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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
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 the Cornell University Library. 
 
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203 
 FIRST REPORT OF THE BIOLOGICAL STATION. 
 
 Contents. — Directors' First Eeport of Biological Station. 
 Introductory. 
 Acknowledgments. 
 Equipment. 
 Plankton ret. 
 Sounding apparatus. 
 Additional equipment. 
 Plan of work. 
 
 Part I. — Turkey Lake as a Unit of Environment. 
 
 Introductory. 
 
 Orientation. 
 
 General features. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Relation of water to outflow and evaporation. 
 
 Constancy of Turkey Lake as a unit of environment. 
 
 A Preliminary Eeport on the Physical Features of Turkey Lake — D. C. 
 Eidgley. 
 
 Hydrographic map of Turkey Lake — C. Juday. 
 
 Temperature of Turkey Lake — J. P. Dolan. 
 Part II. — The Inhabitants of Turkey Lake. 
 
 Note on Plankton — C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 General Fauna — C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Leeches— Mrs. B. C. Eidgley. 
 
 Rotifera— D. S. Kellicott. 
 
 Cladocera — E. A. Birge. 
 
 Decapoda — W. P. Hay. 
 
 Mollusca-R. E. Call. 
 
 Fishes — C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Batrachia — C. Atkinson. 
 
 Snakes — G. Eeddick. 
 
 Turtles— C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Water Birds — F. M. Chamberlain. 
 Part III.— Variation. 
 
 The study of Variation— C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Variation of Etheostoma caprodes — W. J. Moenkhaas. 
 
204 
 
 TURKEY LAKE* AS A UNIT OF ENVIRONMENT, AND THE 
 VARIATION OF ITS INHABITANTS. 
 
 First Report of the Indiana University Biological Station. By C. H. 
 
 ElGENMANN.t 
 
 Introductory.— At the last meeting of the Academy I outlined a plan for 
 the future work of the zoological section of the biological survey of Indiana. It 
 was, in brief, to study some lake as a unit of environment and the variation of its 
 inhabitants. This plan has materialized, and I present this as the Biological Sta- 
 tion's first report. 
 
 To select a suitable site I visited, in February, 1895, lakes Maxinkuckee, Eagle 
 and Turkey. The lakes were frozen over, and 1 had a good long walk over Max- 
 inkuckee and a sleigh ride over Turkey Lake. Turkey Lake seemed well suited 
 for a starting point for the work in hand. In March I again visited this lake to 
 look for a suitable laboratory and quarters. A laboratory was found in a large 
 boat-house belonging to Mr. T. J. Vawter, .the owner of Vawter Park. The boat- 
 house is directly on the water's edge, in about 86° 18' east longitude and 41° 23. 5' 
 north latitude. In March the lake was still frozen over with but a narrow rim of 
 free water near the shore. When I again visited the lake, to make the final ar- 
 rangements, on the 30th of May, and captured snakes, turtles, frogs, and two spe- 
 cies of spawning fishes, all within a hundred feet of the laboratory door, I was 
 convinced that no mistake had been made in the selection of a locality. Deep 
 water near the laboratory, a spring at the laboratory door, the situation of the 
 laboratory nearlj equidistant from either end of the lake, high land all about the 
 laboratory, the nearness of such large bodies of water as Lake Tippecanoe of an- 
 other river system, and a large number of smaller lakelets within a mile of Turkey 
 Lake, all contributed to make the location selected as near perfect as could be ex- 
 pected. 
 
 '•'■The only recorded name of this lake seems to be Turkey. It appears so in the govern- 
 ment surveys of 1838, and on all the maps published since that time. I am told that it re- 
 ceived that name from the fancied resemblance of the general outline of the lake to a 
 Thanksgiving turkey. During the last few years the lake has been known to those person- 
 ally acquainted with it as Lake Wawasee, and there seems to be a laudable ambition that 
 this latter name should supplant the homlier, but more significant, name of Turkey. The 
 lower lake is locally known as Syracuse Lake. 
 
 The following letter was received from the Director of the Bureau of American 
 Ethnology : In response to your letter of December 6th last, I beg leave to inform you that 
 the word '* wa-wa-see," " wa-w^-si " or " wa-w£-sing,' : signifies " at the bend of a river." 
 
 Yours with respect, J. W. Powell. 
 
 •(•Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 14. 
 
205 
 
 A twelve- room cottage was rented, in which fifteen of the members of the Station 
 besides my family were quartered. While a summer cottage, thus peopled, is 
 not a good place for consecutive thinking, this experience will also be remem- 
 bered with pleasure. Most of the students rented a large dining tent and hired a 
 cook. Others tented and boarded themselves. Their expenses ranged from $1.25 
 to $3 per week. 
 
 The laboratory was open from June 25 to September 1. 
 
 Acknowledgments. — Mr. T. J. Vawter, besides placing the boat house at 
 our disposal, gave us camping ground just back of the laboratory, and assisted us 
 in various ways, both in fitting up the Station and during the entire summer. 
 
 I am under many obligations to the officers of the Baltimore & Ohio, the 
 Vandalia and the Michigan Division of the Big Four for transportation over their 
 lines leading to Vawter Park, and for other favors. 
 
 During our stay at Tippecanoe Mr. W. S. Standish assisted us very materially. 
 
 He took the whole party on a tour of general inspection about the lake from end 
 
 to end, and placed himself and his steamer at our disposal during our entire stay. 
 
 ~ The Pottawatomie Club granted us the use of their reception room, where 
 
 some of the lectures were delivered. 
 
 Professors Birge, Kellicott and Call have prepared accounts of material col- 
 lected during the summer. 
 
 I must especially thank Dr. J. C. Arthur, Dr. Q. Baur and Geologist Willis 
 Blatchley, who visited the Station to deliver lectures before the members. 
 
 Lastly, 1 am indebted to Mr. J. P. Dolan, superintendent of the Syracuse 
 schools. He first directly, and through Mr. Eli Lilly, of Indianapolis, called my 
 attention to Turkey Lake, met me at Warsaw, and guided me to the lake and over 
 and around it on my first visit. During the summer he furnished the Station 
 with a splendid row-boat, and by his knowledge of the lake and its surroundings 
 and personal acquaintance with the natives contributed much to the success of the 
 undertaking. 
 
 Equipment. — The equipment of the Station consisted of a room 18x30 feet, 
 with six windows on a side. In this space the twenty-two members of the Station 
 were provided with tables. Continuous with this available laboratory space was a 
 space 18x20, opening by very wide doors to the lake front. This space was util- 
 ized for storing apparatus. The apparatus, nearly all furnished by the Indiana 
 University, was as follows: Compound microscopes (Zeiss), 21 ; dissecting micro- 
 scopes, 3; microtome, 1; dredge, 1; plankton net, 1; Birge net, 1; dipnets; re- 
 agents, about 200 bottles; working library, about 200 volumes; Wilder's protected 
 thermometer, 1; lamps, glassware, etc., the usual equipment of a laboratory 
 
206 
 
 table.; two boats; one sounding machine. The plankton net and sounding appa- 
 ratus and the method of using them may be described here. 
 
 Plankton Net. — An idea of our plankton apparatus and its modus operandi 
 can be gathered from one of the illustrations. The sounding boat was fitted in 
 the stern with a swinging derrick. Through the end of this was attached a 
 pulley, through which the rope supporting the net passed. The derrick was high 
 enough to allow the net to swing clear of the sides of the boat, so that when a 
 haul had been made, the net could be swung forward over a tray of tubes, ready 
 to receive the condensed plankton. The depth through which hauls were made 
 could be ascertained either by means of the sounding apparatus or by the direct 
 measurement of the plankton rope. The plankton net was built essentially as 
 devised by Hensen and Apstein, except that the straining net of No. 20 silk bolt- 
 ing cloth, Dufour's, was permanently attached to the truncated cone of canvas. 
 The bucket which receives the plankton was from necessity greatly simplified, but 
 as no measurements were made with it, and further improvement, both in effi- 
 ciency and simplicity, have been devised, I will describe this instrument as it will 
 be made for next summer 
 
 The diameter of the bucket will be made one and one-half inches. Its bot- 
 tom will be of a sheet of brass or copper, hammered so that it will be slightly 
 concave or cup-shaped. A hole will be punched from the inside and provided 
 with a nipple soldered on the outside. The sides of the bucket will be made of 
 one piece of wire net of the same caliber as the No. 20 bolting cloth of Dnfour.® 
 The upper part of the bucket will consist of a flat brass or copper ring soldered to 
 the wire sides, and provided with openings through which the binding screws, 
 fastening the whole bucket to the net, may pass. Three legs of narrow strips of cop- 
 per passing from the upper ring along the sides of the bucket, being also fastened to 
 the bottom, will give rigidity to the sides and form a support for the bucket when 
 it is being emptied. To the nipple at the bottom of the bucket will be attached 
 a short rubber tube. The opening in the bottom will be closed with a tight-fitting 
 rubber stopper, manipulated from above by a glass rod passing through its mid- 
 dle. The whole cost of the bucket need not exceed $3.50. The estimate received 
 on one of Hensen's pattern was $25. 
 
 '■' Only part of the aides were made of the wire netting during the past summer. A 
 piece of new bolting cloth was found to have 83 per cent, of its surface solid, 17 per cent, 
 being open for the passage of water. The wire cloth used during the past summer had 77 
 per cent, of its surface solid, 23 per cent, being open for the passage of water. Repeated 
 trials of forcing water thick with plankton through the bolting cloth and through the wire 
 showed that the wire was under such conditions a more effective strainer than the cloth. 
 
207 
 
 Sounding Apparatus and Method of Using it. — A flat-bottomed boat 
 capable of running into shore at all points was manned by three persons. One 
 who was an expert and steady oarsman at the oars, one in the stern to take notes 
 and steer, and one in the bow to make the soundings. The sounding apparatus 
 consisted of a wheel two inches wide with a circumference at the bottom of a flat 
 marginal groove of one foot ten inches. (It had been ordered with a circumference 
 of two feet.) On the drum was wound 175 feet of fine annealed wire. This, when 
 wound, formed less than two layers over all parts of the drum. The weight con- 
 sisted of a round pebble as large as a fist and was tied in a piece of cheese cloth. 
 This was a very simple and efficient piece of apparatus. The weight, if lost, could 
 easily be replaced by one of several others carried along, and the wire was found 
 sufficient for the whole summer's work. The original cost plus the cost incident 
 to its operation did not exceed $1.50. The wheel was provided with a crank and 
 being of a definite circumference the depth was measured by the number of turns 
 it took to raise the weight from the bottom to the surface. This apparatus would 
 be efficient in any lake of moderate depth. To run a line of soundings the bear- 
 ing to the objective point on the distant shore were taken from the starting point 
 with a compass. The oarsman pulled thirty strokes, backed water and held the 
 boat. A sounding was made in the bow and the depth recorded by the man in 
 the stern. It was found that with the boat always used for the purpose, manned 
 as above in calm weather, when all the sounding was done, 30 strokes moved the 
 boat 300 feet. This method proved entirely satisfactory in short lines a mile and 
 a half in length. In long lines it proved unsatisfactory. 
 
 Additions to the Equipment. A new laboratory 18x55 feet, two stories 
 high, will be ready for occupation by June 1 of 1896. 
 
 A partial description of new apparatus devised for next summer's work may 
 be given. 
 
 One flat-bottomed boat similar to sounding boat, 12 feet, 2 oars. 
 
 One flat-bottomed boat 15 feet, four oars. Plankton apparatus. 
 
 Three glass-bottomed galvanized iron boats about 12 inches in diameter to 
 explore bottom. 
 
 One galvanized iron tube 2 inches by 20 feet, glass ends and funnels for fill- 
 ing or emptying, to determine color of water. 
 
 Automatic recording apparatus to observe seiches. 
 
 Plan op Wobk. — It must be understood that the undertaking was quite 
 expensive both in time and in money. The Indiana University endorsed the 
 plans and lent apparatus from the zoological laboratory with the provision that 
 
208 
 
 the Station be of no expense to the University. At the end of the season the Uni- 
 versity paid for some of the apparatus specially designed for the Station, which 
 thus became the permanent property of the University. In order to defray ex- 
 penses, a series of courses in elementary and advanced instruction were offered 
 and given. Each one of the advanced students and the instructors took charge of 
 some particular work of the survey. The preliminary reports of some of these, 
 form part oi this first report. The work was distributed as follows : 
 
 C. H. Eigenmann, Director. 
 
 W. J. Moenkhaus, Variations in Etheostoma. 
 F. M. Chamberlain, Variations in Lepomis. 
 J. H. Voris, Variations in Pimephales. 
 
 D. C. Ridgley, Physical Survey and Variations in Micropterus. 
 Bessie C. Ridgley, Variations in Labidesthes. 
 
 Thom. Large, Physical Suryey and Variations in Fundulus. 
 
 Chancy Juday, Physical Survey and Planktonist. 
 
 Curtis Atkinson, Variations in Batrachians. 
 
 H. G. Reddick, Variations in Reptiles. 
 
 O. M. Meincke, Botanist. 
 
 J. P. Dolan, Meteorologist. 
 
 The work of but few has progressed far enough to justify even "forlaufige'' 
 notices. We have but just begun our work, and the Station will remain at least 
 three years longer at the same place. Excursions were made to lakes Tippecanoe, 
 Webster, and Shoe in the Mississippi basins. 
 
 While much of this report is taken up with the physical features of the lake, 
 and the enumeration of the inhabitants, it must be borne in mind that the phy- 
 sical studies are merely a means to an end. That however interesting in them- 
 selves, to us they are only interesting as far as they form part of the environment 
 of the highest creatures making the lake their permanent home. It may even be 
 that some of the things considered or to be considered, form in reality no part of 
 the environment of the vertebrates, i. e., that they in no way affect them, but 
 this is a matter that must be determined, and for the present we must consider as 
 many things as may influence them. The things probably most directly influenc- 
 ing the higher forms to be found in a lake are light, temperature and food. The 
 last item is again conditioned as the highest forms are, so that nothing short of a 
 complete understanding of the conditions will be sufficient. A lake seemed to me 
 the ideal place because here the changes due to light, temperature, change of 
 water or surface are reduced to the minimum to be found in this latitude. A 
 
209 
 
 small lake is better than a large lake, because the unknown elements can be re- 
 duced to a smaller number. 
 
 We have attempted to collect specimens of the higher creatures in such 
 numbers and sizes, that had we collected all the specimens in the lake, our results 
 would not be different. How far we have succeeded in this remains to be seen. 
 
 The main object of the Station is the study of the variation of the non-migra- 
 tory inhabitants. I may be permitted to quote here the plan as stated in the 
 circular issued by the Station last spring. 
 
 The main object of the Station will be the study of variation. For this pur- 
 pose a small lake will present a limited, well circumscribed locality, within which 
 the difference of environmental influences will be reduced to a minimum. The study 
 will consist in the determination of the extent of variation in the non-migratory ver- 
 tebrates, the kind of variation, whether continuous or discontinuous, the quantita- 
 tive variation, and the direction of variation. In this way it is hoped to survey 
 a base line which can be utilized in studying the variation of the same species 
 throughout their distribution. This study should be carried on for a series of 
 years, or at least be repeated at definite intervals to determine the annual or 
 periodic variation from the mean. A comparison of this variation in the same 
 animals in other similarly limited and well circumscribed areas, and the correla- 
 tion of the variation of a number of species in these areas will demonstrate the 
 influence of the changed environment, and will be a simple, inexpensive substi- 
 tute for much expensive experimental work. 
 
 For this work the situation of Lake Wawasee, surrounded as it is by other 
 lakes, some of them belonging to other river basins will be admirably adapted. 
 
 In connection with this study of the developed forms, the variation in the de- 
 velopment itself will receive attention. For instance the variation in segmenta- 
 tion, the frequency of such variation, and the relation of such variation in the 
 development to the variation in the adult, and the mechanical causes affecting 
 variation. 
 
 This plan will be modified as our knowledge grows and our experiences dictate. 
 
 PAET I. THE LAKE AS A UNIT OF ENVIRONMENT. 
 
 Introductory. — A lake is a depression in the ground filled with water more 
 or less stagnant. 
 
 A glance at a good map of North America will show the following peculiar- 
 ities in the distribution of lakes : 
 
 I. A large number of lakes are found in Florida. 
 
210 
 
 II. A host of them are distributed in northern United States and Canada, 
 including the greatest collection of fresh waters on the globe. 
 
 III. A good number in the Sierra Nevada and the Eocky Mountains. 
 
 The remainder of the country from the southern boundary of Georgia to the 
 northern boundary of Pennsylvania west to the Rockies is practically free from 
 lakes, except 
 
 IV. along either side of the lower Mississippi and Red Rivers. 
 
 These four groups of lakes are.due to four different methods of lake forma- 
 tion, but all four are indicative of the fact that the lake-rich areas have under- 
 gone recent change. 
 
 The first series is due to the comparatively recent elevation of an irregular 
 ocean floor. The second series is due to the action of ice in the irregular gouging 
 and irregular dumping of debris. These are all of recent date, probably none of 
 them being over 10,000 years old. The third series is due to the exigencies of 
 mountain formations, including in this plication and plication hollows, craters 
 and lava flows and the settling of small areas. The fourth is due to the change 
 of channel on the part of the Mississippi and to the debris brought down by the 
 Red River which it has deposited at the mouths of its tributaries.* 
 
 Of course the lakes of one of these regions need not be all of the same origin. 
 Small lakelets around Lake Tahoe in the Sierra Nevada are certainly due to the 
 gouging action of glaciers coming from a steep incline onto a comparatively level 
 plain. Generally speaking, mountain regions, unless, as in the ease of the 
 Appalachian, they have outgrown their lake stage, contain lakes of the greatest 
 diversity of origin. 
 
 Lakes are of interest to the geologist to determine the particular way in 
 which a general cause has been modified to produce a particular effect at any 
 particular lake ; to the physicist to account for the various colors, temperatures, 
 pressures, reflections, refractions, etc.; to the chemist to determine the degree of 
 concentration of minerals and gases in solution ; they are of interest to the 
 naturalist to determine the organic inhabitants, their quantity and kind and 
 their life histories; to the cecologist and evolutionist to determine the geological, 
 physical and chemical characters in their effect on the organic inhabitants and 
 these on each other. 
 
 Lakes may therefore be studied for other than purely economic interests, 
 such as water supplies and highways for commerce or location of summer resorts. 
 
 "The facts for the foregoing have largely been drawn from Russell's American Lakes. 
 Ginn & Co., 1895. 
 
211 
 
 Orientation. — A hight of land (morain) extends from the northeastern corner 
 of Indiana directly southwest to south of Albion in Noble County, and from here 
 westward between Turkey Lake and Tippecanoe Lake, then northwest through 
 Nappanee in Elkhart County to near South Bend. In its range from the north- 
 eastern corner to south of Albion this ridge separates the Lake Michigan from the 
 Lake Erie basin. West of this it separates Lake Michigan basin from the Ohio 
 basin, and still farther west from the Mississippi basin proper. In the eastern 
 half of Indiana this ridge is exceedingly rich in lakes. Most of these lie on the 
 northern side of the divide, but about the headwaters of the Tippecanoe and Blue 
 rivers many are also found on the south side of the divide. A glance at the map 
 leaves the impression that this region is low and swampy, while in reality this 
 whole region forms one of the highlands of Indiana, a considerable part being 
 over 1,000 feet high. 
 
 Turkey Lake is the most western lake of this series lying north of the divide. 
 
 It lies in Turkey Creek Township, in the northeastern corner of Kosciusko 
 County. South of the ridge separating the Mississippi and St. Lawrence basins 
 at this point lie Webster and Tippecanoe lakes, and south of these the Barber lakes 
 and Shoe Lake. Between the crest of the ridge and Turkey Lake the country is 
 pitted and grooved. Many of the pits are filled with water, forming ponds of 
 various sizes. One of these has recently been drained. Many more lakelets are 
 found about the head of Turkey Lake, but the topography of this region will be 
 dealt with in one of the following reports. This whole region gives one the im- 
 pression that it has changed but little since the ice left it. 
 
 General Features. — The lake has a general trend from southeast to north- 
 west. It is divided by a wide stretch of very shallow water, which is fast being 
 reclaimed by various water plants. A deeper channel extends through this 
 swampy region, connecting the upper and lower portions. 
 
 The greatest length from the head of Turkey Lake to the end of Syracuse 
 Lake is five and one-half miles. The width, measured at right angles to such a 
 line, rarely exceeds a mile. The greatest width is just east of Ogden Point, where 
 it measures one and a half miles. The length of Turkey Lake from Mineral 
 Point to Conkling Hill is about four miles. The total shore line is between twenty 
 and twenty-one miles. 
 
 The excellent map prepared by Messrs. Juday and Ridgley, based as it is on 
 numerous soundings, shows the lake bottom to be of the same rolling character as 
 the surrounding region. A lowering of the surface of the lake ten feet would 
 make the long stretch of territory between Syracuse and Turkey lakes dry land, 
 and make the lake entirely landlocked. 
 
212 
 
 The similarity of the lake bottom to the surrounding country, which seems to 
 have been little changed by erosion, makes it quite certain that the lake basin is 
 due to the irregular dumping in a terminal moraine, parts of it containing deeper 
 kettle holes. 
 
 The lake was never much more extensive than now. There are evidences 
 that the surface was a few feet higher. These will be considered in a later report. 
 The lake is surrounded by extensive swamps on the east, north, and west; these 
 would practically all be covered by water should the surface of the lake be raised 
 five feet. The hydrographic basin is so small that at present but seven inches of 
 water are removed from the surface by outflow, while thirty are removed by evap- 
 oration. The lake having a surface of 5.6 square miles, an increase of this sur- 
 face by T V> or about one and u, third square miles, would be sufficient to allow 
 all the water coming into the lake to be lost by evaporation except in wet seasons. 
 The surface of the lake, therefore, can not have been very much higher than at 
 present if the present precipitation and evaporation have been constant since the 
 ice left this region. The lake has been about six or seven feet lower, having been 
 raised to its present height by the building of a dam across its outlet. The changes 
 due to this dam and to the encroachment of plants will be considered in another 
 report. 
 
 Size. — The total area now under water is 5.659722 square miles. This area 
 was obtained by weighing a sheet of paper of uniform thickness and of the shape 
 of the whole area to be calculated, and comparing this weight with the weight of 
 a square of the same paper covering a square mile. This method is much more 
 expeditious than calculating such an irregular body as these lakes in the absence 
 of a planimeter, and quite as exact. The same method was used in determining 
 the areas below which there is a certain depth of water, with the following results: 
 
 Depth of Area in Amount of Water 
 
 Water. Square Miles. in Cubic Miles. 
 
 1-10 feet 3.27777 .00310395 
 
 10-20 feet 59027 .00167690 
 
 20-30 feet 62500 .00314867 
 
 30-40 feet 45833 .00303817 
 
 40-50 feet 39583 .00337165 
 
 50-60 feet 22918 .00231162 
 
 60-70 feet 0694 .00082026 
 
 5.64576 .0174712 
 
 Error to be distributed .1396 
 
 5.65972 
 
213 
 
 Forel (Faune profonde des lacs Suisses, p. 5) proposed to estimate the volume 
 of a lake by comparing it with a cone whose height is the maximum depth, and 
 whose base is the surface of the lake. Estimated in this way he found the cone 
 gave but .67 of the actual volume of Lake Geneva. A similar estimate for Tur- 
 key Lake will give us .024654 cubic miles, or considerably more than the actual 
 value. The average depth obtained by dividing the cubic contents by the surface 
 gives us 16.6 feet. All these measurements were made during the summer of 1895 
 when the lake was below the average height, so that 17 feet will probably be nearer 
 the average depth. It will be found that by another method Mr. Eidgley obtained 
 21 feet as the average depth. 
 
 Over half the area contains water less than 10 feet deep. A reduction of 
 thirty feet below the present level would reduce the lake to a Y-shaped figure ex- 
 tending nearly from end to end of the present lake. One of the horns of the Y 
 would extend to Crow's Bay, the other to Mineral Point. The base of the figure 
 would lie to the west of Black Stump Point. Between the horns of the Y we 
 should have a peninsula continuous with Morrison's Island, which is the last of a 
 series of islands left in the 1 ake. During the ancient history of the lake the land 
 about Buttermilk. Point was an island, and ridges of land east and west of this 
 formed the islands. One of these is seen in the illustration. The detailed descrip- 
 tion of the hydrography of the lake will be given in the map and Mr. Ridgley's 
 report. 
 
 Relation of Water to Outflow and Evapokation. — Without any addi- 
 tion to the water of the lake the quantity now in the lake would be sufficient to 
 supply the present outlet for 26 years.* 
 
 In other words, every cubic foot of water entering the lake will remain in it 
 on an average of twenty-six years, unless removed by evaporation. Eidgley esti- 
 mates that the inflow from springs equals the outflow, yet the lake was observed 
 to fall on an average of one-quarter inch per day, rising of course during rains. 
 That the outflow will not account for the fall of the lake is sufficiently shown by 
 the fact that the calculated fall due to the outflow is but .0016 inches per day. 
 (See Ridgley's report). The remainder of the fall must be due to evaporation 
 and seepage, very largely to the former. Attempts were made to estimate the 
 amount of evaporation from the surface, but they proved failures. It is self-evi- 
 dent that simply exposing water in an open dish will not answer the purpose of 
 estimating the amount of evaporation in the lake for the reason that water in a 
 shallow dish is heated to very different degrees from the water of the lake. An 
 
 *Based on Ridgley's and Juday's estimate of the outflow, and my estimate of the lake's 
 contents. 
 
214 
 
 apparatus which promised to measure the evaporation accurately and at the same 
 time do several other things was devised, but it proved a failure because it could 
 not be well protected in rough weather and still maintain natural conditions. 
 The apparatus which we hope we shall be able to perfect is as follows: 
 
 A glass jar 9 inches in diameter and 12 inches high with a small hole near the 
 bottom and open at the top is sunk into the lake to within two inches of its top. 
 When the water in the jar has reached the level of the lake water a tight rubber 
 stopper is inserted in the small opening from without. The column of water in 
 such a jar would be as near as possible under the same conditions as the surround- 
 ing water, and the fall of the water in the jar, plus the amount of rainfall for the 
 period, would very closely approximate the amount of evaporation. This appa- 
 ratus would also enable one to get at the amount of water received from springs 
 and other sources aside from rain falling directly into the lake. The amount of 
 reduction due to outflow from the lake can readily be calculated by observing the 
 outlet. Mr. Eidgley has estimated it at .0017 inches per day. If at the end of 
 thirty days there was a difference between the water in the jar and the water in 
 the lake, less the calculated reduction of the lake due to outflow, the difference 
 would represent the inflow from springs and other tributaries during thirty days. 
 
 The lake is frozen over about four months in a year. During the remaining 
 eight months evaporation is going on at a maximum rate of one-fourth inch per 
 day and a minimun of 0. Taking one-eighth inch per day as the average, we 
 obtain about thirty inches as the amount of the annual evaporation. At this rate 
 the lake, if without income, would become dry in twenty-eight years. Four 
 years would reduce the lake to half its present size. 
 
 Outflow and evaporation operating together would reduce the level at the fol- 
 lowing rate : 
 
 Time in Years. 
 
 Eeduction by 
 Outflow. 
 
 Reduction by 
 Evaporation. 
 
 Total Eeduction. 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 1 about 
 
 1 ft. 9 in. 
 4 
 
 3 2 
 
 4 8 
 6 8 
 
 5 2 
 17 7 
 
 7 ft. 6 in. 
 
 7 6 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 9 ft. 3 in. 
 11 6 
 
 8 2 
 
 9 8 
 11 8 
 
 7 6 
 10 1 
 
 14 
 
 33 2 
 
 35 
 
 68 
 
215 
 
 These figures do not claim any great degree of accuracy ; they simply help 
 to form an estimate of the length of time it would take both the outflow and 
 evaporation together to empty the lake. But while it would take both the out- 
 flow and the evaporation fourteen years to empty the lake, one-fourteentli does 
 not express the per cent, of the water of the lake changed annually under present- 
 conditions. Since the vertical reduction is the same whether the surface is large' 
 or small, it is evident that a much larger amount would be evaporated while thef 
 surface is large. In reality, if a bulk were to be taken from the lake equal to the' 
 outflow, plus the evaporation over the present area, about six years would be suf- 
 ficient to empty the lake, or, to put it in other words, during average years every 
 cubic foot of water entering the lake remains on an average six years. During 
 very wet seasons the amount of loss may reach a much larger proportion of the 
 whole contents. 
 
 Constancy op Turkey Lake as a Unit or Environment. — From the 
 preceding chapter it must be evident that the conditions in the lake, from month 
 to month and from year to year are but little changed, that the conditions, as far 
 as the water is concerned, are remarkably constant, especially if we compare these 
 conditions to those obtaining in the lower courses of such rivers as the Wabash or 
 the Illinois. 
 
 In the early part of this century a dam was built across the mouth of the 
 outlet forming an effective barrier to the ingress of fishes from below. The lakes 
 being at the headwaters, nothing has entered it from above. A few forms were 
 planted in recent years by Col. Lilly of Indianapolis. 
 
 The level of the lake was changed by the building of the dam, and as late as 
 1840 trees were standing in water six to seven feet deep. Many of the stumps 
 still remain. Their location and the effect of the dam upon the lake will be dis- 
 cussed elsewhere. 
 
 WORKS CONSULTED. 
 
 Agassiz, A. Hydrographic Sketch of Lake Titicaca. Proc. Am. Acad. Art 
 and Sci., XI, 11, 283-292; 1876. 
 
 Agassiz, L. Lake Superior. 
 
 Belloc M. E. Les lacs de Caillaouas et ceux de la region des Gourgs-Blancs 
 et de Cladabide. Assoc. Francaise 9 Aout, 1893. 
 
 Belloc M. E. Nouvelles recherches lacustres feites au Port de Venasquedans 
 le haut Aragon et dans la haute Catalogne. Assoc. Francaise 9 Aout, 1893. 
 
 Comstoc, C. B. Professional papers corps of engineers U. S. A., No. 24 
 Primary triangulations U. S. lake survey. Washington, 1882. 
 
216 
 
 t)avis, W. M. The classification of lakes. Supplement in Russell, 1895. 
 
 Bvermann, B. W. The investigation of Eivers and Lakes with Eeference to 
 the Fish Environment. Bull. U. S. Fish. Coram., 69-73, 1893. 
 
 Forbes, S. A. Biennial Report Illinois State Laboratory, 1893-94. 
 
 Forel F. A. Algemeine Biologie eines Siisswassersees, in Zacharias die Thier 
 und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers. Leipzig, 1891. 
 
 Forel, F. A. Le Leman, Tome premier, 1892; Tome second, 1895. Lau- 
 sanne. 
 
 Le Conte, John. Physical studies of Lake Tahoe. Overland Monthly, 1883, 
 
 1884. 
 
 Levrtte, G. M. Observations on the depth and temperature of some of the 
 lakes of Northern Indiana. Geological Survey of Indiana, 1875. 
 
 Reighard, J. E. A biological examination of Lake St. Claire. Bull. Mich. 
 Fish Comm. 
 
 Rusxel, I. G. Lakes of North America. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1895. 
 
 .SWiV/o, .1. Hydrobiologische Untersuchungen I. Schrifte der naturf., Ges. 
 
 Danzig, N. F. Bd. VII, 1143-89, 1890. 
 
 Ton-, Ralph S. Lake Cayuga a rock basin. Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., Vol. 5, 
 1894, pp. 339-356. 
 
 Whipple, G. G Some observations of the temperature of surface waters, 
 and the effect of temperature on the growth of micro-organisms. J. New Engl. 
 Water Works Assoc. IX, No. 4. 
 
 A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OP TURKEY LAKE. By 
 D. C. RlDGLEY'."" 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 Most of the data on which this preliminary report is based were collected 
 during the summer of 1895 at the Indiana University Biological Station at Vawter 
 Park, Kosciusko County, Indiana, under the direction of Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann. 
 I wish to acknowledge the aid of his valuable suggestions, both in the collection 
 of the data and the preparation of the report. I wish to acknowledge also the 
 
 * Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 15a. 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 Indiana University Biological .Station. 
 
 [nTRRIOR OK THE LABORATORY. 
 
PLATE II. 
 
 Yawtkr Park Hotkl i-'Rom the Laboratory. 
 
 Black Stump Point From ihk Laruratoky. 
 
 ,ANKTON JjOAT, 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 Looking Toward Ogden Point prom the Laboratory. Plankton Boat in Forkwater. 
 
 Ogden Point from Near the Pottawatomie Club-Housk. 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
 .Students' Camp in Vawter Pari 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 ^ K Z 
 M ^ ^ 
 
 S on "tJ 
 
 -- J 
 a: k 
 
 = < 
 
PLATE VI 
 
 West Heath dp More 
 
 ('how's Bay Shuwin<; Ice Beach ks. 
 
PLATE VII 
 
 Ckdab Point. 
 
 
 
 
 
 "pf^&SSk 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ' ■'■■ JS^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "■'»-;' 
 
 
 
 
 
 .V* * . 
 
 
 
 
 ?»b^BhHh 
 
 
 
 
 
 :■ ■-■-■■■..■ & 
 
 
 ■MMMMNHt% 
 
 
 
 
 »^lgSa ! 'g3gag 
 
 
 
 
 ■iinmilill#ii&iftiy d< ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ■'"-^ *:.-;';■ .-, 
 
 "-' 
 
 
 
 
 "*-"-■ ; .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' * ; ' 
 
 -•-^fliSp^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 . -s*^. ■ 
 
 ' ■ • - ■ 
 
 
 mm0l 
 
 
 __: 1__ Liil 
 
 Beach West of Cedar Point. 
 
PLATE VIII. 
 
 m m 
 
 3a! ^ 
 
 In Tllh C'HANNKL IjETWKKN Tl [1KKV AND SYRACUSE LaKRS. 
 
 At thk H ka i> of Syracuse Lake. 
 
217 
 
 assistance of Mr. Chauncey Juday, Mr. Thomas Large and others in taking the 
 soundings of the lake; of Mr. Juday, in making a survey of the shore and for 
 copies of the accompanying map with which he has furnished me and from which 
 the report on the topography of the bottom is largely drawn ; of Mr. J. P. Dolan 
 for records of daily observations of lake phenomena and for the history of the 
 lake in years past ; of the officials of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad who fur- 
 nished data with reference to elevations and whose generosity has made it possible 
 for me to make frequent visits to the lake during the winter. 
 
 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE LAKE. 
 
 Turkey Lake is made up of two parts, connected by a channel. The channel 
 is three-quarters of a mile in length and from one hundred feet to a half mile in 
 width. Its depth varies from one to five feet. The part of the Lake north of the 
 channel is known as Syracuse Lake. It includes an area of three-quarters of a 
 square mile, which is approximately one-eighth of the area of the entire Lake/ 
 The larger part of the Lake, to the south and east of the channel, may be known 
 as the main lake. 
 
 The general direction of the lake is from southeast to northwest. Its greatest 
 length is five and a half miles, and its greatest width at a right angle to its length 
 is one and a half miles. The entire shore line is between twenty and twenty-one 
 miles in length, and the area of the lake is a little more than five and a half 
 square miles. No very prominent irregularities occur around Syracuse Lake, 
 while in the main lake a number of evident indentations are to be found. The 
 east end of the main lake is made up of three bays. Johnson's Bay, extending to 
 the north, is one mile long and three-eighths of a mile wide. Ogden Point lies to 
 the west of the entrance of this bay and Cedar Point to the east. The east end of 
 the main lake is Crow's Bay, with Cedar Point on its north and Morrison's Island 
 on its south. Jarrett's Bay extends to the southeast, with Morrison's Island to 
 the east of its entrance and Clark's Point to the west. In the west end of the 
 main lake is Conkling Bay, circular in form and with the surrounding marsh a 
 half mile in diameter. It lies south of Conkling Hill. These are the most prom- 
 inent indentations. Between the channel and Ogden Point, which are two and a 
 quarter miles apart, the shore line curves gently northward three-quarters of a 
 mile, forming Sunset Bay. Between Clark's Point and Black Stump Point, one 
 and three-quarters miles to the northwest, the shore line bends southward one- 
 third of a mile. 
 
218 
 
 The following places are located for convenience in referring to different 
 parts of the shore line and lake : The town of Syracuse lies on the west side of 
 Syracuse Lake near Turkey Creek, the outlet of the lake. Pickwick Park is on 
 the north shore of the main lake a half mile east of the channel. Eppert's is 
 1,000 feet east of Pickwick Park, and nearly a half mile further east is Jones' 
 Landing. Three-fourths of a mile east of Jones' Landing is Wawasee. Jarrett's 
 Landing is at the middle of the southern extremity of Jarrett's Bay. Vawter 
 Park is a half mile west of Clark's Point and directly south of Wawasee. The 
 laboratory of the Indiana University Biological Station is located on the shore of 
 the lake near the west end of Vawter Park. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OP THE BOTTOM. 
 
 The data from which the topography of the bottom has been determined con- 
 sist of numerous soundings taken throughout the lake between June 29 and Au- 
 gust 21, 1895. The water was very low during this period. For our purpose we 
 may consider all soundings taken when the lake had the level of July 6, 1895. 
 This level has been marked and is used for a bench line from which to read the 
 fluctuations in level . On August 21 the lake had receded 5 inches from this level. 
 Soundings were taken along 28 lines in the main lake and 4 lines in Syracuse 
 Lake. These soundings were taken about 300 feet apart along all lines. Where 
 water deeper than 60 feet was found, numerous soundings were made to determine 
 the extent of such areas. Below is given the number and location of each line 
 along which soundings were taken, except No. 3 and No. 9 in the main lake, 
 neither of which was used in drawing contour lines or in computing average 
 depth. 
 
219 
 
 IN MAIN LAKE. 
 
 No. of 
 Line. 
 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 
 Location. 
 
 From Biological Station to Ogden Point, North 37° East. 
 
 From Ogden Point to east end of Crow's Bay, South 53° East. 
 
 From Biological Station to Wawasee, North. 
 
 From Wawasee to Black Stump Point, South 52° West. 
 
 From Biological Station to Cedar Point, North 64° East. 
 
 From Cedar Point to Morrison's Island, South. 
 
 From Morrison's Island to northeast corner of Crow's Bay, North 8° East. 
 
 From south end of Jarrett's Bay to mouth of Bay, North 7° West. 
 
 From east margin of Ogden Point to north end of Johnson's Bay, North 
 
 1° West. 
 From north end of Johnson's Bay to mouth of Bay, South 10° East. 
 From east side of Ogden Point across Johnson's Bay, North 60° East. 
 From middle of east side of Johnson's Bay, across the Bay, North 79° 
 
 West. 
 From Clark's Point to Morrison's Island, East. 
 From mouth of Turkey Creek across Jarrett's Bay, West. 
 From a point f of a mile west of Biological Station across the lake, North. 
 From Clark's Point to east side of Ogden Point, North 5£° East. 
 From point a half mile east of Biological Station, North. 
 From Ogden Point to Black Stump Point, North 83° West. 
 From west side of Jarrett's Bay to Mineral Point, East. 
 From Clark's Point to east side of Johnson's Bay, North 30° East. 
 From north end of No. 22 to Ogden Point, South 85° West, 
 From point one-half mile west of Wawasee across lake, South. 
 From Black Stump Point, North. 
 From Eppert's South. 
 
 One-quarter of a mile west of No. 26 and parallel with it. 
 One-quarter of a mile west of No. 27 and parallel with it. 
 
 IN SYRACUSE LAKE. 
 
 No. of 
 Line. 
 
 Location. 
 
 From middle of east end of Syracuse Lake, South 80° West. 
 
 From point 700 feet southeast of west extremity of Lake, North 70° East. 
 
 From a point on north shore one-half mile east of west extremity of lake, 
 
 South 10° West._ 
 From west extremity of lake, South 80° East. 
 
 In the accompanying map, constructed by Mr. Juday, the hypothetical con- 
 tour lines of the bottom of the lake were drawn from the soundings along the 
 above mentioned lines, and numerous other soundings taken to determine the ex- 
 tent of certain depths of water. The contour lines indicate intervals of ten feet 
 (2) 
 
220 
 
 in depth. From the same data were constructed ten vertical sections of the 
 bottom. In constructing the vertical sections a base line was drawn from Pick- 
 wick Park to Mineral Point, and seven of the vertical sections, from "A" to 
 "G" inclusive, were made at right angles to this- line at intervals varying from 
 one-quarter of a mile to two-thirds of a mile. Vertical section "H" is a short 
 distance east of No. 18, "I" is along No. 4, and "J" along No. 25 of the lines 
 of soundings in the main lake. The remarks on the topography of the bottom 
 are drawn largely from a study of these contour lines and vertical sections. 
 
 The average depth of the lake, found by taking the average for the soundings 
 at regular intervals of 300 feet along the lines of soundings is 21 feet 6 inches in 
 the main lake, 13 feet 6 inches in Syracuse Lake, and 20 feet 5 inches for the 
 entire lake. By a different method, as explained in his report, Dr. Eigenmann 
 has computed the average depth at a little more than 17 feet. The maximum 
 depth found in the main lake is 68 feet 7 inches, one-quarter of a mile from the 
 southern extremity of Jarrett's Bay; 1,000 feet northeast of the Biological Station 
 a depth of 66 feet 5 inches was found; three-quarters of a mile north and one- 
 quarter of a mile west of the Station the water is 60 feet deep ; and a half mile 
 northwest of Black Stump Point it is 63 feet 3 inches deep. The deepest water 
 found by us in Syracuse Lake is 28 feet 10 inches. A depth of 35 feet is recorded 
 for this lake in the State Geologist's Report for 1875. 
 
 An examination of the contour lines of the map shows that if we consider 
 water having a depth of 30 feet or more as deep water, we have in the main lake 
 four areas of deep water varying greatly in size, and connected with each other 
 by channels. 
 
 In Crow's Bay the greatest depth found was 4!) feet 9 inches. These waters 
 enter the main body of the lake through a channel deeper than 30 feet, and 200 
 feet wide at its narrowest point. This channel flows across the mouth of John- 
 son's Bay, meeting a short arm deeper than 30 feet from that bay, and comes 
 within 600 feet of the southeast extremity of Ogden Point. This channel con- 
 tinues less than 400 feet wide to a point two-thirds of a mile west of Ogden Point 
 where it joins the channel deeper than 30 feet from Jarrett's Bay. The deepest 
 water in Jarrett's Bay is 68 feet 7 inches, and the area deeper than 30 feet is one- 
 fourth of a mile wide, extending north beyond the mouth of the bay and to 
 within 700 feet of its southern shore. This 30-foot depth joins the main body of 
 the lake a half mile north of Clark's Point where the channel 30 feet deep is only 
 100 feet wide. Turning to the west, 1,000 feet northeast of the Biological Station 
 this channel deepens to 66 feet 5 inches, and widens to a half mile directly north 
 of the Station. Here it meets the narrow channel 30 feet deep from Crow's Bay. 
 
221 
 
 The two channels merge into one and form an area of water from 30 feet to 66 
 feet in depth, one mile in length and with a maximum width of three-quarters of 
 a mile. This area of deep water lies nearer the south shore, its center being one- 
 third the distance from the south shore to the north shore. Near Black Stump 
 Point the deep water narrows abruptly from the north, and 500 feet out from 
 Black Stump Point its width is but 200 feet. West of Black Stump Point the 
 deep water widens abruptly to the north to a width of one-quarter of a mile and 
 deepens to 63 feet 3 inches. West of this the area of deep water narrows again 
 and the water having a depth of 30 feet ends one-quarter of a mile southeast of 
 the entrance to the channel between the main lake and Syracuse Lake. 
 
 Between thi deep channels from Crow's Bay and Jarrett's Bay the area having 
 a depth less than 30 feet is one and one-quarter miles long, 1,300 feet wide, and 
 contains an area one mile long and 500 feet wide over which the water is less 
 than 10 feet deep. 
 
 If the level of the lake were lowered 30 feet there would remain four bodies 
 of water connected by channels from 100 feet to 200 feet wide and less than 10 feet 
 deep. These four bodies of water would be : (1 ) a, small area in Crow's Bay with 
 a maximum depth of 19 feet; (2) about one-half of Jarrett's Bay with a maxi- 
 mum depth of 38 feet; (3) the main body of the lake, its width decreased almost 
 one-half, and its maximum depth being 36 feet; (4) a small area northwest of 
 Black Stump Point with a maximum depth of 33 feet. Lower the level of the 
 lake 10 feet more, that is, 40 feet below its present level and these four bodies of 
 water would remain as separate lakes, the connecting channels now being dry. 
 
 Great changes in the shore line will take place if the level of the lake be 
 lowered to a much less extent. By observing the map it will be seen that a low- 
 ering of the level of the lake to the amount of 10 feet would move the shore line 
 to the first contour line. This would leave one-half the bottom of Johnson's Bay 
 dry land; it would move the shore line along Crow's and Jarrett's Bays from 400 
 feet to 1,000 feet into the lake. Clark's Point would extend 2,000 feet further 
 north, and the distance between Clark's Point and Ogden Point would be reduced 
 from 4,000 feet to 1,800 feet. The south shore line from Clark's to Conkling Bay 
 would be moved northward distances varying from 250 feet at Iron Spring Point 
 to 1,000 feet along the shore west of Black Stump Point. The north shore line 
 from Ogden Point to the Channel would be moved southward from 900 feet to 
 2,000 feet, and at one place — between Jones' Landing and Black Stump Point — 
 4,000 feet, reducing the width of the lake at this place from 1 mile to 500 feet. 
 The Channel between the main lake and Syracuse Lake would be drained, and 
 the greater part of Syracuse Lake would become dry land. 
 
222 
 
 Judging from the contour of the land, the level of the lake has probably 
 never been more than 5 feet below its present level. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE SHORE. 
 
 The shore of 20 miles is about equally divided between dry shores and marshy 
 shores. The shores of Syracuse Lake and of the west end of the main lake were 
 not carefully surveyed, but accurate measurements and notes were taken of the 
 shore line of the east end of the main lake from a point on the north shore three- 
 eighths of a mile to the northwest of Wawasee, around the east end of the lake to 
 a point directly south of the starting-point. These data were used in mapping a 
 ten-foot elevation line around this part of the lake. For this reason the shores of 
 the east end of the lake are treated more in detail than the others. 
 
 The dry shores are composed of sand and gravel. Some are less than 5 feet 
 high, but more often they are abrupt bluffs from 10 to 30 feet high, or hills which 
 ascend rapidly to a height of 40 feet. The west, north and northeast shores of 
 Syracuse Lake are bluffs or hills. The east shore is marshy. The shore south of 
 Turkey Creek, the outlet, is also marshy, and these marshes extend along both 
 sides of the Channel between Syracuse Lake and the main lake. Pickwick Park 
 is located on a gravelly shore less than 10 feet above the level of the lake. Be- 
 tween Pickwick Park and Eppert's is the Gordoniere Marsh extending north- 
 west to the Channel. Pickwick Park and the land to the west of it is sur- 
 rounded by the main lake, the Channel and the Gordoniere Marsh and is known 
 as British Island. The shore between Eppert's and Jones' is mainly marsh. From 
 Jones' one-quarter of a mile east the shore is a bluff from 10 feet to 15 feet high. 
 From this point almost to Wawasee the land near the shore is at present a dry 
 marsh. The bluff at Wawasee is 15 feet high and extends along the shore 1,700 
 feet. This bluff extends back from shore 500 feet where it joins the marsh which 
 stretches along the shore to Ogden Island, and also to the east to Johnson's Bay. 
 Ogden Island, which is surrounded by the lake only on the southwest side and on 
 all other sides by marshes, extends a half mile to the northwest of Ogden Point 
 and is from 300 feet to 1,000 feet wide. Its greater part is from 3 feet to 6 feet 
 above the level of the lake. About one-half of that part of the island which 
 touches the lake is a bluff from 10 feet to 18 feet high. The area higher than 10 
 feet is 1,100 feet long and from 175 feet to 400 feet wide. The marsh around 
 Johnson's Bay is known as the Johnson Marsh. It skirts the southeast and east 
 sides of Ogden Island, surrounds a piece of timbered land 700 feet in diameter 
 
223 
 
 north of Ogden Island known as Oak Island, borders the bay on the north, send- 
 ing off a broad marsh across the country to the northeast, and continuing along 
 the east side of the bay with a, width of a half mile, joins a narrow marsh ex- 
 tending to the southeast. On the east side of Johnson's Bay are two bluffs, one 
 reaching a height of 23 feet and extending from Cedar Point northwest one- 
 quarter of a mile along the shore and having 500 feet for its greatest width ; the 
 other is 1,000 feet further to the northwest, and is between 10 feet and 15 feet 
 high, 700 feet long and 150 feet wide. Lying to the northeast of these bluffs and 
 extending between them is an arm of the Johnson Marsh from 50 feet to 800 feet in 
 width, which joins Crow's Bay just east of Cedar Point. From the northeast cor- 
 ner of Crow's Bay the bluffs extend south along the east end of the lake for a 
 half mile. They are from 10 feet to 27 feet in height. The 10-foot elevation line 
 then leaves the shore and extends almost south to Turkey Creek, leaving an area 
 of well timbered dry land along the lake with an elevation of from 3 feet to 10 
 feet and attaining a width of 1,000 feet. 
 
 The land on both sides of Turkey Creek, the inlet of the lake, is marshy. 
 Lying to the north of the mouth of the creek this marsh is 400 feet wide and ex- 
 tends one-quarter of a mile north along the lake. This marsh is separated from 
 the marsh along the east margin of Morrison's Island by a shallow channel of 
 water. The west side of Morrison's Island is a bluff reaching a height of 21 feet. 
 From Turkey Creek to Buttermilk Point the shore is skirted with marsh from 200 
 feet to 400 feet wide. Mineral Point is 200 feet from the lake and ascends abruptly 
 from the marsh to a height of 25 feet. A half mile south of Turkey Creek the 
 lake is entered by Jarrett's Creek which is the outlet of a chain of small lakes 
 lying southeast of Jarrett's Bay. This stream flows through a marsh 400 feet wide, 
 and all the small lakes are bordered by marsh land. The marsh along the lake 
 ends at Buttermilk Point, and for a quarter of a mile the shore is dry and 
 sandy. The land along this shore is not a perpendicular bluff, but rises rapidly 
 from the lake to the south and reaches a height of 40 feet at a distance of 400 feet 
 from the shore. The west side of Jarrett's Bay is skirted by a marsh from 150 feet 
 to 1,000 feet wide. West of the marsh is a bluff from 10 feet to 15 feet high con- 
 tinuous with the-land south of the bluffs of Vawter Park. West from Clark's the 
 south shore of the lake is a perpendicular bluff reaching a height of 29 feet in 
 Vawter Park and extending west beyond the point where our survey of the sum- 
 mer ended. This bluff is cut by a ravine 50 feet wide at the Biological Labora- 
 tory and by a small stream entering the. lake a quarter of a mile west of Vawter 
 Park. The shore extending west to and around Black Stump Point is from 5 feet 
 to 15 feet above the level of the lake. The high bluffs from Clark's Point to Black 
 
224 
 
 Stump Point is by far the longest stretch of highland along the shore, being nearly 
 two miles in length. Conkling Bay during the summer months contained an area 
 of water about 300 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, bordered by wide stretches 
 of marsh containing a few small pools of very shallow water. To the north of 
 Conkling Bay, Conkling Hill ascends rapidly to a height of 40 feet or more. This 
 hill is conical in shape and slopes to the water on the south and east, and to marsh 
 and lowland on the north and west. 
 
 It will be noticed that the perpendicular bluffs of the main lake face to the 
 south at Jones' Landing; to the southwest at Wawasee, Ogden Island and Cedar 
 Point; to the west along Crow's Bay and Morrison's Island; and to the north 
 along Vawter Park. The high hills at Jarrett's and Conkling's are without pre- 
 cipitous shores. All of these bluffs are bordered by wide areas of shallow water, 
 and it will be noticed that the 10-foot contour line of the bottom does not approach 
 the shore much nearer than 400 feet, and is usually much further from shore. As 
 a rule, the bluffs facing to the south and southwest have a much wider margin of 
 shallow water than those facing to the west or north. 
 
 Wherever there is a long stretch of shore, bordered by marsh, there is no 
 beach formed, but the muddy bottom of the lake merges into the mud of the 
 marsh along the shore line. Along all the dry shores, and along the marshes of 
 small extent lying between bluffs, the beach is composed of gravel and sand. 
 This gives a gravelly or sandy beach around Syracuse Lake, except on the east 
 and southwest; along the north shore of the main lake, from the Channel to 
 Ogden Point; along the east shore of Johnson's Bay, from Cedar Point northwest 
 to the extremity of the dry shores ; from the northeast corner of Crow's Bay to a 
 point east of the north end of Morrison's Island; along the south end of Jarrett's 
 Bay ; from Clark's Point along the south shore for a short distance beyond Black 
 Stump Point. These beaches along the bluffs are formed by erosion and deposit 
 along the base of the bluffs. The sandy and gravelly beaches along marshes are 
 found where the adjoining bottom of the lake is composed of sand and gravel. 
 These beaches have most probably been formed by the action of ice. 
 
 Around the main lake a number of beach formations of this kind are found. 
 From Wawasee a half mile west the beach is composed of sand and gravel. It 
 is about three feet above the water's level, and is higher than the land back of it. 
 From the east end of the bluffs of Wawasee to the dry land of Ogden Island is a 
 distance of a half mile, and the marsh along the shore is very little, if any, 
 higher than the level of the lake. Between the marsh and lake is a beach com- 
 posed of sand and gravel. This beach is two feet or more above the level of the 
 water, and 30 feet wide. The beach along the bluff of Ogden Island is of the 
 
225 
 
 usual formation, but this beach continues along the shore for one-fourth of a mile 
 beyond the bluff as a very sandy beach a foot or more above the water's level and 
 50 feet wide; then the beach grows narrower and is on the level of the water, the 
 sand becomes less plentiful, and the beach is composed of a small amount of 
 coarse gravel and then merges into the marsh, where the shore line of Ogden 
 Point turns north. The same formation is found running a short distance north 
 of the bluffs on the east side of Johnson's Bay. 
 
 Between the two bluffs on the east side of Johnson's Bay is a beach 1,000 feet 
 in length, with the lake on one side and a marsh containing pond lilies on the 
 other. This beach is from 20 feet to 80 feet wide, 3 feet above the water's level, 
 and composed of sand and coarse gravel. The margin of the beach further 
 from the lake is the higher, and is covered with a growth of willows, cedar and 
 other small trees. Along the lowlands of Crow's Bay is a broad beach composed 
 of coarse gravel about three feet high and on a level with the land back of it. 
 Along the south end of the west side of Morrison's Island, which is lowland, the 
 beach is from 15 feet to 25 feet wide, three feet high, and composed of coarse 
 gravel. The beaches along marshes and lowland are broader and higher, and 
 contain much more material than those along bluffs. 
 
 The action of the ice is an important factor in the formation of these beaches. 
 For the explanation of the action of ice on beaches as well as the formation of 
 ice cracks, I am indebted to I. C. Rut sell's excellent book, "Lakes of North 
 America." The lake freezes over and by expansion the ice is pushed up along 
 the shore carrying sand, gravel and stones with it. Numerous ice cracks form 
 during the winter and fill with water. This water freezes and pushes the ice still 
 further up the shore carrying the beach forming material still higher. These ice 
 cracks are very numerous and may be as much as three inches wide. "The amount 
 of lateral pressure brought to bear on the shores by this means is very great, and 
 beach ridges are begun and added to each year. The action of the ice in forming 
 beaches along marshes is very great, while along bluffs it is small. In the first 
 case no great resistance is met with in expansion, and the material for building 
 the beach will be carried up to the full extent of the expansion of the ice, while 
 along the bluffs the ice crowds against the shore and is itself broken at every ex- 
 pansion. A recent ice formation is evident at the northwest end of the Gordo- 
 niere Marsh, between the marsh and the Channel. In 1891 this marsh was under 
 water, but since that time the water of the lake has receded and left the marsh 
 dry. Separating the marsh from the Channel is a ridge of earth more than one 
 foot high running parallel with the water's edge. This ridge can be' accounted 
 
226 
 
 for by the action of the ice subsequent to the time when the marsh was left with- 
 out water. Some of the most striking examples of ice action in the formation of 
 beaches are found along the east side of Johnson's Bay; along Crow's Bay; at 
 Morrison's Island, where two ice beaches, separated by a few feet, are now cov- 
 ered by trees; at Clark's Point, where an old beach extending as much as 200 
 feet from shore is found, and at Black Stump Point. 
 
 CHAEACTEB OF BOTTOM. 
 
 In the shallower parts of the lake the bottom is composed of sand, gravel, 
 and small boulders, except along the low marshy shores, where it is composed of 
 mud. At several places, both in Syracuse Lake and in the main lake, dredgings 
 were taken at depths from 23 feet to 60 feet. Here the bottom was covered with 
 a deposit of marl in which were found many diatoms and shells. 
 
 Further investigations will be carried on to determine more fully the charac- 
 ter of bottom at different depths. 
 
 For information concerning the freezing of the lake I am indebted to Mr. J. 
 P. Dolan, who has given me the history of ice formations as he has observed them 
 during years past, and he has furnished me with records of careful observations 
 made since the first formation of ice in October, 1895. These observations, unless 
 otherwise indicated, are for Syracuse Lake. Ice forms on the main lake at the 
 same time, but it does not freeze entirely over so soon as Syracuse Lake. 
 
 The lake begins to freeze along the edge, except where strong springs enter 
 near the margin. Information has been obtained concerning the influence of 
 springs only at Crow's Bay and Vawter Park. Springs are numerous along 
 Crow's Bay for a half mile and the water along the edge is kept open after the 
 lake is frozen over, but I have not yet learned to what extent these springs in- 
 fluence the freezing of the edge of the lake in this locality. From Mr. Smith 
 Vawter, who has observed the springs at Vawter Park for a number of years, I 
 learned that the spring, which is near the margin of the lake and 200 feet east of 
 the Biological Laboratory, keeps the edge of the lake open throughout the winter. 
 If the weather is not severe, ice does not form for 25 feet along the shore, and 
 from 12 feet to 15 feet from shore. In the severest weather the lake is kept open 
 for 2 or 3 feet from the margin. 
 
 The ice spreads rapidly from the shore towards the center. The lake freezes 
 over quite rapidly when the general temperature remains below 32° Fahrenheit 
 
227 
 
 and there is no accompanying wind. All parts of the lake freeze, except where it 
 is kept open by springs, but the last place to freeze is a narrow strip from 20 feet 
 to 30 feet wide, extending from the north end of the Channel to Turkey Creek, 
 the outlet of the lake. Ice sometimes forms to a thickness of 6 or 8 inches along 
 the margins of this channel before it freezes over. This is due to a current along 
 this narrow channel towards the outlet. The ice is always thinner here than 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Accurate information could not be obtained concerning the exact date of 
 freezing in 1894, but from Mr. Dolan's observations we can give an accurate 
 account of ice-formation during the fall and winter of 1895. 
 
 The first ice of the season was observed on October 20. The temperature of 
 the air at 7 A. M. was 28°. A thin layer of ice 4 or 5 feet wide had formed along 
 the edge of the lake. It melted during the day. At 7 \. M. October 30, the 
 temperature of the air was 26°, and about one-fourth of Syracuse Lake was 
 frozen over. Not quite all the ice melted, but it all disappeared on the fol- 
 lowing day. At 7 A. m. November 2, the temperature of the air was 22°. The 
 mill race was covered with ice three-eighths of an inch thick. Only the edge 
 of the lake was frozen, as the wind blew during the night. On November 21, 
 the temperature of the air at 7 A. M. was 13°, and ice had formed from shore 
 to shore on Syracuse Lake ; at 12 M. the ice was nearly all melted, and at 5 
 p. M. the lake was free of ice. This was the first date on which the ice ex- 
 tended entirely across the lake. On November 23, at 7 a. m., the temperature 
 of the air was 30°. Ice had formed on the mill race, but no ice formed on 
 the lake, owing to a slight wind. On November 27, the temperature of the air 
 at 7 A. M. was 16°, and a wide belt of ice had formed around the lake, but it 
 disappeared on the following day. On December 2, the night was clear and 
 calm. There was no ice at 4 p. M., but at 7:30 p. M. a, thin sheet of ice had 
 formed and extended apparently from shore to shore. On December 3, Syracuse 
 Lake was completely covered with ice. The temperature of the air during the 
 day was 6° at 7 A. M., 16° at 12 M. and 12° at 5 p. M. On December 5, the ice was 
 2 inches thick near shore. On December 7, the ice near shore was 3| inches thick, 
 and 500 feet out from shore 1J inches thick. I visited the main lake on Decem- 
 ber 7, and the ice appeared to extend over the entire lake. Warren Colwell had 
 skated over the lake during the forenoon as far east as Ogden Point. The only 
 place where he found the lake open was a space about 20 feet square, half way 
 between Ogden Point and Black Stnmp Point. Three dozen ducks and mud-hens 
 had congregated in this open space. 
 
228 
 
 The increase and decrease in the thickness of the ice from December 9, to De- 
 cember 20, are shown in the following table. The measurements were taken 50 
 feet or more from shore. 
 
 Day of 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Temperature 
 
 
 of Ice 
 
 op Air at 
 
 Condition op Weather. 
 
 Month. 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 5 P. M. 
 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 18° 
 
 North wind ; cloudy. 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 26° 
 
 Wind, southwest to south. 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 36° 
 
 Snow and rain. 
 
 12 
 
 5} 
 
 20° 
 
 Clear. 
 
 13 
 
 si 
 
 24° 
 
 East wind ; clear. 
 
 14 
 
 6} 
 
 36° 
 
 Wind, south to southwest. 
 
 15 
 
 61- 
 
 26° 
 
 Clear. 
 
 16 
 
 5i 
 
 39° 
 
 East wind. 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 46° 
 
 Southwest wind ; rain. 
 
 18 
 
 4} 
 
 52° 
 
 South wind ; rain. 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 54° 
 
 South wind ; rain. 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 52° 
 
 South wind. 
 
 On December 13, ice cutting for commercial purposes was begun, with the ice 
 5J inches thick. Last winter no ice was cut until January 1, 1895, when the ice 
 had reached a thickness of 6 inches. On December 15, the ice had reached a 
 thickness of (i ,- inches, after which it grew thinner, owing to the rise in temperature 
 and the heavy rains. By December 20, the ice had melted so that only slush ice 
 remained. On the morning of December 21, this ice had drifted to the north and 
 northeast parts of the lake and at 5 p. m. of the same day the ice had all melted. 
 
 Mr. Dolan has given me accurate information concerning the ice on the lake 
 from January 1, 1895, to March 25, when the ice left the lake. On January 1 the 
 ice was 6 inches thick and kept increasing in thickness for more than a month. 
 The maximum thickness, observed by persons engaged in fishing through the ice, 
 was noted in the early part of February and found to be from 24 inches to 28 inches. 
 The greatest thickness is found where the ice has been kept clear of snow by the 
 wind. In January and February the snow lay about nine inches on the level, 
 but it was drifted in many places on the lake while other areas were without 
 snow. 
 
 In the spring the ice sometimes wears into holes out in the open lake, and 
 breaks up in the center of the lake first, the last ice to break being along the shores. 
 This is the case when the ice goes off in cloudy weather and with heavy rains. 
 Usually the ice begins to melt along the shore, with some holes further out. A 
 heavy wind then breaks the ice and carries it ashore. For the past ten years the 
 
229 
 
 ice has gone off with a west or southwest wind and has been piled up on the east 
 or northeast shores. 
 
 In the spring of 1895, the ice went off the lake in an unusually short time. 
 The lake had remained completely frozen over until March 24. During this day 
 the ice began to melt along the shores. On the morning of March 25, the ice had 
 melted to a distance of 20 feet from shore. At noon the ice had receded 400 feet 
 from shore. A heavy west wind was blowing all day, and the cracking of the ice 
 could be heard. At 3 p. m. the noise caused by the crushing of the ice became 
 very loud and could be heard for a quarter of a mile. The ice was broken into 
 huge cakes. The wind now began to lift the ice and drive it eastward. At 4 p. M. 
 all the ice was piled along the east shore. The height to which the ice is piled 
 depends on the character of the shore and the strength of the wind. The piles 
 are not so high along a low marshy shore as along an inclined or abrupt shore. 
 Occasionally a great sheet of ice is pushed up a smooth inclined surface 6 or 7 
 feet without breaking the ice to any great extent. An instance of this kind was 
 observed by Mr. Dolan on the northeast shore of Syracuse Lake last March. No 
 ice formed on thelake after March 25. 
 
 Ice cracks are very numerous from the time the ice forms entirely across the 
 lake and has attained sufficient stability. They form before the ice has reached 
 the thickness of one inch. When the first cracks formed in December the ice was 
 so thin that it sagged slightly along the crack. The water came through the 
 crack and spread over the surface of the ice sufficiently to melt the small amount 
 of snow covering the ice, to a distance of 5 or 6 feet on each side of the crack. 
 
 The explanation of ice cracks as quoted from Gilbert by Russell in his 
 "Lakes of North America" is so applicable to the case in hand that I reproduce 
 the quotation here: 
 
 "The ice on the surface of a lake expands while forming, so as to crowd its 
 edge against the shore. A further lowering of the temperature produces contrac- 
 tion, and this ordinarily results in the opening of vertical fissures. These admit 
 the water from below, and, by the freezing of that water, are filled, so that when 
 expansion follows a subsequent rise of temperature the ice can not assume its 
 original position. It consequently increases its total area, and exerts a second 
 thrust upon the shore. When the shore is abrupt, -the ice itself yields, either by 
 crushing at the margin or by the formation of anticlinals (upward folds) else- 
 where; but if the shore is gently shelving, the margin of the ice is forced up the 
 acclivity and carries with it any boulders or other loose material about which it 
 may have frozen. A second lowering of temperature does not withdraw the pro- 
 truded ice margin, but initiates other cracks and leads to a repetition of the 
 
230 
 
 shoreward thrust. The process is repeated from time to time during the winter, 
 but ceases with the melting of the ice in the spring." 
 
 The formation of these cracks is accompanied with noise, and, when the ice 
 has reached the thickness of four or five inches, the noise resembles the distant 
 booming of cannon. These cracks may be mere seams in the ice, or they may be 
 several inches wide. On December 7, I measured a crack three-eighths of an inch 
 wide in ice one and three-fourths inches thick. On December 9, Mr. Dolan meas- 
 ured one two and three-fourths inches wide in ice four inches thick. On the same 
 day he counted eleven loud reports caused by the formation of ice cracks in five 
 minutes. They form during all parts of the day and night. They cross the lake 
 in every direction, and, while the cracks are slightly zig-zag, their general courses 
 are in straight lines. 
 
 The ice is very clear and pure, especially out from the shore, where there is 
 no vegetation near the surface. Is is used very largely for commercial purposes, 
 the ice being cut from about one-fourth of the surface of Syracuse Lake each 
 year. 
 
 The only stream flowing into the lake and containing water throughout the 
 year is Upper Turkey Creek, which enters the lake on the east side of Jarrett's 
 Bay. During the summer months it was filled with an abundant growth of water 
 vegetation, and was without any perceptible current. When the water is high 
 the chain of small lakes lying to the southeast is drained into the large lake 
 through Jarrett's Creek, entering Jarrett's Bay a half mile south of Turkey 
 Creek. During the past summer no water entered the lake from this source. A 
 small stream one-fourth of a mile west of Vawter Park, and another from the 
 east side of Johnson's Bay, contribute water to the lake when the water is high, 
 but not during the dry summer monlhs. There are no springs around Syracuse 
 Lake, but springs are found along the margin of the main lake wherever the 
 shore rises fifteen feet or more and extends across the country as elevated territory. 
 These springs usually enter the lake near high water mark. This gives springs 
 along Crow's Bay, Mineral Point, the south and west sides of Jarrett's Bay, and 
 along the south shore from Vawter Park one mile west. No springs are found 
 along the bluffs at Jones', Wawasee, Cedar Point, Morrison's Island, or Conkling 
 Hill, but in each case these highlands are narrow and surrounded by marsh or 
 lowland. For a half mile along Crow's Bay the bluff is more than twenty feet 
 high. All along the foo of the bluff 1 the water percolates from the gravel, and 
 at places it flows from quite strong springs. At Mineral Point there are a number 
 
231 
 
 of strong springs. At Buttermilk Point and along the base of the bluffs west of 
 Jarrett's Bay are a number of springs. The margin of the lake from Vawter 
 Park one mile west is very springy, but the flow of water is not so strong as along 
 Crow's Bay. The waters from all these springs show traces of iron more or less 
 strongly. 
 
 The waters of the lake flow into Lower Turkey Creek through which they 
 enter the Elkhart Biver near Goshen, Indiana; then through the Elkhart and 
 St. Joseph rivers they reach Lake Michigan. 
 
 Near the outlet of the lake the creek, during the summer, was about 20 feet 
 wide and had an average depth of less than 6 inches. The volume of water dis- 
 charged through the outlet was computed from measurements taken in the creek 
 and the overflow of the mill race July 18, 1895. The outflow through the creek 
 was 103 cubic feet, or 772$ gallons, per minute ; through the mill race, 41 cubic 
 feet, or 307J gallons, per minute, making a total of 144 cubic feet, or 1,080 gal- 
 lons, per minute. At the same time the volume of the creek a half mile below 
 was computed at 137£ cubic feet, or 1,031 gallons, per minu*e. 
 
 By taking the outflow of the lake at 144 cubic feet per minute, finding the 
 amount discharged in twenty-four hours, and computing the amount the level of 
 the lake, with an area of 5 \ square miles, would be lowered by such an outflow 
 with no inflow, we find it to be .016 of an inch. At this rate it would require 
 62£ days to lower the lake one inch. In one year of 365 days, at the same rate, 
 the level would be lowered 5.84 inches. The inflow, during the summer months, 
 is almost entirely due to springs, and probably equals the outflow. The lowering 
 of the level of the lake, during the summer months, seems to be due almost en- 
 tirely to evaporation. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 The elevation of the lake above the sea and above Lake Michigan is shown 
 in the following list of stations and their respective elevations. The list of sta- 
 tions with their respective elevations above mean tide at Sandy Hook, New York, 
 was furnished by the General Superintendent of the Baltimore & Ohio Kailroad. 
 The elevation of each station above Lake Michigan was found by subtracting 582 
 feet, the elevation of the surface of Lake Michigan above the sea, from the ele- 
 vation of the station above the sea : 
 
232 
 
 ELEVATIONS OF STATIONS ON BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD FROM SOUTH CHICAGO., 
 ILL., TO PATTON SIDING, IND., THE MOST EASTERN STATION IN INDIANA. 
 
 NAME OF STATION. 
 
 =3 s.s 
 
 & fe * S ^ £ 
 
 w 
 
 r^ OJ 
 
 •a c 
 ►J bo 
 
 STATIONS IN ILLINOIS. 
 
 South Chicago 
 
 Rock Island Junction 
 
 STATIONS IN INDIANA. 
 
 Whitings 
 
 Edgemoor 
 
 Wilsons . .- 
 
 Millers 
 
 Dock Siding 
 
 Willow Creek. . . . 
 
 McCools 
 
 Babcock 
 
 Woodville 
 
 Suman 
 
 Coburg 
 
 Alida 
 
 Wellsboro 
 
 Union Centre .... 
 
 Walkerton 
 
 Teegarden 
 
 La Paz 
 
 La Paz Junction . 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Berlinton 
 
 Napanee 
 
 Milford Junction . 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Wawasee 
 
 Cromwell 
 
 Kimmell 
 
 York 
 
 Albion 
 
 Ripley 
 
 Avilla 
 
 Garrett 
 
 Auburn Junction 
 
 Inverness 
 
 St. Joe 
 
 Patton Siding. . . . 
 
 19 
 
 37 
 
 57 
 64 
 71 
 79 
 85 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 112 
 116 
 120 
 125 
 
 135 
 
 145 
 150 
 15.3 
 
 163 
 
 593.0 
 593.5 
 
 598.5 
 596.5 
 604.5 
 617.0 
 621.5 
 640.3 
 640.5 
 652.0 
 687.8 
 748.6 
 786.0 
 788.8 
 760.0 
 718.5 
 716.0 
 800.7 
 859.0 
 856.0 
 819.0 
 853.0 
 880.0 
 840.2 
 869.2 
 882.2 
 935.2 
 923.2 
 9ni.6 
 926.2 
 970.2 
 961.2 
 890.0 
 871.7 
 864.2 
 812.2 
 849.7 
 
 11.0 
 11.5 
 
 16.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 22.5 
 
 35.0 
 
 39.5 
 
 58.3 
 
 58.5 
 
 70.0 
 
 105.8 
 
 166.6 
 
 204.0 
 
 206.8 
 
 178.0 
 
 136.5 
 
 134.0 
 
 218.7 
 
 277.0 
 
 274.0 
 
 237.0 
 
 271.0 
 
 298.0 
 
 258.2 
 
 287.2 
 
 3' 0.2 
 
 353.2 
 
 341.2 
 
 319.6 
 
 344.2 
 
 388.2 
 
 379.2 
 
 308.0 
 
 289.7 
 
 282.2 
 
 230.2 
 
 267.7 
 
233 
 
 Syracuse is the station having most nearly the elevation of the surface of 
 Turkey Lake. The mean level of the lake is about 5 feet below the station at 
 Syracuse. This gives the lake an elevation of 864 feet above the sea, and 282 feet 
 above the surface of Lake Michigan. 
 
 CHANGES IN LEVEL. 
 
 Changes in the level of the lake have been due to three causes : erosion, the 
 dam which is built across Turkey Creek just below the outlet of the lake, and 
 climatic conditions. 
 
 Old beach formations give evidence that the level of the lake was formerly 5 
 or 6 feet higher than at present. By erosion the channel at the outlet was cut 1 
 feet below this ancient level, and the dam has raised the level of the lake 5 feet 
 to its present level. 
 
 The history of the dam as given by an old settler is as follows : 
 A small dam was built in 1828, to which additions were made in 1831. This 
 dam washed out in 1833, and the present dam and mill race were begun in the 
 same year. This raised the level of the lake so that timber stood in water 5 feet 
 deep. Much of this timber remained uncut in 1840, and some was still standing 
 as late as 1865. 
 
 The vertical distance between the level of the water in the creek below the 
 dam and the top of the waste gate, December 7, 1895, was five feet. This would 
 be the amount the dam, when in working order, would raise the level of the lake. 
 The dam is not in use at present and a small portion has been removed, which 
 allows the water to pass into the creek at a level 16 inches below the top of the 
 waste gate. This present condition of the dam holds the water of the lake 3 feet 
 8 inches above the level of the water in the creek below. 
 
 The submerged stumps in many parts of the margin of the lake is the best 
 evidence that the dam had the effect of increasing the area of the lake. These 
 stumps stand at present in water from a few inches to two feet or three feet deep. 
 Along the margin of Syracuse Lake the stumps are most abundant at the point of 
 the lake extending furthest west, and on the east shore along the edge of the 
 marsh. Turkey Creek, from the lake to the dam, is sixty feet wide, and only 
 twenty feet along the middle is clear of stumps. This was the channel of the 
 creek before the dam was built, and the stumps now standing in water are the 
 remains of the timber which grew along the banks of the creek. On the north 
 and south sides of Buck Island, at the south end of Syracuse Lake, areas of sub- 
 merged stumps indicate that this island was formerly one hundred feet wider in 
 
234 
 
 each direction. On the east side of the entrance of the main lake to the channel 
 are many submerged stumps. Along Johnson's Bay much timber stood in water, 
 especially on the east side of Ogden Point and on the east side of the bay just 
 north of the bluffs. In these localities the stumps are very numerous, and among 
 the largest in the lake. There are a few stumps along the marsh just east of Cedar 
 Point. Others are found in the vicinity of Morrison's Island and go to indicate 
 that this island, before the building of the dam, was a part of the mainland. It 
 is so represented in the government survey of 1838. On the west side of Jarrett's 
 Bay submerged stumps are numerous, especially along the southeast corner, where 
 much small timber is still lying in the marsh at the margin of the lake, and at 
 Clark's Point where many large stumps are found in the water. Submerged 
 stumps are also found west of Black Stump Point. The elevation of the lake by 
 the dam, not only increased its area but must have rendered much of the low 
 level land in the vicinity of the lake marshy, which would have been tillable. It 
 is claimed by persons living in the vicinity of the lake that the dam rendered 
 four thousand acres of land untillable. 
 
 The fluctuations in the level of the lake are caused by climatic conditions, 
 and vary with the inflow and outflow, rainfall and evaporation. In Mr. J. P. 
 Dolan's report will be found the record of changes of level as observed during the 
 past few months. Annual fluctuations are estimated to be about two and one-half 
 feet. The level of the lake is usually highest about May ], after the heavy 
 spring rains, and lowest in August, although this year it kept lowering until 
 November 2, owing to the very light rains up to that time. It was then ten and 
 one-half inches lower than on July 6. The lake was lower on November 2, than 
 at any time since 1871, when the marshes around the lake were drier than in 1895. 
 Since November 2, the lake has been rising until, on December 25, it was fifteen 
 and three-quarters inches higher than on November 2. 
 
 In May, 1891, the lake was higher than at any time during the past twenty 
 years. The difference between well-remembered high water marks of that time 
 and the level of November 2, 1895, is four and one-half feet, which is the maxi- 
 mum fluctuation during recent years. Each spring since 1891, has found the 
 level of the lake lower than during the preceding spring. This gradual lowering 
 of the level of the lake has decreased its area and has shown marked changes in 
 the marsh land along the margin of the lake. Four years ago the water in Conk- 
 ling Bay covered an area a half-mile in diameter, now it is reduced to three hun- 
 dred feet in diameter; a small shallow lake just west of Conkling Bay contained 
 water throughout the year, now it is dry and growing good crops; fields lying 
 west of the channel were almost marsh land, the crops being greatly damaged by 
 
235 
 
 water, but during the past two years no difficulty has been experienced in tilling 
 them; two or three feet of water flowed over the Gordoniere Marsh, which is now 
 dry with beach lines forming along its margin; and boats were rowed over all 
 parts of the Johnson Marsh, while at present hardly any of its surface is sub- 
 merged. 
 
 Consult Hydrographic Map Next to Front Cover. 
 
 Temperature of Turkey Lake. By J. P. Dolan.* 
 
 In making these observations a Charles Wilder standard, protected, thermom- 
 eter was employed. They were begun the 13th of July, during which month four 
 soundings were taken in the deepest parts of the lake from the surface to the 
 bottom at every five feet. Then on October 5 two records were made at about the 
 same points, and again on November 2. 
 
 September 17 a rain guage was set up and from that day to the present a 
 regular record of temperature, precipitation, direction of wind and rise and fall 
 of lake has been kept, but the observations have been confined to the northwest 
 part of the lake; properly, Syracuse Lake. 
 
 T. TEMPERATURES OP TURKEY LAKE, 1893. 
 
 July. 
 
 Indiana University Biolog- 
 ical Station. 
 
 13th, 
 10 A. M, 
 
 16th, 
 8:45 
 
 A. M. 
 
 17th, 
 9:30 
 
 A. M. 
 
 23d, 
 8:45 
 
 A. M. 
 
 Oct. 5. 
 
 I.U. 
 Bio. 
 
 Stat'n. 
 
 Jar- 
 bett's 
 Bay. 
 
 1:45 
 
 P. M. 
 
 Nov. 2. 
 
 I.U. 
 Bio. 
 
 Stat'n, 
 
 11:10 
 
 A. M. 
 
 Dec. 14, 
 
 Dec.24. 
 
 Black 
 Stump 
 Point. 
 
 10 a.m. 
 
 Air 
 
 
 Surface 
 
 S 
 
 'not. 
 
 10 
 
 " 
 
 IS 
 
 u 
 
 :>.» 
 
 it 
 
 25 
 
 ii 
 
 311 
 
 
 as 
 
 ii 
 
 40 
 
 ti 
 
 45 
 
 
 SO 
 
 it 
 
 55 
 
 ii 
 
 60 
 
 ii 
 
 65 
 
 ii 
 
 67% 
 
 it 
 
 Dee. 
 
 8* 
 
 Deg. 
 
 83% 
 75 
 
 Deg. 
 
 78% 
 
 75 
 
 Deg. 
 
 72 
 76% 
 
 73 
 
 72% 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 74 
 74 
 71 
 65 
 63 
 62 
 60 
 57 
 
 75 
 
 74% 
 73% 
 68% 
 
 68% 
 
 71 
 70 
 
 67% 
 61% 
 
 58H 
 
 58 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 .58 
 
 Deg. 
 
 65 
 
 60^ 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 58% 
 
 58 1 /, 
 
 5&% 
 
 58% 
 
 58% 
 
 58% 
 
 58% 
 
 m% 
 
 58% 
 58 
 
 61% 
 
 wy 4 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 58% 
 
 58% 
 
 58% 
 
 58% 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 57% 
 
 56% 
 
 53% 
 
 Deg. 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 Deg. 
 28 
 34% 
 34% 
 34% 
 
 43 
 43% 
 
 35 
 "35% 
 "35% 
 
 "'Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 15. 
 3— Turkey Lake. 
 
236 
 
 VI. SUMMARY OF SOUNDINGS OF TURKEY LAKE. 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 a" 
 
 to i- 
 ._. to 
 
 a 
 
 '— 
 iO 
 <N 
 O 
 -*> 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 £3 
 
 
 -u 
 
 — 1 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 ~# 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 ■— 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 m 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 <n 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 10 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 CD 
 
 
 a 
 3 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 '3 
 % 
 
 a 
 
 
 I. XT. Bio. Station- 
 July 13 
 
 July 16 
 
 July 23 
 
 Deg 
 3 
 
 "4" 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deg 
 3 
 ...... 
 
 24 
 
 "V 
 0" 
 
 Deg 
 3 
 
 "2" 
 
 6 
 
 "6" 
 
 
 
 Deg 
 5 
 ...... 
 
 "0" 
 
 
 Deg 
 2 
 
 •i 
 3 
 
 "6"' 
 
 
 Deg 
 
 2 
 
 *3 
 
 3 
 
 ] 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Deg 
 
 2 
 
 "6" 
 
 Deg 
 
 2 
 
 "6" 
 
 Deg 
 
 2 
 
 ...... 
 
 Deg 
 
 2 
 
 "6"' 
 
 Deg 
 16 
 
 lis" 
 
 18J 
 
 24 
 
 ...... 
 
 Deg 
 74 
 
 75" 
 764 
 60S 
 
 43" 
 
 Deg 
 
 58 
 
 "57" 
 58 
 58 
 
 "43" 
 
 Deg 
 
 66 
 
 69" 
 67i 
 
 Deg 
 
 71.9 
 
 665" 
 65 06 
 
 Oct 5 
 
 58 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec 14 
 
 
 Dec. 24 
 
 
 : ' Bottom. 
 
 II. TURKEY LAKE TEMPERATURES, 1895. 
 
 September 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Surface 
 
 Bottom 
 
 Precipitation 
 
 86 
 73 
 69 
 
 45 
 68 
 69 
 .01 
 
 37 
 65 
 68 
 
 "68" 
 
 67 
 
 1.40 
 
 "68 
 
 67 
 
 55 
 
 .03" 
 
 .09" 
 
 "56" 
 
 57 
 
 Tot 
 
 alin 
 
 ches 
 
 1.53 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 -!• 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 
 Air 
 
 56 
 54 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 63 
 58 
 
 68 
 60J, 
 56 
 
 65 
 
 605 
 
 584 
 
 62 
 
 574 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 45 
 56 
 56J 
 48 
 
 38 
 55 
 56 
 
 45 
 53 
 53i 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 52 
 52i 
 45" 
 
 40 
 515 
 51 
 47 
 
 54 
 
 48 
 53 
 53 
 
 46 
 52 
 524 
 50 
 
 
 
 Near shore ... 
 Precipitation 
 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 39 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 Air 
 
 45 
 51 
 514 
 
 49 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 46 
 48 
 40 
 
 28 
 464 
 47 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 45 
 464 
 40 
 
 48 
 44 
 46 
 
 40 
 43 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 Near shore ... 
 Precipitation 
 
 
 November 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 ■4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 Surface, 25 ft 
 Bottom, 25 ft 
 Surface near 
 
 shore 
 
 Precipitation 
 
 30 
 38 
 43 
 
 22 
 43 
 43 
 
 36 
 
 54 
 43 
 43 
 
 60 
 414 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 42 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 60 
 43 
 45 
 
 .02 
 
 60 
 43 
 43 
 
 50 
 .78 
 
 45 
 43 
 43 
 
 1.10 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 32 
 43 
 
 28 
 424 
 
 26 
 43 
 
 .02" 
 
 
 '".07 
 
 
237 
 
 November 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Air 
 
 Surface 
 
 Bottom 
 
 Surface near 
 
 shore 
 
 Precipitation 
 
 
 52 
 
 43J 
 
 43 
 
 46 
 
 34 
 41 
 42 
 
 38 
 
 22 
 39 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 39 
 39 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 36T 
 
 16 
 *38t 
 
 set 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 34 
 35 
 
 
 
 December 
 
 1 
 '.56" 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 12 
 
 "34" 
 
 4 
 .07" 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 26 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 33 
 33 
 36 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 24 
 33 
 35 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 18 
 33 
 35 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 26 
 33 
 36 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 »• J 7:30 a.m. 
 Alr 15:00 p.m. 
 
 32 
 36 
 34 
 36 
 
 "ii" 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 35* 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 36 
 
 m 
 
 35J 
 
 32 
 26 
 34 
 35 
 
 "67" 
 
 24 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 -334 
 
 35 
 
 J3" 
 
 45 
 52 
 33J 
 35 
 
 1.15" 
 
 Bottom 
 
 Near shore ■■• 
 Precipitation 
 
 December 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A - (7:30 a.m. 
 Alr 15:00 p.m. 
 
 52 
 54 
 33J 
 35 
 
 1.87" 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 35J 
 
 37; 
 
 43 
 
 .96 
 
 40 
 39 
 37 
 37 
 
 .12 
 
 "is" 
 
 .58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom 
 
 Near shore ... 
 Precipitation 
 
 
 * Broken thermometer. 
 
 t Under ice. 
 
 t Common thermometer. 
 
 SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURES. 
 
 
 
 September. 
 
 October. 
 
 November. 
 
 December. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 i 
 
 
 Air 
 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 
 86 
 73 
 69 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 68 
 63 
 56K 
 
 5 
 18 
 26 
 
 61 
 
 43K 
 
 45 
 
 19 
 21 
 20 
 
 54 
 
 H 
 
 Surface ,25 ft 
 
 37 
 37K 
 
 S 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Air 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 37 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 39 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 36 
 
 { J 
 
 . 7, 8, 9, 10 
 6, 8, 9, 15, 17, 18, 19 
 
 12 
 
 £ 
 
 Surface, 25 -ft 
 Bottom, 2-5 ft 
 
 2 
 33 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 66% 
 
 66^ 
 
 
 47.8 
 51.7 
 5157 
 
 
 36.7 
 41.2 
 41.93 
 
 
 31? 
 
 33H 
 
 35J| 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. B. — Water general average for three months higher than air. 
 
238 
 
 
 Air. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 42.94 
 
 48.37 
 
 48.87 
 
 
 From December 3 to noon of the 20th the lake was covered with ice. During 
 this period the surface temperature varied from 33° to 34£° and the bottom from 
 35° to 36°. 
 
 At 5:00 p. M. of the 20th, ten hours after the ice started to move in a body 
 from the lake, the surface showed 35J°, a gain of 2J°; the bottom 37^°, another 
 gain of 2.1°, and in the shallow water, fifty feet from south shore, where it had 
 been 32°, 33°. 33° on the 7, 8 and 9th respectively, it was now 43°, a gain of 10°. 
 
 The next day surface and bottom both registered 37° degrees at the twenty- 
 five-foot station. 
 
 The results of these observations are embodied in the accompanying profile 
 chart, in which it has been attempted to show the absolute and relative move- 
 ments of the air, surface, and bottom of lake at a depth of twenty-five feet. 
 
 Temperatures from September 23 to December 23. Broken line, temperature of air; 
 dotted line, temperature of water 25 feet below surface on the bottom; continuous line, tem- 
 perature of water at the surface at the same place. 
 
239 
 
 (a) A few well-known facts are emphasized, the variableness of the atmos- 
 phere and the persistence of the water; that water is a poor (b) radiator and an 
 indifferent conductor of heat, and responds slowly to atmospheric changes. 
 
 (d) It shows also that the great volume of Syracuse lake at no time has been 
 stagnant, but that a condition of activity has obtained throughout the' entire period 
 of observation. 
 
 (c) For the four months in which a large number of observations were made 
 the general average of the water, both surface and bottom, is higher than that of 
 the air. 
 
 A difference of 10° between the water one foot deep near the shore and the 
 surface mid-lake during a rain the day the ice left the lake, shows that the surface 
 drainage is no small factor in winter and spring in raising the temperature of 
 the whole body. 
 
 PART II. THE INHABITANTS OF TURKEY LAKE.* 
 
 Plankton. 
 
 By plankton, Hensen, the author of the word, means everything floating in 
 the sea and passively driven about by the waves and currents. Haeckel in- 
 cludes under plankton all organisms swimming in the sea. Haeckel says : 
 "The totality of the swimming and floating population of the fresh water 
 may be called limnoplankton." Limno'planktonic studies have been made when- 
 ever a collector scooped for protozoa, diatoms or other minute organisms. 
 Planktonic studies of this sort have been carried on for a long time. Recently 
 plankton has been studied in a new way, first in the ocean and more recently in 
 fresh water. This more recent study has been the quantitative and qualitative 
 estimation of the plankton in a given volume of water. There seem to have 
 developed in a remarkably short time two schools of planktonists, the one headed 
 by Hensen asserting that planktonic organisms are uniformly distributed, the 
 other, headed by Haeckel, being equally sure that planktonic creatures are to be 
 found in clouds or schools. We are interested in plankton only in so far as it is 
 part of the environment of the vertebrates inhabiting the lake. That it is not an 
 unimportant element of the environment is due to the fact that it forms the 
 primitive food of most of the fishes and that at the most plastic period in the life 
 of the individual. The amount of plankton, as well as its composition from year 
 
 •Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 16. 
 
240 
 
 to year is therefore of prime importance in the search for the causes of the 
 differences in the same fish in two contiguous lakes or in two successive years in 
 the same lake. 
 
 Our plankton apparatus was completed too late to enable us to make any 
 svsteniatic measurements, especially as our planktonist was actively eogaged in 
 the physical survev of the lake. But plankton was collected and some of its 
 different constituents will be reported upon. 
 
 A good historical account of planktonic studies, as well as exact definitions, 
 are to be found in the Planktonic Studies of HaeckeL translated by G. W. Field, 
 and published in Commissioners' Beport. 1889-91. 17. S. Com. Fish and Fisheries, 
 pp. 56-5-641. 
 
 In the following sketch several groups of animals are not at all considereds 
 and others bat briefly. The only groups found in the lake of which we approxi- 
 mate a complete list are the fishes, batrachians and reptiles. Deficiencies wiU be 
 removed in subsequent reports when a classification of the material into littoral, 
 bathybiat and pelagic will also be attempted. 
 
 PBOTOZOA. 
 
 The Protozoa were not represented by a large array of species during the summer. 
 Xo detailed work has been done on them as yet, but I want to mention two 
 characteristic forms. 
 
 The most striking Protozoan is Ophridium. It is found in clumps varying from 
 microscopic minuteness to the size of walnuts, and in different parts of the lake 
 the pebbles and exposed parts of clam shells are covered with these colonies to 
 such an extent as to suggest young lettuce beds. 
 
 Ceratium hirudinella is as striking and abundant in the pelagic regions as 
 Ophridium is in the littoral. 
 
 In this connection two plants may also be noticed. 
 
 Birularia is very abundant during the whole summer. It is conspicuous in 
 - calm weather, when it rises to the surface. Toward the end of August and in 
 early September it collects in such numbers as to form large patches and streaks, 
 forming a true Ww&erbluthe. 
 
 Various forms of Palmella are abundant during the whole summer, and in 
 October, when Eimlaria has disappeared, it forms large patches on the surface 
 fo rm ing the Waxserbliithe of the late fall. 
 
241 
 
 POSIPERA. 
 
 Sponges ue not abundant in the lake. They are found in small patches on 
 boards, sticks and other things near the margins of the lake. They grow mnch 
 more Inxnriantlr in the outlet of the lake There they sometimes form patches 
 several square feet in extent. 
 
 Antra rindcs L. specimens of Itmlru were exceedingly rare. On oneoceasion 
 a few were taken on a submerged stick near Hack Stomp Point. 
 
 Flat worms were not systematically collected and none of these collections 
 have been identified. Of Tinbettmiams there were several species. Auua taim is 
 infested by a tape worm and by a Dtsfsmwm. 
 
 X© attempt was made to collect thread worms. Gmdiuf is exceedingly 
 abundant on the margins daring the latter part of summer. I counted as many 
 as twelve in the area of one foot square. 
 
 1S5ELDU. BY BESSIE C. SIDGir. 
 
 So OoetopnAa were collected. 
 
 5© systematic attempt was made to get large numbers of l ee c hes , but speci- 
 mens were preserved whenever found. In the elasaSescon I hare followed 
 TerrilL 
 
 Aqtfcrffc a— n V ij frMM Grube. Thirteen specimens from Turkey Lake. 
 
 jMpfefcj Mi i m VerrilL Fourteen specimens. 
 
 Cfcpsuw awrratien Kesing. Three specimens. 
 
 Cleanae orama sr««aw VerrilL This species was not found in Turkey lake. 
 Two specimens were taken in Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 C&paat oraam rmgmm VerrilL Four specimens. 
 
 CfcpenK w w variety d VerrilL Ten large specimens corresponding with 
 the second specimen described by Verrill were found, most of them on turtles. 
 
 O^aeaapw^ern VerrilL One specimen. 
 
 Chpsime napiKKra to/imfm VerrilL Three specimens. One of these, one- 
 half inch long, was found under a stone in front of the laboratory. A number of 
 young were attached to it. 
 
 Ckftfitte faKMa VerrilL One specimen. 
 
 CLnjiuu jiinffiiHi ~iri~r~ % ** — nl Ones 
 
 Cfeanae ek/an? VerrilL Five : 
 
242 
 
 KOTIFEKA. D. S. KELLICOTT. 
 
 I received in September three vials of plankton, from Mr. Chaneey Juday 
 with the request to report upon the Rotifera found therein. The vials were 
 marked and described as follows : " I. Contains plankton caught at the surface 
 of the water of Wawasee Lake, Indiana, by using a plankton net; taken August 
 28, 1805 ; killed in picro-sulphuric acid ; washed in 35 per cent, and 50 per cent, 
 alcohol and preserved in 85 per cent, alcohol." "II. Depth of haul, 60 feet 
 (Wawasee); depth of water, 65 feet ; taken July 20, 1895; killed in Flemming's 
 Fluid; washed in So per cent, and 50 per cent, alcohol, and preserved in 85 per 
 cent, alcohol." "III. From Tippecanoe Lake ; depth of haul, 110 feet; depth 
 of water, 117 feet ; taken August 7, 1895 ; killed in Flemmings's Fluid ; washed 
 in 35 per cent, and 50 per cent, alcohol, and preserved in 85 per cent, alcohol." 
 
 I find that the Rotifera were much better preserved in II and III than in the 
 first. The illoricate species in I were scarcely recognizable ; in fact three species 
 found in this vial I have not been able to place more nearly than the probable 
 genus. Those in II and III have all been satisfactorily identified. While the 
 whole number recognized in these collections is not large some interesting facts 
 are brought to light. Three species not hitherto reported from this country are 
 among the number, and others rarely. It is certain that the rotiferal fauna of 
 these lakes is rich and will yield many unique forms as a reward to any student 
 who may be able to work in the region, to take and study them in the fresh state, 
 and in all their varied relations and situations of residence. 
 
 I shall enumerate, with remarks, the species found in each haul separately, 
 although it will cause some repetition, and in the order of Hudson and Gosse's 
 Rotifera, without citing the bibliography farther than a description where the par- 
 tial bibliography, however, will usually be found. 
 
 1. Floscularia mutabilis Bolton. Not infrequent. It is quite unexpected 
 that a floscule should occur among pelagic species, and yet there are four known 
 species of these Rhizota that cut loose and become sailors. Mr. H. S. Jennings 
 has found three of them in St. Clair and lakes of Michigan. Of this one he says: 
 " Very common in towings from Lake St. Clair, either at the surface or near the 
 bottom. Hudson and Gosse, I, 56. 
 
 2. (Ecistes braehiatus Hudson. A large number were found, but it was im- 
 possible to identify them surely. The tube conforms to the figures and descrip- 
 tions of that of Braehiatus ; it is cylindrical, smooth, compact, perfectly hyaline, 
 
243 
 
 often containing a slight amount of adhering matter, often containing several 
 eggs, which, however, are not so elongate as the figures represent those of 
 Brachiatus; the long narrow foot and the long non-retractile antenna 1 agree well 
 with the type. I am pretty confident that it is Brachiatus, yet I am surprised to 
 find so many of them, or any of them, in a surface tow, as it is evidently norm- 
 ally anchored ; perhaps they were attached to floating alga? which apparently are 
 not uncommon in the lake. H. and G., I, 83. 
 
 3. Pkilodiim megalotrocha Ehrenberg. Numerous. I have often taken it 
 at a distance from land, particularly in shallow lakes or among floating alga:. 
 H. &G., I, 101. 
 
 More than one species of Rotifer which could not by any means be identified 
 were present. 
 
 4. Sacculus viridis Gosse. Rare. H. and G., I, 124. 
 
 5. Polyarthra platyptera Ehrenberg. Many seen. The serrations on the 
 edges of the broad plates are coarse and more distant than in the tyjje. H. and 
 G., II, 3. 
 
 6. Dinocharis pocillum Ehrenberg. One individual. It is a bottom feeding 
 species and rarely occurs in a surface tow. H. and G., II, 71. 
 
 7. Dinocharis collinsii Gosse. One. Bottom feeding species. It has not 
 been observed in this country before. No species exceeds it in beauty. I could 
 not make out the pair of spines on the foot and the edge of the lorica appears to 
 be set with a row of small spines, rather than being serrate as described and 
 figured. H. and G., II, 72. 
 
 8. Anurcea cochlearis Gosse. Exceedingly abundant. Our form differs 
 slightly from Gosse's figure since the mesal ridge of the lorica does not extend 
 straight from end to end, but has a decided angle at each pair of facets, the an- 
 terior median one is not divided. H. and G., II, 124. 
 
 9. Notholca longispina Kellicott. Not rare. This rotiferou was first known 
 in the water supplies of cities along the Great Lakes. Soon after it was described 
 in 1879, it was found in Olton Reservoir, Eng., and then by Imhof in the Swiss 
 Lakes. More recently it has been found in lakes of America. Mr. Levic reports 
 finding the eye spot double, or so far separated as to be regarded as two eyes. I 
 have seen several in these collections with the same peculiarity. 
 
244 
 
 II. 
 
 1. Polyarthra platyptera Ehrenberg. Few. 
 
 2. Triarthra longiscta Ehrenberg. Comparatively few in this vial. H. and 
 G., II, 6. 
 
 3. Ploesoma lenticulare Herrick. Very many. It occurs in the lakes of 
 Europe. In this country it has been reported only from Lake St. Clair, both in 
 bottom and surface tows (Jennings). Zool. Anz., Bd. 10, 577. 
 
 4. Brachionus militarix Ehrenberg. Bare. I have found this an abundant 
 species in ponde of western New York ; it is a good sailor, preferring small seas, 
 however. Authors have recorded the fact that the posterior spines are not in the 
 same horizontal plane. This seems to be in relation to the habit of always turn- 
 ing on its long axis as it swims ; they appear to bore their way through the water 
 H. andG., Sup. 82. 
 
 5. Anurcsa cochlearis Gosse. Many, but far less numerous than in I. 
 
 6. Notholca longispina Kellicott. More abundant than in I. 
 
 III. 
 
 1. Asplanchna priodonta Gosse. Q.uite numerous. Jennings reports this fine 
 species as abundant in Lake St. Clair, both at the surface and in deep water. H. 
 and G., I, 123. 
 
 2. Polyarthra platyptera Ehrenberg. Several found. 
 
 3. Triarthra longiseta Ehrenberg. Numerous. 
 
 4. Diaschtsa valga Gosse. Only one seen. It appears to agree well with the 
 figure and description. H. and G., II, 77. 
 
 5. Anvnea cochlearis Gosse. Not common. 
 
 6. Notholca longiipcia Kellicott. 
 
 Cladocera. A. Birge. 
 
 The following letter on the Cladocera of Turkey Lake has been received : 
 I enclose list of Cladocera in your bottles. 
 
 1. Holopedmm gibberum Zad., few; Daphnia hyalina and retrocurva Forbes. 
 Much algal material, chiefly Clathrocystis. 
 
 2. Holopedmm gibberum D. retrocurva Sida. crystalline. 0. F. M., Diaphanosoma 
 brachyurum Liev. 
 
 3.- D. retrocurva, extreme form of hemlet, like that of Lake Mendota, Diaph. 
 brachyurum. Material looks as if it had been dried. 
 
245 
 
 4. D. retroewrva Diaph. braehyurum Geriodaphnia lacustris Birge. Leptodora 
 hyalina Lillj. , Solopedium gibberum, one specimen. 
 
 5. Diaph. braehyurum, Sida crystallina, Cer. lacustris. 
 
 6. Holo. gibberum, Diaph. braehyurum., D. retroeurva, Algae like No. 1. 
 
 7. Diaph. braehyurum, D. retroeurva, Cer. lacustris, Leptodora hyalina. 
 Great number of Epischura lacustris, far more than I ever saw before. 
 
 8. D. retroeurva, Sida crystallina, Diaph., braehyurum. 
 
 9. Diaph. braehyurum, D. retroeurva, not an extreme form, Daphnia longiremis 
 Sars, Sida crystallina, very few. 
 
 Most of these species are predictable, that is, they would be found in al- 
 most any pelagic collection from this general region. I do not think that H. 
 gibberum has been found so far south as this collection shows it. Cer. lacustris has 
 not been found outside of Wisconsin before. The specimens are much more thin- 
 shelled than those which I have seen before. It is remarkable that D. retroeurva 
 is far more numerous than is D. hyalina. The reverse has been true in all lakes 
 which I have studied, except Pine Lake, Wisconsin. In most of the bottles ex- 
 amined it was difficult to find D. hyalina, while the other species was quite plenty. 
 It is to be noted that this species of Forbes is really a variety of D. kahlbergien- 
 sis Sen, but as the form is well marked and the full name intolerably long, I 
 have quoted it by the varietal name only. 
 
 D. longiremis has been found before only in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. In 
 size, form and shape of head it exactly agrees with my figures and description in 
 Trans. Wis. Acad.; Vol. IX, p. 299, pi. XI, figs. 4-10. 
 
 In all bottles there were many Cyclops and Diaptomus, and in one, as already 
 noted, large numbers of Epischura. 
 
 I should gladly write more, but.have been too busy for a longer report. Will 
 send bottles to Marsh for Copepods and try to get up a full account later. 
 
 Very truly, 
 
 E. A. Biege. 
 
 Data of the lots of specimens numbered in the above letter : 
 
 I. Taken Aug. 28, 1895, between 1 and 2 p. u., from surface of water. Killed in 
 picro-sulphuric acid. Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
 
 II. Taken June 27, 1895, at 8 a. m. Skimmed from surface of water, using No. 2 Bolt- 
 ing Cloth. Killed in picro-sulphuric acid. Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
 
 III. Taken Aug. 14, 1895, at 5 p. M. Depth of haul, 60 ft. Killed in picro-sulphuric 
 acid. Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
 
 IV. Taken July 27, 1895. Skimmed from surface of water, using No. 2 Bolting Cloth. 
 Killed and preserved in 10 per cent, formalin. 
 
 V. Taken June 27, 1895, at 8 a. m. Skimmed from the surface with a No. 2 Bolting 
 Cloth net. Killed and preserved in 10 per cent, formalin. 
 
246 
 
 VI. Taken July 29, 1895. Depth of haul, 25 ft. Killed and preserved in formalin. 
 VII. Taken July 12, at night. Surface skimming, using a No. 2 Bolting Cloth net. 
 Killed and preserved in 10 per cent, formalin. 
 
 VIII. Taken Aug. 1, 1895, at 9 A. M. Depth of haul, 10 ft. "Killed in Flemming's fluid. 
 Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
 
 IX. Taken Aug. 7,1895, at 4 p.m. Depth of haul, 110 ft. Killed in Flemming's fluid. 
 Preserved in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
 
 I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII are from Turkey Lake or Lake Wawasee; IX is from 
 Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 Decapoda. 
 
 The following crayfishes from Turkey Lake were identified by Mr. W. P. 
 Hay, of Washington, D. C. : 
 
 Cambarus blandingii acutus Girard. 
 Cumbarus propinguus Girard. 
 Cambwux virilis Hagen. 
 
 On a Small Collection of Mollusks from Northern Indiana. By K. Ells- 
 worth Call, M. D., Ph. D. 
 
 The mollusks herewith reported on were collected by the members of the In- 
 diana University Biological Station during the past summer. The region is 
 sufficiently well characterized in the report of Dr. Eigenmann, the Director of the 
 Station, and it is necessary here only to allude to its salient features. 
 
 The locality is on the divide separating the drainage areas of the Great Lakes 
 and the Wabash River. In certain places the two drainages are practically 
 identical and thus afford opportunity for the intermingling of the two faunas. 
 The lakes and streams are all well within the limit of glaciation in former ages 
 and their beds and shores are boulder-covered, or lined. The bottoms of shallower 
 portions of the lakes are gravelly or muddy, while the deeper portions are either 
 muddy or sandy. Corresponding with these physical factors are certain features 
 of molluscan distribution and modification, which it is the object of these notes to 
 adduce and emphasize. 
 
 UNIONIDiB, 
 
 Anodonta decora Lea. Two specimens of this form were found, both of which 
 were obtained in Syracuse Lake. The specimens were very much more fragile 
 and far thinner than is usual for this species, even when secured from lakes and 
 ponds. The epidermis is quite pale, the lines of growth crowded, and the nacre- 
 ous deposit very white. Forms from sluggishly flowing streams in southern In- 
 diana and elsewhere in the Ohio basin are very highly colored, both interiorly 
 
247 
 
 and without. As in other members of this family from these lakes the optimum 
 habitat does not appear to be here. Many of the shells are coated with heavy 
 deposits of calcareous matter, indicating a chemic condition of the water that is 
 unfavorable to the normal development of the several species. 
 
 Anodonta ferussaciana Lea. One specimen from Turkey Creek ; three speci- 
 mens from Syracuse Lake. 
 
 The resemblance of these shells to the Anodonta mbcylindraeea is very marked 
 indeed. The lake form is lighter both in texture and color than the one speci- 
 men from the creek. 
 
 Anodonta footiana Lea. Three specimens from Syracuse Lake ; one specimen 
 from Turkey Creek. 
 
 The shells submitted are very characteristic of this form, which may not 
 ultimately, be separated from Anodonta lacusti-is Lea. Like its congeners from 
 the same locality the lake form is very pale in color and unusually thin and 
 fragile. A very interesting fact is illustrated in the littoral distribution of this 
 species and Spkarium from the same lake. Those which occur in comparatively 
 deep water are very much thinner and lighter in color than the shore forms. 
 Also, those which are found on the northern shores are thinner and more fragile 
 than those on the southern beach. The reason possibly may lie in the prevail- 
 ing winds, which are from the northeast. The southern beach is also more 
 gravelly than the northern. The conditions of environment then, in this case, 
 favor thicker development of the shell in the forms living on the southern beach ; 
 they need greater powers of resistance, are subjected to rougher conditions of 
 habitat and this finds expression in heavier secretion of nacreous material. The 
 shells which live at the lake's bottom are also beyond the disturbing influence of 
 waves and being deeply imbedded in mud develop to greater size, but with 
 thinner shells. 
 
 Margaritana calceola Lea. A single dead specimen, from Turkey Creek. 
 
 This specimen is a very characteristic one, the deposit of calcareous matter on 
 the inner surfaces of the valves being marked ; this is » pathologic feature, well 
 marked in the type specimens which Dr. Lea studied. This form and Margar- 
 itana deltoidea Lea are synonyms. 
 
 JIargaritana rugosa Barnes. Represented by eight specimens from Turkey 
 Creek, all of which are characteristic. 
 
 Unio coccineus Lea. One specimen, dead, from Turkey Creek. 
 
 The nacre of this shell is quite white, a fact true of the majority of shells 
 which fall under this form, though the type-form was beautifully pink. It is 
 often found in collections labelled TJnia rubiginosus Lea, but is easily separated 
 
248 
 
 by the characters of the cardinal teeth and the rounded, nonangulate character 
 of the posterior slope. In Unio rubiginoxux there is a well marked ridge extend- 
 ing quite to the posterior margin. The flat and white nacred form also may 
 occasionally be seen in collections as Unio yuuldiawts Lea, now a well recognized 
 synonym. 
 
 Unio fabalis Lea. Twelve specimens from Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 This is one of the smallest of our Union. The shells submitted do not pre- 
 sent any variant features other than the very light coloration so characteristic of 
 all the lake shells which we have seen. Unio lapillm Say is a synonym. 
 
 Unio gibbosity Barnes. This form is represented by three specimens from 
 Turkey Creek. These are all much thinner and lighter than the same species 
 from the Ohio and Wabash rivers, in both of which it is a common shell. It 
 seems to be very abundant in certain of the lakes of northern Indiana, notably 
 Lake Maxinkuckee. The nacre of these three individuals is very dark purple. 
 Similar shells to these probably have led to the reference of Unio complauatus 
 Solander to the western fauna. 
 
 Unio iris Lea. Two characteristic specimens from Turkey Creek. Like its 
 near relative — which is probably also a sj nonym — Unio iioi'ieboraci Lea, this shell 
 occurs most commonly and abundantly in creeks and other small streams. It 
 most affects soft muddy bottoms in rather still waters. 
 
 Unio luteohiK Lamarck. Ten specimens from Syracuse Lake; seven specimens 
 from Turkey Creek. 
 
 This species is the most widely distributed shell of the family. It occurs 
 in every stream, lake and pond in Indiana in which shell life of any sort occurs 
 at all. It is also the most abundant Unio, and, correlated with abundance and 
 wide distribution, is a range of variations that are of the greatest import in evo- 
 lutionary processes. All the shells submitted, particularly those from Syracuse 
 Lake, are well covered, posteriorly, with carbonate of lime in heavy masses. 
 The lake specimens also have beautifully marked green rays widely separated 
 over a polished disk, thus constituting them the form to which Anthony gave the 
 name of Unio distans. The epidermis usually has the peculiar coloration of 
 forms which live in muddy bottoms, though in the lake specimens the epidermis 
 is, for some hidden chemical reason, quite red posteriorly. This peculiar color- 
 ation has often been noticed in shells submitted to us from the lake region of 
 Northern Indiana. 
 
 Unio Occident Lea. Nine characteristic specimens from Turkey Creek. None 
 present features different from shells found elsewhere in the State. 
 
 Unio pressits Lea. One specimen from Turkey Creek. 
 
249 
 
 A great many shells of this species have been seen from time to time from 
 various places in Indiana. Very many of them, as this one well does, pre- 
 sent a peculiar diseased or pathologic condition of the cardinal teeth not alto- 
 gether unlike the condition exhibited by the interior surface of Margariiana cal- 
 ceola. In this instance the cardinal teeth are nearly destroyed and are represented 
 by distorted and imperfect vestiges. It would be interesting indeed if the Station, 
 during the next season, could investigate this phenomenon as a study in the- 
 physiology of Unio, a field yet uncultiva'ed. 
 
 Unio rubiginosus Lea. Two specimens from Turkey Creek, one of which is 
 pathologic. 
 
 These shells are intermediate between Unio trigonus Lea and typical Unio 
 rubiginosus Lea. They are somewhat more trigonal than the latter shells are com- 
 monly found, and, on the other hand, are less heavy and trigonal than the ponder- 
 ous river form. The whole group is sadly confused and needs painstaking revision. 
 
 CORBICULADJS. 
 
 Spharium rhomboideum Prime. A single specimen only was taken, from Turkey 
 Lake, in muddy bottom and in comparatively deep water. The specimen is very 
 much thinner than usual. 
 
 Sphozriiim solid id um Prime. Ten specimens from Turkey Lake. These are 
 all smaller than common and quite heavy; they came from the beach at Vawter 
 Park. 
 
 FRESH-WATER UNIVALVES. 
 
 Amnicola porata Say. Eight specimens of this small univalve were obtained 
 in Tippecanoe Lake. Neither it nor others of the univalves found present any 
 characters different from shells found in streams throughout the State. 
 
 Campeloma decision Say. Five dead specimens from Turkey Lake. 
 
 Campeloma integrum Dekay. One dead specimen from Turkey Creek. 
 
 Carnpeloma rufum Haldeman. About twenty specimens from Tippecanoe 
 Lake; thirteen, one of which was reversed or sinistral, from Turkey Creek. 
 
 There is no difficulty in recognizing these several forms, though tyros an- 
 nually make the discovery that there are no valid species but one. Campeloma 
 rufum differs from both the others constantly by the outlines of the whorls, the 
 shape and color of the aperture, the pink character of the apical whorls, a, feature 
 which is best illustrated in the very young and which is a constant character, and 
 in the polished epidermis, which presents a character seen in no other member of 
 the genus. Reversed forms are not uncommon, but yet may be justly considered 
 
250 
 
 tare. The type of the genus is a reversed specimen of Campelvma ponderomm from 
 the Ohio River, taken by Kafinesque near Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Planorbdla eampcmulata Say. Very abundant in all parts of Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 Ilelisomn trimlrix Say. Two specimens from Turkey Lake; three specimens 
 from Turkey Creek. The form submitted from Turkey Creek is a very large one, 
 and is rather heavy in texture. The species must be very abundant in favorable 
 localities. 
 
 Liinnnphi/xu. hiimilis Say. Five specimens of this small limnseid were obtained 
 along the shores of Turkey Lake. 
 
 Limnophysa eaperata Miiller. A single specimen of this common form only 
 was secured. It came from Turkey Lake. 
 
 Physa aneil'arw Say. Four specimens taken alive, entirely white, from 
 Turkey Lake. This shell is usually honey yellow in coloration, but these speci- 
 mens were a snow white. 
 
 Physa gyrina Say. Only two specimens of the "tadpole" physa appear in 
 the collections, and these came from Tippecanoe Lake. It is one of the most 
 widely distributed and most abundant of the Limnaeida;. 
 
 Goniobusix pulehella Anthony. Nine specimens from Turkey Lake ; very 
 abundant in Tippecanoe Lake, from which many dead specimens were submitted. 
 This form is widely distributed throughout Indiana. Sometimes associated with it 
 is Gonwbaxix lirexcens Menke, a form decidedly characteristic of the lake drainage. 
 
 Pleurocera mbulare Lea. Very abundant in Lake Tippecanoe, from which 
 many dead examples were seen. 
 
 Valvulu Iricarinata Say. A single specimen from Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 LAND MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Lima.r campestris Binney. Four specimens of this widely distributed form 
 were obtained from Vawter Park. 
 
 Succinea obliqu.a Say. This species is represented by ten alcoholic specimens. 
 All taken at Vawter Park. 
 
 Zonites arboreus Say. Three alcoholic specimens from Vawter Park. 
 
 None of the univalves present features worthy of special mention. The 
 whole collection is rather the result of incidental work than of careful collecting, 
 and is to be taken as somewhat indicative of the wealth of molluscan life in 
 favored localities in Indiana. It is submitted as a local contribution, in the form 
 of a special report, that may help to a general knowledge of Indiana mollusks. 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, November 3, 1895. 
 
251 
 
 The Odonata. By D. S. Kellicott. 
 
 I received for identification last fall two small collections of Dragonflies from 
 Professor Eigenmann. They have been studied and compared with n determined 
 collection ; the following species were included : 
 
 1. Caloperyx maculala Beauv. It occurs throughout the Eastern United 
 States and is usually abundant wherever it is found, preferring shady streams or 
 rivulets of spring water. 
 
 2. Hetarina amen'cana Fabr. Several examples of both sexes. This species 
 extends over a wide eastern range and is represented in the Gulf- States by a well 
 marked form known in the lists as H. basalU, and on the Pacific Slope by another, 
 H. Califormca. Flies late, often until the middle of October, in Ohio. The 
 scarlet patches at the base of the wings of the male make it a beautiful and con- 
 spicuous insect. 
 
 3. Enallagma hageni Walsh. This appears to be a rare species, but has 
 now appeared in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. 
 
 4. Enallagma signaturn, Hagen. Extends from the Gulf to Maine. 
 
 5. JEschna clepsydra Say. Two males and one female (?) were sent. All the 
 teschnas fly late in the season. The three species constricta, clepsydra and verlicallis 
 resemble one another so closely that they are often regarded as one species ; the 
 females can not be separated by any one as yet. 
 
 6. Anax Junius Drury. 
 
 7. Trarnea lacerata Hagen. 
 
 8. Libeltula basalis Say. 
 
 9. Libellula pulchella Drury. 
 
 10. Plathemis trimaculata DeGeer. 
 
 11. Celithemis eponina Drury. 
 
 12. Diplax vicina Hagen. This is doubtless the last odonat on the wing in 
 our latitude. In central Ohio it has been taken pairing and ovipositing as late as 
 November 8. 
 
 13. Mesothemis simplicoliis Say. 
 
 14. Pachydiplax longipennis Burm. 
 
 I am surprised at the absence of all Gomphines and that so few Agrionines 
 are present. Collecting in the early summer would doubtless disclose several 
 species of both groups. 
 
252 
 
 Fishes. By C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Fishes were collected in much larger numbers than any of the other verte- 
 brates. They will form the subject of our most extented study of variation. I 
 present here simply a few dates on the spawning time and the distribution of the 
 various species in the localities examined. Half of these localities are on the St. 
 Lawrence side of the divide ; the other half on the Mississippi side. To show the 
 relation of the fauna to that of the State I present a complete list of Indiana 
 fishes. 
 
 SPAWNING SEASONS. 
 
 Most of the fishes spawn in the spring before the Station opened. This was 
 true of all the larger species except a few stragglers of Lepomis pallidas. 
 
 Xnlimts flarus. This species is common under boards and logs in Turkey 
 Creek, at Syracuse. Eggs were found in all stages of development the latter half 
 of June. They are laid in little depressions in the gravel under boards, and are 
 apparently watched by the adult. The eggs adhere to each other in masses large 
 enough to fill the hollow of the hand. The eggs are very flabby, the membrane 
 being not tense, as usual in fish eggs. After hatching the young remain together 
 in the nest, and if they are uncovered by raising the board they quickly scatter to 
 hide under another object or under the board again if this has been turned over. 
 The blastoderm forms a narrow nodule well separated from the yolk by a deep 
 constriction. 
 
 Pimephales notatus. The eggs of this species are laid on the under surface of 
 various objects submerged in the margin of the lake to a depth of one or two feet. 
 The fish is usually found with the nest, and the immediate neighborhood of the 
 nest is kept clean of weeds and mud. The eggs were found during the whole of 
 June and the greater part of July. The young swim near the surface and are 
 very abundant the latter half of June. 
 
 Fundiilus diaphanus menona. On June 24 eggs of this species were dragged 
 up by the seine from the grass of the bottom. They are bound together by fila- 
 ments. 
 
 Zygoneetex notatus. Many taken on June 27 in Turkey Creek were with ripe 
 eggs. 
 
 Etheostoma caprodes. This species was spawning on May 30, a single ripe 
 female was taken about June 25. 
 
253 
 
 
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 Mississippi 
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 Polyodon spathula Walbaum. Spoon-bill Cat 
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 Lepisosteus platystomus Rafinesque. Short-nosed 
 
 
 
 
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 Ictalurus furcatus Le Sueur. Chuckle-headed 
 
 Cat 
 
 
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 Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque. Channel Cat 
 Ameiurus lacustris Walbaum. Great Cat-fish 
 
 Ameiwus natalis Le Sueur. Yellow Cat 
 
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 head, Horned Pout 
 
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 Schilbeodes exilis Nelson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Ietiobus cyprinella Cuv. and Val. Common 
 Buffalo Fish 
 
 
 Ietiobus urus Agassiz. Razor-backed Buffalo 
 Ietiobus bubalus Rafinesque. Sucker-mouthed 
 Buffalo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carpiodes difformis Cope 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Catostomus catostomus Foster. Northern Sucker . 
 Catostomus commersoni LaeepMe. Common Sucker, 
 White Sucker 
 
 
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254 
 
 
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 Basin. 
 
 Mississippi 
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 Compostoma anomalum Kafinesque. Stone Koller 
 Chrosomus erythrogaster Rafinesque. Red-bellied 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Notropis megalops Rafinesque. Common Shiner . 
 Notropis jejunus Forbes 
 
 
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255 
 
 
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 Clupea ehrysochloris Eafinesque. Skip-jack 
 
 Dorosoma cepedianum Le Sueur. Gizzard Shad 
 
 Coregonus quadrilateralis Richardson 
 
 Coregonus clupeiformis Mitchill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coregonus labradoricus Eichardson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coregonus hoyi Gill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coregonus artedi Le Sueur 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coregonus artedi sisco Jordan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Sahelinus namaycush Walbaum. Trout 
 
 Percopsis guitatus Agassiz. Trout Perch 
 
 Amblyopsis spelceus De Kay. Blind Fish 
 
 Typblichthys subterraneus Girard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Fundulus diaphanus menona Jordan and Cope- 
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 Zygoneelcs notatus Eafinesque. Top Minnow .... 
 
 
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 Gambusia patruelis Baird and Girard. Top Min- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Umbra limi Kirtland. Mud-minnow, Dog-fish . . 
 Lucius vermiculatus Le Sueur. Little Pickerel . . 
 
 Lucius Lucius L. Pike, Northern Pickerel 
 
 Lucius masquinongy Mitchill. Muskallunge 
 
 Anguilla anguilla rostrata Le Sueur. Eel 
 
 Pygosieus pungihus L. Nine-spined Stickle- 
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256 
 
 
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 Red Eye 
 
 
 
 
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 Lepomis eynnellus Rafinesque. Green Sunfish . 
 
 
 
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 Lepomis maeroehirus Rafinesque 
 
 
 
 
 Lepomis humitis Girard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepomis pallidas Mitchill. Blue Sunfish . 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Lepomis megalotis Rafinesque 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Lepomis garmani Forbes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepomis euryorus McKay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepomis heros B. and G. McKay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepomis notatus Agass. McKay . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepomis gibbosns L. Common Sunfish .... 
 
 
 
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 Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede. Small-mouthed 
 Black Bass 
 
 
 
 Micropterus salmoides Lacepede. Large-mouthed 
 Black Bass 
 
 
 t 
 
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 Etheostoma prUueidiim Baird. Sand Darter. . 
 Etheostoma asprellus Jordan 
 
 
 Etheostoma nigrum Rafinesque. " Johnny " 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma chlorosoma Hay . . . 
 
 
 
 Etheostoma blmnioides Rafinesque. Green-sided 
 Darter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Etheostoma cophindi Jordan . . 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma hst.no Jordan and Gilbert 
 
 Etheostirma shumardi Girard . 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma uranidea Jordan and Gilbert . . 
 Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque. Log Perch, 
 Hog-fish 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma marroeephalum Cope. 
 
 
 
 
 Etheostoma ouachitte Jordan and Gilbert 
 Etheostoma aspro Cope and Jordan . . 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma plioxoccphaluin Nelson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Etheostoma seieru.ni Swain . 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma evides Jordan and Copeland . 
 
 Etheostoma variatum Kirtland . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
257 
 
 
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 Basin. 
 
 Mississippi 
 Basin. 
 
 
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 Etlieostoma tippecanoe Jordan and Evermann .... 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
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 Etheostoma cceruleum Storer. Rainbow Darter 
 Etheostoma jessice Jordan and Brayton 
 
 
 
 
 Etheostoma microperca Jordan and Gilbert 
 
 
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 Stizostedion canadense C. H. Smith. Sauger, 
 Sand Pike 
 
 
 
 Boeous chrysops Rafinesque. White Bass 
 
 Aplodinolus grunniens Rafinesque. Fresh Water 
 Drum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Cottus ricei Nelson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cottus pollicaris J. and G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 Cottus hoyi Putnam 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (17) 
 
258 
 
 Batkachia. By Cubtis Atkinson. 
 
 Siren laeertina Linnaeus. A single specimen of this species was taken in the 
 seine in the channel. Mr. Dolan secured another late in September, and after- 
 wards, through his students, secured a nest of eleven, which were uncovered while 
 cleaning a lot near Syracuse. These had evidently gone into winter quarters. 
 Five of them are still alive. Turkey Lake is the most northern locality so far 
 recorded for the siren. 
 
 Neeturux m.aeulatus Kafinesque. Three specimens of this species were secured. 
 It is said to be abundant, but no other specimens were noted. On June 28, a 
 number of eggs were found fastened to the lower surface of a board, which was 
 well imbedded in the mud of the bank of Turkey Creek. The young were al- 
 ready quite active in the loose, flabby bags forming their covering. 
 
 Amblystoma jeffersonianum Green? A single specimen under a log near the 
 lake. 
 
 Bufo lentiginoms Shaw. The ubiquitous toad was present, but not in great 
 numbers at Syracuse, Turkey and Tippecanoe lakes. 
 
 Acris gryllus crepitans "Baird. Abundant along the shallow margins of the 
 lake among rushes and lillypads. Detailed localities where it was taken are 
 outlet of String Lakes, Turkey Lake, Syracuse Lake, Turkey Creek, Webster and 
 Tippecanoe Lakes and Tippecanoe River. 
 
 Sana virescens Kalm. Very abundant and variable. I am not at all certain 
 that the varieties described by Cope and Hay are to be found among our material, 
 but it seems quite certain that there is no correlation in the variations of different 
 parts of the body. If varieties are to be distinguished it must be by separating 
 them on single characters. 
 
 I have made measurements of a number of characters to determine whether 
 the 120 specimens collected could be grouped according to any of these. 
 
 The relation of the tibia in the length of the body gave the length of the 
 tibia .55 that of the body as the most common relation between the parts. 
 
 From this there is a gradual reduction to a length of .49 on the one hand and 
 an increase to .70 on the other. But .20 of the specimens had the tibia with the 
 most common length. This character is then perfectly useless in separating 
 varieties in my specimens: 
 
 The same may be said of the le.ngth of the head in the length of the body, 
 .33 is the relation occurring oftenest and from this there is a variation to .20 on 
 one hand and .27 on the other; .20 of all the specimens have the length of the head 
 .33 of the length of the body. 
 
259 
 
 The relation of the fifth toe to the length of the third toe gave a very jagged 
 curve with the length of the fifth toe .95 of the length of the third as the condi- 
 tion occurring in .20 of the specimens. From this a very irregular curve extends 
 to .89 on one side and to 1.00 on the other. 
 
 The relation of the diameter of the tympanum to the diameter of the eye 
 gave the most irregular curve. Thirty-five per cent, of all the specimens had a 
 tympanum with a diameter equal to .60 of that of the eye. From this we have 
 a saw-toothed curve to .48 on one side and .70 on the other. A comparatively 
 large per cent. — 15 per cent. — have a relation of .50. Attempts to get system 
 out of this curve'by breaking it up into age curves did not succeed entirely. But 
 these separate curves for the different ages show that in the young the tympanum 
 is comparatively small, and that the peak noted at the .50 mark is due to the- 
 young included in the general curve. 
 
 The whole study emphasized the fact that there is little or no coordination in 
 the variation in this frog. Xo two characters, in fact, seem to vary together and 
 all the specimens may be referred to but one variety. 
 
 I have in the following grouping, in the shape of the conventional key, sep- 
 arated the specimens according to their color patterns. All but one or two of 
 the combination of patterns contains individuals which have the vomerine patches 
 of teeth forming a straight line, and others with these patches inclined to each 
 other at a more or less distinct angle. They clearly show that there is no coordi- 
 nation in the different parts of the color pattern. Each region varies apparently 
 independently of the others. 
 
 KEY TO THE COLOR PATTERNS. 
 
 a. A spot on the nose. 
 b. Two complete series of spots on the back. 
 c. Two cross bars on the femur. 
 d. Tibia with a mixture of spots and bars. 5 specimens. 
 bb. Two complete series of spots on the back, with a third broken series 
 between. 
 e. Two cross bars on the femur. 
 /. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 16 specimens. 
 ff. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the 
 posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 1 specimen. 
 ee. Three cross bars on the femur. 
 
 g. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 
 
 h. Spots on back, many and small. 21 specimens. 
 hh. Spots on back, few and large. 13 specimens. 
 
260 
 
 gg. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the 
 posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 9 specimens. 
 eee. Four or five cross bars on femur. 
 
 i. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 16 specimens. 
 ii. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and another on the 
 posterior edge, upper surface unspotted. 2 specimens. 
 aa. No spot on the nose. 
 
 j. Two series of spots on the back. 
 
 k. Two cross bars on femur. Tibia, with a mixture of 
 
 spots and bars. 4 specimens. 
 kk. Three cross bars on the femur. Tibia, with a mixture 
 
 of spots and bars. 4 specimens. 
 kick. Irregular number of cross bars on femur, always more 
 than three. 
 /. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 2 specimens. 
 II. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and pos- 
 terior edge, upper surface unspotted. 2 speci- 
 mens. 
 jj. Two complete series of spots on the back, with a third 
 broken series between them. 
 in. Two cross bars on the femur. Tibia, with a mix- 
 ture of spots and bars. 4 specimens. 
 »im. Three cross bars on the femur. 
 •it. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 11 
 
 specimens. 
 tin. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and 
 another on the posterior edge, upper surface 
 unspotted. 4 specimens. 
 mtntn. Four or five cross bars on the femur. 
 
 o. Tibia, with a mixture of spots and bars. 1 
 
 specimen. 
 oo. Tibia, with a row of spots on the anterior and 
 another on the posterior edge, upper sur- 
 face unspotted. 4 specimens. 
 String Lakes, Upper and Lower Turkey Creeks, Turkey, Webster and Tippe- 
 canoe Lakes. 
 
 Rana pcdustris LeConte. One at the String Lakes, one at Turkey Lake, five 
 at Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
261 
 
 Rana syhatica LeConte. A single specimen at Turkey Lake. 
 
 Rana clamata Daudin. Abundant at Upper and Lower Turkey Creek, Turkey 
 and Tippecanoe Lakes. 
 
 Rana eatexbiana Shaw. Abundant among lily pads, especially in parts of the 
 lake not frequently visited. Turkey and Tippecanoe Lakes. 
 
 Snakes of Tubkey Lake. By G. Reddick. 
 
 The number of specimens of snakes taken amount to about 225. They belong 
 to five genera and eight species. 
 
 Bascanion constrictor Linn, is common around Turkey Lake and is the largest 
 of the snakes found here. This snake is of course no part of the lake fauna. This 
 snake was also taken at Lake Tippecanoe. 
 
 Etitainia sirtalis Linn, is very abundant along the margin of the lake, feed- 
 ing on frogs and fish. One specimen was secured with a cat-fish spine sticking 
 through the body wall of the snake. 
 
 Young taken from this snake July 17 averaged a slight fraction over seven 
 inches in length and were almost grown, only a very small amount of the yolk 
 being left. These young as soon as they were liberated would try to crawl away, 
 and upon provocation, and some without provocation would open their little mouths 
 and flatten their heads and strike as viciously as old snakes. 
 
 As high as seventy-two young were taken from one snake, and often from 
 thirty to forty. The average appearing to be between thirty and forty. This 
 snake was also secured from Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 Eutainia saurita Linn, is not nearly so abundant nor is it nearly so prolific. 
 Eggs were taken from only three or four specimens, six being the highest number 
 taken from any one. Specimens of this snake were also taken from the margins 
 of Lake Tippecanoe. 
 
 Eutainia butlerii Cope. Only one specimen of this was taken. It was four- 
 teen and one-half inches long. This snake is short and chubby and its movement 
 is very characteristic of it. It does not have the gliding movement of E. saurita 
 nor the swift but yet very active movement of N. sipedon, but seems rather to 
 exert a large amount of force to do little crawling. The movement is so charac- 
 teristic that I believe any one, having once seen the peculiar way in which it tries 
 to hurry itself away, would ever after be able to recognize it at a distance. No 
 specimen was taken from Lake Tippecanoe. 
 
262 
 
 Nutria leberis Linn, is rare in Turkey Lake, but common in Lake Tippeca- 
 noe. Twelve is the highest number of embryos taken from any one specimen. 
 
 Embryos taken August 5 contained a considerable amount of yolk ; probably 
 enough to nourish the embryo for a month or more. 
 
 Natrix sipeilnn Linn, is the most abundant of snakes found in this region, 
 but not the most prolific, E. sirtalis standing ahead of it. Thirty-four was the 
 highest number of eggs taken from any one specimen. One snake which was 
 kept in confinement gave birth to fourteen young the third week of September. 
 
 Among the bullrushes is a favorite abode for this snake, and also under any- 
 thing whatever that happens to be lying along the margin of the lake, especially 
 if it happens to be lying partly in the water. 
 
 Sistnirus catinatus Raf. This snake is very common around Turkey Lake 
 and also around Lake Tippecanoe. Several specimens were secured and others 
 killed. It lives chiefly in the swamps. 
 
 A specimen taken August 6 contained five eggs and the embryos were seven 
 inches long. 
 
 Storeria dekai/i Holb. Only one specimen of this was secured. It was 
 taken along a highway running by the side of a, swamp. 
 
 Testumnata. By C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Turtles are at all times and everywhere abundant. They frequent especially 
 the shallower portions of the lake. Many specimens of all ages were preserved. 
 The number of variations in the shields is large. I present here simply a list with 
 notes on their abundance and breeding habits. 
 
 Chelydra serpentina Linnams. This species is abundant in Turkey Lake, and 
 reaches a larger size than any of the others. It is caught for the markets. It is 
 much shyer than the other species of turtles and is not frequently seen. It inhabits 
 the shallower muddy parts of the lake, being abundant in the kettle and about 
 Morrison's Island. No eggs were found. 
 
 Trionyx spinij'erus LeSueur. The soft-shelled turtle is very abundant. It is 
 the second in size and is caught for the markets. Its round eggs are laid in the 
 sand and gravel near the water's edge during June and July. On June 26 one 
 was seen digging a nest in the gravel banks at Syracuse, and on the 27th we 
 obtained eggs from five nests about Ogden Point and other places about the kettle. 
 Other fresh nests were found July 9. The time of hatching was not determined. 
 
263 
 
 Several empty nests were found in July, but some eggs, examined as late as Sep- 
 tember 1, contained young which would have been ready to hatch about a month 
 later. The number of eggs found in several nests was as follows: 9; 12; 17; 18; 
 27; 32. 
 
 Aromochelys odorata Bosc. This species is abundant, but not conspicuous. 
 Individuals were oftenest seen the latter part of June and first part of July while 
 laying their eggs. The eggs are laid in the rotten wood in the tops of stumps 
 standing in the margin of the lake. The turtles were frequently found in the 
 tops of these stumps, and some of their eggs wedged as far into the rotten wood 
 as a finger could bore. Rotten logs removed some distance from the water are 
 also favorable places for egg laying, and in a mucky place of small area at the 
 edge of the lake 362 eggs were taken at one time. The number of eggs laid by 
 one individual varies from 4 to 7, this number being usually in a cluster. At this 
 rate about sixty turtles must have contributed to the nest of 362. While passing 
 along a wheat field some turtles were seen coming from it, and on inspection it 
 was found that they had deposited their eggs in the ground in depressions made 
 by a cow while walking over the ground when it was soft. Still other eggs were 
 found in bundles of rushes drifted together. An interesting change of habit 
 seems to have taken place among these turtles during the last fifty years. Before 
 that time the number of stumps standing in the margin of the lake must have 
 been exceedingly small. The present large number is due to the rising of the 
 lake after the building of the dam and the subsequent cutting down of the trees 
 whose boles had become submerged. The habit of laying eggs in stumps can not 
 be of much more than fifty years' duration. 
 
 The time of laying must be scattered over considerable time, for many eggs 
 were found hatched in August, while some obtained about then hatched at 
 various times from September 15 to November 1. These were, however, kept in 
 a box in a room and therefore removed from normal conditions. The age of this, 
 as of all other hard-shelled turtles, can be estimated by the lines of growth on 
 the horny cuticle. The originally exposed part of the plate occupies the medio- 
 cephalic corner of the plate and additions occur as smooth strips along the outer 
 and posterior margins. The strips are quite distinct in early years, but become 
 more or less obscure with age. 
 
 Chrysemys marginata Agassi?. This appears to be the most abundant turtle of 
 the lake. How far its apparent abundance may be due to its habits I am unable to 
 say. It is found floating or quietly paddling along, its head out of the water, but 
 on nearer approach it always turns tail and seeks refuge in the abundant chara 
 fields or in other hiding places. The chara fields are traversed by narrow paths 
 
261 
 
 and tunnels made by this turtle. The eggs are laid later in the summer and 
 farther from the water than those of the other species. Many were leaving the 
 water in late August; the eggs were found but once. 
 
 Malacleiniiii/s geographica LeSueur. Next to Chrysemys the most abundant of 
 the turtles. It goes by the appropriate name of Housetop. 
 
 Emys blandingii Plolbrook. Found in moderate numbers in the lake and 
 along the banks of Turkey Creek. 
 
 Clentmyx guttata Schneider. But two specimens were seen. 
 
 Oisturh) mmlina Linmeus. One specimen of this species was taken. It, how- 
 ever, in no sense forms a part of the fauna of the lake. 
 
 Water Birds ok Turkey Lake. By F. M. Chamberlain. 
 
 The following birds were taken between July 1 and September 1, on or near 
 Turkey Lake. Only those of more or less aquatic habits are listed : 
 
 1. Hydrochelidon nigra L. 
 
 2. Botaurus lentiginosus Montaga. 
 
 3. Botaurus exilis Gmelin. 
 
 4. Ardea virescens L. 
 
 5. Mallus elegans Audubon. 
 
 6. Rulliia virginianus L. 
 
 7. GallinvJa galeata Lichtenstein. 
 
 8. Ftdica americana Gmelin. 
 
 9. Actitis niacularia L. 
 
 10. Aegilites wcifera L. 
 
 11. Ceryle alcyon L. 
 
 12. Agelaius phoenicus L. 
 
 13. Clivicola riparia L. 
 
 14. Cistothorus palustris Wilson. 
 
265 
 
 PART III— VARIATION. 
 
 The Study op Variation.* By C. H. Eigenmann. 
 
 Variation and Its Importance. No two individuals are exactly alike. The 
 differences of whatever sort, whether in structure or habit, between the individ- 
 uals of a species, whether these individuals are related to each other as parent 
 and child, or belong to the same brood, are termed variation. 
 
 The whole basis of the Darwinian idea of evolution is this individual vari- 
 ation. At present we h ave two estimates of the importance of individual vari- 
 ation. 
 
 I. The individual variations are of the utmost importance, and all species 
 are the result of natural selection working on the varying individuals of any 
 species. 
 
 II. Individual "variation offers us little hope of learning the real facts of 
 evolution," "species are not the result of the selection of a few favorable vari- 
 ations out of a large number of haphazard changes," but to "the orderly ad- 
 vance (of the mean specific form) towards the final goal, deviating very little 
 from the direct line."t 
 
 We subscribe to neither of these views, wishing to view the facts as they are 
 presented by the conditions of the environment at Turkey Lake and the lakes in 
 the neighborhood, in a perfectly impartial way. 
 
 The causes of variation are still unknown, though several explanations have 
 been attempted. This is not surprising since the variations in no species are 
 sufficiently known to formulate any satisfactory explanation, in fact little has 
 been attempted but to determine the extent of variation in comparatively few 
 cases where the variation is great, resulting in the naming of new varieties and in 
 the recording of abnormalities. The statistical method of studying variation is of 
 the most recent date, but much promises to be done with this method. 
 
 Distribution op Variations. Variations are to be found at all times and 
 at all places where organisms exist. They are found under conditions where the 
 environment is in a state of stability. The conditions under which the greatest 
 variability is found (in fishes) are: 
 
 1. Wide distribution. A large territory is, usually, though not necessarily, 
 inhabited by more or less stable varieties. 
 
 "Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 17. 
 
 tThis wording is from Seott, but since the paragraphs are selected from isolated parts 
 of his paper, I do not wish to convey the idea that they state his views as he would like to 
 have them stated. The paragraphs state an extreme view. 
 
266 
 
 2. Great physical and climatic differences, even in comparatively narrow- 
 limits. No more striking illustration can be imagined than is offered by the 
 streams of the Pacific slope of North America, which are inhabited by extraord- 
 inary variable species, without stable varieties. 
 
 These are simply statements under which variation seems to find its optimum 
 condition and do not approach any explanation of its causes. 
 
 Classifications of Variations. — Students of variation have found it ad- 
 vantageous to analyze the phenomena, and the result of this analysis has given us 
 the following classifications : 
 
 Continuous variation, including all gradual modifications and transitions. 
 
 Discontinuous variation ; any sudden and wide modifications or saltations. 
 
 Using other features as the basis of classification, we have : 
 
 Meristir variations dealing with the change in the number of successive parts. 
 
 Substantatice dealing with the chemical modifications of parts. 
 
 Another classification gives us : 
 
 Indeterminate, or fortuitous and aimless variation. This is largely individual 
 and pertains to series of variations either geographically or geologically. 
 
 Determinate and adaptive, leading to definite end. 
 
 The most essential and at the same time the most difficult to define is the 
 distinction between — 
 
 Ontogenetic variation including all those deviations appearing at any time, 
 from any cause, during the life cycle of an individual ; 
 
 Phylogenetic variations change from the specific characters appearing at some 
 time in the life cycle of an individual, or better still, a large number of indi- 
 viduals, reappearing in the next generation, finally becoming hereditarily fixed. 
 
 I have in the following directions omitted the use of the terms ontogenetic 
 and phylogenetic. Recently (Osbern, 1894), the distinction between ontogenetic 
 and phylogenetic variation in the study of evolution has been strenuously insisted 
 upon as the only possible way of determining the value of any given variation in 
 the process of evolution. However, it is certainly impossible in many cases to 
 determine whether a given variation is ontogenetic or phylogenetic as defined by 
 Osborn. To give a concrete case. The ancon sheep of evolutionary classics was 
 born with short legs. Were they ontogenetic or phylogenetic? Subsequent events 
 proved that they were phylogenetic, but certainly the short legs in themselves 
 enabled no one to make the distinction; the hereditary transmission decided the 
 
267 
 
 matter. Sports, therefore, of which the ancon sheep was certainly one, may be 
 phylogenetic. Scott, however, has recently shown, Am. J. Science, 369, 1894, that 
 many if not most saltatory variations are of an entirely different nature from the 
 variations that in the past have given rise to phylogenetic series. In a deviation 
 much less marked, such for instance as the presence of one more than the normal 
 number of spines in a fin, this ultimate criterion of transmission might fail us 
 even were it practicable to put it to the test. A surer way of determining 
 phylogenetic variation is to measure variation in the bulk, by means of curves. 
 If, say one thousand individuals of a. definite time and place, show in the aggre- 
 gate a character different from that normal to the species, it is phylogenetic. Such 
 variations may occur in successive years or at isolated places. The phylogenetic 
 character is in such a case really made up of a large number of ontogenetic vari- 
 ations which must also be capable of reappearing; that is, they must also be 
 phylogenetic. A better way of stating the problem would seem to me to be that : 
 
 All variations are ontogenetic, some are at the same time immediately phylo- 
 genetic and many if not all may become so— a phyletic series. This leaves open 
 the question of the conditions under which ontogenetic variation becomes phylo- 
 genetic and ignores the unchanged germplasm theory which from purely embryo - 
 logical grounds is untenable. 
 
 The paragraphs pertaining to this subject in the following direction are : 7. 
 8, 13, 15, 16. 
 
 Nearly synonymous terms with ontogenetic and phylogenetic are the terms 
 variation and mutation as used by Newmayr, Waagen, and Scott. Variation is 
 here applied to locally different forms, while mutation is applied to the chronolog- 
 ical changes or "steady advance (of the mean) along certain definite lines." The 
 latter term may for our purpose be still further restricted by applying it not only 
 to the changes of the mean in successive geologic periods, but to the changes in the 
 mean which may occur in two successive years or broods. 
 
 To quote Newmayr, pp. 60-61 (from Scott, p. 372), "Weil ein Theil der Merk- 
 male gleichmassig nach einer Richtung im Laufe der Zeit mutirt, zeigen andere 
 Charactere regellose A.bSnderungen und jede Mutation entwickelt denselben 
 Varietatenkreis.'' Scott illustrates this process by comparing the mutation to the 
 progress of a cyclone center and the continual circlet of variations to the circu- 
 lating winds. 
 
 5— Turkey Lakk. 
 
268 
 
 DETAILED DIRECTIONS FOE COLLECTING AND STUDYING SPECIMENS. 
 
 The following directions and explanations have been prepared for the students 
 at the Biological Station for the study of the variation of the inhabitants of lakes 
 Turkey and Tippecanoe and the small lakelets in the neighborhood. 
 
 1. Collect at random all available specimens, to the number of several hun- 
 dred, the last week in June, in both Turkey and Tippecanoe lakes, keeping the 
 exact location where each lot of specimens was collected. 
 
 It is necessary to collect at random or the personal element of the collector 
 may become a disturbing factor in determining the variation. The date, which 
 is not necessarily fixed for any particular week, has been selected because at this 
 time many very young specimens, but a few weeks old, can be secured. It is 
 necessary to collect in both lakes at approximately the same date in order to se- 
 cure corresponding ages. 
 
 2. Collect in the same manner and an equal number of specimens in each 
 lake near the end of August. 
 
 From this second collection the rate of growth and any elimination taking 
 place early in life may be determined. 
 
 3. Arrange the material of each date according to the size, to determine 
 whether the broods of successive years can be separated. 
 
 If specimens have been collected at random and include all sizes this can 
 usually be done for the preceding few years. Among the older individuals the 
 gradation in size is usually too perfect to permit any groupiug according to age. 
 
 4. Determine the variation in two or more prominent characters in each 
 brood of specimens, keeping the record and labeling the specimens in such a way 
 that the specimen for any record can at any time be re-examined. Determine at 
 the same time the sex. 
 
 This is by far the m^st laborious and time killing operation, but absolutely 
 essential to determine anything further. The characters measured in fishes can 
 always be the number of rays in the dorsal and anal fins, and the number of scales 
 in the lateral line. Other characters will vary with the species, as one species has 
 one, another a different character that lends itself especially to the study of varia- 
 tion. In reptiles deviations in the number and characters of plates are available 
 characters for the study of variation. Of course any character can be takeD, but 
 one in which the variation can be numerically expressed and the number be deter- 
 mined by a simple count instead of a measurement, is vastly superior, since 
 nothing can be left to the judgment, and the personal element is therefore much 
 less important. 
 
269 
 
 5. Are there external sexual differences, and is the amount and extent of 
 variation different in the sexes ? 
 
 This determination can usually be left till later; it is introduced here so as 
 not to mar the sequence of the following points. 
 
 6. Is there a successive modification in going from younger to older speci- 
 mens indicating a structural modification with age ? 
 
 It may be possible with some species, for instance, that the number of rays 
 increases directly with the age. Should such <i case exist it might give rise to 
 entirely erroneous notions as to the influence or effect of selective destruction. 
 
 7. Is the variation of each year grouped about a mean common to all the 
 specimens, or is each year's variation grouped about a center of its own? 
 
 While the idea of the annual variation or the reaction of each brood to a 
 slightly varying environment was supposed to be a possible element, and suggested 
 as such in my first announcement of the station, I was entirely unprepared for the 
 startling annual variation in such a prominent character as the number of dorsal 
 spines which has been discovered by Mr. Moenkhaus and reported upon in another 
 paper. 
 
 The neglect of the consideration of the environment during the early period 
 of development in modifying successive broods in different ways may lead to en- 
 tirely erroneous ideas of the structural modifications of growth on the one hand, 
 or the entirely erroneous ideas of the action of selective destruction on the other. 
 To determine the latter it is absolutely necessary to take individuals of the same 
 year's broods at successive periods or successive years. Whether as great an annual 
 fluctuation is present in crabs as has been observed in Etheostoma I can not pre- 
 sume to say. But the entire neglect of this element vitiates the results of Prof. 
 Weldon, of the committee of the royal society for "Conducting statistical in- 
 quiries into the measurable characteristics of plants and animals," which Mr. 
 Thistelton-Dyer (Nature, Mch., 1895. considers to be "among the most remarkable 
 achievements in connection with the theory of evolution." 
 
 I quote from Prof. Weldon to show his methods and results. (Nature, Mch. 
 7, 1895, p. 449.) "In order to estimate the effect of small variations upon the 
 chance of survival, in a given species, it is necessary to measure, first, the percent- 
 age of young animals exhibiting this variation ; secondly, the percentage of adults 
 in which it is present. If the percentage of adults exhibiting the variation is 
 less than the percentage of young, then a certain percentage of young animals has 
 either lost the character during growth, or has been destroyed. The law of growth 
 having been ascertained, the rate of destruction may be measured, and in this 
 way an estimate of the advantage or disadvantage of a variation may he obtained. 
 
270 
 
 In order to estimate the effect of deviations of one organ upon the rest of the body, 
 it is necessary to measure the average character of the rest of the body in indi- 
 viduals with varying magnitude of the given organ." 
 
 Conclusions reached by an application of these principles to a study of the 
 shore crab gave as a result that — o. There is a period of growth during which 
 the frequency of deviations increases, b. That in one case the preliminary in- 
 crease is followed by a decrease in the frequency of given magnitude, in the other 
 case it was not. c. Assuming a particular law of growth the observations show 
 a selective destruction in the one case and not in the other. 
 
 8. What is the relation of the annual fluctuation (mutation) in variation to 
 the annual fluctuation in the different elements of the environments? 
 
 !). What is the difference in the variation of the youngest brood early in the 
 season and late in the season, and what is the difference in the variation in suc- 
 ceeding years of the same brood '.' Is this difference, if any exists, due to modi- 
 fications with age or to selective destruction, i. e., has a larger percentage of 
 individuals with one characteristic been eliminated than of individuals with 
 this characteristic slightly different? In what part of the curve of variation 
 have the greatest changes been produced ? 
 
 10. If certain individuals with definite characters seem to survive, can it 
 be determineil in what way this variation brings about the survival? 
 
 11. At what age or stage of growth are variations greatest? 
 
 12. Can variations arising with age be referred to habits or environment? 
 
 13. What is the relation of sports or saltatory variations to the continuous 
 variation numerically? 
 
 By saltatory variations are meant all those variations not connected with the 
 mean by intermediate steps. 
 
 14. Are saltatory characters always bilateral? If not, to what degree are 
 they bilateral? 
 
 The fact that a saltatory variation is confined to one side or is found on both 
 sides, may enable us to determine whether the deviation began in the germ before 
 the appearance of bilaterality or is of later origin. 
 
 15. In how far is the repetition of a character due to the repetition of the 
 environment as shown in the correlation of annual fluctuations in environment 
 with annual variations? See under 8. 
 
 Whitman Biological Lectures, 1894, p. 4: "An epidemic of metaphysical 
 physics seems to be in progress— a sort of neo-epigenesis. In place of the vis 
 essential™ of the old epigenesis, the new epigenesis sets up as its fetich the vii 
 impressa. The new god is preferred because it works from the outside instead of 
 
271 
 
 the inside. It represents the sum of external conditions and influences at the 
 present moment, and is proclaimed all-sufficient for building up organisms out 
 of isotropic corpuscles. Previous conditions are not, indeed, quite ignored, for 
 they have resulted in special molecular constitutions called germs, and these dis- 
 play molecular activities known as metabolism, growth and division. The long 
 past can bring forth only a molecular basis; a, few hours of the present can sup- 
 ply all, or nearly ail, the determinations of the most complex organism. Im- 
 potent past ; prepotent present. We have no longer any use for the 'Ahnengal- 
 lerie' of phylogeny. Heredity does not explain itself or anything else, and it 
 detracts from the omnipotence and universality of molecular epigenetics. We 
 are no better off for knowing that we have eyes because our ancestors had eyes. 
 If our eyes resemble theirs it is not on account of geneological connection, but 
 because the molecular germinal basis is developed under similar conditions. 
 The reason this basis becomes an eye rather than an ear or some other organ is 
 wholly due to its position and surroundings, not to any inherent predetermina- 
 tions. If the material for the eye and the ear could be interchanged in the 
 molecular germ, that which in one place would become eye would in the other 
 place become ear, and vice versa." 
 
 16. In what characters does the same species in the neighboring lakes differ, 
 and in what respects does the variation differ in the different lakes? 
 
 17. Are variations in one part of the body correlated with variations in 
 another part of the body? 
 
 In many cases this can only be determined by converting the variations in 
 part into the terms of the variation of another part. The method for doing this 
 has been suggested by Galton, whose method is discussed at the end of this paper. 
 
 18. What correlation is there in the variation of different species under the - 
 same environment? 
 
 As far as I am aware, no systematic studies of this description have been 
 made. With us this study resolves itself into the determination of whether the 
 fishes in Turkey Lake all differ from those in Tippecanoe along definite, deter- 
 mined ways, so that given the characters of a species for Turkey Lake the charac- 
 ters for the same species in Tippecanoe could be predicted. 
 
 Similar but exotic instances are the absence of ventral fins in some of the 
 fishes inhabiting even widely separated mountain lakes, and the presence of en- 
 larged scales along the base of the anal in the Cyprinidse inhabiting mountain 
 streams of India; or, to come nearer home, the peculiar color patterns of the 
 fishes in some regions of upper Georgia. 
 
272 
 
 Method or Presenting Kesdlts. Kesultsof statistical inquiries into vari- 
 ation can best be presented by frequency of error curves, and these will be used 
 wherever possible. The abscissa will in all cases be made to represent the size of 
 the organ, the ordinate the percentum of individuals having the particular size. 
 
 To convert variations in one organ into the terms of another organ the scheme 
 of distribution will be used with the formula given by Galton for comparing one 
 such curve with another. The process of comparing any curve "a" with any 
 
 Q of "a" 
 curve "b," multiply each of "a's" height by — — , „ 
 
 The Q of any scheme of distribution is one-half the difference between any two 
 grades. The same grades in the two curves to be compared being used to determine 
 their 1 1 for this purpose, 25 per cent, and 75 per cent, are suggested as most con- 
 venient by Galton. 
 
 Ideally the variations occurring in a single organ expressed by a frequency 
 of error curve, when a large number of individuals have been examined, will 
 form a symmetrical curve which is called a "normal." Such a curve may always 
 be expected when the material under consideration is of a single origin and has 
 developed under the same environment. Unfortunately for non-mathematical 
 evolutionists, the converse does not seem to be the case, for a symmetric curve 
 may be made up of two symmetric curves with axes not far apart, a fact that can 
 only be determined mathematically. Says Pearson, "There will always be the 
 problem: Is the material homogeneous and a true evolution going on, or is the 
 material a mixture? To throw the solution on the eye in examining the graph- 
 ical results is, I feel certain, quite futile." 
 
 It is not hoped that the data can be treated with the mathematical refine- 
 ment suggested by Pearson, nor is it probable that such treatment of our material 
 will become absolutely necessary, since there can be but little question of the 
 unity of origin of the material in any given small lake. 
 
 While usually, as stated above, the curve resulting from the study of a large 
 number of specimens will be symmetric, it will frequently be asymmetric. Sam- 
 ples of the different sort of curves actually observed are given. 
 
 Asymmetric curves may be the result, 
 
 1. Of the selective influence working on one side of a symmetric curve and 
 be then found in more or less mature specimens. 
 
 2. Of the reaction to a change in the environment and indicative of a muta- 
 tion or change in the mean specific form. 
 
 3. Of the double origin of the material under consideration, and may then 
 have a great variety of forms, from slightly asymmetric curve to one with a broad 
 top or with many peaks. 
 
273 
 
 RECENT LITERATURE ON HEREDITY AND VARIATION. 
 
 For the older literature, see Davenport, '95, Keeler, '93, Osborn, '94, and 
 Thomson, of the following list : 
 
 Allen, J. A., '94. On the seasonal change of color in the varying hare, 
 (Lepus americanus.) Bull. Am. Mus. VI, pp. 107-128. 
 
 '91a. Cranial variations in Neotoma micropus due to growth and individ- 
 ual differentiation. Bull. Am. Mus., VI, pp. 233-246. 1 pi. 
 
 Andrews, E. A., '94. Some abnormal Annelids. Quart. J. Micros. Sci., 
 XXXVII, pp. 435-460. 3 pis. 
 
 Bailey, L. H., '94. Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. Am. Nat., 
 XXVIII. 
 
 '96. Variation after birth. Am. Nat. XXX, 17. 
 
 Balb, W. Platt, '94. Neuter Insects and Lamarckism. Nat. Sci., IV, pp. 
 91-97. 
 
 Bateson, W., '94. On two cases of color variation in flat fishes, illus- 
 trating principles of symmetry. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 246-249. 1 pi. 
 
 '95. The origin of cultivated cineria, Nature, vol. 52, 29, 103. 
 
 Baur, G, '95. The differentiation of species on the Galapagos Islands and 
 the origin of the group. Biological Lectures, 1894. Boston, 1895. 
 
 Behla, R., '94. Die Abstammungslehre u. die Errichtung eines Institutes 
 fur Transformismus. Kiel and Leipzig, 8vo., VII, 60 pp. 
 
 Below, E., '94. Artenbildung. durch Zonenwechsel, Frankfurt, 24 pp. 
 
 Brooks, W. K., '95. An intrinsic error in the theories of Galton and 
 Weismann. Science, I, 38. 
 
 Cope, E. D., '89. The mechanical causes of the development of the hard 
 parts of the mammalia. Jour. Morph., Ill, pp. 137-277. 
 
 '89. On inheritance in Evolution. Am. Nat., XXIII. 
 
 '92. A synopsis of the species of the genus Cnemidophorus. Trans. Am. 
 Phil. Soc. 
 
 '93. The color variations of the milk snake. Am. Nat., XXVII, p. 1066. 
 
 '94. The energy of evolution. Am. Nat., XXVII, p. 205. 
 
 '94a. The origin of structural variations. New Occasions, Vol. II, pp. 
 273-279. 
 
 '96. Primary factors of organic evolution. Open Court Publishing Co., 
 Chicago. 
 
 Cunningham, J. T., '93. The problem of variation. Natural Science, Vol. 
 Ill, 282-287. Oct., 1893. 
 
274 
 
 '94. Neuter Insects and Darwinism. Nat. Sci., Vol. IV, April. 
 
 Cunningham, J. T., and MacMunn, C. A., '93. On the coloration of the 
 skins of fishes, especially of Pleuronectida;. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 
 CLXXXIV, pp. 765-812. 
 
 Dall, W. H., '77. A provisional hypothesis of saltatory evolution. Am. 
 Nat., 1877. 
 
 '90. On dynamic influences in evolution. Biol. Soc. Wash. 
 
 '94. The mechanical cause of folds in the aperture of the shells of gastero- 
 pods. Am. Nat., XXYIIi. 
 
 Davenport, C. B., and Castle, W. E., '95. On the Acclimatization of or- 
 ganisms to high temperatures. Arch. Entwickelungsm d. Organismen, II, 227- 
 249. 
 
 Delage, Yves, '95. La Structure rlu protoplasma et les theories sur l'he'- 
 redite\ Paris. 
 
 Dixey, F. A., '94. On Mr. Merrifield's experiments on temperature vari- 
 ation as bearing on theories of heredity. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 439-446. 
 
 Eigenmann, C. H., '94. The effect of environment on the mass of local 
 species. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1893, pp. 226-229. 
 
 '94a, Results of explorations in western Canada and northwestern United 
 States. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., XIV, pp. 101-132, pis. 5-8, July 7. 
 
 '95. Leucisrns balteatus (Richardson). A study in variation. Am. Nat., 
 Jan., 1895, pp. 10-25, pis. 1-5. 
 
 Eimee, H. T., '90. Organic evolution. London, 1890. 
 
 '95. Orthogenesis. Science, Nov. 1, 1895, pp. 572. 
 
 Elliot, D. G., '92. The inheritance of acquired characters. The Auk., Vol. 
 IX, No. 1, Jan., 1892. 
 
 Fischer, E., '94. Transmutation der Schmetterlinge infolge Temperatur- 
 anderungen. Berlin. 
 
 Forel, A., '94. Polymorphisme et ergatomorphism des fourmis. Arch. Phys. 
 Nat., XXXII, pp. 373-380. 
 
 Frazer, P., '90. The persistence of plant and animal life under changing 
 conditions of environment. Am. Nat., XXIV. 
 
 Galton, Francis, '94. Natural inheritance. Macmillan & Co. 
 
 '94a. Discontinuity in variation. Mind, III, pp. 362-372. 
 
 Gulick, J. T., '91. Divergent evolution through cumulative segregation. 
 Smith. Rpt. for 1891, pp. 269-336. 
 
 Haeckel, E., '94. The problem of progressive heredity. 
 
275 
 
 Hay, O. P., '92. A consideration of some theories of evolution. Proc. Ind. 
 Acad., L. 
 
 Hertwig, O., '94. Praformation oder epigenesis. Review in nature, Vol. 
 LI, p. 265. 
 
 Hyatt, A., '93. Phylogeny of an acquired character. Am. Nat., XXVII, 
 p. 865. 
 
 James, J. F., '89. On variation: with special reference to certain paleozoic 
 genera. Am. Nat., XXIII. 
 
 Janet, M. C, '95. Science. Nov. 1, 1895. P. 572. 
 
 Jobdan, D. S., '91. Relations of temperature to vertebra; among fishes. 
 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV, pp. 107-120. 
 
 Keelee, Chas., '93.- Evolution of the colors of North American land birds. 
 Occasional Papers Calif. Acad. Sci., Ill, 189. 
 
 Lankestbe, E. Ray, '95. The term acquired character. Nature, Vol. 
 LI, p. 245. 
 
 Mebeiam, C. Hart., '94. Laws of temperature control of the geographical 
 distribution of terrestrial animals and plants. Nat. Geog. Mag., VI, pp. 229- 
 238, with maps, pis. 12-14. 
 
 Miles, M., '92. Heredity of acquired characters. Am. Nat., XXVI, 887. 
 
 '94. Animal mechanisms. Am. Nat., XXVIII, p. 555. 
 
 '94a. Limits of biological experiments. Am. Nat., XXVIII, p. 845. 
 
 MiLLEE, Geeeit S., '93. Description of a new white-footed mouse from the 
 eastern United States. Proc. Biol. Soc, Washington, VIII, pp. 55-70, June, 1893. 
 
 '93a. A jumping mouse new to the United States. Proc. Biol. Soc, Wash- 
 ington, VIII, p. 18, April. 
 
 Minot, Chaeles Sedgwick, '95. Ueber die Vererbung u. Verjiingung. 
 Biologisches Centralblatt, XV, pp. 571-587, Aug., 1895. 
 
 '96. On heredity and rejuvenation. Am. Nat., XXX, 1. 
 
 MoENKHAtrs, W. J., '94. The variation of Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque. 
 Am-. Nat, Aug., 1894, pp. 641-660, pis. 18-21. 
 
 Moeeis, Chas., '95. Organic variation. Am. Nat., XXIX, pp. 888-898. 
 
 Nutting, C. C, '92. What is an "acquired character"? 
 
 Osboen, H. F., '89. The paleontological evidence of the transmission of 
 acquired characters. Am. Nat., XXIII, pp. 561-566. 
 
 '91. Are acquired variations inherited? Am. Nat., XXV. 
 
 '91a. Evolution and heredity. Biological Lectures, 1890, pp. 130-142. 
 Ginn & Co., Boston, 1891. 
 
 '92. The contemporary evolution of man. Am. Nat., XXVI, p. 455. 
 
276 
 
 '92a. Heredity and the germ cells. Am. Nat., XXVI, pp. 642-670. 
 
 '93. The rise of the mammalia in North America. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 
 XLVI, pp. 379-448, and Biological Studies of Columbia College, Part I. 
 
 '94. Alte und neue Probleme der Phylogenese. Ergebnisse, Anatomie und 
 Entw., III. 
 
 '94a. From the Greeks to Darwin. Macmillan & Co. 
 
 '95. Environment in its influence upon the successive stages of development 
 and as a cause of variation. Science, I, 35. 
 
 '95a. The hereditary mechanism and the search for the unknown factors of 
 evolution. Biological Lectures, 1894. Boston, 1895. 
 
 Packard, A. S., '94. On the inheritance of acquired characters in animals, 
 with a complete metamorphosis. Proc. Am. Acad., XXIX, pp. 331-370. 
 
 '94a. The origin of the subterranean fauna of North America. Am. Nat., 
 XXVIII, p. 727. 
 
 Pearson, K., '94. Contributions to the mathematical theory of evolution. 
 Phil. Trans., 185A. 
 
 Pfeffer, G., '94. Ueber die Umwandlung der Arten auf Grund des Ueber- 
 lebeus eines verschiedengearteten Durchscbnitts je nach dem wechsel der Lebens- 
 bedingungen verh. Deutsche Zotil. Gess., 3 vers., pp. 57-69. 
 
 Eomanes, G. J., '90. Weisrnann's Theory of Heredity. Contemporary Re- 
 view, May, 1890. Reprinted in Smithsonian Rpt, 1890. Pt. 1, p. 433. 
 
 '92. Darwin and after Darwin. Vol. I. 
 
 '95. Darwin and after Darwin. Vol. II. Open Court Publishing Co., 
 Chicago. 
 
 Ryder, J. A., '90. A physiological hypothesis of heredity and variation. 
 Am. Nat., XXIV, pp. 85-92. 
 
 '92. On the mechanical genesis of the scales of fishes. Proc. Acad. Nat. 
 Sci., Phila., pp. 219-224. 
 
 Proofs of the effect of habitual use in the modification of animal organisms. 
 Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, Phila., Vol. XXVI. 
 
 '93. The inheritance of modifications due to disturbances of the early stages 
 of development. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., pp. 75-94. 
 
 '94. Dynamics in evolution. Biological Lectures, 1893, pp. 63-83. Boston, 
 1894. 
 
 '95. A dynamical hypothesis of inheritance. Biological Lectures, 1894, pp. 
 23-55. Boston. 
 
 Scott, W. B., '91. On some of the factors in the evolution of the mammalia. 
 Jour. Morph., V, 378. 
 
277 
 
 '94. On variations and mutations. Am. Jour. Sci., XL VIII, pp. 355-374. 
 
 Sanderson, J. B., '95. The effect of environment on the development of 
 echinodern larvae; an experimental inquiry into the causes of variation. Proc. 
 Boy. Soc, LVII, pp. 382-385. 
 
 Standfuss, M., '94. Die Beziehungen zwischen Fiirbung und Lebensgewohn- 
 heit bei den palaearctischen Gross-Schmetterlingen. Vierteljahr'schrift der Naturf. 
 Gess. Zurich, XXXIX. 
 
 Thisblton-Dyek, C. M. G., '95. Variation and specific stability. Nature, 
 Vol. LI, p. 459. 
 
 '95a. The origin of cultivated cineria. Nature, Vol. LII, pp. 54, 103, 129. 
 
 Thompson, J. A. The history and theory of heredity. Proc. Boy. Soc, 
 Edinburgh, Vol. XVI. 
 
 '88. Synthetic summary of the influence of the environment upon the or- 
 ganism. Proc. Boy. Phys. Soc, Edinburgh, Vol. IX, pt. 3. 
 
 Vkies, H. de, '95. Eine zweigipflige variations Kurve. Arch. Entwicke- 
 lungsm., II, pp. 52-65. 
 
 Ward, L. J., '94. Weismann's concessions. Popular Sci. Monthly, pp. 
 175-184. 
 
 Weismann, Aug., '93. The germ plasm. New York. 
 
 '94. The effect of external influences upon development. Bomanes' lecture. 
 
 Weldon, W. F. B., '92. CeTtain correlated variations in Crangon vulgaris. 
 Proc. Boy. Soc, Vol. LI. 
 
 '93. On certain correlated variations in Carcinus moenas. Proc. Boy. Soc, 
 Vol. LIV. 
 
 '95. The origin of cultivated cineria. Nature, Vol. LII, 103; LIV, 129. 
 
 '95a. An attempt to measure the death rate due to the selective destruction 
 of Carcinus moenas with respect to a particular dimension. Proc. Boy. Soc, 
 LVII, pp. 360-379. 
 
 '95b. Bemarks on variation in animals and plants. Proc. Boy. Soc, LVII, 
 pp. 379-382. 
 
 Whitman, C. O., '94. The inadequacy of the cell theory of development. 
 Biological Lectures, 1893, pp. 105-125. Boston, 1894. 
 
 '95. Evolution and epigenesis. Bonnet's theory of evolution ; the palingen- 
 esia and the germ doctrine of Bonnet. Biological Lectures, 1894, pp. 205-241. 
 Boston, 1895. 
 
 Wixson, E. B., '94. The mosaic theory of development. Biological Lectures, 
 1893, pp. 1-15. Ginn & Co., Boston. 
 
278 
 
 '95. The influence of the environment on the early stages of embryonic 
 development. Science, I, 36. 
 
 Wilson, W. P., '94. The influence of external conditions on plant life. 
 Biological Lectures, 1893, pp. 163-185. Boston, 1894. 
 
 Windlb, B. C, '89. Report on a discussion on the transmission of acquired 
 characters. Nature, XL, 609. 
 
 'S9a. A note on the musculus sternalis. Anat. Anz., IV, pp. 715-719. 
 
 '90. On some cranial and dental characters of the domestic dog. Proc. Zo61. 
 Soc , Jan. 1890. 
 
 '90a. Terratological evidence as to the heredity of acquired conditions. 
 J. Linn. Soc. Zool., XXIII, pp. 448-502. 
 
 Wortman, J. L., '93. A new theory of the mechanical evolution of the 
 metapodial keels of Diplarthra. Am. Nat., XXVII, p. 421. 
 
 Zenneck, J., '94. Die Anlage der Zeichnung u. deren physiologische 
 Ursachen bei Eingelnatterembryonen. Zeitsch. W. Zool., LVIII, pp. 364-393. 
 
 VARIATION OF NORTH AMERICAN FISHES. II. 
 
 The Variation of Etheostoma Caprodes Rafinesque in Turkey Lake 
 and Tippecanoe Lake.* By W. J. Moenkhaus. 
 
 Introduction. — In a former paper on the "Variation of Etheostoma caprodes 
 Rafinesque" (Am. Nat., Aug., 1894), I determined the geographical distribution 
 of this fish and the geographical variation of its color-pattern and fins. 
 
 It was found that this species inhabits practically all the fresh waters of the 
 Atlantic slope east of the 100th meridian and west of the Alleghany Mountains. 
 Its northern and eastern limits are the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain ; its 
 southwestern, the Rio Grande in the extreme southern part of Texas. 
 
 The following conclusions were reached among others : 
 
 1. Each river system from which specimens were examined possesses a pe- 
 culiar variety. This peculiarity is most striking in the color-pattern. 
 
 2. All the variations are continuous. 
 
 "Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of thelndiana University under the 
 direction of C. H. Bigenmann, No. 18. 
 
279 
 
 3. The variation in the anal rays and dorsal spines are determinate with the 
 latitude, the southern specimens having a slightly larger number of rays and 
 spines. 
 
 4. The color-pattern variations are determinate, varying through definite 
 stages from a simple to more complex pattern. 
 
 In Table A and B are given the data on the anal rays and dorsal spines. 
 The localities are arranged in the order of their latitude from north to south. 
 From these we see that there is both an increase in the average number of rays 
 and spines and in the number that prevails in each case from north to south. In< 
 the anal fin 10 is the prevailing number north, and 11 and 12 south, of the Ohio 
 Biver. Fourteen and fifteen are the prevailing number of dorsal spines in the 
 north and 15, 16 and 17 in the south. 
 
 TABLE A. 
 
 LOCALITY. 
 
 
 a « 
 
 « a 
 
 Q> O 
 
 ft"" 1 
 
 § ap3 
 
 0,1-H 
 
 ™x. 
 
 CD CO _ 
 
 -^ a >-> 
 
 CD C3 
 
 a« 
 
 QJ CI 
 
 °'* . 
 
 CD CO CO 
 
 Torch Lake, Mich 
 
 Cedar Eapids, Iowa 
 
 White Biver, at Indianapolis 
 
 Gosport, Ind 
 
 Bean Blossom, Ind 
 
 Bushville, Ind 
 
 Wild Cat Creek, Ind 
 
 Pike Creek, Ind 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Nipisink Lake, 111 
 
 Monongahela Biver 
 
 Hartford, Ky 
 
 Green Biver, Greensburg, Ky 
 
 Little Barren Biver, Osceola, Ky 
 
 Little South Fork Cumberland Biver, Wayne 
 
 County, Ky 
 
 Eagle Creek, Olympus, Tenn 
 
 Obeys Biver, Elizabethtown, Tenn 
 
 Watauga Biver, Elizabethtown, Tenn 
 
 North Fork Holston Biver, Saltville, Va 
 
 Eureka Springs, Ark 
 
 Chocola Creek, Oxford, Ala 
 
 San Marcos Springs, Tex 
 
 7 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 17 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 
 1 
 2 
 13 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 2 
 
 1(H- 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10fV 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10?, 
 
 10 
 
 m 
 
 lOf 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 11 
 HA 
 
 12 
 
 11} 
 11 
 
280 
 
 TABLE B. 
 
 LOCALITY. 
 
 
 a.s 
 
 go 
 <1 
 
 »l » 
 
 
 ^' fc-> 
 
 k> 
 
 , rf i , rt 
 
 i »3 
 
 o " i'u ' — ' 
 
 r,« 
 
 QJ ^ Q> -^ 
 
 OJ to 
 
 O.- 1 P,rH 
 
 Art 
 
 co^ co^ 
 
 ^JH 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 „.g 
 
 
 a; «3 
 
 
 
 ^ Pi 
 
 ^ fl 
 
 -O PI 
 
 la 
 
 la 
 
 a a 
 
 K 
 
 z 
 
 a 
 
 0> CD 
 P-.i-( 
 
 CD OJ 
 
 la 
 
 
 Torch Lake, Mich 
 
 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
 
 White River, at Indianapolis 
 
 Gosport, Ind 
 
 Bean Blossom, Ind 
 
 Rushville, Ind 
 
 Wild Cat Creek, Ind 
 
 Pike Creek, Ind 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Nipinsik Lake, 111 
 
 Monongahela River 
 
 Hartford, Ky 
 
 Green River, Greensburg, Ky 
 
 Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky 
 
 Little South Fork Cumberland River, Wayne 
 
 County, Ky 
 
 Eagle Creek, Olympus, Tenn 
 
 Obeys River, Elizabethtown, Tenn 
 
 Watauga River, Elizabethtown, Tenn 
 
 North Fork Holsten River, Saltville, Va 
 
 Eureka Springs, Ark 
 
 Chocola Creek, Oxford, Ala 
 
 San Marcos Springs, Tex 
 
 14} 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14f 
 
 1/16 
 lijy 
 
 14 
 15 
 144 
 
 35 
 
 144 
 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 16$ 
 
 16 T 6 , 
 
 15* 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 15J 
 
 134 
 
 The color-pattern varies from a probably primitive, simple pattern consisting 
 of alternate whole and half cross-bars distributed along the entire length of the 
 body through the pattern consisting of whole, half and quarter bars, having an 
 incomplete longitudinal series of lateral spots to a pattern having a very promi- 
 nent longitudinal series of dark lateral blotches with fine reticulations on the back. 
 Between these different patterns all stages exist, so that they can be connected by 
 regular steps. Those specimens inhabiting the lakes were found to possess a pecu- 
 liar color-pattern. This was derived from the primitive, simple pattern by sup- 
 posing the lower part of the whole bars to have become much broader than the 
 upper part, and then to have shifted backwards slightly. 
 
281 
 
 This lake variety (manitou, Jordan) is one of the most abundant of the fishes 
 in Turkey and Tippecanoe Lakes, and upon it the results given in the following, 
 pages are based. 
 
 Six hundred specimens, all that were collected from Turkey Lake, and three' 
 hundred of those collected from Tippecanoe Lake, have been examined with a 
 view, first, of making a comparison of this species in the two lakes, and second, 
 of determining the range and character of its variation within Turkey Lake itself. 
 The number of species collected from Tippecanoe Lake is much greater than 300, 
 but this number was thought sufficient to give fairly good results. The effect of 
 natural selection will be taken up at a later time. 
 
 Etheostoma caprodes has two dorsal fins, the first, a spinous one, well separated 
 from the second, which is composed of soft rays. The anal fin is composed of two 
 rather strong spines followed by a number of soft rays. The scales are very reg- 
 ularly arranged, so that they can be definitely counted along the complete lateral 
 lines. The number of spines and rays in these fins, and the number of scales in 
 the lateral line of both sides of the body have been determined. Besides these 
 characters the presence or absence of scales on the nape has been determined. 
 These structures have been taken because, with the exception of the last, they 
 present definite, countable elements, so that in the results the personal factor is 
 entirely eliminated. 
 
 Curves have been constructed to represent the variation in these structures. 
 In all the curves the horizontal distances represent the countable elements, and 
 the vertical distances the per cent, of specimens possessing these varying elements. 
 
 COMPARISON OP TURKEY LAKE AND TIPPECANOE SPECIMENS. 
 
 Coloration. — The coloration of these fishes in the two lakes will be taken up 
 in detail later. The color-pattern of Turkey Lake specimens is, on the whole, of 
 a more blotched character than that of Tippecanoe Lake specimens, and shows a 
 slighter affinity to the simple, primitive coloration characteristic of the Wabash 
 River forms. The connection of Tippecanoe Lake with the Wabash River may 
 account for this greater affinity. 
 
 Squamation of Nape. — In Turkey Lake the nape is as a rule naked, while in 
 Tippecanoe Lake it is usually scaled. Table I will bring out the difference. 
 
282 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Per cent, of specimens having no scales on nape 
 Per cent, of specimens having few scales on nape. . . . 
 Per cent, of specimens having several scales on nape 
 Per cent, of specimens having nape thinly scaled. . . 
 Per cent, of specimens having nape closely scaled . . . 
 
 19.32 
 23.87 
 28.32 
 16.67 
 11.74 
 
 Lateral Line. — The specimens of Turkey Lake have on an average two more 
 scales in the lateral line. The average number for Turkey Lake is 89.46 for the 
 left side, 89.74 for the right side; for Tippecanoe Lake, 87.69 for the left side, 
 87.45 for the right side. Fig. 1 represents the curves for the scales of the right 
 side. The continuous line represents the conditions in Turkey Lake, and the 
 broken line those of Tippecanoe Lake. It should be noticed that the entire curve 
 for Turkey Lake is two units to the right of that of Tippecanoe Lake, showing 
 that practically all the Turkey Lake specimens have a greater number of scales. 
 Table II contains the summary of the counts for the scales in the lateral line. 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ■ 
 
 if 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 — 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 85 90 95 100 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
TABLE II. 
 
 283 
 
 Turkey Lake. 
 
 Left 
 Side. 
 
 Eight 
 Side. 
 
 Tipp'canoe Lake 
 
 Left 
 Side. 
 
 Eight 
 Side. 
 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 
 78 scales. 
 
 79 scales . 
 
 80 scales. 
 
 81 scales. 
 
 82 scales . 
 
 83 scales . 
 
 84 scales . 
 
 85 scales . 
 
 86 scales . 
 
 87 scales. 
 
 88 scales . 
 
 89 scales . 
 
 90 scales . 
 
 91 scales. 
 
 92 scales . 
 
 93 scales. 
 
 94 scales . 
 
 95 scales . 
 
 96 scales . 
 
 97 scales. 
 
 98 scales . 
 
 99 scales . 
 
 100 scales . 
 
 101 scales. 
 
 102 scales. 
 
 103 scales . 
 
 0.17 
 (U7 
 
 0.17 
 
 1.37 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.78 
 
 6.83 
 
 11.02 
 
 12.56 
 
 17.72 
 
 12.39 
 
 8.08 
 
 6.53 
 
 5.16 
 
 3.61 
 
 2.58 
 
 1.37 
 
 1.03 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.17 
 0.17 
 0.17 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.34 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.89 
 
 5.17 
 
 9.30 
 
 10.68 
 
 11.55 
 
 14.82 
 
 12.93 
 
 11.03 
 
 5.67 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.78 
 
 3.27 
 
 2.41 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.34 
 <U7' 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.50 
 
 11.50 
 
 15.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 11.50 
 
 7.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.50 
 
 11.50 
 
 13.00 
 
 16.50 
 
 13.50 
 
 16.00 
 
 10.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 Anal pin. — The number of spines in the anal fin varies from the normal in 
 only nine specimens from Turkey Lake and in six from Tippecanoe Lake. This 
 variation is always toward a lower number, and extends only through one spine. 
 
 Turkey Lake specimens have on an average fewer rays in the anal than 
 Tippecanoe Lake specimens. The averages are 10.87 for the former, 11.15 for the 
 latter. Fig. 2 represents the curves for the anal rays. Here again, and also in 
 the succeeding curves for the comparison of the two lakes, the continuous line 
 represents Turkey Lake and the broken line Tippecanoe Lake. Table III gives 
 the summary of the anal rays for both lakes. 
 
284 
 
 The prevailing number of rays in both lakes is 11; 53 per cent, from Turkey 
 lake, and 56 per cent, from Tippecanoe Lake having that number. The number 
 of rays in the next highest per cent, is 10 for Turkey Lake and 12 for Tippe- 
 canoe Lake, about 27 per cent, in each case. 
 
 The range of variation is two greater in Turkey Lake. This may be due to 
 the greater number of specimens from this lake. 
 
 70 
 60 
 50 
 40 
 30 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 10 II 12 13 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 
 of 
 
 f specimens having 7 anal rays 
 
 f stippimpTis Viavincr 8 anal rays 
 
 9 anal rays 
 
 10 anal rays 
 
 11 anal rays 
 
 12 anal rays 
 
 13 anal rays 
 
 ui specimens Having 
 
 of specimens having 
 of specimens having 
 of specimens having 
 of specimens having 
 of specimens having 
 of specimens having 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.16 
 
 1.48 
 
 26.80 
 
 53.43 
 
 14.13 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.77 
 15.50 
 56.21 
 27.13 
 
 0.35 
 
 Dorsal Spines. — Turkey Lake has on an average more dorsal spines, the 
 average being 14.52 for Turkey Lake and 14.23 for Tippecanoe Lakes. Fig. 3 
 represents the curves for this structure. The range of variation is the same, from 
 12 to 17. Although the average number of spines differs but slightly in the two 
 
285 
 
 lakes, the preferences shown for a given number of spines are quite different. 
 In the Tippecanoe Lake specimens the preference is decidedly for 14. In the 
 Turkey Lake specimens the preference is for 15, although not so decided. From 
 Table IV and the curves, it will be seen that the number of individuals in Tur- 
 key Lake having 14 spines and 15 spines are about the same, 41 per cent, having 
 14 and 44 per cent., 15, while in Tippecanoe Lake this is not the case, 60 per 
 cent, having 14, and only 25 per cent, having 15. 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 aSEBfc 
 
 12 13 14 15 16 17 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 a ph» 
 
 Per cent, of specimens having 12 dorsal spines 
 Per cent, of specimens having 13 dorsal spines 
 Per cent, of specimens having 14 dorsal spines 
 Per cent, of specimens having 15 dorsal spines 
 Per cent, of specimens having 16 dorsal spines 
 Per cent, of specimens having 17 dorsal spines 
 
 0.32 
 5.09 
 41.26 
 44.22 
 6.90 
 0.65 
 
 0.38 
 
 11.24 
 
 60.85 
 
 25.96 
 
 1.16 
 
 0.38 
 
 Dorsal Kays. — The average number of dorsal rays for Turkey Lake is 14.87, 
 for Tippecanoe Lake, 16.40, the latter having on an average almost two more. 
 The curves are given in Fig. 4. From this and Table V it will be seen that Tur- 
 key Lake specimens show a decided preference for 15 rays, while the Tippecanoe 
 Lake specimens show just as decided a preference for 16 rays, 52 per cent, of the 
 
286 
 
 specimens having these numbers in both lakes. The range of variation is two 
 greater in Turkey Lake, from 12 to 18 as compared from 14 to 18 in Tippecanoe 
 Lake. This again may be due to the greater number of specimens. 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 -+T 
 
 ~I~L 
 11- 
 
 -+ 
 
 -t^r 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ~hn 
 
 "~ 
 
 -if~ 
 
 i V-4- 
 
 
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 4 
 
 ! i 
 
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 |t- 
 
 -+i.tt 
 
 
 
 "\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r!] ; ; 
 
 
 
 -4- 
 
 
 -U 
 
 tn 
 
 
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 -\— ;- L 
 
 V- 
 
 
 "-_- = 
 
 
 f:~r 
 
 /Vr;- 
 
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 1-2 
 
 -4} 
 
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 ^T 
 
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 4- 
 
 
 — " 
 
 
 ;fti 
 
 rE-i\ 
 
 \' 
 
 'V— 
 
 tV- 
 
 ~~ : 
 
 / -I _ r. 
 
 R- 
 
 ;-3- 
 
 -U-\ 
 
 T-5; 
 
 12 13 14 15 IS 17 18 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 o oj ™ 
 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 Per cent, of specimens having 
 
 12 dorsal rays 
 
 13 dorsal rays 
 
 14 dorsal rays 
 
 15 dorsal rays 
 
 16 dorsal rays 
 
 17 dorsal rays 
 
 18 dorsal rays 
 
 0.32 
 
 1.48 
 
 28.77 
 
 52.26 
 
 12.16 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.16 
 
 3.48 
 31.78 
 52.32 
 15.11 
 
 0.77 
 
 Table VI presents all the combinations of dorsal spines and dorsal rays from 
 both lakes. The spines are represented by Roman numbers and the rays by 
 Arabic numbers. The commonest combination in Turkey Lake is XIV-15 and 
 XV-15 ; XIV, XV, occurring most frequently in the spinous dorsal, and 15 most 
 frequently in the soft dorsal. The per cent, of specimens having these combina- 
 tions is 22.46 and 24.49 respectively. In Tippecanoe Lake, XIV-16 is the com- 
 monest combination, XIV being the prevailing number in the spinous dorsal and 
 16 in the soft dorsal. 32.11 per cent, of the specimens have this combination. 
 
TABLE VI. 
 
 287 
 
 fa 
 
 (V CD 
 
 H m rf 
 
 fa 
 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 "Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 the combination 
 
 XII-14. 
 
 XII-15. 
 
 XII-16. 
 XIII-14. 
 XIII-15. 
 XIII-16. 
 XIII-17. 
 XIV-12. 
 XIV-13. 
 XIV-14. 
 XIV-15. 
 XIV-16. 
 XIV-17. 
 XIV-18. 
 
 XV-13. 
 
 XV-14. 
 
 XV-15. 
 
 XV-16. 
 
 XV-17. 
 
 XV-18. 
 
 XVI-12. 
 
 XVI-13. 
 
 XVI-14. 
 
 XVI-15. 
 
 XVI-16. 
 
 XVI-17. 
 
 XVII-14. 
 
 XVII-15. 
 
 XVII-lfi. 
 
 XVIII-14. 
 
 0.16 
 0.16 
 
 0.84 
 3.71 
 0.67 
 
 0.16 
 
 1.01 
 
 11.99 
 
 22.46 
 
 5.74 
 0.33 
 
 0.67 
 
 13.51 
 
 24.49 
 
 5.40 
 0.84 
 0.16 
 0.16 
 0.16 
 2.36 
 3.04 
 0.84 
 0.33 
 0.50 
 
 0.37 
 0.37 
 2.22 
 5.92 
 2.59 
 
 1.48 
 
 20.37 
 
 32.11 
 
 6.66 
 1.11 
 
 1.85 
 
 8.14 
 
 14.44 
 
 1.48 
 
 1.11 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.16 
 0.16 
 
 In Table VII is given the variation in the two dorsal fins taken together. The 
 average number for the two fins is 29.21 for Turkey Lake and 30 for Tippecanoe 
 Lake. In Turkey Lake 36.82 per cent, have the average number; in Tippecanoe 
 Lake, 41.8 per cent. The range of variation in the fins separately is six for the 
 spinous dorsal and five for the soft dorsal in Tippecanoe Lake, and seven in each 
 dorsal fin in Turkey Lake. With an exception in the spinous dorsal in Tippecanoe 
 Lake the range of variation is, in each case, one greater for the two fins taken 
 together, than for the fins separately. Although the extent of variation is only 
 one greater for the two fins together, the per cent, of specimens having the aver- 
 age number is much smaller than the per cent, of specimens having the average 
 
288 
 
 number in the fins separately. In Turkey Lake nearly 37 per cent, have the 
 average number of the fins taken together, while 44 per cent, and 52 per cent, 
 have the average number in the spinous and soft dorsal respectively. In Tippe- 
 canoe Lake 41 per cent, have the average number for both fins, while 52 per 
 cent, and 61 per cent, have the average number in the spinous and soft dorsals 
 respectively. 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 HhI 
 
 r*. 
 
 t>~ 
 
 
 0) 
 
 c 
 
 JX 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 — -_, 
 
 5 » ^ 
 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 
 of specimens having 26 rays in the dorsals 
 of specimens having 27 rays in the dorsals 
 of specimens having 28 rays in the dorsals 
 of specimens having 29 rays in the dorsals 
 of specimens having 30 rays in the dorsals 
 of specimens having 31 rays in the dorsuls 
 of specimens having 32 rays in the dorsals 
 of specimens having 33 rays in the dorsals 
 
 0.33 
 
 2.02 
 
 16.38 
 
 36.82 
 
 32.59 
 
 9.28 
 
 1.85 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.37 
 
 4.07 
 
 28.15 
 
 41.80 
 
 22.22 
 
 3.33 
 
 SDMMAKY. 
 
 1. This species is equally abundant in the two lakes. 
 
 2. The color pattern of Tippecanoe Lake specimens shows, a greater affinity 
 for the primitive, simple Wabash River pattern than does that of Turkey Lake 
 specimens. 
 
 3. Tn Turkey Lake the nape is usually naked ; in Tippecanoe Lake the 
 nape is usually scaled. 
 
 4. Tippecanoe Lake specimens have a smaller number of scales in the lat- 
 eral line. 
 
 5. The anal spines vary but little, and show the same variation in the two 
 lakes. 
 
 6. The anal fin is somewhat larger in the Tippecanoe Lake specimens. 
 
 7. Turkey Lake specimens have one more dorsal spine. 
 
 8. Tippecanoe Lake specimens have one more dorsal ray, 16 rays is the 
 mean in Tippecanoe Lake and 15 in Turkey Lake. 
 
 9. The combinations of the dorsal spines and rays are determined by the 
 numbers that prevail in the fins separately. 
 
289 
 
 10. The range of variation in the total number of dorsal spines and rays 
 combined is one greater than the variation in the fins separately. 
 
 11. The number occurring most frequently is 29 in Turkey Lake and 30 in 
 Tippecanoe Lake. 
 
 12. The preference shown for a given number is less decided for the two 
 dorsal fins taken together than for the dorsal fins taken separately. 
 
 13. The variation is in all cases continuous. 
 
 THE VARIATION IN TURKEY LAKE. 
 
 Many of the facts on the extent and character of the variation of the 600 
 specimens from Turkey Lake, taken as a. whole, have been given in the pre- 
 ceeding. 
 
 The lengths of the 600 specimens from Turkey Lake were measured and upon 
 comparison were found to fall into three quite distinct groups. Fig. 5 represents 
 the curve for all. Each of the smaller horizontal distances represents one mm. 
 and each of the larger verticle distances one per cent. The sizes ranged from 27 
 mm. to 102 mm. The first group ranges from 27 mm. to 60 mm.; the second from 
 60 mm. to 80 mm., and the third from 79 mm. to 103 mm. The three curves of 
 Fig. 5 represent these three groups. I have watched the growth during the first 
 summer, and know the first curve to represent the first summer's fish. The second 
 curve in all probability represents the second year's fish, and the third curve, those 
 three years old and over. The growth, thus, is most rapid during the first sum- 
 mer, the rate of growth decreasing each year after. The fish reaches practically 
 its full size the third year, though the more gradual slope to the right of the last 
 curve shows that it does not cease growing entirely. 
 
 ®\ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 szs:0: 
 
 m 
 
 30 35 40 45 50 55 SO 65 70 75 60 85 90 S5 100 
 
 PlO. 5. 
 
290 
 
 Having grouped them into three definite ages, a summary of the characters 
 for each was made, and curves constructed. Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9 represent the 
 curves for these characters. In all the curves constructed for these ages, the contin- 
 uous line is for the third year specimens, the broken line for the second year 
 specimens and the dotted line for the first year specimens. 
 
 Lateral Line. — Below is the table of the average number of scales in the 
 lateral line of the three ages. 
 
 1st year. 2d year. 3d year. 
 
 Eight side 87.84 90.80 88.39 
 
 Leftside 88.00 89.80 88.78 
 
 From this it is seen that the first and third year specimens are most nearly 
 alike. The second year specimens have about two scales more. By reference to 
 the curves, Fig. 6, and Table VIII below, it will be seen that the great bulk 
 of the specimens of all three ages have from 85 to 92 scales. The increased 
 average in the second year is due to a larger per cent, having 93, 94, 95 and 96 
 scales than in the first and second years. 
 
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 80 85 90 95 100 
 
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292 
 
 Anal Fin. — Five out of 116 first year specimens have one ana) spine; 6 out 
 of 236 of the second year, and 3 out of 246 of the oldest specimens. 
 
 The average number of anal rays are 10.56 for the first year, 10.74 for the 
 second year and 11.00 for the third year specimens. 
 
 The curves in Fig. 7 and Table IX, below, show that the anal fins of the first 
 and second year specimens more nearly resemble each other. All three ages show 
 a preference for 11.00 rays. The per cent, of specimens having this number are 
 51.69, 52.53 and 61.60 for the first, second and third year specimens respectively. 
 The per cent, of specimens having 10 rays is reduced from 36.43 in the first year to 
 20.57 in the third year, and the per cent, of those having 12 rays is increased 
 from 5.09 in the first year to 20.16 in the third year. There is a very evident in- 
 crease in the number of spines with the age. 
 
 The extent of variation of the second and third year specimens is the same. 
 The first year specimens, although only half as many, exceed the other ages two 
 rays in the extent of variation. 
 
 t 
 
 -pi! 
 
 3 
 
 tea 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 I ' 
 
 12 13 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 
 First 
 Year. 
 
 Second 
 Year. 
 
 Third 
 Year. 
 
 Per cent, of specimens having 7 anal rays 
 
 0.84 
 
 
 
 Per cent, of specimens having 8 anal rays 
 
 0.42 
 
 1.69 
 
 32.19 
 
 52.53 
 
 13.12 
 
 
 
 5.09 
 
 36.43 
 
 51.69 
 
 5.09 
 
 0.84 
 
 82 
 
 
 20.57 
 
 61.60 
 
 20.16 
 
 0.82 
 
 
 
 
 
293 
 
 Several important facts brought out by the preceding comparison are worth 
 consideration. 
 
 1. No two of the ages here compared are alike in all the characters. 
 
 2. In the anal fin and soft dorsal there is a definite increase in the number 
 of rays with the age. 
 
 3. Variation of this nature is not present in the other structures. 
 
 4. The extent of variation in the different ages is about the same. 
 Dorsal Rays. — The average number of dorsal rays are 14.57, 14.76 and 14.98 
 
 for the first, second and third year specimens, respectively. There is a slight in- 
 crease with age. The summaries for this structure are given below in Table XI, 
 and the curves in Fig. 8. The prevailing number of rays is 15 for all three ages, 
 the per cents, being 53.39, 52 53 and 55.69 for the first, second and third year 
 specimens, respectively. The per cent, of specimens having 14 rays decreases from 
 40.72 in the first year to 22.35 in the third year specimens, while the per cent, of 
 specimens having 16 rays increases from 3.38 in the first year specimens to 16.73 in 
 the third year specimens. The extent of variation is from 12 to 16 in the first 
 year, from 12 to 17 in the second year and from 13 to 18 in the third year speci- 
 mens. As in the anal fin there is a tendency toward a greater number of rays as 
 the fish grows older. 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 ti 
 
 m 
 
 12 13 14 .5 16 17 if) 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
294 
 
 TABLE XI. 
 
 First 
 Year. 
 
 Second 
 Year. 
 
 Third 
 Year. 
 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 Per cent. 
 
 of epecimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 of specimens 
 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 having 
 
 12 dorsal rays 
 
 13 dorsal rays 
 
 14 dorsal rays 
 
 15 dorsal rays 
 
 16 dorsal rays 
 
 17 dorsal rays 
 
 18 dorsal rays 
 
 0.84 
 
 1.69 
 
 40.72 
 
 53.39 
 
 3.38 
 
 0.42 
 
 2.96 
 
 30.50 
 
 52.53 
 
 11.48 
 
 0.84 
 
 1.21 
 
 22.35 
 
 55.69 
 
 16.73 
 
 3.25 
 
 0.40 
 
 Dorsal Spines. — The averages for this structure are 14.69 for the first year, 
 14.39 for the second and 14.65 for the third year, the first and third years being 
 almost identical, and the second year having a fewer number. Fig. 9 represents 
 the curves for this structure. The curves of the first and third years are almost 
 identical, both showing a preference for 15, with about 35 per cent, for 14. The 
 second year shows as decided a preference for 14, about 35 per cent, for 15. This 
 structure varies from 13 to 16 in the first year specimens, from 12 to 17 in the 
 second year specimens and from 13 to 17 in the third year specimens. Table X 
 contains the summaries for this structure. 
 
 6o — 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 30 - 
 
 ± 
 
 m 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 12 13 
 
 IS 
 
 f*£ 
 
 Fig. 
 
TABLE X. 
 
 295 
 
 First 
 Year. 
 
 Second 
 Year. 
 
 Third 
 Year. 
 
 Per cent, of specimens having 12 dorsal spines. . 
 Per cent, of specimens having 13 dorsal spines. . 
 Per cent, of specimens having 14 dorsal spines . . 
 Per cent, of specimens having 15 dorsal spines. . 
 Per cent, of specimens having 16 dorsal spines . . 
 Per cent, of specimens having 17 dorsal spines . . 
 
 1.69 
 38.98 
 50.00 
 
 7.62 
 
 0.84 
 8.47 
 49.14 
 35.16 
 5.50 
 0.42 
 
 3.65 
 
 36.17 
 
 51.62 
 
 8.13 
 
 0.40 
 
 The first and third year specimens resemble each other very closely in regard 
 to the scales in the lateral line and the dorsal spines. In these characters the 
 second year specimens show a decided difference. These have on an average two 
 more scales in the lateral line, and have 14 as the prevailing number of dorsal 
 spines instead of 15, the number in the first and third year specimens. 
 
 Several explanations might be suggested to account for a part or all of these 
 differences. 
 
 The explanation suggesting itself most readily is that an additional spine and 
 ray are added during the life of the individual. I have gone over all the specimens 
 carefully with this point in view, but find no evidence either of the splitting of a 
 ray or spine, or of the new growth of these, except at the anterior of the dorsal fins. 
 Here may be found numerous instances of shorter spines and rays from two- 
 thirds to one-fourth the normal length. But among so many specimens it is en- 
 tirely probable that these spines and rays would be found in every possible stage 
 of growth. But this is not the case. The spines and rays, although sometimes 
 only one-fourth the full length, are always strong and suggest aborted rather than 
 immature structures. Besides, if this were the case, we would expect to find the 
 tendency toward a lower number of spines, and rays very decided in the first 
 year specimens. While this condition is true in the dorsal and anal rays, it is 
 decidedly not true in the dorsal spines, where the characters in the first years are 
 almost identical with those of the third year. 
 
 Natural Selection. — The principle of natural selection, the influence of 
 which upon this species I hoped in the onset of this work to find, can not be 
 applied in explanation of the difference in the number of scales and dorsal spines 
 without serious objections. If natural selection were the determining factor in 
 producing these differences, we should expect all the variations graduated with 
 the age. We would expect to have a narrower range of variation as the specimens 
 
296 
 
 grow older. Neither of these conditions obtain. There are neither 18 dorsal rays 
 nor 13 anal rays represented in the second year specimens; and in the first year 
 specimens 17 dorsal rays are not represented. In the dorsal spines where the 
 difference is most pronounced we have in the first year specimens the exact 
 duplicate of that of the third year specimens, while the second year specimens 
 are quite different. The scales in the lateral line present the same difficulty. 
 
 Annual Variation. — The explanation that seems to meet all the conditions 
 most satisfactory is that the species varies with the varying conditions of successive 
 years. 
 
 The difference in the dorsal spines of the different ages accounts thus for the 
 abnormality of the curve for the dorsal spines of all the Turkey Lake specimens, 
 Fig. 4. The 600 specimens for which the curve is constructed is a composite lot 
 of three age varieties. 
 
 This conclusion, however, should be held with some reservation. It will be 
 noticed that nearly all the curves of Figs. 7, 8 and 9 are abnormal curves, which 
 may possibly be due to the presence of local races in the lake. While this may 
 possibly be the case, it is not at all probable, because, in the first place, the 
 curve constructed for the dorsal spines of 100 specimens of three year olds, 
 taken within a distance of 100 yards along the shores where the conditions were 
 undoubtedly uniform, gave a curve identical with that for all the three year 
 olds. In the second place, the second and third year specimens are found in 
 about equal abundance together, and since these were promiscuously preserved it 
 is altogether probable that from any given locality, an equal number of each age 
 was taken. 
 
 The sex has been determined in all, and a summary shows that the sexes do 
 not differ in the characters entering into the above considerations. 
 
Cornell University Library 
 QH 98.T9I6 
 
 Turkey Lake as a unit of environment, an 
 
 3 1924 003 070 822