:i>':^^rH'>\^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Regional History Cornell University Library BR95 .B92 Theological dictionary : containing defl olln 3 1924 029 233 157 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029233157 PER SEC U T !(>N. IKuie HI- A PriiTiili\-o Cliristian flaycil alivo by Heathen Persecutors. Plate IV. Martyrdom of St. Stephen. — Acts vii. 59. A THEOLOGICALi DICTIONARY, CONTATNTNQ DEFINITIONS OF ALL RELIGIOUS TERMS; A COMPREHENSIVE VIEW OF EVERY ARTICLE IN THE SYSTEM OF DIVINITY, AJV IMPARTIAL ACCOUNT OF ALL THE PRINCIPAL DENOMINATIONS VVmCH HAVE, SUBSISTED IN THE RELIGIOUS WORLD FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE PRESENT DAY: TOGETHER WITH AN ACCURATE STATEMENT OF THE MOST REMARKABLE TRANSACTIONS AND EVENTS RECORDED IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. BY THE REF. CHARLES BUCK. NeU) ^mevitan, from tte latest Hontjon IStrftion. BEVISED, AND IMPROVED BY THE ADDITION OP MANY NEW AKTICI-ES, AND THE WHOLE ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OP THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND OP THE RELIGIOUS WORLD. BY THE RET. GEORGE BUSH, A. JH. With an Appendix : containing impartial and elaborate Histories of, 1. The Methodist Episcopal Chvr^ch in America ; 3. The Presbyterian Church in the United States; 3. The Methodist Protestant Church; 4. The Baptists of the TMited Stoics ; and, 5. The Evarigelical Lutheran Church iti the United States: the four latter written expressly for this work. CORRECTED EDITIQN. THOMAS, C6WPERTHWAIT & Co. ,353 MARKET STREET. 1838. * Entered according to the act of congress,' in the year 1836, by J. J. Woodward in the clerk's office of the district court of the United States in and for thfe eastern district of PennsvWania. PREFACE BY THE AUTHOR. Knowlesdoe, in a great measure, fornjs the true dignity and happiness of man : it i that by which he holds an honourable r^ink in the scale of heing, and by which he is rendered capable. of adding to the felicity of his fellow-cr^at^res. Every attempt, there- fore, to enlarge its boundaries, and facilitate its acquisition, must be cppsidered as worthy of our attention and regard. The present work is designed' to promote these valua,ble and important ends. The plan of conveying knowledge by dictionaries has been long established, and well received in the republic of letters. A dictionary, however, of a religious and ecclesias- tical nature was still a desideratum in the religious world ; for although we have had dictionaries which explained Scripture terms, yet it is evident these cpuld not embrace the history of the church since the sacred canon was cqncluded, nor explain the numerous terms which have been used;, nor, indeed, point out the various sects and denominations which have subsisted since tiiat time. I do not mean, by these remarks, to depreciate the valuable works above referred to: I am sensible of their excellences, and I have no wish to undervalue them in order to exalt my own. This work, however, is of a different nature, as the reader will easily see, if he takes the trouble to compare and examine. There may, doubtless, be defects in this publication which may have escaped my atten- tion ; but whoever considers the various books that must have been consulted ; the dis- criminations that were necessary to be made; the patient investigation required; and tiie' toil of selecting, transcribing, and composing, must be convinced that it has been at- tended with no sniall difficulty. The advantages, however, which my own mind derived from the work, and the probability of its being useful to others, greatly encouraged me in its prosecution. Besides, to be active, to be useful, to do something for the good of man- kind, I have always considered as the honour of an intelligent being. It is not the student wrapt up in metaphysical subtilties ; it is not the recluse living in perpetual soli- tude ; it is not the miser who is continually amassing wealth, that can be considered as the greatest ornaments or the greatest blessings to human society : — it is rather the useful than the shining talent that is to be coveted. Perhaps it may be said, the work is tinctured too mnch with my own sentiments, and tliat the theology is too antiquated to please a liberal, philosophising, and refined age. In answer to this, I observe, tiiat I could do no other, as an honest man, than communi-, cate what I believe to be the truth. It is a false liberality to acquiesce with every man's opinion, to fall in with every man's scheme, to trifle with error, or imagine there is no difference between one sentiment and another : yet, notwithstanding this declaration, I trust the features of bigotry are not easily discernible in this work ; and that, while I have -endeavoured to carry the torch of Truth in my hand, I have not forgotten to walk in the path of Candour. It IS almost needless here to say, that I have availed myself of all the writings of the best and most erninent ajithors I could obtain. Whatever has struck me as important in ecclesiastical history ; whatever good and accurate in definition ; whatever just views of the passions of the human mind ; whatever terms used in the religious world ; and whatever instructive and impressive in the systems of divinity and moral philosophy, I have endeavoured to incorporate in this work. And in order to prevent its being a dry detail of terms and of dates, I have given the substance of what has been generally advanced on each subject, and occasionally selected some of the most interesting practi- cal passages from our best and celebrated sermons. I trust, therefore, it will not only bo of use to inform the mind, but impress the heart; and thus promote the real good of the reader. The critic, however, may be disposed to be severe ; and it will, perhaps, be easy for him to observe imperfections. But be this as it may : I can assure him I feel myself happy in the idea that the work is not intended to serve a party, to encourage bigotry, nor strengthen prejudice, but "for the service of Truth, by one who would be glad \A attend and grace her triumphs; as her soldier, if he has had the honour to servf -successfully under her banner ; or as a captive tied to her chariot wheels, if he has, though undesign- edly, committed any offence against her." After all, however,^ what a learned auAor said' of another work I say of tSs :_ — " If it hq,ve merjt, it will go' down to posterity ; if it have none, the sooner it dies and is forgot the better." 3 -' CHARLES BUCK. PREFACE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. The numerous and extensive editions of Buck's Tlieological Dictionary published both in England and in this country since its first appearance, together with the continued and increasing demand, sufficiently attest the estimate in which the work is held by the Christian public. The judgment, industry, candour, and impartiality evinced by the Author in the selection and compilation of the articles, embracing, as they do, the wide field of Theology, didactic and polemic. Ecclesiastical Polity, Church History, Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, and Biblical Literature, together with a copious list of refer- ences to the most valuable authorities in each department, are universally acknowledged. So far as the merft pf sterling utility can entitle any book to favourable acceptance, the Dictionary of Mr. Buck presents claims which will not be contested. As a theological and ecclesiastical manual, embodying a vast amount of useful information in a moderate compass, and clearly and judiciously arranged, it would not be easy to designate its superior. Yet while this tribute of deserved commendation is readily bestowed, it must still be admitted, that the work hitherto has not feen altogether adapted to the circumstances of our own country, or the wants of the present day. Considered in this view the Theological Dictionary labours under manifold defects, which it would be as easy to specify as it is obvious to perceive. As might have been expected, its local bearings and allusions are to the state of things in England, and not in this country. But a work of this nature is needed, which shall be suited to the state of religious opinion in the Christian community of the United States. Moreover, since the first publication of Mr. Buck's work, great chaiiges have occurred in the religious world; great advances liave been made in theological as well as in natural science ; a fresh impulse has been given to the investigation of revealed truth ; new sects, especially in our own country, have risen up, and with them new controversies, or new forms of old ones ; the ever varying field of religious discussion, while it has been contracted in some of its limits, has been widened in others; besides which, nearly every department treated in the Theological Dictionary has been enriched with new treasures from the writings of modem divines, to which the reader will look in vain for any references in the previous editions. While therefore the active spirit of progress and improvement is urging its way in the pro- vince of Theological inquiry as well as every other, while modern researches are shed- ding light upon numberless points of Christian and Jewish antiquities, upon Ecclesiasti- cal institutions, and Biblical criticism, it is doubtless desirable that a Theological Dic- tionary should be prepared, fitted to meet, in some good degree, the exigences of the pre- sent period. With this view thp present edition of Buck has been undertaken. In the prosecution of the plan, the steady aim has been to increase the amount of new and valuable matter, at the same time that the accession should not swell the size, nor enhance the price of the volume. The whole work therefore has undergone a careful revision — Some few articles of trivial moment have been expunged to make way for others of more consequence — Several have been abridged — Several in whole or in part re-written : But the principal feature of the present edition is the addition of a large mass of new matter under the following heads : Abyss, AccoMMonATiou or Sckipture, Annihilation, Anti- christ, Antichristianism, Atonement, Chtirch, Commentary, CoNOREOATioNALisTfe, Episcopalian, Glassitbs, New Indbpendents,*'N"eology, Presbyterians, Unitarians, besides many others, which will be pointed out to the reader, wherever they occur, by the letter B. being annexed to them. Notices of all or nearly all the existing religious denominations in the United States are given, accompanied with historical sketches and ecclesiastical statistics. In this department of the work the Editor aclmowledges his obligationsfto the very valuable Quarterly Register and Journal of the American Edu- cation Society, for February, by means of which, and from other sources, he has been enabled to brB% down the records of" the various denominations to a very late period. In the earnest hope that the attempted improvements of the present edition may be found to be -a benefit, and not a bar, to its general reception, it is submitted to the candour of the public. G. B. THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY ABBEY A. ABBA, a Syriac w6rd of Hebrew origin, sig- nifying Father. It is more particularly used m the Syiioc, Coptic, and Ethiopic chuichjes, as a title given to tne bishops. The bishops tJiem- selves bestowed the title Abha more eminently on the bishop of Alexandria, which occasioned the people to ^ve him the title of baba, or Papa ; that is, Grandfather : a title which he bore before the bishop of Rome. It is a Jewish title of honour given to certain Rt^bbins called Tanajtes: it is also used by some vraters of the middle age for the superior of a monastery. Saint Mark and Saint Paul use this word in their Greek, Mark xiv. 36. Rom. viii. 15. Gal. vi. 6. because it was then sommonly known in the synagogues and the primitive assemblies of the ClSistians. It is thought by Sclden, Witsius, Doddridge, anji others, that Saint Paul alluded to a law among the Jews which forbade servants or slaves to call their master Abba, or Father; and that the apostle meant to convey the idea that those who believed in Christ were no longer slaves to sin j but, being brought into a state of holy freedom, might consequently address God as their Father. ABBE, the same with Asbot, which See. Also the name of curious popular characters in France ; who are persons who have not yet ob- tained any jirecbe or fixed settlement in church or state, but most heartily wish for and wopld accept of either, just as it may happen. In the mean- while their privileges are many. In college, they are the instructors of youth, and in private fami- lies the tutors of young gentlemen. ABBESS, the superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The abbess has the same rights ahd authority over her nuns that the abbots regular have over their monks. The sex, indeed, does not allow her to perform the spiritual functions annexed to the priesthood, wherewith the abbot is usually invested ; but there are instances of some abbesses who have a right, or rather a privilege, to commission a priest to act for them. They have even a kind of episcopal jurisdiction, as well as some abbots who are exempted from the visi- tation of their diocesan. ABBEY, a monastery, governed by a superior under the title of Abbot or Abbess. Monasteries were at first nothing more than religions houses, whither persons retired from the bustle of the world to spend their timd in solitude and devotion ; but they soon degenerated from their original in- stitution, and procured large privileges, exemp- tions, and riches. They prevailed greatly m Britain betbre the Reformation, particularly in England : and as they increased in riches, so the ABBOT * state became poor, for the lands' which these re- gulars possessed could never revert to the lords who save them. These places were wholly abolished by Henry VIII. He first appointed visitors to inspect into the lives of the monks and liuns, which were found in some places very dis- orderly ; upon which the abbots, perceiving their dissolution unavoidable, were induced to resign their houses to the king, who by that means be- came invested with th'J abbey lands : these were afterwards granted to different persons, whose descendants enjoy them.at this day : they were then valued at ,3,853,0002. per annum; an im- mense smn in those days. Though the suppres- sion of these houses, considered in a religious and political light, was a great benefit to the nation, yet it must be owned, that at the time they flou- rished, they were not entirely useless. Abbeys were then the repositories as well as the semina- ries of learning : many valuable books and na- tional records nave been preserved in their libra- ries; the only places wherein they could have been safely lodged in those turbulent times. In- deed the historians of this country are chiefly beholden to the monks tor the knowledge they have of former national events. Thus a kind Providence overrule^ even the institutions of su- perstition for good. See Monastery. ABBOT, the chief ruler of a monastery or abbey. At first they were laymen, and subject lo the bishop and ordinary pastors. Their monas- teries 'being remote from cities, and built in the farthest soEtudes, they had no share in ecclesias- tical aflairs ; but, there being among them several persons of learning, they were called out of their deserts by the bishops, and fixed in the suburbs of the ci&es ; and at length in the cities them- selves. From that time they degenerated, and,, learning to be ambitious, aspued to be independ- ent of flie bishops, which occasioned some severe laws to be maide against them. At length, how- ever, the abbots carried their point, and obtained the title of lord, with other bates of the episco- pate, particularly the mitre. Hence arose new distinctions among them. Those were termed mitred abbots who were privileged to wear the mitre, and exercise episcopal authtority within their respective precincts, being exempted from the jurisdiction of the bishop. Qffiers werp; called crosiered abbots, from their bearing the crosier, or pastoral staff. Others were styled wcumenical or universal abbots, in imitation of the patriarch of Constantmople ; while others were termed cardinal abbots from their superiority over aS other abbots. At present, in the Roman Catho- a2 ABSOLUTION Uc countries, the chief distinctions are those of re- gular and commendatort/, . The former take the vow and wear the habit of their order j whereas the latter are seculars, though they are obliged by their bulls to take orders when of proper age. ABELIANS, or Abplonians,, a sect which arose in the diocesS of Hippo in Africa, and is supposed to have begun in the reign of Arcaiiius, and ended in that of Theodosius. Indeed, it was not calculated for being of ariy long continuance. They regulated marriage after the example of Abel, who, they pretended, was jnarried, but lived in a state of continence : they therefore al- lowed each man to marry one wpman, but en- 'oined them to live in the same state. To keep up the sect, when a man and woman entered into this society, they adopted a boy and a girl, who were to iimerit theit goods, and to mairy upon the same terms of not having children, but of adopting two of di^Terent sexes. ABES T A, the name of one of the sacred hoots of the Persian Magi, which they ascribe to their great founder, Zoroaster. The Abesta is a commentary on two others oftheir religious books cilled Zend and Pazend; the three together in- cluding the whole system of the Ignicom, or wor- shippers of fire. ABILITY. See Inability. ABLUTION, a ceremony in use among the ancients, and still practised in several parts of the world. It consisted in washing the body, which was always done before sacrificing, or even en- tering their houses. Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremonies, and external worship itself. Moses enjoined them, the heathens adopt- ed them, and Mahomet and his followers have continued them. The Egyptians, the Ghreeks, the Romans, the Jews, all had them. The ancient Christians had their ablutions before communion, which the Romish church still retain before their mass, and sometimes after. The Syrians, Copts, &c. have their solemn washings on Good Fnday : the Turks (ilso have their ablu- tions, their Ghast, their Wodou, Aman, &c. ABSOLUTION signifies acquittal. It is taken also for that act whereby the priest declares the sins of such as are penitent remitted. The Romanists hold absolution a part of the' sacra- ment of penance j and the council of Trent and that of Florence declare the form or essence of the sacrament to lie in the words of" absolutioUj " I absolve thee of thy sins." According to this, no one can receive absolution without the privity, consent, and declaration of the priest; except, therefore, the priest be willing, God himself can- not pardon any man. This is a doctrine as bias"- phemous as it is ridiculous. The chief passage on which they ground their power of absolution is that in John xx. 23 : " Whosesoever sin&ye re- mit, they are remitted unto them, and whosesoever sins ye retain, they are retained." But this is not to the purpose ; since this was a special com- mission to the apostles themselves, and the first preachers of the Gospel, and most probably re- ferred to the power he gave them of discerning spirits. By virtue of this power, Peter struck Ananias and Sapphira dead, and Paul struck Elymas blind. But, supposing the passage in question to applytotiie.successorsof the apostles, and to mimsters in genei^, it can only import that their office is to preach pardon to the :peni- tenty assuring those who believe that their sins I 6 ABYSS are forgiven through the merits of Jesus Christ ; and that those who remain in unbehef are in a state of condemnation. Any idea of authority given to fallible, uninspired men, to absolve sin- ners, different from this, is unscriptural ; nor can I see much utility in the tenas'^ministerial oT.de- clarative absolution, as adopted by some divmes, since absolution is Wholly the prerogative of God ; and the terms abovementioned may, to say the least, have no good influence on the minds of the ignorant and superstitious. ABSTEMII, a name given to such persons as 'could not partake of the cup of the eucharist, on account of their natural aversion to wine. ABSTINENCE, in a general sense, is the act of refraining from someuiing which we have a propension to or find pleasure m. It is more particularly used for fasting or forbearing from necessary fbod. Among the JeWB, various kinds of abstinence were brdained by their law. A.mong the primitive Christians, some denied themselves the use of such meats as were prohibited by that law; others looked upon this abstinence with contempt; as to which Paul gives his opinion^ Romans xiv. 1, 3. The council of Jerusalem, which was held by the apostles, enjoined the Christian converts to abstain from meats strangled, from blood, from fornication, and from idolatry. Acts XV. Upon this passage Dr. Doddridge oK- serves, "that though neither things sacrificed to idols, nor the flesh of strangled animals, nor blood, have or can have any moral evil in them, which should make the eating of them absolutely and universally unlawful ; yet they were forbid- deii to the Gentile converts, because the Jews had sUch an aversion to them, that they coilld not converse freely with any who used them. This is plainly the reason which James assigns in the very next words, the 21st verse, and it is abund- antly sufficient. This reason is now ceased, and the obligation to abstain from eating these things ceases with it. But were we in like circumstan- ces again, Christian charity would surely require us to lay ourselves under the same restraint." — The sjnritual monarchy of the western world introduced another sort of abstinence, which may be called ritual, and consists in abstaining from particular meats at certain times and sea- sons, the rules of which are called rogations. If I mistake not, the impropriety of this kind of ab- stinence is clearly pomted out in 1 Tim. iv. 3.— In England, abstinence from flesh has been en- joined by statutCj even since the Reforination ; particularly on Fridays and Saturdays, on vkUs, and on all days commonly called fish daysi The like injunctions were renewed under queen EUza- beth; but at the same time it was declared, tliat this was done not out of motives of religion, as if there were any difference in meats, but in fa- vour of the consumption of fish, and to multiply the number of fishermen anS mariners, as Well as to saaxe the stock of sheep. See Fasting, ABYSS, from the Greek » Suchhatibri to be reconciled to the see Pf Rome; but rather from interested yieWs thaii any other motive. Tliey practice cu'oumcisiqn on females as well as niales. Thej^eat no rneat^ prohibited by thei law of MoSesl They observe both SatiUday aiid SUnd'iy sabbaths. Women are obliged to the legal puriflcdiioris. . Brothe|k inalrry their brother's wiv^s, &c. du the othfir hand, they celebrate the Epiphanjr vrith pBcUliir festivity ; have Ibiir L^nts; pray fbr the dead; and invoke angels, linages ai painting they venerate ; but abhor all (HoW in relievo, except thte ctoSs. They adiiiit the apocryphal bOibks and the cinons of the apos- tles, as well as the apostolidal cohstittltiphs, for geUuine. They allow of divbVcej which is easily gfanted among them, and by the'clvil judge ; nor db their civfl laws prohibit polygamy. — They have, at let^t, as liKiiiy ririfacles and legends of skints ais the Romish church. Tlhey hoild that the smi. ai rhan is not created ; because, say they, feod finished all lib .works on the sixth day. Thi6 We see tl^t the dbctrines aiid iitual of this 4eet for|u a strangfe ctttijppiind of Judaism and Chrl^iaiUity, isiioisin(*and Btiperstitiori. Sbine, ibtleeil. Have bberi at a loss tb know whether thl^y are niost Ch^i^itians or Jews : it is to be 7 ACCdltfMODATION fbared, h6Wev^i*, that there is little besi(fe (Ji^ jiaiUe of Christianity among theiii. Should the I reader be desiroUs to know more of this Sec'J^ He niay consult Paihier Lbbo'is Voyage to Abyssinia ; Bruce' s 'Prdvels ; hkdoljph's History i^ Ethio- pia,; aiiA Diet, of Arts find Sciences, vol. i. p. 15. Academics, a denoinination given 16 the cultivators of a species of philosophy ori^iiilly' (Jerived from Socrates, and , afterwards illus- trated sUid enforced by l*lato. I^he contradictoi*y systems which IWd bej^n successively urged uppli the World, were become so numerous, that, ftoik a vi^w of the variety kiid Uricertaiiity of hUmiah opinions^ lUsitiy w'eite Ifed to belieVe ttiat truth lay beyond the rekch ef bUr tompreheiision. The cbnsequente pf this ioncluyon was absolute seep- ticiSni : heiibe the eristence of God, the iiiinor- tality of the sou), the preferableriesB. of virtue tij vice, Were ill held as'unCef^ain.. This sect, with thkt of the 'Epicureans, were the tWo chief that were in vogue at the time of Christ's appearance, and were embraced aud Supported by persohs of high itok aiid wealth. A consideration of thie pnUciples of these two sects [see Epicureans^' will 1^ u^ to form aii idea of the deplorable stats' of the world at the time of Christ's birthj and the necessity there was of some divine teacher to con- l^eV' to the miiid trUe aUd certain principles of re- ligion and Wisdom. Jesus Christ, therefore, is with grek propriety balled the Day Spring from %, the SUn of^Righteousness, that arose up- on |a benighted world to dispel the cloiidS of igho rarice anfl error, arid discover to loSt inan tho p&th of happiness and heaven. But^ as we do not inean tu enlarge much upon these and some other sects, which belong rather to philoso- phy thari theology, we shall refer the reader to HidtBu^s Introduction to the History ^Philoso- phy; StarUey's lAves; Brucker's History of Philosophy; 6r (which is more modem) En- field's AMdgitienti ACCLAMATIONS, etclesiastical, wei« shduts of joy which the people expressed by way of approbation of their preachers. It hardly seems credible to us that practices of this kind shpiild ever have found their way into the church where all ought to be reverence and solemnity. Yet so it was in the fourth century. The people were not ionly permitted, but sometimes even ex- horted, by the preacher himself, to approve his ta- lents by clapping of hands, and loud acclamations of prais§. The uSual words they made use of Wefe, "Orthodbx," "Third apostle," &c. These acclamations beiiig carried to excess, aiid often iriisjplased, Were frequehfly prohibited by the aiv cient doctors, and at length abrogated. Even as late, however, as the seventeenth and dghteerith cehturieS, vre find practices that were not very decorous ; siich as Ipnd hUinming, frequent groan- ins,, strange gestures of the body, &c. See ar- ticles Dancers, SHAiEES. ACCOMMODATION of SCRIPTUREj is the application of it not to its literal meanin^j but to soinething analogous to it. Thus a pi©i pheey is said to Be fiilfilted properly when a thing foretold comes to pass ; and l)y way of acconuno^ dation, When an event happens to aiiy place oi people similar to what fell out some time before to another. Thus the words of Isaiah, spoken to those d{ his oWn time, are said to be fulfilled iii those whp lived in our Saviour's "Ye hypo- crites, Well did Esaias projihcsy, " &c. which same ACOLYTHI words St. Paul afterwards accommodates to the Jews of his time. Isa. xxix. 14. Matt. xv. 8. Acte xiii. 41. Great care, however, should be taken by preachers who are fond of accommo- dating texts, that they first clearly state the literal sense of the passage. ACCOMMODATION SYSTEM, a name ^ven to a peculiar mode of scriptural interpreta- tion, adopted during the last century by Semler and other German divines, which teaches, that many things, uttered by our Saviour and his Apostles, in the course of their instructions, ate not to he understood as expressing the actual reality and verity of things, or conveying true docirinesy but as merely sufopted in accommodor turn to the popular belief and the deep-rooted prejudice of the Jews. For instance, when our Saviour speaks of persons being possessed with evil spirits, we are not according to this theory, to imagine there was really any such things as demoniacal possession, or that Christ' intended to teach that doctrine; but as the notion had been long prevalent among the Jews that men under the influence of certain bodily diseases were possessed by the devil, he accommodated himself in his language to thei^ weakness' and simplicity, " that he mi^nt win the more.'' And so the Apostles, See this dangerous doctrine ably canvassed and refuted in Storr's Essay on the Historical Sense, translated by Gibbs, or the original treatise in his Opuscida. — B. ACCURSED, something that lies under a curse or sentence of excommunication. In the Jewish idiom, accursed . and crwAfted were synonymous: among them, every one was ac- counted accursed vvho died on a tree. This serves perhaps to explain the difficult passage in Rom. ix. 3, where the apostle wishes himself ac- cursed after the manner of C\msi; i. e. crucified, if happily he ipight by such a death save his countrymen. The preposition »jro here made use of; is used in the same sense, "2 Tim. i. 3, when it obvipijsly signifies after the mannei^f. ACEPHALI, i. e. headless; from the priva- tive «, and «s^«j.ii head ; such bishops were ex- empt from Ihe discipline and jurisdiction of their ordinary bishop or patriarch. It was also the denomination of certain sects ; 1. of those who, in the aflair of the council of Ephesus, refused to follow either St. Cyril or John of Antioch ; 2. of certain hfefetics in the fifth c*itury, who, at first, followed Peter Mongus, buttrves against heretics, a priest ascends a desk near the scaffold, and having taken the abjuration of the penitents, recites the final sentence of those who are . to be put to death, arid delivers ^em to the secular arm, earnestly beseeching at the same time the secular power not to touch their blood, or put their lives in danger!!! The prisoners, being thus in the hands of the civil magistrate, are presently loaded with chains, and carried first to the secular gaol, and from thence, in an hour or two, brought before the civil judge; who, after asking in .what rehgion they intend to die, pronounces sentence, on such as declare they die m the communion of the church of Rome, that they shall be first strangled, and then burnt to ashes : or such as die in any other faith, that they be burnt aUve. Both are immediately car- ried to the Ribera, the place of execution, where there are as many stakes set up as there are prisoners to behurnt, with a quantity of dry furze about tjhem. The stakes of the professed, that is ACTS OF- THE APOSTLES such as peTsist in the heresy, are about four yurds high, having a small board towards the top for the prisoner to be seated on. The nega,tive and relapsed being first strangled and burnt, the professed mount tneir stages by a ladder, and the Jesuits, aiter several repeated exhortations to be reconciled to the chiftch, part with them ; telling tiiem that they leave them to the ieti], who is standing at theif elbow, to receive their souls; and carry them with him to the flames of hell. On this a great shout is raised ; and the cry is, "Let the dogs^ beards be made P which is done by thrusting flaming fujzes fastened to long poles against^ their faces, till their faces are burnt to a.coB, vsrhioli is accompanied with the loudest acclamailions of joy. At last, fire is set to the furze at the bottom of'^the stake, over which the professed are, chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat they sit on ; so that they ra- ther seem roasted than burnt. There cannot be a more lamentable spectacle : the suiFerers continu- ally cry out while they are able, " Pity for the love of God !" Yet it is beheld by all sexes and, ages with transports of joy and satisfaction.— O merciful God! is this the benigft, humane re- ligion thou hast given to men's Surely not. If such were the genius of Christianity, then it would be no honovir to be a Christian. Let us, however, rejoice that the time is coming when the dismon of Persecution shall beibanished out this piir world, and the true spirit of benevolence ( aiid candour pervade the umverse ; when noAe shall hurt or destroy, but the earth be iilled vrith the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea ! See iNauisiTiON. ACTION FOR THE PULPIT. See De- clamation. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fiflh and last of the historical books of the New Testament, containingagreat part of the lives and transactions of Peter and Paul, and of the history of the infant church for the space of twenty-niiie or thirty years from the ascension of our Lord to the time <)f Paul's arrival at Rome after his appeal to Csb- sar, A. D. 65. That Luke was the author of the Acts of the Apostles is evident both from the in- teoduction, and from the unanimous testimonies of the e^rly Christians. This book, as well as the Gospel bearing his name, is inscribed t6 Theophilus, and in the very first verse of the 'Acts there is a reference made to his Gospel, which he calls the former treatise. From th» frequent use of the first person plural it is clear thal^ he was .present at most of the transEtctions he relates. The design pf^the author does not appear to have been to give a comjilete ecclesias- tical history, of the Christian church during the period embraced in the work; for he has aunost wholly omitted what passed among the Jeves af- ter the conversion of Paul, and is totally silent concerning the ,spread of Christianity in the East and in Egypt, as well as the foundation of the" church of Christ at Rome, as also concerning the labours.and sufferingsof mostof the other Apos- tles besides Peter aid Paul; but to relate the most prominent events connected vrith the esta- blishment of Christianity, and such as maybe considered td have had the Inost important bear- ings upon its subsequent mospentyj ambng which may be reckoned the envision ofthe^Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecbst, the persecutions and dispersions cf the early disciides, the conver- 9 B ADAMITES sion of Paul, the admission of theGentiles into the church, the council of Jerusalem, and the planting of Christian Churches in the Principal provinces of the Roman empirci The history is written with a tolerably* strict attention to chro^ nological order; though the author has not aiBxed a date to any one of the facts recorded by him. But as political events, the dates of vthich are knpwn, are frequently introduced or alluded to in connexion with the ecclesiastical narrative, the chronology of the whole book is for the most part capable of being pretty definitely settled. The style of the Acts, which Was written in Greek, is perspicuous and noble. Though tinc- tured vrith Hebraisms, it is in general muchpurer than that of most other books of the New Testa- ment, particularly in the speeches delivered by Paul. The book forriis one of the most import- ant parts of sacred history; for without it neither the Gospels nor Epistles cbuld have been so clearly understood; and by the correspondence of incidental circumstances ijientioned in this history and in the Epistles, of such a nature as to show that neither the one nor the other could have been farmed, an irrefragable evidence of the truth of Christianity is aiSrdijd. Among the most im- portant works expository or illustrative of the Acts of the Apostles are Cradock^s Apostdieal History; Benson's First Planting of Christian- ity; Foley's Hdrce PautiTUB; Heinrich's Acta Apostotorum; Buddeti^ Ecdesia Aposfolica. — B. There have been several acts of the apostles, such as the acts of Abdias, of Peter, Of Paul, St. John the Evangelist, St. Andrew, St. Thomas, St. Philip, and St. M'atihias ; but they have been all proved to be spurious. ACTS OF PILATE, a relation sent by Pi- late to the Emperor Tiberius, concerning Jesus Christ, his death, resurrection, ascension, and the crimes of which he was convicted before him. It was a custom among the Romans, that the proconsuls and governors of provinces should draiw up acts or memoirs of What happened in the course of their government, and send them tp the 'emperor and senate. The genuine acts of Pilate were sent by him t» Tiberius, who re- ported them to the senate ; but they were rejected by that assembly, hecaUse not iinmediately ad- dressed to them ; as is testified by Tertullian, in his Apol. cap. 5, and 20, 31. The heretics forged aets in ini^tion of th,em ; hift both the genuine and thejjiurious are now lost. AJAMITES, a sect that sprang up in the seconcT century. Epiphanius tells us that they were calW Adaipites from t^r pretending to be re-eata,bHshp>d in the state m innocence, such as Adam was at the moment of his creation, whence they oUght to imitataJiimln going naked. They detested mai^riaee; maintaining fliat the conjugal union woula never have tmcen place upon earth, had sin been unknown, TMs ob- scure and ridiculous sect did not last long. It wa.^ however, revived vrith additional absuraitiea in the tvyelfth century. About the beginning of the fifteenth century, these errors spread in Ger- many and Bohemia: it foun^ also some partisans in Poland, Holland, and England. They.as- seinbled in the night; and, itl^ said,. one of the fundanientil maxims' of their society was con- tained in the following verse : Jura, peijura, sscretum prodere noil. Swear, forswear, and reveal not the secret. ' ADOPTION ADIAPHORISTS, a name givBti in the Six- teenth century to the moderate Xutherans who adhered to the sentiments of Melancthon; and afterwards to those who subscribed the Interim of Charles V. [See Interim.] The word is of Greek origin («f.«(fc|>iis,) and signifies indiffer- ence or luEewarpiness. ADMIRATION is that passion of the mind which is excited by the discovery of any ^eat excellence in an object. It has by some writers been used as synonymous with surprise and wonder; but it is evident they are not the same. Surprise refers to something unexpected j wonder, to something great or strange; but admiration in- dudes the idea of liigh esteem or respect. Thus, we say we admire a man's excellencies i bill we do not say that we are surprised at tliem. , We wonder at an extraordinary object or event, but we do not always admire it. ADMONITION denotes a hint or advice given to another, whereby we reprove hik for hb fault, or remind liim of his duty. Admonition vvas a part of the discipline much used in the an- cient church ! it was the first act or step towards the punishment or expulsion of delinquents. In case of private offences, it was performed accord- ing to evangelical rule, privatelyj, in case of pub- lic offence, openly before the church. If either of these sufficed for the recovery of the fidle'ri person, all further proceedings, in a way of cen- sure, ceased; if they did not, recourse was had to, excommunication. — Tit. iii. 10. 1 Tliess. v. 14. Eph. vi. 4. ADQI^'AI, Hebrew 'Jnsj, a. title of the Su- preme Being in the Scriptures, rendered in En- glish by the word Ijord. The original comes tromAdeUf a base, pUlslr, or supporter; andjt is not a little remarkable that the etymology of our vernacular Lord is precisely siinilar, it being a Kjntraction of the old Saxon laford, or hlaj^ord, &om laef, to support '6i sustain, the same root fe)m ^^fI^ch also r^mes the English word loaf. The Hfebrew Jehovah is likewise translated Lord in our Bibles, and this is known by its being printed in capital letters, whereas in the (rther case'the common small character is employ- ed. The Jews, from excessive reverence, iiever pronounce the name Jehovah when they meet jrith it, in reading the Hebrew Scriptures, but invariably substitute Adonai, vvhich has the same vowel pouits. But there is no law forbidding the enunciation of the name Jehovah; nor does it wpear to have been scrupled by the aticient Jews.^B. , ^^PONISTS, a party amoiig divines and Celtics, vvho maintain that the Hebrew points or- dinarily, annexed to the consonants of the word Jehovah are not the natural points belonging to that jyord, nor express the true prpnounciatioh of it j but are the vowel points belonging to the wonfe AdaiMi a.nil_Elohim, applied to Uie con- sonants of the ineffable name, Jehovah, to warn the readers, that instead of the vvord Jehovah, which the Jews were forbid to pronounce, and lihe true pronunciation of Which had beeii loiig unknoiyh to them, they are always to read Ado- nai. They are Opposed to Jehoii^ts, of wjioih the principal are Drusius, Capellus, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland. ADOPTION, an act whereby^ any person re- qeives aijothif ihto hiiS family, owns him for.hisi son, arid appoints iam his heir. 2. Spiritual 10 • ADOPTION adoptloH Js ah apt of Gfod's frie gtace, whereby we are receiv^ info the niiraber, and hdve a right to all the privileges bf the sons of God. 3. Glorious, is that in which the saints, being raised from the dead, are at thd last day sblemnly pwiied to be the children of God, arid enter into the ftiU tpssession of that iiiherit£ihce,pro*ided for them, om. viii._l&, 23. Adbptioii is a word taken from the ci*il law, and was much in use among the Romans in the Apostles' time; when it vvas a custom for' persons who had no children of their <}wn, arid were possessed of an estate, to prevent its being dividea or desc'etidirig to Strangers, to make choice oi' such as were agreeable to theiri, and beloved by theiri, whoin they took iiito thik poUtical relation of children; obliging them to take their name upon them, and to pay respect totheni as thouah they were their Mtural pa- rents, and engaging to deal with theni as though they liald Been so ; arid accordingly to give them a right to their estates, aS aft inheritance. This ne* relation, founded in a mutual consent^ ife a bond of aSSectiori; and the privilege arising from thence is, that he, who is in this serine a father, takes care Of and provides for thfe person whom he adopis,^ ^ though he vvere his sori by nature; and therfefbre civilians call it an act of legitima- tion, imitatiiig iiaf tire, or siipplyirig thfe place of it. It is easy, ffien, to conceive the propriety of the term as'iised by the apostle, in reference to this act, though it must be confessed there is some difiereriee between civil and spiritual adoption. Civil adoption Was allowed of and provided fbt the relief arid cOmfert Of tho^ who had no chil- dren; but in spiritual adopfebri this reason does not appear; The Atiriighty tvas under no obli- gation to do this; for he Imd innumerable spirits wliom he had creatfed, besfdes his owh SOri, vvho Kaid all the perieictions of the ilivine nature, who vvas the bbjebt of his delight, and who is styled the heir of all things, Ileb; i. 3. \yhen men adopt, it is on account of soirie; fexcellericy in the persons Vfho are a4bpted : thiiS Pharaoh's daugh- ter adopt^ iVtoses because he was exceeding fair. Acts vu. 36^ 31; airid JitOrdecai 'adopted! Esther because slie was his uncle'4 rf&ghter, arid ex- ceeding fair, fist: ii., 7; btif tisari has nothing iri him that merits thfs divine dcij'Ezek. xvi. 5, Iri civil adoption, though thgflamfe of a son be given, the nature of a son may not : this relation may not necessarily be attended, with ariiy pll^ftge of disposition or teififipei-. Brit in the spiritual adop- tion we are riiade partSkerS of the divine nature, and a temper or dispo'sititfn given us bec6riiirig the relationship wfe Iiekr, Jer. iii. 19. Miibh , has been said ^ tb the timeofadoptiori, soirie place it hefofe re^teeraffiori, because it is supposed we milst be in 3ie fatoily before vve can be partakers of the blfessh%s (if it But it is diffi- ciilt' toi conceive bf ori'e befbte tlie other ; for al- though adoption riia^ sefiiii to precede regenera- tion in order of iiature, yet not of time ; they may be distinguished,'biif tanriot b^ separated. " As mariy as received h^^ to theiri gkve he povfrer to become the sorts', of GoH, evSn (tf thejii that be- lieve oh his T^klik.'^ iimii.Vi.' There is nO adoption, sayS'thfi'^reat 'Charnock, vyithOut re- gpnera&ri. '''Adbptib^," ^yS the same arithor, '^ is not a' mtere ration: the privilege and the iniage of th'e'sony of God go together. A state of adoptio^i is_nevef Without a separation from defileineiit." ^iCbii.' vi. 17. 18. The new nante ADTTLtERY m adoptdoh is never given till the new creature be formed ' " As, many as are led by the- Spirit of God, they are the sons of God." Rom. viii. 14 Vet these are to be distinguished. Regeneration, as a physical a£t, eives us a likeness to God in our nature ; adoption, as a l^gal act, gives us a tight to an inheritance. Regeneration makes us farmally his sons, by conveying a principle, 1 Pet. i. 33; adoption makes us relatively jiis sons, by conveying a power, John i. 12. By the one we are instated in the divine afleotion; by the other we are partakers of the divine nature." See Ridgleijs and GUI's Body of Div: art. Adoption; Charnodfs Works, vol. ii. p. 32 — 72 j Flavel's Works, vol. ii. p, 601 5 Brown's System of Nat. and Rev. Religion, p. 442 j Witsii (Econ. Peed. p. 165. ADORATION, the act of rendering divine honours, including in it reverence, esteem, find love: this is called supreme, or absolute. The word is compounded of ad, "to," and os, oris, "mouth;" and literally signifies to apply the hand to the mouth, " to kis^ the hand ;" this be- ing, in the eastern countries, one of th? great marks of respect sind submission. See Job xxzi. 36, 27. The attitude of adoration, however, we find has not been confined to this mode ; standing, kneeling, uncovering the head, prostration, bow- ing, liftmg lip the eyes tp heaven, or sometimes fixing them upon the earth with the body bend- ing forward ; sitting with the under parts of the thighs resting on the heels, have all been used, as expressive ofveneration and esteem. Whatever be the form, however, it must be remembered, that axloration, as an act of worship, is due to God alone, Matt. iv. 10. Acts x. 25, 26. Rev. six. 10. There is, 2. what may be called adoration Auman, or paying homage or respect to persons of great rank ancTdignity. This has been performed by bowiiig, bending the knee, fedling on the face. The practice of adoration may be said to be still subsisting in England, in the ceremony of kiss- ing the king's or queen's hand, and iri serving them at tab^ both being performed kneeling on one knee. There is also, 3. adoration relative, which consists in worship paid to an object as be- longing to or representative of another. In this sense the Romanists profess to adore the ci;oss, not simply or immediately, but in respect of J^sus Christ, whom they suppose toie 011 it. This is generally, however, considereoW Protestants as coming little short of idolatry, ^ee Idolatet. ADULTERY, an unlawful cominerce be- tween one married person and another, or between a married and unmarried person.^-S. It is also used in Scripture for idolatry, or 4epaiting from the true God) Jer. ui. 9. — 3. Also for any species of impurity or crime against the virtue of^chastity, Matt. V. 28. — 4. It is also used in ecclesiastical writers for a person's invading^ or intruding into a bishopric during the former Inshop's lire.-^5. "fhe word is also used in ancient cvistoms for'the punishment or fine imposed for that offence, or the' privilege of prosecuting for it. Although adultery is prohibited by.the lawof God, yet some have endeavoured to explain away the moral tur- pitude of it ; but it is evident, obsejryes P^ey, ried, or both. Among the Egyptians, adultery in the man was ptmished by a thousand lashes with rods, and in the woman by the loss of her nose. The Greeks put out the eyes of the adul- terers. Among the KqmanSi it was punished by ' banishment, cutting off the, ears, noses, and by sewing the adulterers in sacks, and thiuwing them into the sea ; scourging, burning, &c. In gpain and Poland they were almost as severe, 'iue Saxons formerly burnt the adulteress, and over her ashes erected a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was hanged. King Edmund, in this kingdom,, ordered adultery to, be punished in 'the sa^'ne manner as homicide Canute ordered the man to be banished, and the women to have h's admirable Sermon on Bov.nfy to the Poor, which took him up three hours and enteejitb ceijtury. Thjs doctrine principally consisted of the follojving particulars, viz. thaf God desires the Ijappiness or' all m6n, and none are excluded f)y,a dly^ne ^cree; that none can pttain salvation without faith in Christ; that God refuse^ tp nphe'the ppsver of believing, thpu^ he dpes not grant to all his assistance that they nmy improve this power to saving pur- poses ; and that they may perish through their own feiilt. Those who embraced this ^mAtvae were called IThiyerss^sts , thqugh it is evident they_ rendered grape universal in words, but par- tial in reality. ' See Cameronit.es. ANABAPTISTS, those w:ho maintain that l^aptism ought always to be performeii'by immer- jsion. The ivord is compounded of ava, " anew," land ^Ka-Tio-Tit!, " a Baptist ;"i}ignifying. that those who have been baj)ti^d in their int^nfry. ought to be bap£l%ed anew. It is a word which Jias been ;indis'cripiinately .applied to Christians of very di^ ,fereut priiicipleffand pj actices. The English and Dvtch Baptists do npt consider the wprdas at.all lapplicable to their sect; because those persons i whom tliey baptize tlney consiiier as never naving been baptised be£)];e, although they have undra^ !goi\e what tliey teirm the ceremony of sprtnklrqg iiiri theii infancy, I The Anabaptists of Germany, besides their i^otions concerning baptism, depended much upon certain ideas which they entertjuned concerning a ^per^t church establishment, pure in,its members, and free froip the institutions of human policy. The most-priidept part of them considered it pos- ^sibje, by human industry and, vigilance, to purify ithe church;' and seeing the attenipts of Luther tp be successful, they hqped that the fieriod was anjived iii vvhich ^he church was to be restored to jthis pijiity. Others, not satisfied vrith Luther's plan pf reformatioUj undertook a more perfect plan, or, more properly, a visionary enterprise, to fpuiid a new church, entirely spiritual and divine., This spct was soon joined by great numbers, whose characters and capapities were very dif- jferent. Their progress was rapid : for, in a very ^hbrt spape of tlmej their di^ourses, visions, and predictions, excited great commotions in a great part' of Eurcqpe. The most pernicious faction of jail those which composed tjiis motjey multitude, was that which pretended that the founders of this new an4 perfect chuijcb weit under a divine im pulse, and were armed qigainst all opposition by jthe power of working miracles. It was this fac- ition, thitt, in the year 1521, b^san their fanatical v^ork linder the guidanoe of Munzer, Stubner, Storick, &c. These men taught, that, among iChristians, who haxl the precepts of the Gospel to direct, a!nd the Spirit of God to gni,de them, the office of iliagi^tracy vvas not only unnecessary, but an unlavffm encroa,chment on their spiritual li- berty; that the distinctions occasioned cy birth, rank, or wealth should be polished ; that all dhiistians, throwing thpii" posisessions into one Btock should live together in that state of equality vvhich becomes members of the same family; that, as neither the laws of nature, nor the pre- cepts of the New Testament, had prohiblteij polygamyi^they should use the same liberty as the patriarchs did in this respect. They employed, at fiist, the various arts of persuasion, ui order' to propagate thejr doctrines ANAGOUICAL and related a number of visions and revelations, with which the^ pretended to have been favoured from above: but, when they found that this would not avdl, and that the ministry of Luther and other reformers was detrimental to their cause, they then madly attempted to propagate their sentiments by force of arms. ' Munzer and his associates, in the year 1535, put themselves at the head of a numerous amiy, and declared war against all laws, governments, and magistrates of every kind, uncSr the chimerical pretext, that Chnst himself was now to take the reins of all government into his hands: but this seditious crowd was routed aiid dispersed by the elector of Saxony and other princes, and Munzer, their leader, put to death. Many of his followers, however, survived, and propagated their opinions through Germany, Switzerland, and Holland. In 1533, a party of them settled at Munster, under two leaders of the names of Matthias and Bockholdt. Having made themselves masters of the city, they deposed the magistrates, confiscated the estates of such as had escaped, and deposited the wealth in a public treasury for common use. They made prepara- tions for the defence of the city; invited the Anabaptists in the Low Countries to assemble at Munster, which they called Mount Sion, that from thence they might reduce all the nations of the earth under their dominion. Matthias was soon cut off by the bishop of Munster's army, and was succeeded by Bockholdt, who was proclaimed by a special designation of heaven, as the pretended king of Sion, and invested with legislative powers like those of Moses. The city of Munster, how- ever, was taken, after a long siege, and Bockholdt punished with death. It must be acknowledged that the true rise of the insurrections of this period ought not to be attributed to religious opinions. The first insur- gents groaned under severe oppressions, and took up arms in defence of their civil liberties ; and of these commotions the Anabaptists seem rather to have availed themselves, thaii to have been the ]>rime movers. That a great part were Anabap- tists seems indisputable; at the same time, it ap- pears from history, that a great part also were Roman Catholics, and a still greater part of those who had scarcely any religious principles at all. Indeed, when we read of the vast numbers that were concerned in.tli^se insurrections, of whom it is reported that 100,000 fell by the sword, it ap- pears reasonable to conclude that they were not all Anabaptists. It is but justice to observe also, that the Bap- tists in England and Holland are to be considered in a different light from those above mentioned: they profess an equal aversion to all principles of rebeluon on the one hand, and to enthusiasm on the other. See Robertson's Hist, of Charles V. ; Enc. Brit, vol i.p. 644; and articles Baptists and Menkonites. ANACHORETS, or Anchorites, a sort of monks in the primitive church, who retired from the society of mankind into some desert, with k view to avoid the temptationsof the world, and to be more at leisure for prayer, meditation^ &c Such were Paul, Anthpny, and Hilariofa, the Erst founders of monastic life in Egypt and Pa- lestine. ANAGOGICAL, signifies mysterious, trans- porting : and is used to express whatever elevates ANATHEMA the mind, not only to the knowledge of diviiM thkigSj but of divine things in the next life. The word is seldom used, but with regard to the dif- ferent senses of the Scripture. The anagogical sense is. when the sacred text is expltuned with legard to eternal life, the point which Christiana should have in view ; for example, the rest of the sabbath, in the anagogical sense, signifies the re- pose of everlasting happiness. ANALOGY OP FAITH, is the proportion that the doctrines of the'Gospel bear to each other, or the close connection Bet^veen the truths of re- vealed religion, Rom. xii. 6. This is considered as a grand rme for understanding the true sense of Scripture. It is evident that the Almighty doth not act without a design in the system of Chris- tianity, any more than he does in the works of natqre. Now this design musit be uniform; for as in the system of tiie universe every part is pro- portioned to the whole, and made subservient to It, so in the system of the Gospel all the various truths, doctrines, declarations, precepts, and pro- mises, must correspond with and tend to the end designed. For instance, supposing the glory of Goa in the salvation of man by free grace be the grand design; then," whatever doctrine, assertion, or hypothesis, agree not with this, is to he con- sidered as false. — Great care, however, must be taken, in making use of this method, that the in- quirer previously understand the whole scheme, and that he harbour not a predilection only for a part ; without attention to this, we shall be liable to error. If we come to the Scriptures with any preconceived opinions,, and are more desirous to put that sense upon the text which quadrates with our sentiments, rather than the truth, it be- comes then the analogy of our faith, rather than that of the whole system. This was the source of the error of the Jews, in our Saviour's time. Thiey searched the Scriptures; but, such were their favourite opinions, that they could not, or would not, discover that the sacred volume testi- fied of Christ. And the reason was evident ; for their great rule of interpretation was, what they might call the analogy of faith, i. e. the system of me Pharisean scribes, the doctrine thenin vogue, and in the profound veneration of which Uiey had been educated. Perhaps there is hardly any sect but what has more or less been guilty in this respect. It may, however, be of use to the serious and candid inquirer ; for, as some texts may seem to contradict each other, and difficulties present themselves^ by keeping the analogy of iaith in view, he will the more easily resolve those difficul- ties, and collect the true sense of the sacred orar cles. What "the aphorisms of Hippocrates are to a physician, the axioms in geometry to a ma- thematician, the adjudged cases in law to a coun- sellor, or the ihaxims of war to a general, such is the analogy of faith to a Christian." Of the analogy of religion to the constitution and course of n'ature, we must refer our readers to Bishop Buder's excellent treatise on that subject. ANATHEMA, imports wliatever is set apart, separated, or divided ; but is most usually meant to express the cutting off of a person from the communion of the faithful. It was practised in the primitive church against notorious offenders. Several councils also liave pronounced anathe- mas again^ such as they thought corrupted the purity of the faith. Anathema maranatha, men- tioned ty Paul, (1 Cor. xiv, 33,) imports tlutt he ANGELS who Io"ps not the JLord Jesus will be aficuraed at his coming. Anathema signifies a thing devoted to destruction, and Maranathn is a Synac word, signifying the Lord comes' It is probable in this passage thele is an allusipn to the form of the Jews, who, when unable to inflict so great a punishment as the crime deserved, devoted the culprit to the immetliate vindictive retribution of divine vengeance, both in this life and in a future state, ANDRONA, a term used for that part in churches which was destined for the men. An- ciently, it was the custom for the men and women to have separate apartments in places of worship, where they performed their devotions asunder^ which method is still religiously observed in the Greek church. ANGEL, a spiritual intelligent substance, the first in rank and dignity among created beings. The word angelTay^ixos) is Greek, and signifies a messenger. Tl>e Hebrew word IxSd signi- fies the sa«ne. Angels, therefore, in the proper signification Of the word, do not impart the na- ture of anybeing, but onlv the office to which they are appointed, especially by way of message or intercourse between God and ms creatures. Hence the word is used differently in various parts of the Scripture, and signifies, 1. Human messengers, or ager^ts for others. 3 Sam. ii. 5. " David sent messengers (Heb. angels) to Jabesh Gilead." Prov. xiii. 17. Mark i. 2; James ii. 25. — 2. Officers of the churches, whether pro- phets or ordinary ministers. Hag. i. 13. Rev. i. 30.— 3. Jesus Christ, Mai. iii. 1. Is. Ixiu. 9.— 4. Some add the dispensations of God's provi- dence,' cither beneficial or calamitous, Gen. xxiv. 7. Ps. xxxiv. 7. Actsxii.23. 1 Sam. xiv. 14 j but I must confess, that, ttiough I do not at all see the impropriety of considering the providences of God as his angels or messengers for good or for evil, yet the passages generally adduced under this head do not prove to me that the providences ■of Gfod are meant in distinction fro^ created an- geb. — 5. Created intelligences, both good and bad. Heb. i. 14. Jude vi. ; the sul^ject of the pre- sent article. — As to the time when the angels were created, much has been said by the learned. Some wonder that Moses, in his account of the creation, should pass over this in silence. Others suppose that he did this because of the proneness of the Gentile world, and even the Jiews, to idola- try; but a better reason has been assigned by others, viz. that this first history was purposely and principally vmtten for information concerning the visible world; the .invisible, of which we know but in part, being reserved for a better life. Some think that the idea of God's not creating ,.them before this world, was made, is very con- tracted. To suppose, say they, that no creature^ whatever, neither angels nor other worlds, had been created previous to the creation of our World, is to suppose ,that a Being of infinite power, iwisdom, an^d goodness,, had remained totally inactive from aff eternity, and had per- mitted the infinity of space to continue a perfect vacuum till'vrithin these 6000 years; that sudi an idea only tends to discredit revelation, instead of serving it. On the other hand it is alleged, that they must have been created within^ the six days; because it is said, that within this space Crod made heaven and earth, and all thihgs that are therein. It u, however, a needless specola- 17 C ANGELS , tion, and we dare not indulge a spirit of coniee- ture. It is our happiness to know tnat tney are all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister to them who are heirs of salvation. As to the natire of these beings, we are told that they are spirits; but whether pure spirits; divested of all matter, or united to some thin oo^es, or corpo- real vehicles, has be^n a controversy of long stand- ing ; the more general opinion is, that they are sub- stances entirely spiritual, though they can at any time assume bodies, and appear in human shape. Gen. xviii. ^xix. and xxxii. Matt, xxviii. Luke i. &c. The Scriptures lepresentthem asendued with extraordinary wisdom and power, 2 Sam. xiv. 30. Ps. ciii. 20 ; holy and regular in their inchnations j zealous in their employ, and completely happy in their minds, Job xxxviii. 7. Heb. i. 7. Matt, xviii. 10. Their number seepis to be great. Pa. bcviii. 17. Heb. xii. 32; and perhaps nave dis- tinct orders, Col. i. 16, 17. 1 Pet. iii. 32. 1 Thes, iv. 16. Dan. x. 13. Thejr are delighted with the grand scheme of redemption, and the conversion of sinners to God, Luke ii. 12. 1 Pet. i. 12. Luke IV. 10. They not only worship God, and exe- cute his commands at large,,but are attendant on the saints of Grod while here below, Ps. xd. 11, 13. Heb, i. 13. Luke xvi. 22. Some conjecture that evefygood man has his particular guardian angel. Matt, xviii. 10. Acts xii. 15 ; but this is easier to be supposed than to be proved ; nor is it a matter of consequence to know. "What need we dispute," says Henry, " whether every particular saint has a guardian angel, when we are sure he has a guard of angels about him?" They vrill gather the elect in the last day, attend the final j\idgment, Matt. xxv. 31. Rev. xiv. 18. Matt. xiu. 39 ; and live for ever in the world of glory, Luke xx. 36. Although the angels were originally Created perfect, yet they were mutable: some of them sinned, and kept not their first' estate; and so, of the most blessed and glorious, became thie mOst vile and miserable of all God's creatures. They were expelled the regions of light, and with hea- ven lost their heavenly disposition, and fell into a settled rancour against God, and malice against men. What their offence was is difficult to de- termine, the Scripture being silent about it. Some think envy, others unbelief; but most suppose it was pride. As to the time of their fall, we are certam it ceuld not be before the sixth day of the creation, because on that day it is said, " God saw every tlung that he had made, and behold it was very good ;" but that it was not long after, is very probable, as it mUst have preceded the fell of our first parents. The number of the fallen eingels seems to be great, and, like the holy angels, per- haps, have various orders among them. Matt. xii. 24. Eph. ii. 2. vi. 12. Qol. u: 15. Rev. xii. 7. Their constant emploj; is not only doing evil themselves, but endeavouring by all arts to seduce and pervert mankind, 1 Pet. v. 8. Job. i. 6. It is supposed they will be restrauied during the millennium, Rev. xx. 2; but afterwards again, for a short time, deceive the nations. Rev. xx. 8; and then be finally punished. Matt. xxv. 4L ' The authors who have written on this subject have been very numerous; we shall only refer to a few : Reynolds s Inquiryirito the State and CEeo- nomyof the Angelical World; CndntortWa In tellectual System ; Doddridge's Lect, p. 10. lect. 210 to 314; MiUon's Paradite Laet i Ii]}. New- b2 ANGER ton'i Works, vol. iu. p. 538. 568 ; Shepherd ofAn- gelsj Gilpin on Temptation; Casmanni Angelo- graphia; Gill and Ridgeley's Bodies of Divinity. ANGELITES; a sect in the reign of tlie Em- peror Anaatasius, about the year 494 ; so called from Angelium, a place in the city of Alexandria, where they held their first meetings. They were called likewise Severiies, from Severys, who was the head of their sect ; as also Tlieodosians, from one Theodosius, whom they made Pope at Alex- andria. They held that the persons of the Tri- nity are not the same ; that none of them exists of himself, and of his own nature ; ' but that there. is a common God or Deity existing in them allj and that each is God by a participation of thisIDedty. ANGER, a violsnt passion of the mind, arising upon the receipt, or supposed receipt, c/i any in- jury, with a present jjurpose of revenge. -All anger is by no means sinml ; it was designed by the Author of our nature for self-defence : nor is it altogether a selfish passion, since it is excited by injuries offered to others as well as ourselves, and sometimes prompts us to reclaim offenders from sin and danger, Eph. iv. 26^ but it becomes sinful when conceived upon trivial occasions or inadequate provocations j when it breaks forth into outrageous actions; vents itself in reviling language, or is concealed in our thouglits to the degree of hatred. To suppress this passion, the following reflections of Archdeacon T'aley may not be unsuitable; — '"We should consider the possibihty of mistaking the motives from which the conduct that ofTertds us proceeded ; how often our offences have been the effect of inadvertency, when they were construed into Indications of ma- lice; the inducement which prompted our adver- sary to act as he did,, and how powerfully the samp inducement has, at one time or other, operated upon ourselves j that he is suffering, perhaps, under a contrition, which he is ashamed, or wants opportunity, to confess; and how ungenerous it is to triumph, ty coldness or insult, over a spirit already humbled in secret; that the returns of kindness are sweet, and that there is neither honour, nor virtue, noi use, in resisting them; for some persons think themselves bound to cherish and keep alive their indignation, when they find it dying away of itself. We may remember that others nave their passions, their prejudices, their favourite aims, their fears, their cautions, their interests, their sudden impulses, their varieties of apprehension, as well as we : we may recollect what has sometimes passed in our own minds, when we have got on the wrong side of a quarrel, and imagine the same to be passing in our adver- sary's mind now : when we became sensible, of our misbehaviour, what palliations we perceived in it, and expected others to perceive; how we were affected by the kindness, and felt the supe- riority of a generous reception, and ready forgive- ness ;; how persecution revived our spirits with our enmity, and seemed to justify the conduct in ourselves, which we before blamed. Add to this the indecency of extravagant anger ; how it ren- ders us whilst it lasts the scorn and sport of all about us, of which it leaves us, when it ceases, sensible and ashamed ; the inconveniences, and irretrievable misconduct into.which our irascibi- lity has sometimes betrayed us ; the friendships it has lost us ; the distresses and embarrassments in which we have been involved by it ; and the le- pentance which, on one account or other, it ANNIHILATION always cost us. But the reflection calculated, above all others,, to allay that haughtiness of tem- per \yhich is ever finding out provocations, and which renders anger so impetuous, is, that which the Gospel proposes ; namely, that we ourselves are, or shortly shall be, supphcants for mercy and pardon at the judmment-seat of God. Imagine our secret sins all Sscloard and brought to light ; imajgine us thus humbled and exposed ; trembling under the hand of God ; casting ourselves on his compassion : crying out for mercy ; imagine such a creature to talk of satisfaction and revenge ; re- fusing to be entreated, disdaining to forgive, ex- treme to mark and to resent what is done amiss ; imagine, I say, this, and you can hardly feign to yourself an instance of moro impious and unnatu- ral arrogance." Paley^s Moral Phil. ch. 7. vol. i. ; Fawoett's excellent Treatise on Anger j Seed's Posth. Setm. ser. 11. ANGER of GOD. See yfRATU. ANGLO-CALVINISTS, a name given by some vraters to the members of the church of England, as agreeing with the other Calvinists in most points, excepting church government. ANNATES, an ecclesiastical term, signifying a year's income ofa spiritual living. These were, iu ancient times, given to the Pope throughout all ChristendDiji, upon the decease of any bishop, abbot, or parish clerk, and were paid by his suc- cessor. At the Reformation they were taken from the Pope and vested in the king; and finally queen Anne restored them to the church, by ap- propriating them to the augmentation of poor hvings.; — B. ANMHILATION, the act of reducing any created substance,, whether spirit or matter, into nothing. On tjiis, as well as every other subject, on which revelation is not express, endless diver- sities of opinion have prevailed in the world. Dr. Thomas Bennett, in his Archcsologia, under- takes to show that the first notions of the pro- .duction of a thing from, or the reduction of it to, nothing, arose from the Christian theology; the words creation and annihilation, in the sense now given to them, having been equally unknown to the Hebrews, the Greeks, anil the Latins. The ancient philosophers, he says, denying all annihi- lation as well as creation, resolved all changes in ths world into new modifications, without sujf posing the production of any thing new, or the destruction of the old. In respect to annihilation, Christianity adds nothing to the light, of reason and philosophy. That the power which created is able to destroy, cannot he doubted ; but whether, asamai;teroffact, omnipotence wiKeverreduce the smallest particle of matter to a state of nonentity, we are not informed ; and throughout the whole extent of nature we meet with np changes orope- ratipps calculated to solve tjie question. 'The ' et;eina} existence of huipan and angelic spirits at least ajjpears to he secured by the plain declara- tions of holy writ, though some have asserted the contrary. See DESTRnoTiONisTs. As to the idea that existence is a state of vio- lence ; that all things are coiitinually endeavour- ing, to return to their primitive hotmng; that no positive poweris required to effectit, but that the mere withdra^Kal of the Creator's upholding ener- gy is sufEeient, we conceive that these are sub- jects beyond the grasp of human intellect, and that speculations upon them are entirely profit- less.— B. ANTICHRIST ANNUNCIATIOTT, the tidings brought by the ang?l Cfatmel to the Virgin )V&ry of the in- carnation of Christ, It is also used to denote a festival kept by the church on the 35th of March, in cbramemoration of those tidings. ANOMOEANS, the name by which the pure Ariajis were called in the fourth century, in con- tra-distinction to the Semi-arians. The word is formed from the Greek .vo^moj, different. See Arians aJid Semi-arians. ANTEDILUVIANS, a general name for all mankind who lived before the flood, including the whole human race from the creation to the de- luge. For the history of the Antediluviajis, see Bobk of Genesis, Whiston'sJosejihus^Cockburn's Treatise on the Deluge, and article DELoaE. ANTHEM, a church song performed in ca- thedral service by choristers who sung alternately. It was used to denote both psalms and hymns, when performed in this manner; but, at present, anthem is used in a more confined ssnse, being applied to certain passages taken out of the Scriptures, and adapted to a particular solenjnity. Anthems were first ihtroduced in the reformed service of the English church, in the begiiming of the reign of Clueen Elizabeth. -^ ANTHROPOMORPHITES, a sect of an- cient heretics,, who, taking every thing spoken of God in the Scripture in, a literal sense, particu- larly that passage of Genesis in which it is said, "God made man afJer his own image," main- tairied that God had a human sliaf)e. ANTHROPOPATHY, a figure, expression, or discourse, whereby some passion is attributed to God which properly belongs only to man. Anthropopathy is frequently used promiscuously with anthropology; yet in strictness they ought to be distinguished, as the genus from the species. Anthropology may be understood of any thing human attributed to God, as eyes, hands, &c. but anthropopathy only of human affections and pias- sibns, eU joy, grief. We have frequent instances of the use of these figures in holy Scripture. ANTIBURGHE?.S, a numerous and re- spectable body of dissenters from the church of Scotland, who differ from the established church chiefly in matters of church govemmerit; and who differ, also, from the Burgher seceders, with whom they were originally united, chiefly, if not solely, respecting the lawfulness of taking the Burgess oath. For an accoimt of their origin and principres, see Seceders. ANTICHRIST, from «.t., against, arid Xjio-Tos, Christ. The exact import of the name is important to a right determination of the cha- racter. The Greek «i>ti signifies pro, vice, loco, i- e. in the place of, instead of, as well as contra, adver^its, i. e. against, in opposition, to. Thus, vtvri^uirtKty^ is pro^rex, ot vice-kmg; aVriflsos, like, a god, equal to a god; atniKtm, lUfe a lion. Al- though, therefore, Antichrist is usually defined an adversary of Jesus Christ, the word includes the twofold idea of rival and adversary, or one who becomes, an adversary by claiming to be a rival. In order, then, to appropriate this title where it properly belongs, we^must have recourse to the aids of history, and find if possible a power which coftibineg the above attributes in itself To be- stow it where it is not due is to bear falseywitness against our neighbour, and to become an accuser of the brethren. Th6 words of an apostle furnish us with a luminbiis clue towards a right applica- ANTICHRIST tion. 1 Jojin ii. IS — 23. "As ye have heard that Antichrist shall come, even now are there many Antichrists. Who is a liar but he that denieth that Jesus is the' Christ ? He is Anti- christ that denieth the Father and the Sam." We may saj then that wherpver, under the pro- fession of Christianity, the true doctrines and in stitiitions of the Gospel are contravened, there is the working of Antichrist; and we are not to look upon the name as the designation of an. in- dividual person, or some single tormidable advev- saty, who was to arise tad be a scourefe to the church in the latter day, as was ancient^' behev- edj but rather as the denomination of a power, a corrupt and baneful irifluence, existing in a wicked mystical body, directly apposed to th& spiritual body of Christ. , Such is Antichrist of thfe Scripturfes, which frequently employs a sin- gular title topoint out a collective body united in a kind of corporate capacity, or assimilated by a common character, and actuated by the same spi- rit. Thus the expression, the new man, is used to signify the whole mass of real believers. Satan is also a term of collective import ; and what jS still more tothepoiiit, man of sin, and son of per- dition, are both employed as appellations of a community of wicked men, setting themselves against God and his kingdom, whatever might be their pretences. Antichrist, therefore, is a word of great latitude of meaning, and not confined in the Scriptures exclusively to any particular socie- ty, church, or communibn, but as descriptive of all, in every place, tad tevery age, who under the form of Christianity renoniice its, spirit, corrupt its doctrines, pervert its institutions, and assume the prerogatives of its 'Head. Still itmaybesup- posed, and can doubtless be shown, that this epi- thet is emphatipally applied wherever this impious power is more espedially concentrated and drawn to a head, where it manifests itself in the most unblushing manner, and does, as it were, fix its throne and dominion. Accordingly, Protestant writers, with scarce a dissenting voice, agree in applyiiig it pre-eminently to the church of Rome, which, as we learn from history, answers to all the characters of Antichrist. Grotius, Ham- mond, Bo'ssuBli and others, supposed Rome pagan to be desigiied ; but Rome Christian seems more evident, for John " saw the beast rise up out of the sea," Rev. xiii. I. — Now, as heathen Rome had risen and been established long before his time, this could not refer to the Roman empire then subsisting, but to a form ol government af- terwards to anse. As, therefore, none did arise, after Rome was broken to pieces by the barbari- ans, but that of the papal power, it must be con- sidered as applying to that. The descriptions, also,' of the beast, as the great apostacy, the man of sin, the mystery of iniquity, and the son of perdition, wijl apply only to Christian Rome. See Daniel vii. 2 Thess. ii. and Rev. xiii. Be- sides, the tune allowed for the continuance of the bea.st will not apply to heathen Rome; for power was given to the beast for 1260 years, whereus heathen Roiiie did not last 400 years after this pj:bphecy was delivered. Authors have differed as to the time when Anti- christ arose. Some suppose that his reign did not Commence till he became a temporal prince, in the y«ar' 756, when Pepin wrested the ex- arfchate of Ravenna from the Lombarfs, and thade it over to the pojje and bis successors. ANTICHRIST Others think that it was in 727, when Rome and the Roman dukedom came from the Greeks to the Roman pontiff. JVIcde dates his rise in the vear 45G; but others, and I think with the jTeat- est reason, place it in the year 606. Now, it is fenerally agreed that the reisn of Antichrist is 360 years; consequently, if nis rise is not to be reckoned till he was [iossessed of secular autho- rity, then hia fall must be when this power is taken away. According to the first opinion, he must have possessed his temporal power till the year 2016; according to the second, ne must have possessed it till the year 1987. If his rise began, according to Mede, in 456, then he must have fallen in 1716. Now that these dates were wrong, circumstances have proved; the first and second being too late, and the third too early. As these hypotheses,, therefore, must fall to the ground, it remains for us to consider why the last-mentioned' is the more probable. It was about the year 606 that pope Boniface III., by flattering Phocas, the emperor of Constantinople, one of the worst of tyrants, procured for himself the title of UniversEU Bishop^ The Inshops of Rome and Constantinople had long been strug- gling for this honour; at last, it was decided in favour of the hishop of R;ome ; and from this time he was raised above all others, and his supremacy established by imperial authority: it was now, also, that the most profound ignorance, debauch- ery, and superstition reigned. From this time the popes exerted all their power in promoting the idolatrous worship of images, saints, reliques, and angelsj The church was tridy deplorable; aU the clergy were giveji up to the most flagrant and abominably acts of licentiousness. Places of worship resembled the temples of heathens more than the churches of Christians; in fine, nothing could exceed the avarice, pride, and vanity of aU the bbhops, presbyters, deacons, *and even the cloistered monks ! AU this fully answered the description St. Paul g&Ve of Antichrist, 2 Thess. a. It is necessary also to observe, that this epoch agrees best vrith the time when, according to prophecy, he was to be revealed. The rise of Antichrist was to be preceded by the dissolution ' of the Roman empire, the establishment of a dif- ferent form of government in Italy, and the divi- »on of the empire into ten kingdoms ; all these events taking place, make it very probable that the year 606 was the time of his rise. Nor have the events of the last century made it less proba- ble. Tlie power of the pope was never so much shaken as within a few years : " his dominion is, in a great measure, taken from him ;" and every thing seems to be going on gradually to terminate his authority ; so that, by the time this 1260 years shall be concluded, we may suppose that Anti- christ shall be finally destroyed. As to the cruelties of Antichrist, the persecu- tions that have been carried on, and th^ miseries to which mankiiid have been subject, by the power of the beast, the reader may consult the articles iNauisiTiON and Persecution. In this we have to rejoice, that, however various the opinions of the learned may be as to the time when Antichrist rose, it is evident to all that he IS fast declining, and will certainly fell, Rev. xviii; 1, 5. "What means the Abnighty may further •Be, the exact time when, and the maimer how, all shall be accomplished, we must leave to Him who ordereth all things after the counsel of his •20 ANTINOMIANS own will. See Bp. yewton on the Prophecies Simpsons's Key to ditto,- Moseley's Ser. on Pal, of Babylon; Ward' 3 TTiree Discourses on Pro- phecy, and books under that article. ANTICHRISTIANISM, a state or quality in ijersdns or principles, which denominates them antichristian or opposite to the kingdonvof Christ. M. Jurieu takes the idea of the visible unity o_f the church to have been the source of Anii- christianism. Had not manKind been infatuated with this, they would never have stood in such awe of the anathemas of Rome. It was on this the popes erected their monarchical power. ANTIDORON, a name given by the Greeks to the consecrated bread ; out of wmch ths mid- dle part, marked with the cross, wherein the con- secration besides, beipg taken away by the priest, the remsunder is distributed after mass to the poor. ANTINOMIANS, those who maintaiin that the law is of no use or obligation under the Gos- pel dispensation, or who hold doctrines that clearly supersede the necessity of good works. The An- tinomians took their origin from. John Agricola, about the year 1538, who taught that the law is no way necessary under the Gospel ; that good works do not promote our saltation, nor ill ones hinder it ; that repentance is not to be preached from the decalogue, but only from the Gospel. This sect sprung up in England during the pro- tectorate of Cromwell, and extended their system of libertinism much farther than Agricola did. Some of them, it is said, maintained, that if they should commit any kind of sin, it would do them no hurt, lior in tlie least afiect their eternal state ; and that it is one of the distinguishing characters of the elect, that they cannot do any thing dis; plying to God. It is necessary; however, to observe here, and candour obliges us to confess, that there have been others, who have been styled Antinomians, who cannot, strictly speaking, be ranked vrith these men ; nevertheless, the un- guarded expressions they have advanced, the bold positions they have laid dowr.. and the dou- ble construction which might so easily be put upon many of their sentences, have led some to charge them with Antinomian principles. For instance '; when they have asserted justification to be eternal, without distinguishing between the secret determination of God in eternity and the execution of it in time ; when they have spoken lightly, of good works, or asserted that believers have nothing to do with the law of God, without fully explaining wh^t thtey mean ; when they as- sert that God IS not angry with his people for their sins, nor in any sense punishes them for them, without distinguishing between fatherly correction . and vindictive punishment ; these things, whatever be the private sentiments of those who advance them, have a tendency to in- jure the minds of many. It has been alleged, that the principal thing they have had in view, was to counteract those legal doctrines which have so much abounded among the self-righteous ; but gr:mting this to be true, there is no occasion to run from one extreme to another. Had many of those writers proceeded with more caution, been less dogmatiral, more explicit in the expla- nation of their sentiments^ and possessed more candour towards those who differed from them, they would have been more serviceable to the cause of truth and religion. Some of the chief of those who have been charged as favouring tlie ANTITYPE »bove sentiments are, Crisp, Richardson, Salt- marsh, ffusscy, Eatom, Town, ro]i«\u;rTu, to unveil, discover, reveal; the name of the last of the sacred books of the New Testament, and so called from its contain- ing important revelations concerning the future destinies of the church. See Revelation-. — B. APOCRYPHA, books not admitted into the canon of Scripture, being either spurious, or at least not acknowledged as divine. The word is Greek, and is derived from »»«, frmh, and APOSTACY •puffToj, to hide or conceal, Th^ seem most of them to have been composed by Jews. None of the writers of the New Testament mention hem ; neither Philo nor Josephus speak of them. The Christian church was for some ages a stran- ger to them. Origen, Athanaaus, ifilary, Cyril of Jerusalem, ana all the orthodox writers who have given catalogues of the canonical books of Scripture, unanimously concur in rejecting these out of the canon. The Protestants acknowledge such books of Scripture only to be canonical as were esteemed to be so in the first ages of the church ; such as are pited by the earliest writers among the Christians, as of divine authority, and after the most diligent inquiry, were received and judged to be so by the council of Laodicea. They were vvritten after the dsiys of MalacU, in whom, according to the universal testimbny of the Jews, the spirit of prophecy ceased, Mai. iv. 4 — 6. Not one of the wnters in direct terms advances a claim to inspiration. They contain fables, lies, and contramctions. 1 Maccabees, vi. 4, 16. 2 Maccabees, i. 13, 16. ix, 38. The apocryphal Books are in general believed to 'be canonical by the church of Rome; and, even by the sixth ar- ticle of the church of England, they are ordered to be read for example of life and instruction of manners, though it doth not apply them to esta- blish any doctnne. Other reformed churches do not so much as make even this use of them. See Prideaux's Connection, vol. i. p. 36 — 42; Lee's Ois. on Esdras-; Dick on Inspiration, -p. 344; Alexander on the Canary ; Home's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 239. APOLLINARIANS were ancieiit: heretics, who denied the proper humanity of Christ, khd maintained that the body he assumed was en- dowed with a sensitive and not a rational soul ; bat that the divine nature supplied the place of the intellectual principle in man. This sect de- rived its name from Apollinaris, bishop of Lao- dicea. Their doctrine was first condemned by a council at Alexandria in 362, and afterwards in a more formal manner by a council at Rome in 375, and by another council in 378, which de- posed Apollinaris from his bishopric. This, with other laws enacted against them, reduced them to a very small number ; so that at last they dwin- dled away. APOLOGY, a Grpek term, literally import- ing an excuse or defence of some person, cause, or action. £ioth in ancient and moc|ern times ihsi word has been applied to work§. written for the professed design of defending or vindicating Clinstianity from the attacks of its «nerriies, and also, to those written in defence of certain reli- giofls sects by their advocates. Thus, among the ancients, we meet with the Apology, of Justin Martyr, lhe,Apolugctic of Tertjillian, (Stc. And among the mojerns, with, Watson's Apology, Barclay's Apology, and others. — B. APOSTACY, a forsaking or renouncing our religion, either by an open declaration in words, or a virtual dedaration of it by our actions;' The prunitive Christian church distinguished several kinds" of apostaicy : the first, of those who went entirely from Christianity to Judaism; the se- \con(I, of those who comphed so far with the Jews, as to communicate with "them in many of their unlawful practices, without; mailing a forma', pro- fession of their religion ; thirdly, of those 'who mingled Judaism and Christis^nity together; and APOSTOLIC fourthly, of those who voluntarily relapsed into paganism. Apostacy may be farther considered as 1. Original, m which we have all participated, Rom. iii. 23 ;— 2. National, when a kingdom re- linquishes the protesion of Christianity; — 3. Personal, when an individual backslides ftom God, Hcb. X. 38 ; — i. Final, when men are given up to judicial hardness of heart, as Judas. See Backsliding. APOSTLE, properly signifies a messenger or person sent by another upon some business. It IS particularly applied to them whoni our Saviour deputed to preach. — 2. Apostle, in the Greek liturgy, is used for a book containing the epistles of St. Paul, printed in the order wherein they are to be read in churches through the course of the year.— 3. The appellation was also given, to the ordinary travelUngministers of thecliurch, Rom. xvi. 7. Phil. ii. 25., though in our translation the last is rendered messenger. — 4. It is likewise given to those persons who first planted the Christian faith in anyplace. Thus Dionysiusof Corinth is called the Apostle of France, Xaviei the Apostle of the Indies, &c. APOSTLES' CREED. See Creed. APOSTOLATE, in a general sense, is used for mission ; but it rnore properly denotes the dignity or office of an apostle of Christ. It js also used in ancient writers for the office of a bishop. But as the title apostoUcus has been appropriated to the pope, so that of apostolate became at length restrained to the sole dignity of the popedom. APOSTOLid, apostolical; something that relates to the apostles, or descends from them. Thus we say, the apostolical age, apostolical doc- trine,' apostolical character, constitution^ tradi- tions, &c. APOSTOLIC, in the prifoitive church, was an appellation given to all such churches as were founded by the apostles ; and even to, the bishoi» of those churches, as bfeing the reputed successors of the apostles. These were confined to tour, viz. Rome, Alexandria, Antioch,^nd Jerusalent In after-times, the other churches assumed the same quality, on accoimt, principally, of the ccj^- fprmity of their doctiine with that of thf churches which were apostolical by foundation, and be- cause all bishops held themselves successors of the apostle^, or acted in their dioceses with the authority of apostles. The first time the term tvpestoMcal is attributed to bishops, as such, is in a Ictterof Clovis to the council of Orleans, held in 511, though thatluiig does not there expressly denominate them apos- tolical, but, {apostolica sede dignissimi) highly worthy of the apostolical see. In 581, Guntram calls the bishops, met at the council of Macoiij appsiolical pontiil's, apostolici poniijices. In progress of time, the bishop of Rcme grow ing in power .above the rest, and the three pa- triarchfitcs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusa- lem falling into the liands of the Saracens, the title apostolical was restrained to the pojje and his church alone ^ though some ol the popes, and Sti. Gregory the Great, not contented to hold the title by Jhis tenure, began at length to insist that (li belonged to them by another and peculiar right, as being the successors of St. Peter. ' The coun- cil of-Rheims, in'-1049, declared that the pope was the sole apostolical priurat? uf the univer-^a! chu^h. And hence a great number of apostoli- cals'i apostolical see, apostolical nuncio, apostoU- APPROPRIATION cal notary, apostolical brief, apostolical cheunber, apostolical vicar, &c. • ^ APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS, a collection of regulations attributed to the apostles, and supposed to have been collected by St. Cle- ment^ whose name they likewise bear. It b the general opinion, however, that they are spurious, and that St. Clement had no hand in them. They appeared first in the fourth century, but have been much changed and corrupted since. There are so many things in themdiflerent from and even contrary to the genius and design'of the New Testament writers, that no wise man would believe, vrithout the most convincing and irresistible proof, that both could come from the same hand. Grabe^s Answer to' Whiston ; Tu- rin's Str. vol. ii. p. 185 j Lardner's Cred. vol. iii. p. 11. ch. -kit.; Doddridge's Lect.\ec. 119. APOSTOLIC FATIJERS, an appellation usually given to the writers of the first century, who employed their pens in the cause of Chris- tianity. Of these vmters, Cotelerius, and after him Le Clerc, have published a collection in two volumes, accompanied both with their own anno- tations, and the remarks, of other learned men. See also the genuine epistles of the apostolic fathers by Abp. Wake. , APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION.. See Snc- CESSION. APOTACTIT^, an ancient sect, who af- fected to follow the example of the apostles, and renounced all their effects and possessions. It docs not appear that they held any errors atfest; but afterwards they taught that the renouncing of all riches was not only a matter of counsel and advice, but of precept 'and necessity. APPLICATION is used for the act whereby our Saviour transfers or makes over to us what he had earned or purchased by his holy life and death. Accordingly it is by this apphcation of the merits ot Christ that we are to be justified and entitled to grata and glory. Application is also used for that part of a ser- mon in which the preacher brings home or ap- plies the truth of religion to the consciences of his hearers. See Sermon. APPROBATION, a state or disposition of the mind, wherein we put a value upon, or be- come pleased with, some person or th;ng. Mo- ralists are divided on the principle of approbation, or the motive which determines us to approve or disapprove. The Epicureans will have it to be only self-interest : according to them, that which determines any agent to approve his own action, is its apparent tendency to his private happiness; and even the approbation of another's action flows from no other cause but an opinion of its tendency to the happiness of the approver, either immediately or remotely. Others resolve appro- bation into a moral sense, or a principle pf^ be- nevolence, by which we are determined to ap- prove every land afl'ection either in ourselves or others, and all publicly useful , actions which we imagine to flow from such affections, without any view therein to our own private happiness. But may we not add, that a true Christian's approbation arises from his perception of th^ will of God?. See Obligation. APPROPRIATION, the annexing a bene- fice to the proper and perpetual use-of some reli- gious house. It is a term also often used in the religious world as referring to that act of the 23 ARIANS nund by which we apply the blessings of the Gos- pel to ourselves. This appropriation is feal when we are enabled to believe in, feel, and obey the truth; but merely nominal and delusive when there are no fruits of righteousness and true hoU- ness. Sec Assurance. ACIU ARIANS, those who consecrated water in the eucharist instead of wine. Another branch of them approved of wine in the sacrament, when received at the evening: they lilie^ise mixed water with the vdne. ARABICI, erjoneous Christians, in the third cCntury, who thought that the soul and body died together, and rose again. It is said that On- sen convinced them of their error, and that they men aWured it. ARCHANGEL, according to some divines,, means an angel occupying the eighth rank in the celestial hierarchy ; but others, not vrithout rra- son, reckon it a title only applicable to our Sa- viour. Compare Jude ix. with Dan. xii. 1. 1 Thes. iv. 16. ARCHBISHOP, the chief or metropoKtar. bishop, who has several sulfragatis under Mm. Archbishops were not known in the East till about the year 320 ; and though there were some soon after this who had the title, yet that was only a personal honour, by which the bishops of considerable cities were distinguished. It was not till of late that archbishops became metropo- Utans, and had suflragans under them. The ec- clesiastical government of England is divided into two prpvinces,' viz. Canterbury and York. The first archbishop of Canterbury was Austin, ap- pointed by king Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, iibout the year 538. His grace of Canterbury is the first peer of England, and the next if) the royal familv^ having precedence of all dukes, and all great officers 'of the crown. It is his privilege, by custom, to crown the kings and queens of this ^ngdom. The archbishop of York has precedence of all dukes not of the royal blood, and of all officers of state, except the lord high chancellor. The first archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed by pope Gregoi-y about the war 622., •ARCHDEACON, a priest invested with au- thority or jurisdiction over the clergy and laity, next to the bishop, either through, the whole dio-. cese, or Cnly a part of it. There are si^ty in England, who visit every two years in three, when they inquire into the reparations and moveables bebnging to churches j reform abuses ; suspend ; excommunicate ; in some places prove wins ; and induct all clerks into beneBces within their respectivejurisdictions. ARCHONTTICS, a sect about the year 160 or 203. Among many ether extravagant notions, they held that the world was created by archan- gels J they also denied the resuirection of tlie body. ARCH-PRESBYTER, or Ael-h-Psiest, a priest establish^ in some dioceses with a supe- riority over the rest. He was anciently chosen ^ out of the college of presbyters, at the pleasure of the bishop. iTie arch-presbyters were much/)f the same nature with our deans in cathedral churches. ARIANS, followers of Arius, a presbyter of the church of Alexandriai about 315,, who inain- tained that the Son of God was totally and essen- tially distinct from the Father ; that he was the first and noblest of those beings whom God had ARIAN created — the instrument, by whose subordinate operation he formed tlie iiniverse ; and, therefore, inferior to the Father Irath in nature and dignity ! also, that the Holy Ghost was not God, but created by the power of the Son. The Arians, owned that the Son was the Word ; but denied that Word to have been eternal. They held that Christ had nothing of man in him but the flesh, to which the \oj-«j, or word, was joined, which was tne sanje as the soul in us. The Arjans were first condemned and anathematized by a council at Alexandria, in 330, under Alexander, bishop of that city^ who accused Arius of impiety, and caused him to be expelled from the conmiu- nion of the church ; and afterwards by 380 fathers in the general council of Nice, assenftled by Con- stantine, in 325. His doctrine, however, was not extinguished; on the contrary, it became the reigmng religion, especially in tl)e east. Arius was recalled from bjinishment by Constantlne in two or three years after the council oi Nice, and the laws that had befen enacted against him were repealed. Notwithstanding this, Athanasius, then bishop of Alexandria, refiised to admit him I and his followers to communion. This so en- raged them, that, by their interest at court, they jprocured that prelate to be deposed and ba^iished ; but the church of Alexandria still refusing to ad- mit Arius into their communion, the emperor sent for him to Constantinople ; where upon de- livering in a fresh confession of his faith m terms^ less offensive, the emperor commanded him to be received into their communion; but that very evening, it is said, Arius died as his friends were conducting him in triumph to the great church of Constantinople. Anus, pressed, by a natural want, stepped aside, but expired on the spot, his bowels gushingout. The Arian party, Ijowever, found a protector in Constantius, who succeeded his father in the East. They under- went various revolutions and persecutions u6der succeeding emperors ; till, at length, Theodosius the Great gxerted every effort to suppress them. Their doctrine was carried, in the mth century, into Africa, under the Vandals ; and into Asia under the Goths. — Italy, Gaul, and Spain, were also deeply infected vyith it; and towarii the commencement of the sixth century, it was tri- umphant in many parts of Asia, Africa, and Eu- rope: but it sunk almost at once, when the Van- dajs were driven out of Africa, and the Goths out of Italy by the arms of Justiiiian. However, it revived again in Italy, under the protection of the Lombards, in the seventh century, and was not extinguished till about the end of the eighth. Arianism was again revived in the West by Ser- vetUB, in 1531, for which he suffered death. After this the doctrine got tooting in Geneva, and in Poland ; but at length degenerated in a great measure into Socinianism. Erasmus, it is thought, aimed at reviving it, in his commentaries on the^ New Testament ; and the learned Grotius seems to lean that way. Mr. Whiston was one of the first divines who revived this controversy in the eighteenth century. He was followed by Dr. Clarke, who was chiefly opposed b^ Dr. Water- land. Those who hold the doctrine which is usually called Low J&ianism, say that Christ pre-existed ; but not as flie eternal Logos of the Father, or as the being by whom Ue made the worlds, and had intercourse with the patri- archs^ or ak Iiaving any cert^n rank or employ- '24 ARK OF THE COVENANT ment whatever in the divine dispensations. In modern times, the term Arian is mdiscriminately applied to those who consider Jesus siraijly sub- ordinate to the Father. Some of them believe Christ to have been the creator of the world j but they all maintain that he existed previously to his incarnation, though in his pre-existent state they assign him different degrees of jlignity. Hence the terrns High and Low Arian. See Pke^existence. Some of the more recent vin- dicators of Arianism have beenH. Taylor, in his Apology of Ben Mordecfd to his friends for embracing Christianity ; Pr, , Hwrwood, , in hiS Five Dissertations ; Dr. Price, . in his Sermons on the' Christian Doctrine. See also the, 4th vol. of the Theological Repository, p. 153 — 163, and Cornish's Tract on the Pre-existence of Christ. On the opposite side, Bogue and Bennett's Hist of Dissenters, vol. iii. Abbadie, , Waterland, Cfuyse, Hey, Robinson, Eveleigh, Hawker on the Divinity of Christ ; — Calamy, Taylor, GUI, .tones, Pike, and Simpson on the Trinity, ARISTOTELIANS. The followers of Aris- totle. They believed in the eternity of the world, and represented the Deity as somewhat similar to a principle of power giving motiori to a machine j and as happy in the contemplation of himself, but regardless of human affairs. They were uncer* tain as to the immortality of the soul.— ^ As this was rather a philosophical than reUgious sect, we shall not enlarge on it. ARK, or'NoAH's Ark, a floating vessel built by Noah for the preservation of his family, and the several species of animals, during the deluge. The form of the ark was an oblopg, with a flat bottom, and a sloped roof, raised to a cubit in the middle ; it had neither sails nor rudder ; nor was it sharp at the ends for cutting tjie water. This form was admirably calculated to make it lie steady onthe water, without rolling, which might have endangered the lives of the anitnals wimin. The length of this ark was 300 cubits, which, according to Dr. Arbuthnot's calculation, amount to a little niore than 547 feet ; its breadth, 50 cu- bits, or 91-2 feet ; its height, 30 cubits, or 54-72 feet: and its soUd contents 3,730-782 solid feet, sufficient fbr a carriage for 81,062 tons. It con- sisted of three stories, each of which, abating the thickness of the floors, might be about 18 feet high, and no doubt was partitioned into a great many rooms or apartments. This vessel was doubtless so contrived, as to admit the .;y hardly need be mentioned here. Every one knows what an advocate he was for the tenets of Arminius, and the success he met with. See Methodists. Some of the principal writers on the side of the Arminians have been Arminius, Episcopius, Vorstius, Grotius, Curceltsus, lAmborch, Le Clerc, Wetstein, Goodwin, WMtby, Taylor, Fletcher, &c. Sopie of the principal writers on the other side have been Polhill iu Ms Book on the Decrees ; John Edwards in his Veritas Redux ; Cole in his Sovereignty of God ; Edwards on the Will, and Original Sin; Dr. Owen in his Display of Arminianisvi, and on Particular Redemp' tion; GUI in his Cause of God and TYutt^; and Toplady in almost all his works. ARNOLDISTS, the followers of Arnold, of Brescia, in the twelfth century, who was a great declaimer against the wealth and vices ot the clergy. He b also charged with preaching against baptism, and the eucharist. He ^as burnt' at Rome in 1155, and his ashes cast into the Tiber. ARRHABONARII, a sect who held that the eucharist is neither the real flesh or blood of Christ, nor yet the aga of them, but only the pledge or earnest thereof. ARTEMONTES, a denomination in the se- cond century ; so called from Artemon, who taught that at the birth of the man Christ, a cer- tain divine energy, or portion of the divine nature, united itself to Mm. ARTICLE OF FAITH is, by some, defined a point ot Christian doctrine, which we are obliged to believe as having been revealed by Go£ himself and allowed andestabUshed as such by tJie church. See Confessions. ARTICLES dF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. See Ceohoh of Enoland. ARTICLES, LAMBETH The Lambeth articles were so called, bfcause drawn up.at Iiam- ASCENSION OP CHRIST beth palace, under the eye and v^dth the assistance of archbishop WMtgift,' bishop Bancroft, bfehop Vaughan, and other eminent dignitaries of the Church, .i'hat the reader may judge how Calvi- nistic the dergy were under the reign'of queen EUzaheth, we shall here insert them. " 1- God hath from eternity predestinated certain persons to Ufe, and hath reprobated certain persons unto death. 2. The moving or efiicient cause of pre- destination unto life is not the foresight of faith, or of perseverance, or of good works, or of any tMng that is in the persons predestinated ; but the aJone will of God's good pleasure. 3. The pre- destinati are a pre-detentiined and certain number, which can neither be lessened nor increased. 4. Such as are not predestinated to salvation shall inevitably be condemned on account of their sins. 5. The true, lively, and jus'ifying faith,: and the Spirit of God justifying, is not extinguished, doth not utterly fail, dbth not .vanish away in the elect, either finally or totally. 6. A true behever, that is, one who is endued with justifying faith, is certified by the full assurance of faith that his sins are forgiven, and that he shall be everlastingly saved by Christ. 7. Saving grace is not allowed, is not imparted, is not granted to all men, by wMch they may be saved if they will. 8. No man is able to come to Christ, uiuess it be given Mm ; and unless the Father drew him j and all men are not drawn by the Father, that they may come to Ms Son. 9. It b not in the will or power of «very man to be saved." What ggve occasion to the framing these articles was tMs: — Soine persons had distinguished themselves at the uni- versity of Cambridge, by opposing predestination. Alarmed at ths opinions that ,werc vented, the aboVe-mcntioned archbishop, with others, com- posed these articles, to prevent the belief of a contrary doctrine. These, when completed, were sent down to Cambridge, to wMch the scholars were strictly enjoined to conform. ARTOTYRITES, a Christian sect in the primitive church, who celebrated the eucharist with bread and cheese. The word is derived from spTos, frcead, and rupos, cheese.' The Ar- totyriteS admitted women to the priesthood and episcopacy ; and Epiphamus tells us that it was a common tMng to see seven girls at once enter into their church robed in white, and hold- ing a torch in their hand j where they wept and bewailed the wretchedness of human nature, and the mberies of this Irfp. ASCENSION OF CHRIST, Msvbibleele- vat'.on to heaven. Thfe ascension of Jesus Christ was not only presignififed by many Scripture types, but also by many remarkable Scripture prophecies, Ps. xlvii. 5. ex. 1. Dan. vii. 13, 14. Mic. ii. 13. Ps. Ixviii. 18. The evidences of his ascension were numerous. The disciples saw him ascend, Acts i. 9, 10. Two angels testified that he did ascend, Acts i. 11. Stephen, Paul, and John saw him in Ms ascended state. Acts vii. 55, 56. ix. Rev. i. The mar- vellous descent of the Holy Ghost demonstrated it, John xvi. 7. 14. Acts ii. 33. The terrible over- throw and dbpersion of. the Jewish nation is a standing proof of it, John viii. 21. Matt xxvi. 64. The time of his oscenMan. It was forty days after Mjs resurrection. He continued so many davs on earth, that he might give many re- peated proofs of Ms resurrection, A -,tsi. 3 J that he might instruct his followers m every thing ASSDRANCE which pertained to the abolishment of the Jewish ceremonies, Acts i. 3; and that he might open to them the Scriptures concerning himself, and re- new their commission to preach the gospel, Acts h5, 6. Markxvi. 15. The inanner of his ascension. It was jrom Mount Ohvet to heaven, Acts i. 13 ■„ not in ap- pearance only, but in -reality and truth j 'visibly and locally; a real motion ef 1^ human nature; sudden, ^wiil, glorious, and id a triumphant man- ner. He was parted from his disciples while he was solemnly messing them; and multitudes of angela attended hinl with shouts^ of praise, Ps. Ixviii. 17. xlvii, 5, 6. • The 'effects or CTids of Christ's ascmsian, were, 1. To fullil the prophecies and types concerning It. 2. To take upon him more openljr the exer- cise of his kingly office; 3. To receive gifts &r men both ordiiwy and extraordinary, Ps. IxviiL 18. 4. To open the way into heaven for his people, Heb. x. 19, W. 5. To assure the saints of tneir ascension also, John xiv. 1, 3. ASCETIC, one who retires from the world for the purpose of devotion ajid mortification. When the monks came in fashion, this title was bestowed upon them, especially such as lived in solitude. It was also the title of several books of spiritual exercises, as the Ascetics, or devout ex- ercises of St. Basil, &c. ' ASCODROGITES, a denomination which arose about the year 181. They brought into their churches bags or skins filled with new wme, to represent the ^ew bottles filled vrith new wine, mentioned by Christ. They danced round these bags or skins, and, it is said, intoxicate them- selves with the wine. ASCOODRUTES, a sect, in the second cen- tury, who rejected the use of all symbols and sa- craments, on this principle, that incorporeal things cannot be communicated by things corporeal, nor divine mysteries by any thing visible. ASSEMBLIES OF THE CLERGY are called convocations, synods, cotocils. The an- nual meeting of the church of Scotland is called a general assembly. In this assembly his majesty is represented, by his commissioner, who dissolves one mectjng and calls another in the name of the king, while the moderator does the same in the name of Jesus Christ. See Convocation, Pbes- BTTEBIANS, WeSTMINSTEH ASSEMBLY, , ASSENT, that, act of the mind, whereby it takes or acknowledges any proposition to be true or false. There are three degrees of assent; ^-conjeetv/re, opinion, and belief. Conjecture is but a slight and weak inclination to asseiit to the thine proposed by reason of the weighty objections that lie against it. Ojnhion is a more steady and fixed assent, when a man is almost certain, though yet some fear of the contrary remains with him. Belief b a more full and assured assent to the truth. See Belief. ASSURANCE is the firm persuaaon we have of the certainty of any thing, or a certain expectation of something future. Assurance of the Vhderstimding is a well- grounded knowledge of divine things founded on God's word. Col. ii. 3. — Assurance of Faith, does not relate to our persona] interest in Christ, but consists in a firm belief of the revelation that God has given us of Christ in his word, vrith an entire dependence on him. Heb." x. 32. — As- su-ance of Hope is a firm expectation that God 27 ASSURANCE will grant us the complete enjoyment of what hf haspromised, Heb. vl 11. The doctrine of assurance, i. e. the belief that we have an interest in the divine favour, has af- forded matter for dispute among divines. Some have asserted that it is not to be obtained in the g resent state, allowing that persons may be in a opeful Way to salvation, but that they have no real or absolute assurance of it : but this is clearly refuted by fact as well as by scripture. That it is to be obtained is evident, for we have reason to believe many persbns have actually obtained it. Job six. 25. Ps. xvii. 15. 2 Tim. i. 12. The Scriptures exhort us to obtain it, 3 Cor. xiij. b. Heb. vi. 11. 1 Thess. v. 21. The Holy Spint is said to bear witness of it, Ronfl viii. 16. The ex- ercise of the Christian graces is considered as a prptrf Of it,, 1 John iii, 14. 1 John ii. 3i We must, however guard against presumption'; for a mere Eersuasion that Christ is our's is no proof that e is so. We must have evidence before we can have genuine assurance. It is necessary to ob- serve, also, that it is not a duty imposed upon all mankind, so that every one, in whatsoever state he may be, ought to be fully persuaded of his salva- tion. "We do not alfirm," says Saurin, "th^t Christians, of whose sincerity there may be some doubt, have a right to assurance; that l back- sliders, as such, ought to persuade themselves that they shall be saved,; nor do we say that Christians who have arrived to the higllest degree of holiness, can be persuaded of the certainty of their sahra tion in every period of their lives ; nor, if left to their own efforts, can they enjoy it; but behevers,, supported by the Divine aid, who walk in allgodd conscience before him, these only have ground to expect this privilege." Some divines have maintained that assurance is included in the very essence of faith, so that a ipan cannot have futh without assurance ; but we must distinguish between assurance and justify- ing faith. The apostle, indeed, speaks of the full assurance of faith; but then this is a full and firm persuasion of what the Gospel feveals; whereas the assurance we are speaking of re- lates to our personal interest in Christ, and is an effect of this faith, and not faith itself. Faith in Christ certainly includes some idea of assurance; for, except we be assured that he is the Saviour, we shall never go to rely upon him as such; but faith in Christ does not imply ein assurance of our interest in him ; for there may be faith long be- fore the assurance of personal interest com- mences. The confoundmg of these ideas has been the cause of presumption on the one hand, and despair on the other. When men have been taught that faith consists in believing that Christ died for them, and been assured tha^ if they can only believe so, all is well; and that then they are immediately pardoned and justified, the conse- quence has been, that the bold and self-conceited have soon wrought themselves up to such a per- suasion; without any ground for it, to their own deception; whilst the dejected, humble, and poor in spirit, not being able to work themselves to such a pitch of confidence, have concluded that they have not the faith of God's elect, and must inevit- ably be lost. ■The means to attain assurahce are not those of an extraordinary kind, as some people imagine ; such as visicais, dreams, voices, &<:.; but such as are ordinary ; self-examination, humble and con ATHEIST rtant prayer, consulting the sacred oracles, Chris- tian communication, attendance on the divine ordinances, and perseverance in the path of duty; without which all onr assurance is but presump- tion, and our profession but hypocrisy. Assurance may be lost for a season through bodily diseases which depress the spirits, unwatch- fulness, falling into sin, manifold temptations, worldly cares, and neglect of private duty. He, therefore, who would wish 'to enjoy tliis privilege, let him cultivate communion with God, exercise a watchful spirit against his spiritual enemies, and give himself unreservedly to him whose he is, and whom he professes to serve. See Saurin's 8er. voL iii. ser. 10, Eng. ed. j Case's Sermons, sei;. 13. ; Lambert's Ser. on John ix. 35 j Hervey's Theron .and Aspasio, dialogue 17; Howe's Worlcs, vol. i. p. 343, 348; BrooKs, Burgess, Roberts, Baxter, Polhill, and Davye on Assurance; Horace Sol. vol. ii. p. 269. ASSURITANS, a branch of the Donatists, who held that the Son was inferior to the Father, and the Holy Ghost to the Son. See Donatists. ASTONISHMENT, a kind or degree of wonder introduced by surprise. This emotion always relates to things of the highest importance ; to things which appear too vast and extensive for the grasp of intellect, rather than to any thing of an intricate nature. The body marks in a striking manner the singular state of the mind under this emotion. The eyes are firmly fixed, without being directed to any particular object ; the cha- racter of countenance, which was formed by the habitual influence of some predominant affection, is for a time effaced; and a suspension of every other expression, a certain vacuity, strongly notes this state of mind. ATHANASIANS, those who profess the sentiments held in the Athanasisin creed. See Creeh. ATHEIST, one who denies the existence of God: — this is called speculative atheism, Pro- fessing to believe in God, and yet acting contrary to this belief, is called practical atheism. Absurd and irrational as atheism is, it has had its vota- ries and martyrs. In the seventeenth century, Spinosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender. Lucilio Vanini, a native of Naples, also publicly taught atheism in France ; and being corivicteS of it at Toulouse, was condemned and executed in iei9.- It has been questioned, however, whe- ther any man ever seriously adopted such a prin- ciple. The pretensions to it have been generally founded on pride or affectation. The open avowal of atheism by several of the leading members of the French convention seems to have been an ex- traordinary moral phenomenon. This, however, as we have seen,, was too vague and uncomfort- a' le a principle to last long. Archbishop Tillot- Bon' justly observes, that speculative atheism is unreasonable upon five accounts. 1. Because it gives no tolerable account of the existence of the world. — 2. It does not give any reasonable ac- count of the universal consent of mankind in this apprehension, that there is a God.^-^. It requires more evidence for things than they are capable of giving. — i'. The atheist pretends to know that which no man can know. — 5. Afheisra contra- dicts itself. Under the first of these he thus argues.^" I appeal to any man of reason whe- ther any thing can he more unreasonable than obstinat^ely to impute an effect to chance, which ATONEMENT carries in the very face of it all the arguments and characters of a wise design and contnvajttce. Was ever any considerable work, in which there was required a great variety of parts, and a regu- lar and orderly disposition of those parts, done by chance 1 WiU chance fit means to ends, ajifl that in ten thousand instances, and not tail m anf one 1 How often might a man, after he had jumbled a set of letters in a bag, fling them out upon the ground before they would fall into an exact poem; yea, or so much as make a good dis- course in prose 1 And may not a little book be as easily made by chance as the great volume of the world 1 How long might a man be in sprink- ling colours upon canviss with a careless hand, befcre they would happen to make the exact pic- ture of a maijl And is a man easier made by chance than his picture? How long might twenty thousand blind men who should be sent out from several remote parts of England, wan der up and down' before they would all meet upon Salisbury plain, and fall into rank and file in the exact order of an army 1 And yet this is much more easy to be imswined than how the innume- rable blind parts of matter should rendezvous themselves into a world. A man that sees Henry the Seventh's chapel at Westminster might with as good reason maintain (yea, with much better, considering the vast difTerence betwixt that little structure and the huge fabric of the world) that it was never contrived or built by any means, but that the stones did by chance grow into those curious figures into which they seem to have been cut and graven; and that upon a time (ai tales usually begin) the materials of that building, the stone, mortar, timber, iron, lead, and glass, happily met together, and very fortunately ranged themselves into that delicate order in which we see theih, now so close compacted, that it must be a very great chance that parts them again. What would the world think of a man that should advance such an opinion as this; and write a book for it 7 If they would do him' right, they ought to look upon hun as madj but. yet with a little more reason than any man can have to say, that th^ world was made by chance, or that the first men grew up out of the earth as plants do now. For, can any thing be more ridiculous, and against all reason, than to ascribe the production of men to the first frultfulness of the earth, without so much as one instance and experiment^ in any age or history, to countenance so monstrous a suppo- sition 1 The thing is, at first sight, so gross and palpable, that no discourse about it can make it more apparent. And yet, these shameful beg- gars of principles give thijs precarious account of the original of things; assume to themselves to be the men of reason, the great wits of the world, the only cautious and wary persons that hate t» be imposed upon, that must have convincing evi- dence for every thing, and can admit of nothing without a clear demonstration of it." See Ex- istence OF God. Some of the principal writers on the existence of a Deity have been Ckarnock, Newton, Boyle, Cheyne, LoSke, Nieuwentyt, Derham, Bentley, Ray, Cudworth, Samuel and John Clarke, Aber- ncthy, Balguy, Baxter, Fene],on, (f-e. ^c. Til- btson'is ^emion on the subject, as quol^cd above, has been considered as one of the best in the En- gUsh language. See ser. i. vol. 1. ATONEMENT is the satisfying Divine Jus- ATONEMENT tice by Jesus Christ giving himself a ransom for us,, undergoing the penSty due to our sins, and there- by releasins'Os from that punishment which God might justfy inflict upon us, Rom. v. 11. The Hebrew word signifies covering, and intimates that our offences are, by a proper atonement, covered from the avenging justice of God. In order to understand the manner wherein Christ becomes an atonement, "we should," says Dr, Watts, "consider the following propositions, 1. The great God having made man, appointed to govern him by a wise and righteous law, wherein glory and honour, life and unmortality, are the designed rewards for perfect obedience! buttri- bulsttion and wrath, pam ajnd death, are the ap- pointed recompense to those who violate this law. Gen. iii. Rom. ii. 6, 16. i. 32, — 2. All man- kind have broken this law, R«m. iii. 23. v. 13. — 3. Gcd, in Ws infinite wisdom, did not think fit to pardon sinful man, without some compensa- tion for his broken law; for, 1. If the great Ruler of the world had pardoned the sjns oilmen with- out any satisfaction, thOn his laws might have afeemed noli worth the vindicating. — 3. Men would have been tempted tc> persist m their rebellion, and to repeat their old offences. — 3. His forms of government among his creatures might haye appeared as a matter of small importance.— 4. God had a mind to make a very illustrious display both of his justice and of his grace among man- kind; on these accounts he would not pardon sin without a satisfaction. — 5. Man, sinml man, is not able to make any satisfaction to God for his own sins, neither by his labours, nor by his suf- ferings, Eph. ii. 1, 8, 9. — 6., Though man be in- capable to satisfy foi- his own violation of the law, yet God would not suffer all mankind to perish.-^ ,7. Because Grod intended to make a iull display of the terrors of his justice, and his divine re- sentment for the violation of his law, therefore he appointed his own Spn to satisfy for the breach of it, by becoming a proper sacrifice of expiation or atonement. Gal. in. 10, 13. — 8. The Son of God being immortal, could not sustain all these penalties of the law whidh man had broken with- out- taking the mortal nature of man upon him, without assuming flesh and blood, Heb. ii. 13, 14. — 9. The Divine Being having received such ample satisfaction for sin by the sufferings of his own Son, can honourafily forgive his creature man, who was the transgressor, Rom. iii. 25, 26. Nmn) that this doctrine is true, will appear j if vie consider, 1. That an atonement for sin, or an effectual method to answer the demands of an offended God, is the first great blessii^ guilty, man stood iii need of, Mic. vi, 6, 7,— -2. The very first discoveries of grace which were made to man after his fall implied in them something of an atonement for sin, and pointed to the propitiation Christ has now made, Gen. iii 15. — 3. The train of ceremomes which were appointed by God in the Jevrish church are jilain signification^ of such an atonement, 3 Cor. iii. Col. a. 7, 8, 9. Heb, X. — 4. Some of the pitophecies confirm aad ex- plain the first promise/ and show that Christ was to die as an atoning sacrifice for the sins of men, Dan. ix. 24— 26. Is. lili.— 5. Our Saviour him- self taught us the doctrine of the atonement for sin by lis death, Matt. xx. 28. John vi. 51. Luke xxii. 19.— 6. The terrors of soul, the con- sternation and inward agonies which our blessed Lord sustained a little before his death, wtgre a ATONEMENT sufficient proof that he endured punishments m his soul which were due to sin, Mark xiv. 33. Heb. v, 7. — 7. This doctrine is declared, and confirmed, and explained at large, by the apostles in their writings, 1 Cor. xv, 3, i!ph, i, 7. 1 John ii. 2., &c, &c.— 8. This was the doctrine tliat was witnessed to the world by the amazing gifts of the Holy Ghost, whicTi attended the Gospel. [See the Acts of the Apostles,] Th^ inference and uses to be derived from this doctrine are these; 1. How vain are all the labours and pre- tences of mankind to seek or hope for any better religion than that which is contained in the Gos- pel of Christ! It is here alone that we can find the solid and rational principle nf reconciliation to, an offended God, Heb. iv. 14. — 2, How strange and unreasonable is the doctrine of, the Popish church, which, while it professes to be- lieve the religion of Christ, yet introduces many other methods of atonement for sin, besides the sufferings of the Son of God. [See above.] — 3. Here is a solid foundation, on which the greatest lOf sinners mav tope for acceptance with 6od, I Tim. i. 15. — i. This doctrine should be used aj a powerful motive to excite repenjance. Acts v. 31. — 5. We should use this atonement of Christ as our constant way of access to God in all oui prayers, Heb. x. 19, 22. — 6. Also as a divine guard against an, Rom. vi. 1, 2. 1 Pet. i. 15, 19. — ^7. As an argument of prevailing force to be used in raayer, Rom. viii. 32.-^. Partial baeksiiding must be distinguish- ed from hypocrisy, as the former may cxbt where there are gracious intentions on the whole ; but the latter is a studied profession of appearing to be what we are not. The causes of backsliding are— the cares of the world ; improper connexions ; inattention to se- cret or closet duties ; self-conceit and dejjendencej indulgence; listening to and parleying with temptations. A hacksllding state is manifested by mdifference to prayer and self-examination 5 trifling or unprofitable conversation ; neglect of public ordinances ; shunning the people of Gcod ; associating with the world; thinking lightly of sin ; neglect of the Bible ; and often by gross im- morality. The consequences of this awful state are — loss of character ; loss of comfort; loss of vi^ulness; and, as long as any remain in this state, a less of a welt-groundcd hope of future happiness. To avoid this state, or recover from it, we should beware of the first appearance of sin ; be much in prayer j attend the ordinances ; and unite with the people of God. We should consider the awful instances of apostacy, as Saul, Judas, Demas, &c; the many warnings we ha^e of it, Matt. xxiv. 13. Heb. x. 38. Luke ix. 63 ; how it grieves the Holy Spirit; and how wretched it mSies us ; above all things, our dependence should be on God, that we may always be directed by his Spirit, and kept by his power. See Apostacy. BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY, so call- ed from Bangor, or the bishop thereof. Bishop Hoadley, the bishop of that diocese, preaching be- fore George I., asserted the supreme authority of Christ, ^a king in his own kingdom ; and that he had not delegated his power, Bke temporal' law- givers during their absence from their kingdom, to a!ny persons, £^ his vicegerents or deputies. This important sermon may be seen reprinted in the Liverpool Theological Repository, vol. v. p. 301. In 1717, he also published his Preservative, in which he advanced some positions contrary to temporal and spiritual tyranny, and in behalf of the civil and relimous liberties of mankind : upon which he was viflently opposed, accused, and per- secuted, by the advocates for church power ; but he was defended and supported by the civil pow- ers, and his abilities and meekness gained him the plaudits of many. BANIANS, a religious sect in the empire of the Mogul, who believe a Metempsychosis ; and will therefore eat no hving creature, nor kill even noxious animals, but eniteavour to release them when in the hands of others. The name Banian is sometimes extended to all the idolaters of India, as contrailistinguished from the Mahometans. BAPTISiy^ the ceremony of washing, or the application of water to a person, in the name of the Fathor, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, by which he is initiated into the visibleojhurch. Baptism exhibits to us the blessings of pardon, salvation through Jesus Christ, union to and communion with him, the out-pouring of the Spirit, regeneration, and sanctification. From baptism results the obligation of repentance, love to' Christ, and perpetualdevotedness to his praise. Baptism does not constitute a visible subjec^^ but only recognizes one. Ministers only have a right to administer it, and liave a negative voice in op- position to all claims. It is an ordinance binding on all who have been given up to God in it ; and to be perpetuated to the end of the world. It is 32 BAPTISM not, however, essential to salvation; for mere pa^ ticipation of sacraments cannot qualify men for heaven: many have real grace, and are conse- quently in a salvable state, tefore they were bap- tized .' besides, to suppose it essential is to put it in the place of that which it signifies. Baptism has been supposed by many learned persons to have had its origin from the Jewish church; in which, thejr maintain, it vvas tho practice, long before Christ's time, to baptize pro- selytes or converts to their faith, as part of tho ceremony of their admission. "It is strange to me," says Dr. Doddridge, " that any should doubt of this, when it is plain from express passages in the Jewish law, that no Jew who had hved like a Gentile for one day could be restored to the communion of this church without it. Compare Numb. xix. 19 and 20, and many other precepts relating to ceremonial pollutions, in which it may be seen, that the Jews vvere rendered incapable of appearing before God in the tabernacle or tem- ple, till they were washed either by bathing or spiinkhng." Others, however, insist that the Jewish proselyte baptism is not by far so ancient ; and that John the Baptist was the first adminis- trator of baptism among the Jews. ^ The baptism of John, and that of our Saviour and his apostles, have be?n supposed to be the same ; because they agree, it is said, in their sub- jects, form, and end. But it must be observed, that though there he an agreement in some par- ticulars, yet there b not in all. The immediatt institutor of John's baptism was God the Father, John 1. 33 ; but the immediate institutor of the Christian baptism was Christ, Matt, xxviii. 19. John's baptism was a jyreparatory rite, referring the subjects to Christ, who was about to confer on them spiritual blessings. Matt. iii. 11. John's baptism was confined to the Jews; but the Christian was common to Jews and Gentiles, Matt. iii. 5. 7. xxviii. 19. It does not appear ^tihat John had any formula of administration; but the Christian baptism has, viz. " In the name," &c. The baptism of John was the con- cluding scene of the legal dispensation, and, in &ct, part of it ; and to be considered as one of those " divers washings" among, the .Jews ; for he did not attempt to make any alteration in the Jewish reUgiojj, nor did the persons he baptized cease to be members of the Jewish church on ac- count of their baptism : but Christian baptism is the regular entrance into, and is a part of, the evang^cal dispensation. Gal. iii. 27. It does net appear from the inspired narrative (however pro- bable from inferential reasoning), that any but John himsdf was engaged as operator in his bap- tism ; whereas Christ himself baptized none ; but his disciples, by his authority, and in his name. John iv. 2. Baptism has been the subject of long and sharp controversy, both as it respects the subject and the mode. To state all that has been said on both sides would be impossible in a work of this kind. An abstract, however, of the chief arguments, I think it my duty td present to the reader, in order that he maj^ judge for himself. As to the sttbjett. The ANTIP.S:D0BAPTISTS hold the belief that adults only are proper subjects, be- cause Christ's commission to baptize appears to them to restrict this ordinance to such only as BAPTISM lire taughl, or tiiade discipW; and that, conse- quently infanta, who cannot be thus taught, are lo be excluded' It does not appear, say they, that the apdstles, in executing Christ's comraissioh, ever baptiMa any^ut those who were first in- structeu in the Christian faith, and professed their belief of it. They contend that infants can re- ceive no benefit from it, are not capable of faith and repentance, which are to be considered as pre-req^i sites. Aa to the mode. They observe that the meaning of the word B^ttrtX" signifies inunelrsion or dipping only; that John bapuzed in Jordan ; that he chose a place where there was ifkuih water; that Jesus came up ont of the water; that Philip and the eunuch went down both into the water. That the terms washing, purifying, burying in baptism, so often mentioned in Scripture, allude to this mode; that immersion only was the practice of the apostles arid the first Christians; and that it was only laid aside from the love of noveltv^ and the cold- ness df our climate. These positions, they think are so clear from Scripture, and the history of the church, that they stand in need of but fittle argument to stipport them. Further, they also insist that all positive institutions depend entirely upon the vvill and deckration df the institutor, and that, tiierefore, reitsonins by analogy from previous abrogated rites, is to be rejected, and the express command of Christ respecting baptism ought to be our rule. -^ P^DOBAPTISTS. The Poedobaptistg, hsweyer, are of a different opinion. As to the subject, they believe that quali- fied adults who have not been baptized before are certainly proper subjects ; but, then, they think also thai infatits are not to be excluded. They lielieve that^ as the Abrahamic and the Christian covenants are the same, Gen. xvii. 7. Heb. viij. 13; that as children were sulmitted under the former; and that as baptism is now a seal, sign, or confirmation of this covenant, infants have as great a right t» it as the children had a right to the s^ of circumcision under the law, Acts i. 39. Rom. iv. 11. That if children are not to be baptized because there is no positive command for it, for the same Aason women should not come to the Lord's Supper; we should not keep the first day of the week, npr attend public worship^ for none of these are expressly commanded; tl^t if infant baptism had been a human invention, how would it have been so universal in the first 300 years, and yet no record left when it was in- troduced, nor any dispute or controversy about it? Some bring.it to these two ideas: 1. That God did constitute in the Jewish churcht the membership of iniants, and admitted them to it by a religious ordinance, Gen. xvii. Gal. iiii 14, 17. . 3. That this right of infants to church membership was never taken away. This behig the case, infants must be received, because Godlias instituted it ; and, since infants must be received, it must be either without baptism or with it : but none must be receivfed without baptism, therefore infants must, of necessity, be baptized. Hence, it is clear, that utidei the Gospel, infants are still continued exactlv in the same relation tpGodiyvl his church, in Which they were originallv pleeed under the former dispensation, 33 E BAPTISM That infants are to be received uito the church, and as such baptized, is also inferred frpm the following passages of Scripture : Gen. xvii, Isa. xliv. 3. Mattxix. 13. Luke ix. 47, 48. Mark ix. 14. Acts ii. 38, §9. Rom. xi. 17, 31. 1 Cor.' vii. .14. Though there are no express, examples in the New Testament of Christ and his apostles bap- tizing infants, yet this is no proof that they vvere excluded. Jesus Christ actually blessed little children; and it would be hard to beUevc that such received his blessina wd yet were not to be members of the Gospel church. If Christ receiv- ed them, and would have us repeive them in his name, how can it be reconciled to keep them put of the visible church 7- Besides, if children were not to be baptized, it would have been expressly forbidden. None' of the Jews had any apprehen- sion of the rejection of iiifants, which they must have had, if infants had lieen rejected. As whole housrfiolds vfere baptized, it is probable there were children among them. From the year 400 to 1 150, no society of men, in all that period of 750 years, ever pretended to say it was unlawful to baptize infants ; and still nearer the time of cur Saviour, there appears to have been scarcely any one that so mucn as advised the delay of m&iit baptism. Irenaeusj who lived in the second centu- ry, and was well acquainted with Polycarp, who was John's discipl^, declares expressly that the churchlearned from theapostles to baptize children. Origen, in the third century, affinned that the cus- tom of baptizing infants was received from Christ and his apostles. Cyprian, and a council of minis- ters (held about the year 254), no less' than sixty- six in number, unanimously agreed that children might be baptized as soon as they were born. Ambrose, who wrote about 274 years from the apostles, deckres that the baptism of infants had been the practice of the apostles themselves, and of the church, till that time. , The catholic church every where declared, says Chrysostom, in the fifth century, that infants should be ba,p- tized; And Augustin affirmed that he never heard nor read of any Christian, catholic, or sectarian, but who always held that infants were to be baptized. They fiirther believe, that there needed no .mention in the New Testament of re- ceiving iniants into the church, as it had been once appointed and never'repealed.. The dictates of nature, also, in parental feelings ; the verdict of reason iii favour of privileges; we evidence in favour of children being shau'ers of the seals of grace, in common vrith their parents, for the space of 4000 years ; and especially the language of pro- phecy, in reference te the children of the Gospel church, make it very probable that they were not to be rejected. So far from confining it to adults it must be remembered that there is not a single mstance recorded in the New Testament in which the despendauts of Christian parents weie baptized in adult yeais. That infants are not proper subjects for baptism because they cannot profess faith and repentance, they deny. This objection falls with as much weight, upon the institution of circumcision as infant baptism; since they are as capable, or are as fit subjects for the ori^ as the other. It is generilly acknowledged, that, if infant^ die (and a great part of the human race do die in infiincy,) they are saved: if this be the. case, then, why re- fuse them the sdgn in infancy, if they are capable of enjoying the thing signified? "Why," Kjt BAPTISM Dr. Owen, " is it the will of God that unbelievers should not be baptized 7 It is because, not grant- ing them the grace he will not grant them the sign. If Grod, therefore, denies the sign to the infant seed of believers, it must be because he de- nies them the grace of it; and then all the chil- dren of believing parents (upon these principles) dying in their infancy, must, without hope, be eternally danmeil. I do not say that all must be so who are not baptizaed ; but all must be so whom God would not have baptized." Something is said of baptism, it is observed, that cannot agree to infants: fsuth goes before baptism; and, as none but adults are capable of believing, _so no others are capable of baptism? but it is replied, jf infants must hot be baptized because something is said of baptism that does not agree to infants, Mark xvi. 16, then infants must not be saved, because something is said of salvation ^hat does not agree to infants, Mark xvi. 16. A» none but adults are capable of believing, so, by the ar- gument of the Baptists, none but adults kre capar ble of salvation: for he that believeth not shallbe damned. But Christ, it is said, set an example of adult baptism. True ; but he was baptized in honour to John's ministry, and to conform him- self to what he appointed to his followers; for which last reason he drank of the sacramental cup : but this is rather an argument for the Pse- dobaptists than against them; since it plainly shows, as Doddridge observes, that baptism may be administered to those who are not capable of all the purposes for which it was designed ; since Jesus Christ, not being a sinner, could not be capable of that faith and repentance which are said to be necessary to this ordi- nance. As to the mode. They believe that the word Ri^tio signifies to dip or plunge; but that the term gairTi?™, which is only a derivative of s«b-t«i, and consequently must be somewhat less in its signification, should be invariably used in the New Testament to ex- Sress plunging, is not so clear. It is> therefore oubted whether dipping be the onZy meaning, and whether Ohrist absolutely enjoined immer- sion, and that it is his positive will that no other should be used. As the word/3«s>-Ti^» is used for the various ablutions among the Jews, >such as sprinkling, pouring, iStc. Heb. ix. 10; for the custom of wasliing before meals, and the vyashing' of household furniture, pots, &o.; it is evident firom hence that it does not express the maimer of doing, whether by immersion or affusion, but only the thing done, that is, washing, or the appli- cation of water in one form or other. Dr. Owen observes, that it no where signifies to dip but as deftdthig a mode of and in order to wasliing or cleansing ; and, according to others, the mode of use is only the ceremonial part of a positive in- stitute; just as in the supper of the Loird, the time of the day, the number and posture of com- municants, the quality and quantity of bread ' and wine, are circumstances not accounted es- sential by any party of Christians. As to- the Hebrew word Tabal, it is considered as a generic term; that itsraclical, primary, and proper mean- ing is to tinge, to dye, to wet, or the like : whiclj primary design is effected by different modes of application. If in baptism ' also there is an ex- pres-'ive emblem of the descending influence of 34 BAPTISM the Spfait, pouring must be the mode of adminis- tration; for that is the Scri|itural term most commonly and properly used for the communica- tion of divine influences. There is no object whatever in all the New Testament so frequently and so explicitly signified by baptism as *-nese divine influences. Matt. iii. 11. Mark i. 8, 10. Luke iii, 16 to 23. John i. 33. Acts i. 5. ii.' 38, 39. viii. 12, 17. xi. 15, 16. The term sprinldmg, also, is made use of in reference to the afct of pu- rifying, tsa-lii. 15. Peb. ix. 13, 14. Ezek. xxxvi. 23, aM therefore cannot be inapplicable to bap- tismal purification. But it is observed that John baj^zed in Jordan : to this it is replied, to infer al#ays a plunging of the whole body in water from this, word, would, in many instances, be fklse and absurd : the same Greek preposition >v is used when it is said they should be baptized with fire ; while few vpiU assert that they should be plunged into it. The apostle, speaking of Christ, says, he came not (<») by water only, but [.«) by water and blood. There the sanie word s» IS translated' by,- and lyith justice and propriety, for we know no good sense in which we could say he came in water. It has been renjarked, that iv is more than a hundred times, in .the New Testament, rendered "at," and in a hundred and fifty others it is translated with. If it be rendered so here, " John baptized at Jordan," or with the water of Jordan, there is no proof from thence that he plunged his disciples m it. It is urged that John's choosing a place where there was much water is a certain proof of im- mersion. To which it is answered, that as there Went out to him Jerusalem, and all Judea, and all the region round about Jordan, that by choos- ing a place where^there vireremany streams or rivu- lets, it would be much more expeditiously i)erform- ed by pouring ; and that it seems in the nature of things highly improhable that John should have baptized this vast multitude by immersion, to say nothing of the indecency of both sexes being bap- tized together. Jesus, it is said, came up out oj' the water ; but this is said to be no proof of his being immersed, as the Greek term xwa often signifies Jrom ; for instaiice, " who hath warned you to flpe _from," not out of, "the wrath to come," with many others which might be mentioned. Again: it is said that Philip and the eunuch went down both into the water. To this it is answered that here is no proof of immer«o»; for if the expression of their goine down into the water necessarily includes dipping, then Philip was dipped as well as the eunuch. The prepo- sition («■() translated into, often signifies no more than to or unto. See Matt. xv. Sl. Rom. x. 10. Acts xxviii. 14. Matt. xvii. 27. iii. 11. So that, from all these circumstance^ it cannot be conclu- ded that there was a single person of all the bap- tized who went into the water anlde deep. As to the apostle's expression, " buried with him in baptism," theythink it has no force ; and that it docs not allude to any custom of dipping, any more than our baptismal crucifixion and deatn has any such reference. It is not the sign but the tWng signified that is here alluded to. As Christ was buried, and rose again to a heavenly Ijfe, so we by baptism signify that we are cut off from the life of sin, that we may rise a^n to a new life of faith and love. To conclude this article, it is observed against BAPTISM t|ie mod& of immersion, tliat, as it carries with it too much of the appearance of a burdensome rite for the Gospel dispensation! that as it is too in- decent for so ^olemn an ordinance; as it has a tendency to agitate the spirits, often rendering the !»ub)ect unfit for the exeircise of proper thoughts and affections, and, indeed, utterljr incapable of them ; as in many cases the immersion of the t)ody would in all probability be instant death ; as in other situations it would be impracticable for want of a sufficient quan^ty of water, it cannot be con- sidered as necessary to the ordinanpe of baptism; See Gale, Robinson, Stennett, Gill, ani^ Beeth, en AntipeBdobaptism ; and Wall, Hetpry, Br^fil^ bury, Bastwick, Towgood, Adifington, Williams, .Edwards, Miller, EvanSj &c. on the! other aide. BAf'TiSM OF THE DEAOi a. custom which ■ anciently prevuled ^imong some people, iii Africa, of giving baptism to the dead. The third council of Carthage speaks of it as a. thing that ignorant Christians are fond of r Gregory_ Nar zianzen also takes notice of the same superstitious opinion. The practice seems to be grounded on a vain idea, that, wheii men had neglected to receive baptism in theiir lifetime, some compensation might be made for this default by receiving it after death. BAPTISM FOR THE i)EAD, a practice formerly in use, when a person dying without baptism, another was baptized in Ms steEid ; thus supposing that God would accept the baptism of the proxy, as though it had been administered to thp principal. Chtysostqm says, this was prac- tised among the Marcionitcs with a great deal of ridiculous ceremony, which he thus describes : — " After any Ci^techumen was dead, - they had a living man under the bed of the deceased : then, coming to the dead man, they asked him whether he would receive baptism: and he making no an- swer, the other answered for him, and said he would be baptized in his stead ;~ and so they bap- tizeil the living for the dead.'' If it can be proved (as some thbik it can) that this ppctice ,was as early as the days of the apostle Paiil, -it . might probably form a solution of thpse remarkable words in 1 Cor. xv. 39 : " If the dead rise not at all, what shall they do who are baptized for the dead?" The allusion of the apostle to this jjrac- tice, however, is rejected by some, and especially by Dr. Doddridge who tmnks it, too early: he thus paraphrases the passage: "Such are our views and hopes as Christians, else, if it were not SO, what should they do jvho are baptized in token of their embracit(g the Christian Siiih,dn the room of the dead, whsi^tc just fallen in tile cause of Christ, but are yet supported by a succession of new converts, who immediately offer themselves to fill up their places, as ranks of soldiers that advance to the combat in the room of their com- panions who have just been slain in their sight?" Lay baptism we find to have been permitted by Both the common prayer-books of king Edward and queen Elizabeth, when an infant was in im- niediate danger of death, and a lawful ndoister could not be had. This was founded on a mis- taken notion of the impossibility pf salvation without the sacrament of teptismj, but afterwards, when they came to have pj^ret notions of the sa- craments, it was unanimbuMy le^lyed, ijg.a con- vocation held in 1575, that ev6n pl^r^te baptism in a case of necessity was only to be atlministere^ by a lawful minister. ''-/'. i . , ... BAPTI||I METAPHORICAL,' l^ $crip- BARDESANISTS ture the term Baptism is used as referring to file ^ork of the Spirit on the heart, jyiatt. iii. U. ; also to the sufferings of Christ, Matt. xx. 22 j and to so much of the Gospel as John the Baptist tanghi his disciples, Acts xviii. SJ5. BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians wlio maintain that baptism is to be administered by imrnersion, and not by sprinkling. See B-iptiem. Although there were several Baptists among the Albigenses, Waldenses, and the followers iff Wickllffe, it dpes not appear, that they were form- ed into any stability until the time of Menno, about the year 1536. See Anabaptists and MennoNites. About 1644 they began to m?ike a considerabW figure in England, and spread themselvi^ irito several separate congregations. They separatf djjfrom the Independents about the year 1638, and '^et up for themselves under the pastoral care of Mr. Jesse j and, having renounced their former baptism, they sent over one of their number to be immersed by one of fee Dutph Ana- baptists of Ainsterdarn, tnat he mightbe qualified to baptize his friends in England after the same manner. The B^tists subsist under two denominations, viz. the Pa/rtieular,. ,01 Calvinistical, and the General, or Arminiart. Their modes of church government and wor^ip are the same as those of Hie! Independents J in the exercise of which they are protected, in common with other dissenters, by the act of tbleration. Some of both uenominatiuns allow of mixed conununiori; by which it i£ un- derstood that those who have not been baptized by iijunersion, on the profession of their faith, ' may sit down at the Lord's table with those who ha\ e been thus baptized. Others, however, disallow it, supposing that such have not been actually bap- tized ataff. See Free CoMMnNiON. Sojse of them observe the seventh day of tlie week as the Sabbath, ftpprcihending the law that enjoined it not -to have been repealed by Christ. The Baptists in America and in the East and West Inflies are chiefly Calvinists, and hold, oc- casional fellowship with the Particular Baptist churches in England. Those in Scotland, having imbibed a considerable part of the principles ol Messrs. Glass and Sandeman, have no commu- nion with the other. They have liberally con- tributed, however, towards the tr2inslation of .the Scriptures into, the, Bengalee language, which som^ of the Baptist brethren are now accomplish- ing in the. East, ^^ee Rippon'is Baptist Re^gisttr, voT. i. ]]. 172 — 175'5 Adams's View of Religions, article Baptists; Svans's Sketch of • Religious Denctminations. [See APPENDIX, No. 4.] BAPTISTERY, the place in which the cere- mony of baptismi is performed. In the ancient, church, it IS -said, it was generally a building separate and distinct from the church. It con- sisted of an ante-room, where the adult persons to be baptized made their confession of faith ; and an innpr room, where the ceremony of baptism was performed.. Thus it continued to the sixth century, when the baptisteries began to be taken into the church. V BARDESANISTSj a sect so denominated from their leader Bardesanes, a Syrian, of Edessa, in Mesopotamia, .who lived in the second centuryj They believed that the actions of men depended altogether on fate, and that God himself is subject to necessity. — They denied the resutrection of BASILIDIANS the body, and the incarnation and death of our Saviour. BARLA AMITES, the followers of Barlaam, in the fou;rteenth century, who was a very zealous champion in behalf of the Greek against the Latin church. It is said that he adopted the sentiments and precepts of the Stoics, with respect to th? obligations of moiaUty and the duties of life; and digested them into a work of his, which is known by lh« title of Ethica ex Stoicis. BARNABAS, EPISTLES OF, an apocry- phal work ascribed to St. Barnabas. It was first published in Ghfeek, from a copy of fether Hugh Menaed, a monk. Vossius published it, in IBro, with the epistles of Ignatius. — The Gospel of Barnabas is another apocryphal work ascribed to Barnabas, wherein the hbtory of Jesus Christ is 'given, in a different manner from that of the evangelists. BARNABITES, a religious order, founded in the sixteenth century, by three Italian gentlemen, who had been advised by a famous preacher of those days to read careflilly the epistles of St. Paul. Hence they were called clerks of St. Paul ; and Bamabiies, because they performed their first exercise in a church of St. BarnaW at Milan. Their habit is black; and their office is to in- struct, catechise, and serve m mission. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, St. (the 24th August) is a day distinguished in history, as the anmversary %i the homd and atrocious sacrifices of human blood, called the Parisian Massacre. See Persecution. ' BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order 'founded at Geneva in 1307 j but, the monks leading irregular lives, it was suppressed in 1650, aiiil their eilfects confiscated. In the church of the monastery of this ofder at Geneva is pre- served the image, which, it is pretended, Christ sent to king Abgarus. BASILIAN MOiNrKS,reli^ous of the order of St. Basil, in the fourth century, who, having retired into a desert in the provinc" of Pontus, founded a monastery, and drew up' rules, to the amount of some hundreds, for his disciples. T'his new society soon spread all over the East : nor was it long before it passed into the West. ■ Some Eretend that St. Basil saw himself the spiritual ither of more than 90,000 monks in the East only; but this order, which flourished for more than three centuries, was considerably diminished by heresy, schism, and a change of empire. The historians of this order say that it has produced 14 popes, 1805 bishops, 3010 abbots, and 11,085 martyrs, besides an infinite number of confessors and virgins. This order Ukenise boasts of several emperors, kings, and princes, who have em- braced its rule. BASILIDIANS, a denomination in the se- cond century, from Basilides, chief of the Egyp-| tian Gnostics. He acknowledged the existence of one supreme God, perfect ,m goodness and wisdom, who {Produced from tiis own substance seven beings, or oiojw, of a most excellent nature. Two of these aions, called Dynamis and Sophiz f i. e. power and wisdorn), engendered the angels of the highest order. These angels formed a heaven foif their habitation, and brought forth' other angelic beings of a nature somewhat in- ferior to their own Many other generations of angels fbUowcd these. New heavens were also crcaccdf until the number of angelic orders, and 3C BATANIST3 of their respective heavens, amounted to three hundred and sixty-five, and thus equalled the days of the year. All thes-i are under the empire of an ommpotent Lord, whom Basihdes caUed Abraxas. The inhabitants of the lowest heavens, which touched ui^on the borders of the eternal, malig- nant, and self-animated matter, conceived the design of forming a world from that confnsed mass, and of creating an order of beings to people it. ■fhis design was carried into execution, and was approved by the Supreme God, who to the animal life, with which only the inhabitants of this new world were at first endowed, added a reasonable soul, giving at the saine time to the angels the empire over them. These angelic beings, advanced to the gpvem- ment of the world which they had created, fell by degrees from their original purity, and soon manifested the fatal marks of their depravity and corruption. They not only endeavoured tt) efTace in the minds of men their knowledge of the Su- preme Beiiig, that they might be vvorshipped in his stead, but also b*gan to war againsit each other, with an s^mbitious view to enlarge eveijr one the bounds of his respective dominjoii. The most arrogahi and turbulent of all these angelic spirits was that which presided over the Jewish nation.— Hence the Supreme God, beholding with compassion the miserable state of rational beings, vwio groaned under the contest of these jarring- powers, sent from heaven his son JSii^, ot Christ, the chief of the aions, that, joined in a substantial union with the man Jesus, he might restore the knowledge of the Supreme God, destroy the &npire -of those angelic natures which preadjKl dver the world, and particularly that of the arrogant leader of the Jewish people. The God of tne Jews, alarmed at this, sent forth his ministers to seize the man Jesus, and put him to dpath. They executed his commands ; but their cruelty could not extend to Christ, against whom their efforts were vain. Those souls, who obey the precepts of the Son of God, shall, after the dissolution of their mortal frame, ascend to the Father, while their bodies return to the cor-" mpt mass of matter whence they were formed. Disobedient spirits, on the contrary, shall pass suc- cessively into other bodies. BATANISTS, or Assassiks; a famous he- retical sect of murderers among the Miihometans, who settled in Persia about 1090. Their heid aiid chief seems to have .'been Hassan Sabah, who made fanatical slaves of his subjects. Their religion was a compound of that of the Magi, the Jews, the Christians, and the Mahometans. They beUeved the Holy Ghost resided in their chief; that his orders proceeded from God him- seKand vvere^ real declarations of his will. This chiev ifrom his exalted residence on Mount Lebanon, was called the old man of the mountain; who, Uke'a vindictive deity, with the thunderbolt in bis^ hand, sent inevitable death to all quarters, so that even kings trembled at his sanguinary power. His subjects would prostrate themselves at the foot of his throne, requesting to" die by his hiind.or order, as a &vour by which thfey were sure of passing into paradise. " Are your subjects," Said the old man of the momntain to the son-in-few of Amoury, king of Jerusalem, "as ready in ^^^" submission as mine?" and without starring for an answer, made a sign with BAXTERIANS his hand, when ten young men in white, who were stumling on an adjacent tower, instantly threw themselves down. To one of his guards he said, " Draw your dagger, and pliinge it into your breast;" which was no sooner said than obeyed. At the command of their chief, they made rio difficulty of stabbing any prince, even on his throne j and for that purpose conformed to the dress and religion of the country,, that they might be less suspected. To animate them on such aU tempts, the Scheik previously indulged them with a foretaste of the delights of parafise. De- licious soporific drinks were given them; and while they lay asleep, they were carried into beautiful gardens, where, awakfening, as it were, in paradise, and inflamed with views of perpetual ehjoyments, they sallied forth to perform assassina- tions of the blackest dya It is said, they once thought of embracing the Christian religion ; and some have thought the Druses a remnant of this singular race of barba- rians. BATH-KOL (L e. the daughter of a voice), an oracle among the Jews, frequently menttoned in their books, especially the Talmud. It was a fantastical way of divination invented by the Jews, though called by them a revelation from God's will, which he made to his chosen people aflei' all verbal prophecies had ceased in Israel. BAXTfiRIANS, so called from the learned and pious Mr. Richard Baxter, who was born in theyear 1615. His design was to reconcile Csl- vjn aiid Artninius : for this purpose he formed a middle scheme between their systems. He taught that Gfod had elected some, whom he is deter- mined to save, without any foresight of their good works ; and that others to whbm the Gospel is preached have common grace, which, if they im- prove, they shall obtain saving grace, according to the doctrine of Arminius. This denomination own, with, Calvin, that the merits of Christ's death are to be applied to believers only ; but they also assert that a|l men are in a state capable of salvation. Mr. Baxter maintains that there may be a cer- tainty of perseverance here, and yet he cannot tell whether a man may not have so weak a degree of saving grace as to lose it again. In order to prove that the death of Christ has put all in a state capable of salvation, the follow- ing arguments are ^eged by this learned author. — 1. H was the nature of all mankind which Christ assumed at his incarnation, and the sins of all mankind were the qccasion of his suffering.-^ 8, It was to Adam, as the common &ther of lapsed mankind, that God made the proiiiise ({jeii. iii. 15.) The conditional new covenant' does equally give Christ, pardon, and liie to all manlcind,' on condition of acceptance. The coii- dltional grant b universal: Wlwever believeth ah ail be saved. — 3. It is not to the elect only, but to aU mankind, that Christ has commanded his ministers to proclaim his Gospel, and offer the benefits of his procuring. There are, Mr. Baxter allows, certEun fruits of Christ's death which are proper to the elect only 1 1. Grace eventujfllj worketh in them true faith, ' repentance, conversion, and union with Christ as his living members. — 2. Th*) actual forgiveness of sin as to the Spiritual and eternal punishment. — 3^ Our reconciliation with God, and adoption and right to the heavenly inherit- 37 BEGUINES - kaas.-^. The Spirit of Christ to dwell in us and bajictify us, by a habit of divine love, Rom. viii. J9 — 13. Gkil. y. 6. — 5. Employment in holy, ac ceptable service, and access in prayer, with a pro mise of being heard through Christ, Heb. ii. 5, fi. John xiv. 13. — 6. Well-grounded hopes of salva- tion, peace of conscience, and spiritual cpinmu- nion with the church mystical in heaven and earth, Rom. v. 12, Heb. xii. 22. — 7. A special interest in Christ, and intercession with the Pa- ther, Rom. viii. 32, 33. — 8. Resurrection unto life, and justification in judgmeftt ; glorification of the som at death, and of the body at the resur- rection, Phil. iii. 20, 21, 2 Cor. v. 1, 2, 3. Christ has made a conditional deed of gift oi theto benefits to all mankind ; but the elect only accept arid possess them. Hence he infers, that though Christ nfever absolutely intended or de- creed that his death should eventually put all men in possession of those benefits, yet he did intend and decree that all men should have a conditional gift of them by his death. Baxter, it 1^ said; wrote 130 books, and had CO written agaJAst him. 20,000 of his Call to the Unconverted were sold in one year. He told a friend, that six brothers were converted by read- ing that Call. The eminent Mr. Elliott, of New England, ti:anslated this tract into the Indian tongu*. A young llfidian prince was 'so taken with it, that he read it with tears, and died with it in his hand. Calamy's lAJe of Baxter ; Bax- ter's Catholic Theology, p. 51 — 53 ; Baxter's End of Doctrinal Controversy,' p. 154, 155. BEATIFICATION, in the Romish church, the, act whereby the pope declares a person happy after death. See CANOtjiZATiow. BEATITUDE imports the highest degree of happiness human nature can arrive to, the fruiJ;ion of God in a future Ufe to all eternity. It is also used, when speakirig of the theses cbntained in Christ's sermon on the Mount, whereby he pro- nounces the several characters there mentioned blessed. ■ ' BEGHARDS, or Begdards, a sect that arose in Germany in the thirteenth century, and took St. Begghe for their patroness. They employed 'themsdves in making linen cloth, each supporting himself by his labour, and were uijited only by the bonds of charity, without having any particu- lar rule ; but when pope Nicholas IV. had con- firmed that of the third order of St Francis, in 1289, they embraced it the year following. BEGtriNES, a congregation of nuns, founded either by St. Begghe or by Lambert le Begue. They were estabUshed, first at Liege, and after- wards at Neville, in 1207 ; and from this last set' tlement sprang the great number of Beguinages which are spread over all Flanders, dnd Which have passed from Flanders into Germany. In the latter country some of them fell into extravagant errors, persuading themselves that it was possible in the present life to arrive to the highest perfec- tion, even to impeccabiUty, and a dear view of God ; in short, to so eriiinent a degree of contem- plation, that there was no necessity, after this, to submit to the laws of mortal ihen, civil or eccle- siastical. The council of Vienna condemned these errors; permitting, neverdieless, those among thpm, who continued in the true faith, to live in clarity and penitence, either ttith or with- out vows. There still Subsists, or at least sub- sisted till lately, many complunities of them in BEHMENISTS Flanders. Their grand rule of qonduct was uni- versal charity, and their ,only motive, the love of God. BEHMENISTS, a name given to those mys- tics who adopt the explications of the mysteries of nature ai;iu grace, as given by Jacob Behmen. This writer was bom in the year 1575, at Old Seidenburg, near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia; he was a shoemaker by trade. He is described as having been thoughtful and religious from his youtli up, taking peculiar pleasure in frequenting public worship. At length, seriouSly considering within himself that speech, of our iSaviour, My Father which is in lifUven vrill give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him, he was thereby t;ho- roughly awakened in himself, and set forward to desire that promised Comforter ; and, continuing in that earnestness, he was at last, to use his own expression. " surrounded with a divine light for seven days, and stood in the hig|iest contempla- tion and iungdom'of joy^ !" A(ler this, about the jrear 1600, he was again surrounded by the divine' light, and replenished with- the heavenly know- ledge I insomuch a^ going abroad into the fields, and viewing the herbs ahd grass, by his inward light, he saw into their essences, use and proper- ties, which were discovered to him by their linea- ments, figures and signatures. In the year 1610, he; had a third special illumination, Wherein still further mysteries werie revealed to him. It was not till the year 1613, that Behmen committed these revelations to writing. His first treatise is entitled Aurora, which was seized on and with- heldfrom him by the senate of GorUtz (\yho per- secuted him at the instigation of the primate of that place) before it was finished, and he never afterwards proceeded with it further than by'add- iijg some explanatory notes. The next produc- tinB of his pen is called 7%e Three PryvJdplfiS^ In this work he more fully illustrates the subjects treated of in the former, and supplies what is wanting in that work. The contents of these two treatises may be divided as follow : — 1. How ■all things came from a working will of the holy triune incomprehensible God, manifesting him- self as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit^ through an outward perceptible working triune pOwer of fire, light, aha spirit, in the kmgdom of heaven. — 2. How and what angels -dniftnen were in thejr creation ; that they are in and from God, his real offsprinxV; that- their life began in and from this divine fire, wliich is the Famer of light, generat- ing a birth of light in their souls ; from both which proceeds the Hoiy Spirit, or breath of divine loVe m the triune creature, as it does in the triune Creator. — 3. How some angel^ and all meij,eire fallen from God, and their first state of a divine triune life in him ; what they ^re in their fallen state, and the difference between the iall of an- gels and that of man. — i. Hpw the earth, stars, and element.'! were created in consequence of the fallen angels. — 5. Whence there is good and evil in all this temporal world, in all its creatures ani- mate and inanimate ; and what is meant by the- nirse that dwells every wfeere in it. — 6. Of the kingdom of Christ j how it is set;in opposition to and, fights and s);rives against the jungdom of hell. — 7. How man, through faith in Christ, js h!e to overcome the kingdom of hell, and triumph over it in the divine power, and thereby obtain eternal salvation ; also how, through the working fif the hellish quantity or principle, he casts him- 38 BELIEVERS self into perilition.— 8. How and why sin and misery, wrath and death, shall only reign for a time, till the love, the wisdom; and the power of God shall in a supernatural way (the mystery oj God made man) triumph over sin, misery, and death ; and make fallen man rise to the glory of angels, and this materia system shidce off its curse, and enter into an everlasting union with that Jieaven from whence it fell. ' The year after he wrote his Three Principle^ by which are to be understood — the dark world, or hell, In which the devils live — the light world, or heaven, in which the angels live — the external and visible world, which has proceeded from the ihternal and spiritual worlds, in Wliich man, as to his bodily life, lives; Behmen produced his Threefold Idfe of Man,, according to the Three Principles. In this work he treats more largely of the state of man in this world : — I. That he nas that immortal spark of life which is common to angels apd devils. — % That divine life of tlie light and spirit of God, which makes the essential difference between an angel and a devil, the last having extinguished this divine life in himself; but that man can only attain unto this heavenly life of the second principle throngh the new birth in Christ Jesus.i-a. The life of the third principle, or of thb external and visible world. Thus the life of the first and third principles is common to all men ; but the life of the second principle only to a true Christian or child of God., Behmen wrote several other treatises, besidcai the three already enumerated ; but these three being, as it were, the basis of all his other writings, it was thought proper to notice them particularly. His conceptions are ollen clothed under allegori- cal symbols; and in his latter works he has fre- quently iidopted chemical and Latin phrases to express his ideasj which phrases he borrowed from conversation with learned men, the educa- tion he had Teccived being too illiterate to furnish Mm with them : but as to the matter contained in his writings, he disclaimed having borrowed it either from men or books. He died in the year 1G24. His last words were, "Now I go hence into. Paradise." * Some of Behmen's principles were adopted by the ingenious and pious William Law, who clothed them in a more modern dress, and in a less ob- scure style. See jBehmen's Works ; Okelifai Memoirs of Behmen. BELIEF, in its general and natural sense, de- notes a persuasion or an assent of the mind to the truth of any proposition. 1 n this sense belief has no relation to any particular kind of means or ar- guments, but may be produced by any means whatever: thus wo are said' to believe our senses, to believe our reason, to believe a witiic.oH. Belief; in its more restrained sense, denotes that kind of assent which is grounded only on the authority or testimony of some person. In this sense belief stands opposed to jknowtcdge aiid science. We do not say that webelievi .snow is white, but we krww it to be so. But when a thing is propound- ed to us, of which we ourselves have no know- ledge, but which appears to us to be true from the testimony given to it by another, this is what we call belief. See Faith. BELIEVERS, an appellation given, toward the close of the first century, to those Christians who had been admitted into the church by bap- tism, and instructed in all the mysteries of religion. BENEFICENCE They weie thuscsilled in contfaclistinntion to the catechumens who had not been baptized, and Were debarred from those privileges. Among us it is often used synonyrhously With Ghriatmn. See Christian. BENEDICTINES, an order of monks, who professed to follow the rules of St. Benedict. They were obliged to perform their devotions seven times in twenty-four hours. They were obliged always to go two and two together. Every day in Lefit they fasted till six in the even- .ng, and abated of their usgal time in sleeping, eating, &c. — Every monk had two coats, two cowb, a table-book, a knife, a needle, and a hand- kerchief; and the furniture of his bed was a mat, a blanket, a rug, and a pillow. The time when this, order came into England is well-known, for to it the English owe their conversion from idola- try. The^ founded the metropolitan ' church of Canterbury, and all the cathedrals that were af- terwards erected. The order has produced a vast number of eminent men. Their Alcuinus form- ed the university of Paris ; their Dionysius Exi- guus perfected the ecclesiastical computation; their Giiido invented the scale of music ; and their Sylvester the organ. BENEDICTION, in a general sense, the act of blessing, or giving praise to God, or return- ing thanks for his favours. The Jews, it is said, are obliged to rehearse a hundred benedictions per day, of which eighty are to be spoken in the morning. It was usual to give a benediction to travellers on their taking leave ; a practice which is still preserved amojig the monks. Benedictions were Ukewise given among the ancient Jews as well as Christians, by imposition of hands. And when at length the primitive simplicily of the Christian worship began to give way to ceremo- ny, they added the sign of the cross, whiijh was made with the same Imnd as before, only elevated or extended. Hence benediction in the modern Romish church is used, in a more particular manner, to denote the sign of the cross ipade by a bishop or prelate as conferring some grace on the people. . ■ Benediction is also usefd for an ecclesiastical ceremony, whereby a thing is rendered sacred or venerable. In this sense benediction differs from consecration, as in the latter unction is applied, which is i^ot in the former : thus the chidice is consecrated and the pix blessed ; as the former, not the latter, is anointed ; though in the common usage these two words are applied promiscuously. The spirit of piety, or rather of superstition, has introdilced into the Romish church benedictions for almost every thing : we read of forms of bene- dictions for wax candles, for boughs, for ashes, for church vessels, for ornaments, for flags, or en- signs, arms, first-fruits, houses, ships, paschal eggs, ciiiciura, •or the hair-cloth of penitents, church-yards, &c. In general, these benedictions are peiforBied by a.spersions of holy water, signs of the cross, and prayers suitable to the nature of the ceremony. The forms of these benedictions ire found in the Roman pontifical, in the Roman missal, in the book of ecclesiastical ceremonies, printedin Pope Led X.'s time, and in the rituals and ceremonies of the diflferent churches, which are found collected in father Martene's work on the rites and discipline of the church. BENEFICENCE, the practice of doing good; j -39 BENEFICENCE active goodness. — Next to justice, the most pro- minent virtue in the system of morality, is benefi- cence. Power makes us to be feared, riches to be flattered, learning to be admireij; but benefi- cence renders us amiable and useful in the Ecale> of society. Some qualifications are solitary, and centre mostly in ourselves ; but this is social, dif- fusive and kind. The objects of our beneficence are all those who are in the sphere of our influ- ence and action, without respect to party or sect. TtfwarJs superiors, beneficeilce expresses itself in respect, honour, submission, and service; toward inferiors, in liberality, condescension, protection, and support ; toward equals, in all the offices of love their cases require, and which they have abiUty for. It includes all the kind exertions oh the behalf of the poor, the sick, the fatherless, the widow, the distressed, &c. and esipecially those " whp are of the household of faith," Gal. vi. 10, The means of beneficence are — commu- nication of temporal supplies, Gal. vi. 6; prayer^ James y. 16; sympathy, Rom. xii. 15; appropri- ate advice and conversation, Col. iii. 16.— ObU' gations to beneficence arise, from the law of na- ture. Acts xvii. 26 ; the law of revelation, HeK xiii. 16 ; the relations we stand in to each other, Gal. vi. 1, 2 ; the example of Christ and illustri- ous characters. Acts x. .^8; the resemblance we herein bear to the best of Beings, Acts xi^;. 17; and the pleasure we receive and give in so noble an emplcw. See BenevoJjEnce, Charity, Love. BENEVOLENCE, the love of. mankind in general, accompanied with a desire to promote their happiness. It is distinguished from heneji- cence, that being the practice, benevolence the desire of dglrig good. Benevolence must be uni- versal, reaching to every man vrithout exception; but beneficence cannot be so universal, for it is necessarily confined by several considerations; such as our knowledge of objects, and their dif- erent circumstances, as well as our own abilities and opportunities of cxe)v.ising th'cm. Bene- volence or good will to otliers does -not iinply that we are to neglect our own interests. Our salvation, healtli, prosperity, and reputation, should all be objects of conceni : nor will this Vlash with the afiection we maybear to others; on the contrary, experiencing the importance of these blessings ourselves, we shall be anxious for others to possess them also. The duties of benevplpnce include those we owe to men, purely on the ground of their being of the same species with ourselves; such as sympa- thy, relief, &c. ; those we owe tp our country, desiring its honour, safety, prosperity; those we owe to the church of God, as love, zeal, &c. ; those we owe to families and individuals, as af- fection, care, provision, justice, forbearance, ScCj-v Benevolence manifests itself by being pleased with the share of good every creature enjoys ; in a disposition to increase it ; in feeling an uneasi- ness at their sufiferings; and in the abhorrence of cruelty under every disguise or pretext. The desire of doing good unconnected with any idea of advaiitage to ourselves is. called disinterested benevolence, though some doubt whether, strictly speaking, t^ere be any such tiling; as benevo- lence is always attended with a pleasure to our- selves, which forms a kind of mental interest. So far, however, as we' are a^hle to prefer the good of, others to our own, and sacrifice our own com- BEREANS fort for the welfare of any about us, so far it may be said to be disintercgted. See Hutckeson ore /Ae Passions, p. 13—26; Doddridge's Led. 65; Beattie's Elements t>f Moral Science, vol. i. p. 244 — 249; Brown's Second Essay on Shaftes- bury's Characteristics I and articles Love and Self-love. , BEREANS, a sect of Protestant Dissenters from the church of Scotland, who take their title from and profess to follow the example of the ancient Bereans, in building their system of faith and practice upon the Scriptures alone, without regard to any human authority whatever^ As to the origin of this sect, we find that the Bereans first assembled as a separate society of Christians, in the city of .Edinburgh, in the au- tumn of 1773, and soon after in the parish of Fet- tercairn. The opt)onents of the Berean doc- trines allege, that this newj system of faith would never have been heard of, had not Mr. Barclay, the founder of it, beeii disappointed of a settle- ment in the church of Scotland. But the Be^ leans, in answer to this charge, appeal not only to Mr. Barclay's doctrine, uniformly preached in the church of Pettercairn, and many other places in that neighbourhood, for fourteen years before that benefice became vacant, but likewise to two different treatises, containing the same doctrines, published by him about ten or twelve years before thatjperipd. They admit, indeed, that previous to May 1773, when the general assembly, by sus- taining the king's presentation m favour of Mr. Poote, excluded Mr. Barclay from succeeding to the church of Pettercairn (notwithstanding the almost unanimous desire of the parishioners), the Bereans had not left the established church, or at- tempted to erect themselves into a distinct society j but they, add, that this was by no means neces- sary on their part, urttil by the assembly's decision th^ were in danger of being not only deprived of his instructions, but of being scattered as sheep without a shepherd. And they add, that it was Mr. Barclay's open and pubhc avowal, both from the pulpit and the press, of those peculiar senti- ments which' now distinguish the Bereans, that was the first and principal, if not the only cause of the opposition set on foot agsdnst his settle- ment in Pettercairn. The Bereans agree with the great majority of Christians respectmg the doctrine of the Trinity, which they hold as a fundamental article ; and they also agree in a great measure with the prov fessed principles of both our established churches respectmg predestination and election, though they allege that these doctrines are not con- sistently taught in either church. But they differ from the majority of all sects of Christians in va- rious other important particulars, such as, 1. Re- specting our knowledge of the Deity. Upon this subject they say, the majority of professed Chris- tians stumble at the very threshold of revelation ; and, by admitting the doctrine of natural religion, natural conscience, natural notices, &c. not found- ed upon revelation, or derived from it by tradition, they give up the cause of Christianity at once to the infidels; who may justly argue, as Mr. Paine in tact Idocs in his Age of Reason, that there is no occasion for ai^y revelation or word of God, if man can discover his nature and perfec- tions from his vvorks alon^i But this the Bereans argue is beyond the natural powers of human ;eason; and therefore our knowledge of God is' 40 BEREANS from revelation alone, and that without revelatioii man would never have entertained an idea of his existence. — 2. With regard to faith in Christ, and assurance of salvation through his merits, theydiifer from almost all other sects whatsoever. Xhese thfey reckon inseparable, or rather. the same, because (say they) "God hatlt expressly declaied, he that believeth shall be saved; aiid therefore it is not only absurd but impious, and in a manner calling God a Har, for a man to say, I believe the Gospel, but have doubts, neverthe- less, of my own salvation." With regard to the various distinctions and definitions that have been given of different kinds of faith, they argue that there is nothing incomprehensible or obscure in the meaning of this word as used in Scripture ; but that as faith, when applied to human testi- mony, signifies neither more noi less than the mere simple belief of that testimony as true, upon the authority of the testifier, so, when applied to the testimony of God, it signifies precisely '' the belief bf his testimony, and resting upon his ve- racity alone, without any kind of collateral supi- port from concurrence of any other evidence or testimony whatever." And they insist that, as this faith is the gift of God alone, so the person to whom it is given is as conscious of possessing it as the being to whom God gives life is of being aUve ; and .merefore he entertains no doubts either of his laith or his consequent salvation through the merits of Christ,'who died and rose again for that purpose. In a word, they argue that the Gospel would not be what it is held forth to be, glad tidings of great joy, if itdid not bring full personal assurance of eternal salvation to the believer; which assurance, they insist, is the present infallible privilege and portion of every : mdividual believer of the Gospel. — 3. Consist- ently with the above deifinition of faith, they say that the sin against the Holy Ghost, which has alarmed and puzzled so many in all ages, is no- thing else but unbelief; and that the expression — " it fliall not be forgiven neither in this world nor that which is' to come," means only that a person dying in infidelity would not be forgiven, neither under the former dispensation by Moses (the then present dispensation, kingdom, or govern- ment of God), nor under the Gospel dispeiisation which, in respect of the Mosaic, was a kind of fiiture world or kingdom to come.— 4. The Be- reans interpret a great part of the Old Testament prophecies, ^nd m partictUar the whole of the Psallns,' excepting su0h as are merely historical or laudatory, to be typical or prophetical of Jesus Christ, his sufferings, atonement, mediation, and kingdom ; and they^ esteem it a gross perversion of tnese Psalms and prbphecies to apply them to the experiences of private Christians. In proof of this, they not only urge the words of the apos- tle, that no prophecy is of euiy pr(» ate interpreta- tion, but they insist that the whole of the quota- tions from the ancient prophecies in the New Testsiment, and particularly those from the Psalms, are expressly applied to Cluist. In this opinion many other classes of Protestants agree with them. — 5. Of the absolute all-superintend- ing sovereignty of the Almighty, the Bereans entertain the highest idea, as well as of the unin- terrupted exertion thereof over all liis works, in heaven, eajth, and hell, however unsearchable by his creatures. A God without election, they argue, or choice in all liis works, is a God with. BERENGARIAJVS out existence, a ipere idol/ a non-entity. And to deny God's election, purpose, and express will in all his works, is to make liim inferior to ourselves. As to theii practice and dimplinej they conSi' der infant baptism as a divine ordinance, insti- tuted in the room ,of circumcision ; arid think it itbsurd to suppose that ihfants, who, all agree, are admissible to the kingdom of God in Maven, should, nevertheless, he incapable of being ad- mitted into his visible church on earth. They commemorate the Lord's Supper generally once a month; but as the words of the institution fix no particular period, they sometunes celebrate it oftener,' and sometimes ai more distant {leriods, as it may suit their general convenience. They meet every ford's day for the purpose of preach-' iiig, praying, arid exhorting_ to love and gbod works. With regard to admission and exclusion of members, their method is very simple ; when any person, after hearing the Berean doctrines, professes his belief and assurance Of the truths of the Gospel, and desu-es to be admitted into their communion, he is cheerfully received upon his profession, whatever may have been his former manner of life. But if such a one should after- wards draw bicfc from his good profession or practice, they first admonish him, and, if that has no effect, they leave him to himself. They do not think that they have any power to deliver a backsliding brother to Satan ; that text, arid other sunilar passages, such as, "Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven^" &c. they consider as restricted to the apostles, and to the inspired testimony alone, and not to be ex- tended to any church on earth, or any number of churches or of Christians, whether decided by a majority of votes, or by unanimous voices. Neither do they think themselves authorized, as a Christian church, to enquire into each other's politick opinions,. any more than to examine into each other's notions of philosophy. They both recommend and practise, as a Christian duty, submission to lawful authority ; but they do not think that a man, by becoming a Christian, or joining their society, is under any obligatidn by the rufes of the Gospel to renounce his right of private judgment upon matters of public or pri- vate importance. Upon all such subjects they allow each other to think and act as each may see it his duty; and they require nothing more of the members than a uniform and stetuly profes- sion of the apostolic iaith, and a suitable walk and conversation. It is said that their doctrine has found con- verts in various places of Scotlandj England, and America; and tliat they have congregations in .Edinburgh, Glasgow, - Paisley, Stirling, Crieff, Dundee, Arbroath, Montrose, Fettercaim, Aber- deen, and other towns in Scotland, as well as in London, and various places in England. For further particulars of the doctrines of this sect, see the vvorks of Messrs. Banlm/, Nicol, Brooksbank, and M'Rae. See also Mr. A. McLean's Treatise on the CoitimUUon, first edition, p. 88, in which Mr. Barclay's notion of assurilnce is combated. BERENGARIANS, a denomination in the eleventh century, which adhered to the opinions of Berengarius, who asserted that the bread and wine hi the Lord's Slipper are not really and'es- scnti'aUy, but figurative^ changed mto the body and blood of Christ. His followers were divided 41 P BIBLE in opihion as to the eucharist. Some allowed them to be changed in effect ; others adinittcd a change 'in part; and others an entire changp, with this restriction, that, to those who commu- nicated imworthily, the elements were changed back again. BERYLLIANS, so called from BerylluS, an Arabian, bishop of Bozrah, who flourished in the third century. He taught that Christ did not exist before Miry ; but that a spiriteissuing from God himselfj and therefore superior to all human souls, as being a portion of the divine nature, was united to him at;tiie time of his birth. BETHLEHEMITESj-a sect called a;lso Star- bearers, because they were distingubhcd by a red star havirig five rays, which they Wore on their breasl^ in memory of the star which appeared to the wise inen. Several authors have mentioiied this order, but none of them haVe told us their origin, nor where tiieir convents wete situated ; if we except Matthew Paris, who says that, in 1357, they obtained a settlement in England, which Was at Cajphridge; in Trumpington'-street. BIBLE, the name ai)plied by i Christiansj by Way of eminence, to the collection of sacred writings, or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New 'Testaments. J. Bible, ancient divisions and Order of. Ater the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, Ezra collected as many copies as he could of the sacred writings, and out of them all prepared a correct edition, arranging the several books in their proper order. These books l.e di- vided into .three parts. I. The law. IJ. The p^rophets. HI. 'The Hagiographia, i. e. the holy writings. I. T'le lawf contains — 1. Genesis; — 2. Exodus ; — 3. Leviticus ; — 4. Numbers ; — 5. Deuteronomy. II. The writings of the prophets^ are — 1. Joshua ;— 2. Judges, with Ruth ; — 3. Sa- muel; — 4. Kings ; — 5. Isaiah ; — 6. Jeremifth, with his Lamentations; — 7. Ezekiel; — 8. Daniel; — ^9. The twelve minor prophets ; — 10. Job; — 11. Ez- ra ;— 12. Nehemiah ;— 13. Esther. III. The Ha- f'ographia consists of— 1. The Psalms ; — 2. The roverbs; — 3, Ecclesiastes ; — 4. The Song of Solomon; This division was made for the sake of reducing the number of the sacred books to the number of the~ letters in their alphabet, which amount to twenty-tWo. Afterwards the Jews reckoned twenty-four books in their canon of Scripture; in disposing of which the law stood as m the former division, and the prophets were dis- tributed, into former and latter: the former pro- phets are Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings; the latter prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve toinor prophets. And the Ha- giographia consists of the Psalms, the Proverbs, Job, the Song of Solomon, Rxith, the Lamenta- tions, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, the Chro- nicles. Under the name of Ezra they compre bended Neheriuah : this order hath not always been observed, but the variations from it are of no moment. The five books of the law are divi- ded into ibrty-five sections. This division many of the Jews hold to have been appointed by Moses himself; but others, with more probability, ascribe it to Ezra, > The design of this division was, tliat one of these sections might be read in their synagogues feveiy, sabbath day : the number was finy-four, because, in their intercalated years, a month being then aJdded, there were fifty-four sabbaths : in other years they reduced them to d2 . •-■ ' BIBLE Hfty-two, by twice joining together two shprt sec- tions. Till the persecution of Antiochus Epipha- nes, they read only the Uwj but the reaclmg of it bein^ then prolubited, they substituted in the room of it fifty-four sections out of the prophets ; and when the reading of the law was restored by the Maccabees, the section which was read every sabbath out of the law served for their first lesson, and the section out of tiie prophets for their se- cond. Thiese sections were divided into verses j of which division, if Ezra was not the author, it was introduced not lone after him, and seems to have been designed for the use of the Targumists, or Chddee interpreters j for after the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, when the Hebrew languagfe ceased to be their mother tongue, and the ChEddee grew into use instead of it, the custom was, that the law should be first read in the original Hebrew, and tnen interpre- ted to the people in th& Chaldee language i, for which purpose these shorter sections were very convenient. II. Bible, History ojf. It is thought that Ezra published the Scriptures in the Chaldee character, for, tliat language being generally used among the Jews, he thought proper to change the old Hebrew character fcr it, which hath since that time been retained only by the Samantans, among whom it is preserved to this day. Pri- deaux is of opinion that Ezra made additions in several parts of the Bibl^ where any thing ap- peared necessary for illustrating, connecting, or completing the work; in whidn he appears to have been assisted by the same Spirit m which they were first written. Among such additions are to be reckoned the last chapter of Deute^ ronomy, wherein Moses seems to give an account of his own death and burial, ancf the succession of Joshua after him. To the same cause our learned author thinks are to be attributed many other interpolations in the Bible, which created difiioulties and objections to the authenticity of the sacred text, no ways to be solved without al- lowing them. Ezra changed the names of seve- ral places which were grown-obsolete,*and, in- stead of them, put their new names by which they were then called, in the text. Thus it is that Abraham is said to have pursued the kings who carried Lot away captive as far as Dan ; whereas that place in Moses's time was called Laish, the name Dan being unknown till the Danites, long after the death of MoSfes, possess^ themselves of it. The Jewish canon of Scripture was then settled by Ezra, yet not so but that several, variations have been made in it. Malachi, for instance, coulij not be put in the Bible by him, since that prophet is allowed to have lived after Ezra ; nor could Nehemiah \>e there, since that book mentions (chap, xii v. 22.) Jaddua as high priest, and Darius Codomanus as king of Persia, who were at least a hundred years later than Ezra. It may lie added, that, in the first book of Chronicles, the genealogy of the sons of Zerubbabel is carried down for so many generations as must necessarily bring it to the tunc of Alex- . anderj and consequently this book, or at least this part of it, could not be in the canon In Ezra's days. It is probable the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, and Malachi, were adopted into the Bible in the time of Simon the Just, the last of the men of the great synagogue. The Jews, at first, were very reserved in com- BIBLE municaling their Scriptures to strangers j despising and shunning the Gentiles, they would not cbsclose tothem any of the treasures concealed in the Bible. We may add, that the people bordering on the Jews, as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Arabs, &c. were not very curious to know the laws or his- tory of a people, whom in their turn they hated and despised. Their first acquaintance with these boidts was not till after the several captivi" ties of the Jews, when the singularity of the He- brew laws and ceremonies induced several to desire a more particular knowledge of them. Jo^ sephus seems surprised to find such slight foot- Steps of the Scripture history interspersed in the Egyptian, Chaldean, Phosnician, and Grecian history ; and accounts for it hence, that the siicred books wrere not as yet translated into Greek or other languages, and consequently not known to the writers of those nations. T^he first version of the Bible was that of the Septuagint into Grreek, by order of that patron of htetatute, Ptolemy Philadelphus ; though some maintain that the whole was not then translated, but only the Pentateuch ; between which and the other books in the Septuagint version, the critics find a great diversity in point of style and expression, as well as of accuracy. III. Bible, modem Divisions of. The di- vision of the Scriptures into chapters, as we at present have them, is of modern date. Some at- tribute it to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, in the reigns of John and Henry IIL But thatrue author of the invention was Hugo de Sancto Caro, commonly called Hugo Cardina- lis, because he was the first Dominican that ever \f as raised to the degree of cardinal. This Hugo flourished about A. T). 1240 : he wrote a coinment on the Scriptures, and projected the first con- cordance, which is that of the vulgar Latin Bible. The aim of this work being for the more easy finding out any word or passage in the Scriptures, he found it necessary to divide the book into sec- tions, and the sections into sub-divisions-; for tijl that time the vulgar Latin- Bibles were without any division at all. These sections are the chap- ters into which the Bible hath ever since been divided ; but the subdivision of the chapters was not then into verses, as it is now. Hugo's method of subdividing them was by the letters, A, B, C, D, E, E", G, p&ced in the margin, at an equal dis- tance from each other, accorumg to the length of the chapters. The subdivision of the chapters into verses, as they now stand in our Bibles, had its original from a famous Jewish rabbi named Mordecai Nathan, about 1445. This rabbi, in imitation of Hugo Cardinalis, drew up a con- cordance to the Hebrew Bible, for the use of the Jews. But though he followed Hugo in his di- vision of the books into chapters, he refined upon his' inventions as to the subdivision, and contrived that by verses : this being found to be a much more convenient method, it has been ever since followed. And thus, as the Jews borrowed the division of the books of the Holy -Scriptures int6 chapters from the Christians, in like manner the Christians borrowed that of the chapters into verses from the Jews. The present order of the several books is almost the same (the Apocrypha excepted) as that made by the council of Trent. IV. Bible, rejected Books of . The ajiocry-. phal books of the Old Testament, according to the Romaiikts, are the books of Enoch (see BIBLK Jaie idv.,y the thu^ and fourth booka of Esdras, the third and fourth books of Maccabees, the prayer of Manasseh, the Testament of the twelve Patriafchs, the Psalter of Siilpmonj and some other pieces of this nature. The apocryphal books of the New Testament are the epistle of S(. Barnabas, the pretended epistle of St. PaulJ:o the Laodiceans, several spurious Gospels, Acts of. the Apostles, and Revelations; the book of Hermas, entitled the Shej^erd; Jesiia Christ's letter to Abgarus ; the' epistles of St. Paul to Seneca, and several other pieces of the like natvtre ; as may be seen in the collection of the apocryphal writings of the New Testament made by Pa- bricius. Protestants, while they agree wifli the Roman Catholics in rejecting all those as uncano- nicid, have also justly xqected the books of T.obit, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, and 1st and 2d Maccabees. V. Bible, Tyanslations of. We have already mentioned the first translation, of the Old Testa-, ment by the LXX. (§2.) Both Old and New Testaments were afterwards translated into Latin by the primitive Chi^tians; and while the Roman emj^ire 'subsisted in Europe, the reading of the Scnpl!ures in the Latin tongue, which was the nniversal lan^age of that empire, prevailed every where ; but smce the face of affairs in Europe has been changed, and so^mEiny different monarchies erected upon the rujns of the Roman empire, the Latin tongue has by degrees grown into disuse j whence has arisen a necessity of translating the Bible into the respective languages of each peo- ple : and this has produ9ed as many different ver- sions of the Scriptures in the modern languages as there are different nations professing the Chns- tian religion. Of the principal of thes^ as well as of some other ancient translations, and the earliest and most elegant printed editions, we shall now take noUce uj their order. 1. BiBij;, Armenian. There is a very ancient Armenian version of the whple Bible done from the Greek of the LXX. by some of their doctors, about the time of 'Chrysostom. This was first printed entire, 1664, by one of their bishops at Amsterdam, iii quarto, with the New Testament in octavo. '2. Bible, Bohemian. The Bohemians have a Bible translated by eight of their doetprs, vi^om they had sent to the schools of Wirtemberg and Basil on purpose to study the original languages : it was printed in Moravia in 1539. 3. Bible, Croatian. Atranslationof the New Testament into the Croatian language was pubT lished by Faber breim, and others, m 1562 and 1563. - • • 4. Bible, Gaelie. A few years ago, a ver- sion of the Bible in th? Gaehc or Erse language was published at Edinburgh, where the Gospel is preached regularly in that language in two chapels, for the benefit of the nativeaof the High- lands. .... 5. Bible, €lecrrgian. The inhabitants of Georgia,' in A-sia, have long had a translation of the Bible in thejr ancient language: but that language having now become alinoat obsolete, ana the Georgians in general "being very ignoranl^ few of them can either read or understand it. G. Bible, Gothic. It is generally said that Ulphilas, a Gothic bishop, who lived m the fourth century, made a version of the whole Biblej ex- cept the book of Kings, for the use of his coun- 43 BIBLE trymen ; that book- he. omitted, because of the frequent mention of the wars therein, as fearing to inspire too much of. the military genius into that people. We have nothing remainineof this version but the four Evangelists, printed m quar- to, at Dort, in 1665, from a very ancient manu- script. 7. Bmr.E, Griaon. A translation of the Bi- ble into the language of the Grisons, injtaly, was completed by Coir, and published in I'j^. 8. Bible, lcelar\dic. The inhabitants of Iceland have a version of the Bible in their lan- guage, \vhich was ,translated by Thorlak, and published in 1584. 9. Bible, Indian. A translation of the Bi ble into the North America Indian language, by Elliot, was pubUshed in quarto, at Cambiidpe in 1685. - , 10. 'Bi^tM) Irish. About the middle of the sixteenth century. Bedell, bishop of Kilmore, s^t on foot a translation of the Old Testament into the Irish language, the New Testament and the Liturgy haying been before translated into that language : the bishop appointed one King to , execute this work, who, not understanding the oriental languages, was obliged to translate it from the English. This work was receivKl by Bedell, who, after having compared the Irish with the English translation, compared the latter with the Hebrew, the LXX. and the Italian 'version of Diodati. When it was finishedj the bishop would have been himself at the charge of the im- pression J but his design was stopped, upon ad? vice given to the lord lieutenant and the arch- bishop of Canterbury that it would seem a shameful thing for a nation to publish a Bible translated by such a despicable hand as King: however, the manuscript was not lost, for it went to press in 1685, and was afterwards published. 11. Bible, King James's. See Np. 24. 13. Bible, Maldbarian. In 1711, Messrs. Ziegenbald and Grindler, two Danish mission- aries, published a translation of the New Testa- ment in the Malabarian language, after which they proceeded to translate the Old Tpstament. 13. Bible, Malayan. About 1670, Sir Ro- bert Boyle procured a translation of the New Testament into the Malayan language, which he printed, and . sent the whole impression to the East Indies. 14. Bible, Rheviish. See No. 23. Ab. Bible, Samaritan. At the head of the oriental versions of the Bible must be placed the Samaritan, as being the must ancien): of all (though neither its age nor author have been yet ascertained), and atlmitting no more forthe Holy Scripture but the five books of Moses. This translation is inade from the Samaritan Hebrew text, which is a Uttle different frqm the Hebrevf text of the Jews : >this version has never been printed alone, nor any where but in the Polyglots of London and Paris. 16. Bible, Suiedieh. In 1534, Olaus and Laurence published a Swedish Bible from the German version of Martin Luther: it was re- vised in 1617, by order of king Gustavus Adol- phus, and was afterwards ahnost universally re- ceived, 17. Bible, Anglo Saxon. If we inquire into the versions of the Bible, of our own country, vre shall find that Adelm, bishop of Sherburn, who livedan 709, made an English S^on "version of BIBLE the Psalms; and that Edfrid, or Ecbert, bishop of Linaiaferne^ who lived about 730, translated several^ of the books of Scripture into the same language. It is said, likewise, that the veneribje Bede, who died in 785, translated the whole Bi- ble into Saxon. — But Cuthbert, Bede's disciple, in the enumeration of his master's works, speakis only of his translation of the Gospels, and says nothins of the rest of the Bible. Some say that king Alfred, who lived about 890, translated a great part of the Scriptures, We find an bjd version in the Anglo Saxon of several books of the Bible, maxle by tlfric, abbot of Mahnesbury : it was published at Oxford in 1699. There i^ an old Anglo Saxon version of the four Gospels, published by Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, jn 1571, the author whereof is un- known. Mr. Mill observes, that .this vetsion was made from a Latin copy of the old Vulgate. The whole Scripture is said by some to have been translated into the Anglo Saxon by Bede, about 701, though others contend he only translated the Gospels. We have certain books or parts of the Bible by several other translators ; as, first, the Psalms, by Adelno, bishop of Shefbum, contem- porary with Bede, though by others this version is attributed to king Alfr^ who lived two hundred years later. Another version of the Psalms, in Anglo Saxon, was published by Spelman, in 1643. — ^2. The evangelists, still extant, dbhe from the ancient Vulgate, before it was revised by St. Jerome,^ by an author unknown, and published by Matthew Parker in 1571. An old Saxon version of several books of the Bible made by El- fric, abbot of M^lmesbury, several fragments of Which were pubUshed by Will. Lilly, 1638; the genuine copy by Edm. Thwaites, in 1699, at Ox- ford. 18. Bibles, Arabia In 1516, Aug; Justinian, bishop of Nebio, printed at Genoa an Arabic ver- sion of the Psalter, with the Hebrew text and Chaldee paraphrase, adding Latin interpretations : there are also Arabic versions of the whole Scrip- ture in the Polyglots of London and Paris; and we have an edition of the Old Testament entirfe, printed at Rome, in 1671, by order of the congre- gation de propaganda Jide ; but it is of littl^ esteem, as having been altered agreeably to the Vulgate edition. The Arabic Bibles among us are not the same with those used with the Chris- dans in the East. Some learned men take the Arabic version of the Old Testament printed m the Polyglots to be that of Saadias's, who liv^ ' about A. D. 900 : their reason is, that Aben Ezra, a greeft antagonist of Saadias, quotes some pas^ sages of his version, which are the same with those in the Arabic version of the Polyglots; yet others are of opinion that Saadias's version is not extant. , In 1622, Erpenius printed an Arabic Pentateuch, called also the Pentateuch of 'Mau- ritania, as being made by the Jews of Barbary, and for their use. This version is very literal, and esteemed very exact. The four evangelists have also been published in Arabic, with a Latin ver- sion, at Rome, in 1591, folio. These have been since reprinted in the Polyglots of London and Pahs, with some Uttle alteration of Gabriel Sionita. Erpenius published an Arabic New Testalnent entire, as he folind it in his manuscript copy, at Leyden, 1616. There are some other Arabic versions of later date, mentioned by Walton in his Prolegoihena, particularly a version of the 44 BIBLE Psalms, preserved al Sidn College, London, and another of the ptophets at Oxford; neither of. which have been published. Proposals ^f"'^^ sued for printing- a new edition of the Arabic Bible, by Mr. Carlyle, bhancellor of the diocese of Carlisle, and professor of Arabic iii the unv versity of Cambildge ; but his death prevented his finistuhg it. 19. Bibles, Chaldee, axe only the glosses or exjiositions made by the Jews at the tune when they spoke the Chaldee tongue: these they call by the name of Targumim, or paraphrases, as not being any Strict version of the Scripture. They have been inserted entire in the large Hebrew Bibles of Venice and Basil; but are read more commodiously in the Polyglots, being there at- tended with a Latin translation. 20. BiBLESj Copiic. There are several imnu-. ;script copies of the Coptic Bible in some or the ftieat libraries, emebially in that of the king of 'ranee. Dr. WilkinS piiblished the Coptic New Testament^ in quarto, in 1716; arid the Penta- teuch, also in quarto, in 1731, with Latin trans- lations. He reckons these versions to have been made in the end of the second or the beginning of the third century. 21. Bibles, Danish. The hcsi Danish BiUlfe was pubUshed by Peter Palladus, Olaus Chrysos- tom, John Synningius, and John Maccabseus, in 1550, in which they followed Luther's first Ger- man version. There arc two other versions, the one by John Paal Reseriiiis, bishop of Zealand, in 1605; the other of the New Testament only, by John Michel, in 1524. 22. Bibles, Dutch. See No. 26. 23. Bibles, Bast Itidiah. See Nos. 12, l3, 14. 2i. Bibles; English. The first English Bible we read of was that translated by J. Wicklifte, . about the year 1360,' but never printed, thousn there are manuscript copies of it in several of the public libraries. A translation, however, of the New Testament by Wickliife was printed by Mr. Lewis, about 1731. J. de Trevisa, who died about 1398, is also said to have translated the v^^hole Bible; but whether any copies of it are ro- maining does not appear. The first printed Bible in our language was that translated by W. Tin- dal, assist«l by Miles Cuvefdalc, printed abroad in 1526; but most of the copies were bought up arid burnt by bishop Tunstal dnd Sir Thomas More. It onlycOtitairied the New Testament^ and was revised and republished by the same per- son in 1530. I'he prdlogues and prefaces added to it, reflect on the bislidps and clergy; but this edition vvas also suppressed, and the copies burnt. In 1532 Tindal and hw associates finished the whole BiM&, except tlie Apocrypha, and printed it abroad ; bfut, while he was afteirwards preparing a second edition, he was taken up and burnt for heresy in Flanders. On Tindal's death, his work Was Carried on by Coverdalo, arid John Rogers, superintendant of an English church in Germany, and the first martyr in the reign of queen Mary, wiid tr^slated the Apocrypha, and 'revised Tindal's translation, comparing it with the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, and adding prefaces and notes from Luther's Bible. He dedicated the whole to Henry VIII. in 1537, under the borrowed name of Thomas Matthews; whence this has been usually called Matthews's Bible. It was printed at Hamburgh, and hcence obtained for publishing it in Engbnd, by the ia- BIBLE "our of ' archbishop CK(iuner, aajd the bishops Latimer and Shaxtoft. The lir'st Bible priijted by authority in England, ai^d publicly set up iii churches, was the same Tindal'a version, revised and compared with the Hebrew, and in many places amended by Miles Cpverdalft afterwards bishop of Exeter; an\^ examined after him by nrchbishoi; Cranmer,Svho'adiled a preface toitj whence this vvas called Craniner's Bible. It was ^printed bjr Grafton, of the largest volupe, and pubQshed in 1540; and by a royal proclamation, every parish was obliged to set one of the espies ; in their church, under the penalty of forty shjl-' lings a, month; yet, two years attcTj th^ popish bishops obtained its suppression by the, king. It was restored under Edward yi., suppressed again under queen Mary's reim, and restored again in the first year of queen !Eli2abeth, and, a new edi- tion of it given in 1562. Some English exiles at Geneva, in qu^n Maryls reign, viz., Goverdalej Goodman, Gilbie, Sampson, tJole, WittiMibanx, and Knox, made a new translation, printea there \n 1560, the New Testament ha,vins been printed m 1557; hence called the Geneva Bible, (Soutainj Big ihe Variations of readings, niarginaJ annota- tions, &c. on account of which ;t was imj^h valued by the puritan party in that and the fol- lowing re^ns. , Abp. Parker resolved on a new translation for the public use of the church; and engaged the bishops, and other learned mpn, to take each a share or portion; these, being after- wards joined together and printed, with short annotations, in 1568, in large fpUo, made ' what Was afterwards called the Gre^t English ^ib'!?, and commonly the Bishops' Bibl?. In 1589, it was published in octavo, in a sp:iall but fine black letter ; and here the chapters were divided into verses, but without any breaks for them, in which the method of the Geneva Bible was follovf^ which was the first English Bible where any distinction of verses was made. It yeas fi^erwards printed in large folio, with cppreQtions, and sevei^ oto; . legomena, in 1573; this is called Matthew Far^ ker's Bible. The initial letters of each traij^la- tor's name were piit at the end of hjsi part;.*;.^. at the end ()f the Pentateuch, yit. E. for William Exon; that is William, bishop of Exeiter, whps? a|I,otment e^ded there ; at the end of Su^i^^l, R. M. for Richard Menevensis, or bbhop of. Stl David's, to whom the second allotmeiit fell; and the, like of th^ rest. The Etrchbishop oyersavr, directed, examined, and finished ,tb^, Whole. This trsinslation was used in the churches for forty jiears, though th^ Gpn,ey!i Bible W^ njtore read in private noiises, being print^ above twenty times in as many yes^rs. Kiiig I^es bore it an invetej^te hatred, on acc()Vi'i|(^the,,iiqte|) wjhiclii at the Ham]^tpn Couft cotif^re^t^, hef{i^eir,a^ mrlial, untruei. seditious, &»;. ' The Bl^l^pira' l^ble, top, had, its feults, Tix kiflg frankly OTvn^dthathe had seen n,o good irMislalion of the Bible in English : but he thought t^iat of Ge- neva the worst of all. 4-fter the trsinslajion pf the Bible by the, bi^bops, tyyo othqr private ver- sions had 'jeen made of the N.ew TestaWntj the first by Laurene« Thompson, frwa Beza's Latin eijition, with the nptes of Beza, published in 15^^, i^iqtiarto, and atler,yyards in l£$9i. y^igriilg yeicy little from the Geneva Bible ;, the secpnd by the papists at Rhei^s, in 1584, called the Rhemish B^b^e, or Rhej^h tianplation. These, finding it iinpossible ilt^p. the people fcpw, hajVing the '45 , BIBLE Scriptures in their vulgar .t(mgue, cesolved toriw a version of theii own, as favourable to their cause as might be. It was printed on a large pa- per, with a lair letter and margin ; one complaint against it wasj its retaining a multitude pi He- brew and, Greek words untranslated, for wanl^ as the Editors express it, pf proper and adequate terms in, the English to render them by; a» the words ozymes, tunike,, Iwlocaustf jn-epuee, pasche, &c. : however, many of the copies were seized by the queen's searchers, and confiscated ; and Thomas Cartwright was solirated by secre- tary, Walsinghana to refute it;, but, after a good progress miade therein, ahjlfbishop Whit^ft pro- hibited his further proceeding, as judging it im- Iireper that the doctrine of the church of England should be committed to the defence of a puritan; and appointed Dr. Fulke in his place, who ^ futed the Rhemists with great spirn and learning. Cartwright's refutation was also afterwards pub- lished in 1618; under archbishop Abbpt. Abou| thirty years after their New Testament, the Ro- man CE^tholics published a translation of the Old, at Douay, 1609 and 1610, from tHe Vulgat?, with annpt^tions, so that the English Roman Oatho- ^c^ have now the whole Bible in their motheif tongue;, though, it is to be observed, they are fiiibidden to read it without a licence from their superiors. The last Eriglish Bible Was that wlflpb proceeded fip,m Hamptpn Cptcrt conference. In 1,60S; where, many exceptions brang mdde to thfl Bishops' Bible, king James gave order fpr a new pne; npt, as the pi^ace expresses it, fpT a trans- lation altogether new, nor yet to make a, good one better ; (It, pf many good ones, one best. Fifty- tour learned men were appointed to this offiee % the king, as appears bj ois letter to the arcbr bishop, dated 1604; which being three years b»- ipr^ ihe translation was entei'ed upon, it is pro- bable seven of them were either dead, or nad decli^^ tlie task; since Fuller's list of the trans- lators makes but, forty-seven, who, being r^ged, tinder dx divisipps, entered on their province in 1607. It was published in 161^, with a dedication to James, and a learned pre^ap^; and is cpmmonly called king James's Eiibje. After this, all the other y^ifsipns dropped, and fell into disuse, ex- cept the Epistles and" Gospels in th^ CommoQ Prayer Book, which wpre still cpntinijed apcord- ing to;the feUhopsl !,transl!(tion till the alteration pf the Ijfiiigy in 1661, and iJie ps^ms and hyftm^ v^hipk »re jto this d^ (^htinueq as in .th^ pfd yeiv a^ T^ juc^ipUs Seidell, in his Table-talk, spring of th^ piyiei ^y^, ," The English trans- la^bph pf thelRibl^i is,.t|W begt translation in this ^pi:Id, and r^ijdeg.,thJ^ sense pf the priginal best; tfdong ^.mr the English tiaij^Jatipn, t& ^iahops! S^le, a^^ell a? ^g Jaines,'s. Thi^ trsuislators in kmg Jameses (i|ne,1pok an excellent way, Th^ p!^ of; t^ Bible was ^y6n to him who vv^s most exqellent'in such^ itoVigiiie, (as' the Apocrypha to ,i^ndiieiy Doysns,) aiid ,then they inet tpgetl^ej', and one read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or, French, Spanish, or Italian, &c If they found anvfaii^t, they Sppke; if not, he read oni'' {King James's Bible is that novy read by authority; ip all the churphes in Britain.] ^tfotwithstanding, however, the excellency pf this translatip^ it must be, acknpwl^dged thatpuir ims^wng ficq}3»m}»Bpe, with prientel customs E^^ manners, and the changes our language has BIBLE undefgone since king James's timp, afe ve*y pow- erful arguments for a new translation, or at least a correction of the old one. There have been various English Bibles with marginal references by Can- ne, Haves, Parker, Scattergood, Field, Tennison, Lloyd, Blayney, Wilson, &c.i but the bestwehavfe, perhaps, of this kind, are BroWn's and Sdott's. '26. Bibles, Bthwpic, The Ethiopians have also translated the Bible into their language. Therp have been printed separately the Psalms, Canticles, Some chapters of Genesis, Ruthj Joel, Jonah, Zephaniah, Malacbi, and the New Tes- tament, all which have been since reprinted in the Polyglot of Lotidon. As to the Ethiopic New Testament, which was first printed at Rome in 1548, it is a very inaccujate work, and is re- printed in the English PoItoIoI with all its faults. 26. Bibles, Flemish. The Flemish Bibles of (he Romanists are very numerous, and for the most part have no author's name prefixed to them, till tlmt of Nicholas Vinck, printed at Louvain in 1548. The Flemish versions made use of by the Calvinists till 1637, were copied princimlly from that of Luther. But the Synod of Dort lutving, in 1G18, appointed a new translation of the Bible into Flemish, deputies were named for the Work, which was not finished till 1637. 27. Bibles, French. The oldest French Bible we hear of is the version of Peter de Vaux, chief , of the WaldensfB, who lived about the year 1160. Raoul de Preste' translated the Bible into French in the reign of kin^ Charles V. of France, about A. p. 1383. Besides these, there are several old French translations of particular par^ of the Scripture. The doctors of Louvain, pubUshed the Bible in French, at LoUvain, by order bf the emperor Charles V. in 1550. There is a, version by Isaac le Maitre de Sacy, published in 1672, with explanations of the hteral Snd spiritual meaning of the text; which was received vfith wonderful applause, and has often been reprinted. Of the New Testaments in French, which have been printed separately, one of the most remark- able is that of F. Amelotte, of the Oiatory, com- posed by the direction of some French prebtes, and printed with annotations in 1666, 1667, and 1670. The author pretends he had- searched all the libraries in Europe, and collated the oldest manuscripts j but, in examining his work, it ap- pears that he has produced no considerable vari- ous readings which liad not before been taken notice of either in the London Polyglot, or else- where. The New Testarrient of M6ns, printed 1665, vrith the archbishop of Cambray's piermis- aion, and the king of Spain's licence, mack great noise in the worfi. It was condemned by pope Clement 13C. in 1668 1 by pope Innocent XS. in 1669 J and in several bishopncs of Fiance at se- veral times. The New Testament, published at Trevoux, in 1702, by M. Simon, vrith literal and critical annotations upon dijficijt passages, was condemned by the bishops of Paris inu Meaux in 1702. F. BohoUrs, a Jesuit, vrith the assist;^ ance of F. P. IVHchael Tellier and Peter Bemier, Jesuits, likevirise published a translation of the New Testament m 1697; but this translation is for the most part harsh and obseurej which was ewing to the author's adhering too strictly to the Laf in text. There are likewise French transla- tions published by Protestant authors; one by Robert Peter Olivetan, printed in 1536^ and often reprinted with the corrections of Jptui Calvin and I 46 BIBLE others; ailother by Sebastian Cftst*lio, tfimarfc able for particular vifays of elcpression never used by good judges of the language. John Diodati likevrise pubBshed a French Bible at Geneva m 1644; but some find' fault vrith his method, in that he rather paraphrases the text than translate^ it. Fabet Stapalensis translated the New Testament into j'rehch, vvhich was revised and accommo- dated to the use of the reformed churches in Piedmont, and printed in 1534. Lastly, John le Clerc published a New Testament in French at Amsterdam, in 1703, with armotations taken chiefly from Grotius and Hammond ; but the use of this version was prohibited by order of the States-general, as tending tp revive the errors of Sabellius and Socinus. 28. Bibles, Oermaiti. The first and most an- cient translation of the Bible in the German lan- guage is that of Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths, in the year 360. An imperfect manuscript of this version was foujld in the abbey of Verden, near Cologne, written in letters of silver, for which reason it is called Codex Argenteus; and it was published by Francis Junius m 1665. The oldest German printed Bible extant is that of Nurem- burg, in 1547; but who was the author of it is uncertain. John Emzer, chaplain to Geoige duke of Saxony, pdblished a version of the New Tes- tament in opposition to Lnther. There is a German Bible of John Ekeus, in X537, with Emzer's Ne^ Testament added to it;i and one by Ulemburgi'us of Westphalia, procured by Fer- dinand duke of Bavaria, and printed 1630. Mar- tin Luther, having employed eleven yters in trans- lafiiig the Old and New Testaments, published the Pentateuch and the New Testament in 1522, the historical books and the Psalms in 1524, the books of Solonion in 1527, Isaiah in 1529, the Prophets in 1531, and the other books in 1530. The learned agree that his language is pure, and the version clear and free from mtricacies. It was revised by several persona of quality, who were masters of all the delicacies of the Gennan language. The German Bibles which have been printed at Saxony, Switzerland, and elsewhere, are, for the most part, the same as that of Luther, with Uttle variation. In 1604, John Piscator published a version of the Bible in German, taken from that of Junius and Tremellius; but his turn of expression is purely Latin, and not at all agreeable to the genius of the (Jermani languages The Anabaptbts have a German Bible printed at Worms in 1529. John Crellius published hie version of the New Testament at Racovia in 1630, and Felbinger his at Amsterdam in 1660. 29. Bibles, £/reek. There are many editions of the Bible in Greek, but they may be all reduced to three or' four principal ones ; viz. that of Cont- plutum, or Alcala de Henares ; that of Ve'iuce^ that of Rome, and that of Oxford. The first was published in 1515 by cardinal Ximenes, and in- serted in the Polyglot Bible, usually called the Complutensian BiQe : this edition is not just, the Gteeb of the LXX. being altered in many places " according tp the Hebrew text. It has, however, been reprinted in the Polyglot Bible of^ Antwerp, in that of Paris, and in the quarto Bible cpmmonfy called Vatablus's Bible. The second Greek Bi- bleis that of Venice, printed by Aldus in 1518. Here the Greek text of the Septuagint is reprint- ed just as) it stood in the manuscriBtj full of ianlta of the copyists, but ea^y amended! Tliis edition BIBLE was reprinted at Strasburg in 1526, at Basil In 1545, at Pranlifortin 1597, and otlier places, with some alterations, to bring it nearer the Hebrew. The most cpmmodious is that of Frankfort, there being added to this little scholia, which show the diflerent interpretations of the old Greek trans- lators. The anthorof this collection has not added his name, but it is, commonly ascribed to Jn- nius. The thfrd Greek Bible is that of Rome, or the Vatican, in 1587, with Greek scholia, collected from the manuscJipts in the Roman libraries by Peter Morin. It was first set on foot by Cardinal Montalbo,. afterwards pope Sixtua V. This fine edition has been reprinted at Paris in 1628, by J.Mprin, priest of the Oratory, who has added the Latin translation, which in the Roman was printed separately with scholia. The Greek edition of Rome has been pripted in the Polyglot Bible of London, to which are added at the bot- tom the various readings of the Alexandrian ma- nuscript. This has been also reprinted in England, in 4to. and 12mo. with some silterations. ft was igain published at Franeker, in 1709, by B6s, who has added all the various readings he could find. The fourth Greek Bible is that done from the Alex- andrian manuscript, begun at Oxford by Grabe in 1707. In tlus the Alexandrian manuscript is not printed such as it is, but such as it was thought it should be, i, e. it is altered wherever there ap- peared any fault of the copyists, or any word in- serted from any particialar dialect : this some think an excellence, bvit others a fault, urging that the manuscript should have, been ^ven absolutely and entirely of itself, and all conjectures as to the readings' should have been throwm into the notes. We have many editions of the Greek Testament by Erasmus, Stephens, Beza ; that in the Com- plutensian Polyglot, the Elzevirs, &c;! and with various readings by Mill, Bengelius, Wetstein, &c. Those of Wetstein and Griesbach are thought by some to exceed all the rest. ", 30. Bibles, Hebrew, are either manuscript or printed. The best manuscript Bibles are mine copied by the Jews of Spain : those copied by the Jews of Germany are less exact; but more com- mon. < The two kinds are easily distinguished from each other ; the former being in beautiful characters, like the Hebrew Bibles of Bomberg, Stevens, and Plantin: the latter in characters like those of Munster and Grypheus. F. Simon observes, that the oldest manuscript Hebrew^ Bi- bles are not above six: or seven hundred years old J nor does Rabbi- Menahem, who quotes a vast number of them, pretend that any one of them exceeds 600 years. Dr. Kennicott, m hia Disser- tatio ureneraus, prefixed to his Hebrew Bible, p. 21, observes, that the most amcient manuscripts were written between the yeare 900 and 1100; but though those that are the most ancient are not more than 800 or 900 years old, they were transcribed from others of a much more ancient date. The manuscript preserved in the BodleiauL Library is not less than 800 years old. Another manuscript not tess ancient is^reserved in the Cjesarian Library at Vienna. The most ancient printed Hebrew Bibles are those published by the Jews of Italy, especially of Pesaro and Bresse. Those of Portugal also printed some, parts of the Bible at Lisbon before their expulsion. This majr be observed in general, that the best Hebrew Bi- bles are those prmted under the mspection of the Jews j there being so many mintitis to be ob- 47 ■BIBLE served in the Hebrew language, that it is searerfy possible for any other to succeed in it. In tha beginning of the 16th century, Dan. Romberg ppnted several Hebrew Bibles in folio and quarto at Venice, most of whioh were esteemed both by the Jews and Christians! the^firstin 1517, which ts the least exact, and generally goes by the name of Felix Pratensis; the person who revised it ; this edition contains the Hebjew text, the Tar- gum, and the commentaries (jf several ^bbins. In 1528, Bomberg printed the folio Bible of Rabbi Benchajim, with his preface, the masoretical di- visions, a preface of Aben Ezra, a double masora, and several various readings. The third edition was Printed in 1618, the same with the Second, but much more correct. From the former editions, Buxtorf, the father, printed his rabbinical He- brew Bible at Basil, m 1618 ; which,'though there are many faults in it, is more correct than; any of the former. In 1633, appeared at Venice a new edition of the rabbinical Bible, by Leo, of Mode- na, a rabbin of that city, who pretended to have corrected a great number of faults in the former edition ; but, besides that it is much inferior to the other Hebrew Bibles of Venice, with regard to paper and print, it has passed through the hands of the inquisitors, who have altered many passages in the commentaries of the rabbins. Of Hebrew Bibles in quarto, that of R. Stevens is esteemed for the beauty of the characters ; but it is very incorrect. Plantin also printed seyeral beautiful Hebrew Bibles at Antwerp) ,one in eight columns, with a pre&ce by Arias Montanus; in 1571, which far exceeds the Complatensian in paper, print, and contents : this is cftlled the Royal JBible, because it was printed at the expence of Philip II. king of Spain : another at Geneva^ 1619, besides many more of difi°erent sizes, with and without points. Manasseh Ben Israel, a l^rned Portuguese Jew, published two editions of the Hebrew Bible at Amsterdam ; one in quarto, ,in 1635 ; the other in octavo, in 1639 : the first has two columns, and for that reason is more common diousfor the reader. In 1639, R. Jac Lombroso published a new edition in quarto at Venice, with' small literal notes at the bottom of each page, where he explains the Hebrew words by Spanish words. This Bible is much esteemed by the Je\v» ^t Consta,ntinople ; in the text they have distin- guished between words where the point camel* IS to be read with fi camels catuph ; that is, by o, and not an a. Of all the editions of tte Hebrew Bible in' octavo, the most beautiful and correct are the two of J. AthiaSj a Jew of Amsterdam- The first, of 1661, is the best paper;- but that of 1667 is the most exact. That, however, published since at Amsterdam, by yander Hooght, in 1705^ is preferable to both.. After Athias, three He braizing Protestants engaged in revidngand pub- lishing the Hebrew Bible, viz. Clodius, Jablonski, and Opitius. Clodius's edition was published at Frankfortj ■ in 1677, in quarto : at tjie bottom o/ the pages it has the various readings of the former editions ; but the author does not appear suffi- ciently versed in the accenting, especially m the poetical books ; besides, as it was not published under his eye, many faults have crept in^ That of Jablonski^ in 1699, in quarto, at Berlin, is very beautiful as to letter and print ; but, though the editor pretends he made Use of the editions of Athias and Clodius, some critics find it scarcely in any thing different from the quarto edition f what use is it to msist on a general and external call •? To this it is answered that, by the exter- nal call, gross enormous crimes are often avoided; habits of vice have been partly conquered ; and much moral good at least has been produced. It IS also observed, that though a man caimot con- vert himself yet he has a po^ei to dp some things that are materially good, though not good in ail those circumstances mat accompany or flow from "egeneration : Such were Ahab's humiUt^, 1 Kmgsxxi. 39; Nineveh's repentance, J^r. iu. 5 ; and Herod's hearing of John, Mark \i. 20. On the whol', the design of Grod in giving this com- mon call in the Gospel is the salvation of his people, the restraining of many &om wicked practices, and the setting forth of the glorious work of redemption by Jesus Christ. See GUI and Ridgley's Body of Dm. ; Witsiua on'the Cov. ! and Bennet's Essay on the Gospel £)is- pensation. CALVINISTS, those who embrace the doc- trine and sentiments of Calvin, the celebrated reformer of the Christian church from Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. John Calvin was bomatNogen, in Picardy, in the year 1509. He first studied the dvil law, and was afterwards made professor of divinity at Geneva, in the year 1536. His genius, learning, eloquence, and piety, rendered mm respectable even in the eyes of his enemies. The name of Calvinists seems to have been' given at first to those who embraced not merely the doctrine, but the church government and dis- cipline established at Geneva, and to distinguish them from the Lutherans. But since the meeting of the Synod of Dort, the name has been chiefly apphed to those who embrace his leading views of the Gospel, to distinguish them from the Ar- minians. The leading principles taught ^ Calvin were the same as those of Augustine. The main doc- trines by which those who are called after his name ire distinguished from the Arminians, are' reduced to five articles; and which, from their being the principal points discussed at the Synod of Dort, have since been denominated the Jive points. These are, predestination, particular re- demption, total depravity^ efiectual calling, and the certain perseverance of the saints. The following statement is taken jpiincipally from the writings of Calvin and the decistons at Dort, compressed in as few words as possible. I. They maintain that God hath chosen a cer- tain number of the fallen race' of Adam in Christ 55 CALVINISTS before the foundation of the world,. unto eternal glory, according to his immutable purpose, and of his free grace and love, without the feast fore- sight of faifli, good works, or any conditicais per,- formed by the creature; and thatthe rest of man- kind he was pleased to pass hy, and ordain to dishonour and wrath, fpr their sins, to the praise of his vindictive justicp. In proof of this they allege, among many otlier Scripture passages, the following; "Accojtding as he hath chosen us in him before the foundation of the world, that we shoukl.be holy and without blame before him in love. — For he saith to Mo- ses, 1/will have mercy on whom I will have mer- cy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion. So then, it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God, that showeth mercy. Thou wUt say, then, Why doth he yet find fault ; for who hath resisted his will 1 Nay, but man ! who art thou that repliest against God 1 Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus ? Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel i;nto honour and smother unto dishonour 1-r-Hath God cast away his people whom he foreknew 1 Wot ye not what the Scripture saith of Elias ?. Even so at this present time, also, there is a remnant accord- ing to the eZeciiore of grace. And if by grace, then it is no more of works. .What then? Isra- el hath not obtained that which he seeketh for, but the election hath obtained it^ and the rest are blinded, — Whom he did predestinate, them he also called. We give thanks to God always &r you brethren beloved of the Lord, because God hath from the beginning ishosen you to salvation, through SEinctificatioh of the Spirit and belief ot the truth. — As many a^ were ordained to eternal Ufe, believed." Eph. i. 4. Rom. ix. xi. 1 — 6L viii. 29, 30. 2 Thess. u. 13. Acts xiii. 48. They think also that the greater part of these passages, being found in the epistolary writings, after Bie pouring out of the Holy Spirit, who _waa promised to guide the apostles into all truth, is ar argument in favour of the doctrine. They do not consider predestination, -however, as affecting the agency or accountableness of creatures, or as being to them any rule of conduct. On the contrary, they suppose them to act as freely, and to be as much the proper subjects of calls, warnings, exhortations, pronsiscti, and threatcnings, as if no decree existed. The con- nection in which the doctrine , is introduced by the diirijSesi at Dort, is to account for one siijner's beUeving and being saved rather than another ; and s]i3i the Calvinists say, is the connection which it occupies in the Scriptures. With respect to the conditional predestination admitted by the Arminians, they say that an election upon faith or good works foreseen, is not that of the Scriptures ; for that election is there made the cause of faith and hoUncss, and cannot, for this reason, be the effect of them. With re- gard to- predestination to death, they say, if the question be. Wherefore did God decree to punish those who are punished? the answer is, On ac- count of their sins. But if it be. Wherefore did he decree to punisvh them rather than others? there is no other reason to be assigned, but that so it s^med good in his sight. Eph. i. 3, 4. John JW. '37. Rom. viii. 29, 30. Acts xiii. 'lb 1 Pct,"i. 1, Rom. ix. 13, 16. xi.5,„6. CALVINISTS ^ 0. They maintain that though tlw death of Christ be a most perfect sacrifice, and satisfaction for sins, of infinite value, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whoie world ; and though on this ground the Gospel is to be preached to «U mankind indiscriminately ; yet it was the will of God that Christ, by the blond of the cross, should cfScaciously recjeem all those, and those only, who were from eternity elected to salva- tion, and given to him by the Father. Calvin docs not appear to have written on this subject as a controversy, but his comments on Scripture agree with the above statement. The following positions are contained in the resolu- tions of the synod of Dort, under this head, of , doctrine : — " The death of the Son of God is the only and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for sins, of infinite value and price, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world. — The promise of the Gospel is, that whosoever believeth in Christ crucified shall not perish, but ha:ve everlasting life ; which promise, together with the command to repent and believe, ought promiscuously and indiscriminately to be pubhsh- ej and proposed to all people and individuals, to whom God in his good pleasure sends the Gos- pel. — Whereas, many who are called by the Gos- pel do not repent nor believe in Christ, but perish in unbelief; this proceeds not from any defect or insuffidency in the sacrifice o(f Christ offereJ on the cross, but from their own fault. As many as truly believe, and are savedi by the death of Christ from their sinS) and from destruction, have to ascribe it to the mere fevour of God, which he owes to none, given them in Christ from eternity. For it was the most free counsel, aind gracious toUl and intention of God the Fatlier, uiat the guickening and saving efficacy of the most precious death of his Son should exert itself in all the elect, to give untp them pill}; justifying fait^, and by it to conduct them infaUihly to sal- vation : that is, it was the williof God that Christ by- the blood of the cross, wherebj; he confirmed tne new, covenant, should efficaciously redeem out of every people, tribe, nation and language, all thos^ and those only, who were from ejermty elected to salvation, and given to lum by the Fa- ther." These positions they appear to have considered as not only a declaration of the truth, but an an- swer to the arguments of the Remonstrants. In proof orthe doctrine, they allege among others the follovrtng Scripture passages : " Thou hast riven him power over all flesh, that he ghpulu rave eternal life to as many as thou, hast. given him. — The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. — ^I lay down my life for the sheep. — He died not for that nation only, but that he might gather together in one the children of God that are scattered abroad. — >He gave himself for us, that he might redeem us from ail iniqui- ty, arid jrwrify ufUo himself a peculiar p§:end^nt body, invested with the power of legislation for itself. He proposed that it should be governed by presbyteries and synods composed of dergy and kity, without bishops or any cleri- cal siirordination ; and maintained that' th|p pro- vince of the civil magistrate extended only to its protection and outward acconupodation. He ac- knowledged a, real though spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist; and he confined the pri- vilege of communion to pioUs and regenerate be- lievers. These sentiments, however, are not im- ■ bibed by all who are called Calvinists. See Calvin's Institutes; Life, of Calvin; Brine's Tracts ; Jonathan Edwardsfs Works ; Gill'i Cause of Ood and Truth ; Toplad'^s Historic Proof arid' Works at large; Assembly's Gate- chis-m ; Fuller's Calvinistic and Socinian Sys- tems Compared, CANDdUR CAMALDOLITES, an orJer founded by St. Romuald, an Italian fanatic, in the eleventh eentury. The manner of life he enjoined his disciples to observe was this : — They dwelt in se- parate cells, and met together oiily at the time of prayer. Some of them, during the two Lents in the year, observed an inviolable silence, and others for the space of a hundred days. On Sundays and Thursdays they fed on herbs, and the rest of the weekonly on bread and water. CAMBRIDGE MANUSCRIPT, a copy of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, in Gfreek and Latin, v Beza found it -in the monastery of Irenieus, at Lyons, in 1563, and gave it to the university of Cambridge in 1582. It is a quarto, and written on vellum : sixty-six leaves of it are much torn and mutilated ; and ten of these are supplied by a later transcriber. From this and the Clermont copy of St. Paul's epstles, Beza published his larger annotations in 1583. See Dr. Kipling's edition of it. CAMERONIANS, a sect in Scotland, who separated from the Presbyterians in 1666, and continued long to hold their religious assemblies in the fields. They took their name from Rich- ard Cameron, a famous field preacher, who, re- fusing to accept the indulgence to tender con- sciences, granted by king Charles II., thinking such an acceptance an acknowledgment of the king's supremacy, made a defection from his bre- thren, and even headed a rebellion, in which he was killed. The Cameroiiians adhere rigidly to the form of government established in 1648. There are not, it is said, above fourteen or fifteen congregations among them, and these not large. CAMERONIANS, or Cameeonites, the denomination of a party of Calvinists in Prance, who asserted that the vrill of man is only deter- mined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of men's doing good or evil pro- ceeds from the knowledge which God infuses into them ; and that God does not move the will phy- sically^ but only morally, in virtue of its depend- ence on the judgment. They had this name from John Cameron, who was born at Gkagow in 1580, and who was professor there, ana after- wards at Bordeaux, Sedan, and Saumur. The synod of Dort was severe upon them ; yet it seems the only difference was this :-^The synod had defined that God not only illuminates the under- standing, but gives motion to the vfill, by making an internal change therein. Cameron oiuy admit- ted the Uluminaition whereby the mind is morally moved; and explained the sentiment of the synod of Dort so as to make the two opinions condstent. CANDOUR is a disposition to form a fair and impartial judgment on the opinions and actions of others ; or a temper of mind Unsoured by envy, unruffled by malice, and unseduced by prejudice, sweet without weakness, and impartial without rigour. Candour is a w )rd whicl^ in the present day, is found exceedingly convenient. To the uifidel it 16 a shelter for his scepticism, to the ig- norant for his ignorance, to the lukewarm for his indiflferenoe, and to the irreligious for their enor. " True candour is different from that guarded, - inoflfensive language, and that studied opeimess of behaviour, whiiJh we so fr^uenOy meet with among men of the world. It consists not in &ir- ness of speech only, but in fairness of heart. It is not blind attachment, external courtesy, or a fima-serving principle. Exempt, on the one huid, CANON from the dark Jealousy of a suspicious mind, it is no less removed, on the other, from that easy cre- dulity which is imjibsed on by every specious pretence. Its manners are unaffected, and its Srofessions sincere. 'It conceals faults, but it oes not invent virtues.' In fine, it is the happy medium between undistinguishing credulity aha universal suspicion." See LiBERALiry. CANON, a word used to denote the authoriz- ed catalogue of the sacred writings. " The Greek word x««oi»," says Dr. Owen, " which gives rise to the term canonical, seems to be derived from the Hebrew rUp kaneh, which in general sienifies any reed whatever, 1 Kings xiv. 15. Isa. xliiL 3^ and particularly a reed msule into an instrument^ wherewith the/ measured their buildings, contain- ing six cubits in ler^th, Ezek. xl. 7. xhii. 16 ; and hence indefinitely it is taken for a rule or mea- sure. Besides, it signifies the beam and tongue of a balance, Isa. xlvi. 6. ' They weighed silver on the cane;' that is, saith the Ta/rgum, 'in the balance.' This also is the priman^ and proper signification of the Greek word. Hence its me- taphorical use, which is most common, wherein it signifies a moral rule. Aristotle calls the law XaKoiw ms ;roMTiia;, the Tulc of the administration; and hence it is that the written word of God be- ing in itself absolutely right, and appointed to be the rude of faith and obedience, is eminently call- ed 'canonical.' " The ancient canon of the books of the Old Testament, ordinarily attributed to Ezra, was di- vided into the law, the prophets, and the hagio- graphia, to which our Saviour refers, Luke xxiv. 45, The same division is also mentioned by Jo- sephus. This is the canon allowed to have been followed by the primitive church till the council of Carthage ; and, according to Jerome, this con- sisted of no more tiian twenty-two books, answer- ing to the number of the Hetoew alphabet, though at present they are classed into twenty-four di- visions. That council enlarged the canon very considerably, taking into it the apocryphal books; wfllch the council of Trent fiirtner enforced, en- joining them to be received as books of holy Scrip- ture, upon pain of anathema. The Romanists, m defence of this canon, say, that it is the same with that of the council of fiippo, held in 393; and with that of the third council of Carthage in 397, at which were present forty-six bishops, and among the rest St. Augustine. Their canon of the New Testament, however, perfectly agrees with ours. It consists of books that are well known, some of which have bc6n universally acknowledged: such are the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, thirteen epistles of St Paul, first of St. Peter, and first of St. John ; and others, concerning which doubts were en- tertained, but which were afterwards received as genuine ; such are the Epistle to the He- brews, that of James, the second of Peter, the second and third of John, that of Jude, and the Revelation. These books were written at dif- ferent times ; and they are authenticated, not by the decrees of councils, or infallible authority, but by such evidence as is thought sufficient in the case of any other ancient writings. They were extensively diffused, and read in every Christian society ; they 'mere valued and preserved with care by the first Christians ; they were cited by Christian writers of the second, third, and fourth centuries, as Irenaeus, Clement the .Alexandrian CANONIZATION TertuIIian, Origen, Eusebius &c.j and their genuineness is proved by tlie testimony of those who were contemporary with the apostles them- selves. The four Grospels, and most of the other hooka of the New Testament^ were collected either by one of the apostles, or some of their dis- ciples and successors, before the end of the first century. The catalogue of canonical books fur- nished by the more ancient Christian writers, as Origen, about A. D. 210, Eusebius and Athana- eius in 315, Epiphanius in 370, Jerome in 383, Austin in 394, and many others, agrees with that which is now received among Christians. See articles Bible, Chbistianity, Scrip- tures ; Blair's Canon of Scripture ; Jones's Co- nanical Authority of the New Test. ; Michaelis/a Lect. on the New Test.; Du Pin's Canon of Si-ript. V. i. ; Prideaux's Connexions, v. i. ; Dr. Owen on the Hebrews, Introd. ; Alexander on the Canon. CANON, a person who possesses a prebend or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate ehurch. Ca-_ nons are of no great antiquity. Pachier observes,' that the name was not known before Charle- magne ; at least, the first we hear of are in Gre- gory de Tours, who mentions a college of canons instituted by Baldwin XVI. archbishop of that 4 CHARITY by wWchthey measure or count the number of their prayeis. CHAPTER, a community of ecclfesiasticai belonging to a cathedral or collegiate church. The chief or head of the chapter is the dean; the body consists of canons or prebendaries The chapter has now no longer a place in the administration of the diocese during the life of the bidiop; but succeeds to the whole episcopal juris- diction during the vacancy of the see. CHARGE: 1. A sermon preached by the bishop to his -clergy; — 2. Among the Dissenters, it is a sermon preached to a .minister at Ins ordv nation, genersdly by some aged or respectable preacher. GHARITYj one of the three gramJ theologi- cal graces, consisting in the . love ich neither the order of {ainuies, nor the h&ppiness of the rising generation could be secured) nevertheless, still supposing that the commands of the parent are not inconsistent with the will of God.— 5. Virtue requires, that if pa- rents come to want, children should take care to furnish them with the necessaries of life, and, so far as thBir_ ability will permit, with the conve- niences of il." Vodd/rfdge's Lectures, p. 341. vol. i. Patera Moral Philosophy, p. 372. vol. i. CHILIASTS, the same with Millennarians, a name given to those who hold the peculiar views relative to the Millennium, which the reader will find detailed under that article. — B. C/HOIvliiPloov^Pi* (ti)^ xwpMs swio"*owoi, bi- shops of the country.) In the ancient church, when the dioceses became enlarged by the con- versions of pagans in the country and vilWes at a great distance from the citj church, the bishops appointed themselves cert^n assistants, whom they called Chorepiscopi, because by their office they were bishops of'the countr)'. There have been great disputes among the learned concerning this order, some thinking that they were mere presbyters ; others that there were two sorts, some that had received episcopal ordination, and some that were presbyters only; others think that they were all bishops. CHRISM, oil consecrated by the bishop, and used in the Romish and Gre^ churches xa the administration of baptism, confimoatibn, ordina- tion, and extreme unclion. CHRIST, tjie Lord and Saviour of mankind. He is called Christ, or Messiah, because he ir anointed, sent, and fiimished by God to execute his mediatorial office. See Jesus Christ. CHRISTIAN, by Dr. Johnson is defined "a professor of the religion of Christ;" but in reality a Christian is more than a professor of Christianity. He is one who imbibes the spirit, participates the grace, and is obedient to the will ofChnst; The disciples and followers of Christ were first denominated Christians at Antioch, A. D. 42l The first Christians distinguished themselves, in the most remarkable manner, by their conduct and their virtues. The tohful, whom the preaching of St. Peter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhortations of me apostles, who failed not carefully to instruct them as per- sons who were entering upon an, entire new life. They attended the temple daily, doing nothing different from the olW Jews, because it was yet not time to separate from them. But they made a still greater progress in virtue ; for they sold all that tney pussesmi, and distributed their goods pS CHRISTIANS to tbe_ wants of their brethren. The piiroilive Christians were not only remarkable for the con- ostency of their conduct, but were also very emi- nently distinguished by the many miraculous gifts and graces bestowed by God up<^n them. The Jews were the first and the most invete- rate enemies the Christians had. They put them to death as often as they had it in their power ; and when they revolted a^tinst the Romans, in the time of the emperor^ drian, Barcochebas, who was at the head of that revolt, employed agdnst the Christians the most rigorous punish- ments, to compel them to blaspheme and renounce Jesus Christ. And we find that even in the third century they endeavoured to get into their hands Christian women, in order to scourge aiid stone them in their synagogues. They cursed the Christians three times a day in their synagogues ; and their rabbins would not suiTer them to con- verse with Christians upon any occasion; nor were they contenjted to hate and detest them, but they dispatched emissaries all over the world to demme the Christians, and spread all sorts of ca- lumnies against them. They accused them, among other things, of Worshipping the sun, a)id the head of an ass ; they reproached them vrith Idleness, and being a useless set of people. They charged them with treason, and endeavouring^ to erect ' a new monarchy against that of the Ro- mans. They affirmed that in celebrating their mysteries, they used to kill a child and eat his flesh. They accused them of the most shocking incests, and of intemperance in their feasts o^ charity. Bilt t|ie lives and behaviour of the first Christians were sufficient to refute all that was said against them, and evidently demonstrated that these accusations were mere calumny, and the effect of inveterate malice. Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Pontus and Bithynia be- tween the years 103 and 105, gives a very par- ticular account of the Christians in that province, m a letter which he wrote to the emperor Tra- jan, of which the following is an extract: "I take the Uberty, Sir, to give yoii an account of every difficulty which apses to me; I had never been present at the examinations of the Chris- tians ; for which reason I know not what ques- tions have been put to them, nor in what manner they have been punished. My behaviour towards those who have been accused to me has been this: I have interrogated them, in order to knovv whether they were really ' Christians. When diey have confessed it, I have repeated the same question twp or three times, tha^tening them with death if they did not renounce this religion. Those who have persisted in their confession have been by my order led to punishment. I have even met vnth some Roman citizens guilty of this frenzy, ^hom, in regard of their qua£ty, I have set apart from the rest, in order to send them to Rome. These persons declsire that their whole crime, If they are guilty, consists in this : That on certain days, they assemble before sun- rise to sing alternately the praises of Christ, as of God; anofto oblige themselves, by the perform- ance of tjieir religious rites, not to be guilty, of thefl or adultery, to observe inviolably their word, and to be true to their trust. This disposition has obliged me to endeavour to inform myself still further of this matter, by putting to the tor- ture two of their women-servants, whom they called deaconesses; but I could learn nothing CHRISTIANS more frbm them than that the supersffion Of tlie«e people is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is It is easy' to discover the cause of the many persecutions to which the Christians were expos- ed during the first three centuries. The punty of the Christian morality, directly opposite to the corruption of the pagans, was doubtless one .of ■ the most powerfiil motives of the public aversion. To this may be added the many calumnies un- justly spread abo^ concerning them by their ; enemies, particularly the J'ews,; and this occasion- ed so strong a prejudice against them, that the pagajis.conaemned them without inquirmg, ijito Sieir doctrine, or permitting them to defend then*- selves. Brides, their woKhipping Jesus Christ as God, was contraiy to one of the most ancient laws of the Roman- enipire, which expressly fqN bade the acknowledging of any God which had not been approved of by the senate. But, not- withstanding the violent oj^sition ^lade to the establidiment of the Christian religion, it. gained ground daily, and very soon made surprising pro- gress in the Ropi^h empire. In the third cehtuiy fliere were Christians in the senate, in the canm in the palace; in short' everywhere but in tine temple and the theatres; they filled the towns, the country, the islands. Men and women of all ages and conditions, and, even those of the first dignities, embraced this &ith; insomuch that the pagans complained that the revenues of thgir temples were ruined. They w^re in such great numbeiB in the empire, that (as Tertulliaa ex- ,presses it) were they to have retired into another country, they would have left the Romans only a frightful solitudfe. For persecutions of the Chris- tians, see article Persecdtions. Christians may be considered as nominal and recU. There are vast numbers who are called Christians, not because tney possess any love for Christ, but because they happen to be born in a Christian country, educated by Christian parents, and sometimes attend Christian worship. There are also many whose minds are well informed re- specting the Christian system, who prefer it to every other, and who make an open profession of it; and yet, after all, feel but little of the real power of 'Christianity. A recU CImstian is ojie whose understanding is enlightened by the influ- ences of divine grace, who is convinced of the dep^vltyof his nature, who sees his own inabit ty to h4p himself, who is taught to behold God as the chief good, the Lord Jesus as the onlv way to obtain felicity, and that the Soly Spirit .is the grand agent in applying the blessings of the GosDel to his soul. His heart is renovated, and inclir)ed to revere, Honour, vvorship, trust in, and live to Gocl. His aU'ections are elevated above the world, and centre in God alonis. He embraces hifti as his portion, Joves him supreme- ly, and is zealous ui the defence and support of his cause. His temper is regulated, his powers roused to vigorous action, his thoughts spiritual, and Ills generid deportment amiable ilnd uniform. In fine, the true Christian character exceeds all others as much' as the blaze of the meridian sun outshines the feeble light of the glow-worm. CHRISTIANS OP ST. JOHN, a sect ,of Christians very numerous in IBalfara, and the neighbouring towns: they formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St. John baptized, and it was from thence they had their name. CHRISTIAmXY They hol^ ah anniversary feast of five days, durinff which they all go to the bishop, who bap- tizes them with the baptism of St. John. Their baptism is also performed in rivers, and that^ only on Sundays; they have no notion of the third person in the Trinity; nor have they any canoni- cal book, but abundance full ^f charms, &c Their Mshoprics descend by inheritance as our estates do, though they have the ceremony of an election. CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS, a sort of Christians m a peninsula of India on this side the Gulf; they inhabit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring country; 'these admit of no images, and receive only the cross, to which they pay a great veneration. They aiSrmj that the souls 0? the saints do not see Qtid till after the day of judgment; they acknowledge but three sacraments, viz. baptism, orders, and the eucha- rist: they make np use of holy oils in the admi- nistration of baptism, but^ after the ceremony, anoint the infant with an Unxstion cdmpdsed qf oil and walnuts, without any beneifiction. In the eucharist they consecrate with little cakes made of oil and salt, and instead of wine make use of water in which raisins have been infused; In the Asiatic Researches of the Society insti- tuted in Bengal, may be found an enlarged ac- count of the Christians of St. Thomas, which was laid before that society by F. "Wrede, Esq. See also Monthly Magaaine for 1804, p. 60, and Dr. Kerr's Report to Lord Bentinck, on the state of the Christians inhabiting the kingdom of Co- chin and Travancore. Bvang. Mag. 1807, p. 473. CHRISTIANS, a name assumed by a reli- gious sect formed in different p^i;g of the United States, though not in great numbers, nor of a uni- form faith, difl^ring But little from the general body of Unitarians. They deny in the main the doctrine of the Trinity and that of a vicarious atonement They are professedly anti-sectarian in their views, holding that Christians should know no names nor parties, and that the insisting on certain paints called fundamentals, has ever been the bane of true charity among the profess- ed disciples of Jesus. They, therefore, discard ^' creeds or confessions of faith, maintaining^ that the Scriptures contain a perfect rule- of faith and pracljce, and that in order to communion, no man or body of men have a right to require any more than an avowed bcHef in the Word of God, and an irreproachable life and conduct. In their mode of church government they are Independ- ents; in their preaching usually loud and vehe- ment; and in their meetings, frequently giving way f:o such excesses of zeal as render them scenes of great tumult and disorder. — B. , CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Christians, I. Christianity, fmmdation- ef. Most, if not ail Christians, whatever thett particidar tenets may be, acknowledge the Scriptures ©f the Old and New Testaments^ as the sole foun- dation of their faith and practice. But as these books, or at least particular passages in theraj, have from the ambiguity of language been vari- ously interpreted by different commentators, these diversities have given birth to a multiplicity of different sects. These, however, or at least thft greatest number of them, appeall to the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the ultimate standard, the only infitUiblei rule of ftJth and mannera. If asked by what awthdrity these lioDks 67 CHRISTIANITY claim an absolute right to determine the con- sciences and understandings of men with regard to what they should believe, and what they should do, they aijswer, that all Scripture, nr hether _for doctrine, correction, or reraOo^ was ^ven by im- mediate inspiration from God. If again interro- gated how those books which they cdl ScHpture are authenticated, they reply, that the Old and New Testi^ments are proved to be the word of (Sod, by evidences bom external and internal. See § % and article REVEiiATiON. II. CgRlsT UNITY, evideneea of tUe truth of. The external evidences of the authenticity and divine authority of the Scriptures have been di- vided into direct and coUateral. The direct evi: dences are siich as ari^e from the nature^ consist- ency, and probability of the factsi and from t;he simplicity, uniformity, competency, and fidelity of the testimonies by which they are supported The collateral evidences are either the same oc- currences supported by heathen testbnonie^ or others which concur with and corroborate' the history of Christianity. Its tnternal evidences arise either from its exact conforrriity with the chairacter of God, from its aptitude to the frame and circumstances of man, or from those suj^r- hatui^l convictions and assistaiices which are im- pressed on> the mind by the immediate operatioa of the Divine Spirit. We shall here chiefly fijl- low Dr. Doddridge, and endeavour to give some of the chief evidences which have been brought forward, and which every unprejudiced mmd must confess are unanswerable. First. Taking the matter merely in theory, it will appear highly probable that such a system as the Gospel should be, indeed, a, divine revelation. 1. The case of mankind is naturally such as to need a divine revelation, 1 John v. 19. Rom. i, Eph. iv.— ^3. There is from the light of nature considerable encouragement to hope that God would favour his cieatures with so needful a blesang as a revelation appears. — 3. We may easily conclude, that if a revelation were given, it would be introduced and transmitted in such a manner as Christianity is said to have been. — i. That the main doctrines of the G<)spel are of such a nature as we might in general suppose those of a divine revelation would be ; rational, practical, and sublime. Heb. xi. 6. ' Mark xii. 20. 1 Tim. ii 5. Matt. v. 48. x. 29, 30. PhUip. i». 8. Rom. iii, 6, 4i9. Secondly. It is, in fact, certain, that Chris- tianity is, indeed, a divine revelation ; for, I. Tfee books of the New Testament, now in our hands, were written by the first preachers and publish- ers tf Christianity. In pifoof of this, observe, I. iTiat it is certain that Christianity is not a new religion, but that it was maintains by great multitudes quickly after the time in which Jesus is said to have appearcd.^-2. That there was certainly such a person as Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified at Jerusalem, when Pontius Pilate was governor there. — 3. The first publish- ers of this religion wrote books which contained an account of the life and doctrine of Jesus th^ master, and which went by the name of those that now make up our New Testa njent.^-1 That the books of the New Testament have been preserved, in the main, uncorruptedto the present time,, in the original language in whicli they were written. -5. That the translation of them new in our hands ma^ be depended ujion as in CHRISTIANITY all things most material, agreeable to the original. Now, II. From, allmoing the New Testameiit to be genuine, according to the above proof, it will certainly follow that Christianity is a divine revelation; for, in the first place, it is exceedingly evident that the writers of the New Testament certainly knew whether the tacts were true or felae. John L 3. xix. 27, 35. Acts xxvii. 7, 9. — a. That the character of these writers, so far as we can judge by their works, seems to render them worthy of regard, and leaves no room to imagine they intended to deceive us. The man- ner m wliich they tell their story is most happily adapted to gain our belief. There is no air of declamation and harangue; nothing that looks like artifice and design : no apologies, no encomi- ums, no characters, no reflections, no digressions ; but the facts are recounted with great SmpUcity, just as they seem to have happened ; and those racts are len to speak for themselves. Their in- tegrity Ukevrise evidently appears in the freedom with which they mention those citcumstances which might have exposed their Master and themselves to the greatest contempt amongst pre- judiced and inconsiderate men, such as they knew they must generally expect to meet with. John i. 45, 46. vii. 52. Luke ii. 4, 7. Mark vL 3. Matt. viii. 20. John vii. 48. It is certain that there are in their writings the most genuine traces not only of a plain and honest, but a most pious and devout, a most benevolent and generous disposition, as every one must acknowledge who reads their writings. — 3. The apostles were un- der no temptation to forge a story of this kind, or to publish it to the world knowing it to be false.— 4. Hail they done so, humanly speaking, ihey must quickly have perished in it, and their foolish cause must have died with them, without ever gaining any credit in the world. Reflect more particularly on the nature of those grand facts, the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Christ, which formed the great foundation of the Cliristian scheme, as SisX exhibited to the apos- tles. The resurrection of a dead man, and his ascension into an abode in the upper world, were such strange things, that a thousand objections would immediately have been raised aeainst them ; and some extraordinary proof would have been justly required as a balance to them. Consider the manner in which the apostles undertook to prove the truth of tlieir testimony to these tacts ; and it will evidently appear, that, instead of con- tirming their scheme, it must have been suflBcient utterly to have overthrown it, had it been itself the most probable imposture that the vvit of man could ever have contrived. See Acts iii. ixi xiv. xix. &e. They did not merely assert that they had seen miracles vfrousht by Jesus, but that he had endowed them with a variety ofmiraculous powers ; and these they undertook to display, not VI such idle and useless tricks as sleight of hand might peribrm, but in such solid and important works as appeared worthy of divine interposition, and entirely superior to human power. Nor were these things undertaken in a comer, in a circle of friends or dependants ; nor were they said to be Vfrought, as might be suspected, by any confederates in the fraud; but they were done otien in the most pUbUc manner. Would im- postors hemie made such pretensions as these'! or, if they had, must they not immediately have been exposed and ruined 7 Now, if the New Testa- CHRISTIAI^ITY mem be genuine, then it is certain that the apos- tles pretend to have wrought miracles in the very presence of those to whom their writings were addressed; nay, more, they profess Ukewise to have conferred those miraculous gifts in some considerable degrees on others, even on the very persons to whom they write, and they appeal to their consciences as to the truth of it.. And coxM there possibly be room for delusion here 1 — 5. It is likewise certain that the apostles did gain early credit, and succeeded in a most wonderful maiv ner. This is abundantly proved by the vast num- ber oiF churches established in early ages at Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Colosse, &c. &c. &c.— 6. That, admitting the facts which they testified concern- ing ChrSt to be true, then it was reasonable foi their contemporaries, and is reasonable for us, to receive the Gospel which they have transmitted to us as a divine revelation. The great thina they asserted was, that Jesus was the Christy and that he was proved to be so by prophecies accom- plished in hmi, and by miracles wrought by Inm, and by others in his name. If we attend to these, we shall find them to be no contemptible argu- ments; but must be forced to acknowledge that, the premises being established, the conclusion most easily and necessaiUy follows ; and this con- clusion, that Jesus is the Christy taken in all its extent, is an abstract of the Gospel revelation, and therefore is sometimes put for the whole of it, Acts viii. 37. xviL 18. See articles Miracle and Prophecy. — 7. The truthof the Gospelhas also received further and very considerable confirmar tion from what has happened in the world since it was first published. And here we must deare everyone to consider what God has been doing to confirm the Gospel since its first publication, and he will find it a further evidenceof its Di- vine ori^nal. We might sirgue at l^rge from its surprising propagation in the world; from the miraculous powers with which not only the apos- tles, but succeeding preachers of the Gospel, and other converts, were endowed ; ,from the accom ^shment of prophecies recorded in the New Testament; and from the preservation of the Jews as a distinct people, notwithstanding the various diflficulties and persecutions through which they have passed. We must not, how- ever, forget to, mention the confirmation it re- ceives from the methods which its enemies ha,ve taken to destroy it ; and these have generally been either persecution or falsehood, or cavilhng at some particulais in revelation, without entering into the grand argument on which it is built, and fairly debating what is offered in its defence. The cause has gamed considerably by the opposition made to it : the more it has been tried, the more it has been approved ; and we are bold to say no honest man, unfettered by prejudice, can examine tlus system in all its parts,, without b6ing con- vinced that its origin is divine. III. GuRistiJiiinr; general doctrines of. "It must be obvious," says an ingenious author, " to every reflecting mind, tha^ whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion d priori, or contem plate those which have already been exhibited, certain facts, principles, or data, must be pre-es- tablished; from whence will result a particular frame of mind and course of action suitable to the character and dignity of that Being by whom tlie religion is enjoined, and adapted to the nature and ffltuation of those agents who are command- CH|IISTIAJVITV «"J to oljservo it Hence Ckristianily may be di- vided into credenda fir doctrines, alnu agenda or {irece^s. As the great foundation of his religion, therefore, the Christian bcliews the existence and government of one eternal and infinite Essence, which for ever retains m itself the cause of its own existence, and inherently possesses all those perfections which are compatible with its nature ; such 'ire its almighty power, omniscient wisdom, infinite justice, boundless goodness, and universal jwesenee. In this indivisible essence the Chris- tian recognizes three distinct subsistences, yet distinguished in such a manner as not to be in- compatible either with essential unity, or sim- plicity of being, or with their personal distinction ; each of them possesses the same nature and popertics to the same extent. This infinite Be- ing was graciously pleased to create' an universe replete with intelligences, who iiiight enjoy his glory, participate \\s happiness, and imitate his perfections. But as these beings were not immu- tahle, hut left to the freedom of their own will, de^enerafcy took place, and that in a rank of in- telligence superior to man. But guilt is nevp sta- liqnacy. tmpatient of itself, and cursed with its own feelings, it proceeds from bad to worse, whilst the poignahcy of its torments increases with the number of its perpetrations. Such was the situation of Satan and his apdstate angels. They attempted to transfer their turpitude and misery to man, and were, alas, but too success- fill ! Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcilable principles which operate in his nature ; hence that inexplicable medley of wisdom and folly, of rectitude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of sincerity' and fraud, exhibited througn ms whole conduct ; henfie the darkness of his under- standing, the depravity of his wrill, the pollution of his heart, the irregularity of his affections, and the absolute subversion of his whole internal economy. The seeds of perdition; soon ripened into overt acts of guilt and horror. AU the hos- tilities of nature were confronted, and the whole sublunary creation became a theatre of disorder and mischief. Here the Christian once more ap- peals to fact and experienr*. If these things a're so ; if man he the vessel of guilt, and the victim of misery, he demands how this constitution of things can be accounted for'? how can it be sup posed that a being so wicked and unhappy should be the production of an infinitely good and infi- nitdy perfect Creator? He therefore insists -that human nature must have been disarranged and contaminated by some violent shock ; and that, of consequence, without the light diffused over the &ce of things by Christianity, all naturfi must re- main in inscrutable and inexplicable mystiry. To redress these evils, to re-establish the empire of rectitude and happiness, to restore the heittire of man to its primitive dignity, to satisfy the re- monstrances of infinite justice, to purily evcry oriainal or contracted stain, to expiate the guilt and destroy the power of vice, the eternal Son af God, from whom Christianity takes its name, and to whom it owes its origin, descended from the bosom of his Father, assumed the human na- ture, became the representative of man ; endured a severe probation in that character ; exhibited a pattern of perfect righteousness, and at last rati- fied his doctrine, and fully accomplished all the ends of his mission, by a cruel, unmerited, and ig- nominious death. Before he left the worid, he fi9 CHRISTIANITY delivered the doctrines of salvation, atid the rules of human condbot, to his apostles, whom he em- powered to instruct the world in all that concern- ed their eternal felicity, and whotii he invested with miraculous gifts, to ascertain the reality of what they taught. To them he hkewise promised another comforter, even thfe Divine Spirit, who should remove the darkness, console the woes, and purify the stains of human nature. Having remained for a part of three days under the power of death, he rose iagain from the grave ; ap^ieared to his disciples, and many others ; conversed with - them for some titae, then re-ascended to heaven -, from whence the Christian expects him, accord- ing to his promise, to appear as the Sovereign -Judge of the living and the dead, from whose awards there is no appeal, and by whose sentence the destiny of the righteous and the wicked shall be eternally fixed. Soon after his departure to the right haiid of his Father (wherein his human nature he sits supreme of all created beings, anld invested with the absolute administration of hea- ven and earth,) the Spirit of grace and consols^ tion descended on his apostles with visible signa- tures of divine power and presence. Nor were his salutary operations confined to them, but ex- tended to all who did not by obstinate guilt repel his influences. These, indeed, were less con- spicuous than at the glorious asra when they were visibly exhibited in the persons of the apostles. But, though his energy be less observable, it is by no means less effectual to all the purposes of grace and mercy. The Christian is convinced that there is and shall continue to be a society upon earth, who worship God as revealed in Jesus Christ, who believe his doctrines, who observe his precepts, and shall be saved by the merits of his death, in the use of these external means of salva- tion which he hath appointed. He also believes that the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper, the interpretation and application of Scripture, the habitual exercise or public and private devotion, are obviously calculated to dif- fuse and promote the interests of truth and re- ligion, by superinducing the salutary habits of £uth, love, and repentance. He is firmly per- suaded, that at the consummation of all things, when the purposes of Providence in the various revolutions of progressive nature are accomplish- ed, thfe whole human race shall once more issue from their graves j some to immortal felicity in the actual perception and enjoyment of their Crea- tor's presence, and others to everlasting shame and misery." IV. Gbhistianity, morality and euperiority of. It has been vvell observed, "that the two grand principles of action, according to the Chris- tian, are the love of God, which is the sovereign passion in every gracious niind ; and the love of man, which regumtes otir actions according to the various relations in which we stand, whether to communities or individuals. This sacred con- nexion ought never to be totally extinguished by any temporary injury. It ought to subsist in some degree even amongst eneiuies. It requires that we should pardoti the offences of others, as we expect pardon for our own; and that we should no mrther resist evil than is necessary for the preservation of personal rights and socia. happiness. It dictates every relative and recipro- cal duty between parents and childiea masters and servants, governors and subjects, friends and CHRISTIANITY friends, men and men ; nor does it merely enjoin the obserration of equity,' but like wise inspires the most sublime and extensive charity ; a bound- less and disinterested effusion of tenderness for the whole species, which feels their distress, and operates for their relief and improvement." " Christianity," it has also been observed (and with the ^atest propriety,) "is superior to all other religions. The disciple of Jesus not only contends that no system of religion has ever yet 'been exhibited so consistent with itself, so con- gruous to philosophy and the common sense of mankind, as Christianity ; he likewise avers that it is infinitelyjtnore productive of real consolation than all other religious or philosophical tenets which have ever entered into the soul, or been applied to the heart of man. For what is death to that mind which considers eternity as the career of its exiaience 7 What are the fiowns of men to him who claims an eternal world ashis inherit- ance'! What is the loss of tiienc^ to that heart which feels, with more than natural conviction, that it shall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate, and permanent intercourse, than any of which the present life is susceptible? What are the vicissitudes of external things to a mind which strongly and uniformly anticipates a state of endless and immutable felicity? What are mortifications, disappointments, and insults, to a «pnt which is conscious of being the original cofspring and adopted cliild of God; vrtiich knows that its omnipotent Father will in proper time effectually assert the dignity and privileges of its nature? In a word, as this earth is but a speck in the creation, as time is not an instant in proportion to eternity, such are the hopes and prospects of the Christian in comparison of every sublunary misfortune or difficulty. It is there- fore, in his Judgment, the eternal wonder of an- gels, and indelible opprobrium of man, that a re- ligion so worthy of God, so suitable to the ftaioe and circumstances of our nature,' so consonant to all the dictates of reason, so friendly to this dig- nity and improvement of intelligent beings, so pregnant with genuine comfort and delight, should be rejected and despised by any of the human race." V. Christianitv, propagation and success of. Despised as Christianity has been by many, yet it has had an extensive progress through the world, and still continues to be professed by great numbisrs of mankind ; though it is to be lamented many are unacquiunted with its genuine in- fluence. It was early and rapidly propagated through the whole Roman empire, which then contamed almost the whole kiiown world ; aiad ' herein we cannot but admire both the wisdom and the power of God. " Destitute, of all human advantages," says a good writer, " protected by no authority, assisted by no art ; not recommend- ed by the reputation of its autjior, not enforced by eloquence in its advocates, tlte word of God grew mightily and prevailed. Twelve men, poor, artless, and illiterate, we behold triumplii|ig over the fiercest and ,most determined opposition ; over the tyranny of the ma^trate, and the subtleties q[ the philosopher; over the prejudices qf the Gentile, and the bigotry of the Jew. They esta- blished a religion which held forth high and venerable mysteries, such as the pride of man would induce him to inspect, because he could- not perfectly comprehend them j which pleached CHRISTIANITY doctrines pure and spiritual, such as corrupt na- ture was prone to oppose, because it shrunk from the severity of their discipline ; which required its followers to renounce almost every opinion they had embraced as sacred, and every interest they had pursued as important ; which even exposed them to every species of. danger and infamy; to persecution unmerited and unpitied ; to the gloom of a prison, and to the pangs of death. Hopeles» as this prospect mirfit appear to the view of short- sighted man, the Gospel yet emerged from the obscurity in which it was likely to be overwhelm- ed by the complicated distresses of its friends, and the unrelenting cruelty of its foes. It succeeded in a peculiar degree, and in a peculiar manner j it derived that success from truth, pnd obtained it under circumstances where falsehood must have been detected and crushed." "Although," says the elegant Porteus, "Chris- tianity has not always been so well understood, or so honestly practised, as it ought to have been, although its spirit has been often mistaken, and its precepts misapplied, yet, under all these dis- advantages, it has gradually produced a visible change m those points which most materially concern the peace and quiet of the world. Ite beneficent spirit has spread itself through all the different relations and modifications of life, and communicated its kindly influence to almost every public and private concern of mankind. It has insensibly .worked itself into the inmost frame and constitution of civil states. It has given a tinge to the complexion'of their govern- ments, to the temper and administration of theil laws. It has restrained the spirit of the prince and the madness of the people. It has softened the rigour of despotism, and tamed the insolence of conquest. It has in some degree taken away the edge of the sword, and thrown even over the horrors of war a veil of mercy. It has^lescended into families, has diminished the pressure of pri- vate tyranny ; improved every domestic endear- ment ; giyen tenderness to the parent, humanity to the master, respect to superiors, to inferiors ease ; so that -mankind are, upon the whole, even in a temporal view, under infinite obligations to the mild and pacific temper of the Gospel, and have reaped from it more substantial worldly bene- fits than from any other mstitution upon earth. As one proof of this (among many others,) con- sider only the shocking carnage made in the hmnan species by the exposure of infants, the gladiatorial shows, which sometimes cost Europe twenty iw thirty thousand lives in a month; and the exceedingly cruel usage of slaves, allowed and practised by the ancient pagans. These were not the accidental and temporary excesses of a sud- den fury, but were legal, and established, and constant methods of murdering and tormenting floankind. Had Christianity done nothing more than brought into rlisuse (as it confessedly has done) the two former of these human custom^ entirely, and the latter to a very great degree, it had justly merited, the title of the benexOlent reli- gion : but this b far from beins all. Thrbughout the more enlightened parts of Christendom, there Erevails a gentleness of manners vridely diflerent •om the ferocity of the most civilized nations of antiquity ; and that Uberality with which every species of distress is relieved, is a virtue peculiar to the Christian name." But wo may ask, further, what success has it CHRONOLOGY had on the mind of man, as it leapects his eter- nal welfare f How marty thousands have felt its power, and rejoiced in its benign influence, and under its dictates been constrained to devote themselves to the glory and praise of God? Bur- dened with guilt, mcapable.of finding relief from human resources, the mind has here found peace unspeakable, in beholding that sacrifice which alone could atone for transgression. Here the hard and impenitent heart has been softened, the impetuous passions restrained, the ferocious tem- per subdued, powerful preji^dices conquered, igno- rance dispelled, and the obstacles to real happiness removed. Here the Christian, looking round on the glories and blandishments of this world, has been enabled, writh a noble contempt, to despise all Here death itself, the, king of terrors, has lost its sting ; and the soiil, witli a holy magna- nimity, has borne upin the agonies of a dying hour, and sweetly sung itself away to everlasting bliss. In respect to its fiiture spread, we haVe reason to believe that all nations shall feel its happy effects. The prophecies are pregnant with mat- ter as to this belief. It seems that not only a na- tion or a country, but the whole habitable globe, shall become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ ; and who is there that has ever known the excellency of this system; who is there that has ever experienced its happy efficacy; who is there that has ever been convinced of its divine origin; its delightful nature, and peaceful tendency, but what must join the benevolent and royal poet in saying, " Let, the whole earth be filled with its glory, amen, and amen." See article. Christianity in JEnc. Brit.i Par .eys Evidences of Christianity; Lardner'a and Macknight's Credibility of the Gospel IRstory ; Lord Hailes on the Influence of Gibbon's Jive Causes ; Fawcett's Evidences o/" Christianity ; Doddridge's ditto; Fell's and Hunter's 'JLec- tures on ditto ; Beattie's Evidences of the Chris- tian Religion; Soame Jenyn^s Evidences of ditto ; Whitens Sermon's ; Bp. Porteu^s Ser- mons, vol. i. ser. 12, 13 ; and his Essay on the Beneficial Effects of Christianity on the Tem- poral Concerns of Mankind,; Alexander's Evi- dences. ,pHRISTMAS, the day on which the nati- vity of our blessed Saviour is celebrated. The first footsteps we find of. the observation rf this day are in the second century, about the time of the emperor Commodus. The decretal epistles, indeed, carry it up a little higher, and say that TeIesphorus,'who lived in tjhe reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered divine service to be celebrated, and an angelic hymn to be sung the night before the' nativity of ouir Saviour. That it was kept before the time of Constantino we have a melancholy proof; for whilst the persecu- tion raged under Dioclesian, who then kept his court at Nicomedia, that tyrant, among other acts of cruelty, finding multitudes of Clmatians as- sembled together to celebrate Christ's nativity, commanded the church doors where they were met to be shut, and fire to be put to it, which soon reduced them and the church to ashes. See HOLYDAV. CHRONOLOGY, the science of computing and adjusting the periods of time, referring each event to the proper year. "W^ have not room here to present the reader with a system of chronology; but should he be desirous of studying this science, 71 CHORCH he may consult the systems of Clutier, Catvir sins, Usher, Simson, Bedford, Marshman, Blair Playfyir, and Dr. Hales. CHURCH. The English word church, like the Scotch hirk, is supposed to be derived from the Greek omos »Tipi|»»o!, the Lord's house, and is usually employed in our version of 'the Scrip- tures as a translation of tKuKtia-m, an assenibly. The original term, derived from ix, out of, and ««j.i«i, to call, denoted any kind of convocation or assembly of men cMed out from among other men. In this general sense it is applied in the Scriptures not only to a lawful court of judica- ture. Acts xix. 39,' but also to a. disorderly multi- tude brought together by Demetrius, v. 33, and making an uproar in the theatre. But its _ pro- dominant import, as used by the sacred writers, is to denote a religious society or coTtgregation, and in this sense its leading applications are the two following. It stands 1. For the whole collective body of the saints or peculiar people of God, redeemed out of every nation, kindrei^ and tongue, and usually denomv- nated the Church Catholic or Universal. 2. For a particular society of Christians pro- fessedly devoted to God according to the rules of the GfoSpel, believing in Christ as their Saviour, subjecting themselves to him as their spiritual Lord and Ruler, voluntarily agreeing together to partake of the privileges, discharge the duties, and support the means of Christian faith, ibllowship, worship, and discipline, and usually meeting to- gether m one place for public religious exercises. Such a society may be called a particular visible Gospel church, of which there is frequent men- tion m the New Testament. Another sense of the word occurs in popular use, and among ecclesiastical writers, viz. tlul pf a particular denomination of Christians, distin- guished by peculiar doctrines, ceremonies, mode? of government, &c.: as the Romish church, the Greek church, the Episcopal church, the Presby- terian church. It is strenuously contended, how- ever, by idany, that there is no ibundation in the Scriptures for this latter application of the term, inasmuch as the thing to "which it is applied it not recognized as having an existence. " Pro- perly there are," says Campbell, " in the New Testament but two orimnal senses of the word i««>.iuri» which can be called different, though re- lated. Qne is, when it denotes a number oT peo- ple actually assembled, or accustomed to assemble together, and is then properly rendered by the English terms, congregation, convention, assem- bly, and even sometimes, crowd, as in Acts xix. 3^ 40. The other sense is to denote a society united together by some common tie, though not convened, perhaps not convenable, in one place. And in this acceptation, as well as in the former, it sometimes occurs in classical vrriters, as signi- fying a state, or commonwealthj anc^ncarly cor- responding to the Latin civitas. When the word is limited or appropriated, as it generally is in the New Testament, by its regimen, as churcK of God-^-ofthe Lord — of Christ, or by the scope of the place, it is always to be explained in one or other of the two senses following, corresponding to the two general senses above mentioned. It denotes either a single congregation of Christians, in correspondence to themrst, or the whole Chris- tian community, in correspondence to the second. But in any intermediate sense, between a single CHURCH congregation and the whole community of Chris- iian5,_not one instimce can bo brought of the ap- (ilication of the word in sacred writ. We speak now indeed (and this has been the manner for Iges,) of the Gallican church, the church of England, the church of Scotland, as of societies independent and complete in themselves. Such phraseology was never adopted in the days of the Apostles. They did not say, the church of Asia, the church of Macedonia, or the church of Achala, but the churches of God in Asia, the churches in Macedonia, the churches in Achaia. The plural number is invariably used when more congrega- tions than one arc spoken of, unless the subject be of the whole commonwealth of Christ. Nor is this the manner of the penmen of sacred writ only. It is the constant usage of the term in the writings of ecclesiastic authors for the two first centuries. The only instance to the contrary that I remember to have observed is in the epistles of Ignatius, on which I have already remarked. It adds considerable strength to our argument that this is exactly coilformable to the usage in regard to this term which had always obtained among the Jews. The whole nation cr commonwealtn of Israel, was oflen dcnominatf^d 9r>r« '« ixuxqiria iirp«ii>., the whole congregation of Israel. This is the large or cornprehensivp use of the word, as observed above. In regard to the more confined application, the same teriti, !««xi|o-.», was also em- ployed to denote a 'number of people, either actually /assembled, or wont to assenible in the same place. Thus all belonging to the same synagogue were called indifferently, £„>.i|iri«, or wtv»y See Mr. Overton's True Churchman ; Bishop Jewell's Apology for the Church of England ; Ahp. Potter's Treatise on Church Government; Tucker's ditto ; Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity ; , Pearson an the Creed ; Burnet on the Thirty' vine A/rticles; Bishop Pretyman's Elements.^ TheoUgy; and Mrs. H. Mar^s Hints on forming the Character of a young Princess, vol. iL olt 37. On the subject of the first introduction of Christianity into Britain, see the 1st vol. of Hen- rys History of Great Britain. CHURGll, GALLICiVN, denotes theci-Jp- vant church of France under the government of its respective bishops and pastors. This church always enjoyed certain franchises and immunities, not as grants from the pijpes, but as derived to her from her first original, and which she took care never to relinquish. These liberties depend- ed upon two Jnaxims : the first, that the pope had no right to order any thing in«which the tempo- ralities and civil rights of the kingdom were con- cerned; the second, that, notwithstanding the pope's supremacy was admitted in cases purely spiritual, yet, in Franqe, his power was limited by the decrees of ancient councils received in that realm. In the established cl}urch the Jansenbts were very numerous. The bishoprics and prebends were entirely in the gift of the king j and no other Catholic state except Italy, had so numerous a clergy as France. There were in this kingdom eighteen archbishops, one hundred and eleven bishops, one hundred and sixty-six thousand clergymen, and three thousand four hundred ctmvents, containing two hundred thousand per- sons devofed to a monastic life. Since the repeal of the edict of Naiitz, the Protestants have suffered much from persecution. A. solemn law, which did much honour to Louis XVI., late king of France, gave to his non-Ro- man Catholic subjects, as they were called^ all the civil advantages and privileges of their Roman Catholic brethren. The above statement was made previously to the French revolution; jgreat alterations have taken place since that puriod. And it may be, in- tiirqsting to those who have not the means of fuller information, to give a sketch of the causes which gave rise to those important events. It has been asserted, that about the middle of the last century a conspiracy was formed to over- throw Christianity, without distinction of wor- ship, whether Protestant or Catholic. Voltaire, P'Alembert, Frederic U. king of Prussia, and Diderot, were at the head of this conspiracy. Nu- merous other adepts and, secondary agents vvere induced to join them. These pretended philoso- phers used every artifice that impiety could invent, UV union and secret correspondence, to attacl^ to Oisihase, and annihilate Christianity. They not diUy acted in concert, sparing no political or im- pious art to effect the destruction of the Christian Hsligion, but they were the instigaVrs ai^d con- 'ductors of those secondary agents whom they had seduced, and pursued their plaji with all thie udour and constancy wliich denotes the most 'finished conspirators. Tiie French clergy amQUnted to one bundled ■J4 CHURCH and thirty thousand, the higher oMexfi of whom enjoyed mimense revenues; but the cur6s, or great body of acting clergy, seldom possessed more than twenty-eight pounds sterling a-year, and the vicars about half that sum. The clergj^ as a body, indepndenl of their tythes, possessed a revenue arismg from their property in lan^ amoimting to five millions sterling annually j at the same time they wert exempt from taxation Before th,e i levelling system had taken place, the clergy signified to the commons the instructions of tneir constituents, to contribute to the exigenp oies of the state in equal proportion with the other citizens. Not contented with this ofier, the tythes and revenues offhe clergy were taken aWay : in lieii of which, it was proposed to grant a certain stipend, to the diffei;ent ministers of r^ ligion, to be payable by the nation. Tlie posse* sions of the church weije then considered as national property by a decree of the constituent assembly. The reli^ous orders, viz. the commit nities of monks and nuns, possessed, immense landed estates ; and, after having aboUshed the orders, the assembly seized the estates for the use of tlie nation : the gates of the cloisters were now thrown open. The next step of the assembly was to establish what is called the civil constitit- tion of the clergy., This, the Roman Catholics assert, was in direct opposition to their rcligioiL But though ojpposed witu energetic eloquence, the decree passed, _ and was soon after Allowed by anotjher, obliging the clergy to swear to maintain their civil constitution. Every artifice which cunning, and every menace wluck cruelty could invent, were used to induce them to tike the oath}, great numbers, however, refused. One hundrm and thirty-eight bishops and arch- bishops, sixty-eight curates or vicars, were on ^aia accoimt driven from their sees and paiishea Three hundred of the priests were massacred in one day in one city. All the otjier pastors wh|> adhered to their religion were either sacrificed or banished from their country ; seeking through a thousai^ dangers a refuge among foreign nations Ji. perusal of the horrid massacres of the priests who refused to take the oaths, and the various forms of persecution employed by those who were attached to the Catholic religion, must deeply wound the foeUngs of humaility. Those readeis- who are desirous of further information, are re- ferred to Abbe.Barruel's History of the Clergy. Soipe think that there was another cause oftne revolution, and which may be traced as far baclt at least as the revocation (jJF the edict of Nantz in the seventeenth century, when the great body of French Protestants, who were men of principle, were either murdered or banished, and the rest in a inanner silenced. The eifect of this sanguinary measure (say they) must needs be thp general prevalence of , inifdfelity- Let the religious pari of any nation be banished, and a general spread o^ irreligion must necessarily follow: such wem the effects in France. Through the whole of the eighteenth century infidelity has been the fashion, and that not only among the princes and, noblesse, but even, among the greater part of the bishops and clergy. And as they had united their ji)r iluence in banishing true teligion, and cherishing the monster whjbh succpe4ed it, so have they been united in ^sustaining the calainitous effects which th^t, monster has produced. However un- principled ajnd cruel the French revolutipi];^^ CHURCHWARDENS havd been, and however much the suflerers, as fellow-creatures, are entitled to our Pitj^i yeti considering the event as the just retribution of^ God, we are cohstrained to say, " Thou art righteous, O Lord, who art, and wast, and shalt be, because thou hast judged thus : for they have shed the blood of saints and prophets, and thou hast given them blood to drmk: for they are worthy.V The Catholic religidn is now again establislled, but with a toleration of the Protestants, under spme restridtion. — See the CoTicordat, or religious establishment of the French Republic, ratified September 10th, 1801. CHURCH, GREEK, or EASTERN, com- prehends the churches of all the countries an- dently subject to the Greek or Eastern empire, and Uirough which their limgua^e was earned ; that is, all the space extending nam Grreece to Mesopotamia and Persia, and thence into Egypt. Thb church has been divided from the Roman sver since the tinie of the emperor Fhocas, See uticle Greek Choroh. CHURCH, HIGH. See High Church. CHURCH OP IRELAND is the same as che church of Ehigland, and is governed by four archtishops and eighteen bishops. CHURCH, LATIN, or WESTERN, com- prehends all the chuirches of Italy, Portugal, Spain, Africa, the north, and all other countaies whither the Romans carried their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands of Ger- many, and of the north of Europe, have been se- parated from it almost ever since the Reformation. CHURCH, (dR Chorches,) REFORMED, comprehends the whole Protestant Churches in Europe and America, whether Lutheran, Cal- vinistic. Independent, Cluaker, Baptist, or of any other denomination who dissent from the church of Rome. The principal churches in the United States, distinguished by this title, are Tke Reformed Dutch Ckwrchf composed ori- ginally of emigrants from Holland, who settled diiefly in the dityand state of New York; and in the neighbouring state of New Jersey. Their doctrines are Calvinistic, and their eccle- siastical polity [^resbyterian, excepting that their highest court of judicature is termed a Synod, and their presbyteries are denominated Classes.-^ ', See Christian Magasdne, vol i. The German Mefm-med Chwrch, a reform- ing branch of the Lutherans, the members of which, in this country, bre found principally in the states of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Their form of government is essentially presbyterian, but their doctrines, in great measure, Arminian. CHURCH, ROMAN CATHOLIC, claims the title of being the mother church, and is un- doubtedly the most ancient of all the established churches in Christendom, if antiquity be held as a proof of primitive purity. See Popert. CHURCH, LUTHERAN. See Lutherans. CHURCH Of SCOTLAND, established by law in that kingdom, is presbyterian, which lias existed (with some interruptions during the " leign of the Stuarts) ever since the time of John Knox, when the voice of the people prevailed against the influence of the crown insetting it estabUshed. Its docteines are Calvinistic. See Article Presbyteruns. CHURCH WARDENS,officerschosen year- ly, rather by the consent of the miuister, or of the 75 CIRCONCELLIONES parishioners, or of both. Their business is to looJi: to the .church, the church-yard, and to observe the behaiviour of the paiishioners ; to levy a shil- ling forfeiture on all such as do not go to church on Sundays, and to keep persons orderly in church-time, &c. CHURCH-YARD, a piece of ground adjoin ing to the church, set apart for the interment ct the dead. In the churph of Rome, church-y^» are consecrated with great solemnity. If a church- yard which has thus been consecrated shaU aftei^ wards be polluted by any indecent action,' or pro- faned by the burial of an infidel, an heretic, an excommunicated or unbaptized person, it must he reconxHed ; and the ceremony pf the recon- ciliatibn is performed with the same solemnity as that of the consecration I See Consecration. CIRCONCELLIONES, a species of fanat- ics, so called because they were continually rambling round the houses in the country. They took their rise among the Donatists, in tne reign of the Emperor Constantino. It is incredible what ravages and cruelties they committed in Africa, through a long series ofjears. They were illiterate, savage peasants, who understood only the Punic language. Intoxicated with a bai^rous zeal, they renounced agriculture, pro- fessed continence, and assumed the title of " Vindi- cators of justice, and protectors of the oppressed." To accomplish their mission, they enfranchized slaves, scoured the roads, forced masters to alight from their chariots, and run before their slaVesL whom they obliged to mount in their place;' and discharged debtors, killing the creditors if they refused to cancel their bonds. But the chief ob- jects of their cruelty were th? Catholics, and es- pecially those who had reiiounced Donatism. At first, tney used no swords, because God had for- bidden . the use of one to Peter ; but they were armed with clubs, which they called the clubs of Israel, and which they handled in such a man- ner as to break a man's bones without killing him immediately, so that he languished a long time, and then died. When they took away a man's life at once, they looked upon it as a fitvour. They became less scrupulous afterwards, and made use of all sorts of arms. Their shout was Praise be to God. These words in their mouths were the signal of slaughter, more terrible than the roaring of a lion. They had invented an un- heard-of punishment, wtdch was, to cover with lime, diluted with vinegar, the eyes of those un- happy wretches whom they had crushed with blows and covered with wounds, and to abandon them in that condition. Never was a stronger proof what horrors superstition can beget in minds destitute of knowledge and humanity. ThesA Urates, who had made a vow of chastity, gave themselves up to wine, and all sorts of im- purities ; running about with women ai)d young girls as drunk as themselves, whom they called aaered virgins, and who often carried proofe of their incontinence. Their chief took the name oi chief of the saints. After having glutted themselves with blood, thie^ turned their rage upon themselves, and sought death vrith the same fury with which they gave it to others. Some scrambled up to the tops of rocks, and cast themselves down headlong in multitudes ; others binned themselves, or threw themselves into the sea. Those who proposed to acquire the title oi maityrs, published it long before ; upon which CLERGY they were feasted and fattened like oxen for the slaughter: after these preparations, they set out to be destroyed. Sometime^ they gave money to those whom they met, and threatened to murder them if they did not make them martyrs. The- odoret gives an account of a stout young man, who, meeting with a troop of these fanatics, con- fented to Idllthem, provided he might bind them first ; and having by this means put it out of their power to defend themselves, whipped them as long as he was able, and then left them tied in that manner. Their bishops pretended to blame them, but in reality made use of them to intimid- ate such as might be tempted to forsake their sect ; they even Honoured them as saints. They were not, however, able to govern these furious monsters ; and more than once found themselves under the necessity of abandoning them, and even of imploring the assistance of the secular power against them. The counts Ursacius and Taurinus were employed to quell them; they destroyed a great number of them, of whom the Donatists made as many martyrs. Ursacius, who was a'Cathplic, and a religious man, having lost his life in an engagement with the barbarians, the Donatists did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effect of the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of these bloody scenes during a great part of Constantine's life. CISTERCIANS, a religious order founded by St. Robert, a Bened'ctine, in the eleventh century. They became so powerful, that they governed almost all Europe both in spirituals and temporals. Cardinal de Vitri, describing their observances, says, they neither wore skms nor shirts, nor ever ate flesh, except in sickness ; and abstained from fish, eggs, milk, and cheese ; they lay upon straw beds, in tunics and cowls ; they rose at midnight to prayers; they spent the day in labour, reading, and prayer : and in all theu' exercises observed a continual silence. CLEMENCY denotes much the same as mercy. It is most generally used in speaking of tjie forgiveness exercised by princes. It is the result, indeed, of a disposition which ought to be cultivated by all ranks, though its effects cannot he equally conspicuous. ClemerKy is not only the privilege, the honour, and the duty of a prince, but it is also his se- curity, and better than all his garrisons, forts, and guards, to preserve himself and his dominions in safety. That prince is truly royal who masters himself, looks upon all injuries as below him, and governs by equity and reason, npt by passion or caprice. David, king of Israel, appears in no instance greater, or more amiable, than in sparing the life of his persecutor, Saul, when it was in his power. CLERGY (from the Greek word «Mi|io$, herit- age) in the general sense of the word, as used by us, signifies the body of ecclesiastics of the Chris- tian ohuruh, in contradistinction to the laity ; but strictly speaking, and according to Scripture, it means the churcL — ■" When Joshua," as one ob- serves, " divided the Holy Land by lot among the Israelites, itpleased^Godto provide for a thirteenth part of them, called Levites, by assigning them a personal estate equivalent to that provision made by real estate which was allotted to each of the other twelve parts. In conformity to the style of the transaction, the Levites were called God's' lot, inheritance, or clergy. This style, however, 7G CLERGY is not always used by the Old Testament writers. Sometunes they call all the nation God's lot, Deut. xxxij. 9. Ps. Ixxviii. 71. xxviii. 9, ,&c. The New Testament writers adopt this term, and apply it to the whole Christian church, 1 Pet v. 3. Thus it is the church distinguished from the world, and not one part of the church as dis- tinguished from another part." The word clergy, however, among us, always refers to ecclesiastics. The clergy originally consisted of bishops, priests, and deacons ; but in the third century many inferior orders were appointed; such as sub-deacons, acolnthists, readers, &c. The clergy of the church of Rome are divided into regular and secular. The regular consists of those monks or religious who have taken upon them holy or- ders of the pnesthood in their respective monas- teries. The secular clergy are those who are not of any religious order, and have the care and dt rection of parishes. The Protestant clergy are a^l secular. For archbishops, bishops, deans, &c. &c. see those articles. • The clergy have large privileges allowed them by our municipal laws, and had formerly much greater, which were abridged at the Reformatioi^ on account of the ill use which the popish Clergy had endeavoured to make of them ; for the laws having exempted them from almost every personal duty, the^ attempted a total exemption from every secular tie. The personal exemptions, indeed, for the most part, continue. A clergyman cannot be compelled to serve on a jjiry, nor to appear at a court leet, which almost every other person is obliged to do ; but if a laymari be summoned on a jury, and before the trial takes orders, he shall notwithstanding appear, and be sworn. Neither can he be chosen to any temporal office ; as bai- liff, reeve, constable, or the like, in regard of his ovm continual attendance on, the sacred function. During his attendance on divine service, he w privileged from arrests in civil suits. In cases of ieloiw, also, a clerk in orders shall have the bene- fit of'^ clergy, without being branded in the hand, and may likevfise have it more than once ; in both which cases he is distinguished from a layman. Benefit of clergy was a privilege whereby a clergyman claimed to be delivered to his ordmary , to purge himself of felony, and which anciently was allowed only to those who were in orders; but, by the' statute of 18th EUz., every man ta whom the benefit of clergy is granted, though not in orders, is piit to read at the bar, after he is found guilty, eind convicted of felony, and sc burnt in the hand ; and set free for the first time, if the ordinary or depilty standing by do say, Legit utclericus: otherwise he shall suffer deatL As' the clergy have their privileges, so thejr have also their disabilities, on account of their spiritual avocations. Clergymen are incapable of sitting in the house of commons ; and by statute 21 Henry VII 1. c. 13, are not in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to farm, upon pain of lOl. per month, and total avoidance of the lease ; nor, upon like pain, to keep any tap-house, or brewhouse; nor engage in any trade, nor sell anv merchandise, under I■o^feit^re of the treble value; which prohibition is consonant to the canon law. The number of clergy in England and Waleu amount, according! to the best calculation, to 18,000.-^The revenues of the clergy were form- erly considerable, but since the Reformation they are comparatively sinsll, at least those of the in- CCENOBITE ferior clergy, See the Bishop of Llandaf'a Valuation of the Church and tlniversUy Re- venues ; or Cove on the Revenues Of the Church, 1797, 2d edition j Burnett's Hist, (jf his own "rimes, conclusion^ See article Minister. CLERK : 1. A word originally used to denote a learned man, or man of letters ; but now is the common appellation by which clergymen distin- guish themselves in signing any deed or instru- ment. — 2. Also the person who reads the, re- sponses of the congregation in the church, or gives out the hymns at a meeting. COCCEIANS, a denomination which arose in the seventeenth century ; so called from John Cocceius, professor of divinity in the university of Leyden. He represented the whole history of the Old Testament as a mirror, which held forth an accurate view of the transactions and events that were to happen in the church Under, the dispensation of the New Testament, and onto the end of the world, ^e mlaihtaiaed that by far the greatest part of the ancient prophecies foretold Christ's jmnistry and mediation, and the rise, progress, and revolutions of the church, not only under the figure of persons and transac- tions, but in a literal manner, and by the very sense of the words used in these predictions; and laid it down as a fiindamentid rule of interpreta- tion, that the words and phrases of Scrmtuie are to be understood in every sense of which they ore susceptible, or, in other words, that they sig- nify in effect every thing that they can fiossible signify. Cocceius also taught, that the covenant made between God and the Jewish nation, by the mi- nistry of Moses, was of the same nature as the new covenant, obtained by the mediation of Jemis Christ. In consequence of this general principle, he maintained that the ten commandments' were promulgated by Moses, not as a rule, of obedience, but as a representation bf the covenant of grace — that when the Jevirs had provoked the Deity by (heir various transgressions, particularly by the worship of the gblcbn calf, the severe and servile yoke of the ceremonial law was added to the de- calogue, as a punishment inflicted on them by the Supreme Being in his righteous displeasure — that this yoke, which was painful in itself, be- came doubly so on account of its typical signifi- cation,; since it admonished the Israelites from day to day of the imperfection and (mcertainty of their state, filled them with anxiety, and was a perpetual proof that they had merited the right- eous displeasure of God, apd could not expect, before the coining of the Messiah, the entire re- mission of their iniquities — that indeed good men, even under the Mosaic dispensation, were imme- .diately after death made partakers of everlasting glory ; but that they were nevertheless, during tne whole course of their lives, far removed from that firm hope and assurance of salvation, which rejoices the faithful under the disipensation of the Gospel — and that their anxiety flawed naturally from thb consideration, that their rans, thousn they remained unpunished, were not pardpned ; because Christ had not as yet offered himself up a sacrifice to the Father, to make an entire atone- ment for them. CCENOBITE, one who lives in a convent, or in community under a certain rule; "in opposition to a hermit, who lives in solitude. Cassian makes this dill'erence between a convent and a monastery, 77 COMMENTARY that the latter may be applied to the residence of a single religious or recluse ; whereas the convent implies coenobites, or numbers of religious living in common. Fleury speaks of three kinds of monks in Egypt ; anachorets, who live in sol* tude ; coenobites, who continue to live in commu>- nity ; and sarabaites, who are a kind of monks- errant, that stroll from place to place. He refers the institution of ccEnobites to the time of tho apostles, and makes it a kind of imitation of the Ordinary lives of the faithful at Jerusalem ; though St. Pachomius b ordinarily owned to be the in- stitutor of the coenobite life, as being the first who gave rule to any community. COLLECT, a short prayer. In the liturgy of the church of England, and the mass of the Romanists, it denotes a prayer accommodated to any particular day, occasion, or the like. In ge- neral, all the prayers in each office are called col- lects, either because the priest speaks in the name of the whole assembly, whose sentiments and de- sires he sums up by the word " Oremus," " Let us piay," oY' because those prayers are ofiered when the {leople are assembled together. The popes Gelasius and Gregory are said to have been the first who established collects. Dr.' Despence, of Paris, wrote a treatise on collects, their origin, antiquity, &c. COLLEGIANS, or Collegiants, a sect formed among the Arminians and Anabaptists in Holland, about the beginning of the seven- teenth century: so called because of their col- leges or meetings twice every week, where eveiy one, females excepted, has the same liberty of expoun^ng the Scriptures, praying, &c. They are said to oe all either Arians or Socinians ; they never communicate in the college, but meet twice a year, from all partsof HoUandj at Rhinsboreh, (whence they are also called Rhinsberghcr^ a village two miles from Leyden, where they com- mimicate together ; admitting every one that pre- sents himseu, professing his faith in the divinity of the Holy Scriptures, and resolution to live suitably to their precepts and doctrines, without regard to his' sect or opinion. They have no particular ministers, but each officiates a$ he is dl^osed. They baptize by immeision. COMMENTARY, as applied to the Scrii>- tUres, an exposition, book of annotations or re- marks, designed to elucidate the sacred volume by illustrating obscure j^assages, interpreting am- biguous phrases, reconciling apparent contradic- ' tions, exhibiting the relation or parallelism of the different parts,— in fine, by furnishing every facility to the biblical reader towards the attain- ment of the genuiiie sense of the inspired writ- ings. It is unquestionable, that there are many passages in the sacred Scriptures both difficult and obscure, in consequence of the various times when the difierent books were written, the diver- sified topics of which they treaty their allusion to ancient customs, and the languages in which they were originally compctsed. feo, far, indeed, as relates to the way of salvation, " ho that nj» may read ;" but there are many important points which, to common and unlctteredrcadcrs, require explanation, and in" wliich we may profitably avail ourselves of the labours of inqmrers whc: have preceded us, especially of those who have been deeply versed m the original languages, who have collated the difl^erent parts, the New Testament and the Old, the prophetic with the a-2 COMMENTARY liistoricaj books, and have brought forward the testimonies of profane antiquity to confirm or illustrate the word of God. To reject their assifet- Eince in the interpretation'of the Scriptures, is to throw away the labours of many ages. As well might we reject all our historians, and insist on believing nothing but what we derive immedi- ately from state papers, original records, and oth^r documents on which all history is founded. " The Bible," says a sensible writer, " is intended as a directory of our faith and practice. Now, to have an experienced friend, who has long been in the habit of perusirig it with patient study and huih- ble prayer, to have mch a friend at hand to point out m every chapter vfhat may be useftil or imports ant, and especially to disclose its latent beauties, may be no less desirable and UseAil, than ii is, when travelling in a foreign country, to have with us a companion who has passed the same rout^, and is acquainted both with the road, and with the_ objects most worthy of notice." Yet widely difierent opinions are, and ever have been, enter- tained respecting the utility and advantage df commentaries, annotations, and other expositions of the sacred writings.. By sbihe, who can adt mire nothing but their own meditations, and'wHo hold all human helps in contempt^ comnientaries are despised altogether, as tending to found our &ith on the opinions of men, rather than on the divine oracles; while others, on the contrary, trusting exclusively to ths expositions of some &- vourite commentators, receive as infallible what- ever views or opinions they may chcx)se to de- liver, as their expositioiis of the Bible. The safest way in this case, is, to tak6 the middle path, and occasionally to avail ourselves of the labours of commentators and expositors, while we diligently investigate the Scriptures for ourselves, without relying exclusively on our own wisdom, or being fascinated with the authority of an eminent name. In order to derive the utmost advantage from- the Jabours of expositors, the following suggestions may be profitably carried along with us in our reading. 1. We should take care that the pe- rusal of cominentators does not draw us away from studying the Scriptures themselves; froin investigating their real meaning, and meditating, on their important contents. §. We should hot inconsiderately assent to the interpretation of any expositor or commentator, or yield a blind and servile obedience to his authority. 3. The best commentators and interpreters only are to be read. 4. Where it does not appear that either ancient or modern interpreters had more know- ledge than ourselves, respecting particular pas- sages, and when they ofier only conjectures, their expositions ought to be subjected to a very strict examination before they are adopted. 5. As there are some commentaries which are.rather wholly compiled from the previous labours of others, or contain observations extracted from their writings, if any thing appear confused or perplexed in such commentanes, the original sources must be refer- red to, and diligently eonsulted. > To these remarks and directions relative to the use of commentaries, we shall subjoin the advice of Dr. Campbell, in his Lectures on Systematic Theglogy, as to the study of the Bible :r-" Begin with studying the Scriptures in the original Ian" guages ; attend careiiilly to the distinction that sboold always be made between classical or pure 78 COMMteNTARY Greek, and the Greek of the Septuagint and Testaiiient, where the words taken separately arc pure Greek, but where the idiom of the language, and even the acceptation of many words, aCe de- rived iVom the Hebrew, the Chaldaic,orthe Syriac. Be acquainted vrith the civil history, the manners and customs of ancient times and nations, espe- cially with that of the Jews, where the reading Of Josephus will be often useful. But whatever books yotl rtea^' occasionally, read'the Scriptures frequeiftly. Mark the different passages which you do not understand; read them with patience, not being too anxious to understand every thing at the first reading. But persevere, and read tihe Scriptures in the original a second and a third time ; and, without' consulting any commentator, those difficult passages will always become fewer as your knowledge increases. Read the Scrip- tures, also, with modesty, without being too full of yourself,' nor supposing that human reason can always comptehehd diviiie mysteries : and read them always with fervent prayer to God, the source of vrisdom and light, that he would assist and diirect you in your reseairches after truth. Do not complain that you want books, when jaa have the Scriptures themselves in the orimnil languages. If you have a Hebrew Bible, a Sep- tuagint, and a Gtreek New Testament, you have the thost necessary and the most useful of all books to a Christian divine. Read carefully all the veirsibns which are given of disputed pas- sages ; make ihuch use oi versions, and compare them all carefully with the original. Read the Vulgate, though a translation aiithorised b^ the Romuh church, as well as the versions of indi- viduals, such as Castalib, Beza, Junius, and Tre- mellius, and also Houbigant, if you have access to his tnuislation. You cannot be hurt by read- ing versiBhS, sind comparing them with the ori- ginal. Consult commentators sparingly: never use them till the last ; and then use them only as dictionaries. In this view, however, read com- mentators df all parties ; and judge of them more from their freedom of thought, abilities, and erudi- tion, than from considering to what party they be- long, In comparing the difierent kinds of commen- tators, remember that paraphrasts are the Worst, because they undertake too much; or promise most; while scholiasts are the best, because they undertake ahd promise least. Be on your guard against too much ingenuity in commentators ; for genius, in this case, has often led them astray, wheii humble piety and plain common-sense, would have kept them in a right path. Beware, partieularly, of anjf attachment to a preconceived systeiii, and do not think you will he (always) safe, if you use what yon call an approved com- mentator. See always with your own eyes, and not through the spectacles of glossarists, com- mentators, or paraphrasts. Remember that your errors will be much more pardonable, when j'ou use your own eyes, and when you coine short pf the triith after making the best use of your own reason, tlian when you are led ihlplicitly by pas- sion or by preji^cc. When you nave formed a religious system in early Bfe, be still correcting it aJs you acquire more knoWedge, not contendmg for the opinions of men, but mquiring after the mind of tfie> Spirit." , , To the present article we shall append a co- mous list of the most valuable commentaries, both m our own ahd other languages, particularly the COMMENTARY of the most Latin, which is a repository of man^^ of valuable treasures of biblical exposition. English CoMMSNTATOHs ON the wholb Biblsi . 1. Hgnrt-: — Aji' i^xposition: of the Old and New Testament ; by the Rev. Matthew Henry, folio, 5 vols. 4toi 6 vols. 8vo. 6 vols. In tlie former editions of the Ttieolo|zical Diction- ary, Mr. Bucl^, in &pieakihg of cora^^Qtaries. gives the following tcstim^ily to tHe gt-eat value of Henry. ** In my opinion, Henry takes the lead for comnloh utility. The sprightly notes, the just infererij^s. the ohgin&l thou^ts, and the warm applicatllons to the conscience, make this work justl;;^ admired. It. is true that there are some expressions' which* db fiot a^ree With the evangelic system; bat, as the late ^r. fiylahd ob- serves, ' 'tis impossible for a person of piety aiad taste l» read him without wishing-to he shut oiit ft-om all the world to read him thrcjugh without one ntbmenrs interruption.' Mr. Heriry did not live to complete the work. He went as far as the end of Acts." The re- mainder was finished by lifteen, dilfeyent hands, pious and able ministers, contempdi^ry with Mr. Henry, whose names will be found affixed tf^ their -several por- tions* The estimate in which the work is. h^d ip the- CJnited States is sensibly growing, and the relj^i^usi public are to be congratulated on the recent edition published in Philadelphia, with a valuable preface by the Rev. A. Alexander, of Princeton, New Jersey. 2. Scott. — The Hdy Bible, cohtaihiiig the Old and New Testaments ; with original notes, pfiictical observations, arid feQjiious inarginal re- ferences. By Thomas Scot^ Rector of Aston Saadford, SVols. 4to. 6 vols. 8vo. " The capital excellency rff this valuable and im- mense undertaking, perhaps Consists in following more closely than any other, the fair and adequate meaning of every part of Scripture, without riegard^o the nice- lies of human systems : it is in every sense ipf the ex- pression, a scriptural comUieut. It has a tiirther and a strojig recomiiiendation in, its originality. Every, part of it is thought out by the author'ior himself, riot borrowed O'om others. Th^ latet editions. Indeed, are enriched with brief and valuablequotations from seve- ral writers of credit -, but the substance 6f the Work is entirely his own. It is not a cdmpilatinn, it is an ori- ginal production, in which you have the deliberate judgment o^ a ipasculine^and independent, mtud o^,alI the parts of Holy Scriifture. Eve^ student Wil^ lii^- derstand the value of such a wqrk. Accordingly the success of the work has be,en st€iadily and Vapidly iri: creasing from the first, not only in our own -cpuntO^i. but wherever the English language is known. Ntir is the time distant, when, the passing controversies of the day having been for^tten,,this prodigious work will generally be cdnfbsseQ in the Protectant churches, to be one of the most sound ancf instructive comn;i6nta- ries produced in our own or an;y^ other age." — JVilaon^s Puncral Sermon. 3. Poole. — Annotations upon the Holy Bible j by the Rev. Matthew Poole, folio, London, 2 vols. 1C83. Edinburgh, 1803, 4 vols, 4to. This is an eitreftiely valuable work, by the author, of the celebrated! Synopsis. It was , published subse- quently to that work, an=4 maybe sup^sed Jo contain the results of the immfense collection and comparison of interpretations contained in the Synopsis. The anno- tations are mingled with the text, and for the most part are eminently judicious. The author wrote them only as far as the 58th chapter of Isaiah ; the remain- der being executed by several distinguished dissenting ministers. 4. A^sEM^fY's AnnotatttcOns. — Annotations upon all the Books of the Old and New Testa- ments ; by the labour of several learned divines thereunto appointed. London, 1657, 3 vols^ folio. This valuable work was composed by the members of the JVeptminster ^Assembly of diianes. See Calamy'y Isfe of Baxter, p. 86. 5. Clarke.— The Old and New Testaments, 79 COMMENTARY with Annotadona and parallel ScriptUTes ; \r^ Samuel Clarke, A. M. London, 1690, folio. " The selection of parallel texts is admirable ; and the not^s, though very brief, are written with great judg* ment. The work was commended in very high terms by Drs. Owen and Bates, as well as by Mr. Baxter and Mr. How^."— flbme. 6. Gill. — An Exposition of the Old and New Testaments,illustrated by notes from the most an- cient JewiShwritingsj by JohnGill, D. D. London, 1748—1763, 9 vols, folio. London, 1809, 9 vols. 4to. In rabbinical literature, Dr. Gill had no equal, and he has been enabled to illustrate many impbrtant pas- sages of Scripture.— Home. 7. Brown. — Brown's Self-Interpreting Bible, 3 vols. 4tb. " Its chief excellencies are the marginal references which are exceedingly useful to preachers, and tht close, plain, and practical improvement to each chap- ter." — BucL 8. A. Clarke. — The Holy Bible, with a Commentary and Critical Notes; by Adam Cl^rkte, LL. D. 5 vols. 4to. 6 Vols. 8vo. Latin CoHHiENTATbRs on the whole Bibi.£. 1. Ceitici Sacri. — Sive Anhotata doctissi- morum Virorum in Vetus ac Novum Testamen- tum ; quibus accedunt tractatus varii, Theologico- PhilolOOTci, 9 tomis in 12 voluriiinibus, Amster- dam, 1698. " This great work, first published at Lond6n in'166C, in 9 vols, folio, under the direction of Bishop Fearsbn, John Pearson, Anthony Scattergood, and Ftaneis GouJdman, is^fJonsitlerably augmented in the abdVe' ti^ cond and best edition. The notes of Grotius, Vatablus, brusius, Munster, Castalio, Clarius, Junius, and Tre- mellius, are to- be found in this collection, besides a multitude of commentators on particular books, and numerous valuable disquisitions on particular subjects, which are enumerated by Dr. A. Clarke in the general preface tq his Commentary. To complete this great work there were published at Amsterdam, in 1701, Thesaurus Theologico-Philologicus, in two vols, folio, and in 1732, in two folio volumes alsoi Thesaurus No- vuB Theologico-Philologicus— two valuable collections of critical and philological dissertations by the most eminent biblical critics of that day. These are neces- sary to complete the Critici Sacn."—Horne. The great defect of this work is the wartt of due se- lection in the original materials. Several authors are included of very little note, and who were altogether unworthy of a place in' such a body of critics as were intended to have been dnrollied in this college of com- mentators. Many, too, of ^e annotations of more distinguished authors are scarcely worthy of tlieir names, and as several sets of notes are written upon the ^ame books, the samfe things are frequently re- peated... A reprint of the whote work, therefore, is neither tQ.be expected nor degired, altbougb many of the disquisitions richly deserve to be drawn out of their obscurity and given anew to the world. 2. MATTiiffii PooLi, Synopsis Criticormn Aliorumque SS. Interpretum. — London, Utrecht, an^ Fraiikfort, 5 vols, folio. On this -most elaborate work the learned authoi spent ten years. Although not designed to be a mere abridgment of the Critici Sacri, it contains all that is most Valuatile in their annotations, besides many im* jioirthnt additions from other sources, and his own ju- dicious decisions in many places. Notwithstanding, however, that the Synopsis brings together an immense ihasS^of yalua^ld interpretation, the work would ad- mit Of bding greatly syni^sized its6If. Th$ vast acctv mulaiiph of difl^rent senses crowded together to explain a single sentence or a single word, many of them pAl- pSibiy fai66 Or iriiling, many of them without the shadow of a reason for their adoption, and apparehtly introduced merely to imcrease the amount of matter, so efibctually perplexes ttie mind, that the reader often COMMENTARY closes the book more unsettled in his opinion than when be opened it. It is greatly to be desired that a work on the plan of Poole, only more moderate in its dimensions, and more select in its materials, should be executed at the present day. But the task would be a Herculean one, and arduous in proportion to the supe- rior advantages possessed for such a work by the pre- sent generation of scholars. Of the different editions of Poole, that of Utrecht, by Professor Leusden> is the best. The Frankfort edition is said to be scarcely worth purchasing, on account of its incorrectness. The quarto edition is somewhat better, but is badly printed and sells at a low price.— B. 3. JoAKNis'CoccGii Commentarii in Sacras Scripturas, in ejus Operibua. — Amateridim,, 10 vols, folio. Notwithstanding the character of Cocceius, as a com- mentator, labours under the imputation of excessive mysticism, and of having indulged a vein of the wildest fancies in ^irituallzing the Old Testament, it should be remembered that his grand object was to oppose the system of mere literal or grammatical {;zposition adopt- ed by Grotius and his followers. And when it is said of two commentators, as it was of him and Grotius, that " one finds Christ everywhere, and the other no where," the judiciou'S and pious reader will readily de- cade which is the most innocent error. Buddeus, the great master in historic-theology, while he admits that Cocceius has occasionally refined too much in his in- terpretations, still affirms that he ranks among "the most illustrious teachersoftho Reformed Church," that he was pre-eminently endowed with the qualifications of a good interpreter, and that, turning away from the fVivolous minutiEB of the popular critics of ^the age, he sedulously aimed to unfold the sense of the Scriptures in such a manner as toincrease the knowledge t^ divine and saving truth amoTig men. " His commentaries," says Horae, " particularly on the JV^ Testapient, abound with valuable illustrations, and will amply repay the trouble of a perusal." The critical reader of the Fro- idietical Books will seldom consult him in vain. — B. 4. RosENMULLERi SciiOLiA in Vetus atque Novum Testamentum, 23 tomis, 8vo. This work is very much prized by those who have a high opinion of the modern ' school of German critics and commentators. But as the most valuable parts are dra^vn from other sources, which can be obtained at a cheaper rate, and which are not interlarded with neo- logical scholia, we do not esteem the want of it a very serious desideratum in a biblical library. English Commentators on thk Nkw Tes- ^ TAMENT. 1. BoRKiTT's Expository Notes, with Practi- cal Observations. — London, 1814, 4to. "Burkitt contains many ingenious observations, Ane turns, natural plans, and pungent addresses to the ■onscience." — Buck. 2. Doddridgk's Fanuly Expositor. — London, 4 vols. 4to., and G vols. 8vo. " This admirable commentary is in the list of books recommended by Bishops Watscm and Tomline, and almost every other theological tutor." — Jlorne. 3. WnnnT's Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament, 2 vols, folio. " Divines of every denomination concur in pro- nouncing Dr. Whitby*8 Commentary to be, upon tho whole, the best upon the New Testament that is extant in the English language." — Htfrne. 4. GuysB's Practical Expositor in the Form of a Paraphrase, with occasional Notes. — -London, 3 vols. 4to. 4 vols. 8vo. "Dh Guyse was an eminent dissenting divine of the eighteenth century, and in his religious principles Calvinistic. His Paraphrase has never been popular, thougit it is said to display sound judgment, intimate acquaintance with the original, and considerable criti- cal powers." — Ilarne. •' 5. Hammond*s Paraphrase and Annotations 60 COMMENTARY on the New Testament* — London. 1702, folio, best edition. " Many good criticisms, but many that are much mistaken."— S'ome. Latin Commentators on the New Testa- ment. 1. Bengelii Gnomon Novi Testamenti. "This work contains an instructive preface, a per- spicuous analysis of each book, with short notes, in the true taste of judicious criticisin. Bengel excels in shew'ng the connexioa and harmony of Scripture, and how Scripture is to be interpreted by Scripture." Home. Another critic observes, " his work is an unknown storehouse of valuable mailer, consisting of acute re- marks, striking illustrations of the text by the context* just inferences, and practical observations; the whole offered in a strain of true piety and Christian simpli- city."— Crjfica SiUica, vol. iv. p. 160. 2. Wetstenii Novum Testamentiun Grae cum.^Amsteidam, 1753, 2 vols, folio " Almost ev^ peculiar form of speech in the sacicJ text he has inustrated by quotations from Jewish, Greek, and Roman writers."— 2)r. ^dam Clarke. 3. WoLFii Curse Philologicae in Novum Tea-, tamentum. — Basil, 1741, 5 vols. 4to. " This is a very valuable compilation ; as Wolfioi does not simply relate the opinions of others, but fre- quently animadverts upon them with great critical discern ment.' '—Home. 4. Chemnitii Harmonia CLuatuor EvangeE- starum. — Hamburgh, 1704^ foho. " Deservedly held in the highest estimation,"— .Q^m« 5. KopPE Novum Testamentum Graeci.— 1791, 8vo. 2d edition. Commentators on Select Parts, or Sinsik Books, of the Old Testament. 1. Aiksworth'b Annotations on the Penta teuch, the Fsaims, and the Song of Solomon. — London, 1639, folio. The collector of a biblical apparatus is advised by no means to let slip an opportunity of procuring this work, [n affording aid to the attainment of the exact meaning of the original, Ainsworth is unrivalled ; his parallelisms never fail tO cast light on the point for which they are adduced ; his quotations from the Jew- ish writers, in Which he discovers great judgment, form an exceedingly valuable source of illustration and his translation, particularly of the Fsaims, is oftep to be preferred to the cnnlmoh version. Ko more valua- ble service could be performed to the cause of Biblical Literature than the republication of Ainsworth's An- notations in a more convenient form, and somewhat modernized in orthography and style. In order to be duly appreciated, it should be used by one who is in the habit of ctmsulting the origina]. Such an one; will discover in this venerable puritan an acquaintance with the minute peculiarities of the Greek and Hebrew forms of expression, and a tact of illustration, which for the age and circumstances of the writer, is truly astonishing. 2. Bishop Patrick's Commentaries on the Historical Parts of the Holy Scriptures. — Lon- don, 3 vols. 4to. Well worth possessing, though not of frequent oo currence. Patrick, Lowlh, Whitby, and Arnold, are embodied in one extensive ^nd' valuable work, pub> lished in 8 vols. 4to. 3. NovM tJberiores in Hagiographa. — Ha]», 3 vols. 4to. The student of Hebrew who makes use of Michaelis's Hebrew Bible, {and such an one will not feel the wanj of any other) should not sufiTer' himself to be witliout this work if it be in Ma'pawer to obtain it. As the notes are a continuation of tho^e in the above-meO' tioned edition of the Bible, printed in a type lens try- ing to the eye, they form a supplement indiepenBable ' to the cOmideteneBS of that >work. Thei authors of' •the-Annotations are, J. H. Michaelis, 0. B. Michaelii, and J. ii;, Rambach. iGenxsis. Sebastian,! Schmidt : all the exposJt^i^vWOTks of this learned, and ' pious man are extremely' va- luable.-^jlndreas JK»e(«», (Opera, torn. i. folio :) of grsativalue to the theologian.-^T^o/uimte«iM!>'- cBTUs ; Jptolix, but sound and jiaMciiaas.T"i4igkt- /oo thor's English translation of Daniel is, sajil to be the best m the language. — Sir /saae Newton's Observations on,the,JP^phecies. — Bp. Newton on the Prophecies.-^WiateM, (in Hexapla.)— Wintle.^—Amner. — Fdber: — Blayney otithe S»- yenty 'Week»..—Brightman..^Parker.^-^Pein. bel. — RoUock.T^Josi Mede (the works of the ve- nerable Mede are indispensable to tbe'^^tudent of Prophecy. Minor Prophets. ZiowJA on the Prophets.^PococAe oni Upsea, Joel, Micah, and Malachi — Newcome on' the Minor Prophets.K^iMffirefc on do. — Burkii Gno- monin do. — Tarnonifs in do. — Mercerus in da — Drasius in do.^ — Jer. Burroughs on-Hosea : the work of a mind most, deeply imbued with the spirit of -piety, and with a skill in making, practi- cal the abstrusest parts of the scriptures scarcely to be paralleled.— 'fllJrstej; on Hosea. — Chandler on Joel : this author is entitled to la^k^among the first .bibUcal cntii^.i)i the, English language. — Pfe'^er on Jonah.^Bla,yney on Zechariah. — Stock', Venema, and Van Til on MalachL COUHENTATORS Olir SELECT PaRTS, OR SiNGLE Books of the New Testament. 1. Campbell's Four Gosjiels, 1 vol. 4to. 4 vols. 8vo. Particularly valuable for the dissertatiouKand nowa, which contain a treasure of sacied criticism. 2. Macknight's Harmony of the Four Gos- pels, 2 vols. 8vo. - A work of the greatest utility to the critical. iBadet of the New Testament. 3. D.,C. TVieophiti KuinoelCommeDtanaa in labros Now Testamenti Historicos, 4 vols, 8vn COMMENTARY. Valuable as a philological commentary, but contain- ing sentiments revolting to a believer in the divine authority and plenary inspiration of the Scriptures. 4. Z. Pearce's Commentary on the Evange- lists, Actii, and II. Corinthians, 3 vols. 4to. Displaying deep learning and sound judgment. 5. Mac/might on the Epistles, 6 vols. 8vo. " It is a work of theological labour not often paral- leled, ^nd an ample storehouse of observations to exer- cise not only the student, but the adept in divinity. If we do not always coincide implicitly with the author in opinion, which in such various matter cannot rea- sonably be expected, we can always praise his dili- gence, his learning, and his piety." — British CriUc. The work is said to have been the unremitting la. hour of nearly thirty years, during which period seldom less than eleven hours a day were employed upon it. Matthew. Bp. Porteus^'s Lectures on Matthew. — Olea- rUis. — Eisner. — Parens. Mare. Heupelius Commentary. Luke. Morus's Frselectiones. — Schleirmacher. Jobs. Lampe : the most valuable work Ml the Gospel rf John ever published. — Titman, Meletemata. —Shepherd. — Moms. — Semler. — HUdersham an Johniv.-i-Sitrg'esson JohnxviL — MaTiion on John ivii. Acts. Biscoe. — T}rapp. — Mayer.— Heinrichs. — Wil- Hs.-^Cradocli's Apostolical History. — Benson's Planting of Christianity. — Bevans's Life of Paul. —Buddeus's Historia Ecclesis Apostolics. — Dick on Acts. Romans. Reimbach. — Moms. — Edwards. — Weller. — '■ Adam.—' Wilson. — Parr. — Schmidius. — Fry. I. AND II. Corinthians. Stoirr, (Opuscula.) — Krause. — Holman. Galatians. imtlier: an inestimable work. — Chandler, — Perkins, — Ferguson. — Borger.-^ Winer. Efhesians. Goodwin. — Ferguson. — Tamovius, — Locke. — Chandler. CoLoasiANS. Bn/leld, — Davenant. — Elton. — Gisbome. Philifpians. ^Pierce. — Tamovius. I. AND II. ThESSALONIANS. Bp. Jewell. — Twrretin. — Tamovius. — Berif son. Titos. Taylor. Hebrews. Owen. — Pierce.— SchTnidius, — Braunius, — , Carpzomus, — Sykes, — Ernesti, — Scyffarth. — Maclean, — Stuart. The Catholic Epistlib. Leighton on Peter : an incomparable work. — Byfield on the first three chapters of Peter. — Mantmi oh James. — Morus on James a:nd Peter. —Adam on II. Peter. — Hawkins on John's Epis- tles.— ^flardy oil do. — jWoru* on do. — Witsius on Jude. — Mantbrif Jenkins, and Otes oh do. 83 COMMUNICATING. Revelation. Davimz : a work of stupendous eruditionurW; vailing any commentary ever published on any part of the Scriptures. In unfolding the symb ^n'' ™^ probablj^ con- sigh so many of its productions to speedy oblivion. See also books recommended under articled Bi- bles, Scriptoees. COMMINATION, an office in the chinch of England appointed to be read oh Ash Wed- nesday. It is substituted in the room of that godly discipline in the primitive church, by which (as the introduction to the office expresses it) " such persons as stood convicted of notorious sins were put to open penance, ai)d punished in this worlds that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord ; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to of- fend." This discipline, in after-ages, degene- rated in the chiirch of Rome into a formal confes- sion of sins upon Ash Wednesday, and the empty ceremony of sprinkling ashes upon the head of _ the people. Our reformers wisely rejected this ceremohy as mere shadow and show ; arid sub- stituted this office' in its room, which is A d^nun- ciation of God's anger and^judgment agaiiist sinners ; that the people, being apprised of God's wrath and indignation against their sins, might not, through want of discipline to the church, be encouraged to pursue them. COMMISSARY, an officer of the bishop, who exercises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a diocese so far from the episcopal sec, that the chancellor cannot call the people to the bishop's principal consistory court ivithout great incoiv venience. COMMUNICATING a term made use of to denote the' act of receiving the Lord's Supper. Those of the reformed and of the Greek church communicate under both kinds; those of the Ro- mish only under one. The oriental communi- i;<.>jviMUJNioj;< eants leceive the species of wine by a spoon ; and ancjehtly they sucked it through a pipe, as has been observed by Beat. Rhcanus on .Tcrtullian. COMMUNIONrin its strict and proper sense, - rignifies holding something in common with ano- ther, Acts il 42; — ^2. In 'a more general sense, it denotes confbrmihr or agreement 2 Cor. vi. 14. jEph. V. 11. — 3. B signifies converse, or friendly iBtercourse, wherein men contrive or consult to- gether about matters of conimon concern, Luke vi. 11. Ps. iv. 4. — i. Communion is also used for the Lord's Supper, because, we herein make a public profession of our conformity to phrist and his laws ; and of our agreement with other Chris- tians in the spirit and faith ($f the 'Q-pspel. See Lord's Supper. The fourth cbuncil of Lateran decrees, that every believer shall receive the communion, at leas^ at Easter ; which seems to import a tacit de- sire that 'they should, do it oftener, as in effect they did it much oftener in the primitive days. Qratian, arid the master of the sentences, pre- scribe it as a rule for the laity to communicate three times a year ; at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas: but in the thirteehth century the practice prevsuled of never approaching the eucharist at Easter; and the council thought fit to enjoin it then by a law; lest their coldness and remissness should go farther still : and the coun- cil of Trent renewed the Same injunction, and recommended fi^quent communion, without en- forcing it by an express decree. In the ninth ■century the communion was stiU received by thfe laity in both kinds, or rather the species of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by the Ro- manists themselves. M. de Marca observes, that, they received it at first ifi their hands ; and be- lieves the eommiinion tinder one kind alone to have its rise in the West, under Pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time of the conquest of the Holy Land. It was more solemnly enjoined by the council of Constance, in 1414. The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont enjoin^ the com- munion to be received under both kinds'distinctly ; adding, however, two exceptions, — the one of ne- cessity, the other of caution ; the first in favour of the sick, and the second of the abstemious, or those' who had an aversion for wine. It was formerly a kind , of canonical punishment for derks guilty of any crime to be reduced to lay communion; i. e. only to receive it as the laity did, viz. undei* one kind. They had 'another punishment of the same nature, though under a different name, called foreign communion, to which the canons freqiiently condemned thejr bishops and other clerks. This punishment was not any excommunication or deposition, but a kind of suspension froni the function of the or- der, and a degradatiojl ftom the raink they' held in the church. It Bad its name because the com- munion was not only granted to the criminal 6n the foot of a foreign cferk; i.e. being; reduced to the lowest of his order, he took his place, after all those of his rank, as all clerks, &C. did in 'the churches io which they did not belong. The se- cond council of Agda nrdeirs every clerk that ab- sents himself froin the church to be reduced to foreign communion. CIvm-ch communion is fellowship with any particular church.. See -Church FBtLOwsHip. It is sometimes applied to different churches united in doctrine and discipline. The three 83 COMPASSIOJM grand communions into which the Chrlstinn church is divided, are those of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and tlie Protestant church; but originally all Christians were in commtmion with each other, having ^one communion, faith and discipline. ' Pree communion, a term iqade use of in relation to the Lord's Supper, by which it is understood that all those who nave been baptized, whether in infancy or adult age, may, on profession of their faith, sit'down at the Lord's table with others of different denominations. Some of the Baptists otnect to free or mijced cbnimunion, and do not allow persons who have been baptized in their infency to join in the celebration of the Lord's Supper with them ; because they look upon such as not having 'been baptized at all, and conse- quently cannot be admitted to the table. Others, however, suppose that this oughttobe no objec- tion ; and that such who believe themselves to be really baptized (though in infancy), are partakers of grice, belongto the true ehurch of Christ, and are truly devoted to God, ought not to be rejected on account of a different opinion about a mere ordinance. Mr. Killingwoith and Mr. Booth have written against free communion ;, John Bunyan, Dr. Posler,jMr. Bulkely, Mr. Wiche, Mr. Robinson, and Robert Hall for it. COMMUNION, spiritual or dimne, is that delightfid felldyirship and intercourse which a be- liever enjoys with God. It is founded upon union with him, and consists in a communication of di-, vine graces from him, and a return of devout-af- fections to him. The believer holds communion with God in his works, in his word, and in his ordinances. There can be no communion with- out likeness, upr vrithout Christ.as the mediator. Some distinguish communion with God from the sense and feelihgof it; that is, that we may hold communion with him without raptures of joy; and that a saint, even under desertion, may have communion with, God, as really, though nbt so .feelingly, as at any other time. This commu- nion cannot be interrupted by any local muta- tions: it is far superior to all outward services and ordinances whatsoever; it concerns the whole . soul, all the affections, facultieii, and motions of it being under its influence : it is only imperfect in this life, and will he unspeakably eiUarged in a better world. — In order to keep up conimunion with God, we should inform ourselves of his will, John v. 39 ; be often in prayer, Luke, viii. 1 ; em- brace opportunities of retirement, Ps. iv. 4; con- template on the divine perfections, providences, aiid promises, Ps. civ. 34 ; watch against a vain, trifiiiig, and volatile spirii, Eph. iv. 30; and be found in the use Of all the means of grace, Fs. xxviL 4. The advantages oi communion with God are, deadness to the world, Phil. iii. 8. pa- tience under trouble. Job. i. 33 ; fortitude in dan- ;er, Ps. xxvil 1 ; gratitude for mercies received, 's. ciii. 1 ; direction under difKculties, Prov. iiL 5, 6 ; peace and joy- ih opposition, Ps. Svi. 23 ; hap- piness in death, Ps. xxui. 4 ; and an earnest desire for heaven arid glory, 3 Tim. iv. 7, 8. See Shaw's Ilrlmanuel-! Owen and Henry on Com- munion I and artide Fellowship COMPASSION is that species of affection which is excited either by the actual distress of its object, or by some impending calamity which ap- peals inevitable. It is a benevolent sonow for the suAerings or approaching misery of anoth». The CONCEPTION fitjrmology of the word expresses this idea with strict propriety, as It signifies suffering with the object. Hobliea makes tnis a mere selfish pas^on, and defines it as " )?eiug fear for ourselves." Hutcheson resolves it into instinct j but %. But- ler much more properly considers it as an qriginal m theroU pf dignified, saints, such as apostles, mar- tyrs, &c. In ecclesiastical history, the' word con- fessor is sometimes used for martyr ; in aftertimes it was confined to those who, after ha^^ng been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted to live and die in peace: and at last it was also used for those who, after having Uved a good life, died un- der an opinion of sanctity. According to St. Cy- prian, he who presented himself to torture, or even to martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called a confessor, but a. prqfessx»' ; and if any out of want of courage abandoned his coun- try, and became a voluntary exile for the sake of the faith, he was called ex terris. Confessor is also a priest in the Komish church, who h^ a power to hear sinners in the sacrament of penance, and to give them absolution. The confessors of thp kings of Prance, from the time of Henry IV. have been constantly Jesuits; be- fore him, the Dominicans and Cordelieis shared the ofiice between them. The confessors of the house of Austria have also ordinarily been Do- minicans ami Cordeliers, but the latter cmpcirors have all taken Jesuits. CONFIRMATION, the act of establishing any thing or person, — 1. Divine confirmation is a work of the spirit of God, strengthening, com- forting, and establishing believers In faith and obedienpe. 1 Pet. v. 10. 1 Cor. i. 8. — 2. Eccle- siastical confirmation^ is a rite whereby a person arrived at years of discretion, undertakes the per- formance of every part of the baptismal vow ma.de for him by his godjfathers and godmothers. In the primitive church it was done immedi- ately alter baptism, if the bishop happened to be present at the solemnity. Throughout the East it still accompanies baptism; but theJRomanists make it a distinct independent sacrament. Seven CONFLAGRATION years is the stated time for confirmation ; how- ever, they are sometimes after that age. The person to be confirmed his a godfather and god- mother apuointed him, as in baptism. In the charch of England,, the age of the persons to he confirmed is not fixed. (Darke's Essay on Con- firmation; Wood on ditto; How's Episcopacy ; p. 167, 174. CONFLAGRATION, GENERAL, a term used to denote that grand period or catastrophe of our world, when the face of nature is to be changed by fire, as formerly if was by water. 1. Scripture assures us in the general, that this earth in its present form will not be perpetual, but shall come to an end. — 2. It further tells us, that this dissolution of the world shall be by a general conflagration, in which all things upon the face of the earth shall be destroyed, hy which the at- mosphere shall al^ be sensibly affected, a^ in such a case it, necessarily must be, 2 Pet.-iii. 5, 7, 10, 12; where, from the connexion of the words, the opposition between the conflagration and the deluge, as well as the most literal and apparent import of tJie phrases themselves, it is plain they cannot, as Dr. Hammond strangely supposes, refer to the desolation brought on Judea when destroyed by the Romans, but must refer to the dissolution of the whole earth. — 3. The Scrip- ture represents this great burning as a circmn- stance nearly connected with the day of judg- ment, 2 Pet. iii. 7, compared vvith 2 Thess. i. 7, Heb. X. 37. 1 Cor. iii..l2, 13 ; and it ip probable there may be an allusion to this in several passages of the Old Testament, such as Ps. xi. 6. 1. 3. xcvi. 3. Isa. xxjtiv. 4, 8, 10. Ixvi. 15. Dan. vii. 9, 10. Mai. iv. 1. Zeph. iii. 8 Deut. xxxii ^; to which many parallel expressions miight be added, from the canonical and apocryphal books.— 4. It is not expressly declared how this burning shall be kindled, nor how it shall end: which has given occasion to various conjectures about it, which see below. , • i The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonists, Epicu- reans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notibn of the confiagratipn ; though whence they should derive it, unless Irom the sacred books, is diffi- cult to conceive ; except, perhaps, frgm the Phoe- nicians, who themselves had it from the Jews. Mention of the conflagration is made in the books of the Sibyls, Sophocles, Hystaspes, Ovid, Lucan, &c. Dr. Burnet, after J. Tachard and others, - relates that the Siamese believe that tlie earth will at last be parched up with heat, the mountains melted down, the earth's whole surface reduced to a level, and then consumed vrith fire. And tlie Bramins of Siam do. not only hold that the world shall be destroyed by fire, but also that a new earth shall be made out of the cinders of th6 old. , Divines ordinarily account &r the conflagration metaphysically, and vrill have it take its rise from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Philosophers contend for its being produced from natural causes, and will have it effested according to the laws of mechanics. Some think an eruption of the central fire sufficient for the purpose; and, add, that this may be occasioned several ways, viz. either by having its intension increased, which again may beeffetted either by being driven into less space by the encroachments of the super- ficial cold, or by an increase of the inflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed; or by having the resistance of the imprisoning earth weakened, 87 CONFLAGRATION which may happen cither from the diminution of its matter, by the consumption of its central parts, or by weskeiiing the cohesion of the constituent parts of the mass by the excess or the defect of moisture. Others look for the cause of the con- flagration in the atmosphere, and suppose that some of the meteors there engendered in unusual quantities, and exploded with unusual vehemence from the concurrence of various circumstances, may eflfect it without seeking any farther. — Last- ly, others have recourse to a still more eflfectual and flaming machine, and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration from the near ap- proach of a comet in its return from the sun. Various opinions are also entertained as to the renovation of the earth after the conflagration^—" 1. Some suppose that the earth will^ot be entire- ly consumed, but that the matter of which it con- sists vvill be fixed, purified, and refined, which they say will be the natural consequence of the action of fire upon it ; though it is hard to say what such a purification can do towards ' fitting it for its intended purpose, for it is certain a mass of crystal or glass would very ill answer the fol- lowing parts of this hypothesis. — 2. They sup- pose that from these materials thus refined, as from a second chaos, there will, by the power of God arise a new creation, euid then the face of the earth, arid likewise the atmosphere, will be so restored, as to resemble what it originally was in the paradisaical state; and consequently to render it a more desirable abode for human creatures than it at present is: and they urge for this purpose the following texts, viz. 2 Pet. iii. 13. (compaw Isa, Ixy. 17. Ixvi. 22.) Matt, xix. 28,-29. (com- pare Mark X. 29, 30. Luke xviii. 29,30.) Ps. qIL 25, 26. Acts iii. 21. 1 Cor. vii. 31. Rom. viii. 21. — 3. They agree in supposing, that in this newstate of things there vfill be no sea, Rev. xxi. L 4. They suppose that the earth, thus beautified and improved, shall be inhabited by those who shall inherit the first resurrection, and shall here enjoy a very considerable degree of happiness, though not equal to that which is to succeed the general Judgment; which juidgment shall, accord- mg to them^ open when those thousand years are expired, mentioned in Rev. xx. 4, &c. 1 Thess. iv. 17, compare ver. 15., which passage is thought by some to contain an insinuation that Paul ex- pected to be alive at the appearance of Christ, which must imply an expectation of beiiig thus raised from the' dead befo.^e it. : but it is answered that the expression we that are alive may only sigrafy, "those of us that are so," speaking of all Christians as one body, 1st Cor. xv. 49 — 52. Dr. Hartley declared it as his opinion,, that the mil- lennium will consist of a thousand prophetical years, where each day is' a year, i e. 360,000 ; pleading, that this is the language used in other parts of the Revelation. But it seems an invin- cible objection against this hypothesis, which places the millennium after the conflagration, that the saints inhabiting the earth after the first resurrection are represented as distressed by the invasion of some wicked enemies. Rev. xx. 7-9. Ezck. xxxviii. xxxix. S,ce MiLLENNinK. After all, little can b« said with certainty, as to this subject. It is probkble that the earth will survive its fiery trial, and become the everlasting abode of righteousness, as part of the whole em- >ire of God, b'ut seeing the language used in Scripture, and especially in the book of Revda- CONGREGATIONALISTS lion, is often to be considered as ficrurativo rather than literal, it benomes us to be cautious in bur conclusions. Burnet's Theory of the Earth; Whitby on the Millennium; Hartley on Man, vol. ii. p. 400 i Fleming on the first Resurrec- tion; Hay's Three Discourses; Wliiaton's Theory of the Earthy and article Dissolution in this work. CONFUSION OF TONGUES, a memora- ble event which happened in the one hundred and first year, according to the Hcbreve chrono- logy, and the four hundred and first year by the Samaritan, after the flood, at the overthrovv of Babtjl, Gen. xi. Until this period there had been Wt one common language, vfhich formed a bond of union that prevented the separation of man- kind into distinct nations. Wnters have differed much as to the nature of this confusion, and the manner in which it was effected. Some think. that no new languages, were formed ; but that this event was accomplished by creating a misunder- standing and variance among the builders with- out any iiiimediate influence on their language j and that a distinction is to be made between con- founding a language and forming new ones. Others account for this event by the privation of ail language, and by supposing that mankind were under a necessity of associating together, and of, imposing new names on things by com- mon consent. Some, again, ascribe the confusion to such an indistinct remembrance of the original language which they spoke before as made them apeak it very differently : but the most common opinion is, that God caused the builders actually to Jbrget their former language, and each family to apeak a new tongue ; whence originated the varir ous languages at present in the world;- It is, hosy- ever, biit of little consequence to know precisely bow this was ciiected, as the Scriptures are -silent as to the manner of it ; and after all that can be said, it is but conjecture still. There are some truths, howevtt, we may learn from this part of sacred writ. 1. It teaches us God's sovereignty a.nd power, by which he can easily blast the greatest attempts of men to aggrandize themselvesi Gen. xi. 7, 8. 2. God's justice in punishing those who in idolizing their own fame, forget him to whom praise is due, ver. 4. 3. God's wisdom in Over- ruling evil for good : for ty this confusion he fa- cilitated the dispersion of mankind, in order to execute his own purposes, ver. 8, 9. See Henry and Gill in loo.; Stillingfeet's Orig. Sac. 1. iiij; c. V. S 24 ; Shuckfm-d's Con. vol. i. p. 124-140; Vitringa's Obs. vol. i. diss. 1. c. ix.^ Le Clerc's Diss. No. vi.; Hutchinson on the Confusion of Tongues ; Bishop Law's TVieory of Religion, p. 66. COiSTGREGATrON, an assembly of people met together for religious worship. The term has been also used for assemblies of cardinals ap- pointed by the pope for the discharge of certain functions, after the manner of our offices and courts ; such as the congregation of the inquisi^ tim, the congregation of riles, oiaimsj &c. &e. — It also signifies a company or society of Te%ious persons cantoned out of this or thiat order, and jnakina an inferior order, &c. Such are thfecon- gregaitions of the Oratory those of Cluny, &c. among the Benedictines. COi^GREGATIONALISTS, a denomina- tion of Protestants, so called froin their main- taining that each particular church or congrega- CONG REGA TION ALISTS tion is authorized by Christ to exercise all the acts of ecclesiastical power and privilege within itself without being subject to the jurisdiction or con- trol of any bishop, synod, presbytery, or council composed of delegates from different associated churches. They not only hold that there is no Scriptural institution for any such ecclesiastical authority, but that such churches are not free, by a voluntary act of their own, to resign to superior courts those inherent rights of self-goveroment vnth which the Head of flie Church has invested them ; that they cannot do this without betray- ing that "liberty wherewith Christ has made Ks people free," and sanctioning erroneous principles of diurch polity ; and that whatever apparent" ad- vantages may result from an extended association or confederation of churches,, bound together by the bond of ,a common creed or confession, they are nevertheless greatly outweighed by the evils and dangers unavoidably incident to such bodies. The principal churches, at the present day, or- ganized on the Congregational plan, are to be found amongthe Dissenters of Great Britain, and in the New England States; in America. They originated from the Brownists, or Independent^ (see Independents) but disapproving of, and disavowing, the name Independent, they have, for tlie most part, since the days of the Rev. John Robinson, whose congregation emigrated from Holland to Plymouth, and became tne founders of the New England churches, been known by, the appellation of Congregationalists. They de- clare themselves " abhorrent from such principles of independency as would keep them from giving an account of their matters to their brethren of neighbouring societies who might regularly de- mand it of tnem." As their distinguishing title is predicated entirely upon tjje order and consti- tution of their churches, and not upon any pecu- liar system of doctrines set forth in a public. standard, which their ministers or members are required to subscribe, they are not properly to be considered as a religious sect ; for the principles of Congregational church-government are adopted by different sects, especially the Baptists. In- deed, the'very genius of the congregatioiial policy is to exclude separate sects and communions from the Christian world, inasmuch as it diselaims'any symbbl or formula of doctrine, or order establish- ing an ecclesiastical uniformity, and admits the Bu>le alone as the great bond of unity among Christians. Yet the mass of the Congregationiu churches, in New England are Calvinistic in sen- timent, and in the preface to the Platform of Church Discipline, drawn up in 1648, and agreed upon b^ the elders and messengers assembled a) Cambridge, (Mass.) it is expressly declared, that, "having perused and considerecf the Westnun- ster Confession, of Faith, lately published in England, they judge it(with the exception of the parts on church government,) to be Very holy, orthodox, and judicious, in all matters of faith, and do freely, and fuUy consent thereunto, for the substance thereof, and commend it to the churches of Christ, as worthy of their due consi- deration and acceptance." On the subject of church government, their principles may be summarily stafed in the form of the following syllogism : The constitution and government of the pri- mitive churches established by the Apostles, as far as can be ascertained from the Scriptures, CONGREGATIUNALISTS were tlesignied to serve as a model for all other Chpstlan societies in all ages. But the primitive churches, founded by the Apostles, were strictly congregational or inde- pendjent, not subjected or subordinated to the authority of bishops, synods, or councils. itrgp, the congregational is the only true and scriptural scheme of ecclesiastical eovemmeht. The foUovfing are the piinrapalneads of argu- ments relied upon in support of the above coh- dusion. In proof that < the apostolic 'model of church, polity is of binding obligation in all ages, ttis alleged, 1. That all Scripture is practical, aiid that it is our duty to attend to every part of the revealed will of God. — But every one must admit that much is said in the New Testament about the manner in whidi fte churches of Christ ought to he regulated. Biut this part of Scripture is not practical, if we are not bound to follow it j in that case, it is like any other histoty, which afibids us matter of speculation rather than of instruction. Many arguments may be suggested a priori in favour of a divind directory beuis contained in the Scriptures concerning theworfliip and conduct of Christian societies,.and the combined weight' of all these arguments bears directly upon the present question.; for it is certain, that if *e are not, bonn4 by the example of the apostolic chuichesj there is no model whatever for the constitution of a ChTistian church. 3. Those to whom the Apostles wrote were, in 'several in- stances, reproved for deviating from the precise order established by them in the churches, conse- quently we, the successors of the first diseiples, are not at liberty to deviate. 3. Either the Apios- tles acted by mvine direction, or by their own wisdon^ in the constitution of churches. If the latter, they would imdoubtedly have told us so. But if the former, a» is doubtleiss the &ct, the form of church government they instituted can never be changed but by the same authority. If any form is better than aiiotber, the apostolical is best. It cannot then be a matter ofitadiifei- ence whether we follow the best^ or adbpt a vvorse. 4. Paul expressly tells us he delivered the same onrdinances to every church. "For this cause have I sent unto you Timotheus, who shall bring you into remembrance of my ways, which be in Christ, as I teach every where in every church." 1 Cor. It. 17.', He elsewhere alludes to the iini- foimity of his. practice in the chur apostolical churches. On the other hand,: can any man be sure that he does not displease God by refusing to iiiiitate ithem 7 Between the cer-, tainty of .pleasing on. the one side, and the possi>- bility of olfenditig on the ot^er, the choice which , a Christian should make is evident. , As to the second proposition, that the primjtjse churches were strictly congregational, and not ^l^copal or presbyterial, this it is said is manifest, . 1. From the prevailing scriptural usage of the term cAureA, to vfhich it is affirmedonly two senses are attached by the sacred writers. For an.ex- pansionof this argument, see the article CauEcik 2. From the direction which Christ has giyen . relative to the settling of private offences among., his disciples. Matt xyiii. 15, 18; "Moreovei; if ,' thy brother shall trespass against thee, go anij.. tell him his fault between thee and him alone : if he shall hear thee, thou hast. gained thy bro- thel. But if he . will' not hear thee, then take with thee one or two tnore, that in the mouth of one or two witnesses every word may be estair blished. And if he shall neglect to, hear them, iell it unto the church: but if he neglect to heai the churchjilet him be unto thee as a heathen man and a publican," : Here, it is said, the last . appeal is to the church. He does not say, if he. (loes not hear the church take it to the presbytery, and if he does hot hear the presbytery, take it to the synod, hut. "if he. hear not the church, let. him be unto thee as a heathen man and a pub- lican." ' True, indeed, a multipUcity of meanings has here been, affixed to the word church, and every sect has attempted to find its own disci- jpline in this passage. But whatever may be said about allusions to the .ecclesiastical tribunals among the Jews, whether of the synagogue or the sanhedrim, the safest aniT surest mode of intei- pretation is to explain the term according to its ,piiedoliiina;iit sense in-other parts, of the New .Testament, particularly the Epistles, which were unquestionably intended, in many respects, as a icommentaiy on the Gospels. As Moses is in. ^mapy cases to be explained by the prophets who came after him, so if,ai^ thing is obscuiely delir, jvered or hinted at by Christ, we are to have ie-[ course to the Apestles, who were to finish the, revelation he had begun,, and fully illustrate iwhat lies in embryo in his vfoxds. It,is no valid objection to this to say, that Christ could not have, been understood by those to whom he immediately, spake. The Holy Ghost was ere long to be, poured out upon the disciples to enlighten theitl, fully. And it is unquestionable that me Savipur uttered' many things to the Apostles which they didnot fully understand till after his death and resurrection. So Moses deUvered many thjtigis, in the wilderness concerning .the future govejpr ment of the Jewish church,: when they should be settled in.cities. and towns, wluch they.co^|d npt so well niiderstand till they came intp the land of Canaan). and though they <^ where called the church, in contradistinction from tlie rest of the members. Congreeationalists ad- mit that there were officers an(f rulers in the apostolic churches, as there ought to be in ail others, but the question to be determined is, whether their ruhng power was to be exercised otherwise than with the concurrence of the whole iKKly. The eye is set in the human body for the 90 CONQREGATIONALISTS purpose of seeing, and no other part of the body can perform the office of the eyej yet the eye cannot see apart from and independent of the body. So in respect to church rulers. Indeed the whole controversy between Congregatioiv- alists and others relative to the ruling power in a particular church, turns not so much upon the fact of such a power, as upon its naiute. What is precisely the nature of that regimen which Christ has instituted in his churches t 4. That the congregational mode of Church g». vernment has superior claims to any other is argued from the tact, that we have no sufficient evidence in the New Testament of the existence of stated ecclesiastical courts or judicatures rising one above another, in regular gradatipii; or in other words, that a church representative is a thing entirely unknown in the word of God. From all that can be gathered of apostolical usage^ and the directions given in Scripture concermng discipline, it is evident that the adijiinistration of the laws of Christ is committed to single churches duly organized. Therefore a particular visible church, with its elders ox presbytery, the only Sresbyteiy known in the Christian church, may ecide in all cases of discipline ; and its decision cannot be lavrfully reversed by any jurisdiction under heaven. The Great Head of the Chutch makes no provision for an appeal from the.jud^- ment of a single church to any authoritative trv bunal short of the court of heaven. This is a plain and just inference irom the solemn declara^ tion annexed by Christ to his directions concern* ing the several steps of discipline. " Verily 1 say unto you, whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven ; and whatsoever ye shall loosP on earth shall be loosed in heaven." Churches Taay err in judgment, yet they are ai> countable to Christ alone. Neverthelesis, though no appeal hes from the judginent of a particujar church and its presbytery, to aily higher judica> ture on this side of heaven, yet in difficult cases, and when doubts, disunion, and dissatisfaction prevail in a church, or individuals are grieved and offended on account of any particular decision, Conaregationalists allow tjiat it may be prudent to ask advice; as "in the multitude of counsel- lors there is safety." Whether this is done by calling a Council of elders and delegates from tli neighbouring churches, to hear and advise in the case, or by calling one or more ministers, or pri- vate bretmren, or both, to hold forth light from the word of God, and deliberate with the churc}^ since the Scriptures give no particular directions,^ must be determined accor siastical assembly, or of the duties of private Christians as members of an associated churclk Now, if there were such a thing as an associated church under the same goyemmentj how cbmes it that We have no rules vrith respect to it ; that elders should have no directions as to their duties in those assemblies ; and private Cliristians as to their relations to them 1 The individual flock is often called upon to ob^ their pastors or rulersj but never is either flock or shepherd commanded to obey a superior assembly. ,In fact there are no appropriate names in Scripture for such courts, OONGREGATIONALISTS «nJ it is fair to presume that the institutions which have not a name in Scrij^tiire, have not sin. existence in Scripture. 2. It is said, moreover, that wljen the apostles ordained elders in every church, find left thcin, they did not commend them to the care of any superior judicature, or to the care of a diocesart bishop, or many bishops joined together, having a common oversight and jurisdiction over them ; but commended them to the Lord. So Paul, in talcing leave of the elders of Ephesus, commends the nock to their care, and exhorts them "to take heed to themselves," but not a word of a superior judicature, not an insinuation of any advice to Mve recourse to it, even when he ibrewarns them of the entering in ')f "'grievous wolves" among them, and of the rising of men' who should "speak peivierse things to draw away disciples after them" — the very oc- casions usually pleaded as making a gubbrdina- tlon of judicatures absolutely necessary. But to this it is objected that the 15th chapter of Acts contains a plain warrant for courts and assem- blies of this kind. The matter of fact there re- lated is briefly this: Certain teachers had gone down to Antioch from Jud^a, who had incSca- ted the necessity of the observance of the Moskic law. From verse 24, it appears, that if they were not actually sent out by the church of Jeru- salem to preach the Gospel, they at least wished to have it understood that tliey liad apostolical authority. The church of JerusalenJ, in their subsequent letter, acknowledge that they went out from them, but affirm that they had no such doctrine in charge from them as the circumcbion of the G«titile converts. Previous to tliis; Paul and Barnabas had returned to Antioch from their first missioiiary tour.. Of coftsequeiite, they opposed this doctrine ; and after they had hid much fruit- less discussion on the subject, it was resolved that Paul and Barnabas.and airtain others should 'o up to Jerusalem and consult the apostles and the church in that place relative to the subject matter of the dispute. The New Testament not being yet written, to which they might have re- course to decide the point; the word of God having confessedly sounded out from Jeru^em, the mother church; And the apostles being stilt there, to whom, in a particular manner^ thp pro- mise of the Spirit was men to guide them.into all truth, to vvhom couw they so properly apply as to that, church, especially as a matter of fast, as well as an abstract doctrine, was to be deter- mined*! On their arrival they were received of the church, and of the apostles and elders. These came together to consider the question of the ne- cessity of circumcision to salvation. After much disputing, similar to what had taken place at' Antioch/ Peter and James delivered their opinion. This was adopted unanimously, (v. 32) and letters were written in the name of the apostles and elders, and the whole church, declaring not merely the opinioii of a church that the Gentiles should not be circumcised, but the decree and de- termination of the Holy Ghost. It was there- fore an inspired decision. The question was thus finally settled, and the sentence was inserted as a part of that Scripture which cannot be broken. Indeed this decision was the very first part of the New Testament that wa^ committed to writing: And although the "brethren," or the whole churcli, are associated with the apostles in sending fortii the deraee, this &ct derogates no 91 All CONGREGATIONALISTS more from itb inspired character, than it derojiateti from the inspwation of Paul's epistle to the Galar tians that it is addressed to those churches in the name of Paul aiid of "all the brethren which were with him." . From the history of this ecclesiastical pro- ceeding, it has been inferred, that there ought to be such an organization of churches as shall lay a foundation for successive appeials to superior courts, till they are ultimately brought before some judicature which is clothed with the power of making an authoritative decision. But to this it is replied, I. That this was not properly an appeal to an assembly of delegates from a num- ber of associated churches, but to the decision of a particular church. 3. There is no evidence that they exercised a jurisdiction over cases of discipline occurring in churclres, as they merely decided upon a pomt of doctrine. 3. Even if it be allowed to have been a representative synod, it only warrants their meeting as occasion may re- quire J it gives no countenance to regukir periodt- cal meetings. 4. This was an appeal to inspired authority, which, in after ages, could be imitated only by an appeal to the apostolical writings. Our council of Jerusalem is m the New Testa- ment Scriptures. Consequently, this meeting cannot be pleaded by any body of men to deter- mine in matters of religion for others, unless they can pre&ce their decision with-^" It seemed good unto lis, and to the Holy Ghost," Otherwise, if it claim to be authoritative; ifis as invalid as an att of Congress 'without the signature of the Pre'sident. 5. It does not appear from church history that the transaction recorded in Acts xv, was ever employed as a warrant for clerical con- ventions, notwithstanding the repeated occasions that would seem to have rendered them nefcessary, if of divine institution, till the time of Victor; who was bishop of Rome frpm A. D. 192 to 201. He called a synod to excommunicate the bishops of Asia, because they would not celebrate Easter on ' the same day with him. Under Constantine the authority of synods and councils came more gene- rally into vogue, and from that period became stated; and duly subordinate, according to the situation of the empire and its provinces. See Dupin and Mosheim. On the subject of ordination, Congregational ists maintain that church officers, after being chosen by the church, are to be ordained by the imposition of hands, and with prayer. This or- idination is accounted nothing else than the solemn Eutting a man into that place or office to which e previously had a right, by the election of the people, it being like the induction or installing a magistrate into office in the commonwealth. I'he esseiice and substance of the outward oallinguf an ordinary officer in the church does not consist in his ordination, but in his voluntary ^nd iirce election by the church, and his acceptance of that election; ordination does not constitute an,officer, nor give him the essentials of his office, any more than the mere ceremony of inauguration consti- tutes the President of the United States chief magistrate, apart from the election of the people. The apostles were elders vrithont imposidon of hands by men. Paul and Barnabas were officers before that ordination mentioned. Acts, xiii. 2. The posterity of Levi were priests and Levites, before hands were laid on them by the children of Israel In churches where there are already elders ajipoint- CONSCIENCE «d, Ihc imposition of hands is to be perforfli,ed fpy, tbose elders ; but in churches where there are no ■ddcrs, the ceremony may be performed' by some ofthi brethren orderly chosen for that puiypso. For if the people may elect their officers, which,ia the greater, they may doubtless impose hajjds upon them, which is the less. At the same titge,,- in churches where there are no elders, aiid tjic toethren so desire,'it is usual as a matter of .prac- tice, for the imposition of hands to be performed by the elders of other churches, as a sisterly' rek- tion in the nature of the case is held tofexirt among all the true churches of Christ The above are the pectlliar distingui^iiig cha- racteristics of Congregationalism, especially as it exists in the United States. The reader who is desirous of seeing a more extended view of the. arguments employed in supf)ort of this peculiar: pOBty of church government, is referred to thei fol- lowing works. Owen on the Nature of ^ walking up the middle aisle to^rds't^e dBaticjel, he took ujp some of the dust, 'ari^'t|ii(eWit&to the air Several times. WheW he approa^lid"dl hear the rul of the^Mmmiinibn-l^ble^hli. hbWe^ 'CdWafdsi it five or six times Taiid^'rc^i^SiSng, weiif joima the CONSISTORVr 'ohtlich, with his attendants in procesfeion f sav- ing first the hundredth; and then the nineteenth Psafm, as prescribed in the Roman PontijUim. He then read sfeVeral collects, in one of which ho prays Gpd to accept of that beautiful building, and cbncludes thus : We consecrate this church, and separate it imto thee as Holy Grcnmdf hot to he profaned any more to common use. Iii another he prays — That ALL who should hereafter bt buried within the circuit of this holy and sacred pface, may rest in their sepulchres in peace, tiU Phrtsts coming wjitdgment, and may then rise to eternal'life and happiness. Then tiie bishop, sitting under a cloth of state in the aisle of the chancel, hear the cbrnmunion-table, took a. written book in his. band, "and pronounced cttrses upon those who shbtdd hereafter profane that hoiy ,i)to(;^'b3f,'inusters of soldiers, or keeping p^fane rawr cbiirt'sj or carijjng burdens through it; ^lu! ,?jl the 'end of eVeij curse he Trowed lb the east, and said," pet' all ihejpeople say, Amen. 'W?'hen thfe^rses'Vere ended, wh^ch yere about twenty^ he TOpnibunced a li^e jhiimber of blessings upon 'ALX tlTat'had any hand in'lraming and building itiid^idc^^d and beautiful church ; and on those 'that had given, Or should hereafter gi-^e, any'cha- Ifces^ j^aw,',bi^ments or other utensils; aiid, at the, eiid of every blessing, he liowed to the east, Slid SadJ 'fjft all the people say, Ainen. After this 'came the se^rmon, theii the sacrament, which 'the bishop boi^ecrated and administered in the fojjowiiig manner : — AS he approached the altar, he made five or six low bows ; and coniirig lip to tEp' side of it, where the bread and wtne were coveiredi lie bowed seven times. Then, 'after heading iiiaiii prayers, he came near the liread, ■Jind: gently Imihg up the corner of the napkin, behelait; and iinmeaiately letting fall tne nap- kin. He refreated hastily a step or two, and made three low obeisaiicee: his iordlsA.ip then advanced, and, having uncovered the' bread, bowed (hree 'iihies as before. Then he laid his hand oil the ' cup, which was full of wine, with a cover upon it; which having let go, he stepped back, and 'Bbvved three times towards it; then he came near 'i^sdn,' suid lifting up the cover of the cup, looked in, it; and seeing th,e,wfae,' let fall the cover again, 'jf4fijre'd.'b|itk,' and bowed as before. Then the elemeiits were cbnsecrated ; and the bishop, having first received, gave it to some principal men in their surplice^ hoods, and tippets; after vvhich 'uiaiiy prayers being said, the Solemnity of the 'ixnisecration ended." COjfS^STEN'TES, a kind of penitents, who were allbwed to assist at prayers, but who co]tild •hqt be admitted td receive the sacrament. Consistory, a word commonly used for a councij-house of eccjiesi^ticEQ' persbns, or '|)lace iJf jiistipe in ; the-spiritual court : a session or a»- S^niblJ of preWtes. Every archbishop and bishop of ^very diocese hath a consistory court, held'ba- ,'fbro his chancellor or commiflaary, in hi^ cathedral '^Ufbh, or other convenient place of his diocese, for ecclesiastical causes. The'bishop's chaiicfellor iM the Judge of ^this court, supposed to be skilled iri',the;civ3 and canon law; and in places of the dibbese iaf remote fromithe bishop's Consistory, the bbiof( appoints, a coiranissaiy to jud^elil all Causes Vrithin a certain district, aincf; a register to enter his dfeciree's, &c. ConsiStPry 'at 'R'Pme, de- notes' the bbllege of cardinals, or' the pope'S' sfiiate 'tand'eoMcil; befolP whom judiciary bailses are CONTENTMENT pleaded^ Consistory is also used among the le- formed for a council or assembly of ministers and elders to regulate their affairs, discipline, &xs. CONSTANCY, in a general sense, denotes immutability, or invai'iableness. When applied, to the hxunan mind, it is a steady adherence to those schemes and resolutions which have been maturely formed : the effect of which is, that a man never drops a good design out of fear, and b consistent with himself in all his words and actiqns. Constancy is more particularly required of us — 1. Incur devotions, Luke xviii. 1. 1 Thes.v. 17, J8.— 2.Underoursufferings,Matt.v. 12, 13. IPet. iv. 12, 13.— 3. In our profession and character, Heb. X. 23. — 4. In our beneficence,, Gal.vii 9. — 5: In our friendships, Erov. xxvii. 10. > ^ '' CONSUBSTANTIAL, a term of like im- port with co-essential, denoting something of the same substance with another. Thus, we aay that Christ is consubstantial with' the Father. The term o/ioiuino;, consubstantial, was first adopted by the fathers 6f the councils of Antioch and Nice to express the orthodox doctrine the more precisely, and to serve as a barrier and precaution against the errors and subtleties of the Arians^ who owned eveiy thing except the. consubstan- tiaUty. The Arians allowed that the Word was God, as having been made God j but they denied that hp was the same God, and of the same sub- stance with the Father ; accprdingly, thiy exerted themselves to the utmost to aboliAi the use of the word. The Emperor Constantino used all liis authority with the bishops to have it expunged out of the symbols ; but it was retained, and is at this day, as it was then, the distinguishing crite- rion between an Athanasian and an Arian. See articles Arians and Jesus Christ, CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lutheran church, with regard to the manner of the change made in the bread and wine in the eucharLst. The divines of that profession main- tain that, after the consecration, the body and, blood of our Saviour are substantially present, to- gether with the substance of the bread and wine, which is called consubstantiation, or impanation. See Tbansubstantution. .i CONTEMPLATION, studious thought on any subject ; continued attention. " Monks and mystics consider contemplation as the higbest de- gree of inoral excellence ; and vfith them a silent spectator is a divine man :" but it is evident we are riot placed here only to think. There is something to be done as well as to contemplate. There are duties to be performed, offices to be discharged ; and if we wish to be happy in our- selves, and useful to others, we must be acUve as well as thmightful. CONTENTMENT is a disposition of mind in which our desires are confined to what we en- jo^ without murmuring at our lot, or wishing ardently for more. It stands opposed to envy, James ,iii. 16; to avarice, Heb. xiii, 5; to pride and ambition, Prov. xiii. 10 ; to anxiety of mind, Matt vi. 25. 34; to murmurings and repinings, 1 Cor. X. 10. Contentment does not imply un- concern about our welfare, or that we should not have a sense of any thing Uneasy or distressing ; nor does it give any countenance to idleness, or prevent diligent endeavours to improve our cu> cumstancea/ It im|^e9^ however, that our desires of woildly good be moderate ; that We do not in- CONVENTICLE dulge unnecessary care, or use unlawful efforts to better ourselves ; but that we acquiesce with and make the best of our condition, whatever it be. Contentment arises, not from a man's outward condition, but from his inward disposition, and is the genuine offspring of humihty, attended with a fix?d habitual sense of God's particular provi- dence, the recollection of pait mercies, and a just estimate of the true nature of all earthly things. Motives to contentment arise from the considera- tjon of the rectitude of the Divine government, Ps. xcvii. 1, 2 ; the benignity of the Divine provi- dence, Ps. cxlv. ; the greatness of the Divine pro- mises, 2 Pet. L 4 ; our own unworthiness. Gen. xxxii. 10 i the punishments we deserve, Lam. iii 39, 40; the reward which contentment itself brings with it, 1 Tim. vi. 6; the speedy tenpinar tion of all our troubl^ here, and the prospect of eternal feUdty in a future state, Horn, v, 2. JJap. rote's Works, vol. iii. ser. 5, 6, .7, 8, 9; Burrougia on Contentment ; Watson's Art of Ditto; Hale's Con. p. 59 J Mason's Christian Morals, vol. L ser. 2. ' CONTINENCY is that moral virtue bj which we restrain concupiscence. There is this distinction between chastity and continence : — Chastity requires no effort, because it may result from constitution ; whereas continency appears to be the consequence of a victory gained over our- selves., The term is most usuaUy applied to men; as chastity is to women. See Chastity. CONTINGENT, any thing that happens without a foreknown cause ; commonly called ac- cidental. An, event not come to pass is said to be contingent^ which either may or may not be ; what is already done, is said to have been contingent, if it might or inight not have been. What is con- tingent or casual to us, is not so with God. As effects stand related to a second cause, they are' many times contingent; but, as they stand related to the first cause, they are acts of Gpd's counsel, and directed by his wisdom. < CONTRI'TE: this word signifies beaten or bruised, as with hard blows, or a heavy burden ; and so, in Scripture language, imports one whose heart ,is broken and wounded for sm, in opposition to the heart of stone, Is. Ixvi. 2 Ps. U. 17. Ivii 15. '. .. The evidence of a broken and conf;rite spirit are^ 1. Deep conviction of the evil of sin.— 2. Humi^ liation under a sense of it. Job. xhi. 5, 6. — 3. Pungent sorrow for it. Zee. xii. 10.-^-4, Inge- nuous confession of it. 1 John. i. 9. — 5. Prayer for deUyerance from it, Ps. U. 10. Luke xvii. 13. — 6. Susceptibility of good impressions, Ezek. xL19. CONTROVERSIAL DIVINITY., See Disputation. CONVENT. See Abbey, Monastkry, Monk. CONVENTICLE, a diminutive of convent, denoting properly a cabal, or secret assembly of a part of uie monks of a convent, to make a party in the election of an abbot. The term conventicle is said by; some to have been first applied in Eng- land to the schools of Wickliflb, and has since been used in a way of reproach for those assem- blies which dissent from the established church. In 1664, what was called the conventicle act was passed, decreeing that if any person ahove sixteen years of age was present at any meeting for worsoipt difierent from the church Of England CONVERSATION where there should be five persons more than the household, they should, for the first offence, suffer three months' imprisonment, or pay 52.; for the second the punislraient is doubled, and for the third they were banished to America, or pay lOdl., and if tbiey returned, to suffer deaths This act having expired, it was revived in 1669 : for by 22 Car. u. cap. 1. it is enacted, That if any persons trf the age of sixteen years, subjects of this king- dom, shall be present at any conventicle where there are five or more assembled, they shall be fined five shillings for the first offence, and ten shillings for the second : and persons preaching incur a penalty of twenty pounds. Also suffer- ing a meeting to be held in a house is twenty pounds penalty : justices of peace have power to enter such houses, and seize persons assembled ; and if they neglect their duty, they, forfeit IQOl. * And if any constable, &c. know of such proceed- ings, and do not inform a Justice of the peace or duef magistrate, he shall forfeit 52. But the first of William and Mary, cap. 18. ordeuns that Pro- testant dissenters sl^l be exempted from these penalties : though if they meet in a house with the doois locked, barred or bolted, such dissenters shall have no benefit from the 1st of William alid Mary. Officers of the government. Sic., present It any conventicle at which there shall be ten persons, if the royal &mily be not prayed for in express words, sb^l forfeit 402., and be disabled. Stat. 10 Ann. cap. 2. CONVERSATION, or discourse, signifies an interlocution between two or more persons, with this distinction, that conversation is used for any general intercourse of sentiments whatever, whereas, a discourse means a conversation limit- ed to some particular subject. To render conversation at all times agreeable, the follovrins rules have been 4aid down : 1. The parties shoi^ meet together with a determined resolution to please and to be pleased.^2. No one should be eager to interrupt others, or be un- easy at being interrupted. — 3. All should have leave to speak in turn. — i. Inattention should be carefully avoided. — 5. Private concerns should never be mentioned,, unless particularly inquired into, and even then as brieffy as possible.— 6. Each person should, as far as propriety will admit, be afforded an Qpportunity of discoursing, on the subject with which he is best acquainted. — 7. Stories should be avoided, unless short, pointed, and. quite d propos. — 8. Each person should ^leak often, but^ot long. Harangmng in private company is insupportable. — ^9. If the majority of the company be naturally silent or reserved, the conversation. wiU f6g, unless it be often renewed by one who can start new subjects. — 10. It is improper to laugh at one's own vfit and humour; this should be lefl; to the company. — 11. When the conversation is flowing in a serious and usefiul channel, never interrupt it by an ill-timed jest.— ;•' , 12. It is at all times extremely indelicate to whis- per to one's next neighbour; this is in some degree a fraud, conversation being a , .kind of common property. — 13. In speaking of absent people, the infallible rule is, to say no more than we shoiild say if they were present. " I resolve," said bishop Beveridge, " never to speak of a man's virtues to his fece, nor of his faulte behind his back." A golden rule ! the observation of which would at once banish flattery and de&matian from the world. 95 CONVICTION CONVERSION, a change ftom one state to another. Conversion maybe, 1. Merely external, or that which consists only in an outward reforma- tion. — 2. Doctrinal, or a change of sentiments.-^- 3. Saving, which consists in the renovation of the heart and life, or a turning from the power of sin and Satan unto God, Acts xxvi. 18, and is produced by the influence of Divine grace on the soul. — 4. Sometimes it is put for restoration, as in the case of Peter, Luke xxii. 32. The instru- mental cause of conversion is usually the minis- try of the word i though sometunes it is produced by reading, by serious and appropriate conversa- tion, sanctified afflictions, &c. "Conversion,' says the great Chamock, " is to be distinguished from regeneration thus ; — Regeneration is a spw ritual change ; conversion is a spiritual motion . in regeneration there is a power conferred ; con- version is th^ exercise of this power : in regene- ration there is given us a principle to turn ; con- version is our actual turmng. In the covenants (God's putting his Spirit into us is distinguished from (jur walking in his statutes from the first step we take in the way of God, and b set down as the cause of our niotion, Ezek. xxxvi. 27. In renewing us, God gives us a power ; in converting us, he excites that power. Men are naturally dead, and have a stone upon them : regeneration is a rolling away the stone from the heart, and a raising to newness of life ; and then conversion is as natural to a regenerate man as motion is to a lively body. A principle of activity will pro- duce action. In regeneration, man is wholly passive; in conversion, he is active. The first reviving us is wholly the act of God without any concurrence of the creature ; but after we are re- vived we A.6 actively and voluntarily live in his sight. Regeneration is the motion of God in the creature ; conversion is the motipn of the creature to God, by virtue of that first principle: from this principle all the acts of believing, repenting, moiv tifying, quickening, dp spring. In all these a man is active ; in the other he is pierely passive." Goi»- version evidences itself by ardent love to God, Ps. Ixxiii. 25; delight in his people, John xiii. 35; attendance on his ordinances, Ps. xxvii. 4; confir dence in his promises, Ps ix. 10; abhorrence of self, and renunciation of the world, Job. xlii. 5. James iv. 4: submission to his authority, and uniform obedience to his word. Matt;, vii. 20.. See CsiiLtNo, Regeneration. CONVERT, a person who is converted. In a monastic sense, converts are lay-friars, or bro- thers admitted forith&^ervice of the house, with out orders, and not allowed to sing in the choir. CONVICTION, in general, is the assurance of the truth of any proposition. In a religious sense, it is the first degree of repentance, and lia- ses an aifecting sense that we are guilty before God ; that we can do nothing of ourselves to gain his forfeited favour ; that we deserve, and are ex- posed to thcTvrath of God ; that sin is very odious and hateful, yea, the greatest of evils. There is a natural conviction which arises from natural conscience, fear of punishment, moral suasioii„or alarming providences, but which is not of a per- manent nature. Saving conviction is the work of the Spirit, as the cause ; though the law, the conscience, the Gospel, or affliction, may be the means, John xvi.. 8, 9. Cojivietions of sin differ very much in their degree m differentpersons. It hai been otnerved that those who suffer the most CONVOCATION ygomring sensations are auch as never btfore en- joyed the external call of the Ctospel, or were not favoured with the tuition of religious parenfB, but liave neglected, or notoriously abused the means of grace. To these, conviction is often sudden, and produces that horror and shame which are not soon overcome; whereas those who have sat' under the Gospel from their infancy have not had such alarming Convictions, because they have al- ready some notion of these things, and have so much acquaintance vrith the Gospel as adminis- ters immediate comfort. As it is not^ therefor^' the constant method of the Spirit to convince in one way, it is improper for any to distress them- selves because they areho^ or have not been tor- mented almost to despair ; they should be rath^ thankful that the Spiritof God has dealt tenderly- with them, and opened to them" the sonrc* of con- solation. It is necessary, however,' to observe, that, in order to repentance and conversion 'to' 'God, there must be real' and lasting' Convictiori,' Whicl^ though it may not be tlie same in degree, is the' same in nature. Evangelical convictibn differs from legal conviction' thus : legal arises from a consideration of God's justicej power, or 'btnniscience ; &sangelicai from God's goO^Sss' and'hdliness, and from a disaffection to stai le^al conviction still conceits there is some remaimns good ; but evangelical is sensible there is HO goiod' at all' ! legal wishes freedom from pain ; evangeli- cal from sin : legal hardens the heart ; evangelical Boftehsrit : leg^ is only temporary j evangelical' liEisting. CONVOCATION, an assembly^ of persons for' the' worship of God, Lev. xziii. Numb. itxviii. Exod. xii. 16. An assembly of the clergy for consultation upon matters ecclesiastical. As the parliament consists of two distinct houses ^ does this convocati&n. The one called the up- per house, where the archbishops ^nd bishops sit severally by themselves; the other the fewer' house, where all the rest of the clergy are repre- sented by their deputies. — The inferior clergy are represented by their proctors ; consbting of all the deans and archdeacons; of one proctor for every chapter, and two for the clergy of every , diocese'---in all, one hundred and forty-three di- ' ■vines; 'viz. twenty-two deans, fifty-three archdea- " cons, twenty-four prebendaries, and forty-four' proctors of the diocesan clergy. The lower nbUse chooses its prolocutor, who is to take care that the members attend, to^Uect their debates and vdtc9, and to carry their resolutions to the npp^f hoUsc. The convocation is summonfed by the kingls writ, du«bted to the archbishop of each province, re- quiring him to summon all bishops, deans, arch- "ideacons, &c. The power of the convocation is Dndted by a statute of Henry VIII. The* are not to make any canons, or ecclesiastical laws, ' without the king's license; nor, when rieriiiitted, 'eaii they put them in execution but unae> several nsstrictions. — They have the examining and cen- suring all heretical and schismaticsd books and ' b^^sons. Sic; but there lies an Appeal to the king m Chiiicery, or to his ilelegates. The' <3ergji in oonvdcation, and their servants; have the same ■'^■rileges as members of parliament. "Iri 1665, '" file "dorivbcation of the clergy gave iip the' privi-'- ' lege of taxing! themselves to the house of com- ' toons,' iri cBiiSidetation of. their being allowed io ' vote at the. election of m^mters for that house.' 'Since th^t period, th^y have 'been seldoilii £lk)W- CORDELIER ed to'do anybustness; and are generali^'pto- rogued from tiine t» time till dissolved, a nbw convocation being generally called'along with a newparlianient. COPHTIj OopHT, or Copti, a name given ■ tothe Christians oftEgypt'who are of the sect of thci JacoWtes; See Jacobites. The Cophts have a patriarch, who resides at Cairo ; but he takes his title from Alexandria. He has no archbishop under him, but eleven or twelve bishops. The rest of the clergy, whether secular or regular, are cbmposed of the'orders of St. Anthony, St. Paul, St. Macarius,'who have each their monasteries. Besides the orders of jpriests, deacons, and^ suIk deacons, the Cophts have, likewise,' arohimaa- drites, or abbots; the dignity whereof they con> fei- 'With fdl the prayers and ceremonies of a strict ordination. By a custom of six hundred years' standing; ■!? ft- priesf'electedbi^op be not AeMy arehifli«ndiite,''that dignity lirast be conferred' on him' before epiteopal'brdiriation. The second- person '-among the cleigy after thepatriarch, is^the titular patriarch of Jerusalem, *ho also' resides ■ at Cairo; To him belongs the government of the Cophtic church anring nie vacancy of the patri- archal see. To be elected patriarch, it is 'neces- sary the person have lived all his Ufe in conti^ nence. 'To bC'elected bishop, the person must be in th6'«^lfbate; or if he have been married, it must not be above once. The priests and infe- rior ministers are allowed to be married before oifdinatioB;''but not forced to it, as some have observed. They have a great numHer of dea- cons, and' evett'eonferthfe dignity 'frequehtly on their children. ' None but the Tovirest' rank among the people coinmence ecclesiastics ; Whence arises that excessive ignorance foimd among them: yet the respect of the laity tovvards the clergy IS very extraioi-dinary. The ' monastic life u in great esteem> iiiiiong ' them : to be admitted into it, there is always required the consent of the bishop. The religious Cophts, it is said, make a vow of perpetual chastity ; renounce the world; and Uve Wifli great austerity in deserts . they are 6bliged to sleep in their clothes and theii girdle, on a mat stretcned on the ground; and to prdstrate themselves every evening one' hun- dred and fifty times with their face and breast on the sroundJ They are all; both men and women, of the lowest class of the people, and live os alms. The nunneries are properly hospitals,, and fev? enter but 'widows reduced to beggary. COBBAN, in Jewish antiquity. Were those offerings which had life; in opposition to the miiidfiHb, or those which had not. It is derived from thfe word karab, which signifies, "to ap- ptoach';" because the victims were brought to the door C)f the tabertlacle. ' The corban were always lodced ' upon as the most feacred offeirings. The Jews are reprrached wilh'defeatirig, by means of the corban; theprecept of the fifth commandment, which enjoins the respect due to parents; for iwheh a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father dr mother, he would say to them — " It is a' gift (cbiflMlh) by whatsoever thou mightest be 'profited bj-'me;" i. e. "I have devoted that to ' God 'which'yoU ask of me,' ind it is no longer 'iMne to Mve," 'Milrk Vii. 11. CORDElilER, a Fraiiciscaii;'6f religioas of the brder'pf St. 'Francis. 'The denoaiination WaisKeT' isshSa' to hsive "beeWgivert in the war of St. Lewis against the infidels, wherein thb/riars COVKNANT minor havins repulsed the barbajians, and that king having mqnired their name, it was answered, they were people cordeUez, " tied with ropes ;" alluding to the girdle of rope, or cord, tied with three knots, which they wore as part of their habit. > CORNARISTS, the disciples of Theodore Cornhert, an enthusiastic secretary of the states of Holland. He wrote, at the same time, against the Catholicsi Lutherans, and Calvinists. He maintained that every religious communion needed reformation ; but he added, that no per- son had a right to engage ii} accomplishing it without a mission supported by miracles, lie was also of opinion, that a person might be a good Christian without being a member of any visible church. COVENANT, a contract, or agreement, between two or mora parties on certain terms. The terms made use of in the Scriptures for covenant, are n'13 and ti»i,i%i,. The former ag- nifies choosing, or friendly parting; as in cove- ^nants each party, in a friendly manner, consented, and so bound himself to the chosen terms; tlie latter signifies testament, as all the blessings of the covenant ire freely disposed to us. The word covenant is aHo used for an ijoimutaUe ordinance, Jer. xxxiii. 20; a promise, Exod. xxxiv. 10. Is. lix. 21 ; and, also for a precept, Jer. xxxiv. 13, 14. In Scripture we read of various covenants ; such as those made with Noah, Abraham, and the Hebrews at large. Anciently covenants were made and ratified with great solemnity. The Scriptures allude to the cutting of aniuials asun- ent^~ and provi- sion made against it. Stat. 14 Car. II. c. 4. COVETOUSNESS, an unreasonable desire after that we have not, with a dissatisfaction with what we have. It may further }fe, considered as consisting in, 1. An anxious carking care about the things of this world. — 2. A rapacity in get- ting. — 3. Too frequently includes sinister and ille- gal ways of obtaining wealth. — 4. A tenaQions- ness in keeping. It is a vice which marvellously prevails upon and insinuates itself into the heart of man, and for these reasons : it often bears a near resemblance to virtue ; brings with it many plausible reasons ; and raises a man to a state of reputation on account of his riches. "There cannot be," as one observes, "a more unreason- able sin thantbjs. It is unjust; only to covet, is to wish to be unjust. It is cruel; the covetous must harden themselves against a thousand plaintive voices. It is ungrateful; such forget their former «ibligatioiis and their present supporters. It is foolish; -it desXtoys reputation, breaks the rest, unfits for the per&rmance of duty, and is a con-i tempt of God himself; it is unprecedented in M our examples of virtue mentioned in the Scrip- ture. One, indeed, spoke unadvisedly vrith his lips ; another cursed and Swore ; a third was in a passion ; and a fourth committed adultery ; but which of the saints ever lived in the habit of cp- vetousness'? Lastly, it is idolatry, Col. iii. Si, the idolatry of the heart ; where, as in a temple, the misferaJjle wretch excludes Gpd, sets up gold in- stead of him, and places that confidence in it which bftbngs to the Great Supreme alone." Le* those who liye in the habitual practice of it con- sider the judgments that have been infiicted on such characters, Josh. vii. 21. Acts v. ; the misery with Which it is attended , the curse such persons ate to sodety; the denunciations and cautions respecting, it' in the Holy Scripture ; and how effectuidly itbars men from God, from happiness, and fromlieaven. Scoift Assays, 72, 73. Smith's COUNCIL Sbi^;, vol ivj ser. 1. Robinson's Mor. Exerdaes, •X. IV. Saurin's Serm. vol. v. ser. 12. Eng. trans. ■ COUNCIL,' an assembly of perso;is met to- gether for the piitpose of consultation j an assem- bly of deputies or commissioners sent from seve- ral' churches, associated by certain bonds in a general body, Acts i. vi. xv. xxi. CouNciLj Ecumenical or General, is an as- sembly which represenjs the whole body of the Christian church. The Romanists reckon eigh- teen of them, BulUng«r six^ Dr.Prideaux seven, and bishop Beveridge eight, which, he says, are all thegeneral councils which have ever been held since the tihie of the first Christian emperor. They are as follow : — 1. The council of Nice, held in the reign of Constantine the Great, on Efs^unt of the heresy of Aritts. — 2. The council orCbnstantinople, called under the reign and ly the command of Theodosius the Great, for much the same end that the former council was sum- moned. — 3. The council of Ephiesus, convened by Theodosius the Yaujjgfer, at the suit of Nes- torius. — 4. The^c{||B,cfl, at Chaloedcm, held in the reign of MarciariusJ which approved of the EutycBan heresy.— fe. The second cpuncil of Constantinople, assembled by the emperor Justi-" nian, condemned the three chapters taken out of thelliook ofTheodorasoflVlopsuestia, having first (decided that it was lavvful to anathematize the dead. Some authors tell us that they likewise eondemttedthe several ertors of OHgen about the Trinity, J:he pluraUty of%orlds, and pro-existence of soulsj — 6w The third council of Constantinople, held by the command of Constantius Pogonatijis, the emperor, in which they received the definitions of the first five general councils, and particularly that against Oiigen and Theodorus m Mopsues- tia. — 7, The second Nicene council. — 8. The fourth council of Constantinople, assembled when Louis II. was emperor of the West Their regu- lations are contained in twenty-seven canons, me heads of which the reader may find in Dupin. Whatever may be said in favour of general coun- cils, their utility has been doubted by some of the wisest men. Dr. Jortin says, " they have been too much extolled by Papists, and by some Pro- testants. They were a collection of men who were frail and fallible. Some of those councils were not assemblies of pious and learned divines, but cabals, the majority of which were quarrel- some, fanatical, domineering, dishonest prelates, who wanted to compel men to approve all their opinions, of which they themselves had no clear conceptions, and to anathematize and oppress those who wocdd not implicitly submit to their determinations." Jortin's Worfe, vol. vii. charge 2; Broughtbn's Diet; Mosheim's Bed. iftt., Indesc. Coa^fC(LS, pTotimMil at Occasional, haveheen numerous. At Aix-la-Chapelle, A. D. 816, A council was held fbl' regulfttiilg the canons of ca- thedral churches. The council of Savonni^es, in 859, was the first which gave the title of Most Christian King to the Kjng of France ; but it did not beace was established in their domi'nioias. They also took the opportunity of annexing to their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by pur- chase, or the extinction of the heirs ; and thus the mischiels which must always attend feudal governments were considerably lessened. With regard to the bad success of the crusaders, it was scarcely possible that any other thing could hap- pento ^hem. The emperors of Constantinople, instead of assisting, did all in their power to dis- concert their schemes : they were jealods, and not jrtthout reason, of such an inundation of barba- rians. Yet, had they considered their true in- terests, thsy would rather have assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than enter into alliances with the Turks. They followed the latter me- thod, however, and Were often of very great dis- service to the vvestern adventurers, which at last occasioned the IdSs of their city. But the worst enemies the crusaders had were their own inter- nal feuds and dissentiOns. They neither could agree while marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor covfld they unite their con- quests under one government after they had made them. They set up three small states, one at JenisaleiD, another at Antioch, and' another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made war upon each other, and on the Greek emperors ; and thus became an easy prey to the common enemy. The horrid cruelties they committed, too, mustliave inspired the Turks with the most in- vincible hatred against them, and made them resist with the greatest obstinacy. They were such as could have been committed only by bar- barians inflamed vnth the most bigoted' enthu- siasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only the numerous garrison were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were massacred without mercy and without distinction. No age or sex Was spared, not even sucking children. , According to Voltaire, some Christians who had been suffer- ed by the Turks to live in that city, led the con- querors into the most private caves, where wo- men had concealed themselves with their cliildren, and not one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently shows the enthusiasm by which these conquerors were animated, is, their beha- viour after this terrible slaughter. They marched' over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy se- pulchre; and while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons, sung anthems to the common Savioyj- of mankind ! Nay, so far did their religious efithusiasm over- come their fury, that these ferocious^^ conquerors 104 CROISADES now burst into teare. If the absurdity and wick- edness of their conduct can he exceeded by any thing, it must be what follows. In 1304, the frenzy of crusading seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what they sec their parents engaged in. Their childish folly was encour- ag(>d:?>j! the monks and schoolmasters j and thou- sartds of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents on the superstitious interpretation of these words : " Out of the mouths of babes and sucklii'igs hast thou per- fected praise." Their base conductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. Hume's Hist, of England, vol. i. p. 292, &C1 and vol. ii. p. 280 j Enc. JBrit; and Mosheim's Ecc. Hist, CROISIERS, a religious order, fcnnded in honour of' the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed m several parts of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France and Bohemia; those of Italy were suppressed even before the late revolutions. These religious follow the rule of St. Augustine. They had in England the name of Ctouched Friars. CROSIER, or Crozier, a shepherd's crook ; a symbol of pastoral authority, consisting of a gold or silver staff, crooked at the top, carried occasionally before bishops and abbots, and held in the hand When they give the solemn benedictions. CROSS, in Scnptnre language, means the sufferings of C hrist, Gal. vi, 14. The sufferings, trials, or persecutions of the people are also called a cross. Matt. xvi. 34. Cross signifies also a gibbet, made with two pieces of wood, placed crosswise, whether they cross with right angles at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length like an X. The cross on which our Sa- viour was fastened, and on which he died, was of the former kind; bfeing thus represented by old monuments, coins, and crosses. The deatk of the cross was the most dreadful of all otherSf both for the shame and pain of it ; and so scan- dalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of detp.station upon the vilest of people. It was the punishment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were slaves too ; but otherwise, if they were free, and had tlie privilege of the city of Rome, this was then thought a prostitution of that honour, and too infamous a punishment for such a'orte, let his crimes be what they would. The form of a cross being such as has been already described, the body of the criminal was fastened to the upright/piece by n^ling the feet to it, and on the other transverse pieci generally by nail- ing the hands on each side. Now, because these parts of the body, being the instruments of action and motion, are provided by nature with a much greater quantity of nerves than others have occa- sion for ; and because all sensation is performed by the spirit contained in the nerves ; it will fol- low, as Stanhope observes, that wherever they abound, the sense of pain must needs in propor- tion be more quick and tender. The Jews con- fess, indeed, that they crucified people in theit nation, but deny that they inflicted this punish- ment upon any one alive. They first put them to death, and then fastened them to the cross^ either by the hands or neck. But there are in- disjjutablfi proofs of fheir crucifying men fre- quently alive. The worshippers of Baal-peoi aiid the King of Ai were hung up alive j as-weie CROSS tiJso the descendants of Saul, who were put into the hands of the Gibeonitts. 2 Sam. xxi. 9. Before crucifixion, the criminal was generalJy scourged with cords ■, sometimes little bones, or pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, so that the condemned person might sufler more severely. It was also a custom, that he who was to be ctucified should bear his own cross to the place of execution. After this manner, we find Christ was compelled to bear his cross j and as he Slink under the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained to bear it after him arid with him. But whereas it is senferally supposed that our Lord bore the whole cross, i. e. the long and transverse part both, this seems to be a thing im- possible j and therefore Lipsius (in his treatise De Suppludo Crw^) has set the matter in a tiiie light, when he tells us that Jesus only carried the transverse beam, because the long beam, or the body of the cross, was either fixed in the ground before, or made ready to be set up as soon as the prisoner came ; and from -hence he observes, that j^ainters are very much mistaken in the description of our Saviour carrying the whole cross. There were several ways of cruci- fying J sometimes tlie criminal was fastened with cords to a tree, sometimes he was crucified with his head downwards. This way, it is said, Peter chose, out of respect to his master, Jesus Christ, not thinking himself worthy to be cruci- fied like liim j though the common way of cruci- fying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both feet, or one through each of them ; for uiis was not always performed in the same manner ; the ancients sometimes represent Jesus Christ cruci- fied with four nails, and sometimes with three. The criminal was fixed to the cross quite naked i and, in all probability, the Saviour of sinners was not used with any greater tenderness than others upon whom tMs punishment was inflicted. The text of the Gospel shows clearly that Jesus Christ was fastened tothe cross with nails ; and the Psalmist (Ps. xxii. 16) had foretold long be- fore, that they should pierce his hands and his feet ; but there arc great disputes concerning the number of the nails. The Greeks represent our Saviour as fastened to the cross with four nails ; in which particular Grregory of TourS agrees with them, one on each hand and foot. But several are of opinion, that our Saviour's hands and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one on each hand, and one through both his feet : and the custom of the Latins is rather for this last opinion ; for the generality uf the old crucifixes made in the Latin church have only three nails? Nonnus thinks that our Saviour's arms were Desides bound fast to the cross with chains ; and St. Hilary speaks of the cords wherewith he was tied to it. Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross lived a good while in that condi- tion; St. Andrew is believed to have continued three days alive upon it. Eusebius speaks of cer- tain martyrs in Egynt, who were kept upon the cross till they were " starved to death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ's dying so soon, because naturally he must have lived longer, if it had not been in his power to have laid down his life, and to take it up again. The thighs of the two ihieves, who were crucified with our Saviour, were broken, in order to hasten their death, that their bodies might not remain upon the cross on 105 O CRtiCIPIX the Salivath-day, John ;iix. 3 1. 33 i and to com- ply with the law of Moses, which forbids (he bodies to be left there after sun-set. But, among other nations, they were suilcicd to reraain-upon the cross a long time. Someumes they were de- voured alive by birds and besists of pfey. Guards were appointed to observe that none of their friends or relation should take them down and bury them. The Roman soldiers, who had cru- cified Jesus Christ and the two thieves, continued near the crosses till the bodies were taken down and buried. Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast solem- nized on the 3d of May, in memory of St. Hele- na's (the mother of Constantine) finding the truii cross of Christ deep in the ground on Mount Calvarv, where she erected a church for the pre- servation of part of -it; the rest being brought to Rome, and deposited in the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem. Exaltation of the Ci-oss, an ancient feast held on the 14th of September, in memory of this, that Heraclitus restored to Mount Calvaiy the true cross, in 642, which had been carried off four- teen years before by Cosroes, king of Persia, upon his taking Jerusalem from the emperor Phocas. The Adoration of the Cross seems to have been practised in the ancient church, inasmuch as th& heathens, particularly Julianj reproached the primitive Christians with it j ' and we do not find that their apologists disclaimed the charge. Momay, indeed, asserted that this had been done by St. Cyril, but could not support his allega- tion at the conference of Fontainebleau. St Helena is said to have reduced the adoration of the cross to its just principle, since she adored Christ in the wopd, not the wood itsdf With such mpdifications, some Protestants have been induced to admit the adoration of the cross. John Huss allowed of the phrase, provided It were expriessly added, that the adoration was relative to the person of Christ. But, however Roman Catholics may seem to triumph by virtue of ^uch distinction and mitigations, it is well known they have no great ^ace in their own practice. Imbert, the prior of Gascony, was se- verely persecuted in 1683 for telling the people^ that, in the ceremony of adoring the cross, prac- tised in that church on Good Friday, they were not to adore the wood, but' Christ, who was crucified on it. The curate of the parish told them the coptrary. It was the wood ; the wood they were to adore. Imbert replied, it was Christ, not the wood: for which ne was cited befbre the archbishop of Bourdeaux, suspended from his functions, and even threatened wiih chains and perpetual imprisonment. It little availed him to cite the bishop of Meaux's di» tinction ; it was answered, that the church allow ed it not. CROSS-BEARER, in the Romish Church, the chaplain of an archbishop, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions. Cross-bearers also denote certain officers in the inquisition, who make a vow before the inqubitors, or their vicars, to defend the Catholic faith, though with the k>ss of fortune and life. Their business is also to provide the inquisitors vfith necessaries. CRUCIFIX, a cross, upon which the body of Christ is fastened in effigy, used by the Roman catholics, to excite in their minds a strong idea of our Saviour's passion. CURIOSITY CRUCIFIXION OP CHRIST. See Cross. CRUSADE. See Croisade. CURATE, the lowest degree in the church of England ; he who represents the incumbent of a diurch, parson, or vicar, and officiates in his stead : he is to be licensed and admitted by the bishop of the diocese, or by an ordinary having episcopal jurisdiction ; and when a curate hath the approbation of the bishop, he usually appoints fie salary too ; and, in sucli case, if he be not j/aid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the ecclesiastical court, by a sequestration of the pro- fits of the benefice ; but if the curate be not li- censed by the bishop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where he must prove the agree- ment, &c. A curate, having no fixed estate in his curacy, not being instituted, and inducted, may be removed at pleasure by the bishop or, in- cumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well as temporary J who are appointed where tithes are impropriate, and no vicarage endowed : these are not removeahle, and the impropriators are obliged to find them; some whereof have certain portions of the tithes settled on them. Curates must sub- ■cribe the declaration according to the Act of Uni- formity, or are liable to imprisonment. Though the condition of curates be somewhat amelior- ated by a late act, it must be confessed that they are stiU, in many respects, exposed to hardships; their sadaries are not equal to many dissenting ministers, who have nothing to depend on but the libeiality of their peopfe. Can thpe be a greater reproach to the dignified ecclesiastics of tins country, than- the comparatively miserable pittance allowed the curates, who do all the la- bour 1 Surely they must be a set of useless beings, to reap so little wages ; or else they are unjustly treated. CURIOSITY, a propensity or disposition of the soul which inclines it to inquire after new ob- jects, and to delight in viewing them. Curiosity ■8 proper, when it springs from a desire to know our duty, to mature our judgments, to enlarge our minds;, and to regulate our conduct ; but improT Ser, when it wishes to knovv more of God, of the ecrees, the origin of evilj the state of meny or the nature of things, than it is designed for us to know. The evil of this is evident. It reproaches God's goodness ; it is a violation of Scripture, DeutixiL 29; it robs us of our time; it often makes us unhappy; lessens our usefulness,' and produces mischief. To cure this disposition, let ns consider the divine command, Phil. iv. 6, that every thing essential is revealed ; that God can- not err; that we shall he satisfied in a future ^ate, Isa. xiii. 7. Curiosity concerning the af- ^is of others, is exceedingly reprehensible, "It interrupts," says an elegant writer, " the order, and breaks the peace of society. Persons of this disposition are dangerous troublers of the world. ' Grossing the lines in which others move, they create confusion, smd awaken resentment. Hence, many a friendship has been broken ; the peace of many a family has been overtluown; and much bitter and lasting dbcord has been propagated through sodety. Such a disposition is entirely the reverse of that amiable spirit of charity our Lord inculcates. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object on which it stunes ; a censorious dis- position casts every character into the darkest shade itwiU bear. It is to be further observed, that all impertinent curiosity about the afiairs of 106 CYNIOh others tends greatly to obstruct personal reforma- tion. They who arc so officiously occupied about their neighbours, have little leisure, and less ii^ clination, to observe their own defects, or to mind their own duty. From their mquisitiveres^rche^ they find, or imagine they find, in the behaviour of others, an apofogy for their own failings ; and the favourite result of their inquiries generally is, to rest satisfied with themselves. We should con- sider, also, that every excursion of vain curiosity about others is a siibtraction from that time and thought which are due to ourselves, and Uf God. In the great circle of human affairs, there is room for every one to be busy and well _ employed in his own province, without encroaching upon that of others. It is the province of superiors to di- rect, of inferiors to obey: of the learned to be in- structive ; of the ignorant to be docile ; o( the old to be communicative ; of the' young to be advisa- ble and diligent. In all the various relations which subsist among us in life, as husband and wife, masters and servants, parents and children, relations and friends, luleis and subjects, innume^ able duties stand ready to be performed ; innumer- able calls to activity present themselves on every handj sufficient to fill up with advantage and ho- nour the whole time of maii."^Slair's Serm, vol. iv. ser. 8 ; Clark's Serm., ser. on Deut. xxix. 29 ; Seed's Post. Serm. ser. 7, CURSE, the action of wishing any tremend- ous evil to another. In Scripture language, it signifies the just and lawful sentence of God's law, condemmng sinners to suifer tfaefiill punisb- ment of their sin, Gal. iii. 10. CURSING and Swearing. See Sweariito. CUSTOM, a very comprehenidve term, de- noting the manners, ceremonies, and fashions of a people, which having turned into habit, 'and passed infp use, obtain the force of laws. Cus- tom-and habit are often confounded. By citstom, we mean a frequent reiteration of the same act; and by habit, the effect that custom has on the mind or the body. See Habit. " Viewing man," sa^sLord Kames, "asaseiv sitive bemg,, and perceiving the influence of no- velty upon him, would one suspect that eustam has an equal influence 7 and yet our nature is equally susceptible of both : not only in different objects, but frequentiy in the same. When an ob- ject is new, it is enchanting ', familiarity renders It indifferent ; and custom, after a longer fami- liarity, makes it again desirable; Human natuie^ diversified with many and; various springs of ao- tion, is wonderful, and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed. Custom hath such influ- ence upon many of our feelings, by warping and varying them, that we must attend to. its operar tions, if we would be acquainted with human na- ture. A walk upon the quarter-deck, though in- tolerably confine(l, becomes, however, so agreeable by custom, that a. sailor, ia his walk on shore, confines himself commonly within the same bounds. I knew a. man vrtio had relinquished the sea for a country life : in the comer of his garden he reared an artificial mount, with a level summit, resembling, most accurately, a quarter deck, not only in shape, but in size ; and here was his choice walk^'^ Suchwe find is ofien tbs power of custom., CYNIC S, a sect of ancient philosophers, who valued themselves upon their conten^t of riches and state, arts and sciences, and every thing, in DEMONIAC short, except virtue and moraKty. They owe their origin and institution to Antisthenes of Athens, a dissiplo of Socrates j wl^o being asked of what use his philosophy had been to hinj, re- plied, " it enables me to live with myself." Dio- genes was the most famous of his disciples, in whose life the system of this philosophy appears in its aroatest jierfection. He led a most wliim- sical life, despising every kind of convenience ; a< tub served nim for a lodging, wliich he rolled before liiin wherever he went ; yet he was not the more humble on account of his ragged cloak, bag, DJEMONIAC and tub. One day entering Plato's house, at a time when there was a spfendid entertainment for several persons of distinction, he jumped, \n all his dirt, upon a very rich couch,, saying,, " I trample on the pride of Plato !" — " Yes," replied Plato, " but with still greater pride, Diogenes ."' He had the utmost contempt for all the human ' race ; for he wallced the streets . of Athens ' at noon-day, with a lighted lantern in his hand, tellitig the people " he was in search of an honest man." But wi^h all his maxims of morality, he held some very pernicious opinions. D. DAMI4NISTS, a denomination in the sixth century, so called from Damian, bishop of Alex- andria. Their opinions were the same as the Angelites, which see. D;EMONS, a name given by the ancients to certain spirits or genii, Traich they say, appeared to men, either to do thfem service, or to hurt them: Several of the heathen philosophers held that there were different kinds of deemona ; that some rf them were spiritual substances, of a more noble origin than the human race, and that others had once been men. But these daenions who were the more imme- diate objects of the established worship among the ancient nations, were human spirits, sueh as were believed to become daemons, or deities^ ailer their departure from their bodies^ It has. been generally thought, that by cUemons we are to understand devils, in the Septuagint version of the Old Testajnent. Others think the word is in that version certainly applied to the ghosts of such dead men as the heathens deified, m Dent, xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. That damon often bears the same meaning in the New Tes- tament, and particularly in Acts xvii. 18 ; 1 Cor. r, 21; 1 Tim. iv. 1; Rev. ix^ 13, is shown at karge by Mr. Joseph Mede (see Works, p. 623, et seq.) That the word is applied sdways to human spirits in the New Testament, Mr. Far- mer has attempted to show in his essay on Daemo- niacs, p. 208, et seq. As to the ra«suiing of the word Daemon, m the fathers of the Cnristiein diurch, it is used by them in the same sense as it was by the hSathen philosophers, especially the latter Platonists ; that is, sometimes for departed human spirits, and at others for such spirits as had never inhabited human Indies. In the fe- thers, indeed, the word is more commonly taken in an evil sense, than in the ancieht philosophers. D.EMONIAG, a human being whose voli- tion and other mental faculties are overpowered and restrained, and his body possessed and actu- ated by some created spiritual being of superior p,-wer. Sueh seems to be the determinate sense of the word ; but it is disputed whether any of mankind ever were in this unfortunate conditisn. That the reader may form some judgment we shall lay before him the arguments on both sides. 1. Dcemonmcsj arguments against the exist' ence of. Those who are unwilhng to allow that angels or devils have ever intermeddled with the concerns of human life, urge a number of spe- dous arguments. The Grfeeks and Romans of old, say they, ith a dee- mon ; for oft times he falleth i^o the jSre, and oft irM'the water, was plainly epileptic. Every thing, indeed) that is related in th^ New Testa- ment concerning dasmoniacs, proves thait they .were people afiected with such natuial diseases as are {at trom being uncommon' among man- DEMONIAC tind in the present age. When the symptoms of the disorders cured by our Saviour and his apostles as cases of daemoniacal possession cor- respond so exactly with those of diseases- well known as natural m the present age, it would be absurd to impute them to a supernatural cause. It is much more consistent with common sense and sound philosophy to suppose that our Saviour and his apostles wisely, and with that conde- scension to the weakness and prejudices of those with whom they conversed, which so eminently distinguished the character of the Author of our holy religion, and must always be a prominent feature in the character of the true Christian, adopted the vulgar language in speaking of those uniortunate persons who were groundlessly ima- gined to be possessed with daemons, though they well knew tne notions which had given rise to such modes of expression to be ill founded, than to imagine that diseases which arise at present from natural causes, were produced in days of old bj the intervention of daemons, or that evil spi- nts still continue to enter into mankind in all cases of madness, melancholy," or epilepsy. Be- sides, it is by no means a sufficient reason for re- ceiving any doctrine as true, that it hWs been generdly received through the world. Error, like an epidemical disease, is ■communicated from one to another. In certain circumstances, too, the influence of imagination predominates, and re- strains the exertions of reason. Many false opi- nions have extended their influence through a very wide circle, and maintained it long. On every such occasion as the present, therefore, it becomes us to inquire not so much how genersUy any opinion has been received, or how long it has prevailed, as from what cause it has originated, and on what evidence it rests. When we con- template the frame of Nature, we behold a grand and beautiful simpliciry prevailing through the whole : notwithstanding its immense extent, and though it contaihs such numberless diversities of being, yet the simplest machine constructed by human art does' not display greater sunplicity, or a happier connexion of parts. We may, there- fore, infer by analogy, from what is observable of the order of'^Nature in general to the present case, that to permit evil spirits to intermeddle with the concerns of human life, vi/ould be to break through that order which the Deity appears to have esta- blished through his works; it would be to intro- duce a degree of confiision unworthy of the wis- dom of Diviiie Providence. U. Damoniacs; argwments for the existence Iff. In opposition to these arguments, the follow- ing are urged by the Dsemonianists. In the days of our Saviour, it would appear that dffimoniacal possession was very frequent among the Jews and neighbouring nations. Many were the evil spirits whom Jesus is related in the Gospels to have ejected from patients that were brought unto him as possessed and tormented by those malevo- lent deemons. His apostles too, and the first Christians, who were most active and successful in the propagation of Christianity, appear to have often exerted the miraculous powers with which they were endowed on similar occasions. The daemons displajyed a degree of knowledge and maJevolence wmch sufficiently distinguished them from human beings ; and the language in which the daemoniacs are mentioned, and the alctions and sentiments ascribed to tliem in the New Tes- 108 d.«:moniac tament, show that our Saviour and his apostles did not consider the idea of demoniacal possession a.s being merely a vulgar error concerning the origin of a disease or diseases produced by natural causes. The more enKahtened cannot alvijays avoid the use of metaphorical modes of expression j which, though founded upon error, yet have been so established in language by the influence of custona, that they cannot be suddenly dismissed. But in descriptions of characters, in the narra- tion of facts, and in the laying down of systems, of doctrine, we require dinerent rules to be ob- served. Should any person, in compliance with popular opinions, talk in serious language of the existence, dispositions, declarations, and actions of a race of beings whom he knew to be abso- lutely fabulous, we surely could not praise him for integrity ; we mu^t suppose him to be either- exulting in irony over the weak credulity of those around him, or taking advantage of their weafc ncss, with the dishonesty and seiiisTi -views of an impostor. And if he himself should pretend to any connexion with this imaginary system of be- ings j and should claim, in consequence of his connexion with them, particular honours from his contemporaries — whatever might be the dignitf of his character in all other respects, nobody coula hesitate to brand him as an impostor. In this light must we regard the conduct of our Saviour and his apostles, if the idea of demoniacal pos- session were to be considered merely as a vulgar error. They talked and acted as if they believed that evil spirits had actually entered into those who were brought to them as possessed with de- vils, and as if those spirits had been actually ex>. pelled by their authority out of the unhappy pep- sons whom they had possessed. They demanded^ too, to have their professions and declaratioiis be- lieved, in consequence of their perfonning such mighty works, and having thus triumphed over the powers of hell. The reality of daemoniacal possession stands upon the same Evidence with the Gospel system in geneml. Nor is there any. thing unreasonable in this doctrine. It does not appear to contradict those ideas which the gene- ral appearance of Nature and the series of events suggest, concerning the benevolence and wisdom of the Deity, by which he regplates the ailairs of the universe. We often fancy ourselves able tti ' comprehend things to which our understanding is wholly inadequate ; we persuade ourselves, at times, that the whole extent of the works of the Deity must be well known to us, and that his de- signs must always be such as we can fathom. We are then ready, whenever any difficulty arises to us in considering the conduct of Prov>- donce, to model things according to our ovm ideas ; to deny that the Deity can possibly be the author of things which we cannot reconcile j and to assert that he must act on every occasion in a manner consistent with our narrow views. This is the pride of reason ; and it seems to have sug- gested the strongest objections that have been at any time urged against the reaUty of daemoniacal possession. But the Deity may surely connect one order of his creatures with another. We perceive mutual relations and a beautiful con- nexion to prevail through all that part of Nature which falls within the sphere of our observation. The inferior animals are connected vrith man- kind, and subjected to their authority, not only iri'instances in which it is exerted for thcij ad- DARKNESS vantage, but even where it is tyrannically abused to their destruction. Among tlie erils to which mankind have been subjected, why might not their being liable to dffimoniaoal possession be onel While the Supreme Being retains the sovereignty of the universe, he may employ what- ever agents he thinks proper in the execution of his purposes ; he may either commission an an- fel, or let loose a devil j as well as bend the uman vrill, or communicate any particular im- pulse to matter. All that revelation makes knovm, all that human reason can conjecture, concerning the existence of various orders of spiritual beings, good and bad, is perfectly con- sistent with, and even favourable to, the doctrine of dffimoniacal possession. It is mentioned in the New Testament in such language, and such nar- ratives are related concerning it, that thcGospls cannot be well regarded in any other light than as pieces of imposture, and Jesus Christ must be considered as a man who took advantage of the weakness and ignorance of his contemporaries, if this doctrine be nothing but a vulgar error; it teaches nothing^- inconsistent with the general conduct of Providence; in short, it is not the caution of philosophy, but the pride' of reason that ■uggests objections against this doctrine. See the essays of Young, Farmer, Worthington. Dr. Lan'dner, Macknight, Fell, Burgh, ife. on Dts- mojiiacs; SeecPs Posthumous Sermons, ser. vi. and artiele Demoniac in Enc. Brit. DAMNATION, condemnation. This word Q iised to denote the final loss of the soul ; but it is not always to be understood in this sense in the sacred Scripture. Thus it is said m Rom. xui. 2,' ■They that resist shall receive to themselves damnation, i.e. condemnation, "fiom the rulers, who are not a terror to good works, bpt to the eriL'' Again, in 1 Cor. xi. 29: "Hethateateth and drinketh unvn^rthily;, eafeth and drinketh damnation to himself j" i. e. condemnation j ex- poses himself to severe temporal ju'lgments from God, and to the judgment and censure of the wise and good. Again, Rom. xiv. 23: "He that doubtetli is damned if he eat ;" i. e. is con- demned both by his own conscience and the word of Gpd, because he is far from being satis- fied^hat he is right in so doing. DANCERS, a sect which sprung up about, 1373 in Flanders, and places about. It was their custom all of a sudden to fall a dancing, and, holding each other's hands, to continue thereat, till, being suffocated with the extraordinary vio- lence, they fell down breathless together. During these intervals of vehement agitation they pre- tended they were favoured with wondernil vi- sions. Like the Whipper^ they roved from Slace to place, begging their victuals, holding leir secret assemblies, and treating the priest- hood and worship of the church with the utmost contempt. Thus we find, as Dr. Haweis ob- serves, that the French Convulsionists and the Welch Jumpers have had predecessors of the same stamp. There is nothing new under the sun. Haweis and Mosheim's Gi. Hist. Cent. 14. DARKNESSythe absence, privation, or want of natural light. In Scripture I inguage it also signifies sin, John lit 19; troubl . Is. viii, 23; obscurity, privacy, Matt. x. 37 'ijrgetfulhess, contempt, Epc. vi. 4. , Darkness, says Moses, was upon the face of the deep, Gei).,i> 2- that i| to say, the chi^ti' was DAVIDISTS plunged in thick darkness, because hitherto the light was not created. Moses, at the command of God, brought darkness upon Egypt, as a plague to the inhabitants of it. The Septnagint, our translation of the Bible, and indeed most othpnv in explaining Moses's account of this darknes*. render it "a darkness which may be felt ;" and the Vulgate has it, " palpable darkness j" tWis, a darkness consisting of black vapours and exhar lations, so condens^ that they might be pep' ceived by the organs of feeling or seeing; but some commentators think that this is carrying the sense too far, since, in such a medium as this, mankind could not live an hour, much less for the space of three days, as the Egyptians are said to have done, during the time this darkness last- ed ; andj therefore, they imagine that instead of a darkness that may be felt, the Hebrew phrase may signify a darkness wherein men went grop ing and feeling about for every thing they want- ed. Let this, however, be as it may, it was an awful iiidgment on the Egyptians ; and we may naturally conclude that it must have also spread darkness and distress over their minds as well as their persons. The tradition of the Jews b, that in this darkness they were terrified by the appa- ritions of evil spirits, or rather by dreadful sounds and murmurs which they made. What made it still worse, was the length of time it continued : three days, or as Bishop -Hall expresses it, six ni^ts in one. During the last three Iiours that our Saviour hung upon the cross, a darkness covered the face of the earth, to the great terror and amazement of the people present at, his execution. This ex- traordinary alteration in the face of nature, says Dr. Macknight, in his Harmony of the Gospels, was peculiarly proper, whilst the Sun of JElight- eousness was withdrawing his beams from the land of Israel, and from the world ; not only be- cause it was a miraculous testimony borne by God himself to his innocence, but also because^it was a tit emblem of his departure and its efifects, at least till his light shone out anew with addi- tional splendour in the ministry, of his apostles. The darkness which now covered Judea, and the neighbouring countries, beginning about noon, ana continmng till Jesus expiree^ was not the efiect of an ordinary eclipse of the sun, for that can never happen but at the new moon, whereas now it was full moon ; not to mention that the total darkness occasioned Jt>y eolipses of the sun never continues above twelve or fifteen minutes : wherefore it must have been produced by the di- vine power, in a manner we are not able to ex- plain. Accordingly Luke (cliap. xxiii. 44, 45.) after relating that there was darkness over all the earth, adds, " and the sun was darkened ;" which perhaps may imply that the darkness of the sun did not occasion, but proceeded from, the darkness that was over all the land. Further, the Chris- tian writers, in their most ancient apologies to the heathens, affirm that as it was full moon at the passoyer when Christ was crucified, no sueh eclipse could happen by the course of nature. Tbey observe, also, that it was taken notice of as a prodigy by the heathen themselves; DAVIDISTS, the adherents of David George^ a native of Delft, who, in l&2^, began to preach a new doctrine, publishing hiniself to be the true Messiah; and that he was sent "of God tp fill heaven, which was quite empty for want of peo-, DEAN pie to deserve it. He us likewise said to have de- nied the existence of angels, good and evil, and to have disbelieved the doctrine of a future judgment. He rejected marriage with the Adamites! held with Manes, that the soul was not defiled by sin; and laughed at the self-denial so much recom- mended by Jesus Christ. Such were his princi- pal errors, '^e made liis escape from Delft, and retired first mto Priesland, and then to Basil, where he changed his name, assuraing that of John Bruek, and died in 1556. He left some disciples beliind him, to whom he promised tiiat he would rise again at the end or three years. Nor was he altogether a false prophet herein ; for the magistrates of that city beuig mformedi at the three years' end, of what he had taught, ordered him to be dug up, and burnt, together with his writings, by the common hangman. DEACON, Axxovii;, a servant, a minister. 1. In ecclesiastical polity, a deacon is one .of the lowest of the three orders of the clergy. He is father a- novitiate, or in a state of probatibn for one year, after which he is admitted into full orders, or ordained a priest. ■ ' 2. In the New Testament the word is used for any one that ministers in the service of God: bishops an4 presbyters are also styled deacons ; but more particularly and generally it is under- stood of the lowest order of ministering servants in the church, 1 Cor. iii. 6. Ccfl. i. 33, 25. Phil. i. 1. 1 Tim. iii. The oiBce of deacons originally was to serve tables, the Lord's table, the minister's table, and the poor's table. They took care of the secular affairs of the church; received and disbursied mo- nies, kept the church's accounts,' and provided every thing necessary for its bsmporEil good. Thus, whife the bishop attended to the souls, the deacons attended to the bodies of the people : the pastor to the spiritual, and the deacons to the tem- poral interests of the church. Acts vi. DE AC ONESS, a female deacon. It is gene- rally allowed, that m the primitive church there were deaconesses, i. e. pious women, whose par- ticular business it was to assist in the entertain- ment and care of the itinerant preachers, visit the sick and imprisoned, instruct female catechumens, and assist at their baptism; then more particularly necessary, from the peculiar customs of those countries, the persecuted state of the church, sind the speedier spreading of the GoSpel. Such a one it is reasonable to think Phebe was, Rom. xvi. 1, who is expressly called AiaMvev, a deaconess or stated servant, as Doddridge renders it. They were usually widows, and, to prevent scandal, generally in years, 1 Tim. v. 9. See also S^oji- fueim. Hist. Christ. Seoul. 1. p. 554. The'apos- tolic constitutions, as they are called, mention, the ordination of a deaconess, and the form of prayer used on that occasion (lib. viii. ch. 19, '20.) Phriy also, in his celebrated epistle to Trajan, (xcvii.)- is thought to refer to them, when, speaking of* two female Christians whom he put to tortiure, he says " quse ministry dicebantur," i. e. who were called deaconesses. — But as the primitive Chris- tians seem to be led to this practice from the pe- culiarity of their circumstances, and the Scripture b entirely silent as to any appointment to this 8\i)Wiwed office, or any rules about it, it is very jusUy'll9(l\aside, at leaet as an office. DEAN, ah ecclesiastical dignitary, next under the bishop, in catRedial churches, and head of the 110 DECALOGUE chapter. The Latin word is rfecaniw, derived from the Greek Ai«», ten, because the dean yite- sides over at least ten canonSj or prebendaoes. A dean and chapter are the bishop's council, to assist him in the affairs of religion. DEATH is generally defined to be the sepa- ration of the soul from the body. It is styled, in Scripture language, a departure out of this world to another, 2 Tim. iv. 7 ; a dissolving of the earthly house of tliis tabernacle, 2 Cor. v. 1 ; a going the way of all the earth, Jos. xxiii. 14^ a returning to the dust, Ecc. xii. 7 ; a sleep, John xi. 11. Death may be coiisidered as the effect of sin, Rom. v. 12 : yet, as our existence is from God, no man has a right to take away his own ' life, Or the liife of another, Gen. ix. 6. _ Satan is said to have Ihe^mDer of deatkj Heb. ii. 14) not that he can at his pleasure inflict death on inan- kind, but as he was the instrument of first britio- ing death into tjie world, John viii. 44 ; and as M maybe the executioner of God's wrath on iiiv- penitent sinners, when God permits him. Death IS but once, Heb. ix. 27; cettain. Job xiv. 1, 3; powerful and terrific, called the king, of terrors, Job xviii. 14; whcertain as to the timei Prov. xxviii. 1; universal, Gen. v; necessary, that God's justice may be displayed and his merfty manifest- ed ; desii Me to the righteous, Luke ii.' SS-^SO. The fea^ of death is a source Of uneasiness to the generamy, and to a gtulty conscience it may indeed be terrible; but to a good man it sboUla be obviated by the consideration, that death is the termination of every trouble ; that it puts him be- yond the reach of An and temptaUon ; that God has. promised to he with the rignteoa>:, even to the end, Heb. xiil. 5; that Jesus Christ h*is taken away the sting, 1 Cor. yn. 54 ; and that it intro- duces hioi to a state of endless felicity, 3 Cor. v. Si Prepiirationfor death. This does not consist in bare morality; in an external reformation from gross sinis ; in attention to a round of duties in Our owii^strength ; in acts of charity ; in a zealous profession; in possessing eminent gifts ; but in reconciliation to God; repentance of sin ; faith in Christ ; obedience to his word ; and all as the ef- fect of regeneration by the Spirit. 3 Jphn iii. 6.- 1 Cor. xi 3. Tit. 5. Bates/ s four last "Things , Hopkins, Drelincourt, Sherlock, and Fellowea, on Death ; J^p. Porteus's Poem on Death; Grove's Admirable Sermon on the Pear of Death; Wattsl's World to Come; Law's Theory of Religion. SpiritvcA Death is that awful state of igno- rance, insensibility, and disobedience, which man- kind are in by nature, and which exclude them from the fnvour and enjoyment of God, Luke i. 79. See Sin. Brothers of Death, a denomination usualh given to the reli^ous of the order of St. Pau^ the first liermit. They are called brothers of death, on account of the %ure of a death's head which tlipy were alvfays to haye vrith them, in order to keep perpetually tiefore them the thoughts of death. TbS order was probably suppressed by pope UrhiJi Vlll. See Atonement ; Pearson and Ban ow on the Creed ; Owen's Death (^ Death in the Death of Christ; Chamiodfi Works, «il. ii. on the Necessity, Voluntarinen, (f-c. of the Death of Christ. DEC A LOGUE, the ten commandments given "by God to Moses. ' "the ten commandments were engraved by Gcd DECLAMATION on two tables of stone. The Jews, by way ot eminence call these commandments the ten words, from whence they had aftbrwards, the name o{ decalogue ; but they joined the first and second into one, and divided the last into two. They understand that against stealing to relate to the stealing of men, or kidnapping ; alleging, thut the steahng one another's goods or property is forbidden in the last commandment. The church of Rome haq struck the second command- ment quite out of the decalogue ; and, to make their number complete, ha8>split the tenth into two. Tl^ reason is obvious. DECEIT consists in passing any thing wpon a person for what ,i^ is not, «s When falsehood is aaadeito pass for troth. See Hypocrisy. DECEPTION, SELF. See .Sei.*sDeoep- TION. DECLAMATION, a speech made in public in the tone and manner of »n oration, uniting the expression of action to tihe prc^ety lOf pi'onun- ciation, in order to giye the sentiment its full im- pression on the inind. It is also used in a dero- gatory sense; as when it is said, such a speech was mere declamation, it implies that it was defi- «ieint in poj^nt of reafioning, or had more sound than sense. Dbclamaxwn OP TflK PuLpjT. "The dig- nity and sanctity of the place,, and the importance of the sulgect, require the preacher to exert the utmost powers of his viiiccj to produce a pronun- ciation that is perfectly distinct and harmonious, taui that he observe a .deportment j^nd' action which is exfweesivcL^ndgraceftil. TJic preacher should not roar like a common crier, and^eodthe ear with a vaicelikethiun4erjib):suchi,i|idQfde- ■damation is pot only without meaning and with- lea^d to discover them. It is therefore presump- tion for any to attempt to enter into or judge of his- secret purpose, or to decide upon what he has not revealed, Deut. xxix. 29. Nor is an unknown or supposed decree at any time to be the rule of our conduct. His revealed will alone must be considered as the rule by which we are to judge of the event of things, as well as of our conduct at large, Rom. xi. 34. — 7. Lastly, they are efec- tual ; for as he is infinitely wise to plan, so he is infinitely powerful t" perform : his counsel shall' stand, and he will do all his pleasure, Isa. xlvi. 10. This doctrine should teach us, 1. Admiration.' " He is the rock, his work is perfect, for all his ways are judgment; a Grod of truth, and without iniquity j just and right is he," Deut. xxxii. 4. — 2. Reverence. " Who would not fear thee, O King of nations 7 for to thee doth it appertain," Jer. X. 7. — 3. Humility, " O the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! — how unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out!" Rom. xi. 33. — i. Sub- mission. For he doeth according to his will in the armies of heavfen, and among the inhabitants of the earthy and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest' thou 7" Dan. iv. 35. — S. Desire for heaven. " What I do, thou know- est not now j but thou shalt krow hereafter," John xiii. 7. See Necessity, Predestination. Decrees of Councils are the lavfs made by &em to regulatB the doctriije and policy of the church. Thus the acts of the Chnstian council at Jerusalem are called, Acts xvi. 4. DECRETAL, a letter of a pope, determining some point or question in the ecclesiastical law. The decretals compose the second part of the ca- non law. The first genuine one, acknowledged by all the learned as such, is a letter of pope Si- ricius, written in the year 385; to Himerus, bishop of Tarragona, in Spain, concerning some dis- orders which had crept into the churches of Spain. Gratian published a collection of decretals, con- taining all the ordinances made by the popes till tlie'yfer 1150. Gregory IX. in 1227, following the example of Theodosiusand Justinian, formed a constitution of his ovra, collecting into one body all the decisions and all the caiLses which served to advance the papal power ; which coltotion of decretals was called the Pentaiiuch, because it contained five books. DEDICATION, a religious ceremony, where- by any person or thing is solemnly consecrated, or set apart to the service of Gtod and the pur- poses of religion. The use of dedication is very ancient, both among the worshippers of the true God, and among the heathens. In the Scripture we meet with dedications of the tabernacle, altars, &c. Under Christianity dedication is only applied \o I church, and is properly; the consecratioi: there- of. See CoNSECBATiON. DEFENCE. See Self-defence. DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, {Pidei DefiTisor,) a peculiar title belonging to the king of England ; as Calholicus to the king of Spain, and QirtstiaTtissimus to the Hag of France. 113 DEISTS These titles were given by the popes of Borne. That of Fidei Defensor was first conferred by Leo X. on kmg Henry VIII. for writing against Mar- tin Luther : and the bull for it bears date guinto idxis, Octobei 1521. It was afterwards confirmed by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry's suppressing tUii houses of religion, at the time of the Reforination, not only deprived him of his title, but deposed him from his crown also ; though is the 35th year i f his reign, his title, &c. was coni firmed by parliament, and has continued to be used by all his successors. Ghamberlayne says^ the title belonged to the kings of EDglfirid before that time, and for proof hereof appeals to several charters granted to the University of Oxford: so that pope L*o'a bull was only a renovation at an ancient right. DEGRADATION, Ecclesiastical, is the do- privation of a priest of his dignity. We have an instance of it in the eighth century at Constantly nople, ui the jierson of the patriarch Constantine^ who was made to go out of the church l»ck wards, stripped of his palliuin, and anathematized. In our own country, Cranmer was degraded by op-' der of the bloody queen Mary. They dressed him in episcopal Mbes, made only of canvass ; put the mitre on his head, and the pastoral staff in his hand, and in ibis attire showed him to the people and then stripped him piece by piece. DEISTS, a class of people whose distinguishr ing character it is,' not to profess any particular form or system of religion ; but only to acknow^ ledge the existence or a Grod, and to follow the light and law of Nature, rejecting revelation and opposing Christianity. The name of deists seems to nave been first assumed, as the denomination of a party, about the middle of the 16th century, by some gentlemen in France and Italy, who were desirous of thus disguising their opposition to Christianity by a more nonourable appellation than that of atheists. Viret, an eminent reformer mentions ceri ain persons inhis epistle dedicatory,, prefixed to the Second volume of his Instruction Chrttienjic, published in 1653, who called them- selves by a new name, that of deists. These, ho tells us, professed to believe in Grod, but show^ ed no regard to Jesus Christ, and considered the doctrine of the apostles and evangelists as fables and dreams. He adds, that they laughed at all religion, thougli they outwardly conformed- to the religion of those with whom they lived, or whom they wished to please, or feared to offend. Some^ he observed, jirofessed to believe the immortalilv of the soul i others denied both this doctrine and that of providence. Many of them were consid- ered 'as persons of acute and subtle genius, and took pains in disseminating theu- notions. The deists hold, that, considering the multiplicity of religions, the numerous pretences to revelation, and the precarious arguments generally advanced in proof thereof, the best and surest way is to re- turn to the sunplicity of nature, and the belief of one God ; whicJi is the only truth agreed to by all nrttions. They complain, that the freedom w thinking and reasoning is oppressed under the yoke of religion, and that the minds of men ara tyrannized aver, by the necessity imposed upoa them of belieqng inconceivable mysteries ; and contend that nothing should be required to be aS' senled to or helieved but what their reason clearly conceives. The distinguishing character of mo- dem deists is, that they discard all pretences te DEISTS revelalion as the efTeuts of imposture or enthusi- sism. They profess a regard for natural religion, fliough they are far from being agreed in their notions concerning it. They are classed by some of their own writers into mortal and immortal deists: the latter acknowledging a future state; and the 'former dehying'tt, a( representing it as very uncertjun. Dr. Clarke diBtinguishes four sorts of deists; 1. Those who pretend' to beUeve the existence of an eternal, iniSriite, ind^peiidient, iiitelligeat Being, who m^de' tlie world, without coniieriSfag hifiSfefelf in the government of it. — 2. Thosi who believe the bemg aind natural prbvidence of God, bttt deny the'dififererice of actions as morally good or evil; resolving it into the arbitrary constitution ttf human laws ; sirid thef eforfe they suppose that God takes no iioticfe of them. With respectto both these classes, he observe^ that their opijiibiis can consistently teripinate in nothing but d6wn- right £itheism.-^3.- Those -vHio, haying n^ht ap- prehensions coiicemiiig the nature, attinbtites, and all-g6verriing ptoviQence of God, seem also to havfe some ridtiojl of his moral perfections ; though they consider thefli aS transeendant, and siidh m nature and degree, that we can form no true judgment, nor argue v«ij;h any certainty concerh- uig them : but they deny thte immortadity of hu- man souls j alleging thsit jnen 'perisH at death, and that the present lifi is'the ■vfhole of Human eiistence. — 4. Those' virhp believe the existeiice, Q^rf^tibiis, aiid providence of God, the obligations of natural religion, and a state of fiiture retribu^ tibn, on theevwence of the light of Nature, with* out a divine revelation ; such as these, he says, are the only true deists : but thSr' pWiidples, he apprehends, should lead them to etnbrace Chris- tianity ; arid therefore he concludes' that there Is now no consistent scheme of deism in the wbrld; The ft'st' deistical wHter of any note that ap- j>eared in this couritry. Was Herbert, baron of '^herbury. He lived and wrote in the seven- leenth century. His book De Veritate was first poblished at Paris in 1634. This, tbgpther virith his book De CdvMs ErrorUm, and lii's treatise ne Relij^ne Laici, were aftertrards.pilblished in, London. His celebrated work De Religione (xentilium was published at Amsterdam in 1663 in 4to., and in 1700 in 8vo. ; and an English translation of it was published at London in 1705. As he was dne of the first tliat forrped deism into a system, and asserted the suffiqiency, universality, arid absolute perfection of natural religion, with a view to discard all extraordinary revelation as useless and needless, we shall sub- joirithefive fundamental articles of this universal religion. They are these: 1. There is one su- preme God. — 2. That he is chiefly to be wor- shipped.— 3. That piety and virtue arc the prin- dpaf part of his worship. — 4. That we must re- Sent of our sins i and if we do so, God vrill par- on them.— 5. That there are rewards for good men and punishments forbad men, both here and hereafter. A number of advocates have appeared m the same cause; and however they may have diiffered among themselves, they havebeen agreed ip their attempts at invalidating the evidence and authority of divine revelation. We might men- tion Hobbes, Blount, Toland, Collins, Wool- Bton, Tindal, Morgan, Chubb, IdrdBqlingbroke, Hume, Gibbon, Paiiie, and some add lord Shaf- tesbury to the number. Among foreigners, Vol- 113 , P DELUGE taire, Rousseau, Condoreet, and many other cele- brated. French authors, haVe rendered themselves conspicuous by their dieistical writilngs. " Biit," as one observes, "the friends of Christiariity- have rio reason to regret the free arid unreserved dis- cussion which their religion has utidei^raie. Ob- jections have been stated and urged iri their fijli force, and as fiilly answered; argmhents arid raillery have been repelled ; and the controversy between Christians and deists has called forth a great number of excelleiit wrifets, iwho have il- lustrated both the doctriiies- and evidendes of Christianity in a manner that will evir reflect honour on their naracis, and be of lasting service to the cause of genuine religidn, and the best in- terests of mankind." See articles Cheisti ANirr, iNPiBetiTY, iNSPiifATroN, and Scripture, in this woUk., Leland's View of Deistical Writers; J Sermons at Baylies Lectuj'e; Salybwrljon's Na- tural Religion: inswffixient ; LeslM's Short Me- thod vntSf.ahe Deists ; Bishop Watson's Apology fir the Bible; fhiUer's Gospel of Christ its own Witness; Bishop Porfemfs Charge to the Cler- EVy for 1794; and his Summary of the Evv- 'dences'df Christianity. DEITY OF CHRIST. See Jesdb CaitisT. DELUGE^ the flood which overflowed and destroyed the earth. This fl6o(^ makes one of the most ' consideislble epoohas in chronology. Its history is givenby Moses, Gep; vi. and viij Its tune is fixed by the best chronologers to the year from the creation 1656, anstfering to the ytor 'before Christ 2293. From this flood, the state of the 'World is divided into' dtluvian and ante- dituvian. ' Men who have not paid that regard to sacred history which it deserves, have cavilled at the ac- count given of an universal' deluge. Their ob- jections principally turn upon three points: 1. The want of any direct histoi'y of that event by the profane writers of antiquity. — 2. The ap- parent impossibility of accounting for the quan- tity of water necessary to overflow the whole earth to such a depth as it is said to have been. — And, 3. There appearing no necessity for anuni' |versal deluge, as the same end might have been accomplished by a partial one. , Tb the above arguments we oppose the plain declarations of Scripture. God dectired to Noah that he was resolved to destroy every thing that had breath under heaven, ori had life on the earth, by a flood of waters ; such was the threatening, such was the execution. The waters, Moses assures us, covered the whale earth, buried all the mountains ; every thing perished therein that had life, excepting Noah and those with liim in the ark. Can an universal deli^e be more clearly expressed 1 If the deluge had only been partial, there had been no necessity to spend a hundred years in the- building of an ark, and shutting up all sorts of animals therein, in order to re-stock the world: tliey had been easily and readily brought ftom those parts of the world not over- flowS into those that were ; at least, all the birds never would have been destroyed, as Moses says they were, so long as thw had wings to bear them to those parts where the flood did not readi. If the waters had only overflowed the neighbour- hood uf the Euphrates and the Tigris, they could not be fifteen cubits above the highest mountains • there was no rising that height but they must spread themselves, by the laws of gravity, over >. k2 ' * DEPRECATORY Ihe rest of the earth i unless perhaps they had been retained there by a miracle ; in that case, Moses, no doubt, would have related the miracl^ as ho did that of the waters of the Red Sea, &c. It may also be observed, that in regions far remote from the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, England, &c. there are frequently found, in places many scores of leagues from the sea, and even in the tops of high moun- tains, whole trees sunk deep under ground, as also teeth and bones of animals, fishes entire, sea shells, ears of corn, &c, petrified ; which the best naturalists are agreed could never have come there but by the deluge. That the Greeks and western natHjns had some knowledge of the flood, has never been denied ; and the Mussulmeri, Chinese, and Americans, have traditions of the ' deluge. The ingeniois Mr, Bnrant, in his My- thology, has pretty clearly proved that the deluge, so far from Txme unknovm to the heathen world at large, is in reaSty conspicuous throughout every one M their acts of religious worship. In India, also, Sir William Jones nas discovered, that in the oldest mythcJogical books of the^t country, there is such an account of the deluge as corresponds sufficiently with that of Moses. Various have been the conjectures of learned men as to the Tiafural causes of the deluge. Some have supposed that a quantity of water was created on. purpose, and it a proper time anni- hilated hy Divme power. Dr. Burnet supposes the primitive earth to have been no more tnan a crust investing the water contained in the ocean ; and in the central alryss,. which he and others suppose to exist in the bowels of the earth at the time of the flood, this, outward crust broke in a thousand pieces, and sunk down among the water, which thus spouted up in vast cataracts and over- flowed the whole surface. Others, supposing a sufficient fund of water in the sea or abyss, think that the shitting of the earth's centre of gravity drew after it the; water out of the cliannel, and overwhehned the several parts of the earth suc- cessively. Others ascribe ■ it to the shook of a comet; and Mt. King supposes it to arise from subterraneous fires bursting forth with great vip- lence under the sea. But are not most, if not all these hypotheses quite a,rbitrary, and without foundation from the words of Moses,? It is, per- haps, in vain to attempt accounting for this event by natural causes, it being altogether miraculous and supernatural, as a punishment to men for the corruption then in the world. Let us be satisfied with the sources which Moses gives us, namely, the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven opened; that is, the waters rushed out from the hidden abyss of the bowels of the earth, and the clouds poured down their rain incessantly. Let it suffice us to know, that' all the elements are under God's power; that he can do with them as he pleases, and frequently in vays wc are ignorant of, in order to accomplish .lis own purposes. The prLrtcipal writers on this subject have been Wobdyard, ■ CockHum, Bryant, Bwmet, JVhis- on, Stillingfleet, King, ■ Catcott, Tyller, and H'orthington. DEPRAVITY, corruption, a change from perfection to imperfection. See FalIi, Sin. DEPRECATORY, a term applied to the manner of performing some ceremonies in the form of prayer. The form pf absolution in the DESTRUCTIONISTS Greek church is deprecative, thus_ expresseit- May God absolve you) whereas in the Latin church it is declarative — / absolve you, DESCENT of Christ into Bell. See Hell. DESERTION, a term made use of to denote an unhappy state of mind, occasioned bjr the sen- sible influences of the divine favour being with dravim. Some of the best men in all ages have suffered a temporary suspension of divine enjoy- ments,. Job XXIX. 2 ; Ps. li ; Isa. xlix. 14 ; Lam. iii, 1 ; Isa, i, 10, The causes of this must not be attributed to the Almighty, since he is always the same, but must arise from ourselves. Neglect of duty, improper views of Providence, self-con- fidence, a worldly spirit, lukewarmness oif mind, inattention to the means of grace, or open trans- gression, may be considered as leading to this state. As all things, however, are under the divine controul, so even desertion, or,, as it is sometimes expressed in Scripture, '|the hidings of God's face," may be usefiu to excite humility, exercise faith and patience, detach us from the world, prompt to more vigorous action, bring us to look more to God as the fouhtain Of happiness, conform us to his word^ and increase our desbes for that state of blessedness which is to come. Hervej/'a Ther. and Asp, dial. xix. ; Watts's Medit.' on Job, xxm.3;, Lambert's Ser. vol. i. ser. 16 ; FlaveVs Works, vol. i. p. 167. foUo. Desire is an eagerness to obtaiii or enjOy an object which we suppose to be good. Those desires, s^ys Dr. Watts, that arise without any express ideas of the goodness or agreeahleness lainly proposes the destruction Of the soul (not its end- less pain and misery) as the ultimate object of the divine displeasure, and the greatest object of our fear. And when he says. These shall go away into everlasting punishment, but the righteous into life eternal, it appears, eyident that by that eternal punishmeift which is set in opposition to itemal life, is not meant any kind of life, how- ever miserable, but the same which the apostle expresses by; everlasting destruction- from the vresencc and power of the Lord. The Vpry term^ death, is most frequently made use of to signify the end of wicked men in another world, or tfie final effect of divine justice in their punishment. The wages of sin (saith the apostle) is death; but eternal life is the gift of God, through Christ Jesus our hard. See also Rom. viii. 6. To imagine that by the term deaith is meant an eternal life, though in a condition of extreme misery, seems, according to him, to be confound-, ing all propriety and me^nin^ of words.' Death, when applied to, the end of wicked men in a fu- ture state, he says, properly denotes a total ex- tinction of life and being. It may contribute, he adds, to fix this meaning, if we obserye that the state to which temporal death reduces men is usually termed by our Saviour and his apostles, siee'p; because from this death the soul shall be raised to life again : but from the other, .which is fully and properly death, and of which the former is but an image or shadow, there is no recovery i It is an eterndl death, an everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and the glory of his power. He next proceeds to the figures by which the eternal punishment of wicked men is described, and- finds them perfectly agreeing to establish the same doctrine. , One figure' or comparison, often used, , is that of combustible materials thtovral into a fire, which nrjU consequently be entirely con- sumed, if the fire be not quenQhed. Depart from me, ye cur.^ed, into everlastimg fire, prepared for the devil and his angels. The meaning is, a to-i tal, irrevocable destruction : for, as the tree that 115 DESTRUCTIONISTS brtngeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire, and is destroyed ; as the useless chaff, when separated from the good grain, is set on firPj an(}, if the fire be not quenched, is con- sumed : so, he thinks, it plainly appears, that the image of unquenchable or everlasting fire is not intended tp signify the degree or duration of tor- ment, but the absolute certainty of destructioii, beyond all possibility of recovery. So the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are said to have Suffered the vengeance of an eter.nalfirc, that is, they were so effectually consumed, or destroyed, that they could never be rebuilt ; the phrase, eternal fire, signifying the irrevocable destruction' of those ci- ties, not the degree or duration of the misery of the inhi^bitants who perished. The images of the worm, that dieth not, and the fire that is not queruched, used in Mark ix. 43, are set in opposition to entering info life, and intended to denote a period of life and existence. Our Saviour expressly assies different degrees of future misery, iri proportion to men's respec- tive dMree of guilt, Luke xii. 47, 48. But if ajl wicked men shall suffer torments without end, how can any of, them be said to suffer but a few stripes 1 All degrees and distinctions of punish- ment seem' swaiffowed up in the notion of never- encling or infinite misery; Finally, death and eternal destruction, or anni- hilation, is properly styled in the New Testament an everlastmg punishWnt, as it is irrevocable and unalterable forever; and it is most strictly and literally styled, an everlasting destruction from thfi presence of the Lord, and fromtlie glo- ry, of his power. IJr. Edwards, in his answer to Dr. Chauncey, on the satvation of all men, says that tliis scheme was provisionally retained by Dr. C. ; i. e. in case the scheme of universal salvation should fail him ; and therefore Dr. E., in his examination of that work, appropriates a chapter to the consideration of it. Among other reasonings against it are the following : — 1. The different degrees of punishment which the wicked will suffer according to their wprks, ' proves that < it does not consist in aimihilation, which admits of no degrees. 3. If it be said that the punishment of the wicked, though it will end m annihilation, yet shall be preceded by torment, and ,that this will be o{ different degrees, aciording to the degrees of sin ; it may be replied, this is making it to be compounded partly of tprment, and partly of anni- hilation. The latter ^Iso appears to, be hat a small part of future punishment, for that alone will be inflicted on the least sinner, and on account of the least sin; and that all punishment which will be inflicted on any perspn above that which is iue to the least sin, is to consist in torment. Nay, if we can form any idea in the present state of what vvould be dreadful or desirable in another, instead of its being any puniilunent to be anni- ' liilated after a long series of torment, it must be a deliverance, to which the sinner vvould look for- ward with anxious desire. And is it credible that this was the termination of torment that our Lord held up to his disciples as an object of dread 1 Can this be the destruction of body and soul in helll Is it credibly that everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his povrer, should constitute only a part, and a small part, of future punishment ; and such too. DETRACTION as, after a series of torment, must, next to being made happy, be the most acceptable thing that could befal them 1 Can this be the object threat- ened by such language, as recompensing tribula- tion, and taking. TCJig'eance in (lamina fire 7 2 Thess. i. Is it ^jossible that God should threaten them with putting an end to their miseries'? Moreover, this destruction is not described as the conclusion of a succession of torments, but as taking place immediately after the last judgment. "When Christ shall come to be glorified m his saints, then shall the wicked be destroyed. 3r Everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power, cannot mean annihilation, for that would he no exertion of divine power, but merely the suspen- sion of it ! for let the upholding power of God be withheld for one moment, and the whole creation would sink into nothing. 4. The bunishmeift of wicked men will be the same as that of wicked angels. Matt. ixv. 41. Depart, ye cursed, into everlasting Jlre, prepared for the devil and his angels. But the punish- ment of wicked, angels consists not in annihila- tion, but torment. Such is their present punish- ment in a degree, and such in a greater degree will be their punishment hereafter. They ate "cast down to hell;" they "believe and trem- ble ;" they are reserved in chains under darkness, to the judgment of the great day; they cried, saying, " wliat have we to do with thee'! Art thou come to torment us before our time 1" Cbuld the devils bui persuade themselves they should be annihilated, they would believe and be at ease rather than tremble. 5. The Scriptures explain their own meaning in the use of such terms as death, destruction, &c. The second death is expressly said to con- sist in being cast into the lake offre and brim/- stone ; and as hamn^ a part in that lake. Rev. XX. 14; xxi. 8; which docs not describe anni- hilation, nor can it be made to consist with it. The phrase cut Mm asunder. Matt. xxiv. 51j is as strong as those of death or destruction; yet that is .made to consist of having their portion with hypocrites, where shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth. 6. The happiness of the righteous does not consist in eternal being, but eternal well-being ; and as the punishment of the wicked stands every where opposed to it, it must consist, not jii the loss of bemg, but of well-being, and in suffering the contrary. The great Dr. Watts may be considered, in some measure, a destnictionist ; since it was his opinion that the children (if ungodly parents who die in infancy are annihilated. See Annihila- tion, Hell ; Bourn's Sermons ; Dr. Edwards on the salvation of, all ' men strictly examined ; Adams's View of Religion ; if Alia on tfniver- 9alism. DETRACTION, in the tiative importance of the word, signifies the Withdrawing or taking! off from a thing ; and as it is applied to tfaerepu- tation, it denotes the impairing or lessening a' man in point of fame, rendering him less valued and esteemed by others. Dr. Barrow observes '(Works, Vol. i. ser. 19,) that it differs from slan^- der, which involves an imputation of falsehood ; from reviling, which includes bitter and foul language; and from tensuring, which is of a more gei^ral purport, extendii^ indifferently to 116 DEUTEROCANONICAL all kinds of persons, qualities, and actions, bu detraction especially respects Worthy persona, good qualities, and laudable actions, the reputa- tion of which it aimeth to destroy. It is a. fantt opposed to candour. jS'othing can be more inconeruous with the spirit of the Gospel, the example of Christ, the command of God, and the love of mankind, than a spirit of detraction; and yet there are many who never seem happy but when they are em- ployed in this work ; they feed and live upon the supposed infirmities of others ; they allow exeel- lenpe to none ; they depreciate every thing-that is praiseworthy; and, possessed of no g'ood them- selves, they think all others are like them. " O ! my soul, come thou not into their secret; unto their assembly, mine honour, be not thou united;" DEVIL, Ai»/3o!L05, calumniatot, or slanderer; a fallen angel, especially the chief of them. He is called Abaddon in Hebrew, ApoUyon in Greek, that is, destroyer.— Angel of the bottom- less pit, Rev. Ix. 11. — Prince of the world, John xii. 31. — Prince of darkness, Eph. vi. 13.-^A roaring lion, and an adversary, 1st Pet. v. 8. — A sinner from the beginning, 1 John iii. 8. — Beel- zebub, Matt. xii. 24. — Accuser, Rev. xiL 10.— Belial, 3 Cor. vi. 15. — Deceiver," Rev. xx. 10.— Dragon, Rev. xii. 3. — Liar, John Viii. 44. — ^Le- viatEar, ISa. xxviL l-^Murderer, John viii. 44. — Se'Tpent, Isa. xxvii. 1. — Satan, Job ii. 6. — Tor- mentor, Matt, iviii. 34. — The God of this world, 2 Cor.iv. 4. See Satan. DEVOTEE, in the primary sense of the word, means a person wholly given up to acts of piety and devotion; but if is usually understood, m a baxi sense, to deilote a bigot, or superstitious person. DEVOTION, a religious and fervent exer- cise of some public act of religion, or a temper and disposition of the miiftd rightly affected with such exercises. It is also taken for certain reli- gious practices Which a person makes it a rule to discharge regularly. "Wherever the vital and unadulterated spirit of Christian devotion pre- vails, its immediate objects will be to adore the perfections of God; to entertain. with reverence and complacencei the ,various intimations of his pleasure, especially those contained in holy writ; to acknowledge our absolute dependence on and infinite obligations to nim ; to confess and lament the disorders of our nature, and the transgressions of our lives ; to implore his grace and mercy through JesTs Christ ; to intercede for our bre- thren of mankind ; to pray for the propagation and estabhshment of truth, righteousness, and peace, on earth ; in fine, to long for a more en- tire cimformity to the will of God, and to breathe aftier the everlasting enjoyment of his friendship. The effects of such a spirit habitually cherished, and feelingly expressed before him, must surely be important and happy. Among these may be reckoned a profound humility in the sight of God, a high veneration for his presence and attri- butes, an ardent zeal for his worship and honour a constant imitation of our Saviour's divin* ex- ample, a diffusive charity for men of all denomi- n^ohs, & generous and unwearied self-deniaj, a lotsd resignation to Providence, an increasing esteem for the Gospel, with clearer and firmer hopes of that immortal life which it has brought to light" DfeUTEROCANONICAL, in the scluwl DIET ihooloffy^ an apiwllation given to certain ,books of holy Scripture, which were added to the canOn after the rest, either by reason thoy wci;c not written till after the compilation of the canon, or by reason of some dispute as to their canonicity. The word is Greek, bf^ing compounded of f iunpos, second ; and smovixot, canonical. The Jews, it is certain, acknowle()ged several hooks in their canon, which were put there later thdn the rest. They say that, under Esdras, a groat assembly of their doctors, whioh^ tljey call, ay way of eminence, the great synagfl/sue, made the collection of the sacred books which we now have in the Hebrew Old Testament; acid they agree that they put books therein whjch had not been sO before the Babylonish captivity : such as those of Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, &c.; and those of Esdras and Nehdmiah. And the Romish church has since added: others to the canon, that were not, and could not be, in tjie canon of the Jews, by reason spme of them were not composed ' till after : such as the book of Ecclesiaslicus, with several of the apocryphal books, as the Macca- bees, Wisdom, &c. Others were added still later, by reason their panonicity had not been yet ex- amined : and till such examen and judgment they might be set aside at pleasure. • But since that church has pronounced as to the canonicity of those books, there is no more room now for her members to doubt of them, than there was for the Tews to doubt of those of the canon of Esdras. And the deuterocanonical books are with them as canonical as the proto-canonical ; the only dif- ference; between them consisting in ^his, that the canonicity »f the one was not generally known, ' exanuned, and settled, as soon as that of the others. The deuterocanonical books in the mo- dern canon are, the book of Esther, either the whole, or at least the seven last chapters thereof j the epistle to the Hebrews ; that Of James, and that of Jude ; the second of St. Peter, and the secohd and third of St. John, and the Revelation. The deuterocanonical parts of books are, the hymn of the three children ; the prayer of Aza- r&h J the histories of Susannah, of Bel and the DrMon ; tjie Jast chapter of St. Mark ; the bloody sweat ; and the appearance of the angel, related in St. Luke, chap. xxii. and the history of the adulterous woman in St. John, chap. viji. See C.tNON. DIET, an assembly of the states of Germany. We shall only take notice, in this' place, of the more remarkable of those which, have been held on the affairs of religion. 1. Tlie diet of Augs- burgh, in the year 1530, was assembled to re- unite the princes of the empire, in relation to some religious matters. The emperor himself presided in this assembly with the greatest mag- 'nificence iinaginable. The elector of Saxony, followed by several princes, presented the confes- sion of feith, called the Confession of Augsburgh. The emperor ended thp diet with a decree, J;hat no alteration should be made in the doctrines and ceremonies of the Romish church till the council should order it otherwise. — % The diet of Augs- burgh, in 1547, was held on aixiount of the elec- tors being divided concerning the decisions of the council of Trent The em^ror demanded that the management of that affair should be referred to him i and it was resolved, that everjj one should conform to the decisions of the council. — 3. The diet of Augsburgh, in 1548, was assembled to 117 DIET examine some memorials relating to the confesr sion of faithj but, the commissioners not agree- lag together, the emperor named three divines, viho drew the design of this famous interim, so well known in Germany *nd elsewhere. See Intbrim. — 4. The diet of Augsburgh, in 1550. In this assembly, the emperor complauied that the interim was not observed, and demanded that all should submit to the council, which they were going to renew at Trent; which submission was resolved upon by a plurality of votes. — 5. The diet of Nuremberg, in 1523. Here pope Adrian Vlth's nuncio demanded the execution of Leo Xth's bull, arid Charles Vth's edict against Lu- ther. But the assembly drew up a list of griev- ances, which were reduced to a hundred arti- cles, some whereof aimed at the destmctioii of the pope's authority, and the discipline of the Ro- mish church ; however, they consented that the Lutherans should be commanded not to write against the Roman Catholics. — 6. The diet of Nuremburah, in 1524. In this assembly, the Lutherans naying the advantage, it was decreed that the pope should call a council in Germany; but that, in the mean time, an assembly should be held at Spire, to determine what was to be be- lieved and practised ; but Charles V. prohibited the holding this assembly.^— 7. The diet of Ra- tisbon, in 1541, was jaelid for re-uniting the Pro- tectants with the Romaln Catholics. ' The em- peror named three Roman Catholics and threo Protestant diyines, to agree upon articles. The Romah Catholics were, Julius Phlug, John Gropper, and John Eckius ; the Protestants were Phiup Melancthon, Martin Bucer, and John Pistorius; but after a whole month's consulta- tion, they could agree upon no more than five or six articles: which the emperor coi;isented the Prctestaiits should retain, forbidding them to solicit any body to change the ancient religion. — 8. The diet of Ratisbon, in 1546, decreed that the council o? Trent was lo be followed, which was opposed by the Protestant deputies : and this caused a war against them. — 9, The diet' of Ra- tisbon, in 1557, demanded a conference between some famous doctors of both parties ; which con- ference was held at Wonns, in September, be- tvveen twelve Ronian Catholic and twelve Luthe- ran divines ; but was soon dissolved by the Luthe- rans being divided among themselves. — 10. The diet of Spire, in 1526. In this assembly (wherein presided the arch-duke Ferdinand) the duke of , Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse demandeil the free exercise of the Lutheran religion : upon which it was decreed, that the emperor should be desired to call a general, or natioilal council in Germany within a year; and that, in the mean time, every one should have liberty of conscience. 11. The diet of Spire, in 1529, decreed, that in the countries which haid embraced the new reh- gion, it should be lawful to continue in it till the next council ; but that no Roman Catholic should be allowed to turn Lutheran. Against this decree six Lutheran princes, viz. the elector of Saxony, the marquess of Brandenbure, the two dukes of Lunenburg, the landgrave of Hesse, and the prince of Anhalt, with Sre deputies of fourteen imperial towns,i protested in writing ; from which solemn protestation came the famiiui name of Protestants, which the Lutherans pre- ' sently after took. — 12. The diet of Worms, in 1521. In this assembly, Luther, being charged DIRECTORY by the pope's nuncio with heresy, anil refusing to recant, the emperor, by his edict of May 26,T)e- fore all the princes of Germany, publicly outlaw- ed him. DIFFIDENCE, distrust, want of confidence in ourselves. Diffidence, says Dr. Johnson, may check resolution and obstruct performance, but compensates its embarrassment by more impor- tant advantages: it conciliates the proud, and softens the severe ; averts envy from excellence, and censure from miscarriage. DIGGERS, a denomination which sprung up in Germany, in the fifteenth century ; so called because they dug their assembUes under ground in caves and forests. They derided the 'diurch, its ministers, and sacraments. DILIGENCE, Christian, is constancy in the performance of all those duties enjoined us in God's sacred word. It includes activity and vigour — watchfulness against intruding objects — firmness and resolution — 'patience ana persever- ance. The shortness of our time j the impor- tance of our work ; the pleasure which arises from discharging duty ; the uncertainty of the time of our dissolution ; the consciousness we do not labour in vain ; together with the example of Christ and all eood men, should excite us to the most unwearied diligence in the cause of Goid, of truth, and our own souls. piMISSORY LETTER, a letter given by a bishop to a candidate for holy orders, having a title in his diocese, directed to some other bishop, and giving leave for the bearer to be ordained by him. DIOCESE, the circuit of every bishop's juris- diction. It is formed from the Greek Jioiri«o-i5, government. DIRECTORY, a kind of regulation for the performance of religious worship, dravvn up by the iassembly of divilnes in England, at the in- stance of the parliament, in 1G44. It was designed' to supply the place of the Liturgy, or Bo(3c of Common Prayer, the use of which they had abolished. It consisted of some generd heads, which were to be manned and filled up at dis- cretion ; for it prescribed no form of prayer, or circumstances of external worship, nor obliged the people -to any responses, excepting Amen. The substance of it is as follows : — It forbids all saluta- tions and civil ceremony in the churches : — ^the reading the Scriptures in the congregation is de- clared to be part of the pastoral oi&e ;— all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament (but not of the Apocrypha) are to be publicly read in the vulgar tongue : how large a portion is to be read M once, is left to the minister, who has .ikewise the liberty of expounding, when he judges it necessary. It prescribes heads for the prayer before sermon ; it dehvers rules for preach- ing the word j the introduction to the text must be short and clear, drawn from the words or con- text, or some parallel place of Scripture. In di- viding tlie text, the njmisteris to regard the order of the matter more than that of the words : he is not to burden the memory of his audience with too many divisions, nor perplex their understand- ing with logical phrases and tcrais of art; he is, not to start unnecessary obji'ctions; and he is to oe very sparing ia citations from ecclesiastical or other human writers, ancient or modern, Ifcc. The Directory recommends the use of the Lord's Prayer, as the most perfect model of devotion j it 118 DISCRETION forbids private or lay persons to ad minister baptismj and enjoins it to be performed in the face of the congregation : it orders the communion table at the Lord's Supper to be so plated, that the comr municants may sit about it. It also orders, that the sabbath be kept with the greatest strictness, both publicly and privately, that marriage be so- lemnized by a lawful minister of the word, who is to give counsel to, and pray for the parties; that the sick be , visited by the minister under whose charge they are ; the dead to be buried without any prayers or religious ceremonies ; that days of fasting are to be observed when the judg- ments of God are abroad, or when some import- ant blessings are desured ; that days of thrnks- giving for mercies received be also observed ; and, lastly, that singing of psalms togjether in the con- gregation is the duty of Christians. In an ap- pendix to this Directory it is ordered, that all fes- tivals, vulgarly called hdy days, are to be abolish- ed ; that no day is to belcept but the Lord's day ) and that as no place is capable of an^ hoUness under pretence of consecration, so neither is it subject to pollution by any superstition formerly used ; and therefore it is held requisite, that the places 6f public worship now used should still be continued and employed; , Should the reader be desirous of perusing this Directory at large, he may find it at the end of Neaie's jSistoty of the Puritans. DISCIPLE, a scholar, or one who attends the lectures and professes the tenets of another. A disciple of Christ is one who believes his doc- trines, imbibes his spirit, and follows his exam- ple. See Christian. , DISCIPLINE, Chut^h, consists in piittina church laws ih execution, and inflicting the penal ties eriioined. See Chdrch. , DISCIPLINE, Book of, in the history of the church of Scotland, is a common order drawn up by the assembly of ministers in 1650, for the refor' mation and uniformity to be observed in the disci- pline and policy of the church. In thjs book the go- vernment of the church by prelates is set aside i kirk sessions are estabhshed ; the superstitious ob- servation of fast days and saint days is condemned, and other regulations for the government of the church are determined. This book was ap- proved by the'privy council, and is called the first book of discipfine. 'DtSCONTENT, uneasiness at our present state. Man never appears in a worse light than when he gives way to this disposition. It is at once the strongest proof of his pride, ignorance, unbehe^ and rebellion against God. Let such remember, that discontent is a reflection on God's govern- ment ; that it cannot alter the state of thuigs, or make them better j that it is the source of the greatest misery ; that it is an absolute violation of God's laws, Heb. xiii. 5 j and that God has often punished it with the most signal judgments, Numb. xi. Ps. cvii. See Contentment. DISCRETION, prudent behaviour, arising froni a knowledge of, and acting agreeably to, the difference of things. "There are," says Addison. No. aJ5, Spect., "many more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is none so useful as discretion ; it is this, indeed, which gives a valoe to all the rest, which sets them at work in •their proper times and places, and turns them to the advantage of the person who is possessed of DISPENSATION them. _ "Without it learning is pedantry, and wit impertinence; virttie itself l()ok3 like weakness; the bfst parts only qualify a mail to be more sprightly in errors, and active to Ills own prejudice. "Discretion is a very different thing from cunaing : 'cunning' is only an acchmpHshment of little, meaji, uii;!cn(*rous minds. Discretion points out the noblest ends to us, and pursues the most proper and laudable methods Of attaining them ; cunning has only private selfish aims, and'Sticks at nothing which may make them sufceed. Dis- 'cretioil has large and extended views,' and, like a well-formed eve, commands a whole horizon ; cunning is a kind of short-sightedness that dis- covers the minutest objects wliich Are near at hand,'but not able to discern things at a distance. Discretion, the more it is discovered, gives a gi-eat- er authority to the person who possesses it j cun- ning, when it is once detected, loses its force, and makes a man ihcapable of bringing about even those events which he might have done, had he passed only for a iplain man. Discretion is the perfection of reasoni and a guide to us in all the duties of life ; cunning is a kind of instinct,, that only looks out after our immediate interest and welfare. Discretion is only found in men of strong sense and good understandings; cunning is often to'be met with in brutes themselves, and in persons who are but the fewest removes from them. In short, cunning is only the mimic of discretion, and may pass upon weak men, in the same manner as Vivacity is often mistaken for wit, and gravity for wiadopi." See Pru- dence. DISDAIN, coritempt^ as unworthy of one's choice. It is distinguished from haughtiness thus: Haughtineis is founded on the high opinion we have of ourselves ; i disdain on the low opinion vlfe have of others. DISINTERESTED' LOVE.— See Self- love. DISPENSATION, the act of dealing out any thing. The two different methods of revealing the truths of the Gospel before and after Christ's death are called the Old and New Testament Dispensations. The dealing of God with tiis creatures in his jprOyidence is called a dispensa- tion. The state of supernatural or revealed theo- logy may also be, divided into six dispensations. i.. Prom the fall of Adam to the flood. — 2; Prom Noah to the giving the law.-^. Prom that time to the time of David and the prophets. — t. From David to the Babylonish captivity. — 5. The period from that, to the time of^ ChnSt, finishes the Old Testament dispensations. — 6. From Christ to the end of time, the Gospel dispensation. The superiority of the last dispensation, as Dr. Watts observes, appears, if we consider that it contains the fairest and fullest representation of the moral law'; and wliich is more particularly explained here than in any of the former dispen- sations. — 2. In this dispensation,*the Gospel or covenant of grace is revealed more perfectly and plainly than ever before ; not in obscure expres- sions, in types and carnal metaphors, but in its own proper form and language. — 3. [The rites and ceremonies undei: this dispensation arc pre- ferable to those in former times, and that in this respect : they are fewer, clearer, and much more easy. — 4. The Son of God, who was the re^ mediator through all former dispensations, has 119 DISPUTATION condescended to become the visible mediator of this dispensation. — 5. This dispensation is not confined to one familyj or to one nation, or to a few ages of men, but it spreads through all the nations of the earth, and reaches to the end of time. — 6. The encouragements and persuasive helps which Christianity gives us to fulfil the du- ties of the covenant, arc much superior to those which were enjoyed under any of, the former dispensations.-^ W'cMs's Wn'As,vol.i. scr.47.8vo.; Gill's Body qfDiv. Introd; ; jRobinson's Sermons, p. 147; liidgley's Div. qu. 35. ,DISPERS10N of mankind was occasioned by the confusion of tongues at the overthrow of Ba- bel, Gen. xi. 9. As to the manner of fhe disper- siim of tht posterity of Noah from the plain of Shinar, it was undoubtedly conducted with the utmost regularity and order. The sacred histo- rian informs us, that they were divided in their lands : every one according to iiis tongue, accord- ing to his family, and according to nis nation, Gen. X. 5, 20, 31. The ends of this dispersion were to popiilate the earth, to prevent idolatry, and to display the divine Wisdom and power. See CoNFOsioN op Tongues.' DISPOSITION, that temper of mind which any person possesses. In every man, says Lord Kames, there is some- thing original that serves to distinguish him from others, that tends to form a character, and to make him meek or fiery, candid or deceitful, re- soltite or timorous, cheerful or morose. This original bent, termed disposition, must be distin- guished from a principle : the latter, signifying a law of human nature, makes part of the common nature of man j the former makes part of the na- ture of this or that man. DISPUTATION, Religious, is the agitation of any religipu^ question, in order to obtam clear and adequate ideas of it. The propriety of reli- gious disputation or controversial divinity has been a matter of doubt with manyr Some art- fully decry it, in order to destroy fi:ee enquiry. Some hate it because they do not like to be coiv tradicted. Others declaim against, it, to save themselves the disgrace of exposing their ignor ranee, or the labour of examinmg and defending, their own tlieses. There are others who avoid it, not because they are convinced of the impro- priety of the thing itself, hvf,. because of the evil temper with which it is generally conducted. The propriety of it, however, will appear, if wie consider that every article of religion is denied by some, and cannot be well believed, without ex- amination, by any. Religion empowers us to in- vestigatej debate/ and controvert eetch article, in order to ascertain the evidence ofits truth. 'The divine writings, many of them, are controversial; the book of Job, and Paul's epistles, especially. The ministry "of our Lord was a perpetual' con- troversy, and the apostles came at the truth by much disputing. Acts xv. 7. xvii. 17. xix. 8. To attend, however, to religious controversy with ad- vantage, the following rules should be observed : 1. The question should be cleared from all doubt- ful terms and needless additions. — 2. The pre- cise point of enquiry sheuld be fixed. — 3. That the object aimed at be truth, and not the mere love of victory. — 4. Beware of a dogmatical spi- rit, and a supposition that yOu are always right. — 5. Let a strict rein be kept on the pas- sions when you are hard piMhfd, Vide /iobia- DIVINATION xnis Claude, p. 245, vol. ii. ; Watts on the Mind, chap. 10 ; Beattie on Truth, 347, Ac. ; Locke on the Understanding, chap.' 10. vul. iii. DISSENTERS, those who separate from the establisheJ church. The number of dissenters in this kingdom is very' considerable. They are divided into several parties j the chief of which are the Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, (iuakers, and Methodists. See those articles, as also NovcONPORMisTs and Phbitans. DISSIDENTS, a denomination applied irj Poland to those of the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Greek profession. The king of Poland engages by the pacta conventa to tolerate them in the tree exercise of their religion, but they have often had reason to complain orthe violation of these promises. DISSIMULATION,, the act of dissel;nbling. It has been distinguished from simulation thus : Simulation is making a thing appear which does not exist ; dissimiddtion is keeping that which exists from appearing. Moralists have observed, that all dissimulation is not hypocrisy. A vicious man, who endeavours to throw a veil over his bad conduct, that he may escape the notice of men, is not, in the strictest sense of the word, a hypocrite, since a man is no more obliged to proclaim his se- cret vices than any other qf his secrets. The hy- pocrite is one who dissembles for a bad end, and hides the snare that he may be more sure of his prey's and, not content with a negative virtue, or not appearing the ill man he is, makes a show of positive virtue, and appears the man he is not. SeeiHYpocRisy. DISSOLUTION, death, or the separation of tne body arid soul. The dissolution of the world, is an^awful event which we have reason to believe, both from the Old Testament and the New,, will certainly take place. — 1. It is 'not an incredible thing, smce nothing of a material nature is form- ed for perpetual duration. — 2. It will doubtless be under the direction of the Supreme Being, as its creatipn was.-j-3. The sotd of man will remain unljurt amidst thi^general desolatioiK — 4. It will be an introduction to a greater and nobler system in the government of God, 2 Pet. iii. 13. — 5. The consideration of it ought to have a great influence on us while in the present state, 2 Pet. iii. 11, 12. See CoNFr.-iGRATiON; DIVERSION, something that unbends fee mind, by turning it ofi' from care. It seems to be something lighter than amusement, and less forci- ble than pleasure. It is an old~ simile, and a very just one, that a bow kept always bent will grow feeble, and lose its force. The alternate succes- sion of business and diversion preserves the body and soul in the happiest temper. Diversions, however, must be lawful and good. The play- house, the gaming'table, the masquerade, and midnightassemblies, mustbeconsideredasinimical to the morals and true happiness of man. The most rational diversions are conversation, reading, singing, music, riding, &c. They must ho mo- derate as to the time spent in them, and expense of them j ; seasonable,' when we have, (as Cicero observes,) dispatched our serious and important affairs. See Grove's liegidation of Diversions ; Walls's Improvement of the Mind, vol. ii. sec. 9 ; Blair's Sermons, vol. ii. p. 17 ; Burdcr's Sermon on Amusements; FVend's Evening Amusements. DIVINATION is a conjecture or .surmise formed concerning some future event from some- Ihin" which is supposed to be a presage of it; but 130 DIVORCE ' between which there is no real connexion, only what the imagination of the diviner is pleased to assign in order to deceive. Dimnation of all kinds being the ofFspnng of credulity, nursed by imposture, and strengthened by superstition, was necessarily an occult science, retained in the hands of the priest and priest- esses, the magi, the soothsayers, the augurs, the visionaries, the priests of the oracles, the false prophets, and other like professors, till the coming of Jesus Christ, when the light of the Gospel dissipated much of this darkness. The vogue for these pretended sciences and arts is nearly past, at least in the enlightened parts of the world. There are nine different kinds of divi nation mentioned in Scripture. These are, J. Those whom Moses csdls Meonon of Anan, a cloud, Deut. xviii. 10. — 3. Those whom the prqphet calls, i^i the same place, Menacheseh, which the Vulgate and generality of interpreters render Augur. — 3. Those who in the same place, are called Meeascheph, which thie Septuagint and Vulgate translate "a man given to ill practices." — 4. Those whom in the same chapter, ver. 11, he calls Hluiber. — 5. Those who consult the spirits, called Python.— 6. Witches, or magicians, called Judeoni. — 7. Necromancers, Who consult the dead. — 8. Such as consult staves, Hos. iv. 12; called by som6 Rhabdomancy. — ^9. Hepatoscopy, or the I consideration of the liver., DiSerent kinds of divination which have passed for sciences, we have had^ 1. Aeromancy, di- viijing by the air, — 2. Astrology, by the heavens. — 3. Auaury, by the flight and smgirie of birds, &c. — 4. Chiromancy, by inspecting the hand. — 5. Geomancy, by observing of cracks or clefts in the earth. — 6. Haxuspicy, by inspecting the bowels of animals.-^?. Etoroscopy, a branch of astroiqgy, mai-kipg the position of the heavens when a man is bom. — ^. Hydromancy, by water. — 9. Physiognomy, by the countenance. (This, however, is considered by some as of a different nature, and worthy of being rescued from the rubbish of superstition, and placed among the useful spiences. Lavater has written a celebrated treatise, on it.) — 10. Pyromancy, a divination made by fire. Thus we see what a3rts have beep practised to deceive, and how design- ing men have made use of all the four elements to impose upon weak minds. DIVINE, something relating to God. The word is also used figuratively for any things that is excellent, extraorainary, and that seems to go beyond the power of nature and the capacity of man. It also signifies a minister, or clergyman. See Minister. ^ DIVINITY, the science of theology. See Theoi-ogy. DIVISIONS, ECCLESIASTICAL. See Schism. -) • D J VORCE, is the dissolution of marriage, pr , separation of man and wife. Divorce a m^nsa et thoro, i. e. from bed and board, — in this case the wife has-a suitable maintenance allowed her out of her husband's efTects. Divorce a vinculo rhalTimoniif i. e. from the bonds of matrimony, IS strictly and properly divorce. This happens either in consequence of criminality, as in, the, ease ,j)f adultery, or through some essential im- peidiment ; as consanguinity, or affinity within thfl degrees forbidden, pre-contract, impotency, &c. of which impediments the canon law allows no DOCTRINE less than 14. In these cases the vitpraan receives again only what she brought. Sentences which release the parties a vinculo matrimonii, on account of imf>uberty, frigidity, conaangujnity within the prohibited degrees, priof marnage, or want of the requisite consent of parents or guard- ians, are not poperly dissolutions of tile marriage contract, but judicial declarations that there never was any marriage; such impediment subsisting af, the time as rendered the celebration of the marriage rite a mere nullity. And' the rite itself contains an exception of these impediments. The law:of Moses, says Dr. Paley, for reasons of local expediency, permitted the Jewish husband to put away his wife ; but whether for every cause, or for what cause, appears to have been contro- verted aoaoDgst the interpreters of those times. Christ, the precepts of whose religion were cal- culated for more general use and observation, re^ vokes his permission as given to the Jews for their hardness of heart, and promulges a law which was thenceforward to confine divorces to the siitgte cause of adultery m the vrile. Matt. ^LZ. 9. Inftriof causes may jiisti^ the separatbn of husband anil wife, although they will not au- thorise such a dissolution of the marriage contract as would leave either at liberty tp marry afiaii^; tor it is that liberty in which the danger anamis- chief of divorces principally consist. The law of this country, in conformity to our Saviour's in- junction, confines the dissolution of the marris^e contract to the single case of adultery in the wire ; and a divorce even m that case can omy be brought about by an act of parliament, founded upon a previous sentence in the spiritual court, and a verdict against the adulterer at common law; which proceedings, taken together, j^impose as complete an investigation of the complaint as a. cause can receive. See P(Uey'.a Mor. atul Pol. Phil, p.,273 j Doddridge's Leciwes, lect. 73. DOCET.^, the followers of Julius Cassianus, one of the Valentinian sect, towards the close of the second century. They believed sind taught that the actions and sufferings: of Jesus Christ; were not in reality, but only in appearance. DOCTRINE, the principles or positions of any sect or master. As the doctrines of the Bible are the first principles and the foundation of reli- gion, they should be carefully examine^ and well understood. The Scriptures present ; usiwith a copious fund of evangelic truth, which, though' it nas not the form of a regular system, yet its. parts are such, that, when united, make the most' complete body of doctrine that we can possibly havei Every Christian,' but divines especially, should make this.their study, because; all the va' nous. doctrines should be insisted on in public, and explained to thejieople. It is not, however, as some suppose, to ffll up every part of a minis- ter's sermon, but considered as the basis upon which) the practical part is to be built. Some of the divines in the last century overcharged their discourses with doctrine, especially Dr. Owen and Dr. Goodwin. It was common in that day to make thirty or forty remarks before the imme- diate consideration of the text, each of which was just introduced,, and which, if enlarged on, would have afforded matter enough for a whole sermon. A wise preacher vrall join doctrine and practice together. Doctrines,..thoiigh abused by some, yet, proper- Iv considered! will influence, the heart and life. 121 Q DOMINICANS Thus the idea of God's sovereignty excites sub- mission ; his power and justice prombte fear j bis holiness, humility and purity; his goodness, a ground of hope; his love excites joyi ths obscu- rity of his providence requires patience; his faith- fulness, confidence, &c. DOMINICANS, a religious order; in ?ome places called Jacobins, and in others Predicant or preaching fna/rs. The Dominicans take their name from t}ieir founder, Dominic de Guzman, a Spaniard, born in 1170, at Calaroga, in Old Cas- tile : he was first canon and archdeaconof Qssu- na ; and afterwards preached with great zeal and vehemence against the Albigenses in Languedoc, where he laid the first foundation of his order. It Was approved of in 1215 by Innocent -III. and confirmed in 121G, by a hiul of Honorius IIL under the title of St. Augusdn; to which Domi- nic added several austere precepts and observances, obliging the brethren to take a vow of absolute' poverty, and also the title of preaching friars, be- cause })ubUc mstruction was the imiin,end of theisr iastitutibn, and to abandon entirely all their reve- nues and possessions. The first convent was found-' ed at Thonlouse, by the bishop thereof and Simon de Montfi)rt., Two years afterwards they had ano- ther at Paris, near the bishop's house ; and some lime after,, a third in the Rue St. Jacques, (St. James's street,) whence the denomination of Ja- cobins. Just before his death, Dominic sent Gil- ben de Fresney, with twelveof the brethren into England, where they founded their first monas- tery at Oxfordj in the year 1321, and soon after janother at London. In the year 127G, the mayor land aldermen of the city of London gave them two whole streets, by the river Thames, where they erected a very commodious convent : whence that place is. still called Blackfriars, from the name by which the, Dominicans were called in .England. St, Dominic at first only took the habit of the regular canons : that is, a black cas- sock and lochet : but this he quitted, in 1219, for that which they have ever since worn, which, it is pretended, was shown by the Blessed Vir^ herself to the beatified Renaud d' Orleans. This . order has been diffused throughout the whole known world. They reckon three popes of this Older, above sixty cardinals, several T)atriarchs, a hiundred and fifty archbishops, and about eight hundred bishops, besides masters of the sacred palace,, whose office has been constantly discharg- ed by a religious of this order ever since St. Do- minic^ who held it under Honorius III. in 1218. Of all. the monastic orders, none enjoyed a higher degjree of power and authority than the Dominican friars, whose credit was great, and their influence universal. But the measures they used in order to maintain andextend. their autho- rity were so perfidious and cruel, that their infiu enoe began to decline towards the beginning of the sixteenth century. The tragic story.of Jet-^ zer, conducted at Bem,-in 1509, for determirang; an uninteresting dispute between them and the Franciscans, relating to the iTnmacvlate concep:- tign, will reflect indelible infamy on this ord». In order to give the reader, a view of the impious frauds which have sometimes.been carried on in the church of Rome, we shall here insert an ac- count of this stratagem. The Franciscans maintained that the Virgin Mary was born witJiout the blemish of origins sin; the Dominicans asserted the contrary. L DOMINICANS The doctrine of the Franciscans, in an age of darkness and superstition, could not but be popu- lar; and hence the Dominicans lost ground from day to day. To support the credit of their order, they resolved, at a chapter held at Viinpsen, in the year 1504, to have recourse to fictitious visions and dreams, in which the people at that time had an easy faith ; and they determined to make Bern the scene of their operations. A person named Jetzer, who was extremely simple, and much in- dined to austerities, and who had biken Iheii habit as a lay-brother, was chosen as the instrument of the delusions they were contriving. One of the four Dominicans, who had undertaken the ma- nagement of this plot, conveyed himself secretly into Jetzei-'s cell, and about midnight appeared to him in a horrid figure, surrounded with howling dogs, and seemed to blow fite from his nostrils, by the means of a box of combustibles which he held near his mouth. Iri this frightfiil form he ap- proached Jetzer's bed, told him that he was the fhost of a Dominican, who had been killed at 'aris, as a judgment of Heaven for laying aside his monastic habit; that he was condemned to Ijurgatory for this crime ; adding, at the same time, that by his means he might be rescued from his misery, which was beyona expression. This story, accompanied vfith horrible cries and howl- ings, frightened poor Jetzer out of the little wits he h^, and engaged him to promise to do all that was in his power to deliver the Dominican fiom his torment. Upon this the impostor told him, that nothing but the most extraordinary mortifi- cations, such as the discipline of tlte whip, per- formed during eight days by the whole monastery, and Jetzer's lying prostrate in the form of one crucified in the chapel during mass, could contri- bute to his deliverance. He added, that the per- formance of these ihoTtilications would draw down upon Jetzer the peculiar protection of the Blessed Virgin j and concluded by saying, that he would appear to him again, accompanied with two other spirits. Morning was no sooner come, than Jet- zer gave an account of this apparition to the rest of the convent, who all unanimously advised him to undergo the discipline that was enjoined him, and every one consented to bear his share of the task imposed. The deluded simpleton < obeyed, and was admired as a saint by the multitudes that crowded' about the convent; while the four friars that managed the imposture, magnified in the most pompous maimer, the miracle of this appari- tion, in their sermons, and in th^ir discourses. The night after, the apparition was renewed with the addition' of two impostors, dressed like devils, and Jetzer's faith was augmented by hearing trom the spectre all the secrets of his life and thoughts, which the impostors had learned from his confes- sor. In this and some subsequent scenes (the detail of whose enormities, for the sake of brevity, we shall here omit) the impostor tedked much to Jetzerof the Dominican order; which he said was peculiarly dear to the Blessed Virgin : he added, that the Virgin knew herself to be conceived, in original sin ; thet the doctors who taught the con- trary werfe ill purgatory ; that the Blessed Virgin abhorred the Franciscans for making her equal with her son ; and that the town of Bern would be de- stroyed for harbouring such plagues within her walk. In one of these apparitions Jetzer unagined that the voice of the spectre rfesembled that of the prior of the canvent, and he was not mistaken ; 122 DOMINICANS but, not suspecting a fraud, he gave little attention to this. The prior appeared in various form^ sometimes in that of St. Barbara, at others in that of St. Bernard : at length he assumedthat of the Virgin Mary, and, for that purpose, clothed him- self in the habits that were employed to sidom the statue of the Virgin in the great festivals. The little images, that on these days are set on the altars, were made use pf for angels, which, being tied to a cord that passed through a pulley over Jetzer's head, rose up and down, and danced about the pretended Viigm, to increase the delu- sion. The Virgin, thus equipped, addressed a long discourse to Jetzer, in whith, among othei things, she told him that she was conceived in original sin, though she had remained but a short time under that blemish. She gave him, as a miraculous proof of her presence, a host, or con- secrated wafer, which turned from white to red in a moment ; and after various visits, in which the greatest enormities were transacted, the Vir- gin-prior told Jetzer that she would give him the most aiTectin^ and undoubted marks of her son's love, by imprmting on him the five wbundi that pierced Jesus on the cross, as she had done before to St. Lucia and St. Catherine. Accordingly, she took his hand by force, and struck a large nail through it, which threw the goor dupe into the greatesj^ torment. The next night this mas- culine virgm brought, as she pretended, some of the linen in whidi Christ had been buried, to soften the wound; and gave Jetzer a soporific draught, which' had in it the blood of an unbap- tised child, some grains of ince;nse and of conse- crated salti some quicksilver, the hairs of the eye- brows of a child ; all which, with some Stupifymg and poisonous ingredients, were mingled toge- ther % the prior with magic ceremomes, and a solemn dedication of himself to the devil in hope .of his succour. The draught threw the poor wretch into a sort of lethargy, during which the monks imprinted on his body the other four wounds of Christ in such a manner that he felt no pain. When he awakened, he found, to his unspeakable joy, those impressions on his body, and came at fast to fancy himself a representative of Christ in the various parts of his passion. ' He was, in this state, exposed to the admiring multi- tude on the principal altar of the convent to the freat mortiScation of the Fraliciscans. The )ominicans gave him some other draughts, that threw him into convulsions ; which were followed by a pipe into the mouths of two images, one of Maiy, and another of the child Jesus, the former of winch had tears painted upon its cheeks in a lively manner. The little Jesus asked its mothei^ by means of this voice (which was that of tha priors,) why she wept 1 and she answered that her tears were owing to the impious manner in which the Franciscans attributed to her the ho- nour that was dup to him, in saying that she was «)nceivexl and bom without sin. The apparitions, false prodigies, and abomina* ble stratagems of these Dominicans were repeat- ed every night ; and the matter was at length so grossly over-acted, that, simple as Jetzer was, he 'at last discovered it, and had almost killed the prior, who appeared to him one night in the form of the Virgin with a crown on her head. "The Dominicans, fearing, by this discovery, to lose the fruits of their imposture, thought the best method would be^ own the whole matter to Jet DONATISTS zer, anJ to engage tiwn, by the most seducing promises of opulence and glbry, to carry on the Cheat. Jetzer was persuaded, or at least appear- ed to be so. But the Dominicans suspecting that he was not entirely gained over, resolved to poi- son him ; but his constitution vfas so vigorous, that, though they gave liim poison five several times, he was not desti:oyed by it. One day they sept him a loaf prepared v(it)i some spices, whii;ji growing green m a day or two, he threw a piece of it to a wolfs whelps that were in the monas- tery, and it killed them immediately. At another time they poisoned the host, or consecrated wafer ; but, as he vomited it up soon after he had swal- lowed it, he escaped once more. In short, there were no means of securing him, which the most detestable impiety and barbarity could invent, that they did not put in practice ; till finding, at last, an opportunity'of getting out of the convent, he threw himself intq the hands of the magis- trates, to whom he made a full discovery of fljis infernal plot. The affair being brought to Rome, commissaries were sent from thence to examine the matter; and the whole cheat being fully proved, the four friars were solemnly degraded from their priesthood, SLiid, were burnt ahve on the last day of May, 150!). Jetzpr died some time after at Constance, having poisoned himself, as was believed by some. Had his life been taken ajvay before he had found an opportunity of nuaking the discovery already mentioned, this execrable and horrid plot, which in many of its circumstances was conducted with art, would have been, handed dovm to posterity as a stupen- dous miracle. Tne Dominicans were perpetually eimployed in stigmatising with ,the name of heresy numbers qf learned and pious men ; in encroaching upon the rights and properties of others, to augment their possessions ; and in laying the most iniqui- tous snares and stratagems, tor the destruction of their adversaries. They, were the principal coun- sellors by whose instigation and advice Leo X. was determined to the, public condemnation of Luther. The papal see never had more active and usefiil abettors than this order,' and that of the Jesuits. . DOMINION OF GOD, is his absolute right to, and authority qver, all his creatures, to do with them as he pleases. It is dislin^ished. from his power thus : his dominion is a right of mak- ing what he pleases, and possessing what he makes, and of disposing of what he possesses ; whereas bis power is an abihty to make what he has a r^ht to create, to hold what he possesses, and to execute what he has purposed or resolved. DONATISTS, ancient schismatics, in Afri- ca, so denominated from their leader, Donatus. They had their origin in the year 311, whep, in the room of Mensurius, who died in that year, on liis return to Rome, Ce^ilian was elected bishop of Carthage, and consecrated, without the con- currence of the Numidian bishops, by those of Africa alone, whom the people reiiiseil to acknow- ledge, and to whom tney opposed Majorinus, who accordingly was ordained by Donatus bishop aud, in England. DOSITHEANS, an ^ncient sect among the Samaritans, in the first century of the Christian ffira : so called from Dositheus, who endeavoured to persuade the Samaritans that he was the Mes- siah foretold by Moses. He had many followers, and his sect was still subsisting at Alexandria in the time of the patriarch Emoglus, as appears from a decree of that patriarch published by Pho- tiu£. III that decree, Eulogius accuses Dosi- theus of injuriously treating the aticient patriarchs and prophets, ajid attributmg to himself the spirit of prophecy. He makes him contemporary with Simon Magus i and accuses him* of corrupting the Pentateuch, and of compoang several books directly contrary to the law pf God. DOUBTS and Fears, are terms frequently used to denote the uncertainty of mind we are in respecting our interest in the divine favour. The causes of our doubts may be such as "these: per- sonal declension; not knowing the exact tune, place, or means of our conversion; improper views of the character and decrees of God; the fluctuation of reli^ous experience as to the enjoy- ment of God in prayer, hearing, &c.; the depth of our affliction ; relapses into sirl ; the fall of pro- fessors ; and the hidings of God's face. "WMe some are continually harassed with doubts and fears, there are others who tell us they know not what it is to doubt ; yea, who thiiik it a sin to doubt ; so prone are men to run to extremes, as if there were no medium between constant full assurance and perpetual doubt. The true Chris- tian, perhaps, steers between the two. He is not always doubtmg, nor is he always living in the full exercise of faith. It is not unlawiiil at cer- tain seasons to doubt. " It is a sin," says one, ',' for a believer to live so as not to have his^evi- dences clear; but' it is no sin for him to be so honest and impartial as to doubtj when in fact his evidences are not clear." Let the huinble Chris- tian, however, beware of an extreme. Prayer, conversation with experienced Christians, read- ing the promises, ana consideration of the divine goodness, will have a tendency to remove unne- cessary doubts. DCXOLOGY, a hynm used in praise of the Almighty, distinguished by the titles of the Greater aiA the Less. Both the doxologies are Used in the church of England ; the foriner being repeated after every psalm, and the latter used in the communion servicfe Ddxology thJs Greater, or the angelic hymn, was of great note in the an- cient church. It began vvith the wbrds the angels sung at the birth of Christ, "Glory to God," &c. Doxology the Less, was anciently only a single ^ntence without a response^ running in these DRUIDS words ! " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Hqly Ghost, world withoiit end, amen." Part of the latter clause, "^sit was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be," &a was inserted some time after thefirst composition, DRAGOONING, one of the methods used by . papists after the revoca,tion of the ecjict of Nantz, under Lewis XIV., for converting refractory here- tics, and bringing them within the pale of their church;' If the reader's feelings will siiHer him to peruse the account of these barbarities, he will find it under the article Perbegdtion, in this work. DREAD, is a degree of permanent fear, an habitu^ and painful apprehension of some tre- mendous event. It keeps the mind in a perpetual ^arm, in an eager watchfulness of everjr circum- stance that bears any relatibn to the evil appre- hended. * DRUIDS, the priests or ministers of religion among the ancient Gauls, Britons, and Germans. They were chosen out of the best families ; and the honours of their birth, joined with those of their fu^iction, procured them the highest venera- 'tion among the people. Thejf were versed in iastrology, geometiy,' natural philosophy, poHtics, and geography ; they were the interpreters of re- ligion,, and the judges of all affairs indilTerently. Whoever refused obedience to them was declared iimpious and accursed. We know but little as to theur peculiar doctrines, only that they believed the immortality of the soul, and, as is generally also supposed, the tranemi^ation of it to other bodies; though a late autnor makes it appear highly probable that they did not beUeve this last, atleastnotinthesenseof the Pythagoreans. The chief settlement of the Druids in Britain was in the isle of Anglesey, the ancient Mona, which they might choose for this purpose, as it is well stored with precious groves of .their favourite oak. They were divided into several classes or branches, such as the priests, the poets, the augurs, the civil judges, and iixstructors of youth. Strabo, .however, does not comprehend all these different orders under the denomination of druids : he only distinguishes three kinds ; bardi, poets ; the votes, priests and naturalists; and the druids, who, besides the study of nature, applied them- selves likewise to morality. Their garments were remarkably long; and when employed in religious ceremonies, they like- wise wore a white surplice. They generally car- ried a, wand in their hands) and wore a kind of ornament, enchased with gold, about their necks, called the druid's egg. They had one chief, or arch-druid, in every nation, who acted as high priest, or ponttfex maximus. Hte had absolute authority over the rest, and commanded, decreed, and punished at pleasure. > They worshipped the Supreme Being under the name of Esv^oi II&- sus, E|,nd the symbol of the oak ; and had no o&er temple than a wood or a grove, where all their re- ligious rites were performfed. Nor was any person permitted to enter that sacred recess unless he car- ried with him a chain in token of his absolute dependence on the Deity. Indeed, their whole refigioh originally consisted in acknowledging that the Supreme Being, who made Us abode in these sacred groves, governed the universe; and, that every creature ought to obey his lawa^ and pay him (livine homage. They considered the oak as the emblem, or rather the peculiar re- DUNKERS BiJence, of the Almighty ; and accordingly chap- letsof it were worn,, both by the druids and peo- ple, in their religious ceremonies : the altars were strewed with its leaves, and encircled with its branches. The fruit of it, especially the mistle- toe, was thought to contain a divine virtue, and to be the peculiar gift of Heaven. It was, there- fore, sought for on the sixth day of the moon wim the greatest earnestness and anxiety : and When found, was hailed vrith siieh rapture of joy, as almost exceeds imagination to conceive. As soon as the druids were informed of the fortunate discovery, they prepared 'every thing ready for the sacrmce Xmder the tiaik, to which they fastened two white bulls by the horns ; fheh thfe ariih- druid, attendjsd by a prodigious number of people, ascended the. tree, dressed in White; and,' with a consecrated eolden>kMife, or pfllriing-hooit, crop- 1 ped the mistletoe, which he received in his robe, amidst the ra{>turous exclamations of the people. Having secured this sacred plant, he descended the tree j the bulls were sacrificed ; and the Deity invoked to bless his own gift, and render it effica- dpus in those distempers in which it should be administered. DRUNKEISTNESS, intoxication with strong liquor. It ift either 'bajual' oi: habitiial ; just as it is one thingj» Tie drunk, aiid another t6 be a drunkard. T'he Svil ofdSrunkeniiess appears in the foUoWilig bad effects : I. If betrays most Con- stitutions dmer to extravagance of anger, or sins of lewdness. — 3, It fflsquaJifies men for the du- fiesof their station, both by the tempomry disor- der Cf their faculties, and at length by a constant incapacity and sttipefactibn.— 3. It is attended Vfith expense, which can dften be ill spared. — 4. : It is sur? td occasion uneasiness to the fattiily of the druiikard.^-^5. It shortens life. — 6. It is a most pernicious awful example to others. — 7. It is hardly ever cvired. — '9. It is a violation of/God's Word, Prov. xx. 1. Eph. v. 18. Is. v. 11. Rom. xiii. 13. "The appetite for intbxicating'liquors ap- pears tome," says Pialey,'"'tobe' almost always acquirefl.' One proof of. v^ich is, that it is apt to return only at particular times and places; is after dinner, in the eveniijg; on[the rna;rket-day, in' suph a company, at silch a tavern." How careful, thenj should we be, lest We form habits of this kind, or choose company who are addicted to' it; how cautious and circumspect should we act, that we be not found guilty of a sin- Which degrades human nature, banish^ reason, insults God, and exposes ns to the greatest evils ! Paley's- Mor. Phil. vol. ii. ch. S. FlaveVs Tf oris, vol. n. p. 349 ; Bud&s Anecdotes, vol. i. p. 82, 5th edi- tion ; LarmrnVs Ser. vol. £ ser. 15, 16. DULCINISTS, the foUbwers df Dulcinus, a layman of Novara in Loinbardy, abbiit the be- ginning of the fourteenth century. He taught ' that the law of the Patlfer, which 'had continued till Moses, was a law of grace and wisdom; but that the law of the Holy Ghost, which began with, himself, in 1307, was a laweiitirely of love, which would last to the end of the wjtfld; DITNKERS, a denomination which took its rise in the year 1724. It was founded by a Ger- man, who, weary of the world, retired to an agreeable solitude within fifty miles of Philadel- ^ia, for the ' more free eierctse of religions' con- templation. Curiosity attracted followcra' aaa his snuple and engaging manners madci them pro^ odyiea They s6on Settled a little cdloriV, Called 125 DUNKERS Euphrate, in allusion to the Hebrews, who used to sing paalms on the border of the river Eu- phrates, This denomination seems to have ob- tuned their name from their baptizing their new converts by plnnging._ They are also called turn- blers,from the manner in which theyperfdrmed bap- tism, which is by putting the person, wMIe kneel- ing, head first under water, so as to resemble the motion of the body in the act of tunibling. They use the trine immersion, with laying on thie hands and prayer, even when the person baptized is in the wafer. Their habit seems to be peculiar to themselves) ' consisting of a long tunic, or coat, reaching down to their heels, wiUi a sash or girdle round the waist, and a cap, or hoodj hanging from the shoulders, like the dress of thie Dominican friars. The men do not shave the head or beird. The •■ men and women have separate habitations and distinct governments. For these purposes they have erected two large wooden buudings, one of which is occupied by the brethren, the other by the sisters of the society; and in each of them, there is a banqueting room, and an apartment ibr pubhc Worship ; for the brethren arid sisters do not meet together, even at their devotions. They livb chiefly Upon roots and other vegetables, the rules of their society not allowing them flesh, ex cept on particular dccasions, when they hold vvhat >they call a love-feast ; at which time the' bretliren and sisters dine together in a large apartment, alad eat mutton ; but no other nieat. In each of their little cells they have a bench fixed, to serve the purpose of a bed,' and a small block of wood for a pillow. The Dunkers allow of no inter- course between the brethren and sisters, not even by marriage. The principal tenets of the Dunkers appear to ble these : that future happiness is only to be attained by penance arid outward mortifica- tion in tWs Ijfe ; and that, as Jesus Christ by his -tneritorious sufferings, became the Redeemer of Mankind in general, so eachindi'vidual of the hu- man race, by a life of abstinence and restraint, riiay work out his own salvation. Nay, they go so flir as to admit of works of supererogation, and declare that a man may do much more than he is in justice or equity obhged to do, and that his superabundant' works' may therefore be ap- plied to the salvation of others. This denomina tion deny the eternity of futurepunishments,'and believe that the dead have the Grospel preached to them by our Satdour, and that the souls of the just are employed to preach the Gospel to those Who have had no revelation in this life. They siijppose the Jewish sabbath^ sabbatical ^ear, and year of jubilde, are -typical of certain penods, after the general judsmentj'in which the souls of those Who are not then adhiitted into hapjaness are purified fifoiri their, corruption. If any within those smaller periods are so faiuiilumbled as to acknowledge the perfections of God, and to own 'Christ' as their only Saviour, they are received to felicity; while those who continue obstinate are reserved in torments until the grand period typi- fied by the jubilee arrives, in which all shall be oxade happy in the endless, fruition bf the Deity. They also deny the impuliition of Adam's ^ to his posterity. They disclaim violence even in cases of self-defence, and suffer themselves to be de&auded or vri-onged rather than gd to law. Their church government and dlsciptine are the saiile'v^th thfeEn^UshBaptistSj' except thai 1,2 ■'.' EBtONlTES every brother is allowed to speak in the congre- gation ; and their best spealter is usually qrdained to De the minister. They have deacons and dea- conesses from among their ancient widows and exhoiters, who are sfll licensed to use their gifts statedly. They have, in the United States pro- bably forty or fifty churches, to be found, for the most part, in the states west of the Allegheny. DUTCH (REFORMED) CHURCH I]Sr THE UNITED STATES.— The city and state of New York was first settled by this people. The oldest church was formed about the year 1639. The first minister was the Rev.'Evorardus Bogardus. The place of worship first erected was in the fort at New York, in 1643 ; the se- cond in what is now called the Bowery. Others were soon formed in Albany, Esopus, on Lorig Island, Sue The Dutch Reformed was the es- tablished religion Qf the colony till 1664, when ECCLESfASTlCAL New York was surrendered to the Enghsh. The church was dependent for the ordination of its ministers, &c. on the Classis of Amsterdam, hi Holland, till 1757, when the first Classis was formed in this country.- Its government is con> mitted to Consistones, Classes,' and Synods. There are in connexion with this body one hun- dred and' fifty pastors, one hundred and eighty^ five churches, and eleven thousand seven hundred communicants. They have a College and Theo- logical Seminary under then: control at New Brunswick, New Jersey. — B. DUTY, any action, or course of actions, which flow from the rebtion we stand ih to God or man: that which a man' is bound> to per- form by any natural or legal obligation. The various moral, relative, and sgiriti^al duties, are considered in their places in this work. E. EASTER, the day on vvhich the Christian church commemorates our Saviour's resurrec- tion. It is called by the Greeks Pasga ; and, by the Latins Pascha, a Hebrew word, signifying passage, applied to the Jewish feast of the Psiss- over. It IS called Easter in English, from the Saxon goddess Eostre, whose festival was held in April. The Asiatic churches kept their Easter upon the very same day that the Jews observed their passover, and 6thers on the first Sunday after the first full moon in the new year. This controver- sy was determined in the council of Nice, when it was ordained that Easter should be kept upon one and the same day, which should always be Sunday, in all Christian churches in the world. EBIONITES, ancient' heretics, who rose in the church in the very first age thereof, and form- ed themselves into a sect in the second century, denying the divinity of Jesus Christ. Oriran takes tnem to have been so called from the He- brew word ebion, which in that language signifies poor; because, says he, they were poor in sense and wanting understanding. Eusebius^ with a view to the same etymology, is of opinion they were thus called, as having poor thoughts of Je- sus Christ, taking him for no more than a mere man. It is more probable the Jews gave this ap- pellation to the Christians in general out of con- tempt ; because, in the first times, there were few but poor people that embraced the Christian reli- gion. The Ebionites were little else than . a branch of the Naaarenes; only that they altered and corrupted, in many things, the purity of the faith held among the first adherents to Christian- ity. For this reason, Origen distinguishes two kmds of ElSSSmites in his answer to Celsus : thft one believed that Jesus Christ was born of a vir- gin ; and the other, that he was bom after the maimer of other men. The first were orthodox in every thing, except that to the Christian doc- trine they iomed the ceremoimes of the Jevvish law, with the Jews, Samaritans, and Nazarenes, together with, the traditions of the Pharisees. They difir«'4d from the Nazarenes, however, in several things, chiefly as to what regards the au- thority of the sacred writings ; for the Nazarenes received all for Scripture cmlfeiined in the Jewish canon; whereas the Ebionites rejected all the 136 prophets,! and held the very names of David, Solo- mon,' Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, in abhor- rence. They also rejected all'St'. Paid's epistles, whom they treated with' the utmost disrespect. They received nothing df the Old Testament but the Pentateuch. They agrfeed with the Neizarenes, in using the Hebrew Gospel of St. Matthew, othervrise called the Gospel of the twelve apostles ; but they corrupted their copy in abundance of places; and particularly bad left out the genealogy of our Saviour, which was preserved entire m that of the Nazarenes, and even in those used by the Corinthians. Besides the Hebrew Gospel of St. Matthew, the Ebion- ites had adopted several qther books under the title of St. James, John, and the other apostles ; they also made use of the travels of St. Pete^ which are supposed to have been written by St. Cleffient; but had altered them so, that there was scarce any thing of truth left in them. They even made that saint tell a number of falsehood^ the better to authorize their own practices. ECCLESIASTICAL, an appeUation given to whatever belongs to the churav ; thus we say ecclesiastical polity, jurisdiction, history, &c. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, a nar ration of tbe transactions, revolutions, and events thatrelatetothechurch. Astothe utility of church history, Dr, Jortin, who was an acute writer on this subject, shall here speak for us : he observes. 1. That it will show us the amazing progress of Christianity through the Roman empire, through the East and West, although the powers of the world cruelly opposed it. 2. Connected with Jewish and Pagan history, it will show us the total destruction of Jerusalem, the overthrow of the Jewish chui*ch and state ; and the continu- ance of that unhappy nation for 1700 years, though dispersed over the fece of the earth, and oppressed at different times by Pagans, Chris- tians, and Mahometans. 3. It shows us that the increase of Christianity produced, in the countries where it was received, the oveithrow and extinction of paganism, vi^hicji, after a feeble resistance, perished about the sixth century. 4. It shows us how Christianity has been continued and delivered down from the apostolical to the present age. 5. It shows us the various opinions ECTHESIS which prevailed at different times amongst the fathers and other Christians, and how theydeparted more or less from the simplicity of the Gospel. 6. It will enable us to form a true judgment of the merits of the fathers, and of the use wliioh is to he made of them. 7. It will show us the evil of imposing unreasonable terms of communion, and requiring Christians to profeas doctrines not propounded m Scriptural words, but iafeired as consequences from passages of Scripture, which one may call systems of consequential divinity. 8. It will show us the origin and progress of popery; and, lastly, it wilf show us — 9. The origin and progress, of the Reformation. See Dt. Jortin's Charge on the Use and Impor- tance of Ecclesiastical History, in his Works, vol. ii. ch. 2. For ecclesiastical historian^, see Eusebius's Eccl. Hist, with Vaiesius's ryites; Baronii An- nales Eccl.; ^xmdani Annates Saxri; Parei Universalis Htst. Bcc. I Lanype, Dupin, Spqn- heim, and Mosheim's Bad, Hist.; Fuller's and WarJter's Eccl. Hist, of England: Jortin's Re- marks on Eccl, Hist.; Millar's Propagation of Christianity; Gillies's Historical Collections; Dr. Erskine's Sketches, and Robinson's Researehes.- The mosl recent are. Dr. Campbell's, Gregory's, Milner's, and Dr. Howeis's; all which have their excellencies. See also Bo^e.and Bennet's His- tory of, the Dissenters, For the liistory of the church under the Old Testament, the reader may consult Miller's History of the Church; Prideaux's and Shvckford's Cojinections; Dr. Wattes Scripture, History; and Flewry's His- tory of the Israelites. , > , ECLECTICS, a name given to some ancient philosophers, who, without attalching themselves to any particular sect, took what th,ey judged good and soUd from e^h. One Potamon, of Alexandria, who lived under Augustus and Tibe- rius, and who, weary of .doubting of all things, with the Sceptics and Pyrrhonians, was the per- son who formed this sect. ECLECTICS, or modem Platonics, a sect which arose in the Christian church towards the .dose of the second century. They professed to make truth the only object of their inquiry, and to be ready to adopt from all the different systems and sects such tenets as they thought agreeable to it They preferred Plato to the other philoso- ^ejs, and looked upon his opinions concerning God, the human soul, and things invisible, as conformable to the spirit and genius of the Cliris- lian doctrine. One of the principal patrons of this system was Ammonius Saceas, who at this time laid the foundation of that sect, afterwards distinguished by the name of the New Platonics in the Alexandrian school. ECSTACY, or Extaoy, a transport of the mind, which suspends the functions of the senses by the intense contemplation of some extraordi- nary object. ECTHESIS, a confession of faith, the form of an edict, published in the year 639, by the empe- ror Heraclius, with a view to pacify the troubles occasioned by tlie Eutychian heresy in the east- ern church. However, the same prince revoked it, on being informed that pope Severinus had condemned it, as fiivouring the Monothelites ; declaring, at the same time, that Sergiu^ patri- arch of Constantinople, was the author.of it. See EuTVJBrANS 127 ELDER EDIFICATION : this word signifies a build ing up. Hence we call a building an edifice. Apphed to spjritual things, it signifies the im- proving, adorning, and comforting the mind j and a Christian may oe said to be ecfified when he is encouraged and animated in the ways and works of the Lord. The means to -promote our own edification are, prayer, self-examination, reading the Scriptures, hearing the Gospel, meditation, attendance on all appointed ordinances. To edify others, there should be love, spiritual con- versation, fqrbearance, fajthfiilness, benevolent exertions, and uniformity of conduct. EFFRONTES, a sect of heretics, in 1534, who seraph their foreheads with a knife till it bled, and then poured oil into the wound. Thi» ceremony served them instead of baptism. They are likewise said to have denied the divinity ol the Holy Spjrit. ElCET JE, a denomination in the year 680 who afiSrmed that, in order to make^ prayer ao ceptable to Godj it should be performed dancing EJACULATION, a short prayer, in whreh the mind is directed to God on any emergency. See Prayer. . ' , ^ ELCESAITES, ancient hereficsj who'made their appearance in the reign of the emperor Tra- jan, and took their name from their leader, Elce- sai. They kept a mean between the Jews, Christians, and Pagans: they worshipped but one God, observed the Jewish sabbath, circumci- sion, and the other ceremonies of the law j yet they rejected the Pentateuch and the prophets ; nor had they any more respect fbr the vvritings of the apostles. < ■ ELDER (irfi(r«0Ti|Kif,) an Overseer, ruler, leader. , Elders, or seniors, in ancient Jewish polity, were persons the most considerable for age, expe- rience, and wisdom. Of this sort were the 70 men whom Moses associated with himself in the government ; such likewise afterwards were those who held the first place in the synagogue as pre- sidents. Elders, in church history, were origi- nally those who held the first place in the assent- blies of the pi-imitiye Christians. The word pres- byter is often used in the New Testament in this signification ; henee the first councils of Chris- tians were called Presbyteria, or councils of elders. Elders, in the presbyterian discipline, are ofBpera. who, in conjunction with the ministers and deacons, compose the kirk sessions, who for- merly used to inspect and regulate matters of reli- gion and discipline j but whose principal business now is to take care of the poor's funds. They are chosen from among the people, and are re- ceived publicly with some degree of ceremony. In Scotland there is an indefinite number of elders in each parish, generally above twelve. See, Presbyterians. , , , It has long been a matter of dispute, whether there are any such ofHcers as lay-elders mention- ed in Scripture. On the one side it is observe^ thafr these officers are no where mentioned as being alone or single, but always as being many in every congregation. They are also mentioned separately from the brethren. Their ofiice, moi« than once, is describedas being distinct from that of preaching, not only jn Rom. xii., where he that ruleth is .expressly distinguished from him that exhorteth or tieacheth, but also in that pas- sage, 1 Tim. V. 17. On the other side it. is said EMULATION that, from the above-mentioned passages, nothing, can be collected with certamty to establish this opinion; neither can it be inferred from any other passage that churches should be furnished with such officers, though perhaps prudence, in Kome circumstances, may make tnem ejspedient. ■ " I incline to think," says Dr. Guise, on the pas- sage, 1 Tim. V. 17, " that the apostle intends tnuy preaching elders, when he directs double honour to be paid to the elders that rule wejl, especially those who labour in the word and' doc- trine; and that the distinction lies not in the order of officers, but in the degree of their dili- gence, faithftdness, and eminence in laboriously fuMlling their ministerial work ; and so the em- ■ phasis IS to be- kid on the word labour in the word and doctrine, which has an especially an- nexed to it." ELECTION: This word has different mean- ings. — h It signifies God'si tiJring a whole na- tion, community, or body of men, into external covenant with himself by- giving them the ad- yantage lof revelation as the rule of their belief and Sactioe,! when other nations are Vfithout it. eut. vii. 6. — 2. A temporary designation of some person or persons to the filUng up soipe particular station in the visible church, or office in civil Ufe. John vi. 70 ; 1 Sam. x. 24.-3. That gracious and almighty act of the Divine Spirit, whereby God actually and visibly separates his people from the world by iBfTectual calling. John 3SV. 10.-4. That eternal,' sovereign, uncondi- tional, particular, and immutable act of God, whereby he selected somefrom among all man- kind, and of every nation under heaven, to be redeemed and everlastingly saved by Christ. Eph. i. 4| 2 Thess. ii. 13. See Decree, and Predestination. ELOaUENCE, PULPIT. '-The chief characteristics of the^eloquence suited tothe pul- {rit are these two, — gravity and warmth. The serious nature of the subjects belonging to the pulpit requires gravity ; their importance to man- kind requires warmth. It is far from being either easy or common to unite these characters of elp- quence. The grave, when it is predominant, is apt to run into a- dull, upiform soleihnity. The warm, when it wants gravity, borders on the theatrical and light; The union of the two Inust be studied by all preachers, as of the utmost con- sequence, both in the composition of their 'dis- courses, and in their manner of delivery. Gravity and warmth united, form that character of preach- ing, which the French call' oncHon: the affecting, penetrating, interesting manner, flowihg from a strong sensiMlity of heart in the preacher, the inl- pprtaace of those truths which he deUvers, arid an earnest desire that they may make full im- pressioii on- the hearts of his hearers." See De- CLAMiTION, SbRMOKS. EMULATION, a generous ardour kindled by the praiseworthy examples of others, which iinpel^us to imitate, to rivail, and, if possible, to eicfelthem. Tlijs passion involves in it esteem of the person whose attainments Or conduct We emulate, of the qua:lities and actions in which we cniulate Mm, and a desire of resemblance, toge- ther virith a joy springing from the hope of suc- cess. The word comes originally from the Greek a/ci\A.ce,' contest ;" whcncc the Latin eemuZus, and thence our emulaMan. Plato makes emulation tlie dsiughter of 'envy : if so, there is a great dif- 128 ENTHUSIASM fferenoe between the mother and the offspring ; the one being a virtue and the other a vice. Em- ulation adtnires great actions, and strives to imi- tate them ; envy refuses them the praises that am their due ; emulation is generous, and only thinks of equalling or surp^sing a rival; envy is low, and only seeks to lessen him. It wouldy there- fore, be more proper to suppose emulation the daughter of admiration ; admiration being a prin- cipal ingredient in the composition of it. ENCR ATITES, a sectin the second centuiy, who abstained from marriage, vrine, andanimafe. ENDOWMENT, ECfcLESrASTIC AL : a term used to denote the settlement of a pension upon a minister, or the building of a church, or the severing a sufficient poition of, tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appropriated. Among the Dissenters, they are benefactions left to their place or congregation, for the support bf their ministers. Where the congregation is poor or small, these have been found beneficial; 'but in many cases they have been detrimental. Too often has itlendedto relax the exfertions'of the people; and when such a fund Has fallen into the hands of an unsuitable mirasteri it haspre- vented his removal; when, had he derived no support from Ms people, necessity Would have caused him to depart, and make room for on% more worthy. ENERGICI, a denomination ihthe sixteenth century-; so called because they held tl^at the eucharist was thp energy and mttue of Jesus Christ ; not his body, nor a representation thereat ENERGUMENS, persons supposed to be pos- sessed with the devil, concerning whom theie were many ifOTilaliOns among the primitive Christians. They were ' denied Daptism and the eucharist; at least tMs was the practice of some churches; and though they were under the car^ of exorcistSj yet it was thought a becoming act of charity to let them have the public prayers of the church, at wMch they were permitted to be present. ENTHUSIASM. To obtain just definitions of words wMch are promiscuously usei^ it must be confessed, is no small difficulty. TMs- word, it seems, is used both in a good and a bad sense. In its best sense it signifies a divine afflatus or inspiration; Itis also taken for that noble ardour of mind which leads us to inld^e any thing sub- ■ lime, gland, or surprising. In its worse sense it signifies amy impfles^on on the fancyj or agitation of the passions, of wMch a man can give no ra- tional a<;cotint. It is generally appUed to re- ligious characters, and is ^aid to be derived (stc, in the act or at the time of sacrificing. In this sense,'then, it signifies that impulse of the mind which leads a man to suppose he has some remarkable intercourse vrith the Deity, while at the same tuUe it is notMng more than the effects of a heated ilm^nation, or a sanguine constitu- tion. That the Divine Being permits his people to enjoy fellowship-with him, and that he can work upon the minds of Ms creatures when and how he pleases, cannot be denied. But, then, what is the criterion bv wMoh we are to judge, in or- der to distinguisD it from enthumsm? It is ne- 1' K II S E C U Tl O N. Plate VII. Entrails of Martyrs, while living, devoured by Swine, in the fourth Century. Plate VIII. Horrible Cruelties inflicted on the Protestants in Ireland, in 1641. EON IAN S cesaary there should be some rule, for without it the greatest extravagancies would be committed, the most notorious impostors countenanced, and the most enormous evils ensue. Now, this criterion is the word of God ; from wliich we learn, that we are to expect no new revelations, no extraordinary gifts, as in the apostles' time ; that whatever opi- nions, feelings, views, or impressions we may have, if they are inconsistent with reason, if they do not tend to humble us, if they do'nnt influ- ence our temper, regulate our Uves, anwpake us just, jpious, honest, and uniform, thfflr cannot come from God, but are evidently the effusions of an enthusiastic bfain. On the other hand, if the 'mind be enlightened, if the will which was ^ler- verse be renovated, detached from eyilj and in- clined to good ; if the powers he roUsed to exer- tion for the promotion of the divine glory, and the good bf men ; if the natural corruptions of the heart be suppressed ; if peace and joy arise from a view of the goodness of God, attended vrith a spiritual frame qf mind, a heart devoted to God, and a holy, useful life; however this may be branded with the name of enthusiasm, it certain- ly is from God, because bare human efforts, un- assisted by him, could never produce such effects as these. Theol. Misc. vol. ii, p. 43; Locke on Unilerst. vol. ii. ch. 19.j Spect. No. 201, vpL iii. ; Wesla/'s Serm. on Enthusiasm ; Mrs. H. More's Hints towards forming the Character of a Young Princess, vol. ii. pi 316; NaturaZ History of En- thusiasm. Anon, ENVY, a sensation of uneasiness ind dis- quiet, arising from the advantages which others are supposed to possess ahove Us, accompanied with malignity towards those who possess them. " This," says a good writer, " is universally ad- mitted to be one of the blackest passions in the human heart. No one, indeed, is to be condemned for defending hii rights, and shovfing displeasure against a malicious enemy ; but to conceive ill-will at one who has attacked none of our lights, nor done us any injury, solely because he is mp 's prosperous than we are, is a disposition altogether unnatural.. Hence the character of an envious man is universally odious. All disclaim it ; and they who feel themselves under the Influence of this passion, carefully conceal it. The chief grounds of envy may be reduced to three : ac- complishments of mind; advantages of birth, rank, and fortune ; and superior success in world- ly pursuits. To subdue this odious disposition, let us consider its sinful and criminal nature ; the mischiefs it OQcasions to the world ; the unhappi- ness it produces to him who possesses it ; the evil causes that nourish it, such as pride and indolence ; let us, moreover, bring often into view those reli- gious considerations which regard us as Chris- bans ; how unworthy we are in the sight of Gtad; how much the blessmgs we enjoy are above what we deserve. Let us learn reverence and ?ubmis- aon td that divine government which has appoint- ed to every one such a condition as is fittest for hinl to possess ; let us consider how opposite the Christian spirit is to envy ; above all, let us offer up our prayers to the Almighty, that he would purify our hearts from a passion which is so base and so criminal." EONIANS, the foUowers of Eon, a wUd fenaticj of the province of Bretagne, in the twelfth century : he concluded, from the resemblance be- tween eum, in the form for exorcising malignant 129 R EPISCOPACY spirits, viz. " per cum qui'venturus est judicafe Vivos et mortiios," and his own name Eon, that he was the son of God, and ordained to judge the quick and dead. Eon was, however, solemnly condemued by the council at Rheims, in 1148, and ended -his days in a prison. He left behind him a number of followers, whom persecution and death,, so weakly and cru(-lly employed, could not persuade to abandon his cause, or to renounce an absurdity, which, says Mosheim, one would think, could never have gained credit but in such a place as Bedlam. . EOQ-UINIANS, a denomination in the six- teenth century; so called from one Eoquinus, their master, who taught that Christ did not die for the wicked, but for the faithful only. EPICUREANS, the discirfes of Epicurus, who flourished about A. M. 3700. This sect maintained that ths world was formed not by God, nor with any design, but by the fortuitous con- course of atoms. They denied that God governs the world, or in the least condescends to interfere with creatures below : they denied the immor- tality of the sou], and the existence of angels ; they maintained that happiness consisted in plea- sure ; but some of them placed this pleasure in the trani;[uillity and joy of the mind arising from the practice of moral virtue, and which' is thought by some to, have; been the true principle of Epicu- rus; others understood him in the gross sense, and placed all their happiness in corporeal plea- sure. When Paul v^as at Athens, he had con- ferences with the Eracurean philosopher^, Act^ xvii^ 18. The word Epicurean is used, at pre- sent for tin indolent, effeminate, and voluptuous person, who only consults his private and parti- cular pleasure. See AciDEMics. EPIPHANY, a Christian festival, othelrwise called the manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, observed on the 6th of January, in honour of the appearance of our Saviour to the three magi, or wise men, who came to adore and bring him pre- EPISCOPACY, that form of chjirch govern- ment in which diocesan bishops are estabhshedas distinct from and superior to priests or presbyters. The controversy respecting episcopacy com- menced soon after the Reformation ; andhas been ^ agitated with great warmth) between the Episco- mlians on the one side, and the Presbyterians and Independents on the other. Among the Protest- ant churches abroad, those which were reformed by Luther and his associates are im general epia- copal; whilst such as follow the doctrines cf Cal- vin, have for the most part thrown off the order of bishops as one of the corruptions of popery. In England, however, the controversy has been con- sider^ as of greater importance than on the con- tinent. It has been stienuously maintained by one party, that the episcopal order is essential to the constitution of the church ; and by others, that it is a pernicious encroachment on the rights of men, for which there is no authority in Scrip- ture. We will just briefly state their arguments. I. Episcopacy, arguments for. 1. Some argue that the nature of the office which the apostles bore was such, that the edification of the church would require they should have some successors in those ministrations which are not common to Gospel ministers. — 2. That Timothy and Titua were bishops of Ephesus and Crete, wbaw busi- ness it was to exercise such extraordinitn' tets oa EPlSCOPACy jurisdiction as are now claimed by diocesan bishops, 1 Tim. i. 3. iii. I, 2. 2 Tim. ii. 2. Tit. 1. 5, &c. ili. 10. — 3. Some have argued from the mention of angels, i. e. as they un- derstand it, of diocesan bishops, in the seven churches of Asia, particularly the angel of Ephe- Bus, though there were many ministers employed in it long before the date of that epistle, Acts xx. 17.^—4. It is urged that gome of the ' churches Which were formed in large cities during the lives of the apostles, and especially that at Jerusalem, consisted of such vast numbers as could not pos- sibly assemble at one place. — 5. That in the wri- ters who succeeded the inspired penmen, there is a multiplied and concurring evidence ttf prove the apostolic institution of episcopacy. II. Episcopacy, arguments against. 1. To the above it is answered, that as the otfice of the apostles was such as to require extraordinary and miraculous endowments for the discharge of many parts of it, it is impossible that they can have any successors in those services who are not empow- ered for the execution of them as the apostles themselves were ; and it is maintained, that so far as ordination, confirmation, and excommunication, may be performed without miraculous ^fts, there is nothing in them but what seems to smt the pas- toral office in general. 2. That Timothy and Titus had not a stated re- sidence in these churches, but only visited them for a time, 2 Tim. iv. 9, 13. Tit. iii. 12. It also appears, from other places in which the journeys of Timothy and Titus are Jnentioned, that they were a kind of itinerant officers, called evange- lists, who were assistants to the apostles; for there is great reason to believe the first epistle to Timo- thy was written prior to those from Rome in the time of Paul's imprisonment, as some think the second was also. To which we may add, that it seems probable, at least, that theyhajd very extra- ordinary gifts to farnish them for their superior offices, 1 Tun. iv. 14. Eph. iv. 11. 2 Tim. iv. 5. And though Tjmothy was with Paul when he took his leave of the eld^ of Ephesus (Acts ix.) the apostle gives not the least hint of any extra- ordinary power with which he was invested, nor says one word to engage their obedience to him ; which is a very sUrong presumption that np such relation did subsist, or was to take place. 3. As to tjiie angels of the seven churches in Asia, it is certain that, for any thing which ap- pears in our Lord's epistles to them (Rev. ii. and iii.) they migUt be no more than the pastors of single congregations with their proper assistants. 4. To the fourth argument it is ansvvered, 1. That the word fivfisefij may only signify great numbers, and may not be intended to express that there were several times ten thousand, m an •exact and literal sense: compare Luke, ch. xii. ver. 1. (Greek/) — 2. That no sufficient proof is brought from Scripture of there being such nrnn-i bers of people in 4ny particular place as this sup- poses ; for the myriads of believmg Jews spoken of in the preceding text, as v^ell as the num- bers mentioned. Acts ii. 41. iv. 4, might very probably be those who were gathered together at those great feasts from distant places, of which few might have their stated residence in that city. Sef, Acts, viii. 1.— r3. If the number were so great as the pbiecdon supposes, there might be, for any thing which appears in Scripture, ssreraj hUhopa in the .isame cdty, as there are, among 130 EPISCOPACY those who do not allow of diocesan episcopacy, several co-ordinate pastors, overseers, or bishops; and though Eusebius does indeed- pretend to give us a catategue of the bishops of Jerusalem, it is to be remembered how the Christians had been dis- persed from thence for a considerable time, at and after the Roman war, and removed into other parts, which must necessarily very much increase the uncertainty which EusebiUs himself owns there was, as to the succession of bishops in most of the ancient sees. 5. As to the ancient writers, it is observed, that though Clemens Romanus Tecommends to the Corinmians the example of the Jevfish church, where the high priest^ ordinary priest, and Le-" vitetl, knew and observed their respective offices^ yet he never mentions presbyters and bishops as distinct, nor refers the contending Corinthians to an^ one ecclesiastical head as the centre of unity, wmch he probably would have done if there had been any diocesan bishops among them ; nay, lie seems evidently to spesik of presbyters as exer- cismg the episcopal cttfiCe. See sec. xxxix. of his epistle. — % As for Ireriieus,' it does not appear that he made a!ny distinction between bishops and presbyters. He does indeed mention the suc- cession of bishops from the apostles, which is re- concilable with tne supposition of their being pa- rochial, nor altogether irreconcilable with the supposilion of joint pastors in those churches. — 3. It is allowed that Ignatius in many places dis- tinguishes between bishops and presbyters, and requires obedience to bishops from the whole ■ church; but as he often supposes each of the churches to which he wrote to meet in one place, and represents them as breaking one loaf, and surrounding one altar, and charges the bishop to know all his flock by name, it is most evident that he must speak of a parochial and not a dio- cesan bishop.-— 4. Polycarp exhorts the Chris- tians at Philippi to be subject to the presbyters and deacons, but says not one word about any ■■'•''hop. — 5. Justin Martyr speaks of t\ie president, but then he represents him as bein^ present at every administration of the euchanst, which he also Tnentions as always making a part of their public worship; so that the bishop here must have only been the pastor of one congregation. — 6. Tertullian speaks of approved elders; but there is nothing said if them that proves a dio- cesan, since all he says might be applied to a pa- rochirJ bishop. — H. Though Clemens Alexan- drinus speaks of bishops, priests, and deacons, yet it cannot be inferred from hence that the bi- shops of whom he speaks were any thing more than parochial. — 8. Qrigen speaks distinctly of bishops and presbyters, but unites them both, as it seerns, under the common name of priests, saying nothing of the power of bishops as ex- tending beyoria one congregation, and rather in- sinuates the contrary; when he speaks of Cffendtfrs as brought before fee whole church to be ju4ged by it. — 9. The ipostolic constitutions frequently distiiiguish between bishops and presbyters ; but these constitutions cannot be depended on, as they are supposed to be a forgery of the fourth century. — 10. It is allowed that, in succeeding ages, the difference between bishops and presby- ters came to be more and more magnified, and various churches came under the care of the same bishops ; n6vcrthele.ss, Jerome does expressly spe^ of bishops and presbyters as of the same EPISCOPAL order; and Crtegory Nazianzen speaks of the great and affecting distinction between mini- sters in prerogative of place, and other tyrannical Srivileges (as lie calls them,) as a lamentable and estructive thing, III. Episcopacy, how introduced. It is easy to apprehend how episcopacy, as it was in the primitive church, with those alterations which it afterwards received, might be gradually intro- duced. The apostles Seem to havetaught chiefly in large cities; thisy settled ministers there, who, preaching in country villages, or smaller towns, mcreased thi number of converts : it woiald have been most reasonable that those new converts, which lay at a considerable ditohce from the large towns, ^ould, when they ^rew numerous, haye formed themselvies into distinct chjirches, under the car^ of their pfoper pastors or bishbps, independently of any of their neiahboiij^; but the reverence which would naturally be paid to men who had conversed with the Miostfe, and oerhaps some desire of iijflucrice and dominion, from" which the hearts pf very good' men might not be entirely free, and which eafly began to work, (John iii, 9. 2. Thess. ii. 7,) might Easily lay a foundation for such a subordination in the ministers of nea erected churches to those which were most ahcierif: and niuch more easily might _ the superiority'of a pastor to his assistarit presby-. ters increase, till it at length pame to that great difference which we own was early made, ^d probably soon carried to an excess; And if there were that deriee of degeneracy in the church, and defection irom the purity and vigour of reli- gion, which the learned Vitringa supposes to have happened between the time of Nero and Trajan, it would be less surprising that those evil principles, which occasioned episcopal, and at length the papal usurpation, should before that time exert some considerable influence. *IV. Episcopacy, reduced, plan of. Archbi- shop Usher projected a plan for the ireduction of episcopacy, by which he would 'have moderated It in such a manner as to have brought it very near the presbyterian government of me Scotch church; the weekly parochial vestry answering to their church session ; the monthly synod to be held by the Chorepiscopi, answering to their presbyteries ; the diocesan syjiod to their provin- cial, and the national to their general assembly. The meeting of the dean and chapter, practised in the church of England, ip but a faint shadow of the second, the ecclesiastical courl; of the tliird, and the convocation. of the fourth. Bingham's Origines Ecclesiastical ; SlUUjigfieet's Origitfes Sacrr(Z ; Boyse and IfoWi on Epis.; BensOn's Dissertation conceniing the Jvrst Sttt, of the Christian Chwrch; King's Const, of the Church; Dodiridge's Lectures, lee. 196; Clarkson and Or. Maurice on Episcopacy; Enc. Brit. EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN AMERICA, The number of EpiscopaEins among the original settlers of tills country was small. In Maryland and Virginia, however, njany chtu:ches were early fonned, "and had legal estabhshments for their suH)ort. To the northward and eastward of i these states, jvhen ' the fevo'ulionary war com- menced, there were but about eighty parechial clergymen. No organization o^ the episcopal clairch in this country took place till after .the war. The Rev. Samuel 'S^afbury, D.D. of Con- necticut was consecrated at Ahei'depn, in Soot- 131 EQUITY land, in Nov. 1784, by the Scotch bishops ; bishop Wfiite of Pennsylvania, and bishop Provost of New York, by \he archbishop of Canterbury in Feb. 1787. Since thai time, the number of Episcopalians in the Uhited States has been con- stantly upon the increase. The body now (1836) includes iwenty-lwo dioceses, seventeen bishops, and abodt eight liundred ministers. They have colleges more or'less under their control in the following places : Washington college in HarN ford. Con. ; CoVnmbia college in New York city ; Geneva, N. Y. ; University of Pennsylvania;, William and* Mary, Virginia; and Kenyon col.> lege, Ohio. They have theological seminaries at New York city ; near Alexandria, District of Columbia ; ahd at Gambler, Ohio. — B. EPISCOPALIAN, one lyho' prefers the episcopfil government and discipline to all others. EPISTLES OP BARNABAS. See Bab EaUANIMITY is an even uniform stsite of mind amidst all the vicissitudes of time and changes of circumstances to which we are sub- j'ebt in the present state. One of this disposition is not dejected when under' adversity, nor elate^ ' when in the height of prosperity: "he is. equally aiTable to others, and contented in hiinself. The excellency of this disposition is beyond all praiseL It may be considered as the grand remedy for all the diseases and miseries of life, and the only way by which we can preserve the dignity of our characters as men and as Christians'. EUUITY is that exact rule of righteousness or justice vthich is to be observed between man and man. Our Lord beautifully and compre- hensivejy expresses it in these words: "All things jvhatsoever ye would' that men should do unto you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the prophets," Mat, vii. 13. This goldien rule, says Dr. ^V atts, has many excellent propei- ties in it. 1. It is a rule that is easy to be under- stood, and as easy to be applied by. the meanest and weakest understanding, Isa. xxsv. 8.-2. It is a very short rule, an9 eaSy to be remembered :' the weakest memory can Tetain it ; and the mean- est of mankind may carry this about with them, and have it ready upon all occasions. — 3. This excellent precept carries greater evidence to the. conscience, and a stronger degree of conviction in it, than any other rule of moral virtue. — i. It is particularly fitted for practice, because it in- cludes in it a, powerful motive to stir us up to do what it' enjoins.— 5. It issuch a rule as, if well applied, will almost always secure our neighbour from injury, and seciire us from guilt if we should chance to hurt him.— 6. It is a rule as much fitted to avifaken us to sincere repentance, upon the transgression of it, as it is to direct us to our pre- sent duty. — 7. It is a most extensive rule, with regard to all the stations, rarks, and characters of J mankind, for it is perfectly suited to them bU.- 8. It is a most compreheiisiyerule with regaird to all the 'actions and duties that concern our neighi- bours. It teaches us to regulate our temper and behaviour, and promote tenderness, benevoi- lence, gentleness, ^c. — 9. It is also a rule pf tha highest prudence with regain to' ourselves, anil proinOtefe our own inlerestin the best manner.— ^ 10. This rule is fitted to mate the whole world as happy as the present state of things will admit. See Wattf's i&i-morts, ser. 33. v. i. ; Evans's Ser. ^r.28! Morning Exercises at Cripplegate,set. 10. ESTABLISHMENTS EQ.U1V0CATI0N, the using a term or ex- j)res3ion that has a double meaning. Equivoca- tions are said to be expedients to save telling the truth, and yet without telling a falsity ; but rf an intention to deceive . constitute the essence of a lie, which in general it does, I cannot conceive how it can be done without incurring guilt, as it is certainly an intention to deceive. ERASTIANS, so caUed from Erastus, a German divine of the sixteenth century. The pastoral oflBce, according to him, was only per- suasive, like a professor of science over his stu- dents, without any power of the keys annexed. The Lord's Supper and other ordinances of the Gospel were to be free and open to all. The minister might dissuade the vicious and unquali- fied from the communion ; but might not refuse it, or inflict any kind of censure ; the punishment of all offences, either of a civil or religious na- ture, beingreferred to the civil magistrate. ERROR, a mistake of our judgmejit, giving assent to that which is not true. Mr. Locke re- duces the causes of error to four. 1. "Want of proofs. — 2. Want of ability to use them. — 3. Want of will to use them.— 4. Wrong measures of probability. In a moral and scriptural sense it signifies siii. See Sin. ESSENES, a very ancient sect that was spread abroad through Syria, Egjrpt, and the neighbouring countries. They maintained that religion consisted wholly in contemplation and silence. Sonie of them passed their lives jn a state of celibacy ; others embraced the state of matriiiohy, which they considered as lawful, when entered into with the solie design |0f ' propa- gating the species, and not to satisfy the demand of lust. Some of them held the possibility of appeasing the Dfeity by sacrifices, though different from that of the Jews ; and others maintained that no offering was acceptable to God but that of a serene aiyi composed mind, .addicted to the con- templation of divine ihings. They looked upon the law of Moses as an allegorical system of spi- ritual and mysterious truths j and renounced, in ts explication, all regard to the outward letter. ESTABLISHMENTS, Seligious. By a religious establishment is generally understood such an intimate connexion between religion and civil- government as is supposed fo secure the best interests and great end of both. This article, like many others, has afforded matter of consider- able dispute. In order that the reader may judge for himself, we shall take a view of both sides of the question. The partisans fpr religious establishments ob- serve, tlKit they have prevailed universally in every age and nation. . The ancient patriarchs formed no extensive nor permanent associations but such as arose from the relationships of nature. Every father governed hisown famuy, and their offspring submitted to his jurisdiction. He presided in their education and discipline^ in their religious wor- ship, anil in their general government. His knowledge and experience handed down to them their laws and their cpstoms, both civil and re- ligious ; and his authority enforced them. The omces of prophet, priest, and king, were thus united in the same patriarch, Gen. xviii. 19. xvii. and xxi, xiv. 18. The Jews enjoyed a religious establishment dictated and ordained by God. In turning .our attention to the heathen nations, we mail find the same incorporation of religious with ESTABLISHMENTS civil government. Gen. xlvii. 22. 3 Kings xyn. 37, 29. Every one who is at all acquainted with the history of Greece and Rome, knows that re- ligion was altogether blended with the policy of the state. The Koran may be considered as the religious creed and civil code of all the Ma- hometan tribes. Among the Celts, or the original inhabitants of Europe, thejiruids were both their priests and their judges, and their judgment was final. Among the Hindoos, the priests and so- vereigns are of different tribes or casts, but the priests are superior in rank ; and in China, the emperor is sovereign pontiff, and presides in all public acts of religion. Again; it is said, that, although there is no form of church government absolutely prescribed in the New Testament, yet from the associating law, on which the Gospel lays so much stress, by the respect for civil government it so earnestly en- joins, and by the practice which followed and finjdly prevailed. Christians cannot.be said to dis- approve, but to favour religious establishments. Religious establishments, also, it is observed, are founded in, the nature of man, and inter- woven with all the constituent principles of human society: thei knowledge and profession of Chris- tianity cannot be upheld without a clergy ; a clergy cannot be supported without a legal provision; and a legal provision for the clergy cannot be con- stituted without the preference of one sect of Christians to the rest. An established church is most likely'to maintain clerical respectability and usefulness, by holding out a suitable encourage- ment to young men to devote themselves early to the service of the church ; and likewise enables them to obtain such knowledge as shall qualify them for the important- work. They who reason on the contrary side observe, that the patriarchs sustaining civil as well as re- - ligious offices, is no proof at all that religion was incorporated with the civil government, in the sense above referred to ; nor is there the least hint of it in the sacred Scriptures. That the case of the Jews can never be considered in point, as they were under a theocracy, and a ceremonial dispensation that was to pass away, and co^nse- quently not designed to be a model for Christian nations. That whatever was the practice of heathens in this respect, this forms no argument in favour of that ^stem which is the very oppo- site to paganism. The church of Christ is of n spiritual nature, and ought not, yea. cannot, in fact, be incorporated with the state without sus- taining material injury. In the three first and purest ages of Christianity, the church was a stranger to any alliance with temporal powers ; and, so far from needing their aid, religion never flflurished so much as wnUe they were combined to suppress it. As to the support which Chris- tianity, when united to civil government, yields to the peace and good order of society, it is ob- served, that this benefit will be derived from it, at least, in as great a degree without an esta- blishment as with it. Religion, if it have .iny power, operates on the conscience of men ; and, resting solely on the belief of invisible realities, it can derive no weight or solemnity from human sanctions. Human establishments, it is said, have been, and are, jwoductive of the greatest evils J for in this case it is requisite to give the preference to some particular system, and as tho magistrate is no better judge of religion thaii KIKKNITY Others, the chancps are as grnat of his l«nJmg his sanction to the fiilse as the true. The thousands that have been pprsecutetl and suffered in conse^ quenee of establishments, i',which agnifies to live without pain, or in pleasure. Among other sentiments, they held,that our souls are placed in our bodies only to honour the an- gels who created them ; and that we ought -to re- joice equally in all events, because to grieve would be to dishonour the angels, their creators. EXTTYCHIANS, ancient heretics who de- nied the duplicity of matures in Christ; thus de- nominated from Eutyches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a monastery, at Constantinople, who be- fan to propagate his opinion about A. D. 448. le did not, however, seem quit* steady and con- sistent In his sentiments ; for he appeared to al- low of two natures, even before the union, which was apparently a consequence he drew from the prmciples of the Platonic philosophy, which sup- poses a prc-existence of souls ; accordingly he be- lievbd that the soul of Jesus Christ had been united to the Divinity before the incarnation; but then he allowed no distinction of natures in Jesus Christ since his incarnation. This heresy was first cmdemned, in a synod held at Con- stantinople, by Flaviaii, in 448 : approved by the council of Ephesus, called 'conventus latronum, in 449 ; and re-examined and fulminated in the general council of Chalcedon, in 451. The Eu- tychians were dividud into several branches, as the Agnoeta), Theodosians, Severians, &c. &c. &c. Eutychians was also the name of a .'^ect, half Arian, and half Eunomiari, which arose at Constantinople in the fourth century. EXALTATION OF CHRIST consisted in his rising again from the dead on the third day, in ascending up into heaven, in sitting at the right hand of God the Father, and in coming to judge the world at the last day. See articles RpSUERECTION, AsCENSION, iNTERCESStON, and Judgment-Djit. EXAMINATION, Self. See Self-exami- nation. EXAMPLE, a copy or pattern. In a moral sense, is either taken for a type, instance, or pre- cedent lijr our admonition, that we may be cau- tioned against the faults or crimes which others 136 EXARCH have committed, by the bad consequences which have ensued from them ; or example is taken for a pattern for our imitation, or a motlel for us to copy after. That good- examples have a peculiar power above naked precepts, to dispose us to the prac- tice of virtue and holiness, may appear by con- sidering, " 1. That they most clearly express to us the nature of our duties in their subjects and sensible effects. General precepts form abstract ideas of virtue ; but in examples virtues are most visible in all their circumstances. — ^2. Precepts instruct us in whrft things are duty, but exam- ples show us that they are possible. — 3. Exam- ples, by secret and lively incentive, urge us to unitation. We are touched in another manner by the visible practice of good miaj, which re- proaches our defects, and obliges us to the same zeal, which laws, though wise and good, will not effect." The life of Jesus Christ forms the most beau tiful example the Christian can imitate. Unlike all others, it was alisolutely perfect and uniform, and every way accommodated to our present sfa.te. In him' we behold all light without a shade, all beauty without a spot, all the purity of the law, and the excellency of the Gospel. Here ^e see piety without superstition, and morahty without ostentation ; humility without meanness, and fortitude without temerity ; patience without apathy, and, compassion, without weakness; zeal without rashness, ^nd beneficence without prodi- gaUty. The obligation we are under to imitate this example arises from duty, relationship, en- fagemeht, interest, and gratitude. See article Esns Chhist. Those who set bad examples should consider, 1. That they jire the ministers of the devil's de signs to destroy souls. — 2. That they are acting in direct opposition to Christ, who came to save, and not to destroy. — 3. That they are adding to the misery and calamities which are already in the w.,rld. — 4. That the eiTects of their example may be incalculable on the society to the end of time; and perhaps in eternity ; for who can tell what may be the consequence of one sin, on a family, a na- tion, or posterity? — 5. They are acting contrary to the divine command, and thus exposing them- selves to final ruin. MassUlon's Ser. vol, ii. ser. 9. Eng. tran. ; Clarke's Looking Glass, ch. 48 ; THllotson's Ser. ser. 189, 190 ; Barrow's Work^, , vol. iii. ser. 2 and 3 ; Flavel's Works, vol. i. p. 29, 30 ) Mason's Ser. vol ii. ser. 17. EXARCH, an officer in the Greek church, whose business it is to visit the provinces allotted to him, in order to inform himself of the lives and manners of the clergy, take cognizance of eccle- siastical causes ; the manner of celebrating divige service ; the administration of the sacraments, particularly confession; the observance of the canons : monastic discipline^ affairs of marriages, divorces, &c. ; but, above all, to take an account of the several revenues which the patriarch re- ceives from several churches, and particularly as to what regards collecting the same.. The ex- arch, after having enriched himself in his post frequently rises to the patriarchate himself. , Ex- arch is also used, in the eastern church antiquity, for a general or superior over severa] monasteries, the same that we call archimandrite ; being ex- empted by the patriarch of Constanthiople from the jurisdiction of the bishop. EXCOMMTTNIOATION EXCISION, the cutting off a person from fellowship with the community to which he be- longs, by way of punishment for some sin com- mitted. The Jews, Seld^n informs us, reckon Up thirty-six crimes, to which they pretend this punishment is due. Tlie rabbins reckon three kinds of excision : one, whicli destroys" only the body ; another, which destroys the soul only ; and a third, which destroys both body and soul. The first kind of excision they pretend is untimely death ; the second is an utter extinction of the soul ; and the tlurd a compound of the two for- mer ; thus making the soul mortal or immortal, says Selden, according to the degree of misbeha- viour and wickedness of the people. See next EXCOMMUNICATION, apenalty, orcen- BUre, whereby persons who are guilty of any no- torious crime of offence, are separated from the communion of the church, and deprived of all S{Hritual advantages. Excommunication is founded upon a natural right wliich all societies have of excluding out of their body such as violate the laws thereof, and it was originally instituted for preserving the ■pn- rity of the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an engine^ for pro- moting their own power, and inflicted it on the most frivolous occasions. In the ancient church, the power of exconununi- cation was lodged in the hands of the cler^, who distinguished u into the greater and less. The less consisted in excluding persons from the participa- don of the eucharist, and theprajersof the faithful j but they were Motexpelled thechurch. The greater excommunication consisted in absolute andentire seclusion from the church, and the participation of all its rights : notice "Of which was given by circular letters to the most eminent churches all orver the world, that they might all confirm this act of disdplme, by refusing to admit the delin- quent to their communion. The consequences were very terrible. The person so excommuni- cated, was avoided in all civil commerce and out- ward conversation. No one was to receive him into his house, nor eat at the same table with aim ; and, when dead, he was denied the solemn rites of burial. ' The Jews expelled from their synagogue such as had committed any grievoas crime. See Johii ix. 32. xii. 43. xvi. 2, and Jos^h. Antiq. Jud. lib. 9. cap. 33, and lib. 16. cap. 3. Goodwyn, in his Moses and A^ron, distinguishes three degrees or kinds of excoinmunication among the Jews. The first he finds intimated in John ix. 23 j the second in 1 Cor. v. 5 j and the third in 1 Cor. xvi. 33. The Romish pontifical takes notice of three hinds of excommunication.—!. The minor, in- curred by those who have smy correspondence with an exu)mmunicated person. — % The major, which falls upon those who disobey the commands of the holy see, or refuse to submit to certain points of discipline : in consequence of which they are excluded from the church militant and tri- umphant, and delivered over to thc'devil, and his angels.— 3. Anathema, which is properly that pronounced by the popq against heretical princes and countries. lii former age^ these papal ful- minations were most terrible things j but latterly they were formidable to none but a few petty states of Italy. 137 S EXCOMMUNICATION Excunimunication, in the Greek church, cats cff the offender from all communion with the three hundred and eighteen fathers of the first council of Nice, and with the saints j consigns him over to the devil and the traitor Judas, and condemns his body to remain after death as hard as a flint or piece of steel, unless he humble him- self, and make atonement for his sins by a sincere repentance. I^he form abounds with dreadful imprecations ; and the Gtreeks assert, that, if a person dies excommunicated, the devil enters into the lifeless corpse i and, therefore, in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceased cut his body in pieces, and boil thein in wine. It is a cus- tom with the patriarch of Jerusalem annually to excommunicate tt "> pope and the church of Rome ; . on which occasion, together with a great deal of idle ceremony, he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a mark of malediction. The tbrm of excommunication in the church of England anciently ran thus : " By the authority of God the Father Almighty, the Sop, and Holy Gllost, and of Mary the blessed mother of God, we excommunicate, anathematize, and sequester from the holy mother church," &c. The causes of excommunication in England are, contempt of the bishops' court, heresy, neglect of public wor- ship and the sacraments, incohtinency, adultery, simony, &c. It is described to be twofold j the less is an e^esiastical censure, excluding the party from the participation of the sacrament; the greater proceeds farther, and excludes hun not only from these, but from the company of all Christians ; but if the judge of any spiritual court excommunicate a man'tor a cause of which he has not tlie legal cognizance; the party may have an action against him at common law, and he is also liable to be indicted at the suit of the king. Excommunication in thej church of Scotfind consists only in an exclusion of openly profane and immoral persons from baptisni and the Lord's Supper ; but is seldom publicly denounped, as, in- deed, such persons generally exclude themselves from the latter ordinance at least ; but it is attend- ed with no civil incapacity whatjever. Among the Independents and Baptbts, the persons who' are or should be excommunicated, are such as are quarrelsome and litigious, GaJ. v. 12 ; such as desert their privileges, wiftidraw them- selves from the ordinances of God, and forsake his people, Jude 19 ; such as are irregular and im- moral in their lives, railersj drunkards, extortion- ers, tbmicators, and covetous, Eph. v. 5; 1 Cor. V. U. " The exclusion of a person from any Christian church does not affect his temporal estate~and civil affairs ; it does not subject him to fines or imprisonments ; it interferes not with the busi^ ness of a civil^agistrate ; it makes no change in the natural and civil relations between husbands and wives, parents and) children, masters and ser- Vante; neither does it deprive a man of the liberty of attending public worship; it removes him, hdw^ver, from the communion of the church, and the privileges dependent on it ; this is done that he may be ashamed of his sin, and be brought to repentance ; that the honour of Christ may be vindicated, and that stvunbling blocks may be re- moved out of the vr&y." Though the act of exclusion be not performed exactly in the same manner in every church, yet (according to the congregational plan) the power M 3 EXISTENCE cf excision lies in the church itself. The officers talce the sense of the memhers assembled together; and after th^ matter has been properly investigat- ed, and all necessary steps taken to reclaim the offender, the church proceeds to the actual exclu- sion of the person from among them, by signifying their judgment or opinion that the pei'son is un worthy of a place in God's house. In the con dusion of this article, however, we must add, that too great caution cannot be obser/ed in procedures of tfis kind ; every thing should be done with the greatest meekness, deliberation, prayer, and a deep sense of our own unworthiuess ; with a compassion for the offender, and a fixed design pf embracing every opportunity of doing him good, . by reproving, instructing, and, if possible, restor- ing him to the enjoyment of the privileges he has forfeited by his conduct. See Church. EXCUSATI, a term formerly used to denote slaves, who, flying to any church for sanctuary, were excused and pardoned by their masters. EXHORTATION, the act of laving such motives before a person as may excite him to the performance of any duty. It differs only from suasion in that the latter principally endeavours to convince the understanding, and the former to work on the affections. It is considered as a great branch of preaching, though not coniined to that, as a man may exhort, though he do not preach ; though a man can hardly be said to preach if he do not exhort. It'seems, however, that there are some, who believing -the inability of man to do any thing good, cannof reconcile the- idea of ex- horting men to duty, being, as they suppose, a contradiction to address men who have no power to act of themselves. But they forget,' — 1. That the Great Author of our being has appointed this as a mean for inclining the will to himself, Is. Iv. 6, 7) Luke xiv. 17, 23.-3. That they who thus address do not suppose that there is any yirttie in the exhortation itself, but that its energy depends on God alone, 1 Cotj xv. 10. — ^3. That the Scripture enjoins ministers to exhort men, ihat b, to rouse them to duty, by proposing suitable motives. Is. Iviii. 1 ;/ 1 Tim. vi. -S ; . Heb. iii. 13 ; Rom. xii. 8. — 4. That it was the constant prac- tice of prophets, apostles, and Christ himself, Is. i. 17 ; Jer. iv. 14'; Ezek. :rxxvii- ; Luke xii. 3 ; Luke iii. 18 ; Acts xl 23. "The express words," says a good divine, " of scriptural invitations, ex- hortations, and promises, prove more effectual to encourage those who are ready to give up their hopes, than all the consolatory topics that can possibly be substituted in their place. It is, there- fore, much to be lamented that pious men, by ad- hering to a supposed systematical exactness of expression, should clog their addresses to sinners with exceptions and limitEltions, which the Spitit of God did not see gpod to insert. They willnot say that the omission was an oversight in the in- spired writers ; or admit the thou^t for a mo- ment, that they can improve on their plan : why then cannot they be satisfied to 'speak according to the oracles of God,' without affecting a more entire consistency'? Great mischief has thus been done by very different descriptions of men, 'who undesignedly concur in giving Satan an occasion of suggesting to the trembhng inquirer that perhaps he may persevere in asking, seeking, and knocking, with the greatest eariiestness and importunity, and yet finally be cast away.^' EXISTENCE of GOD. The methods usual- 138 EXISTENCE ly followed in proving the existence of God are two- the first called argumentum a priori, which beginnmg with the cause descends tothe effect; the other argumentum a poatcriorit which, from a consideration of the effect, ascends to the cause. The former of these hath been particularly laboured by Dr. Samuel Clarke ; but after all he has said, the possibility of any one's being convinced by it hath been questioned. The most general proofs are the following : 1. " All nations, Heathens, Jews, Mahometans, and Christians, harmoniously consent that there is a God who created, preserves, and governs all things. "JCo this it has b^6n objected, that them have boenj at different times and places, men who were atheists, and deniers of a God. But these have been so few, and bjr their opinions have shown that they rather denied the particular pro- vidence than the existence of God, that it can hardly be said to be an exception to the argu- ment stated. And even if men were bold enough to assert it, it would not be an absolute proof that they really believed what they said, since it might proceed from a wish that there were no God to whom they must be accountable for their sin, rather than a belief of it, Ps. xiv. 1. It has also been objected, that whole nations have been found in Africa and America who ha^e no notion of a Deity: but this is what has never been proved ; on the contrary, upon accurate inspec- tion, even the most stupid Hottentots, Salda> nians, Grreenlanders, Kamtsdiatkans, and sa'vage Americans, are found to have some idea of a God. 2. " It is argued from the law and light of Na- ture, or from the general impression o? Deity on the mind of every man, i. e. an indistinct idea of a Being of infinite perfection, and a readiness to acquiesce in the truth of his existence, whenever they understand the terms in which it is express- ed. Whence could this proceed, even in the minds of such whose affections and carnal interests dis- pose them to believe the contrary, if there were no impression naturally in their hearts? It has been observed by some writers, that there are no irulatc ideas in the minds of men, and particularly concerning God ; but this is not so easily proved^ since an insjnred apostle assures us that even the Gentiles, destitute of the law of Moses, have the ' work of the law written in their hearts,' Rom. ii. 15. 3. " The works of cr^ationplainly demonstrate he existence of a God. The innumerable altei>- ations and manifest dependence, ever^ where ob- servable in the world, prove that the things which exist in it neither are nor could be from eternity. It is self-evident that they never could form them- selves out of nothing, oMn any of their respective forms; and that chance, being nothing but the want of design, nevei did nor could form or put into order any thing,; far less such a marvellous and well connect^ system as our world is. Though we should absurdly fancy matter' to be eternal, yet it could not change its own form, or produce life or reason. Moreover, when we con- sider the diversified and wonderful forms of creatures in the- world, and how exactly those forms and stations correspond with their respeo- tiye ends and uses ; , when we consider the ma>- vellous and exact machinery, form, and motions of our own bodies; and especially when we con- sider the powers of our soul, its desires sUter an infinite good, and its close union vrith, and in- EXISTENCE comprehensible operations on our bodies, we are Obliged to a4init a Creator of infinite wisdom, power, and goodness, 4. " It is argued from the support and govern- ment of the world. Who can consider the mo- tions of the heavenly luminaries, exactly calcu- lated for the greatest advantage to our earthy and its inhabitants; the exact balancing and regu- lating of the- meteors, vrinds, rain, snow, hail, vapour, thunder, alnd the like ; the regular and never-failing return of summer and winter, seed- time and harvest, day and night j the astonishing and diversified ;^nnation of vegetables ; the pro- pagation of herbs, almost every where, that are most effectual to heal the distempers of animal bodies in that place ; the almost irtfinite diver- sification of animals and vegetables, and their fiertinents, that, notwithstanding an amazing similarity, not any two are exactly alike, but every form, member, or even feather or hair of animals, and every pile of grass, stalk of corn, . herb, leaf, tree, berry, or other fruit, hath some- thing peculiar to ilSelf : the making of animals so sagaciously to prepare their lodgings, defend themselves, provide for their health, produce and protect, alid procure food for their young; the direction of fishes and fowls to and in such mar- ; vellbus and long peregrinations; at such seasons, and to such places, as best correspond with their own preservation and the benefit of mankind ; the stationing of brute animals by sea Oiltaid, at less or greater distances, as are most suited to the safety, subsistence, or comfort of mankind, and preventing the increase of prolific animals, and making the less fixiitful ones, which are used, ex- ceedingly to abound; the so diyeisifjffog the countenances, voices, and- hand-*ritings ormen, as best secures and promotes their social advan- (ages ; the holding of so equal a balance between males and femaleSi while the number of males, whose lives are peculiarly , endangered in' war, navigation, &c., are generally greatest ; the pro- longing of men's lives, when the world needed to be peopled, and now shortening tliein when that necessity hath ceased to exist; the almost uni- versal provision of food, raiment, medicine, fuel, &c.,. answerable to the nature of particular places, cold or hot, moist or d^; the manage- liient of human affsdrs relative to societies, go- vernment, peace, war, trade, &e., in a manner different from, and contrary to, the carnal policy of those concerned; tod especially the strangely similar but diversified erection, preservation, and government of the Jewish and Christian churches; who, I say, can consider all these things, and not acknowledge the existence of a wise, merciful, ^ and good Godf who governs the world, and every thing in it? - ■ 5. "It is proved from the miraculous events, which have happened in the world : such as the overflowing of the earth by a flood j the con&sion of languages; the UoiSiing of Sodom andtheci-, ties about by fire from &aven; the plagues of Egypt; the dividing of the Red Sea; raining manna fiom heaveii, and bringing streams of water from flinty rocks; the stopping of the course of the sun, &c. &c. 6. " His existence no less clearly ttppearB,from the exact fulfilment of so many arid so particu- larly circumstantiated predictions, published long before the event took place. It B mipossible that' these predictions, which Were so exactly fulfilled 139 EXORCISM in their respective periods, a ad. of the fulfilment of which there are atpresenl thousands of demon- strative atid sensible documents in 'the world, could proceed from any but an all-seeing and in- finitely wise God. 7. " The existence of God flirther appears from the fearful punishments w hich have been inflicted upon persons, and especially upon nations, when their immoralities became excessive, and that by very unexpected means and instruments | as in . the drowning of the old world ; destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah ; plagues of Phaiaoh and his servants ; overthrow of Sennacherib arid his arm^; miseries and ruin of the Canaanites,:Jews^ Syrians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Persians, Egyp- tians, Greeks, Romans, Saracens, Tartars, and others. 8. " Lastly, the existence of God may be ar- gued from the terror and dread which wound the ^ consciences of men, when guilty of crimes which other men do not know, or are not able to punish or restrain : as in the case of Caligula, Ner^ and Domitian, the Roman emperors ; and this while they efixnestly labour to persuade themselves or others that there is no God. Hence their being - afraid of thunder, or to be lefl alone in the dark, &c." As to the modus of the divine existence, would be pifesumption to attempt to explain. That he exists, is clear from the foregoing argu- ments ; but tlie manner of that existence is not tor us to know. Many good men hav^ uttered great absurdities in endeavouring to explain it, and after all none of them have succeeded. The wisest of men never made the attempt. Moses began his writings by supposing the being of a God ; he did not attempt to explain it. Altnough many of the inspired writers asserted his exist- ence, andj to d'lscbuBteaance idofetry, pleaded for his perfections, yet no one of them ever pre- tended to explain the manner of his being. Oui duty is clear. We are not comjnanded nor ex- pected to understand it. AH that is required if this : " He that cometh to God must believe tfial he Is, and that he is a rewarder of them that dili- igently seek him:" Heb. xi. 6. See GUI's Body of Div. b. ij ; CharnocMs Works, vol. i, ; Ridg- ley's Div. ques. 2 ; Brovm's System, of Div. ; Pierre's Stiwtdes of Nature; Sturm's Reflec tions; Spect.de la Nat. ; Bonnet's PhUosophi-' cal Researches ; and writers enumerated under the article Atheism. EXORCISM, the expelling of devils from persons possessed, hy means of conjurationssmd prayers. The Jews made great pretences to tliis power. Josephus tells several wonderful tal^s of the great success of several exorcists. One Elea- zer, a Jew, cured many dtemoniacs, he says, by means of a root set in a ring. , This root, with the ring, was heild under the patient's nose, and the devil was forthwith evacuated. The most part of conjurors of this class were impostors, each pretending to a secret nostrum or charm which was an overmatch for the ^evil. Our iSa- viour communicated to his disciples a real power over diemons, or at least over the diseases said to be occasioned by demons. See DjEMONUt;. Exo.'aSism makes a considerable ■ part of the superstition of the church of Rome, the ritual of which forbids the exorcising any person without the bishop'.s leave. The ceremony is peifofiQcd a the lower end of the church, towards the-dbor. EXPERIENCE The exorcist first signs the possessed person with the sign of the cross, r^kkes him Kneel, and sprinkles him with holy water. Then follow the litanie^ psalms, and prayer ; after which the exorcist asks the devil his name, and a.bjures him by the mysteries of the Christian religion not to smlict the person any more; then, laying his right hand on the dtemonian's head, he repeats the form of exorcism, which is this : " I exorcise the^ unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ : tiembje, O Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast brouglit death into the world ; who hast deprived men of life, and hast rebelled against justice; thou seducer of mankind, thou root of all evil, thou source of avarice, dis- cord, and envy." The Romanists likewise ex- orcise houses and other places supposed to be haunted by unclean spirits ; and the ceremony is much the same as that for a person possessed. EXORDIUM. See Sermon. EXPEDIENCY, the fitness or propriety of a mean to the attaiimient of an end. See Obli- gation. EXPERIENCE, knowledge acquired by long use without a teacher. It consists in the ideas of things which we have seen or read, which the judgment has reflected on, to form for itself a rule or tnethod. Christian experience is that religious know- ledge which is acquired by any exercises, enjoy- ments, 6t sufferings, either of body or nund. Nothing is more common than to ridicule and despise what is called religious experience as mf re enthusiasm. B)it if religion consist ' in feeling, we virould ask, hovtr it can possibly exist without experience ? We are convinced of, and admit the propriety of the term, when applied to those branches of science which are not^ founded on speculation or conjecture, but on sensible trial. Why, then, should it be rejected when applied U> religion? It is evident that, however beautiful religion may be in namei its excellency and^ner- gy are only truly known and displayed as expe- rienced. A system believed, or a mind merely informed, vrill produce little good, except the heart be affected, and we feel its influerce. To expe- perience, then, the religion of Christ, we must not only be acquainted with its theory, but enjoy its power j subduing our corruptions, animating nur affections, and exciting us to duty. Hence the Scripture calls experience tasting, Ps. ixxiy. 8 J feeling, &c. 1 Thess, ii. 13, &c. That our experience is always absolutely pure in the pre- sent state,, cajinot be expected. " The best ex- perience," says a 'good writer, "may be mixed with natural affections and passions, impressions on the imagination, self-righteousmess, or spiritual pride ;" but this is no reason that all experience IS to be rejected, for upon this ground nothing could be received, since nothing is absolutely per- fect. Itis, however, to be lamented, that while the best of men have a mixture in their experience, there are others whose experience (so called) is entirely counterfeit. They have been alarmed, have changed the ground of their confidence, have had their imaginations heated anddelighted by impressions and visionary representations; they have recollected the promises of the Gospel, as if spoken to them vrith peculiar appropiatibn,' to certify thein that their sins were ioreivenj and having seen and heard such wonderiiii things, they think they must doubt no more of their adop- 140 EXPERIENCli tion into the family of Go.^. They he ve also fre- quently heard all experience profanely ridiculed as enthusiasm; and this betrays'them into tho opposite extreme, so that they are emboldened to despise every caution as the result of enmity to internal religion, and to act as if there were no delusive or counterfeit experience. But the event too plainly shows their awful mistake, and that they grounded their expectations upon the ac- count given of the extraordinary operations of the Holy Spirit on the minds of prophets, rather than on the promises of his renewing influence in the hearts of beUevers. When, therefore, they lose the impressions with which they once wereelated, they relapse nearly into their old course of life, their creed and confidence alone excepted." Christian experience may be considered as genuine, 1. When it accords with the revelation of God's mind and will, or what he has revealed in his word. Any thing coiltrary to this, how> ever pleasing, cannot be sound, or produced by divine agency. — 2. When its tendency,is to pro- mote humility in us : that experience, by which vpe learn our own weakness, and subdues pride, must be good. — 3. When it teaches us to bear with others, and to do them good.^-4. When it operates so as to excite us to be ardent in our de- votion, and sincere in our regard to God. A powerfiil experience of the divine favour will lead us to acknowledge the same, and to manifest oui gratitude both by constant praise and genuine pie^. Christian experience, however, may be abused There are some good people who certainly have felt and enjoyed the power of religion, and yet have not always acted vrith prudence as to their experience. - 1. Some ooast of their experiences, or talk of them as if they were very extraordinary ; whereas, were they acquainted vrith others, they wovild find it not so. That a man may make mention of his experience, is no way improper, but often useful; but to hear persons always talking of themselves, seems to indicate a spirit of pride, and that their experience cannot be very deep. — 2. Another abuse qf experience is, de- pendence on it. We ought certainly to take en- couragement from past circumstances, if we can 5 but if we are so dependent on past experience as to preclude present exertions, or always expect to have exactly the same assistance in every state, trial, or ordinance, we shall be disappointed. God has vriscly ordered it, that though he never will leave his people, yet he vrill suspend or bestow comfort in his own time ; for this very reason, that we may rely on him, and not on the, circum- stance or ordinance. — 3. It is an abuse of expe- rience, when introduced at improper times, and before improper pereons. It is true, we ought never to be ashamed of our profession ; but to be always talking to irreligious people respecting ex- perience, which they Imow nothing of, is, as our Saviour says, casting pearls before swine. Bun, yan's Pilgrim's Progress ; Bucl^s Treatise on Experience ; GornaU's Christian Armour ; Dr, Owen on Psalm cxxx ; Edwards on the Affeo- tions, and his Thoughts on the Revival of Reli- gion in New England; Dorney's Contempla- tions.. ' EXPERIENCE MEETINGS, are assem- TSlies of religious persons, who meet for the pur- iose of relating their experience to each other. t has been dialbted by some whether these meet- FAITH ' Ings are of any great utility ; and whether they do not in some measure fotce people to say more than is true, and i)uff up those with pride Who are able to communicate theur ideas with facility ; but to this it may be answered, 1. That the abuse of a thing is no proof of the evil of it. — 2. That the most eminent saints of old did not ne- riect this practice, Ps. Ixvi. 16 5 -.laL iii. 16.— 3. That by a wise and prudent relation' of expe- rience, the Christian is led to see that others have participated of the same joys and sorrows with himself; he is excited to love and serve God ; and animated to perseverance in duty, by findihg that others, of like passions with himself, are zealous, active, and diligent — 4. That the 1 Scriptures seem to enjoin the frequent intercourse | PAITH of Christians for the purpose of strengthening each otltfr in religious services, Heb. x. 24, 25 5 Col. iii. 16 ; Matt, xviii. 20. See CoNPEHENca. EXPIATION, a religious act, by which sa- tisfaction or atonement is made for some crime^ the guilt removed, and the obliration to punish- ment cancelled, Lev. xn. See Propitiation. EXPOSITIONS. See Commentaries. EXTORTION, the act or practice of gaining or acquiring any thing by force. ■ JExtortioners are included in the list of those who are excluded from the kingdom of heaven. 1 Cor. x. 6. EXTREME UNCTION, one of the sacra- ments of the Romish church, the fifth in order, administered to people dangerously sick, by anoint- ing them with holy oil, and praying over them. F. FAITH is that assent which w? give to a pro- position advanced by another, the truth of which we do not immediately peiceive from our own reason and experience ; ot it is a judgment or as- sent of the nund, the motive whereof is not any intrinsic evidence, but the authority or testimony of some other who reveals or relates it. The Greek word n.TTn, translated faith, comes from the verb nnSu, to persuade; the nature of faith being a persuasion and assent of the mind, arising from testimony or evidence. 1. Divine fatth, is that founded on the «u- thority of God, or it is that assent which we give to what is revealed by God. , The objects of fliis, therefore, are matters of revelation. 2. Human faith, is that whereby we believe what is told us by men. The objects hereof are matters of human testimony or evidence. 3. Historical faith, is that whereby lye assent to the truths of revelation as a kind of certain and mfallible record, James ii. 17, or to any fact re- corded in history. 4. T^e faith of miracles, is the persuasion a person has of his being able, by divine power, to effect a miracle on anoSier, Matt. xvii. 20 ; 1 Cor: xiii. 2 : or another on himself. Acts, xiv. 9. This obtained chiefly in the time of Christ and his 6. A tempm'ary faith, is an assent to evan- gelical truths, as both interesting and desirable, but not farther than they are accompanied with temporal advantages; and which is lost when such advantages (Sminish or are removed, Matt. ri. 24; Luke vili. 13. 6. Faith in respect to futurity; is a moral prin- ciple, implying such a conviction of the reality and importance of a future state, as is sufficient to regulate the temper and conduct. 7. faith in Christ, or saving faith, is that principle wrought in the heart by the Divine Spirit, whereby we are persuaded that Christ is the Jdessiah ; and possess such a desire and ex- pectation of the blessings he has promised in his Gospel, as engages the mind to fix its dependence on ram, and subject itself to him in all the vvays of holy obedience, and relying solely on his grace for everlasting life. These are the ideas which are generally annexed to the definition of saving feith; "bu^ accurately speaking, faith is an act of the understanding, giving credit to the testimoiyr of the Gospel; and desira expectation, confi- 141 dence, &c., are rather the effects of it, than faith itself, though inseparably connected with it. Much has been said as to the order or place in which faith stands in the Christian system, some E lacing it before, others after repentance. Per- aps me following remarks on the subject may be considered as consistent with truth anil Scrip- ture: 1. Regeneratioli is. the work of God eih- lightening the mind, and changing the heart, ami in order of time precedes faith. — 3. Faith js the consequence of regeneration, and implies the pr- eoption of an object. It discerns the evil of sin, the holiness of God, gives credence to the testk^ mony of God in his word, and seems to precede repentance, since we cannot repent of that of which we have no clear perception, or no concern about. — 3. Repentance is an after-thought, or sorrowing for sin, the evil nature of which faith perceives, and which immediately follows faith. — 4. Conversion is a turning from sin, which faith sees, arid repentance sorrows for, and seems to follow, and to be the end of all the rest. As to the properties or adjuncts of faith, vre may observe, 1. That it is the first and principal grace : it stands first iii order, and takes the pre^ cedence of other graces, Mark xvi. 16 1 Heb. xi. 6. — 2. It is every way precious and valuable, 1 Pet. ii. 1. — 3. It is called in Scripture, one faith ; for though there are several sorts of faith, there is but one special or saving faith, Eph. iv. 5.-4. It is also denominated common faith; common to all the regenerate. Tit. i. 4. — 5. It is true, real, and ijnfeigned. Acts viii. 37 ; Rom. x. 10..— 6. It cannot be finally lost as to the grace of it, FhU. i. 6; Luke xxii. 32. — 7. It is progressive, Luke xvii. 5 ; 2 Thess. i. 3. — 8. It appropriates and realizes, or, as the apustle says, isttbe substance of things hoped for, and the evidence of things not seen, Heb. xi. 1. ■ ' The evidences or effects of faith, are, 1. Love to Christ, 1 Pet. i. 8; Gal. v. 6.-2. Confidence, Eph. iii. 13.— 3. Joy, Hom. v. 11 ; PhU. i. 25.— 4. Prayer, Heb. iv. 16. — 5. Attention to his or- dinances, and profit' -by them, Heb. iv. 2. — 6. Zeal in the. promotion of his glory, 1 Cor. xv. 58 ; Gal. vi. 9. — 7. Holiness of heart and lile, Matt vii. 20 ; 1 John ii. 3 ; Acts xv. 9 ; James ii. 18, 20, 23. See articles Assurance and Justifica- tion, in this work; and Polhill on Precious JFJaith ; Lambert's Sermons, 13, 14, &c: ; ScoiPa Nature and Warrant of Faith ; RomaintrsUfe PALL Walk, and Th-iumpk of faith ; Rotherham's Essay an Faith; Dore's Letters on Faith; A. Hall on the Faith and Influence of the Gospel; Goodwin's Works, voK iv. FAITH, ARTICLE OP. See AbTiclb. FAITH, CONFESSION OP. See Con- fession. , FAITH, IMPLICIT. See Implicit Faith. FAITHFULNESS. See Fidelity. FAITHFULNESS, MINISTERIAL. See Pastor. FAITHFULNESS OF GOD, is that per- fection of his nature whereby he infiilUbly fmfils his designs, or performs his word. It appears, says Dr. Gill, in the performance of what he has said with respect to the world in general, that it shall not be destroyed by a flood, as it once was, and for a token of it, has set his bow in the-elouus ; that the ordinances of heaven should keep their due course, which they have done for almost' 6000 years, exactly and punctually ; that all his creatures snould oe supported anil provided ' for, and the elements all made subservieht to that end, which we find do so according to his so- vereign pleasure. Gen. ix ; Isa. liv. 9 j Ps. cxlv; Deut. xt 14, 15) 2 Pet. iii. 3. It appears in thefaMhuent of what he Ibgs said with respect to Christ. Whoever will take the pains to compare the predictions of the birth, poverty, life, sufferings, death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, with the accotnplishment of the same, will find a strUcing demonstration of the faithfulness of God. 3. It appears in the performance of the pro- mises which he has made to his peopjle. In re- spect to temporal blessings, 1 Tini. iv. 8 ; Psal. Ixxxiv. 11 ; Is. xxxiii. 16. — 2. ■ To- spiritual, i Cor. i. 9. In supporting them in temptation, 1 Cor. x. 13. Encouraging them under persecu- tion, 1 Pet. iv. 12, 13; Isa. xli. 10. Sanctifying afflictions, Heb. xii. 4 to 13. Directing them in difficulties, 1 Thess. v. 34. Enabling them to rirsevere, Jer. xxxi. 40. Bringing them to glory, John ii. 35. 4. It appears in the fiilfilling of his threaten- ings. The curse came upon Adam according as it was threatened. He fUfilled his threatening to the o\fi world in destroying it. He declared that the Israelites shonld be subject to his awfiil displeasure, if they walked not in his ways ; it was accordingly fuifllled, Deut. xxviii. See Im- MDT.4Bil.ITy; FALL OP MAN, the loss of those perfec- tions and (hat hiappiness which his Maker be- stowed on him at nis creation, through transgres- sion of a positive command, given for the trial of man's obedience, and as a token of his holding esrery thing oT God, as Lprd paramount of the cteation, with the use of every thing in it, exclu- eive of the fruit of one tree. This positive law he -broke by eating the forbidden fruit; first the woman, then the man : and thus the condition or law of the covenant being broken, the covenant itself was broken. The wpman was enticed by mj evil genius, under the semblance of a serpent, as appears from its reasoning the woman into the transgression of the law, of which a brute beastis^ incapable. Hence tjie evil genius is called A mur- derer and a li»r from the beginning, John viii. 44. Rom. v. 13 j the old serpent. Rev. xii. 9. xx. 3. Moses relates this history, from what appeared eitemally to sense: both, therefore, are to be 143 PALL conjoined, the serpent as the instnjment, and the devil as the primary cause. Man suffered him- self to be seduced by perverse and confiised po- tions of'good and evil, prompted by a desire of q greater degree pf perfection, and swayed by his sensual app^titej m contradiction to his rea^ofli Gen. iii. g. Atifi thus it appears possible, how, notwithstaiidinj the divine in}^B ^ith which man is aSorned, he might fall ; for, though inclu- ding in it knowledge, it did not exclude from it confused notions, whiph are those arising fi-fln} sense an^ imagination, especially when off out guard and v^tenti\e, blindly fpllpwing the pie- sent imp;$ssioii. From this one sin arose an- other, and then another, from the connexion pf causes and effepts, till thi^ reppti^ipn brougtit on a habit of siuj consequently, a state of moral sla- very ; called by divines a death in sin, a spiritual death, a defect of power to act accprding to the Jaw, and from the motive of the divine perfectioDs^ as death in general is such a defect of power of action ; and this dl^fect or inability, with all its consequences, man entailed on his posferity^ re- maining upon'thepi, till one greater monremov? this, and reinstate them in all they forfeited U) Ad9.m. • In -the. fall of mail we may observe, 1. TIib greatest infidelity. — 3. Prpdigipu? pride.— 3. Ho> rid. ingratitude. — 4. Visible contempt of Gqd'a majesty and justice. — 5. Unaccountaljte foljy.r- 6. A ^eriuelty to himself and to all his posteqt}^ Infidels, however, liave treated theaccoui}); of jjie falj and ite effects, witjj contempt, and considered tlje whole as abs|md ; but their objections to the maimer b^ye been ably answered by a variety of authors; and as to the effects, f^ne wpujd hardly thick ,aBy body co^ddeny. For^ that man is a Jallejk.creature, is evident, if we consider his mi- sery as aji inhabitant pf tlie natural world'; the disorder^ of the keeping due bounds in cxpences; it is the happy mean between parsi- mony on the one hand, and prodigality on the other, The example of Christ, John.vi. 12; the injunctions of Gqd's word, Luke xv. 1. Prov. xviii. 9; the evil effects of inattention to it, Luke xi. 1, 13 ; the peace and comfort which arise from it, together with the good which it enables us to dootners, should operate as motives to excite us to the practice of it. Wood's Serm. on fru- gality, 1795 ; Robinson's Mar. Ex. ex. 3 ; Ridg- leifa Body of Div. .546, 3d edition. FUNERAL RITES, ceremonies accompa- nying the interment or burial of any person. The first people who seemed to have paid any attention to their dead were the Egyptians. They took great care in embalming their bodies, and building proper repositories for them. This gave birth to those wonders of the World, the Egyptian pyramids. On the Heath of any person among them, the parents and friends put on mournfm habits, and abstained from all banquets and en- tertainments. This mourning lasted from fortj FUNERAL to seventy days, during -which time they em- balmed the body. .Before the dead wove allowed to ■ be deposited in the tomb, they underwent a solemn judgment. If any one stepped forth, ac- cused them, and proved that the deoeajsed had led an evil life, the judges pronounced sentence, and thet body was precluded from burial. Even their sovereigns underwent this judicature ; and Dio- dorus Siculms asserts, that many kings had been deprived of the honours of burial, and that the terrors of such a fate had a salutary influence on the virtue of their kings. The funeral rites among the Hebrews were solemn and magniiiceDt. The relations and friends rent their clothes j and it was usual to bend the dead person's thumb into the hand, and Us fasten it in that posture with a string, be- cause the thumb then having the figure of the name of God, they thought the devil would not approach it. They made a funeral oration at the grave, after which they prayed ; then, turning the face of the deceased towards heaven, th^ said, " Go in peace." ' The Gtreeks used to put a piece of money in the mouth of the deceased, which was thought to be the fere over the infernal river : they ab- stained from banquets ; tore, cut, or shaved their hair; sometimes throwing themselves on the ground, and rolling in' the dust; beating their breasts, and even tearing their flesh with their nails. The faneral rites among the Romans were very numerous. — They kept the deceased seven days, and washed him every day with hot water, and sometimes with oil, if possibly he might be revived,, in case he were only in a slumber; and every now and then his friends, meeting, made a honible shout with the same view j but if they found he did not revive, he was dressed and em- balmed, with a performance of a variety of sin- gular ceremonies, and at last brought to the fune- ral pile, and burnt ; after which his ashes were gathered, inclo timents on the points of dispute between the sy nod and him. This appeal from the synod being referred to the commission cf assembly, they, after hearing his speech in defence (published m his Works, vol. i.) affirmed the sentence of deposi- tion prououn'xd by the synod. Notndthstanding this deposition, Mj. Glas cortinued the exercise of hb ministry, though depnycd of his stipend, and not only jireacheuoccasionally in most of, the nrincipal towns of Scotland, but erected churches, GNOSTICS wliorever he found a compclenf number of per- sons who adopted and coincided with his opinions. In vindication of this course he alleged, that his conduct in this matter was the legitimate conse- quence of the principles he had embraced, and until those princijiles were refuted by fair reason- ing, it Was not to be cxiiecteil that the sentence of the synod could loose him from the obligation laid upon him by the law of Christ to preach the fospef. Soon ailer the erection of the church at )undee, smaller congregations were put into diurch order at different places j such as Edin- burgh, Perthj Montrose, Aberdeen, Glasgow, Paisley, Sic. Glas, as hfis been observed, pubi lished a variety of tracts and treatises at different periods, all of them discovering talents of the highest order ; and among others who were led By the force of his arguments to adopt his pecu- har views, was a Mr. Robert Sandeman, ori- ^ally educated and destined for the ministry of the established church, who having embraced Mr. Glas's principles, was soon after ordained an elder of the church at Perth, from whence he af- terwards moved to Edinburgh. He soon entered warmly into controversy with Mr. Herveyand others, and became more conspicuous than his master, and in some points has evidently pushed Mr. Glas's peculiar sentiments to 9. greater ex- treme than he ever carried them, if we may jiidge from his published worjtsj For the distinguishing doctrinal tenets usually ascribed to the Glassites, ' see the article on Sandemanism. Adam's jRe- Ugious World Displayed, vol. iii. — B. GLORY, praise, or honour, attributed to God, in adoration or worship. The state of felicity prepared for the righteous. See Heaven. , The glory of God is the majiifestBitibri of the divine perfections in creation, providence, anii grace. We may he said to give glory to God when we confess our sins, when we love him su- premely, when we commit ourselves to him, are zealous in his service, improve pur talents. Walk humbly, thankfully, and cheerfully before him, and recommeijd, j>roclaim, or set forth his excel- lencies to otherSj.'Jos. vii. 19; Gal. ii. 20; John XV. 8; Ps. 1. 23; Matt. V. 16. GNOSlM ACHI, a name vphich distinguished those in the seventh century Who wpre .professed enemies to the Gnosis ; i, e. the studied know- ledge or science of Christianity, which they rested wholly on good works ; caUlng it a useless labour to seek for Knowledge ill the Scripture. In short, they contended for the practice of morality in all simplicity, and blamed those who aimed at im- proving and perfecting it by a deeper knowledge and insight mto the doctrines and ttiysteries of religion. The Gnosimachi were the Very reverse of the Gnostics. GNOSTICS, (from r»»(rTi».^, kilpwing^ an- dent heretics, famous from the hrst rise ofChris- tianity, principally in the east. It appears from severdl passages of Scripture, particularly 1 John ii. 18 i 1 Tirii. vi. 20 ; Col. ii. 8 ; that many per- sons were infected with the Gnostic heresy in the first century ; though the ' sect did not render itself conspicuous, either for numbers or reputa' tion, before the time of Adrian, when some wri- ters erroneously date its rise. The name was adopted by this sect, on the presumption thatthey were the only persons who had the true know- ledge of Christianity. Accordingly they looked on all other Christians as sunple, ignorant, and 155 GNOSTICS barbarous persons, who explained and mterpr^ ted the sacred writings, in a low, literal, and un- edifying signification. At first, the Gnostics were the only philosophers and wits of those times, who formed for themselves a peculiar sys- tem of theology, agreeable to the philosophy oi Pythagoras and Plato ; to which they accoipmo- dated all their interpretations of Scriptui?e. But Gnostics afterwards became a generical name, comprehending divers sects and parties of here- tics, who rose in the first centuries; and who, though they differed among themselves as to cir- cumstances, yet all agreed m some common prin- ciples. They corrupted the doctrine of the Gos- pel» by a profane mixture of the tenets of the oriented philosophy, concerning the origin of evil and the creation of the World, with its diving truths. Such were the Valentinians, Simonians, Carpocratiaiis, Nicolaitans, &c. Gnostics sometimes also occurs in a good sense, in the ancient ecclesiastical writers, par- ticularly Clemens Alexandrinus, who in the per- son of his Gnostic describes the characters and qualities of a perfect Christian. This point he labours in the seventh book of his Shromiota, where he shows that none but the Gnostic, or learned person, has any true religion. He affirms that, were it possible for the knowledge of God to be separated from eternal salvation, the Gnostic would, make no scruple to choose the knowledge ; and that if God would promise him imjmnity in doing any thing he has once spoken against, or offer him heaven on those terms, he would never alter a whit of Jiis measures. In this Sense the father uses Gnostics, in opposition to ' the heretics of the same name ; affirming that the true Gnostic is grown old in the stu^ . of the holy Scripture, and that he preserves the ortho- dox: doctrme of the apostles, and pf the church; whereas the false Gnostic abajidtms all the apos- toUcal tradiliionsf as imagining himself wiser than the apostles. Gnostics was sometimes also more particulajly used for the successors of the Nicolaitans and CarpocratianS, in the second century, upon their laying aside the names of the first authors. Such as would be thoroughly acquainted with all their doctrines, reveries, and visions, may consult SL IrencEus, Tertidlia/n, Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and St, Epiphanius; particularly the first of these writers, who relates their senlhnents at large, and confutes them. Indeed he dwells more on the Valentinians than any other sect of Gnostics; hut he shows the general principles whereon all their mistaken opinions were found- ed, and the method they followed in explaining Scripture. He accuses them of introducing into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies, i. e. a kind of divine precessions or emanations, which had no bther foundation but ill their own wild imagination. The Gnostics confessed, that these eeons, or emanations, were no where' ex- pressly delivered in the sacred writings ; but lo- oted that Jesus Christ had intimated them in parables to such as could understand them. Th^ built theii theology not only on the Gospels and the epistles of S,t. Paul, but also on the law of Mose^ and the prophets. These last were pe- culiarly sej-vicetble to them, on account of flie allegories and allusions vrith which they abound, which sire capable of different interpretations ; though their doctrine, concerning the creation of. GNOSTICS Ihc world by one or more inferior beings of an evil or imperfect nature, led tbem to deny the divine authority of the books of the Old Testa- ment, which contradicted this idle fiction, and filled them with an abhorrence of Moses and the religion he taught j alleging, that he was actuated by the malignant author of this world, who con- sulted his own gloiy and authority, and not the real advantage of men. Their persuasion that esil resided m matter, as its centre and source, made them treat the body with contempt, dis- courage marriage, and reject the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, and its reunion vnth the immortal spirit. Their notion, that malevolent genii presided in nature, and, occasioned diseases Emd (^amitbs, wars and desolations, induced them to apply themselves to the study of magic, in order to weaken the powers, or suspend the influence of these malignant agents. The Gnos- tics considered Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and inferior to the Father, who came into the world for the rescue and happiness of miserable mortals, oppressed by matter and evil beings ; but they rejected our Lord's humanity, oh the prin- ciple that every tiling corporeal is essentially and intrinsically evil ; and therefore the greatest part of them denied the reality of his suflFerings. They set a great value on the beginning of. the Gospel of St. John, where they fancied tney'saw a great deal of their sons, or emanations, under the terms, the word, the life, the light, &c. They divided all nature into three kinds of beings, viz. hylic^ or material; psychic, or animal; and pneumatic, or spiritual. On the like principle they also distinguished three sorts of men^ mate- rial, animal, and spiritual. The first, who were material, and incapable of knowledge, inevitably perished, both soul and body; the Siird, such as the Gnostics themselves pretended to be, were all certainly saved ; the psychic, or animal, who were the middle between the other two, were capable either of being saved or damned, according to their good or evil ^cddns. With regard to their moral doctrines and conduct, they were much divided. The greatest part of this sect adopted very austere rules of life, recommended rigorous abstinence, and prescribed severe bodily mortifi- cations, with a view of purifying and exalting the mind. However, some maintained that there was no moral difference in human actions ; and thus confounding right with wrong, they gave a loose rein to all the passions, aiid asserted the innocence of following blindly all their morons, and of living by their tumultuous dictates. — They supported their opinions and practice by various authorities : some referred to fictitious and apocryphal writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroas- ter, Clmst, and bis apostles ; others boasted that they had deduced their sentiments from secret doctrines of Christ, concealed from the viilgar ; others affirmed that they arrived at superior de- grees of wisdom by an innate vigour of mind; and others asserted that they were instructed in these rnysterious parts of theological science by Theudas, a disciple of St, Paul) and by Matthias, one of the friends of our Lord. The tenets of the ancient Gnostics were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by a sect called the Priscil- lianists. At length the name Gnosfe, which originally was glorious, becanie infamous,,.by the idle opinions and dissolute lives of the person^ who boie it. 156 GODLINESS GOD, the self-existent, infinitely perfect, and infinitely good Being who created and preserves all things that have existence. As the Divine Being possesses a nature far beyond the compre- hension of ai>y of his creatures, of course that iiai- ture is inexplicable. " All our knowledge of in- visible objects is obtained by analogy ; that is, by the resemblance which they hear to visible objects j but as there is in nature no exact resemblance oi the nature of God, an attempt to explain the dir vine nature is absurd and impracticable. All si- militudes, therefore, which are used in attempting to explain it, must be rejected." Yet, though we cannot fully understand "his nature, there (g some- thing of him we may know. He hath been pleased to discover his perfections, in a measure, by the works of creation and the Scriptures of truth ; these, therefore, we ought to study, in order thajt we may .obtain the most becoming thoughts of him. For an account of the various attributes or perfections of God, the reader is referred to those articles in this work. There are various names given to the Al- mighty in the Scriptures, though, properly speak- ing, he can have no name j for as he is incom- prehensible, he is not nominable ; and being but one, he has no need of a name to distinguish nim ; nevertheless, as names are given him in the Scrip- ture, to assist our ideas of Tiis greatness and per- fection, they are worthy of our consideration. These names are El, which denotes him the strong and powerful God, Gen. xvii. 1. Eloah, which represents him as the only proper object of worship, Psal. xlv. 6, 7. ShadHai, which de- notes him to be the all-sufficient and almighty, Exod. vi. 2. JHheJejon, which represents his in- comparable excellency, absolute supremacy over all, and his peculiar residence in the highest hea- vens, Psalm. 1. 1 1. Adoni, which makes him the great connecter, supporter, lord( and judge, of all creatures, Psal ex. 1. Jah, which may dciiote his self-existence, aiid giving of being to his creatures, or his infinite comeliness, and answerableness to himself, and to the happiness of his creatures, Exod. XV. 2. Ehjeh, I am, or / will be, denotes his self-existence, absolute indepepdency, immu- table eternity, and all-sufficiency to his people, Exod. iii, 14. Jehovah, which denotes his selfr existence, absolute independence, unsuccessive eternity, and his eflfectual and marvellous giving of being to his creatures, and fiilfilling his pro- mises. Gen. ii. 4, &c. In the New Testament, God is called Kurios, or Lord, which denotes his self-existence, and his establishment of, and authority over all things ; and Theos, which represents him as the maker, pervader, and governing observer of the universe. GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS, persons, who, at the baptism ofinfants, answer for their future conduct, and solemnly promise that they will renounce the devil and all his works, and follow a life of piety and virtue ; and by these means lay themselves under an indispensable obligation to instruct them, and watch over their condubt. GODLINESS, strictly taken, is right worship or devotion: but in general it imports the whole of practical relipon, 1 Tim. iv. 8 ; 2 Pet. i. 6. It is difficult, as Saurin observes, to include an ade- quate idea of it in what is called a definition. " It supposes knowledge, veneration, affection, de- pendence, submission, gratitude,- and obedience ,> or it may be reduced to these four ideas ; kruno- GOODNESS ledge in themind, by which it isdistiMuished from the visions of the superatitious; recHtiMe inrthecoil- science, that distinguishes it from hypocrisy j saeri- ^cein the life, or renunciation of the world, by which It is distinguished from the unmeaning oliedience of him who goes as a happy constitution leads him ; and, lastly, xeal >n the heart, which differs from the languishing emotions of the lukewarm." The advantages of this disposition are honour, peace, safety, usefulness, support in death) and prospect of glory ; or, as the apostle sums up all m a few words, "It is profitable unto all things, having the promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come," ITim. iv. 8. Saurin's Serm. vol. V. ser. 3. Eng. trans. ; Barrow's Works, vol. L p. 9 ; Scotfs Ohristian life ; Scorugal'a lAfe of God in the Sovi of Man. GOOD, in general, is whatever increases plea- sure, or diminishes pain in us ; or, which amounts to the same, whatever is able to procure or preserve to us the possession of agreeable sensations, and remove those of an opposite nature. Moral good denotes the right conduct of the several senses and passions, or their just proportion and accom- modation to their respective objects and rela- tions. Physical good is that which has either generally, or for any particular end, such qualities as are ex- pected or desiredi GOOD FRIDAY, a fast of the Christian diuich, in memory of the sufferings and death of Jesus Christ. It is obterved on the Friday in Passion Week, and it is called, by way of emi- nence, good ; because of the 'good effects of our Saviour's sufferings. Among,the Saxons it was called Long Friday; but for what reason does not Ecppear, except on account of the* Ions fasting and \oDB offices then used. See Holy Days. GOODNESS, the fitness of a thing to pro- duce any particular end. Perfection, kindness, bdicvoldicc ' GOODNESS OF GOD, relates to the abso- lute perfection of hb owii nature, and his kindness mamfested to his creatures. Goodness, says Dr. Gill, is essential to God, without which he would not be God, Exod. xxxiii. 19. xxxi^. 6, 7. Good- ness belongs only to God, he is solely good. Matt. xix. 17 ; and all the goodness found in creatures is only an emanation of the divine goodness.. Heis the chief good ; the sum and substance of all feu's city, Ps. cxliv. 12, 15 ; Ixxiii. 25 j iv. 6, 7. There is nothing but goodness in God, and nothing but goodness corned from him, 1 John. i. 5 ; James i. 13, 14. He is infinitely good ; finite minds can- not comprehend his goodness, Rom. xi. 35, 36. He is immutably and unchangeably good, Zeph. iii. 17. The goodness of Goa b communicative and diffusive, Ps. cxix. 68; xxxiii. 5. With re-i spect to 'the objects of it, it may be considered as general and special. His general, goodness is seen in all his creatures : yea, in the inanimate creation, the sun, the earth, and all his works ; and in the government, support, and protection of (he world at large, Ps. xxxvi. 6. cxlv. His special goodness relates to angels and saints. To angels, m creating, confirming, and making them what they are. To saints, m election, calling, justifi- cation, adoption, sanctificatidn, perseverance, and etetnal glorification. Gill's Body of Div. vol. i. p. 133. 8vo. ed. ; Chamock'B Works, vol., i. p. 574 ; Foley's Nat. Theol. ch. 26 ; Smith's admirable Sermon on this Subject, vol. viii. ser. 3 ; TUlot- 157 ' GOVERNMENT son's Serm. ser. 143^146; Ahemetiiy's Serm. vol. i. No. 2. GOSPEL, the revelation of the grace of God to fallen man through a mediator. It is taken also for the histoiy of the life, actions, death, re^ surrectjon, ascension, and doctrine of Jesus Christ. The word is Saxon, and of the samejmport with the Latin evangelium, which signifies glad tidings or good nevvs. It is called the Gospel of his Grace, because it flows from his free love, Acts XX. 24; The Gospel qf the kingdom, as it treats of the kingdoms of grace and glory. The Gospel of Christ, because he is the, author and subject of it, Rom. i. 16. The Gospel of peace and salvcition, as it promotes our present com- fort, and leads to eternal glory, Eph. i, 13 ; vi. 15 Thoglorious Gospel, as in it the glorious perfec- tions of Jehovah are displayed, 2 Cor. iv. 4. The everlasting Cfespd,'a$ it was designed from eter- nity, is permanent ill time, and the effects of if eternal. Rev. xiv. 6. There are about thir^ or forty apocryphal Gospels ; as the Gospel of St. Peter, of St. Andrew, of St. Barnabas, the eter- nal Gospel, &c. &c. &c.: but they were never received by the Christian church, being evidently fabulous and trifling. See Christianity. GOSPEL CALL. See Calling. GOSPEL A LAW. It has been disputed whether the Gospel consists merely of promisee, or whether it can^n any sense be called a law. The answer plainly depends upon adjusting the meaning of the words Gospel and law : n the Gospel be taken for tlie declaration God has made to men by Christ, concerning the manner in which he will treat them, and the conduct he expects from them, it is plain .that this includes commands, and even threatenings, as well as pro- mises j but to define the Gospel so, as only to ex- press the favourable part of that declaration, is indeed taking the question for granted, and con- fining the word to a sense much less extensive than It often has in Scripture : compare Rom. ii 16; 3 Thess. i. 8; 1 Tim. i. 10, 11; and it is certain, that, if the Gospel be put for all the parts of the dispensation taken in connection one with another. It may well be called, on the whole, a good message. In like manner the question, whether the Gospel be a law or not, is to be ditisi-' mined by tlie definitioii of the law and of the Ghispel, as above. If law signifies, as it gene- rally does, the discovery of the will 6f a superioi^ teaching what he requires of those under his go- vernment, with the intimation of his intention of dispensing rewards and punishments, as this rule of their conduct is observed or neglected j in this latitude of expression, it is plain, from the proposition, that the Gospel, taken for the decla- ration made to men by Christ, is a law, as in Scripture it is sometimes cftUed, James i. 25; Rom. iv. 15 ; viii. 2. But if law be taken, in the greatest rigour of the expression, for such a dis- covery of the, will of God, and our duty, as to contain in it lio intimation of our obtaining the Divine favour otherwise than by a perfect and universal conformity to it, in that sense the Gos- pel is not a law. See Neonomians. Witsius on Cov. vol. iii. ch. 1 ; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 172 ; iVatts's Orthodoxy and Charity, essay 2. GOVERNMENT OF GOD, is the dUposai of his creatures, and all events relative to them, accftrdina to his infinite justice, power, and wis- dom. His moral government is his rendering tc GRACE every man according to his actions, considered as good or evil. See Dominion and Sovekeigntv. GRACE. There are various senses in which this vrori is used in Scripture ; but the general idea of it, as it related to God, is his free favour and love. As it yespects men, it implies the happy state of reconciliation and favour with God whereitt they stand, and the holy endovy- (nents, qjialites, or hahits of faith, hope, love, &c,,, which they possess. Divines have distinguished 2race into ccnmnon or general^ special eft particu- lar. Comimm grace, if it may be so called, is what ail men have; as the light of nature and reason, convictions of conscience, &c., Hom. ii. 4 ; 1 Tim. iv. 10> Special grace, is that which is peculiar to some people only j such as electing, redeeming, justifying, pardomng, adopting, esta- blishing, and sanctifying grace, Rom- "viii. Sbi This special .Jrace is by some distinguished into imputed and mherent : imputed grace consists in the holiness, obedience, and rignteousness of Christ, imputed to us for our justification ; inhe- remt gidtcii is what is wrought in. the heart by the Spirit of God in regeneration. Grace is also said to be irresistible, efficacious, and viqtorious ; not but that there are in human nature, in the first moments of conviction, seme struggles, opposi- tionj or conflict; but by these terms we are to understand, that, in the end, victory declares for the grace of the Gospel. There have bee'ij many otlier distinctions of grace ; but as tb^ are of too frivolous a nature, and are now obsolete, they need not a place here. Growth in grace is the prosress we make in the' divine life. It' discovers Itself by an increase of spnitual light and know- ledge j by our renouncing sdf, and depending more upon Christ; by growing more spiritual in duties; by being more hmqble, submissive, and thankful; by rising superior to the corruptions of our nature, and finding the power of sin more weakened in us;, by being less attached to the world, and possessing more of a heavenly disposi- tion. M'Laurin's Essays, essay 3 ; Gill's Body qf Div. vol. i. p. 118, Doddmdjg^s Led. part viji. prop. 139; Pike aid Haywwrd's Cases of OMscience ; Sa'afin on Rom. ix. 26, 27. vol. iv.j Booth's Reign of Grace. GRACE AT MEALS, a short prayer, im- ploring the divine blessing on our food, and ex- pressive of gratitude to Gc3 for supplying ournp> cessities. The propriety of this act is evident from the divine command, 1 Thess. v. 18 ; 1 Cor. X. 31 ; 1 Tim. iv. 5. Prom the conduct of Christ, Mark viii. 6, 7. Froin reason itself; not to luention that it is a custom practised by inost nations, and even not neglected by heathens themselves. The English, however, seem to be very deficient in this (Uity. As to the manlier in which it ought to be per- formed, as Dr. Watts observes, we ought to have a due regard to the occasion, and the persons pre- sent; the neglect of which hath been attended with indecencies and indiscretions. Sofne have used theinsfllves to mutter a few words with so low a voice, as though by some secret charm they were to consecrate me food alone, and there was no need of the rest to Join with them in the peti- tions. Others have broke out into so violent a aOund, as though they were bound to make a thousand peorie hear them. Some perform this part of vfptsu p with so s^ht and familiar an air, as thougli they bad no sense of the great GREEK God to whom they speak; others have put on an unnatural solemnity, and changed their natu- ral voice into so different and awkward a tone, not without some c^stortions of countenance, that have tempted strangers to ridicule. It is the custom of some to hurry over a single sentence or two, and they have dbne, before half j;he company are prepared to lift up a thought tt) heaven. AnS some nave been just heard to be- speak a blessing on the church and the king, but seem to h?ive forgot' they Tvere asking God to bless their fbod, or giving thariks for the' food they have received. Others, again, make a long praj'er, and, among a multitude of other petition^ do not utter one that relates to the table befoW them. The general rules of prudence, together with a due (Observation of the custbm of the place where we live, would correct all these disorders, and teach us that a few sentences suited to the occa- sion, spoken with an audible and proper voice, are sufficient for this purpose, especially if any strangers are present. Wntt^s Works, Oct. edi- tion, vol. iv. p., 160 ; Lavfs Serious Call, p. €b ; iScecPs Post. Ser.v. 1*^4- GRATITUDE, is that pleasant affectioii of the mind which arises froih a sense of favbujs received, and by which the possessor is excited to make aU the returns of love and service in his power. "Gratitude," says Mr. Cogan (in his fTreatise ori the Passions, J "is the povt'erftil i^ action of a well-disposed nlind,'upon whom bene- volence has confei'red some important good. It is mostly connected with an impressive sense of the amiable disposition of the person by whbm the benefit is conierf ed, and it iWmedia'tiMy pro- duces a personal affectiott towards- him. Wo fehall not wpijder at /the peculiar strength and energy of this affection, wheh we consider that it is compounded of lone placed upon the good communicated, affection for the donor, and joy at the reception. Thus it has goodness for its ob- ject, aiid the most pleasing, perhaps unexpected, exertions of goodness for its immediate cause. Thankfulness refers to verbal expressions of gratitude." See Thankedlness. GRAVITY, is that seriousness of mind, ■united with dignity of behaviour, 'that commands veneration anifrespect. See Dr. Watts'^ admi- jrabie Sermon oh Gramty, set. 23, vol. i. GREATNESS OF GOD, is the infinite glory and excellency of all his perfections. His Breatjiess apmatrS by the attributes he possesses, iDeut. xxxii; 3, 4; the works he hath made. Pa. jxix. 1 ; by the awful and benign providences he displays, Ps; xcvii. 1, 2; the great effects he praJuces by his word. Gen. i. ; the constant en- ergy he manifests in the existence and support of all his creatures, Ps. cxlv. ; and the everlasting provision of glory made for his people, 1 Thess. IV. 17. Tills greatness is of himsfelf, and not de- rived, Ps. xxi. 13 ; it is infinite. Pa. cxlv. 3 ; n6t diminished by -exertion, but vrill always remain ;tHe same, Mai. KL 6. The considerations of his greatness should' eicite veneration, Ps. Ixxxix. 7; admiration, Jer. ix. 6, 7; humility. Job xiiii 5, 6; dependence, Is. xxvi. 4; submission, Job i. 22; obedience, Deut. iv. 39, 40. See AttAi- BDTEs, and bool^ under that article. GREEtK CHURCH conjpi'ehehds in its bo- som a considerable part of Greece, the Grecian' Isles, -Wallachia, Moldavia, Egypt^ ^byssiSiia, GREEK Nubia, Libya, Arabia^ Mesopotaima, SyMBi Cifi- da, and Palcstiiiei which are all bnder the juris- diction of the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alex- andria, Antiocli, and Jerusalem. If to these we add the whole of the Russian empire in Europe, great part of Siberia in Asia, Astracan, Gasan, and Gfeorgia, it will be evident that the Grreek church hag a. wider extent of territory than the Latin, with all the branches which have sprijng from it J and that it is with great impropriftty that the church of Rome is csuled by her mem- bers the catholic or universal church. That in these vfidely distant countries the professors of Christianity arc agreed in ,every minute article of' belief, it would he rash to assert;' but there is cerlaiiJf such an agretenemt amang thfeiiij with resptet both to faith and to discipline, that they mutually hold communion with each dtherj and are, in tact, but one church. It is caQed the Greek church, in oontradistimclion to the Latin or Roman church; as also the Eastern, in dis- tinction from the Western Church. We shall here present the reader with a view of its rise, tenets, and disdpline. 1.' Greek ihUrcki rise and septtte^idn of. The Greek church is considered as a separation from the Latin. In the middle of the ninth centuty, the controversy relating to the procession of the Holy Ghost (which hail been Started in the sixth century) became a poiiit of gfeat importance, on account of the jealousy and' ambition whicb at that time Were blended ^th it: fhotins, the patriareh of Jerusalem, having been advanced to that see in the room of Ignatius,' whom he pro- cured to be deposed, was solemnly excommuni- cated by pope Nicholas, in a council held at Rome, and his ordination declared.nuU and void. The Greek emperor resented this conduct of the iwpe, who defended himself vdth great spirit and. lesolution. PhOtius, in his turn, convened what lie called an. '(Ecumenical council, in which he |itonounced sentence of excommunication atid deposition against the pope, and got it 'subscribed 'ly twenty-one bishops and others, affloUBting in lumber to a thousand. This occasioned a vnde breach between the sees df Rome and Constan- tinople'. However, the . death off the emperor Michaely and the deposition of PhotitiSj Subse- quent thereupon, seemed to have restbred peace ; for the empMor Basil held a council latConstttn- tinople in the year 869, in Which entire satisfeo-' lion was given to pope Adrian ; but the schism was only smothered and suppressed a while. The Greek chunih had several complaints against the Latin; partipularly it was thought a great' hajsl- ship for .the Greeks to subscribe to the definition of a council according to the Roman 'form, pre- scribed by the pope, since it made the church of Constantinople dependent on that of Rome, and set 'the pope above an oecumenical council; but, above all, the pride and haughtiness of the Ro- man court gave the Greeks a ^eat 'distaste ; and as their deportment seemed to instdt his imperial majesty, it entirely alienated fee afifections ofthe Emperor Basil. Towards the' nuddle of the 'eleventh cttitury, Michael Cferularius, patriarch of Constantinople, opposed the Latins with re- spect to their nraking use of unleavened bread in the eucharist, their observation of the sabbath, and fasting on Saturdays, 'charging them with living in commuiiion With the Jews. To this pope Leo IX. replied; amd, in his apdlogy for the 159 GREEK Latins, decltdmed very warmly against the falM ■doctrine of the Greeks, and interposed, at the same time, the authority of "his see. He likewiMi by his legates, excommunicated the pa;triarch in tlie church of Santa Sophia, which gave the last shock to the reconciUation attempted a long time after, but to nopurpose ; for from that time the hatred of the Greeks to the Latins, and of the Latins to the Greeks, became insuperably inso- much that they have Continued ever since sepa?- rated from each other's communion. II. Greek church, tenets of. The fallowing hel church: — They disown the authority of the pope, and deny that the chtirch of Rome is the true catholic chureh. They do not baptize their chiit dren till they are three, four, five, six, ten, nay sometimes eighteen years of age ; baptism is peii- formed by trihe immersion. They insist that the sacrament of the Lord's Supper ought to be ad^ ministered in both kinds, and they give the sacrik- ment to children immediately after baptism. They grant no indulgences, nor do they lay any claim to the character of inMlibility, like the church of Rdme, They deny that there is any sUch plAcv as purgatory ; notwithstanding they pray fot thf desid, tnait 'God would have mercy on thehi at the general judgment. They practise the invocation of saints; though j they say, they do not invoke them as deities, but as intercessors with God; They exclude confirmation, extreme unction, and matrimony, out ofthe seven sacraments. They de» ny auricular confession to be a divine precept; and- say it is only a positivie iinjiunctien Of tto cnwrdl. They pay no ireligidiisi'lissmage to the Eucharist They admi'nister the communion in both kinds to the laity, both in sickness and in health, though they have never applied themselves to their con- ■fessorS ; because they are persuaded that a lively faith is all which is requisite for the worthy receiving of the Lord's Supper. They maintain that the Holy Ghost proceeds only from the Fa- ther, and , not from file Son. They believe in predestination. ■ They adndt of no images in re- lief or embossed work, but use paintmgs and sculptures in copper or alver; They approve of the marriagp of priests, provided they enter into that state before their admission into holy orders. They condemn all fourth marriages. They ob- serve a number of holy daysi and keep four fasta in the year more solemn than the rest, of which the fast in Lent, before Easter, is the chieC They believe the doctrine of consubstantiation, or the union of the body of Christ with the sa- cramental bread. III. Greek chwrch, state and disdipSme qfi Since the Greeks became subjei^ tothe Tiukish^ yoke, they have sunk into the ^most deplorehls Ignorance, in consbqOence of the slaiieiy and thraldom under which they gi- Ugion is now greatly cormptedi It is; indeed, little better than a heap of ndicidoa^'GeremonieB' and absurdities. The'Jhead of the'Greek church is the patriarch of Constantinople, who is chosen by the 'neighbouring archbishops and metTopoli> tain^antf confirmed by the etopfiror-or grand viziei. He is a person of great dignity, beingths head and director of the EastOFn cliuichi The other patriarchs aire those of Jerusalein, Antioeh, and Alexandria. Mr. Tournefort tells us, that the patriarchates are now generally set to sale; and bestowed upon thoscwho are tie highest bidden. H^RETICO The patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops, are always chosen from among the calo- ycrs, or Greek monks. The next person to a bishop, among the clergy, is an arcnimandrite, who IS the durector of one or more convents, which are called mandren j then come the abbot, the arch-priest, the priest, the deacon, the under- Jeacon, the chanter, and the lecturer. The secu- lar clergy are subject to no rules, and never rise higher than high-priest. The Greeks have few nunneries, but a great many convents of monks, who are aU priests, and (students excepted) obUged to follow some handicrafl employment, and lisad a very austere life. The Russians adhere to the doctrine and cere- monies of the Greek church, though they are now independent on the patriarch of Constantinople. The Russian church, indeed, may be reckoned the first, as to extent of empire ; yet there is very little of the power of vital religion among them. The Roskolniki, or, as they now call themselves, the Starovertzi, were a sect that separated from the church of Russia about 1666 : they aifected extraordinary piety and devotion, a veneration for the letter of the Holy Scriptures, and would not allow a priest to administer baptism who had that day tasted brandy. They harboured many follies and superstitions, and have been greatly persecuted; but, perhaps, there vrill be found among them " some that shall be counted to the Lord for a generation." Several settlements of G«rman Protestants have been established on the Wolga. The Moravians also have done good in Livonia, and the adjacent isles in the Baltic .un- der the Russian government. See Moaheim, HiERETICO Gregory, and Haweis'a Church History ; King't Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church in Russia; The Russian Catechism; Secret Me- moirs of the Court of Petersburgh; Tooke'e' History of Russia ; Ricaut's State of the Greei Church; Enc. Brit. GROWTH IN GRACE. See Grace. GUARDIAN ANGEL. " Some," says Dr. Doddridge, "have thought, that not only every region but every man has some particular angel assigned him as a gua/rdian, whose business it is. generally to watch over that country or person ; For this opinion they urge Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15. But the argument from both these places is evidently precarious ; and it seems difficult to reconcile the supposition of such a contiiAied at- tendance with what is said of the stated residence of these angels in heaven, and with Heb. i. 14, , where all the angels are represented as minister- ing to the heirs of salvation : though, as there is great reason to believe the number of heavenly spirits is vastly superior to that of men upon earth, it is not improbable that they may, as it were, relieve each other, and in their turns per- form these condescending* services to those whom the Lord of Angels has been pleased to redeem with his own blood; but we must confess that our knowledge of the laws and orders of those celestial beings is very limited, and consequently that it is the part of humility to avoid dogmatical determinations on sUch heads as these." See Angel ; and Doddridg^s Lectures, lee. 212. GUILT, the state of a person justly charged with a crime ; a consciousness of having dohe amiss. See Sin. H. HABIT, a power and ability of doing any thins, acquired by frequent repetition of the name action. It: is distinguished from custom. Custom respects the action; habit the actor. By custom we mean a frequent reiteration of the rnrne act ; and by habit the effect that custom has jn the mind or body. " Man," as one observes, "is a bundle of habits. There are habits of in- dustry, attention, vigilance, advertency; of a prompt obedience to the judgment occurring, or of 'yielding to the first unpulse of passion ; of apprehending, methodizing, reasoning ; of vanity, melancholy, fretfulness, suspicion, covetousness, &c. In a word, there is not a quality or function, either of body or mind, which does not feel the influence of this great law of animated nature." To cure evil hab^, we should be as early as we can in our application, prindpiis obsta ; to cross and mortify the incUnation by a frequent and ob- stinate practice of the contrary virtue. To form good habits, we should get our minds well stored with knowledge j associate with the wisest and best men ; reflect much on the pleasure good ha- bits are productive of; and, above all, supplicate the Divine Being for direction and assistance. Kaimesfs El. of Crit. ch. xiv. vol.i; Groves Wor.PhU.ml i. p. 143; Palei/s Mar. Phil. rol. i. p. 46 ; J&rtin an Bad Habits, ser. 1. vol. ii; Reid on the Active Powers, p. 117; Cogan m the Passions^ p. 235. HiERETlCO COMBURENDO, a writ which anciently lay against an heretic, who, hav- 160 ing once been convicted of heresy by his bishopi and having abjured it, afterwards falling into it again, or into some other, is thereupon committed to the secular power. This writ is thought by some to be as ancient as the common law itself; however, the conviction of heresy by the com- mon law was not in any petty ecclesiastical court, but before the archbishop himself, in a provincial synod, and the delinquent was delivered up to the king, to do vrith him a^ he pleased ; so that the crown had a control over the spiritual power ; but by 2 Henry IV. cap. 15, the diocesan alone, without the intervention of a synod, might con- vict of heretical tenets;- and unless the convict abjured his opinions, or if, after abjuration, he relapsed, the sheriflT was bound, ex officio, if re- <]^uired by the bishoj), to commit the unhappy vic- tim to the flames, without waiting for the consent of the crown. This writ remained in force, and was actually executed on two Anabaptists, in the seventh of Elizabeth, and on two Arians m the ninth of James I. Sir Edward Coke was of opinion that this writ did not lie in his time ; but it is now formally taken away by statute 29 Car;. II. cap. 9. But this statute does not extend to take away or abridge the jurisdiction of Pro- testant archbishops, or bishops, or any other judges of any ecclesiastical courts, in cases ot atheism, blasphemy, heresy, or schism ; but the^ may prove and punish the same, according to his majesty's ecclesiastical laws, by excommunicar tion, deprivation, degradation, and other ecde- HARMONY mastical censures, not extending to death, in sueh sort, and no other, as they might have done be- fore the making of this act. HAGIOGRAPHI A, a name Mven to part of the hooka of the Scriptures, call^ by the Jews; cetuvim. See article Bible, sec. 1. HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE, a conference ^|)otnted by James I, at Hampton dourt, in 1603, in order to settle the disputes be- tween the church and the Puritans. Nine bishops, and as many dignitaries of the church, appeared on one side, fina four Puritan ministers on the other. It lasted for three days. Neale cails it a mock conference, because all things were pror ^usly concluded between the king and the bishops ; and the Puritans borne downj not with calm reason -and argument, but with the royal authority, the king being both judge and party. The proposals and remonstrances of the Puritans may be seen in Nealefs History qf the Puritans, ch. 1. part ii. HAPPINESS, absolutely taken, denotes the ^durable possession of perfect good, without. any mixture of evil ; or the enjoyment of pure plea- sure unalloyed vrith pain, or a state in whicn all our wishes are satbfied ; in which senses, happin ness is only known by name on this earth. The word happy, when apphed to any state or condi- tion of human life, will admit of no positive defi- nition, but is merely a relative term; that is, when we call a man happy, we. mean that he is happier than some others with whom we compare mm ; than the generality of others,.or than he himself Was in some other situation. Moralists justlyob- serve, that happiness does not consist in the plea- sure of sense : as eating, drinking, music, paints ing, theatric exhibitions; &c. &Ci,. for these Pleasures continue.but a little while, by repetition >se their relish, and by hJgh expectation often bring disappointment. Nor does liappiness con- rast m an exemption from labour, care, business; ^.; such a state being usually attended vrith de- pressipn of spirits, imaginary anxieties, and the whole train of hypoohondrfaJcal affections. Noi IS it to be found m greatness, rank, or elevated stations, as matter of fact abundantly testifies; but happiness consists in the enjoynient of the divine favour, a good conscience, and uniform conduct. In subordination to these, human ha,p- pinesp may be greatly promoted by the exercise of the social affections ; the pursuit of some cut gaging end ; the prudent constitution of the ha- bits; and the enjoyment of our health. Bolton and Imcas ore Happiness ; Henry's Pleasantness of a Jteligiaas Life ; Grove and Paley's Mor. Phil.; Barrow's Ser. ser. 1;, Young's Centaur, 41 to 160 ; Wollaston's Religion of Nature, sec. 3. HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS, a term made use of to denote the concurrence or agree- ment of the writings of the four Evangelists j or the history of the four Evangelbts digested into one continued series. By this means each story or discourse is exhibited with all its concurrent cir- cumstances ; frequent repetitions are prevented, and a multitude of seeming oppositions reconciled. Among some of the most valuable harmonies, are those of Cradoclf, if Clerc, Doddridge, Mac- knight, Newcqmbd, and Townson's able Har- mony on tlie concluding part of the Gospels; Thompson's niatessaron. The term harmony is also used in reference to the agreement which the Gospel bears to natural religion, the Old Tea- 161 ^ V HEARING ment, the history of other nations, and the works of God at large. HASSIDEANS, or Assideans, those Jews who resorted to Mattathias,, to fight for the laws of God and the liberties of their country. They w>ere men of great valour and zeal, having volun- tarily devoted theipselves to a more strict observa- tion of the law than other men. For, after the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, there werp two sorts of men in their churea; those- who contented themselves, with that obe dience only which was prescribed .by the law of Moses, and who were called, ^adikin, i. e. the righteous; and those who,i over and above the laws, superadded the constitutions and traditions of the elders; and other rigorous observances ; these latter were called the Casidim, i. e. the pious. From the former sprang the Samaritans, Sadducees, and Caraites; from the latter, the Pharisees and the Essenes, — which see. HATRED is the aversion of the will'totany object considered by us as evil^ or to any person or thing we suppose can do us harm. See An- tipathy. Hatred is ascribed to God, but isinot to be considered as a passion in him as in man ; nor cain he hate any of the creatures he has made as his creatures. Yet he is said to hate the wicked, Ps. v.j and indignation and wrath, tribulation and anguish, vvill be upon every «oul of man that does evil. See Wh/ith opGon. HATTEMISTS, in ecclesiastical history, the name of a modern Duteh seetj so called fron> Pontian Van Hattem, a minister in the province of Zealand, towards the close of the last century, who, being addicted to the sentiments of Spinosa, was on that account degraded from his pastoral office. The Verschorists and Hattemists re- semble each other in their religious systemjs, though they never so entirely agreed as to form one comrtiunion. The founders of these sects deduced from the doctrine of absolute decrees a system of fatal and uncontrollable necessity ; they .denied the difference between moral good and evil, and the corruption of human nature;. from ,whence they farther concluded, that mankind were Under no sort of obligation to correct theli manners, to improve their minds, or to obey the divine. laws; ma.i the whole of religion consisted not in acting, but in suffering; and that all the precepts of ^esus Christ are reducible to this one, .that we bear with cheerfulness and patience the events that happ^n^ to us through the divine will, find make it our constant and only st%iwy to •mainiaiin a permanent ttanqaiUity of mifn^ Thus far they agreed : but the, Hattemists fur- ther affirmed, that Christ made no expiation for the sins of men 'by his death; but had only sug gested to us, by his mediation, that there was no- thing in us that could offend the Deity : this, they say, was Christ's mamier of justi^mg his ser- vants, and presenting them blameless before the tribunal of God. It was one of their distinguished' . tenets, that (3fod does not punish men for their sins, but by their sins. These two sects, says Mosheim, still subsist, though they no longer bear the name of their founders. HEARING THE WORD OF GOD, is an ordinance of divineappointment;-Rom. x. 17 ; Prov. viii. 4, 5 ; Mark iv. 24, , , Pubhc reading of the Scriptures was a part of synagogue worship. Acts, xiii. 15 ; xv. 21 ; and was the practice of the Christians in primitive o2 HEART timea. ITniler the former dispensation there was a public hearing of the la w at stated seasons, Deut. ixxi. 10, 13 i Neh. viii. 2, 3. It seems, therefore, tliat it is a duty incumbent on us to hear, and, if sensible of our ignorance, we shall also consider it our privilege. As to the manner ofhearijig, it should be constantly, Prov. viii. 34 ; Jam. L 34, 35. Attentively, Luke xxi. 38 j Acts. x. 33; Luke iv. 30, ^2. With reverence, Vs. Ixxxix. 7. With faith, Heb. iv. 3. With an endeavour to retain what we hear, Heb. ii. 1 ; Ps. cxix. 11. With an humJble docile disposition, Luke x. 43. With prayer, Luke xviii. Tlie advantages of hearing are, information, 3 Tim. iii. 16. Con^ viction, 1 Cor. xiv. 24, 35. Acts ii. Conversion, Ps. xi. 7 ; Acts iv. 4. Confirmation, Acts. xiv. 23 J xvi. 5. Consolation, Phil. i. 25. Isa. xl. 1, 2; Isa. XXXV. 3, 4. Stennet's Parable of the Sower ; Massillon's Serm. vol. ii. p. 131, Eng. trans. ; Gill's Body of Div. vol. iii. p. 340, oct. editioQ. HEART is used for the soul, and' all the pow- ers thereof; as the understanding, conscience, ynll, siffections, and memory. The heart of man is natvlrally, constantly, universally, inexpressibly, openly, ajid evidently depraved, andinclined to evil, Jer. xvii. 9. It requires a divine power to reno- vate it, and render it susceptible of right impres- sions, Jer. xxiv. 7. When thus renovated, the effects Will be seen in the temper, conversation; and conduct at large. See Faith, Hope, &c. Hardness of heart is that state in which a sinner is inclined to, and actually goes on in rebellion against God. This state evidences itself by light views of the evil of sin; partial acknowledgment and confession of it : frequent commission of it ; Sride and conceit ; ingratitude ; unconcern about le word and ordinances of God; inattention to divine providences; stifling convictions of con- science ; shunning reproof; presumption, and ge- neral ignorance of divine things. We must ms- tinguish, however, between that hardness of heart which even a good man C!,raplains of, and that of a judicial nature. 1. Judicial hardness is very sel- dom perceived, and never lamented ; a brokenand contrite heart is the least thing such desire ; but it is otherwise with believers, for the hardness they feel is always a matter of griefto them. Rom. vii. 24. — 3. Judicial hardness is perpetual ; or, if ever there be any remorse or relenting, it is only at „such times when the sinner is under some out- ward afflictions, or filled with the dread of the wrath of God ; but as this wears off or abates, his Stupidity returns as much or more than ever. Exod. ix. 27; but true believers, when no adverse dispensations tfouble them, are often distresse|i because their hearts are no more affected in holy duties, or inflamed with love to God, Rom. vii. 15. — 3. Judicial hardness is attended with a total neglect of duties, especially those that are secret ; but that hardness of heart which a believer com- plains of, though it occa.«!ions his going uncom- fortably in duty, yet does not keep him from it. Job. xxiii. 2, 3.-4. When a person is judicially hardened, he makes use of indirect and unwar- rantable methods to maintain that false peace which he thinks himself happy in the enjoyment af ; but a believer^whsn complaining of the hard- ness of his heart, cannot be satisfied vvith anything short of Christ, Ps. ci. 3. — 5. Judicial hardness generally opposes the interest of truth and godli- ness ; but a good man considers this as a cause HEATHEN nearest his heart; and although he have to la ment his lukewarmness, yet he constantly desires to prgmote it. Ps. bcxii. 19. Keeping the heart is a duty enjoined in thu sacred Scriptures. It consists, says Mr. Flavel, in the diligent and constant use and improvement of all holy means and duties to preserve the soul from sin, and maintain communion with God; and this, he properly observes, supposes a previous work of sanctificadon, which hath set the heart right by giving it a new bent and inclination. 1. It includes frequent observation of the frame of the heart, Ps. IxxVii. 6. — 3. Deep humiliation foi heart evils and disorders, 3 Chron. xxxii. 36. — 3. Earnest supplication for heart purifying and rectifying grace, Ps, xix. 13. — 4. A constant holr jealousy over our hearts, Prov. xxN-ii. 14. — 5. It includes the realising of God's presence with us, , and setting him before us, Ps. xvi. 8 ; Gen. xviL 1. This IS, 1. The hardest work; heart work is hard work, indeed. — % Constant work, Exod. x*ii. 12. — 3. The most important work, Prov. xxiii. 26. • TTiis is a duty which should be at- tended to, if we consider ii in connexion with, 1. The honour of God, Is. Ixvi. 3. — 2. The sincerity of our profession, 2 Kings x. 31; Ezek. xxxii. 31, 32. — 3. Thebeautyof our conversation, Prov. xii. 26 ; Ps. xlv. 1. — 4. The comfort of our souls, 2 Cor. xiii. 5. — 5. Theimprovement of our graces, Ps. Ixiii. 5, 6. — 6. The stability of our souls in the hour of temptation, 1 Cor. xvi. 13. The seasons in which we shotild more particularly keep our hearts are, 1. The time of prosperity, Deut. vi. 10, 12. — 2. Under afflictions, Heb. vii. 5, 6. — 3. The time oi' Sion's troubles, Ps. xlvi. 1, 4. — 4. In the time of great and threatening dan- fei. Is. xxvi. 20, 21.^5. Under great wants, 'hil. iv. 6, 7.-6. In the time of duty. Lev. x.3.— 7. Under injuries received, Rom. xii. 17. &c.— 8. In the critical hour of temptation, Matt. xxvi. 41. — 9. Under dark and doubting seasons, Heb, ■nil. 8; Isa. 1. 10. — 10. In time of opposition and suffering, 1 Pet. iv. 12, 13.— 11. The time of sickness and death, Jer. xlix. 11. The means to be made use of to kcep'our hearts, are, 1. Watch- fulness, Mark xiii. 37. — 2. Examination, Prov, iv. 26. — 3. Prayer, Luke xviii. 1. — 4. Reading God's word, John v. 39. — 5. Dependence on di- vine grace, Psalm Ixxxvi: 11. See Flavel on Keeping the Heart ; Jamieson's Sermons on the Heart ; Wright on Self-possession ; Ridgley's Div. qu. 29. HEATHEN, pagans who worshipped false gods, and are not acquainted either witn the doc- trines of the Old Testament or the Christian dis- pensation. For many ages before Christ, the nations at large were destitute of the true religion, and gave themselves up to the grossest ignorance, the mcst absurd idolatry, and me greatest crimes. Eveii the most learned men among the heathens were in general inconsistent, and complied with or promoted the vain customs they found among their countrymen. It was, however, divinely foretold, that in Abraham's seed all nations should be blessed; that the heathen should be gathered to the Saviour, and become his people, Gen. xxii. 18; xlix. 10; Psal. ii. 8; Isa. xiii. 6, 7; Psal. Ixxii. ; Isa. Ix. In order that these promises might be accomplished, vast numbers of the Jews, after the Chaldean captivity, were left scattered among the heathen. The Old Testa- ment vvas translated into Greek, the most com- HEAVEN mon language of the heathen ; and a rumour of the Saviour's appearance in the flesh was spread far and wide among them. When Christ came, he preached chiefly in Galilee, where there were multitudes of G«ntiles. He assured the Greeks that vast numbers of the heathen should be brought into the church. Matt, iv, 23 ; John xii, 20. 34. For 1700 years past the Jews have been aenerally rejected, and the church of God has been composed of the Gentiles. Upwards of 480 millions,' \nearly half the globe,) nowever, are supposed to be yet in pagan darkness. Consider- able attempts have been made of late years for the enlightening of the heathen^ arid there is every reason to bMeve good has been dgne. From the aspect of Scripture prophecy, we ar^ led to ex- pect that the Kingdoms of the heathen at lajige shall be brought to the light of the Gospel, Matt. xxiv. 14; Isa. Ix,; Ps. xxii, 28,, 39; il. 1, 8., It has beE;n much disputed whether it be possible that the heathen should be saved without the knowledge cf the Gospel ; some have absolutely denied it, upon the authority of those texts which universally require faith in Christ,-- but to this it is answered, that those texts regard only siich to whom the Gospel comes, and are capable of un- derstanding the contents of it. The truth, says Dr. Doddridge, seems to be this : that none of the heathens vriU be condemned for not believirig the Gospel, but they are liable to condemnation for the breach of God's natural law : nevertheless, if there be any of them in whom there is a prevail- ing love to the Divine Being, there seems reason to believe that, for the .sake of Christ, though to them unknown, they may be accepted by God ; and so much the ratfter, as the ancient Jews, and even the apostles, during the time of our Saviour's abode on earth, seem to have had but little notion of those doctrines which those who deny the sal- vability of the heathens are most apt to, imagine, Rom. iL 10—22; Acts x. 34, 35; Matt. viii. 11, 1 2. Mr. Grove, Dr. Watts, Saurin, and Mr. New- ton, favour the same ojrinion ; the latter of whom thus observes : if we suppose a heathen brought to a sense of his misery; to a conviction that he cannot be happy without the favour of the great Lord of the world ; to a feeling of guilt, and de- sire of mercy ; and that, though he has no ex- plicit knowledge of a Saviolir, he directs the cry of his heart to the unknown Supreme, to have mercy upon him ;- who will prove that such views and desires can arise in the heart of a sin- ner, without the energy of that spirit which Jssus IS exalted to bestow 1 Who will take upon him to "say, that his blood has not sufficient efficacy to redeem' to God a anner who is thus disposed, though he have never heard of his name? Or whonas a warrant to affirm, that the supposition I have made is, in the nature of tWngs, impossi- ble to be realized'? Newton's Messiah; Dr. Wath's Strength and Weakness of . Human- Reason, p. 106; Saurin' sSemwnSjVohS. p. Sli; Grove's Moral Philosophy, vol. i. 128; Turret Loc. vol. i. quajst. 4, § 1, ,2. 17; Doddridge's fjertures, lee. 340, vol |iL 8vo. edit. : Bellamy's lieligUin Delineated, p. 105; Ridgley's Body of Divinity, qu. 60; Gale's Court of the. Gen- tiles ; Considerationi on the Religious Worshi;p of the Heathen ; Rev. W. Jones's Works, vol, xu. HEAVER is considered as a jiImb in some remote part of infinite space, in which the omni- present Deity is said to afford a nearer and more HEAVEN Immediate view of himself, and a more sensible manifestaticin of his glory, than in the other parts of the universe. T%at there is a state of future happiness, both reason and Scripture indicate ; a general notion of happiness after death has obtained among the wiser sort of heatljens, who hav^ only had" the light of nature to guide them. If we examine the human mind, it is also evident that there is a natural desire after happiness in all men ; and, which is equally evident, is not' attained in thjs life. It is no less observable, that in the present state there is an unequal distribution of things, which makes the providences of God very intri- cate, and which cannot be solved without sup-, posing a future state. Revelation, however, puts it beyond all dpubt. The Divine Being hath promised it, 1 John il 25; 1 John v. 11 ; James 1. 12: hath given us some intimation of its gloiy, 1 Pet. iii. 4. 22; Rev, iiL 4; declares Christ hath taken possession df it for ns, John xiv, 3, 3 j and informs us of some already there, both as to their bodies and souls. Gen. v. 34; 2 Kings ii. Heq/ten is to be considered as a place as well cm a staie ; it is expressly so termed in Scripture, John xiv. 3, 3 ; and the existence of the body of Christ, and those of Enoch and Elijah, is a fuF- tlier proof of it Yea, if it be not a place, where can these bodies be 1 and where will the bodies of the saints exist after the resurrection ? Where this place is, however, cannot be determined. Some have thought it to be beyond the starry fir- mament ; and some of the ancients imagined that their dwelling would be in the sun. Others suppose the ^r to be the seat of the blessed. Others think that the saints vrill dwell upon earth whentit shall be restored to its paradisaical state; but these suppositions are more curious than edifying, and it becomes us to be silent where divine revelation is so. . Heaven, however, we are assured, is^ place if inempressible felicity. The names given to it are jiroofs of this : it is called pa/radise, Luk» xxiii. 43 ; light, Rev. xxi. 33. A building and mansion of God, 2 Cor. v. 1 ; John xiv. 2. A cify, Heb. xi. 10, 16. A better country, Heb. xi. 16. An inheritance. Acts xx. 33. A kingdom, Matt. XXV. 34. A crown, 3 Tim. iv. 8. Glory, Ps. Ixxxiv. 11 ; 2 Cor. iv. 17. Peace, rest, and joy of the Lord, Isa. Ivii. 3 ; Heb. iv. 9 ; Matt XXV. 31, 23. The felicity of heaven vrill consist in freedom from all evil, both of soul and body,' Rev. vii. 17; in the enjoyment of God as the chief good ; in the company of aneels and saints ; in perfect holiness, and extensive knowledge. It has been disputed whether there are degrees of glory in heaven. The arguments against dp- grees are, that all the people of God are loveS by hiin with the same love, all chosen together in Christ, equally interested in the same covenant of grace, equally redeemed with the same price, and all predestinated to the same adoption of children ; to .suppose the contrary, it is said, is ,to eclipse the glory of divine grace, and carries with it the legal idea of being rewarded for our works, pn the other side it is observed, that if the above Reasoning would prove any thing, it would prove top much, viz;.tnat we should all be upon an equality in the present world as well as that which is to come ; for we are now as mjich the objects of the same love, purchased by the same blood, &c., as we shall be hereafter. That re- HEAVEN wirds contairf nothing inconsistent with the doc- tnne of grace, because those very works which it pleaaeth God to honour, are the effects of his own operation. That all rewards to a guilty creature have respect to the mediation of Christ. That Grod's graciously connecting blessings with the obedience of his people, serves to, show not only his love to Christ and to them, but his regard to righteousness. That the Scriptures expressly declare for degrees, Dari. xii. 3; Matt. x. 41, 42; Matt. xix. 28, 29 ; Luke xix. 16. 19 ; Rom. ii. 6 ; i Cor. iii. 8; 1 Cor. xv. 41, 42; 2 Cor. v. 10; Gal. vi. 9. Another question has sometimes been pro- posed, viz. Whether the saints shall know each other in hieaven ? " The arguments," says Dr. Ridgley, " which are generally brought in defence of it, are taken from those instances recorded in Scripture, in which persons, who have never seen one another before, have immediately known each other in this world, by a special immediate divine revela- tion given to them, in like manner as Adam knew that Eve was tak^n out of him ; and there- fore says, This is now bone of my bone, andjlesh ofmyjiesh; she shall be called womanj because she was taken out of man. Gen. ii. 23. He was cast into a deep sleep, when God took out one of his ribs, and so formed the woman, as we read in the foregoing words ; yet the knowledge hereof was communicated to him by God. More- over, we read that Peter, James, and John, knew Moses and Elias, Matt. xvU. as appears from Peter's making a particular mention of them: Let us make three tabernacles; one for thee, one for Moses, and one for Elias, 4th ver., though he had never seen ttiem before. A^aih; our Sa- viour, in , the parable, represents the rich man as seeing Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom, Luke x\i. 23, and spealis of him as ad- dressing his discourse to him. From such like arguments, some conclude that it maybe inferred that the saints shall know one another in heaven, when joined together in the same assembly. " Moreover, some think that tliis may be prov- ed from the apostle's words, in 1 Thess. ii. 19, 20, What is our hope or joy, or crown of rejoic- ing ? Are not even ye in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ at his coming'! for ye are our glory and joy; which seems to argue, tliat he apprehended their happiness in heaven should) contribute, or be an additibn to his, as he was made an instrument to bring them thither; even 90, by a parity of reason, every one who has been instrumental in the conversion and building up others in their holy faith, as the apostle Paul was with respect to them, these shall tend to enhance their praise, and give them occasion to glorify God on their behdf. Therefore it follows that they sha^ know one another ; and consequently they who have walked together in the ways of God, and have been useful to one another as re- lations and . intimate friends, in what respects more especially th?ir spiritual concerns, these shall bless God for the mutual advantages which they have received, and consequently shall know one another. Again ; some prove this from that expression of our Saviour in Luke xvi. 9. Make to yourselves^ friends of the mamAnon of w»- righfeousness, that, when ye faili they may re- ceive, you into everlasting habitations; especially if 1)T these everlasting habitations be meant 164 HEAVEN heaven, as many suppose it is; and then the meaning is, that they whom you have relieved, and shown kindness to in tms world, shall ex- press a particular joy upon your being admitted into heaven ; and consequently they shall know you, ^nd bless God for your having been so use- ful and beneficial to them< " To this it is objected, that if the saints shall know one another in heaven, they shall know that several of those who were their intimate firiends here on earth, whom they loved with very great affection, are not there ; and this will have a tendency to give theiii some uneasiness, and a diinihution of their joy and happiness. "To this it may be replied, that if it be allowed that the saints shall know that some whom they loved on earth are not in heaven, this will give them no uneasiness : since that affection which took its rise principally from the relation which we stood in to persons on earth, or the intimacy that we have contracted with them, will cease in another world, or rather run in^ another channel^ and be excited by superior motives : riamely, their relation to Christ; that perfect holiness which they are adorned with ; their being joined in the same blessed society, and engaged in the same employment: together with their former, usefulness one to another in promoting theuf spiritual welfare, as made subservient to the hap- pmess they enjoy there. And as for otti^ers, who are excluded from their society, they will think themselves obliged, out of a due regard to the jus- tice and holiness of God, to acquiesce in his righteous judgments. Thus, the inhabitants of heaven are represented as adoring the divine perfections, when the vials of God's tvrath were poured out upon his enemies, and saying, Then art righteous, O Lord, b'ecause'thou hast judged thus : true, and righteous are thy judgments. Rev. xvi. 5, 7. " Another question has been sometimes asked, viz. Whether there shall be a diversity of lan- guages in heaven, as there is on earth 1 Ibis we cannot pretend to determine. Some think that there shall ; and that, as persons of all nations and tongues shall make up that blessed society, so they shall prai.'ie God in the same language which they before used when on earth ; and that this worship may be performed with the greatest har- mony, and to mutual edification, afl the s^nts shall, by the immediate power and providence of God, be able to understand ' and make use of evSry one of those different languages, as well as their own. This they found on the apostle's words, in which he says. That at the name of Jesus every knee shall bow, and that every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is tiord ; which they suppose has a respect to the heavenly state, because it is said to be done both by (hose that are in heaven, and those that are on earth, Phil. ii. 10, 11. But though the apostle speaks, by a metonymyj of different tongues, that is, per- sons who speak different languages, being sub- ject to Christ, he projjably means thereby persons of different nations, whether 'they shall praise him in their own language m heaven, or no. Therefore, some conjecture that the diversity of languages shall then cease, inasmuch as it took its first rise from God's judicial hand, when he confounded the speech ot those who presumptu- ously attempted to build the city and tower of Babel; and this has been ever since attended HELL with many inconvbnirncei;. And, indeed, the appstle siicms expressly to intimate as much, when he says, spealiini; concerning tlie heavenly state, that tongues skall cease^ 1 Cor. xiii. 8 ; that IS, the present variety of lanifaitges. Moreover, since the gift of tongues Wjis bostmved on the tipostles for the gathering and building up the church in the first ajges thereof, which end, wrhen it was answered, this extraordinary dispensation ceased ; in like manner it is probable that here- after the diversity of lanOTagos shall cease." "I am sensible,'' saysUr. Ridgley, "there are some ,who object to this, that the saints' under- standing alt languages will be an additiftn to their honour, glory, and happiiicss. But to this it may he answered, that though it is, indeed, an accom- pUshment, in this world, for a person to under- •Btand several languages, i/ioi'arises from the sub- serviency thereof to those valuable ends that are answered thereby ; but this would be entirely re- moved, if the diversity of languages be taken away, in heaven, as some suppose it will." " There are some, wh6, it may be, give too much scope to a vain curiosity, when they pre- tend to iflquire what this language shall be, or determine, as the Jews do, and with them some of the fat)iers, that it shall be Hebrew, since their arguments for it are not sufficiently conclusive, which axe principally these, viz. That this was the language with wliich Gqd inspired man at first in paradise, and that which the saints and pa- triarchs spake, and the church generally made use of in all ages till pur Saviour's time ; and that it was this language which he himself spake while here on earth ; and since his ascension into hea- ven, he spake to Paul in the Hebrew tongue, Acts xxvL Xi. And when the inhabitants of heaven are described in the Revelations as praising God, there is one word used by which their praise is expressed, namely. Hallelujah, vvhich is He- brew ; the meaning whereof is. Praise ye the Lord. But all these arguments are not sufficiently convincing, and therefore we must reckon it no more than a conjecture." However undecided we may be as.to this and some other circumstances, this we maybe assured oi, that the liappiness of heaven 'will be eternal. Whether it will be progressive or not, and that the saints shall always be increasing in their knowledge, joy, &c. is not so clear. Some sup- pose that this indicates an imperfection in the felicity of the saints, for any addition to be made; hut others think it quite analogous to the dealings oi' God with us here ; am} that, from the nature of the mind itself, it may be concluded. But however t'liis be, it is certain that our happiness will be complete, 1 Pet. v. 4, 10. • Heb. xi. 10. Wattes Death and, Heaven; GiU's Body of {Hmnity, voL il p. 495; Saurin's Ser. vol. iii. p. 331 ; Toplady's Works, vol. iiL p. 471 ; Balers Works ; Bidgle'^s Boply ofDixinity, question 90. HEBREWS. See Jews. HELL, the place of divine punishment after death. As ail religions have supposed a future state of existence 5ler this life, so all have their hell, or place of torment, in which the wicfeed are to be punished.' Even the heathens had their tartara; and the Mahometans, we find, believe the eternity of rewards and punishments ; it h not, therefore, a sentiment jieculiaj to Chris- tianity. There have been many curious and useless li>& HELL conjectures respecting the place of the damr\ed. the'ancients generally supposed it was a region of fire near the centre of the earth. Mr. Swinden endeavoured to prove that it is seated in the sun. Mr, Whiston aclvanced a now and strange hypo- thesis ; according to him, the comets are so many hells, appointed m their orbits alternately to carry the damned to the confines of the sun, there to Iw scorched by its violent heat ; and then to return with them beyond the orb of Saturn, there t» starve them in those cold and dismal regions.' But, as Dr. Doddridge observes, we must here confess our ignorance ; and shall be much better employed in studying how we may avoid thi^ place of horror, than in labouring to discover where it is. Of the nature of this punishment we may form some idea from the expressions maes the jurisihction ol' heresy as it stood at common law, vh. as to the inlliction of com- mon censures in the ecclesiastical courts ; and in ease of burning the heretic, in the provincial synod only. Sir Matthew Hale is, indeed, of a different opinion, and holds that such power resided in the diocesan also : tlioujrh he agrees that in either case the writ de haireiico comburendo was not demaridable of common right, but grantahle)or otherwise merely at the king's discretion. But the principal point now gained was, that by this statute a boundary was for the first i;iroe set to what should bo accounted heresy ; nothing- for the future being to be so deternuned but only such tenets which have been heretofore so declared, — 1. By the Words of the canonicpj Scriptures ; — 3." By the first four general councils, or such others as have only used the words of the Holy Scrip- tures; or, — 3. Which shall hereafter be so declared by the parliament, with the asSentof the clergy in convocation. Thus was heresy reduced to a greater cfertainty than before, thougli it might not ave been the worse to have defined it in terms still more precise and particular i as a man con- tinued still liable to be burnt for what, perhaps, he did not understand to be heresy, till the eccle- siastical judge so interpreted tlje werds of the ca- nonical Scriptures. For the writ de h/eretico comburendo remained still in force, till it was tO:' tally abolished, and heresy again subjected only to ecclesiastical correction, pro salute animai, by stat. 39 Car. II. c. 9. ; when, in one and tlie same reign, our lands were delivereil from the slavery of military tenures ; our bodies from arbitraiy imprisonment by the habeas' corpus act ; and our minds from <;he tyranny of supengtitious bigotiy, by demolishing this last badge of persecution in the English law. Every thing is now less ex- ceptionable, with respect to the spiritual cogni- zance and spiritual punishment of heresy j unless, perhaps, that the crime ought to be more strictly defined, and no prosecution permitted, even in the ecclesiastical courts, till the tenets in question are by proper authority previously decl'ared to be heretical. Under these restrictions, some think it necessary, for the support of the national reli- gion,/tha:t the officers of the church shduld have power to censure heretics ; yet not to harass them with temporal penalties, much less to exterjninate or destroy them. The legislature has, indeed, thought it proper that the civil magistra^te should interpose with regard to one species of heresy, very prevalent in modern times ; for by stat. 9, and 10 W. III. c. 32. if any person, educated in the Christian religion, or professing the same, shall, by writing, printing, teaching, or advised speafcms, deny any one of the persons in the Holy Trinity to be God, or maintain that there are more Gods than one, he shall undergo the same penalties and incapacities which were in- flicted on apastacy by the same statute. ' Enc. Brit.; Dr. Foster and Stebbing on y Heresy ; Hallett's Discourses, vol. iii. No. 9. p. 358, 408 ; Dr. Campbell's Prel. Diss: to the Gospels. HERETIC, a general name for all such per- sons under any religion, but especially the 'Chris- tian,' as profess or t^ateh opinions Contrary to the established faith, or to what is made the standard 168 IIEXAPLA of orthodoxy. See last aj-ficle, and La/rdner's HMor'v of the Herelirs of the first two Centuries. HERMIANI, a sect' in the second century j so called from their leader Hermias. One of their distinguishing tenets was, that God is cor- poreal ; another, that Jesus Christ did not ascend mto heaven with his body, but left it in the sun. HERMIT, a person who retires into solitude for the purpose of devotion. Who were the first hermits cannot easily be known ; though Paul, surnamc'd the hermit, is generally reckoned the first. The persecutions a Deciris and Valerijiil were supposed to have occasioned their first rise. HERMOGENIANS, a sect of ancient here- tics : denominated from their leader Hermoeenes, who lived' towards the close of the second cen- tury. Hermogencs established matter as his first principle; and regarding matter as. the fountain of 'all evil, hfi maintained, that the world, and every thing contained in it, as also the soulsbf men and other spirits, were formed by the Deity from an uncreated and eternal mass of corrupt matter. The opinions of Herriiogenes with re- gard to the origin^ of the world, and the nature of the soul, were warmly opposed by TertuUian. HERNHUTTERS. , See Moravians. HERODIANS, a sect among the Jews, at the timei of our Saviour, Matt. xxii. 16 ; Mark iii. 6. The critics and commentators are very much divided with regard to the Herodians. St. Jerome, in his dialogue against the Luciferians, takes the name to nave been 'given to such as owned Herod for the Messiah ; and TertuUian and Epiphanius are of the same opinion. But the same Jerome, in his comment on St. Mat- thew, treats this opinion as ridiculous j and maintains that the, Pharisees gave this appella- tion, by way of ridicule, to Herod's soldiers. Who paid tribute to the Romans ; agreeable to which the Syrian interpreters render ^the word by (he domestics of Herod, i. e. "his courtiers." M. Simon in his notes on the 32d chapter of Mat- thew, advances a more probable opinion: the name Herodianhe imagines to have been ^ven to such as adliered to Herod's party,, and inte- rest, and were for preserving the government in his family, about which were great divisions among the Jews. F. Hardduin wiS have the He- rodians' and, Sadducees to have b^en the same. Dr. Prideaux is of opinion, that they derived their name from Herod the Greats and that they were distinguished from the other Jews by their concurrence with Herod's scheme of subjecting himself aftd his dominions to the Romans, and likewise by complying with many of their hea- then usiges and" customs. This symbolizing with Idolatry upon views of interest and worldly policy was probably that leaven of Herod,, aigainst which our Saviour cautioned his disciples. It is further probable that they were chiefly of the sect of the Sadducees; because the leaven of Herod is also denominated the leaven of the Sadducees. HETERODOX, somethino; that is contrary to the faith or doctrine established in the true church. See Orthodox. ^ HEXAPLA, a Bible disposed m six columns, contiuning the text and : divers versions th^reo^ compiled and published by Origen, with a view of securing the sacred text from future corrup- tions, and to correct those that had been already introduced. Eusebius relates, that Origen, after his return from Rome under Caiacalla, applied HEXAPLA himself to learn Hebrew, and began to coUoct the several versions that had been made of the sacred writings, and of these to compose his Tctrapla iind Hexapla; others, however, will not allow him to have begun till the time of Alexander, after he had retired into Palestine, about the year 231. To conceive whal this Hexapla was. It must be observed, that, besides the translation rf the sacred writings, called the Septuagint, made under Ptolemy Philade,lphus, above 280 years before Christ, the ScKpture had been since translated into Greek by other interpreters. The first of those versions, or (reckoning ' the Septua- fint) the second; was that of Aquila, a proselyte ew, the first edition of which he published in the 12th year of the emperor Adrian, or about the year of Christ 128 ; the third was that of Symmachus, published, as is commonly sup- posed, under Marcus Aurelius, but, as some say, under Septimius Severus, about the year 200; the fourth was that of Theodotion, prior to that of Symmachus, undpr Commodus, or about. the year 175. These Greek versions, says Dr. Ken- nicott, were made by the Jews from their eor- mpted copies of the Hebrew, and were designed to stand m the place of the Seventy, against which they were prejudiced, because it seemed to favour the Christians./ The fifth was found at Jericho, in the reign of Caracalla, about the year 214 ; a^ld the sixth was discovered at Nicopolis, in the reign of Alexander Severus,, about the year 388 ; lastly, Origen himself recovered part ^4f a seventh, containing only the Psalms. Now, Origen, vvho had held frequent disputations with the Jews in Egypt and Palestine, observing that they always objected to those passages of Scrip- ture quoted against them, appealed to the He- brew text, the better to vindicate those passages, 9nd confound the Jews, by showing that the Seventy had given the sense of the Hebrew ; or rather to show, by a number of different versions,: what the real sense of the Hebrew was, under- took to reduce all these several versions into a body, along with the Hebrew text, so as theyi might be easily confronted, and aflord a mutual light to each other. He made the Hebrew text his standard ; and allowing that corruptions Blight have happened, and that the old Hebrew copies might and did read diflferently, he content- ed himself with marking such words or sentences ■ as were not in' his Hebrew text, nor the latter (Jreek versions, and addmg such words or seii- tences as were omitted in the Seventy, prefixing an asterisk to the additions', and an obelisk to the others. In order to this, he made choice of eight columns ; in the first he made the Hebrew text, in Hebrew characters 5 in the second, the same text in Greek characters; the rest were filled with the several versions above mentioned : adl the columns answering verse for verse, and phrase for phrase ; and in the Psalms there was B ninth column for the seventh version. This work Origen called E{»sr ».«, Hexapla, q. d. sextu- ple, or work of six columns, as only regarding the first six Greek versions. St. JEpiphanius, taking in likewise the two columns of the text, calls the work Octapla, as consisting of eight (jolunins. This celebrated work, which Mqnt- faucon imagines consisted of sixty large volumes, perished long ago ; probably with the library at Ctesairea, where it was preserved in the year 653; though -several of the ancient writers have.pre- 109 W HOLINESS served us pieces thereof, particularly St. Chry- sostom on the Psalms, Phileponus in his Hexa- meron,,&c. Some modern writers have earnestly endeavoured to collect fragmonts of the Hexa- pla, particularly Flaminius, Nobilius, Drusius, and F. Montfaucon, in two folio volumes, printed at Paris in 1713. HIERACITES, heretics in the third century t so called from their leader Hierax, a philosopher of Egypt, who taught that Melchisedec was the Holy Ghost ; denied the resurrection, and con- demned marriage, HIERARCHY, an ecclesiastical establish- ment. The word is also used in reference to the subordination some suppose there is among the angels ; but whether they are to be considered as having a government or hierarchy among them- selves, so that one is superior in office and dignity to others ; or whether they have a kind of domi- nion over one another; or whether some are made partakers of privileges others are deprived of, can- not be determined, since Scripture is silent as to this matter. HIGH CHURCHMEN, a term first given to the non-jurors, who refused to acknowledge William III. as their lawful king, and who had very proud notions of church power ; but it is novir commonly used in a more extensive signifi- cation, and is applied to all those who, though fsir from being non-jurors, yet form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the authority and jurisr diction of the church. HISTORY, ECCLESIASTICAL. See EoclesIjIstiCal History. H.OPFMANISTS, those who espoused the sentiments of Daniel Hoffman, professor in the university of Hehnstadt, who in the year 1598 taught that the light of reason, even as it appears in the writings of Plato and Aristotle, is adverse to religion ; and that the more the human - understanding is cultivated by philosophical stud^ the more perfectly is the enemy supplied with weapons of defence. HOLINESS, freedoni from sin, or the con- formity of the heart to God. It does not consist in knowledge, talents, nor outward ceremonies of religion, but hath its seat in the heart, and is the eflect of a principle of grace, implanted by the Holy Spirit, Eph. ii. 8, 10 ; Jolxn iii. 5 ; Rom. iv. 23, It is the essence of happiness and the basis of true dignity, Prov. iii. 17 ; iv. 8. It will ma- nifest itself by the propriety of our conversation* regularity of our temper, and uniformity of our lives. It is a principle progressive in its opera- tion, Prov. iv. 18 ; and absolutely essential to thB enjoyment of God here and hereafter, Heb. xii. .14. See Sanotipication ; Works. HOLINESS OF GOD, is the purity and rectitude of his nature. It is an essential attri- bute of God, and what is the glory, lustre, and harmony of all his other perfection, Ps. xxvii. 4 ; Exod. XV. 11. He could not be God without it, Deut. xxxii. 4. It is infinite and unbounded; it cannot be increa.sed or divhinished. Immutable and invarmUe, Mai, iii. 6. God is originally holy ; he is Ik of and in himself, and the author and promoiwkKf all holiness among his creatures. The holiness ot God is visible by his works ; he made all things holy. Gen. i. 31. By his proti- denees, all which are to promote holiness in the end, Heb. xii. 10." By his grace, which influences the subjects of it to be holy, Tit., ii. 10, 12. By HOLY his word, which commands it, 1 Pet. i. 15. By his ordinances, which he hath appointed for that end, Jer. xliv. 4, 5. By the punishment of sin m the death of Christ, Isa. hii.; and by the eter- nal punishment of it in wicked men, Matt. xxv. last verse. See Attributes. HOLOCAUST, formed from ox.s, whole, and xniio, / mnsume with fire: a kind of sacrifice wherein tlie whole burnt-ofFering is burnt or con- sumed by fire, as an acknowledgment that God, (he Creatdr, Preserver, and Lord of all, was worthy of all honour and worship, and as a token of men's giving themselves entirely up to hinl. It b called in Scripture a burnt-oflfering. Sacri- fices of this sort are often mentioned by the Hea- thens as well as Jews. They appear to have been in use long before the institution of the other Jewish sacrifices by the law of Moses, Job i. 5 j Xlii. B ; Gen. xxii. 13 ; viii. 20. On this account, the Jews, who would not allow the Gentiles to ofier on their altar any other sacrifices peculiarly enjoined by the law of Moses, admitted them by Uie Jewish priests to oifer holocausts, because these were a sort of sacrifices prior to the law. "nd common to all nations. During their sub^ _»,i,.on to th^ Romans, it was no uncommon thing for those Gentiles to offer sacrifices to the God of Is- rael at Jerusalem. Holocausts were deemed by the Jews the most excellent of all their sacrifices. See Sacrifice. HOLY DAY, a day set apart by the church for the commemoration of some saint, or some re- ma,rkable particular in the life of Christ. It has been a question agitated by divines, whether it be proper to appoint or keep any holy days (the Sabbath excepted.) The advocates for holy days suppose that they have a tendency to impress the minds of the people with a grfcater sense of reli- gion; that if the ax:quisitions and victories of men be celebrated with the highest joy, how much, more those events which relate to the sal- vation of man, such as the birth, death, and resur- rection of Christ, &c. On the other side it is ob- served, that if holy days had been necessary under the present dispensation, Jesus Christ would have observed something respecting them, whereas he was silent about them; that it is Drinaing us again into that bond^e to ceremo- nial lav/s irom which Christ freed us ; that it is a tacit reflection on the Head of the Church in not appointing them; that such days, on the wholes are more pernicious than useful to society, as they open a door for indolence and profane- ness;^yea, that Scripture speaks against such days. Gal. iv. Q — 11. Cave's Prim. Christ.; yelson's Pasts and Feasts ; Robinson's History and Mystery of Good Friday, and Lectures on Non-conformity ; A Country Vicar's Sermjm on Christmas Day, 1753 ;' Broion's Nat. and Rev, Religion, p. 535 ; Neale's Hist, of the Puritans, vol. li. p. IIG. qn. HOLY GHOST, the third person in the Trinity., / I. Tlie Holy Ghost is a real and distinct per- son in the Godhead. 1. Personil powers of ra- tional understanding and will are ascribed tohim, 1 Cor. u. 10, 11; xii. U; Eph. iv. 3.-2. He is joined with the other tvvo divine persons, as the object of worship and fountain of blessings, Mattrxviii 19; 2 Cor. xiii. 14; 1 John v. 7.— S. In the urreek, a masculine article or epithet HOMILY rally of the neuter gender, John xiv. 26 ; xv. 26( xvi. 13; Eph. i. 13. — 4. He appeared under the emblem of a dove, and of cloven tongues of fire. Matt. iii. ; Acts ii.— 6. Personal ofSces of an intercessor belong to him, Rom. viii. 26. — 6. He is represented as performing' a multitude of personal acts ; as teachmg, speaking, witnessing &c., Mark xiii. II ; Acts xx. 23 ; Rem. viii. ll, 16; 1 Cor. vi.,19; Acts xv. 28. xvi. 6, 7. &c. &c. &c. II. Itisru) less evident that the Holy Ghost is a divine person,'equalin power and glory with the Father and Son. 1. Names proper only to the Most High God are ascribed to him ; as Jehovah, Acts xxviii. 25, with Isa. vi. 9, and Heb. iii. 7, 9, with Exod. xxvii. 7; Jer. xxxi. 31, 34; Heb. X. 15, 16. God, Acts v. 3, 4. Lord, 2 Cor. iii, 17, 19. " The Lord, the Spirit."— 2. Attributes proper only to the Most High God are ascribed to him; as Omniscience, 1 Cor. ii. 10, 11; Isa. xl. 13j 14. Omnipresence, Fs. cxxxix. 7 ; Eph. ii. 17, 18 ; Rom. viii. 26, 27. Omnipotence, Lvdie i. 35. Eternity, Heb. ix. 14. — 3. Divine worla are evidently ascribed to him. Gen. i. 2; Job xxvi. 13 ; Psa. xxxiii. 6 ; civ. 39. — 4. Worship E roper only to God, is required and ascribed to im, Isa. vi. 3; Acts xxviii. 25; Rom. ix. 1; Rev. i. 4; 2 Cor. xiii. 14; Matt, xxviii. 19. III. The agency or work of the Holy Ghost & divided by some into extraorfiinary and- ordi- nary. The fcyrmer by imniediate inspiration, making men prophets, tlie latter by his regene- rating and sanctifying influences waking men saints. It is &nly the latter which is note to be expected. This is more particularly displayed in, 1. Conviction of sin, John xvi. 8, 9. — 2. Con- version^ 1 Cor. xii. ; Eph. i. 17, 18 ; 1 Cor. ii. 10, 12 ; John iii. 5, 6. — 3. SanctificaOon, 2 Thess. ii. 13; 1 Cor. vi. 11; Rom. xv. 16. — 4. Conso- lation., John xiv. 16, 25. — 5.i Direction, John xiv. 17 ; Rom. viiL 14.— 6. Confirmation, Ronv. viii. 16, 26; 1 John ii. 24; Eph. i. 13, 14. As to the gift of the Holy Spirit, says a good writer, it is not expected to be bestowed in answer to our prayers, to inform us immediately, as by a whisper, when either awake or asleep, that vre are the children of God i; or in any other way than by enabling os to exercise repentance and faith and love to God and our neighbour. — 2. We are not to suppose that he reveab any thing contrary to the wntten word, or more than is contained in it, or through any other medium. — 3. We are not so led by, or operated upon by the Spirit as to neglect the means of grace.— -4. The Holy i Spirit is not promised nor given to render us in- falliblei — 5. Nor is the Holy Spirit given in order that we may do any thing, which was not befoifi our duty. See rfRiNiTY, and Scott's Four Ser- mons on Repentance, the Evil of Sin, Love tp God, and the Promise of the Holy Spirit, p. 8fi — 89. Hawker's Sermons on the Holy Ghost ; Pearson on the Creed, 8th article ; .Dr. Owen on the Spirit; Hurrion's 16 Sermons on the Spirit, HOLY GHOST, PROCESSION OF. See Procession. HOMILY, a sermon or discourse upon some point of religion delivered in a plain manner, so as to be easify understood by the common people. The Greek homily, says fS.. Fleury, signifies a familiar discourse, like the Latin sermo, and dis. IS joined to hk name, Pneuma^ which is natn- 1 courses delivered in the church took these denomi- 170 • HONOUR nations, to intimate that they were not harangues, or matters of ostentation and flourish, lilie those of profane orators, hut familiar and useful dis- courses, as of a master to his disciples, or a father to his clxildren. All the homilies of the Greek and. Latin fathers are cornposed by bishops.. We have none of TertuUian, Cjlemens Alexandrinus, and many other learned persons, because in the first ages none but bishops were admitted to preach. The privilege was not ordinarily allowed to priests till toward the fifth century; St. Chry- sostom was the first presbyter that preached statedly. Origen and St. Augustine also preached, but it was by a peculiar licence or privilege. Photius distinguishes homily from sermon, in that the homily was performed in a more faiiaijiar _ manner ; the prelate interrogating and talking to the people, and they in their turn answering and interrogating him. So that it was properly a con- versation; whereas the sermon was delivered vrith more form, and in the pulpit, after the man- ner of the orators. The practice of compiling hoinilies which were to be committed to memory, and recited by ignorant or indolent priests, com- menced towards the close of the eighth century j when Charlemagne ordered Paul, the Deacon, and Alcuin, to form hdrailies or discourses upon the Gospels and Epistles from the ancient doc- tors "of the church. This gave rise to that famous collection entitled the Homiliarium of Charle- magne ; and which being followed as a model by many productions of the same kind, composed by private persons, from a principle of pious zeal, contributed much (says MoShemi) to nourish the indolence and to perpetuate the ignorance of a worthless clergy. There arc still extant several fine homilies composed by the ancient fathers, particularly St. Cnrysostom and St. Gregory. — 'Vhe ClementinJe homilies are nineteen honulies- m Greek,^ pubUshed by Cotelerius, with two let- ters prefixed ; one of them written in the name of Peter, the other in the name of Ckngent, to James, bishop of Jerusalem ; in which last letter , they are entitled Clement's Epitome of the Preaching and Travels of Peter. According to Le Clerc, these homilies were composed by an Ebionite, in the second century ; but Montfau- con supposes that they were forged long after the aae of St. Athanasius. Dr. Lardner apprehends that the Clementine homilies were the original, or first edition of the Recognitions; and that they are the same with the work censured by Eusebius under the title of Dialogues of Peter and Appion. — Homilies of the Chwrch of Eng- land are those which were composed at the Re- formation to be read in churches, in order to sup- ply the defect of sermons. See the quarto edi- tion of the Homilies, with notes, by a divine of the church of England. HONESTY is that principle which makes a person prefer his premise or duty to his passion or interest. See Justice. HONOUR, a testimony of esteem or submis- sion, e:^pressed by words and an exterior beha- viour, by which we make known the veneration and respect we entertain for any one, on account of his dignity or merit. The word is also used in general for the esteem due to virtue, glory, repu- tation, and probity ; as also for an exactness in performing, whatever we have promised ; and -in this last sense we use the term, a vian of honour. It is also applied to two difTerent kinds of virtue : 171 HOPE Irravery in men, and chastity in women. In every situation of life, religion only forms the trus honour and happiness of man. " It cannot," as one observes, " arise from riches, ilignity of ranis, or office, nor from what are often called splendid actions of heroes, or civil accomplishments ; these may be found among men of no real integrity, and may create considerable fame ; but a dis- tinction must be made -between fame and true honour. The former is a loud aiid noisy ap- glause; the latter a more silent and internal omage. Fame floats on the breath of the mul- titude ; honour rests on the judgment of the thinking, In order, then, to discern where true honour lies, we must not look to any adventitious circumstance, not to any single sparkling quality, but to the whole of wjiat forms a man j in a word, we must look to the soul. It will discover itself by a mind superior to fear, to selfish interest, and corruption; by aji ardent love to the Supreme Being, and by a principle of uniform rectitude. It will make us neither afraid nor ashamed to discharge our duty, as it relates both to God and man. It will influence us to be magnanimous without being proud; humble without being mean ; just wnthout being harsh ; simple in our mannera, but manly in our feelings. This honour, thus formed by religion, or the love of God, is more independent, and more complete, than what can be acquired by any other means. It is productive' of higher felicity, and will be commeur surate with eternity itself; while that honour, so called, which arises from any other jprinciple, will resemble the feeble and twinkling flame of a taper, which is often clouded by the smoke it sends forth, but is always wasting, and soon dies totally away." Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 4 ; Blair's Servians, vol. iii. ser. 1 ; Watts's Ser- inons, ser. 30, vol., ii. ; Ryland's Cont. vol. i. p. 343; Jortin's Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 6. HOPE is the desire of some good, attended with the possibility, at least, of obtaining it'; and is enlivened with joy greater or less, according to the probabiUty there is of possesssing the object of our nope. Scarce any passion seems to be more natural to man than hope ; and, considering the many ^roubles he is encompassed vrith, none is more necessary ; for life, void of all hope, would be a heavy and spiritless thing, very little de- sirable, perhaps hardly to be borne; wliereashope infuses strength into the mind, and by so doing, lessens the burdens of life. If our condition be not the best in the world, yet we hope it will be better^ and this helps us to support it with pa tience. The hope of the Christian is an expec- tation of all necessary good both in time and eter- nitv, founded on me promises, relations, and perfections of God) and on the offices, righteous- nass, and intercession of Christ. It is a com- pound of desire,, expectation, patience, and joy, Rom- viii. 24, 35. It may be considered, 1 . As pure, 1 John iii. 3, 3 ; as it is resident in that heart which is cleansed froni sin. — 3. As good, 2 Thess. ii. 16 ; (in distinption from the hope of the hypocrite) as deriving its origin from God, and centering in him. — ^3. It is called lively, 1 Pet. i. 3; as it proceeds from spiritual life, and renders one active and lively in good works.^ 4. It is courageous, Rom. v. 5 ; 1 Thess. v. 8 ; because it excites fortitude in all the troubles of life, and yields support in the hour of death, Prov. xiv. 32. — 5. Sure, Heb. vi. 19 ; because il HOPKINSIANS will not disappoint us, and is fixed on a sure foundation.— 6. Joyful, Rom. v. 2 j as it produces the greatest .felicity in the anticipation of com- plete deliverance from all evil. CampbeWs Plea- sures of Hope ; Grove's MoraliPhU. vol. i. p. 381;; GilPs BoSy of Div: p. 83, toI. iii.; No. 471, ^ect.; Jay's Sermons, vol. ii. ser. 2. HOPKINSIANS, so called, from the Rev. Samuel Hopkins, D. D., an American divine, who in his sermons and tracts has m^de several additions to the sentiments first advanced by the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, late president of New .Tersey College. The following is a summary of the distinguish- ing tenets of the Hopkinsians, together with a few of the reasons they bring.' forward in support ed for Christ's righteousness' sake, and this is the proper Scripture notion of imputation. Jon». than's righteousness was imputed to Mephibot sheth, when David showed kindness to him ibi his father Jonathan's sake. The Hopkinsians warmly contend for the doctrine of the divine decrees, that of particulai election, total depravity, the special influences of theuSpirit of God. in regeneration, justificatioil by, faith alone, the final perseverance of the saints, and the consistency between entire free- dcim and absolute dependence ; and thereforis daim it as their just due, since the world will ,make distinctions, to be called Hopkinsian Ca^ vinist^. Adarmfs View of Religions; Hopkins an Holiness; JS}du>ards on the Will, p. 334, 384 j Edwards on Virtue; West's Essay on Moral Agency,, p. ITO, 181 ; spring's Nature of Duty, 33 ; Moral Disquisitions^ p. 40. HORROR, a passion excited by an object which causes a high degree Of fear and detesta* tion. It is a compound of wpnder and fear. — Sometimes it has- a mixture of pleasure, from which,' if predominant, it is denoiiunated a plead- ing horror,. Such a horror seizes us at the view of vast and hanging firccipices, a tempestuous ocean, or wild and solitary places. This passion is the original of superstition, as a wise and wdl- tempered awe is of religion. Horror and terror seem almost to be synonymous ; but the fonnei, I think, refers more to what disgusts; the latter to that which alarms us. HOSANNA, in the Hebrew ceremonies, a prayer which they rehearsed on the several days of the feast of tabernacles. It signifies '.' save us now ;" or ' save us, we pray." There are divert of these Jiosannas; the Jews call them hoschao- noth, i. e. hosannahs. — Some are rehearsed on the first day, others on the second,' &e;, which they call hosanna of the first day, hosanna of the second day, &c. Hosanna Rabbaj.oi Grand Ho- sanna, is a name they'sive to their feast of tabe»- nacles, which lasts eight days; because, during the course thereof, they are frequently calUng for the assistance of God. the forgiveness of their sins, and his blessing on the new year ; and to that purpose they make ^reat use of the ^prayers above mentioned. The Jews also apply the term ho sanna fabba in a more pecuUar manner to the seventh day of the feast of tabernacles, because they apply themselves more immediately on that day- to invoke the divine blessiAg, -&c. HOSPITALITY, kindness exercised m the entertainment of strangers. This virtue, we find, is explicitly commanded by, and makes a part of the raoraUty of the New Testament. Indeed, that reUgion. which breathes nothing but charitj^ and vvhose tendency is to expand the heart, and call forth the benevolent exertions of mankind^ must evidently embrace this practice, — If: it be HOSPITALITY aslted, of wh nn is this required 1 it is answered, that the principle is required of all, though the duty itself can only be practised by those whose circumstances will admit of it. Dr. Stennet, in his discourse on this subject {OomesHc Duties, Ber. 10,) justly observes, "that hospitality is a species of charity to which every one is not com- r;tent. But the temper from which it proceeds, mean a humane, generous, benevolent temper, that ought to prevan in every breast. Some are miserably poor, and it is not to be expected that their doors should be thrown open to entertain strangers; yet the cottage of a peasant may exhibit noble specimens of hospitably. Here distress has often met with pity, and the persecuted an , asylum. Nor is there a man who has a house to sleep in, but may be benevolent to strangers. — But there are persons of certain characters and stations, who are more especially obliged to it ; OS particularly magistrates and others in civil offices, who would forfeit the esteem of the public, and greatly injure their usefulness, were they not to observe the rites of hospitality. Ministers, also, and such Christians as are qualified by their particular offices in the church, and their affluent circumstances, may be eminently useful in this way. The two grand virtues which ought to be studied by every one, in order that he may have it in his power to be hospitable, are industry and economy. But it may be asked again, to whom is this duty to be practised ? The answer is, to strangers; but here it is necessary to observe, that the term strangers hath two acceptations. It is to be understood of travellers, or persons who come from a distance, and with whom we have little or no acquaintance ; and more generally of all who are not of our house — strangers, as op- posed to domestics. Hospitality is especially to be practised to the poor: they who have no houses of their ovrn, or possess few of the con- veniences of life, should occasionally be invited to our houses, and refreshed at our tables, Luke xiv. 13, 14. Hospitality also may be practised to those who are of the same character and of the same community with ourselves. As to tht various offices of hospitality, and the manner in which they should be rendered, it must be ob- served, that the entertainments should be ptenii- ful, frugal, and cordial, Gen. xviii. 6, 8 ; John xii. 3; Luke xv. 17. The obligations to this duty arise from Ihe fitness and reasonableness of it ; it brin^ its own reward. Acts xx. 35. It is expressly commanded by God, Lev. xxv. 35, 38 ; Luke xvi, 19 ; xiv. 13, 14 ; Rom. xii ; Heb. xiii. 1, 2 ; 1 Pet. iv. 9. We have many stfiMns ex- amples of hospitality on divine record: Abranam, Gen. xviii. 1, 8; Lot, Gen. xix. 1, 3; Job xxxi. 17, 22; Shunamite, 3 Kings iv. 8, 10; the hds- pitable ihaYi mentioned in Judges xix. 16, 21 ; David, 2 Sam. vi. 19 ; Obadiah, 1 Kings xviii. 4 ; Neheiriiah, Neh. v. 17, 18; Martha, Luke x. 38; Mary, Matt. xxvi. 6, 13 ; the primitive Christians, Acts" ii. 45, 46 ; Priscilla and Aquila, Acts xviii. 26 ; Lydia, Acts xiv. 15, &c. &c. Lastly, what should have a powerful effect on our minds is, the consideration of divine hospitality. God is good to all, and his tender mercies are over all his works. His sun shines and his rain falls on the evil as wbU as the good. His very enemies share of his bounty. He gives liberally to all men, and upbraids not; but especially we should re-- member the exdte&ig riches of his grace, in his 174 HUGUENOTS kindness towards ns through Christ Jesus. Let us lay all these considerations together, and then ask ourselves whether we can find it in our hearts to be selfish, parsimonious, and inhospitable 1" HOST, in the church of Rome, a name given to the elements used in the eucharist, or rather to the consecrated wafer, which they pretend to offer up every day, as a new host or sacrifice for the sins of mankind. They pay adoration to the host upon a false presumption that the elements are no longer bread and wine, but transubstan- tiated into the real body and blood of Christ See Teansdbstantiation. Pope Gregory IX. first decreed a bell to be rung, as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of theTiost. The vessel wherein the hosts are kept is called the cibory. being a large kind of covered chalice. HUGUENOTS, an appellation given by way of contempt to the reformed or Protestant Calvin- ists of France. The name had its rise in 1560, but authors are not agreed as to the o-%in and occasion thereof. Some derive it fron. the fol- lowing circumstances : — One of the gates of the city of Tours is called the gate of Fourgon, by corruption from/eti Hugon, i. e. the late Hugon. This Hugon was once count of Tours, accord- ing to Eginhardus, in his life of Charles the Great, and to some other historians. He was, it seems, a very wicked man. Who by his fierce, cruel temper, made himself dreadful ; so that after his death he was supposed to walk about in the night time, beating all tnose he met vrith ; this tradition the judicious Thuanus has not scrupled to men- tion in hi^ history. Davila and other historians iretend that the nickname of Huguenots was irst given to the French Protestants, because they used to meet in the night time in subterra- neous vaults near the gate of Hugon ; and what seems to countenance this opinion is, that they were first called by the name of Huguenots at this city of Tours. Others assign a more illus- trious origin to this name, and say that the leagueiB gave it the reformed, because they were for keep- ing the crown upon the head of the present line descended from Hugh Capet ; whereas they were for giving it to the nouse of Guise, as descended from Charles the Great. Others again derive it from a French and feulty pronunciation of the German word edignossen, signifying confede- rates ; and originally applied to that Valiant part of the city of Geneva, which entered into an affi- ance with the Swiss cantons, in-order to maintain their Uberties against the tyrannical attempts of Charles III. duke of Savoy. These confederates were called Eignots; whence Huguenots. The persecution which they have undergone has scarce its parallel in the history of religion. During the reign of Charles IX., and on the 24th of August 1572, happened the massacre of Bartho- lomew, when seventy thousand of them through- out France were butchered with circumstances of aggravated cruelty. See PERsEcnTiON. In 159^ Henry IV. passed the famous edict of Nantz, which secured to the Protestants the frne exercise of their religion. This edict was re- voked by Louis XIV. ; their churches were then razed to the ground, their persons insulted by the soldiery, and, after the loss of innumerable lives, fifly thousand valuable members of society weiQ driven into exile. In Holland they built several places of worship, and had amongst them some H0M1L,1AT1UJN distinguished preachers. Aniong others were Superville, Dumont, Duhosc, and the eloqaent Saurin j the lattefof whom, in one of his sennons (ser. 9, vol. v.) makes the following fine apostrophe to that tyrant, Louis, XIV., hy whom they were driven into exile : " And thoO, dreadful prince, whom I once honoured as my king, and whom yet I respect as a scourge in the hand of Al- mighty Ccod, thou also shalt have a part in my good wishes! These provinces, which thou Busatenest, but which the arm. of the Lord pro- tects j this country, which thou filleat vsdth refu- gees, but fugitives animated with love; those walls, which contain a thousand martyrs of thy making, but whom religion renders victorious, -^all these yet resound benedictions in thy favour. God grant the fatal bandage that hides the truth from thine eyes may fall off! — May God forget Qie rivers of blood with which thou hast deluged the earth, and which thy reign hath caused to be shed !^-May God blot out of his book the inju- ries which thou hast done us ; and while he re- wards the sufferers, may he pardon those who exposed us to suffer! — O, may God who hath made thee to us, ajid to , the whole church, a mi- nister of his judgnients, make thee a dispenser of his favours — an administratpr of his mercy." i HUMANITARIANS, those who dpny the proper divinity of the Son of God, and hold him to be possessed of no other than simple human nature, though far exceeding any of the race of men in eve^ moral excellence. — B. HUMANITY, the exercise of the social and benevolent virtues; a fellow feeUng for the dis- tresses of another. It is properly called humanity, because there is httle or nothmg of it in brutes. T he social affections are conceived by, all to be more refined than the selfish. Sympathy and humanity are universally esteemed the finest temper of mind ; and for that reason the prevalence of the social affections in the progress of society is held to be a refinement of our nature. Kaimes's EL of CWi.p.i 104. vol.i.; Robinson's Sermon on ' Chris- tianity a System of Humanity ;' Pratt's Poem an Humanity, HUMANITY OP CHRIST, is his pos- sessing a true human body, and a true human soul, and which he assumed for the purpose of rendering his mediation effectual to our salvation. See jEsns Christ. HUMILIATION OP CHRIST, is that state of meanness and distress t^ which he volun- tarily descended, for the purpose of executing his mediatorial work. This appears, 1. In his birth. He was bom of a womon- a sinful woman ; though he was without sin, Gal. iv. 4. A poor woman, Luke ii. 7, 34. In a poor country village, John i. 46. In a stable, an abject place. Of a nature subject to infirmities, Heb. ii. 9 ; hunger, thirst, weariness, pain, &c. — 2. In his Hrcutn^ stances; laid in a manger when he was born; lived in obscurity for a long time ; probably work- ed at the trade of a carpenter; had not a place whereto lay his head; and was oppressed with poverty while he went about preaching the Gos- pel. — 3. It appeared in his reputation: he was loaded vfith the most abusive railing and car 'lumny, Is. liii.; the most false accusations, Matt, xxvi., 59, 67 ; and the most ignominious ridi- cule, Psal. xxii. 6; Matt xxu. 68; John vii 85.---4. In his soul he was often tempted, Matt. IV. 1, &c.; Heb. ji. 17, 18 ; iv. 15; grieved with 175 HUMILITY the. reproaches cast on himself, and with the ein» and miseries of others, Heb.xli. 3 ; Matt xi. 19; John xi. 36 ; was burdened with the hidings of his Father's face, and the fears and impressioM of his wrath, Psal. xxii. 1 ; Luke xxii. 43 ; Helw v. 7. — 5. In his death, scourged, crowned with thorns, received gall and vinegar to drink, and was crucified between two thieves, Luke xxiii. ; ^ohn xix. ; Mark xv, 24, 25.-^6. In his burial i not only was he born in another man's housB) but he was buried in another man's tomb ; for he had no tomb of his own, or family vault to be interred in, Is. liii. 10, &c. ; Matt, x'iii. 4^^ The humiliation of Christ was necessary t 1. To exe- cute the purpose of God, and covenant engage- ments of Christ, Acts ii. 23, 24; Psal. xl. 6, % 8. — 2. To fulfil the manifold types and predic- tions of the Old Testament— 3. To satisfy the broken law of God and purchase eternal redemp- tion for us,.Isa. Jiii-; Heb. ix. 12, 15. — i. To leave us an unspotted pattern of holiness and p* tierice under sufferingi GUI's Body of Div. p, 66. vol. ii. ; Brovm!s Nat. and Rev. Religion, p. 357; Ridgley's Body of Div. qu. 48. HUMILITY, a disposition of mind wherein a person has a low opinion of himself and his ad- vantages. It is a branch , of internal worship, oi of experimental religi6n and godliness. It is the eflfect of divine grace operating on the soul, and alvpays characterises the true Christian. TbB heathen philpspphers were so little acquainted with this virtue, that they had no name for it : what they meant by the word we use, was mean- ness and baseness of mind. To consider this frace a little more particularly, it may be observed, . That humiSty does not oblige a man to wrong the truth, or himself,' by entertaining a meaner or worse opinion of himself than he deserves.— r 2. Nor does it oblige a man, right or wrong, to give every body else the preference to himself. A wise man cannot believe himself inferior to the ignorant multitude ; nor the virtuous man that he is not so good as those whose Hves are vicious. — 3. Nor does it oblige a man to treat himself with contempt in his words pr actions : it looks more like affectation than humility, when a man says such things in his own dispraise as others know, of he himself believes, to be 'talse ; and it is plain, also, that this is often done merely as a bait to catch the praises of others. Humility consists^. 1. In not attributing to ourselves any excellence or good which we have not. — 2. In not over-rating any thing we do. — 3. In net taking an immode- rate delight in cursives. — 4. In not assuming more of me praise of a quality or action than b» longp to us. — 5. In an inward sense of our many imperfections and sins. — 6., In ascribing all wis have Snd are, to the grace of God. True humi- lity uUl express itself 1. By the modesty of our appearance. The humblp man will consider hia age, abilities, character, function, &c. and act ac- cordingly. — 2. By the modesty of our pursuits. We shall not aim at any thing above our strength, but prefer 3.goodio a.great name. — 3. Itwill ex- press itself by the rnodesty of our conversation and behaviour .- we shall not be loquacious, obstinate, forward, envious,idiscontented, or ambitious. 3'Ae advantages of humility are numerous; 1. It ia well ^easing to God, 1 Pet 'iii. 4. — 2. It has great influence on us in the performance of all other duties, pfaying, hearing, converse, &c — 3. It indicates that mpre grace shall be given, HUSSITES Jkmes iv. 6; Ps, xxv. 9. 4. It preserves the soul in great tranquility and contentment, Ps.lxix. Ifi, 33. — 5. It makes us patient and resigned un- der afflictions, Job i. 22. — 6. It enables us to ex- ercise moderation in every thing. To obiain this excellent spirit we shovXd remember, 1. The ex- ample of Christ, Phil. ii. 6, 7, 8.-2. That hea- ven is a place of humility, Rev. v. 8. — 3. That our sins are numerous, and deserve the greatest punishment. Lam. iii. 39. — i. That humility is the way t6 honour, Prov. xvi. 18. — 5. That the greatest promises of good are rnadeto the humble, Is. IviL 15; Ivi. 2; 1 Pet. v. 5j Ps. cxivii. 6; Matt. V. 5. Grove's Mor. Phil. vol. ii. p. 286 ; Evans's Christian Temper, vol. i. ser. 1 ; Watts on Humility; Baxter's Christian Directory,, vol. i. p. 496; Hale's Cont. p. 110; Gill's Body of Div. p. 151. vol. iii. ; Walker's Ser. iv. ser. 3. HUSBAND, duties of; SeeMARRiAGE State. HUSSITES, a party of reformers, the fol- lowers of Jbhn Huss. — John Huss, from whom the Hussites take their name, was bom in a little village in Bohemia, called Huss, and lived at Prague in the highest reputation, both on account of the sanctity of his manners and tte purity of his doctrine. He was distinguished by his un- common erudition and eloquehte ; and performed at the same time the funcftons of professor of di- vinity in the university, and of orranary pastor in the church of that city. He adopted the senti- ments of WicklifFe and the Waldenses ; and, in the year 1407, began openly tooppose and preach against divers errors in doctrine, as well as cor- ruptions in point of discipline, then reigning in the church. Huss likewise endeavoured to the ut- most of his power to withdraw the university of Prague from the jurisdiction of Gregory XII., whom the king of Bohemia had hitherto acknow-. l^ged as the true and lawful head of the church. This occasioned a violent quarrel between the in- censed archbishop of Prague and the zealous re- former, which the latter inflamed and augmented from day to day, by his pathetic exclamations against the court of Rome, and the corruption that pj'evailed among the sacerdotal order. There were other circumstances that contri- Duted to inflame the resentment of the clergy iisainst him. He adopted the philosophical opi- mons of the Realists, and vehemently opposed and even persecuted the Nominalists, whose number and influence were considerable in the university*' of f rague. He also multiplied the number of his enemies in the year 1408, by pro- curing, through his own credit, a sentence in "fa- vour of the Bohemians, who disputed with the Germans concerning the number of suffrages which their respective nations were entitled to in all matters that were carried by election in this university. Ih consequence of a decree obtained in favour of .the former; which restored them to their cojiStitutbnal right of three suffrages, usurp- ed by the litter, the Germans withdrew from PraguCj and in the year 1409 founded a new academy at Leipsi(^ This event no sooner hap- penedj than Huss began to inveigh, with greater fireedoni than he had done tcfore, against the vices and corruptions of the clergy ; and to re- commend in a public manner the writings and opinions of Wickliffe, as far'as thfy related to the papal hierarchy, the despotism of the court of Rome, and the corruption of the clergy. Hence an accusation was brought aga'mst him in the 176 HUSSITES year 1410, before the tribunal of John XXIIl. bj' whom he was solemnly expelled from the con>- munion of the church. Notwithstanding this sentence of excommunication, he proceeded to expose the Romish church with a fortitude and zeal that were almost universally applauded. This eminent man, whose pibty was equally sincere and fervent, though his zeal was perhaps too violent, and his prudence not always ciicuQ>- spect, was sununoned to appear before the coun- cil of Constance. Secured, as he thought, from the rage of his enemies, by the safe-conduct granted him by the emperor Sigismund for his journey to Constance, hia residence in that places and his return to his own country, John Huss obeyed the order of the council, and appeared be- fore it to, demonstrate his iilnocence, and to prove that the charge of his having deserted the church ' of Rome was entirely groundless. However, hia ■ enemies so far prevailed, that by the most scai>- dalous breach of public faith, he was casl^into prison, declared a heretic, because he -reftised to plead guilty against the dibtates of his conscience, in obedience to the council, and burnt alive in 1415; a punishment which he endured with un- paralleled magnanimity and resolution. "W^hen he came to the place of execution, he fell on his knees, sang portions of psalms, looked steadfastly towards heaven, and repeated these words : " Int* thy hands, O Lord, do I commit my spirit; thou hast redeemed me, O most good and faithiiil God. Lord Jesus Christ; assist and help me^ that with a fihn and present mind, by thy most powerful grace I may undergo this most cruel and ignommious death, to which 1 am condemned for preaching the truth of thy most holy Gospel.'* When the chain was put upon him at the stake, he said with a smiling countenairee, "My Lord- Jesus Christ was bound with a harder chain than this for my sake, and why shoiild I be ashamed of this old rusty one 7" When the faggots were piled up to his very neck, the duke of Bavaria was officious enough to desire him to abjure. " No," says Huss, " I never preached any doc- trine of an evil tendency ; and what I taught vrith my lips, 1 seal with my blood." He said to the executioner, " Are yo"d going to burn a goose 7 In one century you vrill have a swan you can neither roast nor boil." If he were prophetic, he must have meant Luther, who had a swan for his arms. The fire was then applied to the faggots ; when the maitjrr sang a hymn with so loud and cheerful' a voice, that he was heard through all the cracklings of the combustibles and the noise of the multitude. Atlast his voice was cut short, after he had uttered, "Jesus Christ, thou son of the living God, have mercy upon me," and he was consumed in a most miserable man- ner. Th^ duke of Bavaria ordered the execu- tioner to throw all the martyr's clothes into the flames : after which his ashes were carefully col- lected, and cast into the Rhine. But the cause in which this eminent man was engaged did not die with him. His disciples ad- hered to their master's doctrines after his death, which broke out into an open war. John Ziska, a Bohemian knight, in 1420, put himself at the head of the Hussites, who were now become a very considerable party, and threw off the des- potic yoke of Sigismund, who had treated their biethren in the most barbarous manner. Ziska was succeeded by Procopius in the year 1424. i: R S K C U T 1 O N. Htale IX. Cruelties of the Inquisition. Plate X. Cruelties of the Inquisition. — Rack. HUTCHIJSSONIANS Acts of baibEurity were committed on both ddea ; for notwithstanding the rrieconcilabte opposition between the religious sentiments of the contend- ing parties, th^ both agreed in this one horrible principle, that it was innocent and lawfulto per- secute and extirpate with fire and sword the ene- mies of Ihe true religion ; And such they recipro- cally appeared focach other. These commotions in a great measure subsided by the interference of the council of IBasil, in the year 1433. The Hussites, who were divided into two par- ties,, viz. the Calixtines and the Taborites,-spread over all Bohemia and Huuganr, and even Silesia and Poland ; and thesre are, it is said, some re- mains of them still subsisting in those parti§. SiTougktm's Diet. ; Middleton's Evang, Siog. vol. i. ; Mosheim's JEccl. tUst. HUTCHINSONIANS, the followers oi Johiv Hutchinspn, who was born in Yorkshire, in 1674. In the early part of his life he served the Duke of Somerset in the capacity of steward j and in the course of his travels ffom place to place, femployedJnipself in collecting fossils. We are told that the large and noble collection be- qfleathed by Dr. Wopdward ,tp the University of Cambridge was actually made by him, and even' unfairly obtained ftom him. In 1724, he pub- lished the first part of his curious book, called Moseys Prindpia., in which he ridiculed Dr. Woodwjard's Natural Hbtory of the Earth, and exploded the doctrine of gravitation established in Newton's Priacipia. In' 1737, he published a second part of Moses's Principia, containing the prtncipfes of the Scripture philosophy. Prom this time to his de^th he published a volume every rear, or two, which, with the manuscripts he left behind, were published in 1748, in 12 volumes, 8vo. On the Mopday before his death, Dr. Mead urged him to be bled ; saying, pleasantly, " I will soon send you to Moses," meeming his studies; but Mr. Jlntchinson, taking it in the literal sense, aiiswered in a muttering tone, " I believe, docto;r, you will ;" anjl was so displeased, that he dismissed him for another physician j but he died in a few days after,. Ai^Ust 38, 1737. It appears to be a leading sentiment of this de- nomination, that all our ideas of divinity are' formed from the ideas in nature, — that nature is a standing picture, and Scripture ^n appUca- lion of the several parts of the picture, to draw out to, as the great things of God, in order to re- form our mental conceptions. To prove this point, they allege, that the Scriptures declare the invisible things of God from the formation of the :u!orld are clearly seen,,being imderstood by the things which are made; even his eternal pmuer and Godhead, Rom: i. 20. The heavens must declare God's rightecmsness and trutKHp, the congregation of the saints, Ps. Ixxxix. 5. And in short the whole system of nature, in one voice of analogy, dechres and gives us ideas of his glory, and shows us his handy-work. ' We cannot have any ideas of invisible things till they are pointed oht to us by revelation; and as we cannot know them immediately, such as they are in themselves, after the manner in which we know sensible objects, they must be communi- cated to us by the mediation of such things as we already comprehend. For this reason the Scrip- ture is found to have a language of its own, which does not consist of words, but of signs or figures tak'-'n from visible things ; in consequence of 177 X HOTCHlJNSONlAiNS which, the world we now see becomes a sort of conjunentaijr on the ihind of God, and explains the world m which we believe. The dbctrines of the Christian faith are attested by the whole natural world ; they are recorded in a language which has never been confounded; they are written in a text which shall neiver be corrupted. T^e HutcMnsonians maintain that the great mystery of the Trinity is conveyed to our under- standings by. i^eas of sense ; and that the created substance of the air, or heaven, in its threefold agency of fire, light, and spirit, is the enigma of the one essence or one Jehovah in three persons. The unity of essence is exhibited by its unity of substance ; the trinity of conditions, fire, light, and spirit. Thus the one substance of the air, ■or heaven in its three conditions, shows the unity in trinity; and its three conditions in or of one substance, the trinity in unity. For (says tiiis denomination) if we consult the writings of the Old and T^-e^ Testament, we shall find the per- sons ot' the Deity represemted under the names and characters of the three material agents, tfire^ light, &d spirit, and their actions expressed by ithe actions of these their emblems. The Father is called n consuming fire; and his .judicial pro- ceedings are spoken of in words which detiote the several actions' of fire, Ve/ioDo/i is a conswming fire — Our God is a consuming fire, Deut.iv. 24 ; Heb. xii. 39. The Son has the name of light, smd his purifying actions and offices are described by words which denote the sections and offices of light. He is the true light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the world, John i. 9} Mm. iv. 2. The Comforter has the name of Spirit; and his animating and sustaining offices are de- scribed by words. Tor the actions and offices of the material spirit. His actiotis in the spiritual eco- nomy are agreeable to his type in the natural economy; such as inspiring, jmpeUing, driving, leading, Matt. ii. 1. The philosophic system of the Hutchinsonians is derived from the Hebrew Scriptures. The truth of it rests on these sup- pqsitions: 1. That the Hebrew language was formed underdivine inspiration, either all at once, or at different .times, as occasion required ; and that the Divine Being had.a view in constructing it, to the various revelations wliich he in alt suc- ceeding times should Inake in that language; consequently, that its words must be the most proper and determinate to convey such truths as, the Deity, during the Old Testament dis- pensation, thought fit to m^e knovm to the sons of men. Further than this : that the inspired penmen of those ages at least were under the guidance of heaven in the choice of words for recording what was revealed to them : therefore, that the Old Testament, if the language be rightly understood, is the most deterniinate in its meaning ofany other book under heaven. 2. That whatever. is recorded in the Old Testament is strictly and literally true, allowing only for.a few common figures of rhetoric; that nothing con- trary to truth is accommodated to vulgar appie- hensions. In proof of this the Hutchinsonians argue in this manner. The primary and ultimate design of revelation is indeed to teach men divinity; but in subserviency to that, geography, history, and chronology, are occaisionatly introduced; dU which are allowed to be just and authentic. There are also innumerable reterences to thinjjs HYPOCRISY of nature, and descriptions of them. If, then, the former are just, and to be depended on, for the same reason the latter ought to be esteemed philosophically true. Further: they thjnk it not unworthy of Grod, that he should make it a secondary end of his revelation to unfold the se- crets of his works j as the primary was to make known the mysteries of his nature, and the de- signs of his grace, that men might thereby be led to admire and adore the wisdom and goodness which the great Author of the universeTias dis- played throughout all his works. And as our minds are often referred to natural things for ideas of spiritual truths, it is of great importance, in order to conceive aright of divine raatters, that our ideas of the natural things referred to be strictly just and true. , ■ • Mr. Hutchinson found that the Hebrew Scrip- tures had some capital words, which he thought had not been duly 'considered and understood ; and which, he has endeavoured to prove, contain in their radical meaning the greatest and most comfortable truths. The cherubim he explsuns to be a hieroglyphic of divine constructidn, or a sacred image, to describe, as far as figures could go, the humanity united to Deity; and so he treats of several other words of similar import. Prom all which he concluded, that the rites and ceremonies of the Jewish dispensation' were so many delineations of (Christ, m what he was to he, to do, and to suffer ; that the ea.rly Jews knew them to be types of his actions and sufferings ; and, by performing them as such, were so far Christians both in fait^ and practice. The Hutchinsonians have, for the most part, een men of devout minds, zealous in the cause of Christianity, and untainted with heterodox opinions, which have so often divided the church of Christ The names of Romaine, Bishop Hornfe, Farkhurst, and others of this denomina- tion, will be long esteemed, both for the piety they possessed, and the good they have been the instruments of promoting amongst mankind. Should the reader wish to know more of the philosap.hical and theological opinions of Mr. Hutchinson, he may consult a work, intituled, " An Abstraet of the Works of John Hutchin- son, Esq. Edinburgh, 1753." See also Jones's Ldfe of Bishop Some, 3d edit. ; Jones's Works ; Sjjearman's iiiyuiry, p. 260, 273. HYMN, a song or ode in honour of the Divine Being. St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be be sung in churches, and was followed by St. Ambrose. Most of those in the Roman breviary were composed by Prudentius. The hymns or odes of the ancients generally consisted of three sorts of stanzas, one of which was sung by the band as they walked from east to west ; another was performed as they returned from west to east; the third part was sung before the altar. The Jewish hymns were acbompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals, to assist the voices of the Levitcs and the people. We have had a con- siderable number of hymns composed in our own country. The most esteemed are those of Watts, Doddridge, Newton, and Hart. As to selections, few are superior to Dr. Rippon's and Dr. Wil- liams's. See Psalmody. HYl'OCRISY is a seeming or professing to be what in truth and reality we are not. It con- sists in assuming a character which we are con- scious does not belong to us, and by which we in- 17b; HYPSISTARII tentionally impose upon the judgment and opinion of mankind concerning us. The name is bor- rowed from the Gfreek tongue, in which it prima- rily signifies the profession of a stage-player, which is to express in speech, habit, and action, not his own person and manners, but /lis whom he undertakes to represent. And so it is; for the very essence of hypocrisy lies in apt imitation and deceit ; in acting the part of a member of Christ without any saving grace. The hypocrite is a double person ; he has one person, which is natu- ral ; another, which i^ artificial ; the first he keeps to himself; the other he puts on as he doth ma clothes, to make his appearance in before men. It was ingeniously said by Basil, " that the hypo- crite has not put oft' the old man, but put on the ju!w upon it" Hypocrites have been divided into four sorts. 1. The worldly hypocrite, who makes a profession of religion, and pretends to be r&- Ugious, merely from worldly considerations, Matt, xxiii. 5. — 2. The legal hypocrite, who relin- quishes his vicious practices, m order thereby t» merit heaven, while lit the same time he has no real love to God, Rom. x. 3. — The evangelical hypocrite, whose religion is nothing more than a bare conviction of sin; who rejoices Under the idea that Christ died for him, and yet has no desire to live a holy hfe, jVIatt. xiii. 20 ; 2 Pet. ii. 20. — i. The enthusiastic hypocrite, who has an imaginary sight of his sin, and of Christ; talks of remarkable impulses and high feelings j and thinks himself very wise and good while he lives in the most scandalous practices, MatL xiii. 39; 2 Cor. xi. 14. Crook on Hypocrisy; Decmtlegon's Sermon on Ps. U. 6 ; Grove's Mot. Phil. vol. ii. p. 253 ; Souih's Ser. on Job viii. 13. vol. X. ; Bellamy's tielig. Del. p. 166. HYPOSTASIS, a term literally signifyins substance or subsistence, or that which is put and stands under another thing, and supports it, being its base, ground, or foundation. Thus faith is the substantial foundation of things hoped for, Heb. xi. 1. The word is Greek, va-no-T«o-it, com- pounded of u^-b, sub, "under;" and irn,/!., std, "I stand, I exist," ^. d. " subsistentia." It likevvjsB signifies confidence, stability, firmness, 2 Cor. ix. 4. It is also used for person, Heb. i. 3. Thus we hold that there is but one nature, or essence in God, but three hypostases or persons. >The word has occasioned great dissensions in the ancient church, first among the Greeks, and afterwards amoiig the Latins ; but an end was put to4hem by a synod held at Alexandria about the year 362, at which St. Athanasius assisted; from which time the Latins made no great scruple of saying three hypostases, nor the Greeks of three persons. The hypostaiical itnion is the union of the human nature of Christ with the divine: constituting two natures in one person, and not two persons in one nature, as the Nestorians be- lieve. See Jesds Christ, HYPSISTARII, (formed from „4,.o-Tos, "high- est,") a sect of heretics, in the fourth century; thus called from the profession they made of wor- shipping tjie Most High God. The doctrine of the Hypsistarians was an as- semblage of Paganism, Judaism, and Christianity, — They adored the Most High God with tfie Christians, but they also revered fif-e and lamps with the Heathens, and observed the sabbath, and the distinction of clpan and unclean things, with the Jews. The Hypsistarii bore a near resemblance to the Euchites, or Messalians ICONOCLASTES IBERIANS, a denomination of eastern Chris- tians, which derive their name from Iberia, a pro- vince of Asia now called Georgia ; lieijce they are also called Georgians. Their tenets are sEdd to be the same with those of the Greek church ; which sea ICONOCLASTES, or Iconoclast«, break- ers of images J a name which tte church of Rome gives to all who reject the use of images in reli- gious matters. The word is Greek, formed from nxuif, imago, axul «ji.«irTf<», rumpere, 'to break.' In this sense not only the reforijled, but some of the eastern churches, are called iconoclastes, and esteemed by them heretics, as opposing the wor- ship of the images of God and the saints, and breaking their figures and representations in churches. The opposition to images began in Greece, under liie reign of Bardanes, wno vras created emperor of the Greeks a little after the com- mencement of the eighth century, when the wor- ship of them became common. See Image. But the tumults occasioned by it were quelled by a revolution, which, in 713, deprived Bardanes of the imperial throne. The dispute, however, broke out with redoubled fury under Leo the Isaurian, who issued out an edict in the year 726, abro- gating, as some say, the worship-of images ; and ordenng all the' images, except that of Christ's crucifixion, to be removed out of the churches ; bul^ according to others, this edict only prohibited the paying to them any kind of adoration or wor- ship. This edict occasioned a civil war, which, broke out in the islands of the Archijrelago, and, by the suggestions of^ the priests and monks, ra- vaged a part of Asia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil commotions and insurrections in ftalv were chiefly promoted by the Roman pon- tifl!s, Gregory I. and II. Leo was excommuni- cated j and his subjects in the Italian provinces violated their allegiance, and rising in arms, either massacred or bamshed all the emperor's deputies and officers. In consequence of these proceed- ings, Leo assembled a council at Constantinople in 730, which degraded Germanus, bishop of that city, who vvas a patron of images ; and he or- dered all the images to be publicly burnt, and in- flicted a variety of punishihents upon such as were attached to that idolatrous worship. Hence arose two factions, one of which adopted the ado- ration and wdrship of images, and on that account were called Konoduli or iconolatrtE-; and the other maintained that such wojrship was unlaw- ful, and that nothing was more worthy the jeal of Christians than to demolish and destroy tho^ statues and pictures wMch were the occasion of this gross idolatry ; and hence they were distin- guished by the titles of iconomachi (from mmv, image, and /^»x°>, I contend) and wonoclastee. The zeal of Gregory II. in favour of image wor- ship was not only imitated, but even surpassed, by his successor, Gregory III.; in consequence of which the Italian provinces were torn from the Grecian empire. Constantine, called Coptony- raus, in 764, convened a council at Constanti- nople, regarded by the Grieeks as the seventh oecumenical council, which solemnly condemned the worship and usage of images. Those who, 179 notwithstanding the decree of the council, raised commotions in the state, were severely punished, and new laws were enacted to set bounds to the violence of monastic rage. Leo IV., who was declared emperor in 755, pursued the same mea- sures, and had recourse to the coercive influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry out of the Christian church. Irene, the wife of Leg, poisoned her husband in 78Q; assumed the reigns of the empire duriiw the mipority of her son Con- stantine; and in T%6 summoned a council at Nice, in Bithynia, known by the name of the Second Nicene Coy,ncil wmch abrogated the laws and decrees Mainst the neW idolatry, re- stored the worship of images and of the cross, and denounced severe punishments against those who maintained that God was the only object of reli- gious adoration. In this contest the Britons, Germans, and Gauls were of opinion that images might be lawfully continued in churches; but they considered the worship of them as highly injurious and offensive to the Supreme Being. Charlemagne distinguished himself as ,a mediator in this .controversy; he ordered four books con- cerning, images to be composed, refuting the rea- sons urged by the Nicene bishops to justify the worship of images, which he sent to Adrian, the Roman pontifl^ in 790, in order to engage bjm to withdraw his approbation of the decrees-of the last councilof Nice. Adrian wrote an answer ; and in 1794, a council of 300 bishops, assembled by Charlemagne, at Frankfort on the Maine, con- firmed the opinion contain^ in the four books, and solemnly condemned the vvorship of images. In the Greek church, after the banishment of Irene, the controversy concerning images broke out anew, and was carried on by the contending parties, during the'h^f of the ninth century, with various and uncertain success^ The em- peror Nicephorus appears upon the whole to have been an enemy to this idolatrous worship. His successor, Michael Curopalates, snmamed R/mngabe, patronised and encouraged it. But the scene changed on the accession of Leo, the Armenian, to t^e empire, who assembled a counr oil at Constantinople, in 812, that abolished the decrees of the Nicene, council. His successor Michael, surnamed Balbus, disapproved -of tlie worship of images, and his son Theophilus treat- ed them with great severity. However, the em^ press Theodora, alter his death, and during the minority of her son, assembled a council at Con- stantinople in 842, which reinstated the decrees of the second Nicene council, and encouraged image worship by a law. Thetounfcil held at the same pl^ce under Protius, in '879, and reckon- ed by the Greeks the eighth general council, con- firmed and renevved the Nicene decrees. In commemoration of this council, a festival was in- stituted by the superstitious Greeks, called the Feast of Ortlwdoxy. The Latins "lyere generally of opinion, that images might be suflfered, as tlia means of aiding the memory of the faithful, and of calling to thejr remembrance the pious exploita ahd virtuous actions of the persons whom they represented ; but they detested all thoughts of paying them the lea^ marks of religious homage or adoration. ' The council of Paris, assembled id lOONOLATRiE 8S4 by Louis the Meek, resolved to allow the use of hna^eg in the churcheB, but severely pro- hibited rendering them religious worship : never- theless, towards the conclusion of this century, the Grallican clergy began to pay a Mnd of reli- gious homage to the images of saints, and their example was followed by the Germans and other nations. However the fconoclastes still had their adherents among the Latins; the most eminent of whom vcis Claudius, bishop of Turin, yrho, in 823, ordered all images, and even the cross, to be cast out of the churches, and conmiitted to the flames ; and he wrote a treatise, in which he de- clared both against the use and worahip of them. He condemned reUcs, pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and all voyages to the tombs of saints ; and to his writings and labours it was owing, that the city of Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time after his death, much less infected with superstition than the other parts of Europe. The controversy concerning the sanctity of images was again revived by Leo, bishop of Chalcedon, in the 11th century, on occcasion of the emperor Alexius's converting the figures of silver that adorned the portals of the churches, into money, in order to supply the exigencies of the state. The bishop obstinately maintained that he had been guilty of sacrilege, and pul> lished a treatise, in vvhioh he affirmed, that in these itaages there resided an inherent sanctity, and that the adoration of Christians ought not to be confined to the persons represented by th^se images, but extend to the images themselves. The emperor assembled a council at Constanti- nople, which determined that the images of Christ and of the saints were to be honoured only with a relative worship ; and that the invocation and worship were to be addressed to the saints only, as the servants of Christ, and on account of their relation to him as their master. Leo, dissatisfied with these absurd and superstitious decisions, was sent into banishment. In the western church, the worship of images was dis- approved, and o,pposed by several considerable parties, as the Petrobussians, Albigenses, Wal- denses, c&o.; till at length this idolatrous practice was abolished in many parts of the Christian world by the Reformation. See Imaoe. ICONOLATRiE, or Ioonolateb^, those who worship imagns ; a name which the Icoijo- clastes give to those of the Romish communion, on account of their adoring images, and of rendering to them the worship only due to God The word is formed from !!«„», image, and m.t(«u.:«, I wor- ship. See last article, and article Image. IDLENESS, a reluctancy to be employed in any land of work. Ths idle man is in every view both foolish and criminal. " He neither fives to God, to the world, nor to himself. He does not live to God,, for he answers not the end for which he was brought into being. Existence is a sacred trust; but he who misemploys and squanders it away, thus becomes treacherous to its Author. Those powers which should be employedin his ser- vice, and for the promotion of his glory, lie dormant. The time which should be sacred to Jehovah is lost ; and thus he enjoys no fellowship with God, nor any way devotes himself to his praise. He lives not to the worid, iior for the benefit of his fellow- creatures around him. While all creation is full of life and activity, and nothing stdnds still in the luuveise, he remains idle, forgetting that mankind 181) IDOLATRY are connected, by various relations and mutual de- pendencies, and that the order of the world cannot be maintained without perpetual circulation of active duties. He lives not to himself . Though he imagines that he leaves to others the drudgery of life, and betakes himself to enjoyment and ease, yet, in fact, he has no true pleasure. While heis a blank in society, he is no less a torment to himself; for he who knows not what it is to la- bour, knows not what it is to enjoy. He shuts the , door against improvement of every kind, whether of mind, body, or fortune. Sloth en- feebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. His character fell? into contempt. Disorder, con- fusion, and embarrassment mark his whole situation. .Idleness is the inlet to a variety of other vices. It undermines eveijr virtue in the soul. Violent passions, like rapid torrents, run their course; but after having overflowed their baiiks their impetuosity subsides ; but sloth, espe- cially When it is habitual, is like the, slowly-flovc- ing putrid stream, which stagnates in the maisl^ breeds venomous animals and poisonous plants, and infects with pestilential vapours the whole country round it. Having once tainted the soulj it leaves no part of it sound ; and at the same time gives not those alarms to conscience which the eruptions of bolder and fiercer emotions often oc- casion." Logan's Sermon^, vol. i. ser. 4 j Blair'a Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 4; Idler, vol. i. p. 5, 171, 172 J Cowper'a Poems, 228, vol. i. duod. ; Johvn son's Rambler, vol. ii, p. 162, 163. IDOLATRY, the worship rf idols, or the act of ascribing to things and persons, properties which are peculiar to God alone. The principal sources of idolatry seem to be the extravagant ve- neration for creatures and beings from which benefits accrue to men. Dr. Jortin says, that idolatry had four privileges to boast of. The first , was a venerable antiquity, more ancient than the Jewish religion ; and idolaters might have said to the Israelites, Where was your religion before Moses and Abraham ■? Go, and inquire in Chal- dea, and there you will find that i your fathers served other gods. — 2. It was wider spread than the Jewish religion. It was the religion of the greatest, the wisest, and the politest nations, of the Chaldeans, Egyjjtians, and Phoenicians, the par rents of civil government, and of arts and scien- ces. — 3. It was more adapted to the bent which men , have towards visible and sensible objects. Men want gods who shall go before them, and be among them, God, who is every where in power, and no where in appearance, is hard to be con- ceived.: — 4. It favoured human passions; it re- quired no morality ; its religious ritual consisted of splendid ceremonies, revelling, dancing, noc- turnal assemblies, impure and scandalous myste- ries, debauched priests, and gods, Who were both slaves and patrons to all sorts of vices. " All the more remarkable false religions that have been or are in the world, recommend them- selves by one or other of these foui; privileges and characters." The ,first ■ objects of idolatrous worship are thought to have been the sun, moon, and stars. Others think that angels were first worshipped. Soon after the flood, we find idolatry greatly pre- vaiUng in the world. Abraham's father's family served other gods beyond the river Euphrates; and Laban hsS idols which Rachel brought along with her. In process of time, noted patriot^, or IGNORANCE kings deceased, animals of various kinds, plants, stones, and, in fine, whatever people took a fancy to, they idolized. . The Egyptians, though high pretenders to wisdom, vforshippell pied bulle, snipes, leeks, onions, &c The Greeks had about 30,000 gods. The Gomerians deified their an- cient kings ; nor were the Chaldeans, Romans, Chinese, &c., a whit less ahsurd. Some violated lie most natural affections by murdering multi- tudes of their neighbours and children, under pretence of sacrificing them to their god. Some nations of Germany, Scandinavia, and Tartary, imagined that violent death in war, or by self- murder, was the proper method of access, to the future enjoyment of their gods. In far later times, about 64,080 persons were sacrificed at the dedication of one idolatrous temple in the space of four days in America. The Hebrews never had any idpls of their own, but they adopted those of the nations around. The veneration which the Papists pay to the Virgin Mary, and other saints and angels, and to the bread in the sacrament, the cross, relics, and images, lays a foundation for the Protestants to charge ttiem with idolatry, though they deny the j halge. It is evident that they worship them, and that they justify the worship, but deny the idolktry of it, by distinguishing sviordinate (lom supreme wor- ship:, the one they call latria, the other dyiia ; but this distinction is thought by many of the Protestants to be vain, futile, and nugatory. Idolatry has been divided into metaphorical and proper. By metaphorical idolatry, is meant that inordinate love of riches, honours, and bodily pleasures, whereby the passions and appetites of men are made superior to the will of God j man, by so doing, making a god of himself and his sensual temper. Proper idolatry is giving the divine honour to another. The objects or idols of that honour which are given, are*either per- eouai, L e. the idolatrous thiimselves, who become their own statues; or interrixil, as false ideas, which are set up in the fancy instead of God, such as fancying God to be a light, fiame, matter, &c. ; only here, the scene being internal, the scandal of the sin is thereby abated; or external, as worshipping angels, the sun, stars, animals, &c. Tenison on molatry ; A. Young on Idola- trous Corruptions; Ridgley's Body of Div. qu. 106 ; Fell's Idolatry of iSreece and Rome ; Stillingfieet's Idolatry of Ihe-Church of Rome ; Jartin's Serm. vol. vi. ser. 18. IGNORANCE, th6 want of knowledge or instruction. It is often used to denote illiteracy. Mr. Locke observes, that the causes of ignorance are chiefly three. — 1. Want of ideas. — §. Want of a discoverable connexion between the ideas we have. — 3. Want of tracing and examining our ideas. As it respects religion, ignorance has been distinguished into three sorts : I. An invincible ignorance, in which the will has no part. It is an insult; upon justice to suppose it will punish men because they were ignorant of things which they ■ were physically incapable of knowing. — 3. There is a wilful, and obstinate ignorance ; such an ig- norance, far from exculpating, aggravates a njaji's crimes.-— 3. A sort of ignorance which is neither entirely wilful, nor entn'ely invincible ; as when a man has the means of knowledge, and does not Use them. See KnowledhH ; and Locl IMAGE the barbarous conquerors mix. and amalgamate with the conquered, and become themselves more or less civilized. Dr. Weishaupt is allowed to be influeiiced by a high degree of vanity ; as an evi- dence of wliich he communicates as the last se- cret to his most favoured adepts, that the myste- ries of iLLHiyiiNisM, which, ui going through the inferior degrees, had been successively attributed to the most ancient patriarchs and philosophers, and even to Christ himself, owed its origin to no other than Adam Weishaupt, known in the or- der by, the name of Spartacus. The same vanity which leads the doctor to take this traditional method, while secrecy is deemed necessary, of securing to himself the hoiiour of having founded the society, would lead him, were the Illurninati actually victorious over ail religions and govern- ments, to wish to have his memory recorded in a more durable manner by writing or printing. But if these and all the other arts weje to perish in a mass, then the memory of the doctor, and the im- portant services he had done to the order and to Savagiam, must, within a centujy at the utmost, perisb along with them. But if, iii fact, the total annihilation of the arts and sciences, as well as of all religioii and government, be really the object of Weishaupt and his Illuminees, then we may agree with the celebrated Mandeville, that "hu- man nature is the true Libyan desert, daily pro- ducing new monsters," and that of these mon- sters the doctor and ^ his associates are beyond a doubt the most extraordinary. Professor Robison informs us, that the order of the Illuminati was abblished 1786 by the elector of Bavaria, but re- vived immediately after, under another name, and in a difl'erent form, over, all Germany. It was again detected and' seemingly broken up; but it had by this time taJcen so deep root, that it still subsists without being detected, and has spread, we are told, into all the countries of Europe. IMAGE, in a religious sense, is an artificial representation of some person or thing used as an object of adoration ; in which sense it is used synonymously with idol. The use and adoration of images have been long controverted. It is plain, from the practice of the primitive chiirch, recorded by the earlier fathers, that Christians, during the first three centurtes, and the greatet part of the fourth, neither worshipped images, nor used them in their worship. However, the gene- rality of the popish divines maintain that the use and worship of images are as ancient as the Chris- tian religion itself: to prove this, they allege a decree, said to have been inade in a council held by the apostles at Antioch, commanding the faithful, that they may not err about the .object of their worship, to make images of Christ, and worship them. Baron, ad ann. 102. But no no- tice is taken of this decree till seven hundred years after the apostolic times, after the dispute about images had conraienced. The first instance that occurs, in any ci-edible author, of images among Christians, is that recorded by Tertullian de Pudicit. c. 10, of certain cups or chalices, as Bellarmine pretends, on which was represented the parable of the good shepherd carrying the lost sheep on his shoulders : but this instance only proves that the church, at that time, did not think emblematical figures unlawful ornaments of, chahces. Another instance is taken from Euse- bius {Hist. Eccl. lib. vii. cap. 18,) who savs, that in his time there were to be seen two brass sta- IMAGE lues In the city of Paneas, or Caesarea Philippi ; ♦the one of a woman on her knees, t? ith her'arms stretched out ; the other of a man over against her, with his hand extended to receive her : these statues were said to Vie the images pf our Saviour, and the woman whom he cured of an issue taf blood. From the foot of the statue representing our Saviour, says the historian, sprung up an exotic plant, which as soon as it grew to touch the border of ffis garment, was said to cure all sorts of distempers. Eusebius, however, vouches none of these things ; nay, he supposgs that the woman who erected this statue of our Saviour was a pagan, and ascribes it to a p^an custom. Philostorgius (Eccl. Hist. lib. vii. c. 3.) expressly says, that thi? statue was carefully preserved by the Christians,' but that they, paid no kind of worship to it, because, it is not lawful for Chris- tians to worship brass or any other matter. The primitive Christians abstained from the worship "iP images, not, as the Papists pretend, from ten- derness to heathen idolaters, but because they thought it uiJawful in itself to make any images of the Deity. TertuUian, Clemens Alexandri- nus, and Origen, were of opinion, that, by the second commandment, painting a«d engraving were unlawful to a Ohnstian, styling them evu and wicked arts. Tert. de Idol. cap. 3j Clem. Alex. Admon. ad Gent p. 41 ; Origen contra Celsum, lib. vi. p. 1S2. The use of images^ in -hurohes, as ornaments, was first introduced by some Christians in Spain, in the beginning of the fourth century; but the practice was' con- demned as a dangerous innovation, in a council held at Eliberis in 305. Egiphaniqs, in a letter preserved by Jerome, torn. li. ep. C, bears strong testimony against images ; and he may be con- sidered as one of the first iconoclasts. The cus- tom of admitting pictures of saints and martyrs into churches (for this was the fir^t source of imE^ge-worship) was rare in the end of the fourth century, but became common in the fifth. But they were still cojisidere'd only as ornaments, and even in this view, they met with very con- siderable opposition. In the following century, the custom of thus adorning chuithes became .almost universal, both in the East ani West. Petavius expressly says (de Incar. lib. xv. cap. 14,) that no statues were yet allowed in the churches, because they bore too near a resem- blance to the idols of the Gentiles. Towards the close of the fourth, or beginning of th? fifth cen- tury, images, which were introduced by way of ornament, and then used as an aid to devotion, began to be actually worshipped. However, it continued to be the doctrine of the church in the sixth, and in the beginning of the seventh cen- tury, that images were to be used only as helps to devotion, and not as objects 9f worship. The worship of them was condemned in the strongest terms by Gregory the Great, as appears by two of his letters written in 601. From this time to the beginning of the eighth century, there occurs no instance of any worship given or allowed to be given to images, by any council or assembly of bishops whatever. But they were commonly worshipped by the monks and populace in the beginning of the eighth century ; insomuch that, in 726, when Leo published his famous edict, it had already spread mto all the provinces subject to the empire. The Lutherans condemn the Calvinists for breaking the images in the chuichfes 183 IMMUTABILITY of the Catholics, looking on it as a kind of sacri- lege; and yet they condemn the Romans (who are professed image-woi'shippers) as idola,teTs; nor can these lust keep pace with the Greeks, who go far beyond them in this point, which has occasioned- abundance of disputes among them. See Icokocm.astes. The Jews absolutely con- demn all unages, and do not so much as suffer any statues or figures in their houses, much less in their synagogues, or places of worship, The Mahometans have an equal aversion to images ; which led them to destroy most of the beautiful monuments of antiquity, both sacred and profane, at Constantinople. Bingham's Orig. Eccl. ]\ viii. c. 8 ; Middleton's Letters from Rome, jp. 21; Burnet, on the Art. p. 209, 219; DoA- d/ridge's Lect. lect. 193 ; Tennison on Idolatry, p. 269, 975 ; Ridgleij's Body of Div. qu." 110. IMAGE OF GOD in the soul, is distin- guished into natural and moral. By natural is meant the understandings reason, wUl, and other intellectual faculties. By the moral image, the right use of those faculties, or what we term holiness. IMAGINATION is apower or faculty of the mind, whereby it conceives and forms ideas Of things communicated to it by the outward organs of sense ; or it is the power of recollecting and assembling images, and of painting forcibly tho* images on our minds, or on the mmds of others. The cause of the pleasures of the imagination in whatever is grea^ uncommon, or beautiful, is this; that God- h4s annexed a secret pleasure to the idea of any thing' that is new or rare, that he might encourage and stimulate us in the eager and keen pursuits after knowledge, and inflame, our best passions to search into the wonders of creation and revelation; for every new idea brings such a pleasure along with it, as rewards any pains we have taken in its acquisition, and consequently serves as a striking and powerfalj motive to put us upon fresh discoveries m learning and science, as well as in the word and works of God. See Rev. W. Jones's Works, Vol. vi, ser. 17; Ryland's Contemplations, vol.i. p. 64 j Akenside's Pleasures of Imagination; Addi- son's beautiful Papers on tfie Imagination, vot vi. Sped. p. 64, &c. ; Grove's Mot. Phil. p. 354, 355, 410, vol. i. IMMATERIALISM, the belief that the soul is a spiritual substance distinct from the body. See Materialism and Soul. IMMENSITY, unbounded or incomprehen- sible greatness ; and unlimited extension, which no finite and determinate space, repeated e,ver so often, can equal. See Infinity of God. 1MM0RAL.ITY, an action inconsistent with our duty towards man, and consequently a sin against God, who hath commanded us to do jus- tice, andlove mercy. See Morality. IMMORTALITY, a state which has no end j the impossibility of dymg. It is applied to God, who is absolutely immortal, 1 Tim. i. 17 ; and to the human soul, which is only hypothetieally im- mortal ; as God, who at first gave it, can, if he pleases, deprive us of our existence. See SoDL. IMMUTABILITY OP GOD is his un- changeableness. He is immutable in his essence, James i. 17. In his attribvctes, Ps. cii. 27. In his purposes, Isa. xxv. 1 ; Ps. xxxiii. li. In his promises, Mai. iii. 6 ; 2 Tim. ii. 12. And in his thrcateninffs, M att. xxv. 41. " This is a jMrfiec- IMPLICIT tion," says Dr. Blair, "which, perhaps, more than any other, distinguishes the divine nature from the human, gives complete energy to all its attributes, and entitles it to the liishest adoration. From hence are derived the regular order of na- ture and the steadfastness of the universe. Hence flows the unohanghiff tenor of those laws which, from age to age, regulate the conduct of mankind. Hence the uniformity of that government, and the certainty of those promises, which are the ground al" our trust and security. An objection, how- ever, may be raised against this doctrine, from the commandments given us to prayer, and other religious exercises. To what purpose, it may he urged, is homage, addressed to a Being whose plan is unalterably fixed 1 This objection would have weight, if our religious addresses were de- signed to work any alteration in God, either by giving him iiiformatioil of what he did not know, or by exciting affections which he did not possess j or by indacing him to change measures which he had previously formed ; but they are only crude and imperfect notions of religion which can sug- l^est such ideas. The change which our devo- tions are intended to make, are upon ourselves, not upon the Almighty. By pouring out our sentiments and desires before God ; by adoring his perfections, and confessing our un worthiness; by expressing our dependance on his aid, our gratitude for his past favoiirs, our submission to his present will, and our trust in his future mercy, we cultivate such afiections as suit our place and station in the universe, and are to be exercised by us as men and as Christians. The contemplation of the divine perfection should raise in our minds admiration j should teach us to imitate, as far as our frailty will permit, that oonstancy and steadfastness which we adore, 2 Cor. iii. 18 ; and, lastly, should excite trust and confidence in the Divine Being, amidst all the revolutions of this uncertain world." — Blair's Sermons, ser. 4. vol, ii. ; Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 203 ; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. i. p. 50 ; Lambert's Sermons, ser. on Mai. iii. 6. IMPANATION, a tenn used by divines to signify the opinion of the Lutherans with re^ gard to the eucliarist, who believe that the spe- cies of bread and- wine remain together with the body of our Saviour after conseftation. IMPEJCCABILES, a name given to those heretics vvho boasted that they were impeccable, and that there was no need of repentance ; such were the Gnostics, Priscillianists, &c. IMPECCABII.ITY, the state of a person who cannot sin ; or a grace, privilege, or princii- pie, which puts him out of a possibility of sin- ning. Divines have distinguished several kinds of impeccability : that of God belongs to him by nature ; that of Jesus Christ, considered as man, belongs to him by the hypostatieal uniori ; that of the blessed, in consequence of their condition, &c. IMPLICIT FAITR, is that by which we take up any system or opinion of another, with- out examinatioij. This has been one of the chief sources of ignorance and error in the church of Rome. The divines of that community teach, " That we are to observe, not how the church proves any thing, but what shesays: that the will of God is, that we should beUevo and confide in 'his ministers in the same mannei as himself." Cardinal Toletus, in his instructions for priests, | 184 IMPOSTORS asserts, " That if a rustic believes his bishop pro ^ posing an heretical tenet for an article of faith, such belief is meritorious." Cardinal Causanus tells us, " That irrational obedience is the most consummate and perfect obedience, when we obey without attending to reason, as a beast obeys his driver." In an epistle to the Bohe- mians he has, these words : " I assert that there are no precepts of Christ but tjhose which are re- ceived as such bv the church (meaning the church , of Rome.)' When the church changes her judg- ment, God changes his judgment likewise." , What madness! What blasphemy! For a church to demand belief of what she teaches, and a sub- mission to what she enjoins, merely upon her assumed authority, must appear to unprejudiced minds the height of unreasonableiiess and spi- ritual despotism. We could wish this doctrine had' been confined to this church; but, alas! it has been too prevalent in other communities. A theological jiystem, says Dr. Jortin, is too often no more than a temple consecrated to implicit faith ; and he who enters in there to vs'orship, in- stead of leaving his shoes, after the eastern man- ner, must leave his understanding at the door; and it will be well if he fiijd it when he comes out again. IMPOSITION OF HANDS, an ecclesias- tical action, by which a bishop lays his hand on the head of a person in ordination, confirmation, or in uttering a blessing. This practice is also frequently observed by the dissenters at the ordi- nation of their preachers; when the ministers present place their hands on the head of Mm whoni they are ordaining, while one of them prays for a blessing on him and on his future labours. They are not agreed, however, as to the propriety of this ceremony. Some suppose it to be confined to those who recived extraordi- nary gifts in the primitive times : others think it ought to be retained, as it waSan aricient practice used where no extraordinary gifts were conveyed. Gen. xlviii. 14; Matt. xix. 15. They do not suppose it to be of such an important and essen- tial nature, that the validity and usefulness of a man's future ministry depend upon it in any de- gree. Imposition of hands was a Jewish cere- mony, introduced not by any divine authority, but by custom ; it being the practice among ' those people, whenever tcey prayed to God for any person, to lay their hands on his head. Our Saviour ohservedthe same custom, both when he conferred his blessing on chijdren, and when he healed the sick; adding prayer to the ceremony. The apostles,, likewise, laid hands on those, upon whom they bestowed the Holy Ghost. The priests observed the same custom when any one was received in their body. And the apostles themselves underwent the imposition of hands afresh every time they entered upon any new design. In the ancient church, imposition of hands was even practised on persons when they married, which custom the Abyssinians still ob- serve. Maurice's Dial, on Sac. Relig. p. 16S. 168 ; Watts' s Rational Foundation of a Chris- ' tian Ch. p. 31 ; Turner on Church Gov. p. 70 ; King's Primitive Christ. Ch. p. 40. IMPOSTORS, RELIGIOUS, are such as pretend to an extraordinary commission from hea- ven, and who terrify the people with false denun- ' ciations of judgments. Too many of these have abounded in almost all ages. They are pimi^. IMPURITY sWe in the temporal courts with fine, immison- ment, and corporeal punishment. See False Messiahs. IMPOTENCYj or Impotence, is considered as natural and moral. Natural is the want of some physical principle necessary to an action, or where a being is absolutely defective, ox^ not free and at liberty to act. Moral impotency imports a great difficulty ;, as a strong habit to the con- trary; a violent passion j or the like. IMPROPRIATION, a parsonage or eccle- siastical living, the profits of which are in the hands of a layman; in which case it stands dis- tinguislied from appropriation, which is where the profits of a benefice are in the hands of a tiishop, college, &c though the terms are now used promiscuously. IMPtlLSE, an influence, idea, Or motive act- ing upon the mind. We must be careful how wo are guided hy hnpulses in religion. ; " There are many," as one observes, '' who frequently feel singular impressions upon their minds, and are inclined to pay a very strict regard unto tliem. Yea, some carry this point so Sir, as to make it almost the only rule of their judgment, and will not determine any thing, until they'find it in their hearts to do it, as their phrase is. Others take it for granted, that the divine mmd is notified to tliem by svyeet or powerful impressipns of some passages of sacred writ. There are others who are determined by visionary manifestations, or by the impressions made in dreams, and the in- terpretations they put upon theiii. All these things being of the same general nature, may very justly- be considered together ; and it is a mat- ter of doubt with paany how far these things are to be regarded, or attended to by us , and how w« may distinguish any divine impresdons of this kind from flie delusions of the tempter, or of our own evil hearts. But, whoever makes any of the?o things his rule and standard, he forsakes the divine word ; and nothing tends more to make persons unhappy in themselves, unsteady in their conduct, or more dangerously deluded in their practice, than paying a random regard to these impulses, as notifications of the divine will." See ENTEDsii^Mj Providence. IMPURITY, want of that rfegard to decency, eihastity, or holiness, which our duty requires. Impurity, in the lawof Moses, is any legal de- filement. Of these there were several sorts : some were voluntary, as the toiichihg a dead fcody, or any animal that died of itself^ or any creature that was esteemed unclean ; or touching things holy by one who was not cleaix, or was not a priest; the touching one who had a leprosy, one who had a gdnorrhcea, or who was polluted by a dead carcase,' Sic. Sometimes these impurities were involuntary ; as when any one inadvertently touched bones, or a sepulchre, or any thing pol- luted; or fell into such diseases as pollute, as the leprosy, &c. The beds, clothes, and moveables, which had touched any thins unclean, contracted also a kind of impurity, and in some cases communicated it to others. These legad pollutions were generally temoved by bathing, and lasted iio longer than the even- ing. The person polluted plunged over head in the water ; and either had his clothes on when he did BO, or washed himself and his clothes sepa- rately. ,Other pollutions continued seven days 185 y INABILITY as that which was contracted by touching a dead body. Some impurities lasted forty or fifty days j aS, that of women Vs'ho were lately delivered, who were unclean forty days after the birth of a boy, and fifty after the birth of a girl. Others, again, lasted till the person was cured. Many of these pollutions weje expiated by sa- crifices, and others by a certain water or lye made with the asnes of a red heifer, sacrificed on the great day of expiation. "When the leper was cured, he went to the temple, and offered a sacri- fice of two birds, one of which was killed, and the other set at liberty. He who had touched a dead body, or had been present at a funeral, was to be purified with the water of expiation; and this upon pain of death. The woman who had been deUvered, offered a turtle and a lamb for her ex- piation ; or if she was poor, two turtles, or two young pigeons. These impurities, which the law of Moses has expressed with the greatest accuracy and cart, were only figures of other more important im" purities, such as the sins and iniquities committed against God, or faults committed against our neighbour. The saints and prophets of the Old Testament were sensible of this ; and our Saviour in the Gospel, has strongly inculcated — that they are not outwanl and corporeal pollutions which render us unacceptable to God, but sUch inward pollutions as infect the soul, and are violations of justice, truth and charity. IMPUTATION is the attributing any mat- ter, quality, or character, whether good or evil, to any person as his own. It may refer to what was originally his, antecedently to such imputation; or to wlmt was not antecedently his, but becomes so by virtue of sUch imputation only. 2 Sam; xix, 19 ; Ps. cvi. 31. The imputation that respects our justification before God is of the latter kind, and may be defined thus : it is God's gracious do- nation of the righteousness of Christ to believersj and his acceptance of their persons as righteous on the account thereof. Their sins being im- puted to him, and his obedience being imputed to them, they are, in virtue hereof, bofli acquitted from guilt, and accepted as righteous before God, Rom. iv. 6,7; v. 18, 19; 2 Cor. v. 21. See Righteodsnebs, Sin; Dickinsons lictters, p. 156 ; Hervey's Theron and Aspasia, vol. ii. •p. 43; Doddridge's I^oiAs, vpl.iv. p. 562; Watts's Works, vol. iii. p. 532. Edwards on Original Sin. INABILITY, want of power sufficient for the performance of any particular action or design. It has been divided into natural and liioral. We are said to be naturally unable to do a thing when we cannot do it if we wish, because of some im- peding defect or obstacle that is extrinsic of the will, either in the understanding, constitution of the body^ or external objects. Moral inability consists not in any of these things, but either in the want of inclination, or the strength of a con- trary inclination ; or the want of sufficient mo- tives in vi^w to induce and excite the act of the will, or the strength of apparent motives to tho contrary. For the salie of illastration, we will here I)resent the reader with a few examples of both.' ■Natural. Moral. Cain couMnotbave killed Cain pmld not have kill Abel, if Cain bad been the ed Abel, if Cain had feared weakest, and Abel aware God, and loved his bro- of him. iher, Q.9 nsrcEST Jacob could not rejoice in Joseph 8 exaltation be- fore he heard of it. Tlie woman mentioned in 3d Kings vi. 29, could nol kill her neighbour's son and eat him, when he was hid, and she could not iind liim. Hazael could not have smothered Benhadad, if he had not been suffered to enter his chamber. Potiphar*s wife louM not rejoice in it, if she con- tinued under it. Had that woman been a very affectionate mother, she could not have killed her own son in a time of plenty, as she did in a time of famine. . If a dutiful, aiftction- ate son had been waiting on Benhadad in HazaeFs stead, he could not Iiave smotliered liim, as Hazael did. These are a few instances from which we may dearly learn the distinction of natural and moral inability. It must not, however, be forgotten, that moral inability or. disinclination is no excuse for our omission of duty, though want of natural faculties or necessary means .would. 'That God may command, though man has no present mo- raJ ability to perform, is evident, if we consider, 1. That man once had a power to do whatsoever God would command him, he had a power to deave to God. — 2. That God did not deprive man of his ability. — 3. Therefore God'^ right of commanding, and man's obligation of returning and cleaving to God remains firm. See Liberty ; and T)ieol. Misc. vol. ii. p. 488; Edwards on (he Will; Charnoclc's Works, vol. ii. p. 187; Watts on Inberty, p. 4. INCARNATION, the act whereby the Son df God assumed the human nature ; or the mys- tery by which Jesus Christ, the Eternal Word, wp5 made man, in order to accomplish the work of our salvation. See Nativi'ty, and Meldrum on the Incarnation. INCEST, the crime of criminal and unnatural commerce with a person within the degrees for- bidden by the law. By the rules of the church, iiicest was formerly very absurdly extended even to the seventh degree; but^it is now restricted to the third or fourth. Most nations look on incest with horror, Persia and Egypt excepted. In the history of the ancient kings of those countries we meet with instances of brothers marrying their own sisters, because they thought it too mean to join in alliance with their own subjects, and still more so to marry into any foreign family. Vor- tigem, king of South Britain, equalled, or rathen excelled them m wickedness, by marrying his own daughter. The quefen of Portugal was mar- ried to her uncle j and the prince of Brazil, the son of that incestuous marriage, wedded his aiint But they hid dispensations for these unnatural marriages from his holiness. "In order," says jne, " to preserve chastity in families, and be- \ween persons of different sexes brought up and ttving together in a state of Unreservfed intimacy, ft is necessary, by every method possible, to incul- cate an abhorrence of incestuous conjunctions : which abhorrence can only be upheld by the ab- .solute reprobation of all commerce of the sexes between near relations. Upon this principle the marriage, as well as other cohabitaticn of bro- thers and sisters of lineal kindred, and of all who usually live in the same family, may be said to be tbrbidden by the law of niture. Restrictions which extend to remoter degrees of kindred than pfhat this reason makes it necessary to prohibit from intermarriage, are founded in the authority of the positive law which ordains them, and can only be justified by their tendency to difiiise 186 INCOMPREHENSIBILITY wealth, to connect families, or to promote soma political advantage. " The Levitical law, which is received m this countrr, and from which the rule of the Roman law differs very little, prohibits marriage between relations within three degrees of kindred ; com- puting the generations not from, but through the common ancestor, and accounting affinity the same as consanguinity, The issue, however, of such marriages are not bastardized, unless thn parents be divorced during their lifetime." Pa- leu's Moral Philosophy, p. 316. vol. i. INCEST^ SPIRITUAL, an ideal crime, committed between two persons who have a spi- ritual alliance, by means of baptism or confirma- tion. This ridiculous fancy was made use of as an instrument of great tyranny in times when the power of the pope was unlimited, even queens being sometimes divorced upon this pretence. In- cest Spiritual is also understood of a vicar, or other beneficiary, who enjoys both the mother and the daughter; that is, holds two_ benefices, one whereof depends upoii the collation of the other. Such spiritual incest renders both the one and the other of these benefices vacant. INCLINATION is the disposition or propen- sity of the rhind to any particillar object or action; or a kind of bias upon nature, by the force of which it is carried towards certain actions jire- , viously to the exercise of thought and reasoning about the nature and consequences of them. In- clinations are of two kinds, natural or acquiredk 1. Natwal, are such as vve often Bee in.children, who from their earliest years differ in their tem- pers and dispositions. In one you sec the dawn- ings of a liberal, diffusive soul ; another gives us cause to fear he will be altogether as narrow and sordid. Of one we may say, he is. naturally re- vengeful ; of another, that he is patient and for- givjng.— 3. Acquired inclinations are such as are superinduced by custom, which are called habits ; and these are either good or evit. See Habit. INCOMPREHENSIBILITY OF GOD. This is a relative term, and indicates a relation between an object and a faculty ; between God and a created understanding : so that the mean- ing of it is this, that no created understanding tan comprehend God ; that is, have a perfect and exact knowledge of Him, such a knowledge as is adequate to the perfection of the object. Job xi. 7 ; Isa. xl. God is incomprehensible : — 1. As to the nature of his essence. 2. The excellency of his attributes. 3. The depth of his counsels. 4. The works of his providence. 5. The dis- pensation of his grace, Eph. iii. 8 ; Job xxxvii. 35 ; Rom. xi. Tne incomprehensibihty of God follows, 1. Prom his being a spirit endued with perfections greatly superior to our own. — 2. There may be (for any thing we certainly know) attributes and p«!rfections in God of which we have not the least idea.— 3. In those perfections of the divine nature of which we have some idea, there are many things to us inexplicable, and with which, the more deeply and attentively we think of them, the more we find our thoughts swallowed up; such as his self-existence, eter- nity, omnipresence, &c. This should teach us, therefore, 1. To admire and reverence the Divine Being, Zech. ix. 17; Neh. ix. 5.-3. To be humble and modest, Ps. viii. 1. 4 ; Eccl. v. 3, 3 ; Job xxxvii. 19. — 3. To be serious in our ad- dresses, and sincere-in our behaviour towards him. Caryl on Job xxvii. 25 ; Tillotson'a Ser- tnons, sermon 156 ; Abemethy'a Sermons, vol. ii. No. 6, 7; Doddridge's Led. 1(*. 50. INCONTINENCY, not abstaining from un- lawful desires. See Continency. XNCORPOREALITY OF GOD, is his be- ing without a body. That God is incorporeal is 'evident: for, 1. Materiality is incompatible with sdf-existenoo, and God, being self-existent, must be incorporeal. — 2. If God were corporeal, he could not be present In any part of the world VI here body is ; yet his presence- is necessary for the support and motion of body. — 3. A body tan- not be in two places at the' same time ■, yet he is every where, smd tills heaven and fiarth, — 4. A body is to be seen and felt ; but God is invisible and impalpable, John i. 18. Charnock's Works, vol. i.p. 117; Doddridge's Led. lee. 47 j GUVs Body of Div. vol. i. p. 45, oct. INCORRUPTIBLES, or Incorhoptibiles, the name of a sect which sprang out of the Euty- chians. Their distinguishmg tenet was, that the body of Jesus Christ was incorruptible ; by which they meant, that, after and from tne time wherein he was formed in the womb of his mother, he Was not susceptible of any change or alteration; not even of any natural or innocent passion, as df hunges, thirst, &c. ; so that he ate vrithout oc- casion before his death, as well as after his resur- rection. INCREDULITY, the withholding our assent to any proposition, notwithstanding arguments sufficient to demand assent. See Duncan Porbes's piece, entitled Reflections < on the Sources of /■«- credulity with regard to Religion, and Casavr bon on Credulity and Incredulity. ' INDEPENDENCY OF GOD is his exist- ence in andof himself, without depending on any other. "His being and perfections," as Dr. Ridgley observes, (Body of Div. q. 7.) " are un- derived, and not communicated to him, as all finite perfections are by him to the creature. This at- tribute of independency belongs to all his per- fections. 1. He is independent as. to his know- ledge. He doth not receive ideas from any object out of himself, as intelligent creatures do. Thi^ is elegantly described by the prophet, Is. xl. 13, 14. — 3. He is independent in power. As he receives strength from no one, so he doth not act dependently on the will of the creature. Job xxxvi. 33. — 3. He is independent as to his holiness, hating sin necessarily, and not barely depending on some reasons out of himself inducing nim thereto ; for it is essential to the divine nature to be infinitely apposite to sin, and therefore t» be independently holy.^4. He is independent as to his bounty and goodness. He communicates blessings not by constraint, but according to his sovereign will. Thus he gave being to the world, and sdfthings therein, which was the first instance of bounty and goodness; and this not bv restraint, Tiut by his free-will; "for his pleasure they aie and were created." In like mannerj whatever instances of mercy he extends to miserable creatures, he acts independently and not by force. He shows mercy, because it is his pleasure to do so, Rom. Ix. 18. That God is independent, let it be fur- ther considered, 1. That all things depend on hib power which brought them into and preserves them in being, if therefore, all things depend OTi God, then it would be absurd to say that God depends oh any thing, for this would be to sup- 187 , INDEPENDENTS pose the cause and efi!ect to be mutually depenit ent on and derived from each other, which infeftr a contradiction. — 2. If God be infinitely above the highest creatures, he cannot depend on any of them, for dependence affiugs infenority. Is. xL 15. 17.^3. If God depend on any creature, he doej not 6xist necessarily ; and if so, then he might not have been ; for the same will by which he is supposed to exist, might have determined that he should not have existed, which is alto gether inconsistent with the idea of a God. From Gfod's being independent, we infer, 1. That we ought to conclude that the creature cannot lay any obligation on him, or do any thing that may tend to make him more happy than he is m him- self, Rom. xi. 35 ; Job sxii. 3, 3. — 2. If inde- pendency be a divine perfection, then let it not in any instance, or by any consequence, be attri- buted to the creature : let us conclude that all our springs are in him ; and that all we enjoy and hope for is from him, who is the author and finisher of our faith, and the fountain of all our ' INDEPENDENTS, a sect ofProtestants, so called from their maintaining that each congre- gation of Christians which meet in one house for public worship is a complete church ; has suffi- cient power to act and perform every thing re- lating to religious government within itself; and is in no respect simject or accountable to other churches. Thougji the EpiscopaUans contend that there is not a shadow of the independent discipline to 'be found either in the Bihle or the primitive church, the Independents, on the contrary, be- lieve that it is most clearly to be deduced ftom the practice of the apostles in planting the first churches. See Church, CoNeRfiGATiONAL, and Episcopacy. The Independents, however, were not distinguished as a body till the time of queen Elizabeth. The hietarchy established by that princess in the churches of her dominions, the vestmenfe worn by the clergy in the celebration of divine worship, the book of Common Prayer, and, above all, the sign of the cross used in the administration of baptistn, were very oflfensive to many of her subjects, who,, during the persecu- tions of the former reign, had taken refuge among the Protestants of Germaiiy and Geneva. These men thought that the church of England resem- bled in too many particulars the anti-christian church of Rome j they therefore called perpetu-" ally for a more thorough reformation, and a purer worship. From this circumstance they were stigmatized with the general name of Puritans, as the followers of Novatian had been in the an- cient church. See N ovatians. Elizabeth was not disposed to comply with their demands ; and it is difficult to say what might have been the issue of the contest, had the Puritans been united among themsdves, in sentiments, views, and measures. But the case was quite otherwise v that large body, composed of persons of dififerent ranks, 3iaracters, opinions, and intentions, and unanimoiis in nothing but their antipathy to the established church, was all of a sudden divided into a variety of sects. Of these, the most fa- mous was that which was formed about the year 1581, by Robert Brown, a man insinuating in his manners, but unsteady and inconsistent in his views and nciions of men and things. Brovim was for dividing the whole body of flie faithful INDEPENDENTS into separate societies or conffregations; and main- tained that such a number of persons as could be contained in an ordinary place of worship ought to be considered as a dkurch, and enjoy all the rights_ and privileges that are competent to an ecclesiastical community. These small societies he pronounced independent^ jure dimnOy and entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of the bishop, in-whosc hands tbe court had placed the reins of a spiritual government : and also from that of presbyteries and synods, which the Puri- tans regarded as the supreme visible sources of ecclesiastical authority. But as we have given am account of the general opinions and discipline (Jf the Brownists, we need not enumerate them here, hut must beg the reader to refer to that arti- de. The zeal with which Brovm and his asso- <2iates maintained and propagated- his notions, was, in a high degree, intemperate and extrava- gant. He affirmed that all communion was to Be broken off with those religious societies that were founded upon a idifferent plan from his ; and treated more especially the church of England as a spurious church, whose ministers were un- lawfully ordained ; whose discipline was popish and anti-christian ; and whos^ sacraments and in- stitutions w^ere destitute of all efficacy and virtue. His followers not being able to endure the severe treatment which they met vrith from an adminis- tration that was not distinguished for its mild- ness and indulm^ce, retired into the Netherlands) send founded churches at Middlebourg, Amster- dam, and Leyden. Their founder, however, rec turned into England, renounced his principles of separation, anil took orders in the established diurch. The Puritan exiles, whom he thus abandoned, disagreed among themselves, were split into parties, and their affairs declined from day to day. This engaged the vdser part of them to mitigate the sevepty of their founder's plan, and to soften the, rigour of his uncharitable de- cisions. The person who had the chief merit of bring- ing about this reformation was one of their pas- tors, of the name of Robinson ; a man wh/? nad tnuch of the solemn piety of the times, and no inconsiderable portion of learning. This well- tneaning reformer, perceiving the defects that reigned in the discipline of Browne, and in the ^irit euid temper of his followers, employed his leal and diligence in correcting them, and m new- jnodelling the society in such a manlier, as to ten- der it less odious to his adversaries, and less liable fa the just censure of those true Christians who (ook upon charity as the end of the command- Inents. Hitherto the sect harl been called Brown- Jsts ; but Robinson having in his apology affirmed that all Christian congregations were so many independent religious societies, that had a right to be governed by their own laws, injiependeni qf siny further or foreign jurisdiction, the sect was henceforth called Independents, of which the apologist was considered as the founder. The first independent or congregational chmch in England was established by a Mr. Jacob, in the year 1616. Mr. Jacob, who had fled from tlie persecution of bishop Bancroft, going to Hol- land and having imparted his design of setting up a separate congregation, like those in Holland, to the most learned' Puritans of those times, it was not condemned as unlawful, considering there was no prospect of a national reformation. Mr. INDEPENDENTS Jacob, therefore, having summoned several of his friends together, and having obtained their coii- sent to unite in church fellowship for enjoying the ordinances of Christ in the purest manner, they laid the foundation of the first independent church in England in the following way : Hav^ ing observed a day of solemn fasting and prayer for a blessing upon their undertakinft, towards the close of the solemnil;y, each of them made an open confession of their faith in Christ ; and then, standing together, they joinefi hands, and solemnly covenanted with each other, in the pre- sence of Almighty God, to walk together in all God's \f ays and ordinances, according as he had already revealed, or should further make knowti to them. Mr. Jacob was then chosen pastor by the suffrage of the brotherhood ; and others were appointed to the office of deacons, with fasting and prayer, and imposition of hands. The Independents were much more commend- able than the Brownists : they surpassed tfeen^ both in the moderation of their sentiments, and in the order of their discipline. They did not, like BroVTO, pour forth bitter and uncharitable inveo tives against the churches which were governed by rules entirely different from theirs, nor pro- nounce them, on that account, unworthy of tne Christian name. On the contrary, though they considered their own fprm of ecclesiastical go- vernment as of divine institution, and as original- ly introduced by the authority of the apostles, nay, by the apostles themselves, they had yet candour and charity enough to acknowledge thai true religion and solid piety might flourish in those communities which were under the juris diction of bishops, or the government of synods and presbyteries. They were also much more attentive than the Brovmists in keeping on foot a regular ministry in their communities; foil, whUe the latter allowed promiscuously all ranks and orders of men to teach in public, the Inde- pendents had, and still have, a certain number of ministers, chosen respectively by the congregsk- tions where they are fixed ; nor is it common for any person, among them to speak in public before he MS submitted to a proper examination of his capacity and talents, and been approved of by the heads of the congregation. From 1642, the Independents are very fre- quently meijtioned in the EngUsh annals. The charge alleged against them by Rapin, (in his History of England; vol. ii. p. 114, folio edition,) that they couldnot so much as endure ordinary ministers in the church, &c., is groundless. lie was led into this mistake by confounding the Iiv dependents with the Brownists. Other charges, no less unjustifiable, have been urged against the Independents by this celebrated nistorian, and others. Rapin says, that they abhorred mon- archy, and approved of a republican government ; this might have been true with regard to many persons among them, in common with other sects j but it does not appear, from any of their public writings, that repubhcan principles formed their distinguishing characteristic ; on thfe contrary, in a public memorial drawn up by them in 1647, they declare, that they do not disapprove of any form of civil government, but do freely acknow- ledge that a kingly government, bounded by just and wholesome Ws, is allowed by God, and also a good accommodation unto men, The Ind(>- pendents, however, have been generally ranked INDEPETfDENTS among the regicides, and C(haraed with the death of Clurles I. WJiether this &ct be admitted oi lenied, no conclusion can be fairly drawn from the greater prevalence of republican principles, or from violent proceedings at that period, that can affect the distinguishing tenets and conduct of the Independents in our times. It is certain that the present Independents are steady friends to a limited monarchy. Rapin is further mistaken when he represents the rehgious principles of the English Independents as contrary to those of all tie rest of the world. It appears froin two con- fessic^s of faith, one composed by Robinson, in behalf of the English Independents in Holland, and published at Leyden in 1619, entitled, A'po- lagiajyro ExvilUms Anglic, qui Brovmistm vulgo appellanturj and another drawn up in X dential consols, but not as decisions to which they are obliged to conform. They consider the Scriptures as the only criterion of truth. Their worship is conducted in a decent, plain, and sin»- pie manner, without the ostentation of form, and the vain pomp of ceremony. The coBgregatioris of the Independents aw very numerous, both, iu England and America, and some of them very respecteble;. This de- nomination has produced many characters an emment for learning and piety as any church in Christendoni j whose works, no doubt, will re- flect lastmg honour on their characters and abil* ties. See Church, Congregational j Noi»- CONFORMISTS, and books under those articles. INDEPENDENTS, NEW, sometimes caU- ed Haldanites, or Haldanite Independents, the appellation given to, a tolerably large i la.^ of re- ligionists, who arose about thirty years since, and have spread to a considerable extent in Scotland and Ireland. Their priguj as a sect, or society, is doubtless to be traced back to the controversies which grew out of Mr. John Glas's secession ftom the established church, an event which gave riss to a great deal of controversy on the subject of church governmeht, between the Presby tenaris and his adherents ; but it was not till about the commencement of thif present century, that the latter body, which forms the subject of die presenj article, began to excite much attention. The institution of Missionary Societies had produced 8 strong sensation among the religious of all denominations, ami other events of a singuiiu nature contributed to give rise to this spirit of rehgious discussion and' innovation. But few men fejt the missionary spirit with greater ardour than Robert Haldime, Esq. a gentleman of much respectability, .and possessed of an ample f^itune INDEPENDENTS Sn Scotland. Having lately been btought to think seriously of religion, and now happy in the enjoyment of its comforts, he felt in no small degree the importance of the duty of spreading among the heathen the knowledge of those truths which had given hope and consolation to his own mind. Under this impression, he sold his estates, and along with several associates, men of talent and exemplary piety, intended to employ his fortune in diffusing among the tribes of Hindostan the arts of civUized life, and the blessings of true relition. Such an example of, disinterested zeal anaof individual active benevo- lence has seldom occurred, and we may challenge all the modern philosophers and modern philan- thropists to produce the like. Upon application to government for liberty to adopt a system of measures for propagating the gospel extensively in the East Indies,Tus proposal was unsuccess- ful. But this disappointment, however great, served only to direct nis benevolence into another chaimel ; for he then turned his attention to the state of his own country, and resolved to employ his fortune and his exertions in propagating the gospel at home. Accordiiigly, " The Society for Propagating the Gospel at Home," was formed in 1797, the professed object of which was to send forth men to preach the gospel in' those parts of Scotland where they conceived that this blessing was not enjoyed in its purity, or where it was not regularly dispensed ; and hence the members of this sect were sometimes called Missitmaries. The formation and exertions of this society, we are told, "had been considerably facilitated by the progress of opinion, — by the corruptions of the Scottish church, and by the religious discus- sions which had been excited by several publica- tions, and particularly by the Missionary Maga- zine." This miscellany, conducted by a minis- ter of the established' church, who had agreed to accompany Mr. H. to India, cpntamed some bold doctrines, which had seldom been heard without the threshold of some obscure conventicle ; and among others, that it is the rigHt, nay, the para- mount duty, of every Christian who knows the gospel, an(i is duly qualified, to preach it to his Fellow sinners. The discussion of this contro- versy created a very great sensation in the reli- gious world ; and the societies which had heen formed, were generally disposed to act u^on the principle. James Haldane, "Esq. brother of the above, Mr. Aikman and others, men of ability, and actuated by fervent zeal, travelled at different times throagh the greater part of Scotland, preaching the gospel to their countrymen, and that on the maxim of " making the word of God without charge." In their labours they expe- rienced considerable, opposition, particularly from the established clergy J but "the common people heard them gladly," and not a few of them em- braced the doctrines which they taught. They were soon succeeded by other labourers, employed by the society, who were no less successful in promoting the same cause. . Neither the Messrs. Haldanes nor any of their friends, had yet separated from the com- munion of the church of Scotland, nor had any of the established ministers declared themselves attached to their party. But in a short time they both thought themselves bound in con- science and duty to forsake her tellowship ; and soon aflet, Messrs. Innes and Ewing, both min- 190 INDEX isters in the. national church, resigned their charges, and united with them and their asso- ciates in the work in which they were engaged, in preaching the gospel throughout the lungdom. A distinct society >vas Soon formed; and the Messrs. H. by whose zeal and influence the sepa- ration was chiefly effected, being at its head, its members came to be called tfaldanites, but this name of distinction was by no means agreeable to those gentlemen, who modestly desired it might be laid aside. Large places of public worship, which were at first distinguished by the name of tabernacles, were erected at Mr. R. H.'s expense in the jpric- cipal towns, where the word of God was deckred to numerous assemblies, both by those ministers and others from various denominations in Eng- land. Mr. J. Haldane and Mr. Aikman were finally fixed at EdinbuMh, Mr. Innes at Dun- dee, and Mr. Ewing at Glasgow, besides various other preachers who were established in different parts of the country. Academies also, supportto! chiefly, if not solely, at the expence of Mr. R. H. were formed at the three above-mentioned places, for thes education of young men for the work of the ministry; who, when qualified, were to be employed as itinerants under the inspection and countenance of the " Society for, Propagating the Gospel at Home." The Established Presbyterian Church, it seems, have not followed the cautious policy of Gamaliel, "to let these men alone;" for we are told that the ministers and leaders of this denomination have not been treated with " silent neglect," and that it was not owing to the moderation of her clergy, or the "mildness of her principles, but to the superior iridulgpnce of the civil government, that the Messrs. H. and their friends were not punished for their non-confonnity, by the terrors of the law. Their present numbers, condition, or prospects, we have had no means of , ascertaining. In doc- trine they are decidedly Calvinistic, and in churchgovemment inaintain the purest princi- ples of Congregationatism. See that article, with the references. Also, Adams's Religious World Di^layedj vol. iii. ; Haldanc's View of Social Worship, — B. INDEX, EXPURGATORY, a catalogue of prohibitedibooks in the church of Rome. The first catalogues of this kind were made' by the in- quisitors, and these were afterwards approved of by the council of Trent, after some altemtion was made in them by way of retrenchment or addition. Thus an index of heretical books be- ing formed, it was confirmed by a bull of Cle- ment 'VIII. in 1595, and printed with several introductore rulps j by the fourth of which, the use of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is for- bidden to all persons without a particular licence : and by the tenth rule it is ordained, that no hook shall be printed at Rome without the approba- tion of the pope's vicar, or some person delegated by the pope ; nor in any other places, unless allowed by the bishop of the diocese, or some person deputed by him, or by thp inquisitor of heretical pra-vity. ,;The Trent index being thus pubhshed, Philip II. of Spain, ordered another to be printed at Antwerp in 1571, with considera- ble enlargements. Another indte was published in Spain in 1584, a copy of which was snatch- ed out of the fire when the English plundered INDULGENCES Cadiz. Afterwards there were several expurga- tory indexes printed at Rome and Naples, and particularly in Spain. v INDIGNATION, aatrong disapprobation of mind, excited by something fl%itious in the con- duct of another. It does not, as Mr. Cogan ob- serves, always suppose that excess of depravity which alone is capable of committing deeds of horror. Indignatio-.i always refers to culpability of conduct, and cannot, lite the passion of hor- ror, be extended to distress either of body or mind. It is produced by acts of treachery, abuse uf confidence, base ingratitude, &c., which we cannot contemplate without being provoked to anger, and feeling asenerous resentment. INDULGENCES, m the Romish church, are a remission of the punishnlents diie to sin, panted by the church, and supposed to savp the smner from, purgatpry. According to the doctrineof the Romish church, all the- good works of the SMnts, over and above those miich *ere necessary towards their own justification, are deposited, together with the in- finite merits qf Jesus Christ, m one inexhausti- ble treasury. The Jceys of this were committed to St. Peter, and to his successors, the popes, who may openj it at pleasure ; and, by trans- ferring a portion of this superabundant merit to miy particular person for a sum of money, may convey to him either the pardon of his own sins, oi a release for any one in whom he is interested from tlie pains of pvirgatory. Such indulgences were first invented in the eleventh century, by Urban II. as a recompense for those who went m person upon the glorious enterprise of con- quering the Holy Land. They were afterwards granted to th(jse who hired a soldier for that pur- pose ; and in process of time were bestowed on such as ga,ve money, for accomplishing any pious work enjoined by the pope. The power of granting mdulgences has been greatly abusM in the church of Rome. Pope Leo X., in order to carry on the magnificent structure of St. Peter's, at Rome, published indulgences, and a plenary remission to all such as should contribute money towards jt. Finding the project take, he granted to Albert, elector of Mentz, and archbiaiop of Magdeburg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony, and the neighbouring parts, and farmed out thos^ of other countries to the highest bid- ders: who, to make the best of their bargain, procured the ablest preachers to cry up the value of the ware. The form of these indulgences was as follows :— r" May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by the merits (rf his most holy passion. And I, by his authority, that of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, and of the most holy pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee, first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred ; then from all thy sins, trans- gressions, and excesses, how enormous soever fliey may be : even from such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see, and as far as the keys of the holy church extend. I remit to you si punishment which you deserve ip purgatory an their account ; and I restore you to the holy sacraments of the church, to' the unity qf the faithful, and to that innocence and purity which you possessed at baptism : so that vfhen you die, the gates of punistuncnt shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened; 191 INDWELLING and if you shall not die at present, this gtice shall remain in fiill force when you are at the point of death. In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." According to a.book, tailed the Tax of the sacred Roman C nancery, in which are contained the exact sums to be levied for the pardon of eaph particular sin, we find some of the fees to be thus : s. d. For procuring abortion 7 6 For simony 10 6 ^tsc sacrilege 10 6 Forttaking a false oath in a criminal case 9 For robbing .12 For burning a neighbpur's house ... 13 For defiling a virgin 9 For lying with a mother, sister, &c. . 7 6 Formurdering a laymaj) ..... 7 6 For keeping a concubine ..... 10 6 For laying violent hands on a clergyman 10 6 Aiid so on. The terms in which the retailers of indulgences described their benefits, and the necessity of pur- chasing themj were so extravagant^ that they ap- pear ahnost incredible. If any man, said they, purchase letters of indulgence, his soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation. The soijls confined in purgatory, for whose redemption in- dulgences are purchased, as soon as the money tinHes in the ciiest, instantly escape from that place of torment, and ascend into heaven. That the efficacy of indulgences was so great, that ths most heinous sins, even if one should violate (which was impossible) the Mother of God, would be remitted aiid expiated by them, and the person be freed both from pumshment and guilt. That this was the unspeakabte gift of God,' in order to reconcile man to nimself. That the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences was equally effi- cacious with the cross of Christ itself. " Lo," said they, "the heavens are open : if yoii enter not now, when.will you enter ? For twelvepence you may redeem the soul of your father out of purgatory ; and are you so ungrateful that you will not rescue th*B soul of your parent from tor- ment 7 If you had but one coat, you ought to strip yourself instantly and sell it, in order to purchase such benefit," Sua. It was this great abuse of in- dulgences that contributed not a little to the Re- formation of religion in Germany, where Marthi Luther began first to declaim against the preachers of indulgences, and afterwards against indulgences themselves. Since that time the popes have been more sparing in the exercise of this power j al- though, it is said, they s^ill carry on a great trade with them to the Indies, where they are purchased at two rials a piece, and sometimes more. We are told also that a gentleman not long since being at Naples, in order that he might be fully ascer- tained respecting indulgences, went to the office^ and for two sequins purchased a plenary remis- sion of all sins for himself and any two other per- sons of his friends or relations, whose names he was empowered to insert. Haweis's Church Sist. vol.iii. p. 147; Smith's Errors of the Church of Rome. ; Vf^atson's ThJsol. Tracts, vol. v. p. 274 j Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. i. p. 594, quarto. , INDUSTRY, dil^ence, constant application of the mind, or exercise of the body. See Dili- gence and Idleness. ' INDWELLING SCHEME,a8cheme which derives its name from that passage in CoL ii. 9. INFALLIBILITY «In him dwelleth all the fnhiess of the Godhead bodily," which, according to some, asserts the doctrine ofC'nnst's consisting of two beings; one the self-existent Creator, afid the other a creature, made into one person by an ineffable union and indwelling, which renders the same attributes and honours equally applicable to both. See Pre-existence. Dr. Owen's Glory of Christ, p. '368, 369, London ed. 1679 j a Sermon entitled " The true Christ of God above the false Christ qfMen," Ipswich, 1799; Wattes Glory of Clirist, p. 6-203 J Adams's View of Religions, p. 267. INFALLIBILITY, the quality of not being able to be deceived or mistaken. The infallibility of the Church of Rome has been one of the great controversies between the Protestants and Papists. By this infallibility i^ is understood, that she caimot at any time cease to be orthodox in her doctrine, or fall into any Sernicious errors ; but that she is constituted, by ivine authority, the judge of all controversies of religion, and that all Christians are obliged to ac- quiesce in her decfeions. This is flie chain which keeps its members fast bound to its coni- munion ; the charm which retains them within its 'magic circle ; the opiate which lays asleep all (heir doubts and difficulties; it is ukewi^e the magnet which attracts the desultory and unstable in other persuasions within the sphere of popery, the foundation of its whole superstructure, the cement of all its parts, and its fence and fortress against all inroads and attacks. Under the idea of this, infallibility, the church of Rome clauns, 1. To determine what bobks are and what are not canonical, and to oblige all Christians to receive or reject thern accordingly.— 2. To communicate authority to the Scripture ; or, in other words, that the Scripture (quoad nos,) as to us, receives its authority from her. — 3. To assign and fix the sense of Scripture, which all Christians are submissively to receive. — 4. To decree as necessary to salvation whatever she 'udges so, although not contained in Scripture. — ). To decide all controversies respecting matters of faith. These ^e the claims to which the church of Rome pretends, but vvhich we shall not here attempt to refute, because any man with the Bible in his hand, and a little common sense, will easily see that they are all founded upon igno- rance, superstition, and error. It is not a little remarka,hfe, however, that the Roman Catholics themselves are much divided as to the seat of this infallibility, and which, indeed, may be consi^ dered as a satisfactory proof that no snch privi- lege exists in the church. For is it consistent with reason to think that God would have im- parted so extraordinary a gift to prevent errors and dissensions in the church, and yet have left an additional cause of error and dissension', viz. the uncertainty of the pl^ceof its abode 7 No, surely. — Some place this infalUbility in the pope or bishop of Rome; some in a general council; others ih neither pope nor council separately, but m both conjointly ; whilst others are said to place it ii) jtlje chureh diffusive, or in all cljurches throughout the world, But that it could not be deposited in the pope is evident, for many pppes have been heretics, and on that account censured and deposed, and therefore could not have been infallible. That it could not be placed in a gene- ral council is as evident; for general councils have actually erred. Neither could it be placed in the 192 i^ INFALLIBILITY pope and council conjointly ; for two falliblee could not make one infallible, any more than tw;o ciphers could make an integer. To say that it i» lodged in the church universal or diffusive, is equally erroneous ; for this would be useless and insignificant, because it could never oe exercised. Thi whole church could not meet to make de- crees, or to choose representatives, or to deUver their sentiments on any question started ; and less than all would not be the whole church, and So could not claim that privilege. The most general opinion, however, it is said, is that of its ijeing- seated in a pope and general council. The advocates for tMs opinion consider the pope as the vicar of Christ, head of the church, and centre of unity ; and therefore conclude that his concurrence with and approbation of the de- crees of a general council are necessary, and sufii- cient to afford it an indispensable sanction and plenary authority. A general (joimcil they re- gard as the church representative, and suppose that nptiiiiig can be wanting to ascertadn the truth of any controversial point, when the pre- tended head of' the church and its members, as- sembled in their supposed representatives, muh tually concur and coincide in judicial definitiana and decrees, but that infeUibility attends theil: coalition and conjunction in all their detennina: tions. Every impartial person, who considers this subject with the least degree of attention, must clearly perceive ttiat neither Any individual nor body of Christi^ins have any ground from reason or Scripture for pretending to infallibility. It is evidentty the attribute of the Supreme Being alone, which we have all the foundation imagi- nable to conclude Ke has not communicated tw any mortal, or*associations of mortals. The hur man being who challenges infallibility seems to imitate the pride and presumption of Lucifei^ when he said, — I will ascend, and will be hke the Most High. A claim to it was unheard of in the primitive and purest s^es of the Ohurch ; but became, after, that period^ the arrogant pre- tension of papal ambition. History plainjy in- forms us, that the' bishops of Rome, on the de- clension of the western Roman empire, began to put in their claim of being the supreme a,nd in- fallible heads of the Chnstian church; which they at length established by their deep policy and unremitting efforts; by the concurrence of fortunate circumstances; by. the advantages which they reaped from the necessities of some princes, and the superstition of others ; and by the gene- ral and excessive credulity of the people! How- ever, when they had grossly abused this absurd jiretension, and committed various acts of injus- tice, tyranny, and cruelty ; when the blind vene- ration for the papal dignity had been greatly di- minished by tlje long and scandalous schism occasioned by contending popes ; when those had ijeeii for a consideraSe time roaming about Europe, fawning oik princes, squeezing their ad- heiients,. and cursing their rivals ; and when the counci^ of Constance and Basil had challenged and exercised the right of deposing and electmg the bishops of Rome, then their pretensions to infallibility were called in question, and the world discovered that councils were a jurisdiction snpe^ rior to that of the towering pontiffs. Then h was that this infaUibility was transferred by many divines from popes to general councils, and {he (nrinion of the superior, authority of a council at)OTe that of a pope spread vastly, especially un- der the profligate pontificate of Alexander YI. and the martial one of Julius II. The popes were thought by numbers to be too unworthy possessors of so rich a jewel ; at the same time it appeared to be of too great a value, and of too ex- tensive consequence, to be parted with entirely. It was, therefore, by the major part of rthe Roman church, deposited with, or made the property of general councils, either solely or conjointly with the pope. See Smith's Errors of theChwfchtf Rome detected; aiid a Ust of writers under article . INFANT COMMUNION, the admission' of infants to.tiie oridinance of the Lord's Supped. It has been debated by some, whether or no.in- &nts should be admitted to this ordinance. .One of the greatest advocates for this . practice was M,T. Pierce. He pleads the use of it leven unto this day among the Greeks, and inthe Bohemian; churches, till near the time of the Reformation ; but^espeijially from the custom of the ancient churches, as it appears from many passages in Photius, Augustin, and Cyprian. But Dr. Dod- dridge observes, tluit Mr. Pierce's proof from the moie ancieht fathers is very defective. His argu- ments 'from Scripture chiefly depend upon tnis general medium; that Christians succeeding tp Uie Jews as God's people,, and being grafted upon that stock, their infants have a right to all the privileges of which they are capable, till forfeited by some immoralities ; and consequently ihave a nght to partake of this ordinance, as the Jewish cluldren had to eat of the passover and other sa- crifices ; besides this, he pleads those texts which speak of the Lord's Supper as received by all Christians. < The most obvious answer to all this, is that which is taken from. the incapacity of infents tp examine themselves, and discern theLord'sbody ; but he answers that this precept is only given tp persons capable of understanding and complying with it, as those which require faith in order to baptism are interpreted by the Pffidobaptists.; As for his argument from the Jewish children eating the sacrifice, it is to be considered that this was not required as circumcision was ; the males were not necessarily brought to the temjile till they were tv^elve years old, Luke ii. 43 ; and the sacrifices they ate of were ciasfly peace-offerings, which became the common food to all that were dean in the family, and were not looked upon as acts of devotion to such a degree as our eucharist is ; though; indeed,, they were a token of their ac- knowledging the divinity of that God to whom they had been offered, 1 Cor. ±. 18 ; and even the passover was a commemoration of a temporal deliverance; nor is there any reason to believe that its reference to the Messiah was generally understood by the Jews. On the v^ole, it is certain there would be more danger of a cpntempt arising to the Lord's Supper from the admission of infants, and of confusion and trouble to other communicants; so that not being required in Scripture, it is much the best to omit it. When children are •grpwn up tP a capacity pf behaving decently, they may seon be instructed in the nature and design oif the erdinance ; and if they appear tP under- stand it, and behave for some competent time of trial in a manner suitable to that profession, it 193 Z INFIDELITY would probably be advisatile to acjmit tJwp* to connnunion, though very young.; which, by the way, might be a good security against many of the snares to whieh youth are exposed. — DocL- dridge's Lectures, lect. S07 ; Pierce's Essay on the Eucharist, p. 76, ,&c.; Witsius on Cov. b. 4. c. 17, § 30, 32; J. Prid. Mayer Diss, de Eucha- ristia Iryuntum ;, Zomius .^i^t. .E-i{chairist, In- fantum, p. 18 ; Theol. and Sib. Mag. January and Aprili 1806. INFANTS, SALVATION OF. "Vari- ous opinions," says an acute-^jjitfir, "cortcen^^ng the future state nf infants, have,. been adpptei Some think, all dying ininfaney are.aiinihilpted; for, say they, infants, being incapable of nipral goodpr esu,»xe net .proper objects pf reward or punishment. Others think thatthey ^hare a f^te .similar to adults; a part saysdi a"'' "^ P*'' per^h. Others affirm all ;are say§d because jll.are.^n- mortalandall are innoceijt. Othprs, pei;p^xed with th^e diverse sentiipents, think best to )fia.ve the sulgect .untouched. Coldicpnjfort to pj^rsnts who bury their families in infancy ! The most probable opinion seems to be, that they, -are, all saved, through the meritsof the Media.tpr,,:with an everlasting solvation, This has nothing in, it contrary to the perfections of-Gpd, or to any de- claration of the Hely Scriptures ; and it,is highly agreeable to all those passagfes whic^ affirm vriiers sin hath abounded, grace hath mdSh njpre abounded. On these, principles, Jthe death of Christ saves more than the fall of Adam.lost" If the reader be desirpus of examining the subject, we refer him to p. 415. vol. ii. Robinson's Claude; Gillaxrd, and Williams's Essays on Infant Salva- tion; An Attempt to elucidate Rom. v. 13, by an anonymous writer ; Watts's Ruin and Recovery, p. 324, 337; Edwards on Original Sin, p. 431, 434; Doddridge's Lect. let. 168; Ridgley's Body of Div. vol. i. p. 330 to 336. INFIDELITY, want of faith in God. or the disbelief of the truths pf revelatipn, and the great principles, of religion. If we inquire into the rise of infidelity, we shall find it does not take ils ori- , gin from the. result of sober inquiry, close inves- ti^tion, or full conviction ; but it is rather, as one observes, " The slow production of a care- less, and irreligious Ufe, operating together with prejudices and erroneous conceptions concerning the nature of the leading doctrines of Chris- tianity. It may, therefore, be laid down as an axiom, that infidelity is, in general^ a disease of the heart more than of the understanding; for we always find that infidelity increases in propor- tion as the , general morals decline. If we Con- sider the naiure and effect of this principle, we shall find that it subverts the whole foimdation of morals ; it tends directly to the destruction of a taste for moral excellence, and promotes the growth of those vices which are the most hostile to social happiness, especially vanity, ferocity, and unbridled sensuality. As to the progress of it, it is certain that, of late years, it has made rapid strides. Lord Her)]ert (Sd not, indeed, so much impugn the doctrine or the morality of the Scrip- tures, as attenipt to supersede their necessity, by endeavouring to shovr that the great principle.s ef the unity pf God, a, mpral government, and a future vvorld, are taught with sufficient clearness by the Ught of nature. BoUngbroke, and others of his successors, advanced much further, and attempted to invalidate the proofs o( thg moral R INFINITY character of the Deity, and consequently all ex- pectation of rewards and punishments, leaving the Supreme Being no other perfections than those which belong to a first cause, or Almighty contriver. After Sm, at a considerable distance, followed Hume, the' most subtle of all, who boldly aimed to introduce an universal scepticism, and to pour a more than Egyptian darkness into the whole region of morals. Since his time, sceptical writers have sprung up in abundance, and infidelity has allured multitudes to its stand- ard : the young and superficial, by its dexterous sophistry } the vain, by the literary fame of its champion ; and the profiigate, by the licentious- ness of its principles." But let us ask. What will be its end% Is there any thing in the genius of this principle that will lead us to supposp it will reign triumpjiant? So far from it, we have resison to believe that it vrill be banished from the earth. Its inconiastency with reason j its incon- griuty with the nature of man ; its cloudy and obscure prospects j its unsatisfying i nature ; its opposition to the dictates of conscience ; its per- nicious tendency to eradicate every just principle from the breast of man, and to lead the way for every species of vice and immoraUty, show us that it cannot flourish, but must finally fall. — And, as Mr. Hall justly observes, " We liave nothing to fear j for, to an attentive observer of the signs of the times, it will appear one cf the most extraordinary phsEnomrina of this eventful crisis, that, amidst the ravages of atheism and in- fideUty, real religion is on tne increase ; for while infidelity is marking its progress by devastation and ruin, by the prostration of thrones and con- cussion of kingdoms, thus appalling the inhabit- ants of the world, and compelling them to take refuge in the church of God, the true sanctuary,^ the stream of divine knowledge, unobserved, is flowing in new channels; wmding its course among humble valleys, refreshing thirsty desert's, and enriching,' with far other and higher bless- ings than those of commerce, the most distant climes and nations ; until, agreeably to the pre- diction of prophecy, the knowledge of the Lord shall fill and cover the whole earth." See Ha/ll'^ admirable Sev. on Infidelity; FvXler^s Gospel- of Christ its own Witness; BisJwp Watson^s Apology for the Bible ; Wilberjbrce's Practical View, % 3. ch. -7 ; Bp. Horne's Letters on Infi- delity, and books under article Deism. INFINITY. Infinity i^ taken in two senses entirely different, i. e. in a positive and a negative one. Positive infinity is a quality of being per- fect in itself, or capable of receiving no addition. Negative is the quality f)f being boundless, unli- mited, or endless. That God is infinite is evi- dent; for, as Doddridge observes, 1. If he be limited, it must either be by himself or by an- other i but no wise being would abridge himself; and there could be no other being to limit God.-^ 2. Infinity follows from self-existence; for a ne- oessity that is not universal must depend on some external cause, which a self-existent Being does not. — 3. Creation is so great an act of power, that we can imagine homing impossible to that Being who has performed it, but must therefore ascribe to him infinite power. — i. It,is more ho- nourable to the Divine Being to conceive of him as infinite than finite. — 5. The Scriptures repre- sent all his attributes as infinite. His under- standing is infinite, Ps. cxlvii. 5. His know- 194 INFLUENCES ledge and wisdom, Rom. xi. 33. His power, Rom. 1. 30 ; Heb. xi. 3. His goodness, Ps. xvi. 2. His purity, hoUness. and justice, Job iv. 17, 18; Isa. vi. 2, 3.-6. His omnipotence and eter- nity prove his infinity: for were he not infir nite, he would be bounded by space and by time, which he is not. Doddridge's Led. lect. 49 ; Watts's Ontology, ch. 17; Locke on UndersU vol. i. chap. 17; Howe's Works, vol. i. p. 63, 64, 6t INFIRMITY, applied to the mind, denotes frailty, weakness. It has been a question what nrnj properly be denominated sins of infirmity. . 1. Nothing, it is said, can be excused under that name which at the time of its commission is known to be a sin. — ^3.- Nothing can be called a sin of infirmity which is contrary to the express letter of any of the commandments.— 3. Nothing will admit of a. just and suflScient excuse upon the account of infirmity which 9. man beforehand considers and deliberates with himself, whether it be ^ sin or no. A sin of infirmity is, 1. Such a falling as proceeds from excusable ignorance. — 3. Or unavoidable surprise.-^. Cfr want of courage and strength. Rom. xv. 1, By infinriity also we understand the corrup- tions that are still left in the heart (notwithdand- mg a person may be sanctified in part,) and which sometimes break out. These may be (per- mitted to h^jmble us ; to animate our vigilance ; perhaps that newly convinced sinners might not be discouraged'by a sight of such perfection jthey might despair of ever attaining to; to keep us , prayerful and dependent ; to prevent those hon- ours which some would be ready to give to human nature rather than to God ; and, lastly, to excite in ufe a continual desire ^or heaven. , Let us be cautious and watchful, iiowever, against sin in all its forms : for it argues a deplorable state of mind when men love to practise sin ; and then lay it upoi^ constitution, the infirmity of nature, the decree of God, the influence of Satan ; and thus attempt to excuse themselves by saying they could not avoid it. Clarke',s Serm. ser. 12. voL ix. ; MassUlon's Serm. vo\. ii. p. 213, English translation. INFLUENCES, DIVINE, a term made us« of to denote the operations of the Divine Being upon the mind. This doctrine of divine influ- ences has been-mUch called in question of late; but we may ask, 1. What doctrine can be more reasonable 7 "The operations which the power of God carries on in the natural world are no less mysterious than those which the Spirit performs in the moral world. If men, by their counsels andr suggestions, can Influence the minds of one another, must not divine suggestion produce a much greater effect ? Surely the Father ef spirits, by a thousand ways, has access to the spirits he has made, so as to ^ve them what determination, or impart to them what-assistance he thinks pro- per, without injuring their frame or disturbing their rational powers." We may observe, 2. NotMng , can be more scriptural. Emineiit men, from the patriarchal age down to St. John, this latest writer, beUeved in this doctrine, and ascribed their religious feel- ings to this source. Our Lord strongly and re- peatedly inculcated this ttuth ; and that he. did not mean miraculous, -but moral influences of th? Spirit, is evident, John iii. 3 ; Matt. vii. 28, 23 ; John vi. 44, 46. See also, John xiL 32, 10 j IISTJTJRY Rora. ■vffi. gj-.I Cor. ii. 14, — 3. And we may add, nothing can be more necessary, if we consider tlie natural depravity of the heart, and the in- sufficiency of all human meanis to render ourselves either hw or happy vvithout a supernatural power. See Williams's Historic Defehce of Experimental Religion; WiUiam^s Answer to Belsham, let, 13; Hurrion's Sermons on the Spirit } Owen on Ike Spirit. INGHAM^TES, a denomination of Calvin- istic Dissfenters, who ire the followers of B. Ing- ham, esq,, who in the last century was a charac- ter of great note in the north of England, About the year 1735, Mr. Ingham was at Glueen's col- l^, with Mr, Hervey and other friends, but soon afterwards adopted the religious ojpinions and zeal of Wesley and Whitfield. We do not know the cause of his separation from these eminent men j hut it seems in a few years aftenvards.he became the leader of numerous societies, distinct from the Mfethodists. They received their members by lot, and required them to declare before the church their experience, that the whole sodety might judge of the gracious change which had been wrought upon their hearts. It happened in a few years, that some individuals, who were much respected, and who applied for admission, instead of speaking of their own attainments,' of the com- fortable impression on their minds, which they only'considered as productive of strife and vain- glory, declared their only hope was the finished work of Jesus Christ j as to themselves they were sensible of thdr own vileness. Such confessions as tills threw the congtegation into some confu- sion, which was considerably increased when they found, that, on . their having recourse as usual to the lot, that there were votes against their admission, which was considered as a rejec- tion from the Lord. On this they were led to examine more particularly both their church, or- der, and doctrines. After this time, Mp, Ing- ham became much more orthodox in his senti- ments, and new-modelled his churches. The book which he published is in general well thought of by the Independents. He contends very strongly for salvation by the imputation of Christ's righteousness; and as to doctrine, the chief point vriierein the Inghamites differ from the Independents is respecting the Trinity. The common manner of speaking of the Divine Three as distinct persons, they decisively condemn. They do not consider a plurality of elders as necessary in a church to administer the Lord's Supfier. In other respects thfey much esteem the wntings of Mr. R. Sandeman. Their numbers have not been so numerous since they became more strict in their public worship. INGRATITUDE, the vice of being,inscnsi- ble to favours received, without any endeavour to acknowledge and repay them. It is sometunes applied to the act of returning evil fqr good. In- gratitude, it is said, is no passion ; for the God of nature has appointed no motion of the spirits whereby it might be excited; it is, therefore, a mere vice, arismg from pride, stupidity, or nar- ■owness of soul. INiaUITY. See" Sin. INJURY, a violation of the rights of another. Some, says Grove, distinguish between injustitia jind injuria. Injustice is ppposed to justice in general, whether negative or' positive; an injury, to negative justice alme. See Jdstice. AJi in- 195 macisiTioN jury is, wflftiUy doing to another what ought not to he done. This is injustice, too, but not the whole idea of it ; for it is injuitice, also, to refuse or neglect doing what ought to be done. An in- jury must be wilfully commiltted ; whereas it is enough to^ make a thing unjust, that It happens through a culpable negligence. 1. Wemay injure a person in his souJj^y misleading his judgment; by corrupting the imagination; perverting the will; and wounding the soul with grief. Perse- cutors wlio succeed in their compulsive measures, though they cannot alter th« real sentiments by external violence, yet sometimes injure the soul by making the man a hypocrite. — 2. }Ve may jV jure anxither in his body, by homicide, murder, preventing life, dismembering the body by wounds, blows, slavery, and imprisonment, or any unjust restraint upon its liberty : . by rpbbing it oi its' chastity, or prejudicing its health. — 3. J We may injure another in his name and character, by our o^n false and rash judgments of him ; by false witness ; by charging a man to his face with a crime which either we ourselves have forged, or which ^e know to hs(Ve been forged by some other person ; by detraction or backbiting ; by re- proach, or exposing another for some natiiral im- becility either in body or mind ; or for some calami- ty into which he is fallen, or some miscarriage of which he has been guilty ; by inuendos, or indi- rect accusations that are not true. Now if we consider the value of character, the resentment which the injurious person has of such treatment when it comes to his own turn to sufler it, the consequence of a man's losing his good . name, and finally, the' difflieiMy of making reparation, we must at once see t!he injustice of lessening another's good character. There are these two considerations which should soraetimes restrain us^ from speaking the wnble truth of our neigh- bour, when it is to his disadvantage. (1.) That h|e may possibly live to see Ws foUy, and repent and grow better.-^(2.) Admittitag that we speak the truth, yetit'is a thousand to one but when it is banded about for some time, it will contract a deal of falsehood.^^. We may injure a person in his relations and dependencies. In his ser- vants, by corrupting them; in his children, by dravring them mto evil coiirses ; in his wife, by sowing strife, attempting to alienate her aQgc- tions.— -5. We may be guilty of injuringanother in his worldly goods or possessUms. 1. |By doing him a miscMef, without any advantage to our- selves, through envy and malice. — ^2. By taking what is another's, which is theft. See Grove's Mor. Phil. ch. 8. p. 2 ; Walls's Sermons, vol. ii. ser. 33; TUlotson's Sermons, sei. 42i INJURIES, FORGIVENESS OF. See Forgiveness. INJUSTICE. SeelNjuRT. INNOCENCE, acting in perfect consonance to the law, without incurring guilt or consequent punishment. See Man. INaUISITION, in the church of Rome, a tribunal in several Roman Catholic countries, erected by the -popes for the examination and punishment of heretics. Tliis court was founded in the twelfth century, under the patronage of pope Innocent, who issued out orders to e-^cite the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics, to search into their number and quality, and to transmit a faithful account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called inquisitor^ and gave INaUISlTION birth to this formidable tribunal, called the In- quisition. That nothing might he wanting to render this spiritual court Srmidable and tre- mendous, the Roman pontiffs persuaded the Eu- ropean princes, and more especially the Emperor Frederick II. smd Lewis I3C king of France, not only to enact the most barbarous laws against here- tics, and to commit to the flsmes, by the ministry of public justice, those who were pronounced such by the inquisitors, But also to maintain the in- quisitors in their oilfice, and grant them their pro- tection in the most open EUid solemn manner. The edicts to this purpose issued out by Frede- rick II. are well knqwn ; edicts sufficient to have excited the greatest horror, and which have ren- dered the most illustrious piety and virtue incapa- ble of saving from the cruellest death such as Had the misfortune to be disagreeable to the inquisitors. These abbininable laws were not, howeyer, suf- ficient to restrain the just indignation of the peo- ple agaiiist those inhuman judges whose barbarity was accompailied vrith superstition and arrogance, with a spint of suspicion and perfidy ; nay, even with temerity and imprudence. Accordingly, they were insulted by the multitude in many places, were driven in anignoiftiniousmaniier out of some cities, and were put to death in others ; and Conrad, of Marpurg, the first Gferman in- quisitor, who derived his commission from Gre- gory IX., was one of the many victims that were sacrificed on this occasion to the vengeance of the public, which hb incredible barbarities had raised to a dreadful degree of vehemence and ftiry. This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of heresy, Judaism, Mahometanism, sodoniy, and polygamy ; and the people st&nd in so much fear of it, that parents deliver up thejr children, hus- bands their wives, and masters their servants, to Its officers, without daring in the least to muimur. The prisoners are kept ifor a long tune, till they themselves turn their own accusers, and declare the cause of'their imprisonment, for which they; are neither told their crime, nor confronted with witnesses. As soon as they are imprisoned, their friends go into mourning, and speak of them as dead, not daring to solicit their pardon, lest they ■ shovrid be brought in as accomplites. ' When there is no shadow 0? proof against the pretended crimi- nal, he is discharged', after suffering the most cruel tortures, a tedious and dreadfiol imprisonment, and the loss of the greatest part of his effects. The sentence against prisoners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary solemnity. In Portugal they erect a theatre capable Of holding three thou- sand persons, in which,they place a nch altar, and raise seats on each side, in the foriti of an amphi- theatre. There the prisoners are placed, and over against them is a nigh chair, whither they are called one by ope. to hear their doom from one of the inquisitors. These unhapgy persons know wnat they are to suffer by the clothes they wear that, day : those who appear in their ovvn clothes are discharged on paying a fine; those "who have a santo benito, or strait yellow coat without sleeves, charged with St. Andrew's cross, have tiieii lives, btit forfeit all their effects ; those who have the resemblance of flames made of red scfge ■iewed upon their santo benito, without any cross, ' are pardoned, but threatened to be burnt if ever they relapse; but those who, besides those flames, have on their santo benito their own picture sur- rounded with devils, are condemned to expire in 196 INSPIRATION the fiames. The inquisitors, who are ecclesias- tics, do not pronounce the sentence of death, blit form and read an act, in which they say, tlikt the criminal, being conVicted of such a'ciime, by his own confession, is with much reluctance delivered to the secular power, to be punished according to his demerits; and this writing they give to thb seven judges, who attend at the right side Of the altar, and immediately pass sentence. For the conclusion of this horrid scene, see Act of Faith. We rejoice, however, to hear, that in many Ro- man Catholic countries the inquisition is now shut. May the God of mercy and love prevent its ever being employed again ! See Baker's HUt&ry of the Inquisition ; and lAmborch's Hist&ry bf the Inquisition, tTanstated Try Chandler ; a View of the Inquisition in Portugaf in Geddes'li Tracts ; Lavalle's History of the Inquisition. INSPIRATION, the conveying of certaih extraordinary and supernatural riotions or mo- tions into the soul j or it denotes any supernatural inflijence of God upon the mind of a rational creature, vsthereby he is formed to any degree of intellectual imjprov^ment, to which he could not or would not, in fact, have attained in his preseht circumstances in a natural way. Thus the pro- phets are said to have spoken by divine inspira- tion. 1. An inspiration of superintendeney, in which God does so influence and direct the mind of any person as to keep him more secure from error in some various and complex discourse, than he would have beeninerely by the use of his natural faculties. — 2. Plenary superiniendientiTi- spiratipn, which excludes any mixture of error al all from the performance so superintended.^3. Inspiration of elevation^ where the faculties act in a regular, and as it seems, in a common wsm- ner, yet are raised to an extraordinary degree, so that the composure shall, upon the whole, have more of the true sublime or pathetic than natural genius could have given. — i Inspiration of sug- gestion, where the use of the faculties is super seded, and God does, as it were, speak directly to the mind, making such discoveries to it as it could not otherwise have obtained, and dictating the very words in which such discoveries are to be communicated, if they are designed as a messfege to others. It is generally allowed that tip Scrip- tures were written by divine inspiration. The matter of them, the spirituality and elevation of their design, the majesty and simplicity of their style, the agreement of their various parts ; theii wonderiul efficacy on mankind; the candour, disinterestedness, and uprightness of the penmen ; their astonishing preservation ; the multitude of miracles wrought in confirmation of the doctrines thejr contain, and the exact fulfilment of their pre- dictions, prove this. It has been disputed, how- ever, whether this inspiration is, in tne most ab- solute sense, plenary. As this is a subject of iinportance, and ought to be carefully studied by every Christian, in order, that he may render a reason of the hope that is in him, I shall here sub- join the remarks of an ablt writer, who though he lUay differ from some others as to the terms made use of above, yet I am persuaded his arguments will be found weighty atid powerful. " There are many things in the pcriptures," says Mr. Dick, " which the writeia might have known, and probably did know, bj ordinary means. As persons possessed of memory, judgment, andothei intelliictual fiiculties which are common to men. INSPIRATION they were able to relate certain events in which they had been personally concerned, an J to make such occasional r-jfleotions as were suggested by particular subjects and occurrences. In these cases no superpatural influence was necessary to invigorate thgir niinds ; it was only necessary that they should be infallibly preserved from error. It is with respect to such passages of Scripture alone, as did not exceed the natural ability of the writers to compose, that I would- admit the notion jf superiniendence, if it should be admitted at all. Perhaps this word, though of established use arid aJmost undisputed authority, should be entirely laid aside, as insufficient to express even thp low- est degree of inspiration. In the passages of Scripture which we are now considering, I con- ceive the writer? to have been not merely super^ intended, that they might commit no error, but likewise to have been moved or excited by the Holy Ghost t» record particular events, and set down particular observations. The passages writ- ten in consequence of the direction and under the care of the Divine Spirit, may be said, in an in- ferior sense, to be inspired; whereas,, if the men had written them at the suggestion of their own spirit, they would not have possessed any more authority, though they had been free from error, than those parts of profane writings which are agreeable to truth. 2i " There are other parts of the Seriptur'es in which the faculties of the writers were superna- turally invigorated and elevated. It is impossible for us, and perhaps it was not possible for the in- spired person himself to determine where nature ended, and inspiration began. It is enough to know, that there are many parts of Scripture in which, though the unassisted mind might have proceeded some steps, a divine impulse was ne- cessary to enable it to advance. I think, for example, that the evangelists could not have : written the history of Christ if they had net en- joyed miraculqus aid; Two of them, Matthew and John, accompanied our Saviour during the' space of three years and a half. At the close of this period, or rather several years after it, when they wrote their Gtospels, we may be certain that they had forgotten many of his discourses and miracles ; that they recollected others indis- tinctly; and that they would have been in dan- ger of producing an inaccurate and unfair iio- count, by confounding oiie thing with another. Besides, &om so large a mass of particulars, men of uncultivated mini*, who were not in the habit of distinguishing and classifying, 6auld not ha.ve made a proper' selection ; nor would per^pns un- skilled in the art of composition have been able to express themselves in such, terms as should in- sure a faithful representation of doctrines and facts, and with such dignity as the nature of the subject required. A divine influence, therefore, must have been exerted on their minds, by which their memories and judgments were strength- ened, and they were enabled to relate the doc^ trines and miracles of their Master in a marmer the best fitted to impress the readers of their his- tories. The promise of , the Holy Ghost to bring • to their remembrance all things whatsoever Christ had said to them, proves, that, in writing their histories, their mental powers were endow- ed by his agency, with more than usual S'igour. " B'urther 5 it must be allowed that in several passages of Scripture there is found such eleva- 197 INSPIRATION tion of thought and of style, as clearly shows that the powers of the writers were raised above their ordinary pitch. If a peyeon of moderate talents should give as elevated a description of the ma- jesty and attributes of God, or reason as pro- foundly on the mysterious doctrines of religion, as a man of the most exalted genius and exten- sive learning, we could not fail to b? convinced that he was supernaturally assisted ; and the conviction would be still stronger, if his compo- sition should far transcend the highest eflbrts of the human mind. Some of the sacred writers were taken frpm the lowest ranks of life ; and yet sentiments so dignified, and representation,s of divine things so grand and majestic, occur in their writings, that the noblest flights of human genius, when compared with them, kppear cold atid msipid. / 3. " It is manifest, with respect to many pas- sages of Scripture, that the subjects of which they treat must have been directly Revealed to the writers. They could not have beeii known by any natural means, nor was the knowledge of them attainable by a simple elevation of the faculties. With the ftculties of an angel we could not discover the purposes of the divine mind. This degree of inspiration we attribute to those who were empowered to reveal heavenly mysteries, ' which eye had not seen, and ear had not heard,' to those vvho were sent with particular messages from God to his people, and to those who were employed to predict future events. The plan of redemption being an effect of the sove- reign councils of heaven, it could not have been known but by a communication from the Fa ther of Light '• " This kind of inspiration has 'been called the inspiration of suggestion. It is needless to dis- pute about a word; bjt suggestion seeming to express an operation on the mind, by which ideas are excited in it, is of too limited a signification to denote the various modes in which the prophets and apostles were made acquainted with super- natural truths. God revealed himself to them not only by suggestion, but by dreams, visions, Voices, and the ministry of angels. This degree of inspiratioiitin strict propriety of speech, should be called revelation; a word preferable to sugges- tion, because it is expressive of all the ways in yvhich G- liar talents and dispositions, and a peculiar call in God's providence; and is not rashly and hastily to be ventured upon by every novice whn has learned to speak about the Gospel, arid has more zeal than knowledge, prudence, humility, or experience. An unUemished character, a disinterested spirit, an exemplary deadness to the world, unaffected hamility, deep acquaintance with the human heart, and preparation for eny during the cross not only with boldness, but vrith meekness, patience, and sweetness of temper, are indispensably necessary for such % service." J. JACOBITES, a sect of Christians in Syria and Mesopotamia ; so called, either ftom Jacob, a Syrian, who lived in the reign of the emperor Mauritius, or from one Jacob, a monk, who flou- rished in the year 550. The Jacobites are of two sects, some following the rites of the Latin church, and others continu- ing separated from the church of Rome. There is also a division among the latter, who have two rival patriarchs. As to their belief, they hold but one nature in Jesus Christ : with respect to pur- gatory, and prayers for the dead, they are of the same opinion with the Greeks and other eastern Christians. T^hey consecrate unleavened bread at the eucharist, and are agaiust confession, be- lieving that it is not of divine institution. : JANSENISTS, a sect of the Roman Catho- lics in Prance, who followed the opinions of Jan- sehius (bishop of Ypres, and doctor of divinity of the universities of Louvain and Douay,) in rela- tion to grace and predestination. In the year 1640, the two universities just mentioned, and particularly father Molina and father Leonard Celsus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Jesuits on grace and free-will. This having set the controversy on toot, Janse- nius opposed to the doctrine of the Jesuits the sentiments of St. Augustine, and wrote a trea- tise on grace, which he intituled Augustinus. This treatise was attacked by the Jesuits, who accused Jans^nius of,maintaining dangerous and heretical opinions ; and afterwards, in 1643, ob- tained of pope Urban VIII. a formal condemna- tion of the treatise wj-ote by Jansenius ; when the partisans of Jansenius gave out that this bull was spurious, and composed by a person entirely devoted to the Jesuits. After the death of^Urban VIII., the affair of Jansenism began to be Wore warmly controverted, and gave birth to a great number of polerpical writings concerning grace ; and what occasbned some mirth, were the titles which each party gave to their writings : one writer published the Toich'of St. Augustine; 202 another found Snuffers far St. AugvMine'a Torch ; and father Veron formed A Gag for the Jansenists, &c. In the year 1650, sixty-eight bishops of (France subscribed a letter to pope lUr nocent X., to obtain an inquiry into and condem- nation of the five following propositions, extracted from Jansenius's Augustmus . l. Some of God'a commandments are impossible to be observed by the righteous, even though they endeavour with all their power to accomplish them.^2. In tire state of corrupted nature, we are incapable of re- sisting inward grace.-^. Merit and demerit, in a state of corrupted nature, do not depend on a liberty which excludes necessity, but on a liberty which excludes constraint..^^. The Semipela- gians admitted the necessity of an inward pre- veiiting grace for the performance of each par- ticular act, even for the beginning of faith ; but tbey were heretics in maintaining that this grace was of such a nature that the will of man was ablo either to resist or obey it. — 5. It is Semip^la^ian- ism to say, that Jesvis Christ died, or shea his blood, for all mankind in general. In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congre- gation for examining into the dispute relative to graccu In this congregation Jansenius was con- demned ; and the bull of condemnation published in May; 1653, filled all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and alarms against the Jansenists. In the year 1656, pope Alexander VII. issued out another bull, in which he condemned the five pro- positions of Jfansenius. However, the Jansenists affirmed that these propositions werfe not to be found in this book ; but that some of his enemies having caused them to be printed on a sheet, in- serted them in the book, and thereby deceived the pope. At last Clement XI. put an end to tlie dispute by his Constitution of July 17, 1705, in which, Euler having recited the constitutions of his predecessors in relation to this affair, he de- clared, "That, in order to pay a proper obedience to the papal constitutions concerning the present question, it is necessary to receive them with a JEALOUSY respectful silence." The clergy of Paris, the same year, 'approved and accefjted this bull, and none dated tp oppose it. This is the famous bull Unigenitiis, so Called from its beginning with the Wbrda Unigenitus Dei FUius, &c., which' has occasioned so much confusion in France. It was not only on account of their embracing the doctrines of Augustine, that the Jesuits were so embittered against them ; but that which of- fended the Jesuits, and (he other creatures of the Soman pontiff was, their strict piety, and severe moral discipline. The Jansenists cried put against (he corruptions of the church of Rome, and com- jilained that neither its doctrines nor morals re- tained any traces of their former purity. They re- proached the clergy with ari universal depravation of seiltimeuts and manners, and an entire.forget- fulness of the dignity of their character and the duties of their vocation ; they censured the licen- tiousness of the moiiastic orders, and insisted upon the necessity of reforming their discipline accord- ing to the rules of sanctity, abstinence, and self- denial, that were oririnally prescribed by their respective founders. They maintained, also, that the people ought to be carefully instructed in ?.ll the doctrines and precepts of Christianity ; and that, for this purpose, the Holy Scriptures and public liturgies should be offered to their perusal m their mother tongue j and, finally, they looked upon it as a matter of the highest moment to per- suade all Christians that, true piety did not con- sist in the observance of pompous rites, or in the performance of external acts of devotion, but in inward holiness and divine love. ' Jfotwithstandirig the above-mentioned sentir ments, the Jansenists have been accused of su- perstition and fanaticism; and, on account of their severe discipline and. practice, have been denornjnated RigorSts. It is said, that they made Repentance consist chiefly in those volun- tary sufferings which the transgressor inflicted upon himseljin proportion to the Jiatiire of his crimes and the degree of his guilt. They tor- tured and macerated their bodies by painful la- bour, excessive abstinence, continukl prayer, and contemplation; nay, they carried these austeri- ties, it IS said, to so high a pitch,, as to place merit in them,' and to consider those as the sacred vic- tims ojf repentance who had gradually put ^n end to their days by their excessive abstinence and labour. Dr. Haweis, however, in his .Church History, (vol. ui. p. 46.) seems to forin a more favourable opinion of them. " I do not," says he, "readily receive the accusations that Papists or Protestants have objected to them, as over-rigor- ous and fanatic in their devotion ; but I will ad- mit many things might be blameable ; a tincture pf popery might dnve them to push. monkish austerities top far, and secretly to place some merit in mortification, which they in general dis- claimed ; yet, with all that can be said, surely the root of the matter was in them. When I read Jansenius, or his disciples Pascal or ttijesnel, I bow before such distinguished excelliericies, and confess them my brethren ; shall I say my fathers 7 Their principles are pure and evangelical; their morals formed upon the apostles and prophets ; and their zeal to amend and convert, blessed with eminent success." JEALOUSY is that particular uneasiness which arises from the fear that some rival may rob us pf the afiectipn of pne whpm we greatly 203 JESUITS Ipve, or suspicion that he has already done it. The first sprt of jealousy is inseparable from love before it is in possessipn pf its object ; the latter is unjust, generally mischievous, and always trou blesome.' JEHOVAH, one of the Scripture names pf Grpd, and peculiar tp him, signifying the Being who is self-existeht, and gives existence to others. The name is also given to Christ, Is. xl.^S ; and is a proof of his godhead, Matt. iii. 3 ; Is. vi. ; John xii. 41. The Jews had so great a veneration for this name, that they left on' the custom of pro- nouncing i^ whereby its true pronunciation was forgotten. They believe that whqsoever knpws the true pronunciation of it cannot fail to be heard of God. JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus; a famous religious order of the Romish church, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight, in the six- teenth century. The plan which this fanatic formed of its constitution and laws, was suggest- ed, as he gave out^ by the immediate inspiration of Heaven. But, notvnthstanding this high pre- tension, his design met at first witn violent oppo- sition. The pppe, tp whpm Loyola had applied for the sanction' of his authority to confirm the institution, referred his petition to a committee of caMinals. They represented the establishment to be unnecessary as welj as dangerous, and Paul refused to grant his approbation of it. At last, Loyola renioved all his scruples, by an offer which it was impossible for any pope to resistj. He pro- posed, that besides the three vows of poverty, of chastity, and of monastic obedience, which are common to all the ordersof regulars, the members of his society should take a fourth vow of obe- dience to the pope, binding themselves tp gp Whithersoever he should command for the service of religion, and without requiring any thing froirt the holy see for' their support. At a time when the papal authority had received such a shock by the revolt of so many nations from the Romish church, at a time when every part of the popish system was attacked with so much violence and success, the acquisition of a body of men, thus peculiarly devoted to the see of Rome, and whom it might set in opposition to all its enemies, was an object of the highest consequence. Paul, in- stantly perceiving this, confirmed the institutior. of the Jesuits by nis bull ; granted the most ample privileges to the members of the society, and ap- pointed Loyola to be the firstgeneral of the order, The event fully justified Paul's discernment in expecting such beneficial consequences to the see of Rome troin this institution. In less than half a century the society obtained establishments in every country that adhered to the Roman Catholic church; its power and wealth increased ama- zingly ; the number of its members became great ; their character as well as accomplishments were still greater ; and the Jesuits were celebrated by the mends and dreaded by the enemies of- tM Romish faith, as the most able and enterprising order in the church., 2. Jesuits, object of the order of. — Thejirijtaaiy object of almost all the monastic orders is to-se. paratemen from the world, and from any concern in its affairs. In the solitude and silence of the cloister, the monk is callted to work out his salva- tion by extraordinary acts of mortification and piety. He is dead to the world, and pu^ht npt tp mingle' in its tmnsactipns. He can be of no JESUITS hunefit to mankind but by his example and by his prayers. On the cpntrary, the Jesuits are taught to consider themselves as formed for action. Tficy are chosen soldiers, bound to exert themselves continually in the service of God, and of the pope, his vicar on earth. Whatever tends to instruct flie ignorant, whatever can be of use to reclaim or ippose the enemies 6f the holy see, is their proper object. That they may have full leisure far this active service, they are totally exempted from those fiinctions, the performance of which is the chiefbusinesa of other monks. They appear in no processions ; they practise no rigorous aus- teritiesg they do not consume one half of their time in the repetition of tedious offices ; but they are required to attend to all the transactions of the world, on account of the influence which these may have upon religion : they are directed to study tile disposition of persons in high rank, tind to cultivate their friendship ; and, by the very con- stitution and genius of the order, a spirit of action and intrigue is infused into all its members. 3. Jesuits, pecuUairilies of their policy and governments — Other orders are to be Considered as voluntary associations, in which, whatever af- fects the whole body, is regulated by the common suflrage of all its members. But Loyola, iiill of (ie ideas of implicit obedience, which ke had de- rived ^om his military profession, appointed that the government r>f ms order should be purely monarchical. A general chosen for life, by depu- ties from the several, provinces, possessed power that was supreme and independent, extendmg to eirery person and to every case. To his commands they were required to yield not only outward obedience, but to resign up to him the inclinations of their own wills, and the sentiments of their own understandings. Such a singular form of policy could not fail to impress its character on all the members of the order, and to give a peculiar force to all its operations. There has not been, perhaps, in the annals of mankind, any example of such a perfect despotism exercised, not over monks shut up in the cells of a convent, but over men disiersed among all the nations of the earth. As the constitutions of the order vest in the gene- ral such absolute domiiiion over all its members, they carefully provide for his being perfectly in- foroied with respect to the character and abilities pf his subjects. Every novice who offers himself' for a candidate for entering jnto the order, is (iiliged to manifest his conscience to the superior, or a person appointed by hini; and is required to confess not oiily his sins and defects, but to dis- cover the inclinations, the passions, and the bent of the soul. This manifestation must be renewed every six months. Each member is directed to observe' the vvords and actions «f the novices, and are bound to disclose every thing of importance concerning theru to the superior. In order that the scrutiny into their character may be as complete as possible, » long noviciate must expire, during which they pass through the several gradations of rank in the society; and they must have attained the full age oi thirty-three years before they can be admitted to tate the final vows by which they become professed members. By these various methods, the superiors, under whose inimediate inspection the novices are placed, acquire a thorough knowledge of their disposition and talents ; and the general, by exaijiinirtg the registers kept for ' this" purpose, is enable^ io 304 JESUITS choose the instruments which his absolute power can employ in any service for which he thinlts meet to destine them. ^ 4. Jesuits, progress of the power aridinjluenne of. — As it was the professed int'ention of this OB- der to labour vrith unwearied zeal in promoting the salvation of men, this engged them, of course, in many active functions. From their first insti- tution, they considered the education of youth as (Jieir peoufiar province : they aimed at being spir ritual guides arid confessors j they preached ne-, quently, in order to instruct the people | they set out as missionaries to convert unbelieving nations. Before the expiration of the sixteenth century, they had obtained the chief direction of the edu- cation of youth in every Catholic country in El*. rope. They had become the confessors of ahnost all its monarchsj a function of no small impo> tance in any reign, but, under a weak prince, superior to that of'minister. They were the spi. ritual guides of almost every person eminent fov rank or power ; they possessed the highest degrefe of confidence and interest with the papal courl^ as the most zealous and able champions for its authority; they possessed, at difierent periods, the direction of the most considerable courts in Europe; they mingled in all affairs, and took part m every intrigue and revolution. But white they thus advanced in power, they increased also in wealth : various e^edients were devised for eluding the obligation of the vow' of poverty. Be- sides the sources of wealth common to all the re- gular Clergyj the Jesuits possessed one which was peculiar to themselves. . Under the pretext of promoting the success of their missions, and of facilitating the siipport of their missionaries, they obtained a special licence from the court of Kome, to trade with the nation^ vvhich they laboured to convert j in consequence of this, they engaged in an extensive and lucrative commerce, both in the East and West Indies ; they opened warehouses in different parts of Europe, in which they vend- ed their commodities. Not satisfied with trade alone, they imitated the example of other com- mercial societies, and aimed at obtaining settle ments. They acquired possession, accordingly, of the large anil fertile province of Paraguay, which stretches across the southern continent of America, from the bottom of the mountains of Potosi to the confines of the Spanish and PoP" tuguese settlements bn the banks of the river De la Plata. Here, indeed, it must be confessed, they were of service : they found the inhabitants in a state Uttle different from that which takes place among men when they first,' begin to unite to- gether ; strangers to the arts ; subsisting preca/- riously by hunting or fishing; and hardly ac- quainted with the first principle of subordination and government. The Je.suits set themselves to instruct and civilize these savages : they taught them to cultivate the ground, build houses, and brought them to live together in villages, &c They made them taste the sweets of society, and trained them to arts and manufactures. Such was their power over them, that a few Jesuits presided over some hundred thousand Indians. But even in this meritorious effort of the Jesuits for the good of mankind, the genius and spirit of their order was discernible: they piainly aimea at establishing in Paraguay an indepenJent em- pire, subject to the society alone, and which, by the superior excellence of its constitution and JESUITS (julice, cqulcl scarcely have failed to extend its dominion orer all the southern continent of America. With thia view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or Portuguese in the adjacent set- tlements from acquiring any dangerous influence over the people within the limits of the province subject to the society, the Jesuits endeavoured to inspire the Indians with hatred and contemjit Of these nations; they cut off all intercourse be- tween their subjects and the Spanish or Portu- guese settfements. When they were obliged to admit any_ person in a public character from the neighbouring govemmeiits, they did not permit him to have aiiy conversation With their subjects ; and no Indian was Allowed even to enter the house where these strangers resided, unless in the presence of a Jesuit. In order to render'any communication between them as difficult as pos- sible, they industriously avoided pving the In- dians any knowledge of the Spanish or any 'other Eurdpean language ; but encoOTaged the diflfe- rent tribes which they had civilized to acquire a certain dialect of the Indian tongue, and laboured to make that the univet'sal language throughout their dol^ions. As all these preiautidnls. With- out mihtary force, would have been insufficient to have rendered their empire secure and perma- nent, they 'instructed their subjects in the Euro- pean art of war, and formed thism iilto bodies completely aimed, and well disciplined. 5. Jesuits, pernicious effects of this irder in tivil sodiety. — Though it must be confessed that the Jesuits cultivated the study Of ancient litera- ture, and contributed much tovtlards the progress of polite learning; though they 'have produced eminent masters'in eve^ branch bf sciehc'e, iand can boaist of a number of iilgteriionsalithors; yet, ilnhappily for mankind, their Vast influence has been Often exerted with the most fatal effects. Such was the tendency of that discipline observed by the society in forming its members, and such the fiihdamental maxims in its constitution, that every Jesuit was taught to regard the interest of the order aa the capital object to which every consideration was to be salcnflced. As the pros- perity of the order vvas intimately connected with the preservationofthe'^apil authority, the Jesuits, influenced by the same principle, of attachment to the interest of their Society, have' been the tnost zealous patrons of those doctrines which tend to exalt ecclesiastical power on the ruins of civil government. They have attributed to the court of Rome a jurisdiction as extensiyfi and absolute as was claimed by the most presUinptuous pon- tiffs in the dark ages. They have contended for the entire independence of ecclesiastics on the civil magistrates. They hive published such tenets concerning the duty pf opjOalilg jirincfls who were enemies of the CathOlfc faith, as'co^- tenanced the most atrocious crimes, and tended to dissolve all the ties which connect subjects with their rulers. As the order derive'd'bOth reputation and authority from thezeal with which it stood forth in defence of the Romish 'chiirch against the attacks of the reformers, its members, proud of this distinction, liave considered it as their peculiar function to combat the o'fihiOns,, and to check the progress of the PrOtesta'nts. I'Key have made use of every art, andlSSve'em- ployed every weapon against them. They hkve set themselves in opposition to evervSentle Or tolerating measure m their iavour. They have 205 JESUITS Incessantly stirred up against theln all the rage of ecclesiastical and civif persecution. — Whoever recollects the events which have happened ta Europe during two centuries will find that the Jesuits may justly be considered as responsible for most of the pernicious efl'ects arising from thai corrupt and dangerous casuistry, from those er- travagant tenets concerning ecclesiastical powei^ and from that intolerant spirit, which have been the disgrace of the (ihutch of Rome througljout. that period, and which have brought so many calamities upon society. 6. Jesuits, dovmfall in Ewope.^-&\>.ch. were the laws, the policy and the gehius of this formi- dable otder ; of whicli, however, a perfect know- ledge has only been attainable of late. Europe had observed, for two centuries, the ambition and power of 'the order ; but while it felt many fatal effects Of these, it could not fully discern the cfiuses to which they were to be imputed. It was unacquainted with many of the singular regula- tions in the political 'constitution or government Of the Jesuits, which formed the enterprising spirit of intrigue that distinguished its members^ 'and elevated the body itself to such a height 'of power. It was a fundamental maxim with the Jesuits, from their first institution, not to piiblisb the rules of their order : these tliey kept coiiceal- ed as an iinpenetrable mystery. They never com municdted them to strangers, nor even to the greater part of their Own members : they refused to produce them when required by courts of jus- tice ; and, by a strange solecisjn in policy, the civil power in different countries authorised or con- nived at the establishment of an order of men, whose constitution and laws were concealed with a BoKcitude which alone was a good reason foi having excMded them. During the prosecutions which have been carried on against them in Po»- tugal and Prance, the Jesuits have been so in- considerate as to produce the mysterious volumes of their institute. By the aid of these authentic records, the pnnciples of their government may be delineated, and the sources of their power investigated, with ^ degree of certainty and pre- cision which, previous to that event, it was im possible to attain. The pernicious effects of the spirit and consti tution of this order rendered it early obnoxious to some of the principal powers in Europe, '.and gradually brought oi^ its downfall. There is a remarkable passage in a sermon preached at Dub- lin by Archbishop Brown, so long ago fis ' the year 1551, and which may be considered as almost prophetic. It is as follows: "But thei« are a new fraternity of late sprung up who call themselves Jesuits, which will dcceiv^ many, mUch after the Scribes and Pharisees' niannei. Alnongst the Jews they shall strive to abolish the truth, and shall come very near to do it. For these sorts will turn themselves into several forms ; with the heathen, a heathenist j with the athebts, an atheist; with the Jews, a Jew; with the reformers; a reformade; purposely to know youl intentions, your minds, your hearts, arid your inclinations, and thereby bring you, at last, to be like the fool 'that said in his heart, there was no God. These shall be spread e*er the Whole ivorld, shall be admitted into the coun- cils of princes, and they never the wiser ; charm- ing pf'ftem, yea, making your princes reveal their hearts, and the s^r'ets''lthe^ein, and yet they JKSUS not perceive it! which will happen from falling from the law of God, by neglect of fulfilUng the law of God, and by winking at their sins ; yet, in the end, God, to justify his law, shall suddenly cut off this society, even by the hand of those who have most succoured them, and made use of them ! so that at the end they shall become odious to all nations. They shall be worse than Jews, having no resting-place upon earth; and then shall a Jew have more favour than a Jesuit." This Angular passage seems to be accomplished. The emperor Charles V. saw it expedient to check their progress in his dominions ; they wereexpell- odEi^land by proclamation, 2 James I., in 1604: Venice, in 160&i Portugal, in 1759 s France, in 1764 i Spain and Sicily, in 1767 ; and totally sup- fressed and abolished by pope Clement XIV. in 773. Bnc. Brit; Moskeim's Bcc. Hist. ; Har- leian Misc. -vol. v. p. ^66 ; Broughton's Diet. JESUS CHRIST, the Lord and Saviour of mankind. He is called Christ (anointed,) be- cause he is anointed, furnished, and sent by God to execute his mediatorial office ; and Jesus (Sa- viour,) because he came to save his people from their sins. For an account of his nativity, offi- ces, death, resurrection, &c., the reader is referred to those articles in this work. We shall here more particularly consider his divinity, humanity, and character. The divinity of Jesus ■ Christ seems evident, if we consider, 1. The language of the New Testament, and compare it with the state of the Pagan world at the tim£ of its pub- lication. 2. If Jesus Christ were not God, the writers of the New Testament discovered great injudiciousness in the choice of their words, and adopted a very incautious and dangerous style. The whole world, except the small kingdom of Judea, worshipped idols at the time of, Jesus Christ's appearance. Jesus Christ j the evan- gelists who wrote his history j and the apostles, who wrote epistles to various classes of men, pro- posed to destroy idolatry, and to establish the V, orship of one only Uving and true God. To effect this purpose, it was absolutely necessary for these founders of Christianity to avoid confu- sion and obscurity of language, and to express their ideas in a cool and cautious Style. The least expression that would tend to deify-a crea- ture, or countenance idolatry, would have bedn a source of the greatest error. Hence Paul and Barnaba^ rent their clothes at the very idea of , the multitude's confounding the creature with the Creator, Acts xiv. The" writers of the New Testament knew that, in speaking of Jesus Christ, extraordinary caution was necessary ; yet, when we take up the New Testament, we find such expressions as these: "The word was God, ffohn i. 1. God was manifest in the flesh, 1 Tim. iii. 16. God with us. Matt. i. 23. The Jews crucified the Lord of Glory, 1 Cor. ii. 8. Jesus Christ is Lord of all. Acts x. 36. Christ is over all ; God blessed for ever, Rom. ix. 5." These are a few of many proportions, which the New Testament writers lay down relative to Jesus Christ. If the writers intended to affirm the divinity of Jesus Christ, these are words cf truth and ssberness ; if not, the language is incautious sCnd unwarrantable; and to address it to men prone to idolatry, for the purpose of de- stroying idolatry, is a strong presumption against their inspiration. It is remarkable, also, that the richest words in the Gnek language are made 206 JESUS use of to describe Jesus Christ. This'lknguage, which is very copious, would have affcjrdea lower terms to express an inferior naturU; biit it could have afforded none higher to express the nature of the Supreme God. It is worthy of observa- tion, too, that these writers addressed their writ- ings, not to philosophers and scholars, but to the common people, and consequently used words ^ their plain, popular signification; — The common peoplft it seems, understood the words in our sense of them ; for in the Dioclesian persecution, when the Roman soldiers burnt a Phrygian city mhabited by Christians; men, women, and children submitted to their iate, call- ing upon Christ, the God over all. — ^2. Comr pare the style of the Dfew Testament with the state of the Jews at the time qf its pvMicatiim, In the time of Jesus Christ, the Jews were zeal- ous defenders of the unity of God, slnd of that idea of his perfections which the Scriptures ex- cited. Jesus Christ and his apostles professed the highest regard for the Jewish Scriptures ; yet the writers of the New Testament described Jesus Christ by the very names and titles by which the writers of the Old Testament had do. scribed the Supreme God. Compare Exod. iii. 14, with John viii. 58 ; Is. xliv. 6, with Rev. i. 11, l'7; Deut. x. 17, vrith Rey. xvii. 14; Ps. xxin 10, with 1 Cor. ii. 8 ; Hos. i. 7, with Luke ii. 11? Dan. V. 23, with 1 Cor. xv. 47; 1 Chron. xxix. 11, with Col. ii. 10.' If they who described Jesus Christ to the Jews by these sacred names and titles intended to convey an idea of his deity, the description is just and the application safe ; but if they intended to describe a mere man, they were surely of all men the most preposterous. They chose a method of recommending Jesus' to the Jews the most likely to alarm and enrage thein. Whatever they meant, the Jews under- stood them in our sense, and took Jesus for a blasphemer, John x. 3^ — 3. Compare the per- fections which are ascribed to Jesvs Christ in the Scriptures, with those which are ascribed to God. Jesus Christ declares, " A,ll things that the Father hath are mine;" John xvi. 15: a very dangerous proposition, if he were not God. The writers of revelation ascribe to him the same pe»- fections which they ascribe to God.' Compare Jer. X. 10, with Is. ix. 6 ; Exod. xv. 13, with Heh. i. 8'; Jer. xxxii. 19, with Is. ix. 6; Ps. cii. 24j 27, with IJeb. xiii. 8 ; Jer. xxiii. ^, with Eph. i. 20, 23 ; 1 Sam. ii. 5, with John xiv. 30. If Jesus Christ be God, the ascription of the perfections of God to him is proper ; if he be hot, the apos- tles are chargeable with weakness or wickedness, and either would destroy their claim of inspirit- tion.^-4i Consider the works that are ascribed, to Jesus Christ, and copipare' them with the claims of Jehovah. Is creation a work of God 7 " By Jesus Christ were all things created," Col. i. Id Is preservation a work of God? "Jesus Christ upholds all things by the word bf his power," Heb. L 3. Is the mission of the prophets a work of God? Jesus Christ is the Lord God of the holy prophets; and it was the spirit of Christ which testified to them beforehand the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow, Neh[ ix. 30; Rev. xxii. 6, 16; 1 Pet. i. 11. Is the sal- vation of sinners the work of Godf Christ ig the Saviour of all that believe, John iv. 42; Ileb. V. 9. Is the forgiveness of sin a work of God? The Son of Man hath power to forgive sins, JESUS Matt, hs, 6. The same might be said of the illij- mination of the mind; the aanctiScation of the heart; the resurrection of the dead; the judging of the world; the glorification of the righteous; the eternal punishment of the wicked ; m which works, in one part of Scripture, are ascribed to God, and all which in another part of Scripture are ascribed to Jesus Christ. Now, if Jesus Christ be not God, into what coritradictions these writers must fall ! They contradict one another ; they contradict themselves. Either Jesus Christ is God, or their conduct is unaccountable. — 5. Consider that divine worship which the Scriptures claim for Jesus Christ. It is a command of God, "Thou Shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only Shalt tliou serve," Matt. iv. 30. Yet the Scrip- tures command " all the angels of God to worship Chrbt," Heb. i. 6. Twenty times, in the New Testament, grace, mercy, and peace, are implored of Christ, togetherwith the Father. Baptism is on act of worship performed in his name. Matt. zxviii. 19. Swearmg is an act of worship ; a solemn appeal in important cases to the omni- scient Grod ; and this apj(>eal is made to Christ, Rom. ix. 1. The committing of the soul to God at death is a sacred act of worship ; in the per- formance of this act Stenhen died, saying, Lord Jesus, receive my spirit, Acts vii. 59. The whole host of heaven worship him, that sitteth upon the throne, and the Lamb fox ever and ever, Kev. v. 14, 15. — 6. Observe the application of Old Tes- tament passages which belong to Jehovah, to Jesras in the New, Testament, and try whether you, can acquit the writers of the New Testa- ment of misrepresentation, on supposition that ffesus is not God. St. Paul Says, "We shall all stand before the judgment-seat of Christ." That we shall all be judged. We allow ; but how do you prove that Christ shall be our judge"! Because, adds the apostle, it is written, " As I live, saith the Lord, every knee shall bow to me, and every tongue shall confess to God," Rom. xiv. 10, 11, with Is. xlv. 30, &c. What sort of reasoning, is (his 7 How does this apply to Christ, if Christ be not God 1 A'nd how dare a man quote one of the most guarded passages in the Old Testa- ment for such a purpose 1 John the Baptist is he who was spoken of by the prdphet E^aias, saying. Prepare ye the way. Matt. iii. 1, 3. Isaiah Baith, Prepare ye the Way of the- Lord ; make straight a highway for our God, Is; xl. 3, &e. But what has John the Baptist to do with all this description, if Jesus Chnst be only a messen- ger of Jehovah, and not Jehovah himself! for Isaiah saith, Prepare' ye the way of Jehovah. Compare also Zech. xii. 10, with John xix. 34, 37 ; Is. vi. with' John xii^ 39 ; Is. viii. 13, 14, with 1 Pet. ii. 8. Allow Jesus Christ to be God, and all these applications are proper. If we deny it, the New Testament, we must own, is one of the most unaccountable compositions in the world, calculated to make easy things hard to be under- stood. — 7. Examine whether events have justi- fied that notion of Christianity which tlie pro- phets gave their countrymen of it, if Jesus Christ be not God. The calling of the Gentiles from the worship of idols to the worship of the one living and true God, is one eventj which, the prophets said, the coming of the Messiah should bring to pass. If Jesus Christ be God, the event ant,wers the prophecy ; if not, the event is not come to pass, for Christians in general worship 207 JESUS Jesus, which is idolatry, if he be not God, Ib. fi. iii. dnd iv.; Zeph. ii. 11; Zech. xiv. 9. The primitive Christians certainly worsTiipped Him as God. Pliny, who was appointed governor of the' province of Bithynia by the emperor Trajan, in the ^ear 103, examined and punished several Christians for their non-conformity to the esta- blished religion of the empire. In a letter to the empeior, giving an account of his conduct, be declares, "they'affirmed tlie whole of their guilty or their error, was, that they met on a certain stated day, before it was Ught, and addressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ as to some God." Thus Pliny meant to inform the emperor that Christians worshipped Christ, JustiM Martyr, who lived about 150 years aftei Christ, asserts, that the Christians worshipped the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. Besides his testimony, there are numberless passages in the fathers that attest the truth in question ; espe- cially in TertuUian, Hippolytus, Felix, Sm. Mahomet,, who lived in the sixth century, consi- ders Christians in the light of infiilels and idola- ters throughout the Koran ; andj indeed, had not Christians worshipped Christ, he could have had Do shadow of a pretence to reform their relirionj and bring them back to the worship of one God. That the far greater- part of Christians have coiv tinued to worsnip J^sus wUI not be doubted ; now, if Christ be not God, then the Christians have been guilty of idolatry; and if they Ixave been guilty of idolatry, then -it must appear remarka- ble that the apostles who foretold the corruptions of Christianity, 3 Tim. iii., should never have foreseen nor warned us against worshipping Christ. In no part of the Scripture is there the least intimation of Ohristians falling into idolatry in this respect. .Surely if this had been an error which was so universidly lo prevail, those Scrip- tures which are able to make us wise unto salva- tion, would have, left us a warning on so important atopic. Lastly, considerwhat numberless passages of Scripture }\ave no sense, or a very absurd oney if Jesus Christ be' a mere man. See Rom. i. 3 ; 1 Tun. iii. IG; John xiv: 9; xvii. 5; Phil. ii. 65 Ps. ex. 1, 4; 1 Tim. i. 3 ; Acts xxii.13, and ix. 11 But though Jesus Christ be God, yet for mir sakes, and for our salvation, he took upo^ him human 1 nature ; this iff therefore called his humanity. Mbjcion, Apelles, Valentinus, and many other heretics, denied Christ's humanity, as some hawe done since. But that Christ had a true humai: body, and not a mere ^uman shape, or a body that was not real flesh, is very evident from the sacred Scriptures, Is. vii. 13; Luk» xxiv.39; Heb. ii. 14; Luke i. 43; PhU. ii. 7, »; John i. 14. Besides he ate, drank, slept, walked Worked, and was weary. He groaned, ^led, and died upon the cross. It was necessary that he should thus be human, ih, order to fulfil the divine designs and prophecies respecting the shedding of his blood for our salvation, which could not have been done, had he not possessed a real bodi It is also as evident that he assumed our whole nature, souji as well as body. If he had not, he could not have been capable of that sore amaze- ment and sorrow unto death, and all those other acts of grieving, feeling, rejoicing, &c. ascribed to him. It was not, however, our sinful nature he assumed, but the likeness of it, Rom. viii. 3; for he was without sin, and did no iniquity. His human nature must not be confounded with his JEStTS di^ne; for though there be an union of natures- in Chiisl^ yet there is not a mixture or confusi6n of them or their properties. His humanity is not changed into his deity, nor his deity into hu- manity , but thfe two natures are distmct in one person. How this union exists is above our com- mehension; and, indeed, if we cannot explain how our own bodies and souls are united, it is not to be supposed we can explain this astonishing mystery of God manifest in, the flesh. See Mediator. We now proceed to the chwracter of Jesus Christ, which, while it affords us the most pleas-, mg subject for meditation, exhibits to us an ex- ample of the most perfect and delightful kind. "Here," as an elegant writer observes, " every grace that can recommend religion, and every virtue that can adorn humanity, are so blended, as to excite our admiration, and engage our love.; In abstaining from licentious pleasures, he was equally free from ostentatious sinmlarity and. iihurlish siillenness. When he comj?ied with the established ceremonies of Iiis countrymen, that Eomjjliancc was not accompanied by any marks of bigotry or superstition; when he opposed flieir rooted prepossessions, his opposition was perfectly exempt from the captious petulance of a controversialist, and the undistinguishing zeal of an innovator. His courage was active in en- countering the.dangers to which he was exposed, and passive under the aggravated calamities which the malice of his foes neaped upon him ; his fortitude was remote from every appearance of rashness, and his patience was equally exempt from abject pusillanimity: he' was Arm without obstinacy, and humble without meanness. — Though possessed of the most unbounded power, we behold him living continually in a state of voluntary humiliation and poverty j we see him daily exposed to almost every species of want and distress j afflicted without a comforter, persecuted without a protector ; and wandering about, accord- ing to his own pathetic complaint, because he had not where to lay his head. Though regardless of the pleasures, and sometimes destitute of the comforts of life, he never provokes our disgust by the sourness of the n&anthrope, or our contempt by the inactivity of the recluse. His attention to the welfare of mankind was evinced not only by his salutary injunctions, but by his readiraessto embrace every opportunity of ielieving their dis- tress and administering to their wants. In every period apd circumstance of his life, we behold dignity and elevation blended with loVe and pity ; something which, though it awakens our admira- tion, yet aLitracts our confidence. We see power ; but it as power which is rather our security than onr dread; a povfer softened with tenderness, -and soothing while it awes. With all the gentlemeSs ofa meekandlowly mind, we behold an'faftroic firmness, which no terrors could restrain. In the private scenes of life, and in the public occupa- tions of his miiustry ; whether the object of ad- miration or ridicule, - of love or of persecution ; whether welcomed with hosannas, or insulted with anathemas, we still see him pursuing with unwearied constancy the same end, and fareserv- '1^ the same .integrity of life and manners." White's Sermons, serm. 5. Considering him as a Moral Teacher, we mast be struck with the greatest admiration. As Dr. Paley observes, ■' he'preferred soUd to popu- JESUS lar^rtues; a character which is commbnly ^e> spised, to a character universally extdled: he placed, in our licentious vices, the check in the right place, viz, upon the thoughts : he collected human duty iuto two well-devised rules ; he re peated these ndes, and laid great stress upon them, and thereby fixed the sentiments of his followers : he excluded all regard to reputation ill our devotion and alma, and, by parity of reason, in our other virtues : his instructions were deli- vered in a form calculated for impression ; they were ilbistrated by parables, the choice and struc- ture of which would have been admired in any ■composition whatever: he was free from theusual symptoms of enthusiasmy heat, and vehemence in itevotion, austerity in iinstitutions, and a wild Particularity in the description of a future state : e was free aJsq from the depravities of hiS'tee and country k without superstition among the most superstpous of jtoen, yet not decrying pcfli-, .tive distinctions ot^temsJ observances, but -so-, berly reckling them to the principle of their esta- blishment, and to theirplstce in the scale of human duties : there was nothing of sophistry or trifling, though' amidst teachers remarkable for nothing so much as frivolous subtilties and quibbling Expo- sitions ; he Was candid and Uberal in his judg- ment of the rest of mankind, although belonging to a people who affected a separate craim to divine ^vour, and, in consequence of that opinion, }>rone to uncharitableness, partiality, and restric- tion ; in his reUgion there was no schemeof build- ing up a hierarchy, or of ministering to the views of human governments: in a word, there wsis every thing so grand in doctrine, and so delight- ful in manner, that the people might well ezc£im — •' Surely, never man spake like this man !' As to his example, bishop.Newcome observes, "it was of the most perfect piety to Gfod, and of the most extensive benevolence and the most ten- der compassion to men. He doe^ not merely ex- hibit a life of strict justice, but of overflowing be- nignity. His temperance has not the dark shades of austerity ; his meekness does not degenerate into apathy; his humiUty is signal, amidst a splendour of qualities more than human j his for-^ titude is eminent and exemplary in enduring the most formidable external evils, and the sharpest actual sufferings. His patience is invincible ; hia resignation entire and absolute. Truth and sin- cerity sbin6 throughout his whole conduct. Though of heavenly descent, he shows obedience and affection to hisearthly parents ; he approves, loves, and attaches himself to amiable qualities in the human race ; he respects authority, religious and civil ; and he evidences regard for his coun- try, by promoting its most essential good in a painful ministry dedicated to its service, by de- ploring its calamities, and by laying down his life for its benefit. Every one of his eminent vir- tues is regulatedtby consummate prudonee ; and he both wins the love of his friends, and extorts the approbation and wonder of his enemies. Never was a character at the same time so com- manding and natural, so respl^dent and pleas- ing, so amiable and venerable. There is a pecu- liar contrast in it between an awful greatness, dignity, and majesty, and the most conciliating loveliness, tenderness, and softness. He now converses vrith prophets, lawgivers, and angels ; and the next instant he meekly endures the dulness of his disciples and the blasphemiis and JEWS rage of the multitude. He now calls himself greater than Solomon j one who can command legions of angels j and giver of life to whomso- ejer-he pleaseth ; the Son of God, and who shall sit on his glorious throne to judge the world : at other times we ,find him embracing young chil- dren ; not lifting up his voice in the streets, n( quenching the smoking flax ; calling his disci- ples not servants, but mends and brethren, and comforting them with an exuberant an,d parental affection. Let us pause an instant, ana fill our minds with the idea of one who knew all things, heavenly and earthly ; searched and laid open trie Inmost recesses of the heart ; rectified every pre- judice, and removed eVery mistake of a moral and religious kind; by a word exercised a Sovereignty over all nature, penetrated the hidden events of futurity, gave promises of admis^on into a happy immortality, had the keys of ''life %nd death, daimed an union vrith the Father ; lAid yet was pious, mild, gentle, humble, ifi^ble, Kcisdr bene- volent, friendly, and affecfionateff Such a charac- ter is fairer than the morning star. Each sepfi- rate virtue ig made stronger by opposition and contrast ; and the union of so many virtues forms a brightness which fitly represents the glpry of that God 'who inhabiteth hght inaccessible.'" See Robinson's Plea for the Divinity of Christ, from "which many of the above remark? are taken; Sp. Bull's Judgment of the Catholic Church ; Abbaidie, Waterland, Hawker, and Hey, on the Divinity of Christ ; Reader, ^Stackhouse, and Doyley's hives of Christ ; Dr. Jamieson's View cfthe, Doctrine of Scripture,, atod the Primitive Faith concerning the Deity of Christ i Owen on the Glory of Christ's Person; Hurrion's Christ, Cruc^d; Bishop Newcombe's. Observa- tions on our Lord's Conducts and Palsy's Evi- dences of Christianity. JEWS, a name derived fifomthe patriarch Ju- dah, and given to the descendants of Abraham by his eldest son Isaac. We shall here present the reader wi(h as comprehensive a view of this lingular people as we can. 1. Jews, History of the. — The Ahnighty pro- ^ nrised Abraham that he would render iiis seed extremely numerous : this promise began to be fulfilled in Jacob's twelve sons. In about two hundred and fifteen years they increased in Egypt from seventeen to between two and three ~ millions, men, women, and children. While Jo- eteph Uved, they were Idndly used by the Egyp- tian monarchs ; but soon after, from a suspicion that they would become too strorlg for the natives, they were condemned to slavery ; but the more they were oppressed, the more they grew. The midwives, and others, were therefore ordered tr> murder every male infant at the time of its birth ; but they shifting the horrible task, every body was then ordered to destroy the male cBildren wherever they found them,. After they had been thus oppressed for about one hundred years, and on the very day that finished the four hundred and, thirtieth year from God's first promise of 'a seed to Abraham, and about four hundred years afl^r the birth of Isaac," God, by terrible plagues on the Egyptians, obliged' them to liberate the Hebrews under the direction of Moses and Aaroft. Pharaoh pursued them with a mighty army ; but the Lord opened a passage for tn^m through the Red Sea ; and the Egyptians, in at- tempting; to follow them, were dtowned. After 309 2 B JEWS '• this, we find them in a dry and barren deseit, without any provisibn for their journey, but God supphed themwith water from a rock, and manna and quails from heaven. A little after they routed the Amalekites, who fell on their rear. In the wilderness God delivered them the law, and confirmed the authority of Moses. Three thou- sand of them vvere cut ofl for wbrshipping the golden calf; and' for loathing the manna, theV were punished with a month's eating of flesh, till a plague broke oiit among them ; and, for their rash belief of the ten wicked spies, and the con tempt cf the promised land, God had entirely de- stroyed them, had not Moses's prayers prevented. They were condemned, however, to wander in the desert till the end of forty years, till that whole generation, except Paleb and Joshua, should be cut off by death. Here they were often punished for their rebellion, idolatry, ijihore- ddmj &c. God's marvellous favours, however, were still continued in conducting and supplying them with meat ; and the streams issuing from the rook of Meribah, followed their camp about thirty-njne years, and their clothes never waxed old. On their entrance into Canaan, God or- dered them to cut off every idolatrous Canaaaite ; but they spared vast numbers of them, who en- ticed them to vrickedness, and were sometimes God's rod to punish them. For many ages they had enjoyed littlq prosperity, and often relapsed into awful idolatry, worshipping Baalim and Ashtaroth. Micah and the' Darates introduced it not long after Joshua's death. About thi? time the lewdness of the men of Gibeah occa sioned a war of the eleven tribes against theii brethren of Benjamin : they were tvrice routed by the Benjamites, and forty thousand of them were ^lain. In the third, however, all the Ben jamites were slain, except six hundred. Vexed for the loss of a tribe, the other Hebrews pro- ,vided wives for these six hundred, at theexpence of slaying most of the inhabitants of Jabesh Gilead.' Their relapses into idolatry also brought on them repeated turns of slavery from the Ma- then among or around them. See books of Judges and Samuel. Having been governed by judges for about three hundred and forty y^ars, after the death of Joshua, they took a fancy to have a king. Saul was their first 'sovereign, under whose reign they had perpetual struggles with the Ammonites, Moabites, and Phiustineis. After about seven years' struggling between the eleven tribes that clave to Ishbpsheth, the son of Saul, and the tribe of Judah, which erected themselves into a kingdom under David, David became sole monarch. Under him they subdued their neigb- J)ours, the Philistines, Edomites, and others ; and took possession of the whole doniinion which has been promised thena, from the border of Egypt to the banks of the Euphrates. Under Solomon they had Uttle war : when he died, ten of the' Hebrew tribes formed a kingdom of Israel, or Ephraim, for themselves, under Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, in opposition to the kingdom of Ji>- dah and Benjamin, ruled by the flmfly of David. The kingdom of Israel, Ephraim, or the ten tribes, had never so much as one pious king ; idolatry was always their established religion, fhe king- dom of Judah had pious and wicked sovereigns by turns, though they often relapsed into idolatry, which brought great distress mion them. ' See books of Samup^ Kings, and Chronicles. Not JEWS only the kingdom of Israel, but that of Judah, was brought to the very brink of ruin after the death of Jehoshaphat. After various changes, sometimes for the better,, and sometiraes for the worse, the kingdom of Israel was ruined, two hundred and fifty-four years after its erection, by So, king of Egypt, and HaJmanaser, king of , Assyria, who mvaded it, and destroyed most of the people. Judah was invaded by Sennacherib j but Hezeklah's piety, and Isaiah's prayer, were the mteans of their preservation : but under Ma- nasseh, the Jews abandoned themselves to horrid impiety ; for which they were punished by Esar- haddon, kin^ of Assyria, who invaded and re- duced the kingdom, and carried Manasseh pri- ^soner to Babylon. Manasseh repented and the Lord brought him back to his kingdom, where he promoted me reformation ; but his son Amon de- faced all. Josiah, however, again promoted it, and carried it to a higher pitch than m the reigns of David and Solomon. Afl»r Josiah was smin by Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, the peoplere- turned to idolatry, and God gave them up to ser- vitude to the Egyptians and Chaldeans. The fate of their kings Jehoas, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, was unhappy. Provoked by Zedekiah'B treachery, Nebuchadnezzar invaded the kingdom, murdered vast numbers, and reduced them to captivity. Thus the kingdom of Judah was rumed, A. M. 3416, about three hundred and dghty-eight years after its division from that of the ten tribes. In the seventieth year from the begun captivity, the Jews, according to rfie edict of Cjrus, king of Persia, who had overturned the empire of Chaldea, returned to their own coun- try. See Nehemiah, Ezra. ' Vast numbers of thein, who -had agreeable settlements, remained in Babylon. After their return they rebuilt the temple and city of Jerusalem, put away theit strange wives, and renewed their covenant with God. About 3490, or 3546, they escaped the ruin designed them by Haman. About 3633, Darius Ochus, king of Persia, ravaged part of Judea, and carried off a great many prisoners. When Alexander was in Canaan, about 3670, h6 "coft- firmed to them all their privileges; and havirig huilt Alexandria, he settled vast numbers of them there. About fourteen yearsr after, Ptolemy La- gUs, the Greek king of Egyp^ ravaged Judea, and carried one hundred thousand prisoners to E^ypt, but used them kihdly, and assigned them many places of trust. About eight yeare after, he transported another multitude of Jews to Egypt, and gave them considerable privileges. About the same time, Seleucus Nicator, having built about thirty new cities in Asia, settled in them as many Jews as he could ; and Ptolemy Philadelphus, of Egypt, about 3720, bought the freedom of all the Jew slaves in Egypt. Anti- ochus Epiphanes, about 3834, enraged with them for rejolciUg at the report of his death, and for the peculiar form of their worship, in his return from Egypt, forced his way into Jerusalem, and murdered forty thousand of them i and about two years after he ordered his troops to pillage the cities of Judea, and murder the men, and sell the women and children for slaves. Multitudes were killed, and len thousand prisoners carried off: the temple Was dedicated to Olytapius, an idol of Grreece, and the Jews exposed to the basest treatment Mattathias, the piiesl; with 310 JEWS his sons, chiefly Judas, Jonathan, itti SimOn, who were called Maccabees, bravely fought for their religion and liberties. Juda^, who succeed- ed his father about 3840, gave Nicaiior and the king's troops a terrible defeat, regained the tem- ple, and dedicated it anew, restored the daily worship, and repaired Jerusalem, which was ali^ost m a ruinous heap. AtCet his death, Jon» than and Simon, his brethrert, successively suo- ' ceed^d him; and both wisely and bravely pro- moted the welfare of the church and states Simon was succeeded by his son Hircanus, who subdued Idumea and reduced the Samaritans, In 3899 he was succeeded by his son Janneus, who reduced the Philistines, the country of Moabj Amnion, Gilead, and part of Arabia. Uhder these three reigns alone the Jewish nation was independent affer the captivity. Aft«r the death of the widow of janneus, who governed nine years^ the nation was almost ruinedwith civil broils. In 3939, Aristobulus invited the Romans to assist him against Hircanus, his elder brother. The coun- try was quickly reduced, and Jerusalem took by force ; and Pompey, and a number of his officers^ pushed their way mto the sanctuary, if not into the Holy of Holies, to view the furniture thereoE Nine years after, Crassus, the Roman general, pillaged the temple of its valuables. After Judea had for more than thirty years been a scene of ravage and Wood, and twenty-four of which had been oppressed by Herod the Great, Herod got himself mstdled in the kingdom. About twenty years before our Saviour's birth, he, with the Jews' consent, began to build the temple. About this time the J;ews had hopes of the Messiah ; and about A. M. 4000, Christ actually came, whom Heroil (instigated by the fear of losing his throne) sotfght to murder. The Jews, however, a few excepted, rejected the Messiah, and put him to death.' The sceptre was now wholly departed from Judah J and Judea, about twenty-seven years before, reduced to a province. The Jews,- since that time, have been scattered, contemned, per- secuted, and enslaved among all nations, not mixed with any in the common manner, int have remained as a body distinct by themselves. 2. Jews^ sentiments of. — The Jews comittonly reckon but fourteen articles' of their faith. Mai- monides, a famous Jewish rabbi, reduced them to this number when he drew up their confession about the end of the eleventh century, and it was generally received. All the Jews are obliged to live arid die in. the profession of these thirteen articles, which are as follow; — 1. That God is the creator of all things; 'hat he guides and sup- ports all creatures ; that he has done every thing-j and that he still acts, and shall act during the whole eternity. — 3. That God is one i-there is no unity like his. He alone hath been, is, and shall be eternally our God. — 3, That God is incorpo- real, and cannot have any material properties; ind no cdrporeal essence can be compared with him.— 4. Thitt God is the beginning ami end of all things, .and shall eternally subsist. — 5. That God alone ought to be worshipped, and none Iieside him is to be adored. — 6. That whatever has been taught by the prophets is trUe. — 7. That Moses is the head and father of all contemporary^oo- tors, of those who lived before or shall live after him.'^-8. That the law was given by Moses, — 9. That the Jaw shall never be altered, and that G*! will give no other. — 10. That God known JEWS aB the thoughts and actibns of men.— 11. That God will regard the works of all those who have performed what he commands, and punish those who haTO transgressed his laws. — 13. That the Messiah is to come, though he,tany a long time. — 13. That there shall be a resurreotion of tiie dead when Ood shall think fit. The laodern Jews adhere still as closely to the Mosaic dispensation, as their dispersed and de- spised condition will permit them. Their ser- vice consists chiefly in reading the law in their synagogues, together with a variety of prayers. They use no sacrifices since the destruction of the Temple. They repeat blessings and particular praises to God, not only, in their prayers, hut on all acddental occasions, and in almost all (heir actions. They go to prayers three times a day in their synagogues. Their sermons are not made in Hebrew, which few of them now per- fectly understand, but in the lang^ge of the. country where they reside. They are forbidden all vain swearing, and pronounciiw any of the names of God without necessi^. They abstain from meats prohibited by the Levitical law ; for which reason, whatever fiiey eat must be dressed by Jews, and after a' manner peculiar to them- selves. As soon as a child can speak, they teach him to read and translate the Bible into the lan- guage of the cbuntry where they live. In gene- ral, they observe the same ceremonies which were practised by their ancestors, in the celebration of the passoyer. They acknowledge a two-fold lavv of Grod^ a .written and an, unwritten one;. the former is contained in the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses; the latter, they pretend, was delivered by God to Moses, ^iid landed down from him by oral tradition, and now to bereceiv-j ed as of equal authority with the former. They assert the perpetuity of their law, together vrith its perfection. They deny the accomplishment of the prophecies in the person of Christ; alleg- ing that the Messiah is not yet come, and that he wul make his appearance with the greatest worldly pomp and grandeur, subduing all nations before him, and subjecting them to the house of Judah. Since the prophets have predicted bis mean condition and sufferings, they confidently talk of two Messiahs ; one Ben-Ephraim, whom they grant to be a person of a mean and afflicted condition in this world ; and the o',her, Ben- David, who shall be a victorious and powerAil prince. The Jews pray for the souls of the dead, be- cause they suppose there is a paradise for the souls of good men, where they enjoy glory in the presence pf God. They believe that me souls of the wicked are tormented in hell with fire and other punishments ; that some are condemned to. be puiiished in this manner for ever, while others continue only for a limited time; and this they call piiTgatory, which is not diiferent from hell in respect of the place, but of the duration. They suppose nojew, unless guilty of heresy^ or cer- tain crimes specified by the rabbjns, sluiU con- tinue in purgatory above a twelvemonth; and that there are but few who sufler eternal punish- ment. Almost all the modern Jews are Pharisees, and are aanauch attached to tradition as their an- cestors were ; and asaeri^. ,that whoever rejepts the oral law deserves death. Hence they enter- j tain an implacable hatred to the C/araite^ who ; 211 JEWS adhere to. the text of Hoses, rejecting the rabU nistical interpretation. See CabaiTES. There are still some of the Sadducees in Afri- ca, and in several other places ; but they are fevr in number ; at least there are but very few who declare openly for these .opinions. , ,There are to this day some remains of the an- cient sect of the Samaritans, who are zealous for the law of Moses, but are (lespised by the Jews, because they receive only the Pentateuch, and observe different ceremonies from theirs. They declare they are no Sadducees, but acknowledge' the spirituality and immortality of the soul.— There are numbers of this sect at Gaza, Damas- cus, Grand Cairo, and in some other places of the east; but especially at Sichem, now called Naplouse, which is risen out of the luins of the ancient Samaria, where they sacrificed hot many years ago, having, a place for this purpose on Mount Gerizim. ' David Levi, a learned Jew, Wfho in 1796 pub- lished "Dissertations on the Prophecies of the Old Testament," observes in that work, that deism aild infidelity have made such large strides in the world, that they have at length reached even to the Jewisl> nation ; many pf whom are at this time so greatly infected vrith scepticism, by reading Bohngbroke, Hume, Voltaire, &c. ' that they scarcely believe in % revelation ; much-: less have they, ^ny hppe in their future restoration. Z. Jews,- calamities of. — AH history cannot furnish us with a parallel to the calamities Euid ; miseries of the Jews ; rapine and murder, famine ,and pestilence, within; fire and sword, and all the terrors of war, without. Qui: • Savipuif wept at the foresight of these calamities ; and it is almost impossible for persons of any humanity to read the account without being affected. The, predictions concerning them were remarkable, and the calamities that came upon them were the greatest the world ever saw. Deut. xxviii. xxix.; Matt. xxiv. I Now, what heinous sin was it that could be the cause of such heavy judgments? Can any other be assigned than what the Scrip- ture assigns? 1 Thess. ii. 15, 16. " They, both' killed the Lord Jesus and their own prophets, and persecuted the apostles: and so filled up their sins, and wrath came upon them to the uttermost." It is hardly possible to consider the nature and extent of their sufferings, and not conclude the Jews' own imprecation to be singu- larly fulfilled, upon them. Matt. xxviL 25. . "His blood be on us and our children." At Cesarea twenty thousand of the Jews were killed by the Syrians in their mutual broils. At Damascus ten thousand unarmed Jews were killed ; and at Bethshan the heathen inhabitants caused their Jewish neighbours to assist them against their brethren, and then murdered thirty thousand of these inhabitants; At Alexandria the Jews mur- dei'ed multitudes of the heathens, and were murdered in their turn to about fifty thousand. The Romans under Vespasian invaded the coun- try, and took the cities of Galilee, Chorazen, Betlmida, Capernaum, &c., where Christ had been especially rejected, and murdered numbers of the inhabitants. At' Jerusalem the scene wa^ most wretched of all. At the passovcr, when there m5ght be two or three millions of people in the city, the Romans sun-oundedit with troops, trenches, and walls, that none might escape. The three different factions within murdered one an- JEWS other. Titus, one of the most merciful generals that ever breathed, did all in his power to per- suade them to an advantageous surrender, but they scorned evel'y proposal. The multitudes of unburied carcases corrupted the air, and pro- duced a pestilence. The people fed on one an- other ; and even ladies, it is said, broiled their sucking infants, and ate them. After a siege of six months, the city was taken. They murder- ed almost every Jew they met with. Titus was bent to save the Temple, but could not : there were six thoiisand Jews who had taken shelter in it, all burnt or murdered! The outcries of the Jews, when they saw it, were most dreadful: the whole city, except three towers and a small part of the wall, were razed to the ground, and the foundations of the temple and other places were ploughed up. Soon after the forts of Hero- dian and Macheron were taken, the garrison of Massada murdered themselves rather than sur- render. At Jerusalem alone, it is said, one mil- lion one hundred thousand perished by sword, famine and pestilence. In other places we hear of two hundred and fifty thousand that were cut off, besides vast numbers sent to Egypt to labour as slaves. About fifty years after', the Jews murder- ed about five hundred thousand of the Roman sub- jects, for which they were severely punished by Trajan. About 130, one Barocaba pretended that he was the Messiah, and raised a Jevfish army of two hundred thousand, who murdered all the heathens and Christians who came in their way ; but he was defeated by Adrian's forces. In this war, it is said, about sixty thousand Jews were slain and perished. Adrian built a city on Mount Calvary, and erected a marble statue of swine over the gate that led to Bethlehem. No Jew was allowed to enter the City, or to look to it at a distance, under pain of death. In 360 they be- gan to rpbuild their city afid temple ; but a terrible earthquake and flames of fire Issuing from the earth, killed the workmen, and scattered their materials. Nor till the seventh century durst they so much as creep OA'er the rubbish to bewail it, without bribing the guards. In the third, fourth, and fifth centuries, thfere were many of them furiously harassed and murdered. In the sixth century twenty thousand of them were , slain, and as many taken and sold for slaves. In 602 they were severely punished for their horrible massacre of the Christians at Antioch; In Spain, in 700, they were ordered to be enslaved. In the dghth and ninth centuries they were greatly de- rided and abused ; in some places they were made to wear leathern girdles, and ride without stir- rups on asses and mules. In France and Spain the^ were much insulted. In the tenth, eleventh, aiid twelfth centuries, their miseries rather in- creased : they were greatly persecuted in Egypt. Besides what they suiTered in the East by tne Turkish and sacred war, it is shocMng to think what multitudes of them the eight croisades mur- dered in Germany, Hungary, Lesser Asia, and elsewhere. In France niultitudes were burnt. — In England, in 1030, they were banished ; and at the coronation Of Richard I. the mob fell upon them, and murdered a great many of them. About one thousand and five hundred of them were burnt in the palace in the city of York, which they set fire to, themselves, after killing their wives and children. In the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries their condition was no better. In 213 JEWS Egypt, Canaan, and Syria, the croisaders still harassed them. Provoked with their mad run- ning after pretended Messiahs, Caliph Nasser scarce left any of them alive in his domiiiions of Mesopotamia. In Persia, the Tartars murdered them m multitudes. ' In Spain, Ferdinand per- secuted them furiously. About 1349, the terrible massacre of them at Toledo forced many of them to murder themselves, or change their relirion. About 1253 many were murdered, and others banished from France, but in 1275 recalled. In 1320 and 1330, the croisades of the fanatic shep- herds, who wasted the south of France, mas- sacred them ; besides fifteen hundred that were murdered on another occasion. In 1358 they were totally banished from France, ance which few of them hdve entered that country. In 1391 king Edward expelled them from England, to the number of one hundred and sixty thousand. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centu- ries, their miseries continued. In Persia they have been terribly used : from 1663 to 1666, the murder of them was so universal, that but a few escaped to Turkey. In Portugal and Spain tliey have been miserably handled. About 1393, six or eight hundred thousand were banished from Spain. Some were drowned in their passage to Africa ; some by hard usage ; and Wany of their carcasses lay in the fields till the wild beasts de- voured them. In Germany they have endured many hardships. They have beert bsmished from Bohemia, Bavaria, Cologne^ Nuremberg, Augs- burgh, and Vienna : they have been ternbly mas- sacred in Moravia, and plundered in Bonn and Bamberg. Except in Portugal and Spain, their present condition is generally tolerable. In Hol- land, Poland, and at Frankfort and Hamburgh, they have their liberty. They have lepeatedly, but in vain, attempted to obtain a naturalization , in England, and other nations among whom they are scattered. 4. Jews, jyresemation of. — " The preservation of the JewSj" saysBasnage, "in the midst of the miseries which they have undergone during 1700 years, is the greatest prodigy that can be imagin- ed. Religions depend on temporal prospenty; they triumph under the protection of a conqueror ; they languish and sink with sinking monarchies. Paganism, which once covered the earth, is ex- tinct. The Christian , church, glorious in its martyrs, yet was considerably diminished by the persecutions to which it was exposed ; nor was it easy to repair the breaches^ in it made by those acts of violence. But here we behold a chnrbh hated and persecuted for 1700 years, and yet sus- taining itself, and widely extended. Kings have often employed the severity of edicts and the hand of executioners to ruin it. The seditious multi- tudes, by murders and massacres, have committed outrages against it still more violent and tragicaL Princes and people. Pagans, Mahometans, Chris- tians, disagreeing in so many things, have united in the design of exterminating it, and have not been able to succeed. The Imsh of Moses, sur- rounded with flames, ever burns, and is never consumed. The Jews have been expelled, in different times, fiom every part of the world, which hath only served to spread them in all re- gions. , Froin age to age they have been exposed to misery and persecution; yet still they subsist, in spite of the ignominy and the hatred which hath pursued them in all places, whilst the greatest JEWS manarchies are fallen^ and nothing remains of them besides the name. "The judgments which God has exercised upon this people are terrible, extending to thci men, the religion, and the very land in which they dwelt. The ceremonies essential to their religion can no more be observed : the ritual law, which cast a splendour on the national worship, and struck the Pagans so much that they sent their presents and their victims to Jerusalem, is absolutely &llen, for they have no temple, no al- tar, no sacrifices. Their lajid itself seems to lie under a never-ceasing curse. ' Pagans,' Christians, Mohatamedans, in a word, almost all nations, have by turns srized and held Jerusalem. To the Jew only hath God refused the possession of this small tract of ground, so supreinely necessary for him, since he ought to woraiip on this mountain. A Jewish writer hath affirmed, that it is long since any Jew has been seen settled near Jerusar lem : scarcely can they purchase there six feet of land for a burying-place. " In all this there is no exaggeration : I am only pointing out known fects; and, far from having the least design to raise an odium against the nation from its miseries, I conclude that it ought to be lopked upon as one of those prodigies which we admire vrithout comprehending : since, tn spite of evils so durable, ajid a patience so long exercised, it is preserved by a particular provi- dence. ' The Jew ought to be weary of expecting a Messiah, who so unkindly disappoints his vain hopes : and the Christian ought to have his atten- tion and his regard excited towards men whom God preserve^ for so great a length, of time, un- der calamities which would have been the total' ruin of any other people." . 5. Jews, number and dispersion of.— They are looked upon to be as numerous at present as Ihey were formerly in the land of Canaan. Some have rated them at three miliionSi and others more than double that nuinber. Ti. ir dispersion is a remarkaMe particular in this people. They swarm all over the east, and are settled, it is said, in the remotest parts of China. The Turkish- ■empire abounds with them. There are more of them, at Constantinople and Salonichi than in any other place : they are spread through most of the nations of Europe and Africa, and many femi- lies of them are established in the We.st Indies : not to mention whole nations, bordering on Pies- ter John's country, and some discovered in the in- ner parts of America, if we may give any credit to their own writers. Their being always in re- bellions (as Addison observes) whue they ihad the j^oly Temple in view, has excited most nations to banish theiti. Besides, the whole people are now a race of such merchants as are wanderers by profession; and at the same time are in most, if not in all place^ incapable of holding either lands or offices, that might engage them to make any part of the world their heme. In addition to this, we may consider what providential reasons may be assigned for their numbers and dispersion. Their firm adherence to their religion, and being dis- persed all over the earth, has furnished every age and. every nation with the strongest^ arguments for the Christian faith j not only as* these very particulars are foretold of them, but as they them- selves are the depositaries of these and wl other prophecies which tend to their own conl'usion and the establishment of Christianity. Their number JOACHIMITES fuTnishes us with a sufficient cloud of wituessca that attest the truth of the Bible, and their dis- persion spreads these witnesses through all parts of the world. 6. Jems, restoration qf, — -From the declarations of Scripture we have reason to suppose the Jews shall be called to a participation of^the blessings of the Gospel, Rom. xi. ; 2 Cor. iii. 16 ; Hos. i. 1 1, and some suppose shall return to their own land, Hos. iii. 5 j Is. Ixv. 17, &c. ; Ezck. xxivi. , As to the time, some think about 1866 or 3016 ; but this, perhaps, is not so easy to determine alto- gether, though it is probable it will not be before the fall of Antichrist and the Ottoman empire. Let us, howpver, avoid putting stumbling-bloclis in their way. If we attempt any thing for their conversion, let it be with jieace and lovi. Let us, says one, propose Christianity to them, as Christ proposed it to them. X^^t us lay before them their own prophecies. Let us show them their accom- plishment in J^sus. Let us applaud their hatre' the Gospel, arid Gospel ordinances, Ps.lxxxix. 15. — 6. Theprosperity of the interest of Christ, Acts xv. 3 ; Bev. xi. 15. 17.— 6. The happiness of a future state, Rom. v. 2 ; Matt. xxv. The nature and properties of this jay • 1. It is or should be constant, Phil. iv. 4. — 2. It is unknown to the men of the world, 1 Cor. ii. 14. — 3. It is unspeakable, 1 Pet. i. 8.-4. It is permanent, John xvi. 23: Watts on Pass. -seci 11; Gill's Body of Div. p. 111. Srdwol. 8vo. edit.; Grove's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 356. JOY OF GOD relates, 1. To the delight and complacency he has in himself, his own na- ture, and perfections. — 2. He rejoices in his own work§, Pb. civ. 31. — 3. In his Son Christ Jesus, Matt. iii. 17. — i. In the work of redemption, John ih. 15. — 5. In the subjects of his grace, Ps. cxivii. 11; Zeph.iii. 17; Ps. cxlix. 4. JUBILEE, a public festivity. — Among the Jews it was held every 49th or 50th year. It was proclaimed with the sound of rams' horns: no servile work was done on it ; the land lay untilled ; what grew of itself belonged to the poor and needy ; whatever debts the Hebrews owed to one another were wholly remitted ; hired as well as bond servants of the- Hebrew ^race obtained their Uberty; inheritances reverted to their original proprietors. See the 25th chap. Leviticus. Ju- bilee, in a more modern sense, denotes a grand church solemnity or ceremony celebrated at Rome, wherein t&e pope grants a plenary indul- gence to all sinners ; at least to as many as visit 214 JUDAISM the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rom*. The jubilee was first established by Bonifece VJI. in 1300, which was only to return every JjLUndred years ; but the first celebration brought in such store of wealth, that Clement VI., in 1343, reduced it to the period of fifty years. , Ur- ban VI. in 1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-five years, that being the age of our Sa- viour; and Paul II. and Sixtus TV., in 147^ brought it down to every twenty-five, that every person might have the benefit of it once in his life. Boniface IX. granted the privilege of hold- ing jubilees to several princes and monasteries : for instance, to the monks of Canterbury, who had a jubilee every fifty years, when people flocked from all pajts to visit the tomb of Tho- mas-a-Becket. Afterwards jubilees became more frequent : there is generally one at the inaugura- tion of a new pope ; and the pope grants them as often as the church or himself have occasion for them. To bo entitled to the privileges of the ju- bilee, the bull enjoins fasting, alms, and prayers. It gives the priests a full power to absolve in all cases, even those otherwise reserved to the pope ; to make commutations of vows, &c., in which it diiiers from a plenary indulgence. During the tithe of jubilee, all other indiil^ences are sus- pended. Onfe of our kings, viz. Edward III. caused his birth-day to be observed in the manner of a jubilee, when he -became fifty years of age, in 1362, but never before nor after. This he did by releasing prisoners, pardoning all offences, ex- cept treason, making good laws, and, granting many privileges to the people. In 1640, the Jc suits celebrated a solemn jubilee at Rome, that being the centenary, or hundredth year from their institution ; and the same ceremony was observed in all their houses throughout the world. JUDAISING CHRISTIANS : the first rise of thb denomination is placed under the reign of Adrian. For when this emperor had at length razed Jerusalem, entirely destroyed 'its very foundations, and enacted laws of the severest kind against the whole body of the Jewish peo- ple, the greatest part of the Christians who hved m Palestine, to prevent their being confounded with the Jews, abandoned entirely the Mosaic rites, and chose a bishop, namely, Mark, a fo- reigner by nation, and an alien from the common- wealth of Israel. Those who were strongly at- tached to the Mosaic rites separated from their brethren, and fouilded at Pera, a country of Par lestine, and in the neighbouring parts, particular assemblies, in which the law of Moses maintained its primitive dignity, authority^ and lustre. The body of Judaising Christians, which set Moses and Christ upon an equal footing in point of au- thority, were afterwards divided into two sects^ extremely diflierent both in their rites and opi- nions, and distinguished by the names of Naza- renes and Ebionites ; which see. JUDAISM, the religious doctrines and rites of the Jews, the descendants of Abraham. Ju- daism was but a temporary dispensation, and was to give way, at least the ceremonial part of it, at the coming of the Messiah. The principal sects among the Jews were the Pharisees, who placed religion in external ceremony; the Sadducees, who were remarkable for their incredulity ; and the Essenes, who were distinguished for their austere sanctity. At present, the Jews have two sects; the Caraites, who admit no rule of religinn JUDGMENT . but the law of Moses; and the Rabbinists, who add to the law the traditions of the Talmud. See those articles and books recommended under ar- ticle Jews, in this w.ork. -JUDGING, RASH, theaotofcarelessly-j pre- cipitately, wantonly, or maliciously oensurina others. . This is Sn evil which abounds too much amons almost all classes of mep. . " Not content- ed wiui being in the iright oursglyeo, we must find all others in the wrong. We claim an exclusive possession of goodness and wisdom; and from approving warmly of those who join us, we pro- ceed to condemn, with much acrimony, not only the principles, but the characters o^ those from whom we differ. We rashly extend to every in- dividual the severe opinion vfhich we have un- warrantably conceived of a whole body. This man is of a party whose principles we reckon slavish; and therefore his whole sentiments are corrupted. That man belongs to a religious sect, vvhicn we are accustomed to deem bigoted, and therefore he is incapable of any generoiM and liberal thought. Another is connected' with a sect, which we have been taught to account relaxed, and therefore can have no sanctity. We should do well to consi- der, 1. That this practice of rash judging is abso- lutely forbidden in the sacjed Scriptures, Matt. vii. 1. — 2. We thereby authorize others to requite us in the same kind. — 3. It often evidences our pride, envy, and bigotry. — i. It argues a want of charity, the distinguishing feature of the Chris- tian religion. — 5. They who are most forward in cehsuring others are often most defective them- selves. Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 30 ; Blair's Ssr. ser 10. yo). ii. ; SaurirCs Se^. ser. 4 vol. v. JUDGMENT is that act of the mind whfereby one .thing is affirmed or denied of another ; or that powerof the soul which passes sentence on things proposed to its examination, and deter- mines what is right or wrong; and thus it ap- proves or disapproves of an action, or '^n object considered as true or false, fit or unfii^ good or evil. Dr. Watts gives us the following directions to assist us in judgmg right. - t. We should examine all our old opinions afresh, and inquire what was the ground of them, arid whether our assent were buut on just evidence ; and then we r should oast off all those judgments which were formed Tieretofore without due examination.— 3. All our ideas of objects, concerning which we pass judgment, should be clear, distinct, complete, comprehensive, extensive, and orderly. — 3._When vw have obtained as cleEir ideas as we can, both of the subject and predicate of a proposition, then we must compare those ideas of the subject and predicate together with the utmost attention, and observe how far they agree, and wherein ithey differ. — 4. We must search foi: evidence of truth with diligence and honesty, and be heartily ready to receive evidence, whether for the agreement or disagreement of ideas. — 5. We must suspend our judgment, and neither aflSirm nor deny until this evidence appears. — 6. We must judge of every proposition. by those proper and peculiar means or mediums, whereby the evidence of it is to be obtained, whether it be sense, consciousness, iri- telligenoe, reason, or testimon^.-^?. It is very useful to have some general principles of truth settled, in the inind, v^ose evidence is great and obvious, that they may always be ready at hand to assist us in judging of the great variety of things which occur.— S. Let the degrees of our 215 JUDGMENT assent to every proposition bear an exact propor- tion to the different degrees of evidence.— 9. We should keep our minds always open to receive truth, and never set limits to our own -iniproye- raent. Watts's Logic, ch .4. p. 331; Locke on the Understanding, p. 322, 356, vol.i. ; p. 371, 378, vol. ii. ; Duncdn's Logic, p. 145; Reid on the Intellectual Powers, 'p. 4Sn, Sua. , JUDGMENT, LAST, the sentence that will l)e passed on our actions at the last day. I. The proofs of a general judgment are these: 1. The justice of God requires it; for it is evident that this attribute is not clearly displayed in the dispensation of things in the present state. —3. Thess. i. 6, 7; Luke xiv. 26.-3. The ac- cusations of natural conscience are testimonies in favour of this belief, Rom. ii. 15 ; Dan. v. 5, 6 ; Acts xxiv. 35. — 3. It may be concluded from the relation men stand in to God, as creatures to a Creator. He has a right to give them a law, and to niake th^m accountable for tfae breach of it, Rom. xiv. 13. — 4. The resurrection of Christ is a certain proof of it. See Acts xyii. 31 ; Rom. xiv. 9. — 5. The Scripture, in a variety of places, sets it beyond all doubt, Jiide 14, 15 ; 2 Cor. v. 10; Matt. XXV.; Rom. xiv. 10, 11; 2 Thess. I 7, 10; 1 Thess. iv, 16, 17. II. As to the Judge; the Bible declares that God will judge the world by Jesus Christ, Acts xvii. 31. The triune God will be the Judge, as to original authority, power and right of judg- ment; but, according to the economy settled between the three divine persons, the wprk is assigned to the Son, Romans xiv. 9. and 10, who will appear in his human nature, John V. 37, Acts xvii. 31 ; with great power and glory, 1 Thess. iv. 16, 17 ; visible to every eje, R,ev. i. 7 ; penetjating every heart, 1 Cor. iv. 5, Rom. ii. 1%; with full authority over all. Matt. AXvii. 18 ; and acting with strict justice, 3, Tim. iv. 8. As for the concern of others in the judg- ment ; angels will be no otherwise concerned than as the attendants, gathering the elect, raismg the dead, &c. but not as advising or judging. Saints are said to judge' the world; n^t as co-judges with Christ, but as approvers of his sentence, and as their holy lives and conversations will rise up in judgment against their wicked neighbours. III. As to the persons that will be judged, ; these vyill be men and devils. , The righteous^ . probably will be tried first, as represented in Matt XXV. They will be raised first, though perhaps - not a thousand years before the rest, as Dr. Gill supposes^ since the resurrection of all the bodies of the saints is spoken of as in a moment, in the twinkling of an. eye, at the last trump, in order to their meletiiig the Lord in the air, and being yrith him not on earth, but for ever in heaven, 1 Cor. XV. 52 J i Thess. iv. 16, 17. . Here we may take notice of a difficult question which is proposed by some, namely. Whether the sins of God's people shall be published in the great day, though it is certain they shall not be allied against them to their condemnation'? "This," says Dr. Ridgley; "is one of the secret things which belong to God, which he has not so fully or clearly revealed to us in his word ; and thereftre we can say little more than what is matter of conjecture about it. Some have thought that the ^ins of the godly, though forgiven, shall be inade manifest, that so the glory of that grace wMch has pardoned them may appear more illus JUDGMENT trious, and their obligation to God for this further r.nhanced. They afeo think, that the justice of the proceedings of that day requires it, since it is presumed' and known hy the whole world that they were prone to ,sin, as well as others ;■ and, hefore conversion, as great sinners as any, and lifter it their sins had a. peculiar aggravation. Therefore, why should npt they be made public, as a gloiy due to the justice and holiness of God, whose nature is opposite to all sin? And this they further suppose to be necessary, that so the impartiality of divine justice may appear. More- over, since God, by recording the sins of his saints in Scripture, has perpetuated the knowledge there- of: and if it is to their honour that the sms there mentioned were repented of, as well as forgiven, why may it not be supposed that the sins of be- lievers shall be made known in the great day "! And, besides, this seems agreeable to those ex- pressions of every word, and every action, as being to be brought into judgment, whether it be goo{ or whether it be bad. " But it is supposed by others, that though the making known of sin that is subdued and forgiven, tends to the advancement of divine grace, yet it is sufficient to answer this end, as far as (Jod de- signs it shall be answered, that the sins which have been subdued and forgiven, should be known to themselves, and thus forgiveness afford matter of praise to God. Again ; the expressions of Scnpturc, whereby forgiveness of sin is set forth, are such as seem to argue that those sins which were forgiven shall not be made manifest : thus they are said to be blotted out, Isa. xliii. 25; co- vered, Ps. xxxii. 1 ; subdued and cast into the depths of the sea, Micah. vii. 19; and remembered no_ more, Saa. Jer. xxxi. 34. Besides, Christ's being aju^ge, doth not divest him of the character of an advocate, whose part is rather to conceal the crimes of those whose cause he pleads, thaB to di- ?ulge them ; and to this we may add, that the law which requires duty, and forbids the contrary iins, is not the rule by which they who are in Christ are to be proceeded against, fof then they louM not stand in judgment ; but they are dealt with according to the tenor of the Gosp'el, which brgives and Covers all sin. And, further, it is ugued that the public declaring of all their sins before the whole world, notwithstanding their in- terest in forgiving grace, wouldfiU them with such shiime as is hardly consistent witii a state of per- fect blessedness. And, lastly, the principal argu- ment insisted on is, that our Saviour, in Matt. XXV. in which he gives a particular account of the proceedings of that day, makes^o mention of the sons, but only commends the graces of his saints." As to the wicked, they shall be judged, and all their thoughts, words, and deeds, be ftoueht into judgment, Ecc. xii. 14. The fallen angels, also, are said to be reserved unto the judgment of the great day, Jude 6. They shaU receive their final sentence, and be shut up in the prison of hell. Rev. XX. 10 ; Matt. viji. 29. IV. As to tlie rule of judgment ; we are in- formed the books will be opened. Rev. xx. 12. — 1. The book of divine omniscience, Mai. iii. 5 ; or remembrance, Mai. iii. 16. — 2. The book of conscience, Rom. i. 15. — 3. The book of Provi- dence Rbni. ii. 4, 5.-4. The book of the Scrip- tures, law, and Gospel, John xii. 48 ; Rom. ii. IG ; ii. 12.-T-5. The book of Ufe, Luke x. 20 ; Rev. iii. 5; XX. 12, 15. 21G JUDGMENTS V^ As to the time of judgment ; the soul will be efther happy or miseralSe immediately aftci death, but the general judgment will not be till after the resurrection, Heb. ix. 27. There is a day appointed^ Acts xvii. 31, but it is unknown to men. VI. As to the place ; this also is uncertain. Some suppose it .mil be in the air, because the judge will come in the clouds of heaven, and the Jiving saints will then be changed, and the dead saints raised, and both be caught up to meet the Lord in the air, 1 Thess. iv. 16,-17. Others think it will be'on the earth, on the new earth, on which they vnll descend from the air with Christ. The place where, however, is of no consequence, when compared with the state in which we shall appear. And as the Scriptures represent it as certain, Eccl. xi. 9; universal, 2 Cor. v. 11 ; righteous, Rom. ii. 5; decisive, 1 Cor. xv. 52; and eternal as to its consequences, Heb. vi. 2, let us be con- cerned for the welfare of our immortal interests, flee to the refuge set before us, improve our pre- dous time, depend on the merits ofthe Redeemer, and adhere to the dictates of the divine word, that we may be found of him in peaca Bates's Works, p. 449 ; Bishqp Hopkins and Stodda/rd on the Last Judgment; Gill's Body of Divinity, p. 467, vol. ii. 8vo. ; Boston's Fourfold State ; Hervey's Works, new edition, pp. 72, 75, vol. i. ; 155, vol. iv. ; S2,- 233, vol. iii. JUDGMENTS OP GOD, are the punish- inents inflicted by him for particular crimes. The Scriptures give us many awful instances of the display of divine justice in the punishment of lia- tions, families, and individuals for their iniquities. See Gen. vii. ; xix. 25 ; Exod. xv. ; Judges i. 6, 7 ; Acts xii. 23 ; Esther v. 14, with chap. vii. 10 j 2 Kings xi.'; Lev. x. 1, 2; Acts. v. 1 to 10; Is. XXX. fto 5; 1 Sam. xv. 9; 1 Kings xii. 25, 33. It becomes us, however, to be exceedingly cau- tious how we interpret the severe and afflictive dispensation of Providence. Dr. Jortin justly observes, that there is usually much rashness and presumption in pronouncing that the calamities of sinners are particular judgments of God ; yet, saith he, if from sacred and profane, from ancient and modem historians, a collection were made of all the cruel, persecuting tyrants who delighted in tormenting their fellow-creatures, and who died not the common death of all men, nor were visited after the visitation of all men, but whosejlagues were horrible and strange, even a sceptic would be moved at the evidence, and would be apt to suspect that it was e<.«i/Ti, that the hand of God was in it. As Dr. Jortin was no enthusiast, and one who would not overstrain the point, we shall here principally follow him in his enumeration of some of the most remarkable instances. Herod the Great was the first persecutor.ol Christianity. He attempted to destroy Jesus Christ himself, while he was yet but a child, and for that wicked purpose slew all the male chil- dren that were in and about Bethlehem. Whal was, the consequence? Josephus hath told usi h» had long ancl grievous sufierJngs, a burning fever, a voracious, appetite, a difficulty of breath- ing, .swellings Of Iiis limbs, loathsome ulcers within and without, breeding vermin, violent tor- ments and convulsions, so that he endeavoured to kill himself, but yvas restrained by his friends. The Jews thought thete evils to be divine judg- ments upon him ^oj- his wickedness. And whal JUDGMENTS IS still more remarkable in his case is, he left a Aumerous family of children and grand-children, though be had put some to death, 'and yet in about the space of one hundred years the whole family was extinct. Herod Antipas, who beheaded John the j3ap- tist, and treated- Christ contemptuously when he was brought before him, was defeated by Aretas, an Arabian king, and afterwards had his domin- ions taken from him, and was sent into banish- ment along with ills infamous wife Herodias, by the emperor Cains. Herod Agrippa killed James the!' brother of Jolui, and put Peter in prison. The angel of the Lord soon after smote him, and he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost. Judas, that betrayeabur Lord, died by his own hands, the most ignominious of all deaths. Pontius Pilate, who condemned our blessed Saviour- to death, was not long afterwards de- posed from his office, banished from his country, and died by his own hands ; the divine vengeance overtaking him soon after his crime. , The high pjiest^ Caiaphas, was deposed by Vitellius, three years after the death of Christ. Thus this wicked man, vvho condemned Christ for fear of disobliging the Romans, was igno- miniously turned out of his office by the Roman governor whom he had sought to oblige. Ananias, the high priest, persecuted St. Paul, and insolently ordered the by-standerS to smite him on the mouth. Upon which the apostle said, God shall smite thee^ thou whited wall. Whe- ther he spake this prophetically or not, may be difficult to say j but certain it is, that some time after he was slain, together with his brother, by his own son. Ananus, the high priest, slew St. James the Less ; for which, and other outrages, he was de- posed by king Agrippa the Younger,' and proba- bly perished in the last destruction of Jerusalem. Nero,' in the year sixty-four, turned his rage upon the Christians, and put to death Peter and Paul, with many others. Four years afl«r, in his treat distress, he attempted to kill himself; but eing as mean-spirited and dastardly as he was wicked and cruel, he had ilot the resolution to do that piece of justice to the world, and was forced to beg assistance. DomitiEui persecuted the Christians also. It is said lie threw St. John into a caldron of boiling oil, and afterwards banished him into the isle of Patmos. In the fbllowihg year this monster of wickedness was murdered by his own people. The Jewish na^on persecuted, rejected, ahd crucified the Lord of glory. Within a fetv years after, their nation was destroyec^ and the Lord madetheir plagues wonderful. Flaccus was governor of Egypt near the time of our Saviour's death, and a violent persecutor of the Jews. The wrath of God, however, ere long overtook him, and he died by the hands of viotence. Catullus was governor of Libya about the year seventy-threa He was also a cruel perse- cutor of the Jews, and he died miserably. For though he was only turned out of his office by the Romans, yet he fell into a complicated and in- curable disease, being sorely tormented both in body and mind. He was dreadfully terrified, and continually crying out that he was haunted by the ghosts of those whom Jie had murdered; 217 3C JUDGMENTS and, riot being able to conSiiin himself, he leaped out of his bed, as if he were tortured with fire and put to the rack. His distemper increased till his entrails were all corrupted, and came out of his body J and thus he perished, as signal an exam- ple as ever was known of the divine justice ren- dering to the wicked according to their deeds. Caius, the Roman emperor, was a great perse- cutor of the Jews and Christians, and a blasphe mer of the God of heaven. Soon after his atroci- ties, however, he was murdered by one of his own people. Soverus, emperor of Rome, was a violent and cruel persecutor of the followers of Christ. He, also, and all his family, perished miserably, about the year two Jiundred after our Saviour. About the same time, Saturninus, governor of Africa, persecuted the Christians, and put seve- ral of them to death. Soon after, he went blind. Heliogabalus, the emperor, brought a new god to Rome, and would needs compel all his sub- jects to worship him. This was sure to have ended in a persecution of the Christians. But, soon after, this vile monster was slain by his own soldiers, about the year two hundred and twenty- two. Claudius Hermiriianus was a cruel persecntni , of the Christians in the second century, and he was eaten of worms while he lived. Decius persecuted the church about the year two hundred and fifty : he was soon after killed in battle. Galius succeeded, and cbntinued the persecQi- tion. He, too, was killed the year following. Valerian, the emperor, had many good quali- ties ; but yet he was an implacable enemy to the Lord Jesus Christ and his Gospel. Some time after he came to the throne, he was taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persra, and used like a slave and a dog ; for the Persian monarch, from time to timoji obliged this unhappy emperor to bow himself down, and ofier himms back, on which to set his foot, in order to mount fiis chariot or his horse. He died in this miserable state of captivity. .^milian, governor of Egypt, about two hun- dred and sixty-three, was a ^arulent persecutor of the church of Christ. He was soon after strart- gled by order of the emperor. Aurelian, the emperor, just intending to begin a.persecution against the followers of Christ, was killed in the year two, hundred and seventy-four. Maximinus was a persecutor of the church. He reigned only three years, and' then fell under the hands of violence. About the yestr three hundredwas the greatest possible contest between Christ and the Roman emperors, which should have the dominion. These illustrious wretches seemed determined to blot out the Christian race and name from under heaven. The persecution was far .more fierce and brutal than it had ever been. It was tune, therefore, for the Lord Jesus Christ, the great head of the church, to arise and plead his own cause; and so, indeed, he did. The examples we have mentioned are dreadful : these that folr low are not less astonishing, and they are all de- livered upon the best authorities. Diocletian persecuted the church in three hun dred and three. Aflier this nothing ever prospered with him. He underwent many troubles : his senses became impaired ; andhe quitted the empire. T JUDGMENTS Severus, another persecuting emperor, was Overthrown aiid put to death in the year three hundred and seven. ' About the same time, Urbanus, governor of Palestine, who had signalized himself ty torment- ing arid destroying the disciples of Jesus, met with his due reward ; for almost immediately af- ter the cruelties committed, the divine vengeance overtook him. He was unexpectedly degraded andi deprived of all his honours ; and, dejected, disspirited, and meanly begging for mercy, was put to death by the same hand that raised Mm. Firmjlianus, another persecuting governor, met vrith the same fate. Maximianus Herculius, another of the wretch- ed persecuting emperors, was compelled to hang himself, in the year ^hree hundred and ten. Maximianus £ralerius, of all tne tyrants of his' time the most cruel, was seized with a grievous and horrible disease, a:nd tormented With worms and ulcers to such a degree, that they who were ordered to attend him could not bear the stench. "Worms proceeded from his body in a most fearful manner ; and several qf his physicians were put to death because they could not endure the smell, and others because, they could not cure him. This happened in the ye»r of our Lord three hundred and eleven. Maxentius, another of the inhuman monsters, vras overthrown in battle by Constantine ; and in his flight he fell into the Tiber, and was drowned in the ypar three hundred and twelve. Maximinus put outlhe eyes of many thousands of Christians. Soon after the commission of his cruelties, a disease arose among his own people, which greatly aifected their eyes, and tooK away fl)eir sight. He himself died miserably, and upon the rack, his eyes starting out of his head through the violence of his distemper, in the year three hundred and thirteen. AH his family likewise were destroyed, his wife and children put todeath, together with most of his friends and dependents, who had been the Ihstruments of his cruelty. A Roman officer, to oblige this Maximinus, greatly oppressed the church at Damascus : not tong after, he destroyed himself. Licinius, the last of these persecuting empe- rors before ConstantineJ was conquered and put to death in the year three hundred and twenty- three. He was equally an enemy to religion,' liberty, and learning. Cyril, the deacon, was murdered by some Pa- gans, at Heliopcdis, for his opposition to their images. They ripped open his belly, and ate his liver : the divine vengeance, however, pursued all those who 'had been guilty of this crime; their teeth came out, their tongues rotted, and they lost their sight. ' Valens was made emperor in 364 i and though a Christian himself, he is said to have Caused fourscore presbyters, who differed from him in opinion, to be put to sea, and burnt alive in the ship.' AflerwaiBs, in a battle with the Goths, he was defeated and wounded, and fled to a cot- tage, where he was burnt alive, as most histori- ans relate : all agree that he perished. The last Pagan prince, vvho was a formidable enemy to Christiamty, was Rad^aisus, a "king of the Goths. He invaded the Rooian empire with an army of 400,000 men, about the year 405, and vowed to sacrifice all the Romans to his gods. The Romans, however, fought him, and 218 JUDGMENTS obtained a complete victory, taking him and his sons prisoners, whom they put to death. Hunnerio, the Vanda^ though a Christian, was a most cruel persecutor of those who differed from him in opinion, about the year of our Lord 484. He spared not even those of his own per- suasion, neither his friends nor his kindred. Tie reigned, however, not quite eight years, and died with allthe marks of divine inclination upon him. Julian the apostate greatly oppressed the Chris- tians ; and he perished soon after, in his rash eae- pedition against the Persians.' Several of those who were emplojred or per- mitted by Julian to persecute the Christians, are said to have perished miserably and remarkably. I will Jiere relate the fate pf a few of those un- happy wretches in the words of Tillemont, who faithfully collected the account-fiom the ancient& "We have observed," says that learned man, "that Count Julian, with Felix, Superintendent of the finances, and Elpidius, treasurer _to the emperor, apostates all three, had received orders to go and seize the effects of the church at An- tioth, and carry them to thetreasury. They did it on the day of the martyrdom of St, Theodciret, and drew up an account of what they had seized. But Count Juhan was not content with taking away the sacred vessel^ of the church, and, pro- faning them by his impure hands: canying to greater lengths the outrage he was doing to Jesus Christ, he overturned and fluiig them down on the ground, and sat upon them in a most criminal manner j adding to this all the banters and blas- phemies that he could devise agaijist Christ, and against the Christians, who, he said, were abaft- doned of God." FeUx, the suptontendent, signalized himself also by another impiety ; for as he was viewing the ricn and magnificent vessels which the, empe- rors Constantine and Constantius had given to the church, "Behold," said he, " with whdt plate the son of Mary is served '." It is said, too, that Count Julian and he made it the subject of ban- ter, that God should let them thus profane his temple, without interposing by visible miracles. But these impieties remained not long unpn- nished, and J-uUan had no sooner profaned the sacred utensils, than he felt the effects of divine vengeance. He fell into a grievous and unknown disease; and his inward, parts being corrupted, he cast out his liver and Jhis excrements, not from the ordinary passages, but from his miserable mouth, which had uttered so many blasphemies. His secret parts, and all the flesh round about them, corrupted also, and bred worms; and to show that it was a divine punishment, all the art of physicians could give him no relief. In this condition he continue forty days, without speech or sense, preyed on by worms. At length he came to himself again. The imposthumes, ■ hovi?^ ever, all over his 'body, and the worms which gnawed him continually, reduced him to the ut- most extremity^ He threw them up, without ceasing, the 'last three days of his life, with a stench which he himself could not bear. The disease with which God visited Feli:i^ was not so long. He burst suddenly in the mid- dle of his body, and died of an effusion of blood in the course of one day. Elpidius was stripped of his effects in 366, and shut up in prison, where after having continued for some time, he died without reputation and JUSTICE honour, cursed of aJl the world, and sumamed the Apostate. To these instances many more might be added nearer our own times, did our roum pernlit. These, however, are suffitient to show us what a fearful thing it is to fall into the hands of the living God, and how fruitless and awful it is to oppose his designs, aiid to attempt to stop the progress of his GoSpel. " Why do the heathen rage, and the people imagine a Vain thing 3 He' that sitteth in the heavetis shall laugh ; the Lord shall have them in derision. Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron ; thou shalt dash them to pieces as a potter's vessel. Be wise now, there- fore, ye kuigs ; be instructed, ye judges of the earth. Serve tne Lmd with fear, and rejoice with trembling." Ps. ii. Jortin's Remarks on Eccle- siastical History, vol. iii. p. 246, &c.; Simpson's Key to the Prophecies, 29 ; Newton on the Pro- phecies, dis. 24 j Bryant's Observations on the Plagues of Egypt; THllemont, Histaire des Emp. JUDICIUM DEI, or Judgment of God, was a term anciently applied to all extraordinary trials of secret crimes; as those by arms and single combat; and the ordeals, or those by fire, or led hot ploughshares, by plungingthe arm in boiling water, or the whole body in cold water, in. hopes that God would work a miracle, rather than, suf- fer truth and innocence to perish. These cus- toms were a longtime kept up even among ChHs- tians, and they are Still in use- in some nations. Trials of tliis sort were usually held in churches, in the presence of the bishop, priest; and secular judges; after three days' fasting, confession, com- munion, and many adjurations and ceremonies, described at large by Du Cange. JUMPERS, persons so cdled from 'the prac- tice of jumping during the time allotted for reli- gious worship. This singular practice began, it . IS said, in the vvestern part of Wales, about the year 1760. It was soon after "defended by Mr. William Williams, (the Welsh poetj as he is sometimes called,) in a pamphlet, which was pa- tronized by the abettors of jumping in religious^ assemblies. Several of the more zealous itinerant preachers encouraaed the people tociy out go- goniant (the Welsh word for glory,) amen, &c. &c.; to put themselves in violent agitations ; and, finally, to jutnp until they were quite exhausted, so as often' to be obHged to fall down on theifloor or field, where this kind of worship was held. Justice consists in an exact and scrupu- lous regard to the rights of others, viath a deli- berate purpose to preserve them on all oecasions sacred and inviolate. It is often divided into commutative and distrUmtive justice. The for- mer consists in an equal exchange of benefits ; the letter in an equal distribution of rewards and punishments. Dr. Watts gives the following rules respecting justice. — " 1. It is just that we honour, reverence, and respect those who are su- periors in any kind, Epli. vi. 1, 3; 1 Pet. u. 17; 1 Tim. V. 17. — 2. That we show particular kind- ness to near relations, Prov. xvii. 17.— 3. That we love those v^hd love us, and show gratitude to those who have doiie us good, Gat iv. 15. — 4. That we pay the full due to those whom we bargain or deal with, Rom. xiii.; Deut. xxiv. 14.— tS. That we hdp our, fellow-creatures in eases of great necessity, Ex. xxii. 4. — 6. Repa- tation to those whom we have wMiUy in- 219 JUSTIFICATION juitpd." Wattes Semt. ser. 94, 35, vol. li,5 Berry Street Led. ser. iv.; Grove's Mar. Phil. p. S32, vol. ii.; WoUaston's Relig. of Nature, p. 137, 141 ; Jay's Serm. vol. ii. p. 131. JUSTICE OP GOD is that perfection where- by he is infinitely righteous and just, both in himself and in all his proceedings with his crea- tures. Mr. Ryland defines it thus ; "The ardent inclination. of his will to presctibe equal laws as the supreme governor, and to dispense equal re- wards and punishments as the supreme judge." Rev. xvi. 5 ; Ps. cxlv. 7 ; xcvii. 1. — 2. It is dis- tinguished into remunerative andjntniitse jus- tice. Remunerative justice is a distribution of rewards, the rule of which is not the merit„of the creature, but his own gracious promise, James.i. 12 ; 2 Tim. iv. 8. Punitive or ^vindictive jus- tice, is the infliction of punishment for any sin committed by men, 2 Thess. i. 6.1 That Ctod will not let sin go unpunished is evident, 1. From the word of God, Ex. xxxiv, 6, 7 ; Numb. xiv. 18 ; Neh. i. 3. — 2. From the nature of God, Isa. i. 13, 14; Psal. v. 5, 6 ; Heb. xii. 29.-3. From sin being punished in Christ, the surety of his people, 1 Pet. iii. 18. — 4> From aU the various naturail evils which men bear in the present state. The use we should make of this doctrine is this: 1. We should ledm the dreadfiil nature of sin, land the inevitable ruin of impenitent sinners, Ps. ix. 17. — 2. We should highly, appreciate the Lord Jesus Christ, in whom justice is satisfied, 1 Pet. iii. 18.— .3. We should imitate the justice of God, by cherishing an ardent regard to, the irights of God,' and to the rights of mankind. — 4. We should abhor all sin, as it strikes directly at the justice of God.— 6. We should derive com- fort from the consideration that the judge of all the earth will do right, as itiregardsoursdves, the church,. and the world at large, Psal. xcvii. 1, 3. Ryland's Contemp. vol. ii. p. 439; Witsius's (Economy, lib. xi. ch. 8. S 11 ; Dr. Owen cm the i/ustice of God ; Gill's Body of Divinity, p. 155, vol. i. 8vo.; Elisha Cole en the Righteousness of God. JUSTIFICATION, a forensic term, and signifies the declaring or pronouncing a person righteous according to law. It stands opposed to condemnation ; and tliis is the idea of the word whenever jit is used in an evangelical sense, Rom. v. 18 ; Deut. xxv. 1 ; Prov. xvu. 15 ; Matt, xii J7. It does not signify to make men holy, but yie holding and declanng them so. It is defined by the assembly thus : " An act of God's free grace, in which he pardoneth all our sins, and accepteth us as. righteous in his sight only for. ithe, right- eousness of Christ imput^to us, and received by faith alone." The doctrine of justification, sa^s Mr. Sooth, makes a very distinguished figure in that religion which is from above, and is a capital article lof that &ith which was once delivered to the saints. Far from being a merely speculative poin^ it spreads its influence through the whole body of divinity, runs through all Christiain bxperience, and operates in every part of practical godliness. Such is its grand importance, that a mistake about it has a malignant efiicacy, aiid is attended with a long train of dangerous consequences. Nor can this appear strange, when it is consider- ed, that, the doctrine, of justification is no othei than the -way qf a sinner's acceptance wUh God. Being of such peculiari moment,- it is insepuieibl; JUSTIFICATION <»nnected with manj other evangdlcal truths, the harmony and beauty of which we caimot be- hold while this is misunderstood. It is, if any thing may be so called, an essential article, and oertamly requires our most serious consideration. Justification, in a theological sense, is either kgal or evangelical. If any person could be found that had never broken the divine law, he might be justified by it in a manner strictly legal. But in this way none of the human race can be justified, or stand acquitted before God. For all haye sinned ; there is none righteous ; no, not One, Rom. iii. As sinners, they are under the sentence of death by his righteous law, and ex- dnded from all hope and mercy. That justifica- tion, therefore, about which the Scriptures piin- dpajly treat, and which readies the case of a dnner, is not by a personal, but an imputed righteousness; a righteousness without the law, Rom. iii. 31 ; provided by grace, and revealed m the Gospel; for which reason, that obedience by which a smner is justified, and his justification itself, are called 'evdngelical. In tliis affair there is the most wondefml display of divine justice and boundless grace. Of divine justice, if we re- gayd the meritorious cause, and ground on which the Justifier proceeds in absolving the condemned sinner, and in pronouncing him righteous. Of ..boundless grace, if we consider the state and diaraeter of those persons to whom the blessing is granted. Justification may be further distin- guished as beiijig either at the bar of God, and in the court of conscience ; or in the sight of the world, and before our fellow creatures. The for- mer is by mere grace through faith ; and the latter is by works. To justify, is evidently a divine prerogative. It is God, I that justifieth, Rom. viii. 33. That so- vereign Being, against whom we have so greatly afiended, whose law we have broken by ten thou- sand acts of rebellion agdnst him, has, in the way of his own appointment, the sole right of mquitling the guilty, and of pronouncing them righteous. He appoints the way, provides the means, and imputes the righteousness ; and all in perfect agreement with the demands of his of- fended law, and the rights of his violated justice. But although this act is in some places of the in- fallible word more particularly appropriated per- sonally to the Father, yet it is manifest that-all the Three Persons are concerned in this grand affair, and each performs a distinct part in this particular, as also in the whole economy of salva- tion. The eternal Father is represented as ap- pointing the way, and as giving his own Son to perform the conditions of our acceptance before him, Rom. viL 32 ; the divine Son as engagedto sustain the curse, and make the atonement; to fulfil the terms, and provide the righteousness by which we are justified, Tit.ii. 14; and the Holy Spirit as revealing to sinners the perfection, suit- ableness, and freeness of the Saviour's work, enabling them to receive it as exhibited in the Gospel of sovereign grace ; and testifying to their consciences complete justification by it in the court of heaven, John xvi. 8, 14. As to the objects of justification, the Scripture says tl^ey are Hnnei-s and ungodly. For thus runs the divine declaration : To him that work- eth is the re^Ward of justification, and of eternal life as connected with it; not reckoned of grace, but of debt. But to him that woiketh not, but be- 330 JTJSTIPICATIOi'J lieveth on fern that justifieth — whomi the righ- teous? the holy 7 the eminently piousl nay, ve- rily, bvt the ungodly ; his /oi- tages of right reasoning. — % Conader the weslfc- nesses, failings, and m^takes of hiiman natiire in general.— 3. Be not satisfied with a slight view of things, but take ii wide survey now and then of the vast and unlimited regions of learning, the variety of questions and difficulties belonging to every science. — i. Presume not too mucn upon a bright genius, a ready wit, and good parts ; for this, without study, will never make a man of knowledge. — 5. Do not imagine that large and laborious reading, and a strong memory, can de- nominate you truly wise, without meditation and studious thought. — 6. Be not so weak as to im- agine that a lue of learning is a life of laziness. — 7. Let the hope of new discoveries, as well as the satis&ction smd pleasure of known truths, ani- mate your daily industry. — 8. Do not hover alvfays on the surface of things, nor take up suddenly with mere appearances. — 9. Once a day, especially in the early years of life and study, call yourselves to an account what new ideas KNOWLEDGE you have gained. — 10. Maintain a constant Watch, at all times, against a .dogmatical spirit — 11. Be humble and coqrageous enough to, retract any mistake, and confess an error. — 13. Beware of a fanciful temper of mind, and a humorous conduct. — 13. Have a care of trifling with things itnpor- taiit and momentous, or of sporting with things awful and sacred.— 14. Ever maintain a virtuous and pious fcame of spirit.^-15. Watch against- the pride of yotu- own leaaoh, and a vain conceit of your own intellectual powers, with the neglect rovement in Europe which will, we hope, in future times^ shed the most delightful influences on society; and unite its jnembers in hanilony, peace, and love. But the advantages of knowledge are stiU ^eater, for it points out to us an eternal felicity The several branches of human science are ilW tend{Bd only to bless and adpm ov|r present exisft- ence; but religious knowledge bids us provide for an immortalbeing, sets the path of salVatiHn before us, and is our inseparable companion in the road to glory. As itinstructs in the way to endless bliss, so it will survive that mighty day when all worldly literature and acconiplishmente shall ^br ever cease. At that solemn period, in which the records and registers of men shall be destroyed, the systems of human policy be di»- so(ved, and the grandest works of genius die, the wisdom which is s^nritual and heavenly Shall not only subsist, but be increased to an extent that human nature cannot in this life admit. Ooi views of things, at present, are obscure, imperfect, partial, and liable to error ; but when we arrive to the realms of everiasting light, the clouds that shadowed our understanding will be removed ; we shall behold with amazing clearness the attri- butes, ways, and works of God j shall perceive more distinctly the design of his dispensations; shall trace with rapture the wonders of nature and grace, and become acquainted with a thoi* sand glorious objects, of which the imagination can as yet have no conception.^ In order to increase in the knowledge- of God,' there must be dependence on Him nom whom all light proceeds, James i. 6; attention to his' reveaJed will, John v. 39; a Watchful spirit' ifiainst corrupt affection^, Luke xxi. 34 ; a huny ble frame of mind, Ps. xxv. 9 ; frequent medita- tion, Ps. civ. 34; a pe*seyering des^ for con- formity to the divine image, Hos. vi. 3. — Char- nock's Works, vol. ii. -p. 381 ; Saurin's Sermons^ vbl. i. ser. 1 ; Gill's Body of Div. vol. iii. p. IS. Oct. ; TUlotson's Serm. ser. 113i Watts's Works, vol. i. ser. 45 ; Hall's Sermon on the Advantaget of Knowledge to the Lowe'r Classes. KNOWLEDGE OF GOD. See Omnw- CIENCE. KORAN KORAN, or ALCORAN, the Scripture or Bible of the Mahometans, containing the revela- fiona and doctrines of their pretendea prophet. 1. Koran, divisions qfthe. — The Koran is di- vided into one hundred and fourteen larger por- tions of very unequal length, vf hich we odl cha,p- ters, but the Arabians Sowar, in the singular Sara ; a word rarely used on any other occasion, and properly signifying a row, or a regular series ; as a course of bricks in building, or a rank of soldiers in an army, and is the same in use and import with the Sura, or Tora, of the Jews ; who also call the fifty-tliree sections of the Pentateuch Sedarim, a word of the same signification. These chapters are not, in the manuscript copies; distin- guished by their numerical order, but by particu- lar titles, which are taken sometimes from a pe- culiar subject treated of, or person mentioned (herein ; usually from the first word of note, ex- actly in the same manner as the Jews have named their Sedarim; though the word from which some chapters are denominated be very distant towards the middle, or perhaps the end, of the chapter J vi^hich seems ridiculous. But the occasion of this appears to have been, that the verse or passage wherein such word occurs, was, in point of time, revealed and committed to writ- ing before the other verses of the same chapter which precedeit in order ; and the title being giv^n to the chapter before it was completed, or the pas- sages reduced to their present order, the verse from whence such title was taken did not always happen vo begin, the chapter. Some chapters have two or more titles, occasioned by the differ- ence of the copies. Some of them' being pre- tended to have been revealed at Mecca, and others at Medina, the noting this difference makes a part of the title. Every chapter is divided into amaller portions, of very unequal length also, which we customarily adi verses ; but the Ara- bic word is Ayat, the same with the Hebrew Ototh, and sonifies signs or wonc^ere;- such as the secrets of God, his attributes, works, judg- ments, and ordinances delivered in those verses ; many of which have their- particular titles, also, imposed i^ the same manner as those of the chap- ters. 'Besides these unequal divisions, the Ma- hometans have also divided their Koran into sixty equal portions, which they call Anzah, in the singular ffijft, eaoji subdivided into four equal parts ; which is likewise an imitation of the Jews, who have an ancient division of their Mishna into sixty portions, called Massictoth. But the Koran is more usually divided into thirty sections only, named Ajaza,. from the singula. Joz, each of twice the length of, the former, and in like manner subdividM into four parts. These divi- sions are for the use of th^ readers of the Koran in the royaJ temples, or in the adjoining chapels where the emperors and great men are, interred ; of whom there are thirty belonging to every chapel, and each reads his section ens of their country j but with theii adnjiration they blended their niety. 'To knoW and. to feel the beauties of the Koran, was in some respect to share in the temper of heaven ; and he who was most affected with admiration in KORAN the perusal of its beauties, seemed fitly the object of that mercy which hadigiven it to ignorant man. The Koran, therefore, became naturally and ne- cessarily the standard of taste. With a' language thus hallowed in their imsiginatioWs, they WB» too well satisfie'I either to dispute its elegance, or improve its stnicture. 'In succeeding ages, the additional sanction of antiquity or jirescription, was given to these compositions tvhich their fa- thers had admired ; and while the belief of its divine original continues, that admiration, which has thus become the test and the duty of the faithful, can neither be altered nor ^miniabed.; When, therefore, we consider these ipeculiar.ad- vantages of the Koran, we have no reason to be surpnsed at the admiration in which it ip held. But if, descending to^ a more minute investigation of it, we consider its perpetual inoonsistencc and absurdity, we shall indeed have cause for astonish- ment at that weakness of humanity, -which could everhave received such compositions as the work afjthe Deity;" 6. Koran, tlie style and merits of. the, emmtin- ed.---" The ifirst praise of all the productions of geniusi (continues this auljhor) is invention j that quality of the miiid, which, by the extent and qnickness of its views, is capable of 'the largest conceptions, and of forming- new combinations of objects the most distant and unusual. 'Buf the Koran bears little impression of this transcendont character. Its materials are wholly borrowed ftom the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, from the Talmu^cal rlegendsand apqcryphaUgospels then carrent in the East, and from tne traditions and fables wbioh abounded' in AraWa. The ma- terials collected from these several sources are here heaped together with perpetual and heedless repetitions, without any settled principle or visible connexion. When a ^reat part of thelife of Ma- homet had been spent m preparatory meditation on the systemhe was about to estabhsh, its chap- ters were dealt out slowly artd separately during the long period of twenty-three years. Yet, thus defective m its structure, and no less^objeotionable in its doctrines, was the work which Maliomet delivered to his followers as the oracles of God. The raost-prorainent feature of the Koran,; that point of excellence in which the partiality of its admirers has ever delighted to view it, is the sublime notion it generally impresses of the na- ture and attributes of God. If its author had really derived these just cbnceptions from; the in- spiration of that Bemg whom they attempt to de-' scribe, th^ would not have beeniSurrounded, as they now are, 6a every side, with error and ab- surdity. But it might be easily proved, that what- ever it justly defines of the divme attributes was borrowed from our Holy Scripture;, wbich, even from its fcst promulgstvon, but especially from the completion of 1;he New Testament, .has, extended the views and enlightened the understsndings of mankind; and thus furnished them with aims vrfiich ijiave too often been effectually turned against itselfib^ its ungenerous epemies. In this instance, particularly, the copy is far below the great' dr^al, botli in the^ propriety of its unages and theibrce. of its descriptions." x 7. Koran, the subHrrtit}/ of ihe, contrasted.-^ " OurHoly, SCTiptures.arp the.<>iUy^ compositions that can enable the dim :^htiof)irvartality, to pfr, netrate into the invjgibleiWOrUj.jgnditp-behojda alimpse af the divine perfoetipns. .^ecordingly,' 327 KORAN when thoy would represent to us the happiness nf heaven, they describe it, not by anything minute and particular, but by- somethii^ general and great ; something that, withouT; descending to any determinate object, may at once, by-its beauty and immensity, excite our wishes, and elevate our af- fections. Though in the I prophetical and evan- gelical writings, the joys that shall attend us ni a divine state, are often mentioned with ardent ad- miration, tney are expressed rather by allusion than by similitude , rather by indefinite and figu- rative terms, than by any thing fixed and deter- minate. ' !pye hath not seen, nor ear heaxd, nei- ther have entered into the he^rtof man the thiiigs which God. hath prepared fer.tham thstJovehim.' 1 Cor.ii. 9. What a reverence and pstonishnjent does this passage excite in every ihearer of taste and piety ! What energy, and at the sametime, what simplicity in the expression ! How sublime, and at the same time how obscure, is the imaseiy ! Different was the conduct of Mahomet in his de- scriptions of heaven and paradise. .Unassisted by the necessary influence of virtuous intentions and divine inspiration, be was neither desirous, nor ii^deed ttble, to exalt the iminds of men to sublime conceptions, or to rational expectatioi)s. By attempting to explain'^what is inconceivable, to describe what is ineffable, and to materialize what in itself is spiritual, he absurdly and im- piously aimed ;to.serifiualize the purity of the di- vine essence. Tbus he fabricated a gystpm of incoherence, a religion of depravity, totally repug- nant to the nature of that Being, who, as fie pretended, was its object; .but therefore more likely to accord with the appetites and cpncep- tions of a corrupt and sensual age. That we may not appear to exalt our Scriptures thus &r above the Koran by an unreasonable preference, we shall produce a part of .the second chapter of tbe latter, which is deservedly admired by the Mahometans^ who wear it engraved on their or- naments, and .recite it in their prayers. ' God ! there is no God but he; the living, the self^nb- sisting : neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him : to him belongeth whatsoever is in heaven, and on earth. Who is he that can intercede with him but through his good 'pleasure 1 He knoweth that which is past, and' that vvhich is to come. His throne is extended over heaven and earth, and the preservation of both is to him no burden. He is the high,, thepiighty.' Sale's Koran, vol. u. p. 30. To 3iis descnption who can refuse the praise of magnificence '? Part of that magnificence, however, is to be referred to that verse of the psalmist whence it was boprowed : ' He that keep- eth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep,' Psal. cxxj. 1. But if we comjiare it with that other passage of the inspired psalmist (Psal. cii. 34 — 27 ) idl its boasted grandeur is at once obscured, and lost in the blaze of a greater light ! ' O, my Qod, take me not away in the midst of my days ; thy years are throughout jill generations. Of old hast thou laid the foundation of the ea.>'*h ; ani the heavens are the work, of thy hands. They shall perisli, ibut thou sh^lt endure ; yea, all of theiii shall wax old like a garment ; as a vesture shalt thou change them, and they shall be chsinged. Butithou art the same,,ard thy years, shall have no ?!(i,d.' .The Koran,,i.tbfirefore mwn, a fair ex- ^min^tipn, &r from, supporting its arrogant claim ;ba arSffperitatural work, si|iks b,elow tl^e level of iflany cumppations confessedly of-human original ; LAMA and still lower does it /all in our estimation, when compared with that pure and perfect pattern which we justly admire in the Scriptures of truth. It is, therefore, abundantly apparent, that no mira- cle was either externally performed for the sup- port, oris internally ii\volved in the composition of the Mahometan revefiition." See Sale's Koran ; LAMA Pndeaua^s Life of Mahomet ; White's Sermm* at Bampton Lectures ; Foster's Mahoinetanism Unveiled ; WhiSaker's Origin of , Arianism ; and article Mahometanism. KTISTOLATRiE, a branch of the Mono- physites, wfiich maintained that the body of Christ before his resurrection was corruptible LABADISTS were so called from their founder, John Labadie, a native of Prance. He was originally in the Romish communion; but leaving that, he became a member of the reform- ed church, and performed with reputation the ministerial functions in France, Switzerland, and Holland. He at length erected a new commu- nity, which resided successively at Middleburg, in Zealand, Amsterdam, Hervorderi, and at'Al- tona, where he died about 1674. After his death, his followers removed their wandering commu- nity to Wiewert, in the district of North Holland, where it soon fell into oblivion. If we are to judge of the Labadists by their own account^ they did not differ from the reformed church so much in their tenets arid doctrines as in their manners and rules of discipline; yet it seems that Labadie h^ some strange notions. Among other things, he maintained that God might and did, oh certain occasions, deceive men ; that the faithfiil ought to have all things in common : that there is no subordiiiation or distinctibn of rank in the true church ; that in reading the Scriptures greater attention should be paid to the internal inspiration of the Holy Spirit than to the words of tne text ; that the observation of Sunday was a matter of indifference ; that the contemplative life is a state of grace and union with God, and tfe very height of perfection. LAITY, the people as distingmshed from the clergy. See Clergy. LAMA, GRAND, a name given to the so- vereign pontiff or high priest of the Thibetian Tartars, who resides at Patpli, a vast palaCd on a mountain near the banks of Barampooter, about seven miles from Lahassa. The* foot of this mountain is inhabited by twenty thousand lamas, or priests, who have their separate apartments round about the mouivtaih, and according to their respective quality are placed nearer or at a greater distance from the sovere^n pontiff. He is not only worshipped by the ThiUetians, but also is the great object of adoration for the various tribes of heathen Tartars who roam through the vast tract of continent which stretches from (he banks of the Wolga to CprbeSi, on the sea of Japan. He is not only the sovereign pontic^ the vicege- rent of the Deity on earth, but the more remote Tartars are said to absolutely regard him as the Deity hinlself, and call him God, the everlasting Fatliei^ of heaven. They believe him to be im- mortal, and endowed with all knowledge and vir- tue. Every year they come up from different parts to worship and make rich offerings at his shrine : even the emperor of China, vvho is a Manchou Tartar, does not fail in acknojvledg- ments to him in his jeligious capacity; and ac- tually entertains, at a great expense, in thejalace of Pekin, an inferior lama, dieputed as his nuncio from TWbet. The grand lama, it has been said. | 228 is never to be seen but in a secret place of his palace, amidst a great number qf lamps, sitting cross-legsed on a cushion, and decked all over with gold and precious stones, , where at a dis- tance the people prostrate themselves before him, it not being lawful for any so much as to kiss his feet. He return's not the least sign of respect, nor ever sreaks even to the greatest princes ; but only lays his hand upon their heads, and they are fully persuaded they receive from thence a fiill forgiveness of all their sins. The Sunniasses, or Indian pilgrims, often visit Thibet as a holy place ; and the lama always en- tertains a body of tyto ot three hundred in his pay. Besides his religious influence and autho- rity, the grand lama is possessed of unlimited power throughout his dominions, which are very extensive. The inferior lamas, who form the most numerous as well as the most powerful body in the state, have the priesthood entirely in their hands ; and besides fill up many monastic orders which are held in great veneration among them. The whole country, like Italy, abounds with priests ; and they entirely subsist on the great number of rich presents which are sent them fcam the utmost extent of Tartary, from the empire of the Great Mogul, and from almost all parts of the Indies. The opinion of those who are reputed tha most orthodox among the Thibetians, is, that when the grand lama seems to die, eittier of old age or infirmity, his soul, in fact, only quits a crazy habitation to look for another younger or better ; and is discovered again in the body ofsome child by certain tokens, known only to the lamas or priests, in which order he edways appears. JVlmost all nations of the east, except the Ma- hometans, believe the metempsychosis as the most important article of their faith; especially the in- haliitants of Thibet and Ava, the Peguans, Sia- mese, the greatest part of theChineseandJapanese, and the Moguls and Kalmucks, who changed th? religion of Schamanism for the worship of the grand lama. According to the doctrine of this metempsychosis, the sou! is always in action, and never at rest ; for no sooner does she leave her old habitation, than she enters a new one. The dalai lama, being a divine person, can find no better lodg- ing thin the body of his successor; or the Foe, re- sidiTig in the dalai lama, which passes to his suc- cessor ! and this being a god, to whom all things are known, the dalai lama is therefore acquainted with every thing which happened daring his residence in his former body. This religion is said to have been of three thou- sand years' standing ; and neither time nor the in- fluence of men has had the power of shaking the authority of the grand lama. This theocracy e» tends as fully to temporal as to spiritual concerns Though, m the grand sovereignty of the lamae* the temj^nsl power has been occasionally sepa LANGUAGE rated from the epiritual by slight revolutions, they have always been united again after a time ; so that "in Thibet the whole constitution rests on the imperial pontificate in a manner elsewhere unknown. For as the Thibetians suppose that the grand lama is animated by the good Shaka, or Foe, who at the decease of one lama transmi- grates into the next, and consecrates him an image of the divinity, the descending chain of lamas is continued down from him m fixed de- grees of sanctity ! so that a more firmly establish- ed sacerdotal government, in doctrine, customs, and institutions, than actually reigns over this country, cannot be conceived. The supreme manager of temporal affairs is. no more than the viceroy of the sovereigh priest, who, cdnformable to the dictates of his rdigion, dwells in divine tranquillity in a building that is both temple and Calace. If some of his votaries in modem times ave dispensed with the adoration of his person, still certain real modifications of the Shaka reli- gion is the only faitb they follow. The state of sanctity which that religipn inculcates, consists in monastic continence, absence of thought, and the perfect repose of iibnentity. It has been observed that the religion of Thi- bet is the counterpart of the Roman ' Catholic, since the inhabitants "of that country use holy water and a singing service; they also offer alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the dead. -They have a vast number of convents filled with monks and friars, amounting to thirty thousand ; who, be- sides the three vows of poverty, obedience, and charity, make several others. They have their confessorsj Who are chosen by their superiors, and "have licences from tfieir lamas, 'without which they cannot hear confessions or impose penances. They make use of beads. They wear the mitre and cap like the bishops; and their dalai lama is nearly the same among them as the soverein pontiff is among the Romanists. LAMBETH ARTICLES. See Articles. LAMPETIANS, a denomination in the se- venteenth century, the followers of Lampetius, a Syrian monk. He pretended that as man is born free, a Christian, in order to please God, ought to do noticing by necessity ; and that it is, there- fore, unlawful to make vows, even those of obe- dience. Tothissystemheaddedthedoctrines pfthe Arians, Carpocratians, and other denominations. LANGUAGE, in; general; denotes those ar- ticulate sounds by which mea express their thoughts. Much has been said respcting the invention of language. On the one side it is ob- served, that it is altogether a human invention, amd that the progress of the mind, in the inven- tion and improvement of language, is, by certain natural gradations, plainly discernible in the com- position of words. But on the other side it is alleged, that we are indebted to divine revelation for the origin of it. , Without supposing this, we see not how our first parents could so early 'hold converse with God, or the man with his wife. Admitting, however, that it is of divine opginal, we cannot suppose that a perfect system of it was all at once given to man. It is fliueh more natural to thiofc that God taught our first parents only. such language as suited their present occasion, leaving them, as he did in other things,-, to en- large and improve it, as their- future necessities should require. Without attempting, however, to decide this controversy, we may consider lan- 239 LAW guage as one of the greatest* blessings belonging to mankinds Destitute of this we Sibuld make but small advancements in science, be lost to all social enjoyments, and religion itself would feel the. want of such a power. Our wise Creator therefore, has conferred upon us this inestimable privilege; let us then be caiftious that our tongues be not the vehicle of vain and useless matter, but used for the great end of glorifying him, and do- ing good to mankind. W hat was the first lam- guage taught man,' is matter of dispute among the learned, but most think it was the Hebrew. But as this subject, and the article in general be- longs more to philology than divinity, we refer, the reader to Dr. Adam Smith's Dissertatioti, on the Formation of Languages ; Harris's Hermes: Warburton's Divifi^ Legation of Moses,, vol. iii. ; Traite de la Formation Mechaniqiie dcs iM/agues, pa/r le President de Brosses ; B,lair's Hhetaric, vol. i. lect vi.; Gregory's Essays, ess^G : Monboddo'a Originand Progress of Language. -LATITUDINARIAN, a person not con- forming to any particular opinion or standard, but of such moderation as to suppose that people will be admitted into heaven, although of difieisnt persuasions. The terra was more especially ap- plied to those pacific doctors in the seventeenth -century, who offered themselves as. mediators be- tween the more violent Episcopalians, and tlie rigid Presbyterians and Independents, respecting the form? of ^lirch government, public worship, and certain religious tenets, more especially those that were debated between the Arminians ami Calvinists. The chief leaders of these Latitudi- nari^ns were Hales and Chillingworth ; but More, Cudworth, Gale, Whitchco^ and Tillot- son, were also among the number. < These men, although firmly attached to thechurchof Ehgland, did qot go so far as to look upon it as of divine institution; and hence they maintained, that those who followed other forms of government and worship, were not, on that account, to be ex- cluded from theircommunion. As to the doctri- nal 'part ofreligion, they took the system of Epis- copius for their model, and like him, reduced the ' fundamental doctrines of Christianity to a few points J and by this manner of proceeding^ they endeavoured to show the contending parties, that -they had no reason to oppose each other with such animosity and bitterness, since the subjects of their debates were matters of an indifferent na- ture with respect to salv^on. They met, how- ever, with oppositionr fpr- their pains, and were branded as Atheists and Deists by some, and as Socinians by others; but upon the restoration of Charles, II. they were raised to the first dignities of the church, and were held in considerable esteem. SeeBurnet's Hist, of Ma own Times, vol. i. b. 11. p. 188 j Mosh..Ecc. Hist, vol ii p. 501, 4to. LAURA, in church history, a name given 4o a collection -of little cells at some distance from each other, in which the hermits of ancient times lived together in a wilderness. These hermits did not live in community, but each . monk pro- vided for himself in his distinct cell. The most celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclesiastical his-i ;tory were in Palestine ; as the laura of St. Eu- thymus, St Sftba, the laura of the towers, &o, LAW, a rule of action; a precept or command coming from a superior authority, which an in- ferior IS bound to obey. The manner in which God governs rational creatures is by a law,.as the LAW ' rule of their obedienoeto him, and Which is what we call God's moral govCTnment of the world. He gave a law to angels, which some of them kept, and have been confirmed in a state of obe- dience to it; but which others broke, and thereby plunged themselves into destruction and misery. He gave, also, a la^ to Adam, and which was also m the form of a covenaiit, and in which Adam stood as a covenant head to all his poste- rity, Roihi V. ; Gren. ii. But our first parents soon violated that law, and fell from a state of inno- cence to a state of sin and misery. Hos; vi. 7 ; GeH. iii. See Fall. I 'ositive laws are precepts which are not found- ed upon any reasons known to those to whom fhey are given. Thus in the state of innocence God gave the law of the sabbath j of abstinence from the fruit of the tree of knowledge, &c. Law of Nature is the vrill of God relating to human actions, grounded in the moral differences of things, and^ because discoverable by natural light, obligatory vipon all mankind, Rom. i. 20; ii. 14, 15. TSis law is coeval with the human race, binding all over the globe, and at all times ; yet, through the corruption of reason; it is insuffi- cient to lead us to happiness, and utterly unable ' to acquaint us how sin is to be forgiven; without fee assistance of revelation. > Ceremonial 'law is that which Prescribed the rftes of worship used under the Old Testeiment. These rites were typical of Christ, and were ob- ligatory only till' Christ had finished his work, apd began to erect this Gospel church, Heb. vii. 9, 11 ; X. 1 ; Epheaans it 16; Col. ii. 14; Gal. v,2,3. ' Judicial law was that which directed' the po- Ifoy of the Jewish nation, as under the peculiar' dominion of God as their supreme magistrate, and never, except in things relative to moral equi- ty, was binding on any but the Hebrew nation. Moral law IS that declaration of God's will wWch directs and binds all men, in every age and place, to their whole duty to him; It was most solemnly proclaimed by God himself at Sinai, to cdnfirm the original law of nature, and correct men's mistakes concerning the demands of it. IV is denominated perfect, Psal. xix. 7 ; per- petual, Matt. V. 17, 18; holy, Rora. vii. 12 j good, Roib. vii. 12; spiritual, Romans vii. 14; exceeding broad, Psal. cxiS. 96. Some deny that it is a rule of conduct to believers under' the Gospel dispensation; but it is easy to see the futility of such an idea ; for as a transcript of the mind of God, it must be the criterion of moral good and evil. It is also given for that very, purpose, that we may see our duty, and abstain from every thing derogatory to the divine glory. It affords us grand ideas of the holiness and purity of God : without attention to it, we can have no knowledge of sin. Christ himself came not to destroy, but to fulfil it; and though we cannot do as he did, yet we are commanded to follow his example. Love to God is the «nd of the moral law, as well as the end of the Gospel. By the law, alsb, we are led to see the nature of holiness, and our owh depravity, and learn to be humbled under a sense of our imperfection. We are not under it, however^ as a' covenant of works. Gal. iii. 13; or as a soufce of terror, Rom. viii. 1; although we must abide' by it, to- I'ether with the whole preceptive word of God, as the rule of our eonduBtJ Bom. Iii. 31 ; vU. 230 LEARNING Laws, directive, are laws without any punish- ment annexed to them. iotts, penal, such as have some penalty to en- force them. All the laws of God are and cannot but be penal, because every breach of his law is sin, and meritorious of ptinishment. Law of honour is a system of rules construct- ed by people of fashion, and calculated to facili' tate their intercourse with one another, and for no. other purpose. Consequently ilothing is ad- verted to by the law of honour but what tends to inconunode tins intercourse. |Ience this law only prescribes and regulates the duties betwixt equals, omitting such as relate to the Supreme Being, as well asuthose which we owe to our in- feriors. In fact, this law of honour, in most instances, is favourable to the licentious in- dulgence of the natural passions. Thus it allows of fornication, adultery, drunkenness, prodigality, duelling, andof revenge in the extreme, and lays no stress upon the virtues opposite to these. Laws, remedial, a fancied law which, some believe in, who hold that God, in mercy to man., kind^ has abolished that rigorous constitution or law that they were under originally, and instead of it has introduced a more mud constitution, and put us under a new law, which requires no more than imperfect sincere obedience, in compliance with our poor, infirm, impotent circumstances since the fall. I call this a fancied law, because it exists no where except in the imagination of those who hold it. SeeNEONOMiANs, and Jus- tification. Laws of nations are those rules which by a tacit consent are agreed upon among all commu- nities, at least among those vvho are reckoned the polite and humanized part of mankind. GilFs Body of Qiv. vol. i. p. 454, oct. 425 ; vol. jii. ditto ; Paley's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 2 •„. Cumber- land's Law of Nature ; Grone's Mor. Phil. vol. ii. p. 1X1; Booth's Death of Legal Hope ; Ing- Ush and Burder's Pieces on tht Moral Law ; Walls's Works, vol. i. ser. 49, 8vo. edition, and vol. ii. p. 443, Soi, ; Scott's Essays. LAY-BROTHERS, among the Romanists, illiterate persons, who devote themselves at some convent to the service of the religious. They wear a different habit from that of the reli^ons, but never enter into the choir, nor are present at th? chapters ; nor do they make any other vow than that of constancy and obedience. LAYMAN, one who follows a secular em- ployment, and is not in orders : opposed to a cler^man. LEARNING, skill in any science, or that improvement of the^ mind which we gain by study, instruction, observation, &c. An attei>- tive examination of ecclesiastical history will lead us to see how greatly learning is indebted to Christianity, and that Christianity, in its tui-n, has been much served by learning. "All the useful learning,!' says Dr. Jortin, " which is now to be fouiid in the world, is in a great measure owing to the Gospel. The Christians, who had a great veneration for the Old Testament, haye contributed morn than the Jews themselves to secure and explain those books. The Christians in ancient times collected and preserved the (Jreek versions of the Scriptures, particularly the Septuagint, and translated the originals into Latin. To Christians were due the Old Hexa- pla ; and in later times Christians have published LEARNING the Polyfflots and the Samaritan Pentateuch. It was the study of the Holy Scriptures which excited Christians from early times to study chronology, sacred and secular ; and here much knowledge of history, and some skilHn astronomy, were needful. The New Testament, being writ- ten in Greek, caused Christians to apply them- s"lvps also to the study of that language. As the Christians were oppospii by the Pagans and the Jews, they were excited to the study of Pagan and Jewish literature, in order to expose the absurdi- ties of the Jewish traditions, the weakness of Paganism, and the imperfections and insufficiency of philosophy. The first fathers, till the third century, were generally Greek writers. In the third century the Latin language was much upon the decline, but the Christians preserved it from sinking into absolute barbarism. Monkery, in- deed, produced many sad efl'ects ; but Providence here also brought good out of evil ; for the monks were employed in the transcribing of books, and many valuable authors would have perished if it had not been for the monasteries. In the ninth century, the Saracens were very studious, and contributed much to the restoration of letters. But, whatever was good in the Mahometan re- ligion, it is in no small measure indebted to Chris- tianity for it, since Mahometanism is made up for the most part of Judaism and Christianity. If Christianity had been suppressed at its first appearance, it is extremely probable that the Latin and Greek tongues would have been lost in the revolutions of empires, and the irruptions of barbarians in the east and in the west ; for the old inhabitants would have had no conscientious and religious motives to keep up their language ; and then, together with the Latin and Greek tongues, the knowledge of aintiquities' and the ancient writers would nave been destroyed. To whom, then, are we indebted for the knowledge of antiquity, for every thing that is called philo- sophy, or the literce humaniores? — to Christians. To whom' for grammars and dictionaries of the learned languages? — to Christians. To whom for chronology, and the contihuation of history through many centuries'? — ^to Christians. To whom for rational systems of morality, aiid im- provements in natural philosophy, and for the applications of these discoveries to religious pur- poses 1 — to Christians. To whom for metaphy- sical researches, carried as far as the subject will permit 7 — to Christiaris. To whom for the moral rules to be observed by nations in war and peace 1 — to Christians To whom for jurisprudence, and for political knowledge, and for settling the rights of subjects, both civil and religious, upon a proper foundation? — to Christians; To whom for the Reformation 7 — to Christians. "As Veligion hath been the chief preserver of erudition, so erudition hath not been ungrateful to her patroness, but hath contributed largely to the support of religion. The useful exposition of the Scriptures, the sober and sensible defences of revelation, the faithful representations of pure and undefiled Christianity ; these have been the, works of learned, judicious, and industrious men." Nothing, however, is more common than to hear the ignorant decry all human learning as entirely useless in religion ; .and what is still more re- markable, even some, who call themselves preach- ers, entertain the same sentiments. Eut to such we can only say what a judicious preacher db- -231 LECTURE served upon a public occasion, that if all men had been as unlearned as themselves they never would have had a text on which to have displayed their ignorance. Dr. Jorlin's Sermons, vol. vii. charge • 1 J Mrs. H. Morels Hints to a Young Princess, vol. i. p. 64 ; Cook's Mis. Ser. on Maft. vi. 3 ; Dr. SlentietPs Ser. on Acts xxvi. 24, 25. " ^ LECTURES, RELIG;IOUS, are discourses- or sermons deUvered by ministers on any subject in theolofiy. Beside lectures on the Sabbath-clay, many think proper to preach on week days; sometimes at Bve o'clock in the moaning, before people go to work, and at seven in the' rveijing, afier tlrey have done. In Lbndon there is preacG- ing almost every forenoon and evening in the week, at some place or other. It may be bbjectexl, ho/7vever, against weelt-day preaching, that it has a tendency to take people from their business, and that the number of places open on a Sabbath- day supersedes ^he necessity of it. But in answer to this, may it not be observed, I. That people stand in need at all times of religions, instruction, exhortation, and comfort? — 3i' That there is a probabilitj of converting sinners then as well as at other times 1 — 3. That ministers are command- ed to be instant, in season and out of season ? — And, 4. It gives ministers an opportunity of heal- ing one another, which is of great utility. After allj itmust bj^remarkcd, that he who can hear the truth on a Sabbath-day does not act consistently to neglect his family or business to be always present at week-day lectures ; nor is he altogether wise who has an opportunity of receiving in- struction, yet altogether neglects it. _ LECTURES, BAMPTON, a course of eight sermons preached annually at the university of Oxford, set on foot by the Reverend John Bampton, canon of Salisbury. — According to the directions in his will, they are to bepreached upon either of the following subjects: — To confirm and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics and schismatics; upon the diving au- thority of the holy Scriptures; upon the authority of the writings of the primitive fathers, as to the faith and practice of the primitive chvirch ; upon the divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ ; upon the divinity of the Holy Ghost ; upon the articles of the Christian faith, as' com- prehended in the ApJstles' and Nicene creeds. For the support of this lecture, he bequeathed his lands and estates to the chancellor, masterfe; and scholars of the university of Oxford for ever, upon trust that the vice-chancellor for the time being take and receive all the rents and profits thereof and, after all taxes, reparations, and necessary deductions made, to pay all the remainder to the endowment of these divinity lecture sermons. He also directs in iis will, that no pesson shall be qualified to preach these lectures unless he have taken the degree of master of arts, at least, in one of the two universities of Oxfonl or Cam- bridge, and that the same person shall never preach the same sermon twice. A number of ex- cellent sermons preached at this lecture are noW bejSwe the public. A more enlarged account of this lecture may be seen in the Christian Ob- server for May, 1809. LECTURES, BOYLE'S. See Boyle's Lec TDRE.S. LECTURE, MPRCHANTS', a lecture set oap in the year 1672 by the Presbyterians and In- dependents, to show tnei; agreement among them- LECTURERS selves, as well as to suppon the doctrines of the Refcrhiation against the prevailing errors of popery, Socimanism, and infidelity. The principal mi- nisters for learniiig and popularity were chosen as lecturers; such as Dr. Bates, Br. Manton, Dr. Owen, Mr. Baxter, Mr. Collins, Jenkins, Mead, and afterwards Mr. Alsop, Howe, Cole, and others. It was encouraged and supported by Bijme of the principal merchants and tradesmen of the city. /Some misunderstanding taking place, the Presbyterians removed to Salter's-hall, and the Independents remained at Pinner's-hall, and each party filled up their numbers out of their respective denominations. This lecture is, kept up to the p resent day, and is, we believe, now held at Broad-street Meeting every Tuesday morning. LECTURES, MORNING, certain casuisti- cal lectures, which were preached by some of the most able divines in London. The occasion of (hese lectures seems to be this :-^DuTing the troublesome times of Charles I, most, of the citi- zens having some near relation or friend in the army of the epirl of Essex, so many bills were sent up to the pulpit every Lord's Day for their preservation, that the minister had neither time to read them, nor to recommend tiiea cases to God in prayer ; it was, therefore, agfeeil by some London divines to separate an hour for tWs pur- pose every morning, one-half to be spent in prayefj and the other in a suitable exhortation to the people. .When the heat of the war was over, it became a casuistical lecture, and was carried on till the restoration of Charles 'II. These sermons were afterwards published in . several volumes quarto, under the title of the Morning Exercises. The authors were the most eminent preachers of the day : Mr. (afterwards archbishop) Tillotson was one of them. It appears that these lectures were held every morning for one month only ; and from the preface to the volume, dated 1689, the lime was afterwards contracted to a fortnight. Most of these were delivered at Cripplegate church, some at St. Giles's, and a volume against popery in South wark. Mr. Neale observes, that, this lecture was afterwards revived in a diflerent form, and continued in -his day. It was kept up lopg afterwards at several places in the summer, ' a week at each place ; but latterly the time was exchanged for the evening. LECTURES, MOVER'S. See Mover's Lfctures LECTURE, WARBURTONIAN, a lec- ture founded by bishop Warburton to prove the truth of revealed religion in general, and the Christian in particular, from the completion of the prophecies in the Old and New Testament which relate to the Christian church, especially to the apostaoy of papal Rome. To this foutijla- don we owe the admirable discourses of Hiird, Halifax, fiagot, Apthorpe, and many others. LECTUP-ERS, in the church of England, are an order of preachers distinct from the rector, vicar, and curate. They are chosen by the ves- try, or chief inhabitants of tha parish, supported by voluntary, subscriptions and legacies, and are usually the afternoon preachers, and sometimes officiate on some stated day in the week. Where there are lectures founded by the donations of pious persons, t;he lecturers are appointed by the rounders, vrithout any interposition or consent of rectors of churahes &c. though with the leave 232 LEGION and approbation of the bishop ; such as that of Lady Meyer's at St. Paul's. But the lecturer is not entitled to the pulpit without the consent of the rector or vicar, who is^ppssessed of the free hold of the church. LEGAL or MOSAIC DISPENSATION. See Dispensation, LEGALIST, strictly speaking, is one who acts according to or consistent with the law j but in general the term is made use of to denote one who expects salvation by his own works. We may furtheir consider a legalist as one who has no proper conviction of the evil of sin ; who, although he pretends to abide by the law, yet has not a just idea of its spirituality and demands. He is igno- rant of the grand scheme of salvation by ftee frace : proud of his own fancied righteousness, e submits not to the righteousness of God > he derogates from the honour of Christ, by mixing his own works with bis ; and in fact, denies the necessity of the work of the Spirit, by supposing that he has ability in himself to perform all those duties whiqh God had required. Such is the cha- ' racter of the legalist; a character diametrically opposite to that of the true Christian, whose sen- timent corresponds with that of the apostle, who justly observes, " By grace are ye saved, through faith, and that not of yourselves : it is the gift of ■ God. Not of works lest any man should boast." Eph. ii. 8, 9. LEGA-TE, a cardinal or bishop whom the pope sends as his ambassador to sovereign princes. LEGEND, originally a book, in the Romish church, containing the lessons that were to be read in divine service ; from hence the word was applied to the histories of the lives of the saints, because chapters were read out of them at matins but as the golden legend, compiled by James de Varase, about the y^ar • 1290, contained in it se- veral ridicultiuS'^nd romantic spories, the word is now used by Protestants to signify any incredible or inauthentic narrative. Hence, as Dr. Jortin ob- serves, we have fsdse legends concerning the mi- racles of Christ, of his apostles, and of lancient Christians ; and the writers of these fables had, in, all probability, as good natural abilities as the disciples of Christ, and |ome of them wanted neither learning nor craft ; and yet they betray thelnselves by mults against chronology, against history, against manners and customs, against morality, and against probalrility. A liar of this kind "can never pass undiscovered ; but an honest relater of truth And matter of fact is safe ; he wants no artifice, and fears no examination. LEGION', THEBE AN, a name given, in the tune of Dioclesian, to a Whole legion of Christians, consisting of more than six thou^knd men, who were said te liave suffered martyrdom by the order of Maximian. Though this story hath nevqr wanted patrons, yet it, is disbelieved by many. Dr. Jortin, in his usual facetious way, says, that it starids upon the authority of one Eucherius,. bishopof Lyons, and a writer of the fifth century,'who had it from Theodorus, an- other bishop, who had the honour and felidty to find the rehcs of these martyrs by revelation, and perhaps by the smell of the bones '. LEGIOiST, THUNDERING;, a name given to those Christians who served in the Roman army of Marcus Antoninus in the second cen- tury. The occasion of it was this :— When that rar»jeror was at war vrith the Marcomanni, Iiis LESSONS army was inclosed by^he enemy, and reduced to tlie most, deplorabloi condition by the thirst under *hich they languished in a parched desert. Just at this time they were remarkably relieved by a sudden, and unexpected rain. This event was attributed to the Christians,' who were supposed to have eifected this by their prayers ; and the name of the thundering legion was givep to them, oil account of the thunder and lightning that destroyed the enelny, while the shower re- vived the fainting Romans. Whether this was really miraculous or not, has been disputed among learned men. They who wish to see what has been said on both sides, may consult "Witsius Dissertat. de Legione Fulminatrice, which is subjoined to his ^gypticuia, in defence of this miracle ; as also, what 'is alleged against it by Dan. Lauroijue, in a discourse upon that subject, subjoined to the Adversaria Sa- ticular chapters in other booKs, either because theiy contain the names of persons( places, or other matters less profitable to ordinary readers. The, course of the first lessons 'for Sundays ;s regulated after a different manner : from Advent ' to Septua^esima, Sunday, some particular chap- ters oflsaiah are appointed to be read, b^ause that book contains the clearest prophecies con- '- ceming Christ. Upon Septuagesima Sunday, Genesis is begun; because that book; which treats of the fall of man, and the severe judgment of God inflicted on the world for an, best suits with a time of repentance and mortification. Aftsr Genesis follow (Chapters out of the books.of the Old Testament, as they lie in order ; only on fes- tival Sundays, s.uch as Easter, Whitsunday, &&, the paii-licular history relating to that day is ap- pointed to hi read ; aud oil the saints' days thn church appoints lessons out of the moral books, such as Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, &c. as containing excellent instructions for the conduct of life. As to the second lessons, the chutch observes the same course both on Sundays and week-days reading the Gk)spel and Acts of the Apostles in the moiming, and the Epistles in the evening, in the order' they stand in the New Testament ; e»- cepting on s.iints' days and holy days; when siich lessons are appointed as either explain the mys- tery, relate the history, or apply the .example to us. LEUCOPETRIANS, the name of a fanati- cal, sect vfhich sprung up in the Greek and east- em churches towards the close of the twelfth century; they professed to believe in a double trinity, rejected wedlock, abstained frpm flesh, treated with the utmost contempt the sacraments of baptism and' the Lord's Supper, and all the various branches of external worship : placed the" essence of religion in internal prayer atone : and maintained, as it is' said, that an evil being or genius dwelt in the breast of every mortal, and could -be expelled from thence by no other me- thod than' by perpetual supplication to the Su- preme Being. The founcfer of this sect is said to have been a. .person called Leucopetrus, and his chief disciple Tychicus, who corrupted by fanatical interpretations several books of Scrip- tsre, and particularly St. Matthew's Gospel. ■LEVI'TY, lightness of spirit, in opposition to gravity. Nothing can be more proper than for a Christian to wear an air of cheerfulness, and to watch' against a morose and gloomy disposition. But though it be his privilege to rqoice, yet he must be cautious of that volatility of'^spirit which characterises the unthinking, and marks die vain professor. To be cheerful' without levity, and grave, without austerity, form both a happy and djanified character. XIBATION, the act of pouring wine on thfe t round in divine worship. Sometimes other quids have "been used, as oil, milk, water, honey, but mostly wine. — Among the Greeks and Ro- mans it was an essential part of solemn sacri- fices. Libations were also in use among the Hebrews, who potired a hin of wine on the vio- u 2 LIBERALITY tim after it was killed, and the several pieces of the sacrifice were laid on the altar ready to be ounsumed in the flames. LIBERALITY, bounty; a generous disposi- tion of mind, exerting itself in giving largely. It ^ 13 thus distinguished from generosity and boun- ty : — lAberality. implies acts of mere giving or spending ; generosity, acts of greatness ; bounty, acts of Kindness. lAberality \s a natural dispo- ^tion ; generosity proceeds from elevation Of sen- timent ; bounty, from religious motives. Uberalily denotes freedom of symi; generosity, greatness LIBERTINES, a religious sect which arose in the year 1535, whose principal tenets were, that the Deity was the sole operating cause in the mind of man, and the immediate author of ail human actions; that, consequently, the distinct tipns of good and evil, which had been establish- ed with regard to those actions, were false and groundless, and that men could not, properly speaking, commit sin ; that" religion consisted in the union of the spirit, or ratioiM soul; with Ihe Supreme Being ; that att those who had attained this happy union, by sublime contemplation and elevation of mind, were then allbwed to indulge, without exception or restraint,, their appetites or passions ; that all their actions anjl pursuits were then perfectly innocent ; and that, Mter the death of the body, they were to be united to the Deity. They likewise said th^t Jesas Christ was nothing but a mere je ne scat qvm, composed of the spirit of God and the opinion of men. These max- ims occasioned their being called Libertines, and the- word has been used in an ill sense ever since. This sect spread' pnncipally in Holland and Bra- bant. Their leaders were one Q,uintin, a Pi- oard) Pockeaus, Ruifus, and another, called Cho^ pin, who joihed-with Cluintin^ and became his disciple. They obtained footiaig in France through the favour and protection of Margaret, queen of Navarre, and sister to Francis- 1., and found patirons in severalof the reforraed'chiirches. Laberlines of Geneva were a cabal of rakes rather than fanatics ; for they made no pretence to any religious system, but pleaded only for the liberty of teadimg voluptuous and immoral lives. This cabal was composed of a certain number «f licentious citizens, who could not bear the severe discipline of Calvin. There were also ainong them several who were not only notoiious for their dissolute and scandalous manner of living, but also for their atheistical impiety and contempt 235 LITANY of afl religion. To this odious class bcIoHBal onn Gruet, who denied the divinity of the Christian religion, the immortality of the sbulj the diffe*- enoe between moral good and eVii, and rejcotad with disdain the doctrines that are held most sacred among Christians fer which impieties he was at last brought before the civil tribunal in the yea)- 1550, and condemned to death. LIBERtY denotes a state of freedom, in con- tradistinction to slavery or restraint. — 1. Natntrai liberty, or liberty of clioice, is that in which our volitions are not determined by any foreign cause or consideration whatever offered to it; but by its own pleasiire. — i. External liberty, or liberty of action, is opposed to a constraint laid on the exr- ecutive powers ; and consists in a power of rere- dering our volitions effectual. — 3. PhUosophieal Uberty consists in a prevailing disposition to act according to the dictates of reason, i. e. in such a manner as shiill, all things conridered, most effec- tually promote ohr happmess. — 4. Moral liberty is said to be that in which there isnointer^ss- tion pf the will of a superior being to prohibit (Mr detennine our actions in any particular under consideration; See Necessity, Will. — 5. Li- ber^ of consdenre is freedom from restraint) in our'cHoice of; and judgment about matters of re- ligion. — 6i SptHtlKd liberty consists in freedom from the curse of the morsil law ; from the servi tude of the ritual ; from the love, power, and guilt of sin; from the dominion of Satan; from the corruptions of the world; froni the fear of death, and the wrath to come, Rom. vi. 14; viii..l ; Gral iiil 13 ; John viii. 36 ; Rpin. viii. 21 ; Gal. v. 1 j Thess. i. 10. See articles Materialists, Pre- destination ; and Doddridg^s Lect. p. 50, voL i. Oct,; Watts's Phil. sect, v; p. 3fi8; Jon. Ed- •wwrds on the Will; Locke on Und.; Grove's Mar. Phil. sect. 18,i 19 ; J. Palmer on Liberty of Man; Martin's- QueiHes and' Remnrks on Human Liberty; CharmcUs Woffo, p. 175,- & hary pretences to religion, and spent the greatest part of their time in meditation, prayer, and such acts of piety, there were many abominable hypo- crites, who entertained the most ridiculous opi- nionsj and concealed the most enormous vices under the specious mask of this extraordinary LORD profession. Many injurious aspersions were therefore propagated against those who assumed (his name bjr the priests and monljs ; so that, by degrees, any person who covered heresies or cinmes under the appearance of piety was called a Lollard. Thus the name was not used to de- note any one particular sect, but was formerly common to all persons or sects who wore sup- posed to be guilty of impiety towards Gwl or the church, under an external profession of great jriety. However, manysocieties, consistingboth of men and women, under th« name of Loilarda, were formed in most parts of Germany and Flan- ders, and were supported partly by their manual labours, and partly by the charitable donations of jrious persons. The magistrates and inhabitants of the towns where these brethren and sisters resided, gave them particular marks of favour and protection, on account.of their great usefulness to the sick and needy. They were thus supported against their malignant rivals, and obtained many papal constitutions, by which their institute was confirmed, their persons exempted from the coe- nizalice of the inquisitor, and subjected entirefy to the jurisdiction of the bishops ; but as these measures were insufficient to secure them from molestation, Charles duke of Burgundy, in the year J473, obtained a solenm biul from pope Sextus ly. ordering that the Cellites, or Lollards, should be ranked amon^ the religious orders, and delivered from the Jurisdiction of the bishops. And pope Julius II. granted them still greater privileges, in the year 1506. Mosheim mforms us, that many societies of this kind are still sub- sisting at Cologne, and in the cities, of Flanders, though they have evidently departed from their smcient rules. Lollard and his followers rejected the sacrifice of the mass, extreme unction, and penances for an; arguing that Chrfst's sufferings were suf- ficient. H^ is likewise said to h^ive set aside baptism, as a thing of no efiect ; and repentance as not absolutely necessary^ &c. In England, the followers of Wickliffe were called, by way of reproach, Lollards, from the supposition that there was some affinity between some of their tenets; though others are of opinion that the English Lollstrds came from Germany. See' WlCKLIFPITES. LONG SUFFERING OF GOD. See Pa- tience OF Gop. LORD, a term properly denoting one who has dominion; Applied to God, the supreme governor and disposer of all things. See God. LORD'S DAY. See Sabbath. LORD'S NAME TAKEN IN VAIN, con- sists, first, in using it Jightly or raahly,, in excla- mations, adjurations, and appeals in ' common conversation. — 2. Hypocritically in our prayers, thanksgivings, &c. — ^3. Saperstitiously, as when the Israelites carried the ark tothe field of battle, to render them successful, against the Philistines, 1 Sam. iv. 3, 4. — i. Wantonly, in swearing by him, or creatures in his stead. Matt, v, 34, 37. — 5. Angrily, or sportfully cursing, and devoting ourselves or others to mischief and damnation.—^ 6, Perjuring ourselves, attesting that which is false, Mai. iii. 5. — 7. Blasphernously reviling God, or causing others to do so, Rom. ii. 24. Per- haps there is no sin more common, as to the prac- tice, and less thought of as to the guilt of it^ than i!his. Nor is it thus common with the vtilgra: 237 LORD only, but with those who call themselves wise, humftne, and moral. They tremble at the id«a of murder, theft, adultery, &c., while they forget thai the same law which prohibits' the commission of these crimes, does, with equal force, forbid that of profening his name. No man, therefore, what- ever his sense, abilities, or profession may be, can be held giultjess, or be exonerated from the charge of being a nicked man, while he lives in tlie habitual violation of this part of God's sacred law. A very celebrated female wiiter justly olv serves, that "It is utterly inexcosable; it has none of the palliatives of temptation which other vices plead, and in that respect stands distinguish- ed from all others both in its nature and decree of guilt. Like many other sins, however, it is al once cause and eneet ; it proceeds from want of love and reverence to the best of Beings, and causes the want of that love both in themselves and others. This species of profaneness is not only swearing, but, perhaps, in somo'respect^ swearing of the worst sort ; as it is a direct breach of an express command, and offends against the very letter of that law which says, in so many words : ' Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.' It offends against polite- ness and good breeding, for those wno commit it httle think of the pain they are inflicting on the sober mind, which is deeply wounded wlien it hears the holy name it loves dishonoured ; and it is as contrary to goqd Ueeding to give pain, as it is to true piety to be profane. It is astonishing that the rennea and elegant should not reprobate this practice for its coarseness and vulgarity, as much as the pious abhor it for its sinfulness. " I would endeavour to give some faint idea of the grossiiess of] this offence by an analogy, (oh, how inadequate !) with which the feeling hear(^ even though not seasoned with religion, may yet be touchel- To such' I would earnestly sa^— Suppose you had some beloved friend — to put the case still more strongly, a departed frien(f-^a le- verend parent, perhaps — whose image never oc- curs without awalcening in your bosom ^enlV pents of tender love and lively gratitude ; how would you feel if you heard this honoured name bandied about with unfeeling familiarity and in decent levity ; or, at best, thrust into every pause of speech as a vulgar expletive 1 — Does not youi affectionate heart recoil at the thought? And yet the hallowed name of your truest Benefactor your heavenly Father, your best Friend, to whom you are indebted for all yon enjoy; who gives yOn those very friends in whom you so much deligh^ those very talents with which you dishonour mn^ those very organs of speech with which you blas- pheme him, is treated vvith an irrevereiice, axxa> tempt, a wantonness, with which you caniiot beat the very thought or mention of treating a human friend. His name is impiously, is unfeeUngly, is ungratefiilly singled out as the object of decided irreverence, of systematic contempt, of thoughtless levity. His Sacred name is used indiscriminately to express anger, joy, grief, surprise, impatience j and, what is almost stul more unpardonaDle than all, it is wantonly used as a mere unmeaning e* pletive, which tieing excited by no temptation, can have nothing to extenuate it ; which^ causing no emotion, can have nothing to Tccommend i^ unless it be the pleasure of the sin." Mrs. Mort on Mducation, vol. ii. p. 87; Gill's Body of Dii> vol. iii. p. 437; Brovm's System of Bel. p. 526. LORD liORD>S PRAYER is that which our Lord gave to his disciples on the Mount. According' to what is said in the sixth chapter of Matthew, it was given as a directory ; but from Luke xi. 1, some argue that it was given as a. form. Somei have urged that the second and fourth petition of that prayer could be intended only for temporary! use: but it is answered, that such.a sense maybe j^ut upon those petitions as shall suit all Chris- tians in all ages ; for it is always our duty to pray that Christ's kingdom may be advanced in the world, and to profess our daily dependence on God's providential care. Nevertheless, there is no reason to believe that Christ meant that his people should always use this as a set form : for, if that had been the case, it would riot have been veuried as it is by the two evangelists, Matt, vi, Luke xi. It is true, indeed, that they haUi:,agree in the main, as to the sense, yet not intbe ex- press words; and the dosology which Matthew gives, at .large is wholly left out in Liik4 And, besides, we^o not find that the disciples ever used it as a form. It is, however, a most excellent summary of prayer, for its brevity, order, and matter ; and it is very lawful and laudable to make use of any single petition, or the: whole of it, pro- vided a formal and supersj^itious use of it ]m avoid^ «d. That great zeal, as one observes, vt^hich is to be found in some Christians either forjor against it, is to he lamented as a weakness; audit will beeome us to do all that we can toipromote on each side more moderate sentiments concerning the use of it. See Doddridge's ' Lectures, lee. 194 ; Barrow's Works, vol. i. p. 48 ; Archbishop Leighton't Explanation of it; West on the Lord's Prayer ; Gill's Body of Div. vol, iii. p. 363, 8vO. ; Pordyce on Edification by Pvilic In^ strucHon, p. 11, 12; Mendara's Mxpositionof the Lord's Prayer, ■ LORD'S SUPPER is an ordinance which our Saviour instituted as a commemoration of his death and suiferings. 1. It is called a. sacrament, that is, a sign and an oath. An outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace ; an oath, by which we bind our souls with a bond unto the Lord. Some, hoWever, reject this term as not being scriptural ; as likewise the idea of swearing or vowing to the Lord. See Vow. — 8. It is called the LartPs Supper, because it was first instituted in the evening, and at the close of the Passover supper ;, and because we therein feed gmn Christ, the bread of life, Rom. iii. 30; 1 or. xi. — 3. It is ealled the coimmunion with Christ, and vrith his jpeople, as herein we luive pommunion, 1 Cor. xu. 13. x. 17.^—4. It is "" tjie eveharist, a thanksgiving, because Christ, in the instituting of it, gave~ thanks, 1 Cor. xi. 34, and because we, in the participation of it, must give thanks likevrise— 6. It is called afeast, and by some a fp^st upon a sacrifice, (though not a sacrifice itself,) in allusion to the custom of the Jews feasting upon their sacrifices, 1 Cor. x. 18. As to the nature of this ordinance, we may observe, .that, in participating of the bread and win^, we do not consider it as ^xpiatoi|y,'but, 1. As a.' commemorating tkdinawie, "We are here to remember the person, love,,fend death of Christ, 1 Cor. xi. 24. — % A confessing ordirumce. , We hereby profess our esteem for Christ, and depen- dance upon him. — 3. A communicating Mjrdi- nance : blessings of grace are here communicated to us. — 4. A covenanting ordinance. God, in 238 LORD and oytlMS onfinance, as it were, declares ths< he is ours, and we by it declare to be his.— 6. A standing ordinamce, for it is to be observed :to the end of time, 1 Cpr. xi. 26. It seems to be quite an indifferent thing, what bread is used in this ordinance, or what coloured wine, for Christ took that which; was readiest. The eating of the bread and drinking of the wine being always con- nected in Christ's example, they ought never;*) be iseparated ; wherever one is given the other should .not be Withheld. This bread and wine are not changed into the real body and blood of Christ, but ateonly emblems thereof. See Tran- SUBSTANTIATION. iTAe subjects of this ordinance should be auoh asmake.a credible profession of the Gospel; ^ae ignorant, and those whose Uves arc immoral, have no right to it ; nor should it ever be admin- istered as a test of civil obedience, for this is per- verting the design of it Nonft but true believeig can approach it with profit; yet we cannot exr elude any who make a credible profession, for God only is the judge of the heart, while we can only act according to outward appearances. Much has beensaid respecting the time ofaA- ministering it. Some plead for the morning^ othersithe laftemoon, and some for the evening..; whiqh latter, indeed, was the time of the first celebration of it,.and ismost suitable to a supper. How often it is :to be observed, cannot be pre- cisely ascertained -from Scripture. Somejhave been for keeping it every day in the week ; lotheas, four itimes a week; some every Lord's 'Day, which many think is nearest the apostolic prac- tice. Acts XX. 7.^— Others have kept it three times a year, and some once a year: but the most common fe once a month. It evidently appeared however, both from Scripture, 1 por. xi.,26, and from the nature of the ordinance, that it ought to be frequent. lis to the posture. Dr. Doddridge justly ob- serves, that it is greatly to be lamented that Christians have, perverted an ordinance, intended as a pledge and means of their mutual union, into an occasion for discord and Contention, by laying such a disproportionate stress on the marir ner in which it is to be administered, and the posture in which it is to be received. As to the latter, a table posture seems most eligible, as having beemused bj, Christ and his apostles, and being peculiarly smtaHe to the notion of a sacred feast ; and;kneeling, which wi^s never introduced into the church 'tul transuhstantiation was re- ceived, may prove an occasion of superstitioik Nevertheless, provided it be not absolutely im» posed as a term of comnnmion, it will be the part of Christian ^candour to acquiesce in the use of it in others by whom it is preferred. It appears that standing was at least frequently used in the Christian church, viz. always on the Lord's Day, and between Easter and Whitsuntide. The manner in which, this, ordinance is administered, both in the church of England, and among Pro- testant Dissenters, is so well known, that we need say riothigg; of it here. ' We will only^subjoina few directions in what ftrame of mind we should attend upon this ordi- nance. It gliould Jje vrith sorrow for our past sins, and easiness and calmness of affection, &ee from the disorders and ruffles ot'passion ; with a holy awe and reverence of the Divine Majesty, yeti with a gracious confidence and earnest deniea LOTS lowiitdsGodi ^I'h raised expeditions ; prayer, joy, and thanksgiving, and love to all men. When coming from it, we should admire the condescensions of divine grace; watch against the snares of Satan, and the allurements of the world; rejoice in the finished -work of Christ, depend upon the gracious influence of the Spirit, that we may keep up a sense of the divine favour, ■fmd be longing for heaven^ where we hope at last to join the general assembly of the first-born. The advantages arising from the participa- Seon ofthe-Lbrd^s l^pper arc numerous, — 1. lit 18 « mean of strengthening our faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. — ^2. It jiffords great consolation and joy. — 3. It increases love.— 4. Ithasateftdency to enlighten our minds in the mystery of godli- ness.— '5. Jt gives us an utter aversion to all kinds of Bin,'aiid occasions a hearty grief for it. — 6. It has a tendency to excite and strengthen all holy desires in us. — ^7. It renews our obligations to our Lord and Master.-t^. It binds the souls of Christians one to another. See Case's Ser- mons, ser. 7 ; and Henry Earle, 'DoolittW, Grove, and Rober'tfon, on the Lord'v Supper; Dn Owen's, ChamocH^s^ Dr. Cvdnmrth's, Mr. Wil- let's. Dr. Worthington's, Dr. Wattifs, Bishop Warburton's, Siskop Cleaver's, and T)r. -Belt's Pieces on the Subject. A variety of other trea- tises, explanatory of the nature «nd design of the Lord's Supper, may be seen in almost any cata- lomie. XiOT is a mutu^agreement to determine an uncertain event, no other ways determinable, by an appeal to'the j)rovidence oif God, «n casting or throwring something. This is a decisory lot, Prov.xvi. 33; xviii. 18. The matter, -therefere,, to be detei;mined, in-order to avoid gililt, should be important, and no other possible way left to determine it ; and the-manner of maldng the ap- peal solemn and grave, if we would escape the guilt of taking the name of God in vain. Wan- tonly, without necessity, and in a ludicrous man- ner, to make this appeal, must be therefore highly blameable. And if thus the decisory lot, when wantohly and unnecessaiily employed, be crimi- nal, equally, if not more so, must the divinatory lot be, which is efliployed for discovering the Vfill of God ; this, being no Mean of iGod's appoint^ ment, must be superstitious, and the height of presumption. LOTS, SACRED, or Sortes Sanctorum, Lots of the Saints, a species 'df divination prac- tised in the earlier ages of Christianity, and which cbnsisted in casually opening th^ sacred Scrip- tures, and from the words wnich first presented themselves, deducing the future lot of the inquirer. They were evidently derived from the Sortes Vir- gUianae, or Sortes Homerie(e, of the Pireans. These were so called' from the poems of Virgil or Homer being used as the means of divining the fate of the consulter; the first verse which struck the eye on opening the volume being eon- ladered as oracular. This abuse among Chris- tians arose from the superstition of the people and the ignorance of the bishops, when the church had liegenerated from its pnmitive purity, and the people of God, by being " mingled among the heatlien," had learned their vrorEs. Some- times the-'persons who were desirous of pjying into futurity, or as-certaining- the will of God in particular circumstances, entered the churches, after solemn preparation, during the celebration 939 LOVE of divine service, and regarded the first sentence they heard as the decision of heaven. The foV lowing circumstance illustrative of the methods sometimes resorted to for obtaining an .oraculaj decision of a point of duty, is related by Grregory of Toura'of CONSOBTU, daughter of Eucherius, bishop of Ljons. She having chosen a religious life, determmed to take the veil ; but being ad- dressed by a young man of rank and infliience, who was desirous of manying her, found herself placed in a critical situation^ knowing that if she refused the offer of inarriage, she should incur the displcasur* of his friends, and create a violent opposition to herself and family. In thiis dilemma she requested to be allowed seven dajsto consider of the proposal. These she spent m fastijig and prayer. When the time had elapsed, the yo'^ng man,, accoinpanied by the most illustrious matrons of the country, came to receive her answer. " I cannot either accept or refuse ypu as my hus- band," said she to nipi, "all is iri the hands of God; but, if yon are willing, we will go to the church and have mass sai(^ and afterwards we will lay the Gospels on the altar, and after having offered a prayer together, we Ti?ill open the booS and learn the will of God from'the passage whipb first presents itself to jis." The proposition aj^ rpeanng reasonable was accepted, and the pier- liminiry ceremonies being performed, Consortia iopened the volume and read, "He that loveth Ifather or mother more than me, is not worthy of me," Matt. x. 37. . Penetrated vvith joy, she told the young niian ^he could not be his spouse, but must go and dedicate hgrself to God, according to her former resolution. See Bipliomancy. Townley's Essays on variom Subjects of Eccle- 'siastical History and Antiquity. — ^B. LOVE consists in approbation Of, and inclina tion towards an object that appears to us as good. It has been distinguished into, 1. Ztove of esteem, which arises from the mere consideration of some •excellency in an object, and belongs either to personsor things. — 2. Love of benevolence, whidi IS an inclination to seek the hippiijess or welfare df any thing. — 3. Love of complacence, which arises froin tne consideration of any qbjpft agree- able to us, and calculated to afford us jil^s^re. LOVE TO GOD is a divine principle im. planted in the mind by theHoIy Spiritj'whereby we reverence, esteem, desire, and delight in Him as the chief good. It includes a knowledge of his natural excellencies,. Psal. -viii. 1, and a con- sideration of his goodness to us, 1 John iv, 19. Nor can these two ideas, I think, be Well sepa> rated : for, However some may argue that genuine love to God should arise only from a sense of his amiableness, yet I think it will be difficult to con- ceive how it can exist, abstracted from the idea of his relative goodness. The passage last re- ferred to is to Mie point, and the representations given us of the praises of the saints in heaven accord with the same sentiment; ;"Thou art worthy, for thou hast redeemed us by thy'blood," Rev. V.9. See Self-Love. "Love to God is a subject,'! says bishop Porteu% " which it conr cems'us to inquire carefiilly into the true nature df. And it concerns us the more, because it has been unhappily brought into disrepute by the extravagant conceits ol a few devout enthusiasts concemmgit. Of these, some havetreated the love of God in sorefined a way, aiid carried it to such heights of seraphic ecstacy and rapture, that com- LOVE mon minds must for ever despair of dther foV lowing or ■ understanding them ; whilst others have described it in sucn warm and indelicate terms as are much better suited to the grossijess of earthly passion, than the purity of spiritual affection. " But the accidental excesses of this holy sen- timent can be no just argument against its gene- ral excellence and utility. ""We know that even friendship itself has sometimes been abused to the most unworthy purposes, and led men to the commission of the most atrocious crimes. Shall we, tWefore, utterly discard that generous passion, and consider it as nothing more than fhe unnatural fervour of a ro- mantic imagination 7 Every heart revolts against so wild a thought! And why, then, must we suffer the love of God to be banished out of the world, because it has been sometimes improperly represented or indiscreetly exercised 1 It' is not either from the visionary mystic, the sensual fanatic, or the frantic zealot, but from the plain word of God, that we are to take our ideas of this divine sentiment. There we find it described in sdl its native purity and simplicity. The marks by which it is there distinguished contain nothing enthusiastic or extravagant." It inay be con- sidered, 1. As sincere, Matt. xxii. 36, 38. — 2. Constant, Rom. viii. — 3.. Universsd of all his attributes, commandments, ordinances, &c.-^ 4. Progressive, 1 Thess. v. 12 j 2 Thess; i. 3 j Eph. ui. 19.— ^5. Superlative, Lam. iil 24. — 6. Eternal, Rom. viii. This.lbve manifests itself, 1. In a desbe to be like God.7— 2. In making his flory the supreme end of our actions, 1 Oor. xi. 1.-— 3. In delighting in communion with him, 1 John i. 3. — 4. In grief under the hidings of his face, Job xxiii. 2.^-S. In relinquishing all that Stands in opposition to his will, Phil. iii. 8. — 6. In r^ard to his house, worshif), and ordi- nances, Ps. Ixxxiv.— 7. In love for his trijth and people, Ps. cxix ; John xiii. 3b. — 8. By confi- dence in his promises, Ps. Ixxi. 1. — And, lastly, by obedience to his word, John xiv, 1 5 ; 1 John ii. 3. Gill's Sody of Div. p. 94, vol. iii. octavo; Watts' s Discourses on Lave to God;' Scott's Serm. ser. 14 ; Bellamy on Religion, p. % and Signs of Counterfeit Love, p. 82; Bishop Por- teus's Serm. vol. 1. se^. 1. LOVE, BROTHERLY, is affection to our neighbours, and especially to the saints, prompt- ing us to every act of kindness toward them. It does not, indeedf consist merely iu. pity to and re- lief of others, 1 Cor. xiii.; in love to owrienefac- tors only, and those who are related to us. Matt. V. ^6, 47. It must flow from love to God, and extend to all mankind ; yea, we are required by the highest authority to love even our enemies. Matt. 'v. 44, liot so as to countenance them in their evil actions, but to forgive the injuries they have done to us. Love to good men, also, must be particularly cultivated, for it is the command of Christ, John xiii. 34 ; they belong to the same Father and family, Gtai. vi. 10 ; we hereby give proof of our- discipleship, John jdii. 3^. The ex- ample of Christ snould allure us to it, 1 John iii. 16. It is creative of a variety of pleafsbig sensa- tiuns, and prevents a thousand evils : it is the greatest of all graces, 1 Cor. xiii. 13. — It answers the end of the law, 1 Tim. i. 5 ; resembles the inhabitants of a better world, and without it every other attainment is of no avail, 1 Cor. xiii. This 240 LtTGIANISTS k)ve should show itself by praying for our bre- thren, Eph. vi. ISphearmg one another's bur- dens, by assisting and relieving each other, Gal vi. 2. By forbearing with one another^Col. iii 13. By reproving and admonishing in the spirit of meekness, Prov. xxvii. 5, 6. By establishing each other in the truth ; by conversation, exhoF- tation, and stirring up one another to the several duties of religion, both public and private, Jude, 20, 21 ; Heb. x. 24, 25. See Charity. LOVE OF GOD, ia either his natural delight in that which is good, Isa. Ixi. 8, or that especial affection he bears to his people, 1 John iv. 19. Not that he possesses the passion of love as wb do ; but it implies his absolute purpose and will to deliver, bless, and save li^ people. The love of God to liis people appears in his all-wise designs and plans for their happiness, Eph, iii. 10. — Z. In the choice of them, and determination to sanctUV and glorify them, 2 Thess. ii. 13.— 3. In the gift of his Son to die for them, and redeem them from sin, death, and hell, Rom, v, 9 ; John iii. 16. — 4. In the revelation , of his will, and the declarar tion of his promises to them, 2 Peter i. 4. — 5. In ' the awful punishment of their enemies, Ex. xi^ 4. — 6. In his actual conduct towards them ; ih suppqrting them in life, blessing them in deatl^ and briiigmg them to glory, Rom. viii. 30, &c.; vi. 23. The properties of this love may be considered as, 1. Everlasting, Jer. xxxi. 3 ; Ephj i. 4. — % Immutable, Mai. in., 6; Zeph. iii. 17. — 3. Free ; neither the sufferings of Christ nor the merits of men are the cause, but his own good pleasure, John iii. 16. — i. Great and unspeakable, Eph. ii. ^ '6; iii. 19; Ps. xxxvi. 7. LOVE, FAMILY OF, A sect that arose in Holland, in: the sixteenth century, founded by Henry Nicholas, a Westphalian. He. main- tained that he had a commission from heaven to teach men that the essence of religion consisted in the feelings of divine lovej that all other theo- togical tenets, whether they related tp objects of faith or modes of worship, were of no sort of mo- ment ; and, consequently, that it was a matter of the most perfect indifference what opinions Chris- tians entertained concerning the divine nature, .provided their hearts burned with the pure and sacred flame bf piety and love. LOVE OF TIIE WORLD. See Worlix LOVE FEASTS. See AoAPiE. LOW CHURCHMAN, those who disap- proved of the schism made in the church by the Nonjurors, and who distinguished themselves by their moderation towards dissenters, and were less ardent in extending the limits of ecclesiastical authority. See High Churchmen. LUCIANISTS, or LnCANisTs, asectsocali- ed from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the second century, being a disciple of Marcion, whose errors he followed, adding some new ones to them. Epiphanius says he abandoned Mai^ cion, leashing that peC/ple ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the Creator ; and yet other authors mention, that he held this error in com- mon with Marcion and other Goipstics. He de- nied the immortality of the soul, asserting it to be material. ,. There was another s<>,ctof Lucianists, who api peared some time after the Arians. They taugh^ that the Father had been a Father always, and that he had the name even before he begot the Son, as having in him the power and faculty of tTJTHERANS Scpi^Tation; an4 in thig manner they accounted .for the eternity of the Son. LUCIFERIANS, a sect who wfhered 1» the schi?m of Lucifer, bishop of CasBari, in the fourth centujy, who was banished by the em- peror Constantius, for having defended the Ni- cene doctrine concerning the three persons in the Godhead. It is said, alsp, that they believed the soul to be cojporeijl, and to be, transmitted from the father to the children. The Luciferians were numerous in Gaul, Spain, Egypt, &c. The oc- casion of this schism was, that Lucifer would not jillowany acts he had done to be aboli^hedl There v\rere but two LUfiiferiaEi bishqps, but, a great number of priests an/i deacons. The t(^ci- fen^ns bore a great aversion to the Arians. _ LUKEWARMNESS, applied to the affec- tions^ inc(ifierence, or want of ardour. In respect to reljgjon, hardly any thing can be more culpable than this |Spirit.^f thereTre a God possessed of unspeakaljle rectitude in his own nature, and un? , bounded goodness towards his creature?, what caiji be more mconsistentiand unbecoming than to b^ , frigid and_ indifferent ih ojir devotions to him *? AtMism, in some respects, cannot be worse than lukclwarmness. The Atheist dkbelieves the exr fetence of a God, and therefore cannot worship hun at all; the lukewarm owns the existence, sovereignty, and goodness of the Supreme Beingj but denies him that fervour of affection, that d&- votedness of heart, and activity of service, whici the excellency of his nature demands, and tjie authority of his word requires. Such a charapter, therefore, is represented as absolutely loathsome to God, and obnoxious to his wrath, Rev. iii, 15,16. The general signs of a Weewarm spirit ar^ such as these : Neglect of private prayer ; a pre- ference of worldly to religious compamyj a laxj attendance on public ordinances; omisaon or careless perusal of God's word; a zeal for some appndages of reUgion, while languid about' re- Imon itself; a backwardness to promote the cause of G^d in the world, and a rashness of spirit in censuring those who are desirous to be useful. If we inquire the causes of sucK a spirit, we diall find them to be — worldly prosperity; the influence of carnal relatives and acquaihtances ; indulgence of secret sins ; the fear of man ; and sitting under an unfaithful ministry. T%e inconsistency of it appears if we consider^ that it is highly unreasonable; dishonourable to God; incompatible with the genius of the Gos- pel ; a barrier to improvement ; a death-blow to usefulness ; a direct opposition to the commands of Scripture ; and tendS to the greatest misery. "To overcome such a state of mind we should consider how offensive it is to God j how. incon- gruous with the very idea and nature of true re- Ugion; how injurious to peace and felicity of mind; how ungratefiil to Jesus Christ, whose whole life was labour for us and our salvation ; how grievous to the Holy Spirit ; how dreadful an example to those who have no religion ; how unlike the saints of old, and even to our enemies in the worst of causes; how dangerous to our immortal souls, since it is indicative of ouj: \^ant of love to God, and exposes us to just condemna- tion, Amos vi. 1. J LUTHERANS, those Christians who follow the opinions of Martin Luther, the cekbrated re- former of, the church, in the sixteenth centurj^. 241 2F LUTHERANS |h olfder that we may trace the ,rise and progress of Lutheranism, we must here r?fer to the.jife.pf Luther hjinself. Luther was a native of feislelon, in Saxony, and born in 1483. Though his parents were ptor,he received a learned education, during the progress of vyhich lie gave m^ny inthcations of uncommon vigpijr and acyiteness of geniiiB. As his niind was naturally susceptible of serjious impression^, and tinctured with somewhat of jthat religious meiaricholy which delights in tlie soli- tude and devotion of a imonqstic life, he retired into a convent of Augustinlan friars; where he acquired great reputa^pn not o;nI^ for piety, tut for love ofknowleage, and unwearied application J» study. The cause of this retirement is said to have been, that he jvas .once struck by lightning, and his cpnipanion killed by his side by the same flash. He had begii taUght the scholastic philo- sophy, which was in vogue in thpse days, and mad^ consider^ible progress in it: but happeniilg to find a copy of the Bible which lay neglecfjSdin the libreiry of his mona'jtery, he applied nimseff Jo .the study of it with such eagerness and assiduity, as quite astonished the monKS ; and increased his repulation for sanctity so much, that he was chosen professor, first of philosophy, .and after wards of theology, in Wittemburg, on th^' Elbe, where Frederic, elector of Saxony, had founded an university. While Luther continued to enjoy the h^hest publish indulge: cess with great concern : and having first jin- veighed agiunst indulgence^ from the pulpit, 'he afterwards published ninety-fite theses, contain- iiig his sentiments on "that subject. These he pro- posed not as points fully established, but as sub- jects of inquiry and disputation. He appointed a day on which the learned were invitetl to impugn them, either in person or by writing ; and to the whole he suhjoined solemn protestations of his high respect for the a:postolic see,,and of his iin- phcit submission to its authority. No opponent appeared at the time prefixed : the theses spreajd over Germany with astonishing rapidity, and were read with the greatest eagerness. Though Luther met with no opposition for some little time after, he began to pubhsh his new doctrines, it was not long before many zealous champions arose to defend those opinions with which the wealth and power of the clergy were so strictly connected. Their cause, however, was by no means promoted by these endeavours : the people began td call in question even the autho- rity of the canon law, and of the pope himself. The court of Rome at first despised these new doctrines and disputes; but at last Ule attention of the pope being raised by the great success of the reformer, and the pomplaints of his adverse lies, Luther was summoned, in the month of July, 1518, to apjiear at Rome, within sixty days, before the auditor of the chamber. One of Lu- ther's adversaries, named Prierios, who had wrii- ten against him/ was appointed to examine his doctrines, and to decide concerning them. The pope wrote at the same time to She elector of Saxony, beseeching him not to protect a man whose heretical and profane tenets were so shock- ing to pious cars ; and enjoined the provincial of the Augustinians tn check, by his authority, the rashness of an arrogant monk, which branght LUTHERANS disgrace upon their order, and ganre offence and distnrbance to the whole church. From these letters, and the appointment of his open enemy Prierius to be his judge, Luther easily saw what sentence he might expect at Rome J and therefore discoTered the utmost soli- citude to have his cause tried in Germany, and before a less suspected tribunal. He wrote a subnnaaive letter to the pope, in which he pro- mised an unreserved obedience to his will, for as yet he entertained no doubt of the divine original of the pope's authority; and, by the intercession of the other professors, Cajetan, the pope's legate in Germany, was appointed to hear and deter- mme the cause. Luther appeared before him without hesitation; but Cajetan thought it be- low his dignity to dispute the point with a person so much his mferior in rank ; and therefore re^ quired him, by virtue of the apostolic powers with which he was clothed, to retract the errors which he had uttered with regard to indulgences and ^le nature of faith, and to abstain for the future from the publication of new and dangerous opi- nions ; and, at the last, forbad him to appear in his presence, unless he promised to comply vrith what had been required of him. This haughty and violent manner of proceed- ing, together vrith some other circumstances, gave Luthjer's friends such strong reasons to sus- pect that even the iniperial sare-conduct would not be able to protect him from the legate's power and. resentment, that they prevailed on him se- cretly to withdraw from Augsburgh, where he had attended the legate, and to return to his own country. But before his departure, according to a form of which there had been some exahiples, he prepared a solemn appeal from the legate, ill- informed at that time concerning his cause, to the pope, when he should receive more full, intima- tion with respect to it. Cajetan, enraged at Lu- ther's abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal, wrote to the elector of Saxony, complain- ing of both ; and requiring him, as he regarded the peace of the church, or the authority of its head, either to send that seditious monk a pri- soner to Rome, or to banish him out of his terri- tories. Frederic had hitherto, from political mo- tives, protected Luther, as thinking he plight be of use in checking the enormous power of the see of Rome ; and though all Germany resounded with his fame, the elector had never yet admitted him into his presence. But upon this demand made by the cardinal, it became necessary to throw off somewhat of his former reserve. He had been at great expense, and bestowed much attention ou founding a new university, an object of considerable importance to every German •prince; and foreseemg how fatal a blow the re; moval of Luther Tfould be to his reputation, he not only declined complying with either p{ the pope's requests, but openly mscovered great con- oern for Luther's safety. .The situation of pur reformer, in the mean time, became daily more and more alarrAing. He knew very well what were the motives which in- duced the elector to afford him protectiop, and that he could by no means depend on a continu- ance of his Mendship. If he should be obliged •to quit Saxony, he had no other, asylum, and must stand exposed to whatever punishment the rage or bigotry of his enemies could inSict ; and so ready were his adversaries to condemn him, 242 LUTHERANS that he had been declared a heretic at Rome be. ibre the expiration of the sixt/days allowed him in the citation for making his appearance. Not- withstanding all this, however, he discovered no symptomsof timidity or remissness; but continu- ed to vindicate his own conduct and opinions, arid to inveigh against those of his adversaries vsith more vehemence than ever. Being convinced, therefore, that the pope would soon proceed to the most violent measures against him, he appealed to a general councU, which be affirmed to be the representative of the Catholic church, and supe- rior in power to the pope, who, b^iiig a fallible man, might err, as St. Peter, the most perfect of hispredecessors, had done. ' The Court of Rome was equally assiduous, iti the mean time, to crush the author of these new doctrines, Which gave them so much uneasiness. A bull was issued by the pope, of a date prior to Luther's appeal, in which he magnified the vir- tues of indulgences, and subjected to the heaviest ecclesiastical censures all who presumed to teach a contrary doctrine, Such a clear decision of the sovereign pontiff Eigainst him might have been very fatal to Luther's cause, had not the death of the emperor Maximilian, which happened on January 17, 1519, contributed to give matters a ' different turn. Both the principles 'and interest of Maximilian had prompted him to support the authority Of the see of Rome ; but, in consequence of his death, the vicariate of that part of Ger- many whfch is governed by the Saxon laws de- volved to the elector of Saxony ; and, under the shelter of his friendly administration, Luther himself enjoyed tranquillity; and his opinions took such root in different places, that they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the same time, as the election of an emperor was a point more interesting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theological controversy which he did not under- stand, and of which he could not foresee the con- sequences, he was so extremely solicitous not to irritate a prince of such considerable influence in the electoral college as Frederic, that he discovep- ed a great unwilhngness to pronounce the sei> tence of excommunication against Luther; which his adversaries continually demanded with the most clamorous importunity. From the reason just now given, and Leo's natural aversion to severe measures, a suspension of proceedings against.Luther took place for eigh- teen months, thqugh perpetual negociations were carried on during this interval, in order to bring the matter to an ' amicable issue. The manner in which these were conducted having given our reformer many opportunities of observing tlie corruption of the court of Rome, its obstinacy in adhering to established errors, and its indifference about truth, however clearly proposed or strongly proved, he began, in 1.520, to utter some doubts with regard to the divine original of the papal authority, which he publicly disputed with Eccius, one of his most learned and formidable antagon- ists. The dispute was indecisive, both parties claiming the victory ; but it must have been very mortifying to the partisans of the Romish church to hoar such an essential point of their doctrine publicly attacked. The papal authority being once suspected, Lu- ther proceeded to push on his inquiries and at- tacks from one doctrine to another, till at last he began to shake the firmest foundations on which LUTHERANS the wealth and power of the church were, esta- blished. Leo then began to perceive that there were no hopes of reclaiming such an incorrigible heretic, and therefore prepared to pronounce the sentence of excommunication against him. The college of cardinals was often assembled, in order to prepare the sentence With due deliberation; and the ablest canonists were consulted how it might be expressed with unexceptionable formal- ity. At last it was issued on the 15th of June, 1520. Forty-one! propositions, extracted out of Luther's works, were therein condemned as he- retical, scandalous, and offensive to pious ears j all persons were forbidden to f ead his writings, upon pain of excommunication ; such as had any of them in their custody were commanded to commit them to the flames ; he himself, if he d^d not, within dxty days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his booksj was pronounced an obstinate heretic, excommunicated, and delivered to Satan for the destruction of the flesh ; and all secular princes were required,, under pain of incurring the same censure, to seize bis person, that he might be punished as his crimes deserved., Luther was not in the least disconcerted by this sentence, which he had for some time expected. He renewed his appeal to this general council ; declared the pope to be that Antichrist or man of sin whose appearance is foretold in the New Tes- tament; declaimed against his tyranny with greater vehemence than ever ; and at last, by way of retaliation, having assembled all the professors and students in the university of Wittemberg, with great pomp, and in the presence of a vast multitude of spectators, he cast the volumes of the canon law, together with the bull of excom- munication, into the flames. The manner in which this action was justified, gave s^ill more offence, than the action itself. Klgiving collected ^■om the canon law some of the most extravagant propositions with regard to the plenitude and om- nipotence of the pope's power, as well as the, sub- ordination of all secular jurisdiction to his autho- rity, he published these with a commentary, pointing out the impiety of suoh tenets, and their evident tendency to subvert all civil government. On the accession of Charles V. to the eSnpire, Luther found himself in a very dangerous situa- ation. Charles, in order to spxure the pope's friendship, had determined to treat him with great severity. His eagerness to gain this'point rendered hirii i not averse to gratify the papal le- gates in Germany, who insisted, that, without any delay, or formal deliberations, the diet then sitting at Worms ought to condemn a man whom the pope had already excommunicated as an in- corrigible heretic. Such an abrupt manner of proceeding, however, being deemed unprecedent- ed and unjust by the members of the diet, they made a point oi Luther's appearing in person, and declaring whether he adhered or not to those opinions which had drawn upon him the cen- sures of the church. Not only the emperor, but all the princes through whose territories he had to pass, granted him a safe-conduct ; and Charles wrote to Mm at the same time, requiring his im- mediate attendance on the diet, and renewing his promises of protection from any injury or vio- lence. Luther did not hesitate one monient about yielding obedience ; and set out for Worms, at- tended by the herald who had brdught the empe- ror's letter and safe-conduct. Whife on his jour- •243 LUTHERANS ney, many of his friends, whom the fate of Huss under similar circumstances, and notwithstand- ing the same security of an imperial safe-conduct, filled with solicitude, advised and entreated him not to rush wantonly into the midst of danger. But Luther, superior to such terrors, silenced them with this reply : " J am lawfully called,!' said he, ''to appear in that city ; and thither I will go in the name of the Lord, though as many devils as there are tiles on the houses were there combined, against me." The reception which he met with at Worms, was such as might have been reckoned a full re- ward for all his labours, if vanity and the love of applause had been the principles by which he was influenced. Greater crowds assembled to behold him than had appeared at the emperor's public entry ; his apartments were daily filled with princes and personages of the highest rank ; and he was treated with a homage more sin- cere, as well as piore flattering, than any which pre-eminence in birth or condition can command. At hjs appearance before the diet he behaved With great decency and with equal firmness. He readily acknowledged an excess of acrimony and . vehemence in his controversial writings ; but re- fused to retract his opinions, unless he were con- vinced of their falsehood, or to consent to their being tried by any other rule than the word of God. When neither threats nor entreaties could pVevail on him to depart from this reso- lution, some of the ecclesiastics proposed to imi- tate the example of the council of Constance; and, by punishing the author of this pestilent heresy, who was now in their power, to deliver the church at once from such an evil. But the members of the diet refusing to expose the Ger- man integrity to fresh reproach by a second vio- lation of public feiith, and Charles being no less unwilling to bring a stain upon, the be^ning of his administration by such an ignbminious ac- tion, Lu' her was permitted to depart in safety. A few days after he had left the city, a severe edict was. published in the emperor's name, and by authority of the diet; depriving him, as an ob- stinate and excommunicated criminal, of all the privileges which he enjoyed ks a subject of the empire ; forbidding any prince to harbour or pro- tect him ; and requiring all to seize his person ax soon as the term specified in his protection should 'be eirpired. • But this rigorous decree had no considerable effect ; the execution of it being preventexi partly by the multiplicity of occupations which the com- motions in Spain, togetht'r with the wars in Italy and the Low Countries, created to the emperor; .and partly by a prudent precaution employed by the elector of Saxony, Luther's faithful patron. As Luther, on his return from Worms, was passing near Altenstrain, in Thuringia, a num- ber of horsemen, in masks, rushed suddenly oul of a wood, where the elector had appointed them to lie in wait for him, and, surrounding his com- pany, carried him, after dismissing all his attend- ants, to Wortburg, a stron^castle, not far distant. There the elector ordered him to be supplied with every thing necessary or agreeable; but the place of his retreat was carefully concealted, until the fury of the present storm against him l>egan to abate, upon a change in the political system of Europe. In this solitude wnere he remained nine months, and which he firequently called his LUTHERANS PalmOS, after the name of that island to which the apostle John wag banished, he exerted his usual vigour and industry in defence of his doc- trines, or in confutation of his adversaries ; pub- lishing several treatises, which revived the spirit of his followers, astonished to a great degree,, and disheartened at the sudden disappearance of their leader. Luther, weary at length of his rttirement, ap- peared publicly again at Wittemberg, iipon the 6th of March, IbW. He appeared, indeed, vrith- out the elector's leave; but immediately wrote him a letter to prevent him taking it ill. The edict of Charles V., severe as it was, had given little or no check to Luther's doctrine ; for the emperor was no sooner gone into Flanders, than his edict was neglected and despised, and the doc- trine seemed to spread even faster than before. Carolostadius, in Luther's absence, had pushed things on faster than his leader, and had attempt- ed lio abolish the use of mass, to remove images out of the churches, to set aside auricular confes- sion, invocation of saints, the abstaining from meats ; had allowed the monks to leave me mo- nasteries, to neglect their vows, and to marry ; in short, had quite changed the doctrine and disci- pline of the church at Wittemberg : all which, though not against Luther's ^ntiments, was yet blamed by him, as being rashly and un- seasonably done. Lutheranism was still con- fined to Germany ; it was not to go to France j and Henry VIII. of England made the most rigorous acts to hinder it from invading his realm. Nay, he did , something more : to show his zeal for religion and the holy see, and perhaps his skill in theological learning, he wrote a treatise Of the Seven Satramenls, against Luther's book Of the Captivity of Babylon, which he presents ed to Leo X. in October, 1521. The pope re- ceived it very favourably, and was so well pleased with the king of England, that he complimented him with the title of Defender of the Faith. Lu- ther, however, paid no regard to his kingship, but answered him with great sharpness, treating both his person and perlbrmance in the most , con- temptuous manner. Henry complained of Lu- ther's rude usage of him to the princes of SaXony : 4Jid Fisher,, bishop of Rochester, replied to nis answer, in behalf of Henry's treatise ; but neither the king's complaint, nor the bishop's reply, were attended vfith any visible eiSects. _ Luther, though he had put a stop to the vio- lent proceedings of Carolostadius, now made open war on the pope and bishops ; and, that he might make the people despise their authority as much as possible, he wrote one book against the pope's buU, and another against the order falsely called the Order of Bishops. The same year, 15^2, he wrote a letter, dated July the 29th, to the fis- sembly of the states of Bohemia ; in which , he assured them that he was labouring to establish their doctrine in Germany, and exhorted them not to return to the communion of the church of Rome ; and he published also this year a trans- lation of the New Testament' in the German tongue, vrhich was af>«rwards corrected by hira- selfand Melancthon. This translation having been printed several times, and being in every body's .hands, Eerdinand, archduke of Austria, Uie emperor's brother, made a very severe edict, to hinder the farther .publication of it ; and for- bade all the subjects of his Imperial Majesty to 244 LUTHERANS have liny copies of it, or of Luther's other books. Some other princes followed his example ; and Luther was so angry at it, that he wrote a trea- tise Of the Secular Power, in which he accuses them of tyranny and impiety. The diet of the empire was held at Nurembere, at the end of the year, to which Hadrian Vt. sient his brie^ dated November the 25th j for Leo.X. died upon the 2d of December, 1521, and Hadrian had been elected pope upon the pth'olf January following. In his brief, among, other things, he observes to the diet how he had heard, with Kief, that Mar- tin Luther, after the sentence of Leo X„ vfhich was ordered to he executed by the edict of W omi«) continued to teach the same errors, and daily to publish books full of heresies; that it appeared strange to/ him that So large and so rehgious a nation could be seduced by a wretched apostate friar ; that nothing, however, could bq more per- nicious to Christendom ; and that, therefore, he exhorts them to use their utmost endeavours to make Luther, and the authors of those tumults, return to their duty; or, if they refuse, and con- tinue obstinate, to proceed against them accord- ing to the laws of the empire, and the severity of the last edict. The resolution of this diet was published ill the form of an edict, upon the 6th of March, 1523 ; but it had no eflect in checking the Lu- therans, who stili went on in the same tnumphant manner. This year Luther wrote a great many pieces ; among the rest, orle upon the dignity ana office of the supreme magistrate ; which Frederic, elector of Saxony, is said to have been highly pleased with. He sent, about the same time, a writing, in the German language to the Walderv- SOS, or.Pickards, in Bohemia and Moravia, who had applied to him " about worshipping the body of Christ in the eucharist." He wrote, also, another book, which he dedicated to the senate and people of Prague, " about the institution of ministers of the church." He drew up a form of sayii^g mass. He wrote a piece, entitled,- An Example of Popish Doctrine and Divinity; which Dupin calls a satire against mins, and those whaprofess a monastic /i/fe. He wrote also against the vows of virginity, in his preface to his commentary on ICor.viii. ; and his exhortations here were, it seems, followed with efTect; for, soon after, nine nuns, among whom was Cathe- rine de Bore, eloped from the nunnery at Nimp^ sohen, and were brought, by the assistance of Leonard Coppen, a burgess of Torgau, to Wit- temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding might give to the Papists, it was highly extolled by Luther ; who, in a book written in the Ger- man language, compares the deliverance of these nuns from the slavery of monastic life to that of the souls which Jesus Christ has delivered by his death. This year Luther had occasioil to canonize two of his followers, who, as Melchior Adam re- lates, were burnt at Brussels, in the beginning of July, and were the first who suffered martyrdom for his doctrine. He wrote also a consolatory letter to three noble ladies at Misnia, who were banished from the duke of Saxony's court at Fri imrg, for reading his books. In the beginning of the year 1524, Clement VII. sent a legate into Germany to the diet which was to be held at Nuremberg. Hadrian VI. died in October, 1523, and was suoieeded by Clement upon the 19th of November. A little before his LUTHERANS death he canonized Bcnnp, who was bishop of Meissen, in the time of Gregory VII. aiid one of the mobt zealoiis defenders of the holy see. Luther, imagining that this was done directly to oppose him, drew up a piece with this title. Against the new idol and old devil set up at Meissen, in which he treats the memory of Gre- fory with great freedom, and does not spare even [adrian. Clement VII.'s legate represented to the diet of Nuremberg the necessity of enforcing the execution of the edict of Worms, which had been strangely neglected by the princes of the empire j but, notwithstanding the legate's solici- tations, which were very pressing, the decrees of. that diet were thought so ineffectual, that they were condemned at Rome, and rejected by the emperor. i In October, 1524, Luther flung off the monas-, tic habit ; which, though not premeditated and designed, was yet a very proper preparative to a step he took the year after : we mean his marr ris^e with Catherine de Bore. 'pis marriage, however, did not retard his ac- tivity and diligence in the work of reformatioii. He revised the Augsburg Confession of Faith, and apology for the Protestsmts when the Pro- testant region was first established on a firm basis. See Protfstants and Reformation. After this, Luther had little else to do than to «it down arid contemplate the mighty work- he had finished ; for that a single monk should be able to give the church so rude a shock, that there needed out such another entirely to overturn it, may very well seem a mighty work. He did, radeed, little else ; for the remeunder of his life was spent in exhorting rainces, states, and uni- versities, to confirm rthe. Reformation which had been brought about through him ; and - publish^ ing from time to time such .writings as might . encourage, direct, and aid them in doing it. The emperor threatened temporal puirishment with armies, and the pope eternal with bulls and anathe^ mas; but Luther Cared for none of their threats. In the year 1533, Luther wrote a consolatory epistle to the citizens of Oschatz, who had suffer- ea some hardships for adhering to the Augsburg Confession of Faith; in which, among other things, he says, "The devil is the host, and the world is his inn ; so that wherever you come, you will be sure to find this ugly host" He had also about this time a terrible controversy with George duke of Saxony, who had such an aversion to Luther's doctrine, that he obliged his subjects to take ap oath tJiat they would never embrace it. However, sixty or s^enty citizens, of Leipsic were found to have deviated a little from the Catholic way in some point or other, and they -were known previously to have consulted Luther about it ; upon which George complained to the Elector John, that Luther had not only abused his person, but also preached up rebellion among his subjects. The elector ordered Luther to be acquainted with this ; and to be told, at the same time, that if he did not acquit himself of this charg^ he could not jiossibly escape punishment But Luther easily refuted the accusation, by proving, that Ke had been so far from stirring up his subjects against him on the score of religion, that, on the contrary, he had exhorted them ra- ther to undergo the greatest hardships, and even suffer themseWes to be banished. In the year 1534, the Bible, translated by him 345 , LUTHERANS into German, was first printed, as the old privi- lege, dated Bibhop'olis, under the elector's hand, show;s ; and it was published the same year. He also published this year a book against masses, and the consecration of priests, in which he re- lates a conference he had with the devil upon those points; for it is remarkable in Luther's vjhole history, that he never had any conflicts of any kind within, but the devil was always his an- tagonist. In February, 1537, an assembly was held a:t Smialkald about matters of religion, to which Luther and Melancthon were called. At this Hieetina Luther was seized with so grievous an illness, that there were no hopes of his reco- very. He was afflicted with the stone, and had a'stoppage of urine for eleven days. In this ter- rible condition he would needs undertake to travel, ndtwithstanding all that his iriends could say or do to prevent him : his resolution, how- ever, was attended with a good 'effect; for the night after his departure he began to be bettcr._ As he was cafried along he made his will, in which he bequeathed his detestation of popery to his friends and brethren ; agreeably to what he used tosay ; Pestis erdm vivusy moriens ero mors tua, papa; i., e. "I was the plague of" popery in my hfe, and shall continue to be so in my death." This year the pope and the court of Rome, finding it impossible to deal with the Protestants by force, began to have recourse to stratagem. They affected, therefore, to think, that though Luther had, indeed, carried things on with a high hand, and to a violent extreme, yet what he had pleafJed in defence of these measures wai not en- tirely without foundation. They talked with a seeming show of moderation ; and Pius III., who succeeded Clement VII., proposed a reformation first among themselves, and even went so.far as to fix a place for a council to meet at for that "pur- pose, but Luther treated this farce as it -de- served to be treated ; unmasked and detected it immediately; and, to ridicule it the more strongly, caused a picture to be drawn, in which was re- presented the pope seated on high upon a throne, some cardinals about him with foxes' tails on, and seeming to evacuate upwards and down- wards,' (sursuni deorsum repurgare, as Melchior ' Adam expresses it.) This was fixed over against the title-paffe, to let the reader see at once the scope and (fesign of the book ; which was to ex- pose that cunning and artifice vrith which these subtle politicians affected to cleanse and purify themselves from their errors and superstitions. Luther published, about the same time, a confu- tation of the pretended grant of Constantine to Sylvester, bishop of Rome ; and also some letters of John Hiiss, written from his prison at Con- stance' to the Bohemiansl In thiS manner was Luther employed till his death, which happened in the year 1546. A thousand lies were invented by the Papists about Luther's deathi Some said that he died suddenly ; others, that he lulled himself; others, that the devil strangled him; others, that his corpse stunk so abominably, that they were forced to leave it in the way, as it was carried to be in- terred. Nay, lies were invented about his death, even while he was yet alive. Luther, however, to give the most effectual refutation of this ac- count of his death, put fo.th an advertisement of his being alive ; and, to be even withTthe Papists for the malice they had shown in this lie, wrote a v2 LUTHERANS book at the smne time, to prove that " the papacy was founded by the devil." Lutheranism has undergone some alterations since the time of its founder. Luther rejected the epistle of St. James as inconsistent with the doctrine of St. Paul in relation to justification ; he also set aside the Apocalypse : both of which arc now received as canonical in the Lutheran church. Luther reduced the number of sacraments to two, I'z., baptism and the eucharist ; but he be- lieved the impanation or consubstantiation ; that is, that the matter of the bread and wine remain with the body and blood of Christ ; and it is in this article that the main difference between ^he Lutlieran and the English churches consists... Luther maintained the mass to be no sacrifice j exploded the adoration of the host, auricular con- fession, meritorious works, indulgences, purga- tory, the worship of images, &c., which had been introduced in tlie corrupt times of the Romish (ihurch. He also opposed the doctrine of free will, maintained predestination, and asserted our justification to be solely by the imputation of the merits and satisfaction of Christ. He also op- posed the fastings of the Romish church, monas- tical vows, the celibacy of the clergy, &c. The Lutherans, however, of all Protestants, are said to differ least from the Romish church; as they affirm that 'the body and blood of Christ are materially present in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, though in, an incomprehensible manner; and likewise represent some religious rites and institutions, as the use of images in churches, the distinguishing vestments of the derey, the private confession of sins, the use of wafers iri the administration of the Lord's Sup- per, 'the form of exorcism in the celebration of baptism, and other ceremonies of the like nature, as tolerable, and some of them as useful. The Lutherans maintain, with regard to the divine decrees, that they respect the salvation or misery «f men, in consequence of a previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters, and not as free and uncontinual, and as founded on the mere will of God. ■ Towards the close of the se- venteenth century, the Lutherans began to enter- tain a greater liberality of sentiment than they had before adopted, though in many places they persevered longer in severe and despotic principle than other Protestant churches. Their public teachers now enjoy an unbounded liberty of dis- senting from the decisions of those symbols or creeds which were once deemed almost infallible rules of faith and pj4ctice, and of declaring their, dissent in the manner they judge the most expe- dient. Mosheim attributes this change in their sentiments, to the maxim which they generally adopted, that Christians were eiccountable to God alone for their religious opiiuons; and that no individual could be justly punished by the ma- gistrate for his erroneous opinions, whfle he in- ducted himself like a virtuous and obedient sub- ject, and made no attempts to disturb the peace and order of civil soiaety. In Sweden, the Lu- theran church is episcopal ; in Norway the same. In Denmark, under the name of superintendent, all episcopal authority is retained ; whilst through Germany the superior power is vested in a con- sistory, over which there is a president, with a distinction of rank' and privileges, and a subordi- nation of inferior clergy to their superiors, diif- 246 LYING fefent from the parity of Presbyterianism. Moa- heirri'e Eccles. History; Life of Luther i Haweis't Ch. Hist. vol. ii. p. 454 ; Enc. Brit.; Robertson's Hist, of Charles V., vol, ii. p. 42 ; Lmther on the Gahitiana. LUTHERAN (EVANGELICAL) CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES. The name Z/utheran is derived from the great reformer. It is said that the term evangelic^ was given to his followers by Luther. It is still preferred to that of Lutheran by some of the de- nomination. They settled in Pennsylvania and the adjoinins.states on their arrival in this coun- try. . The churches were for a considerable time supplied with ministers from Germany, some of whom were eminent men. The Rev. H. M. Muhlenburg, the first Lutheran preacher in this country, was sent from London in 1743. ■ They are now found in Pennsylvania, New Yorl^ North Carolina, Maryland, and in other states. The Augsburgh Confession is the acknowledged standard of faith among the Lutherans. ^'The, Church government is, in its essential features conaiesational. District Synods (whose power is simply advisory,) composed of clerical and lay members, meet annually. There is also a general Synod, convening biennially, formed by delft- gates from such of the annual Synods as re- cognise it. The Evangelical Lutherans have four Theolo^cal Seminaries. In 1828, the num- ber of nlinisters was believed to be about two hundred, and of congregations about eight hun- dred : very considerable additions have since been made. [But for a very well written and copious history of the past and present state of this large body of' Chxistians, {from the highest source^ see the APPENDIX of this w/yl-k. No. V.] LUXURY, a disposition of mind addicted to pleasure, riot, and superfluities, ^, ^Luxury impUes a giving one's self up to pleasure ; voluptuous- ness, an indulgence in the same .to excess. Luxury may be further considered as consisting in, 1. Vain and useless expenses. — 2. In a parade beyond what people can afford. — 3. In affecting to be above our own iank.-^4. In living in a splendour that does not agree, with the public good. In order to avoid it, we should consider that it is ridiculous,- trovblesovie, sinful, and ruinous. ' Robinson^ s Claude, vol. i. ' p. 382 ; Ferguson on Society, part vi. sect. 2. LYING, speaking falsehoods wilfliUy, with an intent to deceive. 'Thus, by Grove, " A lie is an affirmation or denial by words, or any other signs, to which a certain determinate meaning is affixed, of something contrary to our real thoughts and intentions." Thus, by Paley, " A lie is a breach of promise; for whoever seriously ad- dresses his discourse to another, tacitly promises to speak the truth, because he knows that the truth is expected." There are various kind of lies. 1. The pernicious Ije, uttered for the hurt or disadvantage of our neighbour. — 2. The officious lie, uttered for out own or our neighbour's ad\:an- tage. — 3. The ludierous and jocose lie, uttered by way of jest, and only for mirth's sake in common converse. — -4. Pious frauds, as they are im- properly called i pretended inspirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are si^ecies of lies.— 5. Lies of the conduct, for a lie may be told in gestures as well as in words ; as when a trades- man shuts up his windows to induce his creditors to believe that he is abroad. — 6. Lies of omiission, as MAGDA,LET^ when an author wilfully omits what qught to be related ; and may we not add — 7. That all equi- Tocatwn and mental reservation come under the guilt of lying. TJie evil and injusfice of lying appear, 1. From its being a breach of the natural and uniTcrsal right of mankind to truth in the in- tercourse of speech.-.-2. Prom its being a violation of God's sacred law, Phil, iv, 8; Lev. xix. 11; Col. iii. 9. — 3. The faculty of speech was be- stowed as an instrument of knowledge, not of deceit ; to communicate our thoughts, Hot to hide them. — i. It is esteemed a reproach of so heinous and hateful a nature for a man to be called a liar, MAUI that sometimes the life and blood of the slanderer hav? paid fer it. — 5. It has a tendency to dissolve all society, and to indispose the mind to religious imprpssions. — G. The punishment' of it is con- .sidcrable : the loss of credit, the hatred of those whom we have deceived, and an eternal separa- tion from God in the world to com^. Rev. jtxi. 8 ; xxii. 1.5; Psalm ci. 7. See EauivoRATiON. — Grofe's Mor. Phil. vol. i. ch. 11 ; Paley's Mar. Phil. vol. i. ch. 15; Doddridge's hect. lect. 68; Watts' s Ser. vol. i. ser. 32 j Evanses Ser. vol. ii, ser. 13 ; South's Ser. vol. i. ser. 12 ; I)r. La,- mont's Serm. vol. i. ser. 11 and 13» M. MAC ARIANS, the followers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who was distinguished towards the dose of the fourteenth centiiry for his sanctity and virtue. In his Writings there are some super- stitious tenets, and also certain opinions that seem tainted viith Origenism. The name haS been also applied to those who adopted the sentiments of Macarius, a native of Ireland, who, about the close of the ninth century, propagated in France (he tenet afterwards maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelligence or soul performed the, spiritual aiid rational functions in ^ the hu- man race. - MACEDONIANS, the followers of Mace- donius, bishop of Constantinople, who, through the influence of the Eunorflianfe, was deposed by the council of Constantinpple in 360, and sent into exile. He considered the Holy Ghost as a divine energy diffused throughout the universe, and not as a person distinct from the Fathci- and the Son. The sect of the Macedonians was crushed brfore it had arrived at its full maturity by the CBuncil assembled by Thcodosius in 381, at Constantinople. See Semiarians. MACHIAVELIANISM,-the doctrine or pnnciples of Machiavel, as laid dowil in his trea- tise entitled TTie Printe, and which consist in doing any thing to compass a design, without any regard to the peace or welfare of subjects, the dictates of honesty and honour, or the precepts of rehgion. This work has been translated into, many languages, and written against by many authors, though the world is not agreed as to the motives of the writer ; some thinking he meant to recommend tyrannical maxims ; others, that he only delineated them to excite abhorrence. MAGDALEN, RELIGIOUS OF ST. a name ^ven to divers communities of nuns, con- sisting generally of penitent courtezans, sometimes also called Masdvlanettes. They were establish- ed at Mentz in 1542 s at Paris in 1,492 ; at Na- ples in 1324; at Roueii and Sourdeaux in'1618. In each of these monasteries there were three kinds of persons and uongregations : the first consisted of those who were admitted to make vows, and those bear the name of St. Magdaleti ; the congregation of St. Martha was thie second, and was composed of those whom it was not thought ptoper to adinit to vows finally j the con- gregation of St. Lazarus was composed of such as were detained by force. , The religious of St. Magdalen at Rome were established by Pope Leo X. Clement VIII. settled a revenue on ibem ; and farther appointed, that the effects of 247 all puHic prostitutes dying intestate should fall to them ; and that the testaments of the rest should be invalid, unless they bequeathed a portion of their efiects, which was to be at least a fifth part of them. MAGI, or M AGIANS,' an ancient religious sect of Persia, and other ea.stern countries, who, abominating the adoration of images, worshipped God only by fire, in which they were directly op- posite to the Sabians. SeeSABiANs. TheAfagi believed that there were two principles, one the cause of all good, and the other the cause of all evil ; in which opinion they were followed by the sect of the Manichees. See Manichkbs. They called the good principte Jazden,a,ni Ormuzd, , and the evil principle Ahraman, m Aherman. The former wa^hytne Greeks called Oromasdea, and the latter Arimanius. The reason of their worshipping fire was, because they looked upon it as the truest symbol of Oromaides, or the good god ; as darkness was of Arimanius, or the evil god. In, all their temples they had fire continually burning upon thieir altars, and in their own pri- vate houses. The religion of the Magi fell into disgrace on the death of those ringleaders of that sect who had Usurped the sovereignty after the death of Cambyses ; and the slaughter that was made of the cKef' men among them sunk it'so low, that Sabianism every where prevailed against it ; Da- rius and most of his followers on that occasion goiniT over to it. But the affection which the people had for the religion of their forefathers not being easily to be rooted out, the famous impostor Zoroaster, some ages after, undertook to revive and reform it. The chief reformation this pretended prophet made in the Magian religion was in the first principle of it ; for he intro all Arabia who can offer Ms kindred a more ex- desBent thing thjn I now do to you; I offer you happiness, both in this life, and in that which is to conae : God Ahnighty hath commanded me to call you unto Mm. Who, therefore, among you, will be assistant to me herein, and become my brother and my Vicegerent 1" All of thetti hesi- tating and declining the matter, Ali at len^h rose up, and declared that he would-be his assist- antj aMvehetijentiy threatened those who should oppose him. Mahomet upon tMs embraced Ah 349 3 6 MAHOMET ANISM with great demonstrations of affection, and- de- sired Si who were present to hearken to and obey him as Ms deputy ; at which the company brpke out into a great laughter, telling Abu Tafeb that he must now pay obedience to his son. This, repulse, however, was so far from dis- couraging Mahomet, that he began to preach \n public to the people, who heard him with some patienpe, till he came' to upbraid them with the idot atry, obstinacy, and iperverseness of themselvea and their fathers; which so highlj; provoked them, that they declared themselves his enemies i and would soon have procured his ruin, had he not been protected by Abu Taleb. The chief of the Kor§ish warmly sohcited this person to de- serthis nephew, making frequent remonstrances , against the innovations he was attempting ; wMch proving ineffectual, they at length threatened him with an open rupture if he did not prevail on Mahomet to desist. At this Abu Taleb was so fax moved, that he earnestly dissuaded his nephew^ from pursmng-jthe affair any further, representing the greati danger that he and his friends must otherwise run; . But Mahomet was not tp bei ibr timidated ; telling his uncle plainly, that if they setthe sun against him cm his right hand, and the moon on his left, he would not leave his en^ terprise ; and Abu Taleb, seeing Mm so firmly resolved to proceed, used no farther aigum^ts, but promised to stand by him against all his enemies. •' '• ' The Koreish, findjng they could prevail neithei by fair words nor menaces, tried what they could do by force and ill treatment ; using Mahomet's followers so very injuriously, that it was not safe for them to continue at Mecca any longer ; where- upon Mahomet gave leave to such of them as had no friends to protect them to seek for refuge elsewhere. And acobrdingly, in the fifth year of the prophet's mission, sixteen of them, four of whom were women, fled into Ethiopia; and among them Othman Ebn Affan, and his wife HakiSij Mahomet's daughter. TMs was the first flight J but afterwards several others followed them, retiring one after another,, to the number of eighty-three inen, and eighteen women, besides cMldren. These refugees were kindly received by the Najashi, qr king of Ethiopia, who refused to deliver them- up to those whom the Koreish sent to demand them, and, as the Arab writers unanimously attest, even professed the Mahome- tan religion. • In the sixth year of Ms mission, Mahomet Jiad the pleasure of seeing his party strengthened by the conversion of his uncle Hamza, a man of feat valour and merit;- and of Omar Ebn al attab, a person highly esteemed, and once a violent opposer of the prophet. As persecution generally advances rather than obstructs the spreading of a religion, Islamism made ^o great a progress among the Arab tribes, that the J^o- reish, to suppress it effectually, if possible, in the seventh year of Mahomet's mission, made a so- lemn les^e or covenant against the Hashemites, and the femily of Abd'almotalleb, engaging them- selves to contract no marriages with any of them, ,pnd to have no communication with them ; and to give it the greater sanction, reduced it into writing, and laid it up in the Caaba. Upon tMs the tribe became divided into two factions ; and the family of Hashcm all repaired to Abu Taleb, as their head ; except only Abd'al Uzza, surnamed MAHOMETANISM Abu Laheb, who, out of inveterate hatred to his nej)hew and his doctrine, went over to the oppo- site party, whose chief was Abu Sosian Ebn Harh, of the family of Omineya. The families continued thus at variance for three years ; but in the tenth year of his mission, Mahomet told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifestly showed his disapprobation of the league which the Koreish had made against them, by sending a worm to eat out every word of the instrument except the name of God. Of this accident Mahomet had probably some private no- tice ; for 'Abu Taleb went immediately to the Koreisli, and acquainted them with it ; offering, if it proved false, to deliver his nephew up to them ; but, in case it were true, he insisted that they ought to lay aside their animosity, and annul the league they had made against the Hashemites. To this they acquiesced j and going to inspect the writing, to their great astonishment found it to be as Abu Taleb had said : and the league was (hereupon declared void. In the same year Abu Taleb died at the age of above fourscore, and it is the general opinion that he died an infidel ; though others say, that when he was at the point of death he embraced Mahometanism, and produce some passages out df his poetical compositions to confirm their as- sertion. About a month, or, as some write, three days after the death of this great benefactor and patron, Mahomet had the additional mortification to lose his wife Khadijah, who had so generously made his fortune. For which reason this year is Called the year of mournthg. On the death of these two persons, the Koreish began to be more troublesome than ever to their OTophet, and especially some who had formerly been his intimate friends; insomuch that he fouid himself obliged to seek for shelter elsewhere, and first pitched upon Taye^ about sixty miles east from Mecca, for the pla credible, that several of his followers left him upon it ; and had probably ruined the whole design) had not Abu Beer vouched for his veracity, and declared that if Mahomet affirmed it to be truej he verily believed the whole. - Which happy ii> cident not only letrieved the prophet's credi^ but increased it to such a degree, that he was secure of being able to make his disciples swallow what- ever he pleased to impose on them for the future. And this fiction, notwithstanding its extrava- gance, was one of the most artful contrivances Mahomet ever put in practice, and what chiefly contributed to the raising of his reputation to that great height to which it afterwards arrived. In this year, called by the Mahometans the ao ceptedyear, twelve men of Yathrfeb or Medina, of whom ten were of the tribe of Khazraj, and fhe other two of that of Aws, came to Mecca) and took an oath of fidelity to Mahomet at Al Akaba, a hill on the north of that city. This oath , was called the looman's oath ; not that any wo- men were present at this tiipe, but because a man was not thereby obliged to take up arms in de- fence of Mahomet or his religion ; it being the same oath that was afterwards exacted of the women, the form of which we have in the Korany and is to this effect, viz. That they should renounce all idolatry ; and that they should not steal, nor commit fornication, nor kill then; children (as the pagan Arabs used to do when they apprehended they should not be able to mairatain them), nor forge calumnies ; and that they should obCT the prbphet in all things that were reasonable. "Vy hen they had solemnly engaged to all this, Mahomet sent one of his.disciples named Masab Ebn Omavr home with them, to instruct them more fully in the grounds and ceremonies of his new religion. Masab, being arrived at Medina, by the assist- ance of those who had been formerly converted, fained several proselytes, particularly Osed Ebn lodeira, a chief man of the city, and Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the tribe of the Aws ; Maho- metanism spreading so fast, that there was scarce a house wherein there were not some who had embraced it. The next year, being the thirteenth of Ma- homet's mission, Masab, returned to Mecca, ao- companied by seventy-three men and two women of Medina who had professed Islamism, besides some others who were as yet unbelievers. On their arrival theyi immediately sent to Mahomet, and offered him their assistance, of which he was now in great need ; for his adversaries were by this time grown so powerful in Mecca, that he could not stay there much longer without immi- nent danger. Wherefore he accepted their pro- posal, and met them one night, by appointment, at Al Akaba above mentioned, attended by his MAHOMET ANISM uncle Al ^bbas ; who, though he was not then a believer, wished his nephew well, and made a speech to those of Medina; wherein h^ told tnem, that, as Mahomet was obliged to quit his native city, and seek an asylum elsewhere, and they had offered him their protection, they would do well not to deceive him :, that if they were not firmly resolved to defend, and not betray him, they had better declare their minds, and let him ?rovide'for his safety in some other manner. — Fpon their protesting their sincerity, Mahomet swore to be faithful to them, on condition that they should protect him agsdnst ,all insults as heartily as they would their own wives and fami- lies. They then asked him, what recompence they were to expect, if they should happen to be killed in his quarreH He answered, Paradise. Whereupon they pledged their faith to him, and so returned home after Mahomet had chosen twelve but of their number, who were to have the same authority among them as the twelve kpos- tles of Christ had among his disciples. Hitherto Mahomet had propagated his religion Dy fair means; so that the whole success of his enterprise before his flight to Medina must be attributed to persuasion only, and not to compul- sion. For before this second oath of fealty or mauguration at Al Akaba, he had no perriiission '.o use any force at all ; and in several places of the Koran, which he pretended were revealed during Iiis stay at Mecca, he declai-es his business was only to preach and admonish ; that he had no authority to compel any person to embrace his religion ; and that, whether people believe or not, was none of his concern, but beloiwed solely unto God. And he was so far from allowing his fol- loiyers to use force, that he exhorted them to bear patiently those injuries w'hich were offered them on account of their faith; and, when per- secuted himself, chose rather to quit the place of his birth, and retire to Medina, than to make any resistance. But this great passiveness and mode- ration seem entirely owing to his want of power, and the great superiority of his opposers, for the first twelve years of his mission ; for no sooner was he enabled, by the assistance of those of Me- dina, to majie head against his eneniies, than he gave out, that God had allowed him and his fol- lowers to defend themselves against the infidels ; and at length, as his forces increased, he pretend- ed to have the divine leave even to attack them, and destroy idolatry, and set up the true faith by the sword ; finding by experience, that his designs would otherwise proceed very slowly, if they were not utterly overthrown ; and knowing, on the other hant^ that innovators, when they de- pend solely on their own strength, and can com- pel, ' seldom run any risk ; from whence, says Machiavel, it follows, that sill the armed prophets have succeeded, and' the unarmed ones nave failed. Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Roinulus, would not have bjen able to establish the observ- ance of their institution for any length of time, had they not been armed. The first passage of the Koran which gav^ Mahomet the permission o( defending himself by arms, is said to have l^een that in the twenty-second phapter ; after which, a great number to the same purpose were re- vealed. Mahomet, having provided for the security of his companions, as well as his own, by the league offensive and defensive which he had now con- 251 MAHOMET ANISM' eluded with those of Medina, directed them to repair thither, which they accordingl}; (Jid; but himself, with Abu Beer and All, staid behind, having not yet received the divine permission, a» he pretended, to leave Mecca. The Koreish, fear- ing the consequence of this new alliance, began to think it absolutely necessary to prevent Ma- homet's escape to Jjedina; and having held a council thereon, after several milder expedients bad been rejected, they came to a renolution that he should be killed ; and a^eed that a man should be chosen out of every tribe for the execu- tion of this design; and that each man should have a blow at him with his sword, that the guilt of his blood might fall equally on all the tribes, to whose united power the Hashemites were much inferior, and therefore durst not attempt to re- venge their kinsman's death. This conspiracy was scarce formed, when, by some means or other, it came to Mahomet's knowledge ; and he gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, who had taow order- ed him to retire to Medina. Whereupon, to amuse his enemies, he directed Ali to he down in his place, and wrap himself iip in his gfeen cloak, which he did ; and Mahomet escaped, miraculously, as they pretended, to Abu Beer's house, unperceived by the conspirators, who had already assembled at the prophet's door. They, in the mean time, looking through the crevice, and seeing Ali, whom they took to be, Mahomet himself, asleep, tontinuea watching there til) morningj when Ali arose, and they found themr selves deceived. From Abu Beer's house Mahomet and he went to a cave in mount Thur, to the south-east of Mecca, accompanied only by Amor Ebn Fohei- rah, Abu Beer's sei:vant, and Abd'allah Ebn Oreitah, ah idolater whom they had hired for a guide. In this cave they lay hid three days, to avoid the search of their encmites ; which they very nar- rowly escaped, and not without the assistance of more miracles than one ; for soine say that the Koreish were struck with blindness, so that they could not find the cave ; others, that after Mar hornet and his companions were got in, two pigeons laid their eggs at the entrance, and a spider covered the mouth of the cave with hei web, which made them look no further.' Abu Beer, seeing the prophet in such imminent dan- ger, became very sorrowful ; wheretipon Maho- met comfbrted him with these words, recorded in the Koran: Se not griai>ed,for God is with vs. Their enemies being' retired, they left the cave, and set oUt for Medina by a by-road ; and having fortunately, or, as the Mahometans tell us, mi- Taculously, escaped some who were sent to pur sue iJiem, arrived safely at that city ; whither Ali followed them in three days, after he had settled some affairs at Mecca. Mahomet being securely settled at Medina, and able not only to defend himself against the insults of his eneinies, but to attack them, began to send out small parties to make reprisals on the Korebh ; the first party consisting of no more than nine men, who mteroepted and plun dered a caravan belonging to that tribe, and in the action took two prisoners. But what esta. blished his affairs very much, and was the foun- dation on which he built all his succeeding greatness, was the gaining of the battle of Bedr, which was fought in the second year of the MAHOMETANISM Hegira, anil is so famous in the Mahometan his- tory. Some reckon no less than twenty-seven expeditiome, wherein Mahomet was personally present, in nine 6f which he gave battle, besides several other expeditions in which he was not S resent. His forces he maintained partly by le contributions of his followers tor this purpose, which he called by the name of zacat, or alms, and the paying of which he very artfully made one main article of his religion : and partly by ordering a fifth part of the dunder to be brought Into the public treasurylbr that purpose, in which matter he likewise pretended to act by the divine direction. In a few years, by the success of his arms, notwithstandmg he sometimes came off, with the worst, he considerably raised his credit and poKver. In the sixth year of the Hegira he set out with 1400 men to visit the temple of Mecca, not with any intent of committing hostilities, but in a peaceable manner. However, when he came to Al Hodeibijra, which is situ?ited partly within and partly without the sacred territory, the Ko- reish seiit to let him know that they would not permit him to enter Mecca, unless he forced his way ; whereupon he called his troops about him, and they all took a solemn oath of fealty or ho- mage to him, and he resolved to attack the City ; but those of Mecca sending Arwa Ebn Masun, prince of the tribe of Thaki^ as their ambassador, ' to desire peace, a truce was concluded between them for ten years, by which any person was allowed to enter into a'league either with Maho- met, or with the Korejsh, as he thought fit. In the seventh year flf the Hegira, Mahomet began to think of propagating his religion beyond (he bounds of Arabia, and ^ent messengers to the neighbouring j)rinces, with letters to invite them ia Mahometanism. Nor was this project with- out some success : Khosrut Parviz, then king Of Persia, received his letter with great disdain, and tort it in a passion, sending away the messenger very abruptly ! which, when Mahomet heard, he said, God shall tear his kingdom. And soon after a messenger came to Mahomet from Bad- han, king of Vaman, who was a dependent on ttie Persians, to acquaint him that he had re- ceived orders to send him to Khosru. Mahomet put off his answer till the next morning, and then told the messenger it had heen revesded to him that iiight that Khosru was slain by his son Shiruyeh : adding, that he was well assured his new religion and, empire should rise to as great a height as that of Khosru ; and therefore bid him advise his master to embrace Mahometanism. The messenger being return^, Badhan in a few days received a letter from Shiruyeh, informing him of bis father's death, and ordering him to give the prophet no further disturbance. Where- upon Badhan, and the Persians with him, turned Mahometans. ' The emperor Hcraclius, as the Arabian histo- rians assure us, received Mahomet's letter with great respect, laying it on his pillow, and dis- missed the bearer honourably. And some pre- tend that he would have professed this new Mth, had he not been afraid of losing, his crown. Mahomet wrote to the same effect to the king . of Ethiopia, thftugh he had been converted before, according to the Arab writers j and to Mokaw- kas, governor of Egypt, who gave the messenger a very fevourable reception, and srait several MAHOMETANISM valuable presents to Mahomet, and among the rest two eirls, one of whom, named Mary, became a great favourite with him. He also sent letters of the like purport to several Arab princes ; par- ticularly one to Al Hareth Ebn Abi Shafflei, 'king of Ghassan, who, returning for answer that he would goto Mahomet himself, the prophet said, May his kingdom perish! Another to Hawdha. Ebn Ali, king of Yamama, who was a Christian, an,d, having some time before professed Islamisii), had lately returned to his former faith : this prince sent back a very rough answer, upon which Mahomet cursing him,' he died soon after; and a third to Al Moiidar Ebn Sawa, kins of Bahrein, who embraced Mahometanism, and all the Arabs of that country followed his example. The eighth year of the Hegira was. a very for- tunate year to Mahomet. In the beginning of it Khaled Ebn al Walid and Amru Ebn sd As, both excellent s.^ldiers,j the first of whom after- wards conquered Syria and other countries, and the latter Egypt, became proselytes to Mahomet- anism. And soon after the prophet sent 3001) men agaijist the Grecian forces, to revenge the death of one of his ambassadors, who, being sent to the governor of Bosra on the same errand as those who went to the above-mentioned princei was slain by an Arab of the tribe of Ghassan, ax Muta, a tovm in the territory of Balka, in Syria, about three days' journey eastward from Jerusar lem, near which town they encountered. The Grecians being vastly supericir in number, (for, including the auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of 100,000 men,) the Mahometans were repulsed in the first attack, and lost successively three of their generals, viz. Zeid Ebn Haretha, Mahomet's freed-tnan j Jassar, the son of Abu Taleb ; and AbdaliaEbn Rawalia : but Khaled Ebn al WaUd, succeeding to the command, overthrew the Greeks with great slaughter, and brought avpay abnnr dance of rich spoil : on occasion of which action Mahomet gave him the title of Seif min soyuf jlWoi, i' one of the swords of God." In this year al?o Mahomet took the city ,pf Mecca, the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce concluded on two years before; for the tribe of Beer, who were confederates with the Koreish, attacking those of Kozaah, who were allies of Mahomet, killed several of them, being supported in the action by a party of the Koreish themselves. The consequence of this violation was soon apprehended, and Abu Sosian himself made a journey to Medina on purpose to heal the breach and renew the truce, but in vain; for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refused to see him ; whereupon he applied to Abu Beer and Ali; but they giving him no answer, he was obliged to return to Mecca as he came. Mahomet immediately gave orders for prepartt tions to be made that he might surprise the Meccans while they were unprovided to receive him : in a little time he began his march thither ; and hj the time he came neat the city, his forces were increased to ten thousand fiien. ' Those of Mecca not beuig in a condition to defend them- selves against so formidable an army, surrendered at discretion, and Abu Sosian saved his life by turning Mahometan. About twenty-eigbt of the idojaters were killed by a party under the command of Khaled ; but this happened con- trary to Mahomet's orders, who, when he entered the town, pardoned all the Koreish on their sub- MAHOMETAN tSM mission, except only six men and foUr women, who were more obnoxious than ordinary, (sonie df them having apostatized, J and were solemnly proscribed by the prophet himself; but of these no more than one man and one Woman Were put to death, the rest obtaining pardon on their em- . bracing Mahometanism, ana one of the women making her escape. The remainder of this yesir Mahomet em- ployed in destroying the idols'in and round Mecca, sending several of the generals on expeditions for that purpose, and to invite the Arabs to Islamism ; wherein it is no vt^onder if they now met with success. The next year, being the ninth of the Hegira, the Mahometans call the year of embassies ; for the Arabs had been hitherto expecting the issue of the war between Mahomefc and the Koreish; but, as soon as that tribe, the principal of the whole nation, and the genuine descendants of Ishmaiel, whose preroganves none offered to dis- pute, had submitted, they were satisfied that it was not in then: power to oppose Mahomet ; and therefore began to Ccbie in to him in great nmn- bers, and to send embassies to make their si^bmis- aions to liim, both to Mecca, while he staid there, and also to Medina,' whither he returned this year. ' Among the rest, five king^ of the tribe of Hamyar professed Mahometanism, and sent ambassadors to notify the same. Ill the tenth year Ali was sent into Yaman to popasate the Mahometan faith there : and, as it, IS said, converted the whole tribe of Hamdan m one day;. Their examjile vfaa qiiickly followed by, dl the inhabitalnts of that province, except only those bf Najfan, who, heing Christians, chose rather to pay tribute. Thus was Mahometanism established, and Idolatry rooted out, even in Mahomet's lifetime, (for he died the next year,) throughout all Arabia, except only Yamama, where Moseilama,- who set up also as a prophet, as Mahomet's competitor, had a great party, and was not reduced tilf the kalifat of Abu Beer ; and the Arabs being then united in one faith, and under one prince, found themselves in a condition of making those con- quests which extended the Mahometan faith over so great a part of the' world. 1. Mahometans, tenets of the. — The Mahome- tans divide their religion into two geqeral parts, faith and practice f of which the first is divided into six distinct branches : Belief in God, in his angels, in his Scriptures, in his prophets, in the resurrection and final judgment, and in God's ab- solute ;decrees. The pomts relating to practice are, prayer, with washing, &c. alms, fasting, pil- grimage to Mecca, and circumcision. Of the Mahometan faith.— 1. Thatboth Ma- homet, and those among his followers' who are reckoried orthodox, had alnd continue to have just and true notions of God and his attributes, ap- pears so plain from the Koran itself, and all the Mahometan divines, that it would be loss of time to refute those who suppose the God of MahOinet to be diflerent from the true God, and only a fic- titioms deity or idol of his own creation. 3. The existence of angels and their purity, are absblutely required td be believed in the Ko- ran; and he is reckoned an infidel who denies there are such beings, ot hates tiny 'of' them; or aiserts any distiiletfon of sexes among them. They believe thtei to have pure and subtle ■253 MAH0ME5TANISM bodies, created of fire ; that they neither ea< nor drink, nor propagate their species ,■ that thw have various forms and offices, some adoring God iti. different postures, others singins praises to him, or interceding for mankind. Th»sr hold, that some of them are employed in writing down the actions of men ; others in carrying the throne of God^ and other Services. 3. As to the Scriptures, the Mahometans are taught by the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world, gave revelations of his will in writing to. several -prophetsj the whole and every one of which it is absolutely necessary for a good Moslem to believe. The number of these sacried books were, according to them, one hundred and four ; of which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thurty to Edris or Enoch, ten to Abraham ; and the other four, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, and the Koran, were suo- cesdvely detivered to Moses, David, Jesus, and Mahomet : which last being the seal of the pro- phets, those revelations are now closed, and no more are to be expected. All these divine books^ except the four last, they agree to be now entirely lost, ind their contents unknown; though tli Sabians have several, books which they attribute to some of the antediluvian prophets. And of those four, the -Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospel, they say, have undergone so many alterations and corruptions, that thopgh there may possibly be some part of the true word of God therein, yet no predit is to be given t» the present copies in the hands of the Jews and ClnisUans. 4. The number of the prophets which have been from time to time sent by (Jod into the world, stmourtts to no less than 324,000, according to bne Mahometan tradition : or to 124,000, ao cording to another; among whom 313 were apos- tles, ' sent with special cornmissions to reclaim mankind from infidelity and superstition ; and six of them brought new laws or dispensations^ vfhich successively abrogated the preceding : these were Adam, Noah; Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mahomefc All the prophets in general, the Ms»- hometans believe to have been free from great sins and errors of consequence, and professors tof tine and the same religion, that is, Islamism, not- vrithstanding the difi[ercnt laws and institutions which they observed. They allow of degrees among them, and hold some of them to be more excellent and honourable than others. The first place they give to the revealers and establisN- ieis of new I dispensations, and the next to tha apostles. Iri'this great number of prophets thej' not only reckon divers patriarchs and persons named in Scripture, but not recorded to have been prophets (wherein the, Jewish and Christian writers nave sometimes led the way,) as Adam, Seth, Lot, khmael. Nun, Joshua, &c. and introduce some of them under different names, as Enoch, Heber and Jethro, who are called in the Koran, Edris, Hud, and Shoaib: but several others whose very names do not appear in Scripture (though they endeavour to find some persons there to fix them on,) as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu'lkefl, &«. ' 5. The belief of a general resurrection and a future judgment. The time of the resurrection the Mahometans allow to beia perfect secret to all but God alone; the ariget'Gabriel himself acknowledging, his ig- norance in this pointi, when Mahomet asked Him ■ W MAHOMkTANISM »l)ont it. However, they say the approach of that day may be known from certain signs which are to precede it. After examination is past, (the account of which is too long and tedious for this place,) Jind every one's works weighed in a'just balance, they say, that mutual retaliation will follow, according to which every creature vrill take vengeance one of another, or have satisfaction made tfipm for the injuries Which they have suffered. And, since there will then be no other way of returning like for like, the manner of giving this satisfaction will he by taking away a' proportional part of the good works of him who offered the injury, and adding it to those of him who suffered it. Which being MAHOMETAN ISM done, if the angels (by whose ministry this is to te performed) say, Lord, we have given to every One his due, and there remaineth of this person's goad works so much as equalleth the weight of an ant, God will, of his mei;cy, cause it to be doubled unto him, that he may be admitted info Paradise ;, but if, on the contrary, his good works be exhausted, and there remain evil works only, and there be any who have not yet received satisfaction from him, God will order that an equal weight of their sins be added unto his, that he may be punished for them in their stead, and he will be sent to hell laden with both. This will be the method of Godjs dealing with mankind. As to brutes, after they shall have likewise taken vengeance of one another, he will command them to be changed intb dust ; wicked men beihg re- served to more grievous punishment, so that they shall cry out, on hearing this sentence passed on the brutes. Would to Ood, that we were dust also ! As to the genii,lmany Mahometans are of opinion that such of them as are true believers, will un- dergo the same fate as the irrational animals, and have no other reward than the favour of being converted into dust : and for this they quote the authority of their prophet. The trials being over, and the assembly dis- solved, the Mahometans hold, that those who are to be admitted into Paradise will take the right hand way, and those who are destined into hell fire will take the left : but both of them must first pass the bridge called in Arabic At Sirat, which, they say, is laid over the midst of hell, and de- scribe to be finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword ; so that it seems very diffi- cult to conceive how any one shall be able to stand upon itj for which reason most of the sect of the Motazalites reject it as a fable j though the orthodox think it a sufficient proof of the truth of this article, that it was seriously affirmed by him who never asserted a falsehood, meaning their prophet ; who, to add to the difficulty of the passage, nas likewise declared, that this bridge is beset on each side with briers and hooked thorns, which will, however, be no impediment to the good i for they shall pass vrith wonderfiil ease and swiftness, like lightning, or the wind, Mahomet and his Moslems leading the way ;/ whereas the wicked, what vrith the slipperiness and extreme narrowness of the path, tlie entangling of the thorns, and the extinction of the light which di- rected the former to Paradise, will soon miss their footing,' and fall down headlong into hell, which is gaping beneath them. As to the punishment of the vrickeA, the Ma- hometans are taught, that hell is divided into seven stories or apartments, one below another, 254 denned fbr the reception of as many distinct classes of the damned. The first, which they call Jehenan, they say, will be the receptacle of those who ackiiowledged one God, that is, the wicked Mahometans ; who, after having been punished according to their de- merits, wilTat length be released; the second, named Ladka, they assign to the Jews : the third, named al Hotama, to the Christians ; the fourth, named al Sair, to the Sabians ; the fifth, named Sakar, to the Magians; the sixth, named al Ja- hin, to the idolaters j and the seventh, which is the lowest and worst of all, and is called al Havt yat, to the. hypocrites, or those who outwardly professed some religion, but in their hearts were of none. Over each of these apartments they believe there will bo set a guard of angela nine- teen in number ; to whom the damned wiU con- fess the just judgment of God, arid beg them to intercede with him for some alleviation of theii pain, or that they may be deUvered by being an- nihilated. Mahomet has, iii his Koran and traditions) been very exact in describing the various to> ments of hell, which, according tp him, the wiclii- ed will suffer both from intense heat and excessive cold. We shall, however, enter into no detail of them here ; but only observe, that the degrees of these pains will also vary in proportion to the crimes of the suiferer, and the apartment he iv condemned to ; and that he who is punished the most lightly of all will be shod with shoes of fire, the fervour of which will cause his skull to boU Uke a cauldron." The condition of these unhappy wretches, as the same prophet teaches, cannot te properly, called either life or death; and their misery will be greatly increased by their despailr of being ever delivered from that place, Since, ao cording to that frequent expression in the Koran, they ttiust remain therein for ever. It must be remarked, howfever, that the infidels alone will be liable to eteniity of damnation ; for the Mos. lems, or those who haye embraced the true sell* gion, and have been guilty of heinous sins,- vrill be deUvered thence after they shall have expiated their crimes by their sufferings. The time which these beUevers shall be detained there, accoi;ding to a tradition handed dovm from their prophet, will not be less than nine hiindred years, nor more than seven thousand. And, as to the man- ner of their delivery, they say that they shaH be distinguished by the marks of prostration on those parts of tneir bodies vrith which they used to touch the ground in prayer, and over wiiicb the fire will therefore have no power ; and that being known by this characteristic, they will be released by the mercy of God, at the intercession of Mahomet and the blessed : whereupon those who shall have been dead will b^ restored to hfe, as has been said ; and> those whose bodies shall have contracted any sootiness or filth from the flames and smoke of hell, will be immersed in one of the rivers of Paradise, called the River of Ldfe, which will wash them whiter than pearls. The righteous, as the Mahometans are taught to beUeve, having surmounted the difficulties and passed the Siarp bridge above-mentionet], before they enter Paradise, will be refreshed by drinking at tYiB pond of their prophet, who de- scribes it to be ail exact square, of a month's journey in compass j its water, which is supplied by two pipes from oZ Cawthay, one of the nven MAHOMETANISM of Paradise, being whiter than milk ot Silver, and more odoriferous than musk, with as many cups Bet around it as there are stars in the firmament ; of which water, whoever drinks, will thirst no more for ever. This is the first taste which the blessed will have of their future and now near Bpproaohina_felicity. Though Paradise be so very frequently men- tioned in the Koran, yet it is a dispute among the Mahometans, whether it be already created, or to be created hereafter) the Motazalites and somt other sectaries asserting, that there is not at pre-' sent any such place in nature, and that the Para- dise which the righteous will inhabit in the next life will be different from that from which Adam was expelled.V However, the orthodox profess the contrary, maintaining that it was created even before the world, and describe it, from their prophet's traditions, in the foUovring manner : They say it is situated above the seven hea- vens, (or in the seventh heaven,) and next u'nder the throup of God; and, to express the amenity of the place, tell us, that the earth of it is of the finest wheat-flower, or of the purest musk, or, as others will have it, of saffron; that its "stones are pearls and jacinths, the walls of its buildings en- riched with gold and silver, and that the trunks of all its trees are of gold; among which the most remarkable is the tree called tuba, or the fcree of happiness. Concerning this tree, they nbte, that it stands in the palace of Mahomet, though a branch of it will reach to the house of every true believer; that it will be laden with pomegranates, grapes, dates, and other fruits, of surprising bigness, and of tastes unknown to mortals. So that, if a man desire to, eat of any peb°ticulaT kind of fruit, it will immediately be presented him ; or, if he choose flesh, birds ready dressed will be set before him, according to his wishi They add, that the boughs of this tree will spontaneously bend down to the hand of the person who would gather of its fruits, and that it will sup- fily the Uessed not only with food, but also with aBiken gannents, and beasts toride on ready saddled and bridledvand adorned with rich trappings, which will burst forth from its fruits; and that this tree is so large, tkat a person mounted on the fleetest horse would not te able to gallop from one end of its shade to the other in one hundred years. , As plenty of water is one of the greatest addi- Uons to the pleasimtness of any place, the Koran afl.cn speaks of theTivers of Paradise as a princi- pal ornament thereof; some of these rivers, they Bayj flow with wate^ some with milk, some with wine, and others withljoney; all taking their rise from the root of the tree tuba. But all these glories will be eclipsed by the re- splendent and ravishing girls of Paradise, called, from their large black eyes. Bur al oytm, the en- joyment of whose company willbe a principal feli- city of the faithful. These, they say, are created not of clay, as mortal women are, bat of pure musk : being, as their prophet ofl^ affirms in his Koran, free from all natural' impurities, de- fects, and inconveniences incident to the sex ; of the strictest modesty, and secluded firom public view in pavilions- of hollow pearls, so large, that, IS some traditions have it, one of them will be no less than four parasangs (or, ,as others say, sixty miles) long, and as many broad; v ' The name which the Mahometans usually give to this happy mansion is al JanTiat, or, 355 ' MAHOMETANISM '[ the Gfarden ;" and sometimes they call it^ with an addition, Jannat al JPerdaws, "the Garden of Paradise;" Jannat Adan, "the Garden of Eden," (though they generally interpret the word Eden not according to its acceptation in He- brew, but according to its meaning in their own tongue, wherein it signifies " a settled oi perpetual habitation;") Jannat al Mawa, "the Garden of Abode;" Jannat al Maim, "the Garden of Pleasure ;" and the like : by which several appellations some understand so many different gardenSj or at least places of differeiil degrees of felicity, (for they reckon no less than one hTindred such in all,) the very meanest whereof will aflTord its inhabitants so many plea» sures and delights, that one would conclude they must even sink under them, had not Mahomet declared that,, in order to qjialifjr the blessed for a full enjoyment of them, God will give to every one the abilities of one hundred men. 6. God's absolute decree and predestination both of good and evil. The orthodox doctrine is, that whatever hath or shall come to pass in this world, whether it be good, or whether it be bad, proceedeth entirely from the diviue will, and is irrevocably fixed and recorded from all eter- nity in the preserved table ; God having secretly predetermined not only the adverse and prosper ous fortune of every person in this world, in the most minute particulars, bi^it also his faith or infir delity, his obedience or disobedience, and conse- quently his everlast'mg happiness or misery after death ; which fate or predestination it is not pos- sible by any foresight or wisdom to avoid. 11. Religious practice. 1. The first point is prayer, under which are also comprehended those ■iegsd washings or purifications which are neces- sary preparations thereto. For the regular performance of the duty of prayer among the Mahometans, it b reqmsite, while they pray, to turn their faces towards the temple o£ Mepca ; the quarter where the same is situated being, for that reason, pointed, out within their mosques by a niche, which they call al Mehrab: and without,, by the situation of the doors opening into the galleries of the steeples: there are also tables calculated for the ready findr ing out their Koblah, or part towards which "Ihey ought to pray, in places where they have no other direction. 2. Alms are of two sorts, legai and voluntarji. The legal alms are of indispensable obligation, beiiig commanded by the law, which directs and determines both the portion which is to be given, and of what things i^ ought to consist; but the voluntary alms are left to every one's liberty, to five more or less as he shall see fit. The former ind pf alms some think to, be properly called zacat, and the latter sadakai, though thus name be also frequently given to the legalalms. They are called xacai, either because they iiwreaae a man's store by drawing down a blessmg thereon, and produce in his soiu the virtue of libei;aUty ; oi because they purify the remaining part of ontf 8 substance from pollution, a^d the soul from tlie filth of avarice ; and eadakat, because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of God. Some writers have called the legal alins tithes ; hut improperly, since in some cases they fall short, andain others exceed that proportion. 3. Pasting ia a duty of so great moment, that Mahomet used to say it was tne gate of religion, MAHOMET ANISM «nd that the odour of the mouth of him whofaat- tth is more grateful to God than that of musk; and Al Ghazali reckons fasting one fourth part qf the faith. According to the Mahometan divines, there are three degrees of fasting: 1. The restraining the belly and other parts of the body from satisfying their lusts. — 2. The restraining the ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other members from sin.— 3. The fasting of the heart from worldly cares, and restraining the thought from every thing besides God. 4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is so necessary a point of practice, that according to a tradition of Mahomet, he who dies without performing it, may as well die a Jew or a ChristiEin ; and the saipe is expressly commanded in the Koran.-— See Pilgrimage. Til. Mahometanism,' causes of the success of. The rapid success which attended the propaga- tion of this new rehgiou'Was owing to causes that are plain and evident, and ' must remove, or rather prevent our surprise, wh«n they are atten- tively considered. The terror of Mahomet's arms, and the repeated victories which were gain-, ed by him and his successors, were, no doubt, the irresistible arguments that persuaded such multi- tudes to embrace his religion, and submit to his dominion. Besides, his law was artfully and marvellously adapted to the corrupt nature of man ; and, in a most particular manner, to the manners and opkiions of the Eastern nations, and thevices to which they were naturally ad- dicted : for the articles of faith which it proposed were feW iii numberj and extremely simple; and the duties it required were neither many nor difficult, nor such as were incompatible with the empire of appetites and passions. It is to be ob- served farther, (that the gross ignorance under which the Arabians, Synans, Persians, aiid the greatesit part of the Eastern nations, laboured at this time, rendered many an easy prey to the artifice and eloquence of this bold adventurer. To these causes of the progress of Mahomet- anism, we may add the bitter dissensions and cruel animosities that reigned among the Chris- fian Sects, particularly, the Greeks, Nestorians, Eutychians, and Monophysites j dissensions that filled a great part of the East with carnage, as- sassinations, and such detestable enormities, as rendered fhe very name of Christianity odious to many. We might add here, that the IVIonophy- ^ites and Nestorians, full of resentment against the Greeks, from whom they had suffered the bitterest and most injurious treatment, assisted the Arabians in the' conquest of Several pro- vinces, into which, of consequence, the religion of Mahomet was afterwards introduced. Other causes of the sudden progress of that religion will naturally occur to such as consider attentivdy its spirit and genius, and the state of the world at this time. IVl Mahometanism, subDersion of. — Of things yet to come it is difficult to say any thing with precision.' We 'have, however, some reason to believe, from the aspect of Scripture prophecy, that, triumphant as this sect has been, it shall at last come to nought. ' As it arose'as a scourge to Christendom about the time that Antichrist ob- tained a temporal dgminion, so it is not improba- ble but they will have their ilownfall nearly atthe same period. The ninth ohapter'of Revielations seems to refer wholly to this imposture : '*the I 256 MAN four angels werelbosed," says the prediction, 15th verse, " which were prepared for an hour, and a ' day, and a month, and a year, for to slay the third part of men." This period, in the language of prophecy, makes 391 years, which being added to the year when the four angels were loosed will bring us down to 1844, or thereabouts, for the final destruction of the Mahometan empire. It must be confessed, however, that though the event is certain, the exact time cannot be easily ascertained. Prideaux's lAfe of Mahomet ; Mo- sheim's Bed. Hist. cent. vii. ch. 3 ; Sale's Pre' limina/ry' Discourse, prefixed to his English Translation 'of the Koran; Simpson's' Key to Proph. sect. 19; Bishop Newton, Mede,,a.ad Gill, on Rev. ix. ; Miller's Propagation of Christianity, vol. i. eh. 1 ; White's Sermons at BamptonLec; Eni.Brit.; Foster's Mahomet- anism Unveiled. MALEVOLENCE is that disposition of mind which inclines us to wish ill to any person. It discovers itself in frowns and a lowering counte- nance ; in uncharitableness, in evil sentiments ; hard speeches to or of its object : in cursing and reviUng ; and doing mischief either with open violence or secret spite, as far as there is power. MALICE' is a settled or deliberate determina- tion to revenge or do hurt to another. It more frequently denotes the dispeatioh of inferior minds to execute everypurpose of mischief within^ the more limited circle of then: abilities. . It b a' most hateful temper in the sight of God, strictly forbidden in his holy word, 'Col. iii. 8^12, dis- graceful to rational creatures, and every way m.niical to the spirit of Christianity, Matt. v. 44. See Cbaritt, Love. f- j MALIGNITY, a disposition obstinately bad ' or malicious. Malignancy and malignitf are ' words nearly synonymous. In some connexions malignity seems rather more pertinently applied to a radical depravity of nature ; and m^oKgnam:^ to ind4€ations of this depravity in temper and conduct in particular instances. , MAN, a being consisting of a rational soul and organical body. By some he is defined thus : " He is the head of the animal creation ; a beii^ who feels, ' reflects, thinks, 'contrives, and acts ; who has the power of changing his place upon the earth at pleasure ; who possesses the faculty of communicating his thoughts by means qi speech, and who has dominion over all other creatures on the face of the earth." We shall here present the reader with a brief account of his formation, species, and different state. 1. His formation. Man wa^ made last of all the crea- tures, being the chief and master-piece of the whole creation on ea^h. He is a compendium of the creation, and /therefore is sometimes called a microcosm,, a litt^ world,. the world in minia- ture : something of the vegetable, animal, and rational world meet in him ; spirit , and matter ; yea, heaven and earth centre in him ; he is the bond that connects them both together. The constituent and essential parts of man created by God are two ; body and soul. The one was mads out of the (Zust ; the other was breathed into him. The bodyis formed with the greatest precision and exactne^ ; every muscle, vein, artery, yea, the least fibre, inits proper place ; all in just proportion and symmetry, in subserviency to the use of each other, and for the good of the whole, Psal. cxxix. 14. It is also mEMe erect, to distinguish it firura MAN the four-footed animals, who look downward to the earth. Man was made to look upward to the heavens, to contemplate' them, and the glory of Gdd displayed in them : to look up to God, to worship ana adore him. In the Greek language,' man has his name, «>9p«!ro; ; from turning and looking upwards. The soul is the other part of man, which is a suhstance or subsistence ; it is not an accident, or quahty, inhereint in a subject; but capable of subsisting without the body. It is a'sp^- ritual Bubstance, immaterial, immortal. See Soul. 2. Man, different species of. — According to Iiinn«eus and Buffon, there are six different spe- an upright, Eccl. vii. 29 ; without amy imper- fev.tiau, corruption, or principle of corruption in his bjdy or soul ; with light in his understanding, hoUness in his will, and purity in his affections. This constituted hi8 original righteousness, which was universal, both with respect to the subject of it, the whole man, and the object of it, the whole law. Being thus in a state of holiness, he was necessarily &i a state of happiness. He was a very glorious creature, the favourite of heaven, the lord of the world, possessing perfect tranquillity MANICHEES in his own breast, and immortal. Yet he was ntrt without law ; for to the law of nature, which was impressed on his heart, God superadded a positive' law, not to eat of the forbidden fruit. Gen. ii. 17, under the penalty of death natural, spiritual, arid eternal. Had he obeyed this law, he might havo had reason to expect that he would not only have had the continuance of his natural and spiritual Ufe, but have been transported to the upper para- dise. 2. His fall. — Man's righteousness, how- ever, though universal, was not immutable, as the event has proved. How long he lived in a state of innocence cannot easily be ascertained, yet most suppose it was but a very short time. The positive law which God gave hun he broke, by eating the forbidden fruit. The consequence of this evil act was, that man lost the chief good; his nature was corrupted ; his powers depraved, his body subject to corruption, his soul exposed to misery, his posterity all involved in ruin, subject , to eternal condemnation, and for ever incapable to restore themselves to the favour of God, tu obey his commands perfectly, and to satisfy his justice. Gal. iii. ; Rom. v. ; Gen. iii. ; Eph. ii. ; Rom. iii. passun. See Fall. — 3. His recovery. — Although man has fallen by his iniquity, yet he is not left finally to perish. The Divine being, foreseeing the fall, in ir^itc love and mercy maue provision for his relief. Jesus Christ, according to the divine purpose, came in the fulness of time to be his Saviour, and, by virtue of his sufferings,, all who believe are justified /rom the curse of tne law. By the influences of the Holy Spirit he is regenerated, united to Christ by faith, and sano- tifted. True believers, therefore, live a life of dependence on the promises ; of regularity and obedience to God's word ; of holy joy and pieace ; and have a hope full of immortality. — 4. ifis/u- ture state.-!-As it respects the impenitent, it is a state of separation from Gnd, and eternal punish- ment. Matt, xxv; 46. But the righteous shall rise to glory, honour, and everlasting joy. To the former, death will be the introdiiction to misery ; to the latter, it will be the admission to felicity. All vnll be tried in the judgmentday, and. sen- tence pronounced accprdiiigly. The wicked will, be driven away in his wickedness, and the righ- teous be saved with an everlasting salvation. But as these subjects are treated on elsewhere, we re- fer the, reader to the articles Grace, Heaven, Hell, Sin. Hartley's Observations on Man; Boston's Powrfold State ,- Kaimesfs Sketches of the History of Mkn .; Locke on Und. ; Reid on the Active and Intellectual Powers of ^an; Wollaston^s Religion of Natpre ; HarHsfs Phi- losmhical Arrangements. MANICHEES, or Manicbeans, {Man- chiai), a sect of ancient heretics, who asserted two principles ; so called firom their author Manet, or Mqnichimis, a Persian by nation, and educated among the Magi, being himself one of that num- ber before he embraced Christianity. This heresy had its first rise about the year 277, and spread itself principally in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa. St. Epiphanius, who treats of it at large, observes that the true name of this heresiarch was Cubricus ; and that he^ changed it for Manes, which in the Persian or Babylonish language signifies vessel. A rich widow, whose servant he had been, dying without issue, left him stores of wealth ; after which he assumed the title of the apostle, oi envoy of Jesus Christ w2 MANICHEES Manes was not contented with the quafitji of apostle of Jesus Christ, but he also assumed that of, the Paiaclete, whom Christ had promised to send ; which Augustine explains, by saying, that Manes endeavoiued to persuade men that the Holy Ghost did personally dwell in him with full authority. He- left sevem disciples ; and among others, Addas, Thomas, and Hermas. These he sent in his lifetime into several provinces to preach his doctrii^e. . Manes, having undertaken to cure the king of Persia's son, and not succeeding, was put m prison upon the young prince's death, whence he made his escape ; but he was apprehended soon after, and flayed alive. However, the oriental writers cited by D'ljer- belot, ar^d Hyde, tell us that Manes, after having Ijeen protected in a singular manner hy Hormi?- das, who succeeded Sapor on the Persian thrpne, but who was not able to defend him, at length, against the united hatred of the Christians, the Magi, the Jews, and the Pagans, was shut up in a strong castle, to serve him as a refuge against those v«io persecuted him on accoant of his doc-; trine. They add, that after, the death of Hor- mizdas, Varanes I., bis successor, first protected Manes, but afterwards gave him up tb the fury of, the Magi, whose resentment against him was due to his having adopted the Sadducean principles, as some say ; while others attribute it to his hav^ ing mingled the tenets of the Magi with the docr trines of Christianity. However, it is certain, that the Manicheans celebrated the day of their master's death. It hasi,b^n a subject of much, controversy whether. Manes was an impostor, The learned Dr. Lardner has examined theargUT ments on both sides; and though he does naij, choose to deny that he was an impostor, he does not, discern evident proofs of it. He acknow- ledges that he was anjarrpsant philosopher, and a great scheroist ; bjit whether he was an impos-, tor he cannot certainly say. He was much too fond of philosophical , notions, which he endear voiired to bring into religion, for. which he is to be. blamed; nevertheless, he, observes that every bold dbgmatizer is not an impostor. The doctrine of Manes wjj^ a motley mixture of the tenets of Christianity with the ancient philosophy of the Persians, in which lie had been instructed during his youth. He combiiied these, two systems, and applied and accommodated to Jesus Christ the characters and actions whiph, the Persians attributed to the god , Mithps. I He established two print^plefs, viz; a good and aq evil one; the firs^, a ,mps,t pure and sulbtle matter, which he called iighf^.aid nqthii(g„but, gqpd j and the second, a gross and corrupt siib- stance, which he called darJcnless, nothing but en\f. This philosophy is very ancient ; and Plutarch treats of it at, lai-ge in his Isis and Osiris. . t)ur soiils, according to Mgnes,. were njade by. the good princiijl^, and our bodies.by the evil one ; these tvifp principles be'..!g, according to him,' co- etetnal and independe,tit of each other. Each of these is subject to the dominion of a superintendent Being, whose existi;nGe,U from all eternjty. The Being who presides over the tight is caill^ God ; he that rules the Jand of darkness bears the title of kylf or demon. The; ruler, of the tight is si^pjifeinely happy, andio.'jpnsequenc.e thereof be- nevolent and good : the pnnc? of darkness fi un- happy in himself, and desirous, of renderingptjiers MANICHEES partakers of his misery ; and is evil and malignant. These two beings have produced an immense multitude of creatures resembl^g theipselves, and distributed them through their respective . prot- vmces. After a contest between the ruler oitight and the prince of darkness, in which, the. latter. Was defeated, this prince of darkness produced, the first parents of the human race.. The bein^ [engendered from this original stock consist ofi a body formed out. of the corrupt matter of the ,kingdom of darkness, .and of two souls,^ — one of which is sensitive and lustful,, and owes its exist- ence to the evil principle j the other rationaliand immortal, a particle of^ that divine light which had. beeaxairied away in the contest by the army of darkness, and. immersed into the mass of maligr nant matter. , Thej^rth was created by God out. of. this corrupt mass of matter, in order to be a dwelling for the, human race, that/their captive . souls might by degrees be delivered from their cor- poreal prisons,, ami the celestial elements extri- cated froin,the:gToss substance in which they were involved. With this view God produced two beings from his own substance, viz. Christ and the Holy Ghost.; for the Manicheans held a con). substantial trinity. Christ, or the glorious intel- ligence, called by the Persians Mithras, subsisting in and by himself, and residing in the sun, ap? peared in due time among the Jews, clothed vdth the shadowy form of a human body, to disengage, the rational soul from, the corrupt body, and:b> conquer the violence of .malignant matter. The. Jews, incited by, the prince of darkness, put him to an ignominious death, whiph he sufl'ered, not in reahty,,butionJy in appearance, and according" to the opinion of men. W^hen the purposes of Chijst . were, accomplished, he returned to his throne in the sun, apppinting apostles tp propa- gate his relisipn, and leaving his followers the promise of the Paraclete or Ccmforter, whp is Manes the Persiap.- Those souls who behevB Jesus Christ to bethe Son pf Gpd, renounce the worship of the god of the Jejvs, who is the prince . of darkness, ana obey the Jaws delivered by Christ; . and illustrated by Mane^.tjie Comforter, are grar dually purifiei^.from the contagion of matter ; and. their purification being completed, after having ps^ed ihrpugh two states of trial, by water and: fire,, first in. the. moon ,and then in the sun, their bqdies. return. to the original mass (for the Mani- cheans .deride, thg resurrection of bodies), and their, souls ascend to the regions of light. But the souls ;Pf those who have neglected the salur tary.work of puofication, pass after death into the ' bodies of other animals and. natures, where they remain till they.Jiaye. accomplished their proba. tion. Some, howe.yer, niore perverse anaobstfc- . nate, are consigned.tq, a severer course of trial, being) delivjered over for, a, time to the power of. malignant aerial apirits,.who .torment them in var ripusways. Aftcr.this, a fire shall break forth; kii4 ponsnije the frame of the world; and t'>3. prince, and povy,ers of darkness shall return to their primitive seats of anguish, and misery, in. which they shall dwell for ever. These mansions shati be surround*?! by an ,in vincible gnard to pro- vent thejir ever renewing a war in the regions of, light, Manps. borrowed many, things from the an- cient; Gnostics, on which account many authors consider, the Manicheans as, a branch of the Gnostics. , MAMICHEES In truth, the- Manichean doctrine was aeptxaa wf.philosophj* rather than of religion. They oiaae use of amulets, in imitation of the BasUi- dians^ and are said to have made profession of astronomy and astrology. Tliey denied that Je- sus Christ, who was only God, assumed a true human body, and maintained it was only imagi- nary ; and therefore they denied his incarnation, death^ &c. They pretended that the law of Moses did not come from God, or the good prin- ciple; but from the evil ' one ; and that for this reason it was abrogated. Theyrejectedi almost all the sacred, books in which Christians look for the sublime truths of theii" holy religion. They affirmed' that the Old Testament was not the work'of Grod, but of the prince of darkness, who was. substituted, by the Jewin the place of the true Gtid. They abstainea entirely from eating the- flesh of any animal, following herein the doc-, trine of the aneitent' Pythagoreans: they also condenuied marriage. The rest of their errors may be Been in St'Epiphanius and ^t. Augus- tine; which lasl; having been of their sect, may be.presumed to have been thoiroughly ac({uainted>' vdtn themi Though, the Maniehees professed ' to receive the. books of the New Testament, yet in effect they only took so much of them as suited with theirown opinions. They first formed to themselves acertain ideaor scheme of Christianity ; and to this adjusted the writings of the apostles, pretending that whatever was inconsistent with this had been foisted into the New Testament by the later writers, who were half Jews. On the other.hand, they made fables and apoeiyphal hooks passj for apostolical writings; and even are suspected to have fojjged several others; the better to maintain their errors. St. Epiphanins mves a catalogue «f several pieces published by Manes, and adds extracts out of some of them. These are the Mys- teries, Chapters, Gospel, and Treasury. The rule of life and manners wmch Manes prescribed to his followers was most extrava- gantly rigorous and severe. Ho"*ever, he di- vided his disciples into two otasses ; one of which comprehended the perfect Christians, iunder the name of the elect; and the otlier tlie. imperfect and feeble, under the title of auditors or hearers. The elect were obliged to rigorous and entire abstinence from tiesn, eggs, milk, fish, wine, all intoxicating drinkj wedlock, and all amorous gra- tifications ; and' to live in a state of the. severest' penury., nourishing their emaciated bodied with bread, herbSj pulse, and melons, and depriving themselves of all the comforts that arise from the moderate indulgence of natural passions, and also from a variety of innocent and ' aOTeeable pur- suits. The auditors were allowed to possess houses, lands, and wealth ; to' feed on nesh, to enter into the bonds of conjugal tenderness ; but this liberty was granted them with many limita- ijons, and under the strictest conditions of mo- deration and temperanqeJ The general assembly, of- Manicheans was headed 'by a president, who. represented Jesus Christi There were'joined to' him twelve rulers or masters, who were designed; to represent the. twelve apostles ; and these were followed'by seventy-two" bishops^ thei images of. the seventy-two disciples of am Lordtf. These bishops had presbyters or deacons undeMhera,' and all the memb^ of these reli^ous orders were Chosen out of the class ofi the deitt . Their ' MABCELLIANS worship was shnple and plain,;; and consisted of •pniyers, reading the Scriptures, and. hearing pub- lic discourses, at which both the auditors and the elect were allowed to be present They also ob- served the Christian appointment of baptism and the eucharist. They !^ep^ the Lord's day, ob- serving it as a fast; and they likewise kept Easter and thp Pentecost Towards the fourth century the Manicheans concealed themselves under various names, which: they successively adopted, and changed in pro- portion as they were discovered by them. Thus they assumed the names of Eucratites, Aposta- tics, Saccophori) Hydroparastates, Solitaries, and seyeral.others, under which.they lay iCOncealed for a certain time, but could iiot^ however, long escape the vigilance of their enemies. About the c/ose of the sixth century, this sect gained a very consi- derable influence, partieularly among thePersiatis. Toward^ the middle of the twelfth century, the sect of Manichee? took a new face, on a(x;ount of one Cpnatantine, an Armenian, and an ad- herer to it ; who took upon htm to suppress the reading of all other books besides the evangelists sind the epistles of St Paul, which, he expkined i^ such a manner as to make them contain a new ^stem of Manicheism. He entirely discarded all the writings of his predecessors ; rejecting the chimeras of the Valentinians and their' tnilty sons; the fable of Manes, with regard to the brigin of rain, and other dreams ; but still retain- ed the impurities of Basilides. In this. manner he reformed. Manicheism, insomuch that his fcllowers made no scruple: of anathematizing ScythiaUi Buddas, called also Addas and Tere- kinth, the contemporaries and disciples, as some say, and, according to others, the predecessors and masters of ^anesj and even Manes himself; Constantine being now their great apostle. After he had seducCd an infinite number of people, he was at last stoned by order of the emperor. This sect prevailed in Bosnia and the adjacent provinces about the close of the fifteenth century; propagated their doctrine with confidence, and held their religious assemblies with impunity. MANNERS : the plural noun has various significations; as the general way of life, the morals or the habits of any person ; also ceremo- nial behaiioir or studied civility. Geod-manners, according to Svoft, is the art of making those people easy with whom we converse. Pride, ill- nature, and want of sense, are the three great sources of ill-manners^ Without some one of these defects no man will behave himself ill for want cf experience ;jor of wliat, in the language of some, is called, knowing the world. For tno effect that Christianity has on the manners of men, see article Christunity. MARCELLIANS, a sectiof apcient heretic*, towards the close of the second century ; so called from Marcellus of Ancyta, their leader, who vrag accused of reviving the.errois of SaboUius. Some,' however, are of, opinion that Marcellus was or- thodox, and that they were his enemies, the Arians, who fetheriEid: their eiTors upon him. St, Epiphanius .observes, that there was a grejit deal o^dispute.withre^rd to the real tenets of JVIar- cclliis ; but as to his foITowers, it is evident that they) didinol 6wu the three hypostases;,for,M$i- pdlusjconsidsred the Son and.Holy Qhost as tvvo 'emanations frpm: the diyibe nature, whicii, after .peifiiiiDUng their respective (^ces, were to retlira MARCOSIANS again into the substance of the Father; and this opinion is altogether incompatible with the belief of three distinct persons in the Gndhead. MAliCIONlTES, or Marcionists, .Maf- cionistce, a very ancient and popular sect of here- tics, who, in the time of Epiphanius, were spread oyer Italy, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Arabia. Per- sia, and other countries j they were thus denomi- nated from their apthor Marcion. Marcion was of Pontus, the son of a bishop, and at first made profession of the monastic life ; but he was ex- communicated by his own father, who would never admit him again into communion with the church, not even on his repentance. On this he abandoned his own country, and retired to Rome, where he began to broach his doctrines. He laid down two principles, the one good, the other evil ; between these he imagined an inter- mediate kind of Deity, of a mixed nature, who was the creator of this inferior world, and the god and legislator of the Jewish nation ; the other nations, who worshipped a variety of gods, were supposed to be under the empire of the evil prin- ciple. These two conflicting powers exercised oppressions upon rational and immortal souls; and therefore the supreme Grod, to deliver them from, bondage, sent to the Jews a Being more like unto lumself, even his Son Jesus Christ, dothed with a certain shadowy resemblance of a body : this celestial messenger was attacked by the prince of darkness, and by the god of the Jews, but without effect. Those whp follow the (Erec- tions of this celestial conductor, mortify the body by .fastings and Austerities, and renounce the pre- cepts of the god of the Jews and of the prince of darkness, shall after death ascend to the mansions of felicity and perfection. The rule of manners which Marcion prescribed to his followers was excessively austere, containing an express prohi- bition of wedlock, wine, flesh, and all the exter- nal comforts of life. Marcion denied the real birthj incarnation, and passion of Jesus Christ, and held them to be ap- parent only. He denied the resurrection of the bqdy, and allowed none to be baptized but those who preserved their continence; but these he granted might be^baptized three times. In many things he followed the sentiments of the heretic Ceidon and rejected the law and the prophets. He pretendedthe Gospel had been corrupted by false prophets, ^nd allowed none of the evange- lists but St Luke, whom sJso he altered in many placesi as well as the epistles of St. Paul, a great many things in which he threw out. In his ovra copy of St. Luke hs threw out the first two chap- teiB entire. MARCITES, Marcit*, a sect of heretics in the second century, who also called themselves the perfecti, and made profes^on of doing every thing with a great deal of liberty, and without fear. This doctrine they borrowed from Simon Magus, who however was not their chief; for they vi^ere called MarcUes from one Marcus, who conferred the priesthood, and the administration of the sacraments, on women. MARCOSIANSj or Colobaesuns, an an- dent sect in the church, faking a branch (if the Yalentinians. St. IrensBUS speaks at large of the leadiet of this sect, Marcus, who," it seems, was reputed a great magician. The Marcosians had a great number of apocryphal books which they held for canonical, MARONITES and of the same authority with ours. Out of these they picked several idle fables touching the infancy of Jesus Christ, which they put off for true histories. Many of these fables are still in use and credit among the Greek monks. MARONITES, in ecclesiastical history, a sect of eastern Christians who follow the Syrian rite, and are subject to the pope : their principal habitation is on Mount Libanus. Mosheim informs )js, that the doctnne of the Monothelites, condemned and exploded by the council of Constantinople, found a •g]asse of refuge among the Mardaites, a people who inhatiited the Moiints Libanus and Antdibanus, pud who, about the conclusion of the seventh century, were called Maronites, after Maro, their first bishop ; ^ name which they still retain. None (he says) one : such are the masses of the saints ; that of St. Mary of MASTER the Snow, celebrated on the fifth of August ; that of St. Margaret, patroness cf lying-in women ; that at the feast of St. John the Baptist, at which are sffld three masses ; that of the Innocents, at which the gloria in excelsis and hallelujah are omitted, and, it being a day of mourning, the altar is of a violet colour. As to ordinary masses, some are said for the dead, and, as is supposed, contribute to fetbh the soul oiit of purgatory. At these masses the altar is put in mourning, and the only decorations are a cross in the middle of six yellow wax lights ; the dress of the celebrant, and the very mass-book are black ; many parts of the office are omitted, and the people are dismiss- ed without the benediction. If the mass be said for a person distinguished by his rank or virtues, it is followed with a funeral oration : they erect a chapelle ardente, that is, a representation of the deceased, with branches and tapers of yellow wax, either in the middle of the church, or near the deceased's tomb, where the priest pronounces a. solemn absolution of the deceased. There are likewise private masses said for stolen or strayed goods or cattle, for health, for travellers,, &c., which go under the name of votive fnasscs. — There is still a further distinction of masses, de- nominated from, the countries in which, they were used : thus the^ Gothic mass, or missa mosa^ Tobum, is that used among the Goths when they were masters of Spain, and which is still kept up at Toledo and Salamanca ; the Ambrosian mass is that composed by St. Ainbrose, and used only at Milan, of which city he was bishop ; the Gal- lic mass, used by the ancient Gauls; and the Roman mass, used by almost all the churches in the Romish communion. Mass of the presanctified (missa preesanctifi- i:atOTum,) is a mass pecijiar to thfe Greek church, in which there is no consecration of the elements ; but, after singing some hymns, they receive the bread and wine which were bp,fore consecrated. This mass is performed all Lent, except on Saturdays, Sundays, and the Annunciation. The priest counts, upon his fingers, the days of the, ensuing week on which it is to be celebrated, and cuts off as many pieces of bread at the altar as he is to say masses: and alter having consecrated them, steeps them in wine, and puts them in a box ; out of which, upon every occasion, he takes some of it with a spoon, and, putting it on a dish, sets it on the altar. MASSACRE, a term used to signify the sud- den and promiscuous butchery of a multitude. — See PERsEcaxiON. MASSALIANS, or Messalians, a sect which sprung up about the year 361, in the reign of the emperor Constantino, who main- tained that men have two souls, a celestial and a diabolical ; and that the latter is driven out by .prayer. From those words of our Lord, "La- bour not for the meat that perisheth," it is said, that they concluded they ought not to do any work to get their bread. We may suppose, says Dr. Jortin, that this sect did not last long : that these sluggards were soon starved out of the world ; or, rather, that cold and hunger sharpen- ed their wits,' and taught them to be better inter- preters of Scripture. MASTER, a person who has servants under him ; a rulSr, or instructor. The duties of mas- ters relate to the civil concerns of the family. To arrang.? the several businesses required of S!64 MATERIALISTS servants j to give particular instructions fpr what is to he done, and how it is to be doni? ; to take car^ that no more is required of servants than they are equal to ; to be gentle in our deportment towards themj to reprove them when they do wrong, to commend them when they do right ; to make them an adequate recompense for theii services, as to protection, maintenance, wages, and character. — 3. As to the morals of servants. Masters must look well to their servants' charac- ters before they hire (hem j instruct them in the principles and confirm them in the habits of vir- tue; watch over their morals, and set them good examples. — 3. As to tlieir religious interests.-r— They should instruct them in the knowledge of divine things. Gen. xiv. 14; xviii. 19. Pray with them and for them, Joshua xxiv. 15. Al- low them time and leisure for religious services, &c. Eph; vi. 9. See Stennett on Domestic Duties, ser. 8 ; Paley's Mor. PhU. vol. i. 233, 335; Beattie's Elements of Moral Science, voL i. 150, 153 ; Doddridge's Lee. vol. ii. 366. MATERIALISTS,, a sect in the ancient church, composed of persons, who, being prepos- sessed with that maxim in philosophy, " ex ni- hilo nihil fit," out of nothing nothing can arise, had recourse to an eternal matter, on which they supposed God wrought in the creation, instead of admitting Him alone as the sole cause of the existence of all things.' TertuUian vigorously opposed them in his treatise against Hermo- genes, who was one of their number. Matp'ialists are alto those who inaintain that the soul of man is material, or that the principle ■of perception and thought is not a substance dis- tinct from the body, but the result of corporeal organization. There are others called by this name, who have maintained that there is nothing but matter in the universe. The followers of the late Dr. Priestley are con- sicjered as Materialists, or Philosophical Nepes- sarians. According to the doctor's writing, he believed, — 1. That man is no more than what we now see of him : his being comraiences at the time of his conception, or perhaps at an earlier period. The corporeal and mental faculties, inhering in the same substance, grow, ripen, and decay to- gether ; and whenever the system is dissolved, it continues in a state of dissolution, till it shall please that Almighty Being, who called it into existence, to restore it to life again. For if the mental principle were, in its own nature, imma- terial and immortal, all its peculiar faculties would be so too; whereas we see that every faculty of the mind, without exception, is liable to be impaired, and even to become wholly ex- tinct, before death. Since, therefore, all the faculties of the mind,''separately taken, appear to be mortal, the substance, or principle, in which they exist, must be pronounced mortal too. Thus we might conclude that the body was mortal, from observing that all the separate senses and limbs were liable to decay and perish. , This system gives a real value to the doctnne of the resurrection from tne dead, which b pecu- liar to revelation ; on which alone the sacred writers build all our hope of future life : and it explains the uniform language of the Scriptures, which speak of one day of judgment for all.man- kind; and represent all the rewards of virtue, and all the punishments of vice, as taking piece at MATERIALISTS that awftil (lay, t^nd not before. In the Scrip- tures, the heathens are represented as without hope, and all mankind as perishing at death, if there be no resurrection of the dead. The apostle Paul asserts, in 1 Cor. xv. 16, that if the diead rise not, then is not Christ risen ; tund if Christ be not raised, your faith is vain, ye are yet in your sins: then they also who are fallen asleep in Christ are perished. And again, ver. 32, If the dead rise not, let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die. .In the whole dis- course, he does not even mention the doctrine of fcappiness or misery without the body. , If we search the Scriptures for pasages expres- sdveof the state of man at death, we find such de- darations as expressly exclude any trace of sense, thought, or enjoyment. See Ps. vi. 5 ; Job. xiv. % &c. . ' , I 2. That there is some fixed law of nature re- specting the will, as well as the other powers of the mind, and every thing else in the constitution, of nature ; and consequently that it is never de- termined without some real or apparent cause foreign to itself; i. e. without some motive of choice; or that motives influence us in some definite and invariable manner, so that every vo- lition, or choice, is constantly . regulated and de- termined by what precedes it ; and this constant deterinination of mind,, according to the motives presented to itj is what is meant by its necessary determination. This being admitted 'to he the feet, there -will be a necessary connexion between all things past, present, and to come, in the way of proper cause and effect, as much in the intel- lectual as in the natuiral world ; so that accorclins to the established laws of nature, no event could have been otherwise thai) it has been or is to be, and therefore all things past, present, and to come, are precisely what the Author of Nature really intended them to be, and has made pro- vision for. To establish this conclnsionj nothing is neces- S£try but that, throughout all nature, the same consequences should invariably result from the same drcumstances. For if this be adtmtted, it will necessarily follow, that at the Xiommence- ment of any -system, since the several parts of it and their respective situations were appointed by the Deity, the first change would take place according to a certain rule established by himself, the resmt of which would be a new situation ; after which the same laws continiiing, another (diange would succeed, according to the same rules, and so on for ever ; every new situation in- variably leading to another, and every event, from the comj;nencement to the termir.ation of the sys- tem, being strictly connected ; so that unless the fundamental laws of the system were changed, it would be impossible that any event should have been otherwise than it was. In all these cases, the circumstances preceding any change are called the causes of that change : and since a determinate event or effect, constantly follows certain circum- Btances, or causes, the connexion between cause and effect is concluded to be invariable, and there- fore necessary. It is universally acknowledged, that there can be no effect without an adequate cause. , This is even the foundation on which the only proper argument for the being of a God rests. And the Necessarian asserts, that if, in any given state of inind, with respect both to dispositions and mo- 265 2 / MATERIALISTS tives, two different determinations, or volitions, be possible, it can be on no other prindple, than that one of them should come under the description of an effect without a cause ; just as if the beam of balance might incUne either way, though loaded with equal weights. And if any thing whatever, even a thought in the mind of man, could arise .without an adequate cause, any thing else, the mind itself, or the whole universe, might likewise exist without an adequate cause. This scheme of philosophical necessity implies a chain of causes and effects established by m- finite wisdom, and terpiinating in the greatest good of the whole universe ; evils of alt kinds, natural and moral, being admitted, as far as they contribute to that end, or are in the nature of things inseparable from it. Vice is productive not of good, but of evil to us, both here and here- after, though good may result from it to the whole system ; and according to the fixed laws of iiature, our present and future happiness necessarily de- pend on our cnltivatina good dispositions. This scheme of phifoaophical necessity is dis- tinguished from the Calvmistie doctrine of pre- destination in the following particulars : 1. No Necessarian supposes that any of the human race will suffer eternally ; but that future punishments will answer the same purpose as temporal ones are found to do j all of which tend to good, and are evidently admitted for that pur- pose. Upon the doctrine of necessity, also, the most indifferent actions of men are equally ne- cessary with the inost important; since every volition, like any other effect, must have an ade- quate cause depending upon the previous state of the mind, and the influence to which it is exposed. 2. The Necessarian behoves that his own dis- positions and actions are the necessary and sole means of his present and future happiness ; so that, in the most proper sense of the words, it depends entirely on himself whether he be vir- tuous or vicious, happy or miserable. 3. The Calvinistic system entirely excludes the popular notion of free-will, viz. the liberty or power of doing what we please, virtuous oi vicious, as belonging to every^ person, in every situation ; which is perfectly consistent with the doctrine of philosophical necessity, ^nd indeed results from it. 4. The Necessarian believes nothing of the posterity of Adam's sinning in hun, and of their being liable to the wrath of God on that account; or the necessity of an infinite Being making atonement for them by suffering in their stead, and thus making the Deity propitious to them. .He believes nothing of all the actions of any man being necessarily smful; but, on the contrary, thinks that the very worst of men are capable of benevolent intentions in many things that they do ; and likewise that very good men are capable of falling from virtue, and consequently of sink- ing into final perdition. Upon the principles 6f the Necessarian, also, all late repentance, and especially after long and confirmed habits of vice, is altogether and necessarily ineffectual; there hot being sufficient time left'to produee a change of disposition and character, which can only be done by a change of conduct of proportionably long continuance. In short, the three doctriiies of Materialism, Philosophical Necessi^, and Socinianism, are MEDIATOR consiiJered as equally parts of one system. The scheme of Necessity is the immediate result of the materiality of man j for mechanism is the un- doubted consequence of materialism, and that man is wholly material, is eminently subservient to the proper or mere humanity of Christ. For if no man have a soul distinct from his body, Christ, who in all other respects appeared as a man, could not have a soul which had existed before his body ; and the whole doctrine of the pre-ex- islence of souls, of which the opinion of the pre- existence of Christ, is a branch, will be effectually overturned. See Necessity, Pre-existence, Spinosism, Soul, XJNiTiHiAN, and books under those articles. MEANS OP GRACE denote those duties we perform for the purpose of improving our tninds, affecting our hearts, and of obtaining spi- ritual blessings; such as hearing the Gospel, reading the Scriptures, self-examination, medita- Con, prayer, praise. Christian conversation, &c. The means are to be used without any reference to merit, but solely with a dependence on the Divine Being j nor can we ever expect happi- ness in oursehresj nor be good exemplars to others, while we live in the neglect of them. It is in vain to argue that the divine decree supersedes (he necessity of them, since God has as certainly appointed the means as the end. Besides, he llimself generally works by them j and the more means he thinks proper to use, the more he dis- plays his glorious perfections. Jesus Christ, when on earth, used means; he prated, he ex- horted, and did good, by going from place to place. Indeed, the systems of nature, providence, and grace, are all carried on by means. The Scrip- tures abound with exhortations' to them. Matt. v. ; Rom. xii. ; and none but enthusiasts or immoral characters ever refuse to use them. MEDIATOR, a person that intervenes beJ tween two parties at variance, in order to recon- cile them., Thus Jesus Christ is the Mediator between an offended God and sinful man, 1 Tim. ii. 5. Both Jews and Gentiles have a notion of a Mediator: the Jews call the Messiah Xj;XDXi the Mediator or , Middle One. The Persians call their God Mithras, Mfi'ms, a Mediator; and the daemons, with the heathens, seem to be, ac- cording to them, mediators between the superior fods and men. Indeed, the whole religion of 'aganism was a system of mediation and inter- cession. The idea, therefore, of salvation by a Mediator, is not so novel or restricted as sonie imagine ; and the Scriptures of truth infdrm us, tha.t it is only by this way human beings can arrive to eternal felicity. Acts iv. 12 ; John xiv. 6. Man, I in his state of innocence, was in friendship with God ; but, by sinning against him, he ex- posed himself to lus just displeasure ; his powers became enfeebled, and his heart filled with en- mity against him, Rom. viii.- 6 j he was driven out of his paradisaical Eden, and totally incapable of returning to God, and making satisfaction to his justice, Jesus Christ, therefore, was the ap- pointed Mediator to bring about reconciliation, Gen. iii. 12; Col. i. 21; and in the fulness of time, he came into this world, obeyed the law, satisfied justice, and brought his people into a state of grace and favour ; yea, into a iiiore ex- alted state of friendship with God'Ahan was lost by the fall, Eph. ii. 18. Now, in order to the accomplishing of this work, it was necessary that 26? MEDITATION the Mediator should be God and man in one person. It was necessary that he should be man, 1. That he might be related to those he was a Mediator and Redeemer of.— 2. That sin mighl be satisfied for, and reconciliation be made for it, in the same nature which sinned.-^— 3. It was proper that the Mediator should be capable of obe^ng the law broken by the sin of man, as a divme person could not be subject to the law, and yield oliedience to it. Gal. iv. 4; Rom. v. 19^— 4. It was meet that the Mediator should bemanj that he mightbe capable of suffering death; for, as God, he could not die, and without shedding of blood there was no remission, Heb. ii. 10, 1^ viii. 3. — 5. It was fit he should be man, that he might be a faithful high priest, to sympathise with his people under all their trials, tempta- tions, &c., Heb. ii. 17, 18 ; iv. 15.— 6. It was fit that he should be a holy and righteous man, frae from all sin, original and actual, that he might ofler himself without spot to God, take away the sins of men, and be an etdvocate for them, Heh vii. 26, ix. 14; 1 John iiL 5. But it was not enough to be truly man, and ein innocent person ; he must be more than man : it was requisite that he should be God also, for, 1. No mere man could have entered into a covenant with God to mediate, between him and sinful men. — 2. He must be God to give virtue and value to his obedience and sufferings ; for the sufferings of men or angels would not have been sufficient. — 3. Being thus God-man, we are encouraged to hope in him. In the person of Jesus Christ the object of trust is brought nearer to ourselves; and those welk known tender affections which are only figurai- tively ascribed to the Deity, are, in our great Mediator, thoroughly realized. Further, weft he God, and not man, we should approach him with fear and dread ; were he man and not Godi we should be guilty of idolatry to worship ana trust in him at all, Jer. xvii. 5. The plan of sal- vation, therefore, by such a Mediator, is the most suitable to hunian beings that possibly could be ; for here " Mercy and truth meet together, righ- teousness and peace kiss each other." Ps. bcxxvt 10. The properties of Christ as Mediator are these : 1. He is the only Mediator, 1 Tim. ii. 4 Praying, therefore, to saints and angels is an error of the church of Rome, and has no countenance from the Scripture. — 3. Christ is a Media& of men only, not of angels; .good angels need not any ; and as for evil angels, none is provided noi admittedi — 3. He is the Mediator both for Jews and Gentiles, Eph. ii. 18 ; 1 John ii. 2. — 4. He is Mediator both for Old and New Testament saints. — 5. He is a suitable, constant, wilhng, and prevailing MediatoI;,his mediation always suc- ceeds, and is infallible. Gillrs Body of Div. voL L Oct. ed.ip. 336; Witsii CEcon. Poed. lib. iL ch. 4; Fuller's Gospel its own Witness, ch. 4, p. 2; Hurrion'^ Christ Crucified, p. 103, &c. ; Dr. Owen on the Person of Christ ; Dr. Goodmn's Works, b. iii. MEDITATION is an act by which we co»- sider any thing closely, or wherein the soul is employed in the search or consideration of any truth. In religion it is used to signify the se- rious exercise of the understanding, whereby oui thoughts are fixed on the observation of spiritual tilings, in order to practice. Mystic divines make a great difference between meditation and coi> templatian : the former consists in discursive acts MEEKNESS of the soul, conadering methodically and with attention the mysteries of faith and the precepts of morality ; ai)d is perfonned by reflections and reasonings which leave behhid them manifest im- pressions on the brain. The pure contemplative, they say, have no need of meditation, as seeing all things in God at a glance, and without any reflection. See Begdines and doiETiaTB. 1. Meditation is a duty which ought to be at- tended to by all who wish well to their spiritual interests. It ought to be deliberate, eltjse, and perpetual, Psal. cxix. 97; i. 3. — 2. The sub- jects which ought more especially to engage the Christian mind are the works of creation, Psal. xix. : the perfections of God, Deut. xxxii. 4 ; the excellencies, offices, characters, and works of Christ, Heb. xii. &, 3 ; the offices and operations of the Holy Spirit, Johii xv. and xvi. ; the va- rious dispensations of Providence, Ps. xcvii. 1, 2 ; tlie precepts, declarations, promises, &C., of God's worn, Ps. cxix.; the value, powers, and' immor- tality of the soul, Mark viii; 36 ; the noble, beau- tiful, and benevolent plan of the Gospel, 1 Tim. i. 11; the necessity of our personal interest in and experience of its power; John iii. 3 ; the depravity of our nature, and the freedom of divine-grace in choosing, adopting, justifyingi-andsancti^ing lis, 1 Cor. vi. 11 ; the shortness, worth, and svpift- ness of time, James iv. 14 ; the certainty of death, Heb. iif. 271 the resurrection and judgment to come, 1 Cor. xv. 50, &C. ; aaid the futuie state df eternal rewards and rpunishraents, Matt. xxv. These are some of the most important sub- jects on which we should meditate. — ^3. To per-- form, this duty aright, we should be muth ih prayer, Luke xvii^. 1 ;' avoid a worldly spirit, 1 John ii. 15; beware of sloth,: Heb. vi. 11; take heed of sensual pleasures, James iv. 4 ; watch against the devices of Sataii, 1 Pet. v. 8 ; be often in retirement, Ps. iv. 4 ;. embrace the most favour- able opportunities, the calmness of the morning, Ps. V. 1, 3; the solemnity of the .evening. Gen. Kxiv. 63; sabbath days, Psal. cxviii. 24; sacra- mental occasions, &e. 1 Cor. xi.-28.:-^. The advantages resulting from this arc, improvement of the faculties of the soul, Prov. xvi. 22 ; the idfections are raised to God, Ps. xxxix,1i 4 ; an enjoyment of divine peace -and fehcity, Phil, iv.- 6, 7; holiness of life is promoted, Psal. cxix. 59, 60; and we thereby experience a foretaste of ^ sternal glory, Ps. Ixxiii. 25, 26; 2 Cor. v.,1, &c. ' " MEEKNESS, a temper of mind not easily, provoked to resentment. In the Greek language It is ^|»s;, quasi p»o{, facilis, easiness of spint, and thus it may be justly called; for it accommo- dates the soul to every occurrence, and so makes a man easy to himself and to Edl about him. The Latins csJl a meek man mansuetus, qu. mana assuetus, used to the ha,nd ; which alludes to the taming and reclaiming of creatures wild by na- ture, and bringing them to be tra,ctable and fa- miliar, James lii. 7, 8: so,' where the grace of meekness reigns, it subdues the impetuous dispo- sition, and' learns it submission and forgiveness. It teaches us to govern our own anger whenever we are at any time provoked, and patiently to bear the anger df others, that it may not be a provocation to us. ' The former is its office, espe- dally in superiors; the latter in inferiors, and both in equals, James iii. 13. T%e excelleiwy af taioh a spirit appears, if we consider that itien-^ ables us tojgapi^a ,vietoiy ovqr ^corrupt nature, MELCHITES Prey. ivi. 32 ; that it is a beauty and an orna- ment to human beings, 1 Pet. iii. 4; that it>i» Obedience to God's word, and Conformity to the best patterns, Eph. v. 1, 2; Phil. iv. 8. It is- pro- ductive of 'the highest peace to the jrossessor, Luke xxi. 19; Matt. xi. 28, 29- It fits us &r any duty, instruction, relation, condition,' or per- secution, Phil. iv. 11, 12. To obtain this spirit, • consider that it is a divine injunction, Zeph. iL 3; Col. iii. 12: 1 Tim. vi. 11. Observe the many exarnples of it . Jesus Christ, Matt. xi. 23 ; Abraham, Gen. xiii, xvi. 5, 6 ; Moses, Numb, xii. 3 ; David, Zech. xii. 8; 2 Sam. svi. 10, 12 i Psalm cxxxi. 2; Paul, 1 Cor. ix. 19. Hdw lovely a spirit it is in- itself, and how it secures -us from a variety of evils. That peculiar promises are made to such. Matt. v. 5 ; Isa. Ixvi. 2. That such give evidence of their being under the Oi- fluence of divine grace, and shaQ enjoy the divine blessing; Isaiah wii. 15. See Henry on Meek- ness; Dunlop's Serm. vol. ii. p. 434; Evans's Sermons on the Chris. Temper, ser. 29 ;, TUht- son on 1 Pet. ii. 21 ; and on. Matt,, v. 44; ho- gan's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 10 ; and.JorHn's Ser- mons, ser. 11. vol. iii. ■MEETING-HOUSE, a place appropriated by Dissenters to the purpose of public worship. Since the Act of Uniformity, passed 1662, by which so many hundreds of ministers were eject- ed from their hvings, meeting-houses have become very numerous^ For a considerable time, indeed, they were prohibited by the Conventicle Act ; but,- at .last, toleration being granted to Dissenters, they enjoyed the privilege of meeting and wor- shipping G«d according to the dictates of their own consciences, and which they still possess to this day. The number of meeting-houses in London may, perhaps, amount to about 150^ though some reckon upwards of ^200. In all the respectable towns, and even in many villages of . England, there are raeetU)g-houses ; and, within a few years, they have greatly increased. MELANCHOLY, sadness, or gloom; arising either from the habit of body, or the stable of the mind. To remove it, the foUowingreinedies may bo applied. 1. Early rismff. 2. T'lain, nourish- ing food. 3. Exercise in the open air. , Or if it arises particpjarly from the mind, 1. Associate with the cheerinl. 2. Studjy the Scriptures^ 3, Consider the amiable character of God. 4. Avoid sin. 5. Be much in prayer. See Bur- ton, Baxter, and Rogers on Melancholy. MEL AT ONI, so called from one Mileto, who taught, that not the soulj but the body of I man, was made after God's own image. MELCHIZEDIANS, a denomination which arose about the beginning of the third century. They 'affirmed that Mel^hizedek was not a man, but a heavenly power superior to Jesus Christ; for Melchizedek, they said, was the intercessor and mediator of the angels ; and Jesus Christ was only so for man, and his priesthood only a copy of that of Melchizedek. ,^'MELCHlTES, the jiame ^ven to the ,Sy- riac, Egyptian, and other Christians of the Le- vant. , The Melchites, excepting some few points of little or no importance, which relate only to .c,eremo^es, and ecclesiastical discipline, are, in every, respect, professed Greeks ; but they are go- verned by a< particular patriarch, who assumes the title of Patriarch of Antioch. They celebrate mass in the AraUan language. The rcli^dus MENANDRIANS among the Melchites follow the rule of St. Basil, the common rule of all fhe Greek monks. MELETIANS, the name of a considerable party who adhered to the cause of Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, after he was de- posed, about the year 306, by Peter, bishop of Alexandria, nnder the charge of his having sacri- ficed to the gods, and having been guilty of other heinous crimes; though Epiphai4us makes his «Sily failing to have been an excessive severity ogEunst the lapsed. This dispute, which was af, first a personal difference between Meletius and Peter, became a religious controversy; and the Meletian party subsisted in the fifth century, but was condemned by the first council of Nice. MEMORY, a faculty of the mind, which presents to us ideas or notions of things that are past, accompanied with a persuasion that the' things themselves were formerly real and present. When we remember with little or no eflect, it is called remembrance simply, or memory, and some- times passive memory. When we endeavour to remember what does not immediately and of itself occur, it is^ called £ictive memory, or recol- lection. A good memoyy has these several quali- fications : 1. It ip ready to receive dnd admit with great ease the various ideas, both of words and Slings, which are learned or taught. — 2. It is large and copious to treasure up these ideas in great number and variety. — 3. It is strong and Surable to retain, for a considerable time, those words or thoughts which are comihitted to it. — (L It is faithful and active to suggest and recol- lect, upon every proper occasion, all those words or thoughts which it hath treasured up. As thip faculty inay be injured by neglect and slothful- liess, we will here subjoin a few of the best rules which have been given for the improvement of it. I. We should form a clear and distinct appre- hension of the things which we commit to me- mory. — 2. Beware of every sort of intemperance, for that greatly impairs the faculties. — 3. If it be weak, we must not overload it, but chai'ge it only with the most useful and solid nbtions. — 4. We should talie every opportunity of uttering our best' thoughts in conversation, as this will deeply im- print them. — 5. We shopid join to the idea we wish to remember, some other idea that is more familiar to us, which bears some similitude to it, either in its nature, or in the sound of the word. — 6. We should think of it before we go to sleep at night, and the first thing in the morning, when the feculties are fresh. — 7. Method and regu- larity in the things we commit to the memory are necessary. — 8. Often thinking, writing, or talk- ing, oh the subjects "we wish to remember. — 9. Fervent and frequent prayer. See Watts on the Mind, ch. 17; Grey's Memoria Technical Rogers's Pleasures of Memory ; Reid's InteU. Pmcers of Man, 303, 310, 338, 356. MENANDRIANS, the mosf ancient branch of Gnostics ! thus called from Menander their chief, said by some, without sufficient foundation, to have been a disciple of Simon Magus, and himself a reputed magician. i He taught, that no person could be saved un- less he were baptized in his name ; and he con- ferred a, peculiar sort of baptism, which would render those who received it immortal in the next world ; exhibiting himself to the world with the frenzy of a lunatic, more than the founder of a sect as a prpmised saviour ; for it appears by the MENDICANTS testimonies of Irenseus, Justin, and Tertullian, that he pretended to be one of the eeons sent from the pleroma, or ecclesiastical regions, to succour the souls that lay groaning under bodily oppres- sion and servitude; and to maintain them against the violence and stratagems of the dsemons that hold the reins of empire in this sublunary worid. As this doctrine was built upon the same founda- tion with that of Simon Magus, the ancient writers looked upon him as the instructor of Me- nander. See SiMONiANs. MENDICANTS, or Beggikg Friars, seve- ral orders of religious in popish countries, who, having no settled revenues, are supported by thie charitable contributions they receive from others. This sort of society began in the thirteenth century, and the members of it, by the tenour of their institution, were to remain entirely destitute of all fixed revenues and possessions ; though in process of time their number became a heavy tax upon the people. Innocent III. was the fir§t of the popes who perceived the necessity of institut- ing such an order ; and accordingly he gave such monastic societies as made a profession of poverty, the most distinguishing marks of his protection and favour. They were also encouraged and patronized by the succeeding pimtiffs ; when ex- perience had demonstrated their public and exten- sive usefulness. But when it became generally known that they had such a peculiar place in the esteem and protection of the rulers of the church, their number grew to such an enormous and un^ wieldy multitude,, and swarmed so prodigiously in all the European provinces, that they became a burden, not only to the people, but to the church itself. The great inconvenience that arose from the excessive multiplication of the Mendicant orders was remedied by Gregory X., in a general council, which he assembled at Lyons in 1272-j for here all the religious orders that had sprung up after the council held at Rome in 1215, under the pontificate of Innocent III. were suppressed ; and the extravagant multitude of Mendicants, as Gregory called them, were reduced to a smaller number, and confined to the four following socie- ties or denominations, viz. Dominicans, the Fran- ciscans,, the CarmeUtes, and the Augustins, or hermits of St. Augustin. As the pontiffs allowed these four Mendicant orders the liberty of travelhng wherever they thought proper, of conversing with persons m every rank, of instructing the youth and multv- tude wherever they went; and as those monks exhibited, in their outward appearance and man- ner of life, more striking marks' of gravity and holiness than were observable in the other mo- nastic societies, they arose all at once to the very summit of fame, and were regarded with the ut- most esteem and veneration through all the coun- tries of Europe. The enthusiastic attachment to these sanctimonious beggars went so far, that, as we learn from the most authentic records, se- veral cities were divided or cantoned out into four parts, vrith a view to these four orders : the first part being assigned to the Dominicans, the second to the Franciscans, the third to the Carmelites, and the fourth to the Augustins. The people were unwilling to receive the sacraments from any other hands than those of the Mendicants, to whose churches they crowded to perform theii devotions while living, and were extremely de- sirous to deposit there their remains after death. MENDICANTS Nor did the influence and credit of the Mcndi^ Cants end here ; for we find in the history of this and of the succeedjng ages, that they were em- ptoyed not only in spiritnal matters, but also in temporal and political affairs of the greatest con- sequence, in composing the differences of princes, concluding treaties of peace, concertina aUiances, presiding in cabinet councils, govermng courts, levying taxes, and other occupations, not only re- mote from, but absolutely inconsistent vrith the monastic character and profession. However, the power of the Dominicans and Franciscans greatly surpassed that of the other two orders, in- somuch that these two orders were, before the reformation, what the Jesuits have been since that happy and glorious period; the viery soul of the hierarchy, the engines of the state, the secret springs of all the motions of the one and the other, and the authors and directors of every great amd important event, both in the religious and political world. By very quick progression their pride and confidence arrived at such a pitch, that they had the presuinption to declare publicly, that they had a divine impulse and. commission to illustrate and maintain the religion of Jesus. They treated with the utmost insolence and con- tempt all the diifeient orders of the priesthood ; they affirmed, without a blush, that the true method of obtaining salvation was revealed to them alone; proclaimed with ostentation the superior efficacy and virtue of ^heir indulgences ; and vaunted be- yond measure their interest at the court of heaven, and their familiar connexions with the Supreme Being, the Virgin Mary, and the saints in glory. By these impious wiles they so deluded and teap- tivated the nuserable, and blinded the multitude, Hhat they would not intrust any other but the Mendicants with the care of their souls. They retained their credit and influence to such a de- gree towards the close of the fourteenth century, that great numbers of both sexes, some in health. Others in a state of infirmity, others at the point of death, earnestly desired to be admitted into the Mendicant order, which they looked upon as a sore and infallible method of rendering heaven propitious. — Many made it an essentiS 'part of their last wil'l^ that their bodies after death should he wrapped in old ragged Dominican or Francis- can habits, und interred among the Mendicants. For such was the barbarous superstition and wretched ignorance of this age, that people uni- versally believed they should readily obtain miercy 6om Christ at the day of judgment, if theyap-, □eared before his tribunal associated ■with the Mendicant friars. About this time, however, they fell under an universal odium ; but, being resolutely protected against all opposition, whether open or secret, by (he popes, who regeirded them as their best friends and most effectual supports, they suffered Uttle or nothing from the efforts of their numerous ad- versaries. In the fifteenth century, besides their arrogance, which was excessive, a quarrelsome and litigious spirit prevailed-among them, and drew upon them justly the displeasure and indig- nation of many. By affording refuge at this time to the Beguins lA their order, they became offensive to the bishops, and were hereby in^ volved in difficulties and perplexities of various kinds. They lost their credit in the sixteenth' century by their rustic impudence, their ridicu- lous superstitions, their ignorance, cruelty, and MENNONITES brutish manners. They discovered the most bar' barous aversion to tho arts aru sciences, and ez- pressed a like abhorrence of certain eminent and learned men,' who endeavoured to open the paths of Science to the pursuits of the studious youth, recommended the culture of the mind, and attack- ed the barbarism of the age in their writings and discourses. Their general character, together with other ciircumstances, concurred to render a reformation desirable, and to accomplish this happy event. Among the number of Mendicants are also ranked the Capuchins, Recollets, Minims, and others, who are branches or derivations from the former. Buchiinan tells us, the Mendicants in Scotland under an appearance of beggary, lived a very luxurious Ute ; whence one wittily called them not Mendictmt, but Manducant friars, MENNONITES, a sect in the United Pror vinces, in most respects the same with those in other places called Anabapiista. They had their rise in ,1536, when Menno Simon, a native of Friesland, who had been a Romish priest, and a notorious profligate, resigned his rank, and office in the Romish church, and publicly embraced the communion of the Anabaptists. Menno was born at Witmarsum a village in the neighbourhood of Bolswert in Frieriand, ii the yew 1505, and died in 1561, in the duchy of Holstein, at the country-seat of a certain no^ bleman not far from the city of Oldesloe, who, moved' with compassion by the view of the perils' to which Menno was exposed, and the snares that were daily laid for his ruin, took him, with certain of bis associa^ into his protection, 'and gave him an assylUm. The writings of Menno which are almost all composed in the Dutch lan- guage, were published in folio at Amsterdam, in the year 1651. About the year 1537, Menno was earnestly soUcited by many of the sect with which he connected himself, to assume among them the rank and functions of a pubUfc teacher ; and, as he looked upon the persons who made this proposal to be exempt from the &natical phrenzy of their brethren at Munster (^though according to other accounts they were onginaBy of the same stamp, only rendered somewhat wiser by their sufferings) he yielded to their entreatieat From this period to the end of his life, he travel- led from one country to another with ms vnfe and children, exercising his ministry^ under pressures and calamities of various 'kinds, that succeeded each other without interruption, and constant^ exposed to the danger of falling a victim to the severity of the laws. East and West E^riesland, together with the province of Groningen, wen- first visited Ify this zealous apostle of the An» baptists; frbtiji whence he directed his course into Hollandi Guelderland, Brabant; and West- phalia; continued it through the German pro- vinces that lie on the coast of the Baltic sea, and penetrated as far as I^iivonia. In all these places his ministerial! labours were attended with re- markable success, and added to .his sect a prodi- gious number of followers. Hence he is deserv- edly considered as the common chief of almost all the Anabaptists, and the parent of the sect that still subsists under that denomination. Meri- no was a man of genius, though not of a very sound judgment : he possessed a natural and per- suasive -eloquonce, and such a degree of learning z2 MENNONtTES , ^smade him pcuis for an oracle in the estimation t)f the multiluue. He appears, moreover, to have been a man of probity, of a meek and tractable spi- rit/ genlte in his manners, pliable and obsequious in ius commerce with persons of all ranks and cha- racters, and extremely zealous in promoting prac- tical religion and virtue, which he reconamended by his example as well as by his precepts. The plan of doctrine and discipline dravni up by Menno was of a mach more mild and moderate nature than that of the furious and fanatical- Anabaptists (whose tumultuous proceedings.have Ibcen recited under that article,) but somewhat more severe, though more clear and consistent than the doctrine of the wiser branches of that «ect, who aimed at nothing more than the re- storation of the Christian church to its primitive purity. Accordingly, he condemned the plan of ecclesiastical discipline that was founded on the prospect of a new kingdom, to be miraculously established by Jesus Christ on the ruins/of civil government, and the destruction of human rulers, and which had been the fatal and pestilential source of such dreadful: commotions, such exe- crable rebellions, and siich enormous orimes. He declared pubUcly his dislike of that doctiine which pointed out the approach of a marvellous, reformr ation in the church by the means of a newand extraordinary effusion of the Holy Spirit. He expressed his abhorrence of the.licentioustehets which several of the- Anabaptists had maintained with respect to the lawfulness of polygamy and ment. However, this austere system declines, and- the rigid Mennonites are gradually approachtng- towards the opinions and discipline of the more moderate, or JVaterlandians. The/fflfst settlement of the Mennonites in the United Provinces was granted them by Williartj! prince of Orange, itoWards the close-ofthesixteraith century i^but it was not before the following csnti MERCY fury that their liberty and ,tranqnillity were fixed u^n solid foundations, when, by a confession of faith published' 4n thp year 1626) they cleared themselves from the imputations of those per- nicious and detestaible errors that had been laidto their charge. In order to appease their intestine^ disconls, a considerable p^rt of the Anabaptists oJ Flanders, Gerrajiny, and Friesls^nclj concluded their debates in a conference held at Amsterdam in the year 1630, and entered into the bonds of fraternal . commu^on, ea/ch reserving; to them- selves a liberty of retaining certain opinions. This association was renewed and conhrmed by new resolutions in the year 1649 ; in consequence- of which the rigorous laws of. Menno. and his euc- oessors were in various respects mitigafsd and corrected. According. to Benedict, there were, in, 1824, 200 Mennonit^ churches in, America. Thtjy are a simple, harmless people, and make it gi^'article of their faith never to.bear apoa. See Anabaptists. MEN op UNDERSTANDING. This title distinguished, a denomination which appear- ed in Flanders and Brussels in, the yesur 1511. They owed their origin.to an illiterate man, whose nanie was Egidius Cantor,, and to William of Hildenison, a Cartjielite raonK. Theyi pretended to J)c, honoured with celestialvisions, denied that any covild arrive at perfect knowledge of the Holy Scriptures without the extraoi;uln|ary suc- CDuirs of a divine illurainatioii, and det^I^r^d th^, approach of a new revelation, from heaven, more flerfect than th^ Gospel of Christ. , Thejr, said, that, the resurrection was accqmpjishpd; m th^. prspn of Jesus, and npol^her, was to bp expected;, that the inward man was not defiled by tne out-, ward .actions, whatever they were; that the pains of hell were to have an end; and not only all mankind, hut even the devils themselves, were to return to God, and be made pajjtakers of eter- nal , ,feUcity. They, alsp taiighf, among other things, that Christ alone, had n\erited'eterhaUife and felicity for the human, race;, and that there- fore men could not acquire this ine^timahle privi- lege by their own actions, a]pne-t— that the priests, to ,wtiom the people conf^ss^d their transgressions, haid not the power of absolving them, but this authority was vested in Christ alone — that volun- tary penance and;mortificfition was not necessary 'o salvation. This denomination appears to have been a wanch of fhe Bxethren and Sisters of the. Free Spirit. MERCY is that djsppsitipn of mind which excites us to pity and relieve those whp are in trojible, or to pass by their crimes without p^ish- ing t^em. It is djstingi^qhed from, l/yve, thus-, Thie object diF love is the creature simply ; the dbj^X.ot mercy is the creature fallen intp misery. Parents Ipve their children siinply as they are their children : but if they fall intp misery, Ipve wprks in a way pf pity and cpmpassipn; Ipye is turned into mercy. • "As we all are the ebjects of mercy in one degree , or anothei^ the mutual exercise of it towards ea!ch other is necessary to preserve the harmony and happiness of society. But there are those who may be more particularly considered as the ob- jects pf it ; such as the guilty, the indigent, and &e miserable. As it respects the '^vMty, thsj, greatest mercy we can show to them is to endear vour tp reclaim them, J^nd,prevent the bad,conae-. 271 MERCY quences of their mJBConduct) James v. 20. Mercy may also he shown to thein by a proper mitigs- tipa of justice, and not extending the punish- ment beyond the nature or desert of the crime With regard' to those who are in necessity and want, mercy calls upon us to afford the most suiN able and seasonablesuppUes ; and here our bene- factions must be dispensed in .proportion to pur circumstances, and the real distress pf the object] 1 John iiiiilT As to those who are in misery and distress, mercy prompts us to relieve and comfort them by, doing what we can to remove or alleviate their burdens. Our Lord strongly recommended this act of mercy in the parable oi the man who fell ampng thieves, and waa-.je-, lieved by the, poor Samaritan; and in the, cpi>t. elusion he adds, ' Gp and do thou likewise,' Luke X. 30—3,7. "This merciful temper will show and; exert itself not only towards those of, our ovm party and acquaintance, but to the whole human spe*. cies; and. not only to the whole human speciesy , but to the aninial creation. It is a degree of in-- humanity to.takepleaswre in giving any thing pain, and more in putting useful animais'tp es< treme terture for our own sport. This is not that dominion which.Gpd originally gave to man.over the beasts of the field, Itiis, therefore, an usurp- ed authority, which man.has no ri^t tp exejcise over brute creatures, which were made for his service, convenience, support, and ease ; but not. for the gratification of .unlawful passions, or cruel diappsiUpna. "Mercy must be. distinguished froni. those weaknesses pf a natural temper which PUen-puV ph the appearance of it. With regard, io crimi: nals or deliilquents, it is false compassion to sup- press the salutary admonition, and refuse tp set their guilt before them,, merely because the sight pf it will give, their conscience pain ; such unsea- senable tenderness in a surgeon may prove the death of his patient: this, however, it may appeal, is not mercy, but cruelty. So is that fpndness pf a parent that withhelds the hand of discipline frPiii a beloved child, when its frowardness and faults redder seasonable and. prudent correction . necessary to save it from ruin. In like manner^ when a magistrate, threugh excessive clemency, suffers a criminal who is a pest to society to, escape unpunishedj pr so mitigates the sentence of the law as to put it into his power to dp still greater hurt tp pthers, he viplates npt pnly the , laws of justice, "but of mercy tpo. '^ Mercy tp the indigent and necessitous has. been np lessjabused and peryerted by acts of mia-. taken beneficence, when impudence and claincur are permitted tp extort from the hand of charily, thfit. relief^ which is due to silent distress and mo- dest merit ; pr when pne object is lavishly re- , lieved to ^e detriijjent pl^,«inpfher whq ismpre deserving, As' it respepts these who_ are in. tirjr .bulailion or rpisery, to be sure, every such persoii i^ an object pf pur compassion ; but that coq^ p^asiqn may heiand qfleab, exercised in iwjroifg^ .manner. Sdme are of so tender a make, that thpy cannot bear, the sight of distress, and stand aloof froin a friend in psun andafBiction, because it affects them too sensibly, when theirs presjBnoc' would at least give them some, little conafort, and might possibly administer lasting relief, Thii weakness shpuld. be opposed, because it not only' lppks.Uke unkindness tp'our fniewis, hut is realW MERIT showing more tenderness to ourselves than to them ; nor is it doing as we would be done by. Again ; it is false pity, when, out of mere ten- derness of nature, we either advise or permit our afflicted friend to take or do any thmg which will give him a little transient ease, but which we know at the same time will increase liis future pain, and aggravate the symptoms of his disease." Seeing, therefore, the extremes to which we are liable, let us learn to cultivate that wisdom and prudence which are necessary to regulate this virtue. To be jtist without being cruel, aJid merciful without being weak, should be our con- stant aim, under all the circumstances of guilt, in- digence, and misery, which present themselves to our view. See Beneficence, Charity, Love. MERCY OF GOD is his readiness to relieve the miserable, and to pardon the guilty. 1. It is essential to Ms nature, Exod. xxxiv. 6, 7; not, Indeed, as a passion or affection, as it is in men, but the result of his sovereign will, and guided by his infinite wisdom. — 2. It is free, as nothing out of himself can be the cause of it ; for then there would be a cause prior to him, the cause of him- self. The misery of the creature is not the cause of mercy, for he is not wrought upon as creatures are ; nor are the merits of the creature the cause, Tit. iii. 5 : nor are even the suiferings of Christ the cause, but the effects of it j but it arises from the goodness of his nature, and from his sovereign will and pleasure, Exod.xxxiii. 19; Rom.ix. 18. — 8.. His mercy is infinite; it pardons offences committed against an infinitely holy Being, and bestows an infinite good on all who believe, even Jesus Christ, Luke i. 78. — i. It is immutable; nothing can change it ; it is invariably the same, Mai. in. 6 ; Luke i. 50. — 5. Shall be forever cele- brated in a future state, Psal. Ixxxix. 2; ciii. 17. — : 6. It is only displayed in and through Christ, Eph. ii. It has been further distinguished into, 1. Preventing n^ercy, Psal. lix. 10. — 9. Forbear- ing niercy, Rom. ii. 4. — 3. Comforting mercy, 3 Cor. i. 4. — i. Relieving mercy, Psal. cxlv. 8, 9.-:-5. Pardoning mercy, Isa.lv. 6. — 6. Univer- sal or extensive mercy. It extends to all kinds of beings and fallen creatures. The brute crea- tion share in it, Psal. cxlv. 9 ; xxxvi. 5, 6. The ungodly are the objects of it in a general way. Matt. V. 45 ; 1 Tim. iv. 10. The saints on earth are continual monuments of it, Rom. ix. 23 ; and the spirits of just men made perfect ' in glory are always praising God for it. Finally, it is enjoyed in an especial manner by all who are true be- lievers, of every nation, in every age, in every circumstance, in all places, and at all times. See Grace, Pardon : Gill's Body of Div. vol. i. p. 124, oct. ed.; Saurin's Ser. vol. i. ser. 8: Dr., Goodmn's Works, vol. v. part 3; Tillotson's Ser. ser. 147 ; Hill's Ser. ser. 10. MERIT signifies desert, or to earn: origi- nally the word was applied to soldiers and other military persons, who, by their labours in the field, and, by the various hardships they under- went during the course of a campaign, as also by other services they might occasionluly render to the commonwealth, were said, mereresiipendio, to merit or earn their pay ; wJiich thej might pro- perly be said to do, becauste they yielded in real service an equivalent to the state for the stipend they received, which Was therefore due to them in justice. Here, then, we come at thfe true moEUiing of the word merit} from which it is 273 MESSIAH very clearly to be seen that there can be no such thing as merit in our best obedience. One man may merif of another, but all mankind together cannot merit from the hand of God. This evji dently appears, if we consider the imperfections of all our services, and the express declaration of the divine word, Eph. ii. 8, 9 ; Rom. xi. 5, 6 j Tit. iii. 5; Rom. x. i; 4. The Doctrine of ^ Merit stated, ser. L vol. iii.; Smith's Serm.; Top- lady's Works, p. 471, vol. iii.; Hervey's Eleven Letters to Wesley; Robinson's Claude, vol. ik p. 218. MERITS OF CHRIST, a term used ,«D denote the active and passive obedience of Christ ; all that he wrought and all that he suffered fbr the salvation of mankind. See articles Atonb- MENT, Imputation, Righteoosness of Christi MESSIAH sijgnifies anointed, the title given by way of eminence to our Saviour; meaning the same in Hebrew as Christ in Greek, ana alludes to the authority he had to assume the characters of prophet, priestj and king, and that of Saviour of the world. The ancient Jews had just notions of the Messiah, which came gra- dually to be corrupted, by expecting a temporal monarch and conqueror ; and iinding Jesus Christ to be poor, humble, and of an unpromising ap- pearance, they rejected him. Most of the modern rabbins, according to Buxtorf, believe that the Messiah is come, but that he lies conoealed be- cause of the sins of the Jews. Others believe ha is not yet come, fixing different times for his ap- pearance, many of which are elapsed ; and, being thus baffled, have pronounced an anathema against those who shall pretend to calculate the time /)f his coming. To reconcile the prophecies concerning the Messiah that seemed to be con- tradictory, some have had recourse to a twofold Mefsiah ; one in a state of poverty and suffering the/ other of splendour and glory. The firstj thw say, is to proceed ftom the tribe of Ephrain^ who is to fight against Gog, and to be slain by Aiinillus, Zech. xii 10 ; the second is to be of tlje tribe of Judah and lineage of David, who is Uj conquer and kill Annillus ; to bring the first Messiah to life again, to assemble all Israel, and rlile over the whole world. That Jesus Christ is the true Messiah, and actually come in the flesh, is evident, if we coi>- sider (as Mr. Fuller observes) that it is intimated that whenever he should come, the sacrifices and ceremonies of the Mosaic law were to be supe^ seded by him, Ps. xl. 6-^8 : 1 Sam. xv. 22 ; Dan. ix. 27; Jer. xxxj. 31, 34; Heb. viii. 13. Now sacrifice and oblation have ceased. They mr- tually ceased when Jesus offered himself a sacr> tice, and in a few years after, they actually ceased A few of the ancient ceremonies are indeed ailhered to, but as one of the Jewish writers acknowledges, "The sacrifices of the Holy Tem- ple have ceased." Let every Jew therefore ask himself this question : Should Messiah the Prince come at some future period, how are the sacrifice and oblation to cease on his appearance, when they have already ceased near loOO years 1 Again, it is suggested in the Scripture, that, the great body of sacred fjrophecy should be accomplished in him ; Gen. iii. 16 ; xxii. 18 ; la, xlix. 10; liiJ. 1. The time when he was to come is clearly marked out in prophecy ; Is. xlix. 10; Hag, ii. 6—9; Dan. ix. 94. He actually came accOnMg to that time. — 2 The place MESSIAH vrhere Messiah should be barn, and wheie he Bhoiild principally impart his doctrine, is deter-. mine^] ; Mic. v. 3 ; Isa. ix, 3 ; and was literally fulfilled in Jesus. — 3. The house or family from whom he should descend, is clearly ascertained. So much is said of his descending from David, that we need not refer to particularptoofs ; and the rather as no Jew will deny it. The genealo- gies of Matthew and Luke, whatever varieties there are between them, agree in tracing his pedi- gree to David. And though, in both, it is traced m the name of Joseph, yet this appears to be only in conformity to the Jewish custom of tracing no pedigree in the name of a female. The father of Joseph, as meittioned by~ Luke, seems to Have been his father by marriage only; so that it was, in reality, Mary's pedigree that is traced by Luke, though under her husband's name; and this b^g the natural line of descent, and. that of Matthew the legal one, by which, as a king, he would have inherited the crown, there is no inconsistency between them. — i. The kind of miracles that Messiah should perform is specified ; Is, XXXV. 5, 6. He actually performed the mira- cles there predicted, his enemies themselves being juflges. — 5. It was prophesied that he should, as a King, be distinguished by his lowliness; enter- mg into Jerusalem, not in a chariot of state, but in a much humbler style; Zech. ix. 9; this was really the case, Matt. xxi. — 6. It wa? predicted that he should suffer and die by the hands of wicked men ; Isa. xlix. 7 ; liii. 9 ; Dan. ix. 36. If othing could be a more striking fulfilment of prophecy than the treatment the Messiah met with iii almost every particular circumstance. — 7. It was foretold that he should rise from the dead; Isa. liii. 11; Psal. IxviiL 18; xvi. 10; liis resurrection is.proved by indubitable evidence. — 8. It was foretold that the great body of the Jew- ish nation would not believe in him, and that he would set up his kingdom among the Gentiles ; Is. liii. 1 ; xlix. 4 — 6 ; vi. 9 — 12. Never was a prophecj more completely fulfilled than this, as facts evidently prove. Lastly, It IS declared that when the Messiah should come, the will of God would be perfectly fulfilled by him, Is. xlii. 1 ; xlix. 3—5. And what was his whole life but perfect conformity to him? He finished the Work the Father gave mm to do ; never was there such a character seen amon^ men. Well therefore may we «ay, Truly tins was the Son of God. See article Christianitv, . Jesus Christ. ' There have been . numerous false Mes^ahs which have arisen at different times. Of these the Saviour predicted, Matt. xxiv. 14. Some have reckoned as many as twenty-four, of whom we shall here give an account. ' 1. Caziba was the first of any note who made a noise in the world. Being dissatisfied with the state of things under Adrian, he set himself up at the head of the Jewish nation, and proclaimed himself their long-expected Messiah. He was one of those bknditti that infested Judca, and committed all kinds of violence against the Ro- mans ; and hail become so powerful, that he was chosen king of the Jews, and by them acknow- ledged their Messiah. However, to facilitate the success of this bold enterprise, he changed his name from Caziha, which it was at first, to that of Barchocheba, alluding to the star foretold by Bajuam; for he pretended to be the star sent 373 2K MESSIAH filom heaven to restore his nation to its ancient liberty and glory. He chose a forerunner, raised an army, was anointed king, coined money in- scribed with his ovTO name, and proclaimed nin»- self Messiah and prince of the Jewish nation; Adrian raised an' army, and sent it against him. He retired into a town called Hither, where he Barchocheba was killed in the siege, the city was taken, and a dreadful havock succeeded. The Jews themselves allow, thal^ during this short war against the Romans in de- fence of this false Messiah, they lost five or six hundred thousand souls. This was in the fixr- mer part of the second century. 3. In the reign of Theodosius the younger, in the year of our Lord 434, another impostor aros^ called Moses Cretensis. He pretended to be a second Moses, sent to deUver the Jews who dvnSlt in Crete, and promised to divide the sea, and ^ve them a safe passage through it. Theii delusion proved so strong and universal, that they neglected their lands, houses, and all other con- cerns, and took only so much with them as they could conveniently carry. And on the diy ap- pointed, this falseMoses, having led them to the tpp of a rock, men, women, ana children, threw themselves headlong down into the sea, vrithout the least hesitation or reluctance, till so great a number of them were drowned, as opened the eyes of the rest, and made them sensible of the cheat. They then began to look out for their pretended leader, but he disappeared, and escaped out of their hands, 3. In the reign of Justin, about 520, another ^ impostor appeared, who called himself the son of ' Moses. His name was Dunaan. ' He entered into a city of Arabia Felix, and there he greatly oppressed the Christians ; but he was taken pn- soner, and put to death jjy Elesbari, an .(Ethio- pian general. 4. In the year £j29 the Jews and Samaritans rebelled against the emperor Justinian, and set up one Julian fur their king ; and accounted him the Messiah. The emperor sent an army against them, killed great numbers df them, took their pretended Messiah prisoner, and immediately put him to death. 5. In the year 571 was bom Mahomet, in Ara- Ua. At first he professed himself the 'Messiah, who was promised to the Jews. By this means he drew many of that unhappy people after him. In some sense, therefore, he may be considered in the number of fidse Messiahs. See Maho- METANISM. 6. About the year 721, in the time of Leo Isaurus, arose another false Messiah in Spain; bis name was Serenus. He drew great numbers after him, to their no small loss and disappoint- ment, but all his pretensionsi ceime to nothing. 7. The twelflh century was fruitful in raise Messiahs; for about the year 1137, there appear- ed one in France, who was put to death, and many of those who followed liim. 8. In the year 1138- the Persians, were dis- turbed with a Jew, who called himsejf the Mes- siah. He collected together a vast' armyj But he, too, was put to death, and his followers treated with great inhumanity. 9. In the year 115'^ a false Messiah stirred op the Jews at Corduba, in Spain. The wiser and better sort boked upon him as a madman, but the ^at body of the Jews in that nation belugved MESSIAH in him. On this occasion almost all the Jews in Spain were destroyed 10. In the year U67, another false Messiah arose in the kingdom of Fez, which brought great troubles and persecution upon the Jews lat were scattered through that country. 11. In the same year an Arabian set up there for the Messiah, and pretended to work miracles. When searcn was made for him, his followers fled, and he was brought before the Arabian king. Being questioned by him, he replied that he was a prophet sent from God. The king then asked him ^hat sign he could show to confirm his mission. Cut off my head, said he, and I will return to life again. The king took him at his word, promising to believe him if his predic- tion came to pass. The poor wretch, however, never returned to Ufe agam, and the cheat was sufficiently discovered. Those who had been deluded by him were grievously punished, and the nation condemned to a very heavy fine. 13. Not long afler this, a Jew who dwelt be- yond Euphrates, called himself the Messiah, and drew vast multitudes of people after him. He gave this for a sign of it, that he had been leprous, and was cured in the course of one night. He, like the rest^ perished in the atteippt, and brought great persecution on his countrymen. 13. In the year 1174,' a magician and false Christ arose in Persia, who was called David Almusser. He pretended that he could make himself invisible ; but he was soon taken and put to death, and a heavy fine laid upon his brethren the Jews. 14. In the year 1176, another of these' impos- tors arose in Moravia. Biit the reign of delu- sion is short, and his fate appears to have been similar to tliat of his predecessor. 15. In the year 1199^a famous cheat and rebel ext'rted himself in Persia, called David el David., tie was a man of learning, a great magician, and pretended to be the Messiah. He raised an army against the king, but was taken and imprisoned; and, having made his escape, was afterwards seized again, and beheaded. Vast numbers of the .Ijews were butchered for taking part with this impostor. 16. We are told of another false Christ in this same century by Maimonides and Solomon ; but they take no notice either of his name, country, or good or ill success. Here wc may observe, that no less than ten false Christs arose in the twelfth century, and brought prodigious calamities and destruc- tion upon the Jews in various quarters of the world. 17. In the year 1^97, we find another false Christ, whose name was Ismael Sophus, who deluded the Jews in Spain, iie also perished, and as many as believed in him were dispersed. 18. In the year 1500, Rabbi Lemlem, a Ger- man Jew of Austria, declared himself a fore- runner of the Messiah, and pulled down his own oven, promising his brethren that they should bake theirbread in the Holy Land next year. 19. In the year 150il one whose name was Plefferkorn, a Jew of Cologne, pretended to he the Messiah. He afterwards affected, however, to turn Christian. 20. In the year 1.^ Rabbi Salomo Malcho, giving out that he was the Messiah, was burnt to death by Charles the Fifth of Spain. SJ74 MESSIAH 21. In the year 1615, a false Christ arose m the East Indies, and was greatly followed by the Portuguese Jews, who were scattered over that country. ' 22. In the year 1624, another in the Low Countries pretended to. be the Messiah of the family of David, and of the line of Nathan. He profflise|l to destroy Rome, and to overthrow the kingdoih of Antichrist, and the Turkish einpire. ^. In theyear 1666 appeared the false Mes- siah Sabatai Sevi, who made so gi'eat a noise, and gained such a number of proselytes. He was born at Aleppo, imposed on the Jews for a con- siderable timej but afterwards, with a view of saving his life, turned Mahometan, and was at last beheaded. As the history of this impostor is more entertaining than thatjf those we have already mentioned, I will give it at some length. The year 1666 was a year of great expecta^ tion, and some wonderful thing was looked for hy many. This was a fit time for an impostor to set up; and, accordingly, lying reports were carried about. It was said, that great multitudes marched from unknown parts to the remote de- serts of Arabia, and they were supposed to be the ten tribes of Israel, who had been dispersed for many ages; that a ship was arrived in the north part of Scotland with sails and cordage of silk ; that the mariners spake nothing but He- brew; that on the sails was this motto, TTie Tieelve Tribes of Israel. Thus were credulous men possessed at that time. Then it was that Sabatai Sevi apffeared at Smyrna, and professe.d himself to be the Messias. He promised the Jews , deliverance and a pros- perous kingdom. This \vhich he promised they firmly believed. The Jews now attended to no business, discoursed of nothing but their return, and believed Sabatai to be the Messias as firmly as we Christians believe any article of faith. A right reverend person, then in Turkey, meeting with a Jew of^his acquaintance at Aleppo, he asked him what he thought of Sabatai. The Jew replied, that he believed him to be the Mes- sias ; and that he was su far of that belief, that if he should prove an impostor, he .would then turn Christian. It -is fit we should be particular in this relation, because the history is so very sur prising and remarkable ; and we have the account of it from those who were in Turkey. Sabatai Sevi was the son of Mordecm Sen, a mean Jew of Smynia. Sabatai was very bookish, and arrived to great skill in the Hebrew learning He was the author of a new doctrine, and for it was expelled the city. He went thence to Sa- lonichi, of old called Thessalonica, where he mar- ried a very handsome woman, and was divorced from her. Then he travelleii into the Morea, then to Tripoli, Gaza, and Jerusalem. By the way he picked up a third wife. At Jerusalem he began to refoiin the Jews' constitutions, and abolish one of their solemn fasts, and communi- cated his designs of professing himself to be the Messias to one Nathan. He was pleased with it, and set up for his Elias, or forerunner, and took upon him to abolish' all the Jewish fasts, as not beseeming when the bridegroom was now come. Nathan prophesied that the Messias should ap- pear before the Grand Seignior in less than two years, and take from him hu crown, and lead him in chains. At Gaza, Sabatai preached repentance, to- MESSIAH sether with a feith in Iiimself, so effectUaUy, that the people gave themselves up to their devo'jons and alms. The noise of this Messias began to fill all places. Sabatai now resolves for Smyrna, and then for Constantinople. Nathan writes to him from Damascvis, and thus he bemns his let- ter : "To the king, our king, lord or lord^ who gathers the dispersed of Israel, who redeems our captivity, the maa elevated to the height of all su- blimity, the Messias of the God of Jacob, the true Messias, the celestial Lion, Sabatai Sevi," And now, fhroughoufTuriiey, tJie Jews were in great expectation of glorious times. They now were devout and penitent, that they might not obstruct the good which they hoped for. Some fa9t«d so long, that they were famished to death j others buried themselves in the earth tiU their limbs grew stiff; some would endure melting wax dropped on their flesh ; some rolled in snow; others, in a cold season, would put themselves into cold water; and many buned themselves. Business was laid aside ; superflui- ties of household utensils were sold; the poor were provided for by immense contributions. Sabatai comes to Smyrna, where he was adored fa^ the people, though the Chacham contradicted him, for which he was removed from his ofiica There he in writins; styles himself the only and first-born Son of God, the Messias, the Saviour of Israel. And though he met with some oppo- sition, yet he prevailed, there at last ^o that de- gree, that some of his followers prophesied, and fell into strange ecstacies : four hundred men and women prophesied of his growing kingdom; and young irifants, who could hardly speak, would ,^^nRpronounce Sabatai, Messias, and Son of God. The people were for a long time possessed, and voices heard from their bowels : some fell into trances, foamed at the mouth, recounted their fu- ture prosperity, their visions of the Lion of Judah, and the triumphs of Sabatai. All which, says the relater, were certainly true, being effects of dia- bolical delusions, as the Jews themselves have since confessed. Now the impostor swells and assumes. Whereas tife Jews, in their synagogues, were wont to pray for the Grand Scismor, he orders those prayers to be fprborne fpr tSe future, think- ing it an indecent thing to pray for hinj who was shortly to he his captive ; and instead of praying for the Turkish emperor, he appoints prayers for himself. He also elected princes to govern the Jews in their inarch towards the Holy Land, and to rriinister justice to them when they should be possessed of it. These princes were men well known in the city of Smyrna at that time. The people were now pressing to see some miracle to confirm their faith, and to convince the Gen- tiles. Her& the impostor was puzzled, though any juggling trick would have served their turn. But the credulous people supplied this defect. When Sabatai was before the Cadi, (or justice of peace,) some affirmed the;^ saw a pillar of fire between him and the Cadi; and after some had affirmed it, others were ready to swear to it and did swear it also; and thi^as presently believed by the Jews of that city. THe that did not now believe' him to be the Messias was to be shunned as an excommurucated person. The impostor now declares that he was called of God to See Constantinople, where he had much to do. He chips Iiimself to that end, in a Turkish saick, iu 27$ MESSIAH January, 1666.. He had a long and troublesome voyage ; he had not power over the sea and winds. The "Vizier, upon the news, sends for him, and confines him in a loathsome prison. The Jews pay him their visits ; and they of this city are as infatuated as those in Smyrna- They forbid traffic, and refuse to pay their debts. Some of our EngUsh merchants, not knowing how to recover their debts from the Jews, took tUs oe- casion to visit Sabatai, and make their complaints to him against his subjects ; whereupon he wrote tlie following letter to the Jews. " To you of the nation of the Jews, who ex- pect the appearance of the Messias, atnd the sal- vation of Israel, peace without end. Whereas we are informed tnat you are indebted to several of the English nation^ it seemeth right unto us to order you to make satisfaction to these your just debts, which, if yon refuse to do, an4 not obey us herein, know you that then you are not to enter with us into our joys and dominions." Sabated remained a prisoner in Constantinople, for the space of two months. The Grand Vi- zier, designing for Candia, thought it' not safe to leave him in the city during the Grand Seignior's absence and his own. ife, therefore, removed him to the Dardanelli, a better air, indeed, but yet out of the way, and consequently. importing less danger to the city ; which (fccasioned the Jews to conclude that the Turks coiild not, or durst not, tak6 away his life ; which had, they concluded, been the surest way to have removed all jealousy. The Jews flocked in great numbers to the castle where he was a prisoner; not only those thai were near, but firom Poland,, Germany, Leghorn, Venice, and other places; they received SaLatai's blessing, and promises of advance^ieni. The Turks made use of this confluence; they raised' the price of their lodgings and provisions, and put their price upon those who desired to see Sabatai, for their admittance. This profit stopjped their mouths, and no complaints were for this cause sent to Adrianople. Sabatai, in his confinement, appoints the man- ner of his own nativity. He commands the Jews, to keep it on the ninth day of the month Ab, and to makte it a day of great joy, to celebrate it with pleasing meats and drinks, with illuminations and music. He obligeth them to acknowledge the love of God, in giving them that day of con- solation for the bir^i of their king Messias, Sa- batai Sevi, his servant and first-born Son in love. We may observe, by the way, the insolence of this impostor. This day was a solemn day of fasting among the Jews formerly, in memory of the burning of the temple by the Chaldees : several other sad things happened in this month, as the Jews observe ; that then, and upon the same day, the second temple was dfcstroyed ; and that in this month it was decreed in the wilder- ness that the Israelites should not enter into Ca- naan, &c. Sabatai was bom on this day ; and, therefore, the fast must be turned to a feast; whereas, in truth, it had been well for the Jews had he not been born at all ; and much better for himself, as will appear from what follows. The Jews of that city paid Sabatai Sevi great respect. They decked their synagogues with S. S. m letters of, gold, and made tor him in the wall a crown : they attributed the same titles and pr(q>hecies to him which we apply to our Saviour. He was also, during this imprisonment, visited by MESSIAH pil^ms from all parts, that had heard his story. Among whom Nehemiah Cohen, from Poland, was one, — a man of great learning in the Cabala and eastern tongues, who desired a conference with Sabatai, and at the conference maintained that, according to the Scripture, there ought to ne a twofold Messias; one the son of Ephraiin, a poor'and despised teacher of" the law } the other the son of David, to be a conqueror. Nehemiah was content to be the former, the son of E^braim, and to leave the glory and dignity of the latter to Sabatai. Sabatai, from what appears, did not dis^ Tike this. But here lay the ground of the quarrel : Nehemiah taught that the son of Ephraim ought to be the forerunner of the son Of David, and to usher him in ; and Nehenriaih accused Sabatai of too ^eat forwardness in appearing as the son of David, before the son of Ephraim had led hitti the way. Sabatai could not brook this doctrine; for he might fear that the son of Ephraim, who was to lead the way, might pretend to be the son of David, and so leave him in the lurch ; and, there- ii>re, he excluded him from any part or share in this matter, which was the occasion of the ruin of Sabatai, and all his glorious designs. Nehe- miah, being disappointed, ^oes to Adrianople, and informs the great mimsters of state against Sabatai, as a lewd aft3 dangerous pferson to thU' government, and' that it vra? necessary' to take him out of the way. The Grand Seignior, being informed of this, sends for Sabatai, who, much dejected, appears before hrm. The Grand Seig- nior requires a miracle, and chooses one him- self; and it was this-: that Sabatai should be stripped naked, and set as a mari^ for his archers to snoot at ; and if the arrows did not pierce his Uesh, he'would own him to be the Messias. Sa- batai had not faith enough to bear up under so great a trial. The Granif Seignior let hfm know that ho would forthwith impafe him, and that the stake was prepared for him, unless he would turn Turk. Upon which he consented to turn Ma- hometan, to the great confusion of the Jews. And yet some of the Jews were so vain as to affirm that it was not Sabatai himself, but his shadow, that professed the religion, and was seen in the habit of a Turk ; so great was their obsti- nacy and infldelity, as if it were a thing impossi- ble to convince these deluded and infatuated wretches. , Atler all this, several of the Jews continued to use the forms in their public worship, prescribed by this Mahometan Messias, which obliged the principal Jews of Constantinople to send to the synagogue of Smyrna to forbid this practice. During these things, the Jews, instead of mind- ing their trade and trafBc, filled their letters with news of Sabatai their Mes^as, and his won- derful works. They reported, that, when the Gran<} Seignior sent to take him, he caused sJl the messengers that were sent to