupils being classified in accordance with the regulations. In all the elementary schools of the province the readers are supplied free by the provincial government. In Alberta, as in British Columbia, the government has dis- cretionary power regarding special grants over and above those provided by statute. III. Saskatchewan In Saskatchewan the bases of apportionment' are assess- ment, attendance, grade of teacher, and the number of years the district school has been in operation. (1) Assessment: Districts with an area of 8,000 acres or less receive a grant of 10 cents for each teaching day the school is open. (2) Attendance: Each district receives 75 cents for each day its school is in operation and an additional grant of 25 cents for each additional day over and above 160 days. The maximum number of teaching days in the school year is 210. (3) Grade of Teacher: This grant is the same as in Alberta, namely, 10 cents per teaching day for each day school is in opera- tion if the district employ a teacher with a first class certificate. (4) Number of Years in Operation: An additional sum of 40 cents for every teaching day upon which its school is open during the first year of its operation; 30 cents during the second • Sask. — The School Grants Act, Sec. 1-5. Financial Support 19 year; 20 cents during the third year; and 10 cents during the fourth year. The maximum number of days (210) for which grants are paid and the method of estimating the grants when more than one teacher is employed are the same as in Alberta. The grants to villages, towns, or cities for elementary educa- tion are somewhat less, being (a) 75 cents per teaching day for every day each class room (with a teacher and a minimum average attendance of twenty) is in operation; (b) 30 cents for every teaching day such unit is in operation for the first year, and 15 cents for the second year; (c) 10 cents per teaching day for each day such unit is in operation if the teacher holds a first class certificate; and (d) 10 cents per day for each teaching day if a class (with an average attendance of at least twelve) above Grade VII is maintained. As in Alberta the readers for the elementary school are pro- vided free by the government. The discretionary powers of the government regarding special grants not provided for by statute are the same as in Alberta and British Columbia. In Saskatche- wan, however, the whole matter of secondary education is separated from that of elementary education, there being a special law and special regulations and grants regarding its organization and support.' IV. Manitoba In Manitoba the general grants * are apportioned on the fol- lowing bases: teacher, length of term, recency of district or- ganization, and average attendance. While these grants are very much lower than in British Columbia, Alberta, or Sas- katchewan, Manitoba's grants for special purposes are more liberal. (1) Ordinary Grant amounts to $65 semi-annually for each teacher employed by the school district if school has been in operation for the full term, and a proportionate part thereof if school has not been open for the full term. In the case of newly established schools, however, being in operation for one month of the preceding term is sufficient to qualify for the full term grant. Except in the case of new school districts no school is entitled to receive a grant in excess of one-half of its current ' Sask. — ^The Secondary School Act. • Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 165-170. 20 Rural Schools in Canada expenses during the term for which such grant is paid. If the average attendance of resident pupils enrolled in any school falls below 40 per cent of such enrollment, the Department of Education may, at its discretion, reduce the amount of grant to such school district. Rural municipal councils must levy and collect as a general municipal tax a sum equal to $20 per teacher for each month, during which each school has been kept in opera- tion during the year; said amount to be paid as a municipal grant to each such school within the municipality. (2) Special Grants: (a) If one district arranges in an ap- proved way to convey its children to the school in a neighbor- ing district, the ordinary grant is paid as if a teacher had been regularly employed by such district.^ (b) If two or more dis- tricts unite to form a consolidated district and the consolidated district makes approved provision for the conveyance of all children living more than one mile from the consolidated school the grant to such consolidated district must equal the sum of the several grants which would have been payable to the dis- trict had they remained separate. The Department of Educa- tion at its discretion may also pay to such a consolidated district a sum not exceeding $500 to help defray the initial expense of the merger, and a sum in aid of the transportation of the children not exceeding 25 per cent of the cost of the same, (c) On the recommendation of the inspector a special bonus of $25 is paid i" to each teacher in service holding a certificate in elementary agriculture from the Agricultural College of Manitoba, (d) The government contributes directly and in- directly in furnishing school books for pupils, (e) The govern- ment may at its discretion make special grants '' for night schools, manual training and domestic science. V. Ontario The educational system of Ontario is more highly developed and elaborated than that of any other province. This is clearly revealed in the methods of financial support, as indeed, in all phases of educational work. To the Minister of Education is given the duty and power to apportion, subject to law and reg- • Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 130, 165 (c), (d). ^'lUd., Sec. 165(g). "/6id., Sec. 165 (f). Financial Support 21 ulations, all moneys voted by the legjislature as general or special grants for educational purposes." The appropriation and ap- portionment of the general grant for schools in city, town, and village municipalities is separate from, and independent of, the appropriation and apportionment of the general grant for rural schools.'^ The appropriations and apportionments of the grants for high schools and for higher education are on separate bases. There are also various special grants, each apportioned according to a definite plan, for Continuation Schools, Fifth Classes, Consolidated Schools, Technical Schools, Manual Training, Household Science and Agricultural Departments, School Gardens, Kindergartens, Night Schools, Public Libraries, Travelling Libraries, School Libraries, and Art Departments in Schools. While our present interest is primarily in such grants as affect rural education, a brief reference to the other grants will be made in order to indicate more fully the general policy of the Department of Education.^' The sums appropriated for the public and separate schools — both urban and rural — are divided between said public and separate schools upon the basis of the average number of pupils in attendance at such schools. The bases ^^ for apportioning the general grant to rural public and separate schools are, — the salaries paid to the teachers, the grade of the teachers' pro- fessional certificates, the length of their successful experience, the value of the equipment, the character of the accommoda- tion, the amount of the local assessment, and the length of time the school is in operation during the year.^^ In the case of rural schools not in the organized counties the provincial grant is paid directly to the local board of school trustees. ^^ In the case of those within the county organization the provincial grant is paid to the Treasurer of the County and through him to the township treasurers who pay it to the » Ont. — ^The Department of Education Act, Sec. 6. "An Act to Amend theDepartmentof Education Act, "Sec. 1. Note: All of the educational agencies fostered by the provincial govern- ments are not under the control of the ministers of education. The agricul- tural colleges and the educational activity of the departments of agriculture are under the control of the ministers of agriculture. There is considerable cooperation between the two departments in Ontario. " Ibid. » Ont. — Instructions to Inspectors, Instructions No. 13, Jan. 1911. " Ont. — The Dept. of Education Act, Sec. 6 (g), (i), and (j). 22 Rural Schools in Canada local school boards within their jurisdiction upon the warrant of the school inspector." It should be noted here that the county and the township must each in turn supplement the funds thus contributed to aid the local school section in maintaining an efficient school. '' A closer examination of the apportionment of these funds to the rural school sections is now in order. We will proceed from the simpler to the more complex arrangements. (1) Grants to "Assisted" Schools: '^^ These schools include those sections classified by the inspector as poor and in need of special aid, and those schools organized under the discre- tionary power of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council in out- of-the-way settlements where regular organization is not feasible. In addition to such grants as these schools may earn as rural school sections in districts outside of the organized counties, they may receive such grants as the Minister of Education may deem expedient for the payment of teachers' salaries or such other purposes as may meet with his approval. (2) Grants to Rural School Sections in Unorganized Counties: The legislative grant is apportioned to these school sections in accordance with the following scheme :'' (a) Length of Term: No school open less than four months is entitled to any grant. "A proportionate reduction of the total yearly grant, however, shall be made in respect to those schools which failed to remain open and in effective operation the whole year, by reducing such amount one-tenth for each month the schools were closed. " The school year is ten months. (6) Average Section Assessment: 2" If such assessment is less than $20,000 the grant on this basis is $40. If such assessment is at least $20,000 but less than $30,000 the grant on this basis is $30. "Ont. — The Dept. of Education Act, Sec. 6 (g) and (h); also Ont. — The Public Schools Act, Sect. 89. " Ont.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 90 and 91. i'Ont. — The Department of Education Act, Sec. 6 (g), (i), and (j); also Ont. — Instructions to Inspectors, Instructions No. 13, Jan. 1911. '» Ont. — Instruction to Inspectors, Instructions No. 13, 1911. " Average Section Assessment (1) in organized townships is the quotient obtained by dividing the average of the total assessed values of the township for the three years next preceding the year of distribution by the number of school sections in the township, (2) in unorganized townships the average of the total assessed values of the section for the three years next preceding the distribution. Financial Support 23 If such assessment is at least $30,000 but less than $40,000 the grant on this basis is $25. If such assessment is at least $40,000 but less than $50,000 the grant on this basis is $20. If such assessment is $50,000 or over no grant is paid on this basis. (c) Teachers' Salaries: ^i " Each school shall receive 40 per cent of the amounts paid in teachers' salaries during the calendar year, up to a maximum of $600 salary in the case of each teacher, the computation beginning as follows: (1) At $100 where the average section assessment is less than $20,000. (2) At $150 for a Principal and $100 for an Assistant where the average section assessment is $20,000 or over. (d) Teachers' Qualifications: Successful experience and grade of certificate — "If the teachers' total experience in the schools of the Prov- ince of Ontario shall have been at least five years on July 1st next: (a) For a Provincial Professional First Class Certificate . . . $50 (b) For a " " Second " " $40 If said experience shall have been less than five years on the same date: (a) For a Provincial Professional First Class Certificate . . . $40 (b) For a " " Second " " .... $30 (c) For a Professional Third Class (both permanent and limited) or a Provincial Ungraded Permanent Certificate $25 (d) For a Professional District Certificate $20" (e) Equipment and Accommodation: ^^ If average section assessment is under $20,000 this grant is $30. If average section assessment is at least $20,000 but under $30,000 the grant is $25." If average section assessment is $30,000 or over grant is paid to each inspectorate at the rate of $20,000 for each assistant " Note that this establishes a minimum salary of $250 for a rural school teacher in unorganized counties and unsurveyed territory. n Ont. — "Accommodations and Equipment of Rural Public and Sep- arate Schools"— Circular No. 33, 1907-1910. " Note: Such grant must be expended on the improvement of equipment and accommodation under the advice of the inspector. 24 Rural Schools in Canada if school has been in effective operation for at least one term, and the total sum of said grants is sub-apportioned by the in- spector to such school sections on the basis of the value of the equipment and the character of the accommodation accord- ing to the following scheme: Each school receives 10 per cent of the approved value of equipment " up to a maximum grant of $20 for each principal and $2.50 additional for each assistant. Each school receives a grant on the character of its accommoda- tion up '^ to a maximum grant of $30 for a one-teacher school, $54 for a two-teacher school, and $60 for a school with more than two teachers, in accordance with the following scheme: ACCOMMODATION GRANTS Got Teacher Two Teachees MOBE Grade I II /// IV / ;/ /// IV / // /// IV CloBcls $4.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 4.00 4.00 13.00 1.50 3.00 1.60 1.60 1.60 .75 1.50 .75 1.50 3.00 3.00 $2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .60 1.00 .50 1.00 2.00 2.00 $1.00 .50 1.00 .60 .50 .50 .26 .50 .26 .60 1.00 1,00 $6.00 2.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 1.50 3.00 1.50 3.00 6.00 6.00 $4.50 1.50 3.75 2.26 2.25 1.60 2.25 1.10 2.26 1.10 2.25 4.50 4.50 $3.00 1.00 2.50 1.60 1.60 1.00 1.50 .75 1.50 .75 1.50 3.00 3.00 $1.50 .50 1.25 .75 .76 .60 .75 .40 .75 .40 .75 1.60 1.50 $8.00 3.00 6.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 4.00 8.00 8.00 $6.00 2.25 4.50 3.00 3.00 2.25 3.00 1.50 3.00 1.50 3.00 6.00 6.00 $4.00 1.50 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 4.00 4.00 $2 00 Water supply School grounds . . School btilldingB Class rooms Halls .75 1.50 1.00 1.00 .75 Cap room Private rooms . . . Desks 1.00 .50 1.00 Blackboards Lighting. .50 1.00 2 00 2.00 Total t30.00 $22.60 $15.00 $7.60 $45.00 $33.70 $22.50 $11.30 $60.00 $45.00 $30.00 $15.00 Apart from these grants from the provincial school funds, school sections in districts outside of organized counties receive no financial aid from without unless they happen to be in an organized township, in which case ^* the township council must levy and collect a general township tax (based on equalized township assessment) sufficient to provide at least the following minimum grants to the school sections within its jurisdiction: $150 for every school where a teacher or principal teacher is engaged for two consecutive school terms, and a proportionate amount if engaged for one school term or longer. " Ont. — "Accommodations and Equipment of Rural Public and Separate Schools."— Circular No. 33, 1907-1910. " Continuation school teachers and special equipment for fifth classes and continuation schools are not included. Note: There are townships in territory without county organization. Ont.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 91 (2). Financial Support 25 $100 additional, for every assistant teacher on the same terms. Such grants from the township must be used only for the purpose of paying teachers' salaries. (3) Grants to Rural School Sections in Organized Counties: Rural school sections in organized counties receive grants from three sources to supplement the funds raised by local section taxation. (a) Grants from the Township: ^^ If average section assessment based on equalized township assessment is at least equal to $30,000, such township must provide a fund sufficient to grant at least $300 to every school within its jurisdiction having a teacher or principal teacher engaged for two consecutive terms, and a proportionate amount of such sum where such teacher is engaged for one school term or longer, and an additional sum of at least $200 for every assistant teacher with the same proviso. Amounts so appor- tioned must be used by the sections receiving them for payment of teachers' salaries. (6) Grants from the County: ^' The county council must levy and collect a county tax by an equal rate upon the whole county (according to equalized assessments of the municipalities within its jurisdiction) suffi- cient to provide (1) a sum at least equal to that part of the legislative grant which is apportioned by the Minister of Edu- cation "on the basis of the equipment and accommodations of the rural schools of the county." Such sums shall be payable to the boards of the schools receiving such legislative grant in the same proportion as such legislative grant is apportioned. (2) "a sum at least equal to that part of the legislative grant which is apportioned to the schools ..." for fifth classes and such sums shall be payable to the boards of the schools re- ceiving such legislative grant in the same proportion as such legislative grant is apportioned. (c) Grants from the Provincial School Funds: ^^ Based on Average Section Assessment: ^' Where such assessment is less than $30,000 the grant is $30. " Ont.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 91 (1) and (2). " Ibid., Sec. 90. 2' Ibid., Sec. 6 and 89; also Instructions to Inspectors, Instructions No. 12, 1912. " Ont. — Instructions to Inspectors, Instructions No. 12, 1912. 26 Rural Schools in Canada Where such assessment is at least $30,000 but less than $40,000 the grant is $25. Where such assessment is at least $40,000 but less than $50,000 the grant is $20. Where such assessment is $50,000 or over no grant is paid on this basis. Based on Teachers' Salaries: Each school receives 40 per cent of the amounts paid in teachers' salaries each school year up to a maximum of $600 salary in the case of each teacher, the computation beginning as follows: '" " (a) At $150 for a principal teacher and $100 for each assist- ant teacher where the average section assessment, as defined above, of the township where the school is situated is less than $30,000; "(b) At $200 for a principal and $150 for each assistant where said assessment is at least $30,000 but less than $40,000; "(c) At $250 for a principal and at $150 for each assistant where such assessment is at least $40,000 but less than $60,000; "(d) At $350 for a principal and $250 for each assistant in the case of all other townships." Based on Teachers' Qualifications: '' The inspector determines the competency of each teacher for the purposes of this grant. If teachers are employed for the full year the full grant is paid; if employed for at least one term but not for full year, only one-half of this grant is paid in each case. (1) "If the teacher's total experience in the schools of the Province of Ontario shall have been at least five years on July 1st next, (a) For a First Class Certificate $40. (6) For a Second Class Certificate $25." •• If teacher assumes all the janitor duties and is paid extra for same by the Board, the inspector deducts a sum not exceeding $25 in any one case and a proportionate amount if he assumes only part of such duties. >' Note: "It is the policy of the Department of Education that as soon as practicable the lowest grade of certificate in the rural municipalities shall be an Interim Second Class, and that the emplo3Tnent of successful teachers ■with higher certificates and longer experience shall be encouraged. The grant on Interim Second Class Certificates will accordingly be gradually withdrawn, and such modifications made in the grants on the other certifi- cates as the conditions of education may justify." "Interim" — i. e., probationary for the 1st year of teaching experience after graduation from the Normal School. Financial Support 27 (2) " If such experience is less than five years on such date, (a) For a First Class Certificate $30. (6) For a Second Class Certificate $15." Based on Equipment and Accommodations: The total legislative grant for this purpose is distributed by the Minister to each inspectorate as follows : The total amount is divided by the total number of teachers in the rural public and separate schools (not including continuation schools); and the quotient thus obtained, multiplied by the number of such teachers in each inspectorate, gives the amount of legislative grant payable to the inspectorate.'^ This grant to each inspec- torate is sub-apportioned by the inspector in accordance with instructions '' as to the grading of accommodations and evalua- tion of equipment. The special equipment for Continuation Schools or Fifth Forms is not included as they are provided for by special grants. This sub-apportionment by the inspector is according to the following scheme:. (a) "Out of the combined Legislative and County grants,'* each school shall receive 10 per cent of the approved value of the equipment up to a maximum grant of $20.00 for each principal and of $2.50 additional for each assistant." (6) "Out of the combined Legislative and County grants, each school shall receive a grant on the character of its accom- modations, the maximum being $30.00 for a one-teacher school, 145.00 for a two-teacher school and $60.00 for a school with more than two teachers in accordance with the same schedule as that used for the similar grant to rural schools outside of organized counties."'^ ''(4) Special Grants There are a number of special grants severally or jointly provided for by the legislature, the county and the municipal- ity or township which have a direct bearing upon the strength- ening of the school work in rural communities. "2 Each principal is reckoned as a unit and each assistant as a half-unit if school is open for the whole school year; but each principal counts as only one-half unit and each assistant as one-fourth unit if school has been open one-half year but not the whole year. " Ont. — "Instructions to Inspectors and School Boards," Circular No. 33, 1907-1910. " See "Grants from Counties" — page 22 above. « See page 23. " Ont. — Department of Education Act, Sect. 6 (k) (1). 28 Rural Schools in Canada A. Fifth forms;" These are classes in advance of public school work, organized in the less populous sections of the province as an advanced class in the local school — usually for only one or two years of advanced work. No fifth form may be organized in municipalities or sections having a continuation school or a high school. If such fifth form maintains an average attendance of at least two pupils, engages a teacher with at least a Permanent Provincial Second Class Certificate and has a special equipment for its own particular use at least equal to the following minimum values: Library $50, scientific apparatus $50, maps and charts $15, art models and supplies $15, said fifth form is qualified to draw grants.'^ In the case of such fifth forms as may be organized in districts not within organized counties the legislative grant thereto is twice '' what it is in the case of such forms organized within organized counties. This extra sum is to correspond to the grants from the counties received by the latter. The following is the schedule for those in organized counties or municipalities. In addition to the general and special legislative grants to public and separate schools, rural and urban fifth forms which have complied with the aforementioned conditions receive their share of the legislative grant to fifth forms, apportioned on the following basis : 1. Fixed Grants: (a) "$25 for Grade A;" that is, a PubUc or Separate School where there is a staff of at least two teachers, the principal giving instruction to not more than the pupils of the fourth and higher forms;" (b) "$20 for Grade B; that is, a Public or Separate School where there is a staff of at least two teachers, the principal giving instruction to not more than the third, fourth and higher forms;" (c) "$10 for Grade C; that is, for other Public or Separate »'Ont. — The Department of Education Act, Sect. 6 (e). "Continuation. Schools and Fifth Classes" — Revised Regulation. Circular No. 37, pp. 11-14, 1909. Note: For their organization and general regulation see Chapter VIII. " 25 % of such minimum equipment must be provided before the Fifth Form may share the grant. Each year after the first year 25 % additional must be provided until the above mentioned minimum values are reached as far as the library and scientific apparatus are concerned. >« Ont.— Circular No. 37, 1909, p. 14. " If more extensive work is planned, a continuation school is formed. Financial Support 29 School Fifth Forms which have complied with the minimum requirements already mentioned." 2. Grants on Value of Special Equipment: These grants areas follows, — 10 per cent of the approved value up to a maximum grant of $20 for library; $20 for scientific apparatus; $5 for maps, charts, and tellurium. 3. Grants on Salaries: (a) Grade A fifth forms in rural schools receive a maximum grant of $30. In the urban schools said grant is 30 per cent of the excess of the principal's salary oyer $400 up to a maximum grant of $60. In cases of both rural and urban, Grade A fifth forms also receive a grant of 30 per cent of the excess of the principal's salary over $600 up to a maximum grant of $120. (6) Grade B and C fifth forms in rural schools receive 5 per cent of the excess of the teacher's salary over $300 up to a maximum grant of $15. For such forms in urban municipalities, this grant is 25 per cent of the excess of the teacher's salary over $400 up to a maximum grant of $50. In both urban and rural fifth forms of these grades an additional grant of 30 per cent of the excess of the teacher's salary over $600 up to a maximum grant of $60 is paid. 4. Grant on Grade of Teacher's Certificate: $10 for each teacher in such fifth forms who holds a permanent First Class Certificate or a permanent Second Class Certificate and Degree in Arts from a British university, if said teacher has taught the full school year, and $5 for each such teacher if school has been in operation at least one term, but not the full year, is the grant on this basis. The county council ^' must raise a fund equal to the legislative grant to the fifth forms within its jurisdiction and apportion said fund to these fifth forms in the same proportion as the legislative grant is apportioned. B. Continuation Schools:^ No continuation schools may be formed in a high school district.^' It is sufficient here to point out that the continuation schools form a separate unit of or- ganization as far as grants and regulations are concerned. The " Ont.— The PubUc Schools Act, Sec. 90 (2). « Ont. — The Continuation Schools Act. "Continuation Schools and Fifth Classes," Circular No. 37—1902. " Note: For the organization and regulation of Fifth Forms and Continua- tion Schools see Chapter VIII. 30 Rural Schools in Canada pupils must be taught in a room or rooms or building apart from the pupils of public school grade. There are three grades of continuation schools — each with a standard special equipment of minimum value — that can qualify for the following grants. Grade C continuation sQhool is one in which at least the equivalent of the time of one teacher, but less than the time of two, is given to the work of such school. The teacher must hold a permanent First Class Certificate. The minimiun equip- ment for the continuation school's particular use is: Library $150, scientific apparatus $150, maps, charts and tellurium $25, art models and supplies $25. Grade B continuation school is one in which at least the time of two teachers but less than the time of three, is given to the work. The principal must have a permanent First Class Certificate or a High School Assistant's Certificate. The other teachers may have either an interim or permanent certificate of the same grade. The minimum equipment is the same as for grade C continuation schools. Grade A continuation school ** is one in which at least the time of three teachers is given to the work of such school. The principal must have the same qualifications required of high school principals and his assistants, the same qualifications as assistant teachers in high schools. The minimum requirement as to equipment is: Library $200, scientific apparatus $300, maps, charts and tellurium $50, art models and supplies $50. 1. Legislative Grants: These legislative grants are doubled in the case of those continuation schools outside of organized counties. This is to correspond to the county grant received by those in organized counties. (a) Fixed Grants: These are, for a Grade C continuation school $100; for Grade B $200; and for Grade A $300. (6) Salary Grants: For Grade C, 25 per cent of the excess of the principal's salary over $400 up to a maximum grant of $150. For Grade B, 25 per cent of the excess of the two teachers' salaries over $800 up to a maximum grant of $300. For Grade A, 20 per cent of the three teachers' salaries over $1,500 up to a maximum grant of $350. (c) Equipment Grants: 10 per cent of the approved value of " If a fourth teacher becomes necessary and more extensive work is planned the organization of a regular high school is undertaken. Financial Support 31 the equipment up to the following maximum grants. In Grades B and C: Library $30, scientific apparatus $30, maps, charts and tellurium $5, art models and supplies $5. In Grade A these grants are respectively $60, $60, $7.50, and $7.50. (d) Accommodation Grants: It may be well to recall again that this grant is independent of the similar grant given to public or separate schools even though the continuation class be housed in the same building. If, however, a separate building and grounds are provided the grants indicated in the following table are increased by one-fourth. This grant is apportioned according to the grading of the inspector within the limits in- dicated in the following table: ON THE CHARACTER OF THE ACCOMMODATION School Gbadx a GiUtDsB Ghade Gradeot Accomnuh dalion 1 // /// ir / // III IV I // /// IV Closets $4.S0 3.00 8.00 4.50 14.00 8.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 7.00 4.00 2.50 4.50 4.50 8.00 t3.2S 2.25 6.00 3.25 10.50 6.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 5.25 3.00 2.00 3.25 3. 25 6.00 $2.50 1.75 4.50 2.50 8.00 4.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 4.00 2.25 1.50 2.50 2.50 4.50 $2.00 1.25 3.25 2.00 6.00 3.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 3.00 1.76 1.25 2.00 2.00 3.25 $2.00 1.50 3.00 2.25 8.00 4.00 1.50 1.60 4.00 3.00 1.25 2.25 2.25 3.50 $1.50 1.25 2.26 1.75 6.00 3.00 1.25 1.26 3.00 2.25 1.00 1.75 1.75 2.75 $1.25 1.00 1.75 1.25 4.50 2.26 1.00 1.00 2.26 1.76 .75 1.25 1.26 2.00 $1.00 .75 1.25 1.00 3.25 1.76 .75 .75 1.75 1.25 .60 1.00 1.00 1.50 $2.00 1.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.60 1.00 1.26 1.26 2.00 $1.50 .76 3.00 1.50 .75 .75 1.50 1.26 .75 1.00 1.00 1.50 $1.25 .50 2.25 1.25 .50 .50 1.26 1.00 .50 .75 .75 1.25 $1.00 Water supply Grounds Buildings Class rooms Laboratory Halls .25 1.75 1.00 Cap room Teachers' room . . Desks .25 .25 l.OO Laboratory tables Blackboards .75 .25 .50 Idgbtmg Ventilation .50 1.00 Total $80.00 S60.00 (45.50 $34.75 $40.00 $30.75 $23.26 $17.60 $20.00 $15.25 $11.75 $8.50 (e) Teacher's Certificate Grant: (a) "In Grades B and C, and in the case of Assistants in Grade A, $20, where, in addition to the minimum qualifications the teacher holds a Degree in Arts from a British University." (b) "In Grades A, B, and C, $40 where, in addition to the minimum qualifications, the teacher holds the academic quali- fications of a High School specialist or a Degree in Arts from a British University with at least Second Class Honours (66 per cent) in a department recognized by the Minister of Education." (c) The grants mentioned in (a) and (b) are paid in full if teachers have been employed for the whole school year. If employed for at least one school term but not for the full school year the grant is just one half of the above amounts. 32 Rural Schools in Canada 2. County Grants:*^ The County Council must raise at least sufficient funds by general county levy to provide a fund equal to the legislative grants earned by the continuation schools within it, and must apportion such funds to such continuation schools in the same proportion as the legislative grant is appor- tioned. 3. Township Grants:*^ As far as the township grant is con- cerned the continuation school is considered as a public school. C. High Schools and Collegiate Institutes:*'' 1. High Schools: Legislative Grants. (a) Fixed Grant: $375 for high schools with fewer than four teachers and |350 for other high schools is provided as a fixed grant. (6) Equipment Grant: This grant is equal to 8 per cent of the local approved expenditure on equipment up to a maximum grant of $132 in case of high schools with two teachers and $260 in case of high schools with three or more teachers. (c) Accommodation Grant: The maximum accommodation grant is $80 for high schools with two teachers and §120 for high schools with three or more teachers. This grant is affected definitely by the inspector's grading of the accommodation. (d) Salary Grant: The salary grant is equivalent to 8 per cent of the approved local expenditure for this purpose over $1500 up to a maximum grant of $600. (e) Special Grants: (1) Approved high schools, i.e., those attaining definitely specified standards in regard to equipment, accommodation, staff, and general efficiency receive special grants. Two grades of such schools are recognized, the high school inspector determining, in light of regulations, the partic- ular grade assigned to the individual schools. High schools with fewer than four teachers who attain first rank receive an annual grant of $80, those attaining second rank receive $40. For high schools with four or more teachers these grants are, respectively, $120 and $60. (2) Art Courses: A special annual grant of $25 for art equipment and $75 for the art teacher — over and above his regular salary — is also provided under certain specified conditions. (3) Manual Training and House- " Ont. — The Continuation Schools Act, Sec. 10. " Ibid., Sec. 4 (6) and Public Schools Act, Sec. 91 (1) and (2). "Ont. — "Regulations and Courses of Study of the High Schools and Collegiate Institutes"— 1911. Financial Support 33 hold Science Grants — See under E below. It should be noted that these grants have nothing to do with the industrial and technical schools or classes organized under the Industrial Education Act and controlled by the specially appointed Ad- visory Industrial Committees. Their purpose is to foster the introduction and maintenance of these courses as an integral part of a general cultural education. 2. Collegiate Institutes: Legislative Grants. (a) Fixed Grant of $350 is provided. (b) Equipment Grant of $260 is provided, subject to reduction to the extent that equipment provided falls below specified standard. (c) Accommodation Grant is $160 subject to same process as in the case of the equipment grant. (d) Salary Grant is, as in case of high schools, 8 per cent of approved expenditure over $1500 up to a maximum grant of $600. (e) Special Grants: "Approved" collegiate institutes of first grade receive a special grant of $160; those of second grade, a special grant of $80. The grants for art instruction and equip- ment and for manual training and household science are the same as in the case of the high schools. D. Elementary Agriculture and School Gardens: The Ontario teacher who attends the course in "Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture" or "Industrial Arts" given at the Agricul- tural College at Guelph every spring for a period of about ten weeks, is granted free transportation to and from the college and free board and lodging while attending.** If work is up to standard a certificate is granted to the teacher. Any village or rural school board, maintaining an approved school garden and providing a course in Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture under a teacher possessing the requisite certifi- cate (see above), receives an initial grant not exceeding $50 and a subsequent annual grant of $30. In addition to these grants to the school board the teacher giving such course re- ceives an annual bonus of $30.*' Smaller grants from $8 to $12 are paid, if the teacher, although withput the certificate fropa the Agricultural College, does work which in the opinion of the Director of Elementary Agricultural Education justifies such " Ont. — Circular No. 13, 1912. Department of Education. 34 Rural Schools in Canada grant. There are also legislative and county grants in connec- tion with the expenses of the county representatives of the Department of Agriculture who are supposed to give the special agricultural courses in the continuation and high schools. E. Manual Training and Domestic Science Departments:^" Every school maintaining such departments receives a special grant. 1. Rural and Village Schools: In villages and rural schools maintaining equipment and instruction in either of these lines of work satisfactory to the respective directors and the regula- tions an initial grant of $50 with a subsequent annual grant of $30 is paid to the school section, and an annual salary bonus of $30 is paid to the teacher. The requirements as to equipment and accommodation are definitely specified. 2. High School, Continuation, and Urban Public and Separate Schools:^^ If the minimum requirements regarding attendance, periods of instruction, number of courses, qualifications of teachers, character of equipment and accommodation are met satisfac- torily the annual legislative grants for each centre are as follows: (o) Fixed Grant: For manual training centres this grant is $250, and for household science $150 per full-time teacher in the special work. (b) Salary Grant: The salary grant is 20 per cent of the annual local expenditure for teachers' salaries over $600 up to a maximum grant of $200. (c) Equipment Grant: (1) Manual Training: For the first year of the centre's operation this grant is 40 per cent of the value of equipment up to a maximum of $800, and, for each of the three following years, 20 per cent up to a maximum of $440. After the fourth year this grant is 10 per cent of the value of equipment up to a maximum annual grant of $220. (2) Household Science: For the first year of the centre's opera- tion the grant is 40 per cent of the value of equipment up to the maximum of $400; for each of the three years following, it is 20 per cent up to a maximum of $200. After the fourth year the annual grant drops to 10 per cent of value of equipment up to a maximum grant of $100. »• Ont. — Circular No. 3, 1912, Department of Education. " Ibid. Financial Support 35 (d) Accommodation Grant: The accommodation grants for manual training and household science are apportioned according to the following scheme of grading : (1) MANUAL TRAINING ACCOMMODATION Accommodation Grade Wood-working and Wood-turning Shop Forge Shop . Machine Shop Combination Forge and Machine Shop Stock Koom Teacher's Room Blackboards Lighting Heating Ventilation Cloak Rooms and Lavatories Totals 510.00 10.00 10.00 15.00 6.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 4.00 $65.00 // $7.50 7.50 7.50 11.25 3.75 2.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 3.00 $49.25 III $5.00 5.00 5.00 7.50 2.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 $32.50 IV $2.50 2.50 2.50 3.75 1.25 .75 .50 .50 .50 .50 1.00 $16.25 (2) HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE Accommodation Gbade Kitchen Pantry, Cupboard and Store Room Dining Room Sewing Room Teacher's Room Blackboards Lightiag Heating Ventilation Cloak Rooms and Lavatories Totals $10.00 5.00 10.00 10.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 4.00 $50.00 II $7.50 3.75 7.50 7.50 2.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 3.00 $38.00 /// $5.00 2.50 5.00 6.00 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 $25.00 IV $2.50 1.25 2.50 2.60 .75 .50 .50 .50 .50 1.00 $12.50 F. Agricultural Departments in High and Continuation Schools: Whenever organized these departments are under the immediate care of the county representative of the Department of Agri- culture who also has oflScial relations with the Department of Education." w Ont. — Circulars Nos. 47 and 47, 1912, Dept. of Education. 36 Rural Schools in Canada 1. County Grants: The county grant for such a department at continuation schools must amount to at least $500 annually." G. Local Ldbraries:^* Rural schools — not including fifth forms and continuation classes for which there is special provision — may receive a grant from the province up to 10 per cent of the value of the books purchased by the local school board for their school library during the year, up to a maximum grant of $10. Books so purchased must have been approved by the inspector as especially suitable for school purposes. The Public Library Grants ^^ provided for by the " Public Libraries Act " are so apportioned that any village or township having a library association of at least fifty adult persons can share in the same. 1. Maximum grant of 50 per cent of the local expenditure for library purposes — but only 45 per cent in case of books of fic- tion — up to a maximum of $200 for books and library expenses and $50 for magazines, periodicals and newspapers. 2. If there be any portion of the legislative grant for public libraries left after the above mentioned grants are paid, the Minister of Education may pay out of the residue the following sums or a proportionate part thereof as the amount of the residue may permit: (a) $5 to a public hbrary which has kept a reading room open not less than three hours a day for three days in the week; or (6) $10 to a public library which has kept a reading room open not less than three hours a day for three days in the week; and (c) to a public library whose total receipts are less than $25 per year; or (d) $10 to a public library whose total receipts are over $25 per year but less than $100; or (e) $15 if total receipts of such library be over $100 but less than $200 per year. (/) $20 if total receipts of such library be over $200 but less than $500 per year. "Ont. — The Continuation School Act, Sec. 10 (3). The Industrial Edu- cation Act, 1911, Sec. 14-15. " Ont. — Instructions to Inspectors, Instruction Nos. 12 and 13— Jan. 1911-1912. " Ont. — Public Libraries Act, especially Sec. 17 and 22-24. Financial Support 37 VI. Quebec *' In Quebec the legislative grants for educational purposes are divided between the Common or Public School Funds, the Superior Education Fund, and Poor Municipalities Fund. The total sum allotted by the legislature to each of these funds is first divided into two parts bearing to each other the same proportion as the total Roman Catholic population'' of the province bears to the total Protestant population*' of the province. AH non-Catholics are classed as Protestant for school grant purposes. These amounts are then assigned to the credit of the Roman Catholic and Protestant schools, respec- tively, to be distributed by the Superintendent of Public In- struction to the local authorities in accordance with the law and the regulations of the respective committees — Roman Catholic and Protestant. (1) Common or Public School Fund: This fund is apportioned to the local school municipalities, in proportion to their popula- tion. The division of the said sum between the school com- missioners and the local board of trustees (representing the dissentients) is based on the relative number of children at- tending the schools under these respective boards.** The amount of the grant from the Public School Fund received by the local school authorities depends, in the last analysis, upon the amount of the legislative grant which may be voted each year as no special statutory schedule of apportionment apart from the above mentioned population basis is provided. (2) Superior Education Fund: This fund — after the initial division between the Roman Catholics and Protestants — ^is apportioned to the various "universities, colleges, seminaries, academies, high schools, superior schools, model schools and educational institutions other than the ordinary elementary schools," by the Superintendent of Public Instruction in such proportions as the Lieutenant-Governor in Council may approve. (3) Poor Municipalities Fund:^^ This is a special fund which has been greatly increased in recent years to help those school municipalities needing aid greater than that given by " Que. — The School Law of the Province ot Quebec — Art. 435-450. " Total population according to first preceding census. " Que. — The School Law of the Province of Quebec, Art. 295. "/6id., Art. 449. 38 Rural Schools in Canada the general grants. After the usual initial division between the Roman Catholics and Protestants the fund is apportioned to those local school municipalities whose share in the general grants does not exceed $200.'° The apportionment of this fund, while subject to the approval of their superiors, is imme- diately in the hands of the French and English secretaries re- spectively. The inspectors report upon such schools and if the secretary of the Roman Catholic or Protestant Committee, as the case may be, approves, a grant, varying in amount according to his discretion, is paid to such schools. Naturally the total fund available, and the special need and responsiveness in the way of local effort on the part of the local community, deter- mine in large measure the actual amounts so paid. VII. New Brunsvnck In New Brunswick the local school districts receive aid from the county and the provincial government.'' (1) County or Parish Granis:^^ The county must raise as part of the general county levy an amount sufficient to yield a net amount equal to 30 cents for every inhabitant of the county or parish for the purpose of making grants to the schools within its jurisdiction. Such gross amount is paid out by the County or Parish Council upon the order of the Chief Superintendent of Education in accordance with the following scheme of appor- tionment: (o) Teacher Basis: "There shall be allowed to the trustees of each district, in respect of each qualified teacher, exclusive of assistants, by them employed the sum of thirty dollars per year." (6) Average Attendance Basis: "The balance of such amount shall be apportioned to the trustees according to the average number of pupils in attendance at each school, as compared with the whole average number of pupils attending the schools of the county, and the length of time the school is in operation." (2) Legislative Grants: (a) Teachers' Salaries: The entire general legislative grant is apportioned on this basis and is paid direct to the teachers. ••Que. — School Regulations of the Catholic Committee, Sec. 1, Sub-Sec. 9. School Kegulations of the Protestant Committee, Sec. 164. " N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 12. •" lUd., Sec. 14-22. Financial Support 39 The districts supplement these amounts in so far as they find it necessary to do so. The following schedule presupposes a full year's work on the part of the teacher. If service is for less than a year the grant is pro rata. 1. To Teachers in the Elementary Schools:^ First Class Teachers during first 2 yrs. experience — Male $135; Female $100 per yr. First Class Teachers after 2 and up to 7 yrs. experience — Male $150; Female $110 per yr. First Class Teachers after 7 yrs. experience — Male $175; Female $130 per yr. Second Class Teachers during first 2 yrs. experience — Male $108; Female $81 per yr. Second Class Teachers after 2 yrs. up to 7 yrs. experience — Male $120; Female $90 per yr. Second Class Teachers after 7 yrs. experience — Male $140; Female $105 per yr. Third Class Teachers during first 2 yrs. experience — Male $81; Female $63 per yr. Third Class Teachers after 2 yrs. up to 7 yrs. experience — Male $90; Female $70 per yr. Third Class Teachers after 7 yrs. experience — Male $100; Female $80 per yr. Assistant teachers, if provided with a separate class room and regularly employed at least four hours a day, receive one-half the foregoing sums, according to the class of license they hold. 2. To Teachers in Superior Schools:^* If teacher of a superior school holds the superior or grammar school license, the grant is a sum not exceeding $250 per year during the first seven years of service, and $275 thereafter, provided the trustees of the district in which such school is established shall pay an equal amount towards the salary of such teacher. 3. To Teachers in County Grammar Schools:'^ To teachers of •> N. B.— "An Act to further amend The Schools Act," 1907, Sec. 1. "Ibid., Sec. 4. •'/bid.. Sec. 4. Note: In New Brunswick the classifications run Primary, Advanced, Superior, and Grammar Schools. The first gives primary work only; the second, both primary and upper grade work of an elementary school; the third gives all of these plus some more advanced work; and the fourth corre- sponds to a regular High School with elementary grades attached. One superior school may be established in each county for every 6000 inhabitants or a majority fraction thereof. 40 Rural Schools in Canada a county grammar school holding a grammar school license and doing real grammar school work the grant is $350 per annum during the first seven years of service, and $400 per annum thereafter. The Board of Education may require the county to supplement this salary as it deems proper. In no case is this grant paid to more than four teachers for any one grammar school. (b) Special Grants: 1. To Poor Districts:^' In the case of poor districts the usual legislative and county grants may be increased up to one-third more than the normal schedule, the actual amount of such increase being determined by the Chief Superintendent of Education who receives special reports from the inspectors in regard to such schools. 2. To Consolidated Schools:^'' In addition to the ordinary grants to teachers and grants made on account of manual train- ing, domestic science, school gardens, and conveyance of pupils, the Consolidated School District may receive — if up to approved standard — additional grants up to a maximum of $1000 a year. The apportionment is as follows: The grants continue yearly for the first three years after the consolidated school is in opera- tion. For each school district (not less than three) joining the union to form the consolidated district a yearly grant of $100 is made to such consolidated district. In addition the consoli- dated district receives a grant of $2 per pupil in average at- tendance during the year. 3. For Conveyance of Pupils:^^ If the Regulations are com- plied with, the government will grant a sum not exceeding one- half of the total expenses incurred on account of such conveyance. 4. For Manual Training and Domestic Science:^^ The special additional grant for these purposes is a sum not less than one- half of the total amount expended for the necessary initial equipment, and any new equipment subsequently purchased for enlargement and renewals, which has been approved by the Inspector of Manual Training. There is also a special bonus of $50 for approved teachers " N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 44. "' Ibid., Section 124, and Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 49. •• Ibid,, Sec. 57, 124, and Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 48. " Ibid., Sec. 2 (6), 123, and Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 47. Financial Support 41 who take such special work in addition to part of the general school work and $200 for a specialist who gives all of his or her time to such special lines of work. A minimum of ten pupils for such special class, with necessary equipment for same, and of three hours of such work per week is required before such work will be recognized for grant purposes. This enables several schools to cooperate in employing a specialist. 6. School Gardens and Nature-Study:'"' The government pays a grant of $20 per annum to the district to help maintain the school garden, provided the district spends an equal amount for the same purpose. An approved teacher giving instruction in nature-study in connection with school gardens receives an annual bonus of $30 for so doing. 6. School Idbraries:''^ The government grants a sum equal to one-half the amount spent by the school district for school library purposes up to a maximum grant of $20 per annum, said grant to be expended in purchase of books. All books placed in school libraries must be approved. VIII. Prince Edward Island '* The teachers of Prince Edward Island receive the bulk of their salary direct from the Provincial Treasury, although the district in which they teach sometimes supplements the statutory allowance. The Provincial Salary Grants are apportioned as follows: Teachers of the First Class— Male $300, Female $230, if effi- ciency is of first rank. Teachers of the Second Class— Male $225, Female $180, if efficiency is of first rank. Teachers of the Third Class— Male $180, Female $130, if effi- ciency is of first rank. Such grants may be reduced by $20 if the inspector reports that the efficiency of the teacher is of second rank; to the extent of $40 if efficiency is of the third rank. Another reduction is made if the average daily attendance in the teacher's class room or "N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 123 (e), (f). Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 50. " Ibid., Section 96 and Regulation 34. " P. E. I.— The PubUc Schools Act, Sec. VIII-XVIII. Regulations of the Board of Education, Regulations 70-73. 42 Rural Schools in Canada school falls below 50 per cent of school children within the district, the reduction being proportional to the deficiency in attendance. It is interesting to note that the trustees are author- ized to make good this latter reduction in salary by levying on the parents of the children whose absences gave rise to the reduction.'' There is also a legislative grant to school libraries,^* equal to such sums as the local district may expend for such purposes, up to a maximum grant of $20 a year. The grant must be spent in the purchase of approved books. While no special legislative grant for the consolidation of schools and conveyance of pupils has as yet been provided, if two or more districts arrange to consolidate and to convey the school children needing transportation the Government allows the usual teacher grants to continue to each of such districts. The district whose children are conveyed can then use such grant for conveyance purposes.'' IX. Nova Scotia In Nova Scotia, as in New Brunswick and Ontario, the county as well as the provincial government contributes to the support of the local schools. (1) County Grants:''^ In Nova Scotia the incorporated towns within the county must bear their share of the county taxation including the county educational tax. The county must raise by taxation an amount to yield a net sum equal to, at least, 35 cents but not more than 60 cents for every inhabitant of said county and incorporated towns therein contained. This Municipal School Fund is apportioned to the various school sections upon the order of the Superintendent of Education ac- cording to the following scheme: (a) Teachers Salaries: For every licensed teacher employed $25 a year. (6) School Gardens: According to inspector's recommenda- tion up to $25 a year, (c) Average Attendance and Length of Term: Balance of the Fund apportioned on this basis. » P. E. I.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. XVI. '< IMd., Sec. LXXX. » Interview with Chief-Supt. Anderson, Charlottetown, P. E. I. '• N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 71-80. Financial Support 43 (d) Poor Sections:'''' The Superintendent of Education may allow such districts one-half more than other districts from the said Municipal School Fund. (2) Provincial Grants: (a) Teacher Basis: Class D teachers in any public schools receive $60 per yr. Class C teachers in any pubUc schools receive $90 per yr. Class B teachers in any public schools receive $120 per yr. Class A teachers in a superior common, or in high school $150 per yr. Class A teachers Academic in a high school of prescribed status receive $180 per yr. Class A teachers in the larger high schools or academies receive $210 per yr. Assistant teachers with separate class rooms and at least four hours' daily service receive two-thirds of the above schedule according to their grade of license. (6) Rural Science:''^ Any teacher of Class A or B, holding the Rural Science Certificate and successfully teaching rural science in a school with approved equipment receives a grant according to the efficiency of such work as judged by the inspector. If efficiency grading is "superior" this special grant is $90, if "good" the grant is $60, and if "fair" the grant is $30 per annum. However, the maximum grant to any teacher on the combination of all of the above bases must not exceed $210. If the teacher holds a Class C certificate and meets the same con- ditions the grant for the efficiency grading of "good" is $60 and of "fair" is $30. Evidently Class C teachers cannot qualify for "superior" grading and Class D teachers are not recognized in this grant. Teachers of Classes A, B, and C who complete successfully one-third of the full Rural Science Course in one vacation term and who teach successfully the following year receive a bonus of $15 per annum. It should be noted here that the Government pays the minimum transportation costs of teachers to and from the Rural Science School as well as to and from the Normal School if they become bona fide students in such schools." " N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 5 (19). '» /&td., Sec. 72. Comments and Regulations, Sec. 91. "N. S., The Education Act, Sec. 5 (16), (17). Journal of Education, April 1912— p. 131. Ck>mments and Regulations, Sec. 231, Sub-sec. V. 44 • Rural Schools in Canada (c) Consolidation of Schools and Conveyance of Pupils:'^'' The Council of Public Instruction has placed at its disposal the sum of $36,000 for the purpose of aiding such enterprises. 1. Equipment:^'^ A grant of from $200 to $250 for each full- sized school section absorbed, to aid in equipping and building the consolidated school up to a maximum grant of $1000 to one such consolidated school, the sum total of such grants to any one county not to exceed $2,000. 2. Teachers:^^ If through consolidation there be a reduction in the number of teachers employed, the consolidated district may continue to receive the grants to teachers as if no reduction had taken place. (d) Manual Training and Domestic Arts:^^ If equipment pro- vided by local section is adequate for a class of twelve pupils at once, the teacher has approved qualifications, and the special instruction be given free and, at least for one two-hour session each week, the provincial grant is 15 cents for each two-hour lesson to each pupil up to a maximum total grant of $600.^ (e) Rural School Libraries:^* A grant of $5 is given if the value of the school library is $50 and 150 issues of books to readers have occurred during the year. A grant of $10 is given if the value of the school library is $100 and 300 issues of books to readers have occurred during the year. In both cases the library and other school regulations must be complied with. The libraries ^ of superior schools, high schools, and academies are considered as an essential part of the legal eqmpment. (/) County Academies :^^ These schools provide for the common school pupils of their respective localities as well as free high school education for any pupils from within the county. The provincial academic grant provides the following sums for these academies. The basis of apportionment is the "number of »»N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 5 (7), (20), (21).— See. 137-139. Com- mente and Regulations, Reg. 12-15. Letter from Superintendent of Educa- tion, June 1912. " N. S.— Annual Report of Supt. of Education, 1906— pp. XIV-XVI. "N. S. — "The Education Act"— Section 74. "Comments and Regula- tions"— Reg. 81-90. »' Note: — In case of City of Halifax the maximum is $1200. " N. S. — "An Act for the Encouragement of Rural School Libraries" Sec. 1-2. Comments and Regulations, Reg. 233-234. •• N. 8.— Ibid. •• N. S. — The Education Act, Sect. 123-126. Comments and Regulations, Reg. 63-80. Financial Support 45 authorized days taught by the teacher^ of the academic class (providing the salaries of the said staff, inclusive of the regular provincial grant, shall average not less than eight hundred dollars per annum) " and the following scale. 1. For one academic teacher: if average annual attendance of qualified high school students pursuing a full course is 15 — the sum of $300. 2. For a second teacher: if such average annual attendance of such pupils is 35 — $300. 3. For a third teacher: if such average attendance of such pupils is at least 70 — ^$300. 4. For a fourth teacher: if such average attendance of such pupils is at least 100 — $200. In no case, however, may such academic grants for county academies total more than $10,000 for the whole province in any one year. It should be noted that such academies may, by meeting the requirements, earn the various special grants for school gardens, rural science teaching, manual training, and domestic art. Discussion This somewhat detailed examination of the ways in which each of the provinces disposes of its school funds brings to our attention in one way or another almost every phase of the general problem of apportioning school funds. As a basis for reference in the discussion of methods used by each province it may be well to indicate what are now recognized to be the guiding principles in this matter.*' (1) Such funds are provided for the special purpose of aiding in making more efficient and adequate the educational agencies within the particular province concerned. (2) The province as a whole is interested — so also the township and county on a smaller scale — in all its citizens, regardless of the particular location of their homes. (3) The safety and development of the province demands a minimum of intelligence and efficiency on the part of all its citizens. Such minimum must necessarily bear a relationship to the keenness of provincial and international competition as " See Cubb»ley's School Funds and Their Apportionment. 46 Rural Schools in Canada well as to the richness of opportunity which presents itself to the people. The requirements of citizenship, our national herit- age of virgin wealth, the complexity of modern relationships de- mand a minimum far in advance of that of previous generations. (4) To be used most effectively in securing the desired intel- ligence and efficiency on the part of all citizens, it must be apportioned so as to equalize the educational burden and bring to all the necessary educational opportunities. (5) The concentration of wealth in large centres does not mean that the original source and explanation of such wealth is to be found in such centres. The wealth of the province as a whole may justly be called upon to bear a share of the educational as well as the other governmental burdens. (6) While equalizing the educational burden and insuring educational opportunities such funds should be apportioned in such a way as to bear directly upon: (0) The character of the school plant— buildings, grounds, librairy and equipment. (6) The quality of the teaching. (c) The attendance— completeness of enjollment, the length of school term, the continuity and regularity of attendance. (d) The improvement and extension of the range and kind of training offered so as to meet more adequately the va- riety of needs which now require definite training and preparation. (e) This extension of range and kind has a vertical as well as horizontal aspect leading to the development of higher education in all its aspects. (/) To penalize to some extent, whenever it may be necessary, a local community which fails to meet its legitimate obli- gations to the childhood and youth within its boimdaries. As has been suggested already the provinces vary consider- ably in the extent to which they make effective use of the pro- vincial grants in their efforts to secure these desirable develop* ments. Summarizing the various methods of apportionment we have the following:. (1) Return to District Taxes paid by District: This is merely a convenient way of simplifying the collection of the school taxes within a given rural municipality (Saskatchewan and Manitoba),, township (Ontario), or parish (New Brunswick). Financial Support 47 (2) Assessment Basis: This we found in two forms (a) the equalized assessment within the rural municipalities (Manitoba) or townships (Ontario), for the purpose of providing grants to the districts within their jurisdiction; (6) the graduated pro- vincial grants based upon the assessment of the districts. Usu- ally fhe grant decreases as the assessment increases up to a certain limit. This is a fundamental part of any system of apportion- ment and is perhaps the most effective means of equalizing the educational burden. The greatest aid is given where aid is most needed and the people are least able to meet the full responsi- bility of maintaining an adequate school. (3) The Total Population Basis: The school districts receive a grant in direct proportion to their total population. This method is the chief one used in Quebec — the Poor School Fund provides an offset to some of its disadvantages. Such a method bears little, if any, constructive relationship to any of the above mentioned desira;ble developments. The populous and wealthy centres receive the largest grants while they are the very com- munities least in need of aid from the general funds. The poor and sparsely settled districts receive but scanty encouragement. (4) The School Age Census Basis, while somewhat better than the total population basis in that it bears a relationship to the number of children to be provided for rather than to the general population, is open to the same objections. This basis is not used in Canada. (5) The Total Enrollment Basis comes one step nearer the question of improving attendance but falls short of influencing very effectively the question of continuous and regular attend- ance or length of school term. Needless to say, it is open to the objection that it results in the greatest aid to the most populous districts which are usually, though not always, the most wealthy. It does, however, represent one element which should be con- sidered in any scheme of grants, namely, the need for securing the enrollment of the largest possible percentage of the children. (6) The Average Attendance Basis, while an improvement on the total enrollment basis, in that it encourages regularity of at- tendance, when examined more closely is found to discourage the enrollment of pupils who are irregular in attendance and those who can come for but short periods. It also has a tendency to encourage the closing of the school when the attendance is such 48 Rural Schools in Canada as to greatly reduce the average for the term. However, the element of regularity of attendance should have a place in any scheme of apportionment. (7) The Aggregate Attendance Basis is the most satisfactory of all the methods specifically designed to affect the question of attendance. It fosters an increased enrollment, a lengthened school term, continuous attendance on the part of individual pupils and regularity of attendance on the part of the pupils as a whole. It does not, however, provide for any differentiation in favor of the weaker districts and smaller schools. Indeed, if used as the sole basis of apportionment, such districts and schools would be more unfortunately placed financially than un- der the school census basis. (8) The Percentage of Attendance Basis: While it takes some cognizance of the question of aggregate attendance in calcu- lating the monthly averages, it does not overcome the difficulty of discouraging the enrollment of pupils who may be irregular in attendance, or the closing of the school when the attendance is such as to lower the percentage of attendance materially. It is well to note that this basis is used in Alberta in such a way as to place the smaller and weaker schools upon a more nearly equal footing with the schools in the larger centres. By estimating the grant at so much per day for each day on which school is kept open an attempt is made to counteract the tendency to close the school when attendance is such as to materially lower the percentage. (9) The Teacher Basis: This is used as one factor in the scheme of apportionment in use in all the provinces except Saskatchewan and Quebec. As far as Provincial Grants are concerned the grants on this basis are graduated according to the qualifications of the teacher in all the provinces using this basis, with the one exception of Manitoba. In Manitoba and Ontario it is used in apportioning the fund provided by the rural municipalities and townships from money raised by taxation based upon an equalized assessment. If the minimum grant is such as to insure a good teacher in the weaker and more needy schools this basis is in many re- spects highly satisfactory. British Columbia makes the most generous provision in this respect and has so graduated the grants upon this basis in relationship to the possibilities of self- Financial Support 49 dependence on the part of the local schools that the objection usually urged against it has little force. However, while doing this, British Columbia has failed to vary the said grant accord- ing to the grade of the teacher's qualifications. In the cases of Alberta, Ontario and the Maritime Provinces the grants on this basis are graduated according to the district's ability to be self- supporting. The larger grants go to the districts employing the more highly qualified teachers and, generally speaking, these are not the districts most in need of special help. There is one other factor which should be considered if we are to accept as basic the principle of cooperation between local and provincial units in the support of schools. The use of this basis should be accompanied by such a provision as will require or secure the necessary supplement to such grants on the part of the local districts. This is done in British Columbia, Alberta, and Ontario, but in the Maritime Provinces the question of supplementing the Government's contribution towards the teacher's salary is wholly optional with the local boards. Need- less to say, the supplement is not provided in many cases and when provided it is never surprisingly large. In summing up these considerations it appears quite evident that no single basis of apportionment can be satisfactory. Some combination of bases is necessary if the purposes in apportioning school funds are to be attained. From the previous discussion it would seem that such a combination must include the aggre- gate attendance basis to care for the factor of attendance, the graduated assessment basis to care for the equalization of the educational burden made necessary because of the variation in possibility of self-dependence on the part of local districts, the teacher basis to care for the quality of instruction and training offered and secure a reasonably good teacher in even the poorest school. These bases, in combination with special grants to give special encouragement of worthy effort on the part of local boards to advance beyond the essential minimum in providing the educational opportunities needed to enable the rising gener- ation to meet worthily its responsibihties and opportunities, would seem to offer the most promise of being effective in securing the results for which school funds are apportioned. CHAPTER III RURAL SCHOOL TEACHERS A. Prerequisite Academic and Professional Training In Canada, as in other Countries, the rural schools are taught by the teachers of the lower grades of academic and professional training. Normally, each province requires all teachers to have some one of the various certificates or licenses recognized by its department of education. If the ebb and flow of supply and demand results in a situation such that a local school board — after making, at least, the minimum effort required by the Department — cannot secure a teacher with recognized certifica- tion, the Department, either directly, or indirectly through its inspectors, may, at its discretion, issue a "temporary permission to teach" to such person or persons as it deems capable of con- ducting a school. Such "permits" are usually for one term, or, at most, for one year and are in some provinces good only in that particular school for which they are issued. As the initial grant- ing of such permissions to teach is given reluctantly, and under the stress of an emergency, renewals are relatively few. All certificates or diplomas are issued by the provincial author- ities — there is no local certification of teachers. In all the provinces teachers holding any one of the various recognized certificates or licenses are eligible for positions in the rural schools. It cannot be said, therefore, that all rural school teachers are of a certain grade or grades for one finds, in the rural schools, the college graduates as well as the lowest grade of teacher. The following schedule will indicate the prerequisite training for each of the various certificates.' An effort has been made so » In preparing the schedule the following state papers for each province have been consulted and supplemented by personal interviews with authorities: School Laws — Regulations of the Department of Education regarding Elemen- tary School Courses of Study — Normal Schools — Examination and Certifica- tion or Licensing of Teachers — Courses of Study at Normal Schools, and Faculties of Education — Annual Report of Department of Education — Exami- nation Questions, Academic and Professional appearing in such reports. SO Rural School Teachers 51 to state the gradings that they can be evaluated in terms of a "standard" eight-year elementary school course as well as in terms of junior and senior matriculation at a recognized university. This is very difficult in the cases of New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Quebec. In such cases the benefit of any doubt has been given in favor of placing the higher valuation upon the requirements. It seems unnecessary to mention that the authorities must be satisfied regarding the moral character of all candidates before any certificate or diploma is issued. In all the provinces, and practically for all grades of certificates, from one to two, and in the case of some of the higher certificates, even three years of successful experience is required before a certificate is made permanent. During this probationary period the candidates hold an "interim" or "provisional" certificate of the rank for which they may have qualified. 52 Rural Schools in Canada o 'O ■< O o I I I sg sg a^ a^ 5 eO ^s. '^ e'Io FiSS-a ||1 ■aS^ 5 »(-) 1+5 .9 w ^ •^ Ul a W 1 ^ t >i ^ ■f» ■^ a a A ^2 III o ■3 a s s Sfe BO >> S£ la 31 1 Rural School Teachers 5S Jlil « =" S ° ■|glo III 1 1 i g I ■h 1I ■g"a 1-^ s-5 1 ll 6 3 Eh 0+ . •2 = 1 *j U P XI B— ~ §=3 OS'S O lU V •siT m ? I. 1" u i ^o ii s-s S,& ■3 si O oJ OP. ^ S o . p h . 3 a n ■s 1 i |i II ■3 -sT 1-0 Ei si: a go ■5.S ^ s Jj 1 Is ii J. i S » S S Q3^ CD OQ :§-| S- :& .a? s .2 il ' ^ ■s s E- p 6 as ■■« =32 Hi n tils' i'l |a o a sa ■^ f fi ta r1 „ a S i o S i Jo I* II I o 1 54 Rural Schools in Canada X O < H O o HH H P5 & I II •SB is H P i' iPil I mil s e o ■gSs ll 11 1-3 •■s a-g s * .2 g •i'i I! n P4 " © * " ®"C Y I gig's-! O 9 .--->. 2 3 i 3 s ^ K a ! Ill i •c n S a S 1 1 i 11 — "S"* So 2-S n as ->^a'^ •§ ?;■§ a'" a ■sgll^ii 0-JW-"! ..iSS Oa ^ >, T ■Sg.'SSf'oi i i i i si o OS SS •i. •s "i I. So 1^ II- 1 s -«! Rural School Teachers 55 S ^ •a 3 .3° 1^- 1^1 '8 •II |g.s ■§"§1 1«| 111 •gits OH a . ^g 3 - SS'S «^ 5 ill" I ■ala »4 £. 3 S 5 3. o ' 2 CQ C si-; ago « o •ga-3 s § o 5 ■J .3 + s is ■ i a-i - 'bo r C aj "E -S "^ g ? i g^-g ! 0) a o • g -» s s s -a ja ■§■3 ^■' a.g a!j a g+x ■osa _Ot O 15 V, IS Sis S a 9 s 3 ° is -a > a a&5 g ■a ri g ll|S K • a CJ S s -. I I « I _ s :3 I' is-i + S-J il& B"* a E-a-2 J.|.a CI S ill Jsa o o-a a ■s a ° & - 3sg ■» s a S a g] "3 I 3 I 6 ^ ^ S-S gS ■|S: Sag = .a-a . O « « M l«! ESS u o a § § g S £ S ■■3 s s J 3 § T3 -a -a ESS o a o ■iS.s si S 13 s . 1-§ 33 SO R s; fe i 3 §1 Jr^ MM* 56 Rural Schools in Canada While it should be kept in mind that there are many teachers of first class rank teaching in the rural schools, especially during their probationary period, the fact is that the great majority of the rural school teachers belong to those groups holding second or third class certificates, or merely a temporary "permit" to teach. It would, therefore, be well to examine more closely into the scholarship and training of these groups. Permits: First, a work of caution is necessary lest the terms "permit" or "temporary permission to teach" be misinterpreted. In many cases, especially in the West, such "permits" are granted to university graduates, university students of various years, — first class teachers from Eastern Canada, Great Britain and Ireland and the United States, giving them the privilege of teaching for a brief period until they have an opportunity to meet any special conditions the Departments of Education may require, before granting them full professional standing. Again, such "permits" may be issued frequently to those students within the provinces who hold the requisite academic standing for full certification of various grades but who, owing to the demand for additional teachers and their own desire to secure funds to enable them to attend the normal schools, are willing to spend a term or a year in such a preparatory way. While it is but fair to call attention to this, the brighter side of these "temporary per- missions to teach," it must be recognized that in very many cases the authorities are reluctantly forced to grant "permits" to indi- viduals whom they consider quite unfit to do even fajrly good work in the rural schools. When faced with the plain issue — no teacher at all or a makeshift teacher — the attempt is usually made to keep the local school open. Third Class Certificate: The Third Class Certificates are the lowest receiving recognition as a legitimate part of the educa- tional schemes. They are usually temporary, being good for from one to five years. In some provinces, as is indicated in Schedule A, they may be made permanent if certain conditions are met, but, generally speaking, the authorities consider this grade of license as only a temporary arrangement to meet the immediate demand for teachers. In British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario scholarship equivalent to the completion of two years of high school work plus a term, varying from two months to Rural School Teachers 57 five months, of professional training, is the minimum requirement for this, the lowest certificate granted. In Saskatchewan all teachers receiving their professional train- ing within the province, no matter how advanced their scholar- ship may be, have to take the Third Class Professional Certificate and teach for at least one year thereon before being admitted to training courses for the higher certificates. In Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia an academic rank equivalent to one year of high school work is required. The professional training required in Prince Edward Island is almost negligible while that in Nova Scotia is a term at the normal schpol unless the student has elected to enter the profession via the locally well-known "M. P. Q." examination ^ in which case, how- ever, he must have scholarship which is supposed to be equivalent to two years of high school work. In the case of New Brunswick it is difficult to make a relative statement owing to the pecuUar system of teachers' examinations. To state that the scholarship prerequisite is but little in advance of a good eighth grade standing is probably very near a true estimate. A term of four to five months at the normal school is also required. In estimating the status of teachers in Quebec we must first translate the local terminology into terms more commonly under- stood. The "elementary" school in Quebec, under both the Roman Catholic and Protestant committees, means a school undertaking to do the first four years of ordinary public school work. Occasionally the fifth year work is done, but special per- mission from the Department is necessary before undertaking such. Frequently too, pupils will be found who will take five years to complete the four-year program. The "model" school under the Roman CathoUc Committee is one that undertakes to do the first six years of ordinary school work. An extra year's work may be undertaken if special permission be obtained and some pupils may require an extra year in which to complete the regular course. The "academy" under the Roman Catholic Committee undertakes to provide the first eight years of school » A written examination without any normal school attendance requirement. Examination almost wholly academic. Policy of the authorities is to eliminate it as soon as possible. Yet, in 1911, 21 Superior, 46 First, 99 Second, 435 Third Class candidates, a total of 736, wrote on these examinations. See Annual Report of Department of Education, — 1910-11, page 49. 58 Rural Schools in Canada work. Here also, the retardation may be such that some children require an extra year or two to complete the work outlined. Under the Protestant Committee the "model" school undertakes theirs/ seven, and the "academy" the first ten years of school work. Under the Roman Catholic Committee, therefore, the "academy" is, at best, little more than an eight-year public school, while under the Protestant Committee it undertakes one, two, or three years of high school work. With these facts in mind, the teachers' certificates issued by the respective committees can be more clearly evaluated. Under the Protestant Committee the First Class Elementary Diploma is about on a par with the Third Class Certificate of Ontario and the Western Provinces; the Second Class Elementary Diploma being a year less advanced. Under the Roman Catholic Com- mittee graduation from the "elementary" school — as it is in Quebec — and a minimum age of fifteen years are required for entrance to the normal schools where, according to Regulation 202 of said committee, "The distribution of subjects is such that, as a general rule, pupils may obtain the Elementary or Primary School diploma at the end of the first year, the Model or Intermediate School diploma at the end of the second year, and the Academy or Superior School diploma at the end of the third year." It seems, therefore, that even the Academy diploma under this Committee falls short of being equivalent to the Third Class Certificate of the provinces to the west, and the Model and Elementary School diplomas are correspondingly lower in qual- ifications as to scholarship and professional training. Under both committees it is still possible to secure diplomas by writing on examinations without attendance at the normal schools.' In the rural schools under both committees usually only the "ele- mentary" school work is attempted, in the village schools the "model," and in towns the "academy" work. In the large cities and throughout the province in general real secondary and higher education is cared for by the religious orders and founda- tions, the Roman Catholic colleges, and the high schools and universities. The real rural school in Quebec, therefore, provides the first four or five years of school work and is generally in charge of a • 18.9% of the Protestant lay teachers and 74.4% of the Roman Catholic lay teachers in service 1909-10 had secured their certificates in this way. Rural School Teachers 59 teacher whose scholarship and training are not equivalent to that represented by an Ontario or Western Third Class Certificate. In very many cases the teacher's qualifications are much lower, as will be realized if the preceding schedule is examined. Indeed, when in addition the fact is considered that in the school year 1909-10 no less than 523 Protestant and 930 Roman Catholic lay teachers — a total of 1453 — had no certificates whatever, there is ample justification for the conclusion that provision for rural schools in range of scholarship and quality of teaching must be in a deplorable state. Lack of space forbids a discussion of the many special conditions prevailing in this province which would throw light upon the situation. A very definite caution, however, is needed, against jumping to a conclusion in regard to the provision of educational faculties in the Province of Quebec. All that is desired, in the present discussion, is to indicate the situation with reference to those children who are limited to the rural schools for their educational opportunities. Higher Certificate: The requirements for the higher certificates are sufiiciently clear as indicated in the schedule. To bring out more clearly the extent of the professional training required for each certificate it may be well to re-group some of the data contained in Schedule A. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS Province 3hd Class Certificate 2nd Class Certificate IsT Class Certificate British Columbia 2 months 5-6 months 5-6 months Alberta Exam, in Pedagogy +1 yr. teaching 4 months +1 yr. teaching 4 months +1 yr. teaching Saskatchewan 2 months 2 mos.+l yr. teaching 4-4 mos. 2 mos. + l yr. teaching +4 mos. Manitoba 13 weeks 13 wks. + l yr. teaching+4| mos. 13 wks. + l yr. teaching +4 mos. Ontario 4 months 1 year 1 year •Quebec : — ^Protestant — ^Academic may enter school for school or high school 1 term and professional training joined together — teachers by examination or through model for teachers — 1 year 1 year 60 Rural Schools in Canada PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEAClimiB— Concluded Province 3bd Class Certificate 2nd Class Certificate 1st Class Certificate Quebec: — Roman Catholic — Academic and professional training joined to- gether very little of the latter. Entrance of lay teachers to the profession (if licensed) either by examination or attendance at normal schools for one year. 1 year 1 year 1 year New Brunswick By exam, or 5 mos. at normal By exam, or 1 yr. at normal By exam, or 1 yr. at normal Prince Edward Island 5 mos. Largely academic 1 year in each case. 1 year Nova Scotia 5 mos. "M. P. Q,"exami 5 mos. nation may be taken 1 year instead. In the first five of the above-mentioned provinces the courses indicated are almost wholly professional. In New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and in the Protestant School for Teachers at Mac- donald college, while considerable attention is given to the pro- fessional work, much time is also given — especially in the case of the lower certificates — to extending the scholarship of the stu- dents along purely academic lines. In Prince Edward Island and in the Roman Catholic normal schools in Quebec the major part of the time is given to academic work, and the professional work receives, relatively, but slight attention. While it is beyond the scope of the present inquiry to discuss the training of teachers in detail it seems well to point out the fact that the brief suggestion of professional training received by the great majority of rural school teachers is very inadequate even if all the time were given to direct preparation for rural school teaching. But such is not the case. The graduates of the nor- mal schools may enter rural, village, town, or city schools and the work given at the normal schools is designed primarily to fit, in so far as may be, the students to teach in the schools regardless of their particular location. It is true, however, especially in the courses for the lower certificates, that considerable attention is given to the problems of regular school work under rural condi- tions. The special effort being made to supplement this train- ing by modifications within the normal schools and by courses during service in the field will be discussed in subsequent chapters. SCHKDULE B.— DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE.i- -GRADE OF CERTIFICATION Pbotinci YXAR I Those without certificates, those with "permits" to teach and those with academic standing below that rec^uired for a regular Third Class CertSoate m On- tario or the Western Provinces, namely— a two-year high school course. II Those holdmg certificates or diplomas representing scholarship equivalent to that required for an On- tario or Western Third Class Certificate. III Those holding a certificate or diploma representing scholarship equivalent to Junior Matriculation at a recognized University— usually three years' high school work in Canada— Second Class Certificates of Ontario and the West. IV Those holdmg certificates or diplomas representmg scholarship equivalent to Senior Matriculation at a recognized Ifmversity— usually four years' work in a Canadian high school. First Class Certificates of Ontario and the West. V Totals .Ill tehoob Sural tchoOt Percmlage of all, in rural tehoola AU,dmh Rural tehoolt Percmtapt of It is to be regretted that the Departmental Reports of all the Provinces did not make possible the same detailed statement as in the cases of Saskatchewan and Alberta. The percentages of the low grade teachers in rural schools would no doubt be much the same. * Only the teachers in the PubUc Schools. Those in the Roman Catholic Separate Schools, the Contmuation and the High Schools omitted as report did not give sufficient data to get corresponding figures for same > Lay teachers only. The 6,805 "religious" teachers are not classified according to certification in the reports. Note that in table the grades of certification have been given a valuation a little higher than in Schedule on Certification of Teachers. Rural School Teachers 61 B. Distribution of Tbachebs in Service by Rank Having examined the prerequisite requirements for entrance into the teaching profession, a summarized statement of the actual distribution of the teachers in service in regard to certification naturally follows.^ Where the departmental reports make it possible, the distribution as to sex and as to rural schools is also indicated. (See Schedule B, insert.) The table reads, in regard to Alberta, for example: For year 1910 there were 366 teachers either without certificates, with "permits" or with standing below that required for Third Class Certificates, and of these 356 or 97.2 per cent were in the rural schools. Of the total 366, 113 were men and 253 were women. Of those in the rural schools (356) 111 were men and 245 were women. Of the total 366 such teachers 30.3 per cent were men in rural schools and 61.9 per cent were women in rural schools. Sections II, III, IV, and V read in a way exactly corresponding to Section I. The facts revealed by Schedule B to which it seems desirable to call special attention are : I. The percentage of the total provincial teaching force found in the rural schools: In Alberta 66 per cent, in Saskatchewan 77.3 per cent, and in Ontario (public schools only) 62.7 per cent. II. The Sex Distribution of Rural School Teachers: Peovince Male Female Alberta 36.7% 42.6% 19.1% 63.3% 57,4% 80.9% Saskatchewan Ontario (Public schools only) While the Departmental Reports do not give the exact data in the case of the other provinces one would be quite safe in saying that the percentage of men in the rural schools of British Columbia is probably as high, if not higher, than it is in Alberta. In Manitoba the percentage would fall between that of Ontario and Alberta, while in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces it is very low indeed. •Annual Reports of the Provincial Departments of Education, 1909-10, 1910-11. 62 Rural Schools in Canada III. Sex Distribution of All Teachers: Province Males Females British Columbia ... 27.7% 32.2% 40.2% 18.0% 5.0% 11.4% 35.5% 11.8% 72.3% Alberta 67.8% Saskatchewan" 59.8% Ontario (Public schools) 82.0% Quebec (Prot. & R. Catholic. Lav) 95.0% New Brunswick ... 88.6% Prince Edward Island 64.5% Nova Scotia 88.2% IV. Almost all of the lowest grade teachers — 97.2 per cent in Alberta, 96.1 per cent in Saskatchewan, and 93.7 per cent in Ontario (public schools only) — are found in the rural schools. The same is true of those holding certificates equivalent only to the Ontario or Western Third Class Certificate, the respec- tive percentages being 88.4 per cent in Alberta, 91.6 per cent in Saskatchewan and 91.2 per cent in Ontario (public schools). V. Distribution of Rural School Teachers by Rank: * Province Bblow 3rd Class Having 3rd Class 2hd Class IST Class Totals No. % No. % No. % No. % Alberta 356 520 1,099 24.3 25.1 19.0 237 767 2,513 16.1 37.1 43.5 756 689 1,953 51.6 33.4 33.8 115 90 201 7.8 4.3 3.4 1,464 Saskatehewan" Ontario (Public schools) 2,066 5,766 Totals 1,975 21.2 3,517 37.8 3,398 33.5 406 4.3 9,296 The distribution in British Columbia would show a larger percentage of higher grade teachers in the rural schools, in Mani- toba it would be about the same as in Saskatchewan, while in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces there are very few teachers with a rank equivalent to the above Second Class Rank in the rural schools. It is to be regretted that the necessary data to complete the table are not to be foimd in the departmental records. • Note: In Table V the distribution is as in Schedule B. • Note: Saskatchewan's scheme in regard to Third Class Certificates should be kept in mind. SCHEDULE C— TEACHERS' SALARIES^ (Average Yearly Salary) Below Thibd Class as peb SCHEDCLZa A AM) B Third Class as per Schedules A AND B Second Class as pee Schedcles A AND B First Class ab per Schedules A AND B 1 All Grades Rural 1 All Grades Urban All Grades Rural and Urban Peotincis MaU Femalt UaU Pemait MaU Femalt Hale Female Mak Female MaU FoTiaJe 1 MaU FmaU Balk Sexet U.« R.' V. B. V. 1 R. U. R. V. R. U. R. V. R. : U. R. 1 Britiah Columbia: High Schools included Alberta jsio^oo' 792.00 $631.72 695.00 651.00 $625. ig' 680.00 im.bo 761.00 $668'.7i' 715.00 $678'69' 715.00 $647^34' 675.00 835.00 $68i;i3 727.00 $679 !34' 682.00 $66i:i2' 696.00 1,052.00 $696!20 $742.77' 747.00 730.00 $668!83' 703.00 $842.20 673.38 725.72 $728.40 655.29 $1,425.84 1.025.32 899 08 $808.80 692.26 AQ1 ru $1,116.56 767.57 756 71 1 $767.79 675.12 $868.77 704 97 Manitoba. , 714 74 High Schools not included $551 m i Public Schools— High and Continuation Schools not included 484.00 436.00 399.00 342.00 1.008.74 510.80 535.09 285.48 Schools 660.00 513.00 434.80 449. UU 304.00 302.11 487.30 New Brunswick: Superior, First Class Di- ploma $674.56 $407.51 318.89 Second Class Diploma $355.29 $290.25 Thiitl Class Diploma J260.90 $227.91 1 $1,064.63 Excludicg Superior and 314 22 339.05 223.81 First Class 397.08 569.42 258.98 360.12 1,054.35 $652.35 '266:66' 486.15 649.00 1,2»4.00 '262:82 274.85 139.00 383.00 Seoond Class 252.65 335.86 206.11 285.48 Third r.Wvi 202.63 235 34 462 .(id 500.00 264.00 156.40 207.59 115.00 i 197.00 1 133.00 Nova Scotia Roman Catholic Lay Teachers in Elemen- tary. Model and Acad- emy Schools A. Without Diplomas B. With Diplomas: 1. In Elmentary 299 84 796.00 419.00 230.00 149.00 1 I i 1 i ! 163.68 2. In Model Schools and Academies Note:— It should be recalled that the Elementary. Model and Academies really represent three divisions of a full elementary school couree. Data re model schools and academies not separable are found in Annual Report. Protestant Lay Teachers in Elementary, Model and Academy Schools. 433.76 B. With Diplomas: 1. In Elementary Schools 803.00 1306.00 350.00 215 495.00 .00 230.00 Note:— Data re salaries in Model Schools and Academies combined in Annual Report. Note Protestant Academy gives more than full elementary 2. In Model Schools and Academies 1354.00 933.00 486.00 350.00 : 1 ' Gaps in the schedule are due to the absence of the required data from the aoniul reports of the Departments of Ekiucation. 'Urban. 'Rural Rural School Teachers VI. Distribution of All Teachers by Rank:' 6a Province Below 3ed Cuss HAvraa 3rd Class 2nd Class IsT Class ■ Total No. % No. % No. % No. % BritiBh Columbia . . Alberta 98 366 541 187 1,173 4,735 457 166 1,172 9.4 16.5 20.2 7.0 12.7 63.1 23.0 28.0 41.8 181 268 837 799 2,755 2,025 994 309 885 17.4 12.0 31.3 30.0 29.9 27.0 51.0 62.2 31.6 323 1,251 1,082 1,331 4,455 619 506 116 646 31.1 56.4 40.4 50.0 48.5 8.2 25.5 19.6 23.0 435 332 212 345 786 121 27 96 41.9 14.9 7.9 12.9 8.5 1.6 1.3 3.4 1.037 2,217 Saskatchewan 8 2,672 2,662 Ontario (Pub. Soh.) Quebec (Prot. & R. Cath.,Lay) New Brunswick. . . . Prince Edward Is- land 9,169 7,600 1,934 S91 Nova Scotia 2,799 Totals 8,893 29.4 9,053 29.5 10,329 33.7 2,354 7.7 30,631 C. Teachers' Salaries Schedule C presents the data obtained in such a way that several significant facts and relationships are indicated. The salary distributions by grade of teachers' qualifications, by sex, by provinces and by rural or urban location are all indicated in so far as available data would permit. Here again, the in- adequacy, and lack of uniformity in departmental reports are to be regretted. Schedule D attempts to indicate the economic place of the teachers in relation to unskilled labor and the trades. The distribution by provinces is necessary for comparison within the province between the various occupations, and within the various occupations between the provinces. The following facts and relationships revealed by Schedules C and D are worthy of special notice: 1. The relatively high salaries of the West as compared with the East in all occupations indicated, including teaching. 2. The relatively high salaries of lower grade teachers in the West. 3. The relatively high salaries of female teachers in the West. In contrasts one might refer to Quebec where the average salary for male teachers is almost four times that of female teachers of the same rank. ' Note: In Table VI the distribution is as in Schedule B. • Note: Saskatchewan's scheme in regard to Third Class Certificates should be kept in mind. 64 Rural Schools in Canada > I— I s o o I o P O O o I I— ( « i-H ^0 0» a» ■'9 • to"* ««oo«NeoMW«f- MiO 00 no COOOct OM CO — 2s 5u3>0>00>OOOU301 |m U3«5 eoeous^ 'Si''' + I •■t •i >; ss illppl ■.11 i-l^gf &» a §9 ^t) .s.ga O f^tM-5 ^2Q ■» a '^ ■3S Rural School Teachers 65 4. The remarkably low salaries for low grade teachers and especially for female teachers in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces. 5. Invariably the average salary for the rural school teachers is, rank by rank, lower than in the urban schools. 6. The schedule presents averages in each case. This implies that in each case, even in that of the lowest average indicated, there are many teachers getting less, as well as many getting more, than the amount indicated. The significance of this grows in its impressiveness when the lower averages are considered. 7. Schedule D indicates quite clearly that the teacher, on the average, and especially in the case of rural school teachers, finds a place in the wage scale just above that of unskilled labor and below that of the skilled trades. 8. In Quebec and the Maritime Provinces the rural school teacher takes her place below that of unskilled labor in many cases even below that of chore boy on the farm or water-boy on a construction gang. 9. Compared with the Eastern Provinces those of the West evidently pay their teachers higher salaries relatively as well as absolutely when the wages in other occupations are considered. 10. Within the West itself, however, the rural teacher, and the rank and file of teachers in the towns and cities have not as yet from an economic point of view attained the rank of a skilled laborer. D. Experience, Permanency of Position and Conditions OF Living The entrance age for professional training and the common fact that the great majority of teachers begin their teaching career in the rural schools indicate clearly the relative maturity and professional experience of rural school teachers. While exact data are not available it is quite safe to say that the grea,t majority of the rural teachers in Canada are between seventeen and twenty-three years of age. Youthfulness, with inadequate experience in life, learning and professional work is one of the chief characteristics of the rural teachers. They are not to blame for this for they cannot add years to their age by their own volition. Indeed, the youthfulness brings its advantages 66 Rural Schools in Canada as well as its disadvantages. This would be especially true if real leadership were provided; and if it were made possible for such leadership to come into close touch with the field these young teachers would, in many respects, do better work than those who are more mature. The lack of permanence in one position, so characteristic of Canadian rural schools, is one of the most serious problems affecting the efficiency and continuity of the work in such schools. When this difficulty is added to the already too numerous handi- caps under which the rural schools are working it is really sm:- prising that they accomplish as much work as they do. In Alberta, for instance, in the school year 1910 no less than 749 teachers out of a total number of 2651 teachers changed their positions during the year. In their answers to the first ques- tionnaire the inspectors are practically unanimous in declaring this to be one of the most serious difficulties connected with the administration of rural schools. The lack of permanence is due not merely to the changing from one place to another because of better salary or more congenial surroundings but also to the number who leave the work of teaching in the course of a few years to go to college or into the professions or, as so frequently happens, especially in the West, in the case of women teachers, to become the mistress in a home of their own. The conditions of living for the rural teachers varies a great deal in each province and between the provinces. From the most comfortable and modern or rural homes to the most un- satisfactory, unsightly and unsanitary of the hovels among some of the foreign settlements one can find every gradation of accommodation. If a greater number of the teachers were married many of the local school boards might be induced to provide a teacher's residence with four or five acres attached; but few care to risk it when their chances of securing the services of a married teacher are rather slight. A movement looking toward the provision of homes for the teachers is, however, one of the much needed developments in connection with rural schools. The superior schools, consolidated schools, and continuation schools, as well as the county academies, should include such provision — at least for the principal — in their administrative policy. CHAPTER IV COURSES OF STUDY In each of the provinces the central provincial educational authorities — after more or less adequate discussing and advising on the part of the profession and the public — formulate the official courses of study for both the elementary and secondary schools. Their most important function is that of securing a measure of uniformity within the provincial systems and of setting the standards of attainment. The annual provincial ex- aminations and the supervisory work of the inspectors are addi- tional agencies working toward the same ends. Usually the pro- vincial examinations come at the close of the elementary school course and at the end of each year or grade in the secondary school courses. The question of promotion within the elementary school is generally left to the local teachers, principals, and superintendents, subject, of course, to the confirmation of the inspector. The courses are usually in outline form, and are organized as if for a graded school. While frequently spoken of as sug- gestive, they are qmte as frequently felt to be prescriptive and at times restrictive. The truth is that they are intended to be, at one and the same time, suggestive, prescriptive, and restrictive. The relative emphasis placed on these several functions depends largely upon the disposition and attitude of thofee immediately responsible for administering the school system, especially the school inspectors. The answers of the inspectors to question one of the first questionnaire indicate quite clearly that even within a given province there is consid- erable variation in this matter. Fourteen out of the sixty-seven inspectors report that they allow no latitude in regard to the course' of study, while forty-three make some attempt to aid the teachers in making the neces'sary adjustments to meet the local conditions. As a matter of fact the lack of adequate training on the part of many teachers, the presence of foreign 67 68 Rural Schools in Canada children in many of the schools, the short summer schools in many rural districts, the influx of older pupils into rural schools during the winter months and the difficulties of the ungraded and partly graded schools, compel modification whether it be officially recognized or not. While the principle of adjustment is recognized by the presence of obligatory, alternative, and optional work on all the provincial courses of study the pressure towards uniformity, as in all centralized systems, is quite strong and considerable persistent effort is needed to secure revisions and modifications of the prescribed courses. For the present the adjustment of the elementary school course to meet the needs and conditions of rural schools will be discussed, that of the secondary schools being taken up in Chapter VIII. In all the provinces the following subjects are obligatory for the elementary school whether rural or urban: Reading, spelling, grammar, composition, writing, arithmetic, geography, Canadian and English history, hygiene with physiology or temperance, drawing, and nature-study. The nature-study course is sometimes called elementary science and generally takes an agricultural and horticultural trend during the last two years of the elementary school work. Physical culture, music, manual training, household arts, while usually on the optional list, are encouraged and fostered with varying earnest- ness and effectiveness according to the professional vitality of the teachers and educational leaders, and the attitude of the government and general public. While civics is usually merged with history. Alberta, Nova Scotia and the Roman CathoUc Committee of Quebec have formulated a definite course in this subject for the upper grades. In Alberta, elementary geometry, and, under the Protestant Committee in Quebec, elementary algebra are taught during the last year of the public school course. Elaborate courses in religious instruction and the dual language problem increase the difficulties of the elementary schools in Quebec. In addition the schools under the Roman Catholic committee teach Latin after the third year of the elementary school. In Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Maritime Provinces the elementary course is outlined on the basis of one year's work to a grade for a full eight-year course of study. In British Courses of Study 69 Columbia there is first the division into Junior, Internaediate, and Senior, and then the sub-division of the Junior and Senior divisions into two classes. The course of study as printed is outlined for the major divisions only. Under the Protestant Committee in Quebec the major divisions are Elementary School, Model School, and Academy, — the first being a four-year course, the second being the former with three additional years of work added, and the last including the model school course plus three additional years. Under the Roman Catholic Committee the Elementary School has the four-year course, the Model School the same four years' work with two years additional, and the Academy is simply a model school with two or three years of more advanced work. The fundamenta,l idea guiding in the selection and organiza- tion of such general courses is that they should represent what is considered to be the minimum body of common knowledge, appreciation and abilities which every child should possess regardless of his station in life or the location of his home. Apart from these outline courses of study designed primarily for a graded school, the annual provincial examinations, the authorized text-books, and the approved library books, the rural teacher receives little aid in matters pertaining to the curriculum except such as may be given by the inspector on the occasion of his annual or semi-annual visitation. Recalling the maturity, scholarship, and professional training of the rural school teachers as indicated in the preceding chapter some idea- may be formed of their ability to do for their school what a whole corps of town or city teachers, under the leadership of principals, supervisors, and superintendent, find great difficulty in doing even though the official course fits more readily into their situation. Not only are the rural teachers left almost alone to deal with the problems of finding, selecting, evaluating and organizing the detailed content for each grade of wOrk, and of determining the questions of relative emphasis and of time distribution both between and within the various subjects, but they must also undertake to teach all the grades they may have in the same time that a town or city teacher has for a single grade. A realization of this has led some of the provinces in the latest revisions of their courses of study to make the outlines of the general course fuller and more suggestive and to include 70 Rural Schools in Canada therein a list of helpful source-material references for both pupils and teachers. In Nova Scotia an attempt is made to give a suggestion as to the range of material to be dealt with in one-, two-, and three-teacher schools as distinguished from the town and city graded schools. The outline is so brief, however, that it can scarcely be said to enrich the teacher's sense of the con- tent of her work or give much definite help in solving the problems mentioned above. The one point at which each province professes to give some work of peculiar interest to rural children is in the courses in nature-study and elementary agriculture, sometimes called "elementary science," or "object lessons and familiar science," or "useful knowledge." The common judgment of the inspec- tors, taking the country as a whole, is that, with the exception of relatively few cases, this subject is either ignored or dealt with in a,n informal and haphazard way with quite unsatisfac- tory results. ISTature-study and elementary agriculture studied through books for the purpose of passing examinations, are, how- ever, gradually giving way before genuine efforts to make the work amount to something. Some provinces, particularly Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, are making a real effort to strengthen this course, in the rural schools especially. A brief survey of what each province is doing in this regard will be of interest. The subject appears on all the courses of study for elementary schools — generally receiving no more than a few pages for the outline of the complete course for the eight years' work. In Manitoba a special outline is appended to the general course of study giving a fuller suggestion as to the content of the course and mentioning helpful references. Ontario and Nova Scotia issue special circulars and bulletins to aid the teachers in this subject. The greatest difficulty experienced by the provinces is to transfer the course of study, from paper, into a reality in the experience of the teachers and children. In British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan the instruct- ors in nature-study and agriculture at the normal schools have to contend with the following difficulties, — the sessions of the normal schools begin in the autumn and end in the early spring, giving little opportunity for field work and almost none for garden work; the students enter without the needed foundation Courses of Study 71 knowledge, owing to the weakness of the subject in the elemen- tary and high schools; the absence of laboratory accommoda- tion necessitates too great dependence upon text-books and window boxes; the few brief periods which can be allotted to the subject during the short normal courses scarcely permit of more than a look at the beginnings of what ought to be done. These provinces have as yet provided for no special courses or summer sessions to improve the teachers in this or any other subject. While definite improvement is to be expected in the immediate future in all three, it will readily be seen that the process of making the course in nature-study and agriculture a living reality in the rural schools rather than merely a printed outline in an official course of study is as yet far from complete. In Manitoba the course at the normal school is supplemented by a short spring course, at the agricultural college, held just after the close of the spring term at the normal school. In addition to this the work is followed into the field. A yearly bonus is paid to teachers who are successful in the short course and do good work in their schools in this line. Even the inspect- ors are urged to take this short course in order that they may be better able to help the teachers in the work. It is gratifying to note that many of them have already done so. Under the Roman Catholic Committee in Quebec the course is called "Object Lessons and Familiar Science" and "Agri- culture." The outlines are fairly full, but little seems to have been done to put the work actually into operation until Mr. 0. E. Dallaire, superintendent of the Dairy School at St. Hya- cinthe, took up the question of nature-study and school gardens. Securing recognition for the work from the Department, he has pressed the case for this line of work with considerable success. Prizes are offered to schools and teachers having school gardens and nature-study work that meet with his approval. In 1910 as many as 188 schools had such gardens but the schools were not all rural. As yet, with a few notable exceptions, they are little more than small gardens kept at school — in many cases just sufficient to be an excuse to claim a prize. Their more adequate development and fuller utilization for educational purposes await an improvement in the teacher training and modifications in the general course of study. The school at St. Hyacinthe or the Monastery at Oka have not as yet pro- 72 Rural Schools in Canada vided special courses for teachers in this subject. It is a pity that religious differences stand in the way of a fuller utilization of the splendid equipment at Macdonald College. The Protestant Committee in Quebec has been especially fortunate in the arrangements by which its School for Teachers is located at Macdonald College. The opportunity for splendid work in the way of training teachers for rural schools is unique. Adjustments are not fully made as yet, however, and many difficulties must be contended with that are outside of the work with the students while at the institution. It is but necessary to recall the situation as indicated in the previous chapter, in regard to certification and salary, to appreciate what some of these difficulties are. The teachers must of course be trained to teach the official course of study and this has remained much as it was before the new arrangements for teacher training were made. It leaves agriculture and nature-study in the group of optional subjects and gives but a meagre outline of the work. Those students who attend the School for Teachers for the lower diplomas — the prospective rural teachers — are usually so little advanced in general scholarship that they must necessarily spend nearly all of their time on the general course if even passable work is to be done in what are considered to be funda- mental subjects. This leaves relatively little time for profes- sional work, or, for what are considered the special subjects of nature-study, agriculture, manual training and household arts. In spite of all of these handicaps the cooperation between the schools of Agriculture, Household Science, and Teachers is accomplishing a great deal in strengthening the rural school teachers. During the winter months the greenhouse and the laboratories are used. In spring the school gardens — one for the practice school and one for the normal students — are pre^ pared and cultivated. Each student participates in the work and is responsible for a portion of the garden. The whole work is under the guidance of experts — not teachers who know "just enough about the subject to teach it." In addition the students are kept in fairly close touch with the work of the School of Agriculture as a whole, being required to take some lectures under the various professors in order to get an appreciation of the possibilities of agricultural education. In New Brunswick the course is a required one and is briefly Courses of Study 73 outlined. There is no agricultural college in New Brunswick so any special training received in this direction beyond that given in the elementary, the high, and the normal schools is usually obtained at Macdonald College. The work at the Normal School begun under Dr. Brittain, who did pioneer work in developing the subject before leaving to become professor of nature-study at Macdonald College, has been followed up enthusiastically by his successor, Dr. Hamilton. The limited time available, and the pressure of other subjects during the normal school course offer the chief difficulty to more satis- factory work. The winter months are devoted to elementary science, the spring and autumn to botany and school gardening. By special grants an effort is made to follow up the work in the field. During 1909-10, fourteen school gardens "varying in size and importance" were in operation. In Prince Edward Island while the subject finds a place in the program it receives but little, if any, special attention. No specilal courses are offered or inducements held out to encourage teachers to develop the work. The more progressive teachers and inspectors have done considera,ble that is worth while, but it is difficult to go far without more definite organization and sup- port on the part of the Department. The Hillsboro Consolidated School is the brightest spot in rural education in the Island. In Nova Scotia the location of the Normal School and Agri- cultural College in the same town (Truro), with their close coop- eration in the matter of teacher training gives a special oppor- tunity for excellent work in adjusting teacher training to meet rural needs. While nature-study, elementary science, and agri- culture form part of the regular normal school course, the Rural Science Courses given every summer are especially effective. They are so organized that by attending for three summers a teacher can get a fairly good grasp of the subject and of how to manage the work to best advantage in the school. As has been noted in Chapter II the possession of the diploma granted on the completion of the third session and the successful conduct of the work in the field bring a substantial bonus to both teacher and school. Even attendance during one session with good work in the subject in the schools during the subsequent year secures a small bonus. Transportation to and from these summer sessions is paid by the Government. 74 Rural Schools in Canada While the short model school courses in Ontario from which so many of the rural teachers graduate can offer but little training in these subjects, the full year course at the normal schools gives an opportunity for much better work. This is especially true where the instructor in charge of the subject has supplemented his science course with special courses at an agricultural college. The most significant developments in Ontario along the lines of adjusting teacher training to rural needs have not been within the regular normal schools. The stimulus given to the improvement of rural education by the Macdonald Movement ' has been fostered by the departments of Education and Agriculture and the Agricultural College to a very definite degree so far as teacher training in elementary agriculture and nature-study is concerned. Under the leader- ship of Professor S. B. McCready of the Agricultural College the elementary part of the work has developed until the Government has considered it of sufficient importance to appoint Professor McCready as Director of Elementary Agricultural Education for the Province. In creating this new office and providing the authority and organization necessary to make it of real signifi- cance the Government is making it possible for Professor McCready to be even more aggressive, persistent, and effective in developing and strengthening the work. The chief duties of the new director will be to have charge of the spring and summer courses for teachers provided at the Agri- cultural College at Guelph. As has been suggested in Chapter II the students with previous teaching experience at the normal schools, who attain a certain ranking and desire to take the special spring course at the Agricultural College, are excused a few weeks before the close of the normal session to enable them to do so. With transportation paid and free board and lodging while there, the additional course does not weigh heavily upon the teachers in a financial way. Having graduated the students, the director now has the authority and duty of following them into their schools with aid, encouragement, and supervision as far as this subject is concerned. The grants and bonuses mentioned in Chapter II are payable only after he has approved of the work of the teacher and of the character of the school garden. > It is to be regretted that space does not permit a review of this movement. A full account may be found in the sources indicated in the Bibliography. Courses of Study 75 The Summer Course for Teachers offered each year during the month of July at the Agricultural College is for the purpose of training teachers in nature-study and elementary agriculture, manual training and household science. The course is so organ- ized that, while each session's work is a unit in itself, three sessions are needed to complete what is considered to be a satisfactory training in these subjects. One of the most interesting and sug- gestive aspects of the work is the scheme of reading, study, and experiment for the intermediate months while in actual service out in the schools, which Professor McCready has developed as a means of re-inforcing and supplementing the work done during the summer session. The significance of this unified scheme in providing greater fullness of knowledge, making the summer session more valuable, and giving the most helpful direction to the teachers, continued progress in the subject, must be apparent to any one working in the field of education. In addition to these courses the director is able to keep in touch with the teachers in the field and be of definite assistance to them through the medium of "The School's and Teacher's Bulletin," published at the Agricultural College, "The School's Division of the Experimental Union" (a group of those deeply interested in the advancement and diffusion of agricultural science), "The Lesson Charts in Agriculture," and the "Series of Circulars on Agricultural Topics" now being prepared for the use of teachers and pupils,^ and the Annual Report on the work published as a special bulletin. Considerable progress has already been made. In 1909 ninety- two teachers, in 1910 forty-one teachers, and in 1911 seventy-eight teachers attended the '/Spring Course." In the Summer Course of 1910 one hundred and twenty students attended, of whom gixty took the course in nature-study and elementary agriculture; in 1911 out of an enrollment of nearly two hundred, one hundred and two took this course. The number of teachers and schools receiving the bonuses and grants for the teaching of the subject and the maintenance of school gardens was seventeen in 1910 and thirty-three in 1911. In addition to these, one hundred and sixty-six teachers with the cooperation of the School's Division of the Experimental •Several are already available — Circulars 13, 13A, 13D, 13E, and Charts I-II. 76 Rural Schools in Canada Union, and seventeen others, did some work in gardening and nature-study. A much more rapid development may now be expected since the work has been put upon a more definite basis. Considering the situation thus revealed in regard to the ele- mentary school course of study, and looking towards further development and progress the following suggestions would seem to have special significance. I. Courses of Study in General: Many of the provinces, and to a considerable extent all of the provinces, seem to have failed to realize the possibilities of properly prepared courses of study as educational instruments. To the enrichment of the scholar- ship and the cultivation of professional improvement of teachers — especially the young, inexperienced, and relatively ignorant; to the elimination of much of the confusion, misadjustment, and loss of time due to the shifting within the profession from prov- ince to province, from school to school, and from teaching into other walks of life; to the conserving of the teachers' time and energy for the more immediate problems of the school and the teaching process, by making it easier to secure, select, evaluate, and organize the needed materials and by offering suggestions as to how they may best be utilized and taught; to all of these purposes a properly prepared course of study would contribute greatly. Such an outline must be liberal in its suggestions of content, clear as to relative values, emphasis, and time distribution, and bountiful in the light it throws upon questions of method, espe- cially those dealing with the various crucial steps in the develop- ment of the subject. A good list of the most helpful references, each noted in connection with the question or topic to which it refers, as well as the more general list at the end of the outline for the subject, is needed. These references (indicating chapters and pages most pertinent) should put the teachers in touch with the best materials available for both themselves and their pupils. This would necessitate a special circular or bulletin on each sub- ject instead of the brief general outline on all subjects now avail- able. In the preparation of such bulletins the teachers and leaders should work in the closest cooperation and no doubt much time, thought, and testing would be required. Frequent revision would be needed, especially in regard to new references, to keep it up to date. The contribution of such a course of study Courses of Study 77 to the purposes mentioned above would amply repay any expend- iture of time, effort, and money that would be needed, as well as prove a very profitable experience to those responsible for its preparation. II. Courses of Study for Rural Schools: "While the above sug- gestions apply with definite force to courses of study for the graded school systems of towns and cities, they have double significance when the rural schools are considered. The teachers in the towns and cities, as it is, have the offered course modified, adjusted, filled out and supplemented by the aid of the principals, supervisors, and superintendents and in addition have the library and other facilities at hand to draw upon when necessary. The rural teacher has the offered program prepared as if for a graded school, little if any library facilities in comparison with their urban colleagues, annual or semi-annual conference with the inspectors, who after collecting the required data for his report, has, at least, not an over-abundance of time to give much real help in the course of study. Add to this the fact that, usually the said rural teacher is young, inexperienced, and lacking in depth and breadth of scholarship and in need of all the educative help and reinforcement possible. Surely something more can be done than to hand to these young people — the great majority of whom, with all their limitations, are earnest young folk seeking for light and success — the unmodified outline and leave them practically alone amidst their manifold difficulties to do as well or ill as they can. Apart altogether from the vital educational need in question, common sportsmanship within the profession should revolt at such treatment being meted out to these young colleagues. It would be especially helpful if suggestive courses of study — meeting the standards for courses of study in general as outlined above — were prepared for (1) the one-teacher ungraded rural school, (2) the two- and three-teacher rural and villa,ge school, (3) the graded, consoUdated rural school. The princi- ples of unity could be maintained throughout but the fetish of uni- formity would have to suffer. Real standards as to maturity of mind, ability and scholarship could be maintained, though all children in the province might not possess exactly the same series of detailed facts, and even some subjects might very well be omit- ted or included according to the needs and conditions to be met. The writer firmly believes that, other things being equal, the use 78 Rural Schools in Canada of such carefully prepared and modified courses for the rural schools would result, not only in more fruitful work and higher standards, but also in greater uniformity of work in the rural schools than obtains at present with the use of the general outhne for the province as a whole. III. Nature-Study, Agriculture, and School Gardens: The pre- sentation of this aspect of the rural school work has already indi- cated that it has simply been added to the general course of study without any attempt to modify or reorganize the course as a whole. This is true even in Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia where special attention is given to outlining this work and strengthening it in the schools. What is most needed, how- ever, in this connection, is the suggested courses for the various typical rural school situations, in each of which nature-study, elementary agriculture, and school gardening should occupy a central and important place. Instead of being attached to a course of study that is not coordinated with the situations in which it is supposed to function, instead of being neglected and considered as an extra burden by the teachers, or as not essential by inspectors, it would then become one of the favored children in the family of rural school studies and receive the attention it deserves. The school garden as a means of making the nature-study and elementary agriculture more concrete and valuable, as well as a means of enriching the aesthetic, moral, and social training of the rural school, deserves a further word. The work of the Macdonald Movement, while it did not originate' the school garden idea in Canada, gave it such an impetus that definite development has been the result. In visiting the gardens established by the Movement, some years after the special sup- port and supervision had been withdrawn, and others established since under inspiration of the Movement and the governmen- tal encouragement which succeeded it, one found much that was interesting and instructive. Assuming a knowledge of the general purpose, plans and methods, difficulties and possibilities of school garden work,^ it will ■ As far back as 1886 under the leadership of Professor H. W. Smith of the Nova Scotia Agricultural Schools some school gardens were in operation. — For instance, the one at Round Hill, Annapolis County under M. G. P. McGill, afterwards Principal of the Macdonald Consolidated School at Middletown. « The bibliography contains references to source material which presents a full discussion of school garden problems. Courses of Study 79 be necessary only to summarize what seems especially pertinent in looking towards further development. (1) The pressure of the general course of study must under any circumstances limit the time for this work, but with courses that are merely general outUnes and with the problem of adjust- ing it to local needs and conditions left almost wholly upon the teacher this pressure is much greater than it need be, and results in the majority of the teachers following what is apparently the line of least resistance by having no school garden at all. (2) The variability in the attitude of inspectors, but more especially their ability or lack of ability to be really helpful to the teacher in developing the work so that both teacher and pupil feel a growing interest in the problem, is one of the most significant factors in the situation tending toward inactivity or absence of development. (3) The frequent changing of teachers and the variations in their qualifications to conduct the work are difficult to over- come. Generally they know so little about the subject and the gardening that each new teacher, instead of starting where the former teacher left off, begins all over again and repeats the most elementary of the garden problems. While this may be all right for the successive entering classes it means but little to the older pupils. (4) The limitation of the teacher, in knowledge and experience in the field, is beyond question the greatest difficulty. (5) The variety of school gardens found during the trips of investigation fall within the following groups: (a) "Near yonder copse where once a garden smiled. And still where many a garden flower grows wild, There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose." (jb) Gardens representing half-hearted and ineffective attempts to do something while feeling over-burdened with the general work of the school. (c) Ambitious beginnings on the part of enthusiastic young teachers followed by neglect as the pressures and difficulties of this and the other school work accumulate and sap the vitality of the teacher. How helpful would adequate super- vision be in overcoming this discouragement! (d) Good gardens at the school, — a credit to teachers, pupils, and neighborhood, healthful and helpful in their general 80 Rural Schools in Canada influence but not school gardens in the best sense of the term, (e) Real school gardens used more or less effectively for educative purposes. Apart from those found at normal schools and agricultural colleges the best example of this tj^jc found was that at the Hillsboro Consolidated School in Prince Edward Island under the principalship of Mr. Vernon Crockett. The "after-care" given to this school by Sir William Macdonald and Dr. James W. Robertson, the high qualifications of the successive principals and the continuous service of the present principal since 1908, will explain why this is so. At Hampton, Kingston, Florenceville, Bowes- ville, Carp, and North Gower some good work was being done, although the pressure of general school work and changing teachers have had their hampering influence. The most interesting and important problem to be solved by those in charge of the better gardens is how so to develop the work from year to year that each grade of children will find in the garden and nature-study work a progressive and expanding experience as they proceed through the school. This necessitates the elimination of needless repetition which causes the older pupils to lose interest, and the inclusion of the variety of problems that have a definite bearing upon the local district and its possi- bilities. Such schools must also contribute much toward the development of the suggested unified courses of study for rural schools. Note: In connection with the discussion of this chapter, especially that part relating to school gardens, reference should be made to the list of schoob visited and individuals interviewed during the trips of investigations, which is given in the ai)pendbc. The Laws, Regulations, Courses of Study, Reports, Special Bulletins, etc., of the various departments of education form the chief source material for the chapter as a whole. CHAPTER V ATTENDANCE Laws and Regulations The laws and regulations vary a great deal in regard to the matter of attendance. Manitoba and Quebec have no compul- sory attendance laws. Prince Edward Island deals with the matter, but in a very inadequate way. Alberta has modelled her compulsory attendance law after that of Ontario. These two provinces have the best provisions in regard to attendance, although in the case of Alberta it can scarcely be said to be in full operation as yet. The attendance laws in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are practically identical with the exception of the special provision in the case of the city of Halifax.^ In all the provinces there is a Christmas vacation of from one to two weeks, an Easter vacation of from two days to a week, and a summer vacation of from six weeks to two months. In the short term summer school this is generally reduced to a two-week vacation in July. The vacation periods may be re- distributed in rural districts if the consent of the Inspector or Department of Education be obtained. In Prince Edward Island the rural districts frequently take their vacation periods in May (3 weeks) and October (3 weeks) with a week at Christmas and at mid-summer. These "seed-time" and "harvest" vaca- tions (?) of Prince Edward Island are the most definite recogni- tion that is given in Canada to the farmer's demand for his. child's labor. The full school year varies from 200 to 210 teach- ing days.^ A closer view of the provisions made by each prov- ince is necessary, however, to discover the real state of affairs with reference to attendance laws. 'N. S. — Halifax City Compulsory School Attendance Law. See "Com- ments and Regulations" of Council of Public Instruction, Appendix B. 2 B. C. — Rules and Regulations, Art. 3 and Art. 6, Clause 4. Annual Re- port, 1901-11, Part II, Table A. Alta. — The School Ordinance, Sec. 134-135. Sask.— The School Act, Sec. 131, 133-34. Man.— The Public School Act, Sec. 130 A, 210. Ont.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 7. 7 81 82 Rural Schools in Canada I. Manitoba^- — Quebec:* These two provinces may be grouped together as they have no compulsory attendance laws. In each case the regulations direct teachers to inquire into the cause of any absence and to require an excuse for same from those responsible for the child in question. There seems to be no adequate provision in any of the provinces for a full census for all children of school age, except in the case of Quebec and Ontario. Manitoba requires the assessors to record all children resident with those who are subject to assessment, and Quebec requires that the secretary of the Board of School Commissioners or School Trustees, as the case may be, prepare a full census of all children within his jurisdiction between the ages of 5 to 7, 7 to 14 and 14 to 16, respectively. Quebec also provides for a penalty of from $5 to $25 for any parent or guardian making a false return. Being included in the census does not neces- sarily carry with it attendance at school as there is no compul- sory attendance law. British Columbia and Alberta require certain returns from the local school boards which are more or less complete according to the faithfulness of the secretaries, trustees, and teachers. II. Prince Edward Island: ^ In Prince Edward Island there is a compulsory attendance law but it is very inadequate. All children between the ages of 8 and 13 years must attend school at least 12 weeks each year, of which at least 6 weeks must be consecutive. Non-compliance involves a penalty up to a maximum fine of $20 unless the child or children in question be excused from attendance because of, — having been in receipt of equivalent education elsewhere, being unfit bodily or mentally to profit by such attendance, sickness, having graduated from the public school grades, or because of poverty which prevents the child being suitably clothed for school attendance. The QiTE. — Rom. Cath. Committee — Revised School Regulations, — Art. 15-18. Protestant Committee — School Regulations, Art. 140-143. N. B.— Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 20. P. E. I.— Regulation of the Board of Education, Sec. 28-32. N. S. — Comments and Regulations, Sec. 125-132. » Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 130 (a), 166, and 211. < QtJB.— The School Law— Art. 274-276. Revised School Regulations, Rom. Cath. Com. — Art. 15-18. School Regulations— Protestant Com.— Art. 140-143, 170 (19), and 175. • P. E. I.— The Public Schools Act. Sec. XC and XCIII (p). Regulations of the Board of .Education, 28-32. Attendance 83 enforcement of the law rests with the local board of trustees. As already noted in Chapter II, in case the grant from the govern- ment be reduced because the average attendance has fallen below 50 per cent of the number of children of school age within the district, the board is authorized to make good the deficiency by a levy upon the parents or guardians of the children whose absences have caused such reduction. There is a special attend- ance law for incorporated towns and cities. III. British Columbia: ' The school law in British Columbia requires that every child "from the age of seven to fourteen years, inclusive" shall attend school at least six months every year. In towns and cities he must attend for the full school year unless exempted. Failure to comply with the law on the part of parents and guardians invokes a penalty of a fine not exceeding $5 for first wilful offence and double that amount for each subsequent offence. Such fines may be collected by due process of law, or the alternative of thirty days of imprisonment is provided. Exemptions may be granted by the Provincial Superintendent of Education or tlie local board of trustees (those authorized to enforce the law) if child is securing adequate instruction else- where, for sickness or other unavoidable cause, if resident more distant than three miles from the local school, or if the child has already completed the work given at the local school. The boards of trustees are required each year to include in their annual returns to the Superintendent of Education a state- ment of the whole number of children residing in the school district below the age of six, between the ages of six and sixteen, and the number taught in the schools. IV. Saskatchewan: '' In Saskatchewan the compulsory at- tendance law requires: Attendance, between ages of 7 and 13 years inclusive, for a period of at least 100 teaching days each year, at least 60 days of which time must be consecutive, if child is resident within a rural district or those portions of a town or village district outside of the limits of such municipality. If resident within village, town or city municipality, the minimum yearly attendance must be 150 days, at least 100 days of which must be consecutive. In the urban districts such consecutive •B. C— The School Act, Sec. 100 (d), 122, 124, 126. Rules and Regula- tions, Art. 3 and Art. 6, Clause 4. ' Sask.— The School Act, Sec. 145. 84 Rural Schools in Canada attendance must begin not later than March 1st, and in rural districts, not later than April 15th of each year, or "at such later date as the school to which such child should go is put in operation for the year. " The enforcement^ of this law rests with the local school board or attendance officer appointed by it, and the local magistrate. The penalty for not complying with the law is a fine not exceed- ing one dollar for the first offence and double that penalty for each subsequent offence. In addition the board of trustees may at its discretion collect "a sum not exceeding five cents per day for every day up to the minimum" required by law "upon which such child or children is or are not in attendance at school." The excuses for non-attendance recognized as valid are — satis- factory instruction elsewhere, "sickness or any unavoidable cause," no school in operation within two and one-half miles of the child's place of residence, having reached standard of education equal to or greater than that provided by the local school or if parent or guardian is "not able by reason of poverty to clothe such child properly or that such child's bodily or mental condition has been such as to prevent his or her attendance at school or application to study for the period required. " The length of the compulsory school term' varies as follows: In every district where there are at least twelve resident children between the ages of 7 and 14 years inclusive within a distance of one and a half miles from the schoolhouse, the school must be kept open 190 days each year. If there be not less than ten such children within the district, the school must be kept open for 140 days. In villages, towns and cities the minimum term is 210 days. To meet special conditions the Minister has discre- tionary powers in special cases. V. Ontario and Alberta: The compulsory attendance laws in these provinces are much the same, that of Alberta — in force in 1911 — being modelled very closely after that of Ontario. The essential provisions of the law as it is in Alberta will first be presented and then the special points wherein that of Ontario differs will be mentioned. In Alberta^" "every child who has attained the age of seven • Sask.— The School Act, Sec. 14&-147. • Ibid., Sec. 141-145. i« Alta.— The Truancy Act. The School Ordinance, Sec. 134^135, 142-143a. Attendance 85 years and who has not yet attained the full age of fourteen years" is required to attend school for the full time during which the local school is in operation unless ofiicially excused. Ex- cuses may be issued by the principal of the school, the police magistrate or justice of the peace for the following reasons only; sickness, efficient instructions elsewhere, no school within 2 miles of child's place of residence if said child be under ten years of age or within 3 miles if such child be over ten years of age, lack of school accommodation, graduation from public school grades. If in the opinion of such officials the child's services are required in husbandry or in urgent and necessary household duties or for the maintenance of such child or of some person dependent upon him, they may permit the withdrawal of such child or children from school for a period of not more than six weeks during each half year — that is, in addition to the regular vacation. The employment of children not so excused and within, the compulsory age limit is punishable by a fine not exceeding $20 for each offence. In urban districts the local school board ap- points and pays the necessary truant officers, who have all the powers of a peace officer. If it fails or refuses to do so the Minister of Education is empowered to make such appointment and to see that the law is enforced. In rural districts the truant officers are appointed by the Minister of Education who can arrange for the needed remuneration and expenses either by the govern- ment or by the cooperation of the government and local school boards. The truant officer must report regularly to those em- ploying him. The school inspector makes an independent report in regard to the enforcement of this law if he deems it necessary to do so. The truant officer is required to investigate carefully all cases within his knowledge or brought to his attention by school teachers or officials or any rate-payer. If, after a warn- ing, the parents or guardians fail to obey the law, they are brought before the local court where a fine, not exceeding |10, may be imposed, or a penal bond of $100 required. Teachers and school principals are required to make weekly reports of all absences to the truant officer. "Every person or officer, charged with the duty of enforcing any provision of this Act, who neglects to perform the duty imposed upon him, shall incur a penalty not exceeding $10 for each offence. " 86 Rural Schools in Canada It will have been noted above that the children are required to attend for the full term during which the local school is in operation. In every district containing at least twenty resident children within the compulsory age limit the school board must keep the school open for at least 200 teaching days each year. If the number of such children in any district is at least ten, the school board of such district must keep the school open for at least 120 teaching days." It is interesting to note also that the return required from the teacher asks for the necessary information regarding "Pupils between the ages of 7 and 14 years inclusive not enrolled, and those who did not attend at least 50 per cent of the time school was in operation." It would seem that the "official excuses" must be considered as equivalent to 50 per cent of the days during which the local school is open. In Ontario, ^^ the compulsory age is "between eight and four- teen years"; the township councils may appoint truant officers. If the appointing authority so direct, the truant officer must work under the direction of the school inspector. The maximum fine for non-compliance with the law on the part of any parent or guardian is $5, not $10 as in Alberta. The teachers and principals are required to report absences to the truant officers once a month, not once a week as in Alberta. In districts out- side of county organization the inspector, subject to the ap- proval of the Minister of Education, can decide how long the local school must be kept open provided such length of time be not less than six months. ^^ Unlike Alberta, Ontario makes definite provision for a full census ^* of all children between the ages of 5 and 16 years, 8 and 14 years, and 5 and 21 years. This must be prepared by the local assessors and be placed at the ser- vice of the truant officer, the school board, and the inspector. VI. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia: In the case of these two provinces the compulsory attendance laws are almost identical even in detail, with the exception that Nova Scotia has a special law for the city of Halifax. The essentials of the New Brunswick law will be presented first and the variations " If a child in such district were excused for the two six weeks' periods for services in husbandry, etc., it seems that he would have 120 days minus 60 days or only 60 days of school for the year. " Ont. — The Truancy Act, and The Adolescent School Attendance Act, (1912) and The Industrial Schools Act, Sec. 10. u Ont. — The Public Schools Act, Sec. 7. " /6id., Sec. 34 (8), (9), (10). Attendance 87 tbereform on the part of Nova Scotia noted afterward. The New Brunswick law^^ is divided into two parts, the first being appUcable to rural and village schools and the second to those in towns and cities. In both provinces and in the case of both rural and urban communities the operation of the law is a matter of local option. The province requires, however, that the ques- tion of its operation be presented and voted upon at each annual meeting of the school district until it is adopted. The First Part of the Act provides: that by August 1st of each year the local board of trustees, or its appointed agent, prepare a list of all children resident in the school district who are between 7 and 12 years of age (inclusive), with the names and addresses of parents or guardians. On April 1st of the fol- lowing year the attendance record of all such children must be checked up, and, if any child has not at that time a total at- tendance of 80 days to his credit, the parents or guardian of such child must be warned that there is danger of falling short of the required attendance for the year. On June 31st the final record for the year is determined, and if any child has failed to attend for at least 120 days during the year, the Trustees are empowered to collect from those responsible for such child the sum of $2 if the child has not been at school at all or a pro rata amount if he has attended for less than 120 days. Such fines are to be collected at the same time as the school tax for the year following their im.position. In any case the parent or guard- ian may appeal to the local magistrate and have the matter dealt with in court. The magistrate, after hearing all the evi- dence on both sides, can determine whether or not the fine be remitted or reduced. The excuses for non-attendance considered valid under the act are, — equivalent education elsewhere, unfit physical or mental condition, sickness, and poverty, such as to prevent adequate wearing apparel,.feeiHg~£urnishe,d for the child. As the Second Part of the Act refers exclusively to towns and cities, a consideration of it is beyond the scope of the present study. In Nova Scotia the compulsory attendance law, in so far as the rural and village schools are concerned, is the same in all essential points as the First Part of the New Brunswick Act. "The Towns Compulsory Attendance Act" and the "Halifax " N. B. — "An act providing for Compulsory Attendance at School. " 88 Rural Schools in Canada City Compulsory School Attendance Act" complete Nova Scotia's legal provisions in the way of compulsory attendance laws. In searching the annual reports to discover the actual situa- tion in the field Schedule E was prepared. The many question marks indicate the extent to which significant data are not available. The close analysis of the laws and regulations and of Schedule E brings out quite clearly the following significant facts and conclusions : (1) Laws and Regulations: The absence of compulsory attend- ance laws in Manitoba and Quebec and the presence of "local option" in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are to be regretted. There seems to be no special justification for this backward condition that might not be applied equally well to the other provinces. The exceptionally short compulsory period in Prince Edward Island is little better than nothing except that it con- cedes the principle involved. The laws in the other provinces are more satisfactory. Even these, however, fail to define how long a period of absence shall constitute truancy or a failure to comply with the act. The weekly report required in Alberta and the monthly report in Ontario suggest definite attention to this matter, but evidently leave the exact determination of this point to those locally responsible for the enforcement of the law. The enforcement of the compulsory attendance laws is another matter. No data seem to be available in the annual reports in regard to this, the most essential aspect of the whole problem. Generally speaking, the enforcement is more effective in urban than in rural communities. It is generally recognized that its enforcement in rural districts is exceptionally ineffective, in very many cases little real attention being given to the matter. When the matter is left to the local board of trustees one can readily recognize how willingly they would proceed to prose- cute their neighbors in this connection. The appointment of the truant officers for rural districts by the Minister of Educa- tion in Alberta and by the township council in Ontario gives promise of more effective enforcement. The most satisfactory results have been obtained in Ontario in those townships where the truant officer has been placed under the direction of the local inspector. SCHEDULE E.-ATTENDANCEi Province School Census Britiah Columbia 1909-10 Alberta 1910 Saakatchewan 1910 2 ri Eneollment Ungraded or Rural Graded or Urban Sural and Urban Percentage or Attendance Ungraded or Rural Graded or Urban R. Municipality 7,861 Rur. and Aas't'd 8.148 29,835 Graded, City 21.620 25.482 39,046 24,918 37,629 55,317 R. Municipality 67.6 Rur. and Ass't'd 62.0 Graded, City 74.8 52.21 63,964 I 53.06 Manitoba 1909 89,778 I 18. i (5 to 21 yre.) Ontario 1909 599,291 (7) 1. Public, Separate, and (5 to 21 yre.) Continuation Schools combined 2. Public and Protestant Separate Schools 3. Roman Catholic Sepa- rate Rural and Urban 70.54 55.09 53.54 Length of Time Schools were Open During the Year Length or Time Pupils Attended During Year Graded, City [22 \ 202(?04)204 } 207] R, Municipality [41 { 196(SOi)204 } 208] Rural and Asa'fd [22 { 174(;SS)204 } 208] Graded schools, 183.71. Ungraded, 154.02; all 158.28; 6 schools less than 20 days; 35 from 20 to 50 days; 161 from 50 to 100 days; 277 from 100 to 150 days; 313 from 150 to 200 days; 413 over 200 days. 5,885 less than 20 days 10,818 between 20 and 50 days 15.537 between 51 and 100 days 10.989 between 101 and 150 days 11,938 between 151 and 200 days 641 more than 200 52.80 Urban 193.57; Rural 154.17; aU 158.59. 5 schools less than 20 days; 33 from 20 to 50 days: 179 from 51 to 100 days; 566 from 101 to 150 days; 576 from 151 to 200 days; 563 more than 200 days. ? 73,044 239,331 216,971 Quebec 1909-10 1. Rom. Cath. Schools — Elementary, Model, and Academy 2. Protestant Schools- Elementary, Model and Academy New Brunswick 1909-10 Fall Term Spring Term 56.68 Manitoba; 32,487 less than 100 days 17,559 between 100 and 150 days 22,998 between 151 and 211 days 456,302 ( 223.482 15,849 177,786 ' 401,2681 39,185 I 55,634 63.83 56.28 440,152 (5 to 16 yrs.) r Prince Edward Island 1910 i Nova Scotia 329,975 44,572 67.34 64.39 60.17 59.81 62.78 78.68 74.94 33.093 I 26,733 59,826 36,217 26.777 62,994 11.62 67.33 New Brunswick; I. Fall Term (80 days): 126 open less than 70 days. 709 open between 70 and 80 days. 1068 open full term of 80 days. IL Spring Term (125 days): 126 open less than 80 days. 62 open between 80 and 100 days. 855 open between 100 and 125 days. 102.910 Full Term (128 days): [19 \ 108(/i;)123 } 128] Term ending June 30, 1910. 59.5 Average for all schools 189.9 — 24 schools less than 50 days; 59 between 50 and 100 days; 128 between 100 and 150 days: 1053 between 150 and 200 days; 585 between 200 days and 205; 790 for full term of 205 days. 7,188 less than 20 days 13,617 between 20 and 49 days 19,256 between 50 and 99 days 23,777 between 100 and 149 days 37,194 between 150 and 200 days 1.878 200 or more days ' Annual Reports of the departments of education for years indicated. , ? TK " '^^ 8"PP'™e'itary statements are needed to make more clear, and prevent the misinterpretation of the data presented in the schedule leif'ed^^trelSrre'^.'TKta'u.'fi-r^O*'^'^^^^^^^^ No r.ord is kept apparently of those "receiving e<,uiva. popuktion ■ for 1909 under the jurisdiction of the PubUe, the Protestant Separate, and the™mancXhc S^r^^^^^ above mentioned) from which the Roman Cathohc Separate Schools are excluded the school populationTagTngiven^s 599291 Yet in Tal^P it i^J^^S^ ^1° '{*'" °- "''™'^"<^'«^ ""t? »i Pa«<= XXI ()ntano also the children " receiving equivalent education elsewhere" are not separated from those receiving no K-hoorediicatlol, I„ R,$tf l, r w iK^'o '^ese schools are listed as havmg 55.034 pupils. In the local boards of trustees are supposed to prepare a census of the children resident TntEiSvetLtSrlnH^fi^?^ ^i^'^' S^kf tohewan. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, while reports regarding the schools in each countv. .tAt, the Hi^t^rf. =„),„.l „„„,= "?„™iT„„. '"„.!" °° •'^\^ "" l^^"^ *"«*<> ^PPear in the annual departmental reports. The Prince Edward Island _ 'BritisliColumbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia while reports regarding the schools in eachVounty, sta'teihe district acho'ol ceis;;i7rd"e;.roito7nrin";;raiirUoT,l^but'S a nSr^ofTos occur i^ ?Kn^?.!:^?„^°™^' '^^P"'"™**' '^,9°^^ "" "' "' ' " " (b) The percentage of attendance " is calculated as foUows: For Al'oerta and Saskatchewan see footnote™ dmp 17 Z B C 1? i= tC tl^^f 'W™', "oj^n an accurate summation c„„.., „.. „= ^^^. Ontano and Manitoba the per cent which the average attendance is of the total atendS" ^ P E I it °sX per cent wMch tS. ave^^T, "5'°'' *'^' *?^i ^J*?" '^^^^^'^'^^'^f, « «f <^\^ total ewolhaent; in l,ilL'!f,i"i;'?J^.°1^1;?J^!;l™.«™J°'^^'«°e^^^ *™« "■« schools remained open i?..tl'e,«^.£BritUh Columbia an^d Prince Edward Island i3_not that found i i to length of the schools with thenmnberofdaystheywereopen. Thestatementonschedule reads th^: Tsh^^UemTQuartU^MedkurOuiitUefw^^ is not that found m the annua! reports which simply list tenn, this method of statbg the distribution is convenient and simple. The median is the middle tenn of such s^ks the nufr+il«^;tLif^^f Tl "S""^ ",■ ^^f"}; ■" ascending order in regard to length of It should be noted here that a classroom is usuallv, especiaUy in the West, listedas a KhooSt U. to cLSioTSd aL thit hnndrlllTf Tw f ^'^^" *''" '°?'^.f - ^'"\ "'<' "^P^'ti™ extremes. open during but a brief period in the first year of the district's organization connection and also that hundreds of schooU are being organized yearly m Western Canada, many of which are Attendance 89 (2) School Census and Enrollment: A study of Schedule E indicates quite clearly that the necessary basis for adequate enforcement of attendance laws has not as yet been worked out. In none of the provinces can the following simple, yet most significant, question be answered definitely and accurately. What is the exact relationship between the total number of children of school age (in districts and provinces as a whole), the number enrolled in the state-controlled or subsidized schools, the number receiving "equivalent education elsewhere," and the number who are not receiving any educational opportuni- ties? In those provinces having both school census and com- pulsory laws these relationships are unknown even in regard to those children within the compulsory age limit. The varia- tion in regard to what actually constitutes enrollment is prob- ably very great and is, no doubt, affected by the question as to whether the average attendance affects the annual grants, for the regulations do not seem explicit in regard thereto. (3) Length of School Sessions: This aspect of the situation is analyzed by only four of the provinces and reveals data of special significance with reference to the rural school — the short-term schools being generally the summer rural schools. In the three provinces, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Nova Scotia, for which the data are comparable, out of the total 5726 schools, 2321 or 40.5% were open for 200 days, 1463 or 25.% were open for less than 150 days, 492 or 8.5% were open for less than 100 days, 103 or 1.7% were open less than 50 days, and 11 or 0.2% were open for only 20 days or less. The weakness and disadvantages of the short-term school are too obvious and well known to need discussion here. It seems well, however, to point out how unfortunate it is for any province to feel satisfied or claim special credit because it has provided at least some kind of a school for a more or less brief period for every rural district. This elementary provision ought to be taken for granted in any Canadian community — nothing less should be thought of or tolerated. Attention rather should be centered more definitely on securing lengthened terms and more adequate organization. As will be seen by reference to the distribution of grants outlined in Chapter II, some of the provinces utilize the grant as one of the means used to bring about a lengthened term. 90 Rural Schools in Canada (4) Period of Attendance by Pupils: This is, of course, neces- sarily within the limits of opportunity afforded by the length of the school sessions. Only three of the provinces have analyzed the attendance from this point of view — Alberta, Manitoba, and Nova Scotia. Out of the total 231,761 pupils in the three provinces — as listed in Schedule E under this heading — 104,787 or 45 per cent attended not more than 100 days and 157,112 or 67 per cent not more than 150 days. The matter of attendance is evidently even of much more serious concern than that of lengthening the school term. (5) Rural versus Urban Enrollment: Recalling that in Canada the term "rural" is used to apply in many provinces only to that portion of the province outside of city, town, or village municipalities and that in any case only the villages are included with rural statistics, the figures presented in the schedule give a fair idea of the relative place of rural life in Canada as far as number is concerned. Reports do not give the data necessary to compare the relationship between school census and school enrollment. (6) Percentage of Attendance: With the exception of Sas- katchewan the urban districts have the better record. The record is regrettably low in many of the provinces. The lack of explicit direction in regard to what constitutes em-oUment must affect the data in regard to this as well as in regard to the ratio between non-attendance and enrollment. (7) Grants in Relation to Length of Term and Regularity of Attendance: This question has been presented in Chapter II and is again referred to here in order to suggest a consideration of the provisions there outlined in their relationship to the laws, regulations, and accomplishment indicated in this chapter. It seems sufficiently evident that not only must the grant be utilized more effectively in this connection, but it must be backed up by many improvements along the lines indicated above. If intelligence and patriotism are to be characteristic of Canadian citizenship some vigorous work is needed on the part of the educational authorities to improve the present situation in regard to the whole question of school attendance. This is true for the urban communities; it is even more definitely and urgently true for the rural. CHAPTER VI BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT AND LIBRARIES' In each province the central authorities are empowered to regulate and supervise the provisions made by the local school- boards in regard to school sites, grounds, buildings and equip- ment. As indicated in Chapter II, the money for these purposes must be raised by local taxation. In some of the provinces — see Chapter II — grants are made to aid in this matter with the special purpose of encouraging improvement. In regard to the following fundamental provisions all the provinces made spi^cific requirements: Sites. The selection of the school site and ^^rounds rests either with the trustees, the rate-payers, or with the trustees, subject to the approval of the rate payers. In case of failure 'B. C— The Schools Act, Sec. 10 (g), 49, 80, 95, lllc. Rules and Regulations, — ^Art. 6, Clause 10. "General Directions to Trustees," See. 8, 9, — ^page 62, Manual of School Law. Alta.— The School Ordinance, Sec. 6, Sub-sec. 1 (b), 23; Sec. 46-47, 95(6)— (15), 158 (9), (12), (17). Sask.— The School Act, Sec. 6(b), 7(8), 92(5)— (15), 158(9)— (12). Act to Amend the School Act (1911), Sec. 4. Regulations of Dept. of Education, 1-5. Form 33, 1910. Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 2(P), 48(e), (i), (k), (o), (p), 71-90, 101. The Education Department Act, Sec. 20(a). Ont. — Dept. of Education Act, Sec. 5(d), (e), (f). The Schools Sites Act, Sec. 21. The Public Schools Act, Sec. 11-14, 82(g), (83). "Instructions, Nos. 12-13, 1912," Circular No. 33, 1910. Que.— The School Law, Art. 119, 142, 229, 231-232, 239, 252-271. School Regulations, Protestant Committee, Sec. 109-139, 170, 182. Revised School Regulations, Catholic Committee, Art. 33-70, 172(2), (3), (4), 185, 231 (12). John Adams, The Protestant School System of Quebec, pp. 7-17. N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 56, 72(1), (2). Regulations of the Board of Education, 5-10, 11-15, 16. P. E. I.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. LlII, LXVII, LXVIII. Regulations of the Board of Education, 1-16, 76. The EducationAct, Sec. 5(12), (13), 12(e), 51-55, 56(f), 81(a)-(e), 106 (k), 109(e), (h), 144. Comments and Regulations, 52-90, 34. 91 92 Rural Schools in Canada to agree, the Department of Education may directly, or indirectly through the inspectors, have the matter adjusted. In all cases the question of convenience and of health must be carefully considered. Grounds. The requirements in regard to school grounds are in many cases not very specific. The usual area in rural schools is, however, from one- fourth of an acre to one acre. Many dis- tricts have been sufficiently generous to provide from two to five acres for their local school. It is to be regretted that the requirements in this regard are not more specific in some of the provinces and that a requirement of at least two acres is not insisted upon. The improvement of the school grounds is left almost entirely to the initiative of the inspectors, teachers, and local community. The variation in results can readily be im- agined. Ontario is the only province that has supplemented this local effort by specific grants for this special purpose and the publication of a very suggestive booklet on the "Improvement of School Grounds" which is supplied to school boards and teachers free of charge. The helpfulness of such a publication can be fully realized only by those who have been out in the field as rural school teachers or as school inspectors. The limitations of the training and experience of the young people usually found in rural schools apply to the range of their knowl- edge and ideas in regard to this matter as well as to others. The occasional suggestions and help received from the inspector should be supplemented by such a booklet as that above men- tioned. Its contents are worthy of note for its suggestions are sufficiently detailed to be of real help to a teacher who wishes to act, as well as to appreciate. Here is a list of the major topics: "The Trustee's Opportunity and Duty," "The Plans and Grounds," "Location of Buildings," "Grading and Levehng of Grounds," "Making the Lawn," "Keeping the Grass Cut," "Walks and Drives," "Planting Trees," "Ornamental Shrubs," "Vines and Climbers," "Obtaining Nursery Stock," "Flower Borders," "Choice Herbarium Perennials," "The Wild Flower Garden. " The discussion of these topics is followed by twenty- one pages of illustrations showing what has already been done in some schools in comparison with former conditions. The ground plans for the one-half-acre, one-acre, and two-acre school grounds are presented in excellent form and take into considera- Buildings, Equipment and Libraries 93 tion a considerable variation in conditions and arrangements. Manitoba also gives four pages to the "Planning and Decoration of School Grounds" in the circular prepared, with the approval of the Advisory Board, by S. A. Bedford, formerly Superintendent of the Experimental Farm at Brandon. The preparation and utilization of such booklets on the part of other provinces to suit their special conditions would bring fruitful returns. Buildings. In regard to the matter of buildings the require- ments are more definite. In a more or less effective way the plans and construction of all schoolhouses must be approved by the departments of education either directly or indirectly through the local inspector. The ratio between number of pupils and number of class rooms is specifically laid down in the case of Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces, and dealt with as occasion arises in the Western Provinces. The regulations give special attention to air, floor, and window space per pupil, to heating, ventilation and cleanliness. In Alberta and Saskatchewan special mention is made of providing stables as the school districts in the West are so large that many of the children ride or drive to school. The question of proper provision for separate and suitably screened outhouses for the sexes is specifically dealt with in the laws and regulations of each province, and inspectors and teachers are admonished to see that such are carried into effect. While in all the provinces, no doubt, the departments of educa- tion and inspectors cooperate with the local school boards in planning their school-houses, some are dealing with the whole question of school buildings much more effectively than others. Some provinces, particularly Manitoba^, Ontario' and Nova Scotia^ have gone further and prepared special publications dealing with this problem for the one- teacher, two- teacher and three-teacher rural and village schools. Of these, that provided by Ontario is by far the most satisfactory and complete. It seems worth while to give an outline of its contents for it is doubtful if any pubhcation can be found which deals with the needs of rural districts in this connection in such a careful way. The first section deals with "The School Building" under such i^MAN. — Plans and Specifications for Rural Schools, S. A. Bedford. >Ont. — ^Plans for Bural School Buildings, 1909. 'N. S.— Manual of School Law, pp. 283-290. 94 Rural Schools in Canada topics as, Construction and Site, Classrooms, Teachers' Private Rooms, Halls, Cloak Rooms, Desks, Blackboards, Lighting, Heating and Ventilation, Color Schemes for Interiors (illustrated), Color Schemes for Exteriors (illustrated). Twelve different suggestions — plans and elevations to scale — for a one-teacher building, twelve different suggestions similarly presented, for a two-teacher rural school building, and twelve such suggestions for a building to accommodate three teachers. These plans are supplemented by drawings showing detail in regard to difficult points in construction. The second section deals with "Outside School Premises" under such topics as School Grounds, Disposal of Refuse, Water Supply and Sources of Pollution and Tests for Pure Water, Closets, Position of the Woodsheds and Closets, Number of Seats, Kinds of Closets (with plans and elevations). Urinals, Cesspools and Privy Vaults, Disposal of Excreta. The appendices contain a table of the estimated cost of each of the thirty-six schoolhouses suggested in the plans mentioned above, and the number of pupils each such school will accom- modate. Suggested "Forms" for specifications and for contracts are also included to aid the local trustees in keeping out of diflS- culties with the contractors. ' Equipment. In British Columbia, Alberta and Manitoba the matter of equipment seems to be left almost wholly in the hands of the local school boards and teachers subject, of course, to the suggestions of the inspectors who can bring considerable pressure to bear. The inspectors are called upon to a very considerable degree for advice in this matter. The other prov- inces outline in their regulations what is considered to be a minimum equipment for a rural school and add suggestions as to additional recommended equipment. Recently Ontario made a definite effort to really insist upon the minimum equipment requirement before paying grants. The process was too painful, however, so direct compulsion has been replaced by a more vig- orous activity in the way of "reasonable persistence, aided by judicious use of the scheme of grants on the character of accom- modation." In Circular No. 33, the accommodation and equip- ment for rural schools is carefully discussed and the standard set as to the minimum recognized as passable is the highest in Canada. Buildings, Equipment and Libraries 95 Generally these so-called minimum requirements call for a teacher's desk; a chair or two, single or double seats for pupils; maps of Province and Canada (in some cases additional maps); blackboards; crayon and brushes; globe; thermometer; clock; numeral frame, dictionary, school regulations and course of study; set of shelves or cupboard. Some find it necessary to include in their formal statement even such elementary provisions as water bucket; "and at least one cup"; hand bell; broom, wood- box or coal-bucket; shovel and poker. The following is Ontario's statement in regard to Equipment No. 1, which is considered the minimum recognized as passable.* (1) "Each school shall have at least a globe, not less than eight inches in diameter and properly mounted; a map of the hemis- pheres (or a map of the British Empire, showing also the hemis- pheres); a map of each continent, a map of Canada; a map of Ontario, a map of the county (if a suitable one is published) , a map of the British Isles, a numeral frame (or an adequate supply of loose cubes) ; a good clock for each class room, kept in good condition; a set of mensuration surface forms and geometrical solids; a blackboard set for each class room (a protractor, a triangle, a pair of compasses, two pointers, a graduated straight edge); a pair of scales, with weights, to weigh from half ounce to at least four pounds; a set for measure of capacity (pint, quart, gallon); a set for linear measure (inch, foot, yard, tape line or graduated straight edge); a set for square and cubic measures; a school library containing an atlas or a gazetteer, a standard reference dictionary (with English pronunciation), for each class room; a supply for Form III of History, Geography and Hygiene Readers (one of each for each pupil), as soon as such Readers are recommended by the Minister; and, at the discretion of the Inspector, suitable supplementary reading for all the Forms." (2) "When, owing to the absence of Fourth Classes or Fifth Classes, some of the above equipment is not necessary, it may be omitted at the discretion of the Inspector." (3) "As soon as practicable, the equipment presented above should be provided; but in carrying out this provision, the Inspector is hereby directed to use his discretion, having regard to individual conditions." 'Ont. — "Accommodation and Equipment of Rural Public and Separate Schools," Circular No. 33, p. 12. 96 Rural Schools in Canada Libraries.^ As has already been indicated in Chapter II all the provinces with the exception of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Quebec provide for an annual grant proportional to the local expenditure for library purposes. It is probable that such grants are made, at least on occasion, in each of these three prov- inces also but nothing appears in the laws, regulations or reports which indicates what, if any, provision is made. The only specific reference to the matter found in the case of Quebec is that in Article 545 of the School Law which provides that the Government may provide a sum not exceeding $2,000 annually for the purpose of library grants. Whether it ever has done so or not, on what basis the grant is apportioned, or what amounts have been expended, does not appear in the documents available. In each province, whether grants are paid or not, all books purchased for school library purposes must be approved by, or selected from a list prepared by the central educational author- ities. In British Columbia, New Brunswick and especially Ontario and Nova Scotia careful provision is made for proper organization and rules for use and care of the school libraries. In Ontario, the provisions for local public libraries in townships and local library associations are so liberal and well organized (as far as laws and regulations can go, at least) that the school libraries can be greatly reinforced by these public libraries. This is especially true for the teachers and older pupils as any child over twelve years of age may become a member of such a •B. C— Public School Act, Sec. 102A. "Rules and Regulations respecting School Libraries," Manual of School Law, pp. 91-93. Alta.— The School Ordinance, Sec. 6(2) (3), 95(13) (14). The School Grants Ordinance, Sec. 3(3), 9. Sask.— The Schools' Act, Sec. 6(3), 92(13). Regulations of Department of Education, 11-12. Man.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 48(k), 228. Ont.— The Public Libraries Act, especially Sec. 12, 15-17, 24h28. Statute Law Amendment Act, (1911), Sec. 16, Instructions No. 12, p. 5; No. 13, p. 6; — (1912) Que.— The School Law, Art. 545-546. Revised School Regulations, • — ^Roman Catholic Com., Reg. 58. School Regulations, — Protestant Conmiittee, — Reg. 17. N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 96. Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 34. P. E. I.— The Public Schools Act, LXXX. Regulations of the Board of Education, Reg. 83-84. N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 81(e). An Act for the Encouragement of Rural School Libraries, Sec. 1-2. Comments and Regulations, Sec. 233-234. Buildings, Equipment and Ldbraries 97 library or library association. Ten charter members are needed for organization purposes and fifty permanent members for continuous existence. The township is authorized to tax for library purposes if it desires to provide a public library for the township. When one turns from these general provisions to inquire as to what is actually being accomphshed in the field, great diffi- culty is experienced in getting exact or complete data in regard to the schools as a whole, and, more especially, in regard to rural schools. The report of Prof. John Adams on the Protestant Schools of Quebec, while suggestive and illuminating, was made ten years ago and doubtless many of the schools he visited have greatly improved since then. The answers to questions five and nine of the first questionnaire give valuable data in so far as they go. The descriptions given of twenty "most unsatisfactory" and twenty "most satisfactory" rural schools are so representa- tive and suggestive that they are given in Appendix X. The chief source of information is, however, the annual reports of the departments of education which, with the exception of Ontario, contain, in addition to the general report, a summarized statement from each inspector in regard to the conditions of the schools within his inspectorate. Even in this case only a few provinces give much data in regard to buildings, equipment and libraries. The provinces which do give some definite reports in regard to these matters vary so greatly in the method of presenting them, and in the matter which they contain that any comparative state- ment is impossible. In Schedule F the information obtainable from the reports in regard to school libraries is given. The improvement in rural school buildings during recent years is most encouraging. In the West where so many of the schools are new, the higher standards have been operative from the beginning. In the East whenever an old building is replaced, a much better and more modern building almost invariably takes its place. The most distressing conditions in this respect are to be found in rural districts in Eastern Canada, particularly Quebec and the Maritime Provinces, where in many districts the popu- lation is decreasing and the young people who would, in the ordinary course of events, be repeopling the schools, have gone to the United States or Western Canada. With an old unsatis- factory building and equipment and decreasing number of pupils 98 Rural Schools in Canada i H t^ o o w o T I >.■'? '-• ^^■^ s I ^ M I K.g 9|P5 P CD SS rt o o Ph « tf lO lO o> .o» CO 3 iH (35 00 t- to — tr- ~Seo ^ =• a _: § ■3 < o j54 1 ^i-i o ^ 3 H^ 1 2 2 3 r - "o ft I am Z. ^^ Z » 2 3 ^ o. Q ~;i 2 I" IS ^ M c; fi < tiS O (* Buildings, Equipment and Ldbraries 99 it can readily be imagined how difficult it is to bring about any marked improvement. In closing this chapter it seems well to recall to attention the following significant conditions which it has brought to light. (1) The primary responsibility for supplying adequate accom- modation, equipment and library is placed upon the local community. In some cases the governments give grants to en- courage improvement in buildings and equipment; in the majority of the provinces such grants are given to school libraries. Whether there be grants or not, the departments of education through their corps of inspectors are continuously working for improvement in this respect. The inspectors are generally more or less effectively aided by the teacher and the teacher by the inspector in working for such improvement. (2) The variability in the conditions actually found, and in the effectiveness of efforts made to improve them, is very great. The tendency is very definitely, however, in the direction of higher standards and better accomplishment in every province. (3) The need for all of the departments of education to find out more definitely exactly what the situation may be, is again brought clearly to view in the schedule dealing with school libraries and in the absence of data relative to accommodations and equipment. (4) The valuable suggestions prepared by Ontario, and to a lesser extent by some of the other provinces, in regard to improve- ment of school grounds, buildings, equipment, and libraries indi- cate the more important preliminary steps thus far taken leading to an effective campaign for improvement. CHAPTER VII CONVEYANCE OF PUPILS AND CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS A. Lajts and Regulations The laws and regulations of each of the provinces deal with the questions of consolidation and conveyance more or less extensively.' All provinces provide for the admission of stu- dents of one district to the school of a neighboring district, either free, or upon payment of a fee or the inclusion of the property of their parents and guardians in the assessment of the district, or an arrangement between the school boards of the respective districts. Provision is also made for the alter- ation and re-arrangement of district boundaries to meet the varying conditions of shifting settlement, topography, or the desire to have smaller or larger area included, or the overlapping of a school district between such civil units as the county, town- ship, or rural municipality.^ The specific provisions of the different provinces for encourag- ing consolidation and conveyance are of special interest. iB. C— Public Schools Act, Sec. 6 (b), 11, 14A, 14B, 49, 81. Alta.— The School Ordinance, Sec. 48-52, 162-167. The School Grants Ordinance, Sec. 10. An Act Providing for the Consolidation of Schools and Con- veyance of Children, 1913. Sask.— The Schools Act, Sec. 12(b), 48-52, 162-167. An Act to AJoend the School Act (1911), Sec. 3, 5. Man— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 2(f), 6(c) (d), 48A, 48B, 91-101, 105-111, 130, 133, 165(d), 207-208. Ont.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. 15-30, 70. The Continuation Schools Act. The High Schools Act, especially Sec. 6-14. The Boards of Education Act, Sec. 2(e), F, 13-24. Que.— The School Law, Art. 115 as amended in 1909, 118, 463-471. N. B.— The Schools Act, Sec. 7, 23, 57 (3) (4), 106, 121, 124. Regulations of Board of Education, JEleg. 48—49. P. E. I.— The Public Schools Act, Sec. IV. N. S.— The Education Act, Sec. 5 (20-22), 137-139. Comments and Regulations, 12-15. 'See Chapter I. 100 Conveyance and- Consolidation 101 1. British Columbia: When British Columbia (1905) organized the rural municipality school boards' to replace the several small district boards, she took a forward step that has been fully justified by the results. The authorities and the people seem fully convinced that the consolidation of school boards or rather the replacing of the old local boards by a general municipal board elected at large, has proved a success and is much more satisfactory than the old system. This board decides on the number and location of the schools within its jurisdiction and may designate one particular school for the advanced ele- mentary and junior high school courses. It would seem that such "superior schools" would form a natural center where a fully organized consolidated school might be evolved. The extent to which this has been done or the reduction of the number of schools within the rural municipality resulting from the con- solidation of the school boards, would be interesting data but the reports do not give this information. These municipal boards have the power to consolidate the schools and provide transportation for the children living at a distance from the school. At the present time, the number of schools per munici- paHty, in the twenty-six rural municipalities that have thus far been organized, is distributed as follows: Extreme limits 1 to 15; Quartiles 3 and 9; Median 5.* If in the rural districts outside of such municipalities the majority of the rate-payers of two or more rural school sections agree to unite for the purpose of establishing a central graded school with at least two teachers, and of providing for the convey- ance of the children living at a distance therefrom, the Govern- ment undertakes to pay one-half the cost of such conveyance. 2 and 3. Alberta and Saskatchewan: In Alberta and Sas- katchewan the law permits one district — if two-thirds of the resident rate-payers having children between five and sixteen years of age (inclusive) are favorable to the arrangement — to arrange with a neighboring district for the instruction of its pupils and for the conveyance of their children to the neighbor- ing school. The district so conveying its children continues to exist and to levy and collect the taxes necessary to provide for such transportation and such tuition charges as the districts "See Chapter I. *B. C— Annual Report, 1910-11, p. A 10. 102 Rural Schools in Canada may have agreed upon. At the recent session of the legislature in Alberta provision was made for the consolidation of schools and conveyance of pupils. ° The districts entering into such consolidation retain their identity and the consolidated district receives from the Government the same total grant as would have been earned by the said districts if they had not entered into the consolidation. In addition there is an extra grant of eighty cents per day for each day each van is actually used for the conveyance of children to and from the school. 4. Manitoba: Manitoba provides for the conveyance of children living at a distance of a mile or more from the school in both the single rural school district and the consolidated dis- tricts. If the residence of any of the children be so located that the van route cannot be arranged to include them, the parents or guardians of such children may arrange to convey them to the nearest point on the van route. If this be faithfully done for at last 100 teaching days in the year such parent or guardian re- ceives a refund on his taxes equal to 5 cents per day for each day such conveyance is provided for the first child and 2 cents per day additional for each additional child. The rural municipal council or the special inspector, who has charge of the propa- ganda for consolidation, arranges matters regarding the necessary reorganization of districts when consolidation is desired.' The government offers liberal grants in aid not only of the initial step but also of the continuous existence of such a district.' 5. Ontario: In Ontario, if the rate-payers of two or more school districts desire to consolidate, the township council is authorized to arrange for such consolidation. The consoUdated board of trustees consists merely of the several local boards sitting jointly. Each local district continues its individual existence, and elects its own trustees. If at the end of a five- year trial the majority of the consolidated board decide in favor of discontinuing the arrangement, the consolidated district may be divided and the several local districts revert to their former independent status. The property of the several districts is safeguarded in the meantime by requiring the consolidated board to provide for its up-keep. 'Alta. — An Act providing for the Consolidation of Schools and Conveyance of Children, 1913. •See Chapter I. 'See Chapter II. Conveyance and Consolidation 103 In providing for organized cooperation between districts for the purpose of maintaining Continuation Schools and High Schools or Collegiate Institutes, Ontario has gone further than any other province.' The grants in aid of such secondary- schools as well as those in aid of consolidation and conveyance of pupils in the elementary schools have already been indicated.' 6. Quebec: In Quebec the school commissioners or trustees may consolidate two or more of the school districts under their control and arrange for the transportation of the children living at a distance. If the average number of children attending school in any district is less than ten the school board may close the school and provide for the conveyance of such children as there may be, to the school in the neighboring district. Arrange- ments are also possible whereby the school commissioners or trustees of any "county, counties or parts of counties," may combine for the purpose of establishing one or more academies. No goverixment grant is provided for the special purpose of encouraging these developments. 7. New Brunswick: New Brunswick is one of the most liberal of the provinces in its grants toward consolidation.!" The unit for consolidation must be at least three districts and in addition to the conveyance of pupils the consolidated school must provide equipment and instruction in manual training and household art. There is also the usual provision for the closing of a small school and the conveyance of the children thereof to the neigh- boring school. If such rural district neglects to tax itself to provide for such transportation the Chief Superintendent of Education may insist or may even levy and collect such taxes directly. Only those children living one and a half miles or more from the school can legally demand transportation. Under certain conditions the Chief Superintendent has the power, at his discretion, to insist on the union or consolidation of two or more school districts. 8. Prince Edward Island: So far as the laws and regulations are concerned Prince Edward Island leaves the question of con- solidation and conveyance to be arranged by the Lieutenant- Governor in Council and the local school boards, when the •See Chapter II. 'lUd. "Ibid. 104 Rural Schools in Canada occasion arises. No special grant is provided, but the Depart- ment of Education has avoided penaUzing the movement by continuing the grants to the consohdated district on the same basis as that in force before the several districts became merged into one. 9. Nova Scotia: Nova Scotia aids consolidation and convey- ance first by providing that the total amounts, which the school sections entering such a union might earn from the provincial and county funds, have not decreased even though fewer teach- ers be needed. In addition in 1907 the legislature provided a special fund of $36,000 for the purpose of assisting the move- ment. The method of apportioning the fund has already been dealt with in a former chapter." The fund is, as yet, not fully expended for any of the counties. B. Accomplishment British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Quebec have accomplished but little, if anything, in the way of consolidation, and organized provision for conveyance. Prince Edward Island has three consolidated schools. The original one, organized under the Macdonald Fund, still persists though with a reduction of from six to three districts. This school is developing into a special type of institution. It draws students from distant parts, and from the districts that have actually withdrawn from the consolidation. These students pay a tuition fee. Within the consolidated district itself the parents of the children attending pay a special tuition fee over and above their regular taxation. The government pays the usual salary grant that the several districts would receive if no such consolidation had taken place. Sir William Macdonald and Dr. James W. Robertson continue to supplement — or rather to pay the larger part of the expenses of maintaining the school on an efiicient basis. The data regarding this school presented in Schedules G, H, I and J are made available through the kindness of Mr. Vemon Crockett, the Principal of the school. At Summerside and Tyron there are also consolidated schools. In each of these villages tuition is provided for the children of a neighboring rural school district. The trustees of the rural district receive from the government "See Chapter II. Conveyance and Consolidaiion 105 the usual salary grant for a teacher and are permitted to use it in providing for the transportation of their children to the village school. Nova Scotia has accomplished something in the way of uniting small and weak districts here and there throughout the province. Few of these can be considered real consolidated districts as they seldom include more than two or at most three SCHEDULE G HILLSBORO CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL — TEACHERS District Before Consolidation Under Consoudation Year m. Clasa Salary No. CUas Se.x Salary 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1 1 1 1 1 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 190 190 180 190 235 1905 6 2 Col. Grad. 2, 1st class 2 Specialists 3 Male 3 Female 13,300 Crosa Roads 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1 1 1 1 1 2nd 1st 2nd 3rd 3rd 225 180 190 180 180 1906 6 2 Col. Grad. 2 Specialists 2 Male 4 Female 2,700 Mount Herbert . . . 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1 1 1 1 1 1st 1st Ist 2nd 2nd 180 180 180 225 225 1907 5 2, 1st class 3, 2nd class 2 Male 3 Female 2,550 FuUerton's Marsh. . 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1 1 1 1 1 3rd 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 120 180 225 225 180 1908 4 3, 1st class 1, 2nd class 2 Males 2 Females Bethel 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1 1 1 1 1 2nd 1st 3rd 3rd 3rd 180 226 130 150 150 1909 Hazelbrook 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1 1 1 1 1 2nd Ist 3rd 3rd 3rd 225 180 180 180 180 1910 2,730 AllDiatrietB 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 6 6 6 6 6 l.»2,< 1,5 21 1,= 2,2 32 1,2 2,1 3' 1,2 2,13" 1,120 1,135 1,085 1,150 1,150 Total 6 6 5 4 ? ? Year 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 3,300 2,700 2,550 2,730 1-1 o o W o P a y^ O CO |2i O O O o CO ►J w o H O P^ P-( P CO iz; I M W p O O CO l>H O 2 ^- s i ■3es *- 2 8 1 i2 ^ i-ss w (§-S->i CO 08 1 ^ ■* •» >3e-. g g 1 i ^ S 1 ?? 11^ ^ •0 s •• -33 S g § «» § i5S 2 CO s 10 1 1 11^ - + 1 8 "i H •o OJ CO CO M ^ ■£ ^■s^ ^* + 8 s •a S 1 a g g g 3 s s s a> g B Tf« .se z 10 c3 w H >< H !? - + s t^ <-^ IS CJ c 1 ■* ^g z «» r-. |3 s M CO n ■a a •» z S; ■3-5 B ta ^' ui wi in t1< 9 ^ a* M -<*« (-) g ■3S lO o Jl (- c C 01 (^ W 3^ 2 !S ?^ § ° ^ 1 >3S " "(J* o» N 5 •» ^^ g g g s g g 8 f "! 2 ■§H S s ^ 8 00 g g C OC •* ^S •» " ■a ^ r. y ■e ^ 1 1 s r^ 4 1 t ■ (§ w 1 _ ^ 1 > s - J w s g § § 1 ■| % ^ ■fe (E s i£ w CC s Conveyance and Consolidation 107 o o a a O O 1^ O o o o o t-H a H «! o •J P o in o 1 n i souvinanr % g s xmvpianY '"ojany CO 3 JUdWJOiU^ M 3 5 aiuirpumy % S ,a aaunpuajiy allBmiy a ffl fiamjomg s a B l| si 1 Kuvpuauy % - aauvpua^ty aOvaity - juamjojug SI i amvpmuy % CO CO 90UDpu9jjy 9Bviny s ptampdu^ o s sDtinpmny % s smvpu93ty 90vj3ay OS piavtjodu^ s 1 n OS amvpuafiy % S s S "* 5 s s s ayuvpuatiy aSniaay ■^ s c: o 00 s gg oo (uaaijoju^ c s g IM "« s OS CC 09 s oa CO •^ g CO Oa us CO U3 xmtfpustty aOvJSiy "* CO o o» CC s s (umjojujf g lO s S s 1 § i aounpusny % £ s s 5 s t- £ 04 »o asutipu^y aSvjaay o s «o (M c s CO OS ivamjoju^ CO 3 5 05 CC o o O imopvany % « CO o »o CO « o iouvpudjjy aSvjmy t- M* tf 3 s 00 (IBUipitt^ W3 ?5 a; s 00 00 Ci I e CO n 8 11 f J3 I S « .3 ^ -a a *§■? Conveyance and Consolidation 109 sections or one weak and one stronger district. Some fifteen «ases of such consolidations have occurred since 1907. Even the Middleton Consolidated School organized under the Mac- donald Fund and receiving aid therefrom for a period of six years has not maintained itself. At present but one of the original six rural districts that joined remains within the consolidation, the others having withdrawn after the withdrawal of the special aid from Sir William Macdonald. The rural district that has re- mained within the consolidation for the 8 years, at present leaves the matter of conveyance in the hands of the parents concerned. They usually take turns in transporting the children in wet and stormy weather — the children walking during the fine weather. At the time of visiting this school one of the other rural sections was considering the question of re-entering the consolidation and those responsible for the school seemed hopeful that a number of the others would do so in the course of a year or so. New Brunswick has surpassed all the provinces with the exception of Manitoba in extending the organization of consol- idated schools. To the original school at Kingston established under the Macdonald Fund the consolidated schools at Hamp- ton, Florenceville, and Riverside (Albert County) have been added. Hampton and Florenceville are organized wholly with- out special aid from any patrons — the general grants from the government and the local taxation being the only sources of financial support. The school at Riverside was bonused both in land and money by ex- Lieutenant Governor McLellan who resides in the district. All of the six districts originally entering the Riverside consolidation have remained within the organiza- tion for the full seven years since the consolidation was brought about, even though the tax rate has increased from 5 or 6 mills to 12 or 13 mills. This is the only school visited that provided a residence for the principal of the school which he rents from the board at a very reasonable rate. The district is indebted to Hon. Mr. McLellan for this special provision. The school has also been designated as the county academy and receives the grants provided for such institutions as well as the special grants earned by virtue of consolidations, conveyance, manual train- ing and household science. All of these consolidated' schools in New Brunswick provide equipment and instruction in manual 110 Rural Schools in Canada training, household arts, and school gardening. With the school at Hillsboro these four consolidated schools represent the best that Canada has attained in the way of rural school consolida- tion. Hillsboro and Kingston are, however, the only ones of the group that are placed out in the rural districts away from villages. The others are formed by bringing the children from the country districts into the village school. Although taxation has increased and considerable difficulty is experienced in retain- ing the continuous service of a competent staff, the schools are proving a success and receive cordial support from the people. One is astonished to find that consolidation has made such little headway in Ontario. The original consolidated school organized at the Agricultural College at Guelph has gradually become a suburban school for a section of the city of Guelph and the children of the staff of the Agricultural College. Only one-half of one of the rural districts originally joining the con- solidation now remains with the school.* At North Bay, how- ever, a second consolidated school has been organized and is in successful operation. Manitoba is the one province that is pushing the consolidation movement vigorously and persistently. The Minister of Educa- tion and the Deputy-Minister are both strongly in favor of it wherever it is possible. These purposes are kept in view in the carrying out of the general policy: (1) To secure as the smallest school unit a sufficient attendance for a good one- teacher school — from 20 to 30 children being considered sufficient. (2) To secure consolidation of several districts with the advan- tages of conveyance, grading, superior teaching and social experience without the additional burden of equipment and instruction in special subjects. (3) Having secured the above, to gradually assume the additional responsibility for special subjects, and specially organized classes for those in rural com- munities who intend to remain in rural life. During the last year or so the propaganda for consolidation and the organization of consolidated districts have been in charge of Inspector Hall-Jones. Backed by liberal government grants and the personal cooperation and encouragement of the Minis- ter of Education and the Deputy-Minister, Inspector Hall-Jones has succeeded in bringing about a very definite extension of rural school consolidation. No less than nineteen such schools *See Chapter VIII. 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