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 PRINTED INU.S. A. 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924086364605 
 
THE 
 
 AGRICOLA AND GERMANIA 
 
 OF 
 
 CORNELIUS TACITUS, 
 
 Explanatory Notes and Maps. 
 
 Illustrated with Numerous Engravings. 
 
 HENRY CLARK JOHNSON, A.M., LL.B., 
 
 Professor of the Latin Languagb and Litbraturb in the Lbhigh University. 
 
 A. S. BARNES & COMPANY. 
 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 
 
COPYRIGHT BY 
 
 A. S. Barnes & Compaky, 
 
 /i.367 
 
THIS EDITION 
 
 OF HIS PAVOKITE LATIN CLASSIO 
 
 IS AFFECTIONATELY 
 
 DEDICATED 
 
 TO 
 
 C^e ^on. Hobert 7X. £amberton, ££.!)., 
 
 PRESIDENT OP THE LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, 
 
 IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 OF MtrCH ACTIVE AND GENEROUS KINDNESS. 
 
 i ■ 
 
LIST OF EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS 
 WHICH HAVE BEEN CONSULTED. 
 
 1. Alkln. Oxford, 1823. 29. 
 
 2. Anthon. New York, 1853. 30. 
 6. Barker. London, 1824. 31. 
 4. Becker. Hamburg, 1826. 32. 
 6. Bekker. Leipslc, 1831. 33. 
 
 6. Bleterle, Abbfi de la. Paris, 1788. 34. 
 
 7. Brotler. Glasgow, 1796. 35. 
 
 8. Carson. Edinburgh, 1843. 36. 
 
 9. ChurehandBrodribb.London,18e9. 37. 
 
 10. Cluverius. Lugd. Bat., 1816. 38. 
 
 11. Dilthey. Brunswick, 1823. 39. 
 
 12. Doederleln. Halle, 1841-47. 40. 
 
 13. Draeger. Leipsic, 1869. 41. 
 
 14. Dronke. Fuldae, 1834. 42. 
 
 15. Duebner. Paris, 1848. 43. 
 
 16. Ernesti. Oxford, 1813. 44. 
 
 17. Exeter. Blpont., 1792. 45. 
 
 18. Prelnshemlus. Argent., 1638-64. 46. 
 
 19. Frost. London, 1861. 47. 
 
 20. Qantrelle. Paris, 1S75. 48. 
 
 21. Gerlach. Basle, 1835. 49. 
 
 22. Gronovius. Utrecht, 1721. 50. 
 
 23. Haase. Leipslc, 1824. 51. 
 21. Halm. Leipsic, 1866. 52. 
 
 25. Haupt. Berlin, 1855. 53. 
 
 26. Henrichsen. Altona, 1855. 54. 
 
 27. Krltz. Berlin, 1859-60. 55. 
 
 28. latham. London, 1851. | 56. 
 
 4 
 
 Lipsius. Antwerp, 1668. 
 Low. Mannheim, 1862. 
 Massmann. Leipsic, 1847. 
 Mosler. Leipsic, 1862. 
 Mulienhoff. Berlin, 1873. 
 Naudet. Paris, 1820. 
 Nipperdey. Leipsic, 1851. 
 Oberlein. Leipsic, 1801. 
 Orelll. Zurich, 1846. 
 Pabst. Leipsic, 1841. 
 Passow. Breslau, 1817. 
 Panckoucke. Paris, 1824. 
 Ritter. Cambridge, 1848. 
 Ruperti. Hanover, 1834. 
 Roth. Nuremburg, 1833. 
 Ryckius. Leyden, 1687. 
 Schweizer-Sidler. Halle, 1874. 
 Stuart. Philadelphia, 1875. 
 Smith. London, 1850. 
 Thudicum. Giessen, 1862. 
 Tucking. Paderborn, 1880. 
 Tyler. New York, 1878. 
 Urlichs. Wiirzburg, 1868. 
 Valpy. London, 1821. 
 Walch. Berlin, 182S. 
 Walther. Halle, 1831. 
 Weishaupt. Solod., 1844. 
 Wex. Brunswick, 1852. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 HE present edition of the Agricola and Germania of 
 Tacitus lays no claim to critical research or indepen- 
 dent investigation ; its purpose being to assist or- 
 dinary students in the lower classes of our Colleges in the 
 study of these masterpieces of Latin literature. In pursuance 
 of this design, I have endeavored to thoroughly elucidate the 
 text, by explaining the various difficulties (critical, grammati- 
 cal, historical and geographical), which occur to the student, 
 and to furnish much information on the character, customs 
 and institutions of the early inhabitants of Britain and Ger- 
 many, on the proper understanding of which the value of 
 these treatises depends. 
 
 The text is the result of a careful collation of the editions 
 most approved by scholars. It is based, however, upon that 
 of Kritz, with variations therefrom when there geemed to be 
 good reason, with constant reference to the authority of the 
 best manuscripts. 
 
 The notes grew up in the class-room and consist of such 
 explanations as I have deemed necessary to give to individual 
 students in the course of several years' experience, so that, 
 while they are, perhaps, rather diffuse, they contain nothing 
 that I have not found to be needed by some one. Their basis 
 is the commentary of the Rev. Percival Frost, M.A., of St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, which was not selected because it 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 was regarded as of special merit, but because it was the one in 
 use in the class when the notes were begun. To these notes 
 there has been added from time to time matter from fifty-five 
 other editions (a list of which is given herewith), until the 
 commentary assumed the present form, in which it is hoped 
 it will be serviceable to the learner. 
 
 The outline of the Life of Tacitus and the introductions are 
 compiled from various treatises on Roman literature, and, it 
 is believed, will furnish much interesting and valuable infor- 
 mation. 
 
 The maps are taken from the School Edition of Church and 
 Brodribb (London, 1869), and will prove valuable for the 
 proper understanding of the geography of our author. 
 
 The grammatical references are, as in the other editions of 
 this series, to the three grammars most largely used in Ameri- 
 can schools, Allen and Greenough, Gildersleeve and Harkness. 
 
 In conclusion, I avail myself of this opportunity to return 
 my grateful thanks to Classical Professors and Teachers for 
 the very favorable reception which they have given to my 
 previous works ; and to express the hope that this volume may 
 also meet their approval and fulfill the only object for which 
 it was prepared, that of furnishing a useful school-book and 
 thus helping on the cause of sound and accurate scholarship. 
 
 HENRY C. JOHNSON. 
 
 The Lehioh Univeksity, May, 1885. 
 
THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. 
 
 CORNELIUS TACITUS was probably born at Rome in the 
 year 51, during the reign of Claudius, but neither the place 
 of his birth, nor the date, is certainly known, nor is anything 
 positively ascertained of his parentage. In fact, we have little or 
 no information concerning his life except what he tells us himself, 
 or what we may gather from the Epistles of his friend, the 
 younger Pliny. 
 
 His praenomen, is abo a matter of doubt. It is commonly 
 written Gains, on the authority of Sidonius Apollinaris, but it is 
 given as Puhlius in the best manuscript of the Annals, and it is a 
 fact worthy of note than none of the ancient writers who mention 
 Tacitus ever mention it. 
 
 The town of Interamna (now Terni) in Umbria has been named 
 as his birthplace, but there is no evidence to prove this assertion, 
 which is probably based upon the known fact that this town was 
 in the third century the seat of the Emperor Tacitus, who occupied 
 the throne for a few months after the death of Aurelian A. D. 
 275, and who claimed descent from the historian, and honored 
 his memory by directing that ten copies of his works should be 
 annually transcribed and placed in the public libraries. But 
 even though the Emperor and our author were actually related, 
 thi.s would not establish the identity of their birthplace ; nay the 
 designation of Sejanus as municipalis adulter, in An. TV., 3, ren- 
 ders it improbable that the historian was born in a municipium. 
 We should then assume that he was born at Rome. 
 
 The date of his birth is approximately fixed by several expres- 
 sions used by the younger Pliny. That writer says {EpisL, VII., 
 20) that Tacitus and himself were nearly equal in age and rank 
 
 vii 
 
Vm THE LIFE A^D 
 
 (" aetate et dignitate propemodum aequales "). The question is 
 how far aequales must be considered to be modified by propemodum. 
 It would seem that it should be taken to imply considerable dif- 
 ference, as Pliny himself says, " When I was a very young man 
 (adoleseentulvs) and you were at the height of your fame and 
 reputation, I earnestly desired to imitate you." Adoleseentulvs 
 is a very vague term, but Pliny may be taken to define this ap- 
 plication of it to himself, when he tells us {Epist. V., 8) that he 
 was in his nineteenth year when he began to speak in the Forum. 
 He was, as he tells us himself {Epist. VI., 20), in his eighteenth 
 year when the famous eruption of Vesuvius took place (A. D. 79), 
 and he must therefore have been born A. D. 61 or 62. The date 
 of the birth of Tacitus is commonly put at least ten years earlier, 
 or A. D. 51 or 52. This conclusion is supported by a passage in 
 the third chapter of the lAfe of Agricola, where he speaks of those 
 who had survived the evil days of Domitian as coming under two 
 classes, the young men who had become old, and the old ' who 
 had advanced to the very verge and end of existence.' He must 
 have included himself in the former class. The Agricola waa 
 published in the latter part of the year 97. As the term senior 
 was technically applied at Rome (Aul. Gellius, X-, 28, quoting 
 Tubero) to those who had passed their forty-fifth year, it wouni 
 follow that if Tacitus were only forty-six in A. D. 97, he rau.^i 
 have been born A. D. 51. 
 
 The name Cornelius suggests a possible connection with the 
 great patrician gens which was thus designated. But there was 
 also a plebeian house of the same name, and it must be remem- 
 bered that in the time of the Empire the nomina gentilia had 
 become widely difiused. A passage of the elder Pliny (B". N., 
 VII., 16) speaks of a son of Cornelius Tacitus, the procurator of 
 the Emperor in Gallia Belgica. A Procurator was generally a 
 person of the Equestrian rank. As Pliny died in A. D. 79, it 
 seems hardly probable that this passage can refer to our author ; 
 hence, it has been conjectured that the procurator was the father 
 of the historian. The similarity of name, the coincidence of 
 dates, and the probability that at some time of his life our author 
 was familiar with the neighborhood of North-Eastern Gaul, 
 incline one to accept the conjecture, which is further supported 
 
WRITINGS OF TACITUS. IX 
 
 by the fact that the circumstances of his career seem to imply 
 an origin which was respectable rather than dignified, and his 
 habits of thought, prejudices and tastes all reflect those of high 
 and refined -society. 
 
 He received a portion of his oratorical training at Massilia, a 
 Grecian colony, and the home of culture and refinement, and 
 probably completed it at Rome under the instruction of Quin- 
 tilian, who, for more than twenty years there taught that manly 
 eloquence of which his Institutes furnish us a fine example. 
 Some critics have applied to Tacitus the passage in which Quin- 
 tilian (X. i. 104), after enumerating the writers who flourished 
 in that period, says, " There is another person who gives addi- 
 tional lustre to the age ; a man who will deserve the admiration 
 of posterity. I do not mention him at present : his name will be 
 known hereafter." If this passage does refer to Tacitus, the pre- 
 diction has been fully verified. 
 
 It has been suggested that Tacitus made the acquaintance of 
 Agricola at some time in the three years (A. D. 74-77) during 
 which that officer held the government of Aquitauia. There is, 
 it has been thought, a particularity about his description of Agri- 
 cola's administration which indicates the intimate acquaintance 
 of one who either held some official position, or was otherwise 
 closely connected with it. This position may possibly have in- 
 cluded something of the intimate relation in which Agricola him- 
 self at the opening of his career had stood to Suetonius Paulinus. 
 However this may be, it is certain that at or before this time an 
 intimate acquaintance had been formed between the two men. 
 In A. D. 77 Agricola returned to Home to fulfil the duties of the 
 consulship. During his year of office he betrothed to his young 
 friend his daughter (born A. D. 65), and the marriage took place 
 in the following year, the same in which Agricola assumed his 
 command in Britain. 
 
 The illustrious alliance thus formed was probably the means 
 of introducing Tacitus to a career of public distinction. He says 
 (Hist, I., 1) that he owed his first promotion to Vespasian, and 
 that he was indebted for other favors to his successors, Titus and 
 Domitian. What offices he held under Vespasian and Titus it is 
 impossible to determine, but they were probably that of Quaestor 
 
X THE LIFE AND 
 
 and Tribune of the People. He informs us (^An., XL, 11) that 
 he -was Praetor A. D. 88, in which year Domitian celebrated the 
 Ludi Saeculares. In 89 or 90 he left Rome with his wife, and 
 did not return until after the death of Agricola, which took pllace 
 August 23, A. D. 93. Some have affirmed that he was in exile 
 during this period, but there is no proof for the statement. It is 
 pretty certain that he was in Rome during the last period of 
 Domitian's reign. The language in which at the close of the 
 Agricola he describes the horrors of that time is full of the bitter- 
 ness, and even the self-reproach of one who had been compelled 
 to witness and to sanction by his presence the cruelties of the 
 tyrant. In A. D. 97 he was elevated to the Consulship. To 
 this magistracy he was elected in order to supply the place of 
 Virginius Rufus, who had died during his term of office, and over 
 him Tacitus delivered the funeral oration. Pliny says of Rufus 
 (Epist., II., 1), "Hie supremus felicitati eius cumulus accessit, 
 laudator eloquentissimus." 
 
 Tacitus is recorded by his friend Pliny as one of the most 
 eloquent orators of the day. In the reign of Nerva (A. D. 100) 
 he was appointed by the Senate together with Pliny, who was the 
 Consul-elect, to conduct the prosecution of Marius Prisons, late 
 pro-Consul of Africa, and who was charged with various flagrant 
 crimes. His speech says Pliny {Epist., II., 11), was most 
 eloquent and marked by that dignity which characterized his 
 style of speaking. Here the public life of Tacitus ends, as he 
 then retired to private life, and dedicated the rest of his days to 
 literature, having sketched out a vast plan of Roman history, the 
 greater part of which he lived to fiilfil. 
 
 The date of his death is not known, but that he at least lived 
 down to the end of the reign of Trajan may be inferred from 
 An., II., 61, where he says that the Roman Empire "nunc ad 
 rubrum mare patescit," an expression which must refer to the 
 successes obtained by Trajan in his Eastern expedition (A. D. 
 114-117). 
 
 The contemporaries of Tacitus were Quintilian, the two Plinys, 
 Julius Plorus, Maternus, M. Aper, and Vipsanius Messala. He 
 was on terms of the greatest intimacy with the younger Pliny, in 
 whose extant collection of letters there are eleven epistles from 
 
WEITINGS OF TACITUS. XI 
 
 Pliny to Tacitus, and two or three are written expressly for the 
 purpose of furnishing materials for his history. 
 
 The first remark one naturally makes on reading the life of 
 Tacitus, is that he was admirably fitted by his distinguished 
 military and political career for the duties of an historian. 
 Gibbon says that his year in the yeomanry had been of more 
 service to him in describing battles than any closet study could 
 have been ; and Tacitus had this advantage over Livy that he 
 had helped to make history as well as to relate it. His elevation 
 to the rank of senator enabled him to understand the iniquity of 
 Domitian's government in a way that would otherwise have been 
 impossible. His character seems to have been naturally proud 
 and independent, but unequal to heroism in action. 
 
 The extant works of Tacitus are the 'Dialogue on Orators,' 
 ' The Life of Agricola,' ' The Treatise on Germany,' the ' His- 
 tories,' and the 'Annals.' None of his orations are preserved. 
 
 The Dialogus de Oratoribus, composed under Titus or in the 
 beginning of the reign of Domitian, an attempt to prove and ex- 
 plain the decay of eloquence in the imperial period, is in the form 
 of a dialogue between literary celebrities of the time of Vespasian. 
 This ingenious treatise shows the same moral and political views, 
 the same fineness of psychological observation and the same char- 
 acteristics as the other works of Tacitus, but his bitterness is still 
 wanting and even artistic serenity may be observed. In point 
 of style this treatise is an interesting proof of Tacitus' endeavor 
 to imitate the rotundity of Cicero's style in his rhetorical works, 
 though numerous phrases and constructions involuntarily betray 
 an author of the first century of the Christian era, and in many 
 details the diction approaches the subsequent writings of Tacitus. 
 
 De Vita et Moribus lulii Agricolae liber, a biography of Tacitus' 
 father-in-law, was composed in the latter part of the year 97. 
 The very rhetorical disposition as well as execution of the work 
 remind the reader of the laudationes funebres and of the manner 
 of Sallust, with which it shares the character of monograph, its 
 indifierence to general historical events and numerous other turns 
 of phrases. But besides this the work contains much to remind 
 us of Cicero. In general, the historical style of Tacitus does not 
 
Xll THE LIFE AND 
 
 appear to be much developed in this work, but a kindly warmth 
 of humor and sympathy pervades the whole. As a specimen of 
 biography, it is much and justly admired, and unlike the other 
 works of Tacitus it is unencumbered with minute irrelevant 
 matter. 
 
 The Germania, written A. D. 98, is an ethnographic mono- 
 graph, occasioned by the great interest which that land and 
 nation then caused, perhaps also by the author's own knowledge 
 which he had acquired in the course of his official duties. The 
 work is penetrated by the genial warmth of sympathy and highly 
 colored by rhetorical means, though it frequently approaches 
 sentimentality. The author is fond of contrasting the sim- 
 plicity of the Germans with the intricate and corrupt life of his 
 countrymen. 
 
 The Historiae is the narrative of the events of the reigns of 
 Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian (A. D. 
 69-96), i. e., chiefly the Flavian dynasty. It was written under 
 Trajan and founded on excellent sources, probably on the his- 
 torical work of the elder Pliny- The whole work originally con- 
 sisted of fourteen books, of which however only the first four and 
 the first half of the fifth have come down to us. They contain 
 the history of the years 69 and 70, though not quite complete. 
 
 The Annales or rather Ab excessu divi Augusti, in sixteen 
 books, contained the history of the Julian dynasty after Augustus' 
 death (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, or the years 14-68). 
 They were written under Trajan and published between 115 and 
 117. A part of the fifth book is lost ; the seventh, eighth, ninth, 
 tenth, the beginning of the eleventh, and the end of the sixteenth 
 and last book, are also lost. These last portions comprehended 
 the whole reign of Caligula, the beginning of the reign of 
 Claudius and the last two years (66-68) of the reign of Nero. 
 
 The best years of Tacitus belonged to the reign of Domitian, 
 when fear and indignation, repressed without any possibility of 
 discharge, embittered all thought and feeling. His sympathies 
 belonged to the aristocratic republic, but his intellect convinced 
 him of the necessity of monarchial institutions. He also 
 possessed the aversion to boisterous conduct and precipitate 
 action peculiar to aristocrats and doctrinaires, and shared the 
 
WRITINGS OP TAClTtrS. xiu 
 
 prevalent sentiment of resignation, which he also endeavored to 
 justify theoretically. As an historian he labored to ascertain 
 the facts and followed the best sources, though frequently with- 
 out naming them, and sifted them with strict criticism. He 
 candidly states the results of his conscientious investigations, 
 while his own views are generally merely implied in the careful 
 wording of his sentences. He treats his subject in a pragmatical 
 manner, zealously inquiring into the causes of actions, which he 
 traces partly in the circumstances, partly in the characters. 
 The first he sometimes declares to be necessary and decreed by 
 Fate, sometimes accidental. He is fond of tracing the psycho- 
 logical connection of facts, and in the delineation of characters 
 and psychological analysis he displays unequaled mastery. 
 The key-note of his work is, like his subject matter, serious, 
 melancholy and even bitter. He avoids all that might impair 
 his dignified bearing, rhetorical display as well as passionate 
 outpourings; but he knows how to increase his dignity by 
 artistic accuracy and calculation and by a very peculiar diction. 
 Full of sagacious observation and descriptive power, he engages 
 the most serious attention of his reader by the gravity of his 
 condensed and comprehensive style as he does by the wisdom 
 and dignity of his reflections. The purity and gravity of his 
 sentiments remind one even of Christian authors. The general 
 tone which characterizes his writings had its foundation in his 
 own moral dignity. Living amidst the influences of a corrupt 
 age he was uncontaminated ; and by his virtue and integrity, his 
 chastened political liberality, he commands our admiration as a 
 man, and his love of truth is reflected in his character as an 
 historian. He had lived through a time when the value of the 
 lessons of philosophy had to be tested by their practical applica- 
 tion, and his historical studies carried him through a period in 
 which the mass were sunk in sensuality, and the really good and 
 great had no consolation but in the consciousness of their own 
 thoughts. Though he appears to belong to no sect of philoso- 
 phers, his practical morality was of the Stoic school, the only 
 school which, in those degenerate times, could sustain the sink- 
 ing spirits of the Romans, and which, even under favorable 
 circumstances, guided the conduct of the wise Aurelius, the 
 
SIV THE LIFE AND 
 
 noblest man that ever possessed sovereign power. The religious 
 opinions of Tacitus partook of the character of his age: he had 
 no strong convictions, no settled belief of a moral government of 
 the world : his love of virtue and his abhorrence of vice were 
 purely moral ; they had no reference to a future existence. 
 {An., iii., 18 ; vi., 22.) In one of his earliest productions he 
 hopes, rather than expects, that the souls of the departed may 
 still live, and be conscious of what is passing on earth. (^Agrie., 
 46.) But in his latest writings there are no traces that his 
 hopes or his wishes had ever ripened into a belief. 
 
 The style of the Ciceronian age aimed at richness of expres- 
 sion, and smoothly flowing and gracefully finished periods. It 
 had been brought by Cicero to perhaps as high a degree of per- 
 fection as the Latin language permitted. The succeeding age 
 proposed to itself a somewhat different aim. It wanted some- 
 thing piquant and stimulating. 
 
 Hence quite a different set of li,terary characteristics. A style 
 sententious and concise, sometimes unpleasantly abrupt, with 
 far-fetched, poetical and even archaic terms and expressions be- 
 came fashionable. Scope was thus given to some of the worst 
 extravagances of bad taste, and we find nearly all the writers of 
 what is called the silver age indulging in pedantries and affecta- 
 tions which frequently render them harsh and obscure. A 
 reaction followed in favor of the earlier or Ciceronian style. Of 
 this we have evident traces in Tacitus. He seems to have aimed 
 at combining some Cicero's most conspicuous graces with the 
 pointed and sententious character of the new style. Though he 
 occasionally wants clearness and perhaps strains too much after 
 effect, he is on the whole a fdr more natural and straightforward 
 writer than most of his contemporaries. 
 
 In the style of Tacitus the form is always subordinate to the 
 matter; the ideas maintain their due supremacy over the 
 language in which they are conveyed. There is none of that 
 striving after epigrammatic terseness which savors of affectation. 
 His brevity, like that which characterizes the style of Thu- 
 cydides, is the necessary condensation of a writer whose thoughts 
 
■WRITINGS OP TAOITtrS. XV 
 
 flow more quickly than his pen can express them. Hence his 
 sentences are suggestive of far more than they express ; they are 
 enigmatical hints of deep and hidden meaning, which keep the 
 mind active and the attention alive, and delight the reader with 
 the pleasures of discovery and the consciousness of difficulties 
 overcome. Nor is this natural and unintentional brevity un- 
 suitable to the cautious reserve with which all were tutored to 
 speak and think of political subjects in perilous times. It is ex- 
 traordinary how often a similarity between his mind and that of 
 Thucydides inadvertently discovers itself — not only in his mode 
 of thinking, but also in his language, even in his grammatical 
 constructions, especially in his frequent substitutions of attrac- 
 tion for government, in instances of condensed construction, and 
 in the connection of clauses grammatically different, although 
 they are metaphysically the same. 
 
 Nor is his brevity dry or harsh — it is enlivened by copious- 
 ness, variety, and poetry. He scarcely ever repeats the same 
 idea in the same form. No author is richer in synonymous 
 words, or arranges with more varied skill the position of words 
 in a sentence. As for poetic genius, his language is highly 
 figurative ; no prose writer deals more largely in prosopopoeia : 
 his descriptions of scenery and incidents are eminently pictur- 
 esque ; his characters dramatic ; the expression of his own senti- 
 ments and feelings as subjective as lyric poetry. This constant 
 union between the dramatic and the pathetic elements, together 
 with the directness, energy and reality of the language, must act 
 with irresivStable force upon every reader. Was he as fully ap- 
 preciated in his own day as he is in ours ? We doubt it. The 
 horrors, the degeneracy of his time, awake in his brooding soul 
 the altogether modern idea of national expiation and national 
 chastisement. The historian rises to the sublimity of the judge. 
 He summons the guilty to his tribunal, and it is in the name of 
 the Future and of Posterity that he pronounces the implacable 
 and irreversible verdict. 
 
 It has been usual to regard Cicero as the' representative of the 
 most perfect Latinity, and Tacitus as a man of genius belonging 
 to a declining age and infected by many of its chief literary 
 
XVI THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. 
 
 vices. This view ignores several important considerations and 
 requires some correction. It is true that the style of Cicero, 
 from its general conformity to certain precise and definite rules, 
 is fitted to be a model of Latinity in a sense in which that of 
 Tacitus cannot be. A modern scholar feels instinctively that the 
 first is much more suitable for imitation, but it is, we think, a 
 great mistake to claim on this ground for Cicero a distinct supe- 
 riority over Tacitus. Cicero indeed was enabled by his great 
 abilities and wide culture to give a richness and flexibility to the 
 Latin language which it had not known before his time, and we 
 may venture to affirm that without him there could not have 
 been a Tacitus. If, however, we are to measure excellence of 
 style by its capacity of adequately representing the profound and 
 subtle ideas of a really great thinker, we shall see good reason 
 for placing Tacitus in at least as high a rank as Cicero. In 
 vividness of imagination, in insight into the intricacies of human 
 character, in the breadth and comprehensiveness of his historical 
 faculty, he stands first among Roman writers. These qualities 
 are continually reflected in his style. In the language of the 
 time, permeated as it was with Greek ideas and phrases, he 
 found an instrument ready to his hand ; he used it with a con- 
 summate mastery of its various resources, and succeeded in 
 giving to great thoughts a singularly characteristic expression. 
 
CORNELII TACITI 
 
 DE VITA ET MORIBUS 
 
 lULII AGRICOLAE 
 
 LIBER. 
 
INTRODUCTION TO THE LIFE OF AGRICOLA. 
 
 <* I ""^HE Life of Agricola is the most perfect specimen of ancient biography 
 that we possess. It was written, we are told, as a tribute of love to a 
 revered father and friend, in a spirit of filial affection to commemorate the 
 virtues of a good man and the successes of a great general. All that was 
 most characteristic of a Eoman of the highest type found a place in 
 Agricola. An able oflScer, a just and at the same time a popular governor, 
 a vigorous reformer of abuses, a conqueror of hitherto unknown regions, 
 he was also a man of mental culture, and of singular gentleness and 
 amiability. He had every quality which could attract the sympathy and 
 admiration of his son-inlaw. 
 
 The present work was no doubt intended to be something more than the 
 customary lavdatio which was pronounced in memory of an eminent man, 
 though its style, resembling that of the orator rather than the historian, 
 shows it to have been of a kindred character. We find in it the flower of 
 all the beauties which Tacitus has scattered through his other works. It is a 
 ch^-d'cemire, which satisfies at once the judgment and the fancy, the 
 imagination and the heart. Everything in it produces attachment for its 
 hero ; everything conveys instruction and the interest goes on growing to 
 the last. 
 
 After an introduction particularly beautiful and wonderfully appropriate, 
 he gives a brief sketch of the parentage, education, and early life of 
 Agricola, but draws at more length the history of his consulship and 
 command in Britain. As the history of Agricola at this time is also the 
 history of Britain, he prefaces it with an outline of the general character 
 of its inhabitants, the geographical features, situation, soil, climate, pro- 
 ductions, and, so far as known to the Eomang, the past history of the island. 
 
 The chief interest of this biography is evidently intended to center in the 
 grand event of the seventh year of Agricola's campaigns, the defeat of the 
 confederate Caledonian tribes by which the subjugation of Britain to its 
 farthest limits was finally achieved. The critical struggle, as it seemed to 
 Tacitus, was fought out on the last confines of the world, and it added to 
 
4 INTEODtrCTION. 
 
 the glory of Rome, the renown of a triumph which completed the conquest 
 of her most inaccessible and tractable province. The speeches of the rival 
 generals which introduce it are elaborate specimens of Tacitean eloquence. 
 That of the Caledonian chief is conceived in the true spirit of the bar- 
 barian and is marked by a fierce impetuosity ; that of Agricola is calm and 
 dignified, and implies the consciousness of superior strength, which is the 
 fruit of discipline and civilization. 
 
 Soon after his decisive success, which excited the jealousy and ill-will of 
 Domitian, Agricola returned to Rome. Of the last eight years of his life, 
 which were p assed in retirement, Tacitus tells us but little. In a few burn- 
 ing words he dwells on the horrors of the closing period of Domitian's 
 reign and hints, though he forbears explicitly to assert as Dion Cassius does, 
 that Agricola was one of the Emperor's numerous victims. 
 
 Tt may be useful to give a brief account of the various expeditions against 
 Britain undertaken by the Romans ; as there are allusions to most of them 
 in the text. 
 
 In B. C. 55, towards the close of summer (Caes. iv. 20), Julius Csesar 
 landed in Britain. 
 
 B. C. 54. Csesar landed again in the island, and penetrated about as far 
 as Hertfordshire (Caes. v. 5 — 23). 
 
 After his evacuation of the island, Britain was neglected under the Em- 
 perors Augustus and Tiberius. Caligula formed a design of entering Britain, 
 but it ended in nothing. A son of Cynobellin, a British chief, expelled by 
 his father, betook himself to the emperor. Caligula, harboring the fugitive, 
 and receiving him under liis protection, wrote boastful dispatches to the 
 Senate at Rome, professing to have conquered the entire country. 
 
 A. D. 43. At the investigation of Bericus, a petty king of Britain, who 
 had been expelled from his home in consequence of party contests, Claudius 
 was induced to send Aulus Plautius into Britain. This general conquered 
 Caractacus and Cogodumnus. During his command, Claudius himself 
 crossed over to the island, and defeated the Britons near the Thames. The 
 Southern part of the country was first reduced, and Vespasian, the future 
 emperor, then conquered the Southwestern district from Hampshire to 
 Cornwall, and the Isle of Wight. 
 
 A. D. 49. Ostorius Scapula succeeded A. Plautius about this date. He 
 secured the Roman Province by erecting a line of forts extending from the 
 Severn to the Avon, or Nen. He put down the Iceni, and marched into 
 Shropshire and North Wales, but was recalled by the revolt of the Brig- 
 antes. He made Camulodunum the head-quarters of Roman power. March- 
 ing against the Silures, he took Caractacus prisoner. The war however 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 continued, and Ostorius, worn out with harass and (atigue, died. Avius 
 Didius Gallus succeeded him. He defeated the Silures, but relapsed into 
 inactivity. This general took part in the civil war between Cartismandua, 
 Queen of the Brigantes, and her husband, aiding the Queen. 
 
 A. D. 58. Veranius followed, but died within the year. 
 
 A. D. 59. Suetonius Paulinus succeeded to the command, and began'to 
 reduce Mona. During his absence on this campaign, the Iceni and Trino- 
 bantes under Boadicea arose in arms to avenge the insults they had received 
 from the Romans. The insurgents stormed Camulodunum, and defeated 
 Petilius Cerialls. Paulinus returned hastily, and sacrificing Londinium 
 and Verulamium, entirely defeated Boadicea. 
 
 A. D. 62. Petronius Turpilianus followed, who did not push the Roman 
 conquests farther. 
 
 A. D. 64. Trebellius Maximus was the next governor. In consequence 
 of a feud with Roscius Caelius, lieutenant of the Twentieth Legion, he 
 threw up his command. 
 
 A. D. 69. Vettius Bolanus was next sent. During his rule a revolt of 
 the Brigantes broke out. 
 
 A. D. 71. Petilius Cerialis succeeded. Under him Agricola commanded 
 the Twentieth Legion. Together they reduced a large part of the country 
 of the Brigantes. He was soon recalled, and Julius Frontinus appointed, 
 under whom the Ordovices and Silures were conquered. 
 
 A. D. 78. Agricola took the command in Britain, and in his first year 
 reduced the Ordovices and the Island of Mona. 
 
 A. D. 79. {Altera aestate.) Agricola alarmed the enemy by sudden in- 
 cursions ; and again endeavored to exhibit to them the sweets of peace. 
 
 A. D. 80. {Tertiv^ annu^.) He marched through unknown tribes as far 
 as the Estuary of the Tay. 
 
 A. D. 81. (Quarta aestas.) Agricola spent this year in consolidating his 
 previous conquests, and strengthening the Isthmus between Clota and Bo- 
 dotria with garrisons. 
 
 A. D. 82. [Quinto expediiionum amw.) He crossed the Isthmus, and, 
 turning westwards, conquered the country lying near Dumbarton, and look- 
 ing towards Ireland. 
 
 A. D. 83. (Estate qua sextum officii annum inchoahai.) He again crossed 
 the Isthmus, and turning eastwards, marched along the coast, accompanied 
 by his fleet. 
 
 A. D. 84. (Initio aestatis.) Agricola defeats Calgacus at the Grampian 
 HiUs. At the close of this year (exacta aestate) he sends a fleet to sail round 
 the North of Britain, and reduces the Orkneys. 
 
 A. D. 85. Agricola recalled. 
 
INTEODUCTIOIT. 
 
 LIFE OF AGEICOLA. 
 
 Agricola born probably A. D. 40. 
 Visits Britain, A. D. 59. 
 
 Betums to Borne, and marries Domitia Decidiana, A. D. 62. 
 A son born, who dies. (?) 
 
 Made Quaestor of Asia, and has a daughter bom, A. D. 65. 
 Made Tribune, A. D. 67. 
 Made Praetor under Nero, A. D. 68. 
 
 Appointed by Galba to examine the state of the offerings in the temple 
 A. D. 68. (?) 
 Loses his mother, and embraces the cause of Vespasian, A. D. 69. 
 Appointed to the command of the Twentieth Legion, A. D. 70. 
 Enrolled amongst the Patricians, A. D. 73. 
 Made Praefect of Aquitania, A. D. 74. 
 Made Consul, A. D. 77. 
 
 Appointed to the command of Britain, A. D. 78. 
 Becalled from Britain, A. D. 85. 
 Dies, A. D. 93. 
 
 The chief passages in the ancient writers on the subiect of Britain and its 
 customs are, — 
 
 I. Cjesab, iv. 33. 
 
 V. 12—14. 
 11. Stkabo, iv. 6. 
 
 III. PoMPONics Mela, iii. 6. 
 
 IV. Plinius, iv. 30. 
 
 V. Tacitus, Agricola, 10—12. 
 
 Annales, xii. 31. 40. 
 xiv. 29—39. 
 

 lULn AGEICOLAE YITA. 
 
 CLARORUM virorum facta moresque posteris tradere, 
 antiquitus usitatum, ne nostris quidem temporibus quam- 
 quam incuriosa suorum aetas omisit, quotiens magna aliqua ac 
 nobilis virtus vicit ac supergressa est vitium parvis magnisque 
 civitatibus commune, ignorantiam recti et invidiam, Sed apud 
 
 CHAP. I. 1. Cla/ror*um virorum. A 
 
 clarzis vir is one who is renowned for 
 eminent services to his country. 
 
 2. ZTjy/tafMm.; a neuter participle in 
 the accusative, agreeing with the 
 clause clarorum .... tradere, which 
 is the object of omisit. We would 
 
 rather expect a relative clause. 
 
 Ne ttostris quidenif even in our times, 
 
 vicious as they are. QuamquaTn. 
 
 This word Is commonly used to in- 
 troduce a distinct clause, while 
 guamvis generally modifies single 
 words. Thisuse, however, is common 
 in Tacitus and the writers of his age. 
 
 3. IncuT^osa. This is a favorite 
 word of Tacitus (cf. ^n,II. 88; IV. 32; 
 XV. 31. Hist. I. 49.) not found in the 
 Augustan writers, but common in his 
 
 contemporaries. Suoru^n, sc. clcb- 
 
 rorum virorum; obj. gen. after incu- 
 riosa. A.etaSf the age. 
 
 4. Vicit ac supergressa esty lias over- 
 come and risen superior to. 
 
 5. Commune. Communis is that 
 which belongs to the munu^, or duty 
 of many: vwZ^aris isthatwhichexists 
 among the imlgusj and hence ex^ 
 presses what is generally prevalent. 
 Ignorantiam . . . 
 
 7 
 
8 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 priores ut agere digna memoratu pronum magisque in aperto 
 eratj ita celeberrimus quisque ingenio ad prodendam virtutis 
 memoriam, sine gratia aut ambitione, bonae tantum conscien- 
 tiae pretio ducebatur. Ac plerique suam ipsi vitam narrare 
 fiduciam potius morum quam adrogantiam arbitrati sunt; 
 nee id Rutilio et Scauro citra fidem aut obtrectationi fuit : 
 adeo virtutes iisdem teraporibus optime aestimanturj quibus 
 facillime gignuntur. At nunc narraturo mihi vitam defuncti 
 
 "blindness and hostility to goodness.^* 
 
 Mecti (= virtus) is to be taken with 
 
 both nouns. 
 
 1. Friores designates those who 
 lived while there was still a constitu- 
 tional government at Rome, under 
 
 the Republic. Fronufn magisque 
 
 in aperto, easy and more unobstructed. 
 Trowus is used for anything sloping 
 downwards, and represents the facil- 
 ity of a down-hill course. Xn aperto 
 implies the opposite otartus^ or impe- 
 ditus^ ' not pent in by obstacles ;' 
 being a metaphor trova. open ground, 
 where one's movements are not ham- 
 pered by want of space. 
 
 2. Celeherrirrvusquisque. Many re- 
 nowned men had written biogra- 
 phies. For the idiom vid. A. 93, c ; G. 
 305; H.458, 1. 
 
 3. Sine gratia aut amlntione, "urith- 
 mii partiality or self-seeking." Gratia 
 expresses the desire to gratify ; am- 
 lntione, the desire for advancement, 
 which might betray a writer into 
 flattery, 
 
 4. Pre«io;abl. of cause. Plerique, 
 
 very many. Ipsi (for ipsorum) is at- 
 tracted to arHtrati sunt. A. 195, I ; 
 G.298; H.452, 1. 
 
 5. JPidueiam morum, conjidence in 
 their own characters: predicate accusa- 
 tive. A. 239; G. 334; H. 373, 1. 
 
 6. Id, i. c., the writing of an autobi- 
 ography. Jtutilm. P. Rutllius Ru- 
 
 fus was a military tribune under 
 Scipio in the Numantine war, and 
 Consul, B. C. 105. He was a statesman, 
 org-tor, Stoic philosopher, and a man 
 
 of umblemished integrity. From 
 having repressed the extortions of 
 the public contractors, while legate 
 to Asia, B. C. 95, he incurred the 
 hatred of the Knights, who at that 
 time not only fanned the revenue, 
 but acted as judges in criminal 
 trials. On his return, he was ac- 
 cused de repetundiSy and banished. 
 Although recalled by Sulla, he re- 
 fused to return, making Smyrna his 
 residence. He wrote an autobiog- 
 raphy, and a History of Rome 
 
 in Greek. Scauro. M. Aemilius 
 
 Scaurus was Consul B. C. 115, when 
 he was the leader of the aristocratic 
 party. In B. C. 107, he was again 
 Consul, This is the same Scaurus, 
 whom Sallust mentions as having 
 been bribed by Jugurtha. As the 
 banishment of Rutilius was due to 
 the charges preferred against him by 
 Scaurus, it is possible that, when the 
 former wrote his life, the latter also 
 wrote his, in order to defend himself 
 from charges advanced against him. 
 Citra; of. N. Ger.'KVI. Obtrec- 
 tationi: dat. oftheend. This union 
 of different constructions to express 
 the same relation is called enallage. 
 The figure is common in Tacitus. 
 A. p. 298; H. 636, IV. 
 
 7. A.deo, so true is it that, qualifies 
 the whole sentence, 
 
 S. Nunc, now, 1. e., in these bad 
 times, referring to the general state 
 of things in Domitian's reign, and 
 in opposition to the olden times 
 when it was usual to write histories 
 of illustrious men, 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 9 
 
 hominis, venia opus fuit ; quam non petissem incusaturus tarn 
 saeva et infesta virtutibus tempora. 
 
 II. Legimus, cum Aruleno Rustico Paetus Thrasea, 
 Herennio Senecioni Priscus Helvidius laudati essent, capitals 
 fuisse; neque in ipsos modo auctores, sed in libros quoque 
 eorum saevitum, delegate triumvirisministerio, utmonuraenta 
 clarissimorum ingeniorum in comitio ac foro urerentur. 
 
 1. Mihi venid opus fuit, I have been 
 
 obliged to a^k leave. Zn4^isatu7^i8{= 
 
 siincusaturus essem, had I intended to 
 attack) contains the protasis to quam 
 .... petissem,. Tiie general idea is 
 that " Tacitus feels that he miglit rely 
 on the acceptance which Satire and 
 Invective always meet with, and need 
 not, had these, and not praise, been 
 his theme, have asked for indul- 
 gence." 
 
 CHAP. II. 3. Iieffinvus seems to be 
 opposed to vidimus, and to imply that 
 Tacitus was himself absent, and read 
 only of these occurrences in the acta 
 diuma, an official bulletin published 
 at Borne by authority of the Em- 
 peror, " and containing an account of 
 the public business, and other mat- 
 ters of general Interest." Cum,, 
 
 causal, introduces laudati essent. A. 
 
 326; G. 687; H. 517. Itustico and 
 
 Serrenio: dats. of the apparent 
 agent. Cf, Note on Vlixi. Oer. III. 
 Arulenus Rusticus was put to death 
 by Domitian because he studied 
 philosophy, and had called Paetus 
 Thrasea holy in his panegyric on 
 
 him. -JPaetus Tlvrascn was a Stoic, 
 
 and is first mentioned, A. D. 57, as 
 supporting the Cicilians in their 
 charge against Cossutianus Capito, 
 their late governor. He first pro- 
 voked the anger of the court by 
 speaking against a Senatus consultum, 
 allowing the Syracusans to exceed 
 the usual limits in gladitorial dis- 
 plays. In A. D. 59, on the death of 
 Agrippina, when honors were voted 
 to Nero, Thrasea abruptly left the 
 Senate house. Some years after- 
 wards he was accused by Cossutianus 
 
 and Eprius Marcellus, and con- 
 demned to death, A. D. 66. 
 
 4. ITercihnio SeTiecioni. Seneciowas 
 a native of Baetica in Spain, and sub- 
 sequently Quaestor there. He was 
 put to death because he took no part 
 in public affairs for many years, and 
 for writing the life of Helvidius 
 Priscus, (his son-in-law, and friend 
 of the younger Pliny) who was exe- 
 cuted by order of Vespasian. The 
 events here mentioned took place In 
 
 the reign of Domitian, A. D. 93. 
 
 Cajpitale, a capital criTne: the neuter 
 adj. used as a noun. 
 
 6. Saevitum {esse), "vengeance was 
 
 screaked;" impersonal. TH.um~ 
 
 viris, BC. capitalibus. The Triumviri 
 capUales were regular magistrates, 
 first appointed about B. C. 292, whose 
 functions combined some of the duties 
 of our magistrates and sheriffs. They 
 inquired into all capital crimes, en- 
 forced state fines, supervised prisons, 
 and carried out the sentence of the 
 law on criminals. 
 
 7. Xn comitio ac foro. The comi- 
 tiura was a part of the Roman forum, 
 forming its eastern and narrowest 
 end, and elevated above it by steps : 
 the rostrum being in the centre of the 
 line dividing the two parts. The comi- 
 tium was originally the scene of the 
 patrician elections and assemblies; 
 the forum being appropriated to the 
 plebs. At the eastern point of it was 
 the tribunal where Justice used to be 
 administered, and where criminals 
 were punished; and therefore the 
 book was burned there for the sake 
 of disgracing it more deeply, the 
 
10 
 
 THE AGRICJOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Scilicet illo igne voceni populi Romani et libertatera senatus 
 et conscientiam generis humani aboleri arbitrabantur, expulsis 
 insuper sapientiae professoribus atque omni bona arte in ex- 
 silium acta, ne quid usquam honestura occurreret. Dedimus 
 
 6 profecto grande patientiae documentum ; et sicut vetus aetas 
 vidit quid ultimum in libertate esset, ita nos quid in servitute, 
 adempto per inquisitiones etiam loquendi audiendique com- 
 mercio. Memoriam quoque ipsam cum voce perdidissemus, 
 si tarn in nostra potestate esset oblivisci quam tacere. III. 
 
 10 Nunc demum redit animus; et quamquam primo statim 
 beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar res olira dissociabiles 
 miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque quotidie feli- 
 citatem temporum Nerva Traianus, nee spem mode ac votum 
 
 burning in the forum being only to 
 give the proceeding publicity. 
 
 1. Scilicet, forsooth: ironical. 
 
 2. ConscientiaiHf conscioitsness. 
 They hoped that, all records of these 
 actions being destroyed, mankind 
 could never express its approval of 
 
 them. A.rbitr€ibanturf sc. Domi- 
 
 tian and his attendants. JExpulsis. 
 
 This occurred about A. D. 94. 
 
 3. Sapientiae^ philosophy. I*ro- 
 
 fessoribus is a post Augustan vrord, 
 and is here used in its modern mean- 
 ing. 
 
 4. Sonestunif regarded as honorable. 
 
 "What would quid honesii mean ?. 
 
 Occurreret, should meet one: subj. of 
 negative purpose. A. 331 ; G. 545, 3; H. 
 497, II. 
 
 5. Profecto, indeed^ certainly, 
 
 fetus aetas, " ' the olden time,'' of the 
 republic." C. 
 
 6. Z/ltimum, the extreme^ i. e., the 
 last point that could be reached. 
 
 7. Inquisitiones, a system of espion- 
 age, which reached, its height under 
 Domitian. Vid. Merivale, Hist, of the 
 Romans under the Empire, Vol. VII., 
 p. 127; v., p. 130. Commercio, inter- 
 course. 
 
 8. Memoriam .... tacere: i.e., we 
 would not have dared to remember, 
 had we been able to forget. 
 
 CHAP. III. V).Jfuncdemiim,n(yw,at 
 last, after the death of Domitian, and 
 the accession of Nerva and Trajan. 
 
 Medit animus, our courage is only 
 
 Just beginning to recover. The present 
 
 tense has Its proper meaning. 
 
 JPrimo statim ortu, immediately at the 
 very beginning. Statim gives em- 
 phasis to primo ortu. 
 
 11. NcT^aCaesar. The name Oicsar 
 with the title Au^ustv^ was borne by 
 all the Emperors down to the time of 
 
 Hadrian. IHsaociabilea, incompatir 
 
 ble, 
 
 12. Miscuerit. Tacitus uses the subJ. 
 oftener than the indie, after quam- 
 quam. A. 313, g ; G. 608, R. 1 ; H. 515, N. 
 
 1, 3). Principatum. Jh^Tudpattis is 
 
 that form of government which puts 
 a Princeps at the head of the State. It 
 was a constitutional title, and pecu- 
 liarly acceptable to the Romans, who 
 clung to the form of liberty when the 
 
 reality had passed away. Axt^eat. 
 
 This, taken in connection with Nerva 
 Caesar above,shows that the Agricola 
 was written between September 18, 97 
 (when Trajan was adopted by Nerva), 
 and January 27, 98 (when Nerva died). 
 
 13. Nerva Traianus. The man's 
 name was originally Marcus XTlpias 
 Traianus. He was adopted by Marcus 
 Cocceius Nerva. As a rule, under the 
 
THE AGRICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 11 
 
 Securitas publica, sed ipsius voti fiduciam ac robur adsump- 
 serit : natura tamen infirmitatis humanae tardiora sunt remedia 
 quam mala ; et, ut corpora nostra lente augescunt, cito ex- 
 stinguuntur, sic ingenia studiaque oppresseris facilius quam 
 revocaveris. Subit quippe etiara ipsius inertiae dulcedo, et 5 
 in visa prime desidia postremo amatur. Quid ? si per quin- 
 decim annos, grande mortalis aevi spatium, multi fortuitis 
 casibus, promptissimus quisquesaevitia principis interciderunt, 
 pauci, ut ita dixerim, non modo aliorum, sed etiam nostri 
 superstites sumus, exemptis e media vita tot annis, quibuslO 
 iuvenes ad senectutem, scnes prope ad ipsos exactae aetatis 
 
 Republic, if a man passed from one 
 geTis to another, he would assume the 
 %yraenom€n^ nomenj and cognomen of 
 his adopter, and add his own gentile 
 name with the termination changed 
 into anus. But this rule was often 
 violated, and under the Empire many 
 irregularities occurred, as here. 
 
 TRAJAN- 
 
 nec = et non. Spent ac voturti, 
 
 Jwpes and good loisTies. 
 
 1. " Securitas publica was a current 
 expression and wish, and was fre- 
 quently inscribed on medals." K.- — • 
 Ipsius voti .... roJywr, the certainty 
 
 and substance of the wish itself. arf- 
 
 sumpserit. This means that public 
 security has been the subject of hope 
 and prayers before, but now for the 
 first time begins to feel confidence 
 and assurance in the fulfilment of its 
 wishes. Note the zeugma, as ad- 
 sutnpserit is strictly appropriate 
 only to fiduciatn ac robur. Spent ac 
 votum would require conceperii. 
 
 Afb. Oppresse^-ls and revocaveris: 
 indefinite subject. A. 311, a; G. 252; 
 H. 485, N. 3. Subitf steals in; poeti- 
 cal. 
 
 6. Quid, sc. ais, JPer quitidecint 
 
 annos. The fifteen years of Domi- 
 tian's reign, from A. D. HI to 96. 
 
 7. Fortuitis casibusf i. e., by na- 
 tural death, as opposed to death by 
 violence, saevitia principis. 
 
 8. JPromptissimuSf the Tnost energe- 
 tic, is derived frorapromo, and denotes 
 a person forward to display energy in 
 any way on occasion. 
 
 9. Ut ita dixeirint is an apology for 
 the forcible expression nostri super- 
 stites. In earlier writers we would 
 
 have dicam. Z. 528. Aliorunif i. e., 
 
 physically. Nostrif i. e., mentally 
 
 and morally. "We are remnants of 
 our former selves. 
 
 11. Iuvenes ad senectutem : in 
 which class Tacitus ranks himself. 
 Up to the forty-sixth year of his life 
 a man wb^ junior ; beyond that seTiior. 
 This expression then would seem to 
 
12 
 
 THE AGEICOI-A OF TACITUS. 
 
 terminos per silentium venimus, Non tamen pigebit vel in- 
 condita ac rudi voce memoriam prioris servitutis ac testi- 
 monium praesentium bonorum composuisse. Hie interim 
 liber, honori Agricolae soceri mei destinatus, professione 
 pietatis aut laudatus erit aut excusatus. 
 
 IV. Gnaeus Iulius Agricola, vetere et inlustri Fo- 
 roiuliensium colonia ortus, utrumque avum procuratorem 
 Caesarum habuit, quae equestris nobilitas est. Pater Iulius 
 
 prove that Tacitus was at least forty- 
 five at Nerva's accession, and hence 
 must have been born as early as A. 
 D.51. 
 
 1. Silentittni refers to the silence oJ 
 mental inactivity) alluded, to in stu- 
 
 diaque .... revocaveris. Tamen. 
 
 Although everything seems so un- 
 favorable for writing, pe(. 
 
 2. Jklemorlaiit prdoris servitutis no 
 doubt alludes to the Historiae, and the 
 records of tyranny included in them. 
 
 3. Testimonium p^raesentium bo- 
 norum alludes to his intention of 
 writing a history of the reigns of 
 Nerva and Trajan, — an intention 
 which it seems he never carried into 
 
 execution. Interim^ 1. e., until the 
 
 larger are more im,portant works are 
 finished. 
 
 4. Professione pietatis^ "from its 
 profession of filial regard.'" C. Cf. Cic. 
 pro Piancio xxxiil: Quid est pietas nisi 
 grata voluntas in parentes f 
 
 CHAP. IV. 6 Gnaeus Iulius Agri- 
 cola. Every Roman had at least 
 three names: the pi-aenomen or indi- 
 vidual name ending in us (Qnaeus): 
 the nomen or name of the gens, house 
 or clan, founded originally on blood 
 relationship which always ended in 
 us {Juiiits); and the cognomen or 
 family name {Agricola). The general 
 custom of Tacitus in citing names is 
 to use two, the nomen and cognomen, 
 on the first mention (unless the per- 
 son be extraordinarily illustrious, 
 like the Caesars, or — extremes meet- 
 ing—very obscure), and the single 
 
 name afterwards. Here, however, 
 one can easily see why the historian 
 gave Agricola's full name, as he is the 
 
 subject of the present memoir. 
 
 Vetere: founded by Julius Caesar, B. 
 
 C. 44. Inhistri refers more to the 
 
 renown of its founder, than to its own 
 
 intrinsic lm.portance. Foroiulien- 
 
 siutn (the name of the people put for 
 that of the town). This place is the 
 modern Fr^us^ on the coast between 
 Toulon and the Var, about 25 miles 
 southwest of Nice. There was an- 
 other town of the same name in Um- 
 bria. 
 
 7. Frocurator&m, TheProcuratores 
 managed the imperial patrimonium, 
 and also all the business connected 
 with the revenues of the imperial 
 provinces, as distinguished from the 
 Quaestors in the senatorial provinces. 
 In some of the less important pro- 
 vinces the Procuratores were sole 
 governors. 
 
 8. Caesarum. Both grandfathers 
 were probably Procurators under 
 Augustus, the father having been 
 
 made a Senator by Tiberius. Qu€te 
 
 equestris -nobilitas estf which is a dig- 
 nity peculiar to the Knights, All the 
 offices relating to the finances were in 
 the possession of the Roman Knights; 
 of whom the imperial procurators 
 were accounted noble. Emperors like 
 Claudius made procuratores even of 
 their freedmen, but this violated the 
 
 usual arrangement. Julius Grae- 
 
 cinus. This is the man of whom 
 Seneca (de Bene/, II. 21) says: '*Si 
 
THE A6EIC0LA OF TACITUS. 
 
 13 
 
 Graecinus, senatorii ordinis, studio eloquentiae sapientiaeque 
 notus, iisque ipsis virtutibus iram Gaii Caesaris meritus; 
 namque M. Silanum accusare iussus et, quia abnuerat, inter- 
 fectus est. Mater lulia Procilla fuit, rarae castitatis. In huius 
 sinu indulgentiaque educatus per omnem honestarum artium 6 
 cultum pucritiam adolescentiamque transegit. Arcebat eum ab 
 inlecebris peccantium, praeter ipsius bonam integramque 
 naturam, quod statira parvulus sedem ac magistram studiorum 
 Massiliam habuit, locum Graeca comitate et provjnciali parsi- 
 monia mixtum ac bene compositum. Memoria teneo solitumlO 
 ipsum narrare se prima in iuventa studium philosophiae acrius, 
 
 exemplo magni animi opus est, uiamur, 
 Graecini lulii, viri egregii quern. O 
 Caesar occidit ob hoc unum quod 
 melior vir esset quarn esse quemquam 
 tyranno erpediret." It was his refusal 
 to accuse Silanus that drew on him 
 the resentment of Caligula, who 
 seized probably the first fair pretext 
 he could find for getting rid of him. 
 
 1. Ordinis, sc. vir. A. 214, b ; 215 ; Q. 
 365; H. 396, V; 398, 1. " Ordo is ap- 
 plied to any body of men, who form a 
 distinct class in the community, 
 either by possessing distinct privi- 
 leges, pursuing certain trades or pro- 
 fessions, or in any other way." C. 
 
 Sapientia€f philosophy. 
 
 2. NotuSf sc. erat. Gaii Caesaris 
 
 is better linown in English Histories 
 as Caligula, emperor after Tiberius, 
 
 A. D. 37-41. Meritus, sc. est, earned. 
 
 Note the Irony. 
 
 3. Marcum Silanum. This Silanus 
 was Consul in A. D. 19 : his daughter, 
 A. D. 33, married Caligula, in whose 
 reign he was Proconsul of Africa. 
 The emperor, being Jealous of him, 
 deprived him of power, and subse- 
 quently compelled him to put an end 
 to his life. Iussus, sc. est. 
 
 4. Jiarae castitatis, sc. mitlier. 
 
 5. Sit)/u indulgentiaque, in her 
 bosom and fond affection, i. e., under 
 her personal supervision. 
 
 6. I'u^ritioMi adolescentia/mque. 
 
 According to Isidorus {Orig. XI. 2) the 
 usual divisions ol age amongst the 
 Romans were : infantia, which lasted 
 from one year to seven ; pueritia, from 
 seven to fourteen ; odolesceriMa, from 
 fourteen to twenty-eight; and iuvenr 
 tus, from twenty-eight to fortyfive. 
 
 Arcebat. The .subject is the 
 
 clause quod .... eoTnpositum. 
 
 7. Peccantium denotes here sins of 
 licentiousness. Tacitus is rather fond 
 of this absolute use of the participle 
 in the sense of the noun. 
 
 8. Sedem ac mugistram, "the 
 scene and guide." 
 
 9. ]M[assilia/m. Now Marseilles. It 
 seems to have had a great educa- 
 tional reputation. Augustus sent his 
 sister Octavia's grandson there into 
 polite banishment, under pretence of 
 study; and Strabo remarks that, in 
 his day, illustrious Romans of a liter- 
 ary turn frequented Massilia instead 
 of visiting Athens. Tacitus describes 
 the place as distinguished for Greek 
 politeness, because it was founded by 
 
 a colony of Phocaeans. Parsimo- 
 
 nia, economy, as opposed to the ex- 
 travagance of Rome. 
 
 10. Jl£ixtum ac bene compositum 
 {mingled and well united): by enallage 
 for locum, in quo Graeca comitas et 
 proviTidalis parsimonia mixtae ac bene 
 
 campositae erant. Acrius, sc, 
 
 aequo. 
 
14 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS, 
 
 ultra quam concessum Romano ac senatori, hausisse^^ ni pru- 
 dentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum coercuisset. 
 Scilicet sublime et erectum ingenium pulcritudinem ac speciem 
 magnae excelsaeque gloriae vehementius quam caute adpetebat, 
 
 5 Mox mitigavit ratio et aetas ; retinuitque, quod est difficilli- 
 mum, ex sapientia modum. 
 
 V. Prima castrorum rudimenta in Britannia Suetonio 
 Paulino, diligenti ac moderate duci, adprobavit, electus quern 
 contubernio aestimaret. Nee Agricola licenter, more iuvenum, 
 
 10 qui militiam in lasciviam vertunt, neque segniter ad voluptates 
 et commeatus titulum tribunatus et inscitiam rettulit ; sed 
 
 I. Concessunif sc. erat, RoTnano 
 
 tic senatori. A Roman senator was 
 a person, whose main business iay in 
 action, not in speculation. Too great 
 Indulgence tlierefore in pliilosopliical 
 studies was thought prejudicial, as 
 tending to foster a dreamy un- 
 practical character. The same idea 
 prevailed among the Greeks. Ct. 
 Plato, Gorg, 4S4c. Senatori, of course, 
 refers to the rank of Agricola by birth 
 
 and not to his office. Jlausis/tp is 
 
 the infinitive of what in the Orutio 
 recta would have been liatiriehat, 
 began to drink in. A. 308, b ; G. 5139, R. 
 
 2; H. 527, III. and N. 2, 1). T^udvn- 
 
 tia matria. Cf. Suet. Nero, 52. "vl 
 philosophia euni mater avert it rnonens 
 iTnperaturo contrariam esse^ 
 
 3. Scilicptf naturally. Thilcri- 
 
 tinjinein. ac speciem , comeliness and 
 beauty. The former expresses the 
 beauty of appropriate and sym- 
 nietrical arrangement; the l;itter, 
 the beauty that strikes the eye, and 
 challenges observation. 
 
 4. Vehernf^ntii/s qiinrtt caitie. The 
 classical const^-uction would, of 
 course, requii'e cavtius here. Tac-ltus 
 generally follows this, butsomcllmes 
 has that of text. A. 192, b ; G. 314 ; H. 
 444, 2 and N. 3. 
 
 5. Mitigavit, sc. eum. 
 
 6. Ex sapientia. This means that 
 after the mellowing influence .of 
 
 reason and time had wrought a 
 change, Agricola retained— a hard 
 thing to do— as a relic of his old 
 philosophical pursuits, the power of 
 self conquest and moderation. 
 CHAP, V. 7. Castrorum, of military 
 
 service. Suetonio Faulino : dat. 
 
 after adjwo&CTui*. For Tacitus opinion 
 of him, see Cap.XI V; Hist. II. 25 ; 11.31. 
 
 8. Moderato: caution was his 
 
 most prominent characteristic. 
 
 Adprdbavit. J^dprobare is to make 
 anything satisfactory to another. Cf. 
 ^n. XV. 59; Cic. AdAttic.lV. 14; de 
 Mn. II. 25. 
 
 9. Contubernio: abl. of means. 
 
 Aestitnaret: subj. of purpose, after 
 quern = lit eum. Aestimare here 
 means to ascertain the value of; and 
 the general's aim was to find out by 
 constant association In war of what 
 metal the young soldier was made. 
 Liccnter (sc, agens) refers to vo- 
 luptates; segniter to connneatus. 
 
 11. Titulnm tinbunatus expresses a 
 kind of brevet tribuneship; and as 
 the holders of this post, in spite of 
 their nominal ranic, were really 
 ignorant, generally spealcing, of a 
 soldier's duties, and regarded the 
 army as a convenient lounging 
 place, Tacitus adds et inscitiatn. 
 The whole passage means as follows: 
 ' Nor did Agricola, with a display of 
 disorderly license, or Idle lounging, 
 make his nominal tribuneship, 
 
THE AGRlCOLA OF TACIITtrS. 
 
 15 
 
 noscere provinciam, nosci exercitui, discere a peritis, sequi 
 optimoSj nihil adpetere in iactationenij nihil ob formidinem 
 recusare, simulque et anxius et intentus agere. Non sane alias 
 exercitatior magisque in ambiguo Britannia fuit. Trucidati 
 veterani^ incensae coloniae, intercepti exercitus ; turn de salute, 5 
 mox de victoria certavere. Quae cuncta esti consiliis ductuque 
 alterius agebantur, ac summa rerum et recuperatae provinciae 
 gloria in ducem cessit, artem et usum et stimulos addidere 
 iuveni, intravitque animum militaris gloriae cupido ingrata 
 temporibus, quibus sinistra erga eminentes interpretatio, nee 10 
 minus periculum ex magna fama quam ex mala, 
 
 VI. Hinc ad capessendos magistratus in urbem digressus 
 
 (which rank would have given op- 
 portunities for pleasure) and real 
 ignorance a ground for pleasurable 
 indulgence, or repeated furloughs 
 (which he could easily have obtained 
 as from his ignorance he was of no 
 use). 
 
 1. Noscere, etc.: historical infini- 
 tives. Note the antitheses : '^noscere- 
 nosei; disceresequi ; adpet&re—recu- 
 sare\ anxius 4ntentusy 
 
 2. In iactationem ; i. e., he did not 
 solicit dangerous duties with a view 
 to boast thereafter of his success. 
 
 8. A.nxius et intentus, careful and 
 energetic. ^naciMs refers to the future, 
 fearful of eventual miscarriage ; in- 
 tentus, to the present, with his whole 
 energies bent to the work in hand. 
 
 Non sane alias, certainly at no 
 
 othei' time. 
 
 4. JExercitatior {^= agitatior) refers 
 to the famous revolt of Boadicea, A. 
 
 D. 60: vid. Caps. XV. and XVI.. 
 
 In amhiguo, in a state of uncertainty, 
 
 as to the possession of it. Trucidati 
 
 (sc, erant) veterani. In the butchery 
 attending this outbreak 70,000 citizens 
 and allies perished. The 'veterans' 
 were especially obnoxious to the 
 Britons. 
 
 5. Incensae coloniae. The Colonia 
 Oamulodunum, the only real colonia 
 
 in Britain, and the Municipia 
 Verulamiumaji^ Londinium{al\ called 
 loosely coloniae here), were burned. 
 
 Intercepti encercitus. Petilius 
 
 Cerealis hastening to the rescue of 
 the towns had been surprised and 
 destroyed, his cavalry only escaping. 
 
 Turn refers to trucidati ; tnox, to 
 
 the arrival of Paulinus and Agricola. 
 
 6. Certavere, sc. Romani. 
 
 7. Alterius: i. e., Suetonius. 
 
 Summa rerum, '* general manage- 
 ment." T. 
 
 8. In ducem cessit, fell to the share 
 of the general. For this sense of the 
 
 word.cf. Hist. I. 11; III. 83. Artem 
 
 et usum et stimulos, skill and ex- 
 
 periencCj and incentives. Iuveni : i. 
 
 e., Agricola. 
 
 10, 11. Temporihus, referring to 
 those of Nero, is best taken as a 
 
 dative depending on ingrata. 
 
 Sinistra is best joined with erga 
 
 eminentes. Nee minus .... em 
 
 mala. "A remark worthy of no- 
 tice, and too often true." Tyler. 
 
 CHAP. VI. r2. Sine, after these ser- 
 vices. Ad capessendos magistra- 
 tus. In order to obtain high rank in 
 the public service, it was necessary 
 to go through the several grades of 
 the magistracy, which are all men- 
 tioned and explained below. 
 
16 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Domitiam DecidianamjSplendidisnatalibus ortam, sibiiunxit; 
 idque matrimonium ad maiora nitenti decus ac robur fuit. 
 Vixeruntque mira Concordia^ per mutuam caritatem et invicem 
 se anteponendoj nisi quod in bona uxore tanto maior laus, 
 quanto in mala plus culpae est, Sors quaesturae provinciam 
 Asiam, proconsulem Salvium Titianum dedit ; quorum neutro 
 corruptus est, quamquam et provincia dives ac parata peccan- 
 tibus, et proconsul, in omnem aviditatem pronus, quantalibet 
 facilitate redempturus esset mutuam dissimulationem mali. 
 
 1. Ntttnlibus, lineage; a post-Au- 
 giistan use of the word. 
 
 2. Nitenti agrees with ei; dat. of 
 
 possessor understood. Decus ac 
 
 robuTf distinction and an assistance. 
 Her splendid descent and large 
 dowry were probably of material 
 help to Agricolav as adding lustre to 
 his pretensions, and giving him. the 
 means for defraying the expenses in- 
 cidental to a dignified discharge of 
 office. 
 
 3. JPer mutua/m cetritatem is best 
 taken as causal. "Their affection 
 was the cause of their singular har- 
 mony." 
 
 4. Anteponendo. Note the enallage. 
 
 Ifiai quod refers to a thought 
 
 suggested by the previous words, 
 viz., tJuxt they egually attained to ezcel- 
 lencCf and therefore equally deserved 
 praise, rather than to the exact 
 
 words themselves. McUor, i. e., 
 
 guam in bono viro. 
 
 5. JPltis, i. e., guam in malo viro. 
 Tacitus' idea Is: As it is thought 
 more faulty for a wife to be a bad 
 wife than for a man to be a bad hus- 
 band, because it seems to be her 
 special province to discharge a wife's 
 duties well, so owing to the natural 
 weakness of her sex, to rise high in 
 excellence deserves more praise in a 
 
 woman than in a man. Sors 
 
 quaesturae. Every proconsul was 
 attended to his province by a 
 quaestor {the first position In the 
 course of ilom.an honors), who was 
 
 paymaster to the forces, and levied 
 such portions of the revenue as were 
 not farmed by the Publicani. After 
 they had been appointed at Rome, 
 they tlien drew lots for their destinar 
 tions. Agricola obtained it in his 
 
 25th year, A. D. 65. I^ovincia/m 
 
 A-siam. The province of Asia was 
 only a small part of Asia Minor, con- 
 taining Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and 
 Lydia. It originated in the bequest 
 of Attalus to the Romans, B. C. 133. 
 
 6. JProcon^ulem. A proconsul was 
 
 usually an ex-consul. Salvium 
 
 Titianum. Salvius Otho Titianus 
 was the elder brotherof the Emperor 
 Otho, and, like him, a corrupt and 
 greedy man. — -Dedi^ sc. et; 1. e., 
 
 Agricolae. Keutro (dative of the 
 
 agent) alludes to both the richness 
 of the province, and the venality of 
 the governor. 
 
 7. Farata peccantibuSf ready for 
 offenders. This means that in Asia 
 there were people always ready to 
 assist a corruptly disposed Roman 
 official of rank In any scheme of 
 mischief he might put his hand to, 
 or to bribe him to pervert justice. 
 
 8, 9. QuantaMbet facilitatef by any 
 
 license Jiawever greats i. e., by allowing 
 Agricola any facility for plundering 
 
 which he might wish. Itedemp- 
 
 turus esset f "Subj. in the apodosis 
 answering to a protasis understood, 
 viz., %f Agricola had entered into the 
 plot." Tyler. A. 311; G. 602; H. 486, 
 and N. 2. IHssimulationem, The 
 
THE AGKICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 17 
 
 Auctiis est ibi filia, in subsidium simul et solacium; nam 
 filium ante sublatum brevi amisit. Mox inter quaesturam ac 
 tribunatum plebis atque ipsum etiam tribunatus annum quiete 
 et otio transiit, gnarus sub Nerone temporum, quibus inertia 
 pro sapientia fuit. Idem praeturae tenor et silentium ; nee 
 enim iurisdictio obvenerat. Ludos et inania honoris medio 
 rationis atque abundantiae duxit, uti longe a luxuria, ita famae 
 proprior. Turn electus a Galba ad dona templornm recog- 
 
 word generally means to disguise 
 what belongs to oneself. Tacitus, 
 however, uses it in the sense of con- 
 niving at the faults of others. Of. 
 nut. I. 26; ^n.XIII. 49. 
 
 1. Filia: afterwards the wife of 
 
 of Tacitus. In subsidiji/m. Wex 
 
 makes this refer to the enactment of 
 the Lex Papia Poppaea, whereby a 
 candidate with children was pre- 
 ferred to one without, and one with 
 more children to one with fewer, 
 but it seems better to give it a more 
 general signification. 
 
 2. Sublatunif bom; a phrase de- 
 rived from the custom by which a 
 Boman father took up {smtulit) the 
 child whom he acknowledged and 
 
 wished to rear. Amisitf he lost. 
 
 Some understand itasperf. forplup., 
 and render had lost. The daughter 
 was a subsidium, as Increasing his 
 family, and when he lost his son be- 
 came a solaciwm. MoXf sc. annum 
 
 as object oitransiitfoTt'he first clause : 
 i. e., A. D. 66. By a law passed, B. C. 
 180, certain ages were fixed at which 
 each office in the state might be held. 
 These periods appear to have been 
 for the QuaestorshlpSO; for the Tri- 
 bunate 33; for the Aedileship36; for 
 the Praetorship 39 ; and for the Con- 
 sulate 42 or 43 : so that two years 
 elapsed between successive offices. 
 Under the Caesars this arrangement 
 was altered ; and besides the Quaes- 
 torship being attainable at 24, a year 
 only seems to have elapsed between 
 successive honors. 
 
 3. Trilmnatum, plebis. This was 
 
 the second in the course of honors. 
 Tribunattis annumf i. e., A. D. 67. 
 
 5. Pro sapientia fuit ^ sey-ved for a 
 mark of wisdom. >In the case of Agri- 
 cola the inertia was, of course, as- 
 sumed. — ^Praeturae. Agricola was 
 praetor in A. D. 68. Tenor et silen- 
 tium is by hendiadys for continuum 
 silentiu/m, constant quietude. 
 
 6. Nee enim iurisdictio obveneratf 
 for no actual jurisdiction had fallen to 
 his lot. There were twelve or more 
 Praetors at Home at this period, but 
 only two, those who filled the places 
 of the old Praetor Urbanus and Prae- 
 tor Peregrinus, had the iits dicendi. 
 The others presided over the Quaes- 
 tiones perpetuae for repetundae, ambi- 
 tus, etc., but as even these, under the 
 Emperors, were in the hands of the 
 senate, and managed under imperial 
 direction, little else was left to the 
 Praetors than the management and 
 
 superintendence of the games. 
 
 Inania hoiuyriSf *' fhe pageantry of his 
 office." Medio, in a Tnean between. 
 
 7. MatMyniSf strict economy: inhu- 
 
 Tnana divitas. Seneca (ad Melvid.). 
 
 IHtxitf he conducted. The meaning 
 
 of the passage is, 'the games and 
 empty pageantry of the Praetor's 
 office heregardedasrequiringamean 
 between strict economy and lavish 
 display ; so that although the exhi- 
 bitions were not prodigally ostenta- 
 tious, there was enough splendor 
 about them to attract admiration. 
 
 8. Galba: the successor of Nero, A. 
 D. 68. MecoffTutscendaf examining. 
 
18 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 noscenda, diligentissima conquisltione fecit, ne cuius alterius 
 sacrilegium respublica quam Neronis sensisset. 
 
 VII. Sequens annus gravi vulnere animum domumque 
 eius adflixit. Nam classis Othoniana licenter vaga, dum 
 Intemelios (Liguriae pars est) hostiliter populatur, matrem 
 Agricolae in praediis suis interfecit, praediaque ipsa et magnam 
 patrimonii partem diripuit, quae causa caedis fuerat. Igitur 
 ad sollemnia pietatis profectus Agricola nuntio adfectati a 
 Vespasiano imperii deprehensus ac statim in partes trans- 
 
 2. JTe .... sensisset. The natural 
 sequence here "would be sentiret, or 
 senseHty according to the sense to be 
 conveyed, but the force of the pluper- 
 fect may be thus explained. He so 
 ordered things that when his office 
 was discharged "the state found that 
 it Juxd/elt only the sacrilege of Nero, 
 everything having been recovered 
 except what he had appropriated." 
 C. and S. Cf. PUny, Paneg. 40.- — ■ 
 Sacrilegium. Nero had plundered 
 the temples for the supply of his ex- 
 travagances and debaucheries. Much 
 had been lavished on his favorites. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 3, 4. Segiuerts anrvusf 
 A. D. 69. Nam. classis Othon/iana. 
 
 There is an account of this HisU II. 
 12, 13. Galba was murdered by the 
 Praetorian Guard on the 15th of Jan- 
 uary, and was succeeded by Otho. 
 
 LicenteVf for purposes of plunder. 
 
 5. Intemelios: the nam,e of the 
 people, again, for that of the town. 
 The place is now Vintimiglia, about 
 
 twelve miles east of Monaco. 
 
 Liguriae. Liguria was the ninth of 
 the eleven regions into which Augus- 
 tus divided Italy : it was bounded on 
 the north by the Padus; on the east 
 by the Trebia and Macra. 
 
 6,7. Praedllft suis, Tier own estates. 
 ^' PrartUa includes both land and 
 buildings." T. PatrimonU ap- 
 pears to have lost its original mean- 
 ing, of an inherited property, and 
 here denotes furniture and household 
 goods. Quae. We should rather 
 
 expect gtiod. " But the meaning is 
 that whatever of her movable prop- 
 erty she had on the spot was plun- 
 dered, and that it was this that had 
 invited the crime." 
 
 8. ^d solle^nnia pietatiSf "toper- 
 form the solemn duties of filial affec- 
 tion." It is probable that the funeral 
 rites had been performed when Agri- 
 cola arrived, but som.e of the ceremo- 
 nies could be repeated with more 
 solemnity. Thus in Cicero, Cluent.9, 
 we are told of a mother, who finding 
 that her son was dead, and his corpse 
 already burnt, repeated the funeral 
 
 rites. Adfectati .... imperiif of 
 
 t/ie empire's having been laid claim to by 
 Vespasian. This took place in the 
 beginning of July, A. D. 69. Otho, 
 after a short reign, had been suc- 
 ceeded by Vltellius, who was in turn 
 succeeded by Vespasian. 
 
 9. Deprehensus, sc. est. A man is 
 said to be deprehensus by any news 
 which overtakes him unexpectedly, or 
 
 is brought in a hurried manner. 
 
 Statim.. From the Histories we learn 
 that at least three months must have 
 elapsed between his mother's death, 
 and his going over to Vespasian. II. 
 55, 70, 91. In partes, sc. Vespasiani. 
 
 ■ Transgressits est. Agricola prob- 
 ably attached himself to Antonius 
 Primus. At least from the account 
 given of this general's movements in 
 Sist. II. 85, 86, and HI. 1-10, this would 
 be his natural point to take, as he 
 was on his way to Liguria, when the 
 news reached him,. 
 
THE AGEICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 19 
 
 gressus est. Initia principatus ac statum urbis Mucianus 
 regebat, iuvene admodum Domitiano et ex paterna fortuna 
 tantum licentiam usurpante. Is missum ad delectus agendos 
 Agricolam integreque ac strenue versatum vicesimae legioni, 
 tarda ad sacramentum transgressae, praeposuit, ubi decessor 5 
 seditiose agere narrabatur; quippe legatis quoque consularibus 
 nimia ac formidolosa erat, nee legatus praetorius ad cohibendum 
 potens, incertum suo an militum ingenio. Ita successor simul 
 et ultor electus rarissima moderatione maluit videri invenisse 
 bonos quam fecisse. 10 
 
 1. JPHncipatuSf sc. eius ; i. e.,Ves- 
 pasiani. Note the use of the Em- 
 peror's title, princepSf as the civil 
 head of the state rather than imperor 
 t(yr, which always implies military 
 
 and even autocratic power. Muci- 
 
 anus. He was consul A. D. 52, under 
 Claudius, and twice afterwards. At 
 the death of Nero he was governor of 
 Syria, and being reconciled to Ves- 
 pasian, supported his claim to the 
 imperial throne zealously, marching 
 into Europe while Vespasian re- 
 mained in Asia. On reaching Rome 
 he assumed in reality the reins of 
 power, although nominally Domitian 
 was at the head of affairs. 
 
 2. Iuvene. Domitian was at this 
 
 time about eighteen years old. ■ 
 
 Domitiano. Domitian was the 
 younger son of Vespasian, and ac- 
 companied Mucianus to Rome as 
 the representative of his father. He 
 became afterwards one of the most 
 infamous and detestable of theBoman 
 emperors. 
 
 3,4. ISf i. e., Mucianus. — Miss-um. 
 
 Early in A. D. 70. Vicesimae 
 
 legioni. This legion, known as Vic- 
 trix, was one of the four at this time 
 stationed in Britain, the other three 
 being the 2nd, 9th and 14th. In the 
 Itinerary, of Antoninus, it is men- 
 tioned as stationed at Deva, the mod- 
 ern Chester, where Roman remains, 
 inscriptions, altars, statues, baths, 
 etc., are numerous. 
 
 5. Tarde ad sacra/mentum. For 
 
 the feeling of the troops toward Ves- 
 pasian, cf. Hist. III. 44. accessor. 
 
 This was Roscius Ca*lijus. Hist. 1. 60. 
 
 6. Legatis consulafibus. The im- 
 perial provinces were governed by 
 legati praetorii, eonsulares, etc., who 
 were so called because the Emperor 
 was proconsul of all the imperial 
 provinces, and therefore his deputies 
 were properly called legati. Their 
 rank depended on the importance of 
 theprovince: small provinces, which 
 required but a single legion being as- 
 signed to the commander of that 
 legion, who was a legatus praetorius ; 
 those, which required more than one 
 legion, were given to legati eonsu- 
 lares. 
 
 7, 8. Nimia, too powerful. Lcga^ 
 
 tus praetoriuSf i. e., Roscius Caelius. 
 
 the same person as decessor. Zw- 
 
 certumf sc. est utrwm. This was either 
 because he had no talent for com- 
 mand, or the troops no idea of subor- 
 dination. Successor ; i. e., to the 
 
 governor. 
 
 9. Ultor; i, e., to the soldiers. — - 
 Harissimaf etc. This sentence means 
 that Agricola, instead of aiming at an 
 increase of his own reputation by 
 making a stir to bring the disorderly 
 to reason, Tjy way of contrasting his 
 own energy and strictness with the 
 loose discipline of his predecessors, 
 chose rather to begin by blotting out 
 the past, and treating them as re- 
 spectable characters. He thus ap- 
 pealed to their better feelings. 
 
20 
 
 THE AaRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 VIII. Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius Bolanus placidius 
 quam feroci provincia dignum est. Temperavit Agricola vim 
 suam ardoremque compescuit, ne incresceret, peritus obsequi 
 eruditusque utilia honestis miscere, Brevi deinde Britannia 
 
 6 consularem Petilium Cerialem accepit. Habuerunt virtutes 
 spatium exemplorum. Sed prirao Cerialis labores modo et 
 discrimina, mox et gloriam communicabat ; saepe parti 
 exercitus in experimentum, aliquando maioribiis copiis ex 
 eventu praefecit. Nee Agricola umquam in suam famam 
 
 lOgestis exsultavit; ad auctorem et ducem ut minister fortunam 
 referebat. Ita virtute in obsequendo, verecundia in 
 praedicando, extra invidiam nee extra gloriam erat. 
 
 IX. Revertentem ab legatione legionis divus Vespasianus 
 inter patricios adscivit; ac deinde provinciae Aquitaniae 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 1. Tunc. A. D. 69. 
 
 Vettius Bolanus. His character is 
 described at the close of Chap. XVI. 
 JPlacidiifSf with more mildness. 
 
 2. Dignum, est. Tacitus uses est^ 
 and not esset or erat (both of which 
 have been conjectured), because he is 
 speaking generally and not of Britain 
 particularly. Bolanus governed Bri- 
 tain with less energy than suits any 
 province where the people are only 
 half conquered. Vim, energy. 
 
 3,4. Nein,cre8ceret,s,G. Agricola. 
 
 JPeHtus obscqul and miscere: poeti- 
 cal construction ; cf. Verg. Eel. X. 32; 
 Persius II. 34. It is very rare in good 
 prose. A. 273, c; G. 429, R. 4; H. 533, 
 II. 3 I>eindf. A. D. /I. 
 
 5. Consularemf sc. legatum. Pc- 
 
 tiluun Cerialem. Cerialis had once 
 been lieutenant of the 9th legion in 
 Britain, under Suetonius Paulinus. 
 He was connected by marriage with 
 Vespasian and was one of his generals 
 in the civil war. He was engaged in 
 the capture of Rome, and was after- 
 wards despatched Into Germany to 
 oppose Civilis, and the Batavi. He 
 appears to have died during his com- 
 mand in Britain. 
 
 6. JExemploriim: objective geni- 
 tive. 
 
 7. Communicabat^ sc. cUTn illo, i. e. 
 Agricola. 
 
 9. -Ear eventu, " on the strength of the 
 
 result." In suam famam, "ivith a 
 
 view to (increase) his own reputation." 
 
 10. Gestis: abl. of cause. 
 
 *^ Auctorem. cannot be translated 
 here by any single word." It is the 
 one from wTiom he derived his authority, 
 or his superior officer. 
 
 12. Nee extra gloritx/nif but not witJir 
 
 out glory. 2i'ec=et non. Extra = 
 
 sine. Cf. Hist. I. 49, extra vitia. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 13. Mevertentem. As he 
 was returning. It is possible that he 
 did not return to Rome, but stopped 
 on the way at his command in Aqui- 
 
 tania. Ijegatione, sc. praetoria. 
 
 I>ivus, i. e., when this was written. 
 
 14. Inter patricios. In A. D. 74 
 Vespasianus and his son Titus were 
 appointed Censors, the last who held 
 that office. They endeavored to re- 
 cruit the ranks of the Patricians, 
 thinned by a long series of cruelties 
 and deaths, few having survived of 
 those Patrician families, who in the 
 early days of Rome formed her sole 
 citizens. At the end of the Republic 
 there were only some fifty of these 
 families left. Julius Caesar there- 
 fore, by the lex Cfcwsia, raised many 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 21 
 
 praeposuit, splendidae in primis dignitatis administratione ac 
 spe consulatus, cui destinarat. Credunt plerique militaribus 
 ingeniis subtilitatem deesse, quia castrensis iurisdictio secura 
 et obtusior ac plura manu agens calliditatem fori non exerceat. 
 Agricola naturali prudentia, quamvis inter togatos, facile 
 iusteque agebat. lam vero tempora curarum remissionumque 
 divisa : ubi conventus ac indicia poscerent, gravis, intentus, 
 
 plebeians to that rank. Augustus 
 and Claudius did the same, but under 
 Vespasianus they had again dwin- 
 dled down to 200 families (An. XI. 
 
 25). Aquitaniae. This was one of 
 
 Caesar's three divisions of Gallia, but 
 It was afterwards enlarged and em- 
 braced the country between the 
 Cevennes, the Loire, Garonne, and 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 1. Splendidae dignitatis : genitive 
 of quality. Of. Procillaj-arae castUatis ; 
 chap. IV. The dignity was twofold ; 
 consisting absolutely in the govern- 
 ment of so extensive and important 
 a province, and, in the next place, in 
 the probability of its ruler being 
 elevated to the Consulship. Ad- 
 ministratione f in the importance of its 
 duties. 
 
 2. Destinarat, sc. Vespasianics as 
 most writers say; but some supply 
 provinda on the ground that the 
 splendor of a province could hardly 
 be affected by the isolated fact that 
 the Emperor thought of making 
 Agricola consul ; whereas if its rulers 
 were as a matter of general routine 
 usually made Consuls (Galba is an 
 example. Suet. Oalba, VI.), this 
 would add to its splendor consider- 
 ably. The pluperfect, then, occurs 
 as odd. Perhaps it is used, because, 
 as compared with the actual admin- 
 istration, this hope of the Consulate 
 was anterior to it. The province was 
 splendid from its actual government, 
 and even before that, from the hope 
 of the Consulate marked out for Its 
 ruler in any particular case, from the 
 very moment of his nomination. 
 
 3. Subtilitatem, "the faculty of 
 
 drawing nice distinctions." Cas- 
 trensis iurisdictio, military law-. 
 
 Secura, summary^ seems to imply a 
 justice not troubling Itself overmuch 
 about legal subtleties; as not being 
 subject to appeal; or to the scrutiny 
 of opposing counsel ; but founded on 
 the broad and practical principles of 
 equity. 
 
 4. Obtusior, rather blunt. Flura 
 
 manu agens. Agere manu is equi- 
 valent to vi agere, " to do things with 
 
 astrong hand." Calliditatem. The 
 
 word is here used in a bad sense, 
 
 sv^tle distinctions, or craftiness. 
 
 Fori. The Roman courts of justice 
 
 were held in the forum. Hxerceat: 
 
 subj.to express the views of others 
 than the author. A. 336; 341, d; G. 
 541 ; H. 516, II. 
 
 5. Quamvis inter togatos. Togati 
 are civilians, the toga being the dress 
 of peace, as distinguished from 
 sagum, the soldier's cloak. The refer- 
 ence here is to the assizes held under 
 the governor's presidency, generally 
 in the winter months when the army 
 had gone Into winter-quarters, In 
 certain towns in the province for the 
 settlement of all legal suits; hence 
 togatos "litigemtes and not Roman 
 citizens only as it usually does. 
 
 6. Facile iusteqve agebat. Agri- 
 cola presided with ease to himself, 
 because he was up to his work. Cf. 
 
 Suet. Tib. 71. lam vero, andhesides. 
 
 Curarum reTnissiomtrnqtie. Note 
 
 the use of the abstracts in the plural, 
 where our idiom requires the sin- 
 gular. A. 75, c; G. 195, R. 5 ; H. 130, 2. 
 
 7. Divisa, were kept distinct. Con- 
 ventus, sc. iuridici, courts, Xudicia 
 
22 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS, 
 
 severus^ et saepius misericors; ubi officio satisfactunij nulla 
 ultra potestatis persona. Tristitiam et adrogantiam et avari- 
 tiam exuerat; nee illij quod est rarissimum, aut facilitas 
 auctoritatem aut severitaa amorem deminuit. Integritatem 
 atque abstinentiam in tanto viro referre iniuria virtutum 
 fuerit. Ne famam quidem, cui saepe etiam boni indulgent, 
 ostentanda virtute aut per artem quaesivit ; procul ab a^mula- 
 tione adversus collegas, procul a contentione adversus pro- 
 curatores, et vincere inglorium etatterisordidum arbitrabatur. 
 
 refers to the regular administration of 
 justice in the Capital city of the pro- 
 vince by the resident goYernor. 
 
 Poacerent: potential subj. 
 
 1. JBt sacplusf and at the same time 
 very frequently, — -OfficiOf qfficial duly. 
 Satisfactum, sc. esset. 
 
 2. Potestatis, of {the -man of) power. 
 
 Persona is properly a mask for 
 
 stage-players, to Increase the com- 
 pass of their voices; by an easy 
 transition it means to sustain a 
 character or to play the part. Tristi- 
 tiam, the qfficial sierness which befits 
 
 a magistrate. Adrogantiam., rigid 
 
 requirement of respect. Avaritiam, 
 
 avaric€y or rather -what miight seem 
 so in one who exacted the full pay- 
 ment of the tribute or the revenue. 
 
 3. JExuerat. If a man puts off a 
 vice, one naturally supposes him to 
 have had that vice at first more or 
 less. Tacitus would hardly allow 
 that Agricola ever displayed the 
 faults mentioned here. His idea 
 seems to be that certain vices may be 
 looked for in persons holding certain 
 positions: avarice, etc., he regards jxs 
 the natural faults of a provincial 
 governor; probably they were such 
 in nine cases out of ten in his ex- 
 perience. By exaei-at he means to 
 say that Agricola had kept himself 
 free from those vices, which might 
 naturally have been expected to 
 cling around him in his capacity of 
 
 governor. IllL A. 229; G. 344,2; H. 
 
 385, 2. Facilitas, aff'abilUy. 
 
 4,5. Severitas : opposed to faciHi- 
 taSf Amoresni, 1. e., of others for 
 
 him. Integritatem atque absti- 
 nentiam.. The first shows his up- 
 rightness on the bench, whereby he 
 was proof against corruption; the 
 latter, his honesty in not making a 
 fortune out of the State property 
 
 which he had to control. Referre, 
 
 to mention. Cf. Hist. 1. 30. 
 
 6. Fuerit: subj. of cautious state- 
 ment. A. 311, b; G. 252, R. 1; H. 486, 
 
 I. Cui saepe etiam. boni indulgent. 
 
 For the sentiment cf. Hist. IV. 6, 
 " erant guibv^ adpeientior famae vir 
 deretur quando etiam sapientibus 
 cupido gloriae nomssiina exuitur." 
 
 7. Fer artem, by artifices. Note- 
 the enallage. 
 
 8. Collegas. These would be the 
 governors of the neighboring pro- 
 vinces, Gallia Narbonensis^ Lugdu- 
 nensis, Belgica. In An. XIII. 53, 
 Aelius Gracilis, Legatus of Belgica is 
 mentioned as looking enviously on 
 his neighbors, the Legatl of Ger- 
 many. Frocuratores. There was 
 
 only one Procurator in each pro- 
 vince, but in the three years of Agri- 
 cola's administration there may have 
 been several: or the plural may be 
 put generally, "such rivalry as is 
 generally seen between Legati and 
 Frocuratores. The legate might 
 easily come into collision with them, 
 as they had special charge of the 
 revenues. 
 
 9. AUerl. There was no credit in 
 getting the better of an inferior like 
 a Procurator, and great disgrace in 
 being trampled upon by on©. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 23 
 
 Minus triennium in ea legatione detentus ac statim ad spem 
 consulatus revocatus est, comitante opinions Britanniam ei 
 provinciani dari, nullis in hoc suis sermonibus, sed quia par 
 videbatur. Haud semper errat fama ; aliquando et elegit. 
 Consul egregiae turn spei filiam iuveni raihi despondit ac post 5 
 consulatum collocavit ; et statim Britanniae praepositus est, 
 adiecto pontificatus sacerdotio. 
 
 X. Britanniae situm populosque multis scriptoribus 
 memoratos non in comparationem curae ingeniive referam, sed 
 quia tum primum perdomita est; ita, quae priores nondum 10 
 
 1. MinuSf se. quam^ A. 247, c; G. 
 
 311, E. 4; H. 417, N. 2. Triennium. 
 
 According to DloCassius, LII., It was 
 Maecenas who suggested three years 
 as the term for the Legati to hold 
 their government. Tiberius, and also 
 his successors, did not acton the sug- 
 gestion, but continued their Legati 
 in office for various periods and 
 
 soraetimes all their lives. Statim, 
 
 grammatically modifying revocatus 
 estf in sense modifies a<i spent, 
 
 2. Consulatus. The consulship was 
 at this time hardly more than a 
 title, usually held for two months. 
 
 3. Dari J was being offered to Mm^ i. 
 e., it was understood that he was to 
 
 have it after his consulship. In 
 
 hoc, to this effect. 
 
 4. JSt elegit, ithas evenehosen. Kote 
 the force of the perfect. The mean- 
 ing is thatcommon report sometimes 
 causes a man to be chosen. 
 
 5. Consul. He was Consul suffectus 
 with Domitian A. D. 77, Vespasian 
 and Titus having been Consuls from 
 the Istof January to the end of June. 
 This is no doubt the reason why 
 Tacitus passes over his office so 
 
 lightly. Turn, eventhen. Filiam. 
 
 Agricola was Consul A. D. 77, and 
 this daughter having been born dur- 
 ing his quaestorship in A. D. 65, was 
 about twelve years of age at her 
 betrothal. It was customary to be- 
 troth girls when quite young (not un- 
 der seven). Augustus forbade be- 
 trothal under ten, so that the engage- 
 
 ment should not last more than two 
 
 years. Iuveni. Tacitus was In his 
 
 twenty-fifth year. 
 
 6. Collocavit, gave her in marriage : 
 the technical word. 
 
 7. Pontificatus. The Pontifioes 
 were not the priests of any particular 
 divinity, but were a college, exercis- 
 ing superintendence over religious 
 observances generally. Originally, 
 on a vacancy in their body, the Pon- 
 tifices chose a person to fill it; but 
 afterwards the right was transferred 
 to the people : again re-transferred to 
 the college by M. Antonius. At last 
 the right fell, lilte most other rights 
 into the Imperial hands. It was at 
 this time a mere dignity, all its 
 power being exercised by the Em- 
 peror, who was ex officio its head,pon- 
 tifiex Tnazimus. Vid. Suet. Octav. 
 XXXI. Tac. An. I. 3; Hist. I. 77. 
 
 CHAP. X. Chapters X-XVIII give 
 an account of the nature and previ- 
 ous history of Britain preparatory to 
 the description of Agricola's admin- 
 istration. 
 
 8. Multis scriptoribus. These were 
 Agathemerus, Caesar, Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus, Fablus Rustious, Llvy, Pliny, 
 Pomponius Mela, Ptolemy, Sue- 
 tonius, and Strabo. 
 
 9. In comparationem, etc., with d 
 view of comparing my accuracy and 
 talent {with that of others). 
 
 10. Tumprimutn perdomita est. 
 Note the force of per. This statement 
 is no doubt true. As Tacitus men- 
 
24 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 comperta eloquentia percoluere, rerum fide traxlentur. 
 Britannia, insularum, quas Eomana notitia complectitur, 
 maxima, spatio ac caelo in orientem Germaniae, in occidentem 
 Hispaniae obtenditur ; Gallis in meridiem etiam inspicitur. 
 Septentrional i a eius, nullis contra terris, vasto atque aperto 
 mari pulsantur. Formam totius Britanniae Livius veterum, 
 Fabius Rusticus recentium eloquentissimi auctores oblongae 
 scutulae vel bipenni adsimulavere. Et est ea facies citra Cale- 
 
 tions in chap. XIII, the expeditions 
 of Julius Caesar ■were merely tem- 
 porary in their effects. In the last he 
 penetrated but a short distance, and 
 on his withdrawal his whole force 
 withdrew too. Au^%ist%ts threatened 
 to reduce Britain but Gaul saw the 
 end of his expedition, and Horace's 
 remarks (I. 21. 35, etc.) are poetical 
 flourishes. THberiu^ acted upon Au- 
 gustus' policy of letting Britain alone, 
 as not worth the trouble of conquer- 
 ing and retaining. Caligula's con- 
 quest of Britain amounted to having 
 sheltered the son of a British chief, 
 Cynobelliu. Under Otoudiiw the work 
 of conquest really began. Succeeding 
 governors, retained what had been 
 gained, and, in the reign of Vespor 
 sian, Petilius Cerialis made large ad- 
 ditions to the Roman conquests, un- 
 til under Agricola almost the whole 
 country was subjugated, and many 
 of the adjacent islands. 
 
 1, Nondtitti comperta, not very cer- 
 tain. Iteriim fide, " on the evidence 
 
 of facts." 
 
 3. Spatio ac caelo, in extent and in 
 
 latitude. Spatium is here used for 
 
 extension^ length of outline. Cnt- 
 
 Ititn means geographical position , as 
 astronomically and sci entifically 
 considered. The ancient writers 
 seem to have held singular views as 
 to the relative position of Britain 
 /and Ireland) with regard to Spain. 
 Here Tacitus makes its western out- 
 line face Spain. They all seem to 
 have entirely overlooked the fact that 
 Normandy and Brittany run out for 
 a vast distance almost due west ; and 
 
 that the French coast then takes a 
 short turn southward. They thought 
 the northern and the western shores 
 stretched away in a south-western 
 direction, in continuation of the Ger- 
 man coast, while the Spanish coast 
 rose to a great height towards the 
 north or north-west. In the angle 
 thus formed they placed Britain and 
 Ireland. It must be remembered 
 that Tacitus included Scandinavia in 
 what he called Germany. 
 
 4. Ohtenditur, lies opposite to. 
 
 Gallis .... inspicitur. Gallis is 
 dat. of the apparent agt. : iTispicitur 
 implies that Britain is much nearer 
 to Gaul than to Germany and Spain, 
 as it is visible from Gaul. The whole 
 expression is equivalent to Jia Gallis 
 in meridiem obtenditur ut ab iis in^ci 
 possit. 
 
 5. Nullis terris: ab. abs. Cf. Caes. 
 B. O. II. 14. 
 
 6. JJivius. In his 105th book (now 
 lost), as is known from the Epitome, 
 Livy gives an account of Julius 
 
 Caesar's invasion of Britain, 
 
 Vetevnim, recentium, sc. ouctorum. 
 
 7. Fabins Rusticus, who wrote a 
 history of the Roman Emperors be- 
 ginning with the reign of Claudius, is 
 quoted several times as an authority 
 for certain facts connected with the 
 history of Nero. Whether his work 
 extended beyond this is not known. 
 
 8. Oblongae scutulae. This prob- 
 ably means a trapezium, and we 
 may imagine the southern shore to 
 be its longest side. The opposite or 
 nothern boundary would be the 
 shortest. This figure would bear 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 25 
 
 doniam, unde et in universura fama est transgressa ; sed im- 
 mensum et enorme spatium procurrentium extreme iamlitore 
 terrarum velut ia cuneum tenuatur. Hanc oram novissimi 
 maris tunc primum Romana classis circumvecta insulam esse 
 Britanniam adfirmavit, ac simul incognitas ad id tempus in- 5 
 sulas, quas Orcadas vocant, invenit domuitque. Dispecta est 
 et Thule, quia hactenus iussum, et hiems adpetebat. Sed mar» 
 pigrum et grave remigantibus ; perhibent ne ventis quidem 
 perinde attolli ; credo, quod rariores terrae montesque, causa ac 
 materia tempestatum, et profunda moles continui maris tardius 10 
 impellitur. Naturam Oceani atque aestus neque quaerere 
 huius operis est, ac multi rettulere. Unum addiderim, nusquam. 
 
 some resemblance to the ftipennis, if 
 ■we suppose the iron head only of that 
 
 weapon to be Intended. Citra 
 
 Caledonianif excluding Caledonia. 
 
 1. Tn universuni: 1. e., report ap- 
 plies to the whole island what is only 
 true of a part. 
 
 2. Enorme spatiiim. This means 
 that where the shore appears to be 
 already coming to an end {extremo 
 iam litore), the land suddenly Juts 
 out and then again narrows like a 
 wedge. By extremo iam litore he 
 designates the narrow isthmus be- 
 tween the Clota and Jiodotria 
 aestuaria, or the Friths of Clyde and 
 Forth, which were the southern 
 
 boundary of Caledonia. Iam does 
 
 not refer to time, but to the point 
 where the coast comes to an end. 
 
 3. Sane brant: i. e., this wedge- 
 like projection. N'om.ssvmi mariSf 
 
 of the Tnost distant sea. 
 
 4. Tunc priniitni refers to the ad- 
 ministration of Agricola ; vid. chap. 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 5. Incognitas. Pomponius Mela, 
 who lived in the reign of Claudius, 
 mentions the Orcades {Orkneys) as 
 about thirty in number; therefore 
 Incognitas must be unknown, in the 
 sense of uney^lored, not unheard of. 
 
 6. JHspeeta est, was seen from a 
 distance. 
 
 7. Thule. What Tacitus means 
 by Thule is not very clear. Pliny's 
 account of Thule {IV. 30) is, that it 
 was the remotest island of the Ger- 
 man sea, a day's sail from the Frozen 
 Ocean, where at the Solstice there 
 was no darkness, and at the winter 
 no light. This would probably be 
 Iceland. It is very doubtful whether 
 Tacitus means Iceland, it being much 
 more probable that he alludes to 
 Mainland, the chief of the Shetland 
 Islands, which are visible from the 
 Orkneys. Some writers consider It 
 
 a part of Scandinavia. Hactenus 
 
 iussuntf sc. erat. A glimpse was had 
 of Thule ; and two reasons are given 
 why it was only a glimpse and noth- 
 ing more ; first, because Thule was 
 fixed as the limit of that voyage, and 
 on reaching it they returned at once ; 
 second, because the winter was draw- 
 ing near, and time for reconnoiter- 
 ing the place more fully was want^ 
 
 ing. Mare pigrum, etc., cf. Pliny 
 
 IV. 27. Tac. Ger. XLV. Of course 
 this is all a mistake, as the seas 
 about Britain are never frozen. 
 
 9. Perinde, sc. atque alia maria. 
 This is absolutely false, as these seas 
 are remarkably tempestuous. 
 
 10. Conti/nui ma/ris, of the sea un- 
 lyroken by land. 
 
 12. Suiua operia est, " belongs to this 
 
26 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 latius dominari mare, multum fiuminum hue atque illuc ferre, 
 nee litore tenus accrescere aut resorberi^ sed influere penitus 
 atque ambire, et iugis etiam ac montibus inseri velut in suo. 
 XI. Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, in- 
 digenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros parum eompertum. 
 Habitus eorporum varii, atque ex eo argumenta. Namque 
 rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, magni artus German- 
 icam originem adseverant. Silurum eolorati vultus, torti 
 plerumque erines, et posita contra Hispania Iberos veteres 
 
 work; operisis predicate genitive." 
 
 C. Ac rrvulti. Note the use of 
 
 neque and ac as correlatives. Cf. 
 
 Strabo and Pliny. A.ddiderim: 
 
 cautious statement. 
 
 1. Mttltu/m: obj. of ferre. FUi- 
 
 mi/num refers to the currents of the 
 sea running among the islands along 
 the coast, locally called races. 
 Ferre, sc. mare as subject. 
 
 2. lAtore temis, as far as the shore, 
 
 and no farther. Accrescere aut 
 
 resorherijflow or ebb. Penitiis,far 
 
 inland. 
 
 3. By ambire he means that the 
 waves wind their way around the 
 hills, until the peaks are insulated. 
 
 Insert, makes it way, is used in 
 
 the miiddle sense. Velut in s^to, 
 
 sc. regno. The sea is quite at home 
 in the heart of the country ; not an 
 intruder, but naturalized, as though 
 it were in its own domain, the ocean. 
 
 CHAF. XI. 4. Qui mortales, etc. 
 Beyond vague inferences, drawn 
 from, supposed resemblances, the 
 ancients did not care much for 
 ethnological researches. They were 
 content to acquiesce in the account 
 each people gave of itself, and of 
 course barbarous tribes would be able 
 to give very little account of them- 
 selves. Hence Tacitus says, ut inter 
 barbaros parum eompertum, sc. 
 fieri solet. Really the classical na^ 
 tions of antiquity knew about as lit>- 
 tie of their own ultimate extraction 
 as of that of any other people, hav- 
 
 ing made no progress in analyses of 
 various languages. 
 
 5. A.rb advecti, or strangers, sc. 
 uirum with indigenae. A. 211; Q. 
 460 ;H. 353, 2. 
 
 6. Seibittcs eorporum (cf. Oer, TV.), 
 
 physical characteristics. Yarii, i. e., 
 
 in the different parts of the island, 
 
 Fkxi eo; i. e., because they are 
 
 varioiis. A.rgumenta; i. e., as to 
 
 their definite origin; that they all 
 were not of the same nationality. 
 
 7. Mutilae comae. Cf. Ger. IV. 
 Some modern ethnologists consider 
 a portion at least of the inhabitants 
 of Caledonia to be of Teutonic origin. 
 
 Caledonia/m. The term originally 
 
 seems to have been restricted to a 
 small part of modern Scotland, ex- 
 tending from Loch Fyne to the Mur- 
 ray Frith. Agricolaseem,s tohaveex- 
 tended the name to all the people 
 north of the Grampian Hills. 
 
 8. Silurum.. The Silures occupied 
 the valley of the Severn, in South 
 Wales. Colorati, swarthy, sun- 
 burnt. Torti, curly, 
 
 9. JPosita contra Hispania. Of. 
 preceding chap., on the supposed 
 
 position of Spain. Iberos. These 
 
 people are a great puzzle to the 
 ethnologists. In historic times they 
 occupied the Spanish Peninsula 
 throughout its chief parts, and were 
 the lineal ancestors of the Basques of 
 the Pyrenees. According to the com- 
 mon theory they were pressed on by 
 the Keltic immigration and dis- 
 placed. In another view, the Kelts 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 27 
 
 traiecisse easque sedes occupasse fidem faciunt. Proximi Gallis 
 et similes sunt, seu, durante originis vi ; seu, procurrentibus 
 in diversa terris, positio caeli corporibus habitum dedit: in 
 universum tamen aestimanti Gallos vicinam insulam occu- 
 passe credibile est. Eorum sacra deprehendas, superstitionum 5 
 persuasiones ; sermo haud multum diversus ; in deposcendis 
 periculis eadem audacia; et, ubi advenere, in detrectandis 
 eadem formido. Plus tamen ferociae Britanni praeferunt, ut 
 quos nondum longa pax emoUierit. Nam Gallos quoque in 
 bellis floruisse accepimus; mox segnitia cum otio intravit,10 
 amissa virtute pariter ac libertate. Quod Britannorum olim 
 victis evenit ; ceteri manent quales Galli fuerunt. XII. In 
 pedite robur; quaedam nationes et curru proeliantur; 
 honestior auriga, clientes propugnant. Olim regibus parebant, 
 
 ■were the original occupiers of Spain, 
 and were ejected by the Inroads of 
 thelberi from the south and east of 
 the Peninsula. In either case adven- 
 turous or dispossessed Iberi may- 
 have visited Britain. At any rate 
 there is a persistent tradition 
 amongst the ancients of the peopling 
 of some part of Britain and Ireland 
 from the Spanish coast. 
 
 1. Froonimi Gallis. Cf. Caes. B. G. 
 V. 14. 
 
 2. SimileSf sc. iis; i. e., Gallis. ■ 
 
 Originis refers to their supposed 
 
 Gallic origin. Frociirrentibus. . . . 
 
 terris. According to the ancient idea, 
 the Gallic coast ran north-east, and 
 the British coast south-west. Neigh- 
 boring countries jutting out in dif- 
 ferent directions would approximate 
 very closely; would occupy the same 
 positio caeli, and so would be subject to 
 nearly the same climatic influences. 
 
 3. Xn .... aestimanti, Vid. Note 
 on Ger. VI. 
 
 5. JSorwm: i. e., of the Gauls. 
 
 Sacra, sacred rites. Supersti^ 
 
 tionum persiiftsi^ynes, their belief in 
 
 6. Sermo, their speech. In de- 
 poscendis periculis. This fickleness 
 seems to have been universally an 
 
 attribute of the Gauls. Cf. Caes. B. G. 
 III. 19. Strabo. IV. i, 2. Their llght^ 
 ness of character however threw 
 them into consternation when at all 
 worsted. 
 
 8. JPraeferunt = prae se ferunt, 
 exhibit. T. Cf. An. II. 53; XVI. 22. 
 
 Jit quoSf because, ^ut cumeos,'ut 
 
 merely strengthening the relative. 
 
 9. EmoUierit: subj. of cause after 
 qtios. A. 320, e ; G. 636 ; H. 517, 3, 1). 
 
 Gallos floruisse. Cf. Caes. B. G. 
 
 passim. Ger. XXVIII. 
 
 12. Olim victis; i. e., during the 
 
 reigns of Claudius and Nero. 
 
 Quales Galli fuerunt. iSuch as the 
 Gauls were. The meaning of Tacitus 
 is that the Gauls before they were 
 conquered were great warriors; but 
 military spirit is incompatible with 
 servitude. Servitude has destroyed 
 it in the Gauls, but has not yet done 
 so with all the Britons; many of 
 them still remain what the Gauls 
 were. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 13. Mobur. Theirmain 
 strength. The Britons had cavalry 
 (Mela III. 6) and war chariots (Caes. 
 
 B. O. IV. 24). Curru. The use of the 
 
 chariot was confined to certain tribes. 
 
 14. Monestior au/riga, sc. est. This 
 was the reverse of the Greek usage. 
 
28 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 nunc per principes factionibus et studiis trahuntur ; nee aliud 
 adversus validissiraas gentes pro nobis utilius quam quod in 
 commune non consulunt. K.arus duabus tribusve civitatibus 
 ad propulsandum commune periculum conventus ; ita singuli 
 
 5 pugnantj universi vincuntur. Caelum crebris imbribus ac 
 nebulis foedum; asperitas frigorum abest. Dierum spatia 
 ultra nostri orbis mensuram ; nox clara et extrema Britanniae 
 parte brevis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine 
 internoscas. Quod si nubes non officiant, aspici per noctem 
 
 lOsolis fulgorem, nee oecidere et exsurgere, sed transire ad- 
 firmant. Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra 
 non erigunt tenebras, infraque caelum et sidera nox cadit. 
 
 where the ^vtoxog '^^^ of inferior 
 rank to the Ttapa^dTT^c ^^'^ often call- 
 ed depaTtov. These chariots were 
 driven by the warrior, and carried a 
 number of his fighting men of lower 
 
 ranlc. Cf. Caesar B. G. IV, 33. 
 
 Fropuffnant, fight for hiTfi, from the 
 chariot, not in advance of it ; he 
 
 drives. Olim Tegilms. Some of 
 
 these kings are mentioned by Tacitus, 
 ^n. XII. 33, 36 ; XIV. 31. 
 
 1. JPrineipes means the heads of 
 the diflferent parties, into which the 
 
 states were split up. Factionibus: 
 
 combinations on the part of the 
 
 chiefs. Studiis: partialities of the 
 
 people. l^'ahimtur = disirahuniur. 
 
 Nee aliudf SO. est, is a general pro- 
 position, and does not refer to the 
 Britons only. 
 
 3. Civitatibus: dat. of the possessor 
 for the genitive. 
 
 4,5. Singuli, sc. populi. Caelum 
 
 foedum, sc. est. The fog and rain of 
 Britain is still proverbial. 
 
 6. Asperitas frigorum abest. 
 Caesar {B. G. V. 12) makes a similar 
 statement. No doubt the temper- 
 ature of Britain, Germany and Gaul 
 was lower before the countries were 
 cleared than now, but there would 
 probably be the same ratio preserved 
 between their respective climates ; 
 the insular position of Britain and 
 
 the Gulf Stream contributing to its 
 
 higher teaiperature. JHerum, spo' 
 
 tia. Pliny (II. 75) gives a list 
 of the length of the days at dif- 
 ferent places on the earth's sur- 
 face. In Italy the longest day has 
 fifteen hours, in Britain seventeen, 
 the nights being correspondingly 
 long at the opposite seasons of the 
 year. In the Orkneys, in lat. 60, the 
 longest day is a little over eighteen 
 hours in length. 
 
 7. Nostri orbis = dierum nostri orbis. 
 
 8. Brevis: i. e., in summer. 
 
 10. Solis fulgorem. In more north- 
 ern latitudes the sun itself can be 
 seen above the horizon for six 
 months, and even in north latitude 
 65, it is light enough to read all night. 
 
 11, 12, Scilicet .... cadit. This ex- 
 planation is founded on the assump- 
 tion that night is the shadow cast by 
 the earth. Tacitus' idea is as follows: 
 the earth from Britain to the Pole 
 sloped abruptly, so as to be almost 
 fiat, at all events much flatter than 
 elsewhere. Behind this the sun de- 
 scended only a little way. Clearly, 
 the result of this would be that the 
 central parts of the earth would 
 throw^upwards a long shadow reach- 
 ing to the sky and so causing night. 
 The parts near the Pole (enetrem-a et 
 plana terrarum)^ from their ^a.tness 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 29 
 
 Solunij praeter oleam vitemque et cetera calidioribus terris 
 oriri sueta, patiens frugum, fecundum ; tarde mitescunt, 
 cito proveniunt, eademque utriusque rei causa, tnultus humor 
 terraruin caelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum etalia 
 metalla, pretium victoriae. Gignit et oceanus margarita, sed 5 
 subfusca ac liventia. Quidam artern abesse legentibus arbi- 
 trantur ; nam in rubro marl viva ac spirantia saxis avelli, in 
 Britannia, prout expulsa sint, colligi. Ego facilius crediderim 
 naturam margaritis deesse quam nobis avaritiam. 
 
 XIII. Ipsi Britanni delectum ac tributa et iniuncta imperii 10 
 munera impigre obeunt, si iniuriae absint ; has aegre tolerant, 
 
 (plana), and the fact of the sun's be- 
 ing so Uttle below the horizon, "wonld 
 cast a shadow rising to a short dis- 
 tance only above the earth (humili 
 umbra). By this shadow, or night 
 (" Quippe Tnani/estum estnon aliud esse 
 noctem quam terrae umbraTn,'^ Pliny 
 II. 7), the grou'nd near the Pole would 
 be darkened, but far above its highest 
 point the stars would shine unob- 
 scured by the lower darkness (infra 
 caelum et sidera none cadit). 
 
 1, 2. JPraeter, except. JPatiens 
 
 frtt^wnif fecundum f admits of the 
 growth of fruUfiy and is even fruitful. 
 Cf. Qer. V. '* terra frugiferarum ar- 
 horum, impatiens." H^itescuntf i. 
 
 4. A.urtimf etc. Strabo (IV. 5. 2) 
 mentions gold, silvery and iron as pro- 
 ducts of Britain. Caesar, iron and 
 lead or tin (plumbum albus). 
 
 5. Pretium victo7n,ae, the price of 
 victory. This may mean that Britain 
 paid tribute in money, or that they 
 were worth fighting for. Mar- 
 garita. The Romans were excessive- 
 ly fond of these articles of luxury. 
 The neuter form., margaHiumf is much 
 rarer than the feminine, margarita, 
 
 6. JAventia, of a leadish hue. Pliny 
 (IX. 35) observes that pearls were 
 found in England but small and dis- 
 colored. Suetonius (Julius Caesar, 47) 
 makes Caesar's eagerness for pearls 
 his motive for invading Britain. 
 
 Artem abesse. According to Pliny 
 (II. 55), the divers had to practice 
 considerable skill ; for the oyster 
 snapped at the diver's fingers, and 
 lopped them off if he were not quick 
 enough in his motions. The rocks 
 too, where pearls were found, were 
 dangerous. 
 
 7. In ruhro mari. By this Tacitus 
 means the Persian gulf, a portion of 
 the edlacaa kpvdpd. Cf. Pliny N. H. 
 
 IX. 54; An. II. 61. Saxis: abl, of 
 
 separation, after avelli. 
 
 8. Prout expulsa sint, as they have 
 been thrown up from, the sea. A. 336; 
 
 G. 653 ; H. 524. Ego. Note the use. 
 
 Crediderim: subj. of cautious 
 
 statement. 
 
 9. Naturam. . . .avaritiam. Note 
 the antithesis and the keen satire. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 10. Ipsi. Having de- 
 scribed the island (chap. X), its in- 
 habitants (chap. XI), its customs, 
 climate, natural products, etc., (chap. 
 XII), Tacitus now passes to the his- 
 tory of the Britons themselves. _Df'- 
 
 lectunif levies, i. e., the recruiting of 
 troops. — Iniuncta imperii mtineraf 
 the services of the government enjoined 
 on them. This means the furnishing 
 of troops with provisions; all extras 
 ordinary contributions ; forced labor, 
 etc. 
 
 11. Obeunt. Note the zeugma, as 
 this verb is applicable only to mu- 
 nera: some verb as patiuntwr may 
 
30 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 iam domiti ut pareant, nondum ut serviant. Igitur primus 
 omnium Romanorum divus lulius cum exercitu Britanniam 
 ingressus, quaraquam prospera pugna terruerit incolas ac litore 
 potitus sitj potest videri ostendisse posteris, non tradidisse. 
 Mox bella civilia, et in rempublicam versa prineipum arma, 
 ac longa oblivio Britanniae etiam in pace. Consilium id divus 
 Augustus vocabat^ Tiberius praeceptura. Agitasse Gaium 
 
 be supplied with delectunif and con- 
 
 feruni, with tributa. Sag, i. e., in- 
 
 iurias. 
 
 1. Igitur. Tacitus seems to regard 
 this description of the Britons as a 
 digression, and he resumes the 
 thread of his main narrative with 
 the word igitur, now. Cf. Sail. Jug. 
 XIX. Igitur ad Catabaihraon, etc., 
 after a parenthetical sentence. 
 
 3. STntanniani ingresaus. This 
 was In B. C. 55 and 64. Vid. Caes. B. 
 
 Q. Books: IV. {2a^) and V. (8-23). 
 
 Terruerit: the subj. again after 
 quo/mquain. 
 
 4. Poteat videri,*' can {only) appear." 
 C. 
 
 5. JHoas bella civilian i, e., those be- 
 tween Caesar and Fompey,and Octa- 
 
 AUQUSTUS. 
 
 vlus and Antony, which ended in 
 the establishment of the first and 
 
 second Triumvirates. Frincipum: 
 
 i. e,, the leaders mentioned above. 
 
 6. Iionga obli/vio. Cf. An. IV. 5, 
 where in the list of legions, no m,en- 
 
 tion is made of a force in Britain. 
 
 Consilium, policy. Tacitus m,entlon8 
 {An. I. 11) a note-book complied by 
 Augustus, containing an account of 
 the provinces, taxes, armies, etc., of 
 the empire. The historian adds "ad- 
 diderat consilium coercendi intra 
 terminos impeHi incertuTn meiu an per 
 invidiam." 
 
 7. ^^cieceptum, command. Itsuited 
 the wily and crooked policy of 
 Tiberius to fall back, with a view to 
 hide his real motives, on some order 
 handed down from Augustus. This 
 assumed or real regard paid by him to 
 
 TrBERITTS. 
 
 the wishes of Augustus is mentioned 
 also in An. 1. 77, Valuii tamen inter- 
 cession quia divus Augtcsttis immunes 
 vcrberum histriones quondam respond- 
 erat, neque fa^ Tfberio infringere dicta 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 31 
 
 Caesarem de intranda Britannia satis constat, ni velox ingenio, 
 mobilis paenitentiae, et ingentes adversus Germaniam conatus 
 frustra fuissent. Divus Claudius auctor iterati operis, trans- 
 vectis legionibus auxiliisque et adsumpto in partem rerum 
 Vespasiano; quod initium venturae mox fortunae fuit. 5 
 Domitae gentes, capti reges, et monstratus fatis Vespasianus. 
 XIV. Consularium primus Aulus Plautius praepositus, ac 
 subinde Ostorius Scapula, uterque bello egregius; redactaque 
 paulatim in formam provinciae proxima pars Britanniae. 
 Addita insuper veteranorum colonia. Quaedam civitates 10 
 
 eiiis ; IV. 37, where Tiberius says of 
 himself, "gm omnia facia dictague 
 
 eius vice legis observ&m. Gaiuni 
 
 Caesarem: i. e., Caligula, the succes- 
 sor of Tiberius, who reigned A. D. 37- 
 41. 
 
 1. JVi velox .... fuissent. The 
 sentence is very elliptical. The full 
 sentence would be et intrasset, ni 
 fuisset veloso inf/eniOf molrilis paeni- 
 
 tentiaCf etc. Ingeviio is abl. of 
 
 specification. 
 
 2. Mobilis paenitentiae is gen. of 
 
 quality. Ingentes conatus. Of. 
 
 Ger. XXXVII, ingentes C. Caesaris 
 minae in ludibriuw, versae; Hist. IV. 
 15, Gaianarum expeditionuTn ludi- 
 brium. 
 
 3. I>ivus Claudius was the succes- 
 sor of Caligula, and reigned A. D. 41- 
 43. He made an expedition to 
 Britain in person, and remained six- 
 teen days upon the island in A. D. 
 43. He first made Britain into a pro- 
 vince. Note that the epithet divus is 
 applied by Tacitus to the good 
 
 Emperors only. Operis: i.e., of 
 
 subduing Britain. 
 
 4. Legionibus atixiliisque. The 
 legions were composed of Roman 
 citizens only ; hence, the contrast. 
 
 5. Vespasiano- Ulic secundae le- 
 gioni a Claudio praeposiiios et bello 
 clams egerat, Hist. III. 44. Cf. Suet. 
 
 Vesp. IV. Quod , , . . fuit. The 
 
 idea is that Vespasian's successful 
 career in the war against the Britons 
 "was the con^mencement of his sub- 
 
 sequent brilliant /oriw?ie.5 " {venturae 
 fortunae). 
 
 6. Dontitaef sc. sunt. Capti 
 
 reges. An inscription (Orell. Jnscr. 
 715), partly restored, runs as follows : 
 
 " Tl Clav{d.io) senatvs 
 
 P'opv(lvsque Rom. quod) reges 
 JB»nt(anniae) gentesque primvs in 
 
 dicio(nein. P. R. redegit)." JP'atis. 
 
 It seems better to consider this as a 
 dative than an ablative of the agent 
 (which it might be however), just as 
 in Greek after perf. participles the 
 dative is used instead of the regular 
 genitive and preposition. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 7. Coiisulariujn prv- 
 nvus: i. e., ''first in the list of con- 
 sulars who commanded in Britain." 
 
 C. AmIus Flautius was legatus con- 
 
 sularis or governor A. D. 44-47. 
 
 8. Ostorius Scapula from 48-51. It 
 is said that Oyster-Hill, the site of a 
 Roman encampment, in the parish 
 of Binder, near Hereford, was named 
 after bim. 
 
 9. Jn formam provinciae. The ap- 
 pointment of a governor established 
 the province, which was fully organ- 
 ized when the territory had been 
 divided into census districts, and the 
 financial arrangements fully made. 
 
 Froayi/ma, nearest; i. " e., to the 
 
 Romans. 
 
 10. Colonia. This was Camulo- 
 dunum. It is generally supposed to 
 be Colchester. Others think Maldon 
 retains traces of the old Roman 
 name. It was founded A. D. 50, and 
 
32 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS, 
 
 Cogidumno regi donatae (is ad nostram usque memoriam fidis- 
 simus mansit), ut, vetere ac iam pridem recepta populi E-omani 
 consuetudine, haberet instrumenta servitutis et reges. Mox 
 Didius Gallus parta a prioribus continuit, paucis admodum 
 
 5 castellis in ulteriora promotis, per quae fama aucti officii 
 quaereretur. Didium Veranius excepit, isque intra annum 
 exstinctus est. Suetonius hinc Paulinus biennio prosperas res 
 habuit, subactis nationibus firraatisque praesidiis; quorum 
 fiducia Monam insulam, ut vires rebellibus ministrantem, 
 
 iOadgressus terga occasioni patefecit. XV. Namque absentia 
 legati remoto metu, Britanni agitare inter se mala servitutis, 
 conferre iniurias et interpretando accendere. Nihil profici 
 
 the fourteenth legion, OemiTia Martia 
 Victrix, was stationed here, but re- 
 called by Vitellius. 
 
 1. Cof/idunitio regif ot whom noth- 
 ing else is positively known. A 
 stone found at Chichester in the last 
 century had the following inscription 
 (the gaps being filled up by conjec- 
 ture): "(N)eptim,o et JiTi7ieTvae temp- 
 Ivni (pr)o salvte (fo(nivs) dtviviae (ex) 
 avctovltaitQ) (Tiberii) Claud{\i) 
 {Co)f/idvbni r(egis) lega{ti) Auff{\sU) 
 in Brit.," etc. This no doubt refers 
 to Cogldubnus or Cogidumnus, who 
 apparently took the Emperor's name 
 in addition to his" own, and embel- 
 lished Chichester. Donatae (sunt). 
 
 This was to attach him to Rome and 
 her interests. 
 
 2. Jtecepta. in this sense of long re- 
 ceived is post^Augustan. 
 
 3. Et regeSf kings also, as well as 
 other means. Onthispolicy ofRome, 
 cf. Liv. XLIV. 24. Tacitus mentions 
 kings of this kind in An. XIV. 26. 
 Bist. II. 81 ; III. 21. 
 
 4. Didius Gallus wfl^ governor A. 
 
 D. 51-57. Jfarta a prioribus, "the 
 
 acquisitions of Jiis predecessors.^' 
 
 5. In ulteriora, in the remoter parts, 
 I. e,, outside the organized province. 
 
 Aucti officii. The ojfflcium of a 
 
 governor was simply to administer 
 his province as he found It. 
 
 6. Quaereretur: subj. of purpose 
 atter per quae = ut per ea. A.317; G. 
 
 632; H. 497,1. Veranius, who was 
 
 consul A. D. 49, under Claudius, had 
 command from A. D. 57-58. 
 
 7. Suetonitis JPaulinus was gover- 
 nor A. D. 59-61. Bi.ennio: abl. de- 
 noting time how long, (A. 256, b ; H. 
 379, 1) and equivalent to per biennium. 
 
 8. Suhactis nationibtis. This may 
 be understood as explanatory of 
 prosperas res, or as giving the rea- 
 son why he calls his work pro«j3era«. 
 Quorum refers to fimiatis prae- 
 sidiis. 
 
 9. JHonam. The modern Anglesey, 
 a stronghold of Druidlcal supersti- 
 tion. The Mona of Caesar is the Isle 
 
 of Man, called Jibnapia by Pliny. 
 
 irt . . . . ministrantem. The Druids 
 encouraged the troops, and even led 
 them into battle. Vid. ^n. XIV. 30 
 for a description of the reception 
 Paulinus met with on landing. 
 
 10. Terga occasioni patefecit. The 
 next chapter tells us in what way. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 10. Absentia: cause of 
 remoto metu. 
 
 11. ^^ifare, con/erre ; historical in- 
 finitives. The first denotes discus- 
 sions in which all took part, the 
 second, discussions and Interviews 
 of a more private nature. 
 
 12. Interpretando, by explaining 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 33 
 
 patientia, nisi ut graviora tamquam ex facili tolerantibus 
 imperentur. Singulos sibi olim regea fuisse, nunc binos 
 imponi, e quibus legatus in sanguinem, procurator in bona 
 saeviret. Aeque discordiam praepositorum, aeque concordiam 
 subiectis exitiosam ; alterius manum, centuriones, alterius 5 
 servos vim et oontumelias miscere. Nihil iam cupiditati, nihil 
 libidini exceptum. In proelio fortiorem esse, qui spoliet; 
 nunc ab ignavis plerumque et imbellibus eripi domos, abstrahi 
 liberos, iniungi delectus, tamquam mori tantum pro patria 
 nescientibus. Quantulum enim transisse militum, si sese 10 
 
 tTieir meaning, showing a common 
 
 meaning or purpose in them. ■ 
 
 " Nihil profici commences a series of 
 reflections and declarations reported 
 in oraiio obliqua, and continuing to 
 the end of the chapter." C. 
 
 1. Tamqtinm modifies ex faclK. 
 
 ^x facili is a Graecism. Beside 
 
 this we find in Tacitus : ex acifticenti, 
 ex aequo. Graecisms were character- 
 istic of the Silver age. 
 
 2. Singulos. \ Note the force of the 
 
 distributive, one for each tribe. 
 
 Binos: i. c, the legatus and procura^ 
 tor. It does not mean that the two 
 were in each case dififerent, but that 
 every tribe had received a double 
 ruler in lieu of their own single one. 
 
 3. M quibiis = guorwm. • Legatus 
 
 in sanguinem. The Legatus, hav- 
 ing the military imperium, had power 
 
 of life and death. JProczirator in 
 
 bona. The Procurator, having the 
 power to assess taxes and to see that 
 they were paid, could seize their pro- 
 perty in satisfaction of fiscal claims. 
 Tacitus {An. XIV. 32) says it was the 
 avarice of Decianus, the Procura- 
 tor, which forced the Britons into 
 this war. 
 
 4. Saeviret. The subj. is used to 
 denote the purpose with which the 
 officers were set over them; this, at 
 least, was the interpretation which 
 the Britons themselves put on the 
 matter. The clause then— ut ex its 
 legatus saeviret. Aeque, aeque. 
 
 Such repetition, used here however 
 to show the absolute equivalency, is 
 rare. 
 
 5. SubiectiSf sc. iis. Alterius, al- 
 terius. The former refers to the 
 legatus ; the latter, to the procurator. 
 
 Manum answers nearly to our 
 
 staff, and it would chiefly consist of 
 soldiers of a centurion's rank. 
 
 6. Servos. The procurator acted 
 chiefly through clerks, accountants, 
 and persons employed to collect fines 
 and debts, who were probably not sol- 
 diers, and possibly were slaves. 
 
 Cupiditati, libidini. A. 229; G. 344, 
 2; H.385,2. 
 
 7. In proelio is contrasted with 
 nunc : fm'tiorenh with ab ignavis. 
 The meaning is, in war it is the weak 
 who suffer, whereas now matters are 
 reversed, and we, the braver, sufler 
 at the hands of the coward, etc., etc. 
 
 8. Xmbellibus refers especially to 
 veterans quartered at Camulo- 
 dunum. Vid. chap. XIV. 
 
 9. Delectus. A British levy of 8,000 
 men is mentioned as forming a part 
 of Vitellius' own division after the 
 battle of Bedriacum. Vid. Hist. 11.57. 
 
 TamquaTn limits nescientibus; 
 
 tantum limits pro patria. 
 
 10. Nescientibus, Be. sibi, which Is 
 dative after the several infinitives. 
 
 ■ 'Qua/ntulum: diminutive. What 
 
 a mere fraction. Transisse. The in- 
 finitive is used in oratio obliqua in 
 questions which are simply rhetori- 
 cal. A. 338; G. 654, R. 1 ; H. 523, II. 2. 
 
34 
 
 THE AQRICOL.A OF TACITUS. 
 
 Britanni numerent ? Sic Germanias excussisse iugum : et 
 flumine, non Oceano, defend! ; sibi patriam, coniugeSj parentes, 
 illis avaritiam et luxuriam causas belli esse. Recessuros, ut 
 divus lulius recessisset^ modo virtutem maiorum suorura 
 
 5 aemularentur. Neve proelii unius aut alterius eveutu paves- 
 cerent ; plus impetus, maiorem constantiam penes miseros 
 esse. lam Britannorum etiam deos misereri, qui Romanum 
 ducem absentem, qui relegatum in alia insula exercitum de- 
 tinerent ; iam ipsos, quod difficillimum fuerit, deliberare. 
 
 lOPorro in eiusmodi consiliis periculosius esse deprehendi, quam 
 audere. 
 
 XVI. Hisatque talibus invicem instincti, Boadicea, generis 
 regii femina, duce (neque enim sexum in imperils discernunt), 
 sumpsere universi bellum ; ac sparsos per castella milites 
 
 1. Sicf i. e., by counting their 
 
 forces and uniting their strength. 
 
 G-ermanias. This noun usually de- 
 notes the two provinces on the left 
 bank of the Rhine. The plural here 
 may either be an. error in the text, or 
 it is used rhetorically, for the pur- 
 pose of amplification, ^.s the revolt 
 was strictly limited to a portion of 
 lower Germany. This refers to the 
 uprising of Arminius and the defeat 
 and destruction of the army of 
 Varus, A. D. 9. 
 
 2. Flumine, by a river {only). From 
 this it Is pretty clear that Germania 
 
 Transrhenana was meant above. 
 
 I>efendi, sc. eas. 
 
 3. Illis: 1. e., the Romans.- Jf*'- 
 
 cessiii'oSySc. eosesse. 
 
 4. Divits. This use of divus in the 
 mouth of savage Britons sounds 
 odd. Probably Tacitus forgot him- 
 self, and made the Britons speak 
 through a Roman mouth. Wex sug- 
 gests that the word isused contempt- 
 uously and points to an d fortiori 
 argument. If their deified Julius had 
 to withdraw, much more will their 
 inferior leaders. 
 
 5. Favescerent. The imperative 
 was used in the oratio recta. 
 
 6, 7. Plus impetuSf " more fury.'' 
 — STitannorum. A. 221, a; G. 37B; 
 H. 406, 1. 
 
 8. Detinerent: subj. of the reason 
 in a relative clause. A. 320, e; G. GSG; 
 H. 517. Qtiod difficillimum. Diffi- 
 cult, because, as he remarks in Chap. 
 XII., it was a hard thing to induce 
 the Britons to band together to re- 
 sist a common aggressor. 
 
 10. In eiusmodi consiliis, in such 
 designs ; i. e., where such desii,'ns are 
 in question. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 12. In/oicem instinct!, 
 mutually rousing themselves. In.stinrti 
 has a tniddle sense. The events here 
 related occurred A. D. (31. They are 
 related more fully, Ana. XIV. 31-3S. 
 JBoadicea. The name is variously 
 spelled, Boudicca.JBoodicea, Bovdicea, 
 Voadicea. and Boadicea, which last is 
 the form familiar in literature. She 
 was the wife of Prasutagus, King of 
 the Iceni, a tribe inhabiting the 
 eastern coast of Britain. Wlien con- 
 quered she put an end to her life by 
 poison. 
 
 13. ImperiiSf "positions o/atitJioriti/," 
 referring here to both civil and mili- 
 tary duties; it properly refers to the 
 latter only. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 35 
 
 consectati, expugnatis praesidiis, ipsam coloniam invasere ut 
 sedem servitutis. Nee ullum in barbaris saevitiae genus omisit 
 ira et victoria. Quod nisi PaulinuSj cognito provinciae motu, 
 propere subvenisset, amissa Britannia foret ; quam unius 
 proelii fortuna veteri patientiae restituit, tenentibus arma pie- 5 
 risque, quos conscientia defectionis et proprius ex legato timor 
 agitabat, ne quamquam egregius cetera arroganter in deditos, 
 et, ut suae cuiusque iniuriae ultor, durius consuleret. Missus 
 igitur Petronius Turpilianus tamquam exorabilior ; et delictis 
 hostium novus eoque paenitentiae mitior, compositis prioribus, 10 
 nihil ultra ausus Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit. 
 Trebellius segnior et nullis castrorum experimentis comitate 
 quadam curandi provinciam tenuit. Didicere iam barbari 
 
 1. Consectati. The idea of this word, 
 is that of a searching and vindictive 
 
 pursuit. Expugnatis denotes the 
 
 actual taking of the place by storm, 
 while oppugnatis would denote only 
 the assault itself. In Cainulodu- 
 num, Londinium and Verulamiuni, 
 all three oi which were taken, nearly 
 seventy thousand Romans and Ro- 
 man allies were put to death. 
 
 Coloniam: i.e., Camulodunum. 
 
 2. Ill barbaris =■ qualis inter bar- 
 baros esse solet : i. 6., usual among the 
 barbarians, 
 
 3. Ira et victoviaf anger and the 
 
 (license of) victory, Qnod nisi, and 
 
 had not. 
 
 5. Fortuna is abl. of means. 
 
 FeteW patientiae, to its ancient sub- 
 jection. We would rather expect 
 
 here ad pcdientiam. Hestituit, 
 
 ^'^ brought back." Tenentibus avma 
 
 plerisque ; a parenthetical clause in 
 the ab. abs., denoting concession; 
 i. e., he put down the rebellion, al- 
 though very many still retained their 
 arms. 
 
 6. I*roprius must be construed 
 with offitabat, with strong emphasis 
 on timor J wTiom fear from the legate 
 {i. e., of which he was the source) was 
 more urgently harassing. 
 
 8. Tft suae cuiusque iwiuriae ultor. 
 
 an avenger of each lorong, as {if it were) 
 his oum: tit modifies suae. They 
 feared lest Paulinus should regard 
 their revolt not merely as an offence 
 against the State, but a personal 
 aflVont, as their venturing to rebel 
 was in sora.e sort a proof of their con- 
 tempt for him. Consuleret; subj. 
 
 in the clause after ne, expressing the 
 
 ground of their fear. I>urdus, too 
 
 harshly. 
 
 9. Igitur, i. e., " because Paulinus 
 was not able to crush out the spirit 
 
 of rebellion.'" C. I*etronius Turpi- 
 
 liawus, who was governor of Britain 
 A. D. 62-64, was murdered at the be- 
 ginning of Galba's reign. Cf. An. XIV. 
 39 ; Hist. 1. 6. Delictis (dative) no- 
 vus, a stranger to their faults. T. 
 
 10. Eoque : abl. of cause. Priori- 
 bus: i. e., the irritation and discon- 
 tent remaining from, the outbreak 
 and its suppression by Paulinus. 
 
 12. Trebellius. Trebellius was gov- 
 ernor from A. D. 64 to 69. Nullis 
 
 castrorum experimentis : abl. of 
 quality. Cf. An. I. 19, Blaesu^ multa 
 dicendi arte. He had had no actual 
 experience of campaigns. 
 
 13. Owrandl is elsewhere used ab- 
 solutely in this sense of governing 
 Cf. San. Jug. LX. ; Tac. An. XI. 22. 
 
36 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OF TACITtTS. 
 
 quoque ignoscere vitiis blandientibus, et interventus civilium 
 armorum praebuit iustam segnitiae excusationera. Sed dis- 
 cordia laboratum, cum adsuetus .expeditionibus miles otio 
 lasciviret. Trebellius, fuga ac latebris vitata exercitus ira, 
 
 5 indecorus atque humilis precario mox praefuit, ac velut pacti, 
 exercitus licentiam, dux salutem; et seditio sine sanguine 
 stetit. Nee Vettius Bolanus, manentibus adhuc civilibus 
 bellis, agitavit Britanniam disciplina : eadem inertia erga 
 hostes, similis petulantia castrorum ; nisi quod inndcens Bola- 
 
 10 nus et nullis delictis invisus caritatem paraverat loco auctori- 
 tatis. 
 
 XVII. Sed, ubi cum cetero orbe Vespasianus et Britanniam 
 recuperavit, magni duces, egregii exercitus, minuta hostium 
 spes. Et terrorem statim intulit Petilius Cerialis, Brigantum 
 
 1. Vitiis blandientibus. It seems 
 better to consider this as dative, to 
 show indulgence to vices as they became 
 
 attractive. • Civilium a/miorum. 
 
 The civil wars wliich followed the 
 death of Nero, A. D. 69, (1) between 
 Galba and Otho, (2) between Otho 
 and Vltellius, (3) between Vitellius 
 and Vespasian. 
 
 2. Sed discordia laboratunif so. 
 est. Chap. VII. and Hist. I. 60 show 
 that this alludes to the quarrels be- 
 tween Trebellius and Roscius 
 Caellus, who commanded the twen- 
 tieth legion. 
 
 3. Cunif because; hence the subj. 
 lascVttvret. A. 321, c; G. 638, 3; H. 
 617. 
 
 5. Fraecario, 07l sufferance. 
 
 JPraefuit, sc. exercitui. Velutpactif 
 
 they stipulated as it were, implies a 
 tacit compact. The ellipsis here is 
 sum to agree with both exercitus and 
 dtix. 
 
 6, 7. Et, and so. T. Stetit, was 
 
 checked. Vettius Holamts was gov- 
 ernor A. D. 70, and under him Agri- 
 cola was the commander of the 
 twentieth legion. 
 
 9. Petulantia, insubordination, such 
 as would lead to outrages. Ifisi 
 
 quodf except that. Innocens. The 
 
 word especially denotes, free from 
 the guilt of rapacity. In this re- 
 spect Bolanus was a contrast to Tre- 
 bellius, who is said {Mist. I. 60) to 
 have been per avaritiam ac sordem 
 contewptus exercitui invisusgue. 
 
 10. Itelictis : abl. of cause. Cari- 
 tatem .... auctoritatis i i. e. had 
 made himself loved rather than 
 feared 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 12. Cetero orbe: i. e., 
 "the rest of the Rovnan world besides 
 Britain." 
 
 13. Bec/uperamt. The word implies 
 that Vespasian recovered the Roman 
 empire, previously lost, or held by 
 those who had no right to it. He 
 rescued it from the degradation it 
 suffered in the hands of such men as 
 Otho and Vitellius, and restored it 
 
 to its former unity and dignity. 
 
 Magni duces, sc. erant. 
 
 14. Petilius Cerialis was governor 
 A. D. 71-75. Vid. note on cap. VIII. 
 Brigantum. The Brigantes oc- 
 cupied the northern part of the^ 
 island, embracing Cumberland, 
 "Westmoreland, Lancashire, Durham, 
 and Yorkshire, and were thus out- 
 side of the Roman province. 
 
THE AGEICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 37 
 
 civitatem, quae numerosissima provinciae totius perhibetur, 
 adgressus. Malta proelia, et aliquando non incruenta ; mag- 
 namque Brigantum partem aut victoria amplexus est aut bello. 
 Et Cerialis quidem alterius successoris curam famamque ■ 
 obruisset ; sed sustinuit molem lulius Frontinus, vir magnus, 5 
 quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem 
 armis subegit, super virtutem hostiuru locorum quoque diffi- 
 cultates eluctatus. 
 
 XVIII. Hunc Britanniae statum,has bell orum vices media 
 iam aestate transgressus Agricola iuvenit, cum et milites velut 1 
 omissa expeditione ad securitatem et hostes ad occasionem 
 verterentur. Ordovicum civitas baud multo ante adventum 
 eius alam in finibus suis agentem prope universam obtriverat, 
 eoque initio erecta provincia; et quibus bellum volentibus 
 
 S. Autvietot^iaautbellOf i.e., noth- 
 ing escaped lilm; lie fought every- 
 where, and even if unsuccessful in 
 some parts, he harassed them by war. 
 
 4. Alterius. The editors generally 
 refer this to Frontinus, though Wex 
 insists that Agricola is meant, on 
 the ground that alter cannot be used 
 In the sense of alius. He says that 
 alter successor can only mean 
 secundus a CeHali, i. e., Agricola. 
 
 5. Obruissetf would have completely 
 
 extinguished. JHolemf 1. e., the 
 
 weight of responsibility thrown upon 
 him by his being obliged to complete 
 
 what Cerialis had so ably begun. 
 
 Julius Frontinus was Praetiyr Ur- 
 banus, A. D. 70, and Consul Suffectus, 
 A. D. 74. Under Nerva he was made 
 Curator Aguarum, and an augur. He 
 is the author of two works, which 
 have come dowa to us, de Aquaeducti- 
 6t(5and de 8trategematis. 
 
 6. Quantum licebat modifies susti- 
 nuit niolenif i. e., he carried out the 
 duties imposed on him, so far as the 
 difficulties of his position permitted. 
 The whole passage is hopelessly cor- 
 rupt, and the MSS. afltord no assists 
 ance. Silurum. TheSilures occu- 
 pied South "Wales, 
 
 7, 8. Super, besides. JEluctatus, 
 
 Cf. Hist, III. 59, via: guietoagminenives 
 eluctantibus, etc., etc. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 9. Vices, mcissi'- 
 ticdes, marks a result, not what was 
 passing at the time. 
 
 10. Aestate : A. D. 78, the tenth year 
 of Vespasian's reign. 
 
 11. JExpeditione: 1. e., the campaign 
 
 for this pear. Ad securitatenif to 
 
 careless enjoyment; ad occasionem, 
 to an opportunity for attack. There is 
 no zeugma here, since ad securitatem 
 vei-ti and ad occasionem verti are both 
 legitimate expressions. 
 
 12. Verterentur Is here used In a 
 
 middle sense. Note the tense. 
 
 Ordovicum. TheOrdovices inhabit- 
 ed North "Wales, exclusive ot the 
 Isle of Anglesey. 
 
 13. Alam. The ala was a division 
 of allied cavalry, serving in the Ro- 
 man army. ■ Agentem, stationed. 
 
 For this absolute use of agere, of. 
 HUt.l.li; An. 11. 17. 
 
 14. Erecta provineia : i. e., the in- 
 surrection spread to the province. 
 
 ■ Quibus bellum volentibus erat, 
 
 those who wished for war, is a con- 
 struction in imitation of one com- 
 mon In Greek, Tacitus uses it also 
 
38 
 
 THE AGEIGOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 erat, probare exemplum^ ac recentis legati animum opperiri, 
 cum Agricola, quamquam transvecta aestas, sparsi per provin- 
 ciam uumeri, praesumpta apud milltem illius anni quies, tarda 
 et contraria bellum incohaturo, et plerisque custodiri suspecta 
 
 5 potius videbatur, ire obviam discrimini statuit ; contractisque 
 legionum vexillis et modica auxilioruiu manu, quia in aequum 
 degredi Ordovices non audebant, ipse ante agraen^ quo ceteris 
 par animus simili periculo esset, erexit aciem. Caesaque 
 prope universa gente, non ignarus instandum famae, ac, prout 
 
 10 prima cessissent, terrorem ceteris fore, Monam insulam, cuius 
 
 in Hist. III. 43 ; An. I. 51. Sallust has 
 it in Jug. LXXXIV., and Cat. Also 
 Livy XXI. 60 ; quibus (dat. of 
 possess.) relates to the subject of the 
 historical infinitive probare, ap- 
 proved, and has volentihus agreeing 
 with it. A. 232, c; G. 354, R; H. 387, 
 N.3. 
 
 1. Animum f temper. 
 
 2. JLgrWco^ is thesubject of «*atui«. 
 Quantquani. The clauses intro- 
 duced by quaniquaiti- end at vide- 
 
 bfitiir. Transvectaf so. est, Tacitus 
 
 is the only writer who uses this word 
 in reference to time. 
 
 3. INtimeri. Nurnerus is used by 
 late writers for a body of soldiers of 
 any magnitude. Cf. Hist. I. 6, and 87. 
 
 Suet, yissp. VI. Fraesumpta. 
 
 Frae»utnere is to enjoy by anticipa- 
 tion. Cf. Ann. XI. 7. Pliny. IV. 15. 
 
 Ta/rda et contraria. These words 
 
 are in apposition with the preceding 
 clauses; three circumstances causing 
 delay and adverse. 
 
 4. IHcrlsquCf 1. e., of the inferior 
 
 officers. Suapecta, sc. loca, i. e., 
 
 tribes imperfectly conquered, or 
 likely to revolt. 
 
 5. Jre ohviatHf io/acc. 
 
 6. Vexillis. By vexilJa are meant 
 bodies of troops detached from their 
 own legions, and serving apart from 
 them when occasion required. They 
 must not be confounded with the 
 vcxillarii or veterans, although Taci- 
 tus uses {An. II. 78; Hist. 1. 70; II. 
 U) the word with this sense, "The 
 
 veocillunt was a small square of cloth 
 attached to a cross-bar at the top of a 
 staff, and was the standard of the 
 cavalry and probably of the auxid- 
 aries. When a body of troops was 
 detached for special service, its signa 
 
 THE ROMAN STANDARD. 
 
 or regular standards were left behind 
 with the legion, and It took with it a 
 vexillum instead; hence the term, 
 
 vexilla." A. Quia, etc., gives the 
 
 reason for the statement which fol- 
 lows. In aiqunntf into the plain. 
 
 8. J^cricido: abl. of cause. 
 
 Erexit acirin. Erigere is USCd Of 
 
 marching troops up hill. Cf. Livy 1. 
 27; III. 18. 
 
 9. Itvst€Mfid/um, sc. esse sibi. 
 
 Froutpritna cessissent, in "proportion 
 as his first attempts Jiad succeeded. 
 This is a favorite remark of Tacitus. 
 Vid. Hist. II. 20 ; An. Xll. 31. 
 
 10. Prima =initia belli. CeteriSf 
 
 i. e., the other insurgents, 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 39 
 
 possessione revocatum Paulinum rebellione totius Britanniae 
 supra memoravi, redigere in potestatem animo intendit. Sed, 
 ut in dubiis consiliis, naves deerant ; ratio et constantia ducis 
 transv exit. Depositis omnibus sarcinis lectissimos auxiliarium, 
 quibus nota vada et patrius nandi usus, quo simul seque et 5 
 arma et equos regunt, ita repente inmisit, ut obstupefacti 
 hosteSj qui classem, qui naves, qui mare exspeotabant, nihil 
 arduum aut invictum crediderint sic ad bellum venientibus. 
 Ita petita pace ac dedita insula, clarus ac magnus haberi Agri- 
 cola ; quippe cui ingredienti provinciam, quod tempus alii per 10 
 ostentationem et officiorum ambitum transigunt, labor et peri- 
 
 1. J^ossessione. After revocari 
 Cicero always uses a preposition, a 
 or ab. Tacitus omits the preposition, 
 as he does in the case of verbs com- 
 pounded with re, when followed by a 
 noun of place. 
 
 3. TXt, sc. •' solet fieri." T. In du- 
 
 hiis consiliis J in imperfectly matured 
 plans. Since all the successive stages 
 of a campaign cannot be predicted 
 from the beginning, when the time 
 of action arrived, Agricola found his 
 means Inadequately provided. Had 
 he been able to map out his intended 
 operations with perfect certainty, he 
 
 would have had ships ready. 
 
 Ratio et constantia f the judgment and 
 decision. 
 
 4. Transvexitf sc. eopias. Auxili- 
 
 arum. These could hardly have 
 been the Batavlan auxiliaries, al- 
 though they served la Britain (Vid. 
 Hist. IV. 12. ^n,.II. 8), for they would 
 scarcely have been acquainted with 
 the British fords. They must have 
 been native troops serving in the Ro- 
 man army, as Tacitus mentions in 
 Chaps. XXXI. XXXII. 
 
 5. Fatrnus, peculiar to their coun- 
 try. 
 
 6. Obstupefacti hostes. Wex sug- 
 gests that if the auxiliaries were 
 Britons, the Britons of Mona could 
 not be said to be astounded at their 
 proceedings. There seems to be no 
 reason, however, why they might 
 
 not be equally astounded at being 
 talten in an unexpected quarter, 
 whether their assailants were 
 foreigners or their own countrymen. 
 
 7. Qui mare exspectahant, who ex- 
 pected a sea attack. This assaultmade 
 by fording the shallows did not seem 
 a sea fight, so much as an attack by 
 land, because they expected the 
 enemy to make his appearance In 
 ships on the western or northern coast 
 of the Island. 
 
 8. Crediderint. We would expect 
 here crederent as the regular se- 
 quence after the historical perfect 
 inmisitf but this peculiarity, (arising 
 from the fact that the result of a>past 
 action may Itself be present and may 
 thus be expressed by a Principal 
 tense) is common in clauses denoting 
 consequence or result. A, 287, c ; G. 
 
 513; H. 495, VI. Venientibus, sc. 
 
 iis ; dat. after ardwuTn. 
 
 9. Haberi : historical infinitive. 
 
 10. Cui Is governed by plaeuisset, 
 subj. in the relative cause denoting 
 the reason. A. 320, e ; G. 636 ; H. 517, 
 
 3.1). Quod tempus: i. e. just after 
 
 the arrival of tlie governor. 
 
 11. Officiorum ambitum, round of 
 ceremonies. Officia are the usual 
 complimentary visits, ceremonial 
 addresses, and the like, made to a 
 new magistrate on taking possession 
 of his government. Cf. Hist. V. 1, 
 Siiet. Tib, XII, 
 
40 
 
 THE AGRIOOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 culum placuisset. Nee Agricola^ prosperitate rerum in vani- 
 tatem usus^ expeditionem aut victoriam vocabat victos contin- 
 uisse; ne laureatis quidem gesta prosecutiis est. Sed ipsa 
 dissimulatione famae famam auxit aestimantibus quanta futuri 
 
 5 spe tam magna tacuisset, 
 
 XIX. Ceterum animorum provinciae prudens^ simulque 
 doctus per aliena experimenta parum profici armis^ si iniuriae 
 sequerentuFj causas bellorum statuit excidere. A se suisque 
 orsus, primum domum suam coercuit, quod plerisque haud 
 
 10 minus arduum est quam provinciam regere. Nihil per libertos 
 servosque publieae rei ; non studiis privatis nee ex commenda- 
 tione aut precibus centurionem, milites ascire^ sed optimum 
 quemque fidissimum putare ; omnia seire, non omnia exsequi ; 
 parvis peccatis veniam, magnis severitatem commodare, nee 
 
 15 paena semper sed saepius paenitentia contentiis esse; officiis 
 et administrationibus potius non peccaturos praeponere, quam 
 damnare cum peccassent. Frumenti et tributorum exactio- 
 
 2. Victos continuissef (the) having 
 kept the conquered in subjection: subj. 
 of expeditionem a/ut victoriam {esse). 
 
 3. ILatireati3f sc. litteriSy which is 
 always found with It except in this 
 passage. Pliny mentions (XV. 40) the 
 custom of sending home despatches 
 wreathed with laurel on the an- 
 nouncement of victory. Cf. Liiv.V. 28 : 
 Suet. Dom. VI : Tac. Hist. III. 77. 
 
 4. AestitnantibiiSf in the eyes of 
 those who considered. Cf. aestimanii. 
 Cap. XI. Som,e consider this abla^ 
 tive absolute. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. G. Frudens=^gnarus. 
 
 7. Fer allcna expcr-lmenta,by the ex- 
 perience o/othei's. Iniuriae. Som,e 
 
 read incuriae, which seems hardly de- 
 fensible, though the MSS. have it. 
 
 9. JDomnni »uatn: i. e., his staff, 
 servants and subordinates generally. 
 
 10. Nihil fSCfagere; historical infln. 
 
 11. Fublicae rei, limiting niJiilf is 
 
 part, genitive. Studiis privatis, 
 
 ''according to his own personal inclina- 
 tions," Mco commendatione : i. e., 
 
 Of others, 
 
 12. Milites ascire, sc. in numerum 
 ctccensorum. This refers to the pro- 
 motion of soldiers to ofBces about the 
 governor's establishment, such as 
 the posts of lictor, apparitor, clerk, 
 secretary, purveyors of corn, etc., etc. 
 These persons were comprehended 
 under the common designation 
 cohors accensorum, and being released 
 from all strictly military duties were 
 
 called heneficiarii. 8ed optimum 
 
 .... putare, " hut he thoug/it all the 
 best men the most trustworthy." C. 
 
 13. Non exsequif he did not punish. 
 Livy and the later writers use it in 
 this sense. Cicero's word is persequi. 
 
 14. Severitatem conimodare. There 
 need be no zeugma here as many 
 say, since comrnodnre is used very 
 much by the writers of the Silver 
 age in the sense of giving, assigning, 
 applying,— a meaning which suits the 
 first clause as well as the second. 
 
 15,16. Faena: abl. of cause. Non 
 
 peccaturos, those who would, not (?(j 
 wrong. 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS; 
 
 41 
 
 nem aequalitate munerum moUire, oircumcisis quae in quaes- 
 tum reperta ipso tributo gravius tolerabantur. Namque per 
 ludibrium adsidere clausis horreis et emere ultro frumenta ac 
 ludere pretio cogebantur ; devortia itinerum et longinquitas 
 regionum indicebatur, ut civitates, proximis hibernis, in remota 5 
 et avia deferrent, donee, quod omnibus in promptu erat, paucis 
 lucrosum fieret. 
 
 XX. Haec primo statim anno comprimendo egregiam 
 famam paci circumdedit, quae vel incuria vel intolerantia pri- 
 orum baud minus quam bellum timebatur. Sed, ubi aestas 10 
 
 1. M^uru'runif duties or burdens^ as 
 (1) contributions of corn, (2) the pay- 
 ment of a money tribute. Cir- 
 
 cumcisiSf sc. tis, i. e., muneriblts, 
 
 In qiiaesttem repertaf devised with a 
 view to gain. 
 
 2. Namque, etc. The rest of this 
 chapter, which presents considerable 
 difHculty, is to be talien as explain- 
 ing some of the methods of extortion 
 practised by previous governors. A 
 certain amount of corn called fi-w- 
 mentuni imperatuTn had to be fur- 
 nished by the Britons. This they 
 could have easily supplied, had not 
 the Roman agents previously secured 
 in some way or other all the corn in 
 any given neighborhood, and stored 
 it in their own granaries, keptclosed 
 (clwusis horreis) because full. When 
 the Britons had to supply the corn, 
 there was none forthcoming, and, as 
 the Romans refused to accept a 
 money equivalent, the Britons were 
 compelled to purchase corn from the 
 Roman granaries up to the required 
 amount. The Britons were, of course, 
 compelled to pay an enormous 
 {ludere pretio) price for it, and as it 
 remained in the granaries when 
 bought, the whole -aifair was a ludi- 
 brium. Besides this there was the 
 second wrong done them. They were 
 ordered to carry the corn to some re- 
 mote quarter. As this was trouble- 
 some and also expensive, they would 
 
 otfer the money contribution and 
 buy corn of the Romans in the man- 
 ner before stated. Per ludilyrium, 
 
 in mockery. 
 
 3. Ultro, needlessly, as it was the 
 money they were parting with, no 
 equivalent being received. 
 
 4. X/udere pretio, to be going through 
 a farce with the price, since they were 
 paying dear for what remained in the 
 seller's possession. Ji&vortia itine- 
 rum, places off the roads. Longin- 
 
 quitcts regionuiii, distant parts of the 
 country. 
 
 5. Proxi/mis hibernis : ab. abs., de- 
 noting concession. 
 
 6. Deferrent, BC/rumenXum. Cicero 
 accuses Verres (III. 82) of the same 
 thing. This proceeding, however, 
 was not actually Illegal, as the mag- 
 istrates were allowed to name the 
 place where the corn was to be de- 
 livered. In promptu: i. e., if they 
 
 had been allowed to arrange the 
 
 matter fairly. Paucis; i. e., the 
 
 Roman officials. 
 
 7. meret. A. 328; G. 574; H. 519, 
 II. 2, N. 2. 
 
 CHAP. XX. 8. Maec: i. e., such 
 
 abuses. Statim, at once. Mgre- 
 
 giam .... circumdedit, he invested 
 peace with great glory. Cf. Hist. IV. 
 11. Dial, de Orat. XXXVII. 
 
 9. Intolerantia,insufferahlehwighti' 
 ness. 
 
 10. Aestas : A. D, 79. 
 
42 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 advenit, contracto exercitu, multus in agmine, laudare modes- 
 tiam, disiectos coercere : loca castris ipse capere, aestuaria ac 
 silvas ipse praetentare ; et nihil interim apud hostes quietum 
 pati, quo minus subitis excursibus popularetur; atque, ubi 
 
 5 satis terruerat, parcendo rursus inritamenta pacis ostentare. 
 Quibus rebus multae civitates, quae in ilium diem ex aequo 
 egerant, datis obsidibus, iram posuere, et praesidiis castellisque 
 circumdatae tanta ratione curaque, ut nulla ante Britanniae 
 nova pars pariter illacessita transient. 
 
 10 XXI. Sequens hiems saluberrimis consiliis absumpta. 
 Namque, ut homines dispersi ac rudes eoque in bella faciles 
 quieti et otio per voluptates adsuescerentj hortari privatim, 
 adiuvare publice, ut templa fora domos exstruerent, laudando 
 promptos et castigando segnes. Ita honoris aemulatio pro 
 
 15 necessitate erat. lam vero principum filios liberalibus artibus 
 
 1. JtTultus in ar/jitine, sc. esse. The 
 phrase is used of one who shows him- 
 self frequently on the line of march, 
 first here, and then there. Cf. Sail. 
 Jug. XCVI. It is also used in the 
 sense of ever present, continually on 
 the march. Modeatlain , obedience. 
 
 2. Disiectos, stragglers, is opposed 
 
 to tnodesti. Locfi castris. Many 
 
 traces of Roman encampments are 
 stiU visible along the route appar- 
 ently taken by ^Vgricola. 
 
 3. Praetentare: to find a passage. 
 
 4. Fopularetur. The subject is 
 Agrirola. 
 
 h. Jiiritann'nta, allurements, is a 
 much stronger woi'd than inciia- 
 menfa or iU/^ccbrae. 
 
 G. Em aequo, independently, i. e,, 
 the states in question had not been 
 conquered or enslaved by the Ro- 
 mans. Cf. Wst. IV. 64. 
 
 8. CivvitiiKfatae, sc. sunt, Z't .... 
 
 transient. " The reading of this 
 passage is doubtful. Several editors 
 place the period after pars, and 
 make illacessita transiit (changed 
 from transierit) begin the next 
 chapter." C. The word j^^^rtter is not 
 found Ija the manuscripts. The best 
 
 that can be done with it is this: 
 they were so encompassed, etc., tliat no 
 part of Britain, new (to its) be/ore, came 
 over {to «a) equally unharrassed; i. e., 
 no recently conquered territory be- 
 fore this had everbeen annexed with 
 so little annoyance. Tacitus is the 
 only writer who uses the word 
 illaccasita. 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 10. Sequens hi&tns : 
 A. D. 79-80. 
 
 11. ^ogwe; abl. of cause. Inbella 
 
 faciles f easily Tuoved to war, 
 
 12. Frivatim, as aprivate individual. 
 
 13. Publice : i. e,, by governmental 
 authority he assisted them by grants 
 
 from the public treasury. Templa. 
 
 A Roman temple, now called Ar- 
 thur's Oon, or Oven, near the Carron, 
 in Stirlingshire, is said to have been 
 built by Agricola. 
 
 11. Castigando, i. e., with words. 
 
 Ita .... necessitate erat, so that 
 
 rivalry in obtaining distinction took the 
 place of compulsion. 
 
 15. Jam vero, Tnor cover, Filios . . . 
 
 erudire. This seems to have been a 
 usual policy with the Romans, the 
 result of which would naturally be 
 to secure frieuds to tbe Roman iu- 
 
THE AGEICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 43 
 
 erudire, et ingenia Britannorum studiis Gallorum anteferre, 
 ut, qui modo linguam Eomanam abnuebant, eloquentiam con- 
 cupiscerent. Inde etiam habitus nostri honor et frequens 
 toga, paulatimque discessum ad delenimenta vitiorum, porti- 
 cus et balnea et conviviorura ejlegantiam ; idque apud imperi- 5 
 tos humanitas vocabatur, cum 'pars servitutis asset. 
 
 XXII. Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes aperuit, 
 vastatis usque ad Tanaum (aestuario nomen est) nationibus. 
 Qua formidine territi hostes quamquam eonfiictatum saevis 
 tempestatibus exercitura lacessere non ausi ; ponendisque 1 
 insuper castellis spatium fuit. Adnotabant periti non alium 
 ducem opportunitates locorum sapientius legisse. Nullum ab 
 Agricola positum castellum aut vi hostium expugnatum aut 
 pactione ac fugadesertum; crebrae eruptiones ; nam ad versus 
 moras obsidionis annuls copiis firmabantur. Ita intrepida ibi 1 5 
 
 terest when these princes ascended 
 their own thrones. Cf. An. XI. 16 ; 
 XII. 10. Suet. Octav. XLVIII. 
 
 1. Et ingenia .... anteferrCf and 
 he preferred the natural talents of the 
 Briioyis to the industry of the Gauls, i. 
 e., Agricola believed the Briton to be 
 the naturally cleverer man ; the Gaul 
 to have improved his scantier talents 
 by greater care. 
 
 2. Xn, so that, denoting a conse- 
 quence. JEloquentiarn concupisce- 
 
 rent. Juvenal (XV. Ill) Jokes about 
 the spread of Roman learning : 
 
 " Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos ; 
 De conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule." 
 
 3. Habitus : i. e. mode of dress. 
 
 4. Toga. "This adoption of the 
 toga, which was the distinctive dress 
 of a Roman citizen, is like the adop- 
 tion of dress coats and silk hats by 
 
 the Japanese." A. Ttiscessiim, so. 
 
 est ab its apatrum moribus. Delen- 
 imenta, attractive accfnupaniments. 
 
 JPorticus, arcades. 
 
 5. Halnea. Boadicea, in Dion Cas- 
 sius, expresses a thorough contem^it 
 for the Romans, as men who bathe in 
 
 hot water. There were public baths 
 all over Britain. 
 
 6. ITumanitaSf civilization. — Esset : 
 subj. of concession, after cunif al- 
 though. A. 326; G. 588 ; H. 515, III. 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 7. Tertius annus: 
 A. D. 80. 
 
 8. Ad Tanaum. This is supposed 
 to refer to the Estuary of the Ty ne al- 
 though its identity is uncertain. 
 
 Another reading is Taum, tliejirth of 
 Tay, but this is not probable. Vid. 
 note on Clota, Cap. XXIII. 
 
 9.- Quamqua^n modifies eonfiicta- 
 tum. 
 
 10. Ausi, sc, sunt. 
 
 11. Adnotabant. Observe the force 
 of the imperfect. JPeriti, men of ex- 
 perience. 
 
 14. FactionCf i. e., by capitulation. 
 
 CJreJyrae eruptiones (sc. eranf), i. e., 
 
 from the fortresses. 
 
 15. Anmiis copiis, withprovisions for 
 the year. The enemy thought It use- 
 less to attempt a blockade on the 
 chance of starving them out, as they 
 had plenty of provisions. Hence, be- 
 ing unmolested, they were able to 
 make frequent sallies. 
 
44 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 hiems, et sibi quisque praesidio, irritis hostibus eoque desper- 
 antibus, quia soliti pleruraque damna aestatis hibernis eventi- 
 bus pensare, turn aestate atque hieme iuxta pellebantur. Nee 
 Agricola umquam per alios gesta avidus intercepit ; seu cen- 
 
 5 turio seu praefectus incorruptum facti testem habebat. Apud 
 quosdam acerbior in conviciis narrabatur ; ut erat comis bonis, 
 ita adversus malos iniucundus. Ceterum ex iracundia nihil 
 supererat secretum, ut silentium eius non timeres ; honestius 
 putabat offendere quam odisse, 
 
 10 XXIII. Quarta aestas obtinendis, quae percucurrerat, 
 insumpta ; ac, si virtus exercituurn et Romani nominis gloria 
 pateretur, inventus in ipsa Britannia terminus. Namque 
 Clota et Bodotria, diversi maris aestibus per immensum 
 revectae, angusto terrarum spatio dirirauntur, quod turn 
 
 15praesidiis firmabaturj atque omnis propior sinus tenebatur, 
 summotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus. 
 
 1. Qttisqtie, i. e., every commander 
 of a cnstellum. Irrtt!s, baffled. Sel- 
 dom, used in prose with reference to 
 people. 
 
 3, 4. Pensare = compensare. Avi- 
 dus has here the force of an adverh. 
 Intercepit, appropriated. 
 
 5. Sett cfnturio, seu praefectus. 
 The centurio was a legionary office; 
 thei^rac/V'cfMsoneconnected with the 
 auxiliaries. Incorrnpturnf impar- 
 tial. Apiid quosdam^a quibusdanij 
 
 and "indicates those who related, not 
 those who were reproached." C. 
 
 7. SoniSf adversus malos. Note 
 
 the eiiallage. Nihil secretufn, 
 
 nothing Jiidden. Tacitus seems to he 
 contrasting Agricola with Domitlan 
 who was just at this time raised to 
 the imperial throne, of whom he says 
 in Chap. XXXIX. *' T'alibua cutis ez- 
 er<ntus, quodque saevae cogitationis in- 
 dicium erat, secreto suo satiatusj etc. 
 
 9. Offendere quam odisse, i. e., to 
 give open offence rather than to 
 cherish hatred. 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. 10. Qyiarta aestas, 
 j^^ D, SI. Obtinendis, sc. iis locia. 
 
 Obtinefe is to continite Tiolding, to main- 
 tain or secure. 
 12; JPateretfirf sc. " terminum inve- 
 
 niH.'^ T. InventtiSf so. esset. Ifer- 
 
 minus, SC. imperii. 
 
 13. Clota et Bodotr^ia. As he here 
 mentions the firths of Clyde and 
 Forth as the limit of what Agricola 
 had run over, it is evident that he 
 did not reach the Tay, which is still 
 farther north. 
 
 14. Itei'cctac. Tacitus' idea is that 
 the waters of these two estuaries on 
 their discharge into the ocean, on the 
 eastern and the western coasts (di- 
 versi tnaris), are carried by the 
 strength of the tides a great distance 
 
 inland. Angusto spatio , which is 
 
 now cut by a ship canal. 
 
 15. Sinus. This means the whole 
 sliore with its projecting nooks, in 
 the vicinity of the Isthmus, on Its 
 southern or English side. Cf. sinus. 
 Ger. I. 
 
 16. In aliam insulam, i. e., Caledo- 
 nia to the north of Clota andBodotria, 
 whict all but divided it from its 
 southern portion. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACSCTtTS. 
 
 45 
 
 XXTV. Quinto expeditionum anno nave prima trans- 
 gressus ignotas ad id tempus gentes crebris simul ac prosperis 
 proeliis domuit, eamque partem Britauniae, quae Hiberniam 
 aspicit, copiis instruxit, in spem magis quam ob formidiuem ; 
 si quidem Hibernia, medio inter Britanniam atque Hispaniam 5 
 sita et Gallico quoque mari opportuna, valeutissimara imperii 
 partem magnis invicem usibus miscuerit. Spatium eius, si 
 Britanniae comparetur, angustius, nostri maris insulas superat. 
 Solum caelumque etingeniacultusquehominumhaud multum 
 a Britannia differunt. Melius aditus portusque per commercia 1 
 et negotiatores eogniti. Agricola expulsum seditione domes- 
 tica unum ex regulis gentis exceperat ac specie amicitiae in 
 occasionem retinebat. Saepe ex eo audivi legione una et 
 modicis auxiliis debellari obtinerique Hiberniam posse, idque 
 etiam adversus Britanniam profuturum, si Romana ubique 1 5 
 arma, et velut e conspectu libertas tolleretur. 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 1. Quinto anno, 
 
 A.D.82. Navcprima. Itisnotvery 
 
 clear -what this expression means. It 
 can liardly be probable ttiat Agricola 
 wintered at Rome, and returned by 
 the first ship on the opening of navi- 
 gation. Of the three other possible 
 interpretations, viz., (1) that It was 
 the first Roman ship which had vis- 
 ited these parts ; (2) that it was the 
 foremost vessel of the fleet; (3) that 
 it was the first ship he had had occa^ 
 sion to use, the first is preferable, as 
 grammatically the simplest, and as 
 
 best suiting the context. Trans- 
 
 grnssus ; over Clota. 
 
 4. In spem magis. Rather to pave 
 the way for what he hoped to effect 
 subsequently, than because he was 
 alarmed for its safety. 
 
 5. HHedio inter Uritan/niam. Vid. 
 chap. X. 
 
 G. Gallico .... opportuna, corv- 
 
 venient to the seas of Gaul. Talen- 
 
 tisslmam . . . .partem. Gaul,Spain, 
 and Britain are thus designated, be- 
 cause large armies were stationed in 
 them, and the forces of the Empire 
 
 thence drew their bravest recruits. 
 Cf. Hist. III. 53. 
 
 7. JUa^nis .... iniscucrit, might 
 unite with great Tnutual advantages. 
 Thesubj. seems intended to express 
 the writer's own idea of Agricola's 
 views. The advantages to Ireland 
 would be the civilization derived 
 ii'om Rome; to the other countries 
 the opening of new sources of traffic, 
 and the drawing of recruits thence. 
 
 8. Nostri mwriSf i. e., the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 9. Caelum, climate. Cultusque^ 
 
 and the general mjode of life. 
 
 10. A. Sritannia, i.e., a solo caeloque 
 et ingeniis cultibusque hominum Uri- 
 
 tanniae; a very common ellipse. 
 
 Melius, i. e., than the interior of the 
 island. 
 
 13. In occasionem retinebat. Agri- 
 cola kept the chief to make a pretext 
 out of him for meddling in the aflairs 
 of Ireland, but he never found the 
 opportunity. Exeo, 1. e., Agricola. 
 
 14. Debellari, completely subjugated. 
 Idque, and that that event. 
 
 15. Homana arma, sc, essent. 
 
46 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 XXV. Ceterum aestate, qua sextum officii annum incoha- 
 bat, amplexus civitates trans Bodotriam sitas, quia motus 
 universarum ultra gentium et infesta hostilis exercitus itinera 
 timebantur^ portus classe exploravit. Quae ab Agricola 
 
 5 primum adsumpta in partem virium sequebatur egregia specie, 
 cum siraul terra simul mari bellum impelleretur, ac saepe 
 iisdem castris pedes equesque et nauticus miles, mixti copiis et 
 laetitia, sua quisque facta, suos casus attollerent ; ac modo sil- 
 varum ac montium profunda, modo tempestatum ac fluctuum 
 
 lOadversa, hinc terra et hostis, hinc victus oceanus militari iac- 
 tantia compararentur. Britannos quoque, ut ex captivis 
 audiebatur, visa classis obstupefaciebat, tamquam, aperto maris 
 sui secreto, ultimum victis perfugium clauderetur. Ad manus 
 et arma conversi Caledoniam incolentes populi, paratu magno, 
 
 15maiore fama, uti mos est de ignotis, oppugnare ultro castella 
 adorti, metum ut provocantes addiderant ; regrediendumque 
 citi^a Bodotriam, et excedendum potius quam pellerentur, 
 ignavi specie prudentium admonebant, cum interim cognoscit 
 hostes pluribus agminibus irrupturos. Ac ne superante numero 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 1. Sextum annum, 
 
 A. D. 83. 
 
 2. Ampleacuaj sc. bello. Cf. chap. 
 XVII. 
 
 3. Infesta .... itinera. If this 
 reading be correct, the genitive de- 
 pends on itinera, and hostiUs ejccrri- 
 
 tus is the Roman army. Agricola was 
 afraid lest the routes that hia army 
 must take would be beset with dan- 
 ger (infesta), hence he did not ven- 
 ture to march directly Inland over 
 the Isthmus, but kept within a mod- 
 erate distance of the eastern shore, 
 and his fleet coasted along at the 
 same time, so that in case of extrem^- 
 Ity he could receive provision or euc- 
 car, or retire on shipboard. 
 6. In partem virium f as apart of 
 
 his forces. JEgregia sjteeie, with a 
 
 remarkably imposing appearance. 
 
 6. Impellereturf was being hurried 
 on, 
 
 7. Mixti copiis et laetiUa, sliaring 
 
 their rations, and mingled in ^nerri- 
 Tnent. The meaning is that the sol- 
 diers and sailors mingled in merry 
 gatherings over their meals. 
 
 9. Profund.nf recesses. 
 
 10. All versa, hardships. Vietus 
 
 belongs to both clauses. 
 
 13. SecretOftlie secret retreat Clau- 
 
 dt^etiivy i. c, the British thought so. 
 
 Ad manus et arniaf to resistance 
 
 and arms. 
 
 15. Maiore famei^ i. e., the reports 
 made the preparation greater than it 
 
 really was. Oppugnare depends 
 
 on adorti. Vitro , actually, 
 
 16. Tft provocajiteSf as being the 
 cJiallengers. 
 
 17. Fotius quam pellerentur. JPo- 
 tius is here used like prius. 
 
 18. Specie prudentium, with the 
 
 air of prudent advisers. Cognoscit, 
 
 i. e., Agricola. 
 
 19. JPluribus agmdnibus, in several 
 divisi(ms. 
 
THE AGBICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 47 
 
 et peritia locorum circumiretur, diviso et ipse in tres partes 
 exercitu incessit. 
 
 XXVI. Quod ubi cognitum hosti, mutato repente consilio, 
 universi nonam legionem, ut rnaxime invalidam, nocte 
 
 5 aggressi, inter somnum ac trepidationem caesis vigilibus, 
 irrupere. Tamque in ipsis castris pugnabatur, cum Agricola, 
 iter hostium ab exploratoribus edoctus et vestigiis insecutus, 
 velocissimos equitum peditumque adsultare tergis pugnantium 
 iubet, mox ab universis adiici elamorem ; et propinqua luce 
 
 lOfuIsere signa. Ita aneipiti malo territi Britanni; et Romanis 
 rediit animus, ac securi pro salute de gloria certabant. Ultro 
 quin etiam erupere, et fuit atrox in ipsis portarum angustiis 
 proelium., donee pulsi host«s, utroque exercitu certante, his, ut 
 tulisse opem, illis, ne eguisse auxilio viderentur. Quod nisi 
 
 15paludes et silvae fugientes texissent, debellatum ilia victoria 
 foret. XXYII. Cuius conscientia ac fama ferox exercitus 
 nihil virtuti suae invium et penetrandam Caledoniam invenien- 
 dumque tandem Britanniae terminum continuo proeliorum 
 cursu fremebant ; atque illi modo cauti ac sapientes, prompti 
 
 1. JSt ipse. Notice the unusual 
 position of the subject in the abla- 
 tive absolute clause. 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. 4. lit maxime in- 
 validatn. This ninth legion was the 
 one defeated under the command of 
 Publius Cerialis by the Britons, while 
 Paulinus was absent in Wales. They 
 were afterwards recruited by legion- 
 aries from Germany, although their 
 ranks were probably only partially 
 filled (An. XIV. 32, 38). 
 
 7. Vestigiis. This adverbial use of 
 the word Is common in military 
 operations. Cf. Liv. VI. 32; IX. 45. 
 
 8. Adsultare specially denotes the 
 rapid movements of cavalry or light 
 armed troops, io charge, to dash upon. 
 Cf. An. XII. 35; XIII. 40. 
 
 9. Ah univcrsiSf i. e., the legions as 
 well as those who had been ordered 
 front. Propinqiia — appropin- 
 
 10. Aneipiti malo, i. e., the battle in 
 front and rear. 
 
 11. Securi pro salute, having no fears 
 Jot their safety.— — De gloria. The Ro- 
 mans fought to obtain new glory ; pro 
 flrtoria would be in defence of the glory 
 they possessed already. Cf. Hist. IV. 
 58. Liv. XXI. 41. Vitro, actually. 
 
 12. Quin etiam, moreover. Eru- 
 
 pere, 1. e., the soldiers of the ninth 
 legion. 
 
 13. Pulsi, sc. sunt. Utroexercitu, 
 
 i. e., the ninth legion in the camp, 
 and the army which Agricola brought 
 up to the rescue. 
 
 14. Quod nisi, and had n^ot. 
 
 15. Debellatum foret, the war would 
 have been ended. 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. 16. Cuius refers 
 back to victoria in the previous 
 chapter. A. 201, e; G. 612; H. 453. 
 
 17. Nihil, sc. esse. 
 
 19. J^cwteftan* is plural to agree with 
 the collective noun exercitus. A, 
 
48 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 post eventutn ac magniloqui erant. Iniquissima haec bellorum 
 condicio est ; prospera omnes sibi vindicantj adversa uni impu- 
 tantur. At Britanni, non virtute, sed occasione et arte duds 
 rati, nihil ex adrogantia reraittere, quo minus iuventutem 
 
 5 armarent, coniuges ac liberos in loca tuta transferrent, coet- 
 ibus ac sacrificiis conspirationem civitatium sancirent ; atque 
 ita inritatis utrimque animis discessum. 
 
 XXVIII. Eadem aestate cohors Usipiorum, per Ger- 
 manias conscripta et in Britanniam transmissa, magnum ac 
 
 lOmemorabile facinus ansa est. Occiso centurione ac militibus, 
 qui ad tradendam disciplinam immixti manipulis exemplum 
 et rectores habebantur, tres liburnicas adactis per vim guber- 
 natoribus ascendere ; et uno remigante, suspectis duobus eoque 
 interfectis, nondum vulgato rumore ut miraculum praevehe- 
 
 20r), c; G. 202, Except. 1); H. 461, 1. 
 
 lilt modo cauti. These are the peo- 
 ple referred to in Chap. XXV., as 
 advising the evacuation of the dis- 
 trict beyond Bodotria. 
 
 1. Iniquissima .... imputantur. 
 For a like sentiment, of. Sail. Jug. 
 LIII, in victoria vel ignavis gloriari 
 licet ; adversae res etiam bonos de- 
 tractant. 
 
 2. Omnes f sc. milites. JJnl, i. e., 
 
 dud. 
 
 3. Virtutef I. e., of the Romans. 
 
 4. Rati, sc. (se) vicios (esse), which 
 has been conjectured by LIpsius for 
 ducts of the MSS. and is incorporated 
 in some texts. 
 
 6. Conspirationem sancirent f estab- 
 lish a confederacy. 
 
 7. Inritatis, embittered: the Ro- 
 mans by their victory; the Brltains 
 by the establishment of the confed- 
 eracy. Discessunif sc. est ab iis. 
 
 That is, Agricola withdrew beyond 
 the fortified Isthmus between Clota 
 and Bodotria, and there, defended by 
 his chain of forts, went into winter- 
 quarters. The Britons, of course, on 
 their side retired also, and the cam- 
 paign was at an end. 
 
 CHAP. XXVIII. 8. Cohors Usi- 
 piorum. Cf. Qerm. XXXII. This 
 
 was very likely a part of the force 
 stationed by Agricola in the district 
 mentioned in chap. XXIV. as look- 
 ing towards Ireland. They started 
 from this part of the island, and sail- 
 ing by the western part of Scotland 
 and rounding its northern ex- 
 tremity, entered the German Ocean. 
 They were carried past their own 
 home in Germany, and stranded, 
 some near the Elbe, where the Suevi 
 would seize them, and some near 
 the Ems, thus falling into the hands 
 
 of the Frisii. Germanias, i. e.,the 
 
 two provinces of Upper and Lower 
 Germany. 
 
 11. ManipuUs. There were three 
 maniples of two hundred men each 
 in a cohort, and ten cohorts in a 
 legion. 
 
 12. lAhumicaSf so. naves. These 
 were swift galleys, named from the 
 country Liburnia, where they were 
 first used. 
 
 13. Memifftmte, " directing the row- 
 ers." 
 
 lA. Itumore, 1. e., of their mutiny 
 
 and flight. Jit miraculunif i, e., as 
 
 they passed along the coast they 
 were considered as a sort of prod- 
 igy. Praevehebantur =■ praeter- 
 
 vehebantur. Cf. Hist. II, 2. An. II. 6. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 49 
 
 bantur. Mox ad aquam atque utilia rapientes cum plerisque 
 Britannorum sua defensautium proelio cougressi, ac saepe 
 victores, aliquando pulsi, eo ad extremum inopiae venere, ut 
 infirmissimos suorum, mox sorte ductos vescerentur. Atque 
 ita circumvecti Britanniam, amissis per inscitiam regendl 5 
 navibus, pro praedonibus habiti, primum a Suevis, mox 
 a Frisiis intercepti sunt. Ac fuere, quos per commercia 
 venumdatos et in nostram usque ripam mutatione ementium 
 adductos, indicium tanti casus inlustravit. 
 
 XXIX. Initio aestatis Agricola, domestico vulnere ictus, 10 
 anno ante natum filium amisit. Quem casum neque ut 
 plerique fortium virorum ambitiose, neque per lamenta rursus 
 ac maerorem muliebriter tulit ; et in luctu bellum inter 
 remedia erat. Igitur praemissa classe, quae pluribus locis 
 praedata magnum et incertum terrorem faceret, expedite 15 
 exercitu, cui ex Britannis fortissimos et longa pace exploratos 
 addiderat, ad montem Grampium pervenit, quem iam hostis 
 
 1. Mox ad aquatnf etc. This pass- 
 age Is hopelessly corrupt, but Krltz' 
 reading, which is followed In the 
 
 text, is perhaps as good as any. Ad 
 
 ' aquam = in aquatione, sc. egressi. 
 
 TTtiliaf provisions. 
 
 3. Eo : old dative, to such a degree. 
 A.d extremum, cU last. Con- 
 strue inopiae with eo. A. 216, a, 4 ; G. 
 371, B. 4 ; H. 397, 4. 
 
 4. JnfirmissimoSf ductos. Phae- 
 drns, Tibullus, and Pliny use the ac- 
 cusative after vesci. Perhaps the ab- 
 lative sorte induced Tacitus to avoid 
 another, by putting the accusative. 
 A. 249, b ; G. 405, R. 1 ; H. 421, N. 4. 
 
 6. Primunif mox, i. e., part were 
 taken by the Suevi, and part by the 
 Frisii. 
 
 7. J*er comnierciaf in trade. 
 
 8. In 7u*stram ripam : i. e., the 
 left or western bank of the Rhine, 
 which the Romans held. Muta- 
 tione ementiif/m; i. e., by being re- 
 sold by those who had previously 
 bought them. 
 
 9. Casus, adventure. Inlusl/ramt. 
 
 We would naturally expect the sub- 
 j unctive after the relative with an in- 
 definite antecendent ifuere quos) ; 
 but the indicative is common, even 
 in the best prose, when the fact itself 
 is to be made prominent. G. 834, R.l; 
 H. 503, N. 3, 2). 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 10. Initio aestatis. 
 A. D. 84. 
 
 12. Fortium virorum "military men." 
 
 T. Ambitiose: i. e., with a viewto 
 
 gain glory from the display ol philo- 
 sophical Stoicism in bearing sorrow. 
 Itursus, on the other hand. 
 
 14. Qua^ = ut ea. 
 
 16. Incertum : as the Britons would 
 not know whence to expect the at- 
 tack. Expedito exercitu. Thearmy 
 
 was in light marching order, because 
 the baggage, provisions, etc., were on 
 board the fleet in advance. 
 
 16. JExploratos, tried and not found 
 wanting. 
 
 17. Grampium. The reading is un- 
 certain, most MSS. having Oraupium. 
 There is strong evidence that tTie 
 Orampian Sills are meant. 
 
50 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 insederat. Nam Britanni, nihil fracti pugnae prioris eventu, 
 et ultionem aut servitium exspectantes, tandemque doeti com- 
 mune periculum concordia propulsandum, legationibus et 
 foederibus omnium civitatium vires exciverant. lamque super 
 5 triginta milia armatorum aspiciebantur, et adhuc adfluebat 
 omnis inventus et quibus cruda ac viridis senectus, clari bello 
 et sua quisque decora gestantes, cum inter plures duces virtute 
 et genere praestans, nomine Calgacus, apud contractam multi- 
 tudinem proelium poscentem in hunc modum locutus fertur : 
 
 10 XXX. "Quotiens causas belli et necessitatem nostram 
 intueor, magnus mihi animus est hodiernum diem consensum- 
 que vestrum initium libertatis toti Britanniae fore. Nam et 
 universi servitutis expertes, et nullae ultra terrae, ac ne mare 
 quidem securuni, imminente nobis classe Romana ; ita proelium 
 
 15atque arma, quae fprtibus honesta, eadem etiam ignavis 
 tutissima sunt. Priores pugnae, quibus adversus Romanes 
 varia fortuna certatum est, spem ac subsidium in nostris 
 
 1. Nihil: accus. of specification. 
 
 FuffHae pintyris. Vid. Chap. XXVI. 
 
 6. QuibuBf so. efrat. Oruda ac 
 
 viridis. Tacitus probably had in his 
 mind Vergil's account of Charon 
 {Aen. VI. 304), sedcruda deo viridisque 
 senectus. 
 
 7. Decora means anything in the 
 way of ornament, and seems to in- 
 clude spoils taken from an enemy 
 and rewards conferred by the chief- 
 tains on their followers. 
 
 8. Praestans, " one distinguished.'' 
 
 C. Calgacus. The more usual 
 
 spelling of this name Is Galgacus. 
 
 9. Fertur shows that Tacitus is the 
 author of the following speech. 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 10. Co "*«». The mo- 
 tive for the war was the determinar 
 tion of the inhabitants to drive 
 slavery away from Caledonia; ex- 
 plained by Calgacus below in uni- 
 
 versi servitutis expertes. yecessi- 
 
 tatem. The necessity is the fact that 
 they are driven into a corner by the 
 avarice and tliirst for power dis- 
 
 played by the Romans, from which 
 there is no escape ; also explained in 
 nullae ultra terrae. 
 11. Animus f confidence. 
 
 13. Servitutis is complementary gen- 
 itive after expertes {sumus). A. 218, a; 
 
 Q. 373; H. 390, I. 3. Nullae ultra 
 
 terrae, sc. sunt, i. e., for refuge. 
 
 14, 15. Proelium atque arma. In 
 this chapter, by three other ex- 
 amples, spem ac subsidium; recessus 
 ac sinus; obseguiuyn ac modestiam, the 
 author well illustrates his fondness 
 for pairs of words of kindred signifir 
 cation. JXonestaf honorable. 
 
 16. Priores pugnae; i. e., previous 
 battles of other tribes with the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 17. Spem. ac subsidium is best taken 
 
 as a hendiadys for spem subsidii. 
 
 In nostris Ttianibus, i.e., the Britons, 
 by whom the previous battles had 
 been fought, always ha,d had the 
 Caledonians to fall back on as a kind 
 of reserve, but now the reserve Itself 
 was going into action. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 61 
 
 manibus habebant ; quia nobilissimi totius Britanniae, eoque 
 in ipsis penetralibus siti nee servientium litora aspicientes, 
 oculos quoque a contactu dominationis inviolatos habebamus. 
 Nos terrarum ac libertatis extremes recessus ipse ac sinus 
 famae in hunc diem defendit; nunc terminus Britanniae 5 
 patet, atque omne ignotum pro magnifico est. Sed nulla 
 iam ultra gens^ nihil nisi fluctus et saxa^ et infestiores Romania 
 quorum superbiam frustra per obsequium ac modestiam 
 effugeris. Raptores orbis, postquam cuncta vastantibus de- 
 fuere terrae, iam et mare scrutantur : si locuples hostis est, 10 
 avari, si pauper, ambitiosi ; quos non Oriens, non Occidens 
 satiaverit. Soli omnium opes atque inopiam pari adfectu 
 concupiscunt. Auferre, trucidare, rapere, falsis nominibus 
 imperium, atque, ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant. 
 XXXI. Liberos cuique ac propinquos suos natura carissimosl5 
 esse voluit : hi per delectus alibi servituri auferuntur : coniuges 
 
 1. KobiZissimi has here its primi- 
 tive meaning, the purest born. 
 
 JEoqiiCf and th&refare, as all that was 
 valued was always kept inthepene- 
 tralia. 
 
 2. ^ertetralihtJLS. *^ IPenetralia sunt 
 penatium deorum sacraria." Quoted 
 by C. On this passage cf. Caes. B. G. 
 V. 12, " Britanniae pars interior ab iis 
 incolitur, quos naios in insula ipsa 
 memoriae proditwm dicunt-; maritima 
 pars ab iis qui praedae ac belli inr 
 ferendi causa ex Belgis transierant.'^ 
 
 Sertrientiuin. litora^ i. e., the 
 
 shores of Gaul. 
 
 4. Terrarwm, ac libertatis ecc- 
 t^emos. They were situated at the 
 edgeof the habitable world, and were 
 the last remnant not yet enslaved by 
 Rome. Mecessus ipse, our very re- 
 moteness ; explained by nunc .... 
 
 patet. Sinus famaCf obscurity 0/ 
 
 our /ame; explained by omne .... 
 magnifico est. The idea is that the 
 people in their distant fastnesses are 
 little known. 
 
 6. Omne .... ipnagtvifico est, i., e, 
 so long as we were unknown, we 
 were dreaded.- — Sed seems to be 
 
 antithetic to some Idea to be sup- 
 plied, e. g., we naight, some one may 
 say, ask aid from other nations, but, 
 etc. The connection of this sentence 
 with the previous ones is variously 
 interpreted. 
 
 7. Infestiores, i. e., even than the 
 waves and the rocks are. 
 
 9. Jtaptores, plunderers. On this 
 passage, the commentators quote a 
 fragment of Sallust, worth reading. 
 *'-i4n ignoras Bomanos .... arma 
 hue converiisse, neque quidquam a 
 principio nisi raptum habere, domum 
 coniuges agros imperiurn; quibus non 
 humana ulla neque divina obstant quin 
 sodos, amicos proeul iuxtaque sitos, in- 
 opes potentesgue trahant excidant." 
 
 11. A.va7^f sc. sunt. A^mbitiosi, i. 
 
 e., for the glory of conquering them. 
 
 12. Satiaverit: subj. after quo8 = 
 
 cumeos. Opes .... con.c^lpiscunt. 
 
 Cf. Sallust, Cat. XI., '^avaritia neque 
 copia neque inopiaminuitur.'^ 
 
 13. A.uferre .... impervu/nif sc. 
 appellant. 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. 16. Fer delectus. It 
 was the policy of Home to send the 
 recruits raised in the provinces to 
 
52 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 sororesque, etiam si hostilem libidinem effiigiant, nomine 
 amicorum atque hospitum polluuntur. Bona fortunaeque in 
 tributum, ager atque annus in frumentum, corpora ipsa ac 
 manus silvis ac paludibus emunieudis inter verbera ac con- 
 
 5 tumelias conteruntur. Nata servituti mancipia semel veneunt, 
 atque ultro a dominis aluntur: Britannia servitutem suam 
 quotidie emit, quotidie pascit. Ac sicut in familia recen- 
 tissimus quisque servorum etiam conservis ludibrio est, sic in 
 hoc orbis terrarum vetere famulatu novi nos et viles in ex- 
 
 lOcidium petimur. Neque enim arva nobis aut metalla aut 
 portus sunt, quibus exercendis reservemur. Virtus porro ac 
 ferocia subiectorum ingrata imperantibus ; et longinquitas ac 
 secretum ipsum quo tutius, eo suspectius. Ita sublata spe 
 veniae tandem sumite animum, tam quibus salus, quam quibus 
 
 1 5 gloria carissima est. Brigantes, femina duce, exurere coloniam. 
 
 some distant country, for fear of their 
 desertion or revolt. Cf. Hist. I. 70; 
 II. 57.- — Servituri : the fut. part, de- 
 noting purpose. A. 318, (7) and d ; G. 
 673, 3 ; H. 649, 3. Note the deliberate 
 use of the degrading word servire. 
 
 2. Almicfymm atque hospitum re- 
 fers to the times of peace. In tri- 
 butum, i.e., the money tribute levied 
 on the Britons. 
 
 3. Annus = provenius annt>rum, 
 
 yearly produce. Cf. Oerm. XIV. In 
 
 frumentum does not refer to tithe 
 com, for the Britons did not pay it, 
 but the corn contributed for the sup- 
 port of the Roman government, staff 
 and army. 
 
 4. ISmiiHietidis. Mimire vias, the 
 term regularly used for making 
 roads, originated in the fact that the 
 Roman roads were constructed with 
 such solidity as to be liite a fortlflca^ 
 tion. Therefore silvis .... emu- 
 nivtulis is in constructing elaborate 
 roads through woods and bogs. 
 
 5. 6. Xata sfi-iutiiti. Cf. Sail. Jug. 
 XXXI., "vos, Quirites, imperio nati." 
 
 Semelf (ynce for all. XJlt/ro, 
 
 actually. 
 
 7. Quotidie emit, quotidie pascit. 
 The Briton pays the price of his own 
 slavery by paying tribute to the Ro- 
 mans, and, besides this, he produces 
 
 corn for his masters' support. 
 
 Familia, the household of slaves. 
 
 8. Conservis ludibrio: two da- 
 tlves; one to which, the other for 
 which. A. 233; G. 350; H. 390. 
 
 9. Jfovi) 1. e., to slavery. Viles, 
 
 worthless, and hence to be destroyed. 
 
 10. Nobis; 1. e., as compared with 
 the other Britons. 
 
 11. Exercendis, for working. 
 
 Jteservemur : subj. after quibus=ut 
 its. A. 317 ; G. 545, 1 ; H. 497, 1. 
 
 12. 13. Ferocia, high spirit. Quo, 
 
 eo: abl. of degree of difference. 
 
 Suspectius, sc. est. 
 
 14. Tam, quam, as well, as. 
 
 15. Brigantes is the reading of all 
 the MSS., and they are probably 
 mentioned here (although not men- 
 tioned in his account of the revolt. 
 An. XIV. 31) as being one of the most 
 powerful tribes known to the Cale- 
 donians. Femina. duce probably 
 
 refers to Boadlcea. Cf. chap. XVI. 
 Coloniam, sc. Oainulodunum. 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 53 
 
 expugiiare castra, ac, nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, 
 exuere iugum potuere ; nos integri et indomiti et libertatem 
 non in paenitentiam laturi, primo statini congressu ostenda- 
 mus quos sibi Caledonia viros seposuerit. XXXII. An 
 eandem Romanis in hello virtutem, quam in pace lasciviam 5 
 adesse creditis ? Nostris illi dissensionibus ac discordiis clari 
 vitia hostium in gloriam exercitus sui vertunt; quern con- 
 tractum ex diversissimis gentibus ut secundae res tenent, ita 
 adversae dissolvent : nisi Gallos et Germanos et (pudet dictu) 
 Britannorum plerosque, licet dominationi alienae sanguinemlO 
 commodent, diutius tamen hostes quam servos, fide et affectu 
 teneri putatis. Metus ac terror est, infirma vincla caritatis • 
 quae ubi removeris, qui timere desierint, odisse incipient. 
 Omnia victoriae incitamenta pro nobis sunt; nullae Romanes 
 coniuges accendunt, nuUi parentes fugam exprobraturi sunt; 15 
 aut nulla plerisque patria, aut alia est. Paucos numero, 
 trepidos ignorantia, caelum ipsum ac mare et silvas, ignota 
 omnia, circumspectantes, clausos quodammodo ac vinctos dii 
 nobis tradiderunt. Ne terreat vanus aspectus et auri fulgor 
 atque argenti, quod neque tegit neque vulnerat. In ipsa 20 
 hostium acie inveniemus nostras manus ; agnoscent Britanni 
 suam causam, recordabuntur Galli priorem libertatem, de- 
 
 I, 2. FelicitaSf their good litck. 
 
 Integri, 1. e., not as yet having met 
 the enemy. 
 
 3. Xn paenitentia^rif so as to repent 
 of it, as those do who suffer the penal- 
 ties of an unsuccessful rebellion. 
 
 4. QitoSf what kind of = quales. 
 
 8epo3\ieT%tf has in reserve, Cf. Germ. 
 XXIX. 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. 9. Pudet (so. me) 
 dictu: a very rare construction, 
 pudet dieere is usually ionnd. A. 303; 
 G. 437; H.647. 
 
 10. Jjicetf although. Domitiationi 
 
 alienae, for a foreign tyrant. 
 
 II. ^^ Hastes and servos are in ap- 
 position with GalloSf etc." C. 
 
 12. Jtfetus ac terror est, sc. which re- 
 tains them. 
 
 13. JtemoveriSf desierint: future 
 perfects. 
 
 \&. Nulla patria. Those who have 
 no country will be soldiers of fortune 
 and those from those nations whose 
 separate existence had been de- 
 stroyed by conquest, from which the 
 Romans had many soldiers ; alia re- 
 fers to all the foreign troops, like the 
 Usipil, Batavi,etc., serving in Britain. 
 
 17. Ignorantia: i. e., of thecountry 
 
 in which they were fighting. 
 
 Ignota omnia: appos. with caeluTn, 
 etc. 
 
 21, 'Nostras manus, i. e., those who 
 in heart are with us, and will desert 
 to us. Srita.nnif i. e., those com- 
 pelled to flght as levies in the Boman 
 army. 
 
54 
 
 THE AGBICOtA OF TACITUS. 
 
 serent illos ceteri Germani, tamquam nuper Usipii reli- 
 querunt. Nee quidquam ultra formidinis ; vacua castella, 
 senum coloniae, inter male parentes et iniuste imperantes 
 aegra municipia et discordantia. Hie dux, hie exercitus ; ibi 
 
 5 tributa et metalla et eeterae servientiura poenae, quas in 
 
 aeternum perferre aut statim ulcisci in hoc campo est. 
 
 Proinde ituri in aciem et maiores vestros et posteros cogitate," 
 
 XXXIII. Excepere orationem alacres, ut barbaris moris, 
 
 cantu fremituque et clamoribus dissonis. lamque agmina et 
 
 lOarmorum fulgores audentissimi cuiusque procursu; simul in- 
 struebatur acies, cum Agricola, quamquam laetum et vix 
 munimentis coercitum militem aceendendum adhuc ratus, ita 
 disseruit : 
 
 "Oetavus annus est, commilitones, ex quo virtute et 
 
 15auspieiis imperii Romani, fide atque opera vestra Britanniam 
 vicistis ; tot expeditionibus, tot proeliis, seu fortitudine ad- 
 versus hostes seu patientia ac labore paene adversus ipsam 
 
 1. Ceteri: i.e., besides the Usipii. 
 
 Tamquam f just a.s. Usipii. He 
 
 has given us the description of their 
 revolt in chap. XXVIII. 
 
 2. Ultra: i. e., if they gain this vic- 
 tory. Vacita, destUnte of soldiers. 
 
 3. Senum = veteranorum. Co- 
 
 loniae. There was really but one 
 colony, Camulodununij the senittnhe- 
 ing the veteran soldiers settled there. 
 
 4. Aegra^ disaffected. This was due 
 tothe -want of union between the in- 
 habitants and their rulers. Muni- 
 
 cipift : i.e., towns not founded by 
 Rome, but having most of the rights 
 of Roman citizenship. Loudinium 
 and Verularaium were two of these. 
 
 Hie: 1. e., on our side. lbi:\. e., 
 
 on the side of the Romans. 
 
 5. MetttUft : i. e., labor in the mines ; 
 a very com,mon form of slavery. 
 
 6. Ti% hoc campo rsf, it rests with 
 this battle-field. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIII. ^. Moris incest): 
 pred. gen. of possession. A. 214, c; G. 
 365 ; H. 402. 
 
 9, Canfu, i.e., "the war shout of all 
 
 barbarous nations." A.- Afftnina, 
 
 sc. conspidebantur. 
 
 10. Frocurau: abl. of the means by 
 which the gleam of light was seen. 
 
 11,12. >lri(^s, i.e., of the Caledonians. 
 Adhuc, besides. 
 
 14. Octavus annus. Hewasjusten- 
 tering on his 8th year in Britain. 
 
 15. Aitfipiciis imp^ii Momani. One 
 would have expected imperatoris. 
 Perhaps, Domitian being now dead, 
 Tacitus preferred avoiding any men- 
 tion of so unworthy an occupant of 
 the throne. As the Emperor was 
 G(?n<?7'a;Msi?nooftheforces,allvictories 
 were ascribed to his auspices, and the 
 actual commander was regarded as 
 his lieutenant only. In An. II. 18, 
 when Germanicus conquered the 
 Germans, it was not he, but Tiberius, 
 who was saluted Imperator, in accord- 
 ance with 'the old distinction be- 
 tween fighting ductu .mo and auspidis 
 alicuius.' 
 
 16. Tot expeditionibits, etc., in the 
 course of so many campaigns. 
 
 IT. Ipsam rerum natiM'anif nature 
 itself. 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 55 
 
 rerum naturam opus fuit, neque me militum neque vos ducis 
 paenituit. Ergo egressi, ego veterum legatorum, vos priorum 
 exercituufii terminos, finetn Britanniae non fama nee rumore 
 sed castris et armis tenemus. Inventa Britannia et subacta. 
 Equidem saepe in agmine, cum vos paludes montesve et 5 
 flumina fatigarent, fortissimi cuiusque voces audiebam : 
 quando dabitur hostis, quando acies? Veniunt, e latebris 
 Buis extrusi; et vota virtusque in aperto, omniaque prona 
 victoribus, atque eadem victis adversa. Nam, ut superasse 
 tantum itineris, silvas evasisse, transisse aestuaria pulchrum 10 
 ac decorum in frontem ; ita fugientibus periculosissima, quae 
 hodie prosperrima sunt. Neque enim nobis aut locorum 
 eadem notitia aut commeatuum eadem abundantia, sed manus 
 et arma et in his omnia. Quod ad me attinet, iam pridem 
 mihi decretum est neque exercitus neque ducis terga tuta esse. 15 
 Proinde et honesta mors turpi vita potior, et incolumitas ac 
 decus eodem loco sita sunt; nee inglorium fuerit in ipso 
 terrarum ac naturae fine cecidisse. XXXIV. Si novae 
 gentes atque ignota acies constitisset, aliorum exercituum 
 exemplis vos hortarer ; nunc vestra decora recensete, vestros 20 
 oculos interrogate. Hi sunt quos proximo anno unam 
 
 1. Me militum. A.221,b; G.376; H. 
 409, III. 
 
 2. Mgressif liere transitive, agrees 
 with both ego and vos. A. 186, d ; H. 
 439. Yeterufn=priorum. 
 
 3. Terminos: accus. after egressi. 
 A. 228, a; H.372. — -Fama-necrumore. 
 Miinior is a vague flying report, rest- 
 ing on no authentic basis. Fama is 
 a report resting on some foundation. 
 
 4. 5. Sritannia, " i. e., the whole 
 of it." C. In agrninCf on ihemarch. 
 
 8. Vota virtusque in aperto, " your 
 vnshes and your bravery have free 
 scope." Cf. chap. I. pronum magisque 
 171 aperto. 
 
 11. In frontem f while advancing; 
 antithetic to fugientibuis, while re- 
 treating: sc. nobis, 
 
 12. Hodie, 1. e.. In our present pros- 
 
 perous circumstances. — Jfeque enim, 
 i. e., in case of retreat. 
 
 14, 15. Iam pridem mihi decretum 
 est, I came to the conclusion long ago. 
 Terga, the retreat. 
 
 17. Inglorium fuerit, i. e., when all 
 is over "and men look back upon our 
 achievements.' ' 
 
 15. Katurae fine. Cf. Germ. XL V. 
 illuc iisque tantum natura. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 19. Ifovae gentes, 
 
 unknown nations. Ignota acies, un^ 
 
 tried troops. Constitisset, had taken 
 
 their stand against you, i.e., were now 
 standing. 
 
 20. Hortarer. Note the use of the 
 imp. subj. where our idiom would re- 
 quire the pluperfect. — Vestra decora, 
 your glorious deeds. Cf. Liv. XXI. 43. 
 
 21. Froximo anno is here the last 
 year. Vld. chap. XXVI. 
 
56 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 legionem furto noctis aggressos clamore debellastis ; hi ^ 
 ceterorum Britannorum fugacissimi, ideoque tarn diu super- 
 stites. Quomodo silvas saltusque penetrantibus fortissimum 
 quodque animal contra ruere, pavida et inertia ipso agminis 
 sono pelluntur, sic acerrimi Britannorum iam pridem cecide- 5 
 runt, reliquus est numerus ignavorum et metuentium. Quos 
 quod tandem invenistis, non restiterunt, sed deprehensi sunt; 
 novissimae res et extreme metu corpora defixere aciem in his 
 vestigiis, in quibus pulchram et spectabilem victoriam ederetis. 
 Transigite cum expeditionibus ; imponite quinquaginta annislO 
 magnum diem; adprobate reipublicae numquam exercitui 
 imputari potuisse aut moras belli aut causas rebellandi," 
 
 XXXV. Et adloquente adhuc Agricola militum ardor 
 eminebat, et finem orationis ingens alacritas oonsecuta est, 
 
 1. Furto noctis f under cover of the 
 night. Vergil {A en. IX. 397) has fraude 
 noctis in the same sense. Quintus 
 Curtius uses the same expression 
 (IV. 13); and Livy {XXVI. 51) has /ur^o 
 
 unius diet. ClatnorVf by a Tnere 
 
 shout. 
 
 2. jffi ceteroT^ifH. This is a Greek 
 idiom for hi quam ceteri fu^aciwes. 
 Milton c6pies this in his expression : 
 "Adam, the goodliest man of men since born 
 
 His sons ; the fairest of her daughters Eve. 
 
 3. Qttomodotjustas. -Penetranti- 
 bus, sc. lis, making this ageneral sen- 
 timent: dat. of disadvantage after 
 contra ritere=rcsistere. 
 
 4. Ituere can hardly be historical 
 infinitive, because the use of that 
 form seems restricted to the narra- 
 tive of past events. Ritter seems 
 right in explaining it by supposing 
 that Tacitus intended to write pelli 
 solent at the end of the next clause, 
 but for it substituted its equivalent 
 pelluntur, and so left mere, which 
 was meant to depend on solet, with- 
 out any governing word.- Pavida, 
 
 sc. animab'a. 
 
 6, 7. ^t'umt'i'n.t ifs here used con- 
 temptuously, mere ciphers. Quos 
 
 quod .... restiterunt, tTiatyou Tiave 
 at last found them is not because they 
 have stood their ground. The expres- 
 sion is in imitation of the Greek, and 
 is for qui, quod tandem invenistis eos, 
 non restiterunt. 
 
 8. Novissi/tnae res, tJieir desperaie 
 
 fortunes. X^tremo metu corpora =. 
 
 corpora eztremo metu correpta. 
 
 9. JEderetis : subj . of purpose after 
 in quibus=ui in m, i. e., vestigiis. 
 
 10. Transigite, make an end of. This 
 is a legal term, and denotes thesettle- 
 ment of a suit. Vid. Oer. XIX. tran- 
 
 sigitur. Quinquaginta. Claudius 
 
 began the conquest of Britain by 
 sending A. Plautlus, A. D. 43. Agri- 
 cola is speaking in A. D. 84. This 
 makes the fifty years only a round 
 way of reckoning. 
 
 12. Mm^as belli: caused by carrying 
 on the warwith no energy, or by will- 
 fully protracting it. Causas rebel- 
 Inn di seems to refer to the pretexts 
 of possible rebellion, which the care- 
 lessness of the conquerors might give, 
 or which were the eflTective causes of 
 rebellion. 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 13. Et, both. 
 
 14. Alacritas, enthusiasm. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS, 
 
 57 
 
 statimque ad arma discursum.* Instinctos ruentesque ita 
 disposuit, ut peditum auxilia, quae octo milium erant, mediam 
 aciem firmarent, equitum tria milia cornibus adfunderentur ; 
 legiones pro vallo stetere, ingens victoriae decus citra 
 E-omanum sanguinem bellanti, et auxilium, si pellerentm\ 
 Britannorum acies, in speciem simul ac terrorem, editioribus 
 locis constiterat ita, ut primrnn agmen aequo, ceteri per 
 acclive iugmn conexi velut insurgerent; media campi co- 
 vinnarius eques strepitu ac discursu complebat. Turn 
 
 1. XHscursttm. Note the force of 
 the prefix : they collected to hear the 
 address, and then ran apart. 
 
 2. Peditum: partitive genitive. 
 
 JXEedianh aciem firmarentj made a 
 strong centre. 
 
 3. Adfunderentur (** where we 
 would expect adderentur) seems to be 
 used with reference to the rapid move- 
 ments of cavalry." 
 
 4. I*ro vaMOf before 
 the intrenchmentSt 1. 
 e., in the rear of the 
 auxiliaries. In- 
 gens .... decus: 
 in apposition with 
 
 . stetere. 
 
 Citra, 
 
 legiones . 
 tuithout. 
 
 5. Sellcvntif sc. ei, i. e., Agricolae. 
 
 JPellei'entur, i. e., the auxiliaries. 
 
 6. In speciem,for display, i. e., so as 
 
 to make an imposing appearance. 
 
 Terrorem, i. e., to cause a panic. 
 
 7. Agmen, sc. corisis^ere^, implied in 
 constiterat, to correspond with in- 
 surgerent, 
 
 8. Conexi velut, as if 
 
 linked together, ]k[edia 
 
 campi, i. e., the plain be- 
 tween the two armies. 
 
 Covinnarius occurs 
 only in this passage and is 
 
 BOMAN SOLDIERS. 
 
68 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Agricola superante hostium multitudine veritus, ne in 
 frontem simul et latera suorum pugnaretur, diductis or- 
 dinibus, quamquam porrectior acies futura erat et arcesseodas 
 plerique legiones admonebantj promptior in spem et iirmus 
 
 5 adversia, dimisso equo pedes ante vexilla constitit. 
 
 XXXVI. Ac primo congressu eminus certabatur; simul- 
 que constantia simul arte Britanni ingentibus gladiis et 
 brevibus cetris missilia nostrorum vitare vel exciitere, atque 
 ipsi magnam vim telorum superfundere, donee Agricola 
 
 lOBatavorimi cohortes ac Tungrorum duas cohortatus est, ut 
 rem ad mucrones ac manus adducerent; quod et ipsis vetustate 
 militiae exercitatum, et hostibus inhabile parva scuta et 
 enormes gladios gerentibus. Nam Britannorum gladii sine 
 mucrone complexum armorum et in arte pugnam non 
 
 used for coviiiarii (= the essedarii 
 of Caesar), which form Is used in 
 the next chapter. Covinnantis 
 eques would mean the combatants 
 who were carried to the fight in 
 covinni, or possibly et may be under- 
 stood, as Caesar draws a distinction 
 between the war-chariots and the 
 regular cavalry of the Britons. Pom- 
 ponius Mela says (III. 6) the covinni 
 were scythe chariots : covinnos vacant 
 quorum falcatis axiincs vtuntur. 
 
 2. Diductis ordinibus, having ex- 
 tended his ranks, 
 
 3. JPorrectior futura erat, "was 
 
 likely to be too extended.''''' Agrees- 
 
 sendasf bo. esse. 
 
 4. I*roiiiptior in spentf filled with 
 
 hope. T^ii'-mus adversis, '* resolute 
 
 under adverse circumstances.^^ 
 
 5. Tedes: appos. with the subject 
 
 of constitit. Veocilln. Cf. Note in 
 
 chap. XVIII, 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. 7. Constantia, 
 
 v'ith calm, self-possessed courage. 
 
 Jnf/cntibns gladiis, brevibus cetris: 
 abl. of instrument. The Roman 
 swords were generally short, being 
 somewhere between a footand a half 
 and two feet long, and adapted for 
 stabbing. The British swords, like 
 
 the Gallic and German, were for cut- 
 ting. From discoveries made by vari- 
 ous antiquaries, these British glaives 
 are supposed to have often been close 
 upon four feet in length. The cetra 
 was a small, round shield of hide, 
 used by the Spaniards, Oscans, and 
 others. 
 
 8. Vitare vcl excutere. The Roman 
 recruit was taught " pldgam prudenter 
 vitare et obliquis ictibus venieniia tela 
 deflectere.'^ Vegetlus. I. 4. This ap- 
 pears to be the meaning of Tacitus. 
 They avoided the darts by shifting 
 their bodies, or struck them off with 
 their shields. 
 
 10. JBatavorum cohortes. It appears 
 fi'om the Histories that eight cohorts 
 of the Batavi (who lived at the mouth 
 of the Rhine) formed the auxilia of 
 the 14th legion. Duos, sc. cohortes 
 
 11. A.d mucrones ac manus, to the 
 sword point, and a hand-to-hand fight 
 
 Quod, "whichmoAe of fighting.' 
 
 Ipsis, i. e., the cohorts. 
 
 12. Jnhabile, sc. erai^was "impracti- 
 cable.'^ C. 
 
 14. Complexum a/rmorum,thethrusts 
 of (the Roman) weapons. "What this 
 means is well explained by Vergil, 
 Aen. X. 360 : 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 59 
 
 tolerabant. Igitur, ut Batavi miscere ictus, ferire umbonibus, 
 ora foedare, et stratis, qui in aequo adstiterant, erigere in 
 coUes aciem coepere, ceterae cohortes aemulatione et impetu 
 conisae proximos quosque caedere; ac plerique semineces aut 
 integri festinatione victoriae relinquebantur. Interim equitum 5 
 turmae fugere; covinnarii peditiun se proelio miscuere, et, 
 quanquam recentem terrorem intulerant, densis tamen hostium 
 agminibus * et inaequalibus locis haerebant; minimeque 
 equestris ea iam pugnae facies erat, cum aegre clivo astantes 
 simul equorum corporibus impellerentur; ac saepe vagi 10 
 currus, exterriti sine rectoribus equi, ut quemque formido 
 tulerat, transversos aut obvios incursabant. XXXVII. Et 
 
 Haud aliter Troianae acies, aciesque Lati- 
 
 nae, 
 Concurrunt ; haer'et pede pes, densusque 
 
 viro vir, etc. 
 
 Statius, Theh. VIII. 398 : 
 lam clyPeics clypeis, unibone repelliiur 
 
 umbo, 
 Ense fttinax ensis, pede pes et cuspide 
 
 ctispis. 
 
 1, 2. Wiscere, to deal out at close 
 quarters. Ferire ; foedai'e ; erigere , 
 to lead up. Note the rapidity and ani- 
 mation which this succession of in- 
 finitives adds to the narration. 
 
 StratiSf sc. its, as antecedent to qui. 
 
 4. Conisae, straining every nerve. 
 
 5, 6. Festinatione victoriae, in their 
 
 ?iaste for victory . Fquituni tunnae, 
 
 i. e., of tjie Caledonians. Cf. An. 
 
 XIV. 34. Peditum, i. e., of the 
 
 Caledonians. 
 
 7. JRecenteni. Rec^ns is here used 
 of a panic, the effect of which has not 
 
 yet passed away. Terrorem infu- 
 
 lerant, i. e., at first. Mostium must 
 
 be the Caledonians. 
 
 8. Haerebant, were soon entangled. 
 JtTini/meque, by no means. 
 
 9, 10. Astantes, sc. Britanni. Im- 
 
 pellerentur, were driven forward. 
 
 12. Obvios, sc. Homanos. 
 
 Owing to the corruptness of the 
 text, and the concise style of Tacitus, 
 the description of this battle is not 
 easy to be understood. It seems, 
 
 however, to mean : The Britons were 
 posted on rising ground; the level 
 space between them and the Romans 
 was filled with covinnarii. The foot 
 on both sides, being some distance 
 apart, began the engagement. As 
 this was unsatisfactory, the Batavi 
 and Tungri rush forward, break the 
 line of the Britons, and with the other 
 cohorts rush up the hill with such 
 impetuosity as to leave many Britons 
 unwounded or only half-dead behind 
 them. The cavalry of the Britons, 
 being terrified by the sudden onset, 
 fied, and the covinnarii, also repulsed, 
 retreated to their own infantry, and 
 although they occasioned some con- 
 sternation on their first arrival, they 
 soon became entangled in the dense 
 masses of their infantry, and were 
 rendered useless by the unevenness 
 of the ground. Although cavalry 
 took such a large part in the battle, it 
 had no resemblance to an equestrian 
 fight; for the Britons, maintaining 
 their position on the slope with difli- 
 culty, were driven forward by the 
 pressure of the cavalry horses, mixed 
 in among them. The chariot horses, 
 over which they had no control, and 
 the cavalry horses, without riders, 
 then wentrushing obliquely athwart, 
 or directly against the lines, as their 
 fears severally impelled them. 
 
60 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Britanni, qui adhuc pugnae expertes summa collium in- 
 sederant et paucitatem nostrorum vacui spernebant^ degredi 
 paulatim et circumire terga vincenfcium coeperant, ni id ipsum 
 veritus Agricola quattuor equitum alas, ad subita belli 
 
 5 retentas, venientibus opposiiisset, quantoque ferocius ad- 
 cucurrerant, tanto acrius pulsos in fugam disiecisset. Ita 
 consilium Britannorum in ipsos versum, transvectaeque 
 praecepto ducis a fronte pugnantium alae avers^m hostium 
 aciem invasere. Turn vero patentibus locis grande et atrox 
 
 lOspectaculum; sequi, vulnerare, capere, atque eosdem, oblatis 
 aliis, trucidare. lam hostium, prout cuique ingenium erat, 
 catervae armatorum paucioribus terga praestare, quidam 
 inermes ultro mere ac se morti offerre; passim arma et 
 corpora et laceri artus et cruenta humus ; et aliquando etiam 
 
 15victis ira virtusque. Postquam silvis adpropinquaverunt, 
 collecti primos sequentium, incautos et locorum ignaros, 
 circumveniebant. Quod ni frequens ubique Agricola validas 
 efc expeditas cohortes idaginis modo, et, sicubi artiora erant, 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. 1. Expertes, 
 
 having no share in the battle. 
 
 2. Vacuif while thus disengaged. 
 
 3. Ni. Before this word we must 
 understand et circumissent. Cf. Note, 
 
 chap. IV. Id ipswntf that very 
 
 thing. C. 
 
 4. Ad s^ibita belli. This is a com- 
 mon phrase to express the sudden 
 emergencies which arise In war. Cf. 
 Liv. XXV. 15. Tac. Hist. V. 13. 
 
 7, 8. Consiliumf i. e., of attacking 
 
 the Rom^ans in the rear. Trans- 
 
 vectae .... aiae, i. e., the squadrons 
 were ordered to wheel from the front 
 of the battle, across the field to the 
 rear of the enemy, a^ersam hostium 
 aciem, 
 
 9. Turn vero, etc. Lipsius suggests 
 that Tacitus wrote this in imitation 
 of Sallust, Jug. CI. " Turn spectaculum 
 horribile campis patentibits ; sequ% 
 fugere, occidi, capi; equ% viri, adiPActi; 
 ac muUi vulnrribus aeeepfis nequefugere 
 posse neque guietem pati ; niti modOy ao 
 
 statim conddere; postremo omnia qua 
 visits erat constrata teliSj armis, cada- 
 veribuSf et inter ea humus in/ecta san- 
 guine.^' Note the animation produced 
 by the series of historical infinitives, 
 and the omission of connectives. 
 
 10. JEosdem refers to the capti. They 
 took some, and then falling in with 
 others, not being able to keep both, 
 they killed those first taken. 
 
 12. Catervae is contrasted with 
 pa/ucioribtis. Amiatorunif agree- 
 ing with Jiostiunif is concessive, al- 
 though armed, and is contrasted with 
 inermes, 
 
 13, 14. VTtrOf actually. — AliquandOf 
 at times. 
 
 15. Victis .... virtusqtie. " Cf. 
 Verg. Aen. II. 367, guondametiam victis 
 redit inpraecordia virtu^.^* 
 
 16,17. JPrimoSf the foremost. Quod 
 
 rvif and had not. Frequens ubique^ 
 
 everywhere present. Validas f fresh. 
 
 18. Indaginis modo. Indago is a 
 hunting term and denotes the process 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 61 
 
 partem equitum, dimissis equis, simul rariores silvas equitem 
 persultare iussisset, acceptum aliquod vulnus per nimiam 
 fiJuciam foret. Ceterum ubi composites firmis ordin- 
 ibus sequi rursus videre, in fugam versi, non agminibus, 
 ut prius, nee alius alium respectantes, rari et vitabundi in- 5 
 vieem, longinqua atque avia petiere. Finis sequendi nox et 
 satietas fuit. Caesa hostium ad decern milia; nostrorum 
 trecenti sexaginta cecidere, in quis Aulus Atticus, praefectus 
 cohortis, iuveuili ardore et feroeia equi hostibus inlatus. 
 XXXVIII. Et nox quidem gaudio praedaque laeta vic-]0 
 toribus. Britanni palantes, mixtoque virorum mulierumque 
 ploratu, trahere vulneratos, vocare integros, deserere domos 
 ac per iram ultro incendere; eligere latebras et statim re- 
 linquere; miscere invicem consilia aliqua, dein separare; 
 aliquando frangi aspectu pignorum suorum, saepius concitari ;15 
 satisque constabat saevisse quosdam in coniuges ac liberos, 
 tamquam misererentur. Proximus dies faciem victoriae latins 
 aperuit; vastum ubique silentium, secreti colles, fumantia 
 procul tecta, nemo exploratoribus obvius. Quibus in omnem 
 
 of enclosing a wood with a ring of 
 nets, dogs, men, etc., and gradually, 
 by contracting it, driving the game 
 
 into a narrow compass. JLriiora, 
 
 sc. loca. 
 
 1. Jiariores ailvasj the less dense 
 parts of the forest. 
 
 2. Persultare. This word is only 
 strictly applicable to the cavalry ; 
 hence we have a zeugma. "With 
 cohortes it is to be rendered, to encmrir 
 pass; with partem equitunif to make 
 their way through^ and with equitenif 
 to scour. 
 
 3. 4. Compositos firmis ordinibuSf 
 arranged in compact order^ refers to 
 cohortes. Yersif sc. sunt. 
 
 5. Jtari, scattered, thus escaping 
 
 more easily. Yitahundi i^ivicemf 
 
 '* avoiding oneanotTier.^^ 
 
 7. Satietas, 1. e., of slaughter. 
 
 Ad with numerals, about. 
 
 8. Quis ~ guibus. Prafeetus co- 
 hortis, 1. e., of auxiliaries. 
 
 9. Feroeia, irtipetitosity, or unman/- 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. 10. Gaudio 
 praedaque, by the joy [of victory) and 
 by plunder. IJieta, sc. erot. 
 
 12. Frahere, carried away. 
 
 13. TTUro incendere, actttally fired 
 them. 
 
 14. Miscere .... aliqua, they occa- 
 sionally held counsel together. AXiqua 
 seems to imply that they made only 
 a few weak efforts at united action. 
 
 Dein separare, i. e., consilia, and 
 
 thenactedseparately,i. e., each thought 
 only of his own safety. 
 
 15. JHgnorum, pledges of affection, 
 
 1. e., their wives and children. 
 
 Concitari, they were roused to fury. 
 
 16. Saevisse in^oeddisse. 
 
 17. Misererentur : subj. of the rear 
 
 SOD. 
 
 18. Yastum, gloomy. Secreti, de- 
 serted, i. e., hills left lonely by the ab- 
 sence of occupiers. 
 
62 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS, 
 
 partem dimissis, ubi incerta fugae vestigia Beque usquam 
 conglobari hostes compertum, et exacta iam aestate spargi 
 bellum nequibat, in fines Borestorum exercitum deducit. Ibi 
 acceptis obsidibus, praefecto classis circumvehi Britanniam 
 
 5 praecipit. Datae ad id vires, et praecesserat terror. Ipse 
 peditem atque equites lento itinere, quo novarum gentium 
 animi ipsa transitus mora terrerentur, in hibernis locavit. Et 
 simul classis secunda tempestate ac fama Trutulensem por- 
 tum tenuit, unde proximo Britanniae latere lecto omni 
 
 lOredierat, 
 
 XXXIX. Hunc rerum cursum, quamquam nulla verbo- 
 rum iactantia epistolis Agrieolae auctum, ut Domitiano moris 
 erat, fronte laetus, pectore anxius excepit. Inerat conscientia 
 derisui fuisse nuper falsum e Germania triumphum, emptis 
 
 15 per commerciaj quorum habitus et crines in captivorum 
 speciem forraarentur; at nunc veram magnamque victoriam, 
 
 1. XTbi, when. "Its force extends 
 to 7ieqiiibat, and with the clause, 
 gives the reason why Agricola led off 
 his forces into the country of the 
 Boresti." Tyler. Xncertaf sc.esse. 
 
 2. Spargi, protracted, lit., carried 
 on in different places at the eame 
 time. 
 
 3. JBorestortim. These people are 
 not mentioned elsewhere. 
 
 4. Circumvehi. The infinitive after 
 praecipere is found only in late 
 writers, 
 
 5. VirpSf a military force, thus 
 showing that the purpose of the ex- 
 pedition was one of conquest rather 
 than discovery. 
 
 6. 7. ItincTc: abl. of manner. 
 
 Ij>sa transifiis tnora, by the very 
 slmmiesa of his march across their terri- 
 tories, 
 
 8. Secttnffa tempestate ac fama, 
 " with favorable XL caihei- and great re- 
 nown." Trtitulensent portum can 
 
 not be identified. \ 
 
 9. Unde = quo inde, modifies lecto, 
 whence having coasted Vie nearer shore 
 of Britain, it had returned to it. Note 
 
 that it had returned before entering 
 the port ; hence the pluperfect. 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 12. JSpistolis refers 
 
 to his reports and dispatches. 
 
 Auctum, embellished, is the correction 
 
 of LIpsius for actum of the MSS. 
 
 Moris erat. Cf. Germ. XIII, arma 
 sumere non cuiquam m^oris; XXI, 
 concedere moris; ^fl-. XXXin,utbar- 
 baris moris. 
 
 13. Fronte laetus, with joy on his 
 
 countenance, Inerat, there was in 
 
 {?iis bosom). This word is often used 
 absolutely, as here. Cf. Liv. IX. 16. 
 Sail. Cat. XXV. 
 
 14. Falsnmtriumphti/m. Suetonius 
 iPom, VI.) says, Z>e Cattis Dadsguepost 
 varia proelia duplicem triumphum egit. 
 Dlo Cassius however tells us that he 
 marched with an army into Ger- 
 many, and returned without even 
 the sight of an enemy: and yet he 
 bought slaves, dressed them in Ger- 
 man style, had their hair stained red, 
 and then marched into Rome in tri- 
 umph. Emtia, sc. iis. 
 
 16. Formarentur : subj. of the pur^ 
 pose, after quonfm=ut eorum. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 63 
 
 tot milibus hostium caesis, ingenti fama celebrari. Id sibi ,, 
 maxime formidolosum, privati hominis nomen supra principis 
 attolli ; frustra studia fori et civilium artium decus in silentium 
 acta, si militarem gloriam alius occuparet; et cetera utcumque 
 facilius dissimulari, ducis boni imperatoriam virtutem esse. 5 
 Talibus curis exercitus, quodque saevae cogitationis indicium 
 erat, secreto suo satiatus, optimum in praesentia statuit re- 
 ponere odium, donee impetus famae et favor exercitus 
 languesceret ; nam etiam turn Agricola Britanniam obtinebat. 
 
 XL. Igitur triumphalia ornamenta et inlustris statuaelO 
 honorem, et quidquid pro triumpho datur, multo verborum 
 honore cmnulata, decerni in senatu iubet, addique insuper 
 opinionem, Syriam provinciam Agricolae destinari, vacuam 
 
 1. CeleJyraTi depends on inerat 
 
 consciewtia, Id sihi, etc. Most 
 
 commentators supply existimabat^ or 
 some equivalent verb, fromi inerat 
 conscientia, on which, however, it 
 may depend. 
 
 3. Studia fori, the eloquence of the 
 bar. Civiliiim artium refers espe- 
 cially to knowledge of the law, and 
 the pursuit of politics and govern- 
 ment. Xn silentium, into {actual) 
 
 silence, not obscurity. 
 
 4. ^eta, sc. esse, Alius, 1, e., than 
 
 the Emperor. Occuparet, preoc- 
 cupy, forestall, " So as to rob him of 
 it." T. Cetera, " all other distinc- 
 tions'' than great military reputa^ 
 
 tion. JJtcuTnque, by soTue means or 
 
 other. 
 
 5. Imperatoriawi, is irnperial, i. e., 
 marks its possessor as a fit aspirant 
 to the imperial throne. His own 
 father, Vespasian, had been made 
 Emperor by his soldiers, after ex- 
 ploits in no ways to be compared 
 with those of Agricola. 
 
 6. Saevae cogitationis, of some cruel 
 intent. 
 
 7. Secreto suo satiatus, gorging hirn- 
 
 self ivith his own secret {intentions). 
 
 M&ponere, to treasure up, for the fu- 
 ture. 
 
 8. Impetus, the first burst. 
 
 9. languesceret: subj. after donee. 
 
 N'am .... obtinebat. This clause 
 
 throws light on secreto suo,in so far 
 that it shows us his intention to re- 
 move Agricola from Britain, and his 
 army. 
 
 CHAP. XL. 10. Triumphalia or- 
 namenta. Under the emperors, after 
 B. C. 14, the actual triumph was their 
 privilege, as generalissimos of the 
 empire, and therefore possessors of 
 the avspicia. The legati, in real com- 
 mand, were only allowed the empty 
 insignia of the triumph. They were 
 permitted to receive the titles be- 
 stowed on the Imperatores of the Re- 
 public; to appear in the garb worn 
 by them, a gold embroidered dress 
 {toga picta), and flowered tunic {tunica 
 palmeata), and a crown of laurel 
 {corona laurea). They also were al- 
 lowed to hand down to their descend- 
 ants the laurel-wreathed statue, in a 
 triumphal car, or to have them 
 erected in the city. This statue is 
 here called inlttstris ; elsewhere lav^- 
 reaia, and iriumphalis. 
 
 11. Quidquid pro triumpUo datur. 
 This would include the supplicaiiOf 
 and sacra, offered in the name of the 
 victorious leader. 
 
 13. Opinionem, an impression, to be 
 produced in the minds of the people, 
 
64 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 ROMAN CONSUL AND lilCTOES. 
 
 turn morte Atilii Rufi consularis et maioribus reservatam, 
 Credidere plerique libertum ex secretioribus ministeriis 
 missum ad Agricolam codicillos, quibus ei Syria dabatur, 
 tulisse, cum praecepto iit, si in Britannia foret, traderentur; 
 eumque libertum in ipso freto Oceani obvium Agricolae, ne 
 appellate quidem eo, ad Domitianum remeasse : sive verum 
 istud, sive ex ingenio principis fictum ac compositum est. 
 Tradiderat interim Agricola successori suo provinciam quietam 
 
 probably by the wording of the de- 
 cree. Syriant. Syria, being a very 
 
 rich province, was considered the 
 best position in the gift of the Em- 
 peror. 
 
 1. Maioribus heTe=illustrioribus. 
 
 2. Libertum. Freedmen were em- 
 ployed by Nero and Domitlan as their 
 confidential afj;ents, and many of 
 them, being cunning and unscrupu- 
 lous, rose to great wealth and influ- 
 ence. 
 
 3. Codicillos, the official documents. 
 
 4. Traderentur, These papers were 
 sent merely to detach him from his 
 
 British legions. As the fteedman 
 miet him already returning, the de- 
 vice was unnecessary, and he there- 
 fore returned to Rom.e at once, with- 
 out even addressing Agricola. 
 5. Freto, i. e., of Dover. 
 
 7. JEx ingenio principis, in accord- 
 ance with the character of the prince. 
 The story was either true, or might 
 easily have been so , for the scheme 
 it supposed was exactly suited to the 
 Emperor's character. 
 
 8. Tradiderat. Agricola left Bri- 
 tain, A. D. 85. Successori stio. It 
 
 is not known who succeeded him. 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 65 
 
 tutamque. Ac ne notabilis celebritate et frequentia oc- 
 currentium introitus esset, vitato amicorum officio, noctu in 
 urbem, noctu in palatium, ita ut praeceptum erat, venit; ex- 
 ceptusque brevi osculo et nullo sermone turbae servientium 
 immixtus est. Ceterum, ut militare nomen, grave inter 5 
 otiosos, aliis virtutibus temperaret, tranquillitatem atque otium 
 penitus auxit, cultu modicus, sermone facilis, uno aut altero 
 amicorum comitatus, adeo ut plerique quibus magnos viros 
 per ambitionem aestimare mos est, viso aspectoque Agricola, 
 quaererent famam, pauci interpretarentur. 10 
 
 XLI. Crebro per eos dies apud Domitianum absens 
 accusatus, absens absolutus est. Causa periculi non crimen 
 ullum aut querela laesi cuiusquam, sed infensus virtutibus 
 princeps et gloria viri ac pessimum inimicorum genus, 
 laudantes. Et ea insecuta sunt reipublicae tempora, quael5 
 sileri Agricolam non sinerent: tot exercitus in Moesia 
 Daciaque et Germania et Pannonia temeritate aut per 
 
 1. Celebritate et frequentiay on ac- 
 count of the rank and numbers. 
 .2. Officio f complimentary attentiOTis. 
 
 4. Jirevi, hasty, i. e., cold and 
 
 formal. Turbae servientiwnif with 
 
 the crowd of servile courtiers. 
 
 5. Grave fan ol^ect of dislike. 
 
 6. OtiosoSf tnere civilians^ Is anti- 
 thetic to militare. 
 
 7. 8. JPenitus auxitf he carried to 
 
 the/urthermost possible limit. Cultu 
 
 Cultus refers to his dress, house, fur- 
 niture, and, in general, to his manner 
 of living. A-deo, so. 
 
 9. Ambitionem. AmMtio specially 
 refers to that outward show and 
 splendor which at Rome took the 
 form of heing waited on by a large 
 number of clients. 
 
 10. Quaererent fa/manif asked {the 
 
 reason of his) fame. Interpretaren~ 
 
 tur, sc. ewm; i. e., understood without 
 asking. 
 
 CSAP. XLI. 11. Absens. The 
 charges against him were so trans- 
 
 parently false, that he was acquitted 
 even in his absence. 
 
 12. Crimenf crime against the state. 
 
 13. Querela^ private complaint. 
 
 15. Xaudantcs. (Sc. cau^a periculi as 
 predicate.) These crafty maligners, 
 knowing the Emperor's Jealousy, en- 
 deavored to inspire him with hatred 
 of Agricola by constantly praising 
 the latter in the Emperor's hearing 
 Some however refer it to his sincere 
 
 but injudicious friends. Ea=talia. 
 
 Q'uae=mt ea. 
 
 16. Sileriftorest in silence. — Moesia 
 Daciague. The Daci under Decebalus 
 entered Moesia, stormed the winter 
 camp of the legions, and slew Oppius 
 Sabinus, the legate. Subsequently 
 Cornelius Fuscus, sent to revenge 
 this defeat, was surprised by the 
 Daci, his army destroyed, and his 
 baggage and standards taken. 
 
 17. Et Germania et JPttn/nonia. This 
 refers to the wars against the Marco- 
 manni and Quadi, carried on by the 
 legions in Pannonia. 
 
66 
 
 THE AGRICOLA OP TACITUS. 
 
 ignaviam ducum amissi; tot militares viri cum tot cohortibus 
 expugnati et capti; nee iam de limite imperii et ripa, sed de 
 hibernis legionum et possessione dubitatmn. Ita cum damna 
 damnis continuarentur atque omnis annus funeribus et 
 
 5 cladibus insigniretur, poscebatur ore vulgi dux Agricola, com- 
 parantibus cunctis vigorem et constantiam et expertum bellis 
 animum cum inertia et ibrmidine eorum, quibus exercOus 
 eommitti solerent. Quibus sermonibus satis constat Domi- 
 tiani quoque aures verberatas, dum optunus quisque libertoriun 
 
 lOamore et fide, pessimi malignitate et livore pronum deterio- 
 
 ribus principem exstimulabant. Sic Agricola simul virtuti- 
 
 bus, simul vitiis aliorum in ipsam gloriam praeceps agebatur. 
 
 XLII. Aderat iam annus, quo proconsulatum Asiae et 
 
 Africae sortiretur; et, occiso Civica nuper, nee Agricolae 
 
 15 consilium deerat, nee Domitiano exemplum. Accessere qui- 
 
 1. ]I£ilitare9 viri = *' du£es." 
 
 2. " lAmite here denotes the actual 
 fortified boundary line drawn for the 
 defence of the Empire against the 
 German and Sarmatian tribes on the 
 side of Pannonia and Dacla" There 
 are said to be still visible remains of 
 a line of Roman forts from Peter- 
 wardln to Bees, on the Theiss. The 
 ripa here mentioned is the right 
 bank of the Danube, as far as the 
 Quadl. 
 
 3. PossessionCf EC. promnciarum. 
 
 4. 5. Damnis: dative. Funeri- 
 
 bu8f sc. ducum. Cladityus, sc. co- 
 
 Tiortium. 
 
 7. Eor-wm, This Is the reading of 
 the MSS. Something appears (from 
 the Vatican MS.) to have dropped 
 out after eorum and the words in 
 italics are Halm's conjecture. Most 
 recent editors since Grotius read 
 ceter&nwi. 
 
 9. Tei'herataSf sc. esse. 
 
 10. A.more et fide: 1. e., for Domi- 
 
 mitian. JPeasimif sc. liberti. 
 
 Malignitate et livore: 1. e., of Agri- 
 cola. Deteriorihus : neuter. 
 
 11. Exstinmilahant, were working 
 powerfully on. 
 
 12. Vitiis includes the faults of in- 
 capacity hinted at in inertia and 
 formidinej and the moral faults of 
 
 malignitas and livor. Xn ipsam 
 
 glorianif "to the very Twlght of glory." 
 
 Praeceps .-i.e., this glory was his 
 
 ruin. 
 
 CHAP. XLII. IS. Aderat iam annus. 
 In the time of the Republic, the pro- 
 vinces were assigned to magistrates 
 immediately upon leaving their 
 offices, but under the empire there 
 must be an Interval of some years, 
 varying at different periods,— at this 
 time generally thirteen years. The 
 
 date is supposed to be A. T>. 90. 
 
 ProconsulatuTn Asiae et Africae. 
 These provinces of Asia and Ali'ica, 
 both senatorial provinces, and each 
 forming a proconsulate, were the 
 most important and of chiefest 
 dignity. They were given as a rule to 
 the two oldest consulars. Agricola, 
 as one of the two oldest was to decide 
 by lot which of the two provinces he 
 should take. 
 
 14, 15. Occiso Civica. Suetonius <,Do- 
 mit. X.) tells us that Civica Cerialis 
 was put to death by Domitlan on a 
 charge of treason, while holding the 
 
THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 67 
 
 dam cogitationum principis periti, qui iturusne esset in pro- 
 vinciam ultro Agricolam interrogarent. Ac primo occultius 
 quietem et otium laudare, mox operam suam in adprobanda 
 excusatione offerre; postremo non iam obscuri suadentes 
 simul terrentesque pertraxere ad Domitianum. Qui paratus 5 
 simulatione, in adrogantiam compositus, et audiit preces 
 excusantis, et, cum adnuisset, agi sibi gratias passus est, nee 
 erubuit beneficii invidia. Salarium tamen, proconsiilari 
 solitum offerri et quibusdam a se ipso concessum, Agricolae 
 non dedit; sive offensus non petitum, sive ex conscientia, nelO 
 quod vetuerat videretur emisse. Proprium humani ingenii 
 est odisse quem laeseris; Domitiani vero natiu-a, praeceps in 
 iram, et quo obscurior, eo inrevocabilior, moderatione tamen 
 prudentiaque Agricolae leniebatur, quia non contumacia 
 neque inani iactatione libertatis famam fatumque provocabat-lS 
 Sciant, quibus moris est inlicita mirari, posse etiam sub mails 
 
 proconsulate of Asia. This supplied 
 Agricola with a warning (ccmsiUuni) 
 to avoid a similar dignity himself 
 and would have afforded Domitian a 
 precedent {exem^lum) for dispatch- 
 ing him, had he accepted it. 
 
 1. Cogitationum principis periti f 
 '^familiar with the Mnperor's views." 
 
 2. Xntro, actually ; 1. e., went so far 
 
 as to ask. Occulti'u8f somewhat oh- 
 
 aeurely. C. 
 
 3. JOaiidare, BO. M.,the emissariesof 
 Domitian. — Jn adprobanda excusa- 
 tione: 1. e., in satisfying the Emperor 
 that Agricola's reasons for declining 
 the province were good. 
 
 4. Ifoniam, ''no longer." 
 
 5. 6. Pertraxere: i. e., against his 
 
 will. Faratus simulatione ^ armed 
 
 with hypocrisy: Instrumental abla- 
 tive. In adrogantiam : i. e., with 
 
 complete indifference to the matter. 
 
 7. Excusantis, sc. eius^ i. e., Agri- 
 colae. 
 
 8. Erubuit .... invidia. He did 
 not blush to undergo the odium that 
 must ensue with all right-thinking 
 men from such a sham act of conces- 
 
 sion to Agricola's wishes. Sala- 
 
 rium. The salary to the governors 
 of the provinces was instituted by 
 Augustus, by advice of Maecenas. 
 The amount of the salary here alluded 
 to Is not definitely known, but it was 
 somewhere between 840,000 and S50,- 
 000. Cf. Dio. Cass. LII. 23 ; LXXVIII, 
 22. 
 
 10. JToM petitum {esse), sc. id; i. e., 
 salariwm. 
 
 11. Emisse. The Emperor was fear- 
 ful lest people should imagine that he 
 dare not forbid Agricola from going 
 to his province, but had been obliged 
 to bribe him. 
 
 13. XnrevocdbiHtyr = implacabiliar, 
 the more implacable: used in this 
 sense only by Tacitus. 
 
 16. Inlicita, unlawful^ i. e., "forbid- 
 den by the powers that be." T. The 
 idea seems to be : some admire the 
 boldness and spirit of those who aim 
 at freedom and independence no 
 longer possible to attain under the 
 existing state of the empire, and are 
 inclined to despise all who lower their 
 aspirations to the merely possible. 
 
68 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 principibus magnos viros esse, obsequiumque ac modestlam, si 
 industria ac vigor adsintj eo laudis excedere, quo plerique per 
 abrupta, sed in milium reipublicae usunij ambitiosa morte 
 inclaruerunt, 
 
 5 XLIII. Finis vitae eius nobis luctuosus, amicis tristis, 
 extraneis etiam ignotisque non sine cura fuit. Vulgus quo- 
 que et hie aliud agens populus et ventitavere ad domum et 
 per fora et circulos locuti sunt : nee quisquanij audita morte 
 Agricolae, aut laetatus est aut statim oblitus. Augebat 
 
 lOmiserationem constans rumor veneno interceptum; nobis nihil 
 comperti adfirmare ausim. Ceterum per onmem valetudinem 
 eius, crebrius quam ex more principatus per nuntios visentis^ 
 et libertorum primi et medicorum intimi venere; sive cura 
 illud sive inquisitio erat. Supremo quidem die momenta ipsa 
 
 15deficientis per dispositos cursores nuntiata constabat, nullo 
 credente sic accelerari, quae tristis audiret. Speciem tamen 
 doloris animo vultuque prae se tulit, securus iam odii, et qui 
 
 2. JEo laudis, to that degree of excel- 
 lence, Excedere is generally used 
 
 for 'passing beyond moderate 
 
 bounds.' Fer abrvpta, "by steep 
 
 {and, consequently J dangerous) paths," 
 
 3. Ambitiosa: I. e., Intended for 
 effect. Tacitus is here alluding to the 
 conduct of certain stoics and repub- 
 licans, whose violent and offensive 
 acts were of no benefit to the state, 
 except to show their spirit and to 
 bring them the glory of martyrdom. 
 
 CHAP. XLIII. 5, Jjucfttosus, "qf- 
 Jlictivc, is much stronger than tristis, 
 sad.'' Tyler. Nobis : i. e., his family. 
 
 6. Extraneis: 1. e., persons who 
 were unconnected with Agricola 
 either by blood or close friendship. 
 Vitlgiis, the common people. 
 
 7. Ilic alixid ngen.S'=incuriosus, 
 
 Fopultis is only an enlargement of 
 vulgus, and no marked distinction 
 la Intended. 
 
 8. l*er fora, the pvblicplaces, Cir- 
 
 ctilos, little gatherings ; for gossip. 
 
 Locuti sunt: sc. eum^ talked about him. 
 
 10. Interceptum {esse), se. ewm as 
 subject. Nihilf sc. esse. 
 
 H. Co«iper«i;part.genltivemodify- 
 ing nihil, 
 
 12. Frincipatus. The custom here 
 alluded to is not stated as peculiar to 
 Domltian. All emperors send persons 
 to make inquiries rather than make 
 them in person ; and as it is gener- 
 ally a formal compliment, the in- 
 quiries are rarely made frequently. 
 
 14. Inquisitio, espionage. Mo- 
 menta deficient 18,80. eitis, the gradual 
 steps i7i his decline. 
 
 15. Per dispositos cursores, Domi- 
 tian was probably at his Alban villa 
 some distance from Rome. Vid.chap. 
 XLV. 
 
 16. Accelerari, sc. ea, 
 
 17. jinimoimltuquc. "Aniinus de- 
 notes the ft*ame of mind, which in- 
 clines a person to the usual manifes- 
 tations of grief; vultus denotes its 
 expression on the countenance. 
 Domitian's assumed grief showed it- 
 self not merely in his looks but in 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 69 
 
 facilius dissimularet gaudium quam metum. Satis constabat, 
 lecto testamento Agricolae, quo coheredem optimae uxori et 
 piissimae filiae Domitianum scripsit, laetatum eum velut 
 honore iudicioque. Tarn caeca et corrupta mens assiduis 
 adulationibus erat, ut nesciret a bono patre non scribi 5 
 heredem nisi malum principem, 
 
 XLIV. Natus erat Agricola, Gaio Caesare tertium 
 consule, Idibus luniis ; excessit quarto et quinquagesimo 
 anno, decimo Kalendas Septembris, CoUega Priscoque con- 
 sulibus. Quod si habitum quoque eius poster! noscere velint, 10 
 decentior quam sublimior fuit; nihil metus in vultu, gratia 
 oris supererat. Bonum virum facile crederes, magnum li- 
 benter. Et ipse quidem, quamquam medio in spatio integrae 
 aetatis ereptus, quantum ad gloriam, longissimum aevum 
 peregit ; quippe et vera bona, quae in viftutibus sita sunt, 1 5 
 impleverat, et consular! ac triumphalibus ornamentis praedito 
 quid aliud adstruere fortuna poterat? Opibus nimiis non 
 gaudebat, speciosae contigerant. Filia atque uxore super- 
 
 his general demeanor." Frae se 
 
 tulitf showedt manifested. Securus 
 
 iaTfh odiif certain now of gratifying his 
 dislike. Domitian was now sure of 
 his victim, and being no longer afraid 
 of Agricola, only glad at the cer- 
 tainty of getting rid of him, he was 
 able to concealthelatterfeelingmore 
 
 successfully than the former. ^t 
 
 qui^et talis ut. 
 
 2. Coheredem: probably ex dimidia 
 parte ; done of cqurse to secure some 
 of his property to his own family. 
 
 3. JPiissi/mae, Cicero jeers at Mar- 
 cus Antonius for using the phrase 
 piissimi hominis^ and introducing a 
 new word into the language {quod 
 verbu/m nullum omnino est). The word, 
 however, is frequently used by the 
 late writers, Seneca, Q,uintilian and 
 others. Velut, as if. 
 
 6. Ifisi tnalumf unless had. 
 
 CHAP. XLIV. 7. Gaio Caesare : i. 
 
 e., Caligula. Tertiwm consule. A. 
 
 D. 40. 
 
 9. CoUega Priscoque consulibtis. 
 A. D. 93. 
 
 10. Sabitum, personal appearance. 
 
 11. Decentior quam suhlimmrfWell 
 built rather than tall; i. e., symmetr 
 
 rical. • Nihil .... supererat 
 
 there was nothing in his looks to inspire 
 terror; rather sweetness of expression^ 
 abundantly/ portrayed, was there. Note 
 the force of swper^and cf. Germ., VI : 
 XXVI. 
 
 13. IdCedio in spatio integrae aetatis, 
 "in the mid career of zinimpaired age= 
 in the prime of life." C. 
 
 14. Quantum ad gloriatrifScattinet. 
 16. Impleveratf he had fully at- 
 tained. 
 
 18. Speciosae contigerant: i. e., 
 Agricola had wealth enough to make 
 a respectable figure. Dion Cassius 
 says that Agricola, after his return 
 from. Britain, lived in neglect and 
 want(£i' TE artfj.i(^ Kai ev evSei^). This 
 assertiou js directly contradicted by 
 
70 
 
 THE AGEICOLA OP" TACITUS. 
 
 stitibus, potest videri etiam beatus; incolumi dignitate, 
 florente fama, salvia adfinitatibus et amicitiis futura efiiigisse. 
 Nam sicuti durare in banc beatissimi saeculi lucem ac 
 principem Traianum videre, quod augurio votisque apud 
 
 5 nostras aures ominabatur, ita festinatae mortis grande solacium 
 tulit evasisse postremum illud tempus, quo Domitianus non 
 iam per intervalla ac spiramenta temporum, sed continuo et 
 velut uno ictu rempublicam exhausit. XLV. Non vidit 
 Agricola obsessam curiam et clausum armis senatum et eadem 
 
 10 strage tot consularium caedes, tot nobilissimarum feminarum 
 exsilia et fugas. Una adhuc victoria Cams Metius cense- 
 batur, et intra Albanam arcem sententia Messalini strepebat, 
 et Massa Baebius txun reus erat. Mox nostrae duxere 
 Helvidium in carcerem manus, nos Maiu'ici Rusticique visus, 
 
 this passage and the general tenor of 
 the sixth chapter. 
 
 3. Sirutif sc. grande solaciuTn/uisset. 
 
 4. A-ugwriOf by predicti(m, shows 
 his sagacity In foreseeing the coming 
 man. Dion Caesius (LXIX., 12) says 
 that the elevation of Trajan to the 
 Imperial throne was foretold two 
 years before tlie death of Agricola, 
 and Tacitus may allude to this. 
 
 7. Spi/ramenta, pauses, in "which to 
 gain breath. 
 
 8. Uno ictu. Caligula is said to 
 have wished that the Roman people 
 had one neck, that he might destroy 
 them at one blow. 
 
 CHAP. XLV. 9. Obsessnni curiam. 
 This is not mentioned elsewhere. 
 The Emperor Nero, when he was 
 anxious to secure the condemnation 
 of Thrasea, placed Praetorian cohorts 
 around the temple of Venus where 
 the Senate was in session and guarded 
 the approach with civilians armed 
 with swords openly displayed. It is 
 possible that Domitian may have 
 done the same thing. 
 
 10. Tot consularium caedes. A list 
 of Domitian's victims is found in 
 Suetonius {Dam. X.), most of them 
 being put to death on the most trivial 
 charges. One was killed for calling a 
 new dish by his name, another for a 
 
 joke, a third for celebrating his uncle 
 
 Otho's birthday, etc. Feminarum 
 
 exsilia: e. g. Arria, Fannia, Gratilla, 
 Flavia Domitilla and Pontia Domi- 
 tilla. 
 
 11. jLdhuc ; i. e., at the time of Agri- 
 cola's death. Carus Metius is 
 
 mentioned with Maasa Baebius in 
 Juvenal (I. 35, 36) as the prince of In- 
 formers. Censebaturf was rated at. 
 
 12. jilbanam accent. This is the 
 palace of Domitian under the Alban 
 mount. He used to summon the 
 Senate thither for consultation. Cf. 
 
 Juv. IV. 145. Messalini. Catullus 
 
 Messalinus was governor of Libyan 
 Pentapolis under Vespasian and 
 Titus, in which office he treated the 
 provincial Jews, including Josephus, 
 with great cruelty. He was recalled 
 from his province, but escaped 
 punishment, turned informer, and 
 afterwards died a wretched death. 
 
 13. Massa £ae&iu« was impeached 
 by the province of Baetica, where he 
 
 had been procurator, in A. D. 70. 
 
 Nostrae manus •= nos senatores. 
 Tacitus was not at Rome for some 
 time after Agricola's death, and he 
 only uses rwst/rae as he himself was 
 a senator. 
 
 14. Melvidium. Helvidlus Priacus 
 the younger, on the charge of having 
 
THE AGRICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 71 
 
 nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit. Nero tamen sub- 
 traxit oculos suos iussitque scelera, non spectavit ; praecipua 
 sub Domitiano miseriarum pars erat videre et aspici, cum 
 suspiria nostra subscriberentur, cum denotandis tot hominum 
 palloribus sufficeret saevus ille vultus et rubor, quo se contra 5 
 pudorem muniebat. 
 
 Tu vero felix, Agricola, non vitae tantum claritate, sed 
 etiam opportunitate mortis. Ut perhibent, qui interfuerunt 
 novissimis sermonibus tuis, constans et libens fatum excepisti, 
 tamquam pro virili portione innocentiam principi donares. 10 
 Sed mihi filiaeque eius, praeter acerbitatem parentis erepti, 
 auget maestitiam, quod adsidere valetudini, fovere de- 
 ficientem, satiari vultu complexuque non contigit. Exce- 
 pissemus certe mandata vocesque, quas penitus animo figere- 
 mus. Noster hie dolor, nostrum vulnus ; nobis tam longael5 
 absentiae conditione ante quadriennium amissus est. Omnia 
 
 In a farce of Paris and Aenone in- 
 tended to portray the Emperor's 
 divorce from all his wives, was ap- 
 parently seized in the senate, and 
 dragged off to prison by the obse- 
 quious senators. JUatirici JRtisti- 
 
 cique. These were two brothers of 
 the Julian gens, who were cruelly 
 separated in the sight of the senate, 
 Busticus being hurried away to 
 execution and Helvidius to banish- 
 ment. Visus: on account of the 
 
 bold zeugma in perfudit, some verb 
 to suit visus must be supplied, as 
 pereiUU or adflipcU. 
 
 1. Senecio. This statement Is not 
 literally true, as Senecio was not put 
 to death in the Senate-house. The act, 
 however, stained the Senators with 
 the guilt of Innocent blood. 
 
 3. Videre, sc. Domituinum. As- 
 
 pid, sc. a Domitiano. 
 
 4. Subscriberentur, were noted 
 doum as matters of accusation against 
 us. Any one, who supported an ac- 
 cusation brought by another, by en- 
 tering his name on the indictment as 
 subsidiary accuser was said sub' 
 seribere. 
 
 5, 6. Sufficeret, sufficed, 1. e., bore 
 
 up without flinching. Mubor. 
 
 Pliny the Younger {Paneg. XLVII.) 
 says of Domltian, "femineus pallor in 
 corpore, in ore impudentia muUo rvr 
 bore- suffusa." Cf. Suet. Domitianu^ 
 XVIII., " Vuliu modesto, rviiorisque 
 plena." Fudorem, shame. 
 
 9. Constans et libens, ^^tuiih courage 
 and cheerfulness." 
 
 10. Pro virili portione is found also 
 in Sisi. III. 20, in the sense of pro 
 virili parte, which Is Cicero's form. 
 
 Jnnocentiam, i. e., freedom from 
 
 guilt, Implying that he was guilty. 
 - — Frincipi donares. Agricola, by 
 accepting his death with resignation, 
 as in the course of nature, did his 
 best to shield the Emperor from the 
 suspicion of having dispatched him. 
 
 15. Sic dolor, Bo.fuit, 
 
 16. I/ongae absentiae. Tacitus is 
 speaking of his own absence from 
 
 Rome. A.nte guadrienniuni.. 
 
 Tacitus was praetor In A. D. 88, and 
 In the following year seems to have 
 left Rome, on what account we are 
 jiowhere informed. Possibly he ob- 
 
72 
 
 THK AGEICOLA OF TACITUS, 
 
 sine dubio, optime parentum, adsidente amantissima uxore, 
 superfuere honori tuo; paucioribus tamen lacrimis compositus 
 es, et novissima in luce desideravere aliquid oculi ttd. 
 
 XL VI. Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus 
 
 5 placet, non cum corpore exstinguuntur magnae animae, 
 placide quiescas, nosque, domum tuam, ab infirmo desiderio et 
 muliebribus lamentis ad contemplationem virtu turn tuarum 
 voces, quas neque lugeri neque plangi fas est. Admiratione 
 te potius quam temporalibus laudibus, et, si natura suppe- 
 
 lOditet, aemulatione decoremus. Is verus honos, ea con- 
 iunctissimi cuiusque pietas. Id filiae quoque uxorique prae- 
 ceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam venerari, ut omnia 
 facta dictaque eius secum revolvant, formamque ac figuram 
 animi magis quam corporis complectantur ; non quia interce- 
 
 ISdendum putem imaginibus, quae marmore aut aere finguntur; 
 sed ut vultus hominum, ita simulacra vultus imbecilla ac 
 mortalia sunt, forma mentis aeterna, quam tenere et expri- 
 
 tained the adrainistration of some 
 province. 
 
 2. FaucioribuSf too few. 
 
 3. I>e8ider€i/vere aliquid, " longed 
 /or something in vain." 
 
 CH:AP. XLVI. 4. Si quis piotmm, 
 manibus locus. Note that Tacitus 
 simply hopes that tlie souls of the de- 
 parted may still live. That he had 
 no firm belief in this is evident from 
 ^n.. III., 18; VI. 22, which was fully 
 in accordance with the character of 
 
 that period. Ut sapientibus placet, 
 
 " asis believed by philosophers.''* 
 
 6. DoinuTii: appos. with uos. 
 
 Inflmio, feeble; i. c, resulting from, 
 a morbid state of mind. 
 
 7. JJtuliebribuslatnnitis. Cf. Seneca 
 A. XV. 63. " Mogat oratque tcmpa'ai'ei 
 dolori, ne aeiei~num susciperet sed in 
 contemplatione vitaeper virtutem actae 
 desiderium ntariti solatiis honestis tale- 
 rareV^ 
 
 8. JPla/nffi. Plango is construed like 
 TVTTTO^at and Kdnrofiai In Greek. 
 When they m.ean ' to beat oneself in 
 sorrow for anyone^ they take an ac- 
 
 cusative. lAigeri has reference to 
 the real sentiment of grief, while 
 plangi denotes outward manifestar 
 tions only. 
 
 9. Quam is not found in the MSS., 
 but is required if trmporaUbus 
 (which is found) be retained. Na- 
 tura, " natural powers.^* 
 
 10. Dcroi'fntuSj let t« honor. Cf 
 Ennius quoted by Cic. de Senect. XX: 
 Nemo nie lacrumis decorct necfunera 
 fletufaxit 
 
 13. ForTuamque ac figuram. Forma 
 has reference to the visible embodi- 
 ment of the internal nature of that to 
 which it corresponds, while Pigura 
 means shape as regards outline. 
 
 14. Intc^'ccdendurn. Jnler cede, here 
 used figuratively, refers properly to 
 the tribunitian veto, 
 
 15. JPutem: subj. after non quid, 
 not that. A. 341, R ; G. 541, R ; H. 51G, 2. 
 This meaning is given the conjunc- 
 tion by late writers. 
 
 17, Mentis = anitni, and refers to 
 "the entire mental and spiritual 
 being." 
 
THE AQEICOLA OF TACITUS. 
 
 73 
 
 mere non per alienam materiam et artem, sed tuis ipse mori- 
 bus possis. Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, quidquid 
 mirati sumus, mauet mansurumque est in animis hominum, 
 in aeternitate temporum, fama rerum. Nam multos veterum, 
 velut inglorios et ignobiles, oblivio obruit ; Agricola posteri- 
 tati narratus et traditus superstes erit. 
 
 1. JPer alienam 7nateria/m et ar- 
 tem refers to marble or bronze and 
 the skill of the artist, "which are 
 necessarily foreign to the truest and 
 best representation of human char- 
 acter." 
 
 3. Mansurtim est, is destined to re- 
 main, 
 
 4. Fama reninif in the faTYie o/ 
 achievments ; i. e., in the records of 
 the human race. 
 
 5. Oblivio obiniit: because the men 
 had no historian to recount their 
 deeds. Of. Hor. Od. IV., ix., 25: 
 
 Vixere fortes ante Agamemnona 
 Multi : seif otnnes illacrimahiles 
 Urgentur ignotique longa 
 Node, careni quia- vate sacra. 
 
 There is an epigram by Antiphilus 
 in the Anthologia supposed to refer to 
 Agricola, the subject of this biogra.- 
 phy, 
 
 Yipijvdlai Xtjidde^ rl iTE^sijyaTE ; ttov 
 rdffov iidup ; 
 Ttg ip?^^ aevdovg eG^eaev rjeXiov ; 
 daKpvoiV ^AypiKohio TSTpvfieda ■ tzov d* 
 ham riiiiv 
 ffu noTov 1} Keivov Siipaq exu anoS'iT^. 
 
 TOMBS ON THE APPIAN WAY. 
 
COIN OF NEBO. 
 
CORNELII TACITI 
 
 DE ORIGINE SITU MORIBUS 
 
 POPULISQUE GERMANIAE 
 
 LIBER. 
 
IFTRODUCTIO]^ TO THE "GEEMAIHA." 
 
 ''TT^ACITUS apparently wrote his treatise " De Situ, Moribus, Populisque 
 ■*- Germaniae " in A. D. 98. In cap. 37 of the work he reckons about 
 210 years to have elapsed from the epoch when the Cimbri first became 
 known to the Romans to the " second Consulship of the Emperor Trajan." 
 This was in A. D. 98 ; and Tacitus most probably computed the years to 
 the date of the publication of the pamphlet in question. There is also an 
 additional argument for its early composition, derived from the fact that 
 although fuller information might be looked for in a work entirely devoted 
 to the history of the Teutonic races than from a general history of the Bo- 
 man Empire, yet in the Annales and Sistoriae, German tribes are men- 
 tioned which in this treatise are entirely omitted : for instance, the Can- 
 ninefates,' the Gugerni,'' the Tubantes,' the Ampsivarii,* and the Sugambri.^ 
 Tacitus probably learned more as he advanced in years, and carried out 
 more fully his historical researches. 
 
 His object in writing it has been much contested. Some think it was in 
 order to dissuade Trajan from a projected expedition that he painted the 
 German people as foes so formidable ; others, that it is a satire on the vices 
 of Eome couched under the guise of an innocent ethnographic treatise ; 
 others, that it is inspired by the genuine scientific desire to investigate the 
 many objects of historic and natural interest with which a vast and un- 
 known territory abounded. But none of these motives supplies a satisfac- 
 tory explanation. The first can hardly be maintained owing to the his- 
 torical difficulties ; the second, though an object congenial to the Boman 
 mind, is not lofty enough to have moved the pen of Tacitus ; the third, 
 though it may have had some weight with him, would argue a state of 
 scientific curiosity in advance of Tacitus' position and age, and besides is 
 incompatible with his culpable laziness in sifting information on matters of 
 still greater ethnographic interest.' If we are to have a theory on the sub- 
 
 1. Hist., IV., 15. 3. An., I., 51. 5. An., II., 26. 
 
 2. Id. 26. 4. An^ XIII., SO 
 6. Notably the history of the Jews. History v. 
 
4 INTKODUCTION. 
 
 ject, we incline to think that cap. 37, which enumerates the Roman losses 
 in Germany and dwells on the fierce independence of the people, more ter- 
 rible even than the Samnite, Carthaginian, Gaul or Parthian, hints at the 
 motive which led to its composition. A country so formidable, from which 
 alone, as Tacitus might well think, serious danger was to be apprehended 
 by Kome, would at least be worth a description so full and so accurate as 
 his opportunities enabled him to give. Thus, the design of the work was 
 purely and pre-eminently patriotic ; nor is any other purpose worthy of the 
 great historian, patrician, patriot, and soldier that he was. At the same 
 time subsidiary motives are not excluded ; we may well believe that the 
 gall of satire kindles his eloquence, and that the insatiable desire of knowl- 
 edge stimulated his research while inquiring into the less accessible details 
 of the German polity. 
 
 It is to Tacitus that we are mainly indebted for whatever knowledge we 
 possess of ancient Germany, and of the character of its various peoples. 
 From the other writers something in the way of comparison and illustra- 
 tion may be learned, but he is the only writer who gives us a picture of the 
 life of the ancient Germans. As it is extremely probable that he never had 
 been in Germany, his knowledge was collected from those who had visited 
 it for the purpose of either war or commerce ; hence, he naturally falls 
 from time to time into the errors incident to imperfect information ; and 
 one rather pines for the good faith of Herodotus, who never leaves us in 
 the least doubt as to the sources of his second-hand intelligence. Tacitus' 
 aceepimus does not even tell us whether he is quoting from books or from 
 travelers or from natives. Hence his geographical descriptions are very 
 often vague and inaccurate, and he now and then seems to attribute to the 
 whole German population the peculiarities of a single people ; a mixture 
 of the marvelous shows that some of his narratives consist in mere 
 traveler's tales, while the salient points and characteristic features of the 
 national manners bear the impress of truth, and are supported by the well- 
 known habits and institutions of the Teutonic nations. He has contrived 
 to compress into a small compass more of ethics and politics, more fine de- 
 lineations ol character, more substance and pith (sue), than can be collected 
 from many a ponderous volume. It is not one of those barely agreeable 
 descriptions which gradually diffuse their influence over the soul, and leave 
 it in undisturbed tranquility. It is a picture in a strong light, like the 
 subject itself, full of fire, of sentiment, of lightning-flashes, that go at once 
 to the heart. We imagine ourselves in Germany ; we become famiUar with 
 these so-called barbarians ; we pardon their faults, and almost their vices, 
 out of regard for their virtues ; and, in our moments of enthusiasm, we even 
 wish we were Germans. Thus, we see that he has given us much really 
 valuable matter, and has enabled us to perceive in their earliest workings 
 the germs of certain mediseval and modem institutions. It would be too much 
 to suppose that he was guided to this result by a deliberate and conscious 
 
INTRODUCTION. O 
 
 foresight, or that he ever so dimly anticipated from what most impressed him 
 with admiration in the character of these tribes, the establishment of a new 
 world on the ruins of the Eoman empire. 
 
 The work is divided into two parts. The jk-st gives an account of the 
 situation, climate, soil, and inhabitants of the country ; it investigates the 
 etymology of several German names of men and gods, describes the na- 
 tional customs, religion, laws, amusements, and especially celebrates the 
 moral strictness of the people : but at the same time not without contrasting 
 them unfavorably with Rome whenever the advantage is on her side. The 
 second part contains a catalogue of the different tribes with their geo- 
 graphical limits, salient characteristics, and a short historical account of 
 each, whenever accessible. 
 
 We gather from this work that the Germans were not for the most part 
 an utterly barbarous people. Of art and literature they knew next to noth- 
 ing, and to the civilization of Greek and Italian cities they were entire 
 strangers. They had a regular social organization on an aristocratic basis, 
 their political constitutions being elective monarchies, but the monarch was 
 always of noble birth, and his powers were limited ;' and all matters of im- 
 portance were debated by the estate of the people.' They had no distinct 
 order of priests, as that of the Druids in Gaul ; no temples, no images of 
 the gods, still their religion was not without noble and awe-inspiring ele- 
 ments. Tacitus hints at many wild legends and dark superstitions with 
 which the German imagination still loves to people the dark recesses of 
 their forests.' He describes their pure and unmixed race, and, conse- 
 quently, the universal prevalence of the national features — blue eyes, red 
 or sandy hair, and stalwart and gigantic frames.* In the solemn permis- 
 sion accorded to a German youth to bear arms, and in his investiture with 
 lance and shield, is seen the origin of knighthood ;^ and in the sanctity of 
 the marriage tie, the chastity of the female sex, their social influence, and 
 the respect paid to them — the rarity of adultery and its severe punishment, 
 and the total absence of polygamy, with which modern readers will find it 
 difficult to believe that masculine caprice has nothing to do — we recognize 
 the germ of the distinguishing characteristics of chivalry.* This last fea- ] 
 ture of the German manners Tacitus singles out for special commendation y 
 and he connects this virtue with their simple life, which knew nothing oft , i j 
 the various artificial excitements of Eoman civilization ; but he mentions,( v 
 too, that the Germans, like most other savages, left all serious work to the \ 
 women and slaves.' They were hospitable and constant to their hereditary ) 
 friendships, but stem in perpetuating family feuds f passionately fond of 
 gambling, and strict in their regard for debts of honor ;' inveterate drinkers 
 and their favorite potation was beer;'" they could not consult on important 
 
 1. Cap. vll 2. Cap. xl. 3. Cap. ix., xxxix., xl., xliii. 4. Cap. iv. 5. Cap. xill. 
 6. Cap. xviil., xlx. 7. Cap. xv. 8. Cap. xxi. 9. Cap. xxiv. 10. Cap. xxill. 
 
b IKTEODTJCTION. 
 
 matters without a convivial meeting,'' and they deliberated even on the 
 most important matters when drunk as well as when sober, without the 
 slightest suspicion, apparently, that their sober deliberations were often 
 compromised by the boasts to which they had committed themselves when 
 intoxicated ; if they quarreled over their cups, they had recourse rarely to 
 words, usually to blows.^ Their slaves were in the condition of serfe or 
 villains, and paid to the lord a fixed rent in com, or cattle or manufac- 
 tures.' They reckoned their time by nights instead of days,* just as we are 
 accustomed to use the expressions sennight and fortnight. After remark- 
 jjng that money is unknown among them, Tacitus adds — an observation 
 k&rf < Otherwise somewhat unnecessary, unless for stigmatizing indirectly the 
 '^ Cvices of the Komans — that usury was not practised among them. In de- 
 scribing the laziness of the Germans, Tacitus is at pains to be emphatic, 
 and, for him, almost diflfuse : he recurs to it again and again. They do not 
 even hunt ; they eat as soon as they wake, and spend their whole time, 
 when not at war, between eating and sleeping. Fixed habitations, separate 
 and apart from each other, answering to our homesteads, were the rule 
 among them. Everything about them seems to imply a love of severe sim- 
 plicity and a determined spirit of independence. To one brought up amid 
 the elegant luxuries and refinement of Eome the German life and character 
 must have seemed as uncongenial as the climate, which so strikingly con- 
 trasted with the sunny skies of Italy. 
 
 After thus having sketched the manners and customs of the nation as a 
 whole, he proceeds to treat of each tribe separately. The information, so 
 far as it relates to the tribes bordering on the Rhine, and therefore well 
 known to the Romans, is no doubt precise and authentic, but in the account 
 of the remoter tribes much is based on vague hearsay and obscure report. 
 In speaking of our own forefathers, the Angli, who inhabited part of the 
 modern territory of Sleswig-Holstein, and whose name is still retained in 
 the district of Angeln, one word which he uses is an EngUsh one. The 
 Angli, he says, together with the conterminous tribes, worship Herthus, 
 i. e., Terra. Even in those early times he mentions the naval superiority of 
 the Suiones, who were the ancestors of the Normans and the Vikings. 
 With these he affirms that the Continent of Europe terminates, and all 
 beyond is a motionless and frozen ocean. Truth in these distant climes 
 mingles with fable. Daylight continues after the sun has set, but a hissing 
 noise is heard as his blazing orb plunges into the sea, and the forms of the 
 gods, and the radiant glories which surround their heads are visible. The 
 list of marvels ends with fabulous beings whose bodies and limbs are those 
 of wild beasts, while their heads and faces are human. Adapted. 
 
 1. Cap. xxii. 2. Cap. xxil. 3. Cap, xxv. 4. Cap. xl. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 The style of the Oermania is almost the mature style of Tacitus, and the 
 note of sarcasm is already predominant. Tliere is nothing much bitterer 
 in any of his writings, than the passage in which the fall of the Cherusei 
 is traced to their becoming peaceable, good neighbors ;' and the sneer at 
 Rome is bitter enough when we read that the Germans do not call it the 
 way of the world to corrupt and to be corrupted." The bitterness is quite 
 Impartial : when the Germaus go quietly into slavery for a gambling debt, 
 they call it honor, and Tacitus calls it madness.' 
 
 The following remarks of Murphy, quoted from Tyler, will illustrate the 
 value of the treatise to modern Europeans and their descendants: "It is a 
 draught of savage manners, delineated by a masterly hand ; the more inter- 
 esting, as the part of the world which it describes was the seminary of the 
 modern European nations, the Vagina Gentium, as historians have em- 
 phatically called it. The work is short, but, as Montesquieu observes, it is 
 the work of a man who abridged everything, because he knew everything. 
 A thorough knowledge of the transactions of barbarous ages will throw 
 more light than is generally imagined on the laws of modern times. 
 Wherever the barbarians, who issued from their northern hive, settled in 
 new habitations, they carried with them their native genius, their original 
 manners, and the first rudiments of the political system which has prevailed 
 in different parts of Europe. They established monarchy and liberty, 
 subordination and freedom, the prerogative of the prince and the rights of 
 the subject, all united in so bold a combination that the fabric, in some 
 places, stands to this hour the wonder of mankind. The British Constitu- 
 tion, says Montesquieu, came out of the woods of Germany. What the state 
 of this country (Britain) was before the arrival of our Saxon ancestors, 
 Tacitus has shown in the life of Agricola. If we add to his account of the 
 Germans and Britains what has been transmitted to us concerning them by 
 Julius Csesar, we shall see the origin of Anglo-Saxon government, the great 
 outline of that Gothic constitution under which the people enjoy their rights 
 and liberties at this hour. Montesquieu, speaking of his own country, de- 
 clares it impossible to form an adequate notion of the French monarchy 
 and the changes of their government, without a previous inquiry into the 
 manners, genius, and spirit of the German nations. Much of what was in- 
 corporated with the institutions of those fierce invaders has flowed down in 
 the stream of time, and still mingles with our modern jurisprudence. The 
 subject, it is conceived, is interesting to every Briton. In the manners of 
 the Germans, the reader will see our present frame of government, as it 
 were, in its cradle, gentis amabvia nostrae ! in the Germans themselves, a 
 
 1. Cap. xxxvi. 2. Cap. xix. 3. Cap. xxlv. 
 
8 INTEODTTCTION. 
 
 fierce and warlike people, to whom this country owes that spirit of liberty 
 which, through so many centuries, has preserved our excellent form of 
 government, and raised the glory of the British nation : 
 
 -Genus unde Latinum, 
 
 Albanique patres, atque altae moenia Bomae.' 
 
 The authorities on the subject of the Germans amongst the ancients are,— 
 
 I. Caesab, BeU. Oall. i. 30—54. 
 ii. 4 and 15. 
 iv. 1—19. 
 vi. 9—28. 
 II. Velletos Pateboulus, ii. 108, 109, and 117 — 122. 
 
 III. Stbabo, vii. 1. 
 
 IV. PoMPONiTJS Mela, iii. 2, 3. 
 V. Plinitjs, iv. 27—29. 
 
 xvi. 1. 
 VI. Tacitus, An, i. 55—71. 
 
 ii. 5—26, and 44—46, and 88. 
 xi. 16—20. 
 Hisl. iv. 12—30, and 54—79. 
 V. 14—25. 
 VII. Ptolemaeus, ii. 11, etc. 
 
coee:elii taciti geemania. 
 
 Germania omnis a Gallig Eaetisque et Pannoniis 
 
 CHAP. I. Germania. The coun- 
 try intended by Tacitus is Oermania 
 east of the Rhine, sometimes called 
 Trans-rhenana^ Magna, or Barbara. 
 Distinct from this was Germania Cis- 
 rhenana, a district west of the Rhine, 
 occupied by transplanted Germanic 
 tribes. This was subdivided into 
 Oermania JPrimaj or Superior ^ extend- 
 ing from Augusta Rauracorura, 
 (Augst), a little above Bale, to Mo- 
 guntiacum (Mainz), and Oermania iSe- 
 cunda or Inferior, reaching from this 
 last point to the sea. These two divi- 
 sions are comprehended in the plural 
 form; used by Tacitus (An. II. 73). 
 The area, embraced under the name 
 Germania by our author, is larger 
 than that included in Its modern 
 equivalent, Germany. Kiepert. Atlas 
 
 Antiquum, XI. OmrtiSf as a whole^ 
 
 i. e., Oermany entire, as distinguished 
 from the two provinces of Germania 
 Superior and Inferior, regarded as de- 
 tached fragments, dislocated from 
 the true German area. So Caesar 
 speaks of Gallia omnis (B. G. 1. 1.), as 
 distinguished from Cisalpine Gaul. 
 Note the order here, and in the pas- 
 sage Just quoted; the name of the 
 country to be described in the work 
 
 occupies the emphatic position. 
 
 Gallis, etc. The names of the people 
 are used for those of their countries. 
 
 ICaetis. Raetia Proper, or Prima, 
 
 extended from the Helvetii to Nori- 
 cum, embracing the upper portions 
 of the valleys of the lAcus (Lech), 
 Aenus (Inn), and Athesis (Adige), the 
 modern Grisons, Tyrol, and part of 
 9 
 
10 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Rheno et Danubio fluminibus, a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo 
 metu aut montibus separatur. Cetera Oceanus ambit, latos 
 sinus et insularum immensa spatia complectens, nuper cognitis 
 
 Lombardy. The Raetians are said by 
 Kiepert to have been akin to the 
 
 Etruscans. que et. "We have two 
 
 conjunctions here, because the Raeti 
 and Pannonii -were more closely con- 
 nected with one another than with 
 the Galli." Fannoniis. The coun- 
 try occupied by this people stretched 
 from Mons Cetius to the Danube, 
 near its junction with the Tiviscus 
 (Theiss), and from the Danube in the 
 North to the Savus (Save) in the 
 South, comprising Croatia, Carniola, 
 Bosnia, Slavonia, Western Hungary, 
 Styria, and part of Lower Austria. 
 The inhabitants were Kelts, largely 
 mixed with an earlier population. 
 
 1. Jtheno. This separates Germany 
 from Gaul. Danuhlo. This sepa- 
 rates Germany from RaetiaandPan- 
 nonia. Sarmatis. This race occu- 
 pied the vast region between the T'is- 
 tula and the Tanais (Don), embracing 
 modern Poland, East Prussia, Lithu- 
 ania, and Russia. From an exam- 
 ination of their language they are 
 supposed to belong to the Indo-Ger- 
 manlcfam.ily. In the time of Herodo- 
 tus they were on the left bank of the 
 Don, and they gradually advanced 
 westward. The name disappears 
 from history after the third century, 
 and is replaced by that of Slavi, Slor 
 tfinf, etc.,the modern Slavonic race. 
 Some, however, think they were a 
 Turanian race, perhaps Tartars, as 
 the real Slaves are mentioned in Cap. 
 
 XLVI. Dacisque. When Dacia 
 
 became a Roman province, after the 
 conquests of Trajan, its boundaries 
 were the Tiviscus on the West, and 
 the Jlierasus (Pruth) on the East, 
 while it stretched from Mons Carpa- 
 ius to the Danube ; thus comprising 
 Wallachia, Transylvania, Moldavia, 
 
 and Eastern Hungary. Mutuo 
 
 nu'tn. A very fanciful boundary! 
 Where there is no physical boundary 
 between the Germans on the one 
 
 hand and Dacians and Sarmatians 
 on the other, they still forbear to 
 molest each other, each being afraid 
 to attack the other. 
 
 2, Motxtihus, The Carpathian 
 
 Mountains in Upper Hungary. 
 
 Cetera, sc. loca, referring to the 
 
 northern and western parts. 
 
 Oceaitus. The German ocean and 
 
 the Baltic Sea. I^atos sinus, broad 
 
 peninsulas, Sinus is a term for any- 
 thing that is gathered into a fold or 
 makes a bend, and m.ost commonly 
 is used for gulfs, bays, and the like, 
 but also for projecting headlands 
 where the boundary line makes a 
 sweep. Tacitus here seems to speak 
 of the Danish Peninsula, Holstein, 
 Sleswig, and Jutland. 
 
 3. Iristilarum immensa spatia. 
 Poetical for ^'Islands of vast size.^' 
 These are no doubt amongst others 
 Seeland, Funen,Norway and Sweden ; 
 for of the Scandinavian peninsula 
 the Romans had avery slight knowl- 
 edge, and supposed it to be an island. 
 Cf.PIlnyIV.27. Nuper. . . .rt gi- 
 bus. Understand ut compei-tum est, 
 i. e., these geographical features were 
 discovered by the Romans in prose- 
 cuting their wars against these 
 hitherto unknown tribes. Some, how- 
 ever, take it to define the locality of 
 sinus and spatia just mentioned and 
 translate, where have lately become 
 known to iis, etc. Nvper does not 
 refer here to what immediately pre- 
 cedes, but is used loosely, referring 
 to campaigns from 80 to 100 years 
 before the publication of the Ger- 
 
 mania. Cognitis : abl. of cause. 
 
 The chief knowledge of Germany 
 possessed by the Romans was gained, 
 after the conquests of Julius Caesar, 
 from the expeditions of Domitius 
 Ahenobarhus, and -especially those 
 of Nero Claudius DrususGermauicus, 
 and his son Caesar Germanicus. The 
 former was the first Roman general 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 11 
 
 quibusdam gentibus ac regibus, quos bellum aperuit. 
 Rhenus, Raeticarum Alpiura inaccesso ac praecipiti vertice 
 ortus, modico flexu in occidentera versus septentrionali 
 Oceano miscetur. Danubius, molli et clementer edito montis 
 
 who penetrated to the German Ocean 
 (c. 34), probably by the Canal of 
 Drusus, from the northern arm of the 
 Rhine near Arnheim to the Sala 
 (Yssel) atDoesburg. Possibly he may 
 have reached the ^mma (Ems) and 
 subjugated the Islands of the coast. 
 Subsequently he reached the Visurgis 
 (Wcser), but had to retire; afterwards 
 he penetrated into the country of the 
 Suevi, and turning his arms against 
 the Cherusci, reached the Albis (Elbe), 
 but, without advancing further re- 
 tired and soon after died, B. C. 9. 
 
 Caesar Germanicus, after visiting 
 Germany on the destruction of Varus 
 and his legions, in conjunction with 
 Tiberius, commenced a brilliant ca-' 
 reer in that country. He crossed the 
 Rhine, and after crushing the Marsi 
 and Chatti, on the organization of a 
 revolt against the Romans by Armi- 
 nius, embarked in a flotilla, and sail- 
 ing by the Lacus Flevus (Zuyder-Zee) 
 to the ocean and up the Ems, laid 
 waste the country between that river 
 and the Lippe. In the following 
 year, collecting a fleet at the Insula 
 Batavorurrif he sailed by the Canal of 
 Drusus and the Mevtts to the sea, and 
 disembarking at Amisia on the Ems, 
 crossed that river and the Weser, 
 and defeated Arminius. On return- 
 ing by the Ems to the ocean, the fleet 
 was shattered by terrific storms, and 
 the soldiers dispersed along the coast. 
 From, these stragglers,on their return, 
 a good deal of information, accom- 
 panied, according to Tacitus, with a 
 good deal of fable, wasgleaned. Soon 
 after these events, Germanicus was 
 recalled, A. D. 16. In A. D. 84, the 
 Emperor Domitian undertook acam- 
 paign against the Chatti, and appar- 
 ently with some trifling success. 
 
 1. JSelUtm^ i. e., the warlike expedi- 
 tions arbove mentioned. 
 
 2. Jthentts. The ancient Geogra 
 phers— Strabo, for instance (IV. 3)— 
 made the Rhine rise in Mt. Adula. 
 As this last author also places the 
 sources of the Addua (Adda) in the 
 same mountain, he probably re- 
 garded the Upper Rhine as the true 
 river, and not the Lower Rhine, 
 which has a course less directly 
 northwards. In that case the moun- 
 tain would be the range near the 
 passes of the Spliigen, and S. Benar- 
 dino, not the St. Gothard. The name 
 of the Rhine seems only another form 
 of Rhodanus, and to be connected 
 withEridanus, Danube, Don, Tanais, 
 etc. In this view the name was a 
 Keltic one, signifying the watery or 
 river; perhaps originally the name 
 for a part of the river only, and used 
 by the Romans to designate the 
 
 whole. Iiaeticaru7n AJpiunC. 
 
 These are the Grisons and the Tyrol. 
 Tbc word Alpes is apparently of Kel- 
 tic origin; its root being ' alb,^ high, 
 the same word appearing in Albion, 
 the hilly land, or Scotland, and thence 
 
 Great Britain generally. Inac- 
 
 cesso=inaccessibili Vertice: abl. 
 
 of soiirce. 
 
 3. Ortus, rising. A. 290, b ; G. 279, 
 
 R ; H. 550, N. 1. Modico fleam. This 
 
 refers, no doubt, to the portion of the 
 river lying between Arenacmn (Arn- 
 heim), and Zmgdunum, BaiavoruTn 
 
 (Ley den). VrrsttSf having turned'. 
 
 the participle, taken in a middle 
 sense, and not an adverb or preposi- 
 tion as supposed by some. A. 13.5, e. 
 
 Septenti'ionaJi Oeeati.Ofi, e., the 
 
 Ocean on the North of Germany. ^ 
 
 4. Daiiithiiffi. As stated above, 
 under Rhenus, the derivation of this 
 word seems the Keltic Don, or Dan, 
 water. The upper portion of the 
 stream, as far as Vienna, commonly 
 went by that name; belpw th^^t town 
 
12 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Abnobae iugo effusus, plures populos adit, donee in Ponticum 
 mare sex meatibus erumpat : septimum os paludibus hauritur. 
 
 II. Ipsos Germanos indigenas crediderim, minimeque 
 
 Ister was the usual term. According 
 to Adelung, Danubius is equivalent to 
 the upper water and {Dan)ister^ the 
 
 lower water. Molli et clnufntcr 
 
 editOf gently rising and moderately 
 high. Note the antithesis to inaccesso 
 ac pTaecipiti. 
 
 1. Abnobae. This is the range of the 
 Schwarzwald, or Blk. Forest, extend- 
 ing from the Oberland of Baden to 
 Pforzheim; on the eastern declivity 
 of which, at a height of about 3,000 
 feet, are the sources of the Danube. 
 
 Iugo: abl. of separation. Flu- 
 
 res populos. Beginning at the head 
 of the river, and advancing eastward, 
 these would be the Vindelici, Norici, 
 Pannonii, Illyrli, Maesi, on the right 
 bank : on the left the occupants of 
 the Decumates Agri, Narisci, Marco- 
 mauni, Quadi, Daci, Getae and Bas- 
 tarnae; the river being divided be- 
 tween the Keltic, Teutonic and Sla- 
 vonic races. JPonticum itiare^ 
 
 P(mtus Euxinus. 
 
 2. Sex Tneatibus. The ancients 
 were not agreed upon the number of 
 the mouths of the Danube. Herodo- 
 tus (IV. 47) mentions five; Pliny (IV. 
 2i)y six; Strabo (VII. 3), seven; and 
 Mela (11. 1), the same, four only being 
 navigable. Tacitus appears to unite 
 the two latter accounts. There are 
 still three principal mouths, of which 
 the Kiliamovith is of the greatest im.- 
 portance and is divided into nine 
 smaller channels. Erumpat is cor- 
 rectly used, as the Danube discharges 
 its waters into the Euxine with such 
 force, that its course may be dis- 
 tinctly traced for miles out to sea. 
 Donee, with the indicative, is used to 
 convey the expression of some actual 
 fact; with the subjunctivo, when the 
 event is not stated positively, but 
 only contemplated as a future con- 
 tingency. Hence the meaning is 
 Until such time as it shall sucoeed in 
 
 its aim, of forcing its way into the sea. 
 A. 328; G. 574; H.519, II. 2, and N. 2. 
 In late writers, however, the subjunc- 
 tive is used with donee with the same 
 force as the indicative. It may be so 
 taken here. 
 
 CHAP. II. 3. Ipsos, emphatic, 
 marks the transition from the sub- 
 ject of the country, to the people 
 
 themselves. Indigenas. This word 
 
 is derived from indu, a form of in 
 (still found in induperator for imperor 
 tor,) and gigno. To be thus avTdx&ovEg 
 was a matter of boast among the an- 
 cients. As far as the Germans are 
 concerned there is little doubt that 
 the Teutonic races belong to the 
 Indo-Germanic stock once occupying 
 Bactrlana and part of Armenia; a 
 fact rendered almost certain from, the 
 general resemblance of their lan- 
 guage to those of Persia, India, etc. 
 According to one view the name of 
 one of the tribes of this Teutonic peo- 
 ple, the Saxons, is itself a confllrma- 
 tionofthis; that appellation being a 
 corruption frouxSacasunu, sons of the 
 Sacae. They formed then a portion 
 of that people who, ages ago, issued 
 from the regions of Upper Asia, and 
 making their way by the Caucasus 
 and the route north of the Caspian 
 and Euxine seas entered Europe. 
 Under this view they are more or less 
 of the same stock as the Greeks, 
 ' Latins, Kelts, and Slavonians. As 
 to the time of their entering Europe 
 nothing whatever is known ,■ al- 
 though some consider the great in- 
 roads to have been successively those 
 of the Fins, Kelts, Slavonians, Teu- 
 tons, these last cutting through the 
 Slavonians, and being insulated by 
 
 their closing up behind. C'redi- 
 
 derini': the subj. of cautious state- 
 ment, tosoften the assertion. A.311,b; 
 
 G. 250; H. 4Sri, I. N. 1. Minimeque, 
 
 and by no inean^. 
 
THE GEEMAJSriA OP TACITUS. 
 
 13 
 
 aliarum gentium adventibus et hospitiis mixtos; quia nee 
 terra olini, sed classibus, adveliebantur, qui mutare sedes 
 quaerebant, et immensus ultra, utque sic dixerim, adversus 
 Oceanus raris ab orbe nostro navibus aditur. Quis porro, 
 praeter periculum horridi et ignoti maris, Asia aut Africa aut 
 Italia relicta, Germaniam peteret, informs ra: terris, asperam 
 caelo, tristem cultu aspectuque, nisi si patria sit ? 
 
 1. A.dvenMhuSf immigrations. 
 
 JBCospitiiSf casual visitors. Notice the 
 use of abstract (Instead of the con- 
 crete) nouns in the plural to denote 
 the recurrence of an act. This is very 
 common in Tacitus. A. 75, c ; G. 195, 
 
 R. 5: H. 130, 2. Quia nee terra 
 
 olim. Tacitus gives three reasons for 
 his belief in the indigenous origin of 
 the Germans; first, that the chief 
 movements of nations were by sea, 
 and the sea of those countries was too 
 boisterous to enter on ; second, that 
 the land had no attractions to oflfer to 
 foreigners to induce them to settle in 
 it ; and, third, because the traditions 
 of the Germans themselves repre- 
 sented them as the original occupiers 
 of the soil. 
 
 As far as the first of these reasons 
 is concerned, Tacitus was misled by 
 the want of any adequate knowledge 
 of the great movements of the early 
 races who successively entered Eu- 
 rope. No doubt the migrations with 
 which he was historically acquainted 
 were effected by sea; the coloniza- 
 tion, for instance, of the African coast 
 by the Phoenicians, of certain parts 
 of Greece by the Egyptians, of Mas- 
 silia by the Phoceans, and others, was 
 maritime. The great movements, 
 however, by which Europe was peo- 
 pled, were in some instances, at all 
 events, long anterior to the rise of 
 commerce, and the route was un- 
 doubtedly overland, above the Bux- 
 
 ine. Kec=et non, and then a second 
 
 et follows naturally in the next clause. 
 Cf. Oic. X}p. ad Fam. X. 1 : Tac. An. II. 
 51; XV. 28; Agr.lO. 
 
 2. A.dvehebantur. Note the zeugma, 
 as this word, properly referring only 
 to transportation by ships, only suits 
 classiJruSf and another word, as 
 adveniebant, must be supplied to suit 
 terra. A. p. 298 ; G. 690 ; H. 636, II. 1. 
 — —Quif sc. ii as sabj. of advehe- 
 bantur. 
 
 3. Qutterebant, Quaerere with the 
 infinitive, a poetical construction, 
 is rarely found except in the later 
 prose writers. The usual classic prose 
 
 form is cupio or volo. UUraf beyond 
 
 the north shore of Germany. 
 
 Dixerinif for dicam, is found only in 
 late writers. Z. 528. The clause on 
 
 which it depends is omitted. Jid- 
 
 versuSf hostile, difficult of navigation. 
 Tacitus seems to think the idea of the 
 ocean showing a sort of active hostil- 
 ity to navigators required a little 
 softening down by an Introductory 
 phrase. This boisterousness of the 
 German Ocean appears to have struck 
 Tacitus; cf. An. 11.24. The Romans 
 certainly had not mnch encourage- 
 ment in navigating these seas, as the 
 disasters Germanicus met with, and 
 the alarming account of their horrors 
 his soldiers carried home, would 
 hardly induce traders to visit them. 
 
 4. Ab orbe nostrOf i. e., that portion 
 of the Roman empire lying about the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 5. Fraeterf in addition to. ECor- 
 
 ridif boisterous. Asia, sc. Miruyr. 
 
 Africa. The Mediterranean coast. 
 
 6. i"cterc«; dubitativesubj. A. 265, 
 
 a, 3; G. 592, R. 2; H. 507, 3, N.4. 
 
 Sit. The present is used to imply the 
 reality of the case supposed, 
 
14 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos 
 memoriae et annalium genus est, Tuistonem deum terra edi- 
 tum, et filium Mannum, originem gentis conditoresque. 
 Manno tris filios adsignant, e quorum nominibus proximi 
 Oceano Ingaevones, medii Herminones, ceteri Istaevones vo- 
 centur. Quidam, ut in licentia vetustatis, pluris deo ortos 
 plurisque gentis appellationes, Marsos, Gambrivios, Suevos, 
 
 1. <7ar»fcim6M«. Verse has been used 
 by all barbarous nations, and in all 
 ages, before prose for this purpose. 
 Of these old Teutonic songs no speci- 
 mens have survived, but their general 
 character, as regards matter, can be 
 ascertained from the Scandinavian 
 Eddas, which are filled with the ad- 
 ventures of the gods, Odin and his 
 sons, their battles against the powers 
 of evil, giants, etc. Z'nuni, the only. 
 
 2. Mentor iaef tradition. Ajnna- 
 
 lium, written liistory. Tuistonein. 
 
 Although this reading is given in the 
 best MSS,, Tuisconem is very likely 
 the true one. It is probably con- 
 nected with Deus, divis, deogj JZof, 
 etc., appearing In the Eddas under 
 the form. Tj/r, Odin'sson,from whom 
 our Tuesday derives its appellation. 
 Terra cditum, i, e., indigenous. 
 
 3. Mannujn. This name is curi- 
 ously like the Hindoo 3fenu, the 
 Egyptian Menes, the Lydian Manes^ 
 and the Cretan Minos. Probably it is 
 the same as the German Mensch, 
 Mann, and our 'man,' and in it and 
 Tuisto, humanity and divinity are 
 personified. Some identify him with 
 the double-god, male and female, of 
 
 the Scandinavian mythology. 
 
 Oriffhu'in gentis, i. e., parents of 
 the people. It was the usual cus- 
 tom of the nations of antiquity to 
 trace their pedigree up to some im- 
 aginary hero. The Hellenes, for in- 
 stance, had an ancestor Hellen ; and 
 
 the Aeolians, Aeolus. Conditorcsf 
 
 1. e., founders of their laws and cus- 
 toms. 
 
 4. JManttAi .... ad.sigiri.n,iit. It has 
 
 been thought by some that in Man- 
 
 nus and his three sons an obscure tra- 
 dition is preserved of Adam, and his 
 sons Cain, Abel, andSeth; orofNoah, 
 and his sons Shem, Ham, and Japhet. 
 
 5. Itigacvones, sc. vocentur. There 
 seems no possibility of success in the 
 attempt to arrange accurately the 
 various tribes under these heads. 
 Nevertheless, it may be true in the 
 main, that the Ingaevones are the 
 men of the Ing-gau, i. e., the country 
 of the Angli under which view the 
 Ingaevones would represent the great 
 Saxon confederacy. The Istaevones 
 (a various reading for Iscaevanes) 
 would be the men of the Isk district, 
 or the Franks of a later age. The 
 JETertnifvones again, or Hermiones, for 
 there are both readings, would be the 
 army men, the high Germans of the 
 South. This view is held by the best 
 ethnographers, and by Adelung, 
 Grimm, Kiepert, Latham, Orelli, 
 Prichard, Ritter, Ukert, and Teuss. 
 Vocentur shows that Tacitus makes 
 this statem.ent on the authority of 
 others. A. 340; G. 630; H. 516, II. N. 
 
 6. Utf sc. Jit. TAcmttia: abl. of 
 
 accordance. Pluris, i. e., than the 
 
 three before mentioned: 2>eo, i. e., 
 
 Mannus. Ortos, sc. esse. 
 
 7. GentiSfi. e.,thG Germanic race. 
 
 Mai'sos. The Marsi seem.tohave 
 
 once been settled in "Westphalia, be- 
 tween Munster and Paderboru ; but 
 they withdrew further into the inte- 
 rior, and occupied the country be- 
 tween the Li ppe and the Ruhr, or still 
 further south. They seem to have 
 been concerned in the affairof Varus 
 and his legions, and were severely 
 punished by Germanicus, who d^ 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 15 
 
 Vandalios adfirmant, eaque vera et antiqua nomina. Ceterum 
 Germaniae vocabulum recens et nuper additura, quoniam qui 
 primi Rhenum transgress! Gallos expulerint, ac nunc Tungri, 
 tunc German! vocati s!nt, Ita nationis nomen non gentis 
 evaluisse paulatim, ut omnes primum a victore ob metum^ 
 
 stroyed the famous temple of Tam- 
 fana, situated near their boundaries 
 (Ann. I. 51, etc.). As they are not 
 again mentioned by Tacitus, in his 
 account of the various tribes, they 
 had perhaps ceased to have any sep- 
 arate existence. Gambrivios. 
 
 Strabo mentions these people (VII, 1, 
 3), but their exact location cannot be 
 
 determined. Suevos. From this 
 
 people modern Suabia takes its 
 name. 
 
 1. Vandalios. This tribe originally 
 was settled on the northern coast of 
 Germany, in Pomerania; later they 
 were found near the Riesengebirge, 
 north of the Marcomanni ; subse- 
 quently they entered Pannonia and 
 Dacia, and about A. D. 400 entered 
 Spain. Driven hence by the Goths, 
 they crossed to Africa, and were there 
 
 conquered by Justinian, A. D. 534.- 
 
 Eaque, sc. esse. Ceterum marks a 
 
 transition as the author passes from 
 the various ancientnamesof the Ger- 
 mans to their modern and universal 
 name. 
 
 2. Gerinaniae vocahultmif sc. esse. 
 Tacitus does not mean that the word 
 itself was only recently used. It 
 seems to have been known long be- 
 fore his time; for in the Fasti Oapi- 
 tolini, for B. C. 222, they are mentioned 
 as defeated with the InsubrianGauls 
 by the Roman consul Marcellus. 
 What he intends to say is, that the 
 name had only recently been given 
 to the whole country, having previ- 
 ously been the designation of a single 
 tribe ; j ust as the Gracci, a tribe some- 
 where in the vicinity of the Achelous, 
 eventually gave their name to the 
 
 whole country of Greece. G«*j sc. 
 
 li, as subj . of vocati sint. 
 
 3. JRlienunt transgressi. Accord- 
 ing to Caesar, the Belgae were of Ger- 
 
 man origin, having crossed the Rhi DC 
 and dispossessed the Gauls.— JSirjufff- 
 rint: subj. in indirect discourse. Cf. 
 Vocentur above. For confirmation of 
 the statement here made. i'i. Cacs. 
 
 B.G.H.A. TungrifSG.vocetUur. The 
 
 part occupied by the Tuugri seems to 
 have been held previously by tlie 
 Eburones,in the modern province of 
 Limburg, near Tongres, LiOge, and 
 Maastricht. 
 
 4. Germani. Various meanings 
 have been assigned to this word. 
 According to some they were called 
 Germani, as true Gauls, and brothers 
 of the Keltic race; according to 
 others the name is connected with 
 the Germani, a Persian tribe (Herod. 
 1. 125) ; others derive it from the Ger- 
 man Giver or Tre?)r, making it equiv- 
 alent to warriors ("Wehrmanner). It, 
 however, seems most likely to be a 
 Keltic word, derived from the Gaelic 
 goir, or gair, to cry out, and gainn, 
 gairm^an, a cry: in the sense of men 
 good at the battle shout ; like Homer's 
 ^oyv ayadSg. If so, it was the name 
 used by their neighbors to designate 
 the Germans ; not by the Germans to 
 designate either the whole, or any 
 portion of themselves. This practice 
 of calling a people by a name never 
 adopted by themselves is commc^n. 
 
 Vocati sint. The subjunctive, 
 
 again, conveying the opinion of 
 
 others. Vid. K. on vocentur ahove. 
 
 Itn, in this wai/, does not belong to the 
 following ut in the sense of adeo ut, 
 etc. — N<ftioiiiSfOf asingle tribe. JVatio 
 is here used to denote a subdivision 
 of the whole race, or gens. 
 
 5. JEvaluisse paulattnif gradually 
 
 prevailed. jI victore, i. e., theTun- 
 
 gri. Ob metitnif for the purpose of 
 
 inspiring /ear,=ut mctus Qallis iniic^ 
 retur. 
 
16 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 mox etiam a se ipsis, invento nominej Germani vocarentur. 
 III. Fuisse apud eos et Herculem memorant, primumque 
 omnium virorum fortium ituri in proelia canunt. Sunt illis 
 haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu, quern barditum vocant, 
 accendunt animos, futuraeque pugnae fortunam ipso cantu 
 augurantur. Terrent enim trepidantve^ prout sonuit acies; 
 
 1, A. se ipsiSf i. e., the people 
 of Germany as a "whole. — Invento 
 nmnine, i. e., " when once the name 
 had been invented." As far as I am 
 able to understand this most per- 
 plexing passage, it means this: the 
 Tungri, having crossed the Rhine, 
 established themselves on the left 
 bank: in order to keep the neighbor- 
 ing Gauls in a chronic state of fear, 
 and possibly deter them from com- 
 bining to expel them, they were con- 
 stantly reminding them of the prob- 
 ability of the arrival of other tribes 
 like themselves to effect further con- 
 quests. As their own name, Ger- 
 manif was an alamaing one to the 
 Gauls they thought itpolitic toapply 
 the same appellation to their coun- 
 trymen generally. Presently these 
 tribes themselves saw their advan- 
 tage in adopting the same name, as it 
 invested them at once with a formid- 
 able prestige. Vocarentur, A. 336; 
 
 G. 653; H.524. 
 
 CHAP. III. 2. Aptid eos shows that 
 the subject of memorant is not Ger- 
 mmilf but some word as populi, or 
 scriptares. A. 98, c; G. 294; H. 449, 1. 
 
 Mervith-m, i. e., some German 
 
 deity, whose attributes correspond in 
 the main with those of the Greek and 
 Roman Hercules. This habit is com- 
 mon in the Latin writers. Vid. 
 
 Note in Chap. IX. Prii/iMm, sc. 
 
 eum^qirincipem, the most eminent. 
 
 3. Virortiiii fortiunif i. e., heroes 
 
 and warriors. Canunt, sc. Gei-- 
 
 tnani. — Sunt Introduces a digression 
 which extends to cetertim. 
 
 4. Uaeo quoque carmhui, these well 
 known songs. Quoque following haec 
 makes it emphatic. A.345,b; G.481; 
 H. 569, III. These songs in honor of 
 
 Hercules, and other heroes, chanted 
 before entering Into battle to influ- 
 ence the courage of the warriors, are 
 to be distinguished from the purely 
 mythological poems, mentioned in 
 
 chap. II. JRelatu, recital, indicates 
 
 that these songs were actual narrar 
 tives of illustrious exploits. The word 
 
 is found only in Tacitus. JBardi- 
 
 tum. This is the reading of most 
 manuscripts. The word is of Keltic 
 origin, so, the Germans can hardly 
 be supposed to have designated a na- 
 tive custom by a foreign term. The 
 practice of course existed among 
 the Kelts; and it is probable that 
 Tacitus derived his information in 
 this respect from a Keltic source, and 
 consequently the practice of the Ger- 
 mans, resembling as it did that of the 
 Gauls, was not unnaturally described 
 by his informers in words familiar to 
 their ears, as descriptive of their own 
 customs. This custom was retained 
 bythe Scandinavian nations. Lucan, 
 I. 447 et seq. mentions these Keltic 
 bards. 
 
 5. JPuturaeque pugnae. This idea 
 of divining the result of a battle from 
 the character of the shouts raised by 
 the two armies before engaging ex- 
 isted among the Highlanders. At 
 the battle of Killicrankie, Cameron 
 declared to his men that the battle 
 would be gained because their shouts 
 were more lively than those of their 
 opponents,— a prediction, as it hap- 
 pened, verified. Ipso catitu=ex 
 
 solo sono, from the mere sound of the 
 sang. 
 
 6. Trepidci/ntve, or tremble vMhfear. 
 Ve, although' giving a choice, implies 
 that the probability is in favor of the 
 first alternative. JProut sonuit 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 17 
 
 nee tarn vocis ille quam virtutis concentus videtur. Adfecta- 
 tur praecipue asperitas soni et fractum murmur, obiectis ad os 
 scutis, quo plenior et gravior vox repercussu intumescat, 
 Ceterum et Ulixem quidam opinantur longo illo et fabuloso 
 errore in hunc Oceanum delatum adisse Germaniae terras, 5 
 Asciburgiumque, quod in ripa Rheni sitimi hodieque incoli- 
 tur, ab illo constitutum nominatumque ; aram quin etiam 
 Ulixi consecratam, adiecto Laertae patris nomine, eodera loco 
 olim repertam, monumentaque et tumulos quosdam Graecis 
 litteris inscriptos in confinio Germaniae Eaetiaeque adhuclO 
 exstare. Quae neque confirmare argumentis neque refellere 
 
 acies, i. e., according to the nature of 
 the cry proceeding from the line,when 
 drawn up in hattle array. 
 
 1. Vocis (concentus), a chorzts of Ku- 
 
 man voices. Ille refers to harditum. 
 
 Virtutis concentus , the conspiring 
 
 cry of valor. Jidfectatur, is pleas- 
 ing. 
 
 2. Fractum murmur^ a broken, sul- 
 len roar, like that of thunder, the sea, 
 etc., made in the manner described 
 in the next clause. 
 
 3. Mepercussu is a late Latin word 
 for the earlier repercitssa, or repercu- 
 tiendo. Intumescat: sabj. of pur- 
 pose, after quo, in order that, which 
 usually takes the place of ut when 
 used in conjunction with a compara- 
 tive. A. 317, b ; G. 545, 2 ; H. 497, 2. 
 
 4. TTlixeni. The ten years' wander- 
 ing of Ulysses formed a convenient 
 receptacle for stray traditions or 
 guesses among the ancients. Strabo 
 ( III. 2 ) gets him to Iberia, as the 
 founder of Ulyssea^ or Lisbon. Soli- 
 nus carries him still further north, to 
 
 Caledonia. Longo, i. e., extending 
 
 over ten years. Ulo : emphatic, 
 
 that well known. Fabuloso, "storied, 
 
 celebrated in song.'' T. 
 
 5. Sunc Oceanum, 1. e., the North- 
 ern Ocean which has already been 
 mentioned. 
 
 6. ^sciburgium. Probably the 
 modern Asburg, where many antiq- 
 uities have been found, near the left 
 
 bank of the Lower Rhine, near Neuss 
 (opposite Diisseldorf). — Situ m , sc. est. 
 
 7. Constitutum, nominatumque, 
 sc. esse. Quin etiam, furthermore. 
 
 8. Ulixi: dat. of apparent agent. 
 
 A. 232, a; G. 352; H. 388, 1. Adiecto 
 
 .... nomine. On the altar, after 
 the name of Ulysses, was inscribed 
 Kaeprtddy^ Son of iaer^es, according to 
 
 the Grecian custom. Fodem loco : 
 
 sc. in, which is commonly omitted 
 with loco, whenever an adjective 
 modiiying it is used. A. 258, f; G. 
 385, R; H. 425, 2. 
 
 9. Mc'pcrtant, SC. esse. Tumulos, 
 
 tombs. Graecis litteris inscriptos. 
 
 Caesar mentions (I. 29) that in the 
 camp of the Helvetii were found lists 
 made out in Greek characters ; and 
 also (VI. 14) that the Druids em- 
 ploy the same. The knowledge of 
 them no doubt spread from Massilia, 
 a Phocaean colony ; but it was prob- 
 ably very partially extended. As for 
 these inscriptions on the confines of 
 Raetia, as that country was Keltic, 
 the characters were probably Keltic 
 also; although Count Marsigli and 
 others have found monuments with 
 Greek inscriptions in Germany, but 
 not of so early an age. 
 
 11. Quae neque, etc. Cf. Livy. 
 Preface : * Fa nee adfirmare nee refel- 
 lere in animo est,' which Tacitus may 
 have had in view when he wrote this 
 sentence. 
 
18 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 in animo est; ex ingenio suo quisque demat vel addat 
 fidem. 
 
 IV. Ipse eorum opinionibus accedo, qui Germaniae popu- 
 los nullis aliis aliarum nationum conubiis infectos propriara 
 5 et sinceram et tantum sui sirailem gentera exstitisse arbi- 
 trantur. Unde habitus quoque corporum, quamquam in 
 tanto hominum numero, idem omnibus; truces et caerulei 
 oculi, rutilae comae, magna corpora et tantum ad impe- 
 tum valida; laboris atque operum non eadem patientia: 
 
 1. In anittho estf sc. tnihi. JEx 
 
 ingenio suo, according to his inclinor 
 
 tion. Demat: imperative subj. A. 
 
 266; G. 256, 3; H. 484, IV. Thisideais: 
 If he be credulous, let him believe it; 
 but if skeptical deny it. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 4. Aliis, apparently re- 
 dundant, is used to bring out the idea 
 of the difference between the Ger- 
 m.ans and all other barbarians more 
 clearly : one with one nation, and an- 
 other vnth another. It is omitted by 
 some editors ; bracketed by others, 
 although found in all MSS. In- 
 fectos, changed. Although inficio does 
 not always imply a change for the 
 worse, yet Tacitus does here certainly 
 mean that any intermixture of blood 
 
 would m,ake the race deteriorate. 
 
 Proprlani, peculiar. 
 
 5. Sincerant is here used in its 
 original sense, without admixture or 
 
 alloy. Tantunh sui simifini, only 
 
 like ifseff. Mmilis usually has the 
 gen. when it expresses some internal 
 resemblance of character; otherwise 
 the dative. A. 218, d ; G. 356, R. 1 ; H. 
 391,11.4. 
 
 6. Habitus eorpmnirnf physical cJiar- 
 acfcriMics. 
 
 7. Iih'}ii, SC. est. OmnibiiSf dat. 
 
 of possess. Titires. Thisflerceness 
 
 of aspect was a peculiarity of the Ger- 
 mans mentioned to Caesar by tlie 
 Gauls and Roman traders. Caes. 1.39. 
 
 Cnrrttlei ocuH. This feature is 
 
 often alluded to by the Roman 
 writers: cf. Juv. XIII. 164; Hor. JEp. 
 XVI. 7; Tac.^fir.XI. 
 
 8. Mutilae cmnae. Pliny (XXVIII. 
 
 12) says the Germans endeavored to 
 increase the redness of their hair by 
 the use of a soap, lixivium, and this 
 was used by the Romans, as Martial 
 notices (JSp. VIII. 33). The prevalence 
 of these physical features (although 
 they are still preserved to a consid- 
 erable extent, especially among the 
 people of the highlands of middle 
 Germany, and the adjoining borders 
 of the northern lowlands) is, by no 
 m,eans, in our day universal among 
 the Germans: nevertheless, as com- 
 pared with the dark complexions 
 and hair of Italy, these descriptions 
 of them were no doubt true ; besides 
 which the type of the race may have 
 been materially altered by mixture , 
 with other nations. J^agna cor- 
 pora, Strabo (VII. 1) says the Ger- 
 mans were bigger men than the 
 Kelts, although these were always 
 considered a much taller race than 
 the Italians. Sidonius Apolliuaris 
 makes a Joke about the muses' 
 scorning a metre of six feet when 
 the patrons of their verses were 
 
 seven feet high.- Tantum ad itn- 
 
 petum valida, powei'ful <mlyf{yr a brief 
 onset. 
 
 9. Operum, protracted work. Caesar 
 (VI. 21) says the Germans labori 
 ac duritiae student ; by which he prob- 
 ably means that they were trained 
 up to undergo toil and hardship in 
 
 war. Non eadem patientia, sc. 
 
 est iis. JUinvmeque, and least of 
 
 all. 
 
THE GEEMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 19 
 
 minimeque sitim aestumque tolerare, frigora atque inediam 
 caelo solove adsueverunt. 
 
 V. Terra, etsi aliquanto specie differt, in universum tamen 
 aut silvis horrida aut paludibus foeda; humidior qua Gallias, 
 ventosior qua Noricum ac Pannoniam aspicit; satis ferax, 
 frugiferarum arborum impatiens, pecorum fecunda; sed ple- 
 
 1, 2. AesUitnque. In th6 battle of 
 Vercellae, the Cimbri are said by 
 Plutarch to have been totally over- 
 come by the excessive heat, running 
 down with perspiration, and using 
 their shields to cover their faces 
 
 from the sun. Tolerare depends 
 
 on adsueverunt. It belongs to both 
 
 clauses. Before /rigrora supply sed, 
 
 antithetic to rthininieqiie. The mean 
 temperature of Europe was probar 
 bly more severe in winter than it is 
 now ; and it was certainly so in" Ger- 
 many, one indication being that 
 reindeer appear to have existed 
 there, now only found in higher lati- 
 tudes. No doubt the clearing away 
 the forests, draining the marshes, 
 and similar operations, have con- 
 siderably mitigated the climate. 
 
 Caelo solove: abl. of cause. Fe is 
 disjunctive, referring caeZo to /ri^'ora, 
 and solo to inediam. "What Tacitus 
 implies is that the climate produces 
 endurance in the one case, and the 
 natural character of the soil, endur- 
 ance in the other. 
 
 CHAP. V. 3. Aliqua'ntOf to a con- 
 siderable extent; an abl. denoting 
 the degree of difference commonly 
 
 regarded as an adverb. Specie : 
 
 abl. of respect. 
 
 4. Silvis horrida^ sc. est. These 
 forests lay chiefly in the parts occu- 
 pied by the High Germans in Thu- 
 ringia, Saubia, Hesse, and Franconia. 
 Some of the best known were the 
 Hercynia, Marciana (southern part 
 of the Blk. Forest), BaceniSj SeTnanus 
 (parts of the Hartz and Thtirm- 
 gerwald), Oabreta (the Bohmerwald), 
 the Oaesia (between the Lippe and 
 the Yssel), and the IJucus Baduhennae 
 (in Friesland). The woods are still 
 
 extensive in Germany, especially 
 among the hills, where the forest 
 trees grow to a large size. The east- 
 ern regions of the northern lowlands 
 abound with trees, and a narrow 
 strip along the Baltic is covered with 
 
 oaks and beeches. Faludibus 
 
 foeda. These fen districts lay chiefly 
 in the north-western parts of the 
 country, Friesland, "Westphalia, etc. 
 Even at the present day the shores 
 of the North sea are lined with 
 marshes, five or six miles across, and 
 below the level of the ocean at high 
 water. To these Tacitus alludes when 
 he says it is damp towards the Gallic 
 frontier. Pomponius Mela gives the 
 names of three, viz., Suesia, Estia^ 
 
 and Melisagium. JSifinidior, qua 
 
 Gallias, sc. aspicil. This humidity is 
 owing to the large forests, rivers, 
 lakes, and marshes. Ottilias is used 
 in the plural to denote all the Roman 
 divisions of Gaul. 
 
 5. Fen*o«ior=the Homeric yvEfzdeiCy 
 windy, i. e., exposed to winds, or lofty. 
 
 Koricum. This country extended 
 
 from the Aenvs on the west, to Mt. 
 Cetius on the east, by which it was 
 separated from Pannonia, and lay 
 between the Save and Julian Alps in 
 the south : it consequently comprised 
 the modern districts of Carinthia, the 
 
 Tyrol, and Salzburg. Satis: abl. 
 
 plu. perf. pass. part, of sero. It is used 
 for any crops raised by cultivation, 
 and is frequent in "Vergil. There are 
 especially mentioned oats, wheat, 
 barley, and millet, as grown in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 6. Arborum impatienSf unproduc- 
 tive of fruit trees. This must not be 
 taken absolutely, as Tacitus was no 
 doubt thinking here of the contrast 
 
20 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 rumque improcera. Ne armentis quidem suus honor aut 
 gloria frontis; numero gaudent, eaeque solae et gratis- 
 simae opes sunt. Argentum et aurum propitil an irati dii 
 negaverint dubito. Nee tamen adfirmaverim nullam Ger- 
 
 5 maniae venam argentum aurumve gignere ; quis enim 
 scrutatus est ? Possessione et usu hand perlnde adficiuntur. 
 Est videre apud illos argentea vasa, legatis et principlbus 
 eorum muneri data, non in alia vilitate quani quae humo 
 finguntur, quamquam proximi, ob usum commerciorum, au- 
 
 lOrum et argentum in pretio habent, formasque quasdam 
 nostrae pecuniae agnoscunt atque eligunt, Interiores simpli- 
 cius et antiquius permutatione mercium utuntur. Pecuniam 
 
 presented by Germany to Italy with 
 its olive, vines, cherry, plum, and 
 other rich fruit trees, for he himself 
 speaks of arbfyresfrugiferae, and ^oma 
 
 agrestia in this book (cap. X.). 
 
 :Pecoruni / smaller cattle, or flocks in 
 general. 
 
 1. Improcera, sc. ilia siini,ref erring 
 to pecora. They were no doubt 
 dwarfed by the severity of the 
 climate, as they still are in colder 
 latitudes. A-rmentis, dat. of pos- 
 sess, after est understood, refers to 
 the larger cattle, and Tacitus here in- 
 cludes apparently both horses and 
 oxen ; the suus honor , usual stateli- 
 nesSj will then mean that the Jwrses 
 do not attain their full growth and 
 beauty, and gloria frontis {dignity of 
 brow, i. e., horns), will refer to the 
 oxen. 
 
 2. Numero fin the number of them, 
 
 rather than in the quality. Eaeque 
 
 agrees with opes, instead of ea with 
 armento , 
 
 3. PropiUi an, irati, "wfiether in 
 kindness or in anger." 
 
 4. Negaverint: subj. of ind. ques- 
 tion. Adfirjnaverim. Cf. Note on 
 
 crediderim, cap. II. 
 
 5. Argentwrn. aurumve gignere. 
 Tacitus {An. XL 20) mentions a silver 
 mine opened and worked for a short 
 time, but soon exhausted. In the 
 
 lands of the Mattiaci. Of this he had 
 probably not heard when he wrote 
 the present work. Mines of gold and 
 silver have since been discovered in 
 Germany, which are very valuable. , 
 
 6. JPossesaione et ttsu, by iJie posses- 
 sion and use of such vessels, etc., as 
 
 they have. Perinde, se. ac aliae 
 
 nationes. Cf. Agric. X. ' mare neventis 
 guidem. perinde attolli ;' not raised like 
 other seas. 
 
 7. Mat = earlier licet. Cf. Greek 
 
 EffTi for i^EffTi. JPrindpihus mu~ 
 
 neri : two datives ; one to which., the 
 other/or which. 
 
 8. Non in alia vilitate ^in eadem 
 vilitate; i. e., in the same low estimar 
 
 tion as, etc. Humo : abl. of ma^ 
 
 terial. 
 
 9. Quamquam denotes concession. 
 
 Froximi, i. e., to the Romans, 
 
 from dwelling on the banks of the 
 Rhine or Danube. 
 
 10. In pretio, in value. Formas, 
 
 i. e., pieces of money, evidently with 
 reference to the device upon the 
 coin. 
 
 11. 12. JEliguntf thep prefer them be- 
 cause they know them. Interiores 
 
 is contrasted wlthproximi. — SimpU- 
 cius et antiquius, i. e., according to 
 the simpler and more primitive 
 mode. 
 
THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 21 
 
 probant veterem et diu notam, serratos bigatosque. Argen- 
 tum quoque magis quam aurum sequuntur, nulla adfectione 
 animi, sed quia numerus argenteorum facilior usui est 
 promiscua ac vilia mercaDtibus. 
 
 VI. Ne ferrum quidem superest, sicut ex genere telorum 
 coUigitur. Rari gladiis aut maioribus lanceis utuntur. 
 Hastas, vel ipsorum vocabulo frameas, gerunt angusto et 
 brevi ferro, sed ita acri et ad usum habili, ut eodem telo, 
 prout ratio poscit, vel cominus vel eminus pugnent. Et 
 
 1. SetTUtos Ingatosque. These 
 coins are the denarii. They were sil- 
 ver, and on the obverse usually have 
 the head of Rome with a helmet, or 
 the Dioscuri, or Jupiter, and on the 
 reverse a two horsed chariot. Owing 
 to the vice and corruption among the 
 Romans, their coin became debased 
 and adulterated. The serraii and 
 bigati being old coins, and of purer 
 silver than those of the Emperors 
 were preferred by the Germans owing 
 to their fear of being cheated. One 
 means of testing coin was to cut the 
 edges like the teeth of a saw [serra], 
 by which it could be seen whether 
 the metal was the same throughout, 
 or only plated. These were the Serraii. 
 Sometimes the reverse bore a four- 
 horsed chariot, when they were called 
 quadrigati. 
 
 2. SeqwuntuTf they seek after. The 
 Romans had this same predilection 
 for silver coin, and probably for the 
 
 same reason. ■ Nulla adfectione 
 
 animi f not on account of any bias. 
 
 3. Numerus, the great numbei; on 
 account of their lesser relative value. 
 
 Argenteorunif sc. nuTnmorum. 
 
 Facilior f more convenient. 
 
 4. JSercantibfuSf^c iis : dat. of re- 
 moter object, 
 
 CHAP. VI. 5. JVc ferrum quidem 
 superest. There is a simlar use of 
 the word in Cap. XXVI., 'arva per 
 annos mutant et superest ager,' there 
 is Umd enough and to spare: here it 
 means, even of iron there is no super- 
 
 abundance. This of course only proves 
 the Germans not to have had any 
 great amount of skill in extracting 
 the ore, for there are large iron mines 
 in certain parts of the country, Bohe- 
 mia for instance. In the graves of 
 the earliest period known in Ger- 
 many the weapons found are of bone 
 or stone, and it is after a considerable 
 period apparently thatiron or bronze 
 arms are found. Ex genere telo- 
 rum. "According to .<4n., II. 14, the 
 Germans had neither helmet nor 
 coat of mail ; even their shields were 
 not strengthened with iron or 
 leather, but were merely a contexture 
 of twigs or thin painted boards ; only 
 their first rank was armed with 
 spears, the rest had short darts hard- 
 ened by fire." 
 
 6. ColligituTf can be inferred. 
 
 Marl, a very few. This word is used 
 of anything, the parts of which are 
 separated by large interstices or inter- 
 vals, and is opposed to densus. 
 
 7. Trameas This word is undoubt- 
 edly a Latinized form of the Teutonic 
 pfriem^ the point of a weapon. An awl, 
 or bodkin, is still in German called 
 pfrieme. 
 
 8. Ferro: abl. of description. 
 
 Sabili, convenient, handy. 
 
 9. Matio, the case, lit., a considera- 
 tion of the case. Comdnus vel emi- 
 nus. It would appear from An., II. 
 14, that these spears were unman- 
 ageable in an engagement among 
 trees and bushes, on account of their 
 length. Fuffnent: result. 
 
22 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 eques quidem scuto frameaque contentus est; pedites et 
 missilia spargunt, pluraque singuli atque in immensum 
 vibrant nudi aut sagulo leves, Nulla cultus iactatio ; scuta 
 tantum lectissimis coloribus distinguunt. Paucis lorlcae, 
 5 vix uni alterive cassis aut galea. Equi non forma, non 
 velocitate conspicui. Sed nee variare gyros in morem 
 
 1. Smito fra'meaqti.e : abl. of the 
 cause of contentus est. 
 
 2. Spargunt : poetical. Flura 
 
 singuli. The construction is singuli 
 
 pedites spargunt pltir a missilia. In, 
 
 i-inmeiisntn, sc. spathim. 
 
 3. Nudi denotes that the person 
 
 was without any upper garment. 
 
 Sagulo: diminutive of sagum. 
 
 Leves, lightly clad. Cultus, pei'sonal 
 
 equipmt'nts. Iactatio. Note the use 
 
 of the abstract noun, where Augus- 
 tan writers would use the verb. 
 
 have been found in England— seem 
 to have been round, and, like the 
 others, formed of wood, often thatof 
 the linden-tree. These round bucklers 
 were perhaps borrowed from the 
 Slavonian tribes in the east of Ger- 
 many. I/oricae, sc, sunt. 
 
 5. Cassis aut galea. The Cassis, 
 a casque^ was a helmet of which me- 
 tallic plates formed a constituent 
 part : galea was a headpiece m.ade of 
 
 leather or skin. JForwta, in build: 
 
 abl. of cause. 
 
 GBOUP OF ROMAN ARMS. 
 
 -1. Scuta tantum- lectissimis col&i'i- 
 hus. These shields are described, 
 An., II. 14 ; they were made of twisted 
 osiers, or Iioards stained with vari- 
 ous {(ilors, and were very large. The 
 coloring at first denoted the valor, 
 afterward the nobility of the bearer; 
 and in process of time gave origin to 
 the armorial designs so famous in 
 the ages of chivalry. The Norse 
 shields, probably not unlike, them, 
 were three cornered, long, and cover- 
 ing the whole body ; in time of war 
 they were painted red; in time of 
 peace, white. The Saxon shields, on 
 the contrary— the remains of which 
 
 6. Conspicui, sc. sunt. Sed nee. 
 
 Nec^^ne quidem.- Variare gyros. 
 
 Glints is used to denote the ring in 
 which horses run when first broken 
 in ; and the words iim-iare gyros seem 
 to mean 'to wheel rapidly to right 
 oi* left at the word of command,' so 
 as to pivot round the innermostman, 
 the whole line throughout the 
 manoeuvre remaining unbent; in 
 fact, its extremity traced out a circle, 
 round a fixed point. Others describe 
 it to be a movement something like 
 the figure 8. The idea is that the 
 horses are neither swift, handsome 
 nor well trained. 
 
THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 23 
 
 nostrum docentur; in rectum aut uno flexu dextros agunt, 
 ita coniuncto orbe ut nemo posterior sit. In universum 
 aestimanti plus penes peditem roboris; eoque mixti proe- 
 liantur, apta et congruente ad equestrem pugnam veloeitate 
 peditum, quos ex omni iuventute delectos ante aciem locaut. 5 
 Definitur et numerus ; centeni ex singulis pagis sunt, idque 
 ipsum inter suos vocanturj et quod primo numerus fuit, iam 
 nomen et honor est. Acies per cuneos componitur. Cedere 
 loco, dunimodo rursus instes, consilii quam formidinis arbi- 
 trantur. Corpora suorum etiam in dubiis proeliis referunt. 10 
 Scutum reliquisse praecipuum flagitium, nee aut sacris adesse 
 
 1. In rectum .... posterior sit. 
 
 They drive them straight forward^ or by 
 a continued tuminff towards the right 
 in so connected a circle, that no one is 
 behind. Tacitus may mean that the 
 riders moved forward on the radius 
 of a circle, in a manner correspond- 
 ing to our 'wheeling;' or that the 
 riders followed one another so closely 
 that the ring once formed may he 
 said to have neither heglnnlng nor 
 end, and hence no one was behind 
 the rest. 
 
 2, 3. In universum aestimanti. 
 This use of the dative of the partici- 
 ple, expressing a sort of Judgment or 
 opinion in any one, and equivalent 
 here to a protasis, si quis asstimat, is 
 found elsewhere in Tacitus. Of. Mist., 
 IV. 17; V. H: Ag., XI. The ellipsis is 
 supplied by venit in Tnentem, credibile 
 est, etc. A. 235 ; G. 354 ; H. 384, 4, N. 3. 
 
 Eoque Tniocti proelianturf i. e., 
 
 equites mixti cmnpeditibusproeliantur. 
 Caesar (1. 48) gives an exact account 
 of this mode of fighting. 
 
 6. Centeni, This division by hun- 
 dreds was wide spread among the 
 ancient tribes of Germany and Scan- 
 dinavia. Idque ipsunif this very 
 
 thing, 1. e., they were called ' the Hun- 
 dred.^ To understand this. It Is to be 
 noted that the Germans were divided- 
 Into nations or tribes,— these into 
 cantons, and these Into districts or 
 townships. The cantons (jpagi in 
 
 Latin) were called by themselves 
 gauen. The districts or townships 
 were called hunderts, whence the 
 English 'hundreds.' The Suevi are 
 said to have had 100 of these pagl; the 
 Helvetli only 4. 
 
 7. Mt quod (=id quod) primo nu- 
 tnerus fuit/ and i?iai which was at first 
 a mere number. 
 
 8. JSTomen et hontyr Is a hendiadys. 
 
 Per cuneos. The cuneus was a 
 
 body of men arranged in the form of 
 a wedge— narrow In front and widen- 
 ing towards the rear; hence well 
 adapted for breaking the lines of the 
 enemy, as all their weapons were di- 
 rected to one spot. " The plural indi- 
 cates that each body formed a cuneus 
 and that many cunei formed the 
 acies.'' C. and S. 
 
 9. locof sc. ex. Instes: subj. 
 
 after dttmmodo implying condition. 
 
 Consilii quam formidinis f sc. 
 
 poiius. This ellipsis Is not uncommon 
 in Tacitus. Cf. An., IV. 61 ; XIII. 6; 
 III. 17. 
 
 10. Corpora, i. e., of the dead. In 
 
 dubiis proeliis f i. e., while the result 
 
 of the battle is still doubtful. 
 
 Jteferunt, they carry back, 1. e., to the 
 rear. 
 
 11. Scutum reliquisse (est) flagi- 
 tium. To leave the shield behind in 
 battle was regarded by Teutonic na- 
 tions, long after the age of Tacitus, as 
 a singular disgrace. By the Salic 
 
24 
 
 THE GERMANIA OP TACITTTS. 
 
 aut concilium inire ignominioso fas ; multique superstites 
 bellorum infamiam laqueo finierunt. 
 
 VII. Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt. Nee 
 regibus infinita aut libera potestas, et duces exemplo potius 
 quam imperio, si prompti, si conspicui, si ante aciem agant, 
 
 law, any freeman, who accused an- 
 other of having thrown his shield 
 away, was condemned to pay a heavy 
 fine, if unable to prove his words. In 
 this respect these nations resembled 
 the Greeks and Romans. The fact that 
 ^iipacTTi^ was a term of bitter re- 
 proach, and the Spartan mother's 
 laconic address to her son on issuing 
 to battle, "H rav tj eTri rag, this, or upon 
 this J are indications of this feeling. 
 
 1. Ignominioso fas, sc. est. 
 
 Multi, sc. ignominioso. Superstites 
 
 bellorum. The use of the gen. after 
 superstes Is very rare except In late 
 Latin. 
 
 2. Laqueo. A feeling similar to 
 this was displayed by a Spartan who 
 from accidental absence escaped the 
 carnage of the three hundred at 
 Thermopylae. Unable to bear the 
 disgrace of surviving he hanged him- 
 self. Herod., VII. 229. Finierunt: 
 
 aoristic. 
 
 CHAP, VII. 3. JtegeSf Ciml rulers. 
 It is distinctly stated in other pas- 
 sages that not all of the nations of 
 Germany had kings. As the repub- 
 lican nations were chiefly in the 
 western parts, they were better 
 known by the Romans. This will 
 explain the apparent disagreement 
 with Caesar, who says (B. O., VI. 23), 
 in pace nuHus est communis magistra- 
 tus. HJx 7iofyllltatc, according to no- 
 bility of birth. Nobilitas is used by 
 several writers for the body of nobles, 
 but here it has its usual meaning of 
 high birth; and the monarchy is de- 
 scribed as at once elective and hered- 
 itary. The regard paid to family in 
 this m.atter is seen from the account 
 recorded by Tacitus {An. XI. 16) of 
 the wish of the Cherusci to procure a 
 ecion of their royal house from Rome. 
 
 The real fact probably was that the 
 king was chosen from one family, or 
 occasionally from more than one. 
 In a rude and turbulent age, when a 
 good deal depended on the personal 
 character of the ruler, weak princes 
 and minors were not likely to meet 
 with much consideration; and, con- 
 sequently, although the succession 
 was thus limited to one family, the 
 electors would not pay much regard 
 to the claims of any particular mem- 
 ber of it, thinking more of thews and 
 sinews than of strict hereditary right. 
 In the Saxon history, at all events, 
 instances of the sort were not un- 
 common. Alfred, for instance, as- 
 cended the throne to the exclusion 
 of the children of his elder brother. 
 In the early periods the king was 
 only the chief magistrate in peace. 
 If he were warlike {virtute), the na- 
 tion no doubt accepted him as their 
 leader in war {duces); if not they 
 chose others. Sumunt. From Taci- 
 tus' account {Hist., IV. 15) the usual 
 ceremony observed on election was, 
 to place the man on a shield, and 
 carry him about on the shoulders of 
 his countrymen. Gregory of Tours 
 mentions the same custom as pre- 
 vailing among the Franks. See en- 
 graving at the head of theGermania. 
 "Nee is correlative to ef." 
 
 4. Infinita potestas. Caesar (V, 27) 
 makes Ambiorix, king of the Eburo- 
 nes, remark that the power of the 
 people over him was quite as greatas 
 his over the people; and this was 
 probably as applicable to the Ger- 
 mans beyond the Rhine, who were 
 not likely, with their fondness for 
 liberty, to submit to much restraint. 
 
 Duces, sc. ducunt. Exemplo, 
 
 imperio : abl. of means ; not datives. 
 
 5. JPro'inptl, sc. siiU : also with con- 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 25 
 
 admiratione praesunt. Ceterum neque animadvertere neque 
 vincire, ne verberare quidem nisi sacerdotibus permissum, 
 non quasi in poenam nee ducis iussu, sed velut deo im- 
 perante, quern adesse bellantibus credunt; effigiesque et 
 signa quaedam detracta lucis in proelium ferunt. Quodque 5 
 praecipuum fortitudinis incitamentum est, non casus nee 
 fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et 
 propinquitates ; et in proximo pignora, unde feminarum 
 ululatus audiri, unde vagitus infantium : hi cuique sanc- 
 tissimi testes, hi maximi laudatores. Ad matres, ad coniugeslO 
 vulnera ferunt ; nee illae numerare aut exigere plagas pavent, 
 cibosque et hortamina pugnantibus gestant. 
 
 spicui. These with agant are subj. 
 as giving the views of others than 
 Tacitus. 
 
 1. A.dmiratione, by means of the ad- 
 miration which they inspire. A.ni- 
 
 niadvertere here means to put to 
 death. Caesar says (VI. 23), that the 
 leaders in war have the power of life 
 and death, but this may only mean 
 that they have the highest judicial 
 authority. 
 
 2. Viiicvref to put in irons. Ne ver- 
 berare quidem. The Roman centu- 
 rion could do as much as this, and for 
 that purpose he carried a staff of vine 
 
 wood. yisi sacerdotibus. In this 
 
 way the punishment would seem to 
 
 be clothed with divine authority. 
 
 JPermissumf sc. est. 
 
 3. In poenaifn, for punishment. 
 
 J)eo. The god Thor, the German 
 Mars, after whom Thursday was 
 named, is meant. 
 
 4. 5. Mjfigiesque et signa. What 
 these were Is seen from Cap. XLV, 
 Hnsignesuperstitionis formas aprorum 
 gestant;' and JSist. IV. 22, ' depromp- 
 tae silvis ludsgue ferarum imagines, ut 
 cuique genii inire proelium mos est.' 
 Hence it seems that they were sym- 
 bolic images, generally of wild ani- 
 mals, and were national standards 
 preserved with religious care in 
 sacred woods and groves, whence 
 they were brought out {detracta lucis) 
 when the clan was about to take the 
 
 field. Quodque {=eiquod) refers to 
 
 the following clause. 
 
 7. CottglobatiOfinass of men. A word 
 found only in post-Augustan writers 
 
 and very rare in them. Tu/r^na^n : 
 
 cavalry. Cuneum: infantry. 
 
 8. I*ropinquitateSf kindred, is a 
 word of wider extent than familiae. 
 As Ritter observes, gentes would have 
 been the natural word to use, if it 
 would not have rendered the passage 
 ambiguous from its double use for 
 
 clan and tribe. In proximo (loco), 
 
 sc. sunt, IHgnora, pledges, i. e,, 
 
 whatever they hold most dear. What 
 Tacitus refers to is explained by the 
 immediate mention of wives and 
 children, — Unde refers to in proximo. 
 
 9. Audiri, sc. possit. Some call it 
 the historic infinitive. Ritter, how- 
 ever, says this infinitive is restricted 
 to past narratives. Kritz reads audi- 
 
 tur. Ouique: dat. of poss. attersunt 
 
 understood. 
 
 10. Testes f witnesses of their conduct 
 in the battle. 
 
 11. Ji^ej-Mti*; when the battle is over. 
 
 Mxigere here seems to be used in 
 
 the sense of requiring a strict reckon- 
 ing or scrutinizing. The women ex- 
 amined the wounds to see if there 
 were enough of them, and in the 
 right place, in front, not behind; re- 
 garding the number of the wounds as 
 a measure of the prowess of the men. 
 
 12. Cibosque Itorta/mi/naf food a/nd 
 
26 
 
 THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 VIII. Memoriae proditur quasdam acies inclinatas iam et 
 labantes a feJainis restitutas con^antia precum et obiectu 
 pectorum et monstrata cominus captivitate, quam longe 
 impatientius feminarum suarum nomine timent, adeo, ut 
 
 5 efficacius obligentur animi civitatum, quibus inter obsides 
 puellae quoque nobiles imperantur. Inesse quin etiam sanc- 
 tum aliquid et providum putant, nee aut consilia earum 
 aspernantur, aut responsa negligunt. Vidimus sub divo 
 Vespasiano Veledam, diu apud plerosque numinis loco 
 
 lOhabitam. Sed et olim Auriniam et compluris alias venerati 
 sunt, non adulationCj nee tamquam facerent deas. 
 
 encouragement : Cf. Cap. I. ^m/utuo 
 metu et montibus separatur.^ 
 
 CHAP. VIII, 1. Quasdam acies, 
 
 certain armies. IncUnatas iam et 
 
 labanteSf already giving way and 
 wavering. 
 
 2. JtestitutaSf ec. esse. Constantia 
 
 precum,, The German women, ap- 
 pear to have been useful occasionally 
 in another -way. In Marius' battle 
 ■with the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae 
 they seem to have been nearly as 
 hard to beat as their husbands; after 
 these last were disposed of, the wives 
 killed the fugitive soldiers, and with 
 swords and axes gave the Romans 
 considerable trouble before they were 
 
 got rid of. Plut. Marius^ XIX. 
 
 Obiectu pectorum, by presenting to 
 them their breasts, begging death in 
 preference to captivity, which they 
 judged to be close at hand (coj»i »).»«). 
 Cf. Caes. B. G. I. 50' Some, however, 
 refer it to the perils of the battle. 
 
 4. N'omine, "o7i the score of.'''' Cf. 
 
 Hist.l.2Q\ Horace III. 21,5. AdeOf 
 
 ut, ia so muchihat. 
 
 5. Quibus: ind. obj. of disadvan- 
 tage. Obsides jjifeHae. Augustus 
 
 Caesar turned this peculiarity to a 
 useful account, and insisted on the 
 German tribes sending female host- 
 ages. (Suet. Aug. XVI). 
 
 6. Inesse, sc./eminis. — Quinetiam, 
 moi'eover. 
 
 7. Providum {=.pro -f- video), pres- 
 
 cient, prophetic. Consilia, advice of- 
 fered when unasked, 
 
 8. Mesponsa, answers given when 
 
 consulted. Tidi^nus. This does 
 
 not absolutely prove that Tacitus ever 
 was in Germany, or that Veleda was 
 brought to Rome ; but simply shows 
 that he and his contem,poraries had 
 by some means knowledge of this 
 
 case of Veleda. Divo, now deified. 
 
 A stock epithet for deceased Roman 
 emperors. 
 
 9. Veleda/m. FeZefZa, the prophetess, 
 (Hist. IV. 61) belonged to the Bruc- 
 teri, and dwelt near the Lippe. She 
 encouraged the revolt of the Batavian 
 chief, Civilis, and was eventually 
 taken prisoner by the Romans under 
 
 Rutilius Gallicus. JPlerosque, i. e., 
 
 of the Germans. 
 
 10. Mabitam, sc. esse.- — -Olim,?iere- 
 
 tofore, Aurininm, One is inclined 
 
 to think Tacitus made a proper name 
 out of a term applied to a whole class, 
 and that this represents the 'Alru- 
 nae ' as the Goths termed their in- 
 spired women. Compluris alias. 
 
 An oracular maiden, Ganna, m.en- 
 tionedbyDion Cassius, and a Chat- 
 tan prophetess are said by Suetonius 
 to have uttered predictions to Vitel- 
 lius. 
 
 11. Adulatione, from servile a^LulOf 
 
 tion to the royal family. Facerent, 
 
 sc. eas. In this remark Tacitus ob- 
 liquely censures the folly of the 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 27 
 
 IX. Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt, cui certis diebus 
 humanis quoque hostiis litare fas habent. Herculem ac 
 Martem concessis animalibus placant. Pars Suevorum et 
 Isidi sacrificat ; unde causa et origo peregrine sacro parum 
 
 Romans in deifying the female mem- 
 bers of the imperial family. _ Nero's 
 infant daughter had divine honors 
 paid her, and afterwards the same 
 compliment was paid Poppaea her- 
 self. He means simply that the Ger- 
 man tribes reverence and love wo- 
 men, but do not profess to believe 
 them divine, when they really do not 
 believe them so. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 1. Deorum. : gen. of 
 
 the whole. Mercurium. Tacitus 
 
 might have identified the Teutonic 
 deities with the gods of Rome on 
 either of two principles, similarity 
 of name, or similarity of ofHces and 
 attributes. The first of these might 
 be subdivided again, perhaps, into 
 similarity of name, compared to the 
 Hellenic gods, or their usual Roman 
 equivalents. In this particular case 
 similarity of attributes appeals to 
 have decidecj the question. Wod&n^ 
 the Scandinavian Odin, was probably 
 the god represented as equivalent to 
 Mercurius. He was the Inventor of 
 magic, and all arts, the god of elo- 
 quence and supervisor of traffic, and 
 the fourth day of the week was named 
 after him, Wodenstag^ our "Wednes- 
 day. In these respects he coincided 
 with Mercurius, after whom the same 
 day was called IHes Mercurii, the 
 French Mercredi. That the two cor- 
 respond is expressly stated by the 
 old writers. Caesar makes Mercurius 
 the chief god of the Gauls. Deum 
 maxime Mercwrium colunt (VI. 17), and 
 observes that the Germans have ho 
 deities beyond the powers of nature, 
 theSun, Moon, and Fire. This might 
 be his own inference from their hav- 
 ing no temples. €ertiSfjixed, stated. 
 
 2. Sutna/nis : emphatic. Other 
 victims could be used on other days. 
 It appears that human sacrifices 
 were made to other gods than Woden . 
 
 Merculeni. The second great god 
 
 was Thor, the god of strength, the 
 wielder of the thundei-bolt, who is 
 commonly identified with Jupiter. 
 IHcs Jovis (in French Jeudi) is TJior's- 
 tag, our Thursday. Some, however, 
 identify yftorwith Hercules, whom 
 he resembles as regards his adven- 
 tures. 
 
 3. JlTrtrfcwt. Perhaps this represents 
 the god Tyr, the bravest of the race, 
 who is described in the Edda as alone 
 venturing to put his hand into the 
 wolfs mouth. Moreover, the old 
 name for Tuesday, or Dies Martis, 
 was Tyrstag, the French Mardi, and 
 these facts point to the identity of the 
 
 two. ConcessiSf lawfully used as 
 
 opposed to huTnanis hostiis, mentioned 
 before. These human sacrifices were 
 by no means entirely unknown at 
 Rome. They were formally abol ished 
 about a century before the birth of 
 Christ ; but according to Pliny 's state- 
 ment, the practice was existing in 
 his own day. In fact, instances were 
 common throughout the world, from 
 the belief that human life, as the 
 most valuable of all things, must be 
 acceptable to the gods. Among the 
 Germans the custom seems to have 
 occasionally taken a wholesale form. 
 Tacitus mentions (An. XIII. 57) that 
 in a war between the iHermunduri 
 and Chatti, the victors devoted the 
 entire army of the vanquished in 
 sacrifice to the gods. 
 
 4. Isidi. Grimm in his Deutsche 
 Mythologie, p. 188, suggests that Isis 
 may represent a goddess Zisa, or 
 Cisa, whose memory had survived so 
 late as the thirteenth century, about 
 Augsburg. If so, the name decided 
 the Identity. It seems more proba- 
 ble that Ritter is right, who identifies 
 this goddess with the Nerlhus of 
 chap. XL.; the Egyptian Jsis a^nd 
 
28 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 comperi', nisi quod signum ipsum in modum liburnae figura- 
 tum docet advectam religionem. Cetenim nee cohibere pari- 
 etibus deos neque in uUam humani oris speciem adsimulare ex 
 magnitudine caelestium arbitrantur ; lucos ac nemora conse- 
 craDt, deormnque nominibus appellant secretum illud quod 
 sola reverentia vident. X. Auspicia sortesque, ut qui maxime, 
 observant. Sortium consuetude simplex. Virgam frugiferae 
 arbori decisam in surculos amputant, eosque notis quibusdam 
 
 NeT^hus being "both equivalent to 
 Mother Earthy the Terra or Tellus of 
 
 the Romans. Seicro : dat. of poss. 
 
 after sit understood. 
 
 1. Nisi quod, i, e., this only is cer- 
 tain, that, etc. Signum ipsiim, 
 
 the symbol UseJf: ipsum^=per se. 
 
 lAhurnae, so. navis, of a lAburnian 
 galley, so caUed from the Libernians, 
 a people of lUyricum, who built and 
 navigated them. The libuma here, 
 and the vehiculum in chap. XL., were 
 probably the same; the ships being 
 put on wheels, and rolled along. 
 There is mention about A. D. 1130, of 
 a procession formed by the people of 
 the Lower Rhine, in which a ship 
 was put on wheels, and rolled from 
 Tongres to Louvain. It seems also, 
 that early in March, on the opening 
 of navigation, a boat was offered to 
 Isis at Rom.e; and JPelagia was one 
 of her GreeA surnames. This coinci- 
 dence of the boat very likely de- 
 termined the Identity of the twogod- 
 desses in Tacitus' view. 
 
 2. A.dvectwnif sc. esse. Jffec cohi- 
 bere parietihus, etc. Tacitus else- 
 where mentions temples. For in- 
 stance, in An. I. 51, he speaks of temr 
 plv/m Tamfanae, among the Marsl ; in 
 chap. XL. templuin Nerthi; but he 
 probably means by it a sacred en- 
 closure, or grove {templum from 
 TifJ.vo>y cut qff", set apart). 
 
 3. In tellarn humani oris speciem 
 adsimularCf '* to liken them to any ap- 
 pearance of humanity. ^^ Ex=secun^ 
 
 dum., in accordance vnth. 
 
 4. IJucoa ac n&mora, Lucus is al- 
 
 ways used for a grove consecrated to 
 the gods, and so differs from nemus. 
 
 5. Secretum illud. Secretum does 
 not mean the retirement of the grove, 
 but the abstract idea they formed in 
 their imagination of the deity, or 
 Tnysterious being, called by different 
 names, but which they never em- 
 body in external form. 
 
 6. Sola reverentia. This would 
 show the greater spirituality of the 
 religion of the Germans than that of 
 the southern nations, although both 
 were Pagan. With the whole of this 
 accountof the German religion com- 
 pare Hist.y. 5, where, in his account 
 of the Jews he says, Judaei mmte 
 sola, v/nwmque numen intelligunt : pro- 
 fanos qui deum imagines martalibus 
 materiis in species hominum effingant. 
 Igitur nulla siTnulacra .... templis 
 sinunt. 
 
 CHAP. X. 6. A-Uspicia (avis + spido) 
 is properly divination by observ- 
 ing birds. Sortes is divination 
 
 by drawing lots. Tit qui maxime, 
 
 observant. The full sentence would 
 be, obscT^antf ut ii observant, qui 
 ■nioicinie observant. 
 
 7. Co7isuetudOf sc. est, the usuaZ 
 
 method of^ taking. Virgam, etc. 
 
 Some thing like this is mentioned by 
 Herodotus (IV. 67) as practised by 
 the Scythians. The Alani too are 
 said to have collected bundles of 
 twigs, and, letting them fall with in- 
 cantations, ft-ora, the position they 
 took to have divined the future. 
 
 8. Arbori; dat, after de In composi- 
 tion. 
 
THE GERMA;NIA of TACITUS. 
 
 29 
 
 discretes super candidam vestem temere ac fortuito spargunt ; 
 mox, si publice consultetur, sacerdos civitatis, sin privatim, ipse 
 pater familiae precatus deos caelumque suspiciens ter singulos 
 tollit, sublatos secundum impressam ante notam interpretatur. 
 Si prohibuerunt, nulla de eadem re in eundem diem consultatio ; 5 
 sin permissum, auspiciorum adhuc fides exigitur. Et illud 
 quidem etiam hie notum, avium voces volatusque interrogare ; 
 proprium gentis equorum quoque praesagia ac monitus 
 experiri. Publice aluntur iisdem nemoribus ac lucis candidi 
 et nuUo mortali opere contacti ; quos presses sacro currulO 
 sacerdos ac rex vel princeps civitatis comitantur, hinnitusque 
 ac fremitus observant, Nee ulli auspicie maior fides non 
 
 1. jyiscretoSf distinguished. Accord- 
 ing to some the marks were in Runic 
 characters, but the knowledge of 
 these symbols was probably confined 
 to the priests, and this species of 
 divination seems to have been per- 
 formed by the head of the family as 
 often as not, who would know noth- 
 ing whatever of these Runes. - — ■ 
 Temere ac fortuito. One does not see 
 any great difference between these 
 words; but the former means airan- 
 doniy without any care on the part of 
 the diviner; and the latter, that the 
 twigs fall just as it happens. There 
 might be a given way to throw them, 
 and yet it might be done temere ; but 
 one way was as good as another, and 
 this made it Aozie fortuito. 
 
 2,3. JPuhlice J on behalf of the state. ■ 
 
 Ter singulos f&Q. surculos. This would 
 naturally mean he takes them up one 
 by one thrice; but it seems here to 
 mean rather, he takes up single twigs 
 three times in succession. It is not easy 
 to see how there couldbe any divina- 
 tion at all by the first interpretation, 
 unless indeed some account were 
 taken of the order in which the 
 marks, favorable or unfavorable, 
 were taken up. As Orellius observes, 
 by the latter interpretation there 
 were four possible combinations, all 
 favorable, all unfavorable, two good 
 and. one bad, or two bad and one 
 
 good. Of. Caes. I. 53; Tiball. I. 
 3, 10. 
 
 5. I*rohibueruntf sc. surculi, 1. e., 
 sortes, i. e., dii. Consultatio, sc. est, 
 
 6. Sin permissum, sc. eat. Note the 
 change of voiGe,a change common in 
 Tacitus. Sin, thus used in antithesis 
 with si, always takes the same con- 
 struction. A.dhitc=praeterea. The 
 
 word in this sense is found in the 
 
 later writers only. Fides exigitur, 
 
 '* confirmation is required.^' i. e., sanc- 
 tion by auspices. Illud, that other 
 
 custom^ known in Greece and Rome. 
 
 7. Etiam hie, even here in Ger- 
 many. -Kotunif sc. est. 
 
 8. Froprium, sc. est. This is not 
 strictly true, as the same practice 
 prevailed among the Persians. Cf. 
 Herod. III. 85 ; 1. 189 ; VII. 55 ; Justin 
 
 1. 10. Gentis, sc. Gernianicae: pred. 
 
 genitive. A. 218, d ; G. 356, R. 1 ; H. 
 399, III. 
 
 9. Iisdem nemoribus, sc. in. Cf. 
 cap. IX. 
 
 10. JHortali ^ hominum. — Contacti, 
 
 defiled. JPressos {harnessed to, lit., 
 
 pressed by) is more poetical than 
 
 iunctos, the usual word, would be. 
 
 Sacro; because used in the sacred 
 rites. 
 
 11. Princeps probably refers to the 
 head ofthepaguSj or hundred. 
 
 12. TTlli auspicio, other kind of 
 augwry. Fides, credit. 
 
30 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 solum apud plebem sed apud proceres, apud sacerdotes; ee 
 enim ministros deorum, illos conscios putant. Est et alia 
 observatio auspiciorum, qua gravium bellorum eventus 
 explorant, Eius gentis, cum qua bellum est^ captivum quoquo 
 
 5 modo interceptum cum electo popuUrium suorum, patriis 
 quemque armis, committunt ; victoria huius vel illius pro 
 praeiudicio accipitur. 
 
 XI. De minoribus rebus priucipes consultant, de maioribus 
 omnes, ita tamen ut ea quoque, quorum penes plebem 
 
 lOarbitrium est, apud principes pertractentur. Coeunt, nisi 
 quid fortuitum et subitum incidit, certis diebus, cum aut 
 incohatur luna aut impletur ; nam agendis rebus hoc auspi- 
 
 2. JifirUstros deomm, i. e., during 
 
 the ceremony. llloa, i. e., equos. 
 
 • — -Conscios f sc. deorum. TibuUus ( I. 
 9. 3) speaks of the victims' entrails 
 Sisconsciafibra deorum, 
 
 3. ObservatiOf Tnanner of taking. 
 
 5. Patriis amiis, SC. cw?7i, with the 
 arms of his <ywn country, 
 
 6. Committunt is used for match- 
 ing two combatants together. Some- 
 thing not unlike the practice existed 
 am.ong the Scotch clans form.erly. 
 Before the battle of Tippermuir, 
 Montrose's Highlanders are said to 
 have murdered a herdsman, in order 
 to secure the advantage of drawing 
 the first blood, and Montesquieu 
 finds in it the origin of the duel, and 
 of knight-errantry. 
 
 7. Fraeiudicio = prae ••- iudicio\ a 
 means of judging beforehand. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 8. rrinripcs is de- 
 rived from primus and capio, hence, 
 princes. Their functions seem to have 
 been those of magistrates exercising 
 Judicial duties, and collectively they 
 formed a governing board and by 
 their own authority administered 
 all trifling aflTairs; the more impor- 
 tant matters bein^left to the council 
 {concilium). 
 
 9. Ita tamen lit, ^Hn such a way, 
 
 howeveTf that." C. Qttorum penes 
 
 plebem arbitrium estf the deoision of 
 
 whUih rests with the people. All impor- 
 tant questions, of peace and war, for 
 instance, of capital punishment, 
 election of principes^ etc., came before 
 the concilium, the ge-mCt, or folc-mdtf 
 where every member of the tribe 
 {plebs)f other than the servi or liberti, 
 had a voice in the deliberations. 
 
 10. Pertractentur, are thoroughly 
 discussed. Note theintensive force of 
 per. Jfisi refers to certis diehua. 
 
 11. Fortuitum et subitum. The first 
 word implies the occurrence of any 
 event unexpectedly happening; *i«- 
 bituTn, that the event was an urgent 
 
 one, requiring instant discussion. 
 
 Certis f fixed, set. 
 
 12. Jjunn: contracted from ludna, 
 
 from luceo. Impletur, is filUng. 
 
 This does not imply that they came 
 every new moon, but on fixed ones 
 only. Agendis rebus : dat. of pur- 
 pose. Moo auspicatissimum ini- 
 
 tium. Ariovistus would not fight 
 before the new moon because he was 
 forbidden by his prophetesses. (Caes. 
 I. 50). The Greeks were equally 
 superstitious in this respect. On the 
 first invasion of Greece by the Per- 
 sians, the Spartans, when urgent ap- 
 peals were sent by the Athenians, 
 could not march at once, because it 
 was only the ninth day of the moon, 
 and they could not march until the 
 full moon, 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 31 
 
 catissimum initium credunt. Nee dierum numerum^ ut nos, 
 sed noctium eomputant ; sie constituunt, sic condicunt ; nox 
 ducere diem videtur. Illud ex libertate vitium, quod non 
 simul nee ut iussi conveniunt, sed et alter et tertius dies 
 cuuctatione coeuntium absumitur. Ut turbae placuit, consi- 5 
 dunt armati. Silentium per sacerdotes, quibus turn et coer- 
 cendi ixis est, imperatur. Mox rex vel princeps, prout aetas 
 cuique, prout nobilitas, prout decus bellorum, prout facundia 
 est, audiuntur, auctoritate saadendi magisquam iubendi potes- 
 tate. Si displicuit sententia, fremitu aspernantur; sin placuit, 10 
 frameas concutiunt. Honoratissimum assensus genus est armis 
 laudare, XII. Licet apud concilium accusare quoque et dis- 
 crimen capitis intendere. Distinctio poenarum ex delicto. 
 
 1. JTec die^mtn. Caesar (VI. 18) 
 mentions the same custom among 
 the Gauls; and gives their reason— a 
 curious one — for it, viz., that they 
 were the progeny of the infernal Dis : 
 * 06 earn causam spatia omnis iemporis 
 non numero dierum, sed noctium fini- 
 u/nt; diesnatalesetm-eiisiumeiannorum 
 initia sic observant ut noctem, dies subse- 
 qiuUur.' Our expressions se^nnight, 
 fortnight, seem remnants of this cus- 
 tom. Vid. Qen.,1, 5, andieuii. XXIII. 
 32, showing the antiquity of this 
 mode of reckoning. 
 
 2. Constituttntf establish, tnake ap- 
 poiiUments; condlcicnt, proclaim, m<ike 
 agreements. Instead of fixing such 
 and such a day, they fix such and 
 such a night. The con implies 
 unanimity. The words are legal 
 terms. 
 
 3. Ducere, precede, lead, go-before. 
 JTllud (sc. est) refers to what fol- 
 lows. JEx lihertate, sc. ortwm. 
 
 4. Simul nee tit ittssi, at once, nor 
 when ordered to come. Alter = se- 
 cundum. 
 
 5. Cunctatione. It is evident from 
 the context (eoc libertate vitiuni) that 
 this delay was not intentional, but 
 arose simply from negligence, be- 
 cause there was no one to compel 
 them, Vt^ simul ac, as soon as. 
 
 That this refers to the time of com- 
 mencing the session, and not to their 
 sitting in arms, is evident from cap. 
 XIII, and from frameas concutiunt 
 at the eud of this section. 
 
 6. Tunif i. e., when they are in 
 
 their seats. Et =■ etiam. ■ Coer- 
 
 cendiius est. Cf. cap. VII. 
 
 7, 8. Prout refers to the influence 
 they possess, and not to the order of 
 
 speaking. Cuiqur: dat. of poss. 
 
 after est understood. 
 
 9. Auctor^itatef on -account of their 
 weight of infl/uence in advising. 
 
 10. Displicuit, sc. lis. 
 
 11. Frameas concutiunt. Cf. Hist. 
 V. 17; and for a similar custom among 
 the Gauls, compare Caesar, VII. 21. 
 Honoratissimum, most compli- 
 mentary. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 12. lAcet shows that 
 to hear charges was not the principal 
 
 power of this body. Quoque, \. e., 
 
 in addition to the legislative func- 
 tions j ust mentioned. Discrimen 
 
 capitis intendere, to impeach for 
 capital cHmes, lit., to aim {at one) the 
 peril of (his) head. The metaphor 
 seems to be that of stretching a bow 
 to aim at any one ; intendere a/rewm, 
 sagittal, etc., being common phrases. 
 
 13. Ex delicto, according to the nature 
 of the crime. 
 
32 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Proditores et transfugas arboribus suspendunt ; ignavos et im- 
 belles et corpore infames caeno ac palude, iniecta insuper crate, 
 mergunt. Diversitas supplicii illuc respicit, tamquam scelera 
 ostendi oporteat dum puniuntur, flagitia abscondi. Sed et levi- 
 oribus delictis pro modo poena. Equorum pecorumque numero 
 convicti multantur ; pars multae regi vel civitati, pars ipsi, 
 qui vindicatur, vel propinquis eius exsolvitur. Eliguntur in 
 iisdem conciliis et principes, qui iura per pagos vicosque red- 
 
 L Suspendunt, i. e., they are gib- 
 beted alive. Heavy penalties were 
 denounced against those who should 
 
 take them down, alive or dead. 
 
 Ignavos: those who show fear in 
 battle; imhelles: those who decline 
 military service; corpore infames: 
 the incestuous. 
 
 2. Caeno ac palude: a hendiadys 
 
 for caenosa palude. Insuper = 5U- 
 
 perne. Crate. It is probable that 
 
 heavy stones were placed on the hur- 
 dle. 
 
 3. I>iversUas is a post-Augustan 
 
 word. Supplicii. The original 
 
 idea of this word was that of a kneel- 
 ing posture, assum.ed for the pur- 
 pose of entreaty, derived from sub -»- 
 plica. It is used subsequently for any 
 occasion where this attitude would 
 be required, as a thanksgiving for 
 victory (Sal. Jug. 55), although suppli- 
 catio is the usual form, in this sense. 
 It is also said by Festus to designate 
 the caduceus or staff, wreathed round 
 with fillets, borne by messengers sent 
 to negotiate peace. (Sal. Jug. 46.) 
 Then, either because the punishment 
 of criminals was either an act of 
 solemn worship and dedication to 
 the infernal gods, or from the posture 
 of the malefactor while undergoing 
 his sentence, it came to bear its usual 
 
 meaning of punishment. Illuc 
 
 respicit, has this end in view. 
 
 Scelera, crimes against society. This 
 proves a high stage of political con- 
 ception ; offences against the state 
 being the onlj/ ones punished by 
 death. 
 
 4. l-layitia, disgracepd vices; gen- 
 
 erally in the way of profligacy or dis- 
 soluteness. Abscondi. This secret 
 
 punishment was not unknown to the 
 
 Romans. levityribus delictis : dat. 
 
 of the poss. after est understood. 
 These slighter offences were adultery, 
 homicide, theft, etc. 
 
 5. " JPro modo, according to the mea- 
 sure of the offence.'' Numero: (sc. 
 
 aliguo) abl. of the fine after multan- 
 tur. A. 220, b ; G. 377, R. 1 ; H. 410, III. 
 
 6. Pars multae. Multa properly 
 implies a fine of money or cattle, 
 raised at the discretion of the im- 
 poser. The part of this fine {wjeftrfj'i2d) 
 paid to the king, as the guardian of 
 peace (one-third of the whole), was 
 called fredum, or peace-offering; the 
 penal sum paid to the injured person 
 was termed /aidus. 
 
 7. Qui vindicatur, 1. e., the plain- 
 tiff. Fropinquis eius: as in case 
 
 of homicide, when the injured party 
 is represented by others. 
 
 8. Qui iura per pagos vicosque 
 reddunt, who administer justice 
 throughout the districts and villages. In 
 their civil economy, " the Germans 
 were divided into nations; of which 
 some were under a regal govern- 
 ment, others under a republican. 
 The former had kings, the latter 
 chiefs. Both in kingdoms and re- 
 publics, military affairs were under 
 the conduct of generals. The nations 
 were divided into cantons; each of 
 which was superintended by a chief, 
 or count, who administered j ustice 
 in it. The cantons were divided into 
 dlRtricts or hundreds, so called be- 
 cause they contained a hundred 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 33 
 
 dunt, Centeni singulis ex plebe comites, consilium simul et 
 auctoritas, adsunt. 
 
 XIII. Nihil autem neque publicae neque privatae rei nisi 
 armati agunt. Sed arma sumere non ante cuiquam moris 
 quam civitas suffecturum probaverit. Turn in ipso concilio 
 vel principum aliquis vel pater vel propinquus scuto framea- 
 que iuvenem ornant. Haec apud illos toga^ hie primus 
 iuventae honos ; ante hoc domus pars videntur^ mox rei- 
 publicae. Insignis nobilitas aut magna patrum merita 
 
 townships. In each hundred was a 
 companion, or centenary, chosen 
 from the people, before whom all 
 causes were tried. Before the count, 
 all causes, as well great as small, 
 were amenable. The centenaries are 
 called companions by Tacitus after 
 the custom of the Romans; among 
 whom the titles of honor were, 
 Caesar, the Legatus or Lieutenant of 
 Caesar, and his comites or com- 
 panions." 
 
 1. Consiliujii simul et a-uctoritast 
 at the same time his advisers and {sup- 
 porters of his) authority. Conslliuvn 
 is used with reference to the Roman 
 usage in judicial inquiries. In the 
 quaestiones perpetuae one of the prae- 
 tors presided; but the actual verdict 
 was given by a body of indices, who 
 were termed his consilium. Cf. Cic. 
 ad Ait. 1. 16. ' Ut quaeque ad consilium 
 prim/is posiulationifms refer ehantur. ' 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 3. JBei; gen. of the 
 
 whole after nlJUl. Kisi armati. 
 
 Even judges were armed when on 
 the bench. The Romans, on the con- 
 trary, never carried arms except in 
 time of war, or on a journey ; in fact, 
 it was expressly forbidden, among 
 other acts of violence, by the Lex 
 Plotia. In Sail., Cat. XXVII., that 
 Cataline was seen in the city with a 
 sword is given as a symptom of the 
 approaching outbreak. Cf. Caes., V. 
 56; Thucyd., I. 6. The practice is still 
 kept up by the Swiss. 
 
 4. Non ante cuiquam moriSf so. 
 
 est, it is no part of their custom, for any 
 one. This is a favorite expression of 
 Tacitus. Cf. Ag. XXXIX. and XLII ; 
 Hvit. I. 15; An. I. 56. It is a form 
 adopted by the writers of the silver 
 age, instead of the other terms mos est, 
 in more est, etc., used by the Augus- 
 tan writers. 
 
 5. Suffecturum {esse), sc. eum arma 
 
 sumei-e. F^ohaverit {subj. of limit 
 
 after a ntr-quam,. A. 327; G. 579; H. 
 520, 1. 2), implies that some sort of ex- 
 amination was required of the young 
 man. 
 
 6. Prlncipuin: gen. of the whole 
 
 after aJiqnls. Sciito fmmcaqiie 
 
 iuvenem ornant. We see here the 
 rudiments of the famous institution 
 of chivalry, when the knight at the 
 outset of his career had his armor 
 braced on, and the sword and spear 
 placed in his hands, and he rode 
 about brandishing them. 
 
 7. Omant after the disjunctive ve? 
 is peculiar, but the construction is 
 not unfrequent in Tacitus and in 
 
 other writers. Maec (i. e., arma) 
 
 apud illos toga, sc. est. This refers to 
 the assumption of the toga virilis by 
 the Roman youths on arriving at 
 the age of manhood; of which custom 
 this investiture in armor takes the 
 place. 
 
 8. JSTonoSf honor bestowed by the 
 
 state. 3£ox reipublieae. The power 
 
 of the father over the child ended 
 with this ceremony. 
 
 9. Insignis nohilitaSf high birth, 
 
 Meritaj service*. 
 
34 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 principis dignationem etiam adolescentulis adsignant; ceteris 
 robiistioribus ac iampridem probatis aggregantuPj nee rubor 
 inter comites aspici. Gradus quin etiam ipse comitatus habet 
 iudicio eiuSj quern sectantur; magnaque et comitum aemu- 
 
 5 latio, quibus primus apud principera suum locuSj et princi- 
 pum, cui plurimi et acerrimi comites. Haec dignitas, hae 
 vires, magno semper electorum iuvenum globe circumdari; 
 in pace decus, in bello praesidium. Nee solum in sua gente 
 cuique, sed apud finitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea 
 
 10 gloria est, si numero ac virtute comitatus emineat; expe- 
 tuntur enim legationibus et muneribus ornantur et ipsa 
 plerumque fama bella profligant. XIV. Cum ventum in 
 aciem, turpe principi virtute vinci, turpe comitatui virtutem 
 principis non adaequare. lam vero infame in omnem vitam 
 
 1. Digitationerrif rank. 'Office' 
 would be dignitatem. 
 
 2. Aggregantur is here used in a 
 
 reflexive sense. Nee rubor, so. est 
 
 illis. Cf. Ovid. Ars. Am. III. 167. 
 * Nee iiihor est emisse palam.' 
 
 3. Comites. Hence it seems that 
 these noble lads, although consid- 
 ered prindpes in rank, had their 
 position among the attendants only. 
 They are called clientes in Ann. I. 57 ; 
 
 II. 45; XII. 30. Qradusf ^'■various 
 
 degrees;" emphatic by position. 
 
 Quin ctiftni ipse comitatus, moreover 
 the retinite itself . Note the anastrophe, 
 as quin etlam seldom occupies the 
 second place. A. p. 298; H. 636, V. 1. 
 
 5. QuibuSf sc. sit. 
 
 6. Cuif sc. sint. JECaec, sc. est. 
 
 8. Xtecus (in appos. with the pre- 
 ceding clause) answers to dignitas ; 
 praesidinnif to vires. 
 
 9. Cuique, i. e., of the princes. 
 
 10. Si cmincatf if he he distinguished: 
 epexegetical of id tiomeu, ea gloria. 
 
 11. JExpetuntur legationibus. This 
 m.eans that when em.bassies are sent 
 to the state to which these illustrious 
 chiefs belong, the ambassadors apply 
 to them, and {ntuneriMis ornatur) 
 
 make them presents, in the hope of 
 obtaining their co-operation. 
 
 12. Ipsa fama, by their reputation 
 
 only, without coming to arms. ■ 
 
 Frofiigant means 'to deal a blow 
 that sets anything tottering,' or first 
 gives it an eflective check ; and pro- 
 Jligare bellum is ' to break the back of 
 a war,' as we say ; so that the subse- 
 quent com.pletion of it is an easy 
 thing. Cf. Livy, XXI. 40; Tac, An., 
 XIV. 36; JIist.U.4:\ Beneca., de Benef. 
 VII. 15. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 12. Ventum f sc est 
 ab its ; aoristic perf. 
 
 13. Hirpe^ sc. est. 
 
 14. lam vero, sc. est, always marks 
 the transition to an additional sub- 
 ject that is specially important. 
 
 Infatne .... acprobosum. The for- 
 mer implies that the act tarnished 
 the character of any one who was 
 guilty of it; thelatter that it exposed 
 him to the reproaches of others. This 
 was true only with reference to the 
 desertion of the princeps by the 
 comites ; as for the mass of the fight- 
 ing men they were too independent 
 to pay much regard to their Jeadere, 
 Cf. An, II. 14. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 35 
 
 ac probrosum superslitem principi suo ex acie recessisse. 
 Ilium defendere, tueri, sua quoque fortia facta gloriae eius 
 adsignare praecipuum sacramentum est. Principes pro victoria 
 pugnant, comites pro principe. Si civitas, in qua orti sunt, 
 longa pace et otio torpeat, plerique nobiliura adolescentium 5 
 petunt ultro eas nationes, quae turn bellum aliquod gerunt, 
 quia et ingrata genti quies, et facilius inter aneipitia 
 clarescunt, magnumque comitatum non nisi vi belloque 
 tueare. Exigunt enim principis sui liberalitate ilium bella- 
 torem equum, illam cruentam victricemque frameam. Nam 10 
 epulae et quamquam ineompti largi tamen apparatus pro 
 stipendio cedunt ; materia munificentiae per bella et raptus. 
 Nee arare terram, aut exspectare annum tam facile persua- 
 seris quam vocare hostes et vulnera mereri. Pigrum quin 
 
 1. SuperstiteTn p-rincipi, Cf. chap. 
 VI, when supersiUes is followed by 
 the genitive bellorum. 
 
 2. DefenderCf tueri. The former 
 only implies, to ward off actual dan- 
 ger in battle; the latter, generally to 
 protect his interests. 
 
 3. Sacramentu-mf "peculiar loyalty." 
 This was strictly the oath voluntarily 
 taken by the early Roman soldiers, 
 not to desert, quit the ranks, etc. The 
 word is here used to show how bind- 
 ing this oath, to which he refers, was 
 among the Germans. 
 
 5. Torpeat. A. 8(y7,h; G.598; H.511,1. 
 
 6. Fetunt ultro. This was the same 
 plan as that pursued by the Free 
 Companies, and Condottieri, of the 
 Middle Ages, who took service as 
 soldiers of fortune under any prince 
 who offered to pay for their services. 
 Aliquod is usedadjectlvely quali- 
 fying helium. 
 
 7. Ingrataf sc. est. Aneipitia 
 
 (hjiipi + capiU)^ dangers^ arising from 
 war. 
 
 9. J^nciffuntf they expect, as these 
 were probably promised when the 
 young man became one of the coTnites. 
 Montesquieu {JSsprit des Lois, XXX. 3) 
 justly derives from this the origin 
 
 of vassalage. At first, the prince 
 gave to his nobles arms and pro- 
 visions : as avarice advanced, money, 
 and then lands were required, which, 
 from henefieia, became at length 
 hereditary possessions, called fiefs." 
 
 Hence arises the feudal system. 
 
 niunif illam. These words, as ges- 
 tures, point to the objects mentioned 
 as the well-known rewards of valor. 
 
 10. Hellatorem equum is poetical. 
 Cf. Verg. Georg. II. 145. 
 
 n. IncompHf largi tametif although 
 
 homely, yet plentiful. Apparatus 
 
 refers to the appointments of the 
 banquet, rather than to the banquet 
 itself. 
 
 12. Cedunt =iis daniur. M^ateria 
 
 (sc. est), the funds. 
 
 13. Arare. The use of the infln. 
 after pers^iaseris is common to 
 poetry, and to late Latin. A. 331, a; 
 G. 546, E. 1; H. 535, r\^ This state- 
 ment is applicable to the comites only. 
 Ann-um is here used for the pro- 
 duce of thfe year, the harvest. Cf. Ag. 
 XXXI; Lucan, III., 452. 
 
 14. Vocare =prcfvocare. For this use 
 cf. Sist. IV. 80. The full form of the 
 phrase occurs in An. VI. 40, ' interim 
 Orodem Pharsa/manes vocare ad pug~ 
 
36 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS, 
 
 immo et iners videtur sudore adquirere, quod possis sanguine 
 parare. 
 
 XV. Quotiens bella non ineunt^ non multum venatibuSj 
 plus per otium transigunt, dediti somno ciboque, fortissimus 
 
 5 quisque ac bellicosissimus nihil agens, delegata domus et 
 penatium et agrorum cura feminis senibusque et infirmissimo 
 cuique ex familia 5 ipsi hebent, mira diversitate naturae, cum 
 iidem homines sic ament inertiam et oderint quietem. Mos 
 est civitatibus ultro ac viritim conferre principibus vel 
 
 lOarmentorum vel frugum, quod pro honore acceptum etiam 
 necessitatibus subvenit. Gaudent praecipue finitima/um 
 gentium donisj quae non modo a singulis sed et publice mit- 
 
 nam.' Merevif earn, deserve by 
 
 valor, Nigrum, "tame." Quin 
 
 imtno, nay more. These words, com- 
 monly placed first by other writers, 
 introduce the clause, Cf. gradvs quin 
 etiam. in chap. XIII. Jm-wto always 
 adds emphasis to the following 
 clause, making it stronger than any- 
 thing that has been previously said. 
 
 1. TtierSf "spiritless." Quod =• id 
 
 quod. Tossis: potential subj. 
 
 2. JPararc: complementary infin. 
 CHAP. XV. 3. Non multum, sc. 
 
 temvoris. This assertion at first sight 
 appears to contradict Caesar (VI. 21), 
 who says that a German's life was 
 entirely spent In hunting and war. 
 All that Tacitus means is, that the 
 chase was their only employment in 
 time of peace, and took up only a 
 small part of their time compared to 
 the large amount they idled away. 
 If there were really any irreconcil- 
 able discrepancy between the two 
 authors, one would, in questions of 
 custom, at all events, give the prefer- 
 ence to Tacitus, much having oc- 
 curred since Caesar's time to make 
 the Germans better known. Besides 
 Tacitus seems to be speaking here of 
 the chiefs and their followers, just 
 described, rather than of the Ger- 
 mans as a race. 
 
 4. JPcr otium. Note the enallage, 
 which is very common in Tacitus. 
 
 Cf. XL. per obsequium., proeliis; Ag. 
 IX. viHuie avt per artem; Ag. XLI. 
 temeritate aut per ignavium. A. p. 298 ; 
 H. 636, IV. Per with the ace. denotes 
 more of continuance than the preced- 
 ing ablative. 
 
 5. Delegata, trans/erred. 
 
 6. Fenatiumf household affairs. ■ 
 
 Agrontnt cura feminis, *' In some 
 portions of Germany the severest 
 agricultural duties are still per- 
 formed by women." This is the way 
 among all savage tribes. War and 
 the chase are the only occupations of 
 the men; everything else is thought 
 beneath their dignity; and the hard 
 work falls to the lot of the women. 
 
 7. Familia, the family. The word 
 properly refers to the slave-gang be- 
 longing to a family. Ipsi,&G.viri. 
 
 Diversitate, contrariety. 
 
 8. Ament: concession. Oderint: 
 
 perf. with the sense of the present, as 
 memini and odi always are. A. 143, 
 
 N; G. 190, 5; H. 297, I. 2. Quie- 
 
 tetn =pacem. 
 
 9. Viritim, individually. Here we 
 have the beginning of taxation, after- 
 wards made com.pulsory. 
 
 10. Armentorum, (sc. aliquid): gen. 
 of the whole. 
 
 11, 12. Necessitatitnis : especially for 
 the public entertainments. Gam- 
 dent : i, e., principes. Donis : abl. of 
 
 cause. Singulis, individuals. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 37 
 
 tuntuFj electi equi, magna arma, phalerae torquesque. lam 
 et pecuniam accipere docuimus. 
 
 XVI. Nullas Germanorum populls urbes habitari satis 
 notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes. Colunt 
 discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. 5 
 Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerentibus 
 aedificiis; suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive ad- 
 versus casus ignis remedium, sive inscitia aedificandi. Ne 
 caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus ; materia 
 ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem. 10 
 
 1. Electi, sc. sunt. Fhalerae, 
 
 torquesque. Of these, the first (de- 
 rived from ^dlog) were bosses or 
 metal plates, used as ornaments for 
 helm.ets, and then attached to the 
 harness of horses, as pendants to pro- 
 duce a jingling noise' when the 
 animal was at speed. Torqiees were 
 twisted circlets of gold, worn round 
 the neck, originally by the Persians 
 and other nations of Northern and 
 Western Europe. 
 
 2. IPeeuniam is in censure of the 
 Romans for purchasing the friend- 
 ship of Ariovistus, Segestus, Malo- 
 vendus, and others, and for attempt- 
 ing to purchase peace of the Ger- 
 
 ■ mans. Cf. chap. XLII ; ffist. IV., 76 ; 
 
 Herod. VI. 7, 139. Accipere, sc. eos 
 
 as second accusative. — ~" Docttimus 
 is obviouslyasatireon Roman covet- 
 ousness." The effect of such teaching 
 may be seen in the ruin of the em- 
 pire. 
 CHAP. XVI. 3. JPopulis: dat. of 
 
 agt. Urbes. Ptolemy, writing 
 
 some sixty years later than Tacitus, 
 mentions as many as seventy cities. 
 By these he no doubt meant clusters 
 of huts or wigwams gathered round 
 some wood or spring, and these 
 Tacitus himself speaks of. An. I. 56. 
 But by ur&sthe Romans intended a 
 town with fortifications, temples, 
 etc., and of these there were of course 
 none among the Germans, Caesar, 
 to the contrary, notwithstanding. 
 4. JPatl (sc. eos), although in the em- 
 
 phatic position, does not seem to 
 have the em.phasis, which appears 
 rather to belong to the whole clause. ' 
 The aversion of the Germans to cities 
 is shown in the fact that they always 
 destroyed them when found in con- 
 quered countries, and this mannerof 
 living in scattered habitations con- 
 tinued until after the time of 
 
 Charlemagne. Inter se, vriih each 
 
 other : to be taken with iunctixs. 
 
 5. JOiscretl ac diversi, separate and 
 scattered about without streets or re- 
 gard to regularity. Fons, campus, 
 
 nemus. Traces of this early mode of 
 dwelling are seen In the ending of 
 the names of many German towns 
 and villages, which to this day end 
 in 'Bach' {brook), 'Born' {spHng)j 
 ' Feld ' (Jield), ' Holz ', ' Hayn ' (grove), 
 'Wald' (ivood). 
 
 6. Conexis, i. e., with some connect- 
 ing link, as fences, hedges, etc. 
 
 Cohaerentibus, i. e., in actual contact. 
 
 7. Sive .... sive expresses an al- 
 ternative conditionally. 
 
 8. Casus is derived from cado. 
 
 Jtemedium: appos. with the preced- 
 ing clause. Inscitia: abl. of cause. 
 
 9. Caementorum, derived from 
 caedo, is properly hewn stone ; but is 
 applied generally to any stone for 
 
 building purposes. Tegularum 
 
 (from tego) denotes any material for 
 
 the roof. Materia, timber ; abl. of 
 
 means. 
 
 10. Citra speciem aut delectationem, 
 stopping sJwrt of beauty or attractive' 
 
38 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splen- 
 dente, ut picturam ac lineamenta colorum imitetur. Solent et 
 subterraneos specus aperire, eosque multo insuper fimo one- 
 rant, suffugium hiemi et receptaculum frugibus, quia rigorera 
 5 frigorum eiusmodi locis molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit, 
 aperta populatur, abdita autera et defossa aut ignorantur aut 
 eo ipso fallunt quod quaerenda sunt. 
 
 XVII. Tegumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, spina 
 
 consertum; cetera intecti totos dies iuxta focum atque ignem 
 
 lOagunt. Locupletissimi veste distinguuntur non fluitante, 
 
 ness, i. e., not going far enough in 
 their work to cross the line dividing 
 plainness from beauty ; not taking 
 pains to make it handsome. The 
 preposition citra, probably con- 
 nected with hie, means on this side of, 
 
 1. Quaeda/m loca, i. e., the interior 
 
 walls. 'Terraf ita pura ac splen- 
 
 dente Is probably some kind of red 
 earth, such as chalk or gypsum. 
 
 2. Fictur am f painting in one color. 
 
 IAi^eamentaf outlines^ probably 
 
 refers to frescoes. 
 
 3. Aperire: poetical for /odere, to 
 excavate. 
 
 4. Sufftigium. Cf. remedium above. 
 Siemi: dat. of disadvantage, de- 
 pending on a noun, suffugium. 
 
 6. Aperta f so. loca; ace. Fopu- 
 
 intiirf so. Tiostis from, the preceding 
 
 clause. Abdita et defossa, so. loca ; 
 
 nora. Iffnoranturf remain un- 
 known. 
 
 7. jEo ipso: abl. of cause, from the 
 
 very fact. Fallunt. Fallo is used 
 
 here in the sense of escaping notice 
 and is equivalent to the Greek 
 "kavOavei^ in which sense it is often 
 used by Tacitus. The passage means 
 that these subterranean caves are 
 either altogether unknown to the 
 enemy, or supposing the enemy to 
 have a general idea of their locality, 
 yet they baffle discovery, because 
 they can only be found by rigorous 
 search, for which the enemy lacks 
 time and Inclination. " G^lnther 
 
 calls attention to the multiform enal- 
 lage in this sentence : 1. in number 
 (j»op ulatur, ignoranttM; fallunt) / 2. 
 of the active, passive, and deponent 
 verbs ; 3. in the change of cases 
 {aperta, ace; abdita and defossa, 
 nom)." Tyler. 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 8. Teffumen. We 
 
 would here expect the dative. — - 
 Sagum, sc. est. The sagum was a 
 thick cloak, covering the back and 
 shoulders, and worn by Boman sol- 
 diers and countrymen. Fibula: 
 
 any artificial fastening. Desit. 
 
 Note the force of the present. 
 
 Spina. Vergil (Aen. III. 594), and 
 Ovid {yfct. XIV. 166) use a th<ym for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 9. Cetera: ace. of specif., i. e., of 
 
 course, when in the house. Totoa 
 
 dies: time how long. 
 
 10. Vrstf seems to mean an inner 
 garment, distinguished from the 
 outer cloak, which formed the sole 
 dress of the great mass of the people, 
 here designated by the word sagum. 
 The vestis was the dress of the richer 
 sort, who do not seem to have worn 
 the .sagum at all, judging from chap. 
 VI. where the words nudi aut sagulo 
 leves are used apparently to desig- 
 nate the two classes. Flwitawte re- 
 fers to the loose, flowing garm.ents 
 of the southern and eastern nations ; 
 atricta to the close, short clothes of 
 tlie northern nations. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 39 
 
 sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi^ sed stricta et singulos artus expri- 
 mente. Geruat et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae negligenter, 
 lilteriores exquisitias, ut quibus nullus per commercia cultus. 
 Eliguat feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pelli- 
 busque beluariimj quas exterior Oceaaus atque ignotum mare 5 
 gignit. Nee alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi quod 
 feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur, eosque purpura 
 variantj partemque vestitus superioris in manicas non exten- 
 dunt, nudae brachia ac lacertos ; sed et proxima pars pectoris 
 patet. 1 
 
 XVIII. Quamquam severa illic matrimonia, nee ullam 
 morum partem magis laudaveris. Nam prope soli barba- 
 
 1. Sarmatae^ sc. distinguuntur. 
 
 2. Proximi ripae, sc. Rheni. Those 
 of the Germans, who dwell near the 
 Rhine, and from proximity to Gallia 
 and the Roman traders are able to 
 procure a more civilized dress, take 
 less pride in theirskin coverings, and 
 are rather careless {negligent&r) in 
 the arrangement of them, not think- 
 ing them good enough to take much 
 trouble about. But those in the in- 
 terior {ulterior es), being less ac- 
 quainted with theRom.an and Gallic 
 wares, and having nothing better, 
 are anxious, therefore, to make the 
 most they can of their native mate- 
 rials, and hence wear them more elQ- 
 ga,nt\Y' {exquisiti'us). 
 
 3. Vt quibus f sc. sit: subj. of reason 
 
 in a relative clause. A. 320, e ; G. 
 
 636 ; H. 517, 3, 1). Cultus, kind of 
 
 dress, procurable by the Germans 
 only through commerce. 
 
 4. Velamina = pelles. JJIaculis 
 
 pellibusque. This means that they 
 decorate the hidesof wild beasts with 
 spots or diflfere.nt colored patches 
 made out of the skins of sea mons- 
 ters. Hence, maculis pellibusque 
 belluarum is put by hendiadys for 
 maculis pellium belluinarum, perhaps 
 to avoid the concurrence of genitives. 
 T. "The practice is still continued 
 with regard to the ermine, which is 
 spotted with black lamb's-skin." 
 
 5. JSxterioT Oceanus ; the German 
 Ocean. Iffnotum mare: the Baltic. 
 
 6. Habitus (sc. est) = vestitv^. 
 
 7. Saepius. The comparative im- 
 plies that the men wore linen more 
 
 or less. EoSf i. e., habitus. Fur- 
 
 pura. This was not the genuine pur- 
 pura, obtained from the murex, but a 
 dye obtained from some plant. 
 
 8. JPartemque vestitus superioris 
 
 = superiorem partevi vestitus. This 
 was the fashion of the Roman tunic. 
 
 9. Jifcichia ac lacertos: ace. of 
 specif. The Brachium was the por- 
 tion of the arm between the hand 
 and the elbow; ioceriiw, that from the 
 elbow to the shoulder. The stola, 
 worn by the Roman women, had 
 sleeves. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 11. Quamquam (= 
 
 sed tam.en) refers to the words at 
 the end of the last chapter, and is 
 added to remove any wrong inference 
 that might be drawn from them. 
 The dress of the women is scanty, 
 but It is a matter of custom only, and 
 no proof nor cause of dissoluteness of 
 morals, as it might be with a more 
 refined people. 
 12. iCTMc/cweris; potential subj. A. 
 
 311, R; G. 602; H. 486, I. JBwrba/ro- 
 
 rum, among barbarmis nations: gen. 
 of the whole. 
 
40 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 rorum singulis uxoribus contenti sunt, exceptis admodum 
 paucis, qui non libidine sed ob nobilitatem plurimis nuptiis 
 ambiuntur. Dotem non uxor marito, sed uxori maritus 
 offert. Intersunt parentes et propinqui, ac munera pro- 
 bant, munera non ad delicias muliebres quaesita, nee 
 quibus nova nupta comatur, sed boves et frenatum equum 
 
 1. SingtiHs uxorilyus, with one wife 
 each. Note the force of the distribu- 
 tive. 
 
 2. Qui .... tMfnhiiinturf who take 
 many wives, not from lust, but on ac- 
 eoimt of their nobility (rank) are solic- 
 ited by very many offers of marriage. 
 In support of this interpretation, vld. 
 An. II., 43; Caesar, B. G. I., 53. The 
 Scandinavian nations retained the 
 same custom, even long after they 
 were Christianized, and few habits 
 proved harder for the clergy to weed 
 out from the people than this, the 
 practice lingering on as late as the 
 tenth century. 
 
 3. I>otem, etc. Tacitus is contrast- 
 ing here the German custom with 
 that of his own countrymen at Rome ; 
 but in truth the difference seems one 
 not so much of different nations as 
 between the same nation in different 
 stages of civilization. When Medea 
 (v. 232) remarks that the destined 
 bride had to buy her spouse with a 
 vast sura of money, the Scholiast 
 observes that Euripides was transfer- 
 ring to heroic times the usage of his 
 own day. In most nations, In the 
 early period, the bridegroom appears 
 to have paid for his wife. In patri- 
 archal days, Shechera offered to 
 Dinah's father and brethren as much 
 dowry as they required, on condition 
 oftheir giving himtlie damsel to wife 
 (Gen. XXXIV. 12). Homer attests the 
 existence of the custom in early 
 Greece, speaking of a hundred beeves, 
 and a thousand sheep and goats, as 
 the price. The laws of the early 
 Saxons recognize the continuance of 
 the same practice^. As civilization 
 advances, however, and the onera 
 matrimonii become more sensibly felt. 
 
 this custom disappears, and is re- 
 placed by the opposite; a change 
 which, in the eyes of the Greek and 
 Roman satirists, at least wrought no 
 great amount of good, to judge from 
 their complaints of the pride and 
 waywardness of largely-dowered 
 dames. 
 
 4. Intersunt, are present and take 
 
 part. IProbant, i. e., examine into 
 
 their sufficiency. Note the force 
 
 added to the narration by the repeti- 
 tion of munera, 
 
 5. JToJi ad delicias nvuliehres quae- 
 sita, not adapted to delight the fastidi- 
 oics tastes of women. 
 
 DRESSING A ROMAN BRIDE, 
 
 6. Comatur: subj. of purpose, after 
 nee quibtis = nectaliaut iis. A. 317; 
 G. 632; H.497,I. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 41 
 
 et scutum cum framea gladioque. In haec munera uxor 
 accipitur, atque invicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro affert; 
 hoc maximum vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos coniugales 
 deos arbitrantur. Ne se mulier extra virtutum cogitationes 
 extraque bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis matrimonii 5 
 auspiciis admonetur venire se laborum periculorumque 
 sociam, idem in pace, idem in proelio passuram ausuramque. 
 Hoc iuncti boves, hoc paratus equus, hoc data arma denunti- 
 ant ; sic vivendum, sic pereundum ; accipere se, quae liberis 
 inviolata ac digna reddat, quae nurus accipiant rursusque ad 10 
 nepotes referant. XIX. Ergo saepta pudicitia agunt, nullis 
 spectaculorum inlecebris, nullis conviviorum irritationibus 
 corruptae. Litterarum secreta viri pariter ac feminae igno- 
 rant. Paucissima in tam numerosa gente adulteria, quorum 
 
 1. Xn haec munera = e7r I rohroig Tolg 
 SupolCj In consideration of these gifts. 
 In may however mean into : the fu- 
 ture husband parts with the articles 
 given, and fills up the gap made in 
 his possessions by taking a wife. 
 
 3. Maec arcana sacra. Probably 
 Tacitus has in view here the marriage 
 by con/arreatio, in which the panis 
 farreus was used, and certain relig- 
 ious ceremonies observed. As this 
 was the most solemn method of con- 
 tracting marriages in use among the 
 Romans, Tacitus probably refers to it. 
 
 Coniugales deos. Jupiter, Juno, 
 
 Diana, Venus, Hymenaeus, etc., pre- 
 sided over marriages at Rome. 
 
 4. Extra, excused from, for positum 
 extra. 
 
 5. JPi^tet: subj. of purpose. 
 
 7. Id€m^f sc. " quod vir suus vel pati- 
 
 tur vel audeW^ Fassuram atisu- 
 
 ramque: fut. part, denoting purpose. 
 
 8. Denuntiantf denote. 
 
 9. Vivenduni, sc. esse sibi. This 
 and the following infinitives depend 
 
 on denuntiant. Accipere scy sc. ea 
 
 referring to the gifts. 
 
 10. Heddat: subj. of purpose, after 
 
 qxtae = ut ea. jlccipia/nt, i. e., from 
 
 her sons, as she did from her husband. 
 
 11. JReferantf sc. illae^ i. e., nurus. 
 CHAP. XIX. 11. Sfoepta pudicitia, 
 
 with their cJiastity guarded, from all 
 that could assail It externally, by the 
 sacredness of marriage, and the laws 
 of the Germans. One MS. has septae, 
 which implies that they were pro- 
 tected from harm by their own 
 purity. 
 
 12. Nullis spectaculoru ni inlecebris. 
 The corrupting effect on the morality 
 of the Roman ladies produced by the 
 games and theatres, is often men- 
 tioned by the Roman writers, Juve- 
 nal for instance, XI. 162, etc. Seneca, 
 too, describes himself as returning 
 home from the show, a worse man 
 than he went (" JYihil vero est tam 
 damnosum bonis Tnoribus quxtm in aliquo 
 speciaculo desidere ; avarice redeo, am- 
 bitiosior, luxuriosior^'). Convivi- 
 orum. On the corrupting infiuences 
 of convivial entertainments, Vid. 
 Hor. Od. III. 6. 27 ; Nepos JVe/. 
 
 13. Idtterarunt secreta = litteras se- 
 cretas, clandestine correspondence, as 
 is evident from the context. 
 
 14. Numerosa is generally used of 
 verse. It is probable that the popu- 
 lation of Germany was six or seven 
 millions, judging from the state- 
 
42 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATBE (" POLLICE VEHSO," PAINTING BY GEROME). 
 
 poena praesens et maritis permissa. Abscisis crinibus, nuda- 
 tam, coram propinquis expellit domo maritus, ac per omnem 
 vicum verbere agit. Publicatae enim pudicitiae nulla venia; 
 non forma, non aetate, non opibus maritum invenerit. Nemo 
 enim illic vitia ridet, nee corrumpere et corrumpi saeculum 
 
 ments of Caesar and Tacitus. 
 
 Adulteria. Vid. Juv. VI. 48 ; IX. 24 : 
 Tac. Ann. II. 85, on the frequency of 
 this crime at Rome. 
 
 1. PraesenSf immediate. Maritis 
 
 perTnisaa shows that they regard it as 
 
 a domestic crime. Cf. Caes. VI. 19. 
 
 AJbscisis cTnnibus. It was considered 
 a disgrace, among the Germans, to cut 
 the hair, so that it was made apunish- 
 ment for certain crimes, and was re- 
 sented as an injury if practiced upon 
 an innocent person. Cf. 1. Cor. XI. 6. 
 
 2. Omnem .= totum, cf. Qermania ottV' 
 nis. Cap. I. Among the Saxons, the 
 women themselves inflicted the pun- 
 ishment. 
 
 3. ^Publicatae, prostituted. This is 
 said with reference to unmarried 
 women. Tacitus {Ann. II. 85) tells us 
 that the Roman ladies under the 
 Empire were so profligate "that the 
 Senate had to provide by law that no 
 woman whose father or grandfather 
 or husband was an equesj should give 
 in her name to the aediles as a pros- 
 titute." 
 
 4. Aetate = iuventate, Invenerit: 
 
 subj. of guarded assertion. A. 311,R; 
 G.602; H.486, 1. 
 
 5. Saeculum, the style, the spirit of 
 the age. For a similar use cf. Martial 
 IX. 27: Et cum theatris saeculogue 
 rixaris. 
 
THE GBKMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 43 
 
 vocatur. Melius quidem adhuc eae civitates, in quibus 
 tantum virgines nubunt, et cum spe votoque uxoris semel 
 transigitur. Sic uaum accipiuut maritum, quomodo unum 
 corpus unamque vitam, ne uUa cogitatio ultra, ne longior 
 cupiditas, ne tamquam maritum sed tamquam matrimonium 5 
 ament. Numerum liberorum finire aut quemquam ex agnatis 
 necare flagitium habetur, plusque ibi boni mores valent quam 
 alibi bonae leges. XX. In omni domo nudi ac sordidi in 
 hos artus, in haec corpora, quae miramur, excrescunt. Sua 
 quemque mater uberibus alit, nee ancillis ac nutricibus dele- 10 
 gantur. Dominum ac servum nullis educationis deliciis 
 dignoscas ; inter eadem pecora, in eadem humo degunt, donee 
 
 1. A.dhMB Is used In the sense of 
 still farther, still more, by the later 
 writers. Cf. Plln. XXXIII. 2; Tao. 
 
 Agr. XXXIII. Eae civitates, sc. 
 
 agunt. This ellipsis is not uncom- 
 mon. Cf. An. I. 43 ; Agr. XIX. 
 
 2. Semel, once/or all. 
 
 3. Transigitur f the business is con- 
 cluded. Tacitus, in this whole pas- 
 sage, is drawing a strong contrast be- 
 tween the customs of the Germans 
 and those of Rome. Martial (VI. 7) 
 complains that in spite of the Julian 
 law, iTeleslna had married ten hus- 
 bands in thirty days, but here only 
 virgins marry ; and divorce is un- 
 known. Widows were expected to 
 hang themselves at once at the graves 
 of their husbands, unless they chose 
 to live in perpetual infamy. 
 
 4. Ultraf sc. sit, beyond this, i. e., 
 the first marriage. 
 
 5. S'e famquam .... amentf sc. 
 maritum,, that they may not love a hus- 
 band Ttierely as a husband, but as they 
 love marriage itself. On losing their 
 husbands, they lose marriage. 
 
 6. Jjiberorum finvrCf i. e., by any 
 means contrary to nature,as murder 
 and abortion. On the frequency of 
 Infanticide among the Romans, Vid. 
 Ann. III. 25, 26 ; XV. 19 : Juv. II. 32 ; 
 VI. 366. Affnati here means chil- 
 dren born after there was an heir to 
 the name and property of the father. 
 
 8. ^KW, I.e., at Rome. "The refer- 
 ence is to the Lex Julia, passed in the 
 reign of Augustus, about 17 B. C, and 
 to the Lex Papia Poppaea, passed 
 A. D.9, as a supplement to the former. 
 These laws had for their object the 
 regulation and encouragement of 
 marriage ; they proved however, as 
 Tacitus tells us (^Ann. III. 25), a fail- 
 ure, and simply increased the power 
 of the delatores" 
 
 CHAP. XX. 8. Nudi ac sordidi, 
 slightly and meanly clad. 
 
 9. QiMie miramur. Cf. Cap. IV. 
 
 magnet corpora. Caes. I. 39. 8tta, 
 
 his own. 
 
 10. l76eH!>Ms is generally used when 
 
 speaking of animals. Nee ancillis 
 
 ac nutricibus. Tacitus is here re- 
 proving the customs of his own day 
 at Rome. The author of the Dialogus 
 de Oratoribus draws a contrast be- 
 tween the old Romans and their de- 
 scendants in this respect : " lampri- 
 mum suUrS euique filius .... non in 
 celiac emptae nutricis, sed gremio ac 
 sinu matris educabatur. At nunc natus 
 infans delegatur Graeculae alicui an- 
 dllae, cui adiungitur unus aut alter ex 
 omnibus servis, plerumque vilisHTnus 
 nee cuiquam serio ministerio aecomo- 
 datus.^^ 
 
 11. Ntillis educationis delieiiSfby no 
 indulgence in the manner of rearing. 
 
 12. Dignoscas: potential subj. 
 
44 
 
 THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 aetas separet ingenues, virtus agnoscat. Sera iuvenum Venus, 
 eoque inexhausta pubertas. Nee virgines festinantur; eadem 
 iuventa, similis proceritas : pares validaeque misoentur, ac 
 robora parentum liberi referunt. 
 
 5 Sororum filiis idem apud avunculum, qui apud patrem 
 honor. Quidarn sanctiorem arctioremque hunc nexum 
 sanguinis arbitrantur, et in accipiendis obsidibus magis 
 exigunt, tamquam et animum firmius et domum latins 
 teneant. Heredes tamen successoresque sui cuique 
 
 10 liberi, et nullum testamentum. Si liberi non sunt, 
 proximus gradus in possessione fratres, patrui, avunculi. 
 
 1. Aetas. Age is said to separate 
 the free-born, when they are found 
 on trial to be able to bear arms. At 
 first this age was twelve years, as ap- 
 pears from the Salic law : " If a child 
 under twelve commit afault, *mulct' 
 shall not be required of him." Later 
 it was fifteen years. Thus the Ripu- 
 ary laws say : "A child under fifteen 
 shall not be responsible ; " and, " If a 
 man die, or be killed, and leave a son, 
 before he have completed his fif- 
 teenth year, he shall neither prose- 
 cute a cause, nor be called upon to 
 answer in a suit: but at this term, he 
 must either answer him.self or choose 
 an advocate." This then was the 
 term of majority, which in still later 
 times, when heavier armor was used, 
 
 was still longer delayed. Vit^iis 
 
 offnoscatfUntilvirtuerecognizes tJiem as 
 her own. For the subj. after donee see 
 note on Cap. I. Tenus = conciU>itus, 
 
 2. JEogite.'abl. of cause. Pubertas 
 
 ='facultas generandi. Festinantur : 
 
 poetical for nuptfae virginmn festinan- 
 tur. At Rome, however, boys of four- 
 teen married girls of twelve. 
 
 JUadeni iuvcntaf sc. est, i. e., to the 
 young men and the maidens. 
 
 3. Procerita-Sf full growth, develop- 
 ment of form. Pares validaeque 
 
 tniscentur, they are wedded to young 
 husbands, equally-m^atched and robust, 
 1. o., they were equal not only in age, 
 iiud constitution, but in condition. 
 
 Many German codes of law annex 
 penalties to those of both sexes, who 
 marry persons of inferior rank. 
 
 5. Sororum filiis. The respect thus 
 paid to sisters' sons may have arisen 
 from the estimation in which women 
 
 were held among the Germans. 
 
 Axunculum. This was an uncle by 
 the mother's side, as distinguished 
 from patruus. Among the Romans 
 the pojlrmis was the more impor- 
 tant person, because he was both ag- 
 natus and cognatus, while the avuncit- 
 lus was only cognatus ; and by the 
 law of the XII Tables, in default of a 
 will, the tutela was given to agnati 
 only. 
 
 8. Exlgutit, sc. sororum JUios. 
 
 IfomUm latius. Because to take a 
 man's sons as hostages would bind 
 only their father; whereas to take 
 his nephews, would give a hold not 
 only on the man himself, but the par- 
 ents of the hostages as well. 
 
 9. Teneanf, subJ. after faHtq-jfawt to 
 denote the views of others than the 
 writer. Heredesf heirs to the prop- 
 erty. Successoresqtie, and succes- 
 sors to the rank. 
 
 10. Nulluin testamentum. A will 
 was unnecessary as the succession 
 was determined by law. 
 
 11. Proximus gradus. In this mat- 
 ter the German custom diflfered from 
 the Roman. By the RomaTi law 
 (Ulpian, ^ra^. Tit. XiXVI. 51), a man's 
 
THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 45 
 
 Quanto plus propinquorum, quo maior adfinium numerus, 
 tanto gratiosior senectus; nee ulla orbitatis pretia. XXI. 
 Suscipere tam inimioitias, seu patris, seu propinqui, quam 
 amicitias, necesse est. Nee implacabiles durant ; luitur enim 
 etiam homicidium certo armentorum ac pecorum numero, 
 recepitque satisfactionem universa domus, utiliter in publicum, 
 quia periculosiores sunt inimicitiae iuxta libertatem. 
 
 Convictibus et hospitiis non alia gens effusius indulget. 
 
 heirs were first his own children, 
 grandchildren, etc., or failing them, 
 his brothers and sisters by the same 
 father (consaTiguinei) : next, the near- 
 est of the remaining agnati. Conse- 
 quently the avwnculus being adflnis 
 only, and not agnatus, could not in- 
 herit, except of course by the express 
 direction of a testator. 
 
 1. JE^opinquorutn : blood relar 
 
 tives. ^dfinUim ; relations by 
 
 marriage. 
 
 2. Orbitatis pretia. At Rome the 
 advantages of childlessness were great ; 
 not indeed legally : for the orbits was 
 subject by the Lex Julia et Papia Pop- 
 paea to certain penalties. From the 
 actual state of society, however, he 
 was regarded as a fortunate man. Cf. 
 Hist. 1. 73; Dial, de Orat. VI. Great 
 court was paid them by their friends, 
 in the hope of obtaining a legacy, and 
 they were inundated with presents, 
 large fish, etc. Cf. Juv. V. 98; III. 
 221; etc. 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 3. Suscipere tarn 
 inimidtias. Such was also the cus- 
 tom of the Scottish clans, where 
 feuds raged for centuries, because the 
 son felt bound to take up his father's 
 quarrels. Thus the Mackintosh and 
 Macdonald clans were at feud in 
 consequence of some dispute origi- 
 nating so far back as the days when 
 Banish pirates wasted the coasts of 
 Scotland. Similarly the Kerrs and 
 the Scots were hereditary foes. This 
 right was a natural outgrowth of the 
 family, i. e., developed side by side 
 with it. 
 
 4. Kec = sed non. I>urantf sc. 
 
 inimieitiae. 
 
 5. MmnicUHum is not found in 
 
 writers of the golden age. A.rrnen' 
 
 torum ac pecorum. Cf. cap. V. This 
 plan of atoning for homicide Is found 
 in many uncivilized peoples. It ex- 
 isted among the Greeks (Iliad IX. 632, 
 
 KOijitv rig TE KOffLyvfjTOtO ^OVfjO^ TTOIV^ 
 
 ^ oviratSb^ kdk^aTO teBvtjutoq)^ Latins, 
 Franks, Saxons, Welsh, and Irish. 
 The amount of this payment was 
 regulated by the station of the person 
 killed ; so much for a peasant, more 
 for a noble, and so on. It is curious 
 that, among the Saxons, although 
 homicide was thus atoned for by fixed 
 payment, certain offences. In our 
 eyes, of less atrocity, such as stealing 
 a horse, were made capital, probably 
 because among a warlike and fierce 
 people the slaughter of an adversary, 
 carrying with It the idea of manli- 
 ness and prowess, was not regarded 
 harshly. 
 
 6. Recepitq-ue satisfactionenif i. e., 
 the whole household is bound to rest 
 contented with the payment thus 
 made, and has no right afterwards to 
 carry on the feud longer. 
 
 7. Itioeta libertatemf I. e., in a free 
 state. This use of iuxta for apud is 
 characteristic of the writers of the 
 silver age. 
 
 8. Convictibus et Jiospitiis. Of 
 these Avords the former refers to hos- 
 pitality shown to friends, the latter 
 
 to strangers. Effusius. Of. Caes. 
 
 VI. 23, 
 
46 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS, 
 
 Quemcumque mortalium arcere tecto nefas habetur ; pro 
 fortuna quisque apparatis epulis excipit. Cum defecere, qui 
 modo hospes fuerat, monstrator hospitii et comes; proximam 
 domum non invitati adeunt. Nee interest; pari humanitate 
 
 5 accipiuntur. Notum ignotumque, quantum ad ius hospitii, 
 nemo discernit, Abeunti, si quid poposcerit, concedere 
 moris ; et poscendi invicem eadem facilitas. Gaudent mu- 
 neribus, sed nee data imputant neo aeceptis obligantur. 
 Victus inter hospites comis. 
 
 10 XXII. Statim e sorano, quern plerumque in diem extra- 
 huntj lavantur, saepius ealida, ut apud quos plurimum hiems 
 occupat. Lauti cibum capiunt ; separatae singulis sedes et 
 sua cuique mensa. Tum ad negotia nee minus saepe ad con- 
 vivia proeedunt armati. Diem noctemque continuare potando 
 
 1. Jfefas Jiabetur. A law Of the 
 Burgundians punished by a fine any- 
 one who refused shelter to a chance 
 visitor. This unbounded hospitality 
 is one of the virtues of uncivilized 
 
 races. JPro fortujia, in accordance 
 
 with Ms means. 
 
 2. A.pparatiSf well furnished. 
 
 JOefeceref sc. epulae. This is sup- 
 posed by Holtzmann to refer to the 
 old custom of the Germans of not 
 extending the right of hospitality be- 
 yond three days. 
 
 3. Mospes: here the host. Moti- 
 
 strator hospitii. The man who lately 
 supplied the feast points out a new 
 entertainer, and accompanies his 
 late guest there. 
 
 4. Kon invitati, 1. e., even if they 
 
 are not invited. -Nee interest, 1. e., 
 
 whether they come by invitation or 
 not. Fari, as if they had been in- 
 vited. 
 
 5. QuanMini ad ius Jiospitii, as far 
 as regards the rights of hospitality, i. e., 
 the right of the guest to a hospitable 
 reception. 
 
 7. Moris, sc. est: pred. gen. 
 
 8. Sed nee data .... obUffantur, 
 but they neither make an accmtvt of the 
 things given {hj them), nor do they feel 
 
 themselves bound by the things which 
 Tiave beenreceived (by them). 
 
 9. VictuSf manner of life. This 
 clause contrasts the behavior of the 
 Germans toward strangers who are 
 sharing their hospitality with their 
 conduct when friends only are pres- 
 ent. In the former case quietness 
 and courtesy prevail; in the latter 
 quarreling is sure to arise. 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 10. JE somiw, on aris- 
 ing from sleep. In diem. This, and 
 
 every other custom here noticed, was 
 contrary to the practice of the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 11. I>wvfmtur,washthemselves: clear- 
 ly used in a middle sense. Calida, 
 
 sc. aqua. Cf. Juv. V. 63 : Pliny, £Ipist. 
 III. 5; VI. 16. Plurimum, sc. anni. 
 
 12. Occupat: subj. of the reason 
 in a relative clause. Ut merely 
 
 strengthens the relative. Singulis, 
 
 cuique, dat. of posses. Sedes is op- 
 posed to the triclinia, on which the 
 Rom.ans were accustomed to recline 
 at meals. 
 
 13. McTisa. "Eating at separate 
 tables is generally an indication of 
 
 voracity." Negotia (nee -h otium), 
 
 in the plural, indicates their various 
 pursuits. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 47 
 
 nulli probrum. Crebrae ut inter vinolentos rixae raro con- 
 viciis, saepius caede et vulneribus traasiguntur. Sed et de 
 reconciliandis invicem inimicis et iungendis adfinitatibus et 
 adciscendis principibus, de pace denique ac bello plerumque 
 in conviviis consultant, tamquam nullo magis tempore aut 5 
 ad simplices cogitationes pateat animus aut ad magnas 
 incalescat. Gens non astuta nee callida aperit adhuc 
 secreta pectoris licentia ioci; ergo detecta et nuda omnium 
 mens. Postera die retractatur, et salva utriusque temporis 
 ratio est: deliberant dum fingere nesciunt, constituunt dumlO 
 errare non possunt. XXIII. Potui humor ex hordeo aut 
 frumento, in quandam similitudinem vini corruptus ; proximi 
 
 1. Nulli jyrolyrutnf sc. est. TTt 
 
 inter virwlentoSf sc. fieri solet. ■ 
 
 Jjiajoe. Rixa is a pugna duorum, in- 
 volving blows, and Is more compre- 
 hensive than iurgium, which is a 
 wordy contest. 
 
 2. Saepius caede. This was no doubt 
 a common occurrence; for by the 
 Salic law, if any one was killed at a 
 feast, the survivors were either to 
 pay among them the composition for 
 homicide, or convict some one indi- 
 vidual of the crime. Fra/nsi- 
 
 ffuntur. Vid. Note on traTisigitur, 
 cap. XIX. 
 
 3. Tnvicem, mutually. Iungendis 
 
 adjvnMatibfUSf controhcting /arnUy alli- 
 ances. 
 
 4. Axlciscendis = eligendis. The 
 word, denoting properly a recep- 
 tion into a body of men, is here 
 properly used, as the elections were, 
 as we say, for life. 
 
 5. Zn conviviis consultant. Hero- 
 dotus (1. 133) relates the same custom 
 amongst the Persians. 
 
 6. SimpliceSf ingenuous^ undis- 
 guised. MizgnaSf heroic ones. The 
 
 idea is, that over their cups they dis- 
 close their real sentiments, and a 
 man's real thoughts are got at. Cf. 
 " In vino Veritas. " 
 
 7. A.8tutaf cunning^ keeping one's 
 own Interests in view, and having 
 an eye to the main chance. CalUda 
 
 (derived from callum, the horny skin 
 on the hand, produced by hard 
 labor) denotes the wisdom obtained 
 by long contact with the world, 1. e., 
 
 worldly wise. Adliuc, to this day, in 
 
 spite of the degeneracy of the age. 
 
 8. Jocif festivity. Ifetecta et 
 
 nudaf sc. est. 
 
 9. Ketractatur : impersonal. There 
 is a reconsideration. Salva utri- 
 usque temporis ratio est, tJle account 
 of both occasions is safe^ 1. e., by dis- 
 cussing when they cannot dissemble, 
 and deciding when there is no chance 
 of erring. The expression salva ratio 
 is properly used when the debit and 
 credit sides of an account balance 
 one another. 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. 11. Potui humor, sc. 
 est iis. Ale or beer does not seem to 
 have been known to the Romans, 
 exceptas the drink of foreign nations. 
 The Egyptians (Herod. II. 77) used 
 barley wine; and Pliny the elder 
 (XIV. 22) mentions its use by the peo- 
 ple of Northern and Western Europe. 
 
 12. JF^rwmentOf wheat. Corruptus 
 
 does not necessarily imply anything 
 more than that an entire change had 
 taken place in the character of the 
 liquid. In an account left of the old 
 method of making beer, In use among 
 the Britons and Kelts generally, we 
 are told that the grain is steeped in 
 water until it germinates. It is then 
 
48 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS, 
 
 ripae et vinum mercantur. Cibi simplices ; agrestia poma, 
 recens fera, aut lac concretum. Sine apparatu, sine blandi- 
 mentis expellunt famem. Adversus sitim non eadem tempe- 
 rantia. Si indulseris ebrietati suggerendo quantum concu- 
 
 5 piscunt, baud minus facile vitiis quam armis vincentur. 
 
 XXIV. Genus spectaculorum unum atque in omni coetu 
 idem. Nudi iuvenes, quibus id ludicrum est, inter gladios 
 se atque infestas frameas saltu iaciunt. Exercitatio artem 
 paravit, ars decorem ; non in quaestum tamen aut mercedem ; 
 
 lOquamvis audacis lasciviae pretium est voluptas spectantium. 
 Aleam, quod mirere, sobrii inter seria exercent tanta lucrandi 
 
 dried, and ground, and mixed with 
 water, which is afterwards /ermented, 
 which is the rendering here. 
 
 1. ^tpac, i. e.jOf theRhine. Cibi, 
 
 sc. sunt. Ffnna, i. e., fruits of any- 
 kind. 
 
 2. J^ecens. The Germans had no 
 fancy for tender meat, and therefore 
 dressed it as soon as it was killed. 
 Vid. Pomponius Mela, III. 3 ; Florus, 
 
 III. 3. I^ac conrreturrif curdled 
 
 milk. Caesar (VI. 22) says, an Impor- 
 tant item in the food of the Germans 
 was cheese (caseus). However, as 
 Pliny (XI. 96) remarks that it was a 
 strange thing that barbarous nations 
 had so long remained without the 
 knowledge of cheese, Caesar proba- 
 bly naeant by this term, curds of milk. 
 
 Apparatiif luxurious preparation. 
 
 lilandiinentis, daiMies for coax- 
 ing the appetite. 
 
 4. Si indulseris ehrietati, etc. This 
 policy has been practiced by the 
 European nations with regard to our 
 Am.erican Indians, some tribes of 
 which have been almost extirpated 
 by it. 
 
 ij. Maud minus facile '^ TnuUo f aci- 
 nus by Litotes. Tacitus could hardly 
 intend to say that the Germans were 
 ever easily conquered by the Ro- 
 mans—an assertion notoriously the 
 reverse of true ; but that their own 
 vices proved formidable means of 
 subjugation. 
 
 CHAP, XXIV. 6. In omni coetu, 
 
 in every gathering. 
 
 7. N^udi. Vid. Note, cap. XX. 
 
 Quihus id ludicrum est, for whom it is 
 a sport; not whose business it is to 
 furnish the amusement: that would 
 
 be quoruTYi est. T. Inter gladios. 
 
 It was a common amusement among 
 the Greeks and Romans at banquets 
 and elsewhere to witness feats of this 
 description. Cf. Plato, Euthyd. 294, E. 
 Xen. 8ymp. II. 11. 
 
 8. Infestas, i. e., pointed at them. 
 — ~A.rtent, skill. 
 
 9. Decorem is poetic. In quaes- 
 tum, sc. Tiocfaciunt. They do this not 
 as a source of profit or for wa^es as 
 Roman Jugglers and mountebanks 
 do. 
 
 10. Quamvis limits audacis. 
 
 Fretiunif (sole) recompense. 
 
 H. Mirere: indefinite potential 
 eubj. Not so much after all to wonder 
 at; for gaming being "an enchanting 
 witchery gotten between idleness and 
 avarice," is almost universally pre- 
 valent among savages, when the 
 time unoccupied by the chase or war 
 hangs heavily on their hands. The 
 wonder, here considered as remark- 
 able, was therefore "that they 
 practiced it not merely as an amuse- 
 ment, at their feasts, but when sober 
 among their ordinary every-day pur- 
 suits." Gaming at Rome, although 
 common, was disreputable, and for- 
 
THE GBRMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 49 
 
 perdendive temeritate, ut, cum omnia defecerunt, extreme ac 
 novissimo iactu de libertate ac de corpora contendant. Vic- 
 tus voluntariam servitutem adit ; quamvis iuvenior, quamvis 
 robustior, adligari se ac venire patitur. Ea est in re prava 
 pervica«ia ; ipsi fidem vocant. Servos condicionis huius per 5 
 commercia tradunt, ut se quoque pudore victoriae exsolvant. 
 XXV. Ceteris servis non in nostrum morem, descriptis per 
 familiam ministeriis, utuntur ; suam quisque sedem, suos 
 penates regit. Frumenti modum dominus aut pecoris aut 
 vestis ut colono iniungit, et servus hactenus paret; cetera 10 
 domus officia uxor axj liberi exsequuntur. Verberare servum 
 ac vinculis et opere coercere rarum. Occidere solent, non 
 
 bidden by the laws, except at tbe 
 Saturnalia. 
 
 1, 2. ExtTemo ac novisaiTilOf last 
 and_Jinal {throw). 'Extremo conveys 
 the Idea that the throw is the last in 
 a series ; novissimo, that it is desper- 
 ate, the man having nothing farther 
 to stake. A throw might therefore 
 be extremus, and yet not Twvissirmos. 
 
 De libertate ac de corporCf their 
 
 personal liberty ; by hendiadys. 
 
 3, Voluntwriuin. Cicero, and writ- 
 ers of his time, would here have used 
 tiUro, ipse, or some such word in 
 agreement with the subject of the 
 verb, instead of the object. Iuve- 
 nior. The more common form is 
 iwnior. This form is very rare. 
 
 4, Venire, to be sold: from veneo. 
 Ea=tanta or talis. 
 
 5, 6. FldeTTif Iionor. JE^dore victo- 
 
 riaCf froTn the disgrace of such a vic- 
 tory. In the earlier writers, pudor 
 always denotes a sense of shame, 
 modesty. 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 7. Ceteris, i. e., those 
 
 retained for domestic purposes. ■ 
 
 In nostrum morem. The extent of 
 the division of duties among the Bo- 
 man household slaves may be in- 
 ferred from the variety of names 
 used to designate their offices, such as 
 pistores, coqui, duldarii, sahnentarii, 
 etc. Descriptis, distributed. 
 
 8. ^amUiam is the entire body of 
 
 slaves owned by one master. 
 
 Quisque. i. e., of course, each slave. 
 
 11. Bomus refers to the house of the 
 
 master. Vxor ac liberi, of the 
 
 master. The great difference be- 
 tween the Greek and Roman slaves, 
 and those mentioned in this chapter, 
 consists in this, that the former were 
 absolutely at the disposal of the 
 master, whereas, the latter were 
 glebae adscripii, attached to the soil. 
 These serfs, it seems, had their own 
 homes and were obliged to provide 
 corn and cattle for consumption, or 
 materials for the dress of their 
 master, but in the other household 
 duties the serf had no concern. After- 
 wards the Germans, imitating the 
 Bomans, began to have personal 
 slaves. 
 
 12. Opere, hard labor. In this respect 
 there was a decided contrast to the 
 Roman treatment; for the lash was 
 In such frequent use, that the slaves 
 professed often to have given up 
 caring for it; and the lorarii are re- 
 presented as worn out with flogging 
 to no purpose. Cf. Plaut. Asin. Act. 
 
 III. Sc. II. 29. Occidere solent .... 
 
 impune. In this respect the usage 
 of the Germans and the Bomans 
 seems to have been the same. Under 
 the republic the law hardly appears 
 
50 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 disciplina et severitate, sed impetu et ira, ut inimicum, nisi 
 quod impune est. Liberti non multum supra servos sunt. 
 Raro aliquod momentum in domo, numquam in civitate, ex- 
 ceptis dumtaxat iis gentibus, quae regnantur : ibi enim et super 
 5 ingenuos et super nobiles ascendunt; apud ceteros impares 
 libertini libertatis argumentum sunt. 
 
 XXVI. Faenus agitare et in usuras extendere ignotum, 
 ideoque magis servatur quam si vetitum esset. 
 
 Agri pro numero cultorum ab universis in vices occu- 
 lOpantur, quos mox inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur. 
 
 to have interfered at all with the 
 power of a master over his slave. 
 Under the emperors, however, enact- 
 ments were at different times passed 
 to restrict the severity of punish- 
 ment arbitrarily inflicted. 
 
 1. Utinlniicum. A*'privateenemy 
 could not be slain with impunity, 
 since a fine was affixed to hom.icide, 
 but a man might kill his own slave 
 without any punishment. If, how- 
 ever, he killed another person's 
 slave, he was obliged to pay his price 
 to the owner." 
 
 3. Jtfamentumf influence. DomOf 
 
 i. e., of their former master. 
 
 4. Quae regnantur, which are T^led 
 by kings. Cf. Mist. 1, 16; An. XIII., 54. 
 IM refers to Rome. 
 
 5. Ingenuos f free bom. NohileSf 
 
 high bom, nobles. Ascendunt. "The 
 
 amazing height of power and in- 
 solence, to which freedmen arrived 
 by making themselves subservient 
 to the vices of the prince, is a strik- 
 ing characteristic of the reigns of 
 some of the worst of the Roman em- 
 perors." Ceteros is for ceteros (sc. 
 
 gentes) by synesis. 
 
 6. Itnpares libertini^ the subor- 
 dinate {condition of the) freedmen. At 
 the beginning of the sentence, Tacitus 
 uses Liberti; and one expects to find 
 some reason for the difference. 
 Generally speaking, liberttts desig- 
 nates a manumitted slave, viewed 
 with reference to his master; while 
 
 liberiinus denotes his social position. 
 It does not seem, unlikely, therefore, 
 that when contrasted as here with 
 servus, libertus may be used pur- 
 posely. The word serims of necessity 
 brings up the idea of domvnus; and 
 with reference to him, libertus would 
 naturally suggest itself, and not 
 libertinus. On the other hand when 
 the free-born and noble are con- 
 trasted with lVeedmen,and no idea 
 of a master is introduced, libertini 
 would be the natural term to use. 
 
 Argumentum: ''because they 
 
 value liberty and citizenship too 
 highly to confer it on freedmen and 
 slaves." Tyler. 
 CHAP. XXVI. 7. Faenus agitare. 
 
 To loan money at interest. Inusuras 
 
 extendere, to put that interest on in- 
 terest, i. e., to exact compound inter- 
 est. 
 
 8. The subject of servatur is some- 
 thing like non faenerari to be sup- 
 plied. Cf. ..-4 nn. VI. 16; 'sane vetus 
 urbi faenebre malum, et seditionum, 
 discordiarumque creberrima causa.' 
 
 9. Agri, the public lands. JPro 
 
 numero, in proportion to the number. 
 
 Ah universis, by whole tnbes, as 
 
 distinguished from individual own- 
 ers. In vivos, by turns. 
 
 10. Mox, afterwards, i. e., as soon as 
 the allotments are made. Secun- 
 dum dignationem, i. e., some por- 
 tions are larger, some smaller, for the 
 prindpes Qjidplebs respectively. 
 
THE GEEMANTA OF TACITUS. 
 
 51 
 
 Facilitatem partiendi camporum spatia praestant; arva per 
 annos mutant, et superest ager. Nee enim cum ubertate et 
 amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria conserant et 
 prata separent et hortos rigent ; sola terrae seges imperatur. 
 Unde annum quoque ipsum non in totidem digerunt species : 5 
 hiems et ver et aestas intellectum ac vocabula habent ; au- 
 tumni perinde nomen ac bona ignorantur. 
 
 XXVII. Funerum nulla ambitio; id solum observatur, 
 ut corpora clarorum virorum certis lignis crementur. Struem 
 rogi nee vestibus nee odoribus cumulant ; sua cuique arma, 10 
 
 1, 2. Camporum f of the fields. 
 Campus is any level surface, whether 
 
 of land or water. Arva. Arvum 
 
 is ploughed land. This does not im- 
 ply that the occupants of the soil 
 differ every year (per annos), but 
 that what is arable one year, becomes 
 fallow the next, and vice versa. This 
 they were able to do, as there was 
 land enough and to spare (superest 
 
 ager). Nee eniin .... cowtendunt. 
 
 Tacitus means that they do not pre- 
 tend by their labor to try to equal 
 the fertility and extent of their land. 
 
 4. Terrae. Terra is the earth as op- 
 posed to sea and sky. 
 
 5. Unde, i. e., from their not plant- 
 ing fruit-trees. In totidem species, 
 
 into so many seasons, sc. qitot Homani, 
 as the Romans do. They grow only 
 corn; and winter, spring, and sum- 
 mer completing this department of 
 husbandry, they have no name for 
 autumn, the great time for fruits 
 crops. There is even now in English 
 no word of home growth to designate 
 this part of the year; autumn, of 
 course, being of Latin origin. 
 
 6. Intellectum indicates the silver 
 age of Latinity, " a marked charac- 
 teristic of which was the growth of 
 abstract terms." Intellectum ha- 
 bent = nota sunt. 
 
 7. JLutumni nomen. The Ger- 
 mans have now all the autumnal 
 fruits of their climate ; yet their lan- 
 guage still retains a memorial of 
 
 their ancient deficiencies, in having 
 no term for this season of the year, 
 but one denoting the gathering in of 
 
 corn alone. — Serbst, harvest. 
 
 Bona, blessings, especially the grape 
 and olive. 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. 8. Ambitio, osterv- 
 tail owi parade. In this respect, there 
 was a direct contrast between the 
 manners of the Germans, and those 
 of the Romans and also of the Gauls 
 as we see from Caesar (VI. 19). 
 
 9. Certis, i. e., decreed by law or 
 custom. Crementur. The Ger- 
 mans retained this custom until for- 
 bidden by Charlemagne under pain 
 
 of capital punishment. ■ Struem 
 
 rogi, 1. e., the wood heaped up to form 
 the pile. 
 
 10. Vestibus. Cf. Lucan IX. 175, in a 
 description of the honors paid to 
 Pompeius Magnus by Cornelia, — 
 
 " CoUegit vestes, miserique insignia Magni, 
 Armaque, et impressas auro, quas gesserat 
 
 olim, 
 Exuvias, pictasque togas ; velaminasummo 
 Ter conspecta Jovi, funestoque intulit igni." 
 
 Odoribus. Pliny says, "Intelligent 
 persons asserted that Arabia did not 
 produce such a quantity of spices in 
 a year as Nero burned at the obse- 
 quies of his Poppaea." Sua cuique 
 
 arma. This practice was long con- 
 tinued by the Teutonic nations. In 
 the tombs, that have been opened, of 
 the Frankish kings, and others, 
 swords, spears, shields, and bones of 
 
52 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 quorundam igni et equus adicitur. Sepulcrum caespes erigit; 
 monumentorum arduum et operosum honorem ut gravem 
 defunctis aspernantur, Lamenta ac lacrimas cito^ dolorem 
 et tristitiam tarde ponunt. Feminis lugere honestum est, 
 5 viris meminisse, 
 
 Haec in commune de omnium Germanorum origine ac 
 raoribus accepimus. Nunc singularum gentium instituta 
 ritusque, quatenus differant, quae nationes e Germania in 
 Gallias commigraverint, expediam. 
 
 10 XXVIII. Validiores olim Gallorum res fuisse summus 
 auctorum divus lulius tradit ; eoque credibile est etiam Gallos 
 
 horses, with a shoe, and gold buckles 
 and housings, have been found. The 
 same custom still exists am.ong our 
 American Indians ; bows, arrows, 
 skins, domestic utensils being depos- 
 ited in the graves with the dead, on 
 the supposition of course that the de- 
 ceased would follow the same occu- 
 pations after death as in life. Cf. 
 Herod. IV. 71 ; Caes. VI. 19, 24. 
 
 1. Quorundctm: -probably the chiefs. 
 Sepulcrum caespes erigit : poeti- 
 cal tor sepulcrum caespUe erigitur. 
 
 2. A.rduum et operosum, lofty and 
 elaborate. 
 
 4. Ponuntf = deponunt. 
 
 6. In comumtte: late Latin for uni- 
 verse. 
 
 7. Singularum gentium instituta 
 ritusque. Tacitus here begins the 
 second part of his work, a description 
 of the localities of the several Ger- 
 man tribes, with an account of their 
 civil institutions {instituta) and re- 
 ligious observances {ritus). He does 
 this in a certain order. In cap. 
 XXVIII. he speaks of tribes of uncer- 
 tain origin; in cap. XXIX-XXXIV., 
 he describes those who border on the 
 Rhine toward the "West ; in cap. 
 XXXV-XXXVII., the Rhine peoples 
 toward the North; in cap. XXXVIII- 
 XLI., the members of the Suevic 
 league; in cap. XLII. and XLIII., the 
 tribes lying along the Danube; and 
 
 in cap. XLIV., andXLV., the dwell- 
 ers on the shores of the Northern 
 Ocean. 
 
 8, 9. Quae = quaegue. Commi- 
 
 gravcTn-nt: ind. quest. 
 
 CHAP. XXVIII. 10. Summus auc- 
 torum, the highest of authorities. Taci- 
 tus here refers to Caesar's account of 
 Germany as found in B. G., VI. 24. 
 
 CAIXrS JULIUS CABSAR. 
 
 11. Divus. The Roman emperors on 
 
 their decease were usually deified. 
 The custom apparently began with 
 Caius Julius Caesar (Suet. Jul. 88), 
 and seems to have merged into a 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 53 
 
 in Germaniam transgresses. Quantulum enim amnis obsta- 
 bat quominus, ut quaeque gens evaluerat, occuparet permu- 
 taretque sedes promiscuas adhuo et nulla regnorum potentia 
 divisas? Igitur inter Hercyniam silvam Rhenumque et 
 Moenum aranes Helvetii, ulteriora Boil, Gallica utraque 5 
 gens, tenuere. Manet adhuc Boihemi nomen, signatque loci 
 veterem memoriam quamvis mutatis cultoribus. Sed utrum 
 Aravisci in Pannoniam ab Osis, Germanorum natione, an Osi 
 ab Araviscis in Germaniam commigraverint, cum eodem 
 adhuc sermone, institutis, moribus utantur, ineertum est ; 10 
 quia, pari olim inopia ac libertate, eadem utriusque ripae 
 bona malaque erant. Treveri et Nervii circa adfectationem 
 
 mere routine. Eoque, and on this 
 
 account. 
 
 1. >l»ft»ii«, i.e., the Rhine. 
 
 2. Occuparet p&rmuta/retque : subj. 
 after quojninusf depending on a verb 
 of * hindering/ 
 
 3. Fr&miscuas adhuCf as yet un^ 
 clainned. -Et nulla regnorum po- 
 tentia divisaSf i. e., not yet appor- 
 tioned among different and powerful 
 kingdoms. 
 
 4. Igitur f sc. loca^ as objectof <en«- 
 
 ere. Hereynictm. silvam. Writers 
 
 disagree as to the extent and situa^ 
 tlon of this forest, but when the 
 mountains of Germany were well 
 known by the Romans, the name 
 was applied to the range of moun- 
 tains extending around Bohemia, 
 and through Moravia and Hungary. 
 
 5. JHoenumf the Main. Selvetii. 
 
 The locality here assigned to the 
 Helvetii would nearly coincide with 
 theduohyofBaden. If the Helvetians 
 ever were in this place, the Germans 
 must have driven them back ; for in 
 Caesar's time they were west of the 
 
 Rhine, between it and the Jura. 
 
 Xllteriora, sc. loca, the district beyond. 
 
 6. Balhemi. This name means 
 "h/ymeofthe Boli:" 'hem' being the 
 'helm' in Mannheim, and the 'ham' 
 of English towns. 
 
 7. M&m&riam, tradition. Quami- 
 
 vis mutatis cultoribus. The Boii, 
 
 having been driven from Boihemum 
 in the time of Augustus, retired to 
 NoriciLTn, which from them was called 
 Boioaria, now Bavaria. 
 
 8. A.ravisci. This people were situ- 
 ated in the north-east corner of Pan- 
 
 nonia. Ab Osis. The Osi were 
 
 east of Moravia. — — Q-ermanorum 
 natione. This statement here is a 
 geographical, notan ethnological one, 
 as in cap. XLIII. Tacitus says that 
 the Osi were proved by their Panno- 
 nian language not to be Germans, 
 therefore the description here given of 
 their being a nation of Germans only 
 implies that their position was in a 
 country mainly occupied by Ger- 
 mans. 
 
 10,11. TTtantur: subJ. after cu»n, since. 
 
 OlitUf i.e., before their migration 
 
 took place. Utriusque ripae, i.e., of 
 
 the Danube, the Aravisci living on 
 the right bank, the Osi, on the left. 
 
 12. Treveri. As Tacitus below 
 speaks of certain tribes as unequivo- 
 cally German, it seems a fair infer- 
 ence that, in his opinion, the Teu- 
 tonic origin of the Treveri and JNTervii 
 was doubtful. Besides St. Jerome 
 distinctly asserts the language of the 
 Galatae of Phrygia to be the same as 
 that of the Treveri. Thispeople lived 
 on the banks of the Moselle in Bel- 
 gian Gaul. Their chief town was 
 made a Roman colony by Augustus, 
 
54 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITTTS. 
 
 Germanicae originis ultro ambitiosi sunt, tamquam per hanc 
 gloriam sanguinis a similitudine et inertia Gallorum separen- 
 tur. Ipsara Rheni ripam hand dubie Germanorum populi 
 coluntj Vangiones, Triboci, Netnetes. Ne Ubii quidem, 
 
 5 quamquam Romana colonia esse meruerint ac libentius 
 
 Agrippinenses conditoris sui nomine vocentur, origine erubes- 
 
 cunt, transgress! olim et experimento fidei super ipsam 
 
 Rheni ripam collocati, ut arcerent, non ut custodirentur. 
 
 XXIX. Omnium harum gentium virtute praecipui Batavi 
 
 lOnon multum ex ripa sed insulam Rheni amnis colunt, Chat- 
 
 and was caUed Augitsta Treverorum, 
 
 now Treves. JS'ervU. A powerful 
 
 people of Belgian Gaul whose terri- 
 tory extended from the River Sabis 
 to the ocean, and part of which was 
 covered by the Silva Arduenna. Ac- 
 cording to Appian they were de- 
 scended from the Cimbri. If so, this 
 would be an argum.ent in favor of 
 their Keltic, rather than Germanic 
 
 origin. Ci/rca,in respect to. "This 
 
 meaning and use of the word is post 
 
 Augustan." Adfectationemf eager 
 
 desire. 
 
 1, 2. Ultro, very, really, actuaUy. 
 SeptM/r&ntur : in a middle sense. 
 
 3. Maud dubie = Tiaud dubii, and 
 limits GermaTiortim, poxmli. 
 
 4. Va/ngi€yn,es, Tribocif Nemetes. 
 Their chief towns are now respec- 
 
 ti vely Worms, Strasburg and Spires. 
 
 Ubii. The Ubii in Caesar's time were 
 east of the Rhine ; but {An. XII. 27) 
 in the reign of Augustus were trans- 
 ported across the river, to escape 
 from the hostilities of the Chatti, 
 under the protection of Vipsanlus 
 Agrlppa, from whom, according to 
 this passage, they were called Agrip- 
 pinenses, Generally however the 
 foundation of the colony is ascribed 
 to Agrippina, daughter of Caesar Ger- 
 manicus, and wife of Claudius. The 
 old town called Oolonia Agrippina is 
 now Cologne. 
 
 5. Meruer^ntf earned by their long 
 and faithful services to the Romans. 
 The subj. is after quwntquam which 
 
 in late Latin changes parts with 
 quaynvis. 
 
 7. Experi/mento fidei, i. e., in con- 
 sequence of their tried fidelity. 
 
 y. Arcerent, sc. their own country- 
 men and prevent them from crossing 
 over into the Roman territories. 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 9. Gentium: gen. 
 
 of whole n^ter praecipui. Virfutef 
 
 i. e. , in war. Batavi. Traces of the 
 
 name still remain in Betuwe, the dis- 
 trict between the Rhine, "Waal, and 
 Meuse. They were a Keltic people, 
 and were for a long time allies of the 
 Romans in their wars against the 
 Germans, but at length, exasperated 
 by the oppression of the Roman offi- 
 cers, they rose in revolt in A. D. 69, 
 and were with great difficulty sub- 
 dued. Their chief town was lAigdW' 
 num., now Leyden. 
 
 10. JVo?!- vrvultunh ex ripa, i. e., over 
 and above the island they occupied a 
 portion of the bank of the Rhine, out- 
 side the island altogether. Insu- 
 lam Rheni. Tacitus {An. II. 6) places 
 the Batavi in the island between the 
 main branch of the Rhine, where it 
 divides at Burgenatium, the Vahalis 
 {Waal), and the Mosa {Meuse) after 
 the Vahalis flows into it. The island 
 is bounded on the west by the sea. 
 
 CJiattorum. Some think that the 
 
 name Batavi is a corrupted form of 
 CJuxtti. This migration of the Chatti 
 is mentioned by no other writer. Vid. 
 
 nist. IV. 12. 
 
THE GERMANIA OE TACITUS. 
 
 55 
 
 torum quondam populus et seditione domestica in eas sedes 
 transgressus, in quibus pars Romani imperii fierent. Manet 
 honos et antiquae societatis insigne. Nam nee tributis con- 
 iemnuntur, nee publicanus atterit; exempti oneribus et colla- 
 tionibus, et tantum in usum proeliorum sepositi, velut tela 5 
 atque arma, bellis reservantur. Est in eodem obsequio et 
 Mattiacorum gens ; protulit enim magnitude populi Romani 
 ultra Rhenum ultraque veteres terminos imperii reverentiam. 
 Ita sede finibusque in sua ripa, mente animoque nobiscum 
 agunt, cetera similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae suae 1 
 solo et caelo acrius animantur. 
 
 1, 2. Seditione: abl. of cause. 
 
 Transgressus. Caesar {IV. 10) found 
 them in their new territory. Fie- 
 rent : suhj . of result after in qutbus — 
 ut in lis. 
 
 3. Societatis alludes to their being 
 
 allies of Rome. Xnsigne^ badge, 
 
 seems only to refer to the exemptions 
 from tribute mentioned directly af- 
 terwards, and to have no reference to 
 hands of silver joined together, de- 
 scribed in Hist. I. 54. Tributis. 
 
 Tnbutum was originally the direct 
 tax levied on Roman citizens accord- 
 ing to the value of their property, 
 real or personal: this was afterwards 
 remitted, so far as they were con- 
 cerned, but imposed on the prov- 
 inces. There, every subject possess- 
 ing land paid a tax of ten per cent, 
 on the annual produce in grain, and 
 five per cent, on that in wine, fruits, 
 etc.; while those who had no land 
 paid on their personal property. If 
 these imposts were paid in kind, the 
 provincials were vectigales ; if a 
 money contribution was made, they 
 were termed sWpendta™. From these 
 taxes the Batavi were free, being not 
 only exempt from onera, fixed im- 
 posts, but from collaUones, extraordi- 
 nary charges, either voluntary, like 
 the English benevolences, or forced. 
 
 4. Publicanus^ the farmer of the rev- 
 enue. The revenues which Rome 
 derived from conquered countries, 
 
 consisting chiefly of tolls, tithes, har- 
 bor duties, the tax paid for the use 
 of mines and salt works, were let out, 
 or, as the Romans expressed it, were 
 sold by the censors in Rome itself to 
 the highest bidder. The farming of 
 the revenues was almost exclusively 
 in the hands of the Equites or wealthy 
 equestrian order, whence the words 
 equites and publicani are sometimes 
 used as synonymous. Diet. Antiqq.. 
 5, 6. Tela: ofltensive armor. — — 
 A.rina : defensive. Obsequio, obe- 
 dience. 
 
 7. Mattlaeorutn. This people in- 
 habited the country between the 
 Maenus (Main), Lagana (Lahn), and 
 the Rhine. Their chief towns were 
 Aquae Mattiacae (Wiesbaden), and 
 Mattiacum (Marburg), They are 
 spoken of here out of their proper 
 place (see note in cap. XXVIII.) be- 
 cause they are on a similar footing 
 with the Batavi, 
 
 8. Veteres terminos. The Rhine 
 was always regarded as the natural 
 division between the Roman and the 
 German sway. 
 
 9. In sua ripaj i. e., the .east bank. 
 It is antithetic to Tujtbis&um. — Mente 
 animoque, from rational conviction 
 and attachment. 
 
 10. A.gunt = vivunt = sunt. ■ Ce- 
 tera: accus. of spec. Adhuc, still, 
 
 11. Solo et caelOf i. e., their country 
 was hilly, and not marshy, like that 
 
56 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 Non numeraverim inter Germaniae populos, quamquam 
 trans Rheuum Danubiumque consederint, eos qui Decumates 
 agros exercent. Levissimus quisque Gallorum et inopia 
 audax dubiae possessionis solum occupavere ; mox limite 
 6 acto promotisque praesidiis, sinus imperii et pars provinciae 
 habentur. 
 
 XXX. Ultra bos Chatti initium sedis ab Hercynio saltu 
 incohantj non ita effusis ac palustribus locis ut ceterae civi- 
 tates, in quas Germania patescit ; durant siquidem coUes, 
 lOpaulatim rarescunt, et Chattos sues saltus Hercynius prose- 
 quitur simul atque deponit, Duriora genti corpora, stricti 
 artus, minax vultus et maior animi vigor. Multum ut inter 
 
 of the Batavi : the air was therefore 
 keener, and more bracing than the 
 fogs of the Insula Batavorum. 
 
 1. JfuTtterctverim. Cf. note on cre- 
 diderim, cap. II. 
 
 2. Decumates agros. This was a 
 district north of thte Banube, and 
 east of the Rhine (Baden, most of 
 Wiirtemburg, and a small part of 
 Bavaria were in it) seized by the Ro- 
 mans, when the Germans retreated 
 east, and given by them to Gauls and 
 immigrating Germans, and then to 
 their own veterans to occupy, sub- 
 ject to a tax of one-tenth of the pro- 
 duce. This word is found here only, 
 (the usual one being decumani) per- 
 haps because decumani was used to 
 designate tithe-lands in a regular 
 province, whereas these hero alluded 
 to formed no province, but were an 
 appendage to Upper Germany. 
 
 3. Ujcercent = colunt. 
 
 4. JDubiae: because unprotected 
 against the incursions of the hostile 
 Germans. To keep these off it was 
 protected, probably under Domltian, 
 by a bank (limes), from the Rhine, 
 near Cologne, to Mt. Taunus and the 
 Odenwald, and from Lorch to Ratis- 
 bon, on the Danube, by a wall, of 
 
 which traces still remain. Sinus^ 
 
 border. 
 
 6. Provinciae. This land, partly 
 
 in Germania Superior ^ partly in 
 Haetia, had no regular organization. 
 It was ruled by military law, the 
 commanders of the troops being sub- 
 j ect to the governors of the two ad- 
 joining provinces. 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 7. The ChaUi, one 
 of the m.ost lm.portant nations of Ger- 
 many, inhabited the country lying 
 between the Moemts on the south, 
 and the sources of the Visurffis 
 (Weser) ; and from, the Westerwald in 
 the west to the 8ala (Saale) in Fran- 
 conia, occupyingthemodern Hessian 
 
 district. Initium incohant is 
 
 pleonastic. 
 
 8. JEffusiSf extensive. 
 
 9-11, IHiretnt .... atque deponitj 
 sinxie the hills are continuous^ and 
 gradually become /ewer, and the JSct'- 
 cynian forest at once accompanies, and 
 
 leaves behind its own Chatti. 
 
 JOurant precedes aiquidem for the 
 sake of emphasis. The Idea is that 
 the hills here are not isolated, but 
 continue for a long distance, and 
 
 gradually subside. Paulatim,, se. 
 
 que, which Ritter inserts in the text. 
 
 Sues, i. e., as if the Chatti were 
 
 the children of the Forest. JProse- 
 
 quitur. JP)'osegui is a word often used 
 with reference to escorting persons 
 who are setting out from home on 
 some official errand I>rponit, Ut.. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 57 
 
 Germanos rationis ac sollertiae : praeponere electos, audire 
 praepositos, nosse ordines, intellegere occasiones, differre 
 impetuSj disponere diem, vallare noctem, fortunam inter 
 dubia, virtutem inter certa numerare; quodque rarissiraum 
 nee nisi Ronianae disciplinae concessum, plus reponere in duce 5 
 quani in exercitu. Omne robur in pedite, quern super arma 
 ferramentis quoque et copiis onerant. Alios ad proeliuin ire 
 videas, Chattos ad bellum. Rari excursus et fortuita pugna. 
 Equestrium sane viriura id proprium, cito parare victoriam, 
 cito cedere ; velocitas iuxta formidinem, cunctatio proprior con- 10 
 stantiae est. XXXI. Et aliis Germanorum populis usurpa- 
 tum raro et privata cuiusque audentia apud Chattos in 
 consensum vertit, ut primum adoleverint, crinem barbamque 
 
 sets doivrif 1. e., the mountains and the 
 Chatti are coextensive ; when the 
 forest sinks to the plain, the Chatti 
 extend no farther. It is a beautiful, 
 
 bold and poetic expression. 
 
 Ihiriora, sc. ceteris Qermanorwm. 
 
 Stricti. Tacitus, speaking (Hist. II. 
 32) of the Germans generally, says 
 that they were loose-limbed. Opposed 
 to this characteristic, the Chatti have 
 close-knit, compact frames. 
 
 1. Ut inter Germanos, as far as 
 {we may expect this) among Germans ; 
 for generally they were deficient in 
 these qualities, and therefore you 
 would not expect to find much 
 cleverness among them. 
 
 2. Fraepotiere, etc. This and the 
 other infinitives, {without connec- 
 tives, denoting a hasty enumeration 
 of particulars) are in appos. with 
 multum .... sollertiae. C. and T. 
 
 Nosse ordinesy they know their 
 
 ranks in the military lines, and keep 
 
 them Occasiones. Occasio always 
 
 means 'a favorable opportunity,' a 
 sense our English word does not now 
 necessarily possess. 
 
 3. Disponere diem. Disponere was 
 a common word for stationing pick- 
 ets, and arranging troops in due 
 military order for their respective 
 duties. Here the phrase means that 
 
 in the day-time they posted the vari- 
 ous parts of their armies in due 
 order, with outposts, pickets, etc. ; at 
 night they confined their soldiery 
 (vallare noctem), after the Roman 
 fashion, within ramparts and 
 trenches. 
 
 4, 5. Quodque = et quod, sc. est. 
 
 Nisi f except. 
 
 7. Ferva mentis, i. e., tools made 
 of iron, e. g., spades, pickaxes, etc. 
 
 CopiiSf provisions, J^roelium, 
 
 battle ; brllum, a series of battles, a 
 campaign, war. 
 
 8. Harl is predicated of ptigna, as 
 well as of excursus. 
 
 9. Id propriutn, sc. est. This re- 
 mark is not applicable to the Chatti, 
 who had no cavalry, but is used with 
 reference to cavalry engagements in 
 general. 
 
 10. Velocitas, applying to cavalry, 
 means that in the opinion of the 
 Chatti, 'rapidity borders on alarm, 
 while slowness of movement (cunc- 
 tatiOf applying to infantry) is more 
 akin to steadiness.' 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. 11. Fopulis : dat. of 
 agt. after nsurpatum, which, with 
 its modifiers, is the subject of vertit. 
 
 13. Adoleverint: subj. as referring 
 
 the thought to the Chatti. dHnem 
 
 barbamque stihinittere : appos. with 
 
58 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACIT0S. 
 
 submittere, nee nisi hoste caeso exuere votivum obligatumque 
 virtuti oris habitum. Super sanguinem et spolia revelant 
 frontem, seque turn demum pretia nascendi rettulisse dignos- 
 que patria ac parentibus ferunt. Ignavis et imbellibus 
 
 5 manet squalor. Fortissimus quisque ferreum insuper anulum 
 (ignominiosum id genti) velut vinculum gestat, donee se 
 caede hostis absolvat. Plurimis Chattorum hie placet habi- 
 tus ; iamque canent insignes et hostibus simul suisque mon- 
 strati. Omnium penes hos initia pugnarum ; haec prima 
 
 10 semper aeies, visu nova ; nam ne in pace quidem vultu 
 mitiore mansueseunt. Nulli domus aut ager aut aliqua cura : 
 prout ad quemque venere, aluntur, prodigi alieni, contemptores 
 sui, donee exsanguis seneetus tam durae virtuti impares faeiat. 
 
 usurpatum. There is an Instance of 
 this custom mentioned in the His- 
 tory (IV. 61), when Civilis, the Bata- 
 vian chief after a great slaughter of 
 the Romans, shaved off the hair al- 
 lowed to grow since the beginning of 
 the war. 
 
 1, 2. JVce .... habituni: appos. 
 with iisuT^atuTn, Translate, andnot 
 to stHp off this guise offa^e^ vowed and 
 pledged to valor ^ untilthey had slain an 
 enemy. Revelant frotttem, by cut- 
 ting theirhair,and shaving the beard. 
 
 3. Rettulisse, repaid the debt due 
 their country and parents for having 
 been born. -lyignosquef so. esse. 
 
 5. Squalor, 1. e., the unshorn hair 
 
 and beard. Insuper^ i. e., " besides 
 
 the long hair and beard." T. -.Lnu- 
 
 lum. With the Rom.ans the ring was 
 an emblem of social rank, not as 
 with the Germans, a badge of dis- 
 grace. Senators, chief magistrates, 
 and, at last, equites, all wore gold 
 rings, others iron ones, although cer- 
 tain noble families retained rings of 
 the last m,etal. In the days of 
 chivalry, vows similar to those here 
 described were common. Vertot 
 mentions a Duke of Bourbon, who, 
 In order to win the favor of his mis- 
 tress, with sixteen of his companions 
 vowed to wear a ring round the left 
 leg every Sunday for two years, until 
 
 they should meet with an equal 
 number of opponents to contend 
 with them in a tournament. 
 
 7. Absolvat isubj. after donee) i. e., 
 from the disgrace attached to him. 
 
 JP'luTvm.i8=perTnultis. Sic 
 
 habitus, i. e., of wearing rings and 
 letting the hair grow. The idea is 
 that even after killing an enemy, 
 many of the Chatti permanently 
 adopt the custom, for this seems to 
 be the meaning of placet. 
 
 8, 9. Hostibus : dat. of the agt. 
 
 Initia, sc. sunt. 
 
 10. Yistt nova, strange to behold. Cf. 
 cap. XLIII., primi in omnibus proeliis 
 oouli vincuntur^ 
 
 11. Mansueseunt, properly used of 
 wild animals, is here ' do they soften 
 down,' lit., 'do they become tame. 
 
 Nulli^ SC. est, i. e., to no warriors 
 
 of this class. 
 
 12. Ctynternptorea. These forms in 
 or are great favorites with Tacitus. 
 This particular word is found in 
 Livy, Sallust, and the poets, but, ac- 
 cording to Boeticher, accumulator, 
 concertator, detractor, exstimulator,pro- 
 Jligator, sanctor, subversor, venditator, 
 visor, are found In him alone; and 
 some seventeen or eighteen more, 
 chiefly in later writers. 
 
 13. Exsanguis, languid, feeble, lit., 
 bloodless, lifeless. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 69 
 
 XXXII. Proximi Chattis certum iam alveo Rhenum, 
 quique terminus esse sufficiat, Usipii ac Tencteri colunt. 
 Tencteri, super solitum bellorum decus, equestris disciplinae 
 arte praecellunt ; nee maior apud Chattos peditum laus quam 
 Tencteris equitum. Sic instituere maiores, posteri imitantur ; 5 
 hi lusus infantium, haec iuvenum aemulatio, perseverant 
 senes. Inter familiam et penates et iura successionum equi 
 traduntur; excipit filius non ut cetera maximus natu, sed 
 prout ferox bello et melior. 
 
 XXXIII. luxta Tencteros Bructeri olim occurrebant : 10 
 nunc Chamavos et Angrivarios inmigrasse narratur, pulsis 
 Bructeris ac penitus excisis vicinarum consensu nationum, 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. 1. Alveo: abl. of 
 respect, i. e., where the stream is con- 
 fined within fixed limits, and not 
 divided and diffused as in the coun- 
 try of Batavi. Rhert/um>=Rheni 
 
 ripam. 
 
 2. Qui ^ talis ut, hence, sufficiatf 
 
 subj. of result. Tfsipiiac Tencteri, 
 
 According to Caesar, these tribes, 
 (generally mentioned together in 
 geography and history), being ex- 
 pelled from their abodes by the Suevi, 
 after three years' wandering seized 
 the lands of the Menapii, between 
 the Rhine and the Moselle. After 
 their conquest by Caesar, the survi- 
 vors took refuge among the Sygam- 
 bri, and on the removal of the latter 
 to Gaul, occupied their seats near the 
 Luppia (Llppe). Afterwards the 
 Usipii moved south between the 
 Sieg and the Lahn ; the Tencteri set- 
 tled between the Sieg and the Ruhr. 
 
 3. Solitum, 1. e., with the German 
 race. 
 
 5. Tencteris. We would expect the 
 more regular apud Tencteros. 
 
 6. Si lusuSf sc. sunt, 1. e., eques- 
 trian exercises. A.emMlatiOf the 
 
 point of emulation. 
 
 7. Inter famiUa/nif along vMh the 
 slaves. Penates, i. e., the house and 
 all its adjuncts = ** ZTte homestead." T. 
 - — Xurc^ successionum, i. e., "all 
 
 that goes down by hereditary de- 
 scent." T. 
 
 8. JExoi^t is here used in the un- 
 usual sense of inherits. Non, tit 
 
 cetera .... melior. The horses be- 
 come the property of the son, who Is 
 the bravest, whether he be the eldest 
 or not. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIII. 10. Bructeri. The 
 Bructeri lived between the rivers 
 Rhine, Luppia {Lippe), and Amisia 
 (,Ems), in the modern districts of 
 
 Westphalia and Over-Issel. Oc- 
 
 curebant, sc. oculis, met the view, 
 
 11. Cliamavos, According to Tacitus 
 {An. XIII. 55) the Chamavi dwelt on 
 the Rhine, In a district afterwards 
 occupied by the Tubantes and Usi- 
 petes; afterwards they are found 
 farther in the Interior. They are sub- 
 sequently enumerated with other 
 tribes as members of the Frankish 
 
 league. -A-ngri/varios. The Angri- 
 
 varii dwelt between the Bructeri and 
 the Fosl on both sides of the Visurgis 
 ( Weser), and extended eastward al- 
 most to the Albis {Elbe). They were 
 separated by a mound from the 
 Cherusci on the south. The earlier 
 writers would have said Chamavi 
 narrantur instead of narratur, Im- 
 pers., which is very rare. 
 
 12. Sructeris penitus eoacisis. This 
 entire destruction by otber German 
 
60 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 seu superbiae odio, seu praedae dulcedine, seu favore quodam 
 erga nos deorura. Nam ne spectaculo quidem proelii in- 
 videre ; super sexaginta milia non armis telisque Romanis^ 
 sed, quod magnificentius est, oblectationi oculisque ceciderunt. 
 5 Maneat, quaeso, duretque gentibus, si uon amor nostri, at 
 certe odium sui; quando urgentibus imperii fatis nihil lam 
 praestare fortuna maius potest quam hostium discordiam. 
 
 XXXTV. Angrivarios et Chamavos a tergo Dulgibini et 
 
 Chasuarii cludunt, aliaeque gentes baud perinde memoratae. 
 
 10 A fronte Frisii excipiunt. Maioribus minoribusque Frisiis 
 
 tribes must be intended as an exag- 
 geration fortliey are afterwards men- 
 tioned by Pliny and Ptolemy as de- 
 feated by Spurinna in tlie reign of 
 Trajan; and under the slightly varied 
 names of Burcturi and Bricteri occur 
 in the Itineraries and Sulpiclus Alex- 
 ander ; being ranked by the last as 
 members of the Frank confederacy. 
 Consensu, coalition, 
 
 1. Odio: abl. of cause. The arro- 
 gance of the Bructeri was largely due 
 to the fact that they were governed 
 by kings, and had maintained many 
 wars against the Romans. 
 
 2. Ifos = Itomanos. Spectaculo 
 
 .... inindere,sc. nobis. Invidei'e wsls 
 construed by the Latins in four ways, 
 viz; invidere alicui a liquid ; alicui 
 alicuiusrei; alicui aliqua re ; alicui in 
 aliqua re. This construction of the 
 dat. of the person {nobis\ and the 
 ablative of the thing is characteristic 
 of the silver age. 
 
 4. Ohlectationl oculis Is comm^only 
 regarded as a hendiadys for ad oblec- 
 tationem oculorum. The allusion is to 
 the gladiatorial combats. The slaugh- 
 ter alluded to is supposed to have 
 happened near the canal of Drusus, 
 from which place the Roman guard 
 could have beeu spectators of it. The 
 account of it first came to Rome In 
 the first year of Trajan. 
 
 5. Maneat: subj. of wish. — Qnnfso, 
 
 sc. deos. I>uretqzif',*^and continue 
 
 strongly seated," 
 
 6. Sui is used reflexively, of each 
 
 other. Jlrgcntihus itnperii fails. 
 
 These words were written In Trajan's 
 reign, and before his great military 
 enterprises were undertaken. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 8. A. tergo .... 
 cludunt. These words must imply 
 that the Dulgibini and Chasuarii are 
 South-east of the Chamavi and Angri- 
 varii, Judging from the other expres- 
 sion, rt /rowte, which can only mean 
 on the North-west, from the position 
 
 of the Frisii along the coast. X>ul- 
 
 gibini. The Dulgibini were settled 
 near the sources of the Lippe and the 
 "Weser. Ptolemy places them, across 
 the Weser, but they probably moved 
 about a good deal between the two 
 dates. 
 
 9. C7iasua/rii. There is some doubt 
 as to the locality of this people. 
 Wilhelm places them north of the 
 Chatti, and west of the Chamavi. 
 According to Ptolem.y, they are 
 north-west of the Chatti and near the 
 head-waters of the Ems. Afterwards 
 they appear among the Franks in the 
 
 duchy of Gueldres. Aliae gcntcs, 
 
 as the Ansibarii, Tubantes, Turonii, 
 etc. 
 
 10. _1 fronte, i.e., toward the North- 
 west. Frisii. The Frisii have re- 
 tained about the same settlements, 
 alway^, and their descendants arc 
 still settled in the islands west of 
 Rleswig. They were steadfast allies 
 of the Romans, and aided Drusus 
 
THE GEKMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 61 
 
 vocabulum est ex modo virium ; utraeque nationes usque ad 
 Oceanum Rheno praetextuntur, ambiuntque iumensos insuper 
 lacus et Romanis classibus navigates. Ipsum quin etiam 
 Oceanum ilia tentavimus. Et superesse adhuc Herculis 
 columnas fama vulgavit, sive adiit Hercules, seu quidquid 5 
 ubique magnificum est in claritatem eius referre consensimus. 
 Nee defuit audentia Druso Germanico ; sed obstitit Oceanus 
 in se simul atque in Herculem iuquiri. Mox nemo tentavit, 
 sanctiusque ac reverentius visum de actis deorum credere 
 quam scire. 10 
 
 and Germanlous In their war against 
 the Cheruscl. In A. D. 28 they re- 
 volted, when Olennius oppressed 
 them, and after putting a number of 
 Bomans to the sword near the Silva 
 Baduhenna, threw off the Roman 
 yoke. In A. D. 59 they took posses- 
 sion of vacant lands near the Rhine ; 
 and on being threatened by Dubius 
 Avitus, the governor of the province, 
 with vengeance unless they retired, 
 they sent their two kings, Verrltus 
 and Malorex to Rome ; these distin- 
 guished themselves by their noble 
 spirit, and were presented with the 
 Roman citizenship. There is no 
 farther mention of them until the 
 fourth and fifth centuries, when they 
 appear as members of the Saxon and 
 Angle leagues and crossed into Bri- 
 tain with them. Maiorihus Tnino- 
 
 rUmsque.' No other writer mentions 
 this division. Frisvis ; dat. by at- 
 traction, agreeing with illis under- 
 stood. 
 
 2. Fraetextuntu/r. IPraeiexto is prop- 
 erly to ' weave a fringe or border at 
 at the extremity of anything ; ' the 
 toga praetexta, for instance, being 
 called so because it had a purple 
 stripe along the edge. Of. Vergil : 
 
 praetextunt litora puppes. Inmenr- 
 
 SOS insuper lacos. The lakes here 
 mentioned are the Flevo and others, 
 which by the frequent inundations 
 of the sea, afterwards became the 
 Zuyder Zee. 
 
 3. Momanis classibus namgatos. 
 
 Suetonius (Claudnos L.) informs us 
 that Drusus first navigated the 
 Northern Ocean, and his son Ger- 
 manicus passed with four legions on 
 board his ships, from the Rhine, by 
 the Fossa Drusiana, through these 
 lakes into the ocean, as far as the 
 Ems (A. D. 60, Ann. II. 8). According 
 to Suetonius Drusus was warned by 
 
 a vision to go no farther. Quin 
 
 etianif moreover, 
 
 4. lUaf sc. via, or regione. Hercu- 
 lis columnas. Besides the well- 
 known Pillars of Hercules at the 
 Straits of Gibraltar,maritime nations 
 have feigned others, wherever the 
 land seemed to terminate, and it ap- 
 peared impossible to proceed farther. 
 
 5. Seu quidquid .... conseTusimus. 
 Note again the Roman construction 
 put upon the German theology. 
 
 6. Claritatenif renown. 
 
 7. Druso OermanieOf brother of 
 Tiberius, styled Germanicus by the 
 Senate on account of the eminent 
 
 services performed in Germany. 
 
 Obstitit inquvri, opposed farther in- 
 quiry. 
 
 8. a«rcu!em, i.e., as regards his Pil- 
 lars. Mox nemo tentavit, sc. ocea^ 
 
 num, i. e., although others navigated 
 theseaafterDrusus,yetexpeditionsin 
 this direction were soon abandoned. 
 
 9. V'isunif sc. est. The idea is that 
 it is more pious to believe that Her- 
 cules actually did visit here, and 
 that the pillars actually exist, than to 
 seek to ascertain their real position. 
 
62 
 
 THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS, 
 
 XXXV. Hactenus in occidentem Germaniam novimus. 
 In septentrionem ingenti flexu redit. Ac primo statim 
 Chaucorum gens, quamquam incipiat a Frisiis ac partem 
 litoris occupet, omnium, quas exposui, gentium lateribus ob- 
 
 5 tenditur, donee in Ciiattos usque sinuetur. Tara immensum 
 terrarum spatium non tenent tantum Chauci, sed et implent, 
 populus inter Germanos nobilissimus, quique magnitudinem 
 suam malit iustitia tueri. Sine cupiditate, sine impotentia, 
 quieti secretique nulla provocant bella, nullis raptibus aut 
 
 lOlatrociniis populantur. Id praecipuum virtutis ac virium 
 argumentum est, quod ut superiores agant non per iniurias 
 adsequuntur. Prompta tamen omnibus arma ac, si res pos- 
 cat, exercitus, plurimum. virorum equorumque ; et quiescen- 
 tibus eadem fama. 
 
 15 XXXVI. In latere Chaucorum Chattorumque Cherusci 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 2. In septentrio- 
 nem ingenti fiexu. By this Tacitus 
 means that the line of the coast, after 
 a huge sweep to the North, returns to 
 its old direction. He thus describes 
 the Peninsula of Denmark, called 
 
 sinus In cap. XXXVII. JPrimo 
 
 statim, 1. e., at the very beginning of 
 the bend. 
 
 3. Chaucorum. The Chauci were 
 neighbors of the Frisii on the East, 
 and lived between the Ems, and the 
 Elbe. " Their name is still preserved 
 in that of their harbor, Cuxhaven." 
 
 Incipiat : Bubj . after quamquam ; 
 
 common in Tacitus, rare In Cicero. 
 
 4. Quas exposui gent iifni. These are 
 the Frisii, Angrivarii, Chamavi, Dul- 
 
 giblnl, Chausarii, etc. Lateribus, 
 
 i. e., the eastern. 
 
 5. Sinuetur. The country bends 
 first in a southeastern and then in a 
 southerly direction. For the con- 
 struction, see A. 328; G. 674; H. 519, 
 N. 2. 
 
 6. Sed et, but even. 
 
 7. Quique ■= et talis ut, hence malit. 
 
 8. Impotentia, ungoverned desires. 
 
 9. Secret!, retired. 
 
 11, 12. Ut superiores agantythatthey 
 
 rank as superiors: obj. clause after 
 
 adseqtt/unttir. Omnibus, dat. of 
 
 possess, after sunt understood. 
 
 13. JExerdtuSf sc. promptus est. 
 
 Plurimum, a very great number. Taci- 
 tus seems to have added these words 
 by way of explaining what he meant 
 by exercitus. Some of the German 
 tribes were powerful in infantry, like 
 the Chatti ; others in cavalry as the 
 Batavi and Tencteri; the Chauci 
 however had large numbers of each. 
 
 Quiescentibus, i. e., even when 
 
 not engaged in war. 
 
 14. Eadem, sc. quae in bello est. 
 CHAP. XXXVI. 15. Cherusci. This 
 
 people dwelt at this tim.e between 
 the Weser and the Elbe. They were 
 on good terms with the Romans 
 until the conduct of Varus roused 
 them to rebellion, and they formed a 
 league of their neighbors, and totally 
 defeated Varus and his three legions, 
 under the command of Armiinius, 
 who was therefore hailed as "Deliv- 
 erer of Germany," and celebrated in 
 ballad songs, many of which are pre- 
 served to this day. They appear af- 
 terwards as the head of the great 
 Saxon confederacy. 
 
THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 63 
 
 nimiam ac marcentem diu pacem illacessiti nutrierunt. 
 Idque iucundius quam tutiiis fuit, quia inter inpotentes et 
 validos falso quiescas ; ubi raanu agitur, modestia ac probitas 
 nomina superioris sunt. Ita qui olim boni aequique Cherusci, 
 nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur ; Chattis victoribus fortuna in 5 
 sapientiam cessit. Tracti ruina Cheruscorum et Fosi, con- 
 termina gens ; adversarum rerum ex aequo socii sunt, cum in 
 secundis minores fuissent. 
 
 XXXVII. Eundem Germaniae sinum proximi Oceano 
 Cimbri tenent, parva niinc civitas, sed gloria ingens. Vete-10 
 risque famae lata vestigia manent, utraque ripa castra ac 
 
 1. Take diu with nimiam and 
 
 marcentem, Illacessiti is found 
 
 only in the writers of the silver age. 
 
 2. Iucundius quam tutius. Con- 
 trary to the usual use, Tacitus some- 
 times uses the positive in one part, 
 when two adjectives or adverbs are 
 compared together. To get the force 
 turn the sentence in this way— of two 
 courses it was the pleasanter, rather 
 
 than the safer. Inpotentes; cf. im- 
 
 potentia above. 
 
 3. Falso quiescas f you may enjoy a 
 
 false security; potential subj. 
 
 Manu agitur, when ■matters are de- 
 cided by the sword, i. e., when might 
 rather than rigJit decides the ques- 
 tion. Modestia, Tnoderation. 
 
 4. Nomina superioris, i. e., moder- 
 ation and mildness are only to be 
 applied to those who having the 
 power of injury over their neighbors 
 refrain from using it. The inference 
 is that the despicable cowardice of 
 the weak is to be considered as praise- 
 worthy moderation in the strong. 
 
 Qiii, sc. vocati sunt. Tacitus does not 
 mean that they had deteriorated; 
 but that they were once powerful, 
 and then their peaceful tendency 
 appeared the result of moderation 
 and justice. When their power was 
 gone, this forbearance was regarded 
 as aproof of weakness and cowardice. 
 
 5. Chattis; dat. of advantage. The 
 Chatti were niore lucky than the 
 Chauci: they were victorious and 
 
 their superior fortune passed (cessit) 
 for superior wisdom. 
 
 6. JFosi. They probably inhabited 
 the banks of the Fusa, and were 
 probably an appendage to the Cher- 
 usci. 
 
 7. .Eaj aequo, on equal terms, 
 
 8. JUinores fuissent, they had been 
 less powerful ; subj. of concession. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. 9. Eundem si- 
 wum, the same peninsula. This refers 
 to the Cimbric Chersonese, or pro- 
 montory of Sleswlg, Jutland, etc., 
 alluded to in ingenti flexu, at the be- 
 ginning of chap. XXXV. 
 
 10. Cimbri, The name of this people 
 still exists in different localities in 
 their route from Western Asia to the 
 British Isles, e, g,, the Cimmerian 
 Bosphorus, the Cimbric Chersonesus, 
 Cumberland, etc. It is a disputed 
 point whether they were a Teutonic 
 or Keltic race. Gloria; abl. of spe- 
 cification, limiting ingens. 
 
 11. Utraque ripa. Whether these 
 words refer to both banks of the 
 Rliine, to the Rhine and the Danube, or 
 to both shores of the Cimbric Cher- 
 sonesus, cannot be definitely settled. 
 
 Castra ac spatia; appos. with 
 
 lata- vestigia. After defeating Papi- 
 rius Carbo at Noreia, between the 
 Mur and the Drave, for a space of 
 three years they plundered the prov- 
 inces south of the Danube. During 
 this period their encampments left 
 traces visible in the days of Tacitus. 
 
64 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 spatia, quorum ambitu nunc quoque metiaris molem manus- 
 que gentis et tarn magni exitus fidem. Sexcentesimum et 
 quadragesimum annum urbs nostra agebat, cum primum 
 Cirabrorum audita sunt arma, Caecilio Metello et Papirlo 
 
 5 Carbone consulibus. Ex quo si ad alterum Imperatoris 
 Traiani consulatum computemus^ ducenti ferme et decern anni 
 coUiguDtiu* ; tarn diu Germania vincitur. Medio tam longi 
 aevi spatio multa invicem damna. Non Samnis, non Poeni, 
 non Hispaniae Galliaeve^ ne Parthi quidem saepius admo- 
 
 lOnuere; quippe regno Arsacis acrior est Germanorum libertas. 
 Quid enim aliud nobis, quam caedem Crassi, amisso et ipse 
 Pacoro, infra Ventidium deiectus Oriens obiecerit ? At 
 
 1. '* Jffolem manusque ge.itiSf the 
 
 mass of their population and the nunv- 
 her of their armies." T. 
 
 2. JSxituSf migration. Plutarch says 
 that they had 300,000 fighting men. 
 
 • Fidenif proof.- Sexcentesimmnt 
 
 .... afimrni. This is according to 
 the Catonian Era, but according to 
 the Varronian Era, commonly fol- 
 lowed by nxoderns, this date would 
 be A. U. C. 641 = B. C. 113. 
 
 4. A.udita sunt. In Noricum, and 
 on the banks of the Danube, where 
 Carbo was defeated. 
 
 5. JEx quOf sc. teTYipore. AXte-rwrn 
 
 consulatum. Trajan was consul the 
 second time in the 8olst year of Rome 
 = A. D. 98; in which year Tacitus 
 composed this treatise. 
 
 7. Vincitur. This use of the pres- 
 ent tense, with a particle of time, 
 points out the duration of the fact for 
 a long time past, and its continuance 
 at the present moment. He means 
 that the Romans have been so long 
 in conquering Germany, and the 
 conquest Is not com^pleted yet. Ger- 
 many never was conquered by the 
 
 Romans. Medio sjtatio, i. e., of 210 
 
 years. 
 
 8. Inviccni, Tnutually. Satnnis. 
 
 The Samnites were the most stub- 
 born enemies of Rome in Italy. 
 
 roeni alludes to the several Punic 
 wars. 
 
 9. SispaniaCf Galliae. Many of 
 the Roman provinces were divided 
 into two parts: there were Hispania 
 trans Iberum., SindSispaniacisIberum: 
 also Gallia Tt-ansalpina, and Gktllia 
 dsalpina. Parthi. They had over- 
 thrown Crassus and checked the 
 
 course of Marc Antony. A.dTno- 
 
 nuerSf sc. '^nos cladibits, nos vind 
 posse." 
 
 10. JLrsacis. ArsS-ces was the foun- 
 der of the Parthian empire, and the 
 sovereigns after him were called 
 Arsacidae. The idea is that the Ger- 
 mans, fighting in behalf of liberty, 
 were more vigorous opponents than 
 the Parthians, who only fought to 
 maintain the power of their royal 
 house. 
 
 11. Crassi. Crassus was defeated 
 and slain by the Parthians, B. C. 53. 
 
 12. Infra Ventidium deiectus, hum- 
 bled beneath a Ventidius. Ventldius 
 Bassus was a native of Picenum, 
 taken prisoner when young by the 
 Romans in the Social War. After 
 earning a living by furnishing mules 
 to magistrates on their way to the 
 provinces, he became known to 
 Caesar, and rose in B. C. 43 to the rank 
 of Praetor. In B. C. 39 he was sent by 
 Antonius into Asia to oppose Labi- 
 enus, who was supported by the Pai^ 
 thians. "When these last attacked 
 him he defeated them near Mt. Tau- 
 
THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 66 
 
 Germani, Carbone, et Cassio, et Scauro Aurelio, et Servilio 
 Caepione, Cn. quoque Manlio fusis vel captis, quinque simul 
 consulares exercitus Populo Romano, Varum trisque cum eo 
 legiones etiam Caesari abstulerunt ; nee impune C. Marius in 
 Italia, divus lulius in Gallia, Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus 
 
 rus, and gained possession of Syria. 
 The next year, Pacorus, son of Orodes, 
 the Parthian king, advanced against 
 him, but was defeated In Cyrrhestica 
 and fell In battle. By the words 
 *^infra Ventidium deieetus^' Tacitus 
 means that the East must have fallen 
 low Indeed to be defeated by a man 
 of BO lowly an origin as Ventldius. 
 
 OMecerit. Cf. Note on peteret, 
 
 chap. II. 
 
 1. Carbone, Carbo was defeated by 
 the Cimbrl at Noreia, B. C. 113. (Liv. 
 Bpit., 63). — Cassio. Cassius Longinus 
 was defeated and slain by the Tlgu- 
 rlni, in the confines of the Allo- 
 broges, B. C. 107 (Caes. B. G. I. 7, 12). 
 
 Scawro. M. Aurelius Scaurus was 
 
 defeated and taken by the Clrabri; 
 and when, being asked for advice, 
 he dissuaded them from passing the 
 Alps into Italy, he was slain by a 
 furious youth, named Boiorix (Liv. 
 Epit. 67). 
 
 2, Caepione. Q,. Servilius Caeplo 
 and Manlius through their rashness 
 and dissensions, suffered a severe 
 defeat from the Cimbrl, near Tolosa, 
 
 B. C. 105. (Liv. Epit. 67). Manlio. 
 
 His name should be written Cn. in- 
 stead of M (frequently confounded in 
 the MSS. and followed by some 
 
 editors) as after the condemnation of 
 Marcus Manlius, the preserver of the 
 Capitol when the Gauls took Rome 
 after the battle of the Allla, on the 
 charge of aiming at the supreme 
 power, no person of the Manlian 
 'gens was allowed to bear the prae- 
 nomen of Marcus (Liv. VI. 20). 
 
 3. Populo HomanOf from fhe Mo- 
 man people ; dat. of dlsadv. The Idea 
 is: under the Republic^ contrasted 
 with t?ie Empire under Augustuji 
 {Caesari). — Varum. The reference is 
 to the defeat of P. Quinctilius Varus 
 in A. D. 9 by the Germans under 
 Arminius near the defiles of the 
 Saltus TeuiobergienMs, between Osna- 
 bruck and Paderborn. This defeat 
 lost the Romans all between the 
 Rhine and yie "Weser; and they 
 never succeeded in firmly re-estab- 
 lishing themselves in that part of 
 Germany. The battle is placed by 
 Prof. Creasy among the fifteen de- 
 cisive battles of the world. 
 
 4. Caius MaTnms. The allusion is 
 to the famous defeat of the Clmbri in 
 the Campi Raudii, B. C. 101. 
 
 5. lulius. Vid. Caes. B. 6. I. 32, 
 seg. ; II. 1. seq; IV. 1. seg; VI. 9. seq. 
 
 Vrtisus i. e., Claudius Drusus, 
 
 who Invaded Germany four times 
 
 COIN OF TIBBKIUS NEBO. 
 
66 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 in suis eos sedibus perculerunt. Mox ingentes Gaii Caesaris 
 minae in ludibrium versae. Inde otium, donee occasione dis- 
 cordiae nostrae et civilium armorum, expugnatis legionutn 
 hibernis, etiam Gallias adfectavere ; ac rursus pulsi, inde 
 
 5 proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi sunt. 
 
 XXXVIII. Nunc de Suevis dicendum est, quorum non 
 una ut Chattorum Tencterorumve gens ; maiorem enim Ger- 
 maniae partem obtinent, propriis adhuc nationibus nomin- 
 ibusque discreti, quamquam in commune Suevi vocentur. 
 
 lOlnsigne gentis obliquare crinem nodoque substringere ; sic 
 Suevi a ceteris Germanis, sic Suevorum ingenui a servis sepa- 
 
 and named Germanicus B. C. 11 and 
 
 10. Vid. N. chap. XXXIV. 
 
 NerOf i. e., Titoerius Claudius Nero, 
 the emperor, who had command in 
 Germany, B. C. 7-6; A. D. 3-6, H-12. 
 
 Germanictis, son of Drusus, made 
 
 four campaigns in Germany, A. D. 
 14-16. 
 
 1. Moac. A. D.39. GaiiCaesa/ris, 
 
 i. e., Caligula, who after making vast 
 preparations marchedj into Ger- 
 many. After some ridiculous pro- 
 ceedings, detailed hy Suetonius 
 (Oalig, XLVII), he drew up his army 
 on the shore, and hade the soldiers 
 gather shells as trophies of their 
 bravery. According to Perslus he 
 was reduced to hire red wigs for his 
 sham captives to wear. 
 
 2. Inde otium : during the reigns 
 
 of Claudius and Nero. jyiscdrdiae 
 
 ■nostrae et rivilitim armorum refers 
 to the disordered state of the Roman 
 empire consequent on the violent 
 deaths of Nero, Galba, and Otho, and 
 the struggle between Vitellius and 
 Vespasian. 
 
 3. JExptignatia hibernis : by the 
 Batavi and Canninefantes, who, at 
 the instigation of Civilis, threw off 
 the Roman yoke. 
 
 4. Adfectavere, aimed at the posses- 
 sion of. Cf. Note on ad/ectationem, 
 chap. XXVIII. 
 
 5. Proximis temporibuSf in later 
 times, under Domitian especially, 
 and alsoNerva, Trajan, audHadrlan, 
 
 2}riump7iati refers to the sham 
 
 triumph of Dom.itian for his suc- 
 cesses over the Chatti, an enemiy 
 whom he had never seen " in which 
 slaves, purchased and dressed out for 
 the purpose, were borne as captives 
 through the streets." T. Vid. Suet. 
 Dmnit. VI.; Tac. Agr. XXXIX. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. 6. Suevis. These 
 are not to be confounded with the 
 Suevi of Caesar (IV. 1-17). As before 
 remarked his Suevi are the Chatti of 
 Tacitus. The Suevi here mentioned 
 were rather an aggregate of peoples, 
 than a single tribe, and occupied the 
 country from the Elbe to the Vistula, 
 and from the Baltic to the Danube. 
 They embraced many tribes enu- 
 merated in cap. XXXIX-XLV, " "We 
 still have a trace of their name in the 
 modern ^Swafeia." 
 
 8. Adhuc modifies discreti, still 
 distinguished from one another. 
 
 9. Xn cotnniune, in common : nn ex- 
 pression peculiar to the silver age. 
 
 10. Insigne .... suhstringercf it is 
 a characteristic of the race to turn the 
 Jiair hack, and to fasten it up in a knot. 
 The Suevi gathered up the hair in 
 every direction, instead of letting it 
 hang straight to the back part of the 
 head, and then fastened it in a knot 
 on the crown of the head. Cf. Sen. 
 de Ira. III. 26 ; Juv. XIII. 164. 
 
 11. A GejnnaniSf a servis. Accord- 
 ing to Tacitus the rest of the Ger- 
 mans, and the slaves seem to have 
 
THE 6EEMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 67 
 
 rantur. In aliis gentibus, (seu cognatione aliqua Suevorum 
 seu, quod saepe accidit, imitatione,) rarum et intra iuventae 
 spatium ; apud Suevos usque ad canitiem horrentem capillum 
 retro sequuntur, ac saepe in ipso solo vertice religant. Prin- 
 cipes et ornatiorem habent. Ea cura formae, sed innoxia : 5 
 neque enim ut ament amenturve, in altitudinem quandam et 
 terrorem adituri bella compti ut hostium oculis ornantur. 
 
 XXXIX. Vetustissimos se nobilissimosque Suevorum 
 Senmones memorant. Fides antiquitatis religione firmatur. 
 Stato tempore in silvam auguriis patrum et prisca formidinelO 
 sacram omnes eiusdem sanguinis populi legationibus coeunt, 
 caesoque publice homine celebrant barbari ritus horrenda 
 primordia. Est et alia luco reverentia ; nemo nisi vinculo 
 ligatus ingreditur, ut minor et potestatera numinis prae se 
 
 been cropped so short that they could 
 
 not twist the hair into a knot. 
 
 Separantur, are distiyiguished 
 
 2. Jtar^nif 1. e., obliquare crinem 
 ram/m (est) et intra iuventae spatium 
 (fieri solet). 
 
 3. SCorrentenif bristly. 
 
 4. Metro sequuntuVf they put ba^k, 
 lit., follow back, referring to their 
 constant habit. . 
 
 5. Oitiatiorem. They not only tied 
 their hair up, but by an elaborate 
 process they raised it to a great 
 
 height. JSa = talis. Xivnoxia. 
 
 Tacitus means that although the 
 Suevi are careful of their appear- 
 ance, and deck themselves out, they 
 have no immoral object in doing so. 
 They do not trick themselves out 
 like Roman Lotharios, to win the 
 admiration and love of the fair sex : 
 it has a warlike object, to terrify 
 their enemies. 
 
 6. In altitudinem et terrorem^ 
 (but) "for the sake of (increased) height 
 and terror, 1. e., so as to appear taller 
 and thus inspire terror." 
 
 7. Mostvum oculis. Cf. cap. XLIII. 
 Nam primi in omnibtcs proeliis oculi 
 vincuntur, 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 9. Semnones. In 
 An. II. 45, they are mentioned in 
 
 connection with the Langobardl. 
 They inhabited a territory between 
 
 the Elbe and the Oder. Fides amtU 
 
 quitatiSf the credibility of their antir 
 guity. Tetua is old, that which has 
 long been in existence ; antiquus, 
 ancient, that which belonged to a 
 preceding age. 
 
 10. In silvam. This is placed by 
 ■Wllhelm between the Elster and the 
 Spree, in the Finsterwald, or Son- 
 nenwald. In this neighborhood, be- 
 tween Uebigan and Schlieben, re- 
 mains of vessels used for sacrificial 
 
 purposes have been found. A.it- 
 
 ffu/riis .... sacram. As all the com- 
 mentators notice, this clause forms 
 an hexameter. They have collected 
 at least nineteen similar instances 
 
 in Tacitus. Fatrum — Tnaiorum. — 
 
 Frisca. Priscus generally has the 
 notion ofprim-itive or oldrfashioned at- 
 tached to it. — Formidine = religi(me. 
 
 11. Ijegationibus coeuntf convene by 
 their representatives. 
 
 12. JPubUce=publicaauctoritate. This 
 was probably a prisoner of war. Cf. 
 Ann. XIV. 30. 
 
 13. Fri/mordia, beginning. 
 
 14. Minor, sc. numine, Cf. Hor. Odes 
 1. 12; 57; 111.6,5. 
 
68 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 ferens. Si forte prolapsus est, attoUi et insurgere baud lici- 
 tum ; per humum evolvtintur. Eoque omnis superstitio re- 
 spicit, tamquam inde initia gentis, ibi regnator omnium deus, 
 cetera subiecta atque parentia. Adiicit auctoritatem fortuna 
 
 5 Semnonum ; centum pagis habitant, magnoque corpore efficitur 
 ut se Suevorum caput credaut. 
 
 XL. Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat ; plurimis ac 
 valentissimis nationibus cincti non per obsequimn, sed proeliis 
 et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde et Aviones et An- 
 
 lOglii et Varini et Eudoses et Suardones et Nuithones flumi- 
 nibus aut silvis muniuntur. Nee quidquam notabile in sin- 
 gulis, nisi quod in commune Nerthum, id est terram matrem, 
 
 2. JEvolvtititurf in a middle sense, 
 ='86 evolvunt. Eo respicitf Juxs re- 
 ference to thiSf 1. e., has this in view. 
 
 3, 4. The clause tamquam inde .... 
 parentia is epexegetical of eo.—TndCf 
 
 i. e., from the grove. Initia^ so. sint. 
 
 I>eu8f i. e., Tuisto, origineTn, gerUiSj 
 
 cap. II. Jidiicit a/uctoiritat&nif sc. 
 
 illi superstitioni. — Fortunaj greatness, 
 prosperity. 
 
 5. Mag7\o corpore ■= dvitatis mag- 
 nitudine. Corptts is used to denote 
 the aggregate association of several 
 bodies. Cf. An, XIII. 27; Hist. IV. 64. 
 
 CHAP. XL. 7. Langoha/rdos. This 
 tribe is said to have come originally 
 from Scandinavia, as the Winill,and 
 to have received their nam.e from 
 the length of their beards. In their 
 original locality they occupied the 
 tract called Bardengau, west of the 
 Elbe, between Luneberg and Magde- 
 burg. Subsequently they were re- 
 moved across the river by Tiberius, 
 when they occupied that part of the 
 country where are now Prignitz, 
 Ruppin, and part of the Middle 
 March. They afterwards founded the 
 Lombard kingdom in Italy, which 
 was destroyed by Charlemagne (A. 
 D. 774), who took their king Desi- 
 
 derius, and subdued all Italy. 
 
 Paucitas is here contrasted with the 
 magno corpore of the Sem.noneB in 
 cap. XXXIX. Noh-llitat, makes 
 
 them famous: because they held their 
 ground against the powerful tribes 
 by which they were surrounded. 
 
 8. Cincti denotes concession, aU 
 tlwugh surrounded. — Fer ohsequium, 
 proeliis et pe7~icUtando. Note the 
 varied construction, and compare 
 Note on chap. XVI. 
 
 9. Feudigni. The Reudigni were 
 probably situated in part of the 
 duchy of Mecklenburg, and of Lauen- 
 burg. Aviones. From their vicin- 
 ity to the fore-mentioned nations, 
 they, must have inhabited part of 
 the duchy of Mecklenburg. For- 
 merly they had dwelt this side of 
 the Elbe in Luneburg, which is now 
 called Ava; whence, probably, the 
 
 name of the people. Anglii. 
 
 Ptolem.y places this people north of 
 the Langobardi, and east of the 
 Angrivarii, extending as far as the 
 Elbe, in the old duchy of Magdeburg. 
 They afterwards joined the Saxons 
 in the invasion of England in the 
 fifth century. 
 
 10, 11. Varini, FudoseSf Suardones f 
 Nuithones. Ethnologists differ 
 widely as to localities inhabited by 
 
 these tribes. In singulis , ^'^ among 
 
 them, individually.''^ C. 
 
 12. Neriihum. The ancient name still 
 remains in the German Erde, and in 
 
 the English Earth. Matrem-. Cf. 
 
 II. Tuistonem deum,, terra editum. 
 
THE GERMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 69 
 
 colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis 
 arbitxantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, dicatiimque 
 in eo vehiculum veste contectum. Attingere uni sacerdoti 
 concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intellegit, vectamque 
 bubus feminis multa cum veneratione prosequitur. Laeti 5 
 tunc dies, festa loca, quaecumque adventu hospitioque digna- 
 tur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt; clausum omne 
 ferrum ; pax et quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, 
 donee idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam 
 temple reddat. Mox vehiculum et vestes et, si credere velis, 10 
 numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, quos 
 statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror sanctaque 
 ignorantia, quid sit illud, quod tantum perituri vident. 
 
 XLI. Et haec quidem pars Suevorum in secretiora Ger- 
 maniae porrigitur. Propior (ut, quo mode paulo ante 15 
 
 1. Znterveniref takes part in. 
 
 l^opulis: ablative. 
 
 2. Insula. This island is generally 
 thought to be Rugen, "where the 
 secretins la^iis, mentioned below, Is 
 still shown, still associated with 
 superstitious legends." T. — Castum, 
 unpolluted, la more commonly the 
 epithetof apcrson than of a thing. It 
 Is especially appropriate to a grove 
 sacred to a goddess. 
 
 3. Tehiiyulum. Cf. Notes on Isidi 
 and signum. Cap. IX. 
 
 4. Concessum, sc. est. Is: em- 
 phatic, he hnows. Penetrali is here 
 
 used for the covered car, as the abode 
 of the divinity. 
 
 5. Bubus feminis. "When nouns 
 denoting animals are of the common 
 gender, and the sex of the particular 
 animal is to be stated, the term mas 
 
 oxfemina is added. laeti, etc. The 
 
 fhll expression would be laeii tune 
 dies aguntur, festa tunc ilia loca sunt. 
 
 6. IHgnatur, "deems worthy.' 
 
 10. TemplOfl. e., the sacred grove. 
 The word is here used In its strict 
 sense of Ti/ievog, 1. e., a place marked 
 
 out for sacred purposes. Si credere 
 
 velis, numen. By this it is clear that 
 Tacitus means to imply that the 
 goddess herself underwent ablutions 
 (and not the image of the goddess ; 
 for In fact there does not seem to 
 have been one, Vid. cap. IX.) in 
 order to wash away the pollution 
 arising from intercourse with 
 mortals. The priests believed, or 
 wished others to believe— not appar- 
 ently succeeding in the ease of the 
 writer himself— that the goddess was 
 . actually present in the cart. 
 
 12. Maurit, swallows up. "The 
 slaves were drowned in order that 
 the imposture of the priests might 
 not be divulged. The ostensible rea- 
 son, however, was, that those per- 
 sons must needs perish, who had be- 
 held the goddess herself in her real 
 form." An. 
 
 13. Tantum perituri, only those who 
 are doomed to perish. 
 
 CHAP. XLI. 14. Secretiora, more 
 remote recesses ; toward the north. 
 
 15. Fropior, nearer, i. e., to the 
 Danube, and the Roman provinces 
 along its right bank. 
 
70 
 
 THE GEBMANIA OP TACITUS. 
 
 E-henum, sic nunc Danubium sequar) Hermundurorum civi- 
 tas, fida Eomanis; eoque solis Germanorum non in ripa 
 cotnmercium, sed penitus atque in splendidissima Raetiae 
 provinciae colonia. Passim et sine custode transeunt; et 
 
 5 cum ceteris gentibus arma modo castraque nostra ostendamus, 
 his domos villasque patefecimus non concupiscentibus. In 
 Hermunduris Albis oritur, flumen inclitum et notum olim ; 
 nunc tantum auditur. 
 
 XLII. luxta Hermunduros Narisci, ac deinde Marcomani 
 
 lOet Quadi agunt. Praecipua Marcomanorum gloria viresque, 
 atque ipsa etiam sedes, pulsis olim Boiis, virtute parta. Nee 
 Narisci Quadive degenerant. Eaque Germaniae velut frons 
 est, quatenus Danubio peragitur. Marcomanis Quadisque 
 usque ad nostram memoriam reges manserunt ex gente ipso- 
 
 15 rum, nobile Marobodui et Tudri genus. lam et externos 
 
 1. Ithenum, sc. seciUus sum. 
 
 Semvundurorwm. This people were 
 first settled between the Elbe, the 
 Sala, and Bohemia. 
 
 2. Eoque^ i. e., because they are 
 faithful. JVoM in ripa, sc. solum. 
 
 3. Conimer*yi/um, sc. est. I*en/itus, 
 
 far in the interior. Itaetiae. In 
 
 Raetia Tacitus includes Vindelica, 
 which was then a part of it. 
 
 4. Colotiia, i, e., AV'gttsta Vindelir 
 coram, now Augsbu/rg, founded " by 
 
 Augustus about A. D. 14. JPasaiTn, 
 
 i. e. wherever they please. Sine 
 
 custode^ Others went sub custode. Cf. 
 Hist. XV. 6i. 
 
 5. Cwm, although, denoting conces- 
 sion. Hence ostendamus is subj. 
 
 (). ^on. concupiscentibv 8, i.Q,, with- 
 out exciting their cupidity. 
 
 7. AlMsf the Elbe. The true source 
 of the Elbe is in Bohemia, a country 
 of which, surrounded as it is by 
 mountains, Tacitus would know 
 scarcely anything. He undoubtedly 
 has confounded it with one of its 
 
 affluents, the Egra. Notwm. olim, 
 
 by the conquests of Drusus, Tiberius, 
 and Qerm.anicus. At the time Tacitus 
 wrote this book the Romans had re- 
 tired from this part of Germany. 
 
 CHAP. XLII. 9. JftLTisci. This 
 people lay east of the Hermunduri 
 and west of the Marcomani, and 
 were separated from the latter by the 
 Sllva Gabreta, occupying Upper 
 Bavaria. -» — Marcomani: inhabi- 
 tants of Bohemia. They are men- 
 tioned by Caesar, {B. O. I. 51), as 
 allies of Ariovistus. The word means 
 Tnen of the bordm\ 
 
 10. Quadi. They were settled to the 
 east of the Marcomani in Moravia 
 and northwestern Hungary. Both the 
 Marcomani and the Quadi waged 
 war with the Emperor Marcus An- 
 toninus, A. D. 166. 
 
 11. JE^ulsis olim- JSoiis : about A.D.7. 
 Parta, sc. est. 
 
 12. Degenerant, sc. abiis virtute. 
 
 Frons, thefront^ facing the Romans. 
 
 13. Feragitur, sc. frons as subject. 
 It implies a long extended boundary. 
 
 15. Ma/rohodAii. Vid.- An. II. 62; 
 Suet. Tib. XXXVII., on this prince, 
 and his alliance with the Romans 
 
 against Arminius. Tudri. Tuder 
 
 or Tudrus is not mentioned else- 
 where, nor by any other writer. 
 
 Externos, sc. reges. Ct An. H, 62, 63 
 XII. 30. 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITTTS. 
 
 71 
 
 patiuntur, sed vis et potentia regibus ex auctoritate Romana. 
 Raro armis nostris, saepius pecunia iuvantur, nee minus valent. 
 XLIII. Retro Marsigni, Gothini, Osi, Buri terga Marco- 
 manorum Quadorumque claudunt. E quibus Marsigni et 
 Buri sermone cultuque Suevos referunt; Gothinos Gallica, 5 
 Osos Pannonica lingua coarguit non esse Germanos, et quod 
 tributa patiuntur. Partem tributorum Sarmatae, partem 
 Quadi ut alienigenis imponunt. Gothini, quo magis pudeat, 
 et ferrum effodiunt. Omnesque hi populi pauca campestrium 
 ceterum saltus et vertices montium iugumque insedervmt. 10 
 Dirimit enim scinditque Sueviam continuum montium iugum, 
 ultra quod plurimae gentes agunt. Ex quibus latissime patet 
 Lygiorum nomen in plures civitates difiiisum. Valentissimas 
 
 2. Nee Tninus valent. i. e., the Ger- 
 man kings found the Roman sub- 
 sidies of money as effectual a means 
 of strengthening their position, as 
 the support of the Roman arms. 
 
 CHAP. XLIII. 3. Itetro, fmther 
 back (and north of the trlhes Just 
 
 mentioned); opposed to frons. 
 
 Marsigni. This people probahly ex- 
 tended from the Riesengebirge, in 
 Northern Bohemia, to the Oder, oc- 
 cupying part of modern Silesia. 
 
 The Gothini were situated near the 
 head-waters of the Marus (,March), in 
 
 Upper SUesla and Moravia. The 
 
 Osi were between the sources of the 
 Oder, and the Grau, on the frontiers 
 
 of Moravia and Hungary. The 
 
 Buri were between the Oder and the 
 Vistula, between Cracow and Trop- 
 pau, In Silesia. They were allies of 
 TraJ an in his war against the Daclans, 
 and also of Marcus Aurellus In the 
 Marcomanlc War. — Terga cla^uOunt, 
 closeihe recur. 
 
 5. Sermone cultuque. It is probable 
 that the Suevl were distinguished 
 from the rest of the Germans by a 
 peculiar dialect, as well as by their 
 dress and manners. — Seferumt,re- 
 
 semble. Cf. cap. XX. Goth/inoa. 
 
 The Gothini were probably a rem- 
 nant of the expelled Boli. Hence 
 
 their Gallic language, or they may 
 have been a remnant of the great 
 Keltic migration eastward. Cf. cap. 
 XXVIII. 
 
 6, 7. JPannonicaf probably Slar 
 voulo; at all events their locality 
 seems to have been Slavonic as far 
 
 back as can be traced. ,Ef quod 
 
 tributa patiuntur : subj . of coargit it. 
 Quite a compliment to the Germans. 
 
 Sarmatae. It can not be proven 
 
 what tribe Is meant, probably the 
 lazyges Metanaslae, who lived near 
 the Quadi, or else the Sldones. 
 
 8. Quo magis pudeat. The Gothini 
 were not bound to be ashamed of dig- 
 ging up iron, although this was gen- 
 erally the work of slaves and crimi- 
 nals; but the disgrace lay In this, 
 that, Instead of submitting to tribute, 
 they did not convert the iron into 
 swords and spears to free themselves 
 from their oppressors. 
 
 9. Pcwtca campestrvwnif but little of 
 the level cminlry: poetical for the 
 more usual pauca campestria loca. 
 
 10. Ceterum opposes saXtus to the 
 precedingpaucd carnpestrium. Ver- 
 tices, summits. Iugum, tJie ridge of 
 
 a mountain chain. 
 
 13. 1/ygioru.m. The Lygli inhab- 
 ited the country between the Oder 
 and the Vistula, extending from the 
 
72 
 
 THE GEEMANIA or TACITUS. 
 
 nominasse sufficiet, Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, Elysios, 
 Nahanarvalos. Apud Nahanarvalos antiquae religionis lucus 
 ostenditur. Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu; sed decs 
 interpretatione Komana Castorem PoUucemque memorant. 
 
 5 Ea vis numini, nomen Alcis. Nulla simulacra, nullum pere- 
 grinae superstitionis vestigium ; ut fratres tamen, ut iuvenes 
 venerantur. Ceterum Harii super vires, quibus enumeratos 
 paulo ante populos antecedunt, truces insitae feritati arte ac 
 tempore lenocinantur. Nigra scuta, tincta corpora ; atras ad 
 
 lOproelia noctes legunt, ipsaque formidine atque umbra feralis 
 exercitus terrorem inferunt, nullo hostium sustinente novum 
 ac velut infernum aspectum : nam primi in omnibus proeliis 
 oeuli vicuntur. 
 
 Trans Lygios Gothones regnantur, paulo iam adductius 
 
 15quam ceterae Germanorum gentes, nondum tamen supra liber- 
 
 source of the latter river to the point 
 near Erlinberg,where it turns sharply 
 to the North-east, In part of Gallicia 
 
 and "Western Poland. Nomen = 
 
 gens, 
 
 1. Marios, etc. The JSarii were 
 somewhere near Cracow; the Selves 
 cones, near Warsaw; the Jtfanimi, in 
 Posen ; the Elysii In Silesia (to which 
 they are supposed to have given the 
 name), near Breslau; VaQ Nahwnar- 
 vali were between the "Wartha and 
 the Vistula. 
 
 3. Muliebri ornatu. The flowing 
 robe, probably worn by the priest, 
 may have been mistaken for female 
 apparel. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX. 
 
 4. InteT^retatione JRomana, *'Tlie 
 Romans, whenever giving accounts 
 of the gods of other nations, trans- 
 ferred to them, the naraies of their 
 own deities, according to some slight, 
 or perhaps fancied, resemblance." 
 Tyler. 
 
 5. JEa vis numini, 1. e,, their attri- 
 butes are the same. AXcis, sc. est 
 
 iis: dat. plu. by attraction. Pere- 
 
 grinae, i. e., Greek or Roman. 
 
 6. Superstitionis = religionis. 
 
 Ta/men. Note its force. 
 
 8, 9. Arte ac tempore is explained 
 directly afterwards. The art is their 
 practice of coloring their bodies : the 
 time is the dark night they choose. 
 Ijenocinantur, increase, lit., pan- 
 der. 
 
 10. Fo7*niidine, f rightfulness. 
 
 Vmbra may refer to the real shadows 
 of m.en, or to the general aspect of 
 
 the army. The authorities differ. 
 
 Feralis is found as an adj., only in 
 poetry, and in prose of the silver age. 
 
 14. Gothones. This people is proba- 
 bly the Getae of earlier, and the 
 Goths of later history. Ptolemy says 
 that they lived on the banks of the 
 
 Vistula. lam adductius. Jam and 
 
 nondum both have reference to the 
 
THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 73 
 
 tatem. Protinus deinde ab Oceano Rugii et Lemovii ; omni- 
 umque harum gentium insigne rotunda scuta, breves gladii et 
 erga reges obsequium. 
 
 XLIV. Suionum hinc civitates ipso in Oceano praeter 
 viros armaque classibus valent. Forma navium eo differt, 5 
 quod utrimque prora paratam semper appulsui frontem agit. 
 Nee velis ministrantur, nee remos in ordinem lateribus adiun- 
 gunt; solutum, ut in quibusdam fluminum, et mutabile, ut 
 res poscit, hinc vel illinc remigium. Est apud illos et opibus 
 honos, eoque unus imperitat, nuUis iam exceptionibus, non 1 
 precario iure parendi. Nee arma, ut apud ceteros Germanos, 
 in promiseuo, sed clausa sub oustode, et quidem servo, quia 
 subitos hostium incursus prohibet Oceanus, otiosae porro ar- 
 
 wrlter's progress In going over the 
 tribes of Germany, those tribes grow- 
 ing less and less free as be advances 
 eastward; already under more sub- 
 jection than the foregoing tribes, but 
 not yet in such abject slavery as some 
 we shall read of in the next chapter." 
 Tyler. 
 
 1. Protinus deinde ab OceanOf 
 Immediately thereafter, along the 
 ocean, i. e., their territory extended 
 from the ocean inwards to that of the 
 Gothones. The " ocean " Is the Baltic 
 
 Sea. MugU. The island of Rugen 
 
 is named from them. Their territory 
 was around the mouths of the Oder. 
 Lemovii^ These people were set- 
 tled along the Baltic, about the mod- 
 ern Stolpe, Dantzig, and Lauenberg. 
 
 3. Obsequium, willing siclmiission. 
 
 CHAP. XLIV. 4. Suionum, Swedes. 
 They inhabited the south of Sweden, 
 which Tacitus seems to have consid- 
 ered as an Island. Pliny (IV. 27) cer- 
 tainly did: "gwi sinus Oodanus {i. e., 
 the Baltic) vacatur, refertus insulis 
 guarum clarissiTna Scandinavia est, in- 
 com,pertaemagnitudinis."'PTo\>ablyt'ti0 
 name Sweden is only a corruption of 
 
 Suiones. Ipso is emphatic, and 
 
 contrasts ab Oceano of the previous 
 chapter with in Oceano here. 
 
 5. I>iffert,i. e.,from ours (Roman). 
 
 6. Zrtrimque prora, i. e., resem- 
 bling an Indian canoe. 
 
 7. JItlivLstrantur, sc. naves. Xn 
 
 ordinem, 1. e., ita ut ordofiat, to form 
 a regular tier of oars after the Roman 
 fashion. 
 
 8. Solutum means loose, not strap- 
 ped in. In quibusdam fluminum, 
 
 e. g., where the banks were steep, so 
 that the boat could be brought close 
 to them. 
 
 9, 10. Est .... honos. Cf. cap. V. 
 
 Eoque; because of his superior 
 
 wealth. Vnus then means the 
 
 wealthiest man among them. ITul- 
 
 lls iam exccptioni^ms. This expres- 
 sion marks the contrast between the 
 Suiones and the Lygii and Gothones 
 in the last chapter : here there are no 
 limits to the authority of the king. 
 For the force of iam here, see note on 
 iam adductius in XLIII. 
 
 11. Precoma iure. Precarium ius is 
 a privilege only granted to a person's 
 entreaty, as a favor, which cannot be 
 claimed as a strict right. Cf. Hist. I. 
 52 and An. I. 42. 
 
 12,13. In prom.iscuo, i. e., by the 
 
 mass of the people. Et quidem, 
 
 and he too. Quia .... Oceanus 
 
 gives the reason why the arms are 
 looked up. 
 
74 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 matorum raanus facile lasciviunt. Enimvero neque nobilem 
 neque ingenuum, ne libertinum quidem armis praeponere 
 regia utilitas est. 
 
 XLV. Trans Suionas aliud mare, pigrum ac prope inmo- 
 
 5 turn, quo cingi cludique terrarum orbem hinc fides, quod ex- 
 tremus cadentis iam solis fulgor in ortus edurat adeo clarus ut 
 sidera hebetet ; sonum insuper emergentis audiri, formasque 
 deorum et radios capitis aspici persuasio adicit. Illuc usque 
 (et fama vera) tantum natura. 
 
 10 Ergo iam dextro Suevici maris litore Aestiorum gentes 
 ailuuntur, quibus ritus habitusque Suevorum, lingua Britan- 
 nicae propior. Matrem deum venerantur ; insigne supersti- 
 tionis formas aprorum gestant. Id pro armis omnique tutela 
 securum deae cultorem etiam inter hostes praestat. Rarus 
 
 1-3. Ijasciviuntf " become demoral- 
 ized." Enimvero .... utilitas est 
 
 explains why the arms are In the cus- 
 tody of a slave. Tacitus seems to 
 have had no conception of a king 
 other than of the despotic oriental 
 type. Even the worst of the Roman 
 emperors, cloaking their tyranny 
 under a guise, however thin, of con- 
 stitutionalism., would hardly realize 
 his idea of rex. Cf. An. XVI, 23; Bist. 
 V.8. 
 
 CHAP. XLV." 4. Ali/ud mare prob- 
 ably refers to the North Sea. He de- 
 scribes this sea in similar language 
 in Agr, cap. X. Some, however, refer 
 
 it to the Arctic Ocean. Pigrum ac 
 
 prope inmotiim, i. e., on account of 
 the ice. 
 
 5-7. JBClnc (sc. est) refers to what fol- 
 lows, quod extremus, etc, Quod ex- 
 
 trejnus .... hehetet. "The idea is, 
 that though the sun sets, the evening 
 and the morning twilights follow 
 each other so closely, that there is no 
 niglit; at least no night dark enough 
 to show the stars." C. The cause of 
 this is clearly explained by the true 
 principles of astronomy. For Taci- 
 tus' explanation, see Agr. XII. 
 
 JSrnergentis^ sc. soUs. This has noth- 
 ing to do with the belief prevalent 
 among the ancients, that when th^ 
 
 sun sets in the "West, his descent into 
 the ocean is attended with hissings. 
 Tacitus is speaking of the North, 
 bending toward the East. Formas- 
 que deorum,. The commentators dis- 
 cuss the question who these gods 
 were. I do not suppose that any par- 
 ticular gods are meant. 
 
 8, 9. Sadios capitis. Some suppose 
 this to refer to the Aurora Borealis. 
 
 JPersuasio,p(^ular belief. Illuc 
 
 .... naturay thus far only {and the 
 report is true) does nature extend. Sc. 
 est with both fwma and natura. 
 
 10. Uh'ffo iam is a resumption of the 
 subject broken ofT by the digression. 
 
 Suevici mariSf i, e.. the Baltic. 
 
 Aestiorum gentes. These people 
 
 —the men of the East— occupied the 
 coast of Eastern Prussia, and Cour- 
 land. Their name is preserved in 
 SstJionia. 
 
 11. Jtitus is explained directly after 
 to be the worship of Mother Earth, 
 
 also prevalent among the Suevi. 
 
 Habitus, dress. 
 
 12. Matrem dettm, i.e., according to 
 the Roman interpretation, Cybele; 
 but the same as Nerthu^ mentioned 
 in cap. XL. 
 
 13. Formas aprorum gestant. 
 These were no doubt small Images of 
 boarSj worn round the persons aq 
 
THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 75 
 
 ferri, frequens fustium usus. Frumenta ceterosque fructus 
 patientius qiiam pro solita Germanorum inertia laborant. Sed 
 et mare scrutantur, ac soli omnium sucinum, quod ipsi glesum 
 vocant, inter vada atque in ipso litore legunt. Nee quae 
 natura quaeve ratio gignat, ut barbaris, quaesitum com- 6 
 pertumve. Diu quin etiam inter cetera eiectamenta maris 
 iacebat, donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen. Ipsis in nuUo 
 usu; rude legitur, informe perfertur, pretiumque mirantes ac- 
 oipiunt. Sucum tamen arborum esse intelligas, quia terrena 
 quaedam atque etiam volucria animalia plerumque interlucent, 10 
 quae implicata humore mox durescente materia cluduntur. 
 Fecundiora igitur nemora lucosque, sicut Orientis secretis, 
 ubi tura balsamaque sudantur, ita Occidentis insulis terrisque 
 inesse crediderim ; quae vicini solis radiis expressa atque 
 liquentia in proximum mare labuntur, ac vi tempestatum in ] 5 
 
 amulets or charms. Many vestiges 
 of this superstition remain to this 
 day In Sweden. The peasants in the 
 month of February, the season for- 
 merly sacred to the goddess Frea, 
 make little Images of boars in paste, 
 which are applied to various supersti- 
 tious uses. 
 
 2, 3. Ziahoratit. This transitive 
 use of the word is poetical. Suci- 
 num, Amber, so called because it was 
 believed to be the juice (^^ucus) of a 
 
 tree. Glesum. "This name was 
 
 transferred to glass, when it came 
 into use." T. 
 
 5. Xatwra, sc. sit eius. Matio, 
 
 'process of nature. Compertv/mve, 
 
 sc. lis, with which m« harhwHs is in 
 apposition. 
 
 6,7. J>iM iacehat. The Gothones, 
 who formerly inhabited this coast, 
 used it for fuel, and sold it, for that 
 purpose, to the neighboring Teutones. 
 
 Plin. XXXVII, 2. Eiectamenta, 
 
 things thrown up ; a word of rare oc- 
 currence. We have no corresponding 
 
 word in English. iMXuria nostra. 
 
 Amber was used in various ways by 
 the Romans ; for ornamenting drinii- 
 ing-cups (Juv. V. 38), for bracelets and 
 
 necklaces. Balls of amber were also 
 carried by the Roman ladles in their 
 hands, for the sake of the agreeable 
 perlUme given out by it when rubbed. 
 
 Cf. Mart. V. 37, and III. 65. IpHs 
 
 in nulla usu. It would seemthatthe 
 ancient Germans held amber in some 
 estimation, as small balls strung on 
 horse-hair, and large unwrought 
 pieces, have been found in tombs. 
 
 8. JPerfertur. It reached Rome by 
 an overland route, being carried by 
 the inhabitants of the Baltic coast 
 into Pannonia to Carnuntum on the 
 Danube, and thence conveyed by the 
 Veneti to the shores of the Adriatic, 
 thence to Rome. 
 
 9. Sucum arborum. Amber is 
 now known to be a fossil resin, thus 
 establishing the ancient opinion of 
 its vegetable origin. 
 
 11. Implicata humore, entangledin 
 
 it while in a liquid state. Cluduntur 
 
 = iTicluduntur. 
 
 12, 13. Secretis, sc. terris. Sudan- 
 tur, are exuded. Insulis; dat. 
 
 after inesse. 
 
 14. Crediderim, I am inclined to be- 
 lieve: subj. of softened assertion. 
 
 Quae (= quorum siicus) refers gram- 
 
76 
 
 THE GERMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 adversa litora exundant. Si naturam sucini admoto igni 
 tenteSj in modum taedae accenditur, alitque flammam pin- 
 guem et olentem; mox ut in pioem resinamve lentescit, 
 
 Suionibus SItonutn gentes continuantur. Cetera similes uno 
 
 5 differunt, quod femina dominatur; in tantum non modo a 
 
 libertate, sed etiam aservitute degenerant. Hie Sueviae finis. 
 
 XLVI. Peucinorum Venetorumque et Fennorum nationes 
 
 Germanis an Sarmatis adscribam dubito, quamquam Peucini, 
 
 quos quidam Bastarnas vocant, sermone, cultu, sede ac domi- 
 
 lOciliis ut German! agunt. Sordes omnium ac torpor pro- 
 cerum; conubiis mixtis nonnihil in Sarmatarum habitum 
 foedantur. Veheti multum ex moribus traxerunt ; nam 
 quidquid inter Peucinos Fennosque silvarum ac montium 
 erigitur, latrociniis pererrant. Hi tamen inter Germanos 
 
 matically to nemm^a Iztcosque^ but 
 Tacitus of course meant it to»refer to 
 the gums which exude from them. 
 These gums are drawn out by the ac- 
 tion of the sun near to them, when he 
 sinks into the west. They are carried 
 by the ocean currents to the opposite 
 shores, the far northeastern coasts. 
 
 1-3. A.dmoto igni, by applying Jire to 
 it, lit., by fire applied to it.— Finguem^ 
 
 i.e., thick or smoky.- Ut in picem 
 
 resinamve^, as if into pitch or resin, i.Q., 
 into something resem,bling pitch or 
 resin. 
 
 4. Sitomiin , Norwegians, men- 
 tioned in this passage only. Con- 
 tinuantur, are joined to, 1. e., are con- 
 tiguous to. Similes, sc. iSuionibits. 
 
 5. In tantum, so low, lit., to such 
 a degree. Found only in late Latin. 
 
 0. A siTvitute. Elsewhere slaves, 
 however degraded as in Oriental 
 countries, are still ruled by men, and 
 are not therefore sunk so low as the 
 Sitones,who are ruled by a woman. 
 Finis, i. e., to the north. 
 
 CHAP. XLVI. 7. rt^iclnorum. The 
 Peucini were allies of Philip and 
 Perseus, kings of Macedonia, and 
 thus brought into contact with the 
 Romans. Some of the classical au- 
 thors make them Germans, others 
 
 Gauls, and it does not seem clear 
 which they were. From Strabo it 
 appears that they were a branch of 
 the Bastarnae and inhabited the 
 country about the mouth of the 
 Danube,, and particularly the island 
 Peuce, now Piczina, formed by the 
 
 river. Veneto7*um. The Veneti 
 
 were east of the Vistula along the 
 Sinus Veneticus, or Gulf of Dantzic, 
 in East Prussia and Courland. They 
 were a Lithuanic or Slavonian peo- 
 ple ; and Wends is still the name by 
 which the Slavonians are known to 
 the Germans. Afterwards they seem 
 to have been associated with the 
 
 Huns and Goths on the Danube. 
 
 Fennorum. These were probably 
 the Finns of Finland, and perhaps 
 the ^ivvoi of Ptolemy (III. 5). 
 
 8. {JTtrum) Germanis an Sarmatis. 
 This has not been definitely settled. 
 
 10. Agunt = vivunt. Sordes (sc. 
 
 est) .... procerutn. That is, all are 
 filthily dirty; but the nobles enjoy 
 the superior privilege of idleness be- 
 sides. Cf. XV., fortissimu^ quisque ac 
 
 bellicosissimus nihil agens. Torpor 
 
 (sc. est), laziness. 
 
 11, 12. Conubiis mixtis, by intermar' 
 
 ria£fes,l.e.,withtheSarmati. Mabi- 
 
 twm here denotespersonal abearance, 
 M^ m.oribu8f sc. iSarmaianmt, 
 
THE GEEMANIA OF TACITUS. 
 
 77 
 
 potius referuntur, quia et domos figunt et scuta gestant et 
 pedum usu ac pernicitate gaudent ; quae omnia diversa Sar- 
 matis sunt in plaustro equoque viveiitibus. Fennis mira 
 feritas, foeda paupertas ; non arma, non equi, non penates ; 
 victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile humus; sola in sagittis 5 
 spes, quas, inopia ferri, ossibus asperant. Idemque venatus 
 vires pariter ac feminas alit ; passim enim comitantur par- 
 temque praedae petunt. Nee aliud infantibus ferarum im- 
 briumque suffugium quam ut in aliquo ramorum nexu conte- 
 gantur; hue redeunt iuvenes, hoc senum receptaeulum. SedlO 
 beatius arbitrantur, quam ingemere agris, inlaborare domibus, 
 suas alienasque fortunas spe metuque versare. Securi adver- 
 sus homines, securi adversus deos, rem difScillimam adsecuti 
 sunt, ut illis ne vote quidem opus esset. Cetera iam fabulosa; 
 Hellusios et Oxionas ora hominum vultusque, corpora atquelS 
 artus ferarum gerere ; quod ego, ut incompertum, in medium 
 relinquam. 
 
 1, 2. Domos figunt. The nomad life 
 of the Sarmatians Is described by 
 Horace (Cfcir., III. 24, 10), whereas these 
 people have fixed homes. The 
 Sarmatae were the stock of the mod- 
 ern Russians. Sttrmatis: dat.with 
 
 diversa. 
 
 5. CvbUe huTnus. Note the change 
 of construction. The nominative, as 
 more emphatic, is substituted for 
 ciibili, which we should expect, to 
 correspond with victui and vestitui. 
 
 6. Asperant^roughlppoiTU. A poetic 
 expression, not found in Cicero. The 
 Esquimaux and South Sea Islanders 
 do the same thing to this day. 
 
 7. 8. Comitantur, sc. viris. Fera- 
 
 rum imbriutnque, from unld beasts 
 and storms. 
 
 11. Ingemere agris, to groan over 
 the fields, 1. e., in tilling them. A 
 very poetical use of ingemere. In- 
 laborare is here formed upon the 
 model of ingemere. It nowhere else 
 
 occurs in this meaning. DomUnis, 
 
 1. e., in building them. 
 
 12. Spe tnetuque, 1. e., Aope of gain 
 
 and /ear of loss, Versare, to be cortr 
 
 stanily employed in increasing. 
 
 Seeuri, vAihout anxiety, as they have 
 nothing to lose, and the pleasure or 
 displeasure of the gods is all one to 
 them. 
 
 14. Illis: emphatic. Cetera, all 
 
 further accounts. 
 
 15. Sellusios et Oxionas. People of 
 Lapland. " The origin of this fable 
 is probably due to the manner of 
 clothing in these cold regions, where 
 the inhabitants bury themselves in 
 the thickest furs, scarcely leaving 
 anything of the form of a human 
 creature." 
 
 16. In medium relinquam. Cicero 
 (JVo Cluent. XX.) has in medio relin^ 
 quam; also Sallust {Cat. XIX). 
 Tacitus, however, is fond of using the 
 accusative after the preposition, as 
 An. XIII. 41. aliaque in eandem for- 
 mam decernuntur. Here it is used 
 like in ordinem, in cap. XLIV., and is 
 equivalent to relinquam, ita ut me- 
 dium sit, so as to be a neutral asser- 
 tion, neither affirmed nor denied.