^""•^lli^ VISUAL EDUCATION THROllC ff ^FREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES LJBRARY ANNEX 2 .^ig^^^^ KNOWLEDGE SUALIZED and VITALIZED TRAVEL STUDIl 50 CROSS REFERENCE CLASSIFICATIONS EDITED.. BY,, 6 2 .LE.ADING, EDUCATORS KEYSTONE "600 S SET L I BR ARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS CORNELL UNIVERSITY ITHACA, NEW YORK Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013429612 Visual Education THROUGH STEEEOGEAPHS AND LANTEEN SLIDES KNOWLEDGE VISUALIZED and VITALIZED TRAVEL STUDIES 50 Cross Reference Classifications Edited by 62 Leading Educators KEYSTONE "600 SET" Keystone View Company (INCORPORATED) EDUCATIONAL DEPT. MEADVILLE, PA. Copyright 1906 Copyright 1008 Copyright 1911 Copyright 1917 KEYSTONE VIEW COMPANY ALL STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES COFVRIGHTED . ALL RIGHTS SPECIFICALLY RESERVED PUBLISHERS' STATEMENT The copyright notice on the opposite page tells an interesting story. It records the date of the introduction into school work of a set of stereographs and lantern slides specifically selected to meet school needs and with cross reference classifi- cations to make quickly available the teaching content of the set. The other copyright notices indicate the dates when the first set and plan, originated by Keystone, were revised and improved. When the schools first turned to the stereograph and slide as the most effective forms of visual instruction materials, it was soon determined that the standard sets of Travel Tours then in common use for public and private libraries did not meet class room requirements. There was need of a carefully selected set of scenes closely fitted to the regular course of study. The Keystone View Company noted this need and, with the help of progressive school people, pioneered this field by bringing forth the first school se supplied with the cross reference index plan — the Keysto le " 600 Set " with the Teachers' Guide. . The success of the first set equal ed the best expectations. The schools found in this set of steref I'raphs and slides just the material needed to make their clas ;-room instruction most effective. It was widely used and wi\h the later revisions has found a place in thousands of schools. From this extended use under actual teaching conditions there have come the sug- gestions and improvements that have made the present devel- opment and efficiency possible. Out of the accumulated experience based on the use of the Keystone " 600 Set " in thousands of class rooms, there has come the present " 600 Set." It is a thorough revision both as to photographic content and editorial work. Thousands of dollars were expended to get the subjects our educational advisors deemed essential to the set. The whole world was iv PUBLISHERS' STATEMENT laid tribute that the children in the schools might have at hand the best material obtainable. Every continent yielded its con- tribution. Three Arctic and Antarctic expeditions were levied upon to supply scenes to complete this set. While the actual teaching value of the stereograph or slide has been the determining factor in its selection, there is noted an equitable distribution of the material over the entire geo- graphic range. Every state in the United Stales is repre- sented.. Every important country of the world is cared for in a satisfactory manner. The distribution has been made in harmony with the plan of the leading text books on Geography. Whatever text is used will be effectually visualized. In the former Teachers' Guide the scenes were listed and edited from twenty-one special view points. Class room use has demonstrated that a set of illustrations of such rich teach- ing content as the Keystone " 600 Set " has many more points of specific application to the course of study than our previous editorial work had indicated. The new editiori contains 50 cross reference classifications on 50 school subjects and edited by 62 leading educators. This Editorial Board -— listed elsewhere — has made a distinct con- tribution to visual education. The revised " 600 Set " is quite the latest and greatest achievement in modern visual instruc- tion material. The Publishers. CONTENTS Page Publishers' Statement iii General Introduction By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D., President-Emeritus of Harvard University v Concreteness in Education By William C. Bagley, Ph.D., Director School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111 vii How to Study^ Stereographs and Lantern Slides.. ..By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D., Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University ix The Stereoscope and Stereograph By Oliver Wendell Holmes xii How to Use the Stereographs and the Lantern Slides xiii Editorial Board '. * . . xix 50 Cross Reference Classifications Geography Introduction By Charles T. McFarlane, Ph.D., Professor of Geography, Teachers College, Colum- bia University i 1 Geographical Classification and Title List.. By Douglas C. Ridgley, A.B., Professor of Geography, Illinois State Normal University 3 2 People of All Lands, (Racial Geography) .... By Mark Jefferson, A.M., Professor of Geography, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich 31 3 Production and Manufacturing, (Industrial Geography) By Charles Redway Dryer, M.A., M.D., Geographer, Fort Wayne, Ind 45 4 Transportation By Emery R. Johnson, Ph.D., Sc.D., Professor of Transportation and Commerce, Unversity of Pennsylvania 73 5 Markets and Marketing By J. Paul Goode, Ph.D., Professor of Geography, University of Chicago 87 6 Natural Forms and Forces, (Physical Geography) By Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D., Professor of Physi- ography, Harvard University 97 7 Zones and Their Effects.. By Robert De C. Ward, A.M., Professor of Climatology, Harvard University 109 8 Geography by Nations, (Political Geography) By E. M. Lehnerts, M.A., Asst. Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Minnesota 121 9 Earth Neighbors< By James F. Chamberlain, Ed.B., S.B,, Professor of Geography, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal ^41 History and Civics Introduction . . By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D., Professor of Government, Harvard Univ I49 10 Foreign Beginnings of American History... By Hutton Webster, Ph.D., Professor of Social Anthropology, University of Nebraska 151 Page 1 1 Foundations of the American Nation By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., Litt.B., LL.D., Professor of Government, Harvard University 159 12 Development of Our Nation.. ..By H. Morse Stephens, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley, Cal 165 13 America of Today — Our Resources — Preparedness, By Jacques W. Redway, F.R.G.S., Geographer, Mt. Vernon, N. Y 179 14 Government .... By Arthur Norman Holcombe, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Government, Harvard Univ. .. 191 15 Community Civics By Arthur William Dunn, A.M., Specialist in Civic Education, U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington, D. C 203 16 Cities of the World By John Nolen, A.M., Sc.D., City Planner, Landscape Architect, Boston, Mass 219 English Introduction By Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D., Professor of the English Language and Literature, Teachers College, Columbia University 243 17 Literary Subjects and Settings Including Mythology, By Franklin Thomas Baker, Ph.D 245 18 English Composition By James Fleming Hosic, Ph.M., Head of English Department, Chicago Nor- mal School 259 19 Spelling By William Estabrook Chancellor, A.M., Author of Evening School Series, Graded City Spellers 269 20 Biography. .. .By Charles H. McCarthy, Ph.D., Dean of the School of Philosophy and Professor of History, Catholic Unversity of America, Washington, D. C. . . 279 Agriculture Introduction By Charles F. Curtiss, M.S. A., D.S., Dean Division of Agriculture and Director of the Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa 309 21 Soils By Alfred Vivian, Ph.G., Dean College of Agriculture, Ohio State University, Columbus, O.... 311 22 Farm Crops ,.By W. M. Jardine, B.S.A., LL.D., Dean of the Division of Agriculture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State Agricultural College, Mianhattan, Kan 319 23 Garden, Orchard and Woodlot.. .By R. L. Watts, M.S., Professor of Horticulture, Dean Department of Agri- culture and Director of the Experiment Station, State College, Pa 327 24 Animal Husbandry By W. A. Cochel, A.B., B.S., Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas State Agri- cultural College, Manhattan, Kan 335 Page 25 Farm Management — Farm Machinery By Martin Luther Fisher, M.S., Professor of Crop Production and Farm Management, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. Assisted by Wm. Aitkenhead, A.M., M.E., As- sociate Professor of Farm Mechanics, Purdue Uni- versity, Lafayette, Ind 341 26 Farm Home and Farm Life By A. E. Winship, Litt.D., LL.D., Editor, Journal of Education," Bos- ton, Mass 355 Nature Study Introduction .... By Ernest Thompson Seton, Natural- ist and Author, Greenwich, Conn 363 27 Plants and Plant Associations .... By John M. Coulter, Ph.D., Professor and Head Dept. of Botany, Univer- sity of Chicago. Assisted by George D. Fuller, Ph.D., Instructor in Plant Ecology, University of Chicago.. 365 28 Animals By Ernest Thompson Seton yn 29 Outdoor Life.. By Daniel Carter Beard ("Dan Beard") National Scout Commissioner, Boy Scouts of Amer- ica, Flushing, N. Y 387 30 Vocational Guidance By Meyer Bloomfield, B.A., Director of the Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass 393 Domestic Science and Domestic Arts Introduction .... By Martha Van Rensselaer, Professor of Home Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 403 31 Industries Supplying the Home By Lorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D., President of Stout Institute, Menomi- nee, Mich 405 32 Foods and Cookery By Edna N. White^ B.S., Head of Dept. of Home Economics, Ohio State University, Columbus, O. Assisted by Lelia McGuire, B.S., As- sistant Professor of Home Economics, Ohio State University, Columbus, 409 33 Textiles and Clothing By Anna M. Cooley, B.S., Associate Professor of Household Arts Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Assisted by Edith P. Chace, B.S., Instructor in Household Arts Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.. 421 34 Household Administration By Grace Schermerhorn, B.S., Director of Qooking in New York City Public Schools 431 Industrial Arts Introduction By Charles A. Prosser, Ph.D., Direc- tor Dunwoody Industrial Inst, Minneapolis, Minn... 435 35 Industrial Design Including Architecture By Ray- mond P. Ensign, Supervisor of Design Classes, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 437 36 Wood — Sources and Uses. . . By George M. Brace, M.A., Director Man. Training High School, St. Paul, Minn. 469 Page 37 Metals — Sources and Uses By Harry S. Bitting, President Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School, Pa 47S 38 Concrete, Stone, Brick and Tile By Charles M. Spoilord, S.B., Hayward Professor of Civil Engineer- ing, Mass. Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. 483 39 Local Industries By Clifford B. Connelley, Sc.D., Dean School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Insti- tute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa 491 40 Hygiene — Health Habits . . By Michael Vincent O'Shea, B.L., Professor of Education, University of Wis.... 501 Fine Arts Introduction.. ..By C. Valentine Kirby, Director of Art Education, Pittsburgh Public Schools 507 41 Drawing — Study of Pictures to Show Elements of Art. By Harry W. Jacobs, Director Art Instruction, Pub- lic Schools, Buffalo, N. Y S09 42 House Design and Decoration; Costume Design. By Mary J. Quinn, Supervisor of Design, Pratt In- stitute, Brooklyn, N. Y .' : 517 43 Photography By C. E. K. Mees, D.Sc, Director Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N. Y 543 44 Arithmetic — Visualized Probleins . . .By John H. Walsh, LL.B., Ph.D., Associate Superintendent of Schools, New York City 557 For the Little Folks Introduction By William C. Bagley, Ph.D., Dean School of Education, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, 111... 579 45 Children of the World By G. A. Mirick, A.M., Edu- cational Specialist, Cambridge, Mass 581 46 Plants and Animals By Anna Botsford Comstock, Assistant Professor of Nature Study, Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, N. Y 595 47 Reading By Charles Madison Curry, A.M., Pro- fessor of Literature in the Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind 605 48 Some Things We Eat; Some Things We Wear. By William M. Gregory, Professor of Geography, School of Education, Cleveland, 629 49 Home Geography By R. H. Whitbeck, A.B., Pro- fessor of Geography, University of Wisconsin 641 50 Travelogue and Lecture Suggestions .... By Russell H. Conwell, D.D., LL.D., Lecturer, President of Temple University, Philadelphia 653 Index 661 GENERAL INTRODUCTION By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. President-Emeritus of Harvard University TRAINING THE POWERS OF OBSERVATION, MEMORY, AND CORRECT DESCRIPTION ALL TOGETHER I have been urging- for some years past that American edu- cation is seriously defective in that it provides an inadequate amount of training of the senses, particularly of the eye. It relies far too much on book-work. There ought to be incor- porated into elementary and secondary school work a much larger proportion of accurate eye-work and hand-work coin- bined with simultaneous training of the memory and of the capacity for describing correctly, either orally or in writing, things observed and done. The Keystone View Company of Meadville, Pa., manufac- tures admirable material for just this training of children and adolescents. This Company provides schools with stereo- graphic views, stereoscopes, and lantern slides to illustrate phys- ical, political, and commercial geography, United States his- tory, nature study, arts and crafts, domestic science, national industries, and architecture. The stereographs and stereo- scope are used in class-work at regular study and recitation pe- riods, the lantern slides for reviews and lectures. On the back of each of the stereographs is a printed description of the scene or object represented, which may be read by the pupil after he has himself studied the stereograph in the stereoscope. Each pupil is expected to remember what he has seen long enough to describe it orally in the class, or to write a short com- position on it after an interval. The teacher may or may not help the pupils to discern and take in all there is to be seen in the stereograph. Once a week or once a fortnight the topic which has been thus dealt with in the recitation room may be reviewed by the teacher before the class by means of the corre- sponding lantern slides ; and another composition may then be VI INTRODUCTION required of each pupil. The stereograph may be used advan- tageously either with or without a textbook. If a textbook be used, the pupils should themselves come to see much more in the stereographs than they find in the book. It is important that each pupil should be trained to describe with all the full- ness and accuracy possible for him what he has seen in the stereographs; for in this way the pupil receives a discipline which is directly applicable all through life in daily work and play, in increasing his knowledge, and developing his capacities. The process differs entirely from looking passively at moving pictures for an hour or two. That looking yields little more than a transitory entertainment; for it cultivates neither the memory nor the power of correct description. Impressions suc- ceed each other so rapidly that few are fixed in the memory, and the spectator is not called on for any mental effort of his own. Sometimes, of course, strong emotion may fix an impres- sion which would otherwise be fleeting. At the review with lantern slides, every pupil should be given opportunity to lecture for a few minutes on a slide familiar to him. Reciting on the stereographs and lecturing on the slides will do more for the pupil's enunciation and clearness of state- ment than much reading aloud from a book. English composi- tions written from memory about the stereographs or the slides will always be on subjects which have interested the pupils and about which they really know something. The material manufactured by the Keystone View Company, and sold by them, provides the means of teaching children and adolescents to see accurately, to make mental note of what they have seen, and then to put into language whatever has impressed them. All active-minded and ambitious teachers ought to be interested in this method of teaching; for it is applicable to a great variety of subjects and in all the grades. It is the combination of visual instruction with training of the memory, and practice in accurate reproduction in language of what has been pictured to the eye which so strongly com- mends to progressive teachers and superintendents the method which the Keystone View Company's apparatus makes avail- able in all schools. CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. Director School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Author: "The Educative Process"; "Class Room Management"; "Craftsmanship in Teaching"; "Educational Values"; "School Discipline." Joint Author: "Hu- man Behaviqr." Editor: School and Home; Joint Editor: Journal of Educational Psychology, It is an old saying that experience is the best teacher. One may, indeed, go beyond this and say that experience is the only real teacher. If we wish to learn about regions that we have never visited, we study maps and pictures and verbal descriptions of these regions, but our study is quite futile un- less we are able to\ translate these maps and pictures and words .jnto_our_^owii_eJ2eriences. We cannot understand an event in history unless we are able to imagine ourselves in the same situation that conditioned the event, and in order to do this we must have had experiences which we can recall and recon- struct into a likeness of the situation. We cannot compre- hend an industrial process unless we can call upon our ex- perience to interpret the various phases of the process and their relations to one another and to the process as a whole. Theoretically, the most effective kind of education is that in which the learner is brought face to face with actual concrete situations. Theoretically, geography is best taught by travel, inspection, and surveys ; civics by actual participation in social enterprises ; industry by actually turning raw materials into useful commodities. But there are many difficulties in the way of realizing these theoretical advantages of direct learn- ing through actual experiences. Not only is the expense in time and money often prohibitive, but the very complexity of the actual experiences themselves may easily confuse the learner; he is quite likely to be distracted by the multitude of details, and the important lessons are then certain to be over- shadowed and obscured. Effective teaching depends very largely upon the ability to choose just the right details that will force home the impor- tant lessons; to provide an abundance of concreteness at just the right point. The teacher who is really an artist in the yiii CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION work of teaching must know both how and where to make the important details stand out sharp and clear — how and; where to place the emphasis. Maps, diagrams, models, and pictures may be made most serviceable means to this end. But they are most useful only when they accurately portray typical situations in a way that will insure a maximum of reality. The illustrations in the best modern textbooks are usually well selected from the point of view of their accuracy, -and as a rule they represent typical situations. The approach to reality, however, is much more closely realized by pictures projected through the stereopticon, by moving pictures, and by stereo- graphs. The advantage of the stereograph in insuring the illusion of reality lies in the fact that the objects pictured are seen in three dimensions. In this respect it is superior to the ordinary projected picture in which the approach to reality is secured by magnifying the size of the objects represented, and for elementary education it is even superior to the moving picture in which the illusion of reality is due to movement. The stereograph also has the advantage of being more readily adaptable to classroom conditions than any form of projected picture. The first need, of course, is for accurate and typical pic- tures taken by skillful stereoscopists under the guidance of experts in the various fields. This need is happily met by the Keystone set No. 600. This set includes a rich variety of views, representing a wide range of regions and activities. The views have been carefully selected and are systematically arranged. The second need is for supplementary and interpretive ma- terials, and these are supplied by the explanatory text on the reverse of each slide and by the Teachers' Manual. With these aids, the teacher should find no difficulty in training the child to put himself into the pictured situation — actually to feel that he is there in close contact with the objects or taking an active part in the processes that are portrayed. This real- istic translation of one's self into the picture is the first condi- tion to be fulfilled in picture-study, and the relative ease with which this may be accomplished by creating a three-dimen- sional or stereoscopic illusion constitutes the unique advan- tage of the stereograph as an educational agency. HOW TO STUDY STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: "How to Study and Teaching How to Study"; "Elementary School Standards." Joint Author: Tarr & McMurry Geographies; "Method of the Recitation." Pictures furnish material for thought as does the printed page, and they even rival print in that task. How extensively, and often exclusively, do advertisers rely upon pictures for attracting customers! Cartoonists compete with the most gifted writers in newspapers and magazines ; and the great picture galleries of the world quite possibly exert as much influence as the great libraries. One danger of the printed page is that it may lead to no imaging. A little girl who was studying a description in geography of a river valley was asked what she saw, as she reproduced the facts. She replied that she saw the page con- taining the words. There is always this danger in the use of books. But pictures — particularly those providing for the third dimension, as do the stereographs — tend to bring one into the presence of the thing itself. A certain pupil who was look- ing at a stereograph of a deep gorge unconsciously stepped back a few feet to avoid falling in — so actual seemed the danger. Such pictures guarantee reality. Since excellence in method of presenting ideas is largely measured by the vivid- ness with which situations are thus visualized, these pictures possess a decided superiority over textbooks. This very superiority leads to a serious fault. Since pic- tures can do so much for us, they are often relied upon to do all; to convey their facts directly on sight, without any effort on our part in the way of studying or thinking. With this idea in mind many persons give only a few seconds at most to .the observation of any picture ; and in consequence they X STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES regard pictures more as a means of entertainment than sub- jects for study. Teachers, also, assuming that pictures wili reveal their content at a glance, frequently put no questions on them, while printed matter is studied with care. This attitude gives pictures a low rank as a means of instruction; for edu- cational aids that call forth no effort necessarily bring little , benefit. Even in the actual presence of mountain scenery, or the Yellowstone Canyon, or a large factory, one's mind has to work actively, if one sees much. One must analyze ex- tensively, must raise questions and seek their answers with care, in other words, must really study, if one gets much profit. Books and pictures, being farther removed from reality, require still more effort. The best thoughts in books are not in print; they are suggested by the print, provided the reader's mind is awake. So the principal thoughts derived from a picture do not come immediately into mind; they have to be sought. Intelligent visitors to picture galleries often stand a half hour before a painting, not merely staring at it, but studying it; and they repeat the process day after day. Most, if not all, of these six hundred stereographs and slides are gems. Many of the ideas that they reveal lie below the surface, and in their study some of the spirit of the real student is necessary. 1. In the first place, these pictures should not be examined in a hurry. Each pupil should follow his own rate, without thought of others, for thoughtful observation is otherwise impossible. This suggestion emphasizes method one — in the article following — as the plan most desirable among the four methods mentioned. 2. One should not look for " just anything " in the picture. That is sure to result in very scattered and superficial observa- tion. In order to avoid careless observation the theme of the picture, as suggested in the title should be noted. Also, the statements on the back of the card should be read. Mean- while the picture should be examined a:t first, not so much to discover its detailed facts, as the principal questions that it answers. These questions should bear on the main theme of the picture, and be broad enough to require numerous facts STEREOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES xi for their answers. The conception of such questions is not easy work; it is real study, calling for some initiative; but their nature largely determines the value of the study; they are the source of motive for observation, and the basis for or- ganization of details; and as much time may well be spent in finding the questions as in finding their answers. 3. The questions having been fixed upon, the more things one can discover that bear upon them the better ; for this num- ber determines the thoroughness of the knowledge, and the force with which impressions are driven home. On the other hand, facts unrelated to such questions should be disregarded, because any mention of theni would be only an interruption. Proper study of these pictures will be distinguished almost as much by what is omitted, as by what is included. 4. One should study a picture — or read a book — not merely to know what is there, but rather to communicate the results to others, either orally or in writing, or otherwise to use them. By this provision a sense of what is valuable is kept alive and exercised, and one is much more discriminat- ing, in consequence. Unless one is willing to be a passive collector of facts, their utilization must be held in mind from the beginning. This suggestion emphasizes the importance of method four in the article on methods, as a supplement to method one. Note : — It is not generally known that Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes perfected the stereoscope and designed the present form of this popular and eflfective instrument. It has seemed, there- fore, appropriate that we should give on the following page a quotation from the writings of Dr. Holmes. The statements appeared in a series of magazine articles on the stereoscope and stereograph published in the Atlantic Monthly. They are copy- righted and are reproduced through the courtesy of Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The Publishers. THE STEREOSCOPE AND THE STEREOGRAPH " A stereoscope is an instrument which makes surfaces look solid. All pictures in which perspective and light and shade are properly managed, have more or less of the effect of solidity ; but by this instrument that eif ect is so heightened as to produce an appearance of reality which cheats the sense with , its seeming truth. . . . " We see something with the second eye which we did not see with the first; in other words, the two eyes see different pictures of the same thing, for the obvious reason that they look from points two or three inches apart. By means of these two different views of an object, the mind, as it were, feels round it and gets an idea of its solidity. . . " The stereograph, as we have called the double picture designed for the stereoscope, is to be the card of introduction to make all mankind acquaintances. " The first effect of looking at a good photograph through the stereoscope is a surprise such as no painting ever produced. The mind feels its way into the very depths of the picture. " The scraggy branches of a tree in the foreground run out at us as if they would scratch our eyes out. The elbow of a figure stands forth so as to make us almost uncomfortable. " Then there is such a frightful amount of detail, that we have the same sense of infinite complexity which Nature gives us. " A painter shows us masses ; the stereoscopic figures spares us nothing — all must be there, every stick, straw, scratch, as faithfully as the dome of St. Peter's, or the summit of Mont Blanc, or the ever-moving stillness of Niagara. The sun is no respecter of persons or of things. " This is one infinite charm of the photographic delineation. Theoretically, a perfect photograph is absolutely inexhaustible. In a picture you can find nothing which the artist has not seen before you ; but in a perfect photograph there will be as many beauties lurking, unobserved, as there are flowers that blush un- seen in forests and meadows. " It is a mistake to suppose one knows a stereoscopic picture when he has studied it a hundred times by the aid of the best of our common instruments. " Do we know all there is in a landscape by looking out at it from our parlor-windows ? " — Oliver Wendell Holmes. Missing Page Missing Page Missing Page Missing Page Missing Page Missing Page EDITORIAL BOARD General Introduction By Charles W. Eliot, Ph.D. President-Emeritus of Harvard University CONCRETENESS IN EDUCATION By William C. Bagley, Ph.D. „ 5''^='='°J School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, III. Author: The Educative Process "; "Class Room Management"; "Craftsmanship in Teaching ; Educational Values"; "School Discipline." Joint Author: Human Behavior Editor: School and Home. Joint Editor: Journal of Educational Psychology. ' How TO Study Stereographs and. Lantern Slides By Frank M. McMurry, Ph.D. Professor of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Author: 'How to Study and Teaching How to Study"; "Elementary School Standards," Joint Author: Tarr & McMurry Geographies; "Method of the Recitation." GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION By Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D. Controller and Professor of Geography, Teachers College, Columbia University. Joint Author; Brigham & McFarlane, "Essentials of Geography." 1. Geographical Classification and Title List By D. C. Ridgley, A.B. Professor of Geography, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111. Author: " Important Topics in Geography " ; " Home Geography " In this chapter is presented the title list of the 600 stereo- graphs and lantern slides which actual classroom use has dem- onstrated ' as the most effective for purposes of instruction. They are classified geographically by continents and political divisions and give 600 references to the important countries of the world. (See pag-e 3.) XX EDITORIAL BOARD 2. People of All Lands (Racial Geography) By Mark Jefferson, A.M. Professor of Geography, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Author of "Teachers' Geography"; "Materials for the ^Geography of Michigan ; "Exercises on the Topographic Map." Associate Editor: Journal of Geography. 153 Stereographs and slides to which 154 references are made, illustrating the distinguishing features of the great races of mankind and their branches and to show the racial characteristics and development of the great nations. At the same time this classification, by showing homes, clothing, use of implements and industrial processes, necessarily differenti- ates people? according to their civilization. (See page 31. )■ 3. Production and Manufacturing (Industrial Geography) By Charles Redway Dryer, M.A., M.D. Geographer, Fort Wayne, Ind. Formerly Professor of Geography and Geology, Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Author: "Studies in Indiana Geography " ; " Lessons in Physical Geography " ; " Geography, Physical, Eco- nomic and Regional " ; " Natijral Economic Geography." 437 stereographs and slides with 968 references showing our industrial resources and equipment. The classification is divided into two main parts, the first of which deals with indus- tries as units • under the subheads, Foods, Clothing, Mining and Mineral Industries, Lumbering and Forest Products, and Irrigation. In the second part the process is 'the fundamental idea presented under the headings, Collective, Productive, Con- structive and Distributive Industries. (See page 45.) 4. Transportation By Emery R. Johnson, Ph.D., Sc.D. Professor of Transportation and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania. Au- thor: "Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Transportation," 1893; "American Railway Transportation," 1903; "Ocean and Inland Water Transportation," 1906; "Elements of Transportation," 1909; "Railroad Traffic and Rates," 1911; "Pan- ama Canal Traffic and Tolls," 1912; "Measurement of Vessels for the. Panama Canal," 1913; "History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States," 2 vols., 1915. The classification of Trsmsportation presents 345 stereo- graphs and slides with 399 references thereto. It makes plain the universal dependence of modern life upon means of trans- EDITORIAL BOARD xxi portation. Every method of carrying, both primitive and modern, is illustrated. Human carriers, beasts of burden, carts, wagons, railroad trains, water craft from the Chinese junk to the great ocean liner or submarine and airplanes are shown so classified that the part each one takes in the world's work is easily seen. (See page 73.) 5. Markets and Marketing By J. Paul Goode, Ph.D. Professor of Geography, University of Chicago. Specialist in Economic Geog- raphy and Cartography. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. Lecturer and writer on " Commercial and Economic Geography." Author of important series of wall maps for schools and colleges. 156 stereographs and slides showing the ever increasing idea which the word " market " may be made to convey. In this classification are shown, first, the Primitive Markets where trade is direct. Then the Great Market Centers where the buying and selling is done for a large territory are seen. Next come the Production Centers where commodities are handled in such quantities as to establish a World Market, and last Regions with a Large Demand for a certain commodity are shown to be Markets for that commodity. (See page 87.) 6. Natural Forms and Forces (Physical Geography) By Wallace W. Atwood, Ph.D. Professor of Physiography, Harvard University. Formerly Associate Professor of Geology and Physiography, University of Chicago. Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. Author of " Interpretation of Topographic Maps "; " Geological and Mineral Resources of the Alaskan Peninsula"; "Physical Geography of the Devirs Lake Region," etc. During past ages the surface of the earth has been changed by natural forces including the atmosphere, ground and sur- face water, snow, and ice and internal forces such as heat and pressure, and by organic agencies including man. These forces have produced the mountains, hills and volcanoes, the lakes and rivers, the capes, peninsulas and islands — all these actions and results are illustrated in this classification of 218 stereographs and slides with 372 references. (See page 97.) xxii EDITORIAL BOARD 7. Zones and Their Effect on Life. Elevation of Land (Altitude and Its Effect on Life) By Robert De C. Ward, A.M. Professor of Climatology, Harvard University. Author of " Practical Exer- cises in Elementary Meteorology " ; " Climate, Considered Especially in Relation to Man." Translator of Julius Hann's " Handbuch der Klimatologie," Vol 1, 2nd ed. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. 185 Stereographs and slides with 197 references presenting the effect of climate (whether resulting from position or alti- tude) upon the general appearance of a country, upon vegeta- tion, crops, occupations and dwellings, are the basis of this classification. Climatic controls over the earth's surface and its flora, and man's mode of life under the limitations imposed by climate, are well illustrated in the views selected. (See page 109.) 8. Geography by Nations (Political Geography) By E. M. Lehnerts, A.M. Assistant Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Minnesota. Associate Editor Journal of Geography A classification of 254 stereographs and slides with 382 ref- erences, showing the extent and distribution of each great nation's possessions, something of the geographic factors in each nation's development and the extent of governmental freedom existing throughout the world. (See page 121.) 9. Earth Neighbors By James F. Chamberlain, Ed.B., S.B. Professor of Geography, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal. Associate Editor Journal of Geography. Author: " Field and Laboratory Exercises in Physical Geography"; "How We Are Fed"; "How We Are Clothed"; "How We Are Sheltered"; "How We Travel"; "North America"; "Europe"; "Asia"; "South America"; "Africa." 96 stereographs and slides, with 99 references, dealing not only with telescopic photographs of the sun, moon, planets, comets, etc., but with those scenes upon the earth which show the influences of these earth neighbors" upon human affairs. (See page 141.) EDITORIAL BOARD xxiii HISTORY AND CIVICS INTRODUCTION By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., LittD., LL.D. Professor of Government in Harvard University 10. Foreign Beginnings of American History By Hutton Webster, Ph.D. Professor in the University of Nebraska. Author of "Ancient History"; "Early European History"; "Readings in Ancient History"; and "Readings in Medieval and Modern History " This classification of 74 stereographs and sHdes has been made with the purpose of setting forth the foreign background of American history ; to trace its people with their habits and customs to their sources in order that American History may not be isolated but may be seen in its relation to the rest of the world's story. (See page 151.) 11. Foundations of the American Nation By Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of Government in Harvard University. Author of " Essentials of American History"; "Formation of the Union"; "Guide to the Study and Reading of American History"; "The Monroe Doctrine"; "National Ideas His- torically Traced"; "New American History"; "Salmon P. Chase"; "School History of the United States"; "Slavery and Aholition "; "Southern South," etc. Editor of the American Nation, "Cyclopedia of American Government"; "American Citizen Series"; "Epochs of American History"; "American His- tory Told by Contemporaries "; " American Patriots and Statesmen," etc, 92 Stereographs and slides with 123 references. " The pur- pose of this classification is to introduce the pupil to the for- mative period of American history, extending from the earliest discoveries by Europeans to the organization of the govern- ment under the constitution of 1787. This naturally includes the physical background, the face of the country, then the orig- inal inhabitants and finally some of the scenes of their colonial and revolutionary history.'' (See page 159.) xxiv EDITORIAL BOARD 12. The Development of Our Nation By H. Morse Stephens, M.A., Litt.D. Professor of History, University of California, Berl Silk Manufacture (Japan) 540 Reeling silks from cocoons by hand. 541 One of Japan's largest modern silk weaving plants. Silk Manufacture (America) 22 Weighing and sorting raw. silk skeins. South Manchester, Conn. The United States buys approximately one-half the raw silk pro- duced by Japan each year. We also buy heavily from China and Italy. Most of this silk comes to us as reeled silk. 23 First drawing or straightening of fibers — spun silk industry. South Manchester, Conn. This silk comes from damaged co- coons and is carded and spun in practically the same way as cotton and wool. 24 Roving frame — silk industry (spun silk), South Manchester, Conn. SILK — LEATHER 55 53 Drawing warp for weaving silk cloth, Paterson, N. J. (Reeled silk). 54 Weaving room in the famous silk mills at Paterson, N. J. 55 Machines weaving dozens of fine taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N. J. For uses of silk in clothing see Classification on Tex- tiles and Clothing. (c) Leather Sources 127 " Making a drive " on Paloduro Ranch, Texas. 186 Round up on Sherman Ranch, Kansas. 301 Cattle ranch in Jamaica. 317 Some of South America's famous cattle. 589 Range cattle in Australia. 185 Splendid Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens. 140 World's greatest live stock market, Chicago. 580, 298, 284, S61, 497, 454 Ox hide excellent leather. 159,165,57,403,364,356,371,591,403,339 Dairy cattle finally furnish beef and leather. 549, 491, 474 Buffalo, a source of leather. 562, 545, 548, 510 Humped cattle of Asia. 71, 138, 218, 229, 195, 188, 182, 147, 136 Horses. 183, 172, 122 Pig skin a good leather. 560, 566, 567, 574, 557, 340, 524 Donkeys. 124,249,175,311,294 Mule skin an excellent leather. 190, 173, 480 Sheep skin much used for gloves, etc. 246, 279, 118, 190, 204, 396, 480 Dog skin used in many ways. 411,447 Goats; 413 Reindeer; 2 Moose; 189 Elk; 335 Llama; 232 American Bison; 110 Alligator; 588 Kangaroo; 345 Seal; 505, 509 Elephants ; 577, 578 Hippopotamus. Manufacture. 272 Scraping hair from hides — tanning industry. 11 Skilled workmen cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 41 Sewing room, large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 12 Lasting machine, shaping shoes in Massachusetts shoe factory. Uses 71, 138 Harness, a very important use of leather. 45, 14 Leather is also extensively used for belting. 98, 158, 182, 168, 169 Indians wearing " Buckskin " garments. 279, 413, 188, 224, 83, 77 Leather boots and shoes. 352, 89, 92 Leather upholstering. 188, 186, 182 Hog skin the usual leather for saddles. 507 Primitive use of inflated bullock skins for ferry boats. 285 Primitive use of hog skin to carry liquids. 56 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING (d) Furs 34S The seal, an important source of fur clothing. 343 The use of fur garments by the Eskimo. 328, 158 Indians using furs for clothing. 246,243,279 Use of fur caps and clothing, Arctic regions. 490 Natives of Asia Minor wearing fur caps and coats. (e) Feathers 239 The ostriches supply beautiful ostrich plumes. 216 These geese furnish valuable feathers. C. MINING AND MINERAL INDUSTRIES 1. ORGANIC DEPOSITS (a) Anthracite Coal 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 75 Miners going into the slope, Hazelton, Pa. 1() Miner drilling and laborer loading "black diamonds." n Loading cage with car at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 78 Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 79 Shipping coal, coal breaker in background, Ashley, Pa. (b) Bituminous Coal 129 A trainload of bituminous coal from the Pittsburgh fields for Lake Superior consumption. 61 Coal on barges ready for river* shipment. Pittsburgh, Pa., is sometimes called the Smoky City on account of the large amount of coal smoke from the various iron and steel mills and other great factories located there. 177 Bituminous coal used in threshing engine. 43, 26, 347 Bituminous coal used in passenger and freight engines and ships. (c) Coke (Made from Bituminous Coal) 68 Coke ovens, loading coke into cars. 62 Two cars of coke at blast furnace. (d) Peat (Irish Coal) 378 Peat from Irish bogs. High St., Killarney, Ireland. (e) Petroleum 122 Spindle Top, an important oil region near Beaumont, Texas. 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin for shooting the well. 70 Shooting an oil well. 123 Crude oil stills and can factory. Port Arthur, Texas. 256 A reserve supply of the finished product in tank at the Panama Canal. METALS 57 (f) Phosphate lis Mining phosphate and loading cars, Tenn. — an important fer- tilizer. (g) Asphalt 48 Barrels of asphalt shipped from mine, Trinidad Island. 316 Beautiful asphalt boulevard, Buenos Aires. 2. INORGANIC DEPOSITS AND INDUSTRIES (a) METALS (i) Iron 163 Steam shovel at work, Messabi Range, Minn.' 164 Iron ore being loaded on ships. Two Harbors, Minn. 154 Ore ships passing through " Soo " Canal. 128 Unloading iron ore from ships to train for Pittsburgh District. (129 shows train load of coal which the ore ships will haul back to Minnesota.) 62 Iron blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 63 Modern pig iron machine at rest, Pittsburgh. 64 Emptying cooled pig iron from molds into car. Uses 271 Iron pipe; 350, _ 354, 534, 306, 365 Iron fencing; 484, 485 Iron roof; 63, 64 Cast iron molds; 215, 471 Iron chains. (2) Steel 116 Steel furnace, Birmingham, Ala. 61 Across the Monongahela River may be seen a steel plant in Pittsburgh. 65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh. 66 Steel ingots on the "table" of the "blooming" mill, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. 67 Red-hot steel beam from rolling process being cut into lengths by buzz saw, steel works, Pittsburgh, Pa. Uses 82 Erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive works. 43 Two locomotives and a modern four track steel railway. 242 Steel in submarine; 254 battleship; 27, 174, 575 bridges; 139, 25, 26, 28, 30 skyscrapers ; 1 axe ; 224 saw ; 69 drill ; 256 wireless tower; 123 tanks; 170 power plant; 187 factory; 150, 151, 316, .305, 152 automobiles; 250, 252, 253 Panama Canal; 52 steam ships ; 161, 166, 178, 179, 180 farm machinery and gas engines ; 129, 128, 163 steel cars; 154, 164 freight boats; 177, 218 233 threshing engines; 84, 94 money making machines. For other uses of steel see classification on metals. 58 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING (3) Copper 187 Copper smelters and mines, Butte, Mont. 155 A mile underground — loading and handling cars with copper ore, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet, Mich. 157 Loading 1,400 tons of copper on boat, Houghton, Mich. Uses. 15 Copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Lawrence, Mass. 151 Insulated copper wires used in auto engines. 324, 486, 375, 273, 590 show trolley wires of copper. 308, 309 Show system of telephone wires, often of copper, especially the long-distance wires. 43 Showing copper telegraph wires. 171 Commutator plates in generators are copper. (4) Brass (Product of Copper) 92,84,89,21,352 Brass lighting fixtures; 88, 92, 94 Brass fans; 494 Brass in rifle shells ; 39, 37, 7i Cannon were formerly made of brass. (5) Bronze (Product of Copper) 80 The old Liberty Bell. Most famous in world. 484 The great bell market, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. 71 Small bronze bells on harness. 241 San Gabriel mission showing bells. (6) Gold 243 Some of the 40,000 men who entered Klondyke gold field in 1898. 246 Gold miners and dog team north of Arctic Circle, Alaska. 245 Placer mining, near the Yukon River, Alaska. 225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 287 Rich gold and silver mining center. El Oro, Mexico. 579 Gold quartz mining, 10th level, 1,200 feet under ground, Robin- son Mine, Johannesburg, S. Africa. 203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. Uses 21 Skilled workers manufacturing jewelry. Providence, R. I. (7) Silver 214 A silver mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. 287 Rich gold and silver mining center of El Oro, Mexico. 334 Refining silver in smelter, Peru, S. Amer. Uses 33 Silverware in a well furnished dining room. 84 Silver half-dollars, quarters and dimes being coined at govern- ment mint. PRECIOUS STONES — QUARRYING S9 (8) Zinc and Lead 176 Zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. (b) PRECIOUS STONES (i) Diamonds 581 Mining " diamantiferous blue earth/' Kimberley, S. Africa. (2) Garnets, Rubies, Sapphires and Moonstones 512 Grinding gems — garnets, rubies, sapphires, and moonstones — Ratnapora, Ceylon. (c) GLASS Manufacture 134 Placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Rossford, Ohio. 135 Polishing plate glass after grinding, Rossford, Ohio. Use 33 Cut glass on dining table, plate glass in mirror and mantel. 92 Glass in transom, lighting fixtures, ink wells, mirror, clock face and covering picture. 88 Glass in skylight. 587 Plate glass in Federal building, Melbourne, Australia. 159 Glass windows in modern dairy barn. 152 A well lighted modern factory building, Ford Motor Factory, Detroit. (d) POTTERY 58 Firing tableware, Trenton, N. J. 59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. 33 Finely decorated china on dining table. 372 Porcelain in Robert Burns' Cottage, Scotland. 542,487,572,564,292 Primitive pottery in other countries. (e) QUARRYING (i) Granite 3 Quarrying granite, Concord, N. H. — Drilling preparatory to splitting. 95 Congressional Library — white New Hampshire granite. 7 Quincy market building, Boston, built of granite. 6 Granite blocks used in paving. 569 The great dam, Egypt. Built of Assuan granite. 146 Lincoln Tomb (granite), Springfield, 111. (2) Marble 4 Marble quarry, Proctor, Vt., largest quarry opening in the world. 5 Chiseling marble. Proctor, Vt. 60 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 87 The extensions of the Capitol building are of Massachusetts marble. 36 Many marble monuments may be seen here. (f) Nitrate 325 Sacking and shipping nitrate at mines, Chile. 3. LUMBERING AND FOREST PRODUCTS (a) Lumbering America 224 Felling great trees that grow in the rainy northwest. 162 Load of logs at Kettle River, landing, Minn. 1 Landing and scaling logs, Aroostook Woods, Me. 215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Washington. 216 Large lumber mills, near Seattle, Wash. 217 Loading ships with lumber. Orient 509 Elephants hauling logs from Salwin River, Burma. 523 Chinamen sawing timbers in primitive way. For uses of lumber see classification on Wood. (b) Turpentine 107 Turpentine dippers and chippers at work, Savannah, Ga. 106 Savannah, Ga. Greatest turpentine market in world. (c) Manufacture of Paper For manufacture of paper from wood pulp, cloth and rice straw see Paper under Miscellaneous Industries, this classification. (d) Charcoal 103 Burning charcoal, N. C. 543 Selling charcoal in Korea. For further material on forest products and their uses see classifi- cation on Wood. 4. MISCELLANEOUS (a) Haying 183 Alfalfa, principal hay and forage crop of West. 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader. 185 Alfalfa hay in barn. 232 American bison eating hay in park. 388 Making hay. Highlands of Bavaria. 408 Hay put up in racks to cure. 454 A unique team eating hay, Naples, Italy. MAKING PAPER — TOBACCO — IRRIGATION 61 (b) Ivory 505, 509 Elephants showing ivory tusks. 573 Shipping ivory at Mombaso, Africa. 577, 578 Ivory of hippopotamus inferior to that of elephant. (c) Making Paper Wood 1 Printing and wrapping paper are mainly made from wood pulp. Timber suitable for paper pulp is fast disappearing in the United States. Much paper pulp is imported from Canada. 412 Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp for the manufacture of paper, Norway. Cloth (Cotton and Linen) 19 . Cut rags after removing from washing drums, paper mills, Holyoke, Mass. 20 Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 94 Paper money from linen rag's — the toughest and most durable paper made in America. Rice Straw 533, 534, 535, 536 Show rice paper used extensively by Japanese in the walls and windows of their homes. (d) Making Money 84 Coining presses. Government, Philadelphia, Pa. 94 Making paper money, Washington, D. C. (e) Tobacco 112 Kentucky tobacco field showing ventilated tobacco barns. 297 Cutting tobacco in Cuba. (f) Irrigation Irrigation is not a distinct industry. But because of popular inter- est in this method of production this grouping is supplied. 210 Great Roosevelt irrigation dam. Phoenix, Ariz. 198 Sugar beets in irrigated district, Colo. 104 Flooding the rice fields, S. C. 105 Hoeing rice, S. C. 234 Almond trees in irrigated district, Cal. 237 Some fine results of irrigating orange groves, Cal. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, irrigated, Cal. 236 What irrigation does for Tokay grapes, Cal. 332 Preparing soil for planting, irrigated district, Peru. 333 Replanting sugar cane preparatory to irrigation, Peru. 549 Filipino harrowing rice field after irrigation. 527, 528, 529, 530 Irrigated rice fields, Japan. 515, 518 Irrigated land in China. ';^ 62 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 569 The great Nile Dam for irrigation purposes. 564 Land irrigated by overflow of Nile River, Egypt. 563 Cotton raised on irrigated land, Egypt. (g) Rubber 247 Rubber tree showing scars from cutting, Panama. , 131 Crude rubber from the jungles, Akron, O. 132 Building up an automobile tire, Akron, O. 155,44 Rubber hose. See also Rubber under Clothing in this classification. (h) Automobiles 150 Assembling room, Cadillac plant, Detroit, Mich. 151 Experts testing motors, Cadillac plant, Detroit, Mich. 152 Employees leaving Ford plant, Detroit, Mich. 167,305,308,315,316 Automobiles in use. For manufacture of Automobile tires see Rubber above. (i) Construction For a considerable range of industries dealing with the construc- tion of highways, streets, bridges, canals, etc., see Part II of this classification, also Cities and the various classifications under Industrial Arts. See classification on Transportation. See classification on Markets and Marketing. Part II In the following scheme, the character of the work itself is made the basis for an economic classification of industries and products. A. COLLECTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries do not create anything which did not exist be- fore, but collect raw materials, making only such changes in their form or qualities as are necessary to fit them for transportation and market. They may be carried on by primitive peoples and by the use of simple means or they may demand complex machinery and the exercise of the highest scientific skill. 1. PRIMITIVE a. Plucking 551 Husking coconuts, Island of Luzon, P. I. 259 Luxuriant vegetation in the Mauna Loa Valley, Hawaii. 293 Golden and luscious mangoes, Nicaragua, C. A. 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. 303 Cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. FISHING — HUNTING — MINING 63 b. Fishing 226 Salmon Industry, Columbia River, Ore. 227 Interior of a salmon canning establishment, Ore. 244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 481 Fish wives of Finland — a busy scene on the quay. 531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. 13 Drying codfish in the sun — Gloucester, Mass. 97 Oyster shells as bedding for young oysters, Hampton, Va. 86 " Shucking " oysters. Oyster House, Baltimore, Md. 415 Floating whale station, Spitzenbergen, Lapland. (Whales usually but incorrectly called fish.) Ill Sponge market, Key West, Harbor, Fla. c. Hunting 2 Flashlight of wild moose in Maine forest. 577 Hippopotamus hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 578 Returning from a big game hunt, Rhodesia, Africa. 345 Commander Adrien de Gerlache, leader of the Belgica expedi- tion (1897-99) on skis hunting seals on South Polar pack. 110 Battle with a wounded 'gator. Palm Beach, Fla. 415 Floating whale station, Spitzenberg'en, Lapland. 2. SCIENTIFIC d. Lumbering 224 Method of felling trees, Oregon. 162 A load of logs, Minnesota Pineries. 1 Logs delivered at the stream. Me. 215 Great chained log rafts, Columbia River, Wash. 216 Largest lumber mills, near Seattle, Wash. 217 Shipping lumber, Washington. e. Quarrying 4 Marble quarry. Proctor, Vt. — largest quarry opening in the world. 3 Quarrying granite, Concord, N. H. 5 Chiseling marble. Proctor, Vt. f. Mining Coal 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 75 Miners going into the slope, Hazelton, Pa. 1() Drilling and loading anthracite, Scranton, Pa. n Loaded cage at bottom of shaft, Scranton, Pa. 78 Tandem automatic slate picker, Scranton, Pa. 79 Shipping coal — coal breaker in background. 64 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Petroleum 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin. 70 Shooting oil well with eighty quarts of nitro-glycerin, Pa. 122 Spindle Top oil region, Texas. 123 Crude oil stills and can factory, Texas. Iron 163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. Copper, Zinc and Lead 155 A mile underground — -cars with copper ore, Mich. 176 Zinc and lead mines, Joplin, Mo. Gold and Silver 245 Placer mining near the Yukon River, Alaska. 225 Hydraulic mining, Oregon. 579 Gold quartz mining, 10th levelj 1,200 feet under ground, Jo- hannesburg, South Africa. 334 Refining silver in smelter, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. 214 A mining camp nestled in the mountains, Nevada. Diamonds 581 Taking out the " diamantiferous blue earth " at Wesselton dia- mond mines, Kimberley, South Africa. Phosphate 115 Mining phosphate near Columbia, Tenn. Nitrate 325 Sacking and shipping nitrate at mines, Chile. g. Collecting 130 Tapping a sugar-maple tree, Ohio. 107 A turpentine farm — dippers and chippers at work. Savannah, Ga. 247 Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting, Panama. 131 Many forms of crude rubber, Akron, Ohio. 285 Filling pig skins with juice from maguey plant used in making pulque, the native drink, Tacuba, Mexico. B. PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries assist nature to multiply or create materials which would not otherwise exist and are capable of a high degree of scien- tific development. 3. AGRICULTURE ,h. Garden Culture 149 Harvesting celery, Kalama-zoo, Mich. 47 Harvesting cantaloupes near Buffalo, N. Y. GARDEN CULTURE — FIELD CULTURE 65 83 School gardens, Philadelphia, Pa. 235 Luther Burbank's spineless cactus, Santa Rosa, Cal. 211 Spineless cactus — a valuable product for semi-arid regions. New Mexico. i. Field Culture Grains 561 Tilling the soil as in ancient days, Egypt. 522 Chinese farmer boys plowing, near Port Arthur. 488 How the Russian peasant tills his fields. 178 Plowing with tractor. South Dakota. 179 Harrowing with tractor. South Dakota. 180 Manure spreader followed by tractor plow. Sod near Omaha, Nebr. 357 Harvesting wheat in Old England. 199 Wheat raised by the " dry farming method." 147 Loading oats in the field, 111. 218 Combined reaper and thresher. Wash. 233 Steam Harvester, reaping, threshing and sacking wheat. 497 The threshing floor of Nazareth, Palestine. 479 Treading out the grain, Greece. 284 Ancient mode of threshing in Mexico. 562 Threshing beans in the field, Egypt. 177 Threshing wheat. North Dakota. 184 Corn field, Kansas. 160 Harvesting' and loading silage corn. Wis. 136 Modern methods in corn harvesting, Ind. 137 Corn in the shock, Ind. 549 Filipino farmers harrowing rice fields. „--'"' 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 527 Overlooking the rice fields, Japan. 529 Rice harvest, cutting with a sickle, Japan. 105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. 104 Flooding the rice fields, S. C. 550 Hulling rice for breakfast, P. I. Sugar Beets 198 Cultivating a field of beets, Colorado. 419 Women working in a field of sugar beets, Sweden. Tobacco 112 Tobacco field in Kentucky. 297 Cutting tobacco grown in the shade of banana trees, province of Havana, Cuba. Peanuts 118 Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Arkansas. Potatoes 166 Potato digging machines, Moorhead, Minn. 66 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Hay 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader. j. Plantation Culture Sugar Cane 332 Preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 333 Replanting the sugar cane, Peru. 258 Cutting the sugar cane, Porto Rico. Fruits 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, C. A. 108 Harvesting pineapples, Florida. Fibers 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 289 Henequen producing sisal hemp fiber, Mex. 571 Sisal hemp plantation in blossom, Uganda, Africa. 552 Manila hemp, stripping the tree, P. 1. k. Horticulture 44 Summer spraying in apple orchard, N. Y. 175 Sorting and packijig apples in barrels. Mo. 85 Gathering peaches, Delaware. 237 10,000 acres of orange groves, Cal. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, Los Angeles, Cal. 437 Picking Valencia oranges, Spain. 236 Tokay grapes, Acampo, Cal. 390 Toiling in the vineyards, Rudesheim, Germany. 319 Italian settler and family, vineyards in background, Mendoza, Argentina. 234 Harvesting almonds, Cal. 302 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, F. W. I. 310 Method of drying coffee, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 530 A country girl of old Japan — among the famous tea fields of Shizuoka, Japan. 303 Cacao pods, Dominica, B. W. I. 1. Herding — depends on native grasses, mosses, etc. Cattle 127 On the Paloduro Ranch, Paloduro, Tex. 186 Round, up on the Sherman Ranch, Geneseo, Kan. 188 Cowboy, bronco corral and camps, Mont. 301 A cattle ranch in Jamaica, B. W. I. 317 Argentina's famous cattle, La Plata, Argentina, S. A. 589 Range cattle, Australia. Sheep 190 Sheep grazing on range, Idaho. 480 Shepherds and their flocks, Greece. STOCK RAISING 67 Reindeer 413 Laplanders milking the reindeer, Norway. m. Stock raising is combined with agriculture and depends on home-grown grain and fodder. Cattle 364 Jersey cattle. 371 Ayrshire dairy cattle, Scotland. 403 Milking Holstein-Friesian cattle, Holland. 159 Modern dairy barns and Holstein cattle, Wisconsin. 57 Milking scene in modern dairy, New Jersey. 358 Whitefaced Herefords. 370 Aberdeen Angus, a noted breed of beef cattle. 183 Hereford cattle in Kansas feeding pens. 140 The world's greatest live stock market, Chicago. Swine 172 Hogs in rape pasture, Iowa. 183 Hogs in rich alfalfa pasture, Kansas. Sheep and Goats 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep. 411 Milking the goats, Hardanger Fjord, Norway. 447 Grindewald on market day, Switzerland. Horses 138 A champion team of Percheron draft horses. 398 Belgian draft horses. Elephants 509 Elephants hauling logs from river, Burma. 505 Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. Birds 56 1,500 Hens (White Leghorns) in laying house, New Jersey. ■240 Los Angeles pigeon farm, California. 239 Cawston ostrich farm, California. Insects 537 Gathering mulberry leaves for silk worms, Japan. 536 Silk worm incubator, Japan. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to silk worms. Japan. 539 Silkworm cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. ' C. CONSTRUCTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries use all sorts of materials supplied by the collec- tive and productive industries in the construction of things which are largely artificial. 68 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 4. MANUFACTURING The United States Census publishes statistics of 259 distinct lines of manufacture and the number of different kinds of articles pro- duced runs into the tens of thousands. Foodstuffs 292 Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A. 498 Native women grinding v^heat, Palestine. 410 " Flat Bread " of the Norvi^egian Peasant. 45 1,000 lbs. of freshly churned butter, N. Y. 270 Beets stored in sheds at sugar factory. 271 Beet pulp and juice for manufacturing sugar. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar. 35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 141 Dressing beef — washing with boiling water.- 143 Trimming and skinning hams before pickling. 142 Splitting backbones and inspection of hogs. 144 Making link sausages. Fibers and Textiles For more complete list see Clothing in this chapter, also classification on Textiles and Clothing. Cotton 563 Native boys spinning cotton, Egypt. 286 Carding room, cotton mills, Mexico. 14 Spinning cotton yarn, Lawrence, Mass. 15 Copying design on copper rolls for printing cotton cloth, Law- rence, Mass. 16 Printing room of cotton mills, Lawrence, Mass. Linen 268 Winding bobbins in linen mill, Canada. 269 Weaving the linen fabric, Canada. Wool 17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Mass. 409 Carding and spinning wool, Norway. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, Kashmir, India. 81 Spinning room, winding bobbins with woolen yarn for weaving, Philadelphia, Pa. 18 Doubling frame in a large woolen mill. SUk 540 Reeling silk from cocoons, Kiryu, Japan. 22 Weighing and sorting raw silk skeins, Conn. 23 First drawing of fibers, Conn. 24 Spinning -^ silk industry. Conn. BARK — COPPER AND GOLD — JEWELRY 69 53 Drawing warp, silk mills, Paterson, N. J. 54 Weaving room, silk mills, Paterson, N. J. 55 Machine weaving taffeta silk ribbons, Paterson, N. J. 541 One of Japan's largest silk mills. Bark 570 Peeling bark for making bark clotli, Uganda, Africa. Cordage 553 Manila hemp rope factory, Philippines. 289 Henequen, source of sisal hemp fiber, Mex. 571 Sisal hemp plantation, Uganda, Africa. Leather Boots and Shoes 272 Scraping the hair from the hides, Canada. 11 Skilled workmen cutting leather for shoes, Mass. 12 Lasting machine shaping shoes, Mass. 41 Sewing room — large shoe factory, Syracuse, N. Y. 133 Manufacture of rubber boots and shoes, Akron, Ohio. Fuel 103 Burning charcoal. North Carolina. 68 Making coke from bituminous coal, Connellsville, Pa. Iron and Steel 62 Plant of the blast furnace, Pittsburgh, Pa. 116 Steel furnace, Birmingham, Ala. 63 Modern pig iron machine, Pittsburgh, Pa. 64 Emptying pig iron from molds into car, Pittsburgh, Pa. 65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh, Pa. 66 Steel ingot on the " table " of the " blooming " mill, Pittsburgh, Pa. 67 Red-hot steel beam being cut into lengths by buzz saw, Pitts- burgh, Pa. Copper and Gold 187 Copper smelters and mine, Butte, Mont. 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Mich. 203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Colorado. 84 Coining presses. Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. Jewelry 21 Manufacturing jewelry. Providence, R. I. 512 Grinding gems, garnets, rubies, sapphires and moonstones, Ratna- pora, Ceylon. Salt 42 Solar method of evaporating salt brine — collecting, draining and hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 153 Packing salt into barrels for shipment, St. Clair, Mich. 70 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING Glass and Pottery 134 Method of placing material in furnace, plate glass works, Ross- ford, O. 135 Polishing plate glass after grinding, Rossford, Ohio. 58 Firing tableware, Trenton, N.- J. 59 Artists decorating porcelain ware, Trenton, N. J. Machinery 156 Pouring molten copper into ingot molds, Calumet-Hecla Mines, Calumet, Mich. 151 Experts testing engines in the Cadillac automobile plant, Detroit, Mich. 82 General view of the erecting shop, Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. Wood Pulp and Paper 412 Grindstones which convert the blocks into wood pulp, paper mills, Skotifos, Norway. 19 Cut rags after removing from washing drums — paper mills, Holyoke, Mass. 20 -Inspecting paper delivered by machine, Holyoke, Mass. 94 Making paper money, Bureau of Printing and Engraving, Wash- ington, D. C. 5. BUILDING Consists in the erection of large, permanent structures such as houses, ships, bridges, etc. A great variety of materials is used and work- men of many trades are employed, as masons, carpenters, painters, plumbers, etc. 6. ENGINEERING The most complex and technical of all industries, has many branches, closely related to manufacture and building. It plans and constructs engines, machinery, power plants, mills, water works, dams, bridges, tunnels, irrigation, drainage and sewer system, roads, docks, canals and the very largest works of human design. By means of engineering, the great powers of nature, heat, water, wind and electricity are brought into the service of man. Architecture (See classification on Architecture) Shipbuilding 52 Great ocean liners at the docks, Hoboken, N. J. 100 Warships in Hampton Roads, Va. DAMS — BRIDGES — ROADS — CANALS 71 242 Submarines, battleships and torpedo boats, San Diego Bay, Cal. 280 Mexico's principal harbor, Vera Cruz. 314 Entrance to the harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 511 Colombo Harbor from landing jetty, Ceylon. Dams and Power Plants 148 Building dikes. East St. Louis, 111. 170 Power dam and locks in Mississippi River, Keokuk, Iowa. 171 Fifteen large generators in a row, supplied with power from the great dam at Keokuk, Iowa. 210 Roosevelt irrigation dam near Phoenix, Ariz. 569 Irrigation dam, Assuan, Egypt. Bridges 27 The great Brooklyn bridge, New York. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 348 London Bridge over the Thames, England. 366 Great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 375 Patrick's Bridge, Cork, Ireland. 379 Suspension bridge, Kenmare, Ireland. 392 Bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 416 The Vassar bridge, Stockholm, Sweden. 442 The Kapellbrucke, Lucerne, Switzerland. 456 Florence and River Arno, Italy. 470 Railway bridge over the Danube, Czernavoda, Roumania. 500 The Howrah bridge over tlie Hooghly River, Calcutta. 575 Bridge near Victoria Falls, Africa. Roads 31 Many forms of transportation required in large centers of popula- tion, New York City. 43 Four track railway, electric road, and Erie Canal. 71 Conestoga wagon on good dirt road. 330 Cofa Bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. • 440 To the Clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. Canals 48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. 154 Greatest canal traffic in the world, the " Soo " Canal. 250 Excavating at site of Gatun Locks, Panama. 251 Excavations measuring 500 feet deep in Gaillard Cut, Panama. 252 North over Gatun Locks, Panama. 253 South over Gatun Locks and Gatun Lake, Panama. 254 U. S. S. Missouri in the Panama Canal. 256 At the Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 72 PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING 405 Frederiksholms Canal, Copenhagen, Denmark. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 462 Danube Canal in the very heart of Vienna. 559 The Suez Canal from a German liner. Docks 106 Along the wharf of Savannah River, Ga. 128 Unloaders at work on ore docks, Conneaut, Ohio. 164 Looking between ore docks # 2 and # 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 267 The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. 400 Steamer docks, Rotterdam, Holland. 420 Custom House scene and harbor, Goteborg, Sweden. 429 The Cathedral, near busy docks, Marseilles, France. 433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, looking towards the Colum- bus monument and Custom House, Spain. 556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. For more complete list see Harbors in Transportation classification, also Markets and Marketing classification. D. DISTRIBUTIVE INDUSTRIES These industries are concerned with the circulation or movement of people, goods, and ideas. They are dealt with in the chapters on Transportation and Markets and Marketing. 4. TRANSPORTATION COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY By EMERY R. JOHNSON, Ph.D., Sc.D. PROFESSOR OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA By means of transportation men secure the necessities of life from the farmers, manufacturers and other producers. Goods become useful to those who need them after they have been carried from the producer or makers to those who use the articles. In different countries and different parts of the world various methods of moving goods from place to place are employed. There is still a surprising amount of carrying done by men and women and beasts of burden without the use of any kind of a vehicle. In those countries where the people have enough wealth to enable them to use vehicles, many varieties of mechanical instruments of transportation have been devised. Less advanced people use simple two-wheeled carts drawn by one or more horses or mules, or sometimes by cattle, water buffalo, camels, dogs or reindeer. Each country uses draft animals that can live and flourish in the particular country in question. I. HUMAN CARRIERS We who live in the United States have become so accustomed to passenger and freight trains, auto trucks, automobiles, dray wagons and comfortable carriages that we have some difficulty in realizing that there are people in Asia, Africa, and the Philippine Islands who depend upon their own muscular strength for transportation and travel ; but if we were to visit Korea we would see men carrying heavy burdens on their back, as is shown by the view (S43) of the charcoal carriers, or if we were to visit Porto Rico (view 257) we would see women car- rying on their heads packages weighing as much as possibly SO lbs. It is only when we go on camping trips to fish or to climb mountains that we resort to " packing," but in some countries this is the regular method of transporting articles. 7.^ 74 GEOGRAPHY — TRANS PORT ATION A. Burdens Borne on Head 257 Porto Rico woman carrying burden on the head. 437 Carrying basket of oranges near Valencia, Spain. 542 Korean carrying earthen vessel on head. 564 Egyptian carrying water jar on head. 572 South African natives carrying baskets on head. 578 African natives carrying burdens on head. 504 Natives carrying water jars on head, Jaipur, India. B. Burdens Borne on Back 243 Miners carrying supplies on back over Chilcoot Pass. 328 Indians carrying children on back, Chile. 449 Carrying goods up mountain trails, Switzerland. 473 Carrying basket on back, Constantinople. 507 India natives carrying inflated bullock skins. 532 534 Japanese mother carrying child on back. 542 White robed pottery peddler, Seoul, Chosen. 543 Koreans carrying charcoal on back. 530 Japanese carrying basket of tea leaves. C. Burdens Borne on Shoulders 108 Carrying baskets of pineapples on shoulders, Florida. 175 Carrying basket of apples on shoulder, Missouri. 266 Fifth Royal Highlanders carrying rifles on shoulder. 327 Laborer carrying box on shoulder, Valparaiso, Chile. 463 Carrying burdens on shoulder, Vienna, Austria. 487 Dairy maids carrying milk on shoulder. Kief, Russia. 494 Arab carrying gun on shoulder. 513 521 Chinese carrying burdens on shoulder. 585 American and British troops carrying guns on shoulder. D. Burdens Borne by Hand 46 Carrying box of milk bottles. 47 Picking and loading cantaloupes near Buffalo. 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin. 182 Mounted Sioux Indians carrying spears and guns. 258 Cutting and carrjdng sugar cane, Porto Rico. 261 Honolulu musicians, Hawaii. 516 Chinese pulling huge stone roller, Nanking. 518 Conveying salt by wheelbarrow train, China. 531 Japanese carrying tray of sardines. 544 Russian traveler carrying baggage in hand. 555 Arab carrying water, Tangiei;, Morocco. 513 "Queen's Road" Hong Kong, China. TRANSPORTATION BY ANIMALS — HORSES 75 II. TRANSPORTATION BY ANIMALS In countries where there are only trails instead of roads, articles have to be transported by human carriers or by pack animals. As is shown by the views, different countries use different kinds of animals for beasts of burden. Not only horses and mules, but also cattle, elephants and camels have their " packing " to do. In large cities, automobiles and electric cars now do most of the work that was formerly performed by horses, and to an increasing extent farmers as well as miners and lumbermen are using the automobile en- gine instead of the mule or horse to haul and carry commodities ; but, for the most part, the farmer still uses the horse or mule to haul his wagon and to do the hard work of farming. The different kinds of carts and wagons used in different countries and the various kinds of sad- dle and draft animals are well illustrated by the views listed in the following classification. A. Horses Horseback 182 Mounted Sioux Indians leaving camp, Nebraska. 193 Mounted guard, Yellowstone National Park. 186 Cowboys rounding up cattle, Kansas. 188 Cowboys roping their mounts, Montana. 204 Ute Indian and family, Colorado. 333 Inspecting sugar cane plantation near Lima, Peru. 385 Cuirassier guards on parade, Berlin. 464 Mounted officer, Andrassy Strasse, Budapest. 496 Horseman on Jericho road, Palestine. 494 A sheik and his body guard, Syria. 585 Officers reviewing troops, Sydney, Australia. 315 Officers on horseback, Buenos Aires. Horses with Wagons 7 Market and delivery wagons about Boston Market, Mass. 42 Hauling salt, Syracuse, N. Y. 47 Loading cantaloupes near Buffalo. 71 Wagon that carried ammunition to Perry, 1813. 138 Champion team of Percheron draft horses. 147 Hauling oats, Illinois. 149 Hauling celery, Kalamazoo, Mich. 167 Dray wagon on Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. 177 Hauling grain to thresher. North Dakota. 181 Hauling hay near Lincoln, Nebraska. 195 221, 229 Stage coaches hauling passengers. 273 Main street, Winnipeg, Canada. 406 A busy street scene, Copenhagen, Denmark. 420 Hauling freight, Goteborg, Sweden. 454 Hauling on the streets of Naples, Italy. 76 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION 473 A busy street scene, Constantinople, Turkey. 484 Great bell market, Nizhni, Novgorod, Russia. Horses with Farm Machinery. 44 Summer spraying in apple orchard. 136 Modern methods in corn harvesting, Ind. 160 Harvesting and loading silage corn. Wis. 166 Potato digging machines at work, Minn. 180 Manure spreader followed by tractor, Nebr. 198 Cultivating field of sugar beets, Colo. 218 Twenty horses pulling combined reaper and thresher. 357 Harvesting wheat in old England. 488 Plowing with primitive native plow, Russia. Horses mith Carriages 201 Cathedral Spires, Garden of the Gods, Colorado. 209 Light driving rig in desert, Arizona. 312 Carriage team, Montevideo, S. A. 320 High wheeled cart and gig, Argentina. 349 Hansom cabs, London, England. 383 Cab drivers, Berlin. 424 Carriages, Paris, France. 472 Carriages, Constantinople, Turkey. 547 Calle Real, principal street of walled city, Manila. 560 Carriages on great Nile bridge, Egypt. Horse Cars 473, 474 Horses pulling street cars, Constantinople. Horses with Sleigh 162 Hauling logs in Minnesota. Horses Drawing Fish Nets 226. Pulling salmon nets with horses, Columbia River. Horse as Pack Animal 537 Gathering mulberry leaves in Japan. B. Donkeys 340 Donkey used as saddle animal, Venezuela. 341 City baker making his daily rounds, Caracas. 378 Donkeys hauling peat, Killarney, Ireland. 496 Russian pilgrims riding donkeys, Jericho road, Palestine. 522 Chinese plowing with donkeys. 524 A donkey pack train, North China. 557 Outside the fine gate, Bab-el-Hathera, Tunis. 560 Donkey pack animals on great Nile bridge. 566. Tigran Bey on his mount, Sakkara, Egypt. 567 The donkey as saddle animal, Thebes, E^pt. MULES — CATTLE — DOGS — CAMELS 77 C. Mules 124 Mule team hauling cotton. 175 Hauling apples with Missouri mule team. 249 The mule a good draft animal in warm countries. 294 Mule used as pack animal, Costa Rica, C. A. 311 Mules hauling coffee, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 438 Spanish mules hitched in tandem fashion. 479 Primitive use of mule in Greece. D. Cattle Common Ox 580 Oxen used to transport army supplies. South Africa. 298 Cattle used for farming in Province of Havana, Cuba. 284 Cattle used for threshing grain, Mexico. 561 Cattle plowing primitive way in Egypt. 337 Ox cart, Baranquilla, Colombia, South America. 497 Oxen working on threshing floor, Nazareth, Palestine. 454 Ox and horse hitched together, Naples, Italy. Buifalo 549 Buffalo much used by the Filipino farmer. 491 Shoeing buffalo on streets of Tarsus, Syria. 474 European buffalo yoked for heavy hauling, Constantinople." Humped Cattle of Asia 562 Humped cattle threshing beans, Egypt. 545 Fancy Japanese cattle at bull races, Java. 548 Humped cattle as pack animals and for riding. 510 Humped cattle hauling pleasure party, Burma. • Dairy. 339 Native method of distributing milk unadulterated. E. Dogs 246 Gold miners and dog team, Alaska. 279 Eskimo dog team, Hopedale, Labrador. 396 Dog drawing milk cart, Antwerp, Belgium. F. Camels 565 A camel at the Sphinx, Egypt. 564 Camel at the river Nile. . 504 Caravan entering Jaipur, India. G. Llamas 335 Llama used as beast of burden in South America. 78 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION H. Elephants SOS Stately elephants on parade, Jaipur, India. S09 Elephants hauling teak logs, Burma. I. Reindeer 413 Reindeer, much used as a draft animal. III. CANAL AND RIVER TRANSPORTATION A. Rafts Long before the railroad was .invented, the rivers and canals, were used for transporting freight and passengers. The lumberman floats his rafts of logs down the river in the spring when the streams are in flood; but in the eastern part of the United States and even on the Mississippi River there is little rafting at present as compared with the past; but one may still see (view 21S) enormous rafts of logs on the Columbia River and on some other western waters. 1 Logs delivered at the Stream ready for rafting, Me. 215 Great chained log rafts on the Columbia River. 507 Inflated bullock skins for rafts, Sutlej River, India. B. Row Boats, Canoes, and Yachts Row boats and canoes are, for most of us, at the present time, used only for pleasure or amusement. Our ancestors used them in their everyday business life, and the people of China and Japan still make large use of hand propelled boats for business purposes. 169 Indian canoe. " From the wigwam he departed." • 326 Sailing boats and yachts, Valparaiso, Chile. 430 Sailing boats and yachts, Cannes, France. 457 Row boats and motor boats on Grand Canal, Venice. C. House Boats 546 House boats on the Pasig River, Manila. 457 House boat on Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 514 Some of China's floating population. Hong Kong. D. Canal Boats The slow-moving canal boat drawn by mules or horses may still be seen in many parts of the United States,, but the mule and the tow- path and the small canal have about served their day. 39 Canal Barges on Hudson River. 48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. 61 "Coal floats and stern- wheel river steamers. CANALS — RIVER STEAMERS — SAIL BOATS 79 154 Ships passing through " Soo " Canal. 252 Ship passing through Gatun locks, Panama Canal. 253 Gatun Lake showing Panama Canal shipping. 462 Fishing boats on Danube Canal, Vienna, Austria. 559 Sail boat and German liner on Suez Canal. E. Canals For the present and the future the large inland canal, like the Erie Canal connecting Albany with Buffalo, or an interoceanic canal like the one at Panama or the one at Suez, is the kind required for the work to be done. 154 Greatest canal traffic in world, Mich. 252 Atlantic entrance to Panama Canal. 253 South -over Gatun locks and Gatun Lake. 254 U. S. S. Missouri passing through Panama Canal. 256 Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 399 Water Street, Zaandam, Holland. 400 Steamer docks, Rotterdam, Holland. 405 Frederiksholms Canal, Copenhagen, Denmark. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 462 Along the Danube Canal, Vienna, Airstria. 559 The Suez Canal from a German liner, looking north. F. River Steamers and Barges The principal rivers of every country will always be great arteries of commerce. Fifty years ago the river steamboat was more largely used than it is today, because the railroad has taken over much of the work that the steamboat used to do. With the growth of population and with the increase in the amount of transportation work to be done, river steamboats and barges are again needed and we are seeing a re- vival of the use of the rivers as highways of commerce. 61 River craft, Pittsburgh, Pa. 119 Large river steamboats. New Orleans. 267 River barges and ocean steamers at Montreal. 429 Loaded barges, Marseilles, France. 433 Barcelona harbor showing loaded barge. 462 Along Danube Canal in Vienna. 467 River dock, Belgrade, Servia. 472 The famous Galata bridge, Constantinople. 473 Stamboul end of Galata' bridge. 546 House boats on the Pasig River, Manila. G. Sail Boats on Rivers 27 Sail boats under the g-reat Brooklyn bridge, N. Y. 39 Sail boats on Hudson River above West Point. 106 Sail boats along the wharf of Savannah River. 396 Antwerp, Belgium, sail boats at river wharves. 80 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION H. Ferry Boats 26 Ferry boat and water front of New York City. 32 Ferry boat landing passengers, Ellis Island, N. Y. 386 Ferry boats, Hamburg, Germany. I. River Highways of Commerce The views here listed of river steamboats and river highways give an excellent idea of the use and possibilities of river transportation. 51 Palisades of the Hudson River, looking north. 61 Confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 120 In the Mississippi Delta at Head of Passes. 170 Great Keokuk Power Dam and Locks in the Mississippi. 264 St. Lawrence River from Dufferin Terrace, Quebec. . 383 The Reichstags-Gebaude, Berlin, Germany. 391 Traffic on the Rhine, Bingen, Germany. 392 Great bridge over Rhine, Bonn, Germany. 397 River Meuse, Namur, Belgium. 467 Junction of Save River with the Danube. 471 On the bank of the Danube, Roumania. 482 Vasili Island, Petrograd, Russia. 483 The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. 489 Looking up Bosporus toward Black Sea. 501 Pilgrims bathing in the sacred Ganges. 517 China's great river Yangtze. 564 Inundation of the Nile, Egypt. 507 A primitive raft on Sutlej River, India. IV. LAKE TRANSPORTATION A. Steamers The United States and Canada have, in the five great lakes — Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior — the longest and best lake high- way of the world, y^he traffic passing through Sault Ste. Marie Canal connecting Lake - AlicK^Si' with Lake Superior exceeds the traffic of any other canal in the world. . 48 Lake steamers at mouth of Erie Canal. 164 Ore boats loading, Two Harbors, Minn. 154 Passenger, freight and ore boats, " Soo " Canal. 128 Lake steamers unloading at ore docks, Conneaut, O. 459 Small passenger steamer on Lake Como, Italy. B. Docks The freight steamers on the Great Lakes and the docks and other terminal facilities of the lake ports exceed in size and efficiency those of any other lakes in the world. PORTS — WHARVES AND DOCKS 81 48 Lake Erie docks at mouth of Erie Canal. 128, 129 At work on the ore docks, Conneaut, O. 157 Loading 1400 tons of copper, Houghton, Mich. 164 Ore docks No. 2 and No. 3, Two Harbors, Minn. 154 Locks and docks of " Soo " Canal. 253 South over Gatun Lake, Panama Canal. 459 Beautiful Lake Como and docks, Italy. V. OCEAN TRANSPORTATION A. Ports Most of us are more interested in the great ocean vessels and in the busy scenes about the wharves and docks at New York and other great ocean ports than we are even in railroads or in lake steamers. Ocean transportation is very well illustrated by the many views listed in the classification that follows. By studying these views, boys and girls who have never visited an ocean port may get a very good idea of ships and harbors and of the business of ocean transportation. 25 Statue of Liberty and New York Harbor. 26 Ferry slips and water front of New York City. 27 The great Brooklyn bridge. New York. 32 Immigrants landing from barge, Ellis Island, N. Y. 52 Great ocean liners at docks, Hoboken, N. J. 106 Along wharf of Savannah River, Savannah, Ga. 248 City and Bay of Panama, from Ancon Hill. 257 Overlooking harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 277 Canadian Pacific station and dock, Vancouver, B. C. 278 Harbor and St. Johns, New Foundland. 280 Mexico's principal harbor. Vera Cruz. 299 Santiago and harbor from Spanish block house. 304 Lower city and harbor, Bahia, Brazil. 314 Entrance to harbor, Buenos Aires, Argentina. '326 The harbor and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 374 Queenstown Harbor, Ireland. 433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 492 Bird's-eye view of Beirut, Syria. 499 Madras and harbor, India. 511 Colombo harbor from landing jetty, Ceylon. 514 Harbor scene. Hong Kong, China. 556 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. B. Wharves and Docks 52 Great ocean liners at Docks, Hoboken, N. J. 267 The wharves, Montreal, Canada. 277 Canadian Pacific terminal, Vancouver, B. C. 280 Mexico's principal harbor. Vera Cruz. 82 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION -295 Havana wharf, Cuba. Unloading coffee from Porto Rico. 327 Goods arriving at docks for shipment, Valparaiso, Chile. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. 420 Custom house scene and harbor of Goteborg, Sweden. C. Sailing Ships The sailing vessel which fifty years ago carried most of the freight that moved on the ocean is now used to a small extent as compared with steamers, but fishermen, lumbermen, and some others who " go down to the sea in ships" still find the sailing vessel very useful and well adapted to their needs. Ill Sail boats at Key West harbor, Florida. 216 Sailing ships at mill for load of lumber. 217 Shipping lumber, Washington. 257 Sail boats at San Juan harbor, Porto Rico. 278 Fisherman's quarters, harbor at St. Johns, N. F. 295 Sail boats at Havana wharf, Cuba. 342 Pear/s ship%. Windward and Eric, equipped with sails. 344 Belgica, Antarctic ship, equipped with sails. 347 Sailing ship in Liverpool harbor, England. 473 Sailing ships at Constantinople. 481 Fish wives of Finland — A busy scene on the quay. 525 Small coastwise sailing vessels, Japan. D. Steamers 26 Water front of New York City. 52 Great ocean liners at docks, Hoboken, N. J. 106 Along the wharf of Savannah River, Savannah, Ga. 252 North over Gatun locks and canal. 253 A busy scene on the Panama Canal. 257 Overlooking harbor, San Juan, Porto Rico. 267 Ocean liiiers, Montreal, Canada. 277 Burrard inlet, Vancouver, B. C. 280 Ocean freight steamer. Vera Cruz. 299 Santiago and harbor from Spanish block house. 314 Freight and passenger steamers, Buenos Aires. 342 The twin ships. Windward and Eric — Peary expedition. 344 Hauling snow for water, Belgica Antarctic expedition. 347 Landing stage Liverpool, England. 374 Queenstown harbor, Ireland. 415 Floating whale station, Spitzenbergen, Lapland. 420 Harbor of enterprising city, Gothenburg, Sweden. 433 Commodious harbor of Barcelona, Spain. 473 Steam ships in harbor, Constantinople, Turkey. 492 Harbor of Beirut, Syria. 499 Madras and harbor, India. 511 Steam ships at anchor, Colombo harbor, Ceylon. BATTLE SHIPS — SUBMARINES — TRACKS 83 S14 Harbor of Hong Kong, China. SS6 Harbor of Algiers, Algeria. Ocean steamers. SS9 German liner in Suez Canal. E. Battle ships, Submarines and Torpedo Boats 100 U. S. Battleship fleet in Hampton Roads. 254 U. S. S. Missouri, first battle ship through Panama Canal. 242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battle ships. VI. RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION Every boy and girl is acquainted with the railroad, but not every one has seen how roads are built up high mountains or how railroad trains are carried on great bridges across broad rivers. Railroads are of many kinds and so are cars and trains. There is a different kind of car for each of the important kinds of traific ; the refrigerator car to carry meat and fruit, the box car for ordinary freight, the tank car for oil, the hopper car for coal and ore. It would interest any boy or girl to make a study of the different kinds of vehicles used by the railroad and to point out how the growth of industries of different kinds has been made possible by the invention and use of special kinds of railway cars. The views here presented will help in making such a study. A. Tracks 43 A busy path of commerce in central New York — four track rail- way, electric road at right, Erie Canal at extreme left. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa., a busy railroad center. 62 Railroad tracks by blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 79 Shipping anthracite coal, Ashley, Pa. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Train of coal cars. 116 Railway tracks, Birmingham, Alabama. 128, 129 B'usy track scene, ore docks, Conneaut, O. 163 Steam shovel at work, showing how track is laid. 170 The great Keokuk power dam and locks. 252,253 Railroad tracks at Gatun locks, Panama Canal. 251 Tracks used in removing dirt from Culebra Cut. 256 Pacific entrance of the Panama Canal. 267 Tracks on wharves, Montreal, Canada. 277 Western terminus of Canadian Pacific R. R., Vancouver. 323 Railway station, Juncal, Chile. 325 At the nitrate mines, Chile. 327 Busy dock scene, Valparaiso, Chile. 420 Custom house scene and harbor, Goteborg, Sweden. 330 Cofa bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 440 To the clouds by rail, Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 499 Railway scene, Madras, India. 544 Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 556 Harbor and station of Algiers, Algeria. 575 Cape to Cairo railway over Zambezi River, Africa. 84 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION B. Locomotives 82 Erecting shop, Baldwin locomotive works. 43 Four track railway in central New York. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Freight engine. 163 Steam shovel at work, Mesabi Range, Minn. 330 Locomotive on the Oroya railway, Peru. 575 Cape to Cairo railway, Africa. C. Bridges 50 Steel arch bridge across Niagara River. 61 Bridges across Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 101 Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 154 " Soo " Canal, Michigan, showing bridge in distance. 174 The magnificent Fads bridge, St. Louis, Mo. 330 Cofa bridge on the Oroya railway, Peru. 366 The great Forth Bridge, Queensferry, Scotland. 470 The longest railway bridge in Europe. 575 Bridge on the Cape to Cairo railway. D. Cars and Trains 43 A busy path of commerce in Central New York. 62 Coke and iron ore cars at blast furnace, Pittsburgh. 68 Loading coke into cars, Connellsville, Pa. 79 Shipping coal, Ashley, Pa. 101 Coal train. Harpers Ferry, West Vii-ginia. lis Mining phosphate and loading cars, Tennessee. 116 Birmingham, Ala. 50-ton hopper cars. 128 SO-ton hopper steel cars. 129 Trainload of coal for Lake Superior consumption. 157 Loading 1400 tons of copper, Houghton, Mich. 163 Loading cars with iron ore, Minnesota. 250, 252, 253 Show dirt cars, Panama Canal. 251 Excavations in Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal. 256 Freight cars at Pacific entrance, Panama Canal. 267 Cars on the wharves, Montreal, Canada. 277 Canadian Pacific station, Vancouver, B. C. 323 Juncal station, Chile, S. A. 327 Freight car at dock, Valparaiso, Chile. 420 Cars at harbor to be loaded, Goteborg, Sweden. 440 To the clouds by rail — Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. 499 Madras railway terminal and harbor, India. 544 Boarding the train at Kansk, Siberia. 556 Harbor and station of Algiers, Algeria. 575 Train crossing bridge over Zambezi River, Africa. ELEVATED LINES — BRIDGES 85 VII. URBAN TRANSPORTATION A. Elevated, Subway and Surface Lines In New York, London and a few other cities people travel on three levels — on elevated trains, on the surface of the street, and in subways ; and at one point in New York, the railroads have a tunnel under the subway, and thus people travel on four different levels. 27 Street cars crossing the great Brooklyn Bridge. 31 Many forms of transportation required in large cities. 43 Interurban line at right of four track steam road. 139 Street cars on State Street, Chicago. 230 Market Street, San Francisco, Cal. 273 Metropolis of western Canada — Main Street, Winnipeg. 315 Street traffic, Buenos Aires, Argentina, S. A. 375 Patrick's Bridge, Dublin, Ireland. 380 Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland. 473 Street cars pulled by horses, Constantinople. 587 Federal Parliament building, Melbourne, Australia. B. Bridges The tunnels and the bridges required for the use of people who live in cities illustrate in a striking way how the genius of man made possi- ble the growth of great cities. 27 The great Brooklyn Bridge, New York. SO Bridge across Niagara River. 61 Confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. 101 Wagon and railway bridges. Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. 348 London Bridge over the Thames River, England. 375 Patrick's Bridge, Cork, Ireland. 392 The great bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, Germany. 397 River Meuse and Pare de la Citadel, Namur, Belgium. 400 Steamer docks, Rotterdam, showing lift bridge. 404 Queen Louise Bridge, Copenhagen, Denmark. 416 The Vassar Bridge, Stockholm, Sweden. 423 Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, France. 442 The Kapellbrucke crossing the River Reuss, Switzerland. 451 Roman bridge over the Tiber River, Rome, Italy. 456 Florence and River Arno, Italy. 472 The famous Galata Bridge, Constantinople, Turkey. 500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta. 546 Bridge across the Pasig River, Manila, P. I. 560 The great Nile bridge, Cairo, Egypt. 86 GEOGRAPHY — TRANSPORTATION VIII. AUTOMOBILES The automobile is rapidly changing the conditions of life in the United States and many other countries. In hardly any large city of the world are the streets without automobiles. Even in Japan where the man-drawn carriage, the jinriksha, is still in use, one may find "the automobile and the electric railway. When one realizes that the auto- mobile has been in use only a short time, one must conclude that it will not be many decades before the engine will displace muscular power as the motor force of the world. 132 Building up automobile tire, Akron rubber plant. 150 Assembling room, chassis ready for engines, Detroit. 151 Experts testing engines, automobile plant, Detroit. 152 Employees leaving Ford automobile factory^ Detroit. 316 Four o'clock parade of society, Palermo Park, Buenos Aires. 121 Automobile trucks necessary for quick delivery. 31 Automobiles in New York City; 8 Boston; 90 Washington; 122 Beaumont, Texas; 126 San Antonio; 139 Chicago; 167 Minneapolis; 230 San Francisco; 305 Rio de Janeiro; 308 Sao Paulo, Brazil; 315 Buenos Aires; 424 Paris. IX. AIR CRAFT The gasoline engine has taken transportation into the air and we are seeing the organization and development of air craft of various kinds. There can be no more interesting study than to trace the growth of the methods of transportation. Our ancestors carried their burdens on their backs or heads ; their children used pack and draft animals ; we employ waterways, railroads, electric railways, automobiles, and aero- planes. Nor is the end yet. Our descendants will doubtless greatly improve upon our means of transportation. 394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 426 Aeroplane on scout duty with French troops. 5. MARKETS AND MARKETING COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY By J. PAUL GOODE, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO A market is primarily a place where merchandise is ex- posed for sale. To this place comes the merchant with his wares, and the buyers with their wants. The most primitive example is the peddler with his pack, offering his goods for sale. Usually the market is located at a fixed place, like the town square or the temple grounds, and often is limited to a fixed day. Such primitive markets, where the producer sells direct to the consumer, are in evidence all the world round, even in the largest cities, where fruit or garden truck, or fish or flowers are on sale. With the development of modern transportation, such mar- kets tend to disappear, but some very old markets, like that at Nizhni Novgorod, are flourishing at the present day. An extension of the market idea has come into common use, where a locality or country is spoken of as a market for given supplies, for example when we say the corn belt is a market for labor-saving farm machinery, or China is a market for American cottons. The following stereographs will serve to illustrate various phases of markets and marketing. I. THE PRIMITIVE MARKET In the primitive market the producer meets the buyer, as on the city ' square. The wares are laid out on the ground, to be inspected and haggled for by the purchaser. 572 The native market at Port Florence, Victoria Nyanza, Africa. 555 The market place at Tangier, Morocco. 387 Market place in the Cathedral square, Nuremberg, Germany. All over the world the market place has most frequently been in the 87 88 GEOGRAPHY— MARKETS AND MARKETING church or temple grounds, and when only occasional market times have been the rule, church days have been chosen. 429 The cathedral and market, Marseilles, France. 393 The market square, Cologne, Germany. 7 Quincy Market, for fruit and truck, Boston, Massachusetts. 447 Grindelwald on market-day, Switzerland. 109 Old slave market, St. Augustine, Florida, reminding us of the days, not so long ago, when men and women were the com- modities to be bought and sold. 484 The great bell market at the Fair, Nizhni Novgorod. This is an annual market, where the caravan trade of all Asia brings its wares to Western buyers. It is something . like a world fair, with grounds set aside for the purpose, and now with many permanent buildings. 339 Distributing milk, in the streets of La Guayra, Venezuela. A primitive market method of bringing the commodity to the buyer. 487 Milk maids delivering milk, Kiev, Russia. 396 Dogs and women bringing milk to market, Antwerp, Belgium. 341 The city baker, selling his wares, Caracas, Venezuela. 543 Charcoal peddlers, Korea. The charcoal may be carried from the mountain side many miles to the town, to be peddled to the consumer. 378 Irish boys peddling peat on the streets of Killarney, Ireland. ^ 485 Market day, in the Jewish quarter of Warsaw, Poland. 466 Market place, Serajevo, Bosnia. 469 Market place in Rustchuk, Bulgaria. 473 Market place at Stamboul (Constantinople). 438 Cart loads of Malaga grapes going to market at Alraeria, Spain. 395 In the veg'etable market, Brussels, Belgium. An example of a specialized market. 423 Flower market on St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, France. A market in one special commodity. 481 A fish market on the quay in a Finland town. Fish is usually handled in a market devoted to sea food only. II. GREAT MARKET CENTERS Here extensive buying and selling are carried on, and goods ac- cumulated for the supply of wide tributary regions. The heart of every large city is developed as a market center, with extensive store buildings devoted to the accumulation and sale of a great variety of products. As a rule, transportation advantages play an important part in the growth of such cities, and usually a harbor and a navigable water- way into the hinterland, are of prime importance. In considerable meas- ure the population of such cities is made up of pe6ple who make their * living in the manufacture, or purchase and sale, or transportation and warehousing of the goods handled in the market. GREAT MARKET CENTERS 89 351 The Bank of England. For over a century the buildings seen hejre have been the financial market center of the world. The money - market is the most specialized and most highly developed of all markets. 29 Wall Street, New York City. The central money market of the New World, and since the Great War began, the market center of the world's finance. 26 Waterfront of New York City. Most of the world's great cities are on navigable water, and good harbors have had much to do in making them great. The harbor of New York is crowded with ship^s from all the world. Congestipn of business at this spot calls for the many great buildings. 30 Up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York. A canyon be- tween lofty buildings, one of the greatest market streets in the world. 267 The wharves at Montreal, the leading market town of Canada. 48 Mouth of the Erie Canal at Buiifalo, New York. The Great Lakes and Erie Canal make Buffalo a market center of large and growing importance. 61 Pittsburgh, where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio River. Good transportation and the presence of rich deposits of coal have made this place the steel market of the world. 139 State Street, Chicago. The lai^est retail shopping' district in America. One store on this street occupies an entire block, is sixteen stories above the street and three stories below, and does a larger business than all the merchants in the largest city on earth could do a century ago. 167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. The business street in the mar- ket section of the city. 230 Market Street, San Francisco, the shopping center of the western metropolis. 327 Busy scene on the wharf of Valparaiso, the leading market town of Chile. 315 Government buildings as seen from the Bourse, Buenos Aires, the financial market center of the Argentine. 305 Rio Branco Avenue, in the business center of Rio de Janeiro, the chief market town of Brazil. 347 Landing stage at Liverpool. With a range of 31 feet of tide, ,a great floating dock is provided as a landing stage. Liver- pool is the world's market center for cotton and for wheat. 381 Royal Avenue, the chief market street of Belfast, Ireland. 365 Princes Street, Edinburgh, Scotland. The principal market street of the Scotch capital. 348 London Bridge. The upstream end of the Thames harbor, the heart of the market section of the city. 420 The wharves of Goteborg, a lively market town of Sweden. 416 Vassa Bridge, in the heart of busy Stockholm. 90 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 386 Hamburg. The leading market city of Germany, head of ocean navigation on the Elbe. 400 The docks of Rotterdam, one of the world's great markets. * 421 View of Paris from the Arch of Triumph. Paris is one of the world's great central markets, headquarters for fashion in the finest wearing apparel. 433 Harbor of Barcelona, the most active market center of Spain. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, one of Italy's most important market towns. For a thousand years Venice was the leading market of the en- tire Mediterranean. 462 Barge landing on Danube Canal, in the heart of Vienna, the great central market of Austria. 463 View on the Graben, a busy shopping district of Vienna. 464 Andrassy Street in the market center of Budapest, Hungary. 486 The Krestchatik, the principal market street of Kiev, Russia. 526 View in Tokyo, Japan, the largest city, and a great merchandising center of Japan. 513 Queen's Road, the leading business street of Hong Kong, the market center of South China. 514 Scene in the native quarter. Homes of the boatmen who handle the freight in the market of Hong Kong-. 546 View in Pasig River, Manila. These boats, called "cascos,'' are the homes of boatmen who make their living handling the freight in the great markat port of Manila. 511 The harbor of Colombo, Ceylon. A port of call for the south Asian trade, and a great trans-shipment market. 501 The temple grounds at Benares, India. Visited by many thou- sands of pilgrims, and an important local, native market. 492 View of Beirut, Syria, the most important market town of Asia Minor. 558 View over Alexandria, in the delta of the Nile, the leading market city of Egypt. III. PRODUCTION CENTERS For various reasons, certain localities have become centers where raw materials or manufactured commodities are handled in such large quantities as to establish a clainf to importance as a world mar- ket. Some cities come to buy and sell certain commodities so exten- sively as to become the price making centers for the whole world. Thus London for many years has been the world market for wool, tea, ivory, diamonds, and money; Liverpool for wheat and cotton; New York for coffee and of late for money; Chicago for meats, and so on. The following stereographs will help to an understanding of the tremendous concentration of interests represented in great city markets. 140 Union Stock Yards, Chicago. The concentration of railways at Chicago has focused tlie " Corn Belt " and the Great Plains into PRODUCTION CENTERS 91 the largest live stock market on earth. The value of the pack- ing house product is over a million dollars a day for every day in the year. 143 Trimming hams in preparation for the market. Chicago packing houses. 144 Making sausages. Meat thus prepared is sold at the ends of the earth. Chicago is the world market for provisions. 317 Cattle on range near La Plata, Argentina. So many cattle are raised on the farms and ranges of Argentina that Buenos Aires is becoming a very great market center for packing house products. 159 Dairy cattle and barns, Lake Mills, Wisconsin. The region west and north of Chicago has come to be the dairy center of the country. 45 Working 1000 pounds of freshly churned butter. Elgin, Illinois is the butter market of America. 57 Milking scene, New Jersey. The milk industry is extensively developed near all large cities in temperate lands. In our country the greatest development is near New York, and Chi- cago. 240 Pigeon farm at Los Angeles, the primary squab market of the whole country. 56 White Leghorn hens. Corning Egg Farm, New Jersey. There is so large a demand for eggs in our great cities, that special poultry farms are established to furnish the supply. 13 Drying codfish in the sun ; Gloucester, Massachusetts, is the lead- ing primary fish market of America. 226 Salmon : The finest haul of the season on the Columbia River. The salmon run up the glacier fed rivers to spawn. This makes the Puget Sound region the primary market for the world's salmon. 227 Butchering' salmon. Astoria. 97 A mountain of oyster shells. 86 " Shucking " oysters. Chesapeake Bay is the largest oyster pro- ducing water on earth, and Baltimore is the primary oyster market. 531 Drying sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan. Fully one-half the food of the people of Japan comes from the waters, and the shallow waters are the largest producers. So great fish mar- kets are established in Yokahama, Beppu, Kobe and other such ports. Ill Sponge market. Key West Harbor. The shallow waters on the west shore of Florida are the largest sponge producers in our country, and Key West is the primary market. 521 Store of rich tea merchant, Chifu. For centuries China has been the leading tea producer in the world, and Chifu, Shantung, Amoy and Canton have developed as large tea markets. 302 Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe, W. I. Many tropical lands produce coffee, but the price is set in the largest buying market, which 92 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING has been in turn, London, Le Havre, Hamburg, and is now New York. 310 Drying coffee in the sun. State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. This region produces about three-fourths of the world's coffee, and Santos and Rio de Janeiro are the leading primary markets. 319 Vineyards near Mendoza. Soil and climate here favor the grape, and Spanish and Italian immigrants have brought their vines and skill with them, making Mendoza, in the Argentine Repub- lic, a large grape and wine market. 236 Tokay grapes, at Acampo, California. The^ grape thrives so well all over California that the State furnishes the lion's share of fresh fruit, raisins and wine for the whole country. 390 Vineyards at Rudesheim, Germany. The river valleys of Europe from south Germany to the Mediterranean furnish soil and climate adapted to the grape, and local primary wine markets have developed over the grape region. Such markets are Bordeaux, France, Oporto, Portugal, and Xerez, Spain. 149 Harvesting celery, Kalamazoo, Michigan. A cool climate and peat soils, such as a drained marsh or old lake bottom, invite the growth of celery. Kalamazoo is so favored as to become the leading primary celery market in America. 237 Navel orange groves, San Gabriel Valley, California. This most favored state leads the country in production of citrus fruits as well as grapes. 112 Tobacco field in Kentucky. Soil and climate conspire to make Kentucky the leading tobacco state, and Louisville the leading primary tobacco market. 42 Solar evaporation of brine for sale at Syracuse, New York — the leading primary salt market of the country. 153 Packing salt into barrels, St. Clair, Michigan. The salt deposits around Bay City, Michigan, have made that place the market second in importance for salt in America. 258 Cutting Sugar Cane, Porto Rico. Sugar of tropical origitj has furnished the most of the American supply. For this reason the chief importing city. New York, has become our chief sugar market. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar. Because of being great ship- ping centers, Philadelphia and Brooklyn have become the largest refiners of sugar, and New York the chief sugar market of the New World. 35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 294 Harvesting bananas, Costa Rica, Central America. The various lowlands adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Western Caribbean Sea are so well adapted to banana culture that the American demands for this fruit has made New Orleans the leading banana market of the world. 289 Henequen, a century plant, whose leaves produce the hard fiber known as Sisal. This is the twine most used for binding grain the world over. The world market for it is in Chicago the PRODUCTION CENTERS 93 headquarters for the manufacture of reapers and other farm machinery. 552 Stripping the leaf stalks of Manila hemp (abaca, native name) from which the best rope making fiber is made. It is grown only in the Philippines, and Cebu is the chief world market. 553 Making rope from Manila hemp fiber at Manila. Manila hemp fiber is the best known material for cordage. The world's largest buyiiig market has been London, but is likely to shift to U. S. A. 506 Spinning and weaving woolen shawls, at Srinagar, Kashmir, India. The pastoral people from northern India to the Hellespont have marvelous skill in the making of shawls and rugs. Important local markets have developed at many points. 40 Folding and ironing linen collars, Troy, New York. Troy is the chief linen collar market of America. 538 Feeding mulberry leaves to the silk worms, Japan. Nearly one- half of all the farmers in Japan'rear silk worms, and Japan fur- nishes over one-third of all the world's export silk. Yokohama is the leading primary silk market. 541 Interior of a silk weaving mill, Japan. The cities of Kyoto and OsSika are important markets for manufactured silk. 22 Weighing and sorting skeins of raw silk. The U. S. A. is the largest buyer of raw silk in the world, and New York is the buying market. 54 Weaving room, Paterson, New Jersey. Most of the silk of America is manufactured in Paterson or other towns near the central market of New York. 239 Ostriches on the Cawston farm near Los Angeles, California. Southern California and Arizona have the hot and arid condi- tions to which the ostrich is adapted, and local markets for os- trich plumes are developing there. 21 Manufacturing jewelry, Providence, Rhode Island. Providence has become the great center for jewelry manufacture and sale in America. 117 Picking cotton. Nearly two-thirds of the world's cotton is pro- duced in the humid lowlands of our southeastern states. 119 Cotton bales on the levee. New Orleans. Great primary cotton markets have developed in Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, Mem- phis, Galveston and New Orleans. 14 Cotton spinning mill at Lawrence, Massachusetts. One-half of all the American manufacture of cotton is in New England, and a number of market cities for cottons have grown up there, as at Lawrence, Fall River, and Boston. 272 Scraping the hair from hides, Canada. The leather industry has developed in places where hides are easily obtained, and where tanning material is plenty. So the oak and hemlock forests in Canada and the U. S. A. have developed the leather industry and centers like Boston and Philadelphia have become great leather markets. 94 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 11 Cutting leather for high quality shoes. Lyrin and Brockton, Massachusetts, are shoe markets for a world trade. 41 Sewing room in a shoe factory, Syracuse, New York. 532 A Japanese shoe shop. Shoes or clogs in Japan are made of wodd, and made by hand. So each town has its own market for shoes. 131 Crude rubber as it comes from the jungles, or plantations. Para is the chief primary market for wild rubber. Singapore and Colombo are rivals for the primary market for plantation rub-; ber. London has been for many years the world's central mai"- ket, but New York now takes first rank. 133 Making rubber boots and shoes at Akron, the manufacturing mar- ket of America. 17 Sorting wool, Lawrence, Massachusetts. The manufacture of wool has been so well developed in southeastern New England that Boston is the chief wool market in America. 81 The bobbin room in a Philadelphia mill. Philadelphia is next to Boston the greatest wool market, and is the leading carpet mar- ket of the country. 224 The Puget Sound and -western Oregon regions have the best cli- matic conditions for fofest growth, as shown by this great fir tree. 216 Port Blakeley Mills, near Seattle. Because of the rich forests great mills are developed, and the Puget Sound region comes to be tlie greatest lumber market in the world. 217 Shipping lumber, Washington,' U. S. A. Much of the lumber for foreign trade goes froni this market by sailing vessels. 215 Log rafts. Much of the lumber for the coast trade is towed in great rafts. 509 " Elephants a haulin' teak, in the slushy squdgy creek." Burma is the world's chief mai-ket supplying teak, and the elephant is the best lumber jack. 412 Grinding billets of wood into pulp for paper. The most of the world's paper now is made from wood pulp, hence the primary paper markets are in the forest lands, Norway, Canada, and the northern states of America. 19 Cut rags, for paper. The best paper 'is made from linen rags, and Holyoke, Massachusetts, is the chief manufacturing market. 20 Inspecting paper, Holyoke, Massachusetts. 297 Cutting tobacco. The best tobacco in the world is produced in western Cuba, and Havana is the market for it. 325 Sacking nitrate, Chile. The world's primary nitrate market. 573 Shipping ivory, Mombasa, Africa. The world's supply of ivory comes largely from central East Africa, and MombaBa is the primary market. The world market is at London. 58 Firing table ware, Trenton, New Jersey, and East Liverpool, Ohio, are the leading pottery markets of the new world. '59 Decorating' porcelain ware, Trenton, New Jersey. 79 Coal breaker in the anthracite region, eastern Pennsylvania. The REGIONS WITH LARGE DEMAND 95 anthracite fields cover but 480 square miles, but furnish almost one-quarter of all American coal. 129 Shipping coal, at Conneaut, Ohio. The region of eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania and West Virginia furnishes about one-half of all the American coal. Pittsburgh is the chief bituminous coal center. Much coal is shipped westward from the Great Lakes ports. 128 Unloading iron ore from a Lake Superior boat at Conneaut, Ohio. Most of the iron ore in America comes from the Lake Superior basis, and travels by boat to meet the coal and cgke of- the northern Appalachian fields. This provides for an important series of markets in iron and steel from Detroit round the south shore of Lake Erie to Buffalo. 62 A blast furnace at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Because of the rich deposits of coking coal in the vicinity, and the supply of iron ore from Lake Superior, Pittsburgh has become the greatest iron market in the world. 65 Filling molds with steel, Pittsburgh. For reasons above given Pittsburgh is the greatest steel market on earth. 82 General view of the erecting shop of the Baldwin locomotive works, Philadelphia. Because of the splendid development of the Baldwin Company, Philadelphia sells more locomotives than any other city in the New World. ISO Assembling Room in a Detroit automobile factory. Detroit is the world's leading automobile market. IV.- REGIONS WITH A LARGE DEMAND Certain regions are spoken of as markets for a given article. Thus America is spoken of as a good market for diamonds; the great prairie plains as a market for farming machinery; the populous orient as a great market for cotton cloths, and so on. There is endless op- portunity for illustration here, and only a few of the many possible illustrations are suggested below. 203 Stamp mill and gold concentrator, Ouray, Colorado. We think of the mining regions as great markets for rock drilling, crush- ing and milling machinery. 334 Silver smelter, Cerro de Pasco, Peru. The countries along the Andes Mountains are all good markets for mining machinery. 2S2 Gatun Locks,- Panama Canal. While the great locks were build- ing, the Panama Canal was a good market for Portland cement, and for excavating machinery. 407 The Lotefos, famous Norwegian waterfall. Because of her many waterfalls, Norway is a fine market for hydraulic and elec- trical machinery. 178 Plowing with a tractor. South Dakota. The great plains, smooth and fertile, invite the use of labor-saving farming machinery. 96 GEOGRAPHY — MARKETS AND MARKETING 561 Tilling the soil in Egypt, as it was done in the days of Moses. Egypt is looked upon as a promising market for labor-saving farming machinery. 179 Tractor drawing double disc-harrow, and three-section tooth- harrows. South Dakota. 181 Handling alfalfa hay with hay loader, Nebraska. All our great lowland farming area is a boundless market for farming ma- chinery. 136 Harvesting corn with a cutter and binder, Indiana. 177 'Threshing wheat, , Red River Valley. All our wheat lands are good markets for harvesting and threshing machinery, Fargo, North Dakota, is a great market for farm machinery. 284 Ancient method of threshing in Mexico, a. promising market for American machinery. 479 Treading out the grain, Greece — A market opportunity for American machinery. 497 The threshing floor, Nazareth, Palestine. Another market op- portunity for American machinery. 562 Threshing beans, Egypt — a potential market for American ma- chinery. 498 Native women grinding wheat, Palestine — ^a market for better devices. 431 Washing clothes, Nice, France. A possible market for electric washing machines. 519 A Chinese crowd looking at the camera. It suggests an endless market for American cotton cloths. S03 Mohammedan crowd before the Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India. A great market for cotton clothing. 523 Chinese sawing lumber with pit saws. A market opening for modern saw mill machinery. 330 Cofa Bridge on the Oroyo Railway, Peru. The need of railways in South America makes a great market for American, steel rails, locomotives and rolling stock. 518 Conveying salt by wheelbarrow, China. There is a great awaken- ing in China and a demand for railways — a great market for American manufactures. 516 A stone road roller pulled by human muscle, Nankin, China — a market for modern steam rollers. 28 Great buildings seen from City Hall Park, New York City. Large cities are great markets for structural steel, building stones and cement. 87 The Capitol at Washington, D. C. The making of such beautiful monuments creates a market for marble and other fine build- ing stones. 6. NATURAL FORMS AND FORCES PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY By WALLACE W. ATWOOD PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOGRAPHY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY The use of the stereograph is nearly as good as direct per- sonal observation in the field. In many cases the views se- cured by the photographer are better than one might happ'en upon while in the same region. The views here listed have been taken wit-h great care, and selected as the best of many thousands. The teacher of geography always aims to give the general physical features of the region that is being studied, and a sys- tematic use of these views will help greatly in giving definite and accurate images. The classification following is in ac- cordance with the best text-books, and should prove convenient to the teacher. In studying an individual view the student should have in mind several questions, namely: (1) What does this view best illustrate? (2) Are the land forms of solid rock or loose material? (3) What may be the origin of the loose material? (4) What special land forms are shown here? (5) How may these be best described ? (6) What places have I myself ever seen that are like this one ? (7) How have the physical features affected the settlement and the activities of the people in this region? (8) Is there anything in the view that I do not understand and must ask the teacher? A full course for children in the study of geography might easily be framed about this series of 600 views. The lesson growing out of a single picture may often lead to a real and vital interest in a foreign lan4 and a foreign people. When once accustomed to using these views the teacher will find that they facilitate the giving of a strong and effective lesson. 97 98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY They raise problems in the child's mind, and call for original thought, thus vitalizing the work. I. FORCES WHICH CHANGE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH — WEATHERING — EROSION During past ages the surface of the earth has been changed by va- rious natural forces, including the atmosphere, ground water, surface water, freezing and thawing, snow and ice in the form of glaciers, and internal forces such as heat and pressure, and organic agencies in- cluding man. These forces have produced the various natural fea- tures of the earth's surface which include mountains, hills, volcanoes, lakes, rivers with their shores and banks, oceans and islands, capes and peninsulas. A. ATMOSPHERE . J. Wind The action of wind is brought about because of the dust and sand which it carries. 166 The wind will raise the dust. 178, 179 A source of dust. 68 Coke ovens produce dust. 300 Dust coming out in clouds. 563,565,209,211 When the wind blows the sand flies. 223 The wind will pile up sand as it does snow. 477 Old Grecian city buried by action of wind. 565, 567 These faces have been worn by wind driven sand. 2. Chemical Elements These include oxygen, carbon dioxide and water. 27, 379 The cables which suspend the bridge' are painted to prevent rust. 43 The steel rails will rust away. 253 These steel boats are always painted to prevent rust. ■ 9, 10 Houses and fences painted to prevent weathering. . Zl The shingles treated with "creosote to prevent decay. 113 The weather has cracked the old logs. 10 Weathering will gradually dim these words. 36 The lettering on these tombstones is nearly worn away by wind and rain. 3. Temperature The freezing of water in the crevices of rocks breaks them in pieces. V><^ The mountain is being broken to pieces. 51 Frost and rain are breaking off the rocks. The pillars become roughened by wind and rain. The soft materials have been loosened and washed away. 200 201 207 The hard parts are the least affected by weather. UNDERGROUND WATER 99 4. Fantastic Features Due to Weathering 197 Tlie huge piles of rocks stand like sentinels. 200 A gateway to the fields beyond. 201 Spires reaching towards the heavens. 20s Nature has furnished a roof for a whole village. 5. Talus 207, 208, 323 Show talus piles or cones as result of weathering. 6. Sand Dunes 223 Sand dunes, the work of winds. B. UNDERGROUND WATER This is the water which has run down into the soil and is not seen on the surface. I. Sources These are rain and snow. 1, 162,542 The melting snow will sink into 'the ground. 2. Conditions for Producing Underground Water 104, lOS Water flows slowly here and sinks in quickly. 83, 178, 179, 419 Water will readily enter these soils. 38, 70, 224 Forests aid in forming ground water by holding rain until it can soak into the ground. , 72, 173 Sod holds rain until it soaks into the soil. 3. Disposal of Ground Water 1, 169, 173, 195 Small streams get considerable of their flow from springs. 192,193 Hot springs — this water is too hot for animals or plants to live in. 194 Geysers — every hour a million and a half gallons shoot up. 161 Getting rid of too much ground water. 4. The Work of Ground Water 193 The heated water brings minerals from the depths. 192 Deposits left in form of basins. 206 A petrified tree which lived ages ago. Underground water grad- ually took away the wood and left in its place particles of quartz. 38 Underground water dampens the roots of plants and makes them grow. C. RUNNING OR SURFACE WATER I. Source Running water comes from i-ain, snow, ground water, ponds, lakes and glaciers. 191 The stream in the valley is being fed by the snow. 100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 542 Melting snow often forms streams. 195 Snow melting to form the ponds and streams — the beginnmgs of rivers. 154 Water from Lake Superior. 264, 265 Water from the Great Lakes. 322 The beginning of a river in this glacial lake. 276 The stream begins where the glacier ends. 408 The source of the stream is the distant glacier. 448 Streams begin in these valleys. 2. The Work of Running Water Erosion 576 Some rocks are broken sooner than others. 244 The loose soil is making a gradual slope. 341 A recent rain has hollowed the street. 49, SO The rushing water wears off the edge of the hard rock. 318 Continual pounding of the water breaks the rocks. 407 Plunging down a mountain, water deepens its path. 197 Nearly one-third of a mile deep has the water worn this gorge. 363 The tiny brook wears a deep path. 206 Formerly covered with soil. 207, 208 Broad and deep the channel has been made. Depositing 509 The slow stream deposits its load. 467 A winding river will fill in its curves. 408 Fertile soil washed down from the mountains. 120 At their mouths rivers may deposit their soil in the form of delt&s. D. SNOW AND ICE I. Valley Glaciers 276, 279 A bank of snow begins a glacier. 448, 427 Snow the year around is needed for glacial formation. 275 Layers of snow changing to ice. 446 Natural home of the valley glacier. 428 The great sea of ice — crevices by the hundred. 408 The distant valley filled with a glacier. 219, 274 These crevices are often 100 ft. or more deep and are due to an unequal surface over which a glacier moves or to different rates of movements. 361 The valley has smooth curves as the result of glacial action. 274, 428 These stones and soil were torn from the mountains. 276, 408 Glaciers in melting produce streams. 361, 369, 377, 459 Glacial lakes surrounded by hills. ICE FIELDS — HEAT AND PRESSURE 101 2. Ice Fields and Continental Glaciers A. Conditions of Formation 345, 346 Fields of ice about the poles. 344 A real field of snow and ice. 342, 343 Near where the ice fields begin. B. The Work of Ice Fields 38, 379 No sharp ridges in this glaciated area. 361 A hollow where a glacial lake was formed. 47 Soils for gardens have been left by glaciers. 137, 147 The fertile fields of Indiana and Illinois were made largely of glacial drift. 159 Wisconsin's famous herds feed where the glacier once existed. 161 Some glacial lands need to be drained. 361, 369, i77 Glacial lakes often have sloping shores. 73 Small hills showing glacial action. 262 The rolling landscape formerly covered with a continental glacier. C. The Effects of Glaciation on Human Affairs 137, 147 Fields of grain on soil of glacial origin. 159 Dairying on glacial lands. 47 Glacial soils are productive. 357 ivolling fields of grain in glaciated region. 48 154 The Great Lakes, of glacial origin, are important waterways. E. HEAT AND PRESSURE I. ' Sinking of the Earth's Crust Internal heat and pressure helps to change the earth's surface. 256 The distant islands were once hills. 39 The sinking of the land drowned this valley. 2. Raising of the Earth's Crust A. Mountains 102, 322, 323, 408, 460, 508 Mountains are usually formed by elevation of the land. 330 Irregularity in strata is due to internal forces. B. Volcanic Action 222, 291, 300, 525, 548 Volcanic action sometimes forms mountains. 3. Earthquakes 231 An earthquake has cracked the soil. 526 Houses are low so as to withstand the earthquakes. F. ORGANIC AGENCIES 284 Vegetation is tearing down the mound of stone. 102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 111 The land here is built of skeletons of corals. 3, 4 Man is changing the face of nature. 74, 250, 251 Man digs great valleys. 163 The big steam shovels make big holes. II. NATURAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE A. RIVERS AND VALLEYS 1. Young Rivers Young rivers flow rapidly, have steep banks, and cut deep channels. 195 The very beginnings of two rivers. 228 The river has hardly found its path. 363 The small stream wears a deep path. 49, 50 The water flows rapidly by. 407 Young rivers and young mountains are often companions. 207, 208 Digging for ages but still young. 2. Mature Rivers These are rivers with a moderate current, sloping banks, and usually a straight course. 39 The stream flows slowly. 580 Such rivers are often shallow. 392 Here the Rhine is broad and calm. 391 Mature rivers are often great waterways for commerce. 170, 174 A'^i'oss the smooth Mississippi. " 101 Where two rivers peacefully meet. 3. Old Rivers Old rivers flow slowly, often in winding courses. 509 Low banks are characteristic of old rivers. 106 Boats are usually common on such streams. 517 The broad slow-moving stream of Qiina. 470 A famous bridge over the wide Danube. 467 The river in its winding course. 4. Drowned Rivers These are rivers in which the bed has sunken so that the water is deep', often forming estuaries at the mouth. 39, 51 Deep enough for the largest ships. 100 Battleships find plenty of room here. 264 The largest ocean liners travel in this river. B. LAKES A lake is an inland body of water. LAKES — COAST FORMS 103 I. Some Lakes of Glacial Origin 361 England; 369 Scotland; 377 Ireland; 459 Italy; 48, 154 the Great Lakes of America. 2. Lakes of Non-glacial Origin 222 The top of the mountain sunken, the peak an island. 212 A city built on an ancient lake floor. 3. Effects of Lakes on Human Affairs 48 Grain from the west in these boats. 128, 129 Coal and iron are shipped by boat on the lakes. 154 Ship loads of produce from the west. 157 Copper is carried on the Great Lakes. C. COAST, FORMS I. Beaches A beach may sometimes be defined as the sand or gravel along the sea-shore between high and low tide. 60 Bathing along the beach is very popular. 430, 439 Sandy beaches are good landing places for small boats. 432 Beaches may be rocky or sandy. 13, 531 The beach is a good place to dry fish. 2. Coastal Lowlands 401 Nearly as level as the sea and not much higher. 248 A low plain below the hill. 531 A flat country with mountains in the distance. 3. Drowned Coasts The land along the coast sometimes sinks. 382 The small islands growing smaller yearly. 374 The sinking of the land often makes harbors. 307 The distant harbor was once a valley. 299, 277 Deep water is characteristic of such harbors. 4. Sea Cliffs Some seashores are very rocky. 439 A steep sided rock standing in the water. 432 A sudden drop from the castle to the sea. 5. Capes A cape is a portion of land projecting into the sea. 414 The mountain projects to form the cape. Such a high mountain- ous cape is called a promontory. 248 Reaching out toward the ocean. 104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 6. Peninsulas A peninsula is a body of land almost surrounded by water. 432 The Castle of Monaco is built on a small peninsula. 2S6 The wireless tower is on the peninsula. 248 The lower part of the city is built on a peninsula. 7. Isthmus An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger portions of land. , 432 Only room for a narrow road on the isthmus to the castle on the peninsula. 8. Harbors Harbors are indentations in the coast, often at the mouth of rivers, in which boats may anchor. 591 The city is built near the harbor. 556 Railroads and steamships meet at the harbors. 511, 52 Ocean liners and harbor boats. 25, 26, 27 One of the busiest harbors in the world. 374 A big harbor well protected from gales. 313 Harbors are made deeper by dredging. 499, 574 Poor harbors. 492 An old commercial city on the Mediterranean. 489 Several cities along the banks. 278 A fisherman's harbor near the greatest of fishing places. One of the best harbors in the world. 3D7 430, 217, 257, 277, 280, 299, 304, 314 Other harbors. g. Bays A bay is a body of water partly surrounded by land. 248 This breakwater is built out into the bay to form a harbor. 492 The bay at Beyrout. 527 Mississippi Bay, Japan. 10. Straits A strait is a narrow portion of water connecting two bodies of water. 489 The waterway connecting the Black and Mediterranean Seas. 439 Entrance to the Mediterranean. D. ISLANDS An island is a portion of land, smaller than a continent, entirely sur- ) rounded by water. ROCKY ISLANDS — PLAINS lOS I. Flat Islands 25 The islands in New York harbor are not much higher than the water. 99 Barely out of the sea. 401 An island of Holland. 2. Rocky Islands 369 Ellen's Island in Loch Katrine. 256 At the entrance to the Panama Canal. 382 Small rocky islands near Ireland. E. PLAINS I. Coastal Plains These are plains near the sea coast made by uplifting the ocean bed. 108 This was formerly the bed of the ocean. 122 Oil is frequently found near the sea. 105 Along the coast are miles of plains. 104 Level fields with water are needed for rice culture. 289 Coastal plains are often of sandy soil. 399 Land so low that the sea is held by a wall. 2. River Flood Plains Some of the most fertile fields are found in the broad valleys of rivers. 136, 233 River flood plains of the U. S. 317, 321, 332, 333 River flood plains of South America. 408, 419, 467 River flood plains of Europe. 509, 515, 518, 529, 549 River flood plains of Asia. 561, 564, 580 River flood plains of Africa. 3. Compound Alluvial Plains Several rivers help to make this type of plain. 237 Fertile lands are in the valleys. 467 Two rivers uniting form large plains. 4. Delta Plains These have been formed by continued deposit of alluvial soil at the mouth of rivers. 120 This land has been gradually deposited by the Mississippi. 500 The Ganges carries and deposits acres of soil. 558 A city built on a delta plain. 5. Lake Plains Bottoms of former lakes form alluvial plains. 47 Fertile soil of a lake plain. 166 An old lake bottom growing potatoes. 149 A very fertile soil is required for celery. 139 A great city built on a reclaimed lake bed. 106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 6. Great Western Plains of U. S. Formerly covered by a great inland sea. 181, 183 The Nebraska and Kansas plains are noted for alfalfa. 186 Cattle grazing on the semi-arid plains of the west. 198 Sugar beet growing requires fertile level land. 199 These great plains are often very dry in summer. Good culture makes them productive. 126 A level part of Texas. 121 A level town in Oklahoma. 7. Glacial Plains These are plains formed by ice fields or glaciers. 136, 137 The great corn fields of Indiana are glacial plains. 161 So level that water does not run off readily. 488 Agriculture on the glacial plains of Russia. 147 Illinois field of oats on the glacial plains. 8. Plateaus A plateau is a tract of high level land. 218 Some elevated plains produce good crops. 190 Some elevated plains are good for grazing only. 209 Some elevated plains are deserts. 9. Effects of Plains upon Human Affairs 85 Picking peaches on a coastal plain. 105 Rice is grown where the land is flat and wet. 127 Grazing on the semi-arid plains. 136, 137, 147 Productive fields on fertile plains. 140 From the rich plains of the west. 166 Potatoes require fertile soil. F. MOUNTAINS I. Young Mountains These are characterized by having rough pointed peaks and are be- lieved to be of recent origin, geologically considered. 213 These mountains are being rapidly leveled. 447, 448 A young mountain with a sharp peak. 445 Snow will not stay on the steep slopes. 441 These mountain paths are difficult to climb. 440 A dangerous road to travel. 276 Sharp ridges characterize the young mountains. 427' Time will smooth the roughened peaks. 323 The slopes are becoming less steep. 322 The valley is filling with the broken peaks. 508 Mountains above the clouds. OLD MOUNTAINS — HILLS — DIVIDES 107 2. Old Mountains These are characterized by having rounded peaks worn off through ages of time. 102 Mountains rounded like the waves of the sea. 361 The mountains have been rounded by glaciers and washed into the valleys. 38 At one time mountains, now a rolling landscape. 39 The round top hills sloping to the river. 3. Mountain Ranges 102 This view of the tops of the Blue Ridge shows very clearly the idea of a mountain range. 213 The Wasatch Range rises behind Ogden. 243 The Coast Range in Alaska was a great barrier to gold seekers. 4. Mountain System All the ranges and highlands that belong to one highland form a sys- tem. It is impossible to show a whole system in one picture. 508 This picture of a little part of the Himalayas may help you to imagine ranges behind ranges, peaks behind peaks extending for hundreds of miles. That would give you some idea of a mountain system. 5. Mountain Peaks 221 Mount Hood, Oregon, in the Cascade Range. 276 Mount Sir Donald, the Matterhorn of the Selkirk Mountains in Canada. 445, 447 Peaks in the Alps Mountains. 448 The Matterhorn, Switzerland. ' 508 Peaks of the Himalaya Mountains. 6. Volcanic Mountains A volcano is an opening in the earth through which lava and gases are expelled. 300 When the heated matter forces its way out there are tremendous explosions. Rocks are blown to dust and thrown miles into the air. Great quantities of steam and of broken rock are thrown out. The lava or melted rock flows down the side. 453 Vesuvius. A volcano builds up a cone about the opening. 221 Mount Hood has been quiet for so long that the cone has become weathered. It is cut by many valleys. 288 Popocatapetl, an active volcano in Mexico. 291 The twin volcanoes of Guatemala. 548 Mayon has had many destructive eruptions. 525 Fuji-Yama, the sacred mountain of Japan. 7. Divides and Passes 195 Water from one pond flows into the Atlantic, from the other into the Pacific. 108 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 322, 323 The dividing ridge of S. America. 243 Between the peaks to the gold fields beyond. 251 Cutting the mountains in two. 8. Effects of Mountains on Human Affairs 287 Mines in Mexico. 187, 214, 243 Mining in mountains. 408 Small farms in the mountains. 411 Dairying in the mountains. ■ 413 Reindeers are found in the mountainous north lands. 440, 441, 48 The traveler frequents the mountains. 287, 187, 214, 243 Mountains are very often rich in minerals. 408 Small farms in mountains. 411 Mountaineers often follow dairying. 440, 441, 48 Travelers delight to climb mountains. 243 Mountains act as barriers, making communication difficult. 325 The Andes make the west coast of South America dry and so the nitrate remains. I^ain would carry it away. 440 to 459 The- Alps shut out the cold winds and make Italy warm. 499 to 508 The Himalayas cause the rains to fall in India, making that land wonderfully warm and fertile. 440 to 449 Mountain people, such as the Swiss, are usually liberty loving people. 506 They are often backward in their civilization. See also classification on Zones. g. Mountains of the World 102, 219, 221, 243, 274, 276 Mountains of N. America. - 322, 323, 326, 330 Mountains of S. America. ' 388, 408, 409, 427, 428, 436, 440,441", 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 460 . Mountains of Europe. 508, 525, 531, 548 Mountains of Asia. For Zones and Deserts, see classification on Zones. lo. Hills 479, 480 Mountains worn down to hills. 496 Old Palestine with its rolling hills. 497' Soil from the hill has filled the valley. 530 Hillside covered with tea plants in Japan. 262 Forests of Canada in a hilly country. 127 Low hills may be used for grazing. 73 Battlefields are often in hilly districts. II. Mesas These are small plains on the tops of mountains or hills. 475 The distant Acropolis with a flat top. 7. ZONES AND THEIR EFFECTS ELEVATION OF LAND (ALTITUDE) AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFE By ROBERT De C. WARD. A.M. PROFESSOR OF CLIMATOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Climate itself cannot be illustrated by means of photographs. The effects of climate, however, upon the general appearance of a country; upon vegetation, crops, occupations, dwellings, etc., may perfectly well be shown in this way. A picture of the general climatic conditions is thus obtainable^ In the following list, those photographs have been selected which fur- nish the more obvious illustrations of such climatic controls ■ over the earth's surface and its .flora, and over man's mode of life under the limitations which climate imposes. This broad view of climate in relation to man needs emphasis in any study of geography.. The basis of the classification is that generally adopted by climatologists in their description of the climatic zones, and of their subdivisions. The classification is therefore based on climate, and the views are not subdivided on the basis of political divisions. Views of cities are not included unless they have some more or less distinct climatic interest. For such general views, reference should be made to the Geographical Classification. It must be borne in mind that there is usually a gradual transition from one climate into another, and for this reason many views might equally well be listed under two headings. Furthermore, the zones of climate are not separated by any rigid boundaries. 109 1 10 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE I. THE CLIMATIC ZONES: THEIR CHARACTER- ISTICS AND THEIR PRODUCTS A. " THE TROPICS " I. The Equatorial Belt The dominant characteristic of the equatorial belt, (i.e., the inner portion of the tropical zone within about 10° or 12° of the equator) is the prevailingly high and uniform temperature throughout the year, with no seasons in our sense, and a generally heavy rainfall, coming normally in two rainy and two so-called dry seasons. In some districts, however, rain falls throughout the year, and the " dry " seasons are only slightly less rainy than the " wet " seasons. These double rainy and dry sea- sons are easily modified by other conditions, as by the topography, alti- tude, and, as in the Indo-Australian area, by the monsoons. There is thus no rigid belt of equatorial rains extending around the world. The high temperatures and heavy rainfall produce a superabundance of vegetation, unfavorable to human occupation. The population is gen- erally sparse, and at a relatively low stage of civilization. The life of man as a whole is controlled by the rains. The difficulty of travel and transportation, and of clearing the forests, operate to retard the advance of civilized man. The hot damp climate is generally unfavorable for settlement by people from cooler altitudes. The foreign whites are ffew in number, but are the driving power in the development of these . equatorial lands. 572 Natives of equatorial Africa, in typical costume. 247 Rubber tree, showing scars from cutting, Panama. 131 Crude rubber, one of the most valuable products of the rainy equatorial forests, especially in Brazil. 570 Peeling bark for bark cloth, equatorial Africa. 573 Ivory from the African forests, Mombasa. 294 Bananas, one of the most widespread and valuable food plants of the tropics, Costa Rica. 293 Mangoes, an important food of tro'pical peoples, especially in the East Indies. 571 Sisal hemp, valuable fibre plant from equatorial Africa. 255 Maintaining health in the- tropics, Panama hospitals. 249 Village scene, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. 337 Narrow streets in a tropical city, providing shade during much of the day, Baranquilla, Colombia. 338 Where heating plants are not necessary, La Guaira, Venezuela. 251 What the intelligence and energy of the northerner have accom- plished, Gaillard cut, Panama Canal. 252 Completed Panama Canal, cut through tropical jungles. 254 What the Panama Canal has made possible. THE TRADE WIND BELTS HI 2. The Trade Wind Belts About one-half of the ea;'th's surface is within the trade wind zone for part or all of the year. These belts, therefore, include a considerable variety of climates. The seasonal range of temperature is relatively small, but is greater than in the equatorial belt. The control over man's life and activities is to be found in the rainfall. The windward (east- ern) sides of continents or islands in the trade winds are well watered, especially if the land is high, while the interiors and leeward (western) slopes are dry. Where the trades blow directly on shore the year around the rainfall is usually fairly well distributed through all months but is heaviest in winter. During the summer, over much of the trade wind zone, the migration of the belt of equatorial rains into higher latitudes brings a tropical rainy season, whose duration and intensity vary with the distance from the equator, and with other controls. Where the trade winds blow over continental interiors, far from the ocean and also beyond the reach of the migrating belt of equatorial rains, pure deserts are found. These deserts may even reach the sea on the lee- ward side of a continent, as in western Australia and northwestern and southwestern Africa. When high mountains border the western coast, as in Peru, the trades are rainy on the eastern side of the ranges, and a desert prevails on the leeside. Veg'etation in the trade wind zone varies closely with the rainfall. The transition from wet tropical forests, through savannas, to the desert marks the transition from abundant, through moderate, to deficient rainfall. By reason of their altitude, tropical plateaus in the trade wind zone have a more temperate climate than the lowlands. Their vegetation and their crops clearly indicate this. Man finds in the trade wind belt more favorable conditions for work and development than in the perennially hot muggy belt of equatorial rains. (a) Windward continental lands and tropical islands with generally abundant rainfall 307 The picturesque environs of a city in the southern tropic, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 304 A tropical port, Bahia, Brazil. 257 Harbor scene on an island in the northeast trade winds, San Juan, Porto Rico. 258 Sugar cane, an important crop in moist, warm tropical and semi- tropical lowlands, Porto Rico. 298 A Cuban farm. 302 Picking coffee in the West Indies, a trade wind zone product. 295 One of Porto Rico's most important crops, coffee, being unloaded at Havana, Cuba. 297 , Cuban tobacco, growing under the shade of banana trees for pro- tection against the sun. 303 Cocoa, a characteristic product of the damp lowlands of tropical America, West Africa and the East Indies. 301 Cattle on the rich grass lands of Jamaica. 112 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 300 A west Indian landscape : Martinique. 259 Papaya trees growing in the mild tropical climate of the Hawaiian Islands. 592 Natives of the Fiji Islands, in the southeast trade belt. 291 Scene in Guatemala, Central America. (b) Leeward continental lands, zvith climate often tempered by alti- tude, and summer rainfall ranging from deficient or light to abundant 287 Characteristic vegetation of the semi-arid Mexican plateau. 282 The bare hills around the city of Mexico. 288 Irrigated and cultivated fields on the Mexican plateau. 285 Drawing sap from a Mexican agave, " century plant," to be made into the national drink, pulque. 284 Threshing on the Mexican plateau, where many temperate zone cereals can be raised. 281 Adobe hut a cheap and serviceable building in a land of relatively little rainfall. 289 Henequen, a species .of agave, yielding sisal fibre from which bag- ging and cordage are made, Yucatan. 575 The open country of southeastern Africa. Cape to Cairo Rail- way, near Victoria Falls. 580 Fording the shallow Vaal River, in a district of light rainfalls. South Africa. 576 The rushing waters of the Zambezi River, fed by the heavy equa- torial rains, Rhodesia, Africa. 310 Sun-drying coffee during the winter dry season on the Brazihan plateau. State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. 311 Carrying Brazilian coffee to the railroad. 589 Cattle on the grass lands of southern Australia. (c) Leeward deserts, shut off from rain-bearing winds by mountains to windward 330 The bare mountain slopes of Peru. 333 Planting sugar cane on the irrigated coast desert of Peru. 332 Preparing soil for planting sugar cane, Peru. 329 Snow-capped mountain rising above desert plateau, Peru. 335 On the dry Bolivian plateau. 325 Nitrate mines in desert region, Chile. 3. Monsoon Kegions The continental lands and islands in the monsoon belt are character- ized by marked seasonal changes in wind direction. The rainy season comes when the winds blow onshore; the dry season when they blow offshore. The rainfall is generally abundant, often excessive, and as a rule follows the vertical sun; i.e., the summers are rainy while the winters are dry. Over most of the greatest and most typical mon- soon area, that of India, eastern Asia and the adjacent Islands, the summer (rainy) monsoon is prevailingly southwesterly or southerly. THE SUB-TROPICAL BELTS 113 The northeast trades blow in winter, and are known as the dry mon- soon. Some places on eastern coasts or slopes have their rainy season in winter, with the northeast monsoon. There is often no sharp division between trade controls and monsoon controls. 547 The shady side of the street preferred, Manila, P. I. 546 House boats, well protected against the hot tropical sun and the heavy tropical rains, Manila, P. I. 549 Rice fields on an island in the monsoon belt, Manila, P. I. 550 Hulling rice, the most important cereal grain of hot and rainy trop- ical districts. Island of Luzon, P. I. 551 Coconuts, a characteristic tropical lowland product. 552 The raw material for hemp, one of the leading Philippine exports. 553 Making hemp rope, Philippine Islands. 554 Tropical forests. Island of Guam. 574 East African seaport, in hot, damp coast climate. • 508 Where the mountains reach above the snow line, Himalayas. B. THE SUB-TROPICAL BELTS These are marginal belts, between trades and westerlies, and share in some of the characteristics of both types of climate. They are far enough from the equator to be free from continued high temperatures, and near enough to be spared extreme cold. Their rainfall is controlled by the stormy westerlies and, in some districts, by the inflowing damp continental winds of summer. The former control gives winter rains ; the latter brings a summer maximum. Where both controls are at work, there is rainfall throughout the year. Except in the latter case, the rainfall is usually rather light. In districts beyond the reach of effective winter rains, as in Egypt, for example, there are deserts. The sub- tropical belt may be subdivided according to the controls and seasons of rainfall. I. Districts with "Mediterranean" Climates These districts have mild winters, warm and dry summers, and win- ter rains from the cyclonic storms of the prevailing westerlies, which give generally sufficient but not abundant rainfall. Because of their small ranges of temperature, their abundant sunshine, and i their general freedom from severe storms, these districts have long been well-known and popular health and pleasure resorts. This type of climate is mainly limited to the western coasts of the continents, and to the islands off these coasts, in latitudes 28°-40°. The area over which these conditions prevail is exceptionally wide in the Eastern Hemisphere, and reaches far inland there. The fact that the Mediterranean countries are so generally included in this belt has led to the use of the name " Medi- terranean climates." Irrigation is generally necessary in summer. Olives, grapes, oranges are characteristic plants. 430 A favorite resort on the Mediterranean Riviera, Cannes, France. 432 Monaco, on the Mediterranean Riviera. 1 14 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 4S9 Lake Como, a well-known health and pleasure resort. 495 Jerusalem, and its olive trees, typical of Mediterranean climates. 497 Threshing in the dry season, Palestine. 496 The bare hills and bright sunshine of Palestine. 493 Streets of Damascus, roofed over as a protection against sun and rain. 489 General view of the Bosporus, showing characteristic vegetation. 47S Athens, Greece, with cactus and scrubby vegetation in foreground. 479 Threshing during the dry summer in Greece. 480 Sheep grazing on the lowlands of Greece. 436 The irrigated slopes of Granada, Spain. 437 Oranges from irrigated lands, Valencia, Spain. 434 The open tableland of Spain, Semi-arid and treeless. 438 Bringing the famous Malaga grapes to market. 236 Vineyard in the " Mediterranean " climate of California. 237 Southern California orange groves, on irrigated lowlands. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit, southern California. 234 An almond orchard, California. 233 Harvesting in the dry summer of California. 239 California ostrich farm, a reminder that the climates of south Africa and of California are similar. 326 Valparaiso, Chile, whose climate is much like that of the central California coast. ^ 319 Italian grape-growers, Mendoza, Argentina. 321 Scene on the Mendoza River, Argentina, a district of semi-aridity. 2. Semi-arid and Arid Districts These are subtropical lands which are too far from the westerlies to receive more than scanty precipitation from the cyclonic storms of winter. Egypt is essentially a part of the desert of Sahara. Its north- ern portion is overlapped by the southern edge of the stormy prevailing westerlies. 564 Overflow of the Nile, Egypt, resulting from the heavy spring rains in the Abyssinian mountains. 566 Palms — producing fruit and wood in semi-arid and arid regions. 561 Agriculture in the irrigated Nile valley, Egypt. 562 Threshing beans in the Nile valley, Egypt. 563 Spinning Egyptian cotton. 569 How the Nile water is conserved for use in irrigation, Assuan, Egypt. 3. Sub-tropical Lands with No Dry Season These districts are in sub-tropical latitudes in the southeastern por- tions of Asia and of North America. They receive more or less rain in winter, from the cyclonic storms of the prevailing westerlies but usually have their heaviest rainfall in summer, with onshore winds of the monsoon type. The rainfall is abundant, and the winters are not TEMPERATE ZONES — WINDWARD COASTS 115 severe. Among the economic products are cotton, rice, sugar cane and tropical fruits. 117 Cotton, a typical crop on the warm lowlands of Gulf States, 104 Flooding rice fields. South Carolina. 105 Lowland rice. South Carolina. 107 Gathering turpentine in the long-leaf pine belt of the southern states. 118 Peanut harvest, Arkansas. 108 Gathering pineapples in semi-tropical Florida. C. THE " TEMPERATE," OR INTERMEDIATE ZONES The so-called " temperate " zones occupy about one-half of the earth's surface. They are belts of prevailing' westerly winds; of frequent cyclonic storms, especially in winter, and of changeable weather. Sea- sonal contrasts in temperature are marked, and over the northern con- tinental interiors reach extremes greater than those found anywhere else in the world. Rainfall, which comes chiefly in connection with cyclonic storms, or in thundershowers, varies greatly with distance from the ocean and with topography. , Bold windward coasts in middle and higher latitudes have generally heavy, even excessive amounts ; leeward coasts are less rainy; continental interiors are still drier, and may even become deserts, as in Asia and southwestern North America. Over much of these zones, rains are distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year, but on the western (windward) coasts the win- ter is the rainiest season, while over the interior lands most of the rain falls in the warmer months. The seasonal changes of the temperate zones stimulate man to activity. They develop him physically and mentally. They encourage higher civilization. The " temperate " zones include a great variety of climates and of crops. In the southern hemisphere this zone is far more " temperate " than in the northern, and really merits the name. I. Windward (West) Coasts These have mild winters, cool summers, and abundant rainfall, fairly well distributed through the year but coming mostly in winter. 224 Great trees in the rainy forest of Oregon. 215 Lumber from the rainy forests of the northern Pacific Coast. 379 A scene in the Emerald Isle, Kenmare, Ireland. 378 Peat fuel, a product of the cool, damp climate of Ireland. 369 The trees and lakes of rainy Scotland. 373 A highland cottage, Scotland, well protected against cold and rain. 361 A picturesque bit of western England; the Lake District. 357 Wheat on the lowlands' of eastern England. 358 English beef cattle, raised chiefly on the rainy western lowlands. 407 A Norwegian waterfall, characteristic of the rainy western moun- tains. 328 Indians in cool damp climate of Straits of Magellan. 1 16 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 2. Continental Interior and East Coast Lowlands These have large seasonal ranges of temperature and sufficient to abundant rainfall, fairly well distributed through the year but com- ing mostly in summer. The winters are colder and the rainfall is less abundant than on the western coasts. SO Effects of severe winter cold, Niagara Falls. S42 Snow on the roofs, Seoul, Chosen. 60 Sea bathing during the hot summer. 38 Characteristic summer landscape in the eastern U. S. 262 Nova Scotia, a favorite resort for American travelers on account of its cool summers. 148 Dikes for protection against a spring flood. 178 Plowing the soil. South Dakota. 179 Making a good seed bed, South Dakota. 184 Corn ripening in the long and warm summer of Kansas. 136 Harvesting the corn, Indiana. 160 Silage corn for cattle, Wisconsin. 147 Oats from the fertile fields of Illinois. 181 Gathering the alfalfa crop, Nebraska. 166 A potato field, Minnesota. 8S Delaware peaches. ' 175 Apples from the great American apple belt, which reaches from Missouri to New York. 44 Spraying the fruit trees, New York State. 47 Cantaloupes from Nejv York state. 137 Indiana pumpkins. 112 A Kentucky tobacco field. 172 American hogs from the great central plains. 13 A cHmatic element in the cod fish industry. Sun-drying the fish. 162 Logging in winter when the hauling is easy, Minnesota. 1 Products of our eastern forests, Maine. 130 Tapping the sunny side of a sugar maple tree when the sap begins to flow in the spring, Ohio. 390 Vineyards of the Rhine Valley (Germany), a sheltered climatic oasis favorable for grape culture. 419 Sugar beets, a profitable crop in the relatively dry and severe cli- mate of Sweden. S30 Japanese tea, growing on protected mountain slopes in a district with warm rainy summers. 527 Rice, an important crop on the lowlands of Japan, where the sum- mers are rainy. 529 Japanese laborers in the rice fields; the hats furnish protection against rain and sun. 537 Mulberry leaves, used for feeding silk worms, Japan. 317 Cattle on the alfalfa lands of eastern Argentina. 413 Milking reindeer, which replace domestic cattle in northern Nor- way. HIGHLANDS — POLAR ZONES 1 17 522 Tilling the soil on a Manchurian farm. 488 Plowing on a Russian farm. 3. Continental Interior Highlands Semi-arid or arid, and with marked seasonal ranges of temperature. The moister portions are used for agriculture; the drier, for grazing; the driest are deserts, except where irrigation is possible. 186 Cattle on the grassy plains of Kansas. 127 Cattle drive on the Texas plains. 165 Modern dairy barns on the northern plains, Minnesota where cat- tle are sheltered against storms and cold. 188 Bronchos on the western plains, Montana. 183 Hogs in alfalfa pasture, Kansas. 190 Where little rain falls, but sheep find enough pasturage. 218 The immense wheat iields of eastern Washington. 177 Wheat grown in the fertile soil and favorable climate of the famous Red River valley, North Dakota. 199 Wheat raised by "dry farming" methods in Colorado, where there is insufficient rainfall for crops handled by ordinary methods. 198 Sugar beets on the irrigated fields of Colorado. 209 Where irrigation is necessary, Arizona. 210 Where the heavier rainfall over the mountains sup;j)ies water for irrigating the desert lowlands, Roosevelt Dam. • 211 Spineless cactus, a new crop in our semi-arid southwest. 212 City on an irrigated desert ; Salt Lake City, Utah. 213 An irrigated desert, supporting a city, with bare mountains in the background, Ogden, Utah. 4. " Temperate " Zone Mountains These have successive vertical climatic zones, marked by lower tem- peratures and generally heavier rainfall than the lowlands, grading into " polar climates " above, with snow and ice, if the altitude is sufficiently great. Vertical zones of vegetation correspond with the vertical cli- matic zones. For more complete statement see classification, Elevation of Land (Altitude) in this chapter. D. THE POLAR ZONES The " temperate zones '' merge into the " polar zones " where the mean temperature of the warmest month is 50°. In general, on the polar side of this limit, forest trees and cereals do not grow. The tempera- tures are always low; the winters are long and severe; the summers are short ; precipitation is light and mostly in the form of snow. Life is hard. The food supply is scanty and is obtained mostly by hunting and fishing. Population is sparse. 1 18 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 279 Winter in Labrador. 342 Ships of Peary expedition, 1901, Nuerke, Greenland. 343 Eskimos in summer clothing, and part of Peary's crew. 344 Hauling snow for water supply, Belgian Antarctic expedition. 345 Traveling on skis on the Antartic ice. 346 Amundsen, discoverer of South Pole, on Antarctic ice. 246 Alaskan dog team, and drivers. 245 Placer miners protected against mosquitoes in the Alaskan summer. II. ELEVATION OF LAND (ALTITUDE) AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFE: THE VERTICAL CLIMATIC ZONES From the life standpoint, the most critical change that takes place with increasing elevation above sea-level, as in going up a mountain, is the decrease in temperature. If this decrease continues long enough ; i.e., if the mountain is sufficiently high, " polar climates," with snow and ice, are found in the upper slopes and at the summit. Vertical zones of vegetation, and of animal life, correspond with the vertical zones of climate. In the tropics, there may thus be a gradual transi- tion from the dense forests or the cultivated products of the warm tropical lowlands, up to higher levels where "temperate zone" fruits and cereals are raised, and then, farther up, through forests and be- yond the tree line until polar conditions of life and of climate are reached. In highest fnountains of "temperate" latitudes the vertical succession of climatic and of vegetation zones is similar, but the lowest zone has a temperate flora and fauna, and the vertical range of climates is therefore from " temperate " to polar, instead of from tropical to polar. A few thousand feet of ascent on a high mountain will there- fore give, in a very short vertical distance, the same series of zones, of climate, and of vegetation, as are met with in going a distance of many hundreds of miles, from lower to higher latitudes, near sea level. For high latitude and its influence on human affairs see classification, Earth Neighbors. 508 The mighty Himalayas, at whose base tropical products are raised on the warm lowlands of India, and whose cold summits are covered with eternal snow. 329 Monte Misti, 19,200 feet high, in southern Peru. Its summit is snow covered during the rainy season, while flowers bloom and snow never falls on the plateau, 10,000 feet lower, above which the mountain rises. 548 A tropical mountain : Mayon, Island of Luzon, Philippines. Rice and tobacco are raised at its base. Farther up, on, its slopes thrives the plantain tree, from which Manila hemp is ob- tained. (See also 549, rice fields on the lowlands of Luzon.) 284 Threshing on the Mexican plateau. Temperate cereals are raised THE VERTICAL CLIMATIC ZONES 119 here, while at the lower levels, where the temperatures are higher, tropical products alone can be cultivated. 311 Taking coffee to market on the Brazilian plateau. This plateau, 2000-3000 feet above sea level, has ideal climatic conditions for coffee, and, because of its elevation, is a far healthier place of residence for white men than the hot lowlands of the Amazon Valley. 243 The rush to the Klondike (1897-1898) across the snow-covered Chilkoot Pass, Alaska. The heavy snowfall on many mountains makes them difficult to cross in winter. 221 Rising above the snow line, Mt. Hood. The vegetation in the foreground illustrates very clearly the contrast in the vertical zones of climate. 228 The snow-capped Sierra Nevada Mountains. These mountains rise above the irrigated and fertile fields of California, to snow- covered heights which have given the range its name. See 236, 237, 238 showing the fruit industry of California. 276 The snow-fields and glaciers of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. 195 Owing to the considerable altitude, temperatures below freezing, and snowfalls, occur in the Yellowstone National Park even during the tourist season. 191 Freshly-fallen snow in Yellowstone National Park. 102 The Blue Ridge, a " temperate zone " mountain range of moderate elevation. Many lowland crops will grow here. The upper slopes of such mountains (103) are still largely forested. 388 Haying on the lower slopes of the Bavarian Mountains. Hay is often an excellent crop on mountain slopes, where climatic and soil conditions are less favorable for cereals than they are on the lowlands. 427 Glacier des Bossons fed by the snows of the high Alps, Chamonix, France. Glaciers not infrequently come down from the cold upper slopes and summits of lofty mountains into the inhabited and cultivated valleys below. 444 The trees and flowers of the valley, and the eternal snows of the upper mountain slopes, Switzerland. A striking illustration of the close proximity of very different vertical climatic zones. 445 Swiss mountain homes: The roofs often weighted down with stones to prevent damage by high winds. Wood, for fuel during the long and cold Alpine winter, is piled against the house. 448 The impressive scenery of the Swiss Alps: The Matterhorn. This mountain rises far above the fertile and inhabited valleys and lower slopes. 446 A glacier among trees and fields, Switzerland. From the eternal snow and ice of the high Alps, glaciers often descend so far down the slopes that they are surrounded by trees and grass, forming a striking picture of contrasted climatic conditions. 428 Famous Mer de Glace (River of Ice), Chamonix, France. 460 The thickly settled lowland, with favorable climate, and the de- serted mountains, in the Austrian Tyrol, Innsbruck. 120 GEOGRAPHY — ZONES — ALTITUDE 408 A fertile cultivated valley among bare and rugged mountains, Nor- way. Oats are raised in this valley, while the mountain sum- raits are seen to be snow-covered, and trees grow on the lower slopes. In a rainy climate, like that of this region, it is difficult to dry the grass for hay. The grass is put in thin, narrow piles, held up by poles, so that the wind can blow through it. 409 Snow-covered mountains rising above a pine forest, Norway. 322 A lake, high in the Andes, near the snow-line, fed by melting snows, Laguna del Inca. 323 A station on the Transandean Railroad, between Qiile and Ar- gentina far above the cultivated lowlands and valleys. See 324 taken at a lower level, and showing a considerable contrast in climatic conditions. 525 Fuji-Yama, Japan. This mountain, 12,400 feet high, is snow- capped in winter. At "its base and on its slopes there are culti- vated fields. 213 Bare mountain slopes in a region of deficient rainfall, Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Compare 102 and 388 where, with heavier rainfall, there are trees. 413 The rugged slopes of northern Norway. Here, although the ele- vations are small, the climate is too severe for farming. The people (Laplanders) occupy themselves with hunting and fish- ing, and keep herds of reindeer. 430 Moderate elevations used as building sites, Cannes, France. The slopes of the hills along the famous Riviera district of France and northern Italy are much used for health and pleasure re- sorts', and are often dotted with beautiful residences. 8. GEOGRAPHY BY NATIONS POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY By E. M. LEHNERTS, A.M. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Political geography is one of the difficult subjects to teach because of its variableness. Mathematical geography is as fixed as the sun and the earth; physical geography is, in its laws, unchanging, but political geography changes continually. Boundaries change, colonies are gained and lost, governments are overturned and reorganized. Political geography is as changeful as man. Governments today are world-wide. They rule great ranges of classes and people and must be adapted to. innum- erable conditions. It is interesting to note the extent and dis- tribution of each great nation's possessions and the funda- mental principles of the government which must fit them all. Perhaps the greatest tendency in modern life is toward democracy. It seeijis to float in the very air. Great nations are giving even to their far-off colonies some participation in the ruling power. Notice, for instance, the Dutch in Java, the Australian Commonwealth, the Americans in the Philip- pines. All the world is learning that government is for the benefit of the people " deriving its just powers from the con- sent of the governed." With textbooks, paging and distribution of material are necessarily fixed, and the world-wide application of one gov- ernmental system is difficult to be shown. But stereographs and slides can be combined and recombined. For instance, when a child can see 130 stereographs picked out of 600 he will have visual teaching that the British Empire includes one- quarter of the globe, and when he studies the diflferent parts of this Empire, he will know better than words can tell what is the result of British rule. Best of all, these Keystone Views give us people in their daily life, and children will surely get from the pictures that government helps to make life what it is, and that, in turn. 122 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY every man helps to make government, not for himself alone, but for countless men, perhaps half way round the globe. The stereoscopic views and slides can be used to help children to realize the importance of the individual in the welfare of the nation. THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS The United State* has made such rapid progress in area, population and wealth, that it is frequently spoken of as synonymous with Amer- ica. The reasons for this remarkable growth and development are many and complex and include geographic, historic, economic, indus- trial, racial, military and other causes. The geographic location of the United States constitutes a great and far-reaching advantage, and one which will become more and more im^ portant as the nations of the world develop and their needs increase. Not only does the United States occupy the best part of the continent, but it is so placed on the globe as to lie between the populous regions of Europe and Asia and within favorable commercial distance of most of the countries of the rest of the world — an advantage made all the more effective by the possession of excellent harbors on three coasts, the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacific. Nature was generous when she endowed the United States. Fertile soils and favorable climates produce unequaled agricultural wealth; great forests furnish building material and fuel ; abundant water powers offer unmeasured energy which will work for mankind long after coal is gone; unrivalled deposits of minerals and ores pour out vast and varied treasures, These and many other bounties of nature stimulate man to greater effort and reward him better here than in any other country on the globe. It remained for man to multiply nature's gifts; and this he accom- plished by means of inventions. Improved farm machinery and meth- ods of agriculture greatly increased the yield per acre and the output of the country; the'roUer mill, cotton gin, and better machines for the manufacture of flour, tloth, etc., increased the demand for the raw products and their value and usefulness in the finished state ; railways furnishing quick transportation brought producer and manufacturer to- gether, opened otherwise inaccessible regions, and, together with the waterways, made for national union and prosperity. Add to this the influence of the school, the newspaper, the telegraph, and the telephone, and consider that this is a land of peace and good will to all, that it is a land of liberty and the home of a happy and prosperous people, and its remarkable growth is seen to be but the logical result of many and powerful causes, which, continuing to function in the future, are des- tined to bring even greater prosperity and happiness to the nation. The government of the United States is a logical development of English law and custom along democratic lines. Its fundamental ideal is self-governjTient and individual responsibility. Wherever the stars and stripes float, there the people must rule themselves. In the Philip- UNITED STATES 123 pines the people are being trained for self-government either for inde- pendence or real union. This ideal of the United States has been an inspiration to the world. Other countries have followed more or less closely where America leads. 87 The United States is governed by laws made by Congress. 88 Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 91 The laws are enforced by a President. 92 A Cabinet of ten members chosen by the President advise and assist him. 89 A Supreme Court which passes on the constitutionality of a law is a distinctive feature of the United States Government. The federal government makes the laws which apply to the entire United States. 8 Each of the forty-eight states has a legislature which makes state laws, and a Governor who executes them. Also, each state has a system of state courts. 28 The people of the United States believe in self-government; so each county, city and township has its own local government which has almost entire control of local matters. 4, 16, 28, 29, 65, etc. The people of the United States elect nearly all the officers of the federal, state, and local governments. Each officer represents the people. Any man may become an official. 243 to 246 Alaska; 259 to 261 Hawaii are organized territories. Each one has a governor and judges appointed by the President and a legislature chosen by the people. Hawaii asked to be admit- ted to the. United States. Citizens of territories are citizens of the United States with all the rights and privileges. 87 Each territory has one representative in Congress who may take part in debate but has no vote. The laws passed by the terri- torial legislature may be revoked by Congress. 2S7, 258 Porto Ricans are United States citizens since 1917. They elect their own legislature. They have a representative in Congress who may speak from the floor but not vote. Their Governor is appointed by the President. 546, 547 The Philippines also are governed largely by themselves. They are represented on the council and have their own legis- lature. They also have a representative in Congress without the vote. The Governor is appointed by the President. ' 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553 The Philippine common people are back- ward. It is the intention of the United States to educate them so that they may develop into a self-governing people. 554 Guam is governed by a naval officer stationed there. 295, 299 Cuba is a protectorate of the United States. It is a republic with its own president and congress. It may not make any treaty without the consent of the United States, who in turn guarantee protection and a stable government. 124 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY MEXICO 280 to 290 Mexico is in form a republic with a government modeled after that of the United States. 281, 284, 285 The common people of Mexico are very ignorant, so that popular government is not so easily carried on. Also, the Mexican people are a mixed race of Spanish and Indian blood. ■ Lacking the centuries of evolution they do not handle the demo- cratic ideals of government so readily as do the people of the United States. This is true of all Latin American countries. 281, 282, 283 The city of Mexico is the capital of Mexico. Here Congress meets and here the President resides. CENTRAL AMERICA 292, 294 The common people of the Central. American states are so ignorant that the governments (republic in form) are very unstable. Revolutions are very common and very destructive. The common people have little share in the government. 247, 248, 2S6 The State of Panama is progressing rapidly, owing to the United States' occupation of the Canal Zone. BRAZIL Brazil is almost as large as the United States and has a population of about 24,000,000. The language of the country is Portuguese. It is a federal republic with a constitution based upon that of the United States. 306, 308, 311 The people of Brazil are mostly of Spanish, Portuguese or Italian. There are great numbers of Germans in the south- ern part. The people of the interior are mostly Indians. 304 Bahia; 308 Sao Paulo. Only the coast cities have any real sys- tem of education. 30S, 307 At Rio de Janeiro, the capital, the President resides and here the national Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, meets. The government is almost entirely de- centralized. ARGENTINA Argentina is one of the most progressive countries of South America.' Lying in the temperate zone with good grain and grazing land, it has attracted European immigration. The Republic has very liberal immi- gration laws. The constitution is modeled closely upon that of the United States and the entire system of government is almost identical with our own. 314, 316 Buenos Aires is the federal district. 315 The government buildings are where Congress meets to make the laws of the nation. A President, Senate, House of Representa- tives-have almost the same power as in the United States. CHILE — BRITISH EMPIRE 125 317, 319, 320, 321 Local governments are subject to inspection and regulation by the federal officials and judicial authorities. CHILE The Chilians are sometimes called the " Yankees of South America.'' They are a progressive people, rapidly advancing in commerce and in- dustry and in government. 324 Santiago is the capital of the Republic of Chile whose constitu- tion is patterned after that of the United States. 326, 327 An active trade furnishes communication with the rest of the world and is the main reason for -Chile's progressiveness. 328 There are numbers of Indians not yet touched by civilization. PERU 332, 333 These pictures show that Peru is using the newest farm machinery, a sure sign of progressiveness. 334 Her rich mines have attracted men from all over the world and here again we see modern machinery. 329 to 334 Peru is a republic,, formed on the United States as a model. It has a President, a Congress with two houses and a Supreme Court of Justice just as we have. Local affairs are under the control of the federal government. VENEZUELA 339, 341 There are very few pure whites in Venezuela and very few pure negroes. Most of the people are a mixed race of Spanish and Indian or negro. They are mostly very ignorant and so the government laws are poorly executed.. In general the courts are dilatory and ineffective. 340 Halls of Congress. The government is a republic, modeled after the United States, but not so successful in its administration. A president and Congress are the head of the government. 338, 339, 340, 341 Only the large cities have any educational advan- tages. THE BRITISH EMPIRE Great Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland comprises an area of 121,390 square miles, or about the size of the state of New Mexico, and contains a population of 45,400,000 or nearly equal to one- half of the total population of the United States. The British Empire contains 12,800,000 square miles of land and 439,700,000 inhabitants, or about one-fourth of both the total land area and the total population of the world. Approximately half of these possessions are situated in ' the Northern Hemisphere and half in the southern ; and so widely distributed are the various portions that almost every variety of climate and soil occurs, and almost every kind of product and natural resource can be furnished. 126 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY The geographic foundations for the growth and development of this " vast empire were laid in the geologic past when, in the fashioning of the earth's surface, two islands, now known as Great Britain and Ire- land, were set apart from the mainland and so placed in the seas as to be in the center of the land hemisphere of the globe and opposite and nearer to North America than was any other portion of Europe. Na- ture, which had previously stored great coal and iron deposits in the larger of the two islands, then indented their shores with good har- bors, stocked the surrounding seas with abundant fish for food, and planted great forests in the part now called England. Each of these provisions of nature had an important bearing on the history of the British Empire, but their influences developed very slowly. At first, owing to the weakness of the Britons and the strength of their enemies, the water barrier was not sufficient to protect them against invaders. Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes and Normans came, conquered, and left their impress. But -the island position in time de- veloped a sturdy seafaring people, fishermen, traders, explorers, brave navigators, and daring sailors destined to become the masters of the seas, a distinction which they attained by the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588, and again renewed by their victory over the French fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 was an event of far- reaching importance for the British Isles. Heretofore they had occu- pied an unimportant position at the very end of the known world. Thereafter instead of being on the outskirts of Europe, remote from the commercial activities of the Mediterranean and the continent, they became the geographic center of the land hemisphere of the world, a point of vantage whose importance increased as the nations and coun- tries of the earth developed. Britain's nearness to North America, her love for adventure and ex- ploration, her remunerative attacks on the' gold-carrying galleons of Spain, and the lure of the imagined wealth of the New World, stimu- lated her seamen, shipbuilders, explorers, navigators, sea fighters, and colonizers, and raised England in less than a century from a second- rate maritime power in 1492 to the supremacy of the seas in 1588. We may, therefore, date the first steps in the building of the British Empire from the time of Queen Elizabeth and the founding of the American colonies. Another factor of immense consequence and one that must be con- sidered in connection with the island position and world central location of the British Isles, is the fact that the oceans are not land-enclosed but are all connected with each other by water. Because of this continuity of the oceans, the sea routes led to all lands in all parts of the world and were safer, quicker, and cheaper than land transpor- tation, and, indeed, for centuries the only transportation that could reach many of the distant countries. Gradually the tide of trade turned from the Mediterranean to Eng- land's ports; her ships of war held the seas and her vessels of trade carried most of the world's merchandise. Growing colonies sent raw GREAT BRITAIN 127 products and demanded manufactured goods. Manufacturing estab- lishments grew up and flourished, and, thanks to British skill and in- vention and to the possession and low cost of coal and iron, Britain's factories soon surpassed those of any other country. The growth of so large an empire was necessarily slow and not in- frequently disputed by rival nations. But over all her continental com- petitors Great Britain had one immense advantage — her geographical position as an island with no land boundary to guard. The effect of this was seen in three ways : The British were often able to hold aloof from continental wars and to increase their foreign possessions and trade by sea, while their rivals were busy on land fighting one another ; secondly, the British have for several centuries been able to safeguard their islands by means of naval power and so have saved their country from the wasteful destruction to which the other nations of Europe have been so often exposed; and, thirdly, naval supremacy having guaranteed the safety of her shores, Britain found it unnecessary to maintain a large standing army, and was thus enabled to turn a larger proportion of time, energy, and wealth, and almost all of her entire man power toward the development of industries and trade. A greater danger than either the Spanish Armada or Napoleon's fleet at Trafalgar threatened Britain's maritime supremacy at the beginning of the 19th century. All ships were built of wood and England's forests were exhausted. It had become necessary to buy and bring timber from the Black Forest, via the Rhine, and from the Scandinavian countries. It is doubtful whether Britain could have competed suc- cessfully with the shipbuilding of other countries had it not been for the discovery that steel and iron made better ships than wood. Great Britain fortunately possessed vast coal and iron deposits near each other and near the sea, and found herself able to build more and better ships and at smaller cost than any other nation. Her supremacy of the seas remained assured. While geographic factors and historic events formed a favorable foundation for the growth and development of the British Empire, the credit for its accomplishment is primarily due to the British people. Indeed, it is doubtful vdiether any other nation similarly placed could have accomplished as much. The vast empire was not only built, but it was built so well as to hold together in stress and storm, although composed of diverse peoples and scattered over the whole earth. In this remarkable union is reflected the British genius for colonization and government. The English language is spoken by more people than any other Euro- pean tongue. The sun never sets on the British Empire; for her possessions encircle the globe. Britain is mistress of the seas, for her ships of war have ruled the waves since the days of the Spanish Armada, and her vessels of trade have carried the bulk of the world's merchandise since the r«ign of Queen Elizabeth. In times of war and of peace England's power has extended to the remotest parts of the earth. 128 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 347 Liverpool ; 348 London. The many harbors of England made her a seafaring nation. She developed a great merchant marine and a great navy. She, became a great maritime power, " Mis- tress of the Seas." 262 to 279 Canada and Newfoundland ; 301 Jamaica ; 499 to 508 India ; 513, 514 Hongkong; 558 to 569 Egypt; 570 to 574 British East Africa; 575 to 578 Rhodesia; 579 to 584 South Africa; 585 to 591 Australia and New Zealand. These possessions are so scat- tered that every variety of climate and soil occur and almost every kind of product and natural resource. The English lan- guage is spoken by more people than any other European tongue. Many of these colonial possessions are completely self-govern- ing, organized with a constitution modeled on that of the United States. This was the lesson England learned from the American Revolution. England has gained and held many of the strategic positions of the world. This in part agcounts for her expansion. 439 Rock of Gibraltar ; 558 Alexandria ; 559 Suez Canal. These strategic positions give England control of the Mediterranean, and most of the trade with Asia. 561, 569 The Nile. The occupation of Egypt gives an entrance from the north to the heart of Africa. 582 The possession of Cape Colony allowed the British to spread out over and absorb South Africa. This was the 4cey which enabled them also to control the trade of this part of the earth. 513, 514 Hongkong is a British possession and a strategic point for influencing affairs in the East. 301 Jamaica furnishes a naval base and a strategic position from which England finds entrance into Western affairs. 347 Liverpool, Eng. ; 351 London, Eng. ; 365 Edinburgh, Scot. ; 375 Cork, Ire.; 381 Belfast, Ire.; 266 Quebec, Canada; 585 Sydney, Australia. British people as a whole are noted for independence of character, for sagacity, courage, enterprise and perseverance, and for respect for law and love of justice. These sterling quali- ties have enabled British manufacturers, merchants and ship- builders to gain preeminence over all other nations in trade and material prosperity. 348 to 352 London is the capital or governmental center of the British Empire. 352 The King and House of Lords remain a part of the British gov- ernmental form but the real power is held by the House of Commons elected by the voters. The British Empire is really a democratic government retaining a monarchic form inherited from past ages. The king holds his place by the good will of the people. 365, 366, 367 Scotland united with England under the crown when James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown and became James I of England. 352 The Scotch have members both in the House of Commons and in the House of Lords. INDIA — AUSTRALIA 129 374, 375, Zn , 378 South Ireland has wanted home rule. 381 North Ireland has objected to home rule. 380 A convention held in Dublin (1917) with representatives from all parts and parties of Ireland is to decide its government. 363 Welch people have all the rights and privileges of English sub- jects. Canada 262, 264, 267, 273, 277 Canada has a Governor-General appointed by the King of England, five years, also a Parliament of two houses. Senators are appointed for life by the Governor-General. The members of the House of Commons are chosen by the people. The lower house has the real power. 262 Nova Scotia; 264, 267 Quebec; 273 Manitoba; 277 British Colum- bia. Each province has almost complete local government. India 499 to SOS In India fewer than 6S00 British officials rule over three hundred millions of men. 503 Delhi is the capital. All the states of India are under the rule of a Governor-General in Council. The Governor-General, oftener called the Viceroy, represents the British sovereign and has supreme civil and military power all over India. 501 Buddhists ; 503 Moslems. The Council has had both Buddhist and Moslem members. An attempt is being made to give the natives some representation in their own government. 504 Minor officials are largely natives. 506 Kashmir. Native states, as a rule, are governed by native princes with the help of British political oificers appointed by the British government and residing at their courts. These rulers possess armies and revenues of their own but are not allowed to form any alliances. 509, 510 Burma since 1886 is a part of British India with a Lieutenant- Governor and Council. Formerly, it was an absolute monarchy whose king was called " The Lord of the White Elephant." Australia 585, 586 The people of Australia are mostly of British origin. 585 New S. Wales; 586 Victoria; 588 South Australia; 589 Queens- land ; 590 Tasmania. These states with West Australia make the Commonwealth of Australia proclaimed Jan. 1, 1901. 587 Melbourne was made the capital of the Confederation until a new capital in a federal district could be built. Here the Australian Parliament meets. Parliament consists of a Governor-General representing the King, a Senate and House of Representatives elected by the people. The government is modeled largely after that of the United States. 586 Melbourne ; 590 Tasmania. Each state has a complete local gov- ernment of its own. 585 The Commonwealth of Australia maintains an army and a fleet. 130 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY New Zealand 591 New Zealand also has a Governor-General representing the Crown ; a Legislative Council chosen by the Governor in Council and a Legislature chosen by the people. New Zealand has made many experiments in government ownership and other socialistic ex- periments which have been very interesting to students of gov- ernment all over the world. Egypt 558 On Dec. 17, 1914, Egypt became a British protectorate. The Khedive who sympathized actively with the Germans in the World War was deposed and Hussian Kemal was made ruler with the title Sultan of Egypt. 559, 569 For many years the British had practical control over Egypt and has done much to advance the welfare of the people. The Great Dam at Assuan is an example of what England has tried to do. In the change Turkey really lost nothing but prestige. 560 Cairo is the seat of government. Here the Sultan resides. Eng- land sends a High Commissioner of Egypt who is 'in reality a Viceroy with governmental power. He works through the Sultan and his Council. 561, 562, 563, 564 Egypt, under Turkish rule, has made very little or no progress. It remains to be seen what England can do. British East Africa 570, 572 The British have a nominal control also of Uganda and other lands lying between Egypt and South Africa. In this market will be seen the marks of British rule. The change from sav- agery to civilization is necessarily slow. 571, 573 The country is a source of present wealth and will develop as civilization progresses. Union of South Africa 580 The treaty of peace which ended the Boer War was signed. May 31, 1902. This gave the Transvaal (the Boer Country) to the English. In Dec. 12, 1906, the Transvaal was granted a self- government. The experiment succeeded. 579 to 584 The Union of South Africa was proclaimed. May 31, 1910. This Union was planned and made by the people of the Trans- vaal, Natal, Orange Free State and Cape Colony. It was granted without change in the proposed constitution. Such things show the democratic tendencies of the British government. 582 Capetown is the meeting place for the parliament but Pretoria is the seat of government. A parliament chosen by the people and a Governor-General representing the King of England form the government. Each state has a local government of its own. RHODESIA — FRENCH REPUBLIC 131 Rhodesia S7S, 576, 577, 578 Rhodesia is under the control of the British South African Company. They have a Council with six members chosen by the Company and seven elected by the people. Provi- sion is made for the entrance of Rhodesia into the Union of South Africa but it is not yet considered ripe for self-govern- ment. THE T-RENCH REPUBLIC AND ITS DEPENDENCIES France comprises 207,127 square miles and 39,602,000 inhabitants. Her foreign possessions aggregate 4,100,000 square miles and 45,000,000 inhabitants. The geographic position of France is more favorable than that of any other European country except Great Britain. France is located in the heart of west-central Europe and is, therefore, connected by land with the nations and industrial centers of the continent. She possesses an adequate number of good harbors, and her shores face both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. This gives her direct access to the world's most favored ocean routes to both the Far West and the Far East. France lacks the insular security of Great Britain, but is fortunately almost encircled by natural boundaries. These promote national unity and provide a first line of defense for the country. This is particularly true of the Pyrenees, Alps, Jura, Vosges, Rhine Highlands, and Ardennes. But important breaks and passes occur, such as the Valley of the Rhone, the gap at Belfort, the opening between the Vosges and the Rhine Highlands, the gorges of the Moselle and the Meuse, and the plain of^ Belgium. These openings facilitate railway and road connec- tions with the rest of Europe and furnish excellent commercial routes and military highways. The mineral wealth of France is considerable and has materially aided her industrial development; but the latter would be far greater if her coal and iron deposits were larger. Much of the coal now used in her factories must be imported. For this reason the iron and textile indus- tries of France cannot equal those of either Great Britain or Germany, which supply all of their own fuel. Fortunately, the coal fields of France are scattered, and, though small, are most productive in the in- terior where importation of coal would be more difficult and expensive. The internal development of France has been favored by the compact shape of the Republic and by the character of the surface which is seldom seriously interrupted by mountains or impassable districts. The soil, too, on the whole is more fertile and the climate more favorable than that of her neighbors. The roadways are among the best in the world and are regarded with just pride by the people. The rivers and canals furnish a. network of waterways, and, together with the railways, furnish ample means for transportation. 423, 424 Paris ; 431 Nice, France. The people of France are thrifty, generous and brave. They are noted for their bright intelligence 132 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY and for their sociability and hospitality. They are typically polite, cheerful, lively and frank, yet earnest of purpose and energetic. They are a refined and patriotic people whose long history is replete with accomplishments of the very highest order. 421 to 425 Paris is the capital of the French republic. Here the Presi- dent lives and the meetings of National Assembly are held. The National Assembly is composed of the Senate and Chamber, of Deputies. The officials of France are chosen by the people or their representatives and are responsible to the people. 429 to 431 The local governments of France are under the central power. The government is highly centralized. 427,428 The Alps form an important barrier or natural boundary in the southeast and the Pyrenees separate France and Spain. ■426 The fact that there is no adequate natural boundary between France and Germany has led to many wars and the maintenance of a standing army. 429 Marseilles; 430 Cannes. France has harbors on the Mediter- ranean Sea and on the Atlantic Ocean. This gives her access to the world's most favored ocean routes both to the Far East and to the Far West and leads to her desire for colonies in Africa. 556 Algieria is a French colony ruled by a Governor-General assisted by a Council. Laws for Algieria are made by the National Assembly at Paris. The country has advanced and prospered under French rule. 557 Tunis was declared a French protectorate in 1881. The native Bey is the nominal head, assisted by a Council of nine ministers. Seven of these are French and two are natives. The real ruler is a resident Commissioner-General sent by the French gov- ernment. 555 Morocco is an African sultanate under French protection. A resi- dent Commissioner-General sent by France represents the rule of that country. French rule means progress, civilization and greater personal security. SPAIN At one time Spain was the greatest colonial power in the world. Her foreign possessions included practically all of America from Oregon to Cape Horn, and Cuba and the Philippines were hers. An autocratic government alienated her colonists and the example of the United States incited them to seek independence and self-government. Spain fell back into the position of a minor power. 434, 437, 438 The Spanish people are brave, proud and indolent. The spirit of adventure and conquest which incited them in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is no longer seen. Spain's gov- ernment is now a limited monarchy in which ideas of democracy are steadily growing. 435 Madrid is the capital of Spain. The government is in the hands SWITZERLAND — BELGIUM — HOLLAlSfD 133 of an hereditary king. The legislative body or Cortez consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Voters are all males over twenty-five who are in full enjoyment of their civil rights and who have been citizens of a municipality. SWITZERLAND 443, 445, 446, 447 Switzerland has the most democratic government in the world. The Federal Council is the chief executive of the federation. It is elected triennially by the Federal Assembly, which is chosen by the people. The president of the Federal Council is the President of Switzerland. BELGIUM Belgium is what we call neutralized territory. That is, it was recog- nized as a nation whose independence all the great powers had pledged themselves to respect and to preserve. It, in turn, was pledged to strict neutrality and could make no alliances. When Germany asked permis- sion to go through Belgium to France, neutral Belgium refused and later resisted their forcible passage. The other great powers were then bound to assist her. The violation of neutralized B.elgium was one of the main factors in drawing other nations into the war. 395 Brussels is the capital of Belgium. The government is a limited monarchy under a king and Parliament. 397 River Meuse and Namur. In this region occurred some of the severe fighting of the World War, resulting in the conquest of Belgium. The restoration of that country is one of the main issues in the making of peace. HOLLAND Holland is a little country with a wonderful history. Hemmed in the lowlands at the mouth of the Rhine, its greatest prestige has come from the sea. Hollanders, or the Dutch, are great sailors and traders, their ships being found in every port in the world. As a people they are frugal, industrious and clean. They are very independent and very brave, maintaining their national life with great courage. 399,400,401,402,403 Holland is a limited monarchy with a king and Parliament. The people are intensely loyal and interested in their government. S4S Java is a Dutch possession. It is governed by a Governor-Gen- eral and a Council. The government as the Javanese see it, is carried on through a network of native officials to whom the foreign rulers are " elder brothers." There is a daily conference between the Dutch and the native chiefs and the Javanese lan- guage is always used, the Dutch not being allowed. In the ad- ministration of justice the Dutch are subject to laws of the Netherlands while the natives are tinder their own laws. Nearly 134 * POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY everywhere in the modern world, we see the principles of self- government being applied. DENMARK Denmark occupies a strategic position at the entrance to the Baltic Sea and has in Copenhagen a very fine harbor. Both Germany and Russia have wished for the possession of this little country, yet neither one has been willing to allow any one else to have it. The importance of its position has safeguarded its independence. 404, 405, 406 Copenhagen is the seat of the Danish government. Den- mark is a constitutional monarchy with a king and Rigsdag, or national legislature. The Rigsdag consists of a Landsthing, or upper house, part of whose members are chosen by the king, part by the largest taxpayers and part by the people; and a Folkething, or lower house, chosen by the people. Voters are all male citizens over thirty years old not engaged in menial household service. NORWAY For many years Norway and Sweden were united under the same king, each with a parliament of its own. In 1905 they separated, Nor- way choosing a prince of Denmark for its king, with the title Haakon VII. 407 to 415 The people of Norway are wonderfully industrious and thrifty and very democratic. Women have complete suffrage and may hold office. The Storthing or parliament meets annu- ally in Christiania. SWEDEN 416, 417 Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government, which is a constitutional monarchy. Here the king lives and here the Diet, or parliament, meets. The Diet is divided into two houses. Only males with property qualifications have full suffrage in Sweden. Women have municipal suffrage. ITALY AND THE ITALIAN COLONIES Italy has an area of 110,623 square miles, almost exactly the size of our State of Nevada, and a population of 35,240,000, or about equal to one-third of the total population of continental United States. Her colonies, Eritrea, Somaliland, and Libia total 595,000 square miles and 1,379,000 inhabitants. Italy's favorable position in the Mediterranean has played an im- portant part in the remarkably interesting history of the Kingdom and its distinguished cities. Even today they find themselves well placed both for sea trade via the Mediterranean and its outlets, and for con- tinental trade over the railway routes through the Alpine passes. Italy'j mineral resources are too meager to favor any considerable development of the heavier manufactures such as iron and steel; but GREECE — GERMAN EMPIRE 135 coal can be brought in ships from England for less money than it costs to send it from Pennsylvania to Duluth, water power is available, and raw materials such as silk and cotton are near at hand. For these reasons, the textile industries are rapidly growing. Moreover, certain events are pending which will tend to bring back to Italy a part of her former commercial prosperity and political prestige. These events are the rejuvenation of Russia and the probable opening of the Dardanelles; the awakening and development of the countries bordering the Medi- terranean. Italy's resolve to conquer the lands bordering the Adriatic, and her larger plans for naval control of the Mediterranean ; and, above all, her renewed self-confidence, intensified patriotic spirit, and increased national aspirations. 450 to 459 Italy is a constitutional monarchy. Today she is showing a renewed self-confidence, an intensified national spirit and in- creased national aspirations. 450 Rome is the capital. Here the king lives and here the Senate and Chamber of Deputies hold their sessions. Males over twenty- one who can read and write are voters. 454 Naples; 455 Palermo; 458 Milan; 457 Venice. Italy has a splendid location for trade. GREECE 475 to 480 Greece too is a limited monarchy, but the people are in con- trol. King Constantine, who opposed the wishes of the parlia- ment and the people, was deposed and his second son was made king in his stead. The democratic tendencies in Greece are very strong. THE GERMAN EMPIRE The present German Empire was formed in 1871, at the close of the Franco-Prussian War, by the union of the North German Confedera- tion and the South German States and the addition of Alsace-Lorraine. Since then the Empire has acquired extensive colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and in 1890 obtained by cession from Great Britain the island of Heligoland. The total area of the German Empire in Europe, before the war, was 208,830 square miles, and its population in 1905 was 60,641,000. Its colonial possessions before the beginning of the World War comprised approximately 1,000,000 square miles of terri- tory and numbered about ' 12,000,000 inhabitants. The German Empire occupies a less favorable position, geographically, than either Great Britain or France. It has only one coast line and that faces northward, away from the commercial regions of the world. This coast is flat and sandy, often bordered by dunes or marshes, and there are no natural harbors except the estuaries of the rivers flowing into the North Sea and the lagoons at the mouths of the rivers flowing into the Baltic. Moreover, only a few of the harbors are of suflScient depth, for ships of largest size, and most of the Baltic ports are closed by ice in the winter months. It is not improbable that Germany, ham- 136 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY pered by these disadvantages, would like to extend her coast line along more favorable shores. On the landward side, geographical factors are more favorable. Ger- many is the most central of the larger countries of Europe and is, therefore, a natural distributing point for the continent. Her climate is good, and her soils are on the whole productive arid capable of sus- taining a dense population. Her varied and extensive mineral deposits, especially her rich coal and iron mines, furnish the basis for great and thriving industries and manufactures. Her numerous rivers and canals, aggregating over 9,000 miles of interior waterways, carry not only iner- chandise but men and ideas throughout the land, and, like the railways, form a geographical and commercial bond of union for the Empire. The German people are industrious, frugal, and thrifty, and are characterized by devotion to family, love for country, loyalty to king, and obedience to authority. Intellectually less quick and versatile than the French and Anglo-Saxons, they are more persevering and thorough and, during the last quarter century, have made more rapid progress in the sciences, especially applied sciences, than has any other nation. They have produced many eminent poets, writers, philosophers, scientists, inventors, and captains of industry, but have been less fortunate with their statesmen. Patronage of the fine arts has long been one of their national characteristics, and in music especially the Germans have exercised an influence far beyond the borders of their Empire. In education, industrial, commercial, political, and military and naval activities the German people evolved and developed a centralized system and organization of great efficiency but out ^f harmony with the demo- cratic spirit of other countries. This system, which has come to be called the Prussian system, combined with over-reaching national as- pirations and ambitions and the clashing of economic and racial inter- ests, resulted in the Great War. 383 The Reichstag-Gebaude. The German Empire is nominally a limited monarchy. The legislative body consists of the Reichstag elected by the people and the Bundesrath or Federal Council. 384 The German Emperor has the executive power and is increasing it continually. He is responsible to no one. The chief executive officer is an Imperial Chancellor appointed by the Emperor and responsible to him instead of to the people's representatives. The governmental secretaries are responsible to the Imperial Chancellor. This makes the Emperor practically independent and gives him autocratic power. 386, 387, 388, 389, 393 The local government is almost entirely under the central power. Education, police, sanitation are national not local matters. 385 Every man in the empire devotes three years to military training, which is compulsory. The country has the strongest military power in the world, systematically built up with a view to world conquest and rule. 394 Zeppelin. The army is equipped with the latest inventions. 386 Hamburg. Germany has only one coast, a northern one facing AUSTRIA-HUNGARY — RUSSIA 137 away from commercial regions of the world. This coast is flat and sandy with harbors only at the mouths of rivers. Germany wants more coast. 440, 441, 442, 446, 448 The Alps form a natural boundary on the south. 397 Belgium ; 399 to 403 Holland. Germany opens to the west through Holland, Belgium and France. 468, 469 Bulgaria ; 472, 473, 474 Turkey. She has steadily extended her influence southeastwardly toward the Black and Mediterranean Seas. 574 German East Africa as well as other colonial possessions were captured by the Allies in the World War. England gained most of them. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Austria-Hungary is really a union of two countries under the same king who must be crowned in both countries. The two countries are very jealous of each other, keep themselves as separate as possible and have a common administration in only a few matters such as finance, war, foreign and commercial affairs. They use the same money and the same scale of weights and measures. 462, 463 At Vienna the Emperor of Austria is crowned. Here the Austrian Reichsrat meets and makes laws for Austria. The Reichsrat consists of a House of Lords and a House of Deputies. 464 In Budapest the King of Hungary is crowned. Here the Hun- garian Reichsrat meets to make laws for Hungary. It is divided into a House of Magnates and a House of Representatives. 466 Bosnia; 467 Serbia; 470, 471 Roumania. Austria-Hungary con- stantly encroached upon her weaker neighbors, trying to make them parts of the Empire. TURKISH EMPIRE 472, 473, 474 Constantinople is the capital of the Turkish Empire. It is a place of such strategic importance that no nation has been willing to allow any other to have it; so the weak Turkish gov- ernment has been maintained. The government changed from an absolute to a limited monarchy. 492, 493, 494 Syria is a part of the Turkish Empire. 495,496,497,498 Palestine also is a Turkish province. The Jews and Christians of Palestine have suffered from the cruelty of the Turks in the World War. RUSSIA The RepubKc of Russia comprises 8,754,680 square miles, an area a little larger than the mainland of North America, and a population of 176,000,000 or nearly as many people as live in North America and South America combined. Of this great total, 2,095,680 square miles and 140,841,000 inhabitants belong to Europe, and the rest to Asia. Many geographical and political factors combined to retard the in- 138 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY ternal development of Russia, such as her great size and inadequate transportation facilities; her unfavorable northern and southern bound- aries; her severe climate; her rivers, ice-bound in winter and of little value in summer because flowing into non-commercial seas; her vast marshes, deserts, and tundras ; her lack of commercial seacoasts and of all-year open ports ; her large number of poorly assimilated races and tribes ; her former bureaucratic and repressive government ; her difficult language; and her deficient educational system. Russia is making strenuous efforts to rid herself of her most serious handicaps. New and capable leaders are organizing a liberal and pro- gressive government. The educational system is being placed on a par with that of other countries. Transportation facilities are being im- proved as rapidly as possible. Agriculture is being advanced. Mines are being opened to pour forth the enormous mineral wealth of the country, including inexhaustible supplies of the most important ore and •fuels of today — iron, coal, and petroleum. Russia is a young nation, not so much in years as in emergence into liberty. She is a prolific nation, having doubled her population within a century. She is a peace-loving nation and rnay yet become the decid- ing factor in the accomplishment of a permanent peace ^ — the hope of the world. 481 Fins; 486, 487, 488 Slavs; 485 Jews. Russia is peopled by many races speaking many languages who have never been assimilated into one nation. The Fins are Mongolians. The Jews have been persecuted in every possible way. 482 Petrograd is the capital and seat of the absolute government. The Czar was the head of both Church and State. In response to a popular demand, a Duma, or popular assembly, was given the people and many reforms were made. It was soon found that these were never intended to accomplish anything. In 1917 a democratic uprising forced the Czar to abdicate and a new government was formed. 482 to 488 Russia as a whole is making herculean efforts to adjust her- self. New and responsible leaders are organizing a liberal and progressive movement. CHINA China is another nation in a state of change. For centuries it re- mained stationary and only lately has awakened to move forward into modern life. Dense ignorance and the bondage of custom made change very difficult. 513 to 524 The Chinese Republic dates from Feb. 12, 1912, when by edict of the -Empress Dowager, the infant king Pu Yi abdicated the throne. Yuan Shih-kai was made President and in 1915 dissolved parliament and announced his intention of becoming emperor. 519 The Chinese rebelled, some provinces seceded and a revolution took place. Yuan Shih-kai died shortly. JAPAN • 139 516,518,519,521,523,524 These pictures will give some idea of the tremendous change which must take place before China becomes a self-governing nation in the American way. The American government is the ideal toward which the eyes of Chinese states- men are turned. JAPAN Japan is a limited monarchy whose royal family has held place for more than two thousand years. In the last sixty years, Japan has made wonderful progress in arts and industries as well as in government. 526 Tokyo is the Japanese capital. The Mikado or king is the chief executive. A legislature of two houses makes the laws. There are strong democratic tendencies which strive to make the ministers responsible to the representatives of the people instead of to the Mikado. Tokyo, Osaka and Kioto have local gov- ernments. 527, 528, 529, 530 The Japanese people are patient and persistent. They combine cheerfulness with quick-wittedness ; are versatile ; they have enterprise and originality as well as unexcelled powers of imitation. They are industrious, clean, kind, calm and brave and their women have always been free. A SUGGESTION The preceding chapter, " Geography by Nations,'' affords an effective means of visualizing the extent of dominion of the leading nations of the world by a grouping of the stereographs and lantern slides. An interesting class review or a program for a community meeting may be had by showing the slides of the various regions with the pupils giving the explanation in accordance with the Keystone plan. It is suggested, in addition, that the work may be made still more effective by having the pupils, who give the explanatory statements for the slides, dressed in the costume of the country being presented. The presentation of the British Empire, for instance, by pupils dressed in the costume of each division of the empire will do more to visualize the extent and nature of that government's activities than any amount of reading from text. It would be helpful also if the pupils, before _ presenting the slides, would display to the audience wall maps and graphic charts showing the extent and relative proportion of land area, population and principal products of each country. For additional stereographs and slides emphasizing the extent of the leading nations, reference should be had to the Keystone View Com- pany's General Catalog, covering a world-wide series of travel tours and miscellaneous subjects. The Publishers. 9. EARTH NEIGHBORS By JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Ed. B., S.B. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA Morning after morning for unknown ages, the sun has ap- peared in a blaze of glory in the eastern sky, and in the eve- ning has disappeared with equal grandeur in the west. Night after night throughout the centuries people have marveled as the worlds have wheeled majestically across the sky. The Psalmist gave expression to the influence of these wonderful sights upon his life when he said : " The heavens declare the glory of God." But even to primitive man these phenomena were something more than wonderful spectacles. Some of the relationships between certain of the heavenly bodies and human affairs, were very early recognized. For many centuries people have realized their dependence upon the sun. Their daily lives have been in large measure ordered by it. The moon has illuminated man's pathway at night, and the stars have guided his wanderings upon the water as well as upon the land. The great telescopes of today, the spectroscope, and pho- tography have done much to enlighten man regarding the earth's neighbors. Many facts as ■ to distances, dimensions, rotation, revolution, density and other conditions have been -learned. Astronomical geography is one of the most important as well as one of the most interesting phases of geography. The range of the subject is great, including such topics as the form of the earth, rotation and revolution and their results, latitude, longitude, the zones, the tides and the solar system. The educational value of pictures as applied to human geography is generally recognized. As applied to astronomical geography it would seem at first thought as though only pic- tures representing the heavenly bodies could be used. This is far from being the case. There are many scenes in the 141 142 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS Keystone "600 Set" showing the influences of the earth's neighbors upon human affairs, a study of which will prove very valuable. I. THE SUN The sun is about 93,000,000 miles from the earth and it is more than a million times as large. It is in a gaseous condition and highly heated. It furnishes us with both light and heat. Without the sun it would be impossible for animals and plants to live on our earth. 593 The sun, *our most important earth neighbor. 414 Midnight sun, North Cape, Norway. A. SOLAR EVAPORATION (i) Solar Evaporation as Related to Industry Solar evaporation is a very important process, as it is related to human life in many ways. The farmer makes use of solar evaporation in curing his hay and grain. Through this process the California rancher dries peaches, prunes and apricots, and converts grapes into raisins. In many parts of the world fish are spread out in the sun- shine to dry, and much of the salt that we use is obtained through solar evaporation. 13 Drying codfish in the sunshine. The evaporation removes the water from the fish and the salt penetrates them. 42 Solar method of evaporating salt brine. 147 Bundles of oats that have dried in an Illinois field by evaporation. 199 Wheat drying in the shock. Wheat, like other plants, contains a very high percentage of water. If the wheat were stacked with this water in the stalks and in the kernels, the grain would spoil. 244 Drying fish on the Yukon River, Alaska. 310 Drying coffee in the sunshine, Brazil. 531 Drying sardines, Beppu, Japan. 325 Drying nitrate and sacking for shipment, Chile. (2) Solar Evaporation as Related to Cloud Formation High temperature, low humidity and a rapid movement of the at- mosphere favor evaporation. Thus, indirectly, solar evaporation is re- sponsible for precipitation. 213, 276, 377, 452, 476 Cloud forms result from evaporation followed by condensation. 441 Overlooking a sea of clouds, Switzerland. 508 Looking down on clouds, Himalaya Mountains. 282 On the hills we see shadows cast by clouds. 102 Double layer of clouds. Fog differs from clouds only in being close to the ground. 264,442,451,525 From all bodies of water, and from land surfaces as well, water is constantly being removed in the form of vapor. The process is called evaporation. SOLAR ENERGY 143 208, 218, 255, 301, 574 High temperature, wind and a dry atmosphere favor rapid evaporation. 193,288,291,448,450 As the air rises it cools and contracts, and the particles of moisture are crowded closer and closer together. Finally the moisture becomes visible in the form of fog, cloud, mist, rain, snow or hail. When this occurs, the air is said to have reached the condensation point. 257,408,444 Clouds are both a result and an indication of weather conditions. Sailors, farmers, mountaineers and others who live out of doors much of the time are close observers of cloud forms. 414, 321, 258, 368 When clouds obscure the sun we receive less heat from' this neighbor of ours than we would if it were clear. 181, 357, 38 A cloudy day checks evaporation, and the farmer's hay or grain which has been cut and left in the field to " cure " does not dry rapidly. At such a time the wet clothes hung on . the line dry slowly. , 308,314,422 Cloudy days are not the most enjoyable for excursions and picnics. (3) Overcoming Effects of Solar Evaporation Where solar evaporation is excessive, plant life is restricted, and the forms that grow under these conditions are adapted to store water and to reduce its loss. In many desert and semi-arid regions man has constructed reservoirs in which water is stored for the irrigation of these lands, which thus become highly productive. For Conditions Unfavorable for Plant Life, Water Relation to Leaf Forms, Light and Heat Relation to Leaf Forms and Food Storage see classification Plants and Plant Associations. ' 209 Cactus plants so developed as to store water. 210, 569 Storing water for irrigation. 198 Cultivating field of sugar beets. Frequent cultivation checks the movement of the water from the soil to the surface. This re- duces the loss from evaporation. B. SOLAR ENERGY Although so very distant from us, the sun influences our daily lives in many ways. In fact if it were not for the sun, neither plants, ani- mals nor human beings could exist upon the earth, for the sun furnishes the heat upon which all life depends. Light is another blessing which we receive from the sun. But one-' half of the earth can receive light at a given instant, and as the earth rotates upon its axis, there is a constant succession of day and night. (i) Influence of Solar Energy Upon Color of Skin The color of the skin is dependent upon certain pigment cells de- posited under the skin to protect the tissues from the rays of the sun. Everyone is familiar with the way in which the skin is tanned by 144 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS even a brief vacation in the open. Long ages of exposure to the hot tropical or sub-tropical sun and especially under conditions of primi- tive life with the practical absence of clothing, naturally produced a deeply pigmented skin as found in the Black Race and to a lesser de- gree in other races. See classification on Races. 261 Hula girls, Honolulu, Hawaii. 562 The dark skinned natives of Egypt. 572 Black people of tropical Africa. 578 Natives of Rhodesia, Africa. 592 Typical natives of Fiji Islands. (2) Effect of Solar Energy upon Dress 280, 284, 285 Workmen dressed in white because of high temperature. 503, 505, 506 Effect of solar energy upon color of garments and nature of headdress, India. 529, 528, 530 Effect of solar energy reduced by use of wide hats, Japan. 551, 552 Filipino workman. Little clothing is needed where Solar energy is great. 572,592 Effect of solar energy upon dress of African and Fiji Island natives. (3) Protecting Plants from Excessive Solar Energy So intense is the heat and the light of the sun in the tropical zone, that some of the plants require shade for their most successful growth. 297 Growing tobacco in shade of banana trees, Cuba. 302 Picking coffee grown in the shade of banana trees. (4) Releasing Solar Energy of Past Ages Heat and light from the sun, and a supply of moisture, are essential for plant growth. Plants, therefore, represent stored-up solar energy. Much vegetation that thrived in past ages has been converted into coal and petroleum, thus storing vast amounts of solar energy. 378 Peat, the first stage in the formation of coal. 74 Stripping coal at Hazelton, Pa. 1(> Miner drilling and laborer loading anthracite coal. Pa. 79 Anthracite, soon to release its solar energy by burning. 129 Goal from Pennsylvania to be shipped westward. 69 Filling shell with nitro-glycerin — oil field in Pennsylvania. 70 Shooting oil well.. 122 Oil derricks near Beaumont, Texas. 123 Grude oil stills. Port Arthur, Texas. G. INFLUENCES OF HIGH LATITUDE UPON HUMAN AFFAIRS Temperature decreases as distance from the equator increases. The climate in high latitudes is therefore very different frorii that in tem- perate and tropical regions. Because of this difference, the indirect effects of high latitude upon human life are very great. FORM OF EARTH — CHANGE OF SEASONS 145 246 Relation between latitude and life in northern Alaska. 343 Costumes of native Greenland girls. It has a cold climate. Very heavy clothing is needed, and this is in large part made from the skins of animals. 279 Eskimo dog- team on trail, Hopedale, Labrador. 328 Indians on Straits of Magellan near Punta Arenas. The latitude is so high that the sun's rays always fall very slantingly. The weather is therefore chilly even in the summer. 344 Hauling snow for water supply. Belgica Antarctic expedition. 1897-99. 346 Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, Dec. 16, 1911, in- specting ice field near glacier, Antarctic Ocean. Occasionally ex- plorers spend a winter or two in the icebound polar regions. Their vessels freeze in solidly as you see in view 344. The men secure some food by hunting, but they must be very careful i^ot to get severely frost bitten. 345 Showing a method of travel in polar regions and also a seal. D. FORM OF THE EARTH Until after Columbus discovered America, few people believed the surface of the earth to be curved. Now we know the earth is round and that night and day are caused by the earth rotating on its axis once every twenty-four hours. 100 Curvature of the earth's surface shown by appearance of distant ships. By observing this picture you will see that all of the nearest war ship is visible. The one at the left of this one and farther away, appears to be much lower. The more distant the ship, the smaller the part that can be seen. Since approaching and receding ships on all of the oceans present this appearance, this is taken as a proof that the sur- face of the earth is curved. Objects upon a very level plain ap- pear and disappear in the same fashion. E. LONGITUDE AND TIME • 353 Chronometer by which the world's time is measured, Greenwich, England. F. CHANGE OF SEASONS You have observed that during the winter the sun appears lower in the sky than it does during the summer. In winter the sun's rays fall upon the northern hemisphere more slantingly than they do in sum- mer. Because of this we receive less heat from the sun during the win- ter (although closer to it) than we receive during the summer. The change of seasons which occurs year after year with never fail- ing regularity, is due to the changing relations between the earth and the sun. As the earth rotates upon its axis, it is also revolving about the sun. When the sun's rays fall most directly in the northern hem- 146 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS isphere summer occurs in that hemisphere, and winter in the southern hemisphere. 49 American Falls in summer. During the summer the trees at Niagara Falls are in full leaf as you see in the picture. The grass is green upon the island, and flowers are in bloom. 50 American Falls in winter. Winter works a wonderful transforma- tion at Niagara, as it does in most other places. The trees lose their leaves, the grass dies and is buried beneath the snow, and ice forms where the water does not flow too swiftly. When the snow is quite wet it clings to the branches of the trees as you see in the picture, and sometimes breaks them. II. THE MOON The moon is much nearer to us than is the sun, and yet its distance from the earth is nearly ten times as great as the circumference of the earth at the equator. Besides furnishing light to the earth at night, the moon is the chief tide producing power. Tides are related to the shipping interests in all parts of the world. You see, therefore, that the moon is related to our daily lives in more than one way. A. PHASES OF THE MOON For explanation of the Moon's Phases, see descriptions for stereo- graphs and slides. 594 The full moon. 595 Moon at age of seventeen days. Taken three days after the time of full moon. B. LUNAR ILLUMINATION Like the earth, the moon receives its light from the sun. A part of this light is reflected, and when the side of the earth- upon which we live is turned away from the sun, the moon illuminates it. 391 Moonlight on the Rhine, Bingen, Germany. Traveling upon the water, as well as traveling upon the land is made much more enjoyable because of the light furnished by the moon. C. INFLUENCE OF THE TIDES Twice each day the water in this, and other harbors on the sea coast rises and falls. This regular rise and fall of the water is called the tides. The tides are caused by the attractive power of the moon and the sun, the moon being the more important of the two. The difference between the height of the water at high and low tide is called the tidal range. The tidal range at Liverpool is 31 feet. 347 Landing stage, Liverpool, England. It is a floating pier, and it therefore rises and falls with the tide just as the ships do. Be- PLANETS — COMET 147 cause of this, goods and people can be easily loaded or unloaded at any time. III. PLANETS Eight large bodies and many smaller bodies revolve about the sun. These are called planets. The eight large planets named in relation to their distance from the sun are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. A. MARS Mars is one of the most interesting of our neighbors. It is not so near the sun as are Mercury, Venus and the Earth, but it is much nearer the sun than are the other planets. A day on Mars is almost exactly the same in length as a day on the earth, but the year is nearly twice as long as ours. 596 The planet Mars. See descriptive text on view. B. SATURN Saturn is immense in size. It is more than nine times as far from the sun as is our planet. It is interesting to know that the day on Saturn is less than half as long as our day, but the year is equal to about twenty-nine of ours. The rings shown are composed of countless meteors which are in reality very small moons. These extend outward to a distance of about 50,000 miles from the surface of Saturn. In addition, the planet has 10 larger moons. 597 The planet Saturn, one of our distant neighbors. See descrip- tive text on view. C. URANUS This planet is at a tremendous distance from the sun, about 19 times as far as are we. It is faintly visible to the naked eye, however, which tells us that it is of great size. Uranus has 4 moons or satellites, two of which are shown. Comparatively little is known about this very dis- tant neighbor of ours. 598 The planet Uranus and two of its moons. See descriptive text on view. IV. COMET Comets have been observed for many centuries. The people of olden times regarded them as fore-runners of evil, and as late as 1860 great numbers of people in Europe were terrified because of the appearance of a very bright comet. In one country a statement was issued to calm the fears of the people. It read as follows: "The star threatens; trust only God. He will make all right." Are you not glad that you 148 GEOGRAPHY — EARTH NEIGHBORS can enjoy the beauty of the heavens, and that you do not believe that evil will follow the appearance of a comet? 600 Morehouse's Comet. See descriptive text on view. V. METEOR It is believed that a meteor is a fragment of a. disintegrated comet moving at a very great speed. When it approaches our planet near enough, it is pulled by the force of gravity to the earth. When it comes in contact with the earth's atmosphere, a great heat is developed by friction and the meteor burns up in whole or in part before striking the earth's surface. S99 Meteor in constellation of Orion. See descriptive text on view. HISTORY AND CIVICS INTRODUCTION By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY The old fashioned view of history is that it is made up of the heaping together of a multitude of units ; it is supposed to be like a wall built of bricks and stones of varying size, every one of which must appear in the face; history should be something that can be memorized and recited like a multiplica- tion table. Wide-awake and , modern teachers and writers nowadays look on history rather as a. grouping of materials of many kinds, which are so laid together that all are used in the wall, while only the most striking are selected out of the immense mass and placed in view. This idea of what might be called " composite history " carries both pupil and teacher away from the notion that his- tory is simply a succession of personalities and events. His- tory of the modern type takes account not only of the leaders but of the mass of the people, notes not simply episodes but tendencies. To the true historian of the United States, Con- gresses, Presidents, Constitutions, statutes, legal decisions, wars, battles, sieges and treaties are only the external part; they are of value only so far as they illustrate the great- theme of the nation's growth, the nation's mind and standards. The proper aim of all teaching of history is to make young people realize that their country in times past has been carried on by people like themselves. That involves making them familiar with the social and economic life of the past, as well as with political events. Modern historians recognize that the first necessity for a civilized community is that people should be able to make a living in the midst of a varied and confused life. Often the characteristic things are the everyday pur- suits. Raising corn is a more important part of the nation's activities than making rifles. The district school, as an insti- tution, has had more influence on the United States than the Supreme Court. The modern teaching must therefore touch many, sides of the national experience. 149 ISO HISTORY AND CIVICS — INTRODUCTION Word descriptions do not carry young minds very far. Hence nearly all school textbooks of history contain maps and illustrations. Flat pictures always require an allowance for perspective and proportions. The stereoscope, especially in the stereographic form of the Keystone Views, which brings out the detail in amazing clearness of perspective, is especially adapted to school use. The units of the slides or views can be combined and recombined so as to illustrate a great variety of interests, scenes and processes. For history, the Keystone system is especially convenient and helpful because it helps to weld together in children's minds the scene and the event. The Declaration of Inde- pendence means twice as much when the Liberty Bell stands out in relief. The economic side of slavery is emphasized by a picture of negroes working in the cotton fields. Our great dependency, the Philippines, is brought home to us by a few stereographs of the life of the Filipino peasants. Civics is a subject notoriously hard to make clear by pic- tures. It is worked out more in men's minds than in such episodes as the attack at Gettysburg or the capture of the Alamo. Nevertheless the application of government can be freely illustrated, in a great variety of subjects, such as the control of territory, the encouragement of agriculture, the limitation of fisheries, mining trades, and transportation. The method within which the Keystone Views can be worked has been developed in detail by the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association, 1909. As the report puts it : " In order to secure satisfactory results, €ven a scholarly and sympathetic teacher needs suitable tools. * * * Books, maps, charts, objects, and pictures are absolutely neces- sary — the child craves more life. He likes movement. He is especially fond of the dramatic, the picturesque, the personal, of deeds of daring, of tales of heroism, of thriUing adventure. He cannot grasp the meaning of events, nor can he appreciate causal relations; but he can understand certain simple facts, elementary ideas, the universal truths symbolized in stories, incidents, and episodes; and these facts, ideas, and truths appeal in a moving way to his emotions, his imagination, and his will. To this end free use should be made of pictures, photographs, scrap-books, and blackboard illustrations, and something should be done with games and dramatization." 10. FOREIGN BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN HISTORY By HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEB. The views in this section have been selected with the pur- pose of setting forth what may he called the foreign back- ground of American History. It is difficult to realize that all history is related, and that in order to understand the story of any nation we must trace its people with their habits and cusoms to their sources. For example, America was settled by people from Spain, England, France, Holland and other European countries. Every one of these nations derived its civilization largely from Rome and Roman influence can still be seen especially in gov- ernment. Now Rome, in turn, took her ideas from Greece. But civilization did not originate in Greece, for the Greeks learned very many things from the Phoenicians who had been influenced by the people of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley and by Egyptians who occupied the Valley of the Nile. Pupils in American History who follow only the course of events in the New World in the last four hundred years some- times fail to see that American history is really a continuation of a growth which had its beginning many centuries ago in the Old World. Each nation modifies what it receives to suit its own ideas and needs, and yet, in one sense we may say that the history of the United States and of every other mod- ern nation began with the beginnings of civilization. I. THE ORIENT Civilization first rose in the valleys of the Nile and of the Tigris- Euphrates rivers. The Egyptians and Chaldeans were therefore the teachers of the ancient East. Their arts and sciences spread by con- quest, trade and travel, entered Syria and Asia Minor and in time be- came the common possession of the Oriental people. iSi 152 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS a. Egypt S61, 566, 564, 565, 567, 568 Here we see the beginning of art and archi- tecture. The first pyramids were made of sun-dried bricks. About 3000 B.C. the Egyptians learned to cut blocks of lime- stone with their copper tools and thus they put together the first stone masonry. 558 Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 b. c, it became the chief commercial city of the Orient where sea routes and caravan routes converged. Alexandria in ancient times was also a re- nowned seat of learning with a library and museum which at- tracted scholars from all parts of the civilized world. It was a central point from which learning of all kinds was spread over the world. b. Syria Lying between Egypt and the Tigris-Euphrates valley, Syria was overrun and conquered at various times by both people, so united both civilizations. The northern part was the home of the ancient Phoeni- cians, the first sailors, the first commercial people of the world, and the makers of the first alphabet from which all other alphabets have been derived. The southern part of Syria was occupied by the Jews from whom came our ethics and our religion. The Bible, both Old and New Testa- ments, was written by Jews and today the Bible is a direct influence in modern life. Today many Jews and Syrians have found homes in America. 492 Beirut was one of the most ancient and important of the Phoenician settlements. It formed a center from which Oriental commerce and culture spread westward over the Mediterranean. The mod- ern city is connected with Damascus by a railroad across the Lebanon Mountains. 493 Damascus, the " Pearl of the Orient " is one of the oldest cities in the world. It is frequently referred to in the Bible. It was situated on the old caravan route by which trade was carried on between India and China and the countries of Europe. When Southwest Asia was taken by the Mohammedan Turks, this cara- van route was closed to Christian Europe. Then came the search for a different route to India and China which resulted in the discovery of America. 495 David, king of the Hebrews, chose for a capital the ancient for- tress of Jerusalem, which occupied a strong position on Mount Zion in the hill country of Palestine. Here he fixed the Ark, the sanctuary of Jehovah, and here his son Solomon raised the famous Temple, and here occurred many events in the life of Jesus, his trial and crucifixion. From David's time to the pres- ent Jerusalem has been a Holy City, first to the Jews, then to the Christians, and, finally, to the Mohammedans^ 496 The Christian religion with its high moral standards has had a wonderful influence on the life of the nations of the world. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 153 497 In the background the village of Nazareth, looking much the same, no doubt, as it did at the time of Christ. c. Asia Minor The culture of the Greeks and later the Christian religion spread through the countries of Asia Minor and later over Europe. 489 The Greeks were the first to plant colonies on both sides of this narrow strait which separates Asia from Europe. 491 Tarsus at the time of Christ was an important center of Greek learning and culture. Here lived " Saul of Tarsus," afterwards the Apostle Paul, who carried Christianity to the pagans, or Gen- tiles, of Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy. II. THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD Oriental civilization passed at length from the East to the West and centered in the basin of the Mediterranean. The situation of Greece at the threshold of Asia, with its best harbors and most numerous is- lands on the eastern coast, enabled the country early to receive and profit by all the culture of the Orient. Italy, on the other hand, looked away from Greece and the Orient toward Gaul, Spain, and northwest- ern Africa. Hence civilization, moving slowly toward the setting sun, reached Italy from Greece only at a late period of ancient history. Eventually, however, the extension of the Roman Empire over the bar- barian peoples of western Europe widened the area of the civilized world to the shores of the Atlantic. a. Greece Some writers go so far as to claim that every good thing in our west- ern civilization came to us through the Greeks. Literature, art, govern- ment, science, architecture, philosophy, all were highly developed in Greece and have come directly to the modern nations. Very many au- thorities claim that the Greek civilization was the best the world has known. 475 In art, in literature, in science and in philosophy, the Athenians were teachers of the world. In Athens were the most perfect examples of architecture and sculpture ; drama, oratory, phi- losophy and poetry reached a degree. of excellence that has never been surpassed. In Athens democracy was born. 477 Next to Athens, Corinth was the most important commercial city in Greece. The Romans destroyed it in the second century b. c, but it was rebuilt by Caesar in 59 B.C. and became one of the great cities of the Roman Empire. At Corinth was established one of the early Christian churches. To the members of this church St. Paul wrote two letters which, under the title " Epistles to the Corinthians," form an important part of the New Testa- ment. 478 At Olympia in southern Greece, the Olympian games in honor of 154 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS Zeus were held every fourth year. Many splendid buildings in- cluding the Stadium for athletic contests, the Hippodrome for chariot races and the temple of Zeus, covered the site. Only Greeks were allowed to compete, but people from all over the world came to the games. Here treaties between nations were read, poems were recited, artists came to exhibit and to study the athletes as models and goods from all over the world were displayed for sale. When these visitors returned home they car- ried with them bigger and broader ideas, better knowledge of people of other countries and so civilization spread. b. Italy and Sicily Sicily was settled by Greeks and for a long period was the center of trade and learning in the west. It was finally conquered by Rome and became the first Roman province. During the Roman empire, the other cities of Italy were overshadowed by the dominant power of Rome, but during the middle ages such cities as Florence, Milan, Genoa kept alive and fostered learning and indus- trial arts and transmitted them to the modern nations. During the middle ages, Venice, Naples, Genoa and others were the great commer- cial centers of the world trading with the Orient. Very many great navigators, as Columbus, the Cabots, Verrazano and Amerigo Vespucci were Italians. When the trade of these cities was interrupted by the capture of the eastern routes by the Turks, they began to think of other routes and this resulted in the discovery of America. 455 Palermo is the largest city and the commercial center of Sicily. From this port start most of the Sicilian immigrants to the United States. In medieval times Palermo was even more im- portant than now, for both the Moslems and the Normans made it the capital of their possessions in Sicily. 454 Naples, the ancient Neapolis, was one of the first Hellenic colonies in Italy. From the eighth century B. c. onwards it formed a cen- ter of Greek culture and even today it possesses a large Greek population. Many Italians sail from Naples to make their homes in the United States. 456 The Florentines' in the Middle Ages were renowned for their bank- ing houses and manufactures. Florence was one of the cities which perfected banking systems and book-keeping. In Florence lived the Italian scholar Paolo Toscanelli to whom Columbus wrote for advice as to sailing across the Atlantic to Asia. Toscanelli replied with a letter and a map. Amerigo Vespucci for whom America is named also was a native of Florence. He lived in Cadiz, Spain, when Columbus started out. In 1501, in the service of the king of Portugal he made a voyage in which he touched South America. Verrazano, a Florentine navigator in the employ of France, sailed for America in 1524. 457 During the Middle Ages, Venice became the greatest city of the Mediterranean region. She had many possessions and ships of every -nation crowded her quays. Her merchants went every- WESTERN EUROPE 155 where and her sailors were among the best in the world. Marco Polo whose writings had so great an influence on Columbus, was a Venetian. Also John Cabot the discoverer of the continent of America was a Venetian citizen in the English service. c. Rome The countries of modern Europe, with the exception of Russia, are parts of the old Roman empire and a very large part of law as we know it is derived from the old Roman law. The French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian languages are almost purely Latin while English is, roughly speaking, about half Latin. Rome became also the center of the western branch of the Christian Church and from Rome came the influences which christianized the peo- ple of Europe. Every day, in untold ways we feel in our daily lives the influences of Rome. 450 No other city fills so large a place in the world's history. 451 St. Peter's is the largest Christian church in the world. It was partly to extend the Christian religion that Columbus made his voyages. d. Constantinople 472, 473, 474 For many years Constantinople was the head of the Roman Empire and the Christian Church. The Emperor Justinian at Constantinople finally had the codification of the Roman law com- pleted. When the Turks captured Constantinople and the east, merchants of Venice and Genoa were compelled to look for other routes to China and the Indies. III. WESTERN EUROPE Within what had once been the Roman Empire new European nations grew up and rose to importance during the Middle Ages. At the close of medieval times came the discovery and settlement of America, a con- tinent whose aboriginal inhabitants could offer little resistance to the explorers, missionaries, traders, and colonists from the Old World. The Spanish and Portugruese in the sixteenth century followed by the French, English, and Dutch in the seventeenth century, repeopled America and brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded into a Greater Europe beyond the ocean. a. British Isles Many of the early explorers, like Drake, Raleigh, John Sinith, were Englishmen. The original thirteen colonies of the United States were settled mostly by people from the British Isles. They brought with them their English ways of living, their English learning and religion, and especially their English theories and practices of law and government. These ideas had a new growth in America, new ideals developed and now American democracy is spreading all over the earth. 156 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS 347 Liverpool is the world's principal seaport and the terminus of many steamship lines, including those to the United States. The com- mencement of the prosperity of Liverpool dates from the latter part of the seventeenth century. 348 London Bridge, London, England. 350 .In Westminster Abbey were crowned the kings who ruled the English Colonies until 1776. 351 London during the nineteenth century was the money center of the world. 352 Here and in the House of Commons were passed the Navigation Acts, the Stamp Act, the Townsend Acts and all the other bills which led up to the Revolutionary war which separated the United States from England. 353 A view showing the large chronometer clock by which the world's time is measured. As is well known, British and the majority of foreign geographers reckon longitude from the meridian of Greenwich. 354 Shows the house, restored in 1857, in which was born the poet . whose genius transcended national boundaries and made him a citizen of all the world. The three-hundredth anniversary of Shakespeare's death was appropriately observed in 1916 in the United States. Many of our early colonists came from homes of this kind to live in the wilderness in America. No doubt many early settlers in their log houses were homesick for the homes they had left. 355 The cottage stands in substantially the same condition as when Shakespeare courted here his future wife. It is still occupied by a descendant of the Hathaway family. 360 York, the ancient Eboracum, formed the capital of the Roman province of Britannia. In York Constantine the Great, whose conversion to Christianity paved the way for the triumph of that faith over paganism, was proclaimed emperor. Most of the very early colonists came from York. 361 It must have been hard to leave a developed country with its homes and cultivated fields and come to a perfectly new, wild land. 365, 366, 368, 372, 373 Among the early settlers in America were many Scotch people. With their thrifty ways they made very de- sirable citizens. 374 Queenstown is a port of call for American mail steamers and an emigration station of the British government. The terrible famine in Ireland in 1846 started a great emigration movement, and between that date and 1905 nearly five million people left the country. Most of them came to the United States. In recent years, however, the number of Irish emigrants has greatly de- clined. 375,378 There are said to be more Irish in America now than there are in Ireland. 380 The Northmen, or Vikings, as they are often called, conquered a considerable part of Ireland during the ninth century. The first HOLLAND — FRANCE — SPAIN 157 cities on Irish soil, including Dublin and Limerick, were founded by the Northmen. b. Holland New York was first settled by the Dutch whose influence is still felt. From among the descendants of these Dutch settlers have come very many of our prominent men, as for instance, Theodore Roosevelt. The Pilgrims before coming to America had taken refuge in Holland. 399, 402 Thrifty, industrious and clean, the Hollanders have helped in the development of our country. 400 Among Dutch seaports Rotterdam is second in importance only to Amsterdam. It was a Dutch vessel that brought the first slaves to America in 1619. c. Norway and Sweden The first people who came to America were Norsemen, led by Eric the Red, in 1000 a. d. They made no use of their discovery however. The cold climate and poor soil of the Scandinavian peninsula caused the people to become men of the sea. A greater influence came to America from the Northmen indirectly through England and France. Great numbers of Norwegian and Swedish immigrants have settled in western New York, Minnesota and the northwest. They are very prosperous. 408, 409 Typical scenes in the country which sent out the Northmen. 418, 419 Between 1638 and 1647, Swedish people established five or six trading posts along the Delaware ; but as the home government made no provison for their defense they were easily captured by the Dutch in 16SS. ■d. France Cartier and Champlain were the first French explorers. People from France first settled Canada and the Mississippi Valley. Indeed the laws of Louisiana are based upon the French code instead of the English. France sent money and men to help in the American Revolution and later, inspired by the example of the United States, set up a republican form of government. 421 Paris in Roman times was only a little settlement on an island in the Seine. The Romans called it Lutetia Parisiorum, the capital of the Celtic tribe of the Parisii. The city became the capital of the French kingdom in 987, when Hugh Capet, founder of the long-lived Capetian dynasty, became king of France. 422, 424, 425 French people coming to America brought with them French ideas of architecture, art and science. Paris was the capital, the residence of the French kings who ruled so auto- cratically. French colonies in America had almost no self gov- ernment. e. Spain No European country has had greater influence upon the western con- tinent than Spain. The early discoverers and explorers were nearly 158 HIST. AND CIV.— FOREIGN BEGINNINGS all Spaniards or in the Spanish service and that nation obtained control of the lands from California to the Straits of Magellan. Later Spain lost all this territory yet it is still called Spanish America because the Spanish language and customs prevail and the ruling people are either wholly or in part of Spanish blood. 433 Shows the monument in honor of Columbus. Barcelona was an important city in the Middle Ages. Its merchant ships traded in the North Sea, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. The dis- covery of America struck a blow at its prosperity, by trans- ferring commercial supremacy to the seaports of Western Spain. In the nineteenth century the city became again a leading center of Spanish trade and industry. 434 Burgos, showing the Cathedral. 435 Panorama of Madrid. 436 The Alhambra is a wonderful building in Moorish architecture, the palace of the ruler when Granada was the capital of the Moorish kingdom in Spain. Columbus followed the court of Ferdinand and Isabella to the camp before Granada. He was in time to witness the surrender of the city. He beheld Boabdil, the last of the Moorish kings, sally forth from the Alhambra and yield up the keys to a Christian king and queen. Ferdinand and Isabella then listened to the plans of Columbus. f. Germany 387, 388, 389, 390, 393 While Germans were not among the discoverers and explorers of America, German settlers began to come at a very early date, especially to Pennsylvania. Today ^ vast num- ber of American citizens are of German descent. 383, 384, 385 The German autocracy and militarism have compelled the United States to enter the World War. g. Africa 570, 572, 577, 578 The ten million negroes of the United States did not come from a civilized country as the white people did. At the time of their emancipation and enfranchisement many of them had not advanced very far in civilization. Here is a background for the "negro problem" which will take the best thought and work of the best people of both races if it is properly solved. 11. FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN NATION By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY GENERAL PURPOSE The purpose of this section is to introduce the pupil to the formative period of American history, extending from the earHest discoveries by Europeans to the organization of the federal government under the constitution of 1787. This naturally includes the physical background of American his- tory — the face of the country, then the original inhabitants, and finally some of the scenes of the Colonial and Revolu- tionary his,tory. A. LAND A necessary foundation for the study of Colonial and later American history is some knowledge of the land in which we live, its scenery, its products and its capacities. The Keystone Views are rich in this kind of illustration. (i) Surface ' 279, 117 Every kind of climate is found in the American Continent giv- ing a wonderful variety of productions. 262, 38, 73 In the east, most of the land is undulating with broken country and numerous low mountains. 102, 101 The eastern mountains are usually rather low, parallel ranges with flat tops. 1, 2, 70, 103, 107, 130 The whole area was originally heavily wooded except comparatively small " intervales " or flats. 113 Trees had to be cut away. The early settler's home was the log cabin. 2, 189, 196, 232 All over the country wild game was very abundant. The beaver was especially sought. The settlement of Canada, the Great Lake region and the exploration of the Upper Mis- souri country were largely influenced by the trade in beaver furs. Wild animals were valuable for food both to the Indians and the early settlers. 38,39,51,101 A plentiful rainfall causes full streams, but very few of the eastern rivers cut through the Appalachian Highland. IS9 160 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION 43, 48 The Mohawk River flowing east from the Lake region to the Hudson, made a valley through which a canal and railroads have been easily built. 264, 265, 267, 157, 48, 154 The St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes with the canals which have been built form one of the greatest inland waterways in the world. 49, SO The most wonderful of all waterfalls, lying between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario breaks the navigation of the St. Lawrence system. Many interesting events of Colonial history are con- nected with these two lakes and falls between them, such as Champlain's and later La Salle's expeditions, Hennepin's visit and the French and Indian War. 61, 170, 174, 120 The Mississippi River valley contains nearly a million square miles of land. The soil is fertile, climate suited to the g*owth of vegetation and communication was easy. No other land of its size is so well suited to the uses of mankind. 3, 4, 69, 70, 16, 155, etc. A vast mineral wealth underlies a large part of the country. 27, 13, 25, 26, 52, 100, 106, 264, 267 Splendid harbors encouraged com- merce. (2) Trees 1 Timber was one of the important products of the New World. Masts and materials for ships and houses were exported from early times. New England built ships which traded in every port of the world. 107 The pine trees of the southern states yielded rich supplies of tim- ber, turpentine, tar, etc. 103 In Colonial times all the iron was smelted from charcoal made in such pits. 130 Also the Indians taught.them to make maple sugar. 175 Apple trees brought from Europe were planted by the colonists. You can hardly imagine how they waited for the first fruit from these early trees. (3) Agriculture 147 The early colonists brought grains, such as wheat and oats, with them and they soon became staple crops. 137, 184 The Indians showed them how to plant and raise corn, the native American grain. It became a principal food. 112 Tobacco was the principal money crop of the South in Colonial times. In order to get a monopoly of the American tobacco trade. King Charles I called a General Assembly to meet at Jamestown. The holding of this assembly established the prece- dent for summoning legislative bodies in all the colonies. 104, 105 Rice was a staple crop in South Carolina in the Colonial pe- riod. The planters greatly desired slaves for work in the rice fields. 117 Cotton also was raised but it did not become very profitable until the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. ORIGINAL AMERICANS ' 161 173 This picture may remind us that in Colonial times every household raised its own wool which the women spun, colored, wove, and made into garments by hand. Wealthy people imported fine cloth. 185, 183, 173 These can not be called Colonial pictures but they will make us remember that the colonists raised their own animals for meat and milk. They made their own butter. Corn meal mush and milk was a highly valued article of food. Every fam- ily salted its meat for winter use. 2S8 Throughout the Colonial period, sugar cane was an important product of the West Indies. Great quantities of molasses were brought to New England as the raw material for rum. When the English parliament laid a tax on molasses, the. Americans smuggled. B. ORIGINAL AMERICANS (i) Eskimos 343 The Eskimo race is probably not Indian in origin. With some ad- ditions of modern woven goods the dress of the Eskimo nowa- days is about the same as when the Northmen first came into contact with them. (2) Indians (o) American Indians American history has been much affected by the native American tribes. There were probably never more than a few hundred thousand Indians in the area covered by the United States. The Indians seem at first to have been friendly and usually it was the white man's treachery and cruelty which changed the Indians into bitter enemies. Most of the tribes have died out ; others have been exterminated or assimilated. 98 A modern staging' of the celebrated story. The saving of John Smith saved the Jamestown colony. 265 The Iroquois lived in what is now New York. When Henry Hud- son was on the Hudson River he made friends with these Indians. At the same time Champlain was exploring Lake Champlain and he killed a few Iroquois thereby making them enemies of the French. These Indians always sided with the Dutch and English against the French and helped to prevent the French from gaining control of America. 263 These people do not look much like the " savages " of Colonial history. The tent of bark or skin was the home known to most of the Indians in the northern part of America. 204 This picture shows the outfit of brave, squaw, papoose and dog. Horses were brought to America by the European settlers and were adopted by the plains Indians. 182 The powerful Sioux tribes ranged from Minnesota to Montana; down to 1876 from time to time they waged war against the whites. 162 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION (6) The Indian of Poetry Modern impressions of Indian life have been much affected by the novels of Cooper and the poems of Longfellow, both of which were carefully studied from the life of modern. Indiaijs. The Indians in their formal speeches are really poetic and love the similes and comparisons which the novelist and poet put in their mouths. 158 " Nursed the Hiawatha." A pleasant picture of outdoor infancy. 169 " From the wigwam he departed." The conical Indian wigwam made of skins or cloth, sometimes of bark, is a comfortable little house. The canoe is one of the important American inven- tions. 168 "Brought forth food and set before them.'' Some Indians still wear the magnificent feather headdresses enjoyed by some of the tribes. (c) Indians Farther South In the southwestern United States and thence farther south, can be traced a more elaborate and advanced state of life. Coronado in 1540 found the ancestors of the present Zuni Indians living in stone pueblos such as are still occupied. 205 Cliff palace in the Mesa Verda. Among the most interesting memorials of the Indians are the cliff dwellings, evidently built when the inhabitants were hard pressed by enemies in the open country. The more important groups of such dwellings are pre- served as national monuments. 290 Mexican musicians and dancing girls. Probably most •of these people are of Spanish descent, many of them mixed with native Indians^ The customs of Spain and of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico are mingled in these people. 292 Tortilla making, Salvador. These people are probably wholly or nearly pure Indian. They are of the same stock as the native Nicaraguans and Panamanians. 331 Natives near wall of Incan palace, Cuzco. These Indians are di- rect descendants of the Peruvians who were conquered by Pizarro in 1528. They are standing under one of the most mag- nificent walls ever constructed by human hands, a wonderful ex- ample of the wealth and skill of the ancient Incas. 328 Indians on the Straits of Magellan.' These people, though a long way from the United States, are connected with the early his- tory of/ America because their ancestors were found by Magel- lan in his famous first voyage around the world in 1525. C. EARLY HISTORY 299,298,301 On his second voyage Columbus sailed along the south coast of Cuba. Also htf discovered Jamaica in this same voy- age. 278 In 1497, John Cabot anchored off Labrador or in some harbor of Newfoundland and claimed the land for England. EARLY HISTORY 163 256 In 1543, Balboa crossed. the Isthmus of Panama somewhere a little south of where the canal now is, and saw the Pacific Ocean for the first time. In reporting this discovery, he recommended that a canal be dug connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 280 Cortez landed in Mexico and named the place where he landed. Vera Cruz. 282, 283 Cortez with his small army captured the city of Mexico. 228, 209, 207, 241 Cabeza de Vaca, Narvaez, Coronado and other Span- iards wandered through the southwest and claimed it for Spain. Coronado described the "crooked back oxen" (232) which he found. 108, 109, 110 Through Florida, Ponce de Leon sought the fountain of perpetual youth. 120 De Soto with his six hundred knights wandered from South Car- olina to Arkansas. De Sota was buried in the Mississippi River and his men voyaged down the stream to its mouth and back to the Spanish settlements in Mexico. 263 Jacques Cartier, the first great French explorer, found his way through the Strait of . Belle Isle and landed on Prince Ed- ward Island. He then returned to France. 264, 265, 267 The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence till stopped by the Lachine Rapids. He passed the bluff where Quebec stands and gave the name Mount Royal to the high hill at whose base Montreal stands. He stopped to barter for furs at the Indian villages which occupied both these magnificent sites. 262 As early as 1604 French people settled in Acadia, now Nova Scotia. 264 Quebec was founded by Champlain. It was attacked by the Eng- lish several times and was finally captured by Wolf in the French and Indian War. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. This position was a strategic one in Colonial his- tory and fierce battles were waged between the French and Eng- lish for its position. 100 The first English settlers passed through Hampton Roads. 98 If it had not been for the resourceful leadership of Captain John Smith, the colony at Jamestown could not have survived. 113 The first homes were log cabins of the rudest sort. 96 This is the type of home occupied by rich planters of a later day. 112 Tobacco became the chief source of wealth, and was largely used instead of money. 117 (see 572). Negro slaves were first brought to Jamestown in 1619. 25, 39, 51 When Henry Hudson first entered this great bay and river, it presented a vastly differenf appearance, for it was all wild country. 13 New England was rich in harbors and lumber so the New Eng- landers became fishermen and sailors. 8 The Old State House has been the historic center of many stirring scenes. From its balcony the repeal of the Stamp Act was proclaimed and at the end of the Revolution peace with England 164 FOUNDATIONS AMERICAN NATION was proclaimed from the same place. Directly in front of it oc- curred the Boston massacre. 7 Faneuil Hall was called the "crade of Liberty" for in it before and during the Revolution were held important political meet- ings. After the massacre at Boston citizens under Samuel Adams met in Faneuil Hall and demanded the removal of British troops. 6 From the tower of Old North Church was hung the signal lantern which sent Paul Revere to rouse the minute men. 10 Here the minute men first opposed the English soldiers. " By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood And fired the shot heard round the world." — Emerson. 9 When Washington was sent by Congress to take command of the Americans who were around Boston, he established headquarters in this house. 80 Old Liberty Bell in Independence Hall, one of the most prized possessions of the nation. Independence Hall was erected 1729- 34. In it the Continental Congress met, Washington was made commander-in-chief of the American Army in 1775 and the Dec- laration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. 39 West Point was the American stronghold on the Hudson. Bene- dict Arnold made an attempt to give it into the hands of the English. 7n In this house built by Jonathan Hasbrouck, General Wash- ington wrote this famous letter of rebuke to Colonel Lewis Nicola who on behalf of several army officers suggested that he assume the title and office of king. 12. DEVELOPMENT OF OUR NATION By H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Litt.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. More and more we are coming to realize that the poHtical life of a country is very largely controlled by its economic de- velopment and so wars are not considered the chief subject matter of history. Children are not now expected to learn long lists of battles and dates, nor to remember isolated politi- cal facts. Instead, they are led to find the causes and results of political life in economic conditions. These views are espe- cially rich in suggestive material which will help children to understand the causes and results of historical facts. I. EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD A. POLITICAL EVENTS 1784-1846 96 After the Revolutionary War, Washington retired to his beloved home, Mt. Vernon, where he lived the life of a contented planter. 29 On the 30th of April, 1789, Washington took the oath of office. He stood on the balcony of the old Federal Hall, vifhose site is now occupied by the New York Sub-Treasury building. New York was the temporary capital. 90,93 In 1790 the place for the capital of the United States was chosen. The plan for the city was drawn by L'Enfant, a French architect. • In 1790, instead of the streets and buildings shown in these views, there was nothing but virgin forest. 91 John Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. At that time the city of Washington contained the White House and Capitol, both unfinished, and two or three big bare boarding houses. 87 When Congress met for the first time in the capitol, the roof was lacking and a huge canvas tent was spread to protect the law- makers. The first capitol was burned in 1814 when the British captured Washington. 88 Nearly all the great lawmakers of our country have sat in this room. Here Daniel Webster, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, i6S 166 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION John Quincy Adams have worked. Here were discussed the Alien and Sedition Laws, the Missouri Compromise, and here has been read every President's message except Washington's. 89 The Supreme Court is the unique feature of the United States government. No other nation allows a court to declare a law null and void. The great Chief Justice John Marshall, by his decisions greatly built up the feeling of nationality in the United States. 92 Cabinet meetings have had wonderful influence upon United States history. Differences of opinion concerning a United States Bank were held by Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, and Jefferson, the first Secretary of State. The peo- ple of the country also divided on this matter. In this way the great political parties of the United States originated. 38 From 1784 to 1846, the United States was mostly an agricultural country with few large cities. 71 This was the usual method of conveyance. B. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 1789-1846 During this period the United States was an agricultural country. Fields were small for they must be planted, cultivated and the harvest gathered by hand. There were in the beginning almost no factories. Practically all work was handwork. 104, 105, 112 Tilling fields like these fostered slavery. 117 At the beginning of this period little cotton was raised because the work of removing the seeds by hand was difficult. 125 The invention of the cotton gin made the raising of cotton im- mensely profitable as a gin could clean a thousand pounds a day while a man could not clean more than one or two. Negro la- bor became very valuable to the planters, so the gin fastened slavery on the United States. 124 After the invention of the gin, cotton became the chief product of the South. 119 In 1791, America exported 189,000 lbs. of cotton. Nine years later in 1800, we exported nearly 20,000,000 lbs. The gin made the difference. 109 Slaves were bought and sold. 409 This is not an American picture, but during the early period Amer- ican women spun their yarn on just such wheels. They also wove their yarn into homespun cloth. There were no spinrjing or weaving mills in America. 14 Parliament made laws forbidding the exportation of machinery or of patterns for machinery. In 1790 Samuel Slater, an English- man, reproduced Arkwright's spinning machinery from mem- ory. In 1813, Francis Lowell and Patrick Jackson made a weaving machine in the same way. From these beginnings arose the great textile industries of the United States such as SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 167 are shown in this view. Mills work best, with free labor. These manufactories in 1816 led to the first protective tariff. Later the North and South differed over tariff as in 1828. In 1832 South Carolina nullified a tariff law as the South did no manufacturing. 71, 106, 27, 217 One of the great difficulties of the age was transpor- tation. Wagons and sailboats were the only methods of carry- ing. Flatboats were found on the rivers, especially the Missis- sippi, but they could not make a return trip. 61, 52, 26, 27, 39, 48 The invention of the steamboat in 1807 stimulated production by furnishing means of transportation to market. Steamboats on the Great Lakes, the Ohio and the Mississippi encouraged settlements along those waterways. The first steam- boats were very primitive affairs. 48, 43 The Erie Canal enabled western farmers to send their produce to eastern markets at cheap rates. It made New York the largest city in the United States. Many other canals were built. 25, 26 New York, Philadelphia and others began their wonderful growth. In 1800 New York had 60,000 inhabitants and Phila- delphia 70,000. In 1830 New York had 200,000 while Philadel- phia's population was 167,000. 43, 129, 128 In 1828, began the building of railroads which brought every part of the country within reach of markets. The rail- roads were important factors in settling the west. 198, 181 The invention of improved plows, harrows, planters, culti- vators, reapers and all sorts of farm machinery that could be drawn by horses enabled men to plant large fields with less labor. It vastly multiplied the working power of men on farms. 357 Though found in England, this is the type of reaper and binder first invented in America. Such machinery made slave labor unnecessary, so you see the North and South developing along different lines. The North with its factories and machinery favored free workers, nationalism and protective" tariff. The South with its agricultural products raised by slaves opposed the tariff and favored states rights. 103 In the early days wood and charcoal were the only fuels used even in locomotives and steamboats. Steel was melted in charcoal furnaces. 74, 75, 76, n , 79 The substitution of coal for charcoal was a real eco- nomic revolution which affected all the industrial life of the country. It made the modern blast furnace and the quick mov- ing steamboat and locomotive possible. 61, 139, 152 Cities begin to grow in this new western land. 168 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION II. WESTERN PERIOD A. POLITICAL EVENTS 1846-1898 The invention of farming machinery together with the steamboat and railroad led to the settlement of the West. Northerners and Southerners flocked to these fertile fields each trying to claim the land for freedom or slavery. That brought about the Missouri Compromise, 1820, the doctrine of popular sovereignty, the Omnibus Bill of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854, the Dred Scott Case 1857, and finally the Civil War. 182, 204 This Mfestern country was the scene of many Indian wars before it became settled. In 1876 Gen. Custer and his entire force were massacred by Sioux Indians at the Little Bighorn River. 232, 189 Game abounded everywhere. 196 Trapping was profitable. 214 The discovery of gold and silver immediately brought seekers for wealth. Little mining camps were established in mountain val- leys and the history of the Far West was begun. 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 200, 201, 202, etc. Men explored and penetrated to all parts of the country. For the first time its diversity and its extent were realized. , 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226 The United States gained possession of Oregon and her northern boundary was settled. 212, 213 Utah was settled by Mormons. 139, 167, 230, 121 Cities sprang up everywhere because there must be trading centers in mining, grazing oi- farming regions. I. Mexican War 281, 284, 285 The Mexican peon or peasant has not changed much. 126 The Alamo was used as a fort by Texans and Americans to de- fend themselves against the Mexicans in the war for the inde- pendence of Texas, in 1837. Every one of the defenders was killed. " Remember the Alamo " became the battle cry of the Mexican War. 280 Vera Cruz, Mexico's one seaport was captured by General Scott. 283 The victorious army pushed on toward the capital and stormed the Castle of Chapultepec. 282 The Americans then captured the City of Mexico and dictated a peace. 198 to 214, 228 to 242 All these views show lands that were ceded to the United States by Mexico at the end of the Mexican War. 2. Civil War We have seen how economic conditions caused the North and South to draw apart. Slavery caused the South to lag behind the North in its industrial development. EASTERN 169 104, 105, 112, 117, 124, 12S, 119 Such labor could be done very cheaply by slaves. 96 Washington's home is a type of the homes of the rich, slave hold- ing Southern planter. 113 Lincoln's home was a type of the homes of the poor whites. The poor whites could not compete with slave labor. 47, 38," 137 Types of small farms in the North with free labor. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67 Manufacturing in the North, the South had no manufacturing. This led to differ- ent ideas as to tariff, sovereignty, slavery, etc. 101 John Brown's raid persuaded the South that they could not ex- pect justice from the North. 120 The capture of the Mississippi Rivgr divided the Southern states. 119 The capture of New Orleans by the North decided the English not to recognize the Southern Confederacy. 100 In Hampton Roads was fought the great naval battle between the Merrimac and the Monitor. These were the first ironclad war ships. 114 On Lookout Mountain the battle was fought above the clouds. H The Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the war. 106 Gen. Sherman marched from Atlanta to Savannah, then turned north and fought his way into North Carolina. 94 Great issues of paper money were put out during the Civil War. 105, 108, lis, 117, 118, 119 These views show free negroes, made free by the 13th Amendment, made citizens by the 14th and given the vote by the 15th. B. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1846-1898 I. Eastern The Eastern part of the country is the manufacturing center. During this period manufacturing developed as never before. Corporations were formed, these grew into trusts and the wealth of the nation began to collect in the hands of the few. On the other hand, laborers com- bined into unions, demands were made for shorter hours, higher pay, better working conditions. There was labor agitation everywhere and the strife between capital and labor was very bitter. The antitrust laws were passed, trusts were prosecuted, an income tax was im- posed, child labor forbidden. In 1886 there were 1,572 strikes. These conditions dominated the political life of the period. 32 One of the great problems of these years was immigration. 5 Skilled Italians. 75, n Very much of our unskilled labor is done by foreigners. 227 Chinese and Japanese laborers have come to our shores in con- siderable number but are now excluded. 3, 4, 5 Stones of all kinds are being quarried. 14, to 18, 22 to 24, 53 to 55 Thousands of workers find employment in textile mills. Here always rises the subject of protective' tar- 170 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION iff. The Walker, War, McKinley, Wilson and Dingley tariffs were passed to regulate tariffs. S8, 59 In New Jersey and Ohio pottery works have become an im- portant industry asking protection. 40 Garments made in factories are taking the place of homemade articles. Laws had to be made against sweatshops. 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 82 Work in steel mills is hard and dangerous. The mills are owned by vast trusts and the men are highly or- ganized. Steel mills grew up within reach of ore and coal. They employ vast numbers of foreigners. 74, 75, 76, 11, 79, 129 The substitution of coal for water power makes most of the industries of the United States dependent upon the coal supply. A strike of coal miners is a national calamity. 69, 70 Oil was discovered in western Pennsylvania in 1859 and has become one of the greatest sources of wealth in America. The first great trust was the Standard Oil Co. 44, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57, 85 Farming is also an important work, for farm- ers produce the food upon which all the people must subsist. 25,26,27,28,29,30,52,61,139,167,230 In places like these is carried on the business of the United States. 26, 27, 31, 43, 48, 52, 61 Perhaps the development in transportation, and exchange is the most wonderful of all. Such marvelous im- provements have been made. Air brakes, couplers, electric mo- tors and countless other things have revolutionized life and law. The electric street car makes the great city possible. Through interstate commerce laws the national government has found a way to regulate trusts. 2. Southern Since the War the South has become marvelously prosperous. These views show the results of free labor. 112, 105, 117, 124, 125 Cotton and tobacco still furnish the chief wealth. 118 Peanuts are a profitable crop. 122, 123 Vast oil fields have been found in Texas and Oklahoma. 127 Texas also has great districts devoted to cattle raising. Ill Sponges are a source of great wealth. 104, 105 Rice is a very valuable crop. 86, 97 Almost the whole oyster supply of the United States comes from the Chesapeake Bay region. 107 The pine forests furnish vast quantities of lumber, tar, turpen- tine. 110 Alligator leather is valued. 116 Manufacturing is beginning as there are large deposits of both iron and coal. Some cotton mills are prospering. 106,119 Because the South carries on a great trade, selling raw ma- terial and buying its manufactured goods, it is still a low tariff country. 85, 108 Fruit raising has become a source of vast wealth. WESTERN 171 3. Middle Western This part of the country has every kind of industry. Here are found the great fields where food, both animal and vegetable is produced, and there are many great cities, centers of manufacture and commerce. As grain fields, ranches, mines and cities grew, transportation became of increasing importance. Granger Laws and the Interstate Commerce Act resulted. Corporations and trusts were established and there were great contests between capital and labor. 147, 177 Millions of bushels of grain of many kinds are produced. As grain or flour it is shipped to all parts of the world. Specula- tors were able to buy up food and make prices high. 173, 172, 183, 185, 186 Immense numbers of animals are raised in the great Middle West. 140 These cattle are shipped to Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, and other cities where are located the greatest meat packing estab- lishments in the world. 141, 142, 143, 144 All this preparing and packing is done under govern- ment inspection for these packing houses furnish a large part of the meat of the nation and of Europe. Laws regulating the preparation and purity of foods came as a result of such indus- tries. Meat trusts were formed. 175 Apples and other' fruits are produced. 134, 135 Wonderful plate glass is made at Rossford, Ohio. 133 Akron, Ohio, became the center of the manufacturing of rubber goods in the United States. 155, 156, 157, 163, 164 Immense mines of copper and iron ore were dis- covered in Michigan and Minnesota. These were controlled by trusts. 128, 154, 157, 164 These ores greatly increased lake traffic. 63, 64, 65, 66,67, 78, 128 Wonderful labor saving machinery of all kinds was invented during this period. 174, 154, 148 Bridges, canals, dikes made transportation safer and easier. 139 Cities like Chicago with their millions of people engaged in all sorts of industries are centers of labor disputes. The strike of 1894 in the Pullman Car Co. is an example. 4. Western In 1846 the Rocky Mountains formed the western boundary of the United States. In 1898, the country extended to the Pacific Ocean. 225 The discovery of gold caused the first rush to the Far West. 214 Little mining camps were located in the mountain valleys. 187 Soon other metals were found in great abundance. 216, 233 Gold is not the only wealth of the region. The yearly wheat crop of California is greater in value than the annual output of gold. 188, 190 Mining is not the only source of wealth. Great herds of horses, cattle and sheep are raised and agriculture is developing. 172 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 121,220,230 Mining, cattle raising, farming necessitate the growth of cities. Oklahoma, Seattle and San Francisco are fine examples of the western cities that grew up suddenly. C. EXPANSION BY SEA I. Alaska Alaska was purchased in 1867. , • 243, 245 Gold discoveries. 246 Methods of travel. 244 Fisheries and forests are valuable. 2. Cuba Cuba is a United States protectorate, not a possession. 297, 298 Typical scenes in Cuba. 296 " Remember the Maine " became the battle cry- of the Spanish American War. 3. Porto Rico 257, 258 Porto Rico was taken by the United Stafes in 1898 but not till 1917 were Porto Ricans made United States citizens. 4. Philippine Islands 546, 547 The Battle of Manila came May 1, 1898. After the Spanish were defeated the natives revolted and had to be subdued. 548, 549, 550, 551 The islands are very rich in natural resources, but the common people are backward. The question of the inde- pendence of the islands presented a serious problem. 552, 553 Hemp rope is a valuable product. 5. Hawaii The Hawaiian Islands were admitted in 1898. Previously admission had been refused. 260 Public school, Honohilu. This is what the United States does for all her people. 259 Beside being an important coaling station, Hawaii is very rich in vegetable products. Hawaiian pineapples and bananas are the best in the world. 261 The native Hawaiians are superior to the natives of other Pacific islands. They are believed to be of Caucasian origin. 6. Guam 554 The island of Guam also came to us froin the Spanish American war. MODERN PERIOD 173 III. MODERN PERIOD 1898-1917 The last twenty-five years of the history of the United States are described as years of marvelous social and economic development. People lived securely, they were prosperous and progressive. Men's minds turned naturally toward the problems of the improvement of internal conditions. Trusts were controlled in part; labor was en- couraged ; new inventions have revolutionized industry. There has been a great growth in democracy marked by such issues as the initia- tive and referendum. Suddenly a change came. In the period from 1910 to 1917 the great- est political changes yet known have come to the United States. By the Spanish War, the nation was forced out of her isolation into inter- national diplomacy. Her acquisition of the Philippines brought her into relations with Japan. Still her development was largely economic and industrial. When the World War began, the United States tried to remain neutral. Gradually she was forced into the war and a new era in history has resulted. She will never be able to withdraw from world affairs into which she has entered. 280 to 341 An organized attempt is being made to cultivate friendly relations with Spanish America so that the Monroe Doctrine may develop into a Pan-American Doctrine. 247 to 256 On Nov. 18, 1901, a treaty was made with Great Britain abrogating the Clayton-Bul\yer Treaty and providing that the Isthmian canal should be under the sole jurisdiction of the United States. i37, 249 In 1903, a canal treaty with Colombia was signed but the Congress of Colombia refused to ratify it. The rights of the old French Company were purchased by the United States. 248 On Nov. 3, 1903, the state of Panama revolted and seceded from Colombia. And on the 18th of November the United States and Panama made a treaty by which the United States is to have sovereignty over the Canal Zone ten miles wide and to safeguard the independence of Panama. 250.251 In 1904, the United States began work on canal. 250. 252 In 1906, Congress decided upon a lock canal. In 1907 it was in charge of army engineers. 247,251,253 The main obstacles to the completion of the canal were "the Chagres River and the landslides and the pestilential climate. 174 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION 250 to 253 These views give an idea of the great engineering works done under the leadership of Col. Goethals of the United States regular army. Gatun Lake is an artificial lake which takes care of the sudden ^floods of the Chagres River and provides a part of the waterway. 255 Major Gorgas of the medical department of the United States army has practically eradicated malaria and yellow fever from, the Canal Zone. This proves that the tropics can be made healthful places where white men can live and do good work. It opens the whole tropical belt to development. 254 On August IS, 1913, the Panama Canal was formally opened. It makes it much easier for the United States to protect both her coasts. Also it shortens trade routes by thousands of miles, saving time and coal. It will especially stimulate trading be- tween the eastern and western coasts of both North and South America and will help to promote Pan-American friendliness. 243 to 246 In 1901 a dispute between England and the United States concerning the Alaska boundary line was settled by arbitration. 520 In 1900, American troops allied with troops froro. Japan, Russia, Great Britain and France 18,000 strong, marched to Peking to rescue the legations besieged by Boxers. 280, 289 Since 1910, Mexico has been in an unsettled state. Rebellion . has followed rebellion. Presidents Diaz, De la Barra, Madero, Huerta, Carbajal and Carranza followed each other with bewil- ' dering rapidity. American lives and property were destroyed and many Americans demanded intervention. 280 On April 21, 1913, the United States seized, and for some time held, Vera Cruz. i 282,283 In February, 1915, Villa captured Guadalajara. In March, his forces captured Mexico City. 88,315,305,324,335,291 Ambassadors and ministers from United States, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, Guatemala and Uruguay met and recognized the Carranza Government. 126 After promiscuous shooting across the border and an attack on Columbia by Villa's men, American troops under General Pershing were sent to the border. The American headquarters were at San Antonio. 209 Through deserts of this kind Pershing's men followed Villa. 466 On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife were assas- •ginated at Serajevo, Bosnia, by a Servian student. 460 to 467 On July 28, Austria declared war on Servia; then Russia began to mobilize her troops and soon the whole of Europe was involved in war. 25,52 The United States as a neutral was engaged in carrying on trade and suffered from both sides. 242 American submarines. Because her north coast was blockaded, Germany took to submarine warfare and persisted in sinking vessels without warning, a clear violation of international law. 52 This view shows an ocean liner. On May 7, 1915, the ocean liner EASTERN 175 Lusitania was attacked without wfirning and many Americans, women and children, lost their lives. 384, 526, 282 The German Imperial Government plotted to involve the United States in war with Japan and Mexico. 88, 87 On April 6; the United States Congress, acting upon informa- tion furnished by the President, declared war upon Germany. 52 In this scene, we have the Vaterland, the largest ship in the world, and several companion ships owned by Germany and her allies, interned at the beginning of the war (1914) and taken over by our Government, April 6, 1917. 385 Some of the trained soldiers of Germany. 394 Zeppelin flying over a German town. 426 Airplane on scout duty with French troops. 83, 137, 147, 166, 184, 177,178,179,198, 199, etc. The United States felt the necessity of feeding the allies and the nation turned toward agriculture. No plot of land was too small for a war garden. 94 Liberty Bonds, prepared in the Bureau of Printing and Engrav- ing, were issued. $2,000,000,000 was asked for, $3,035,226,850 was subscribed. Immediately afterwards the Red Cross asked for $100,000,000 and received $114,000,000. 64 to 67 Steel workers. A selective draft bill was passed, by which men who would least cripple preparatory work at home could be selected for the army; for instance, steel workers are needed at home to make munitions. All men between 21 and 31 registered on June 5, 1917, and the draft took place July 20 following. 146 Missions from France, other allied countries visited America to plan the largest cooperation. 421, 422 Paris; 426 French army. On June 13, 1917, Gen. Pershing and the first contingent of American troops reached France and joined the allied armies. They received a wonderful welcome. 482 to 488 In the spring and summer of 1917, the Russian people over- threw the Romanoff Government. The entire country was dis- organized and chaotic. A commission from the United States headed by Elihu Root visited Russia. 26 New York City; 52 Ocean liners; 106 Savannah; 119 New Or- leans. An embargo on food stuffs and war materials was de- clared in order to prevent such materials reaching the enemy. No ship could leave an American port without a special license. 166 Potatoes; 199, 219, 233 Wheat. A food control bill was passed August 11, 1917, and Hoover was made head of a commission with power to control prices and supplies. The price of wheat was regulated. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1898-1917 Eastern 94, 84 Never was the country so prosperous and a supply of money so needed. 75,76,79 The anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania in 1902 was the first time a President had intervened in a dispute between capital 176 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION and labor. Today such a strike is no longer a private matter between men and employers but it is a matter belonging to all of us* since it affects us all. ' j • i 229 Congress authorized the President to withdraw timber and mmeral lands from sale. If this wise policy had been begun a generation before, the timber, water power and leases of mineral lands would today furnish enough revenue to run the government. 69,70, Oil; 112 Tobacco; 14, IS Cotton; 65, 66 Steel; 129 Coal; 140 to 144 Meat. The Government is actively engaged controllmg trusts and companies of all kinds that there may be more equal distribution of wealth. 43,61,129 Acts were passed (1901, 1906, 1910) extending the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission and further controlling railroads. It is now generally conceded that regulation and con- trol of railroads are necessary and fully within the power of the Government. 55,54,17,18,14,15,16 Modern inventions make finer and more beau- tiful cloths. 57, 46, 45 Butter and milk are important articles of food. Local gov- ernments are interested in cost and cleanliness. 34, 35 Modern methods facilitate all work. 47 Market gardens are necessities and very profitable. 83 Children are taught the value of the home garden. All sorts of vocational training are being taught. 56 Even the price of eggs is of national importance. 7, 25, 61, 139, 220, 230 Nowhere is the modern life so complex as in the city with its problems of reform. Municipal commissions and city managers are new devices for better city goverimient. Men are devoting their whole lives to the solution of civic problems. 43, 129, 88, 89 In Sept., 1916, Congress passed the Adamson Bill regu- lating time and wages of railroad men. This was done to pre- vent a railroad strike that would have brought ruin to the coun- try. Transportation is not a private matter since in our com- plicated system the lives of millions depend upon the transporta- tion of food. ' 32 The immigrants are now carefully sifted by laws shutting out all but the most desirable. In 1917, a law was passed requiring a literary test. Middle West The same growth has taken place in the Middle West. To facilitate the movement of materials of trade. Reserve Banks were established, a Farmers' Credit Bill was passed. 170, 171 The conservation of fuel is being accomplished by using natural means for generating power. 151, 150, 152 The automobile has revolutionized local transportation and farm work. 131, 132 Rubber manufactures are necessary to modern life. MIDDLE WEST 177 156, 155 Minerals are produced on a scale never before known and they are reduced by modern methods. 165, 185 Modern life demands cattle raised and cared for in the clean- est, most healthful way. 136 Corn is now largely cut by machines. 177 Threshing is carried on by steam engines. 179, 178, 180 Even the horse has given way to a great extent to the tractor that never tires. All these increase the acreage that may be cultivated. 191 to 197, 228, 229, 219, 222 In the Far West mineral and forest wealth are so great and private ownership so wasteful that the United States has turned its attention earnestly to conservation. Rec- clamation also has been carried on by the government. National parks have been set aside to preserve forests, scenery, fish, game, etc. 215, 216, 217 The forests are melting away, so conservation came as a national policy. In May, 1908, was held at the White House a conference of State governors, congressmen and others. This resulted in a widespread interest in conservation. 199 Dry farming methods for wheat. New methods of farming are tried. 218, 233, 235, 236, 237 New machinery has made the cultivation of a vast acreage possible and scientific culture has produced bountiful results. 210 In June, 1902, Congress passed an act by which the proceeds from the sale of public lands in sixteen States goes into a special irrigation fund. Local enterprise would find it difficult to con- struct such stupendous works as these dams by which thousands of acres of dry land have been made productive by irrigation. 187, 203 Modern economical methods of ore reduction are in use in- creasing our metal production and at the same time conserving the supply. 117 In 1916 and 1917 there was a noticeable movement of negro laborers from South to North. This presents an economic problem of importance. 148 In East St. Louis, 111., 1917, there was a terrible fight between blacks and whites and many on both sides were killed. The race question is a difficult one in the United States. 88 Congress. On Sept. 8, 1917, at 11 p.m., whiskey ceased to be manufactured and its importation was prohibited, as a war measure, through a law passed by Congress Aug. 10, 1917. 178 DEVELOPMENT OF NATION Note : — • This page to be used for record of current historical events. - 13. AMERICA OF TODAY — OUR RE- SOURCES — PREPAREDNESS By JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S. GEOGRAPHER, METEREOLOGIST, UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT, MT. VERNON, N. Y. America today is one of the most interesting countries in the world. It is well worth while to consider our resources, our development in many lines and how we compare with other nations of the world. America is the richest country in the world. Other nations have called us money mad; but all this wealth is strength. Today we are not looking at our re-' sources so much with pride in our wealth as with patriotic joy in our strength. The first years of the twentieth century have witnessed a great centralization of power in our national government. On the other hand people were never before so widely interested in the government or so watchful of it. These two opposing tendencies will probably check each other. OUR WARS 10, 80 The Revolution gave us political freedom and established us as an independent nation. Our Declaration of Independence has paved the way for civil liberty in all nations. 71 The War of 1812 gave us commercial independence on the sea and throughout the world. 206 to 214, 228 to 242 The Mexican War brought an important addition to our nation, giving us several additional states in the South- west. 75 The Civil War established economic independence and eliminated human slavery. 296, S46-SS4 The war with Spain made us a great world power. 88, 92 On April 6, 1917, after vainly endeavoring to avoid the step, our congress declared that a state of war existed between us and Germany. 87, 242, 426, 146, 385, 394 What will the World War do? It is under- taken to make neutrals safe forever and to make democracy possible throughout the world. It is a war for world freedom. 179 180 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 100, 254 A greatly enlarged navy has been provided for and is being built. In this connection it is well to remember that the iron- clad battleship — the foundation of modern navies — was in- vented in America and the first battle between ironclad battle- ships occurred in American waters. At the close of the Civil War we had the only armored navy in the world. 242 The submarine was also an American invention, the first practical submarine boat being built by John Holland of Paterson, N. J. 426 The. airplane — the "eyes of the army" — was invented and largely developed in America. The experiments by Prof. Lang- ley of Washington, D. C, were followed by the triumph of the Wright brothers of Dayton, O. The airplane service has proved an important factor in the World War. RESOURCES The United States is the greatest agricultural country in the world. Extending over so wide a range of country with such varied climate and surface, its products are diversified. The Mississippi Valley alone contains nearly a million square miles almost all of which is suited to the uses of man. There is no other land of its size on the sur- face of the earth so admirably suited to the purpose of mankind., President Wilson's appeal to the farmers and gardeners of America resulted in an increase of one million bushels of foods being grown in 1917. "War is no longer a collision between two armed forces; war is a contest of economic resources. The man at the forge or the man with the hoe is as much a soldier as the man with the sword." 83, lis, 161, 178, 180, 179 All living things require food, plants as well as animals. Plants take their food out of the ground, and the first principle of farming is learning to put back into the soil what the plant takes out of it. This is called " fertilizing the soil." Plant crops take from the soil nitrogen, lime, potash, and phosphoric acid and all these must be returned. In the large farms of the United States all this is done by machinery. Draining, ditching, plowing, fertilizing, harrowing and planting are done on a scale that was not dreamed of a century ago and which few countries attempt to duplicate even now. The foundation of this country's strength is its food supply. Presi- dent Wilson has said " upon the farmers of this country rests the fate of the war." Wheat 177, 199, 218, 233, 357, 488 In 1915 the wheat crop of the United States exceeded 1,000,000,000 bushels while the whole world produced 3,750,000,000 bushels. Very nearly 600,000,000 bushels are needed for home consumption. For the five years from 1910 to 1915, of the total world's crop, the United States produced an average of 19% ; European Russia 17% ; India 9% ; France 8% ; Austria-Hungary 6% ; Canada 5%. RICE — OATS — MUTTON 181 Oats 147 There is not much commerce in oats, the crop is consumed as fod- der where it grows. In 1900 the United States raised 809,000,- 000 bushels of oats; in 1914, 1,153,000,000. Indian Corn 184, 136, 137, 184. The American maize or Indian corn crop of the United States has reached 3,000,000,000 bushels. Not much is exported but the demand abroad is steadily increasing. In nor- mal times the value of corn in the grain rarely exceeds half a cent a pound. Converted into meal it is worth five or six times as much. Corn products include spiritous liquor, glucose, confectioner's sugar, oil and smokeless powder. The United States produces 71% of the world's crop; Austria-Hungary 6%; Mexico S%; Argentina 4%%; Roumania 254%; Italy 2%%. Rice 104, lOS The rice crop of the United States is small and does not meet the demand therefor; indeed, if the world's crop were doubled, it would find consumers. Ordinarily, rice commands about the same price as wheat — pound for pound it is more nutritious. India raises 45% of the world's rice ; China 22% ; Japan 12% ; and the United States less than 1%. Cattle 127, 186, 185, 188, 140, 141 The cattle product of the United States formerly allowed a very large export to western Europe ; now, the export is comparatively light — about 50,000,000 pounds in 1916. The production is likewise decreasing. This is due in part to the decreased acreage of grazing land, but quite as much to speculative methods of handling the meat business. Twenty-five percent, of the world's cattle are raised in India; 13% in the United States ; 8% in European Russia ; 7% in Ar- gentina; 6% in Brazil; 5% in Germany; 3% in France; 3% in Great Britain. The Hog Industry 172, 183, 143, 144 There are two reasons for the great commerce in pork; it contains a greater amount of fat, one of the essentials of food, than any other merchantable meat ; it is more easily preserved than any other. As a result, the preserved meat finds as great a demand in tropical countries, where fresh meat spoils in a few hours, as in cold regions. The United States produces the most hogs. Mutton 173, 145 Because of its tenderness and rich, meaty flavor, mutton is a favorite with the gourmet and epicure. In thickly peopled regions of the cold temperate zone, the sheep is grown for meat ; elsewhere, for its fleece. English mutton and Canada mut- 182 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY ton are largely a product of climate. In "the same way, the merino sheep is a product of arid climate. Dairy Industry 45, 46, 1S9, 165, 57 The milk supply of a large city must be de- livered daily, and, in most large cities, the production is super- vised under rigorous measures, in order to insure purity and cleanliness. Milk is consumed near by; but little is transported more than one hundred miles. That which is to be kept more than sixty hours is " condensed." Butter may be kept in cold storage for several months. American cheese is now a matter of export. About 300,000,000 pounds are produced of which as many as 100,000,000 pounds have been exported in a single year. Poultry Industry 56 The yearly value of the poultry industry is about as great as that of the wheat product. Most of the commerce of the industry centers about the large cities. The demand for " squab " or young chickens is so great that the prices of eggs have ad- vanced materially. Eggs from China recently have become a steady import. Fisheries 13, 86, 97, 226, 227 Cod off the Atlantic coast and salmon during the spring run in the rivers and estuaries of the Pacific coast form the most important catch. The cod is salted and suncured; the salmon is cooked and canned. Both are articles of export. Any sort of small fry, especially herring, in a can with a French label is " sardine " and Russian caviar is the roe of American sturgeon. Much of the cod export has gone to the West Indies since the early days of the Massachusetts settlements. The oyster may be classed among the luxuries, but the demand there- for is growing with leaps and bounds. The oyster beds of the northeast coast of the United States, where the bivalve is culti- vated, are the largest in the world. The fishery products of the United States exceed those of any other country. In 1915 they were valued at almost $70,000,000; Japan was next with $63,- 000,000; England and Russia each had $50,000,000; France and Canada each $333,000,000; Scotland $19,000,000; Ireland 1,000,- 000 and Germany $10,000,000. The Sugar Industry 34, 35, 258 Of the cane sugar, India produces 26%, Cuba, 23%, Java 15% and the United States with her dependencies 12%. Of the beet sugar Germany makes 30%, Russia 21%, Austria 20%, France 9% and Belgium 3%. Iron and Steel The United States leads the world in the manufacture of iron and steel. Her annual production of iron ore is about 62,000,000 long tons. COPPER 183 Just before the World War, the United States produced about 41% of the world's pig iron, Germany 24%, Great Britain 12%, France 7%, Russia 6%, Austria-Hungary 3%, Belgium 3%. 61 Half a century ago Pittsburgh was an ideal location for iron mills for the ore and coal were almost within a stone's throw of each other and the three rivers offered transportation at a very low cost. Even though most of the iron ore now comes from the region of the Great Lakes, Pittsburgh's nearness to the coal and coke supply makes its location important — it is the greatest iron and steel center in the world. 163, 164, 154, 128 With facilities for transportation such as are shown in these stereographs, a ton of iron ore can be mined and loaded at the Lake Superior mines and transported to the smeltery nearly a thousand miles away for less than four dollars. 116 The Southern Appalachian ore fields are scarcely touched. This ore is especially adapted to the making of steel rails. Those made by the open-hearth process usually command a higher price than those made by the Bessemer process. 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67 Pulling a lever starts the ponderous machinery that operates the various processes. The huge machines seem to have almost human intelligence. Brains take the place of brawn, and one man exerts a power that is rated by the thou- sands of horse power. 103, 68 No fuel, or reducing agent, equals charcoal in the smelting of iron ore. The charcoal burns the oxygen out of the ore, leav- ing free, molten iron. Qiarcoal, however, is limited in quantity and is expensive; so the wits of man were called upon to make an artificial charcoal — the substance commonly called coke. Fat coal is dumped into " ovens " and heated to whiteness. Thereby, the liquid and gaseous chemical constituents are driven off. One of the by-products of the coke oven is coal tar from which nearly one thousand substances of commercial value — dyes, drugs and explosives — are made. Coke ovens are con- structed on the side of a hill, if possible, so that the coal may be dumped into the oven from a railway at the top and the coke shovelled into cars running on a track below the ovens. In 1913 more than 46,000,000 tons of coke were used in the United States. Copper 155, 156, 157, 187 In its importance to humanity, copper ranks next to iron. In 1913 the world's production of copper was 2,198,732,. 130 lbs. of which the United States produced 56%, Japan 7%, Chile, Peru and Bolivia together 7%, Spain and Portugal 6%, Mexico 5%, Canada 3J4% and Germany 2V-i%. The demand for copper is far greater than the supply. Most of the output is used as a conductor of electricity; a great deal is used in car- tridges. It is the chief ingredient in brass and bronze. 184 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY Zinc 176 Zinc is not so abundant as copper but its ores are found in nearly every country. In 1913, the United States produced 346,676 tons; Germany 312,075; Belgium 217,928; France and Spain 78,289; Great Britain 65,197. Alloyed with copper it makes brass or bronze a metal combination indispensable in the con- struction of machinery. Gold and Silver 245, 225, 203, 246, 287, 214 Gold and silver have been standards of ex- change ever since history began. Gold is generally found pure, silver, in combination. In 1912, the world's output of gold was valued at more than $466,000,000. Of this Africa supplied about 45%, the United States 20%, Australia 5%, Mexico S%, Russia 5%, Canada 3% and India 3%. Of the world's production of $147,900,000 of silver, Mexico provided about 32%, the United States 20%, Canada 13%, Germany 6% and Peru 4%. Coal 61, 74, 75, 76, 11, 129, 79 The coal fields of the United States are most extensive and also the most productive in the world and this results in the tremendous output of iron and steel and the vast manufactures, the most productive in the world. Of the world's annual production of $1,443,000,000 short tons, the United States produces 3954%, Great Britain 22%, Germany 20%, Austria- Hungary 4%, France 3% and Russia 2%. Pennsylvania pro- duces irearly all the anthracite of the world. Petroleum 122, 69, 70 The ordinary substance known as petroleum or coal oil has a world-wide commerce. The United States produces 65% of the world's supply; Russia 16%, Mexico, 7%, Roumania 4%, Dutch East Indies 3%, Austria-Hungary 2%, India 2%. 123 Gasoline and petrol are the most important factors in the distillation of crude oil. These are used for running engines. The best steam engine rarely utilizes more than one-fifth of the heat or power which the steam-making fuel contains. The internal com- bustion engine does twice as much work with less than half the fuel. Water Power 49, 50, 197, 170, 171, 228 In the future the greatest available power in the world will come from falling water. In the early industrial his- tory of our country water power was used for manufacture but the mill had to be built at the fall. Now the power of the falling water is changed into electricity which is carried to the factory. The power of Niagara Falls operates the street cars of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, and Utica as well as of Hamilton, Toronto and other Canadian cities. The cheap and abundant power MARBLE — GRANITE 185 of Niagara Falls makes possible certain products essential to modern industries. Chief among these is carborundum. It is the basis of most of our grinding machinery in our great automobile factories, munition plants and machine shops. Ni- agara Falls gives us our aluminum supply. It gives us also products which added to steel give it a hardness that makes it wonderfully resistant — so hard that when used on the point of a modern shell, it will pierce the armor plate without being deformed itself. The water that runs over the spillways at Keokuk, Iowa, and at Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona, is not wasted; its power is turned into electricity. Lumber The proportion of lumber used for building as compared with stone cement and brick is decreasing. Nevertheless the present rate of cut- ting is three times the annual growth. The timber covered area in the United States is estimated at 500,000,000 acres or about one-fourth of the country^ The Southern Pacific and Northern Pacific railroad com- panies together with several lumber companies own about four-fifths of this; the rest belongs to the nation or to states. The United States, Canada, Sweden, Norway, Russia and Austria export lumber. All the others import it. 1, 162, 215 These pictures demonstrate each the solution of a prob- lem ; namely, how to get the logs to the mill in the most inex- pensive way. In each case, it is solved for the particular lo- cality. 216, 217 The lumber mills of Puget Sound and vicinity supply not only the lumber requirements of the Pacific coast but also a large demand in China and Japan. Both of these countries have been greatly denuded of forest trees, much to their detriment. Transcontinental railways depend largely upon the Puget Sound mills for their heavy timber, especially long pieces, such as are shown in stereograph 217. See also stereographs 224 and 229. 130 The maple furnishes not only sugar; the lumber ranks among the most valuable cabinet woods in the country. Marble 4, 5 Marble for architectural ornamental work is world-wide in use, and for carved work is probably more extensively used than any other stone. Fine-grained white marble free from blemishes commands very high prices. Granite 3 Probably most of the granite now quarried is used in the con- struction of government and other large office buildings, being cut into ornamental blocks at the quarries. Thus prepared it is often shipped long distances. In the rough, it is no longer an article of commerce to any great extent, concrete being a cheaper and equally durable substitute. The quarries of the White 186 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY Mountain region furnish most of the granite in the eastern states. Red and dark gray granites are abundant in the wes- tern Highlands. Structural Steel 25, 26, 31, 174, 253 A building of brick or of stone reaches the limit of height with the sixth or seventh story. With a frame work of structural steel girders and beams, the height may be readily carried fifty stories, or 500 feet. The buildings in 25 and 26, the railway viaduct in 31, the bridge in 174, and about every- thing but water and shore line in 253 show the engineering possi- bilities with steel as a building material and the impossibilities of modern commerce without it. America excels all other nations in its manufacture and use of structural steel. Lime 97 Shells of oysters and other moUusks are used also in surfacing roads and in making' lime of a very superior quality. Most of the lime is made by burning limestone in a kiln. Concrete 210, 252 " Portland " cement is now made artificially by burning lime- stone and clay in much the same manner as in lime-making. Mixed to a still mortar with water it hardens — becoming so hard indeed that it turns the edge of a steel drill. The cement, mixed with sand and broken rock is the " concrete " of engineer- ing science. Concrete has almost wholly superseded rock in the construction of viaducts, dams, and bridge approaches. The Panama Canal locks and the masonry of the various irrigation projects are built of concrete. In 1900, the United States made 8,500,000 barrels of Portland cement; England between 7,000,- 000 and 8,000,000; France 3,000,000; and Germany 30,000,000. Glass 134 A fine white sand is the first requisite in the manufacture of glass ; other ingredients are lime and sulphate of soda. These are melted into a transparent iluid mass by means of gas blasts. In the United States most of the glass-making establishments are located in places where natural gas is abundant. The Cotton Industry 117,119,124,125 The United States produces more than five billion pounds of cotton yearly. About one-third of the crop is made into cloth in the mills of the United States. Raw cotton is ex- ported to nearly every country in Europe and American cotton cloth is used by practically every people on the face of the earth. The United States raises about 62% of the cotton, India 18% Egypt 7%, and China 6%. England is the greatest manufacturer of cotton cloth. In 1914, England had in operation 56,900,000 WOOL — TRANSPORTATION 187 spindles, the countries on tiie continent had 43,200,000, while the United States had 31,840,000. The Wool Industry The scoured wool produced in the United States averages 136,500,000 lbs. a year and yet there is practically none for export. In addition to this the United States imports 8% of the world's supply. France im- ports 2S%, Great Britain 22% and Germany 20%. Australia is the greatest wool growing country, producing 30% of the wool, and Argen- tina is next, with 1S%. Naval Stores 107 The southern pine yields turpentine, pitch, and wood tar. Formerly in the days of sailing vessels, the two last named were used in calking the seams and joints of sailing vessels, and in preserving the fixed parts of the rigging. Therefore, they were called " naval stores." Nine-tenths of the world's supply came from the United States. Turpentine is the solvent for the oils used in mixing paint. The Tobacco Industry 112 The United States is probably the foremost country in the value of its tobacco crop. One item of the industry is the manufac- ture of snuff. The world's supply of this material is made in the United States. The redeeming feature of the tobacco in- dustry is the revenue to the United States Treasury that comes from the various taxes imposed on it. Educating a Nation 83, 260 Education is the foundation of a nation. Since each citizen of a democracy has a share in the government, every citizen should be educated. United States in 1915 had T !1% of illiterate people, England had 1% and the German Empire only 1/50%. The Material Foundation 19, 20 Print paper is an essential of public education. The circula- tion of some of the daily papers reaches about half a million a day; and the strip of paper on which the daily issue of the New York Times is printed would reach from New York to Denver. One great magazine, founded by Benjamin Franklin, issues more than 2,000,000 copies weekly. The yearly edition of a popular textbook in geography would make a stack twice as high as IVTount Everest. Transportation 71, 186, 298, 138 Our forefathers employed the ox team, the saddle horse and the prairie "schooner" to transport themselves and their belongings to the west. 188 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY 246 In Alaska the dog team still is the best means of transportation to be had. 43, 129, 82, 61, 31 Today the continent is only five days wide instead of three months wide. The legitimate business of the railroad is to carry goods of aH kinds from the producer to the con- sumer. In late years the problem of transportation is of na- tional importance and so more and more the United States is legislating for railroads in such ways as the Adamson Law of 1916, the Intef state Commerce laws and so on. The United States in 1912 had 241,199 miles of railway all under private ownership while Germany had 37,995 miles, 34,623 owned by the state. Austria-Hungary owned 22,046 of its 27,570 miles; Rus- sia in Europe owned 21,659 of its 37,008 miles; France owned 5,510 miles in 30,685 and England's 23,350 miles were under pri- vate ownership. 26, 100, 48, 154 Because of Bessemer steel, twin screws and oil-driven triple expansion engines the Atlantic Ocean is now five days wide instead of five weeks. At the beginning of the world war the United States found her foreign commerce almost stopped because the English ships, the carriers of the world, were with- drawn from the trade. The United States realized that she must own her own merchant marine. It was through attacks upon her shipping that the United States was finally drawn into the war. 52 On April 6, 1917, these and other interned German warships to the number of 91 with a total capacity about 629,000 tons were taken over by the United States. Three days later 14 Austrian in- terned ships were seized. This gave a total of 105 additional ships for carrying supplies and troops to our allies. To meet the drain of the German submarines on the world's shipping we have undertaken a tremendous building program for both steel and wooden ships. Some Trade Routes of the United States Easy routes over which the commodities of commerce can be carried to markets are quite as necessary as the market centers and posts them- selves. Some of the great trade routes, like the Panama Canal and the Suez Canal are world factors rather than national factors in commerce. Many of the trade routes and railway lines of the United States lie along old Indian- trails — trails originally made by the bison. 25,32,39,51,38,43,48 The route from the mouth of the Hudson to Albany, thence through central New York to Lake Erie at Buffalo is one of the world's great trade routes. From Buffalo to New York City the aggregate lift of freight is but little more than 400 feet. Because of this almqst dead-level grade, the Erie Canal and the New York Central Railway practically fix the freight rates between the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic seaboard. 154 The Great Lakes are situated at different levels. The surface of TRADE ROUTES 189 Lake Superior is 601 feet above mean sea level; that of Lakes Huron and Michigan 581 feet. The rapids in St. Mary's River were an obstacle to inter-lake traffic. The completion of the canal locks in the river opened a route over which more freight ■ is carried than on any other canal in the world. Two canals, one on the Canadian, the other on the American Side, connect the lakes, the American Canal has two locks. Navigation of canals and locks is free. Ore from the Lake Superior iron and copper mines constitutes a large proportion of the freight. 61,119,120 At the close of the last French and Indian War the ac- quisition of Fort Duquesne where Pittsburgh now stands, gave to the American colonies an open trade route to the mouth of the Mississippi River. Owing to the system of jetties which, by constricting the width causes the river to scour its channel to a greater depth, the river below New Orleans is now deep enough to be safe for ocean steamships. 119, 120, 148, 170, 171, 174 The Mississippi River drains wholly or in part twenty-eight states. The trunk and tributaries afford about fifteen thousand miles of navigation. Up to the time of the Civil War the Mississippi was the chief means of communica- tion in the Central United States, the traffic between Buffalo and Chicago excepted. After the Civil War, the tremendous growth of the railways took away the greater part of its traffic. Within the first decade of the 20th century there has been a con- siderable increase of river navigation. 148 The amount of sediment brought down by the Missouri and its tributaries is more than the Mississippi can carry away. It is gradually building its bed higher each year. In order to off- set this, it has been the custom to make artificial banks or " levees " to keep the river between banks during high water. All this has tended to make the navigable channel narrower, thereby impairing the value of the river as a traffic route. The problems of the control of the river are in the hands of the Mississippi River. Commission. 248 to 256 The first proposition for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama was presented to the Spanish Government shortly after Balboa crossed the isthmus. In 1903 the state, of Panama en- tered into a treaty with the United States, permitting the con- struction of the canal and granting sovereignty over a strip of land five miles on each side, officially named Canal Zone. The construction of the canal was regarded as a military rather than a commercial project. Its construction shortens the route from New York to San' Francisco by 9,500 miles and to China and Japan by nearly 8,000 miles. The ports of Chile and Peru be- come near neighbors of New Orleans. 190 HIST. AND CIV.— AMERICA TODAY Note : — Since history deals so largely with economic ques- tions, the teacher will be pleased with the wealth of economic material contained in this " 600 set." Where a more extended treatment is desired, the Keystone View Company's General Catalog listing thousands of stereographs and slides should be consulted. It is especially complete in the presentation of our great industries. This catalog is free and will be sent upon application. The Publishers. 14. GOVERNMENT By ARTHUR NORMAN HOLCOMBE, Ph.D. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY Every one of the views in the " 600 Set " illustrates some aspect of government. Every person shown in these views is the citizen or subject of some state. Every place is subject to the jurisdiction of some state. Everything is subject in some way to the operations of government. The student can profit- ably exercise his ingenuity in discovering in those views which seem most remote from government the evidences of govern- mental activity. Agriculture is often greatly aided by govern- mental assistance. This may be accomplished either directly by governmental irrigation works or agricultural experiment stations and colleges, or indirectly by bounties or protective tariffs. Similar relations often obtain between government and industry. Moreover, factories and mills and the machin- ery of industry in general are subject to governmental regula- tions designed to protect the health of employees and may be inspected by governmental officials to make sure that they are safe and wholesome. Highways are built and kept in order by governments of some sort and all the instruments of com- merce are regulated or operated by some public authority. Certain of the views, however, suggest the existence and activ- ity of government much more directly than the others, and are selected for special consideration under this head. Compare the following views of different kinds. 38, 118, 147, 180, 181, 184, 186, 198, 199 Country views. 6, 7, 30, 31, 93, 139, 152, 167 Villages and cities. Notice the number of people and their -activities in each picture. In villages there is greater need for community enterprise than in the country. In cities such needs are still greater. igi 192 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT I. LOCAL GOVERNMENT a. Towns or Townships, and Counties 10 Lexington, Mass. The common expresses the original character of town life. The New England town is the simplest form of self-governing community. 7 Faneuil Hall and Quincy Market, Boston, Mass. Boston town meetings were formerly held in Faneuil Hall. A New England town meeting is purely democratic. In most other parts of the country, local government is representative. The market is comparatively unimportant as a communal enterprise. Compare with Quincy Market these markets in foreign cities; 387, 393, 395, 423, SSS, 572. 96 Washington's Home, Virginia; 104, 105, Rice fields, South Caro- lina; 112 Kentucky. In Virginia and other southern states people settled on large plantations and lived far apart, so county government with the courthouse as the center naturally developed. 38, 39, 47 New York ; 68 to 71, 75 Pennsylvania. In New York and .Pennsylvania between New England and Virginia a mixture of county and township governments grew up and this plan is followed in the majority of states. 130 Ohio; 136, 137 Indiana; 147 Illinois. Ohio, Indiana and Illinois naturally followed New York and Pennsylvania in their method of organizing. 177 North Dakota; 178, 179 South Dakota; 181 Nebraska; 184 to 186 Kansas. 198, 199 Colorado; 210 Arizona; 218 Washington; 233 California. The Far West where people have large farms and live far from each other finds county government best suited tp its needs. b. Incorporated Villages and Cities 28 New York City; 167 Minneapolis; 121 Oklahoma; 139 Chicago. A city receives its charter from the state. As a city grows, its needs grow. Therefore the government in the cities is far more complex than in the towns and in the country. The nature of the community needs in the cities is more fully illustrated by the views listed under the head of Community Civics to which reference should be made at this point. 27 Brooklyn Bridge. Most conspicuous among municipal under- takings are the public works and among these are bridges. 348, 366, 392, 472, 560 With the Brooklyn Bridge should be com- pared some of the principal bridges in foreign cities. 309, 397, 423 These views show noteworthy public works in for- eign cities. 260 Hawaii ; 309 Brazil. Schools, theaters, etc., are often owned or aided by municipal, state or national governments. 7, 8 Boston; 31 New York; 139 Chicago. Boston, Chicago and all STATE GOVERNMENTS 193 cities and towns find that the continual use of streets necessi- tates their paving. 6 Boston. City streets must be lighted and good water provided. 7, Boston; 30 New York. There must be traffic laws in cities to prevent blockading the streets and building regulations to insure safety and to prevent fires. 31 Transportation, New York. City governments grant franchises to street car and other transportation companies. 95 The Congressional Library is especially for members of Con- gress. Each city needs a library. 28 New- York. The old City Hall was too small and a larger one had to be built. Most cities own their own city halls in which are the offices of thie city officers and the city business is trans- acted. II. STATE GOVERNMENTS 8 The State House or Capitol as it is called, in most states, is the seat of the state government. There is scarcely a view of agri- culture, industry or commerce in the United States in which there is no suggestion of action by state government. The teacher might well encourage the pupils to study the views listed under the heads of Agriculture, Production and Manu- facturing, Transportation, and Commerce for the suggestions they contain of state governmental activity. The views which most directly illustrate state government are the following : — 172, 173 Agricultural Experiment Station and State Agricultural Col- lege, Ames, Iowa. 18 Woolen mill ; 41 Shoe factory ; 67 Steel mill, etc. Industrial views showing machinery equipped with safety devices. 14, 16 Cotton factory; 40 Collar factory; 133 Rubber works. Work- rooms built in accordance with factory laws and subject to inspection by state officials. 43, 48 New York. Means of transportation, owned or regulated by the state government. The steam railroads are subject to regulation by the national as well as by the state governments. Agriculture and industry of course are also sulsject to the action of national as well as state governments. Indeed the joint operation of state and national agencies is one of the striking features of our government. 152 The Ford Motor Company factory and other great corporations receive their charters from the state. Also each automobile must carry a tag to show that it has a state license or permis- sion. 44 Spraying of trees to destroy parasites and diseases has become so important that very many states send out men whose duty it is to show exactly how spraying or other agricultural work should be done. 29 Wall Street, New York. Banks are examined by the state in order that the people's money may be secure. 194 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT 224 One of the great trees that grow in the rainy Northwest. Very many states are now devoting a great deal of attention to for- estry. 6, 8 Boston; 29 New York; 167 Minneapolis. A city receives its charter from the state. A state government controls local gov- ernment within it. III. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT a. The American Federal System 93 Washington. The study of the national government is introduced by the general view of the national capital. It is located in the District of Columbia or " federal district " which is in a special sense the property of the nation. 282 City of Mexico; 421 Paris; 435 Madrid; 4S0 Rome; 475 Athens; 526 Tokyo. The appearance of Washington should be com- pared with that of other national capitals. This comparison should be made the occasion for a general explanation of the different types of government, monarchic, aristocratic, repub- lican, democratic, centralized and federal. 96, 113. These early homes of our two greatest Presidents strikingly illustrate the dernocracy of American government. b. The Division of Powers 90 The principal government buildings : The White House, Treas- ury Building, and Capitol, viewed from State, War and Navy Building. A closer view of the principal government buildings leads logically to a consideration of the three main branches of government, the legis- lative, executive and judicial. ■- /. Legislative 87 The Capitol, Washington, D. C, The legislative or law making power of the United States belongs to Congress. The powers of Congress are enumerated in the Constitution and therefore they are limited to those mentioned. 88 The Senate and House of Representatives in joint session in the Representative Chamber listening to an address by the Presi- dent. Congress consists of a Senate and a House of Repre- sentatives. A bill must be passed by both houses before it can become a law. The distribution of power between the Senate and House of Representatives is different from that between the upper and lower hojises of foreign legislative bodies. 340 Caracas; 352 London; 383 Berlin; 482 Petrograd; 587 Mel- bourne. A comparison of the buildings occupied by the national legislative bodies of different countries may be made the oc- casion for a comparison of the powers and importance of the people's representatives in different countries. 84, 94 Coining presses and the Bureau of Printing and Engraving JUDICIAL — EXECUTIVE 195 were established by the authority of Congress, for Congress may coin money and emit bills of credit. Also it may punish counterfeiters. 26, 52, 106 Congress regulates the foreign commerce. 25 New York; 106 Savannah; 119 New Orleans. It is forbidden to make any law favoring the ports of one state more than the ports of another. ** 48, 129, 154 It also regulates the interstate commerce. 385, 426 French and German armies. Congress may organize and maintain an army ; but no appropriation for army purposes shall be for longer than two years. 100,' 242, 254 American warships and submarines. Congress may build and maintain a navy. 243 to 261, 546 to 554 Congress has complete control over the terri- tories and dependencies of the United States. 90 Congress has entire control of the city of Washington. 283 Mexico; 296 Wreck of the Maine; 3S,5 German troops. Congress has the sole right to declare war. It was Congress who de- clared war upon Mexico in 1845, on Spain in 1898, and in 1917 Congress declared war upon Germany. 247 to 256 Panama. A treaty with a foreign country must be ratified by the Senate by a two-thirds vote. Thus the Senate ratified the treaties with Panama which gave control of the Canal Zone. 89 Supreme Court; 92 Cabinet room; 25 Port of New York; 32 Ellis Island. All appointments made by the President must be ratified by the Senate. Such appointments include judges of the Supreme Court, Cabinet members, collectors for ports, im- migration commissioner and many others. 2. Judicial 89 The Supreme Court room, The Capitol. The judicial branch of the national government is crowned by the Supreme Court, which meets in the room at the Capitol, once occupied by the Senate. The teacher should explain the special political powers of our Supreme Court and its peculiar importance in our system of government. 3. Executive 91 The Executive Mansion or White House. The executive branch of the national government is under the direction of a single supreme magistrate, the President, whose chief duty is to see that the laws are executed. 283 Mexico; 315 Argentina; 367 Scotland; 384 Berlin; 432 Monaco; 436 Spain; 476 Greece; 483 Russia. The White House should be compared with the executive mansions or palaces of other countries. This comparison may be utilized for the purpose of showing the difference in the powers and authority of the chief executives of different countries. 146 French War commission ; 100 American fleet ; 247 to 256 Panama 196 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT Canal. The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy. Panama Canal is an example of one kind of army work as it was planned and its building was supervised by army engineers. It is also guarded by army men. 88 President Wilson reading message. From time to time the Presi- dent must present to Congress a message in which he tells the condition of the country and what legislation he thinks is needed. 92 Cabinet room, executive annex to White House. The President's principal advisers are the heads of the ten great administrative . departments, known collectively as the Cabinet. They meet with the president once or twice a week in the Cabinet room. The distribution of power between the President and his ad- visers is different from that between the chief executive and his constitutional advisers in many foreign countries. 417 The Council room in the royal palace at Stockholm, Sweden, sug- gests an interesting contrast. c. The Work of the National Government Most of the work of the national government is apportioned among the ten departments and is carried on under the supervision of the members of the President's Cabinet. The departments are: (1) The Department of State, (2) The Treasury Department, (3) The War Department, (4) The Department of Justice, (5) The Postoffice De- partment, (6) The Navy Department, (7) The Department of the Interior, (8) The Department of Agriculture, (9) The Department of Commerce, and (10) The Department of Labor. 1. The State Department 296 When the battleship Maine was sunk in Havana Harbor, the American and Spanish governments dealt with each other through the State Department. The State Department is really our department of foreign affairs. 13,278 Fishing — suggesting the work of the State Department in Newfoundland fisheries dispute. How does the U. S. claim fishing rights around Newfoundland? 32 Ellis Island. Questions of immigration bring questions for the State Department. 227 Especially the immigration of Chinese and Japanese has been difficult to handle. What was the difficulty? 34S Sealing in Alaska has given difficulty to our State Department. SO Niagara. International bridges, such as the one at Niagara, are arranged for through the State Department. At Niagara Falls the amount of water that each nation may use for power is determined by international agreement. 247 to 256 The State Department handles negotiations when new ter- ritory is acquired. 338 La Guaira, Venezuela, When a European nation gets into diffi- culty with an American nation, our State Department guards TREASURY DEPARTMENT 197 American interests as determined by the Monroe Doctrine. What was the Venezuela affair? 577, 578 American hunter in Africa. When American citizens go abroad, the State Department issues passports stating such citizenship. There has been much trouble with Russia over her refusing to recognize passp9rts of American Hebrews. 558 to 569 Egypt is governed by Great Britain under an agreement among the state departments of the leading European nations. 146 French War commissioners at Lincoln's tomb. The State De- partment attends to arrangements for entertaining representa- tives from other countries. 352 London; 384 Berlin; 421 Paris; 450 Rome; 463 Vienna; 482 Petrograd. The State Department maintains ambassadors at the leading capitals and consular representatives in all im- portant cities throughout the world. 383 to 394 Germany. When a war is declared by Congress, the State Department makes the announcement and states the reason. 52 Interned German steamships — presenting serious problems for State Department. 2. The Treasury Department 29 United States Sub-Treasury, Wall Street. The Treasury De- partment receives and pays out all the money of the United States. In order to do this, there is a treasury in Washington and sub-treasuries in various large cities. 84 The Government Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. The Treasury Depart- ment has charge of coining money, according to rules made by Congress. 94 The Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The Treasury Depart- ment has charge of the engraving of paper money, bonds, post- age and revenue stamps and all such things issued by the government. 90 The Secretary of the Treasury controls the construction and maintenance of public buildings. 99 The Life Saving Service is under the Treasury Department. 347 Customs House, Liverpool; 420 Goteborg, Sweden; 433 Custom House, Barcelona, Spain. These suggest operations of the Treasury Department of other governments. All the customs houses of the United States are under the care of the Treasury Department. 3. The War Department 266 Highlanders ; 385 German soldiers. The Secretary of War has control under the President of the military establishment of the United States. He buys uniforms, food, munitions and all sorts of supplies and keeps the army in readiness to meet that of any other nation. 25 New York Harbor; 256 Entrance to Panama Canal; 100 Hampton Roads. The War Department fortifies and guards the ports of 198 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT the United States, the Panama Canal and all places of strategic importance. i 39 West Point. The War Department has charge of West Point where officers are trained for the United States army. 250 to 256 Panama Canal. Fighting is not the only work of the United States Army. The^ Panama Canal was planned and its building was supervised by the army engineers under Major- General Goethals. 255 Hospital at Ancon, Panama. Army surgeons and medical men under Major-General Gorgas exterminated yellow fever and_ bubonic plague in the Canal Zone and reduced malaria and typhoid by fifty per cent. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The engineering work of the reclama- tion service of the United States is done by the army engineers. 257, 258, 546 to 553 Porto Rico and the Philippines. The Secretary of War directs the Bureau of Insular Affairs which supervises the civil government of Porto Rico and the Philippines. 394 Zeppelin; 426 Airplane. The War Department must keep up to date in everything that pertains to war. These machines used in war for the first time, have proved very destructive in the European War. The United States is building many airplanes. 266 Fifth Royal Highlanders of Montreal; 426 French troops; 585 Australian troops and American marines; 385 German troops. The American army joined the entente allies in fighting the Germans. 4. The Department of Justice 89 The Supreme Court room. Here the Attorney-General and other representatives of the Department of Justice argue their most important cases. ■ 5. The Post-office Department 43 The mail cars on this train are under the supervision of the Post- master-general, who has charge of everything connected with the postal system of the United States. The " postal savings banks " are under his care. 6. The Navy Department 100 Battleships in Hampton Roads, Va. The Navy Department con- structs, mans, equips and operates all vessels of war. 254 U. S. S. Missouri in Panama Canal. The Panama Canal doubles the defensive power of the United States navy as ships can now move quickly from one coast to the other. 242 Submarines, torpedo boats and battleships. Like the army, the navy must have the newest, most effective ships and appliances known. Germany's " ruthless submarine warfare " was the cause of the entrance of the United States into the World War. 585 Grand Review at Sydney, N. S. W., in honor of the visit of the American fleet. In 1908 the United States fleet made a trip around the world, stopping along the way for friendly visits. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 199 SS4 Guam and other small islands are governed by the naval officer who is sent there by -the Secretary of the Navy. 7. The Department of the Interior 245 Public lands of Alaska. The Department of the Interior through the General Land Office, controls the nation's public land. 182,204 Indians who live in tribal relations are under the protection of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. By act of Congress, reserva- tions have been divided among the Indians living upon them, who then become taxpayers and citizens of the United States. No naturalization is necessary. 191 to 197 Yellowstone Park; 201, 207, 208 Grand Canyon, Col.; 219 Ranier National Park; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley. National parks and monuments are under the control of the National Park service. 12, 14, 16, 18, 63 to 67, etc. Machinery protected by patents issued by the Patent Office of the Department of the Interior. 172, 173 State Agricultural College assisted by funds administered through the Department of Education. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The Secretary of the Interior has the direction of the reclamation service of the United States. This dam should be compared with the great dam at Assuan, Egypt, 569. 76 Coal mine; 208, 207 Canyon; 231 Earthquake fissure. The Geo- logical Survey is an important part of the work of the Depart- ment of the Interior. 74 to 79 Coal mine, Pennsylvania. ; 155 Copper mine, Michigan. The Bureau of Mining under the Department of the Interior works for the improvement of methods of mining and for the safety of miners. The only important activity of the Department of the In- terior not represented by any view is that of the Pension Office. 8. The Department of Agriculture 93 Here we see the grounds of this Department. It supervises ex- periments in agriculture and issues bulletins giving helpful in- formation along these lines to the nation. The work is divided into many bureaus. 138 Percheron horses; 159 Cattle; 172 Hogs; 173 Sheep, etc. The Bureau of Animal Industry encourages the raising of the best animals. 140 to 144 Stockyards and packing houses are under the Bureau of Chemistry which enforces the Pure Food and Drugs Act. 175,198,211,108,83 The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plants, their cultivation, diseases, parasites and introduces new and valuable plants. 9. The Department of Commerce The work of this department is divided among the Bureaus of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Bureau of Lighthouses, the 200 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT Steamboat Inspection Service, the Census Office, Coast and Geodetic Survey,, Bureau of Fisheries, of Navigation and of Standards. 25, 26, 27, 31, 39, 43, 48,61, 79, 119, 139, 154, 157, 164, 174, 215. These will give some idea of the scope of work of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 13 Codfish, Massachusetts; 226, 227 Salmon fisheries. This is the material upon which the Bureau of Fisheries works. 26, 164, 1S4 Every view of dock or harbor or ship will illustrate some phase of the Bureaus of Navigation and Steamboat Inspection. 353 Greenwich is in England; still this regulator of the world's clocks suggests the work of the Bureau of Standards. 10. The Department of Labor The Department of Labor was established in 1913. 11 to 20, etc. These and innumerable other views will illustrate the work of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which collects and pub- lishes information on all subjects connected with labor. 62 to 67 Steel workers. It especially studies the relation of capital, (29) Wall Street, to labor. 152 Automobile employees. It investigates hours and wages. 82 Locomotive workers; 128 Dock laborers; 132, 133 Rubber indus- try. It tries to discover means of advancing the interests of laboring men. 74 to 79 Miners. The Department of Labor tries to adjust labor dis- putes such as the one which caused the coal miners' strike in 1903. 32 Ellis Island. It has charge of the Bureau of Immigration. 83, 204, 187, 236, 249 Also it includes a Children's Bureau which is to work for the welfare of children, especially trying to abolish child labor. 11. Other Activ-ities 95 The Congressional Library, for the benefit of Congress and the nation, is not under the direction of any cabinet officer. 43, 48, 129, 154, 157 The Interstate Commerce Commission regulates commerce between the states. It may even fix rates. 29 Wall Street, New York, is the seat of some of our greatest bank- ing houses. The Federal Reserve Board was created to unite banks and make money move more easily from the great finan- cial centers to places where it is needed. 282,283 Mexico City; 305 Rio de Janeiro; 315 Buenos Aires; 340 Caracas. The Pan American Union has for its purpose the cultivation of friendliness and cooperation among all the coun- tries of both North and South America. Since the entrance of the United States into the World War, the Congress has passed several acts giving the National Executive powers unheard of before. The selective draft was used to obtain soldiers for the army. This GOVERNMENT OF TERRITORIES 201 takes men of a specified age, who are able to be taken without crippUng industries upon which the war will depend. The President declared an embargo upon a list of goods, in order to control their trade and prevent their reaching the enemy. A Food Commission was provided Aug. 11, 1917, which shall con- trol the entire food supply of the nation. The use of grain for the manufacture of distilled liquors is forbidden and the making of beer and wine can be controlled. All these are innovations in American government. Whether they lead to permanent changes, is a matter of great public interest. d. Government of Territories 243 to 246 Alaska is a territory under the control of Congress. It has wealth in minerals, forests, fish and fur. Territorial gov- ernment should be explained. 260 Hawaii is a territory and its people are United States citizens. e. Government of Dependencies 257, 258 Porto Ricans are now citizens of the United States. They are largely self-governing. 546 to SS3 The Philippines are looking forward to independence. Now they have a share, in their government. Their people are not United States citizens. They are rapidly advancing in civilization. 554 Guam is governed by a naval officer. f. International Relations 295 to 299 Cuba is a protectorate of the United States. She is com- pletely self-governing but may not enter into any treaty or agreement without the consent of the United States. 280 to 341 Spanish America. The Monroe Doctrine declares that any attempt made by any trans-oceanic power to extend its influence in America will be considered an act unfriendly to the United States. 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. This does not mean that the United States will prevent a nation's demanding and getting justice. 352, 384, 421, 450, 463, 482 Communications with foreign countries are made by the State Department through ambassadors or' minis- ters maintained in every capital and consuls in every important city of the world. 13, 278 Fish ; 345 Seals. The United States has urged arbitration as the best method of settling difficulties. Disagreements concern- ing fisheries, sealing, boundaries, etc., arising between the United States and Great Britain have been settled by arbitration. 202 HIST. AND CIV.— GOVERNMENT IV. AMERICAN IDEALS 80 The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 25 The Statue of Liberty, The Gateway to America, New York Harbor. The idea of liberty has a double meaning to Ameri- cans, — national independence from and freedom for the people under fixed laws which they have had a hand in making. 15. COMMUNITY CIVICS By ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN, A.M. SPECIALIST IN CIVIC EDUCATION, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. " A characteristic feature of community civics is that it fo- cuses attention upon the ' elements of community welfare ' rather than upon the machinery of government. The latter is discussed only in the light of a prior study of the ' elements of welfare ' and in relation to them." " The aim of community civics is to help the child to know his community — not merely a lot of facts about it, but the meaning of his community life, what it does for him, and how it does it, what the community has a right to expect from him, and how he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile cultivating in him the essential qualities and habits of good citizenship." " Community civics applies this point of view to the study of the national community as well as to the study of the local community." (" The Social Studies in Secondary Education," Bulletin, 1916, No. 28, p. 23, U. S. Bureau of Education.) (The following classification is based upon, and follows the organization of, Dunn's " The Community and the Citizen," copyrighted and published by D. C. Heath & Company.) I, What is a Community? 38 Hudson Valley. A group of neighboring farmers may be a com- munity. 7 Boston ; 28 New York. Or the community may be a city. 8 Old State House, Boston. Each state in our Union is a com- munity. 87 to 95 National capital. Our nation is a community with its cen- ter at Washington. 7 Quincy Market, Boston; 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany; 395 Vegetable market, Brussels, Belgium. The country and city communities have certain interests in common. 2. The Site of the Community 25 to 31 New York City. Nature seems to have planned the Hudson River as the site of the greatest city on the Atlantic coast. 203 204 COMMUNITY CIVICS 217 Seattle, Washington; 386 Hamburg, Germany; 230 San Francisco, California. Cities spring up where there is a good harbor. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. The junction of two navigable rivers is a good situation. 167 Minneapolis, Minn. Manufacturing towns often grow near the falls of a river. 264 Quebec, Can.; 267 Montreal, Can. The head of an estuary is a fine location for a commercial city. 139 Chicago. A rich region must have a center for trade. 174 St. Louis, Mo. Where natural routes cross, will be found a city. 119 New Orleans, La. The fertility of the soil attracts people. 214 Mining camp, Nevada; 187 Butte, Mont. The presence of min- eral ores will cause towns and cities to develop. 216, 217 Seattle, Wash. An abundaiice of forest products will cause the growth of a community. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. A river and its branches may divide a city into parts more or less distinct with different characteristics. 31 New York City; 43 Busy path of commerce; 48 Mouth of Erie Canal. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. If it were not for the wonderful devel- opment of transportation and communication it might have been very difficult for our great country to hold together. 3. What People in Communities Are Seeking 60 Atlantic City, N. J.; 72 June carnival, Pennsylvania. Men desire life and health. 29 Wall St., New York City; 139 Chicago shops; 351 London Bank. The desire for wealth is very strong. 342 Peary expedition; 575, 576 Victoria Fall, South Africa. Men want knowledge. It is this desire that led Peary to the Arctic regions and Livingstone to the heart of Africa. 90 Washington; 95 Congressional Library; 360 York and its cathe- dral; 422 Champs Elysees, Paris, France. Men take pleasure in beautiful buildings and streets. 6 Old North Church, Boston; 425 Notre Dame, Paris; 451 St. Peter's, Rome ; 458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy ; 503 Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India; 501 Pilgrims bathing in Ganges, India; 568 Temple of Karnak, Egypt. The religious desire is characteristic of man. In every community there are certain things men do to gratify it. 60 Atlantic City, N. J.; 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany; 466 Market place, Serajevo, Bosnia. Men desire companion- ship. 260 Hawaii. The school trains children for citizenship. 6 Old North Church, Boston; 29 Trinity Church, New York City; 458 Cathedral, Milan, Italy. The church helps men to live har- moniously. 8 Old State House, Boston ; 87 to 95 Washington-, D. C. Govern- ernment establishes and enforces laws for our common good which all should willingly observe. HOME AND COMMUNITY 205 4. The Family 214 Mining camp, Nevada. In the far west there are mining towns and in the north, lumber camps composed almost entirely of men without families — the community is liable to be lawless. 139 Chicago. There are thousands of unfortunate homeless children adrift in our great cities. 519 A study of Chinese faces. It is largely in the drifting homeless population that the disorderly and criminal classes are found. 113 Lincoln's birthplace. The early settler cut down trees from the forest and built a log house. 488 Plowing with primitive plow, Russia. 497 Threshing floor; 498 Grinding wheat, Palestine. " The grain was threshed by hand and ground into meal in a homemade stone mill." These primitive ways of working are no longer used in the United States. 2 Moose, Maine; 189 Elk, Montana. For fresh meat they had to depend chiefly upon game from the forest. 409 Spinning wheel, Norway; 506 Weaving shawls on hand loom, Kashmir. A spinning wheel and hand loom were set up in the house. 281 Home of peon, Mexico; 298 Farm home, Cuba; 362 Wordsworth's home, England; 373 A highland home, Scotland; 410, 411 Homes of peasants, Norway. The family remains one of the most important means to provide for the wants of its citizens. 5. The Home and the Community 96 Washington's home, Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 181 Bryan's farm, Ne- braska. There is no kind of property that gives such satisfac- tion to the owner as does a home. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. In large cities where people are crowded to- gether, they may resort to low lands where it is unhealthful and in danger of floods. 455 Tenement in Palermo, Italy. These tenement dwellings involve all sorts of evils. 339 La Guaira, Venezuela; 514 Hong Kong, China. The unsanitary conditions invite epidemics of disease. 10 Common, Lexington, Mass. ; 51 Palisades, N. J. Parks and play- grounds are being established. 6. The Making of Americans 32 Ellis Island, N. Y. Thousands are coming every year. 162, 166 Minnesota. There are sections of the Northwest where al- most the entire population is Scandinavian. 135 Rossford, Ohio. Glass makers are often Belgians. 227 Interior of canning factory, Astoria, Oregon; 519 A study in Chinese faces. In 1882 Congress passed a law known as a Chinese Exclusion Act. 72 Children dancing around Maypole, Pennsylvania; 117 Negroes, Louisiana; 175 Apple pickers, Missouri; 187 Butte, Mont. All 206 COMMUNITY CIVICS persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens. Children under twenty-one become citizens by the naturalization of their parents. A foreign woman becomes a citizen if she marries a United States citizen or if her husband becomles naturalized. 7. How the Relations Between the People and the Land Are Made Permanent and Definite 204 Ute Indian, Colorado. The hunting life of the Indian made a fixed dwelling place undesirable. 178, 179, 180 Prairie lands, South Dakota and Nebraska. Our nation has come into possession of vast territories that would be useless if they were not occupied. 180, 181, 184, 18S Farms in Nebraska and Kansas. Most of this land was sold and settled under the Homestead Act. 136 Modern methods of corn harvesting, Indiana. After the Revolu- tionary War, settlers began to enter the Ohio Valley and claim land for farms. 209, 210 Desert and irrigation dam, Arizona. It has constructed reser- voirs and a network of canals. 229 Yosemite Valley, Cal. Another part of the public land consists of the national forests. 213 Ogden, Utah ; 220 Seattle, Wash. Governments may compel prem- ises to be kept clean. 6, 7, 8 Boston; 28, 29, 30 New York. Within certain limits cities do not allow wooden buildings. 230 San Francisco; 31 New York City; 139 Chicago; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Communities may grant the use of their highways to private corporations that render important public service, such as street railways, telephone, and telegraph companies and water and gas companies. 8. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Desire for Health 292 Tortilla making, Salvador, C. A.; 411 Milking the goats. Hard- anger Fjord, Norway. Life and health were almost wholly de- pendent upon the efforts and the arrangement of the family itself. 10 Lexington Common, Mass. ; 33 Dining room and living room ; TH Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y. ; 57 Modern dairy, Plainsboro, N. J., 373 Highland home, Scotland. The most im- portant precaution against disease is cleanliness. 10 Lexington, Mass.; 28 New York City; 51 Palisades, New Jersey; 93, 95 Washington, D. C. ; 126 San Antonio, Texas. Of great importance in large cities is the system of parks. 52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J.; 514 Hong Kong, China. Any ship that enters our harbor may bring with it disease from the slums of Europe or Asia. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 187 Butte, Mont. When a factory pollutes the COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN 207 immediate community, but also of other communities farther down the stream. 141 to 144 Meat packing houses, Chicago, 111. Laws were passed pro- viding for the inspection of meats put up. 29S to 299 Cuba ; 247 to 256 Panama ; 546 to 553 the Philippines. They have caused such dread diseases as smallpox and yellow fever to disappear almost completely from regions occupied by our army in Cuba, Panama, and the Philippines. g. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Protect His Life and . Property 6 Boston; 29 New York City. Now every large city is supplied with water from a reliable source. 526 Tokyo, Japan. Seven-eighths of the fires that occur are the result of a lack of proper precautions in building. 214 Mining camp, Nevada ; 89 Supreme Court, Washington, D. C. One of the most sacred rights of a citizen is the right to a fair trial. 8 Boston. The police of a city patrol its streets at all times. 6 Boston ; 461 Gratz, Austria ; 463 Vienna, Austria ; 486 Kief, Russia ; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Another important arrangement for the safety of property and life is a system of street lighting. 43 Busy path of commerce in central New York; 31 New York City. The thousands of people who travel on the cars each day are at the mercy of those who run the trains. 74 to 79 Coal mines, Pennsylvania. In the year 1911, there were 2,719 men killed and 31,334 injured in the coal mines of the United States. 100 Hampton Roads, Va. ; 242 Submarines and battleships, San Diego Bay, Cal. 254 U. S. S. Missouri, Panama Canal ; 585 American fleet visiting Sydney, Australia. The navy is another means of national protection. 25, 26 New York Harbor ; 128 Conneaut, Ohio ; 164 Ore docks. Two Harbors, Minn; 242 San Diego Bay, Cal. The national gov- ernment has done a great deal for the protection of life and property by improving harbors. 99 Life savers, Va. Every year the life savers perform deeds of heroism. 119 New Orleans, La.; 148 East St. Louis, 111. The national govern- ment has constructed levees. 10. The Relation Between the Community and the Citizen in Busi- ness Life 11, 12, IS Factories in Mass.; 142, 143 Packing houses, Chicago; 151 Detroit, Mich. With the introduction of machinery the division of tasks has been more complete. 14, 15 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. ; 22, 23, 24 Silk mill, Manchester, Conn.; 132, 133 Rubber factory, Akron, Ohio; 134, 135 Glass factory, Rossford, "Ohio. In well organized factories, each work- 208 COMMUNITY CIVICS man devotes his entire time to producing one small part of an article. 136 Indiana; 184 Kansas. In some parts of our country, corn is the chief product. 117 Mississippi; 119 Louisiana; 124 Texas. In other places, cotton is the leading crop. 85 Delaware; 108 Florida; 236, 237, 238 California. Some parts of the country are given over to fruit raising. 127 Texas; 165 Minnesota; 185 Kansas; 188 Montana; 190 Idaho. In some parts of the West cattle or sheep raising takes the place of farming. 74 to 79 Coal raining in Pennsylvania; ISS to 157 Copper mining in Michigan; 176 Joplin, Mo.; 187 Butte, Mont; 225 Oregon; 214 Nevada. In some parts of the country mining is the principal occupation. 1 Maine; 162 The pineries, Minnesota; 215 to 217 Washington. In some places lumbering is the chief occupation. 13 Cod, Gloucester, Mass. ; 226, 227 Salmon, Astoria, Ore. In other places the people are occupied with fishing. 14, 15, 16 Lawrence, Mass. One region becomes famous for its cot- ton manufactures. 22 to 24 So. Manchester, Conn. ; 53 to 55 Paterson, N. J. Other regions become famous for their silk manufactures. 47 Buffalo, ISTi Y.; 149 Celery fields, Kalamazoo,' Mich.; 177 North Dakota. The gardener who gives his whole time to raising vegetables receives in return bread from wheat raised in the Dakotas. 1 Maine woods; 224 Oregon. The history of our country has been very largely a story of the clearing of forests. 161 Draining land, Wisconsin; 210 Phoenix, Ariz. Some of the land had to be reclaimed for agriculture. 155 Copper mines, Calumet, Mich.; 163 Iron mine, Michigan; 116 Iron mines, Alabama. There were mines to be opened. 26 New York Harbor; 52 Docks at Hoboken, N. J.; 129 Conneaut Harbor, Ohio. 119 New Orleans, La.; 106 Savannah, Ga. The history of the country has been greatly influenced by the growth of commerce. 19, 20 Paper mill, Holyoke, Mass.; 62 to 68 Iron mills, Pittsburgh, Pa. 82 Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. The growth of manufacture has determined the growth of the nation. 6, 7 Boston; 25 to 30 New York City; 139 Chicago; 167 Minne- apolis. 174 St. Louis, Mo.; 220 Seattle, Wash. The growth of cities was remarkable. 230 San Francisco, Cal. ; 212 Salt Lake City, Utah ; 213 Ogden, Utah. United States history is the story of the building of railroads and steamboats and telegraphs and telephones. GOVERNMENT AIDS THE CITIZEN 209 178, 179 South Dakota; 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 30 New York City. 139 Chicago; 29 Wall St., New York City; 87, 94 Washington, D. C. The men and women who are today work- ing on the farms or in the mines, in factories and shops, in stores and offices, or in any otlier lines of business, are as truly doing their country a service as those who hold tlie offices of government. 20 Paper factory, Holyoke, Mass.; 40 Collar factory, Troy, N. Y. ; 152 Ford factory, Detroit, Mich. The employer is responsible for the welfare of those who work for him. 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 82 Locomotive works, Philadel- phia, Pa.; 62 to 67 Iron mills, Pittsburgh, Pa. No man's busi- ness belongs to himself alone ; it belongs to the community. 132, 133 Rubber works, Akron, Ohio; 11 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. The community has a right to expect honest goods. It has the right to expect good workmanship. 29 Wall St., New York City; 351 Bank of England, London, Eng- land. By far the greater part of the business dealings between individuals, between communities and between nations is car- ried on by a system of credit. II. How the Government Aids the Citizen by Controlling Business Relations 8 Old State House, Boston; 11, 12 Shoe factory, Massachusetts; 14 to 16 Cotton mill, Lawrence, Mass. When men wish to or- ganize as a corporation it is almost always the state that gives them authority. 26 New York City ; 52 Ocean liners, Hoboken, N. J. ; 48 Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 106 Savannah, Ga. ; 43 Busy path of commerce. Central New York; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 164 Two Har- bors, Minn.; 170 Keokuk, Iowa; 217 Shipping lumber, Washing- ton. Congress was given power to regulate commerce with for- eign nations and among the several states and with the Indian tribes. 84 Mint, Philadelphia, Pa. Congress was given power to coin money. 386 Hamburg Germany;' 422 Paris, France; 433 Barcelona, Spain, etc. Congress has established a consular system. 527 to 529 Rice, Japan; 530 Tea, Japan; 310 Coffee, Brazil; 317 Cattle, Argentina; 412 Paper, Norway; 419 Sugar, Sweden; 488 Wheat, Russia. The consuls investigate the products and manufactures of the countries to which thpy are sent. 357 Harvesting wheat, Ejigland. Consuls try to create a market for United States products, in those countries whose resources are limited. 52 Hoboken, N. J.; 347 Liverpool, England; 307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 314 Buenos Aires, Argentina ; 386 Hamburg, Germany. The consuls try to stimulate friendly business relations between our country and all the world. 210 COMMUNITY CIVICS 43 Central New York; 48 Erie Canal, Buflfalo, N. Y.; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. An Interstate Commerce Commission with authority to inquire into the management of common car- riers. 122, 123 Oil region, Beaumont, Tex. In 1890, passed an anti-trust law. 141 to 144 Meat packing, Chicago, 111. In 1906, a Food and Drugs' Act. 93 Washington, D. C. The Department of Agriculture, the Depart- ment of Commerce, the Department of Labor are means of na- tional cooperation. 12. How the Community Aids the Citizen in Transportation and Communication 71 Wagon, Crawford Co., Pa.. It cost $125 to haul a ton of goods from Philadelphia, Pa. to Pittsburgh, Pa. by wagon. 112 Tobacco field; 124 Cotton gin, Texas; 147 Loading oats, Illinois. 149 Celery fields, Kalamazoo, Mich.; 162 Mir^esota pineries. Ninety- five per cent of every load by train, steamship or express must be carted over a highway. 195 Rocky Mountain Divide, Wyoming; 221 Mt. Hood, Oregon. Where there are hills the cost of hauling is twice as much as in level country for only half as much can be hauled in each load. 48 Mouth Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y.; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 119 Levee, New Orleans, La.; 157 Houghton, Mich. The invention of the steamboat gave a great impetus to water transportation. 43 Railroad train. Central New York; 129 Train load of coal, Con- neaut, Ohio. The rapid use of railways checked the use of rivers. 128 Conneaut, Ohio ; 157 Loading ore on a boat, Houghton, Mich. ; 164 Two Harbors, Minn. The commerce of the Great Lakes has steadily increased, and is today of enormous proportions. 48 Mouth of Erie Canal, Buffalo, N. Y. The Erie Canal is still an important highway. 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. One of the largest of these is the canal at Sault Ste. Marie. 248 to 256 Panama Canal. The greatest canal ever undertaken is the Panama canal. 277 Western terminus of Canadian Pacific, Vancouver, B. C. Steam railways revolutionized transportation. 43 Electric railroad, Central New York. Another important step is the recent growth of electric interurban railways. 7 Boston; 31 New York. The question of transportation in cities is an important one. 6, 7 Boston; 29 New York City; 422 Avenue Champs de Elysees, Paris, France. WASTE AND SAVING 211 90 Washington, D. C. ; 152 Detroit, Mich. First in importance is the street itself. Streets are for the use of the people. 339 Narrow streets of La Guaira, Venezuela. There are ordinances to prevent storekeepers and others from blocking the sidewalks with boxes or otherwise. 31 Many forms of transportation, New York City. Life in cities has been revolutionized by the development of rapid transportation by electric trolley cars, elevated railways and systems of sub- ways. 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba; 28 World Building, New York City. There must be exchange of ideas. We have a postal system, the tele- graph and telephone and the newspaper. 13. Waste and Saving 216 Port Blakely Mills, Puget Sound, Wash. In a well managed saw- mill the waste is made into tool handles, chair rounds and other small articles. 122, 123 Oil region, Texas. From what was formerly wasted in re- fining petroleum are now produced paraffin, vaseline, dyestuffs, etc. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Phoenix, Ariz. The reclamation by irrigation of vast areas of waste land. 93 Washington, D. C. In the Department of Agriculture there is a bureau of soils. 172, 173 Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. The national government cooperates with state governments many of whom have agri- cultural schools. 224 Great tree, Oregon. Our forest resources have been sadly wasted. 222 Crater Lake, Ore.; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley, Cal. The national government has set aside a large number of national forests. 49, SO Niagara Falls, N. Y. Niagara Falls and other sources of water power have been harnessed to generate electrical power. 14. Hov/ the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Desire for Knowledge 260 Public school, Hawaii. Education is not only a privilege; it is a duty. 95 Congressional library, Washington, D. C. There are thousands of libraries all over the country. 172, 173 Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. A number of states provide state universities. IS. Civic Beauty 64 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 163 Burt Mine, Minnesota. Hills are cut away for the resources they contain. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 216 Port Blakely Mills, Puget Sound, Wash. Streams are lined with ugly and noisy factories and clogged with refuse. 63 Pittsburgh, Pa. ; 68 Coke ovens, Connellsville, Pa. The sky is ob- scured with smoke. 212 COMMUNITY CIVICS 191 to 197 Yellowstone Valley, Wyoming; 228, 229 Yosemite Valley, California. Much natural scenery may be preserved by the crea- tion of national and state parks as in the case of the Yellow- stone and the Yosemite. 49, SO Niagara Falls, N. Y. Niagara Falls is in danger of being transformed from one of the greatest wonders of nature into a mere sluice for the turning of mill wheels. Zl Washington's headquarters, Newburgh, N. Y. ; 91 the White House, Washington, D. C. The place to begin beautifying a community is at home. 9 Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. ; 10 Lexington, Mass. The first essential to beauty is neatness and orderliness. 2T2> Highland home, Scotland. There is almost always a spot for vines and flowers to grow if only in window boxes. 3S4 Shakespeare's home, England; 355 Anne Hathaway's home, Eng- land ; 360 York, England ; 422 Paris, France. Whole squares and whole streets present an unbroken view of beauty. 83 School gardens, Philadelphia, Pa. School children transformed vacant lots, barren, disorderly places into beautiful flower and vegetable gardens. 305 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The street is public property. 28, 29, 31 New York City; 337 Street in Barranquilla, Colombia; 351 Bank of England, London, England. In cities good pavements are perhaps the first essential to beautiful streets. 90, 93 Washington, D. C. ; 339 La Guaira, Venezuela; 341 Caracas, Venezuela. In the matter of clean streets, prevention is better than cure. 90, 93 Washington, D. C. ; 222 Crater Lake, Ore. Among the most beautiful objects in nature are trees. 71 Crawford Co., Pa. What is more beautiful than a country road lined with ti-ees? 220 Seattle, Wash. A great deal of monotony is produced in our streets. 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba. Telegraph and telephone poles are un- sightly. 93, 95 Washington, D. C; 126 San Antonio, Tex.; 312 Montevideo, Uruguay. 316 Buenos Aires, Argentina; 324 Santiago, Chile; 329 Monte Misti, Peru. 340 Caracas, Venezuela. All cities have their systems of parks and boulevards. 28 New York City ; 220 Seattle, Wash. Small parks with grass and trees, ■ flowers and fountains which may bring a little pleasure into the lives of those who seldom enjoy the fresh air of the country. 63 Pittsburg, Pa. ; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Smoke, like the network of wires, has been assumed to be a necessity. HOW CITIES GOVERN THEMSELVES 213 7, 8 Boston, Mass.;; 31 New York City. As wires are disappearing, so is smoke. 405 Copenhagen, Denmark. Art museums are being established. 90, 93 Washington, D. C. Cities themselves are more thoughtfully planned. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah; 220 Seattle, Wash. One of the first steps toward making good citizens is to give them pleasant sur- roundings. i6. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy His Religious Desire 295 Havana, Cuba; 324 Santiago, Chile; 335 Bolivia; 109 St. Au- gustine, Fla. The Spaniards made their conquests in the name of religion. 6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass. The Pilgrims came to find free- dom of worship. 87 Capitol, Washington, D. C. Congress can not make any law re- specting the establishment of religion. 6 Old North Church, Boston, Mass.; 29 Trinity, New York City; 36 Church at Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. ; 109 Old Spanish Church, St. Augustine, Fla. ; 212 Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah. Our government allows the greatest personal liberty in religion. 17. How the Cities of a Community Govern Themselves 87, 95 Washington, D. C. Government is the servant of the people, not their master. 96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. ; 181 Farm home, Lin- coln, Neb. The state prescribes the rules for family relations. 11 Factory, Massachusetts; 159 Barns and cattle, Wisconsin; 160 Corn crop, Wisconsin. 188 Ranch, Montfcna. The state pro- tects our property, etc. 28 City buildings, New York City. Local governments are merely branches of state governments. Their duties are chiefly ad- ministrative. 7 Town Hall, Boston; 28 City building, New York City. Matters of local interest are in the hands of local government. 43 Transportation, Central New York. Matters of more general interest are regulated by the state. 87, 88 Washington, D. C. Laws are made by the legislative branch. 91' White House, Washington, D. C. The enforcement of these laws is intrusted to the executive branch. 89 Supreme Court, Washington, D. C. If any question arises as to the meaning of the laws, it is finally settled by the judiciary. 28 City Building, New York City; 88 Congress, Washington, D. C. The right to vote for representatives in the government is a privilege prescribed by state-constitutions. 243 to 246 Alaska. Women in Alaska have the right to vote. 8 Boston; 29 New York City; 109 St. Augustine, Fla. Difference of 214 COMMUNITY CIVICS opinion makes political parties. The party may be a local party, concerned with such a question as paving a street. 117 Negroes, Mississippi. Parties may be national, arising out of some great question, as the extension of slavery. 88 Congress, Washington, D. C. At first the representatives of each party in Congress used to nominate candidates for President and Vice-President. 110 Negro, Florida; 117 Negroes, Mississippi; 124 Cotton gin, Texas; 204 Ute Indian, Colorado; 227 Canning factory, Astoria, Ore. The right of citizens of the. United States to vote shall not be abridged on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. s. , . 9, 10 Colonial houses, Massachusetts. In colonial times, the right to vote was denied to those who did not own a certain amount of property. 6 Old North Church, Boston; 29 Trinity Church, New York City. In colonial times, it was common to deny the vote to all who were not members of the church. 198 Colorado; 218 Washington; 233 California; 184 Kansas; 210 Ari- zona. Colorado, Washington, California, Kansas and Arizona have women suffrage. They all are progressive and prosperous. i8. Changing Methods of Self-Government 87 to 90 Washington, D. C. Few of the people actually take direct ■ part in the government — not many citizens can hold office. 96 Mt. Vernon, Va. The men who will best look after community business are most often men who have large interests of their own. 88 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. The choice of a good President depends on Ifce choice of a good man. 25, 26, 30 New York City. In large communities, it is difficult to know the various candidates and their merits. 88 President Wilson, Washington, D. C. ; 146 Lincoln's tomb, Spring- field, ^ III. To secure united action, there must be organization under leaders. 87, 88 Washington, D. C. The defeated parties should have rep- resentation and their views should be considered. 220 Seattle, Wash. The " recall " is used especially in the west to remove officials who are not properly fulfilling the obligations of office. 75, 76 Miners, Pennsylvania; 107 Savannah, Ga. ; 115 Columbia, Tenn. ; 147 Farmers, Illinois; 152 Factory men, Detroit, Mich.; 161 Farmers, Wisconsin; 167 MinneapoUs, Minn.; 175 Farmers, Missouri. " The initiative " and " referendum " are methods by which people themselves take direct action in law making. These are types of people. • 117 Negroes, Miss.; 227 Canning factory, Astoria, Ore. The chief argument against the " initiative " and " referendum " is that the RURAL COMMUNITIES 215 people as a whole are not sufficiently informed to vote upon im- portant laws. 89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. Party feeling should not be allowed to enter into some appointments, such as judges. 2S3 London; 383 Berlin; 421 Paris; 462 Vienna, Austria Hungary. In some foreign countries, young men go into training for pub- lic service. 11 Factory hands, Massachusetts and 152 Detroit, Mich.; 103 Farm- ers, South Carolina; 124 Farmers, Texas; 144 Packers, Chi- cago. In our country, the feeling seems to prevail that every citizen is competent to hold an office if he can get it. 19. The Government of Rural Communities 6 Old North Church, Boston. In early New England, a town was a little village with its surrounding farms governed by all the free- men who belonged to the church. 7 Town House, Boston. The town meeting, held in the town house, chose the officers and levied the tax. 96 Mt. Vernon, Va.; 104, IDS Rice fields. South Carolina; 117 Cot- ton plantation, Mississippi. The South was rich farming land, so the colonists scattered to large plantations and county gov- ernment developed. 38 Hudson Valley, N. Y. ; 47 Farm, Buffalo, N. Y. ; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 71 Crawford Co., Pa.; 69 Oil fields, Pennsylvania. New York and Pennsylvania, lying between New England and Vir- ginia, developed both township and county governments. 165, 166 Country, Minnesota; 178, 179 Country, South Dakota; 190 Sheep range, Idaho; 188 Ranch, Montana; 180, 181 Country, Nebraska. The country system is more practicable in the West, for the population is widely" scattered. 25 to 31 New York City; 139 Chicago. Some counties are occupied wholly by large cities. 237 to 240 Los Angeles County, Cal. The present law in Los Angeles County provides for the election of not more than three officers in one year. 228 to 242 California. By state law in California each county has the right to adopt its own charter. 20. The Government of Cities 6 to 8 Boston; 25 to 31 New York City; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 121 Oklahoma City, Okla. ; 139 Chicago ; 167 Minneapolis, Minn. ; 212 Salt Lake City, Utah. 213 Ogden, Utah; 220 Seattle, Wash. ; 230 San Francisco, Cal. The growth of cities in the United States has been very rapid and they have brought many serious problems. 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 139 Chicago. American cities are constantly be- ing made over. 128, 131 to 135 Ohio; 228 to 242 California. Some states as Ohio and California allow their cities to draft their own charters. 216 COMMUNITY CIVICS 28 City Building, New York City. City government is most com- monly vested in a council and mayor. 21. The Government of the Nation 87, 88 Washington, D. C. Congress shall consist of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. 88 President Wilson, Washington, D. C. The President is the chief executive officer. He may convene either or both houses; he must give to them his message. 92 Cabinet room, Washington, D. C. The President with the con- sent of the Senate appoints the Cabinet. 384 Berlin; 435 Madrid, Spain; 526 Tokyo, Japan. The Secretary of State maintains relations between the United States and other countries. Through him government notes are sent and treaties such as the Panama treaty are made. 448 Switzerland ; 452 Rome ; 578 Hunter, South Africa. Through him the rights of Americans in foreign countries are looked after. 282 City of Mexico; 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. If any of the inde- pendent countries of North or South America get into trouble with any other nation, our State Department, acting under the Monroe Doctrine, is an interested party. 29 Sub Treasury, New York City; 84 Mint, Philadelphia; 94 Public Buildings, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of the Treasury is the financial manager of the national government. 29 Sub-Treasury, New York City; 87 Capitol, Washington; 90 Pub- lic Buildings, Washington, D. C; 95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. He controls the construction and mainte- nance of public buildings. 99 Life saving service, Va. The Secretary of the Treasury has charge of the life-saving service. 39 West Point, N. Y.; 90 Navy Building, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of War has control, under the President, of the mili- tary establishment of the nation. 25 New York Harbor; 120 Mississippi mouth; 148 Dikes, East St. Louis, 111. He administers river and harbor improvements. 257, 258 Porto Rico; 546 to 553 PhiUppines. He directs the Bureau of Insular Affairs, which supervises the civil government of Porto Rico and the Philippines. 100 Hampton Roads, Va. ; 242 Submarines and battle ships, San Diego, Cal.; 296 Wrecked battleship Maine, Havana Harbor; 254 U. S. S. Missouri in Panama Canal; 585 U. S. fleet, visiting Australia. The Secretary of the Navy superintends all mat- ters pertaining to the construction, manning, equipment and em- ployment of vessels of war. 554 Guam. Guam is governed by the United States naval officer sta- tioned there. 191 to 197 Yellowstone Park; 220 Crater Lake Park; 228, 229 Yo- semite Valley, Cal. The Secretary of the Interior has charge of public lands and care of national parks. GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 217 12, 14, 16 Machinery patented, Massachusetts; 62. to 67 Machinery patented, Pittsburgh, Pa. He has charge of the giving of pat- ents. 182 Sioux Indians, Nebraska; 204 Ute Indians, Colorado. He takes care of Indian affairs. 210 Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. The Secretary of the Interior has charge of the reclamation service. 75, 76 Coal miners, Pennsylvania. He promotes improvement in methods of mining and safety of miners. 38 Farms, Hudson Valley, N. Y.; 85 Delaware; 104, 105 Rice fields, South Carolina; 118 Peanuts, Arkansas; 147 Oats, Illinois; 166 Potatoes, Minnesota; 175 Apples, Missouri; 199 Dry farming, Colorado. The Secretary of Agriculture promotes the general agricultural interest of the country. 224 Great trees, Oregon. He administers the forest service. 71 Crawford Co., Pa. He assists in the development of good roads. 43 Central New York; 48 Erie Canal, New York; 52 Docks, Hoboken, N. J.; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.; 106 Savannah, Ga.; 119 New Or- leans, La.; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 217 Washington; 13 Cod, Gloucester, Mass.; 226 Salmon, Astoria, Ore. The Sec- retary of Commerce is to promote the commercial interests of the nation at home and abroad. He has charge of the Bureau of fisheries. 4, 5 Marble workers. Proctor, Vt. ; 11, 20 Factory hands, Massa- chusetts ; 53 to 55 Silk workers, New Jersey ; 63, 65, 66, 68 Men in steel mills, Pittsburgh, Pa.; 74 to 79 Coal miners, Pennsyl- vania; 82 Baldwin locomotive works, Philadelphia, Pa.; 131 to 133, etc. Rubber factory workers, Akron, Ohio. The Secretary of Labor is charged with the duty of fostering, promoting and developing the welfare of the wage-earners of the United States. 32 Ellis Island, N. Y. He has care of the Bureau of Immigration. 89 Supreme Court Room, Washington, D. C. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as shall from time to time be established by Congress. 243 to 246 Alaska; 259 to 261 Hawaii. Alaska and Hawaii are terri- tories. 257, 258 Porto Rico ; 546 to 553 Philippines. Porto Rico and the Phil- ippines are dependencies. 218 -COMMUNITY CIVICS Note: — This page for teachers' notes. 16. CITIES OF THE WORLD By JOHN NOLEN, A.M., Sc.D. CITY PLANNER, LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASS. The city looms big in the modern world. Not only in the United States, but in every progressive country, population is increasing very much more rapidly in cities than in rural dis- tricts, especially in England, America, and Germany. Man has entered on an urban age. Already 80 per cent, of the population of the United Kingdom dwells in cities. In the United States the growth of cities is one of the most striking facts, as the following percentages of the cities' popu- lation here given illustrate : — In 1880, 29.5 per cent, of the people of this country dwelt in cities; in 1890, 36.1 per cent.; in 1900, 40.5 per cent; in 1910, 46.3 per cent. Today we may safely say that virtually one-half of the population of the United States is a city population. In contrast it may be noted that a hundred years ago only about 5 per cent, of the population of this country was living in places of 8,000 in- habitants or more. The growth of population in cities is directly reflected in their greatly increased wealth and influence. The city has become one of the main problems of modern democratic so- ciety, and is already the most accurate measure of our civiliza- tion and culture. Cities, like people, have temperament and personalities of their own. It has been said that American cities are all alike. To some extent this is unfortunately true, when we compare our cities with those of the Old World. Yet what different types are represented by a comparison, for example, of New York with New Orleans, of Philadelphia with San Francisco, of Boston with Washington, of Chicago with San Antonio. The natural distinctiveness of cities due to origin, history, tradition, topography, climate, dominant function, or what not, should be looked upon as a characteristic to be preserved 2ig 220 CITIES OF THE WORLD and not destroyed. Indeed, a main part of the problem of planning and improving cities should be to protect, develop and enhance this peculiar quality which each city may, or should, have. Thus its buildings, its streets, its parks, its monuments and its water-fronts may become at once an ex- pression of its higher life of service, and of its individuality. The building of cities is now one of the great constructive en- terprises upon which mankind has seriously launched, and one full of possibilities for good. The ancient city was mainly military, while the modern city is primarily industrial and commercial. The study of cities from early days to the present, especially in this industrial age, is full of interest and profit. In fact, it is essential as a background to the understanding of man's development, and as a basis for an efficient participation in modern life. Part I THE GROWTH AND PLANNING OF CITIES A. CITY MAKING The modern movement for city planning in the United States may be said to have begun about 1890, with a special stimulus along certain lines in 1893 through the influence of the World's Fair at Chicago., A large amount of city planning, much of it of a high order, was done earlier. In no sense, however, did it represent a movement — it was not widespread, and it was not continuous nor persistent. Notable examples of earlier city planning are: William Penn's plan for Philadelphia in 1682, and the plans for other Pennsylvania cities, like Reading, for instance, which were connected with it; the plan for Williamsburg, Va., in 1699; Oglethorpe's plan for Savannah, in 1733; the great plan of L'Enfant for Washington, D. C, in 1790. The ideas of most significance in the modern city planning move- ment are : The increasing dependence of the individual upon the pros- perity of the city as a whole; the importance of planning, not merely for the' routine requirements, but also for those of the future ; and the necessity, for reasons of economy as well as success, to co-ordinate the planning of the various features so that the improvement to be carried out will be well related, one to another, far-seeing and permanent. I. General Views of Cities Showing Character of City Plans 25 View looking down on New York's skyscrapers. 26 General view of water front. New Vork City. 27 View of river and Brooklyn Bridge, New York. ' 28 General view of old and new city halls. New York City. CIVIC LIFE CENTERS 221 30 Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. 90 Pennsylvania Avenue from White House to Capitol. 93 Panorama of Washington from monument east to Capitol. 126 General view of San Antonio, Texas. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah. 230 General view of Market Street, San Francisco. 248 Looking down on the city and bay of Panama. 264 View of Quebec from Dufferin Terrace. 282 City of Mexico. 304 Lower city and harbor, Bahia, Brazil, So. Am. 326 The bay and city, Valparaiso, Chile. 338 La Guaira, Venezuela. 360 A glimpse of the old city of York, England. 365 View of the heart of Edinburgh, Scotland. 375 General view of Patrick's Bridge, Cork, Ireland. 386 Hamburg, Germany. 387 Market place, Nuremburg, Germany. General view. 389 Kleber place, in the heart of Strassburg, Germany. 401 View of a Dutch fishing village. 421 Bird's-eye view of Paris from Arch of Triumph. 422 Avenue des Champs, Elysees, Paris. 434 General view of Burgos, Spain. - 435 Panorama of Madrid, Spain. 450 Rome from the balcony of St. Peter's. 457 Grand Canal, Venice, Italy. 472 General view, Constantinople. 473 Market and surroundings at Stamboul, Constantinople. 475 Athens and the Acropolis, Greece. 483 The Kremlin, Moscow, Russia. 492 Birds-eye view of Beyrout, Syria. 495 View of Jerusalem from Mount of Olives, Palestine. 526 Tokio, the Japanese capital. 558 Birds-eye view of Alexandria, Egypt. 586 Melbourne, Australia. 2. Places in which Civic Life Centers Including Monuments 28 New York City — old and new city halls. 87,90,91,95 Washington, D. C— The Capitol, White House, etc. 126 San Antonio, Texas — Alamo Plaza. 220 Seattle, Wash. — park and boulevard system. 283 City of Mexico, Mexico — soldier's monument. 309 Sao Paulo, Brazil — Municipal Theatre. 312 Montevideo, Uruguay — Plaza. 315 Buenos Aires, Argentina- — government buildings. 324 Santiago, Chile — Plaza — also capital city. 340 Caracas, Venezuela — Halls of Congress. 351 London, England — Bank of England. 352 London, England — House of Lords. 222 CITIES OF THE WORLD 356 Stratford-on-Avon, England — Shakespeare's Memorial Theater. 360 York, England — cathedral. 365 Edinburgh, Scotland — Princess St. and Waverley Gardens. 368 Stirling, Scotland — Wallace monument. 380 Dublin, Ireland — CyConnell statue. 383 Berlin, Germany — Konigs Platz. 384 Berlin, Germany — bronze statue of Frederick the Great. 387 Nuremburg, Germany — market place. 389 Strassburg, Germany — Kleber Place. 393 Cologne, Germany — market. 395 Brussels, Belgium — market 397 Namur, Belgium — Citadel Park. 404 Copenhagen, Denmark — Queen Louise Bridge and park. 416 Stockholm, Sweden — monument. 421 Paris, France — Eiffel Tower. 423 Paris, France — flower market. 424 Paris, France — Grand Opera House and Opera Place. 433 Barcelona, Spain — Columbus monument. 435 Madrid, Spain — Fete grounds. 450 Rome, Italy — Plaza of St. Peters. 460 Innsbruck, Austria — monument — Maria Theresa Platz. 461 Gratz, Austria — public square. 463 Vienna, Austria — Graben. 466 Sarajevo, Bosnia, Austria — market place. 473 Constantinople, Turkey — market place. 476 Athens, Greece — Constitution Square. 482 Petrograd, Russia — park by winter palace. 485 Warsaw, Poland — market. 502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal. 503 Delhi, India — space before Mosque. 535 Japanese garden. 555 Tangier, Morocco — market place. 560 Cairo, Egypt — great Nile bridge. 582 Cape Town, South Africa — parade grounds. 587 Melbourne, Australia — Parliament Building. 3. Historic Buildings and Other Places of Unusual Interest 6 Boston, Mass.— Old North Church. 7 Boston, Mass. — Faneuil Hall. 8 Boston, Mass.— Old State House. 9 Cambridge, Mass. — Longfellow's home. 10 Lexington, Mass. — common. 25 New York City — skyscrapers — Statue of Liberty. 28 New York City — Old City Hall. 36 Sleepy Hollow, N. Y. — cemetery. il Newburgh, N. Y. — Washington's headquarters. 49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. 73 Gettysburg, Pa.— Gulp's Hill. 80 Philadelphia, Pa.— Liberty Bell. TRANSPORTATION 223 87 Washington, D. C— Capitol. 91 Washington, D. C— White House. 95 Washington, D. C— Library of Congress. 109 St. Augustine, Fla.— old slave market. 113 Hodgensville, Ky. — cabin, Lincoln's birthplace. 146 Marshall Joffre and French Commission at Lincoln's tomb. 1S4 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.— greatest canal traffic. 208 Grand Canyon of the Colorado, Ariz. 241 San Gabriel Mission, Southern California. 264 Quebec, Canada — view from Dufferin Terrace. 300 Martinique, French West Indies — volcano. 349 London, England — Tower of London. 350 London England — Westminster Abbey. 353 Greenwich, England — Royal Observatory. 354 Stratford-on-Avon, England — Shakespeare's birthplace. 355 Shottery, England — Anne Hathaway's cottage. 360 York, England — cathedral. 361 Grasmere, England — lake and village. 362 Rydal Mount, England — Wordsworth's home. 367 Stirling, Scotland — castle. 369 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, Scotland. 372 Ayr, Scotland • — Burns' cottage room. 376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. 377 Lakes of Killarney, Ireland. 382 Giant's Causeway, Ireland. 391 Bingen on the Rhine, Germany. 425 Paris, France — Notre Dame. 427 Chamonix, France — glacier. 436 Granada, Spain • — Alhambra. 439 Gibraltar. 445 to 448 Alpine towns and villages. 452 Rome, Italy — Coliseum. 453 Naples, Italy — Vesuvius. 458 Milan, Italy — cathedral. 472 Constantinople, Turkey — Golden Horn. 475 Athens, Greece — Acropolis. 478 Olympia, Greece — Temple of Zeus. 483 Moscow, Russia — Kremlin. 502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal. 525 Tokyo, Japan — Fuji-Yama. 565 Sphinx and Second Pyramid, Egypt. 567 Thebes, Egypt — colossi. 568 Karnak, Egypt — ruins. 4. Transportation Cities are vitally dependent on transportation. It to a large extent determines their location and affects their growth. Local transporta- tion for people and merchandise is an important problem of city life. See classification on Transportation, 224 CITIES OF THE WORLD 5. Factories and Mills 11, 12 Massachusetts — shoes. 14, 15, 16 Lawrence, Mass. — cotton. 17, 18 Lawrence, Mass. — woolen. 19,20 Holyoke, Mass. — paper. 21 Providence, R. I.— jewelry. 22,23,24 South Manchester, Conn. — silk. 34,35 New York City — sugar. 40 Troy, N. Y.— linen collars. 41 Syracuse, N. Y.— shoes. 42 Syracuse, N. Y.— salt. 53,54,55 Paterson, N. J.— silk. 58,59 Trenton, N. J.— pottery. 81 Philadelphia, Pa.— woolen. 82 Philadelphia, Pa. — locomotives. 124, 12s Greenville, Tex.— cotton gin. 131, 132, 133 Akron, Ohio — rubber. 150, 151, 152 Detroit, Mich.— automobiles. 227 Astoria, Ore. — salmon canning. 268, 269 Canada — linen manufacture. 270,271 Canada — beet sugar. 272 Canada ^ leather. 286 Orizaba, Mexico — cotton. 484 Nizhni Novgorod, Russia — bells. 506 Srinagar, Kashmir — -shawls. 512 Ratnapora, Ceylon — grinding gems. 532 Japan- — shoe shop. 541 Kiryu, Japan — silk. 553 Philippines ^ manila hemp. B. THE ELEMENTS OF CITY PLANS I. Streets and Roads In building a city the first act usually is to lay out some kind of a street system. The importance of a street in the city plan rests in the fact that it is the channel of all the ordinary means of circulation and public service, that it is essential to the profitable development and use of property, that only through the opportunities it offers can there be" any broad or attractive expression of municipal life, and that only through a comprehensive, well ordered system of main streets can the. functions of the city be performed with economy and efficiency. City planning means first of all, adequate facilities for circulation. The greatest problems are those of main thoroughfares and street railways considered in connection with the framework of steam railroads. Such a system should be planned for every town and city that hopes for a well ordered and satisfactory growth. 6 Typical street of old Boston affording interesting view of historic North Church. STREETS AND ROADS 225 29 Wall Street, the financial center of the United States. Picturing view of old Trinity Church on Broadway, at end of street. 30 Looking up Broadway from Bowling Green, New York City. Note narrow street, high buildings and resulting congestion of street traffic. 31 One of the chief problems of the street in large cities is that of transportation. A good example of the use of surface- cars, ele- vated railroads and subways (note entrance). 90 Comprehensive view of Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C, from the White House to the Capitol. Notice Treasury Build- ing and Post Office. 121 Clean, wide, well paved street in Oklahoma City. High building (in foreground) is unnecessary in city of this character. 139 State Street, Chicago. Wide street with ample sidewalks for shoppers. High buildings and inadequate transportation system have brought unnecessary congestion to the " loop district." 167 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis. A worthy center for retail trade. , Like Fifth Avenue, New York, it is free from street rail- ways. 230 Market Street, the main traffic way of San Francisco. A notable street in location, width and terminal views. 273 Main Street, Winnipeg, Canada, has the generous width of the prairies and the unfinished character typical of new cities of rapid growth in Canada and the United States. Compare with Avenida Rio Branco (305), a South American example of bet- ter city planning methods. 305 Avenida Rio Branco, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. A new street laid out through the heart of a large city. Notice details of street works and character of buildings. High standards of street planning and suitable laws make this kind of improvement prac- ticable in South America and Europe. Contrast American streets. 308 Rua 15th of November (Independence Day), Sao Paulo, Brazil. Narrow business street in the old Portuguese section of the city. In the newer parts the streets are wide and beautiful. 337 Quaint scene in one of the streets of Barranquilla, Colombia, South America. An example of street and buildings well adapted to local needs. 351 Threadneedle Street, London, England, with view of the Bank of England. A typical example of an important street intersection in the old city of London. Note irregular street lines and building locations and character of street traffic. At times this great center of business is very, very busy. 365 Princess Street and Waverley Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland. The finest street in Scotland and one of the most beautiful in the world. A unique street composition, representing skill and planning worthy of the highest praise. The monument of Sir Walter Scott is notable as the dominant artistic feature. 380 Sackville Street, Dublin, Ireland, a street widened a century ago 226 CITIES OF THE WORLD when Ireland had its own Parliament. The great statue there is that of Daniel O'Connell, the Irish leader and beyond is the memorial monument to Admiral Nelson. 381 Royal Avenue, Belfast, Ireland, a broad modern street, typical in development of this northern Irish metropolis. Compare with street views in the United States and South America. 399 A street of water, Zaandam, Netherlands. This is a public high- way. Note houses facing on the canal. 406 Krystal-Gade, Copenhagen, Denmark. This street, its traffic and flanking buildings are characteristic of Denmark. The most in- teresting structure is the Round Tower of Trinity Church, the view from which is very fine. 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris. One of the great streets of the world. It symbolizes the magnificence and nobility of France. No description is adequate. It must be seen. 4SS Street scene in Palermo, Sicily. In Southern Italy and Sicily the people work and play in the streets. They are sociable and love to gather, talk and carry on their occupations (sewing apd lace making) outdoors. The street scenes are always picturesque. 457 The Grand Canal is a main street or thoroughfare for Venice, just as the Champs Elysees is for Paris, Unter den Linden for Berlin or Fifth Avenue for New York. 463 The Graben, a busy street in the Inner City, Vienna, Austria. Note uniformity of buildings and regularity of sky line. 464 Andrassy Street, Budapest, Hungary. Regular, almost monoto- nous development of a long straight busines's street. Everjrthing orderly, clean and neat. 468 A good example of street life in Sofia, Bulgaria. The people en- joy being outdoors. The sidewalk coffee house, the picturesque costumes and the easy going character of the men and women •shown in the picture are indications of habits of life different from our own. 474 Street scene in Constantinople, Turkey. Compare with Sofia, Bul- garia, and Vienna, Austria. 486 Krestchatik, principal street of Kiev, Russia, a city of 500,000. people. Compare with European and American city streets, no- ticing differences in construction and use. 493 View over the roofs of Damascus, Syria. The large semi-circular pipe-like construction is the steel covering over a narrow street. It furnishes protection from the sun. 504 A spacious thoroughfare in Jaipur, India. Jaipur was built in 1728 by a native ruler of the same name, who had ideas on the planning and building of cities. He laid out his capital care- fully after a set plan, the main streets being all 111 feet wide and straight. The cross streets are also straight ?Lnd at right angles to the main streets just as many streets in American cities are. The streets are all paved and curbed and have broad side^ walks. All this makes Jaipur look like a western city. The merit of such a development is questionable. Streets should be BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS 227 laid out and developed to meet the needs of the people and not in imitation of other places. 513 Queen's Road, the busiest street in Hongkong, China. It of- fers many interesting contrasts to streets of Europe and Amer- ica. 516 Street construction in Nanking, China. Men take the place of animals or motor engines in such work because they are cheaper. 542 A street scene in Seoul, Korea. Everyone wears white, even when the house-tops are covered with snow. Note that there are no wheeled vehicles and consequently no roads fit for them. The strength of the nation is in the coolie's back. 547 The Calle Real, or King Street, Manila, P. I. Narrow, uninter- esting street. 557 Gates at one of main streets of Tunis, Africa. On the streets within, one sees camels, donkeys, medicine-men, snake-charmers, water-carriers, Mohammedan women with veils over their faces, fierce Arabs, French goldiers, Jewesses in white trousers, and Turks in bright pantaloons. 590 A street in Hobart (pop. 28,000), the leading city and capital of Tasmania. Much like an ordinary small modern American city with its telegraph and trolley poles. 2. Bridges and Viaducts Bridges and viaducts span bodies of water or valleys or roads, thus affording passage and conveyance for people and goods. There are many types, the principal being arch bridges, suspension bridges, girder bridges, and sometimes mixed types. The choice of type for any par- ticular location or purpose depends largely upon the cost, the strength or permanence desired, and the appearance. Masonry bridges of the arch type, where suitable, are ordinarily preferred for appearance. 27 Suspension Bridge, New York. Built at cost of fifteen million dollars. It required thirteen years, 1870-1883, to construct. 61 General view of bridges at Pittsburg. The Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio River where Pitts- burg is now located. It has more bridges than any other city in the United States. 101 View of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Bridge at Harpers Ferry, W. Va., situated at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Po- tomac rivers. 170 Great power dam and locks in the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa. This dam, with the power house, lock, dry lock, sea wall, and ice fender, all made of concrete, have a total length of two and one-half miles. The lock is 400 feet long and 110 feet wide. 174 Eads Bridge, St. Louis, Mo., costing over ten million dollars, with sections for railways to pass over it. It has also driveways for vehicles, and walks for foot passengers. The high arches pro- vide the necessary clearance for large river steamboats. 228 CITIES OF THE WORLD 210 The Roosevelt Dam, near Phoenix, Ariz., was built by the United States Reclamation Service. 330 A railway bridge in Peru. An engineer from the United States laid out this railway, solving the problems of tunnels, bridges, curves and cuts. 348 London Bridge. Every day more than a hundred thousand peo- ple walk over this bridge, and more than twenty thousand ve- hicles cross it. There has been a London Bridge since 1209. The present bridge, completed in 1831, is 928 feet long and 63 feet wide. It consists of five granite arches. 366 The great Forth Bridge, spanning the Firth of Forth, Queens- ferry, near Edinburgh, Scotland. 375 Patrick's Bridge, crossing the River Lee, Cork, Ireland. It is constructed of limestone. 379 Suspension Bridge at Kenmare, County Kerry, in the west of Ireland, not far from Killarney, and in the same scenic district. 392 Stone and steel bridge over the historic Rhine at Bonn. 2)91 Bridge at Namur, Belgium, over the River Meuse, the natural fron- tier between Belgium and Germany. 400 View of the docks, and the bridge, lifted to allow vessels to pass, at Rotterdam. Economic and attractive development combined, as in all Dutch cities. 404 The Queen Louise Bridge leads to Copenhagen proper to the north part of a section called Frederiksborg. Along either side of the stream are parks and beautiful^ broad streets. Note fine ap- proaches to bridge. 416 Bridge in the very heart of Stockholm, connecting the old cen- tral town of Staden with Norrmalm, a northern suburb. Rivers, if properly bridged, unify a city, and provide facilities for de- velopment on both sides. 423 St. Michael's Bridge, Paris, is one of the chief passageways from the Latin Quarter to the larger part of the city that lies on the right bank of the Seine. The flower market is shown as it looks at six o'clock in the morning, and the universal love of flowers by French people of all classes is here illustrated. 442 Chapel Bridge, familiar to all travelers, crossing the River Reuss, Lucerne. A roofed bridge which winds across the river, fur- nishing a most convenient connection. The tower near the cen- ter of the bridge is the old Wasserthurn. 450 River Tiber, and its bridges. Also see 451. 451 Note character of arched bridge over the Tiber, with retaining walls and embankments. Also the Castle of St. Angelo and St. Peter's Cathedral. 456 A succession of bridges across the Arno at Florence. The most- interesting of all is the one in the foreground, the Ponte Vecchio, providing communication between Uffizi and Pitti Palaces. Broad and handsome quays called Lungarno skirt the river. 470 The big railroad bridge over the Danube at Czernavoda, Roumania, one of the centers of heavy fighting in the European War. WATERWAYS AND HARBORS 229 % 472 A busy bridge connecting Stamboul, the seat of the Turkish gov- ernment, with Galata, the business center of the town, toward which we are looking. The high tower in Galata is used as a lookout for fires. 500 The Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly River, Calcutta, India. 560 Drawbridge over the Nile, Egypt. Traffic across the bridge is mixed, and there appears to be no regulation or order. 3. Waterways, Water Fronts, and Harbors The proper development of water frontages, harbors and docks is es- sential to practical city building. The most obvious division of the waterways is into wide and narrow. The former comprise the large lakes, the ocean with its wide straits, bays, and other frontages, broad rivers, and in general, all those waters on the borders of which vessels can be moored at right angles to the shore. Narrow waterways con- sist of canals, canalized rivers, and some narrow frontages of the ocean. It may be said in general that the width of waterway is not so im- portant as its continuation as far as possible into the upland. Many narrow waterways, like those at Cleveland and Chicago, for example, carry great tonnages, thus serving the industrial districts which they tap. The development upon the upland determines to a large extent the type of the adjacent water front structures. Three types are of great- est importance: (1) The commercial, providing for large manufac- turing and shipping interests ; (2) the residential, adapted to the lo- cation of beautiful homes and private estates ; and (3) the recreational use of water frontages for park, boulevard and other recreational pur- poses. Cities that are fortunate in also being ports should base their city plans upon the peculiar opportunity that the port affords. Mistakes in planning and development which exist at most of the older port cities of the United States should gradually be corrected, and new improve- ments undertaken with reference to a preconceived design. The water front constitutes one of the chief features of any city lo- cated on navigable water. Therefore the proper correlation of water carriers with other forms of transportation is of the utmost importance. Both beauty and utility call for development in accordance with a plan that recognizes the need for unity. Experience teaches that develop- ment on the basis of unity is possible usually only where the policy of complete public ownership prevails. 25 View of part of New York water front and Statue of Liberty from the Woolworth Tower. » ■ 26 The water front of New York City from the Brooklyn side, showing the shipping and buildings of lower Manhattan. 27 View of the East River and the Brooklyn Bridge, New York. 32 The gateway for immigrants to America at Ellis Island, New York. 39 The Hudson River has great variety of scenery, some of the 230 CITIES OF THE WORLD 9 finest being in the neighborhood of West Point, as shown in illustration. 48 The Erie Canal has been a source of commercial wealth to Buffalo and other cities located on its banks. 50 The water front of Niagara Falls and the Niagara River have made important contributions to both the wealth of the country and the pleasure of its people. 51 The Palisades of the Hudson are a form of natural scenery whose preservation depends upon public ownership and control. 52 Many of the docks of the great Trans-Atlantic liners are located in Hoboken, across the river from New York. 60 Atlantic City, N. J., is the most popular all-the-year-round seaside resort in the United States, with more than a million visitors yearly. The chief attractions are the beach, the Board Walk, the fine hotels, and the equable climate. 61 Pittsburgh owes its importance as an industrial city partly to its water front, and the means of communication which it furnishes. 99 Operations -of the life-saving corps at the Jamestown Exposi- tion. 100 Warships of the United States in Hampton Roads at the time of the Jamestown Exposition. 101 The water front at Harpers Ferry, West Va. 106 The Savannah River is given over to commercial development. It is one of the first ports on the Atlantic seaboard in the amount of cotton which it ships. 110 One of the terrors of our Southern rivers, as shown here at Palm Beach, a famous resort, is the dread of alligators. 111 The harbor of Key West, Florida, is an important sponge mar- ket. 119 New Orleans is a fair example of the many levees on the Mis- sissippi River where cotton is one of the staple shipments. 120 The Delta of the Mississippi River, Louisiana, where. pilots are taken on the large river steamers. 148 One of the great rational problems is the prevention of floods, by far the most damaging being those caused by rivers. The view shows the common way of keeping the waters from spreading, the banks or dikes being made of bags of sand. A city plan should include preservation and protection of all flood channels. 154 Ship canal, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, providing for the greatest canal traffic in the world. 164 Part of the transportation system of the Great Lakes. Two Har- bors, Minnesota, owes its importance to its heavy shipment of iron ore. 174 View of the Mississippi River at St. Louis, showing the great span of the Eads Bridge. 210 Lake formed by the construction of the Roosevelt Dam near Phoenix, Arizona, which backs up the Salt River for sixteen WATERWAYS AND HARBORS 231 miles, and holds enough water to flood over a million acres to a ' depth of one foot. 217 A view of Puget Sound, Washington, showing shipping of lumber. 242 View of the great bay and harbor of San Diego, with submarines in the foreground and battleships and torpedo boats beyond. 248 The bay of Panama with the city in the foreground, near the Pacific end of the Canal. One of the oldest cities in the Wes- tern world. 257 An interesting view of the harbor of San Juan, Porto Rico. 278 The harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland, the most important fac- tor in the development of the city. 280 The harbor of Vera Cruz, the principal port of Mexico. 299 The bay of Santiago, Cuba. The harbor is a first class one, with very deep water and entirely landlocked. 304 Harbor of Bahia, Brazil, So. America, with a portion of the lower city in the foreground. 313 Harbor of Montevideo, Uruguay, So. America. Illustration shows dredging operation to deepen channel and make harbor navi- gable. 314 Entrance to harbor of Buenos Aires, Argentina, So. America. The • Plata River is shallow, and dredges are kept constantly at work to keep the channels open. 326 The bay and city of Valparaiso, Chile. 347 The harbor of Liverpool, like many other great harbors of the world, has been made good mainly by the work of man. It is built on the broad mouth of the Mersey River, which is con- stantly dredged to keep a channel deep enough for the big liners. 374 Queenstown Harbor, Ireland, is the port of call for the city of Cork, fourteen rniles away. The- harbor is large and safe. 383 View of the River Spree in Berlin, Germany, with the Reichstag buildings located on its banks. 391 Moonlight on the Rhine at Bingen, Germany. 399 A view of the canal in Zaandam, Holland. 400 Fine steamer docks on the Rhine, Rotterdam, Holland, one of the world's great ports. Ship canals connect the city with the ocean. 405 Frederiksholms Canal in Copenhagen, with a good view of the building development along its banks. Note especially the museum of Thorwaldsen, the sculptor. 420 Harbor of Goteborg, Sweden. The business character of this port is indicated by conditions on the docks. 429 The new harbor and docks of Marseilles, France, large and well protected by a breakwater two miles long. 430 The Gulf of Napoule in the Riviera, showing Cannes, " a seaside paradise," on its warm banks. 432 A view of the Mediterranean and Monaco. The most widely known city of this principality is Monte Carlo, the famous gam- bling resort. 232 CITIES OF THE WORLD 433 The harbor of Barcelona, which makes it the busiest city in Spain. 457 A view of the Grand Canal, Venice, which discharges its waters into the Adriatic Sea. 489 Interesting view of the Bosphorus toward the Black Sea from the heights above Scutari, Turkey in Asia. SOI The Ganges River before the Temple in Benares, India. 509 The Salwin River, Maulmain, Burma. 511 The harbor of Colombo, Ceylon, which has been largely made, a long breakwater being constructed to afford the necessary pro- tection. 514 A busy seaport. Hong Kong, China, with a view of fishermen's houses. 515 The Yangtse River at Chinkiang, China, the third longest -river system in the world. See 517. 517 Another view of the Yangtse River, and of the picturesque towns and villages whic.h cluster densely on its banks. 518 A Chinese canal. A great deal of Chinese traffic is carried on by the canal system or on the "river. The Grand Canal runs from Peking to Hangchow. 525 View of Fuji-Yama, Japan, from the water. 556 The harbor of Algiers, vvhich is a natural bay protected by break- waters. The port is equipped with modern machinery, railway switches, derricks, etc. as in Europe. 559 The Suez Canal, Egypt. It run^ through level, sandy country, as shown in the view. Compare with the Panama Canal, 248 to 256. 569 The Great Dam of the Nile at the head of the first cataract of the Nile, six hundred miles above Cairo. 574 The port of Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of Africa, five hundred miles south of the Equator. Dar-es-Salaam is the capital of • German East Africa. Note beauty of palm trees. 591 Hauroki Bay, showing the harbor of Auckland, New Zealand. The stereographs or slides presenting more definitely views of docks and harbors are as follows: 25, 26, 32, 52, 106, 111, 119, 154, 217, 242, 267, 278, 280, 299, 304, 313, 314, 347, 374, 400, 420, 429, 433, 511, 556, 574, 591. 4. Parks and Playgrounds Every city worthy of the name has public parks and playgrounds of some sort, and they are now recognized as a necessity of city life, a part of the city plan, just as streets and schools are. They contribute to the pleasure and health of urbai^ populations more than any other recreative feature, and furnish the most necessary and valuable antidote to the artificiality, confusion, and feverishness of life in the cities. At the present time the value of parks and open spaces in towns and cities is very generally appreciated. It is recognized that such facilities as parks afford are not only desirable, but increasingly necessary; in fact, indispensable. In a vague way there is approval, too, of a large increase in both parks and playgrounds. But few even of the more PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 233 progressive communities appear yet to understand with any clearness that these open spaces in cities are of great variety; that they are, or should be selected and developed by experts to serve essentially different purposes, and that the failure to appreciate this fact and to keep it con- stantly in mind leads to great waste and inefficiency in our pubHc grounds. 10 Common, Lexington, Mass. A good example of New England open space, usually reserved in the center of old towns. 28 City Hall Park, New York. A valuable breathing space in the great metropolis. It affords an excellent foreground to public and semi-public building's. 31 Small parking spaces, even room simply for a few trees at street intersections in a large city, are decidedly worth while, as here illustrated. 39 The scenery of the Hudson is among the finest river scenery in the world. 49 The Falls of Niagara, and part of the State Park Reservation, are more frequented, probably, than any other small park in the United States. ' 50 The American Falls, Niagara, showing the beauty of their winter scenery. 51 Palisades of the Hudson River provide the most striking topo- graphical feature of the^Inter-State Parks of New York and New Jersey. 72 The general carnival represents a combination of wholesome play in an annual event of great beauty. Ti Culp's Hill, Gettysburg, an illustration of a military memorial park. 83 School gardens are one of the most practical forms of educational outdoor work combined with the zest of recreation. 90 All of the public buildings of Washington are surrounded with well planted open spaces and parks. 95 The Congressional Library, Washington, has a well designed en- vironment. 126 ^he Alamo Plaiza, San Antonio. Such plazas, with buildings round about them, are to be preferred to the more usual Amer- ican method of putting' public buildings in the center of open blocks. 191 The National Parks of the United States are the largest and most beautiful parks of any nation in the world. They are being made more and more accessible to -visitors". ' 191 to 197 Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. One of the most frequented National Parks. , , i 201 Cathedral Spires, Garden of the Gods, near Manitou, Col. , ^ place farried for its beauty and mineral springs. ,,,' , 207,208 Grand Canyon. A place of indescribable beauty. , i . >» 219 Crevasse of Paradise Glacier, Mount Rainier, National Park^' Wash. ■' ■■''•.' '■ 228, 229 Yosemite National Park, California. • ' 234 CITIES OF THE WORLD 290 Dancing" m national costume is one of the favorite pastimes of Mexican people. 305 Park-like street in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 306 Children of illustrious Brazilian families. 312 Open space or plaza in Uruguay, typical of South American cities. 316 Palermo Park, Buenos Aires, with view of afternoon drive or parade, common in many places. 329 Plaza in the formal style in Arequipa. Harvard University has built an observatory near'this place. 389 In almost every German city the important public buildings and the principal stores are arranged around open spaces which are usually parked, as here illustrated. 422 The principal boulevards of Paris, especially the Champs Elysees, are so constructed and planted as to become parkways leading from one important point in the city to another. 435 It is important for every city to have one or more well located open places to be used for fetes, fairs, and other public cele- brations. 455 The recreation of people in Southern Italy is confined largely to the public streets except on special holidays and Sundays, when they visit the more distant parks. 482 The advantage of ample open space around the government build- ings at Petrograd is here well illustrated. 510 Burma. Every country has its picnic customs. 520 Chinese school children, Peking, China. 534 Japan is a fairyland of flowers, especially when the cherry trees are in bloom. The tea houses are always given a lovely setting. 535 Japanese gardens have their own style of picturesque design in which the question of scale is given special consideration. Beau- tiful results are secured in the smallest possible area. 588 Zoological Garden, Adelaide, Australia, combining scientific inter- est with outdoor recreation. 5. Public Buildings Public buildings constitute an essential element in a city plan, and of first importance is their location with regard to the city as a whole. They may be grouped in one center, or in various centers, according to the plan of the city and the local requirements. They are usually rightly placed when grouped in locations that will suit economic condi- tions, and when they are readily accessible to the public. The location of public buildings is bound up with the general struc- ture of the. city. This means especially the street system and the sys- tem of transportation, which is largely governed by the street system. While building groups may be advantageously placed on prominent streets in a rectangular system, or composed with principal intersec- tions in the system of streets, yet for the more important groups the best location is at a focus of a number of streets. 7 Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass. 8 Old State House from Court Street, Boston, Mass. PUBLIC BUILDINGS 235 28 Old and New City Halls and World Building, from City Hall Park, New York City. 80 The Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. 87 The Capitol, Washington, D. C. 88 House of Representatives (Interior), Washington, D. C. 89 Supreme Court Room in the Capitol, Washington, D. C. 90 From War, State and Navy Building — White House — Treas- ury, Pennsylvania Avenue and Capitol, Washington, D. C. 91 The White House, Washington, D. C. 92 Annex to White House (Cabinet Room), Washington, D. C. 93 From Washington Monument east to Capitol over Agricultural Department grounds, Washington, D. C. 95 Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. 96 Washington's old home, Mt. Vernon, Va. 109 Old slave market, St. Augustine, Fla. 260 With the flag goes the public school — Royal School, Honolulu, Hawaii. 309 Municipal Theater, handsomest playhouse in the world, Sao Paulo, Brazil, So. Am. 315 The government buildings from the balcony of the Bourse, Buenos Aires, Argentina, So. Am. 324 Cathedral and Plaza. Women in native dress, Santiago, Chile, So. Am. 335 Famous Copacabana Church near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia. 340 National university and halls of Congress, Caracas, Venezuela. 349 Tower of London, London, England. 350 Westminster Abbey, London, England. 351 The Bank of England, London, England. 352 The House of Lords, London, England. 354 Birthplace of William Shakespeare, St'ratford-on-Avon, England. 355 Anne Hathaway's cottage, Shottery, England. 356 Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. 360 An interesting glimpse of the old city of York with its cathedral, England. 362 Rydal Mount, home of poet Wordsworth, Lake District, England. 367 Historic Stirling Castle, Scotland. 376 Blarney Castle, Ireland. 383 The Reichstags-Gabaiide, Berlin, Germany. 384 Royal Palace, Berlin, Germany. 387 Market place and cathedral, Nuremburg, Germany. 405 Thorwoldsen Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark. 417 Royal Palace (Council Room), Stockholm, Sweden. 424 The Grand Opera, Paris, France. 425^ Notre Dame, Paris, France. 436 Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain. 382 Senate and the academy on the Vasali Island, Petrograd, Russia. 501 Temple, Benares, India. 502 The Taj Mahal, Agra, India. 503 The Jumma Mosque, Delhi, India. 236 CITIES OF THE WORLD - S82 City Hall, Cape Town, So. Africa. 587 Federal Parliament Building, Melbourne, Australia. 6. Residences and Homes The variety of houses due to climate, wealth, education, work, habit, or other causes is here well illustrated. 9 Craigie House, Cambridge, Mass. Home of the poet Longfellow. A fine example of the Colonial style of architecture. The land opposite the house has been acquired as a public memorial park, thus keeping open forever the view of the house, and also the view from the house to the Charles River and Soldiers' Field beyond. 113 Cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was born, Hodgensville, Ky. A humble but well constructed log cabin. The Lincoln Farm As- sociation has built over the cabin a beautiful Greek Temple.- 205 Cliff Palace in the Mesa Verde, Col. Homes of the cliff-dwellers, the ancestors of our Pueblo Indians. Interesting architectural ruins. 249 Dwellings erected for employees of the old French Canal Com- pany, Colon, Isthmus of Panama. Contrast the more recent dwellings constructed by the United States Government under the direction of such men as Gen. Goethals and Gen. Grorgas. 278 Picturesque and irregular quarters of fishermen in the harbor at St. John's, Newfoundland. These are similar to the homes which fishermen establish for themselves in New England and on other irregular shores. 281 Adobe hut, City of Mexico. Home of the peon, the peasant of Mexico, descendant of the Aztec. The adobe or sundried brick is in use widely as. a suitable building material throughout the Southwest. 299 Simple but homogeneous character of homes in Santiago, Cuba, due to the uniform shape and material of the buildings and the har-- mony of the tiled roofs. 336 White houses with red tiled roofs in the best residence section of Guayaquil, Ecuador. Beauty of street view due to simplicity and harmony of buildings, the attractive balconies, and the oc- casional variety due to church spires. 338 The houses of La Guaira, Venezuela, fit the slopes of the hills. The city is small, and the population composed mostly of ne- groes, Indians, Spanish, and half-breeds. 354 Shakespeare's birthplace in Stratford-on-Avon, Eng., is a two- story house, typical of English village architecture, with a small garden back of it. 355 The Anne Hathaway Cottage at Shottery belongs now to Great Britain. The building is almost exactly as it was when Anne Hathaway lived there. Fine example of English farmhouse with heavy timbers and thick thatched roof. 362 The neat, mellow, vine-clad, characteristic English home of Words- worth at Rydal Mount, England. TYPES OF CITIES 237 372 Room in which Robert Burns was born. House consisting of two rooms, now owned by the Burns Society of Ayr. 373 Peasant home in the Scottish Highlands. The walls of these peasant houses are made of stones or bricks, and the roofs are of thatch. Simple as they are, they are very pleasant to the eye. The walls are covered with vines, and each cottage has its garden. 389 The apartment houses in Strassburg, Germany, and in other Ger- man and Continental European cities, are the characteristic homes of the people. Compare with cottage homes in Eng- land. 402 Village homes in the Netherlands, with characteristic neatness, but no planting. 455 Picturesque street scene in tenement district, Palermo, Sicily. The Italians here seek the same sort of housing. 457 Beautiful Renaissance Italian homes on the Grand Canal, Venice, full of art and beauty. A fit environment of the civilization of the time. 514 The boat-homes of the Chinese in the river or sea towns. People are born in houseboats, and their fathers before them. These boats are much better to live in than are many of the land houses of the lower class of Chinese. The larger ones are 75 feet long and 15 feet wide. They usually have three rooms, — a hall room, a living room, and a sleeping room, — which are again broken up for use by means of screens. 526 The native skill of the Japanese is evidenced by their happy com- bination of use and beauty. This view of Tokio, the Japanese capital, shows the buildings close together, the houses low, and the roofs of heavy tile. 542 Homes of the Koreans. Note white robes of men even in winter, with snow on the roofs of the houses. 546 The " cascos " are the floating homes of many thousands in the Philippines. Compare with 514. Part II TYPES OF CITIES AND CITY LIFE Cities generally owe their existence to geographic influences, and such individuality as they have is due largely to topography. The chief topographical characteristics determining cities are the harbors, rivers, hills and plains. It has taken decades of urban development and of mistakes to impress upon the cities of the United States the necessity to respect and conserve these natural forces, to which they owe not only their form but often their very life. The classification of cities according to type or character may be conveniently considered under two heads: (1) Types distinguished by the size of the city; and (2) types distinguished by the dominant function of the city. 238 CITIES OF THE WORLD A. CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE I. Cities of 1,000,000 Population or More 25 to 31 New York; 80 to 84 Philadelphia; 139 Chicago; 314 to 316 Buenos Aires ; 348 to 352 London ; 383 to 385 Berlin ; 421 to 425 Paris; 462, 463 Vienna; 472 to 474 Constantinople; 482 Petro- grad; 500 Calcutta; 520 Peking; 526 Tokyo. 2. Cities of 500,000 to 1,000,000 Population 6 to 8 Boston; 61 Pittsburgh; 86 Baltimore; 152 Detroit; 174 St. Louis; 347 Liverpool; 386 Hamburg; 393 Cologne; 395 Brus- sels; 433 Barcelona; 435 Madrid; 454 Naples; 458 Milan; 464 Budapest; 485 Warsaw; 499 Madras; 513 Hong Kong; 517 Hankow; 520 Peking; 560 Cairo; 585 Sydney; 586 Melbourne. 3. Cities of 100,000 to 500,000 Population 9 Cambridge ; 21 Providence ; 41, 42 Syracuse ; 48 Buffalo ; 76 to 78 Scranton; 87 to 95 Washington; 116 Birmingham; 119 New Orleans; 167 Minneapolis; 220 Seattle; 230 San Francisco; 267 Montreal ; 281 to 283 City of Mexico ; 304 Bahia ; 308, 309 Sao Paulo; 312, 313 Montevideo; 324 Santiago; 326, 327 Val- paraiso; 365 Edinburgh; 380 Dublin; 381 Belfast; 387 Nurem- berg; 389 Strassburg; 396 Antwerp; 400 Rotterdam; 404 to 406 Copenhagen; 416 Stockholm; 420 Goteborg; 450 to 452 Rome; 455 Palermo; 456 Florence; 461 Gratz; 475, 476 Athens; 492 Beirut; 493 Damascus; 501 Benar.es; 502 Agra; 503 Delhi; 504 Jaipur; 506 Srinagar; 515 Chinkiang; 516 Nanking; 521 Chif u ; 556 Algiers ; 557 Tunis ; 588 Adelaide. 4. Cities of Less Than 100,000 Population 13 Gloucester, Mass.; 14 to 18 Lawrence, Mass.; 19, 20 Holyoke, Mass. ; Zl Newburg on the Hudson ; 49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y. ; 52 Hoboken, N. J. ; 60 Atlantic City, N. Y. ; 106 Savannah, Ga.; 109 St. Augustine, Fla.; 122 Beaumont, Tex.; 126 San Antonio, Tex. ; 128, 129 Conneaut, O. ; 148 East St. Louis, 111. ; 149 Kalamazoo, Mich.; 154 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; 155, 156 Calumet, Mich.; 170, 171 Keokuk, Iowa; 176 Joplin, Mo.; 187 Butle, Mont.; 212 Salt Lake City, Utah; 213 Ogden, Utah; 242 San Diego, Cal. ; 257 San Juan, P. R. ; 260 Honolulu, Hawaii; 264 Quebec, Can.; 273 Winnipeg, Man.; 277 Vancouver, B. C; 278 St. John's, Newfoundland; 280 Vera Cruz, Mex. ; 299 Santiago, Cuba; 336 Guayaquil, Ecuador; 337 Barranquilla, Colombia; 338, 339 La Guaira, Venezuela; 340, 341 Caracas, Venezuela; 360 York, England; 392 Bonn, Germany; 397 Namur, Belgium; 399 Zaandam, Holland; 430 Cannes, France; 434 Burgos, Spain; 436 Granada, Spain; 442 Lucerne, Switzer- land; 466 Serajevo, Bosnia; 468 Sofia, Bulgaria; 484 Nizhni Novgorod, Russia; 489 Scutari, Turkey; 495 Jerusalem, Pales- CAPITAL CITIES 239 tine ; 509 Maulmain, Burma ; S47 Manila, P. I. ; SSS Tangier, Mo- rocco ; 573 Mombasa, Africa ; 574 Dar-es-Salaam, Africa ; 582 Cape Town, Africa ; 590 Hobart, Tasmania ; 591 Auckland, New Zealand. 5. Cities of Rapid Growth A list of fifteen cities that have greatly increased in population, or grown up in an abnormally short time, as the result of some special circumstances such as industrial development, or popularity as a place of resort. The results of such sudden increase have not always been good, on account of the difficulty in providing adequate facilities, the increase of speculation, and the difficulty of getting proper attention to municipal problems at such times. 25,26 New York City; 60 Atlantic City; 61 Pittsburgh; 116 Birming- ham; 121 Oklahoma City; 131 to 133 Akron; 139 Chicago; 150 to 152 Detroit; 167 Minneapolis; 187 Butte; 220 Seattle; 230 San Francisco ; 273 Winnipeg ; 582 Cape Town ; 585 Sydney. B. CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO DOMINANT FUNCTION I. Capital Cities This classification includes not only the great national capital cities, but also some examples of capitals of kingdoms, small principalities, and states. A state or section should show interest in its principal city when it is sufficiently unified to have a true consciousness of its own unity, to feel a pride in its own ideals and customs, and to possess a sense of its distinction from other parts of the country. This should be true of most American States, yet the state capitals, as cities, have not as a rule been developed in this way. In Europe the attitude of the people is quite different. The capital city of almost every kingdom, petty principality or dukedom, which corresponds much more closely to our state capital than to the national capital, is em- bellished with splendid palaces, spacious gardens, museums, wide streets and promenades, art galleries, fine sculpture, theaters and opera houses. Such embellishment has proved a source of new wealth, and it is well known that travelers spend millions of dollars and make long visits to these cities, thus justifying in another way the wisdom of this enlightened policy. The list includes some places which were formerly capitals, because these places have still in their buildings, streets and parks the char- acter of capital cities. 6 to 8 Boston; 87 to 95 Washington; 121 Oklahoma City; 248 Panama; 260 Honolulu; 264 Quebec; 273 Winnipeg; 305 Rio de Janeiro; 315 Buenos Aires; 324 Santiago, Chile; 340 Cara- cas; 348 to 352 London; 365 Edinburgh; 380 Dublin; 383 to 385 Berlin; 389 Strassburg; 395 Brussels; 404 Copenhagen; 416 Stockholm ; 421 to 425 Paris ; 432 Monaco ; 435 Madrid ; 450 to 452 Rome; 455 Palermo, Sicily; 460 Innsbruck, Austrian- Tyrol; 462, 463 Vienna; 464 Budapest; 466 Serajevo; 468 240 CITIES OF THE WORLD Sofia ; 472 to 474 Constantinople ; 475 Athens ; 485 Warsaw ; 493 Damascus, (long the capital of Syria) ; 495 Jerusalem (formerly Jewish capital); 503 Delhi, India; 504 Jaipur; 506 Srinigar, Kashmir; 511 Colombo, Ceylon; 526 Tokyo; 556 Algiers; 560 Cairo ; 574 Dar-es-Salaam ; 586, 587 Melbourne ; 590 Hobart, Tas- mania. 2. Resort Cities Some cities have been built up principally about a resort, and have the features peculiar to their class. Sometimes they have been beau- tifully developed, but more often in the United States they have de- pended for their prestige and popularity upon climate, or some natural feature. They are certain to abound in hotels and in other provision for tourists. This classification includes not only cities that are visited for health and recreation in a limited sense, but because of their " sights," and interest for tourists, especially in the case of American cities. Only a few of the European cities have been selected, yet nearly all of them could in one sense be classified as resorts which are visited by tourists. 6 to 10 Boston and vicinity; 26 to 30, 51 New York City and en- virons ; 49, 50 Niagara Falls ; 60 Atlantic City ; 87 to 96 Wash- ington; 110 Palm Beach; 291 Acatenango, Guatemala (winter resort) ; 354 Stratf ord-on-Avon, England ; 391 Bingen on the Rhine, Germany; 421 to 424 Paris; 427 Chamonix, France; 430 Cannes, France (" a seaside paradise ") ; 442 Lucerne, Swit- zerland; 450 Rome; 456 Florence; 457 Venice; 459 Como; 460 Innsbruck, Austrian-Tyrol; 463 Vienna; 464 Budapest; 475 Athens; 502 Ag-ra, India; 525, 526 Tokyo; 556 Algiers; 560 Cairo. 3. Financial Cities The following cities are noted as centers of the world's finance. In most countries these are apt to be the governmental centers. In the United States the seat of government was intentioiially separated from the city in which trade and commerce dominated. . 25 to 30 (esp. 29) New York City; 84 Philadelphia Government Mint; 90, 94 Washington, D. C, Treasury building ; 351 London, Eng- land; 383, 384 Berlin, Germany; 421 to 424 Paris, France; 463 Vienna, Austria; 482 Petrograd, Russia. 4. Cities Noted for One or Tviro Industries Nearly all modern cities of any considerable size are industrial. In many cases they have been developed around one or two special indus- tries. Sometimes these industries are the result of natural resources or advantages in location. At other times they have resulted mainly from the knowledge and initiative of individuals or industrial cor- porations. 13 Gloucester, Mass.— fisheries. 14 to 18 Lawrence, Mass. — textiles. 19, 20 Holyoke, Mass.— paper; 21 Providence, R. I.— jewelry; CENTERS OF RELIGIOUS INTEREST 241 22 to 24 South Manchester, Conn.— silk ; 40 Troy, N. Y.— hnen collars ; 42 Syracuse, N. Y. — salt ; S3 to S5 Paterson, N. J. — silk; 58, S9, Trenton, N. J.— porcelain; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa.— iron: and steel ; 74, 75 Hazelton, Pa. — coal ; 76 to 78 Scranton, Pa. — coal ; 82 Philadelphia, Pa. — locomotives ; 86 Baltimore, Md. — oysters; 106 Savannah, Ga. — turpentine, cotton; 116 Bir- mingham, Ala. — iron and steel; 119 New Orleans, La. — cot- ton; 122 Beaumont, Tex. — oil; 128 Conneaut, O. — iron ore; 131 to 133 Akron, O. — rubber; 134, 13S Rossford, O. — glass; 140 to 144 Chicago, 111. — packing houses ; 149 Kalamazoo, Mich. — celery; 150 to 152 Detroit, Mich.— automobiles ; 153 St. Clair, Mich. — salt; 155, 156 Calumet, Mich. — copper; 164 Tvi^o Har- bors, Minn. — iron ore ; 167 Minneapolis, Minn. — flour ; 187 Butte, Mont. — copper ; 220 Seattle, Wash. — shipbuilding ; 257 San Juan, Porto Rico — coffee and cigars ; 273 Winnipeg, Mani- toba — ^agricultural products, flour; 295 Havana, Cuba — to- bacco; 308 to 311 Sao Paulo, Brazil — coffee; 381 Belfast, Ire- land — linen, shipbuilding; 432 Monaco, Monaco — Monte Carlo, gambling; 484 Novgorod, Russia — bells; 495 Jerusalem, Syria — olivewood, mother of pearl; 506 Srinagar, Kashmir — shawls, rugs; 512 Ratnapora, Ceylon — "The City of Gems," precious stones ; 579 Johannesburg, S. Af r. — gold ; 581 Kim- berly, S. Afr. — diamonds. 5. Centers of Religious Interest There is a tendency for religions to manifest unusual strength in special sections, or to become more dominant in particular cities. The following list illustrates this tendency. 6 Boston, Mass. — a center of Congregationalism, Unitarianism and Christian Science. 80 Philadelphia, Pa. — Society of Friends, both Orthodox and Hick- site. 212 Salt Lake City, Utah — Mormonism. 365 Edinburgh, Scotland — City of Knox and Presbyterianism. 450, 451 Rome, Italy — center of Roman Catholic Church. 472 Constantinople,. Turkey — Mohammedanism, Turkish Sultan its head. 475 Athens, Greece — site of old Athenian shrines and Panathenaic procession. 482 Petrograd, Russia — center of Greek Catholic church. 483 Moscow, Russia — Kremlin, former center of Greek CathoHc church. 495 Jerusalem, Syria — former Jewish- capital, center of early Chris- tian church. 501 Benares, India — sacred shrine of Brahman religion, also birth- place of Buddha. 502 Agra, India — Taj Mahal, temple and holy place of Mohamme- dans. 503 Delhi, India — holy place of Mohammedans. 560 Cairo, Egypt — center of Mohammedan education. 242 CITIES OF THE WORLD 6. Coast Cities with Ports for Ocean Vessels See notes on Waterways, Water Fronts and Harbors, and special comment on views under The Elements of City Plans, this classification. 7,8 Boston; 25 to 32 New York City; 52 Hoboken; 230 San Fran- cisco ; 242 San Diego ; 248 Panama ; 257 San Juan ; 260 Hono- lulu; 277 Vancouver; 278 St. Johns, Newf.; 280 Vera Cruz; 295 Havana; 305, 307 Rio de Janeiro; 313 Montevideo; 314 Buenos Aires; 326 Valparaiso; 337 Barranquilla, Colombia; 338, 339 La Guaira, Venezuela; 347 Liverpool; 374 Queens- town; 380 Dublin; 381 Belfast; 404 to 406 Copenhagen; 416 Stockholm; 433 Barcelona; 454 Naples; 457 Venice; 472 to 474 Constantinople; 475 Athens; 499 Madras, India; 511 Colombo, Ceylon; 513, 514 Hong Kong; 526 Tokyo; 556 Algiers; 574 Dar-es-Salaam ; 582 Cape Town. 7. Cities on Navigable Waters with Ports "^See notes on Waterways, Water Fronts and Harbors, and special comment on views under The Elements of City Plans, this classification. 80 Philadelphia — Delaware R. ; 106 Savannah — Savannah R. ; 119 New Orleans — ■ Mississippi R. ; 170, 171 Keokuk — Mississippi R.; 174 St. Louis — Mississippi R.; 220 Seattle — Puget Sound; 264 Quebec — St. Lawrence R. ; 267 Montreal — St. Lawrence R. ; 277 Vancouver — St. of Georgia ;■ 348 to 352 London -r- Thames R.; 386 Hamburg — Elbe R.; 396 Antwerp — Schelde R.; 400 Rotterdam — Rhine R.; 482 Petrograd — Neva R; 500 Calcutta — Hooghly R.; 542, 543 Seoul, Qiosen — Han R. 8. Inland Cities on Lakes and Rivers 9 Cambridge, Mass.— Charles R.; 48 Buffalo, N. Y.— Lake Erie; 49, 50 Niagara Falls, N. Y.— Niagara R. ; 61 Pittsburgh, Pa. — Allegheny, Monongehela and Ohio rivers ; 87, 90, 91 Wash- ington, D. C— Potomac R. ; 128, 129 Conneaut, O.— Lake Erie ; 139 Chicago, III.— Lake Michigan; 50 to 152' Detroit, Mich.— Detroit R.; 153 St. Clair, Mich.— St. Clair R.; 134 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.—" Soo " Canal ; 164 Two Harbors, Minn.— Lake Superior ; 174 St. Louis, Mo. — Mississippi R. ; 213 Ogden, Utah — Ogden and Weber rivers; 273 Winnipeg, Manitoba — Red and Assiniboine rivers; 360 York, England — Ouse R. ; 383 to 385 Berlin, Germany — Spree R. ; 387 Nuremburg, Germany — Pegnitz R. ; 391 Bingen, Germany — Rhine R. ; 393 Cologne, Germany — Rhine R. ; 395 Brussels, Belgium — Senne R. ; 397 Namur, Belgium — Meuse R. ; 421 to 425 Paris, France — Seine R. ; 435 Madrid, Spain — Manzanares R. ; 442 Lucerne, Switzer- land— Reuss R. ; 450 to 452 Rome, Italy — Tiber R.; 460 Inns- bruck, Austria — Inn R. ; 462, 463 Vienna, Austria — Danube R. ; 48 Moscow, Russia — Mosque R.; 501 Benares, India — Ganges R. ; 502 Agra, India — Jumna R.; 503 Delhi, India — Jumna R. ENGLISH INTRODUCTION By FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY The trend of modern education has been steadily away from interest in mei-e words. This is the meaning of the great de- velopment in museums, shops and laboratories in the equip- ment of our schools. We have come to realize that merely to hear or read about a thing and even to be able to talk or write about it, is no guarantee that the thing itself is known and understood. In the case of material objects, really to know involves to see, and, if possible, to handle and to use. If he is to have even the foundations of an education, his range of concepts must include many things that are far removed from his immediate environment. If he lives in the great Mississippi Valley, for example, we try to help him gain some idea of the sea, of the great mountain peaks and ranges, of cataracts like Niagara, of lumbering in the forests of the North and East, of life and industry in the East, the South and the Far West. We count it necessary that he should pic- ture to himself many of the scenes of historic or literary in- terest in Europe, the strange and teeming life of Asia, the un- couth and meager civilization of Africa. Since he cannot go to them we must somehow bring them to him. And here is where the miracle of pictures comes in. Most of us feel that stereoscopic pictures give the illusion of reality better than flat pictures. The sense of distance, the size of mountains, the depths of precipices and valleys — as in the Grand Canyon — often seem incredible for the first time when viewed through the stereoscope. How does all this apply to the study of English? In the first place, literature makes its appeal to the eye oftener than to any other sense. It presupposes in the reader a long record of seeing things. The shapes and colors of clouds and mountains, of flowers and birds and animals, the forms of 243 244 ENGLISH trees and the look of lakes and streams, the customs of strange peoples, the houses and streets of cities, the great centers of commerce with their wharves and depots, — all these are frequently assumed to be a part of the reader's stock of visual memories. And so the reader's grasp of the content is firmer, if the text recalls these memories. But how if this assumption is mistaken and the reader has no such picture in his memory? Here the help of pic- tures is virtually a necessity. Think how little the pupil could get, unassisted, of a description of a cactus-covered desert. Though the appeal to the eye is far from being the only ap- peal that literature makes, it is so frequent as to be almost fundamental. The stereoscopic picture is .the most vividly real of all photographs ; therefore, with some satisfaction to our sense of the fitness of things we remember that the present con- venient form of the stereoscope was invented by a man who combined the interests of science and literature, one of our best known American authors — Oliver Wendell Holmes. The Keystone Series helpful as it is as an aid in reading literature, has an equally obvious value in teaching composi- tion, oral and written. Something to say, something real, definite, interesting and detailed enough — this is the prereq- uisite to any profitable work in expression. One may get such material by reading and by being told. But he will get it still better if he can also see. The details in a picture or in a series of pictures on the same theme ; the companion or contrasts of scenes and actions ; — such assignments make ex- cellent composition lessons. A friendly rivalry among the members of the class, to see which could. find the most in a given picture, or to see which could recall the most pictures of a given sort, or to see which, in the judgment of his class- mates, could give the best account of a picture, — such a con- test would also be an excellent basis for a lesson in language. The teacher will get the best results from these pictures: 1. If she learns to know the whole scenes so well herself that any opportunity of using them will come to her miiid automatically. 2. If she makes a point of having the ap- propriate picture seen by the class, either through the stereo- scope or on the screen while the interest is fresh. 3. If she encourages the habitual resort to the series by the pupils, just as she would encourage " browsing " in the library. 17. LITERARY SUBJECTS AND SETTINGS INCLUDING MYTHOLOGY By FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY A little inquiry into the exact nature of the images in chil- dren's minds will usually yield some startling discoveries. We shall be amazed not only at what isn't there, but at what is there in mistaken form. There is not only so much that they do not know, but they know so much that isn't so. Of course, we realize when we come to think it over, that it couldn't be otherwise. Their experience is limited, much of it is second- hand and faint or inaccurate in the impression it leaves, and they have had as yet but a short period for correcting their impressions either by reflection or by checking them up through further impressions. In teaching literature we find constant need of helping the children to fill in and correct the images that are commonly re- ferred to in the poems and stories they read. We must be careful about what we take for granted. How many children there are who have never seen the ocean, or a mountain, or a forest, or a great city! How very few who have any image of the Parthenon, or Westminster Abbey, or Notre Dame. How few who have any lively conception of any kind of life outside their immediate environment ! One of the values of literature is that it does enlarge the bounds of our minds through vicarious experience. But for many experiences the literature alone is not enough. Pictures are needed to help us build up ^he images. Through pictures and poems and stories of the sea, an inland boy often gets so good an idea of the sea that when he comes to it for the first time, he finds it just as he expected it to look. And if he never sees it, he may yet have some notion of what it is like. The 600 pictures in this series have, quite properly, been se- lected mainly for their geographical value. Few of them are 245 246 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS only literary in their interest. But yet, as will be seen from the selections that follow, a very large number of them may help in explaining references and pictures in literature and in making it interesting. The teacher must use her own judgment as to the plan of using them. Sometimes it may be best to show the pictures before the reading, sometimes after it. She will need to dis- criminate between what explains, as for example, the Poca- hontas picture, or the Turpentine Gathering, and what merely adds interest and reality as, for example, The Old North Church and Washington's Home. The former kind might be- shown before the reading, the latter after it. The best use of these views is probably that made by the pupils on their own initiative. If the pictures stand in the room, free to the pupils in their free hours, they will go to them again and again, and come to know them in the thorough way that is possible only through repeated use. HIAWATHA — A SAMPLE LESSON The lesson is on Hiawatha's Childhood, beginning — " By the shores of Gitche-Geemee, By the shining Big-Sea- Water," and ending with the line, " Called them Hiawatha's Brothers." INTRODUCTION BY THE TEACHER This introduction will explain briefly and clearly that Hiawatha was the hero of an Indian tribe on the shores of Lake Superior (pointed to on a map), which the Indians called Gitche-Geemee, meaning Big-Sea- Water; that Hiawatha was good and wise, and learned many things that helped his tribe — to catch fish, to make a canoe, to write letters by pictures, to grow corn, etc. He lived in a wigwam. What is a wigwam? Here let the children see picture 263. Tell them that these Indians are looking out over the St. Lawrence River, but they may make-believe it is Lake Superior. Don't hurry them. Lead them to See what the Indians there are doing, — weaving baskets. A little exchange of experience about Indian wares — ^not too long drawn out — will be very helpful. The class may now read the first ten lines. Wliat parts of the lines were shown in the picture? Were the pine trees and the firs showii? Read the next twelve lines. Do they see the babe in his cradle? Have they ever seen a cradle? An Indian baby's cradle? Now show picture 1S8. Do they note that it is at the base of a huge tree? BIBLICAL SCENES 247 (The song, The Naked Bear,' has been printed by several people. A version simplified for schools may be had by writing to The Macraillan Co. — The Little Owlet song is issued by several music publishers.) Read the next twelve lines. Who has seen a comet? Show picture 600. Wouldn't it be likely to set these simple-minded folk wondering? " Warriors with their plumes and war-clubs." What did Indian war- riors look like? Show pictures 168 and 182. Explain the reference to the " northern lights." As the rest of the lesson is read, explain such things as the speaking of the water and the pine tree, etc. The line " How the heavens built their lodges," will naturally call out picture 196, and the reference to the reindeer picture 413. Such reinforcement of the intuitive basis must not, however, be al- lowed to smother the main idea of the selection : Hiawatha learning the secrets of nature from his old grandmother, Nokomis. JOSEPH ADDISON The Spectator 3S0 Westminster Abbey. 593 to 600 " The spacious firmament on high.'' ANTI-SLAVERY POEMS 101 Harpers Ferry, "John Brown's body lies a-moldering in the grave." 109 Old slave market. 105, 107, 117, 118, 119 Types of negroes. 570, 572, 578 Negroes in Africa. BIBLICAL SCENES 491 Tarsus, the city from which Paul came. 493 Damascus, said to be the oldest city in the world. The Bible refers often to life " on the house tops." 495 Jerusalem, from the Mount of Olives. In many ways, an- cient Jerusalem looked the same as this. 496 The. Road to Jericho, where the Good Samaritan found the man who had fallen among thieves. 497 The old Hebrew law forbade the muzzling of an ox while threshing. 498 "Two women shall be grinding corn. The one shall be taken, the other left." 561 to 565 " Out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage." No doubt Moses saw things very like these. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT 30 The Crowded Street. 1 162, 195, 224, 229 The Forest Hymn. 2,' 72, 102, 198 The Gladness of Nature. 44', 175 The Planting of the Apple Tree. 248 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS 2, .72, 195, to. 197, 228. Thanatopsis. 444, 599, 600 Hymn to the North Star. 221 Upon the Mountain's Distant Head. ROBERT BURNS 366 " A man's a man for a' that." 72 To a Mountain Daisy. 367 Bannockburn. 368 " Scots wha hae wi' Wallace bled." 372, 373 The Cotter's Saturday Night. The Brigs of Ayr. My Heart 's in the Highlands. Auld Lang Syne. JOHN BURROUGHS 175, 44 The Apple. 359 Tragedies of the Nests. 1 A Taste for Maine Birch. LORD BYRON The Siege of Corinth 477 Excavators at work at Old Corinth. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage 450 Rome, The Eternal City (canto IV, stanza 78). 451 The Tiber (canto IV, stanza 79). 452 Coliseum, the King of Ruins (canto IV, stanzas 128, 145). 457 The Grand Canal, Venice, Italy (canto IV, stanza 1). 475 Athens and the Acropolis (canto II). JAMES FENNIMORE COOPER The Spy il Washington's headquarters at Newburgh, N. Y. MARY MAPES DODGE Hans Brinker 399 Streets in Zaandam, Holland. 400 Docks in Rotterdam. 402 Scene in a Dutch village. EDWARD EGGLESTON Stories of American Life and Adventure 98 A white man among the Indians. 169 The making of a canoe. 136, 137, 160, 184, 292 Some things about Indian corn. 530, 534 Tea; 302, 310, 311 Coffee. The coming of tea and coffee. 415 Stories of whaling. 49, 50 A story of Niagara. 182 A prisoner among Indians. WASHINGTON IRVING 249 207, 208 Descending the Grand Canyon. 232 Buffalo. The lazy lucky Indian. 243 to 246 Adventures in Alaska. JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS Uncle Remus Stories 105 Hoeing rice, South Carolina. Mr. Harris got his stories from the southern negroes. 107 Turpentine farm near Savannah, Ga. 117 Picking cotton. A good view of the southern negro in -a well-known situation. 118 Harvesting peanuts, Marianna, Ark. ' NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE Niagara Falls 49 Summer view of the Falls. 50 Winter view of the Falls. WASHINGTON IRVING Sketch Book 350 Westminster Abbey. 38 Hudson River Valley. What Rip Van Winkle saw when he woke from his long sleep. 51 The Palisades of the Hudson, looking north. 36 The cemetery at Sleepy Hollow, near Tarrytown, N. Y. Irving is buried here. -Stories from the Alhambra. 436 Exterior of Alhambra Palace. Astoria 226 Columbia River, Ore. HELEN HUNT JACKSON 'Ramona 241 San Gabriel Mission, California. RUDYARD KIPLING Captains Courageous 52 An ocean liner such as Harvey started on. 13 Drying codfish in the sun, Gloucester, Mass. Just So Stories 577 How the Rhinoceros Got His Skin. 588 Old Man Kangaroo. 505, 509 The Elephant's Child. (110 An alligator is very like a crocodile.) 565 How the Camel Got His Hump. 250 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS Moti Guy, Mutineer; and Toomai of the Elephants SOS Elephants on parade. 509 Elephants at work. Kim 499 to 508 India, its life described in Kim. LUCY LARCOM Hanna Binding Shoes 41 Shoe factory. Lucy Larcom herself worked in a shoe fac- tory in Lowell, Mass. If I Were a Sunbeam 72 Children in sunshine. ABRAHAM LINCOLN 113 Lincoln's birthplace, Hodgeville, Ky. 73 Gettysburg Oration. 87 Inaugural Address. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW 9 Longfellow's home, Cambridge, Mass. In this old house stood "The Old Clock on the Stair." Paul Revere's Ride 6 Old North Church, Boston, where the signal light was hiing. 7 Quincy Market and Faheuil Hall, Boston, where Paul Revere often attended meetings. 10 Lexington, Mass. The minute men roused by Paul Revere fought the Battle of Lexington. Evangeline 262 " In the Acadian Land, on the shore of the Basin of Minas." Nova Scotia, Canada. Courtship of Miles Standish 409 Spinning wheel such as Priscilla used. The Ropewalk 553 Manila hemp industry. The Children 72 " In your hearts are the birds and sunshine." Hiawatha 158 The Indian infant. 168 Indians receiving guests. 169 Indian man and girl in canoe. 263 Indians weaving baskets. PATRIOTIC LITERATURE 251 184 The feast of Mondamin. 189 Hiawatha hunting. JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL Vision of Sir Launfal 72, 102, 38 "And what is so rare as a day in June?" 428, 448 " Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak, From the snow five thousand summers old." OUIDA Dog of Flanders 398 Belgian draft horses. Nuremburg Stove 387 Old Nuremburg. PATRIOTIC LITERATURE 10 Monument to Minute Men, Lexington. 80 Old Liberty Bell, Philadelphia. 87 The Capitol, Washington. 91 The White House, Washington. 96 Washington's home. Mount Vernon. 242 Submarines, battleships, torpedo boats, San Diego, Cal. 2S4 The battleship Missouri. 100 Battleships at Hampton Roads. WILLIAM PRESCOTT Conquest of Peru 331 The Incas. Conquest of Mexico 282 to 285, 288 The Aztecs. MRS. NORTON Bingen on th« Rhine 391 Moonlight on the Rhine, or Bingen. (Bishop Hatto's Tower, by Southey, and Longfellow's Children's Hour will be re- membered here.) ROOSEVELT AND LODGE Hero Tales from American History 96, 9, 37, 29 Washington, by H. C. Lodge. 119, 120 Battle of New Orleans, T. Roosevelt. 126 Remember the Alamo, T. Roosevelt. 100 Hampton Roads, T. Roosevelt. 73 Charge at Gettysburg, T. Roosevelt. 113, 73, 91 Lincoln, H. C. Lodge. 252 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS WALTER SCOTT The Lady of the Lake and other stories of Scotland. 365 The famous monument to Scott, on Princess St., Edinburgh (pronounced Ed-in-bur-ro). 366 Highlanders in costume; as described in The Lady of the Lake. 367 Stirling Castle. The residence of the Kings of Scotland; mentioned in The Lady of the Lake, canto VI, st. XXVIIL 369 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine. In The Trossachs (or "bristled country"), near Edinburgh. Made famous by The Lady of the Lake. The Talisman 495 Jerusalem, to regain which city the Crusades were made. 496 The Jericho Road often traveled by Crusaders. 497, 498 Scenes in Palestine. 494 A Sheik showing dress of the Saracen. Kenilworth 348 London Bridge. 352 The House of Lords, London, Eng. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE 354 His birthplace, Stratford. 355 Anne Hathaway's cottage. 356 Memorial theater in Shakespeare's honor at Stratford. 382 Sea Dirge. SAMUEL FRANCIS SMITH America See classification on Reading. 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 25, 38, 61, 71, 72, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 110, 117, 127, 178, 182, 188, 190, 198, 207, 208, 215, 221, 224, 242. " My Coun- try 'tis of thee." Let children see that all the country, far and wide with its diversified life is "my country." 51, 197, 228 "I love thy rocks and rills." 1, 102, 224, 229 "Thy woods and templed hills." 51, 207, 228 "Let rocks their silence break." ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON Inland Voyage 396 A scene on the streets of Antwerp. , From the docks of this city Stevenson and his friend set off in their canoes for their trip through Belgium into France. 397 The river Meuse and Namur have been made by the war almost as famous as Antwerp. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER 253 ALFRED TENNYSON Bugle Song Zn Lakes of Killarney. These are the lakes celebrated in Ten- nyson's Bugle Song. The Brook 363 A wooded glen in Wales. J. T. TROWBRIDGE 138, 159, 165 Farm-yard Song. 426 Darius Green. CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER Being a Boy 130 The sugar camp. STORIES OF GEORGE WASHINGTON 96 Washington's home. Stories of his home life. 61 Confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Story of Fort Necessity and Braddock's defeat. 9 Longfellow's home. Washington taking charge of the American army at Boston. 'il Washington's headquarters at Newburg. Washington's refusal to think of being a king and his farewell to his army. 29 Wall St. Washington as President. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER The Com Song and The Huskers 184 The corn that Whittier knew was the shorter kind grown in New England. 136 " There wrought the busy harvesters." The Pumpkin 137 " O, fruit loved of boyhood." The Barefoot Boy 488 " Barefoot boy with cheek of tan." WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 361 Lake Grasmere and village. Wordsworth's home during his early residence in the Lake District. 362 Rydal Mount, the later residence of Wordsworth. 72 To the Daisy. 359 The Nightingale. 254 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS SPYRI Heidi 445 A Swiss cottage in the Alps. The one in which Heidi and her grandfather lived was humbler and smaller than this. 441 On the top of a mountain. 444 A Swiss valley. "447 A Swiss village. 448 A famous Swiss mountain peak. 449 Some Swiss roads. MISCELLANEOUS 342, 346 Among the Icebergs, Dana. 452 Androclus and the Lion. 494 The Arab's Farewell to His Steed, Caroline E. S. Norton. 484 The Bells, Edgar Allen Poe. 375 The Bells of Shandon, Francis Sylvester Mahbny. 450, 452 Ben Hur. Gen. Lew Wallace. 7Z Gettysburg. 114 Lookout Mt. The Blue and the Gray. Frances M. French. 243, 246 The Call of the Wild, Jack London. 513, 515, 519 Chinese Stories such as The Poet Li or Woo of Hwangho. 38, 451 The Cloud, Percy Bysshe Shelley. 99 The Coast Guard, Emily Huntingdon Miller. 27 Crossing Brooklyn Ferry, Walt Whitman. 415 The Cruise of the Cachalot, Bullen. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 244 Customs of American In- dians, Lewis and Clarke. 359 Don't Kill the Birds, Colesworthy. 376 The Goves of Blarney, Frances Sylvester Mahony. 282, 369, 38, 39 Great, Wide, Beautiful, Wonderful World. 264, 265, 266 The Heights of Abraham, Parkman. 451 Horatius at the Bridge, Macauley. 10, 130 How the Leaves Came Down, Susan Coolidge. 98, 158, 168, 169, 182, 204, 244, 263, 265, 328 Indian folk stories. SO Jack Frost, Miss Gould. 594, 595 Lady Moon, Lord Houghton. 71 Lake Erie and Commodore Perry. 32 The Making of an American, Jacob Riis. 88, 242, 260 The Name of Old Glory, James Whitcomb Riley. 359 Ode to the Nightingale, Keats. 241 San Gabriel Mission, The Angelus, Bret Harte. 246 Stickeen, A Dog Story, John Muir. 264, 39 Story of Benedict Arnold. 98 Story of Pocahontas. 441, 444, .445, 446 to 448 Tell, to His Native Mountains. 10 The Tree, Bjornson. 415 Two Years Before the Mast, Dana. SONGS — MYTHOLOGY 255 415 The Typee, Melville. 109, 117, 119 Uncle Tom's Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe. 137 When the Frost is on the Pumpkin, James W. Riley. 71, 10, 224 Woodman, Spare that Tree. 178, 179, 72 Work, Gary. SONGS 366 The Bluebells of Scotland. 117 Dixie Land, D. Emmett. 38, 373 Home Sweet Home, John Howard Payne. 347 to 361 Isle of Beauty, T. H. Bayly. 495 Jerusalem, Bishop Reginald Heber. Zn KiUamey, J. W. Balfe. 348 London Bridge, F. E. Weatherby. 429 Marseillaise, Roget de L'Isle. 511 The Missionary Hymn, Bishop Reginald Heber. 382 The Song of the Sea, B. W. Procter. 88, 242, 260 The Star Spangled Banner, Frances Scott Key. 391, 392 The Watch on the Rhine, Max Schneckenburger. MYTHOLOGY The mythology of the ancient people, especially the Greeks, the Romans and the Scandinavians, was a nature worship. The primitive men took the forces of nature which influenced their lives and against which they were powerless and personified them, made them into dei- ties. The gods and goddesses were not at all perfect; they were only men and -women of a larger size and more powerful, yet with all th§ weaknesses and foibles that belong to humanity. The primitive man looked about and saw the changing face of nature (480) ; they saw that even the best works of man are destroyed in long ages (478) and they personified time in Cronos or Saturn, an old, old man with white beard and hourglass. They told us that Cronos de- voured his children. Look at (477, 568) and tell what they meant. Next, man looked at land (479) and sea as in (432) ; they saw the clouds (451, 452) bringing rain with thunder and lightning; they vaguely realized law and order and so they invented a supreme being, the father of Gods and men, whom all must obey. The Greeks called him Zeus; the Romans, Jupiter; the Scandinavians, Woden. The Temple of Zeus (478) was at Olympia, where were held the Olympic games. Here was the gold and ivory statue of Zeus carved by Phidias, so imposing that it was called one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. From early days marriage and motherhood (471) have been con- sidered the most sacred relations of mankind. This was personified in Hera, or Juno, queen of heaven, wife of Jupiter, who watched over marriage and mothers (455). 256 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS ' Pallas Athena, or Minerva, whose temple, the Parthenon (475), was the chief ornament of the Acropolis, was the goddess of wisdom, of skilled labor and of war. She sprang from the head of Zeus fully armed. Can you explain why? The olive tree (495) was her gift. Aphrodite, or Venus, goddess of beauty and of love, was born from a piece of sea foam (382). Flowers sprang up wherever she stepped (444), and shepherds sacrificed to her for increase of their flocks. The sea, changeful and treacherous (432, 382, 414, 415), so often destroying their small and frail boats, was Poseidon, or Neptune, who rode in a chariot drawn by dolphins and held a trident. All seamen offered sacrifices to Neptune. Each river (391) had its own river god, all of whom were under the dominion of Neptune. Hephaestus, or Vulcan, was the worker in metals. Down in the bowels of the earth (453) he worked, and the smoke of his forge came from the mountains (300). He made the first plowshare (488) and the first sword (385, 426). The sun (593, 414) so bright and beautiful, bringing light (451) and health and growth (480), was named Apollo, god of light, of music and of medicine. He was always represented as a beautiful young man. While exiled from Olympus, he tended the sheep of Admetus disguised as a shepherd (480). The moon (594, 595) with its milder silvery light (391) was Diana, goddess of pure young girls and of the chase (2, 189). She was always a lovely maiden with bow arid quiver and a fawn near by. The ancients knew war, cruel and destructive (385, 426). So they made Ares, or Mars, god of war, big and strong and cruel and some- what of a coward. Pluto, the god of the underworld, ruled over the d.ead. His were the mines (76, 155) and minerals (579, 581) ; and so he became the god of riches. Today men who are very rich are called plutocrats. Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of the gods, rode on the wind (451, 478). He was always represented as a slender youth with wings on cap, shoulders and feet. He is thus described in Hawthorne's story " The Miraculous Pitcher." The people might plow and sow and reap, but unless the heavens were kind, all their work was nothing. So they made Demeter, or Ceres, goddess of golden grain and of harvests (199, 479). She is always a stately woman with a sheaf of grain and horn of plenty. Her daughter Persephone, or Proserpina, is the wife of Pluto. Six months she is down in the realms of death and the world is cold and barren (50). Six months she is with her mother and the world smiles, rivers flow and plants grow and bloom (444) . See Hawthorne's story "The Pomegranate Seeds." Bacchus, or Dionysius, was the god of the vine and of wine (236, 390). Hercules, the Greek hero, killed the Hydra on the Argive Plain (480). Here, too, he fought the Nemean Lion. While on his way to get the herds of Geryon and bring them to Argos, he split the. Rock of MYTHOLOGY 257 Gibraltar (439), letting the Atlantic join the Meditterranean. With the Argonauts he sailed through the Bosporus (489). The Cyclops were giants, children of Uranus, the sky, and Gsea, the earth (479, 480). Each had one eye in the middle of his forehead. They forged the thunderbolts of Zeus. Volcanoes (300, 453, 525, 548) were the chimneys of the shop where they labored under the direction of Vulcan. Through the Bosporus Strait (489) sailed the Argonauts, led by Jason, in their search for "the golden fleece"; and across it fled lo in the form of a heifer chased by the gadfly. Bellerophon, who captured Pegasus, was a hero of the Old Corinth (477). The Argive Plain (480) was the home of lo, and of Danaus and his fifty daughters. Danaus first dug wells in Argos. The Hyperboreans were a mythological people who lived in a land of everlasting day and perpetual spring, where sorrow and old age never came. It vyas far to the north, beyond the north wind (414). Romulus while a baby was set adrift on the Tiber River (451) by his uncle, Amulius. Rescued and reared by a shepherd, he became the founder of Rome (450, 452). The Scandinavians personified the cold and frost (408, 409) as malicious giants against whom the friendly gods Woden and Thor were ever in conflict. This was a representation of the difiiculties which the people had to overcome. This struggle is very clearly shown in view 408. Woden, or Odin, was the supreme deity of the later Norse mythologyi He was a god of agriculture (408) as well as of wisdom and poetry. He was sometimes worshiped as the sun god (414). Thor, the thunderer, was the terror of the giants of the ice and cold (408, 409), with whom he was constantly at strife. He was always in the vigor of youth, and had a red beard and was the strongest of all gods. Why would the thunderer be the terror of the giants? Frey or Freyr is the- Scandinavian god of peace and fruitfulness (408). To him were addressed prayers for a good harvest. He wakened the earth from the sleep of winter (407) and dispensed golden sunshine (414) and summer showers. Frigg or Frigga, the wife of Odin or Woden, was the goddess of the sky (593 to 600). She presided over marriage and domestic life (411, 410, 409). The constellation of Orion (599) was known as Frigga's distaff (409). Friday was named for her. Freya or Freyja was the Scandinavian goddess of love and beauty (418). She was supposed to be the sister of Frigga and later was worshipped in place of Frigga. The ancient mythology comes to us in many ways. The worship of the sun (414), the moon (391, 594, 595), of Woden and Thor, Frigga and Saturn gave us the names of the week. The stars still bear the names of the gods given them thousands of years ago. Mars (596) , the god of war, and Saturn (597), still shine for us as they did for 258 ENGLISH — LITERARY SUBJECTS Homer. When Uranus was discovered in 1781, the old mythological name was given to it. Orion (599), one of the brightest and most easily distinguished of our constellations, was known to Job, and was mentioned by Homer about 3000 years ago. Orion was a great hunter set in the sky by Artemis. There is a multitude of legend about him. The Scandina- vians called this same constellation the distaff of Frigga. 18. ENGLISH COMPOSITION By JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, Ph.M. EDITOR OF " ENGLISH JOURNAL," HEAD OF ENGLISH DEFT. IN CHICAGO NORMAL SCHOOL S,uccess in teaching children to speak and write English depends chiefly upon two things, good sense in assignments and emphasis upon one difficulty of form at a time. A proper assignment arouses in the pupil a desire either to entertain, inform, or persuade the members of his class and to gather to- gether the material for the chosen purpose. It is here that stereographs and lantern slides are found dis- tinctly helpful. They visualize the topic, they suggest possi- bilities, provide material, and open the way to investigation. Not only so; they also assist the young speaker in presenting his ideas by providing a focus of attention and by illustrating his points. Most important perhaps is the arousing of the pupil's interest so that he puts his energies into the work. The principal of a large city school was addressing a group of teachers in a neighboring city on the topic of visualizing school work. Being asked what influence his Keystone Set of stereo- graphs and slides had on his dull pupils, he replied that after he had used the set he had no dull pupils. He stated that the so-called dull pupil was usually one who lacked interest in his work or who had difficulty in getting knowledge from the printed page. The stereographs "aroused an intense interest and the picture gave him the facts quickly. Having some- thing definite to tell, he was just as eager to tell it as were the others. In using the " 600 Set " to assist his class to grow in power of English expression, the teacher should bear in mind that composition is a process involved in all subjects, particularly in the study and class discussion of geography, history, and literature. To a considerable extent, therefore, his most ef- fective employment of the pictures for English work will con- sist in directing a fuller and more orderly presentation of ideas 259 260 ENGLISH COMPOSITION in those subjects than is commonly the practice. Particularly should he 4)lan individual and group activities so that the pupil reciting or reading a paper may be actually telling his fellows something that they do not already know. For the Composition class itself may- be reserved topics lending themselves to more extended or more literary treat- ment than is suitable for the history or geography class, and particularly the composition class should provide for instruc- tion in making outlines, writing clear sentences, and similar matters of necessary technique. Often a study begun as geog- raphy may wisely be concluded as composition. In all clafeses oral errors should be judiciously corrected as made, though not at the sacrifice of the train of thought being followed, the aim being to train the pupils in habits of correct English. The usual classification of composition topics according to the forms of rhetoric is worse than useless for purposes of elementary composition. Children cannot speak or write ef- fectively when burdened with the consciousness of a form to be illustrated. What they need is consciousness of a real au- dience an-d of something definite which they "wish to do for that audience. Hence the suggestions which follow have been grouped as a series of possibilities for interesting class work. Many other possibilities will readily suggest themselves to any- one who begins to follow out those here put down. There should be no attempt to develop organization in a series of written paragraphs below the fifth grade. GIVING ACCURATE INFORMATION Obviously a large number of the scenes convey geographical or other information. To put this into words requires care as to clear- ness, accuracy and sequence. If only the stereographs are available, each child may be made responsible for a brief oral explanation of a scene, drawing his material from the description on the back and, if possible, from other sources. In the higher classes the best results will come from having each pupil, or a group of pupils, gather a fund of information on a subject illustrated by one or more of the stereo- graphs and then present it at length, either by reading from a paper or talking from an outline. In case lantern slides are at hand, the pupil may speak or read while the picture is thrown upon the screen. His classmates should be encouraged to ask him questions. Among the stereographs and slides most useful for informational talks or papers are the following: COMPARATIVE STUDIES 261 Airplane 426; Agriculture 47, 105, 108, 136, 178, 181; Animals and birds 2, 110, 111, 3S9, 509; Bank of England 351; Cities 27, 28, 90, 61, 8, 139, 167, 230, 248, 282, 340, 421, 432, 450, 457, 475, 558 ; Dairy cattle 57 ; 159, 165, 339, 356, 364, 371, 403 ; Fishing 13, 86, 97, 415, 481, 226, 227, 244; Glaciers 219, 274, 275, 276, 342, 408, 427, 428, 446, 448; Harbors 25, 52, 106, 242, 277, 278, 280, 299, 304, 307, 313, 314, 326, 338, 347, 374, 386, 420, 429, 430, 433, 473, 492, 511, 514, 556, 591; History and Literature (American) 6 to 10, 25, 37, 39, 71, 80, 87, 88, 61, 91, 95, 96, 101, 109, 205, 243, 248 to 256, 296; (European) 349, 350, 354, 355, 362, 367, 372, 376, 425, 436, 439, 450, 451 to 458, 462 to 464, 466, 470, 472, 475, 477, 478, 482, 483, 485; (Asiatic) 493, 495, 497, 500, 501, 502, 503, 524, 527, 547; (African) 558, 559, 564 to 568; Immigration 32; Interesting sights 49, 100, 382, 415, 453, 524; Industries, Misc., 103, 112, 443, 536, 541, 44, 107, 573; Irrigation 104, 105, 210, 515, 527, 528, 530, 549, 564, 569; Lumber- ing 1, 162, 216, 217, 224j Manufacturing 11, 12, 16, 20, 21, 24, 35, 40, 41, 42, 59, 62 to 68, 84, 94, 116, 412; Mining 70, 74, 75, 76, 77, 115, 155, 581 ; Midnight sun 414; Regulator of world's clocks 353; Stock raising 127, 185, 186, 301, 317, 358; Submarine 242; Transportation 43, 48, 253, 575, 580; Zeppelin 394. For additional subjects see Index. Consider particularly the possibility of orderly explanation of the processes shown in the following: Almonds 234; Automobiles 150, 151; Bananas 294; Bark cloth 570; Basket weaving 263; Bread mak- ing 410, 292; Butter 45; Charcoal 103; Coal 74 to 79, 129; Coconuts SSI; Coffee 302, 310, 311; Coke 68; Copper 155, 156, 157; Corn 184, 136, 137, 160; Cotton 117, 124, 125, 119, 14, IS, 16; Diamonds 581; Dredging "313 ; Electric power 170, 171 ; Ferry boats 507 ; Farm ma- chinery 181, 180, 179, 178, 166, 161; Fish 244, 226, 227; Glass 134, 135; Granite 3; Hemp 552, 553; Hogs 183, 172; Houseboats 546, 514; Hydrau- lic mining 225; Iron 163, 62, 63, 64; Ivory 573; Leather 272, 11, 12, 41; Making money 84, 94; Marble 4, 5; Markets, 7, 111, 387, 393, 395, 423, 447, 466, 469, 481, 485, 555, 572; Milk 57, 46; Nile River 564; Oil 122, 69, 70, 123 ; Oysters 86, 97 ; Packing houses 141 to 144 ; Paper 19, 20, 412; Paper money 94; Pineapples 108; Pottery 58, 59, 487, 542; Rice 104, 105, 528, 529, 549, 550; Rubber 131, 132, 133; Salt 42, 153, 518; Sardines 531; School children 83, 260 465, 520, 306; Silk 536 to 541, 53 to 55, 22 to 24; Steel 65 to 67; Sugar 130, 198, 333, 258, 270, 271, 419, 34, 35; Suez Canal 559; Tea 530; Tobacco 297, 112; Transportation 509, 449; Wheat 199, 177, 218; Wool 190, 17, 18, 81. For additional sub- jects see classification Production and Manufacturing. COMPARATIVE AND GENERAL STUDIES Older pupils may occasionally bring together sets of scenes which present striking contrasts or suggest modest generalizations. Projects of this sort involve much more thinking than ordinary accounts of facts and require correspondingly more mature powers of expression. They are, of course, all the more educative for this reason. Note for ex- ample the following : Engineering feats 27, 170, 171, 174, 210, 253, 250, 256, 330, 366, 440, 441, 444, 569, 575; How machinery helps 14; 18, 24, 45, 46, 78, 79, 81, 262 ~ ENGLISH COMPOSITION 82, 233, 128, 136, 144, 161, 163, 166, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 160, 218, 269, 272, 286; How people travel 31, 43, 52, 71, 154, 246, 320, 399, 454, 457, 507, 544, 546, 548; Nature's wonders 49, 50, 51, 70, 191, 192, 193, 194, 231, 196, 197, 200, 201, 202, 206, 207, 208, 209, 219, 221, 275, 453, 222, 228, 229, 276, 318, 382, 407, 408, 414, 427, 428, 508, 576; Our great cities 6, 25, 26, 28, 30, 121, 126, 61, 90, 139, 167, 187, 212, 220, 230; What our government does for us 87, 91, 88, 89, 92, 142, 84, 94, 95. For additional subjects see Index. STUDIES OF VOCATIONS It is now agreed that older children should learn a great deal about various occupations before the time comes to choose one. The "600 Set" will enable the class to center attention upon each of the fol- lowing : Dairying, 46, 45, 57, 159, 165; Engineering 27) 170, 171, 174, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 154, 210, 559, 569; Farming 178, 179, 180, 177, 199, 218, 233, 136, 137, 160, 184, 147, 166, 181, 104, 105, 112, 297, 117, 198, 211, 258; Fishing 13, 86, 97, 226, 227, 244; Fruit raising 44, 85, 108, 175, 236, 237, 238, 293, 294; Lumbering 1, 162, 215, 216, 217, 224; Manufacturing 11, 12, 14 to 24, 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, S3 to 55, 58, 59, 62 to 68, 81, 82, 94, 103, 116, 123 to 125, 131 to 135, ISO to 153, 263, 268, 269 to 272, 286; Mining 74 to 79, lis, 155, 163, 176, 187, 214, 225, 245, 246, 287, 243; Oil 69, 70, 122, 123 ; Stock raising 127, 138, 140, 172, 173, 183, 185, 186, 188, 190, 301 ; Truck gardening and markets 7, 47, 111, 149, 387, 393, 395, 423, 447, 466, 469, 481, 484, 485, SSS, 572. For additional subjects see classification Vocational Guidance. RECREATIONS People should play as well as work. The class will profit by com- paring the various ways of spending leisure shown in the stereographs ; viz.— United States 38, 49, 50, 51, 60, 72, 83, 114, 169, 182, 191 to 197, 200 to 202, 205 to 209, 219, 221 to 223, 228, 229, 236; Hawaii 61; Canada 265, 276; Mexico 290; Argentina 316; Greenland 343; England 361, 366; Holland 402; Norway 407; Sweden 418; France 422, 424; Spain 435; Switzerland 446, 448; Italy 455, 459; Austria-Hungary 464; Bulgaria 468 ; Roumania 471 ; Asia Minor 490 ; India 505 ; Burm.a 510 ; Japan 534, 535; Java 545; Rhodesia 577, 578. DISCUSSION Several of the scenes suggest topics about which people hold different opinions. By using stereographs or slides, class conversations may easily be developed into orderly oral discussions, with speakers on each side; for example — Which is the most valuable natural resource? Coal 76; Iron 163; Copper 155 ; Gold 225 ; Silver 214. Which is the most valuable crop in the United States? In the world? Wheat 218; Oats 147; Corn 184; Cotton, 117; Rice 105. Which is the most valuable vegetable in the United States? In the world? Potatoes 166; Beet 198; Onions 469; THE STORY OF IT 263 Tobacco 112; Peanut 118; Celery 49. Which is the most valuable fruit in the United States? In the world f Peaches 85; Apples 175; or- anges 237; Pineapple 108. Which is the most valuable fighting ma- chine? Airplane 426; Battleship 254; Submarine 242; Zeppehn 394. Which is the strongest building material? Most useful? Most valuar ble? Wood 216; Stone 210; Concrete 253; Granite 3; Marble 4; Iron 62; Steel 66. Which feeds the most people in the United States? In the world? Wheat 233; Corn 136; Rice 550; Potatoes 166. Which is the most valuable animal to man? Cow 159; Hog 183; Sheep 190; Horse 138; Mule 124; Dog 246; Elephant 509; Camel 564; Goat 411; Reindeer 413 ; Chicken 56. Which is the most valauble for siigair? Maple 130; Cane 258; Beet 270. Which fiber is the most useful for clothing? Cotton 119; Linen 269; Silk 22; Wool 17. Which canal carries the most traffic? Cost the most? Most valuable to the United States? Most valuable to world? Panama 253; Suez 559; " Soo " 154. Which is the best breed of draft horses? Percheron 138; Belgian 398. Further subjects for debate may be had as follows: The Indians badly treated 182; Village a good place to live 445, etc. For further sug- gestive topics see Index. THE STORY OF IT Some pictures at once suggest a story, anecdote, or historical ac- count. Let the pupils vie with each other in holding the interest of the class by their narratives in the case of the following : Old North Church 6; Old State House 8; Shaping shoes 12; Im- migrants 32 ; Sleepy Hollow 36 ; Newburgh 37 ; Erie Canal 48 ; Culp's Hill yi; Liberty Bell 80; Pocahontas 98; Harpers Ferry 101; Old slave .market 109; Wounded alligator 110; Lincoln's cabin 113; The Alamo 126; Marshall Joffre 146; Hiawatha 158; Hiawatha and Minnehaha 169 ; Sioux Indian 182 ; 'Nova Scotia 262 ; Castle of Chapultepec 283 ; Battleship Maine 296; Santiago 299; Perry expedition 342; Roald Amundsen 346; Shakespeare's birthplace 354; Wallace Monument 368; Ellen's Isle 369 ; Bison 232 ; Luther Burbank 235 ; San Gabriel Mission 241; Gatun Lock 250; Anne Hathaway's cottage 355; Stirling castle 367; Highland home i73; Blarney castle 376; Nuremburg 387; Milk- ing goats 411; Constantinople 473; Threshing in Greece 479; The Kremlin 483; Sacred Ganges 501; Taj Mahal 502; Faneuil Hall 7; Longfellow's home 9 ; Skyscrapers 25 ; West Point 39 ; Pittsburgh 61 ; Hauling ammunition 71; Capitol 87; Congressional Chamber 88; White House 91; Congressional Library 95; Lookout Mountain 114; Cotton 119; Cliff dwellers' palace 205; City of Mexico 282; Incan palace 331 Tower of London 349; Westminster Abbey 350; Rydal Mount 362 Burns' cottage 372; Notre Dame 425; Cathedral 429; Alhambra 436 Gibraltar 439; Rome 450; St. Peter's Cathedral 451; Coliseum 452 Mount Vesuvius 453 ; Neapolitan team 454 ; Tenement district 455 Florence 456; Grand Canal 457; Cathedral 458; Danube Canal 462 Vienna 463; Andrassy Strasse 464; Serajevo 466; Czerna-Voda 470 Galata Bridge 472; Athens 475; Excavators 477; Temple of Zeus 478 Petrograd 482; Damascus 493; Warsaw market 485; Mount of Olives 264 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 495 ; Nazareth 497 ; Howrah Bridge 500 ; Jumma Mosque 503 ; Nankow Pass 524; Rice fields 527; Manila 547; Alexandria 558; Suez Canal 559; Nile 564; Sphinx 565; Egypt 566; Colossi 567; Karnak 568; Army Transports 580. For additional subjects see Geographical classification. PUTTING YOUR READER THERE Making another see and feel what he would see and feel if he were present at a certain place at a certain time, is not easy, especially if you depend upon words. Nevertheless, the pupils' will enjoy trying to picture a few of the scenes. Warn them to use concrete specific words. Suggested Subjects: Unloading logs 1; Charming landscape 38; West Point 39; PaHsades 51; June Carnival 72; Washington 93; Mt. Vernon 96; Blue Ridge Mountains 102; Marshall Joffre 146; Draining land 161 ; Sioux Indians 182 ; Broncho corral 188 ; Indian family 204 ; Wild elk 189; Yellowstone 191; Angel Terrace 192; Illecillewaet Glacier 275; Mt. Sir Donald 276; Tower of London 349; Oranges 238; Ostriches 239 ; Pigeons 240 ; Chilcoot Pass 243 ; Placer mining 245 ; House of Lords 352; Submarine 242; Zeppelin 394; Royal Palace 417; Taj Mahal 502 ; Japanese home 533 ; Iroquois Indians 265 ; Stratford on Avon 356; Loch Katrine 369; River Rhine 391; Woodcarver 443; Fuji Yama 525; Milk cart 396; The Lotefos 407; Spinning 409; Making bread 410; Picking oranges 437; Blowing Alpine horn 446; Packing goods 449; Neapolitan team 454; Shepherds 480; Bell market 484; Dairy maids 487; Ferryboats 507; Elephants hauling logs 509; Picnic party 510; Making roads 516; Wheelbarrow train 518; Chinese farmer boys 522; Chinese sawmill 523; Gathering tea 530; Drying sardines 531 ; Jap tea house 534; Japanese park 535; Hulling rice 550; Threshing beans 562; Sphinx 565; Shipping ivory 573; Hippopotamus hunt 577;- Diamond mine 581. "HIKING" REPORTS Oral or written reports of scenes visited, observation made, and ex- periences enjoyed on "hikes" offer a splendid basis for English com- position. These stereoscopic views are so vividly real that in studying them one may well feel himself a part of the scene. He can thus write on the story of the "hike" with, all the reality of the actual visit. For definite selections for this purpose see topic of Hikes in classifica- tion on Outdoor Life. BUSINESS LETTERS The Keystone " 600 Set " provides scenes which suggest business activities in practically every phase of life in all parts of the world. The thoughtful study of the stereograph by the pupil arouses interest, and stimulates his imagination to deal with the subject as though it were a real experience. The ac- companying text supplies the necessary facts. The sugges- BUSINESS LETTERS. 265 tions herewith given call for letters which direct thought into channels of practical application and at the same time furnish the basis for an excellent drill in the use of correct English. 28 World Building. Write a letter enclosing a check or money order for a year's subscription to the New York World. 79 Shipping coal. Write an anthracite coal company in Ashley, Pa., and order a carload of anthracite coal (chestnut) to be sent to you in August. S2 Great ocean liners. Write to a steamship company at Hoboken, N. J., and ask for a position as wireless operator on one of their boats. State age, qualifications, experience. 47 Loading cantaloupes. A boy's father gave him a piece of land upon which he raised Rocky Ford muskmelons. He sold SO boxes of the fruit fresh and of standard size to a. commission merchant in Pittsburgh, Pa. Write the letter in which he of- fered the fruit for sale. 56, 1500 Hens. Write to the Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, New Jersey, enclosing one and one quarter dollars, for a setting of selected eggs. Write to the Corning Egg Farm, Bound Brook, N. J., and order 100 dozen eggs at fifty cents a dozen. Enclose check. 45 1000 lbs. of butter. Offer to some wholesale dealer in Buffalo, N. Y., this 1000 lbs of butter '■eshly churned from sweet cream. Tell that it will be done up in waxed paper, in cardboard boxes, each box containing one pound. 55 Weaving silk ribbons. Order from Marshall Field Co. (view 139) five yards of ribbon like enclosed sample. Also enclose check or money order. 11 Shoe factory. Write to the Lynn Shoe Co., Lynn, Mass., and say that you are a skilled shoe cutter, and ask if they have any places open in their leather cutting department. 38, 39 Along Hudson River. Write to a Hudson River Steamboat Co. for rates from New York City to Albany. Ask for illus- trated booklet and enclose stamps. 44 Spraying in apple orchard. Write to the Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C, and ask what is best to use for spraying apple trees in the summer time. Send a sample of a diseased apple tree to your state agricultural department. Ask what is the matter and what you can do for it. Write to a farmer you know saying that you have gone into the business of caring for orchards and would like to spray and trim his trees. 58 Firing tableware, Trenton. Write to a pottery company in Tren- ton, N. J., and tell them that you received their letter of tbe 10th of last month saying that the goods had been shipped. Tell them that the shipment has not reached you and ask them if they will try to trace it. 266 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 60 In the surf; Atlantic City. Write to the proprietor of a great hotel in Atlantic City to reserve for you two rooms with baths, for the second week in July. You want rooms overlook- ing the sea. 69, 70 Oil well. Write to an oil driller living in Oil City, Pa., and ask him what will be the earliest time when he can drill on your farm 10 miles north of Oil City. 2 Wild moose. Write a letter to a guide in Moosehead, Me., asking him about arrangements and expenses for a two weeks' hunting trip through Maine woods. You wish to hunt in No- vember. 82 Baldwin Locomotive Works. Write a letter to yourself from the general superintendent of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, ask- ing you to call at his office as soon as possible. 85 Gathering peaches. Write to a man in Woodside, Del. Ask him if, he will have any peaches like those he sold you last year and if so, how many. 88 Joint session Congress. Write to your congressman asking for some government seeds. 90 View from State Building. Write to the State Department, Wash- ington, D. C, giving your age, stating that you are a natural- born citizen of the United States that, you wish to go to South America, and asking for a passport. 21 Manufacturing jewelry. Write to a jewelry firm in Providence, R. L, asking for designs and prices for class rings. The rings are to bear the initials of your school and the year when you graduate. 25, 30 New York. Write to a great hotel in New York City asking to have reserved for you an outside room with bath. Give time . when you will arrive and leave. 115. Mining phosphate. Order a carload of phosphate from Colum- bia, Tenn. 118 Harvesting peanuts. Your father gave you 100 lbs. of peanuts. Write a letter to a firm in Little Rock, Ark., offering them for sale. 127, 186 Paloduro and Geneseo ranches. Write to some man on the Paloduro Ranch, Palodura, Tex., and offer him a place as superintendent of your ranch at Geneseo, Kan. 130 Tapping maple tree. Offer a commission firm in Cincinnati ISO gallons of maple syrup. Say that it was made from the first run of sap, is of standard weight and of the finest quality, put up in gallon tin cans and that your price is $1.50 per gallon. Order the syrup to be sent to you by freight. Enclose a check for the amount. 132 Goodrich rubber factory. Ask for a position as bookkeeper in the Goodrich Rubber Co.,. Akron, O. 138 Percheron draft horses. Write a very nice note requesting some one to pay you the remaining $125.00 which he still owes on the team of Percheron draft horses which he purchased from you on June 12 of last year. Write the answer to the above letter. BUSINESS LETTERS 267 142, 144 Packing house scenes. Order from Swift & Co., Chicago, III., 500 lbs. of fresh sausage and 1000 lbs. of lard. 143 Trimming hams. Order from Armour & Co., Chicago, III., SOO lbs. ham and eight hind quarters of prime western beef. 150 Assembling room, automobile plant. Write a note to a man you know asking him to set a time when you may call and show him an automobile you are selling. 151 Cadillac automobile plant. Send a note to the Cadillac agent in your town telling him that your new machine is not acting right and ask if he will send a man to attend to it. 166 Digging potatoes. Write to a firm in Minneapolis describing 200 bushels of potatoes and offering them for sale. They are large, smooth, of the Early Ohio variety, 172 Hogs in rape pasture. Your father promised you half the money obtained from the hogs on the farm. Write to the agricultural department of your state for information concerning the raising of hogs. Write to your state experiment station for bulletins on same topic. 175 Picking apples. This boy has ten barrels of apples as his own. Write to a commission house in Chicago describing variety, method of' growing, picking, sorting and packing. 178, 179 Tractors in operation. Write to your agent in Watertown, S. Dak., telling him that at the beginning of the next month the price of all tractors will advance 5%. 180 Case tractor. Write to Case Tractor Co., Chicago, 111., for catalogues. 181 Case tractor. Write to Case Tractor Co., Chicago, 111., saying wheel on tractor broke and you are sending it to be repaired or replaced. 184 Corn field, Kansas. Write to a real estate firm in Atchison, Kan- sas, asking if they know of a good farm for sale. You wish a good grain farm. 184, 136 Corn fields. Write to the director of your corn club saying that you planted one acre of corn, doing the plowing, harrow- ing, planting, cultivating and harvesting yourself without help. Also state that your yield is 125 bushels of shelled corn. 190 Sheep on range. Offer Cudahy & Co., Omaha, 10,000 sheep de- livered at railroad in Grangersville, Ida., Sept. 1. 191 Yellowstone National Park. Write to Superintendent of Yellow- stone Park for trip books. 198 Cultivating sugar beets. Write to a beet sugar company in Greeley, Col., asking prices per ton for raw sugar. 199 Colorado wheat field. Write to your agent in Fort Collins, Col., asking him to buy and ship to you in Chicago, all the wheat that he can get up to 100,000 bu. 220 Bird's-eye view of Seattle. Write to Traffic Manager of the Northern Pacific R. R., Chicago, III., asking for information • concerning a trip to Alaska. 268 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 234 Harvesting almonds. Write to a commission merchant in San Francisco offering 20 sacks of large, thin-shelled almonds for sale. 236 238 Orange trees. Order from a firm in Los Angeles 100 boxes of navel oranges and SO barrels of Tokay grapes. 239 Cawston ostrich farm. Order four natural ostrich feathers at three dollars each from the Cawston Ostrich Farm, Cal. En- close check or money order. 240 Los Angeles pigeon farm. Send out several letters to people in Los Angeles, Cal., saying that you are able to furnish squabs, and say that you will deliver them on Wednesdays and Satur- days. Describe squabs and state your price. 264, 265 Quebec; 267 Montreal. Write to Canada steamship lines, enclosing 2c postage for map and guide for trip down St. Law- rence River from Niagara to Quebec. 289 Sisal hemp field. Write to your agent in Merida, Yucatan, telling him to buy and ship to you 1000 lbs. of sisal "hemp fiber. 310, 311 Sao Paulo coffee scenes. Write to the American Consul in Sao Paulo asking information as to coffee crop, prices, etc. 314 to 321 Argentine views. Write to the President of the Pan- American Union, Washington, D. C, asking for pamphlets giv- ing information concerning Argentine. S46 to 551 Philippine views. Write to the Commissioner of Educa- tion, Washington, D. C, asking for a position as teacher in the Philippines. Give your qualifications and experience. 19. SPELLING By WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR, A.M. AUTHOR OF EVENING SCHOOL SERIES, GRADED CITY SPELLERS; HOW TO TEACH SPELLING, ETC., WOOSTER, OHIO Teachers zvill find it particularly advantageotis to use each day for the spelling lesson the stereographs that have lately been used in Geography, History, English, Nature Study, etc., and thus correlate the various studies and at the same time profit by the interest aroused by the views. Until a few years ago, there were no spelling books upon the market in which the objects were illustrated with all the • name words presented. Even now, there are no books that completely fill this requirement. Yet in the Keystone " 600 Set," it is possible to find at least one instance in which almost every important noun in our language is called for. Very many of the familiar action words are also illustrated in these views. To a considerable extent, this is true for adjectives and for adverbs also. A notable case of associating the word with the object named is that of the very large number of cities of which views are given. To present spelling in this fashion is to convert the mechanical into the living. The pupils themselves may build up spelling books for a,griculture, for geography, for history, for manufacture, for commerce, and for many other lines through the use of these views with the accompanying descriptions. Making to an extent their own textbooks carefully a page or two every week is a new device of no small value in training youth in initiative, ingenuity and accuracy. Especial attention may be called to the pronunciation and diacritical marking of many difficult words upon the backs of these views. It is, however, advised that in giving the spell- ing exercises along the lines previously suggested, syllabica- tion and diacritical marking, important in regular spelling 269 270 ENGLISH — SPELLING lessons, be subordinated to spelling narrowly defined, which means getting the letters in their right order in words. It may be suggested that letter-writing by one pupil to an- other in the same class about these views affords an oppor- tunity for practising spelling. Such letter-writing is some- times extended between the schools of a city or of a county and even to schools at great distances. An exercise of this character might be conducted com- petitively by a teacher who asked the pupils to pick out their favorite view according to the taste of each, and to write to him a letter telling what the pupil sees in his chosen picture. Before the class that has access to these 600 views, the world in its glory and wonder, ,in its variety and fascination lies open. It is a marvelous panorama. To describe it ade- quately would involve more than ten thousand words, which happen to be several times as many as any boy or girl really needs. From view 10 with its inspiration to patriotism to view 599, with its revelation of the infinite universe of the stars, from the delightful humor of view 522 to the tense, . grim toil indoors of view 156, from wild life to city crowds, from Indians and Patagonians to palaces and thrones, this "600 Set" runs the gamut of human interest; and there is scarcely a word of importance in American speech or litera- ture not to be used naturally and logically in discussing at least one scene here.. No one is ever the master of a word until he knows both how to use it and how to spell it. Any teacher may take these views and write for each of them one by one in the course of a year of teaching from one to twenty words, and in the end have a spelling book of at least 600 words and for the highest grades perhaps several thousand, for every one of which the pupils will have, through class use in spelling, a definite correlate in reality. Indeed the pupils themselves will make the book, and in the end it will be a spelling-book of the highest value to all who have made it. Moreover, the preparation of such a class book Ayith an individual book perhaps not so large, for each pupil will tend to keep the views themselves in memory and to make their meaning plain and permanent. THIRD GRADE— FOURTH GRADE 271 EXERCISE I For Third Grade Take view 46, Machine for filling milk bottles and capping them. Ask the pupils what they see in it. They may name objects, and they may tell of actions in sentences. In part, this will depend upon the way of teaching English and other subjects, and in part it will depend upon their grade and age. A Third Grade Class might re- port somewhat as follows, viz. : The men have rubber boots on. I see milk in bottles. They are wearing white overalls. The floor is wet. I count four men. Also dairy, pipes, boxes, handles, caps, clean. These words may then be taught orally, viz. — bot'tle, box'es, -floor, clean, etc. Suggested Subjects: 44 Apples; 294 Bananas; 209 Cactus; 303 Cocoa ; 302 Coffee ; 72 Daisies ; 236 Grapes ; 237, 238 Oranges ; 85 Peaches ; 1 18 Peanuts ; 108 Pineapples ; 137 Pumpkins ; 83 School gar- den; 571, 289 Sisal hemp; 530 Tea; 110 Alligator; 196 Beaver dam; 232 Buffalo ; 57, 127 Cattle ; 565, 564 Camel ; 56 Chickens ; 13 Codfish ; 279 Eskimo dogs; 509 Elephant; 189 Elk; 583 Gannets; 216 Geese; 411 Goats; 183 Hogs; 398 Horses; 588 Kangaroos; 335 Llama; 2 Moose; 239 Ostrich; 86 Oysters; 584 Penguins; 413 Reindeer; 226 Salmon; 345 Seal; 173 Sheep; 111. Sponge; 415 Whales. For other suitable subjects see group For the Little Folks. EXERCISE II For Fourth Grade Take view 359, A nightingale in its sheltered nest. Talk about this richly suggestive scene of the parent bird in the deep thicket of leaves, grass and twigs. The nightingale has the most beautiful song of all birds. Read part or all of the description upon the back of the card. Then ask the pupils to write down all the words that the scene suggests and have them read their lists. Girls generally de- light in pictures of this kind. A Fourth Grade Class might write down all these words, and more, viz. : bird, nightingale, leaves, thicket, eyes, grass, twigs, protect, damp, cool, bright, shelter, safe, sing, many, love, dark, light, small, parent, deep, mother, father, male, female, different, fly, hear, eggs, babies, stems, plain, clear, see, find. From whatever words the pupils give, a. few may be chosen for drill at the end of the exercise, for example: Leaves, shelter, different, clear. Suggested Subjects: 1 Log pile; 113 Log cabin; 96 Mt. Vernon; 9 Longfellow's home; 205 Cliff dwellers; 281 Adobe hut; 214 Miner's home; 299 Cuban home; 30 New York; 224 Great tree; 162 Hauling logs; 215 Log raft; 216 Sawmill; 3 Granite; 5 Marble; 178 Plowing; 272 ENGLISH — SPELLING 179 Tractor; 166 Potatoes; 149 Celery; 270 Sugar beets; 218 Thresh- ing; 199 Wheat; 56 Poultry; 57 Dairy; 165 Dairy farm; 159 Dairj- cattle; 183 Hogs; 185, 140 Cattle; 258 Sugar cane; 302 Coffee; 303 Cocoa; 105 Rice; 294 Bananas; 236 Grapes; 237, 238 Oranges; 175 Apples; 108 Pineapples; 190 Sheep; 226, 227 Salmon; 111 Sponges; 97, 86 Oysters; 292 Corn cakes; 141 to 144 Packing house; 117, 124, 119 Cotton; 17, 18, 81 Wool; 145 Shearing sheep; 268, 269 Linen; 55, 22 Silk; 11, 12 Shoe factory; 246, 279 Dog teams; 169 Indian canoe; 43 Four track R. R.; 87 Capitol; 88 Congress; 89 Supreme Court; 91 White House; 92 Cabinet room; 95 Library; 94 Paper money; 266 Soldiers; 39 Hudson River. For other suitable subjects see group For the Little Folks. EXERCISE III For Fifth Grade Take view 83, School gardens as a practical educational method. School gardens are helpful in educating boys and girls in raising vegetables and fruits. Here we have a scene in Philadelphia that shows Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls doing garden work. A Fifth Grade class might prepare a long list of words to be placed upon the blackboard. Go around the class asking each pupil in turn to name one word for spelling. The list may include these words, viz. : children, plants, hoe'ing, slip'pers, bare'foof, hats, cloaks, poles, to ma'toes, rows, boys, girls, kha'ki, beans, peas, white, tan, braid's, hair, work, liftle, sign, troop, trees, play, cat, paths, wat'ering can, stand' ing,veg'e- ta bles, money, save, earn, help, use'ful. Erase the list. Repeat the words one by one, and test the pupils in oral spelling. Make a note for future use of each word- misspelled. Suggested Subjects: 7 Boston; 25 New York; 33 Dining room; 38, 39 Hudson River; 49, SO Niagara Falls; 56 Poultry; 57 Dairying; 58, 59 Pottery; 60 Atlantic City; 61 Pittsburgh; 69, 70 Oil; 72 Daisy pole; 73 Gettysburg; 74 to 79 Coal; 80 Liberty bell; 84 Government mint; 85 Peaches; 86 Oysters; 87 Capitol;' 88 Congress; 91 White House; 96 Mt. Vernon; 101 Harpers Ferry; 104, 105 Rice; 107 Turpen- tine; 108 Pineapples; 110 Alligator; 111 Sponges; 112 Tobacco; 113 Log cabin; 117 Cotton; 121 Oklahoma City; 131 to 133 Rubber; 134, 135 Glass; 138 Horses; 139 Chicago; 140 Stock market; 141 to 144 Packing house; 147 Oats; 149 Celery; 150, 152 Automobiles ; 153 Salf; 172 Hogs; 173 Sheep; 182 Indians; 187 Butte; 189 Elk; 191 to 197 Yel- lowstone Park; 210 Rooseveh dam; 226, 227 Salmon; 234 Almonds; 236 Grapes; 239 Ostriches; 240 Pigeons; 242 Submarines; 246 Dog team; 253 Panama Canal. For other suitable subjects see Index. EXERCISE IV For Sixth Grade Take view 80, The Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, Philadelphia. Tell as much of its story as suits the grade and conditions. Ask the SIXTH GRADE 273 pupils to write down whatever words it suggests to them. Call for the words, and write upon the blackboard : 1. Those reported by several pupils ; 2. Those misspelled ; and 3. Important words within the com- prehension of most in the class. From the entire list, select several to be carefully studied. These may be taught both orally and in writing. A Sixth Grade Class might report these words, viz. : 1. Liberty, frame, bell, staircase, crack, motto, rang. 2. Independence, Philadelphia, support, proclaim, inscription. 3. Freedom, nation, country, exposition, inhabitants. The teacher might select these words as being required by the class and suitable to learn at the time when the lesson is to be given, viz. : liberty, motto, proclaim, country. This is enough material for a fifteen or twenty minute lesson ; longer lessons are not usually profitable. Suggested Subjects: 184, 136, 137, 160, 292 Corn; 357, 199, 177, 233, 218, 284, 479, 497, 498 Wheat; 147, 408 Oats; 105, 104, 549, 550, 528 527, 530, 529 Rice; 47, 166 Potatoes; 562 Beans; 137 Pumpkins; 419, 198, 270 Sugar beets; 332, 333, 258, 35, 34 Sugar cane; 130 Sug^ar maple; 294 Bananas; 237, 238, 437 Oranges; 108 Pineapples; 236, 319, 390 Grapes; 293 Mangoes; 259 Papaws; 85 Peaches; 44, 175 Apples; 234 Almonds; 551 Coconuts; 118 Peanuts; 303 Cocoa; 302, 310, 311, 295 Coffee; 530, 521, Tea; 285 Pulque; 57, 339, 487, 46 Milk; 45 But- ter; 159, 403, 591, 371 Dairy cattle; 411 Goats; 413 Reindeer; 25 to 31 New York; 80 to 84 Philadelphia; 139 Chicago; 314 to 316 Buenos Aires; 348 to 352 London; 383 to 385 Berlin; 421 to 425 Paris; 454 Naples; 458 Milan; 464 Budapest; 485 Warsaw; 499 Madras; 514 Hong' Kong; 517 Hankow; 520 Pekin; 569 Cairo; 585 Sydney; 586 Melbourne; 9 Cambridge; 21 Providence; 42 Syracuse; 48 Buffalo; 78 Scranton; 87 to 91 Washington; 116 Birmingham; 119 New Orleans; 167 Minneapolis; 220 Seattle; 230 San Francisco; 463 Vienna; 482 Petrograd; 500 Calcutta; 526 Tokyo. For other suitable subjects see Index. EXERCISE V For Sixth Grade Take view 501, Pilgrims bathing in the Ganges River, before the Temple at Benares. This view also lends itself aptly to oral or writ- ten dictation as indicated in the Exercise above. It is also well adapted for study according to the method in Exercises I, III and IV. The dictation might be something like this, viz. : To the Hindoos, the Ganges is a sacred river. Every year, hun- dreds of thousands of pilgrims come to its waters to bathe that their sins may be forgiven and their diseases cured. At Benares, there is a great temple with many steps leading down to the river. Near the banks, the water is shallow, and the pilgrims go out upon floats from which they jump into the stream for purification. The, richer men and women keep parasols over their heads to protect them from the blazing' hot sun. The temples, domes, steps, windows and multitudes 274 ENGLISIi— SPELLING make an .impressive sight to European observers. This passage is suitable for Sixth Grade. Suggested Subjects: 370, 317, 3S8, 589, 127, 186, 301, 185, 140 Beef Cattle; 183, 172, 122 Hogs,; 190, 173, 480, 145 Sheep; 577, 578 Hip- popotamus; 531 Sardines; 481 Fish market; 345 Seal; 415 Whales; 117, 124, 125, 119, 286, 14, 15,16 Cotton; 268, 269, 40 Linen; 552, 553 Manila hemp; 536 to 541 Silk; 74 to 79 Coal; 68 Coke; 378 Peat; 122, 69, 70, Oil; 115 Phosphate; 116, 65 to 67 Steel; 163, 1"64, 128, 62 to 64 Iron; 187, 155 to 157 Copper; 243, 246, 245, 225, 579 Gold; 581 Diamonds; 512 Gems; 505, 509 Elephants; 103, 543 Charcoal; 107 Tur- pentine ; 412 Paper ; 532 Japanese shoes ; 402, 403 Wooden shoes ; 345 Skis; 263 Wigwam; 92 to 95 Washington; i7 Newburgh; 52 Ho- boken; 60 Atlantic City; 106 Savannah; 109 St. Augustine; 126 San Antonio; 128, 129 Conneaut; 148 St. Louis; 149 Kalamazoo; 156 Calu- met; 176 Joplin; 212 Salt Lake City; 213 Ogden; 242 San Diego; 267 Montreal; 281 to 283 Mexico; 308, 309 Sao Paulo; 312, 313 Monte- video; 324 Santiago; 326, 327 Valparaiso; 365 Edinburgh; 380 Dublin; 381 Belfast; 387 Nuremburg'; 389 Strassburg; 396 Antwerp; '416 Stockholm; 6 to 8 Boston; 61 Pittsburgh; 152 Detroit; 174 St. Louis; 347 Liverpool; 386 Hamburg'; 393 Cologne; 395 Brussels; 433 Bar- celona; 435 Madrid. For other suitable subjects see Index. EXERCISE VI For Seventh and Eighth Grade Take view 296, Wrecked battleship Maine, showing mine explosion results. There are two useful forms of dictation, one oral when the teacher dictates sentences and requires the pupils to write them down a few words at a time, the other written when the teacher places the dicta- tion upon the blackboard, has the material studied, and then after eras- ing, reads the material slowly to the pupils, as they write. For Seventh Grade, the latter is a good method for occasional use, while the former may be tried for not too long a passage in the Eighth Grade or Junior High School. The sentences used should not be too complicated nor too long. The following form is suggested for the grades indicated : Upon February 15, 1898, the battleship Maine was blown up in the harbor of Havana, Cuba. Great indignation was immediately felt throughout the United States against Spain, which owned the island. In the war that followed, our country was successful. But nothing was done until March, 1912, when the wreck was towed out of the harbor and given an honorable sea burial in deep water. Note : We may indicate the name Maine as the name of a ship either by printing it in Italic or by quoting it, using punctuation marks, like this, " Maine." In writing, we may either underscore the word or quote it, as in print. Suggested Subjects: 6 Old North Church; 8 Old State House; 9 Longfellow's home; 10 Lexington Common; 14 to 16 Cotton mill; 22 to EXERCISE VII 275 24 Silk ; 25 to 32 New York ; 37 Newburgh ; 39 West Point ; 44 Spraying apples; 45, 46, 57 Dairying; 48 trie Canal; 52 Ocean liners; 56 Poultry; 60 Atlantic City; 61 Pittsburgh; 62 to 64 Iron; 65 to 67 Steel; 68 Coke; 69, 70 Oil; IZ Culps Hill; 74 to 79 Coal; 80 Independence Hall; 84 Mint; 87 to 95 Capitol; 96 Mt. "Vernon; 100 Hampton Roads; 109 St. Augustine; 113 Lincoln's cabin; 117, 119 Cotton; 120 Mississippi Delta; 127, 186, 185, 140 Cattle; 139 Chicago; 141 to 144 Packing houses; 146 Marshall Joffre; 154 "Soo" Canal; 170 Keokuk Dam; 176 Zinc; 187 Copper ; 190, 173 Sheep ; 191 to 197 Yellowstone Park ; 205 Cliff dwell- ers; 231 Earthquake; 242 Submarines; 243 Alaska; 249 to 256 Panama Canal; 273 Winnipeg; 274 to 276 Glaciers; 290 Mexicans; 296 Battle- ship Maine; 325 Nitrate; 328 Indians; 331 Incan palace; 338 La Guaira; 342, 343 Arctic; 344, 346 Antarctic; 348 to 352 LonHon; 367, 368 Stir- ling; 383 to 385 Berlin; 394 Zeppelin; 404 to 406 Copenhagen; 416 to 418 Stockholm ; 421 to 425 Paris ; 426 Airplane ; 432 Monaco ; 436 The Alhambra; 439 Gibraltar; 448 Matterhorn; 450 to 452 Rome; 462, 463 Vienna; 4(56 Bosnia; 475, 476 Athens; 482 Petrograd; 495 Jerusalem; 502 Taj Mahal; 508 Himalayas; 524 Great Wall, China; 525 Fuji- Yama; 546 to 553 Philippines; 558 to 569 Egypt; 579 to 584 South Africa; 585 to 589 Australia; 593 to 600 Earth Neighbors. For other suitable subjects see Index. EXERCISE VII The purpose of this exercise is to arouse in the pupils a desire to accumulate- a vocabulary. Give each one in the class a different stereo- graph. Then let the pupils have five minutes to see which ones are able to write and spell the largest number of words suggested by the picture that each one has. 'Suggested Subjects for Second and Third Grades: 72 Daisies ; 105 Rice; 110 Alligator; 117 Cotton; 140 Stockyards; 190 Sheep; 204, 263 Indians ; 226 Salmon ; 229 Trees ; 232 Buffalo ; 239 Ostriches ; 279 Dogs ; 336 Ecuador; 341 Baker; 396 Milk cart; 398 Horses; 402 Dutch street; 410 Flat bread; 431 Washing clothes;- 443 Wood carving; 446 Alpine Horn; 507 Ferry boats; 509 Elephants; 522 Plowing; 530 Tea; 531 Sardines; 533 Japanese home; 542 Peddler. For other suitable subjects see Index. (For the second and third grades, a variation of this plan would be to make teams of three pupils each and see which will win. Put into each team at least one pupil who is especially proficient in vocabulary and in spelling.) Suggested Subjects for Fourth and Fifth Grades: 6 Boston ; 10 Lex- ington; 42 Salt; 50 Niagara Falls; 60 Atlantic City; 71 Prairie .schooner; 76 Coal; 98, 169, 182 Indians; 108 Pineapples; 127, 186, 548 Cattle; 130 Maple sugar; 188 Horse ranch; 191 Golden Gate; 194 Geyser; 206 Petrified forest; 209 Desert vegetation; 215 Lumber; 218 Wheat; 231 Earthquake; 236 Grapes; 243 Chilcoot Pass; 246 Alaska; 290 Mexicanas ; 294 Bananas ; 335 Llama ; 340 Caracas ; 367 Stirling Castle; 373 Highland Home; 394 Zeppelin; 413 Reindeer; 426 Air- plane ; 439 Gibraltar ; 445 Chalet ; 491 Buffalo ; 505 Elephant ; 514 Hong 276 ENGLISH — SPELLING Kong; 537 Mulberry leaves; 550 Rice; 577 Hippopotamus; 588 Kanga- roo. For other suitable subjects see Index. Suggested Subjects for Sixth and Seventh Grades: 27 Brooklyn Bridge; 44, 175 Apples; 94 Money; 107 Turpentine; 111 Sponges; 113 Lincoln's birthplace; 117, 119 Cotton; 142 Packing house; 149 Celery; 168 Indians; 177 Threshing; 184 Corn; 197 Yellowstone Park; 202 Box Canyon; 205 Cliff Dweller's Palace; 210 Irrigation; 221 Mt. Hood; 222 Crater Lake; 249 Isthmus of Panama; 276 Mt. Sir Donald; 288 "Old Popocatepetl"; 291, 300 Volcanoes; 325 Nitrate; 349 Tower of Lon- don; 363 Wales; 366 Highlanders; 385 Soldiers; 399 Zaandam; 421 Paris; 432 Monaco; 441 Mt. Pilatus; 472 Constantinople; 483 The Kremlin; 496 Jerico Road; 498 Grinding wheat; 528 Rice; 535 Jap- anese maids; 524 Wall of China; 425 Paris; 540, 541 Silk; 546 House- boats ; 549 Harrowing Rice ; 576 Victoria Falls ; 582 Capetown. For other suitable subjects see Index. Siigg^ted Subjects for Eighth Grade or Junior High School: 5 Marble; 12 Shoes; 26 New York City; 49 Niagara Falls; 55 Ribbons; 95 Library; 120 Mississippi Delta; 126 Alamo Plaza; 131, 132, 133 Rubber; 135 Glass; 156 Copper; 180 Tractor plowing; 195 Yellowstone Na- tional Park; 207 Grand Canyon; 219 Mt. Ranier; 242 Submarines ; 252 Panama Canal; 275 Glacier; 281 Adobe hut; 330 Cofa Bridge; 348 London Bridge; 353 Greenwich; 354 Shakespeare's birthplace; 365 Edinburgh; 407 Lotofos; 414 Midnight sun; 417 Stockholm; 444 Lau- terbrunnen Valley ; 450 Rome ; 452 Coliseum ; 457 Grand Canal ; 458 Milan; 475 Athens; 477 Corinth; 504 Jaipur; 502 Taj Mahal; 506 Srinagar; 508 Himalayas; 511 Colombo Harbor; 516 Road making; 554 Guam; 568 Karnak; 599 Meteor. For other suitable subjects see Index. These have been chosen because they appear to offer in each case a large number of opportunities to present nouns and adjectives learned from the studies in preceding grades. EXERCISE VIII There are many cards that may be used in pairs, in trios and even in larger combinations for spelling lessons. The scenes and individual objects in these grouped cards suggest by their likenesses and differ- ences many words for spelling. One exercise might be this, viz.: Make teams of a considerable number of boys or girls each; assign to them places at the blackboard, and hand to each team a pair or trio of cards with the same general subject for the cards in each group ; and see which set of pupils can write the long-est list of words in a given period of time, say iive minutes; with only words correctly spelled to be counted. This exercise can be extended by having the pupils upon the previous day make their own pairs or trios of cards to be upon the same gen- eral subject, as for example: 49, 50 Niagara Falls. 49, 50, 197, 225, 228, 318, 407, 444, 576 Water falls. EXERCISE VIII 277 See the Index for other combinations. Of course, to be fair, each group should be allowed the same num- ber of cards; and it may be wise to draw lots to see which set of cards comes to each group of pupils. Other views likely to arouse much interest in spelling are these, viz. : 67 Steel; 84 Mint; 87 Capitol; 122, 123 Oil; 144 Meat; ISO Automo- biles; 161 Ditching; 162, 216 Lumber; 163 Iron; 170 Keokuk Dam; 17S Apples; 176, 225 Mining; 178 Plowing; 179 Harrowing; 189 Elk; 228 Yosemite Valley; 230 San Francisco; 244 Fish; 257 Porto Rico; 261 Hula Girls; 306 Children; 324 Santiago; 328 Indians; 339 Milk; 342 Greenland; 343 Eskimos; 372 Burns' Cottage; 376 Blarney Castle; 390 Grapes ; 397 Namur ; 412 Paper ; 419 Sugar beets ; 424 Paris ; 425 Notre Dame: 453 Vesuvius; 456 Florence; 479 Threshing; 484 Bells; 487 Milk; 492 Beirut; 495 Jerusalem; 497 Palestine; 543 Charcoal; 585 Soldiers; 586 Melbourne; 594 Moon. For other suitable subjects see Index. In general, every view in the " 600 Set " may be profitably and in- terestingly used as the basis of a spelling exercise of some kind. In the case of many of these views, tests show that several ten-year pupils were able to prepare a list of over one hundred words for each of a dozen views within a period of five minutes. There are very many ways to teach spelling beside those in the spelling books. The process may be turned about in using these views by asking pupils to find stated objects in the scenes — for example, 306 shows the object balustrade — then spell or write the word. 20. BIOGRAPHY By CHARLES H. McCARTHY, Ph.D. DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY, AND KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS, PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY, CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA, WASHINGTON, D. C. By biography is here meant the Hves of noteworthy persons. This department of Uterature, which is quite distinct from history, is both ample in scope and important in content. For youthful readers its benefits are obvious. These may be no- ticed under two heads, namely, form and subject matter. If in the scheme of education the paramount objects are the cul- tivation of expression and the formation of character, the study of biography will greatly contribute to those ends, for in reading the lives of great men one sees a record of actions that are to be avoided and a report of exploits that are worthy of imitation. The foregoing observations are well illustrated by the Key- stone Views. A picture of Sunnyside or a scene on the Hudson at once suggests Irving, an author who has given Americans two splendid biographies, namely his " Life of Columbus " and his " Life of Washington." If one is inter- ested in literary art, the form of these biographies, while not faultless, is admirable. He who is learning to write will find Irving an excellent model for imitation. In the Burns' house at Ayr there is no suggestion of luxury or scarcely of comfort. In the view one gets the impression of sordid surroundings. Neither at Ayr nor Massgiel is there much to attract the muses, yet Robert Bums was one of the greatest of lyric poets. What if his landscape often looked dark and dreary, there was always the sunshine of the heart. Men of genius are not only superior to discouragement but even in seasons of tempest they create an atmosphere of never fading summer. In a life of Bums the student will learn that in his labors in sterile fields the poet followed the plough tail or swung the scythe thinking of good verses or of spirited prose which only a 279 280 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY short time before he had read. The youth or maiden who carries in his pockets a volume of good poems, as Burns gen- erally did, will improve in taste, in expression, and in ethics. But while poetry and history stimulate the imagination and refine the feelings, a study of the lives of great men will serve to make clear the causes of material as well as spiritual prog- ress. American boys and girls should become familiar with the lives of the great men connected with the discovery and colonization of the New World, with the development and independence of the English colonies which became the United States, and with the remarkable growth of that favored Re- public. No American should be unfamiliar with the main facts in the life of Colurnbus, Calvert, Washington, Lincoln, Penn, Franklin, Hamilton and Jefferson, Marshall and Webster and our other noted men. It is in the study of biography that we find out what it was that distinguished Columbus from Cabot, in what respect Washington was different from the other patriots of seventy- six, and why Lincoln overshadowed the truly great men of the era of the Civil War. Differences there were between the greatest and the great, and these appear in the record of their lives. THE NEW WORLD Abbott, Lyman, preacher and editor, 1835 — . Born in Boston (6 to 8). Home and seat of greatest activity. New York City- (25 to 31). Adams, John, second President of the United States, 1735-1826. Active in the events which led up to the Revolution; attended meetings in Faneuil Hall, Boston (7) ; acted as lawyer to de- fend the British soldiers implicated in the Boston massacre which took place in the street before Old State House (8); seconded the Declaration of Independence and signed it when passed (80 Old Liberty Bell, Independence Hall) ; represented the United States in Holland (399 to 403) in 1782 and was Min- ister to England (348). He was Minister to France. In Paris (421) 1783, signed the treaty which ended the American Revo- lution; took the oath of office as Vice-President of the United States in 1789, while standing on the balcony of the old federal building which stood where the United States Sub-Treasury in New York now is (29) ; was the first President to occupy the White House (91). THE NEW WORLD 281 Adams, John Quincy, sixth President of the United States, 1767- 1848. He was appointed Minister to Holland (399 to 403) in 1794; in 1797 became Minister to Berlin (383 to 385); in 1803 became a United States Senator (87); under President Madi- son was Minister to Russia (482) ; in 1815 was made Ambassa- dor to England (348 to 352); in 1817 became Secretary of State (92) under Monroe and formulated the Monroe Doctrine; in 1825 was elected President of the United States (91); from 1830 to the end of his life was a member of the lower house of Con- gress (87, 88). Here he preserved the right of petition, the greatest work of his great life. Adams, Samuel, American statesman, 1722-1803. He was a secre- tary of the Massachusetts Colonial legislature which met in the Old State House (8) and opposed the Townshend Acts. While here he drew up the famous circular letter. He pre- sided over the town meeting which met in Faneuil Hall (7) after the Boston massacre (8) and carried its ultimatiim to Governor Hutchinson. When Gen. Gage sent British troops to Lexington (10) on the 18th of April, 1775, it was to arrest the " traitors," John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who had taken refuge there, as well as to seize the powder. He was a signer of the Declaration of Independence (80 Liberty Bell, Independence Hall); was a menjber of Congress which met in the old federal building in Wall Street (29) ; from 1794 to 1797 was Governor of Massachusetts (8). Armour, Philip D., American manufacturer and capitalist, 1832- 1901. In 1863 he became a partner in a pork-packing business (143). This picture, taken in the Union Stock Yards, suggests but a small part of their business (140). Arnold, Benedict, American Revolutionary general and traitor, 1741-1801; was wounded in a brave attack on Quebec and forced to withdraw (264) ; was given command of Philadelphia (80) where he earned the reprimand which so greatly embit- tered him; plotted to surrender We;st Point (39) to the Brit- ish; spent his last days in London (348, 349, 352). Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, Spanish explorer, 1475-1517. From a mountain top in the Isthmus of Panama, Sept. 25, 1513, Balboa obtained the first sight of the Pacific Ocean (256). Bancroft, George, American historian, 1800-1891; was made col- lector of the Port of Boston by President Van Buren (6, 7, 8); while Secretary of the Navy (92) under President Polk, the Naval Academy at Annapolis was established; ordered the American fleet to seize California (228 to 242) if hostilities with Mexico should break out; as acting Secretary of War, ordered United States troops into Texas (122 to 127); in 1846 to 1849 was" Minister to Great Britain (347 to 362). He lived several years in New York (25 to 31). In 1867 he was Minister 282 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY to Prussia; in 1868 to the North German Confederation; and in 1871 to the New German Empife (383 to 385). Blaine, James G., American statesman and author, 1830-1893; born in Pennsylvania; member of Congress, first in the House where, for six years he was Speaker, later a Senator (87, 88); Secretary of State under President Garfield and also under President Benjamin Harrison (92) ; in 1884, ran for President but was defeated (91). Blaine's "Twenty Years in Congress" was a valuable contribution to our historical writitigs. Bolivar, Simon, South American statesman and lover of freedom, 1783-1830. Caracas was the native city of Bolivar (340); in 1815 he was forced to retire to Jamaica (301); in 1819 was Presi- dent of what is now Colombia (337) and Venezuela (340, 341), having driven out the Spanish; freed Ecuador in 1822 (336); in 1822, drove the Spanish from Peru (329, 330, 331). A part of the country under the name Bolivia (335) in honor of Boli- var, separated from Peru. Borden, Right Honorable Robert Laird, Canadian statesman, 1854 — . Premier of Canada (262 to 277). Brooks, Phillips, Episcopal Bishop of Massachusetts, 1835-1893; was born and died in Boston (6, 7, 8). Bryan, William Jennings, American statesman and orator, 1860 — . The farm home of Mr. Bryan (181) is near Lincoln, Neb. He was a member of Congress (88) from 1891 to 1895; ran for the presidency three times (91) and was defeated; member of Wilson's cabinet (92) up to the time of the trouble with Ger- many. Butler, Benjamin Franklin, American soldier, 1818-1893; in com- mand of New Orleans (119) after it was captured by Union forces in 1862; in 1864 was in command of New York City (25 to 30) ; later was a member of Congress (87, 88) ; died in Washington (90). Calhoun, John C, American statesman, 1782-1850; served first as a United States Representative and later as a United States Sen- ator, won great honor and fame in Congress (87, 88); was Secretary of War and "later Secretary of State (92) ; as Vice- President he presided over the Senate; resigned the vice- presidency to become an active Senator C87) ; worked earnestly for the annexation of Texas (122 to 127). Carnegie, Andrew, American capitalist and founder of libraries, 1837 — . Is a native of Scotland. Early in his career, he was interested in oil (69, 70) ; amassed, a great fortune in the steel industry in Pittsburgh (62 to 67); is very philanthropic. Champlain, Samuel de, French explorer in America, 1567-1635; be- tween 1591 and 1601 visited the City of Mexico and Spanish America and suggested to the French king a canal across Panama (282, 291, 294, 248, 256) ; in 1603 explored the St. Law- rence River to the Lachine rapids (263 to 267) ; on July 3, THE NEW WORLD 283 1608, began to lay the foundation of Quebec (264 to 266); spent part of each year in Paris and there married (421 to 425) ; in 1611 established a trading post on the site of Montreal (266) ; made many exploring excursions, discovered Lake Cham- plain, saw Lake Huron and the Niagara Falls (49, SO); on Christmas day, 1635, died in Quebec (264). Clay, Henry, American statesman and orator, 1777-1852; Represen- tative from Kentucky; four terms Speaker of the House (88); Senator from Kentucky; won the name, " the great compro- miser " (87) ; defeated for the presidency three times (91) ; Secretary of State under John Quincy Adams (92). Cleveland, Grover, American statesman and President, 1837-1908; in 1860 was mayor of Buffalo (48) and in 1870 sheriff of the county; in 1882, was Governor of New York State (25 to 50); next a lawyer in New York City (25 to 31) ; President of the United States (91) in 1884 and again in 1892; sent United States troops to settle a railroad strike in Chicago (139) ; withdrew from the Senate the Hawaiian annexation treaty antf that country remained independent (259 to 261); asserted the Mon- roe Doctrine in the Venezuela boundary dispute (338 to 341). Columbus, Christopher, Italian navigator, discoverer of America, 1451P-1506. He followed the court of Ferdinand and Isabella to Granada (436) and was present when that city surrendered to the Christians; in his first voyage he discovered Cuba (295 to 299) where he landed on Oct. 26, 1492; returned to Spain to the court which was then at Barcelona. There is today a great monument to Columbus in Barcelona (433). On his third voy- age, he discovered South America and skirted along the coasts of Venezuela (338) ; in his fourth journey, sailed along the coast of Central America (293, 294); touched at Jamaica (301) where his vessels had to be beached. Columbus died in Spain and his body was buried in Santo Domingo. In 1796, his re- mains were transferred to Havana (295, 297). Cooper, Peter, American philanthropist, 1791-1883; worked and won wealth and fame in New York City (25 to 31); built the first American locomotive, a very rude little contrivance, very un- like the one in this picture (43). Cortez, Hernando, Spanish conqueror of Mexico, 14§S-1547; came into this harbor and called the place Vera Cruz (280); con- quered the entire country of Mexico (283); ancient Aztecs worshiped their gods on pyramids (284, 288). De Soto. Hernando. Spanish adventurer and explorer. 1500-1542; in 1514 explored the Isthmus of Panama (247, 248, 256); in 1528 explored the coasts of Guatemala and Yucatan (291, 289); was in Fizarro's expedition in Peru (331); governor of Florida and Cuba (108 to 111, 295 to 299); on May 12. 1539. sailed from Havana harbor (295); was buried in the Mississippi River and his men succeeded in reaching its mouth (120). 284 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY Dewey, George, American Admiral and the hero of Manila Bay, (1837-1917). A United States warship, such as made up the fleet commanded by Admiral Dewey (254). At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, Admiral Dewey sailed from Hongkong (513, 514) to Manila (546^547); his attack on Manila was the first in the chain of events which resulted in the acqui- sition of the Philippines by the United States; lived in Wash- ington (90) serving on various boards connected with naval affairs. Diaz, Porfirio, Mexican general and former President of Mexico, 1830-1915. Chapultepec Castle, the President's residence for twenty-four years (283). The capital of Mexico which sur- rendered to Diaz in 1867 (282). Typical Mexicans under Diaz (281, 284, 285, 290). Died July 2, 1915, in Paris. (421 to 425). Drake, Sir Francis, English courtier, naval officer and explorer, 1540P-1S96; made many voyages to the West Indies (295 to 303), several being plundering expeditions; crossed the Isthmus of Panama and saw the South Sea, praying that he might " sail an English ship on that sea" (247, 248, 256); entered the Rio de la 'Plata (314); sailed through the Strait of Magellan (328); entered the harbor of Valparaiso (326) and destroyed Spanish ships; rounded the Cape of Good Hope (582, 583, 584); is said to have been the first man to bring to England the potato (166) and tobacco (112). Eliot, Charles William, American educator and writer, President Emeritus of Harvard University, 1834 — ; born in Boston and his life was closely associated with that city {6, 7, 8). Emerson, Ralph Waldo, American poet and philosopher, 1803-1882; born in Boston. Many of his lectures were given there (6, 7,8). Endicott, John, American Colonial Governor of Massachusetts, 1588-1665; Governor of Massachusetts in Boston (6, 7, 8). Evans, Robley Dunglison, United States admiral, 1846-1912. After his father died he went to live in Washington (90, 93) virith his uncle. Upon his recommendation, steel was adopted for the construction of United States vessels (100, 242, 254); spent some tirqe in the rriills at Pittsburgh, Pa. (61 tO 67) testing and inspecting steel. In 1891 in command of the Yorktown in Valparaiso Harbor (326, 327), he demanded an apology from the Chilians within twenty-four hours or he woulcl fire; the apology came and he got the name " Fighting Bob Evans "; he was in command of one of the ship's in the battle of San- tiago (299); was put in command of the American fleet on its trip around the world (585); left Hampton Roads (100) on Dec. 12, but because of illness retired when the fleet reached San Francisco (230). Farragut, David Glasgow, noted American admiral, 1801-1870; on Feb. 21, 1862, sailed out of Hampton Roads (100); on the night TtiE NEW WORLd 285 of the 23d of April, 1862, broke through the obstructions and ran up the Mississippi River to New Orleans (119), which sur- rendered April 2S. Ford, Henryj American manufacturer, 1863 — ; went to Detroit in 1887 and organized the Ford Motor Company in 1903; now has 20,000 employees (1S2); in December, 191S, organized the " peace expedition " which went to Stockholm (416 to 418) and Copen- hagen (404 to 406) but had no results. Franklin, Benjamin, American statesman, diplomat and philosopher, 1706-1790. Old as these buildings are, not one of them was standing when Benjamin Franklin ran away from Boston in 1720, yet he took a large part in the struggle for freedom with which these buildings were associated (6 to 8). In 1762 he was sent to England (34S to 352) on behalf of the colonies to oppose the Stamp Act and other oppressive legislation; mem- ber of the Second Continental Congress and signed the Dec- laration of Independence (80 Liberty Bell in Independence Hall); in 1776 Minister to France and succeeded in making an alliance with that country; also helped to make the Treaty of Paris (421 to 42S) which ended the Revolutionary War; in- vented the lightning conductor and made many discoveries in electricity (159, 165). Fremont, John C, American explorer, general and statesman, 1813- 1890; born in Savannah (106); made four expeditions to Cali- fornia and Oregon (221 to 242) and planted the American flag on the Pacific Coast; served as Senator from California (87); was Governor of Arizona (206 to 209). Fuller, Melville W., Chief Justice of the United States, 1832-1901; was a prominent lawyer of Chicago (139); made Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court (89) by President Cleve- land; in 1899 went to I^aris (421 to 425) as a commissioner to settle the dispute over the boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. Fulton, Robert, inventor of steamboat, 176S-181S. At the age of twenty-two, Fulton went to London (348 to 352) to study paint- ing; spent seven years in Paris (421 to 425). While here he invented a submarine which French, British and American governments refused to adopt; in 1806 returned to New York (25 to 30); in 1807 launched the Clermont on the Hudson (39). Funston, General Frederick, American soldier, 1865-1917; in 1890 special agent for the Department of Agriculture (93) ; accom- panied expeditions to Alaska (243 to 246) and the British Northwest (274 to 276) ; in the war with the Filipinos he cap- tured Aguinaldo (546 to 553); in 1914 commanded the expedi- tion which took Vera Cruz (280); in 1916 was with the Amer- ican army on the Mexican border (126, 211). Garfield, Jam«s Abram, President of the United States, 1831-1881; 286 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY member of Congress (87, 88); President of the United States (91). Garrison, William Lloyd, noted American abolitionist, 180S-1879; was dragged through the streets of Boston (6 to 8) by a mob that threatened his life because of his anti-slavery utterances. Negroes for whose freedom he spent his life's work (111, 117, 118). Goethals, George Washington, American major general, army en- gineer, builder of the Panama Canal, 1858 — ; born at Brooklyn (27) ; in 1880 graduated from West Point and in 1885-1887 was assistant professor of military engineering (39); in 1907 took charge of the canal zone (247 to 256) and when the canal was completed was its first civil governor; in 1916 was chairman of commission to hear and pass on questions arising between railroa'd employers and employees (43, 129). Gordon, Rev. Chas. W. (Ralph Connor), American preacher and author, 1860 — . Scenes in the Rocky Mountains (274 to 277) where Connor did mission work and about which he wrote. Winnipeg (273) where he is a minister of the Presbyterian Church. Gorgas, William Crawford, Major General, American expert on- sanitation, 1854 — ; from 1898 to 1902 chief sanitary officer of Havana (295); from 1904 to 1913 had charge of sanitary ad- ministration in Panama (247 to 256), exterminating yellow fever and bubonic plague and reducing, typhoid and malaria over 50%. Grant, Ulysses Simpson, American general and 18th President of the United States, 1822-1885; educated at West Point (39); served in the Mexican War (280, 283). On Nov. 24, 1863, Gen. Hooker, under Gen. Grant, seized the top of Lookout Mountain (114). Grant's presence at Chattanooga inspired the Union army with boundless enthusiasm. Down this avenue (90) his victorious troops marched at the end of the war. He became Secretary of War (92) under President Johnson. He served two terms as President (91). Hamilton, Alexander, American statesman and financier, 1757-1804; educated in New York (25 to 30) ; on July 6, 1774, attended a great meeting in the fields (now City Hall Park) (28) and made an impassioned speech which brought him into notice; was with Washington at Newburgh (37) ; was a member of Con- tinental Congress meeting in old Federal Hall, New York, and served as Secretary of the Treasury under Washington (29); vigorously supported the constitution under which our govern- ment now works (87 to 93) ; while Secretary of the Treasury he advised and effected the purchase of West Point (39); un- der him the mint in Philadelphia was established (84). Hawthorne, Nathaniel, American .author, 1804-1864; held a posi- tion in the Customs House at Boston (6, 7, '8) ; President THE NEW WORLD 287 Pierce made him consul to Liverpool (347); made many visits to the Lake District, England (361, 362); in Italy, especially in Rome (450 to 459) he found the material for " The Marble Faun." Hay, John, American statesman, diplomat and author, 1838-1905; private secretary to President Lincoln (91); was secretary of the United States Legation in Paris (421 to 425) and Charge d' Affaires in Vienna (462, 463); Ambassador to England (348, 349); was First Assistant Secretary of State under President Hayes and Secretary of State under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt (92). Hoover, Herbert C. American mining engineer, 1874 — . Mr. Hoover was the first student to enter Leland Stanford Uni- versity. After graduating from the geology and mining de- partment he took work in San Francisco (230) under Mr. Lewis Janin. His work in mining took him to California (228 to 242) ; Oregon (221 to 225) ; Idaho (190) ; Wyoming (191 to 197) and Arizona (206 to 21.0). After a few years in Australia he was invited to become director of mines in China (513 to 524) and was there during the Boxer uprising. As junior partner in a London (348 to 352) house from which one of the partners stole a million of money, Mr. Hoover insisted that all claims should be made good. He was made head of the Belgian Relief Service (395 to 398). In August, 1917, was appointed United States Food Commissioner (104, 105, 118, 147, 166, 177, 184, 218, 233). Howe, Samuel Gridley, American philanthropist and reformer, 1801-1876; born in Boston (6 to 8); later devoted his life to the education of the blind in that city. Stirred by the poems of Byron, he served as a surgeon in the Greek struggle for free- dom (475, 480) ; studied medicine in Paris (421 to 425) ; in Ber- lin (383, 384, 385) engaged in helping Polish refugees he was secretly imprisoned for several weeks; was interested in the plans of John Brown but disapproved of Brown's raid on Har- per's Ferry (101). Howells, William Dean, American writer, 1837 — ; in 1861 to 1865 consul at Venice (457) ; from 1866 to 1881 editor of the Atlantic Monthly in Boston (6 to 8) ; from 1886 he has lived in New York (25 to 30) where he became connected with Harper^s Magazine and did much literary work. Huerta, Victoriano, President of Mexico, 1854-1916. Huerta was a full-blooded Mexican Indian (285); in 1913 as President in Mexico City (282) he arrested half the deputies and dissolved the Mexican Congress; then the Americans took Vera Cruz (280) and Huerta left for Spain (433, 438); returned to New York City (25, 26); was arrested trying to return to Mexico by- way of New Mexico (211). Irving, Washington, American author, 1783-1859; was born in New 288 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY York and loved to write about it (25 to 31); wrote a biography of Washington for whom he was named (9, 37, 93). These places which he knew and loved so well furnished the back- ground for such stories as " Rip Van Winkle," the " Legend of Sleepy Hollow," etc. (36, 38, 39). For some time he -.vas secretary to the American Legation in London (348 to 352) ; from 1842 to 1846 Minister to Spain (435); had his home in the Alhambra (436) and wrote its history and the legends con- nected with it. While in Spain he collected the material for the biographies of Columbus and Mahomet. He spent his last days at his home on the Hudson River (38) and lies buried in the cemetery at Sleepy Hollow (36). Jefiferson, Thomas, writer of Declaration, third President of the United States, 1743-1826; wrote and signed the Declaration of In- dependence (80 Liberty Bell, Independence Hall) ; was Secretary of State under Washington (92) ; Vice-President from 1797 to 1801 (87) ; President for two terms (91). Scenes in the Louisiana Ter- ritory which was purchased by the United States under Jeffer- son (118, 119, 120, 170, 172, 173, 187, 188, 189, 198 to 205). Lansing, Robert, American statesman, 1864 — ; lawyer in New York City (25 to 31) ; in 1915 became Secretary of State under Presi- dent Wilson (92). La Salle, Rene Robert Cavelier de, Sieur, French explorer, 1643- 1687; came to Montreal from France (266); discovered the Ohio River (61), at what point is not known; passed up and down the Niagara River more than once (49, 50) ; went down the, Mississippi River (148, 170, 174) in 1682. The Delta was reached April 6 and the men, divided into three bands, went to the Gulf (120). Ordered to Paris, he was received with favor (421, 425). .„___ Laurier, Sir Wilfred, Canadian statesman, 1841—; attended McGill University at Montreal (267) ; was a member of Queb'ec Legis- lature in 1871 (264); from 1896 to 1911 was Premier of Canada (262 to 277). Lee, General Robert E., Commander of the Confederate Army, 1807-1870; graduated from West Point (39); married the grand- daughter of Martha Washington (96); became assistant to the chief engineer of the army at Washington (90); took charge of the defenses of New York City (25); arranged the batteries in the attack of Vera Cruz (280); at Chapultepec received promotion for bravery (283); in 1852 was superintendent at West Point (39) ; commanded the United States troops which sup- pressed the John Brown raid (101); commanded the Confed- erate troops at Gettysburg (73). Lincoln, Abraham, emancipator of slaves, 16th President of the United States, 1809-1865. No man could have had a much humbler birthplace than Lincoln's (113). He was once a member of the House of Representatives from Illinois (88); was twice THE NEW WORLD 289 elected President (91); his Gettysburg oration was one of the great speeches of the world (73); his Cabinet containing Se- ward, Stanton, Chase and Welles was a wonderful collection of great men (92). Lincoln, the lover of freedom, even yet inspires men of all nations to work and fight for democratic ideals (146 Joflfre at Lincoln's tomb). Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, American poet and educator, 1807- 1882. Longfellow's home (9). Lowell, James Russell, American poet and educator, 1819-1891; Ambassador to Spain in 1877 (435); Ambassador to England from 1880 to 1885 (348 to 352). Magellan, Fernando de, a Portuguese; was an explorer in service of Spain, 1480?-1S21; was in Rio Janeiro (305 to 307) in Decem- ber, 1519; in February, 1520, reached the entrance to the Rio de La Platte (314) ; was the first European to pass the straits which bear his name (328) ; visited variotis islands in the Philip- pines (546 to 553) and there was killed. Marshall, John, most famous American jurist, 1755-1835; congress- man in the old federal building when the United States cap- ital was New York City (29) ; was Secretary of State under John Adams (92); by Adams was appointed Chief Justice (89) of the United States which position he held thirty-four years; refused to become Minister to France but was sent to Paris (421 to 425) as a special envoy. Maximilian — Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph, Archduke of Austria and Emperor of Mexico, 1832-1867; belonged to the royal fam- ily of Austria, was placed in Mexico by the French (462, 463). Chapultepec (283) was his palace. The people rebelled, Mex- ico City (282) was taken and Maximilian was executed. McKinley, William, 24th President of the United States, 1843-1901; member of Congress (87, 88) ; was elected President, the gold standard being the important campaign question (91). On Feb. 15, 1898, the Maine was blown up in Havana Harbor and this brought about the Spanish War (296). Admiral Dewey sailed from Hongkong to Manila where he defeated the Spanish, May 1, 1898 (514, 546, 547). On July 3, the battle of Santiago was won by the United States (299). As a result of the Spanish War, the United States acquired the Philippines (546 to 553), Guam (554), and Porto Rico (257), and Cuba (295 to 299) became inde- pendent under United States protection. During the Spanish War, he urged the annexation of Hawaii (259 to 261). Meade, General George Gordon, 1815-1872; American soldier, in command of the federal troops at the battle of Gettysburg (73). Montcalm de Saint-Veran, de, Louis Joseph, Marquis, French offi- cer, 1712-1759; lost his life on the plains above Quebec (264). Montgomery, Richard, American Revolutionary general, born in Ireland; 1736-1775; led an unsuccessful attack on Montreal 290 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY (267); with Arnold was repulsed from Quebec hence Canada remained an English territory (264, 266). Muir, John, American geologist and author, 1838-1914; made care- ful study of the Yosemite Valley (228, 229); also explored Alaska glaciers (243, 244). Peary, Robert Edwin, American explorer and discoverer of North Pole, 1856 — . After many years succeeded in reaching the North Pole (342, 343). Pedro H— Dom Pedro de Alcantara, 182S-1891; Emperor of Brazil (304, 311) from 1831 to 1889. Died in Paris (421 to 425). Pershing, John J., American Brigadier General, 1860 — ; graduated from West Point in 1886 (39); took part in a Sioux campaign in Dakota, 1890, and later was commander of the Sioux Indian Scouts (182); was military attache at Tokyo in 1905-06 (526); was in the Santiago campaign in the Spanish-American War (299) ; was a military commander in the Philippines (546 to 553) ; was in command of the troops which pursued Villa in North- ern Mexico and of the first American troops that went to Europe in the World War, arriving in Liverpool July 8, 1917 (347). A special train carried him to London (348, 352). On July 13, 1917, he, with his army, went to Paris, where they were received by a detachment of the French army (421, 426). The Avenue des Champs Elysees, down which Pershing went to the Place de la Concorde (422). Pizarro, Gonzola, lSOSP-1548, and Francisco, 1470P-1541, Spanish conquerors of Peru. In Panama with Balboa (247 to 256). Conquered the Incas. Gonzola Pizarro died inCuzco (331). Poe, Edgar Allan, American poet, 1809-1849; born in Boston (6 to 8) Jan. 19 ; entered West Point but was expelled (39) ; did liter- ary work in New York City (25 to 30). Ponce de Leon, Juan, Spanish explorer, 1460P-1521; in 1510 was made governor and empowered to conquer Porto Rico (257, 258); in 1513 discovered and explored Florida (108 to 111). Raleigh, Sir Walter, English explorer and colonizer, 1552-1618; first attempted to colonize America and gave the name Virginia to the new country (100, 98) ; first introduced the use of tobacco (112) into Europe; was beheaded after a long imprisonment in the Tower of London (349). Rankin, Jeannette, American, first female member of Congress, 1882 — ; born on a cattle ranch in Montana (188) ; studied music in Seattle (220); later was a student in the School of Phi- lanthropy, New York City (25 to 31). In 1916 she was elected member of Congress from Montana (87, 88), Revere, Paul, American patriot, 1735-1818. Attended town meet- ings in Faneuil Hall (7). Old North Church (6) where the signal light was hung. Lexington, toward which he rode, rous- ing the minute men on his way (10). Old State House (8) where the Massachusetts Assembly resisted the English tyranny. THE NEW WORLD 291 Rockefeller, John D., American oil magnate, capitalist and phi- lanthropist, 1839 — ; first went into the oil business on bor- rowed capital (69, 70) ; in 1872 organized the Standard Oil Company and later the Standard Oil Trust (122, 123); his im- mense fortune has given him tremendous influence in the finan- cial circles in the United States (29). Root, Elihu, American lawyer and statesman, 184S — ; in 1899, was Secretary of War for McKinley; in 1905 on the death of John Hay became Secretary of State (92) ; in 1906 attended the Pan-American Conference at Rio de Janeiro (305 to 307) ; vis- ited the capita,ls of many other South American countries and helped to create a friendly feeling between them and the United States (314 to 316, 324, 325, 340); in 1917 headed the United States war commission sent to Russia (482 to 488). Roosevelt, Theodore, American soldier, author and 25th President of the United States, 1858 — ; born and reared in Nfew York City (25 to 31) and was police commissioner; in 1882 to 1884 was on a ranch in North Dakota (188); from 1895 to 1897 was Assistant Secretary of the Navy (90). The navy was ready for the war of 1898. With his Rough Riders he took part in the attack on Santiago (299) ; when he returned he became Governor of New York (25 to 50); as Vice-President presided over the Senate (87); on the death of McKinley became President (91); when • the anthracite miners of Pennsylvania (74 to 79) struck, he in- terposed and secured arbitration; in the Boxer rebellion in China, sent United States troops which united with English, French, Japanese and German troops to rescue their representatives who were besieged in Peking (520). Under Roosevelt's orders our fleet made a trip around the world (585). In his adminis- tration treaties were made and work on the Panama Canal (247 to 256) was started. He encouraged reclamation and con- servation (210, 224, 232). After his term as President he went hunting in Africa and doubtless witnessed scenes similar to these (577, 578). On the way home he was entertained by the German Kaiser (384), visited Paris (421) and was the especial representative of the United States at the funeral of Edward VII of England (348). Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, American sculptor, 1848-1907; born in Dublin, Ireland (380); came to New York City (25 to 31) when six months old. Here he studied and here is to be found some of his best work. In 1869 he went to Paris (421 to 425). Also he studied in Rome (450 to 452). Santa Anna, Mexican general, 179S?-1876. In 1822 he was com- mandant of Vera Cruz (280); attacked San Antonio and cap- tured the Alamo in the war for Texan independence (126); was more than once President of Mexico (282); spent many years in exile in Jamaica (301), Venezuela (338 to 341), Cuba (295 to 299) and the United States. Schurz Carl, American general and author, 1829-1906. Carl Schurg 292 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY received his early education in Cologne (393); lived in Paris as a correspondent for German newspapers (421 to 425); in London (347 to 352) was a teacher; participated in the battle of Gettysburg (73) ; in 1861 was United States Minister to Spain (435) ; was Secretary of Interior for President Qeveland (92). Scott, General Winfield, American general, 1786-1866; on April 26, 1847, captured Vera Cruz (280) ; on Sept. 13, won the battle of Chapultepec (283); on Sept. 14, entered the City of Mexico (282); ran for the presidency (91) but was defeated; on May 29, 1866, died at West Point (39). Seward, William Henry, American statesman, *180 1-1872; in 1849 was elected Senator of the United States (87) ; under President Lincoln and President Johnson was Secretary of State (92); negotiated the treaty for the purchase of Alaska (243 to 246) and after retiring from public life visited that country. Sherman, General William Tecumseh, noted general, 1820-1891; graduated at West Point (39) ; took part in the three days' battle at Chattanooga (114); his famous march to the sea terminated at Savannah (106). Stedman, Edmund Clarence, American poet and banker, 1833-1908; war correspondent for the New York World in the Civil War (28); secretary to Attorney-General Bates in Washington (90); entered Wall Street (29) as a broker and banker. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch Governor of New York, 1602-1682. The Dutch were attracted to this location by the beautiful harbor (25, 26, 27). The Dutch governors allowed the people of New Amsterdam n'o self-government. Stuyvesant was espe- cially autocratic (28). This is the older part of New York City (29) that was occupied by the Dutch. Taft, William Howard, American statesman and 26th President of the United States, 1857 — ; the first and probably the best Governor sent to the Philippines (546 to 553) by the United States ; Secretary of War (90) under President Roosevelt and so had charge of the beginning of the Panama Canal; was President from 1909 to 1913 (91); under his administration the Panama Canal was largely built (248 to 256). The Payne-Aldrich Bill passed by Congress (87) and signed by the President caused wide- spread dissatisfaction. Tarbell, Ida Minerva, 1857—. Was associate editor on The Chau- tauquan from 1883-1889; studied in Paris (421 to 425) from 1891-1894; editor on McClure's Magazine from 1894-1906 and since then on the American, living in New York City (25 to 31); in 1917 was appointed, by President Wilson, a member of the Women's Committee of National Defense with head- quarters in Washington, D. C. (90); author of "Life of Lin- coln " (113, 146) and of the " History of Standard Oil " (122, 123). Taylor, Bayard, American traveler, author and poet, 1825-1878; a newspaper man on the staff of the New York Tribune (25 to THE NEW WORLD 293 31) ; as a special correspondent of the Tribune went to California during the gold excitement (228 to 242) ; traveled through Egypt (558 to 569) and Syria (491 to 494); crossed India from Bombay to Calcutta (500 to 508); was with Commodore Perry when he first entered the ports of Japan (527). His descrip- tion of his travels in Norway is one of his most interesting books (407 to 412). From 1862 to 1863 he was secretary to the American Legation to St. Petersburg and later Charge d'Af- faires there (482). He lived many years in Germany, married and died there. In 1878 he was Minister to Berlin (383 to 385). Verrazano, da, Giovanni, Italian navigator, 1480P-1527; born in Florence (456); in 1524 sailed to America with the authority of the French king, and was probably the first European to enter New York Harbor (25). Warren, General Joseph, American soldier, hero of Bunker Hill, 1741-1775; physician in Boston (6) before the Revolution; took part in the meetings at Faneuil Hall which were held by citi- zens in protest against British tyranny (7). In this work he was closely associated with John and Samuel Adams. In 1775 he was n member of the Provincial Assembly. Twice he made the speech on the anniversary of the Boston Massacre, which occurred in front of the State House (8). He contributed largely to the success of the Battle of Lexington (10). Washington, George, " father of his country " and first President of the United States, 1732-1799. This is the home Washington loved. Here he lived and died and now lies buried (96). When sent to prevent the French from getting possession of the Ohio country, Washington built Fort Necessity near the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers (61). It was near here, too, that the battle between the French and the English under Gen. Braddock was fought. When he assumed command of the American army before Boston, he made his home in this house (9). The Declaration of Independence was a momen- tous event in the life of Washington. He was no longer fight- ing for his rights under the English government, but for com- plete independence (80 Liberty Bell, Independence Hall). He made many visits to West Point (38, 39) and conducted cam- paigns about the Hudson. Fortunately he was near and reached West Point shortly after Arnold's treason. In some of the operations about New York, he had his headquarters at Newburg (37). It was here he addressed the dissatisfied soldiers who suggested making him king. The New York Sub- Treasury stands on the site of the old federal building from whose balcony Washington took the oath of office (29). In his administration, Congress chose the site of the nation's capital (90). Webster, Daniel, American statesman, 1782-1852. Daniel Webster studied law in Boston (6, 8). Later he removed to that city. Many times he spoke in Faneuil Hall (7). Served many years 294 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY in Congress as Representative and later as Senator (87, 88). Twice he was Secretary of State (92). He opposed the annexa- tion of Texas (122 to 127) and the Mexican War (283). Wilson, Woodrow, educator, historian and 27th President of the United States, 1856 — ; Governor of New Jersey (51 to 60) ; elected to the presidency in 1912 and again in 1916 (91) ; took up the cus- tom of reading his messages to Congress (88) ; in September, 1916, the Adamson Bill was passed to prevent a strike. The President signed it and the Supreme Court declared it consti- tutional. It was the beginning of a new policy and an example of extreme centralization of power (43, 129, 88, 89). On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany (383, 384, 385). Ruthless submarine warfare was the immediate cause (242). The President advocated government control of all resources. No other President has taken so much power as has President Wilson (184, 166, 177, etc.). Commissions were sent from Eng- land and France to help cooperation (146). Winthrop, John, first governor of Massachusetts, 1588-1649; re- sided in Boston (6 to 8). Wolf, James, British general, 1727-1759; killed at Quebec (264). Wright, Orville, American inventor of airplanes, 1871 — . (426). Wright, Wilbur, co-worker and inventor, 1867-1912. From their inventions have come the airplanes in use everywhere today (426). Young, Brigham, American leader of Mormon Church, 1801-1877; in 1840 went as a missionary to Liverpool (347); in 1848 he led the Mormons to Salt Lake City (212) and selected the site for the Temple; in 1849 he was made Governor of the Territory of Utah (213). THE OLD WORLD Abraham, Hebrew patriarch about 2000 b. c; lived a nomadic life in Palestine (495, 497, 498). Alcibiades, a native and statesman of Athens, 450-404 b.c. (475). Alexander the Great, Macedonian general and statesman, 356-323 B. c. He quickly reduced Greece which rebelled upon his ac- cession (476 to 480); greatly admired Athens (475) and sent to it some of the spoils of war; conquered Syria (492 to 494) and Egypt ^(561 to 568); founded the city of Alexandria (558). Anthony, Mark, member of second Roman triumvir, and general, 83-30 B. c; spent most of his life in Rome (450 to 452); listened to philosophers in Athens (475) ; in Egypt (558 to 569) he lived with Cleopatra and there died. Aristides, a Greek statesman and general, SSOP-467 B.C.; was born and died in Athens (475). Aristotle, 384-322 b.c, the teacher of Alexander; was a philosopher at Athens (475). Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, Roman emperor, 63 b. C.-14 A. D. Rome (450 to 452), of which Augustus said, "I found the city built of brick an(l left it biiilt of marble." At}- THE OLD WORLD 295 gustus made Egypt (SS8 to 568) a part of the Roman Empire. Bacon, Sir Francis, English statesman, Baron of Verulam, philoso- . . pher and author, 1561-1626. Bacon was born in London (348 to 352) and held many high offices there. He was impeached before the House of Lords for having received money for grants of offices and privileges (352) and sentenced to £40,000 fine and imprisonment in the Tower (349) during the pleasure of the king. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, Spanish explorer in America. See New World Biographies. Balfour, Sir Arthur James, English statesman, 1848 — ,- was a mem- ber of Parliament in 1874 and Prime Minister of England in 1902 (347 to 352). Was head of an English mission to the United States in 1917. Beethoven, Ludwig van, German composer, 1770-1827. Beethoven was a native of Bonn (392); his early life was spent in Cologne (393) ; he studied in Vienna and there lived many years and did much of his best work (462, 463). Bismarck-Schonhausen, von, Prince Otto Edward Leopold, cele- brated German statesman and diplomat, 1815-1898. Berlin (383, 384) is where BiSmarck was educated and had very great in- fluence; he was Ambassador to Russia (482); was Ambassador to Paris (421 to 425); he built up the German army (385). Bjornson, Bjornsterne, Norwegian author, 1832-1910. Copenhagen (404 to 406) where Bjornson studied. Paris (421 to 425) and Rome (450 to 452) were frequently visited by him. Bjornson's writings contain wonderfully real Norwegian people and places (407 to 411, 414). Browning, Robert, English poet, 1812-1889; long time a resident of London (348 to 352); spent most of his married life in Flor- ence (456); died in Venice (457); buried in Westminster Abbey (350). Bruce, Robert, deliverer of Scotland, 1274-1329. From such homes came many of Bruce's men (373). " Scots wham Bruce hae often led " (366). Stirling Castle was a Scottish stronghold and near here at Bannockburn Bruce defeated the English (367). Brutus, Marcus Junius, Roman politician, 85-42 b. c; was born and lived in Rome (450 to 452); escaped to Athens (475) after the assassination of Caesar. Bryce, James, Viscount, British statesman, diplomat and author, 1838—; was born in Belfast (381); lived in Washington (87 to 95) as English Ambassador. Burke, Edmund, British author, orator and statesman, 1729-1797; was born in Dublin (380); contributed largely to the improve- ment of the government of India (500 to 507); prepared the way for the abolition of the slave trade (570, 572, 578). The Revolutionary War would never have taken place if Burke's policy of reconciliation had been followed (80, 10). Burns, Robert, Scotch poet, 1759-1796. Burns' cottage, room where 296 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY the poet was born (372). Such homes inspired "The Cotter's Saturday Night" (373). "Scots wha hae wi' Wallace bled," wrote Burns (365, 368). He visited Edinburgh (365) where he was well received. Byron, Lord, George Gordon, British poet and traveler, 1788-1824; Vifas born in London (348 to 352) ; spent much time in Italy (457) ; visited and wrote about Constantinople (472 to 474) ; espoused the cause of the Greeks in their struggle for freedom and died in Greece (475, 470).' Caesar, Caius Julius, Roman general and statesman, 100-44 b. c. Rome still contains many buildings that were there in Caesar's time (450, 451). He attended games in the Coliseum (452) and there gave great spectacles to win public favor; led his army across the Alps into Gaul (427, 428. 441. 444 to 446. 448, 449) ; captured Marseilles (429) ; spent some time in Egypt (558 to 568) where he secured the throne to Cleopatra. Calvin, John, French reformer, 1509-1564. Calvin was educated in Paris (421 to 425) ; went to Strassburg when expelled from Geneva; in this city (389) he married. Carlyle, Thomas, British essayist, historian and philosopher, 1795- 1881; was educated in Scotland, lived and worked in Edin- burgh, (365). Cato, Marcus Porcius, Roman censor, 234-149 b. c; lived in Rome (450, 451, 452). Chamberlain, Joseph, British statesman, 1836-1914; was born in London; was a member of Parliament and held high govern- ment positions (348 to 352);, one of the commissioners sent to Washington (87 to 91) ; as colonial secretary was interested in the passage of the Australian Commonwealth act (585 to 589) ; visited South Africa (579 to 582) after the Boer War. Champlain, Samuel de, French explorer in America. See New World Biographies. Charlemagne, King of Franks and Emperor of Rome, 742-814; was crowned in St. Peter's at Rome (450. 451). Charles VIII. King of France. 1470-1498. He ruled in Paris (421 to 425). Took Naples. Ttaly (453, 454). Charles XII, King of Sweden, 1682-1718. Capital of Sweden (416, 417). Besieged Copenhagen (404 to 406); unsuccessfully led his army against Moscow (483) ; fled to Constantinople (472 to 474) after defeat at Polatva. Chephren, Egyptian King, about 2700 B.C.; built the second great pyramid (565). Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 106-43 B.C.; celebrated Roman statesman and orator; lived in Rome and attended games in the Colos- seum (450 to 453). Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, 69-30 b. c; ruled in Egypt (558 to 569); lived a short time with Caesar in Rome (450 to 452). Columbus, Christopher, discoverer of America. See New World Biographies. THE OLD WORLD 297 Confucius, Chinese religious teacher, SSl-478 b. c. Scenes in China where Confucianism is a prominent religion (513 to S24). Constantine the Great, Emperor of Rome, 272-337; ruled Rome (450 to 452); made Constantinople (472 to 474) capital of the Empire. Cortez, Hernando', conqueror of Mexico. See New World Biog- raphies. Cromwell, Oliver, Protector of England, 1599-1658. He became ruler of England when Charles I was beheaded in the Tower (349). Cromwell interfered by force with the actions of Par- liament (352). Jamaica (301) was captured by the English under Admiral Penn while Cromwell was Protector of Eng- land. Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265-1321; born in Florence (456); spent some time in Rome (450 to 452) ; sent on a mission to Venice (457) and fell ill when returning. In 1309, he was sup- posed to have visited Paris (421 to 425). Darwin, Charles Robert, English naturalist and author, 1809-1882; attended college in Edinburgh (365) ; made scientific studies in Martinique and Jamaica (301, 300); made studies of South America (307, 304, 321); is buried in Westminster Abbey (350). David, Hebrew poet and king, about 1100 b. c. He built Jerusalem, "the city of David" (495). Views of the country over which David ruled (496 to 498). Damascus, subjugated by David (493). Demosthenes, Greek statesman, world's greatest orator, 384 or 385- 322 B.C. Athens (475) where Demosthenes opposed Philip. De Soto, Hernando, Spanish adventurer and explorer. See New World Biographies. Dickens, Charles, English novelist, 1812-1870. London (348 to 352) where Dickens lived and whose life he portrayed. He is buried in Westminster Abbey (350). Disraeli, Benjamin, Lord Beaconsfield, English statesman, 1804- 1881; born and died in London (348 to 352); acquired control of the Suez Canal for the English (559); proclaimed Queen Victoria " Empress of India " (499 to 508) the first time that title was used. The Transvaal (579, 580) was annexed by England under Disraeli. In 1878 he entered the House of Lords (352) as Earl of Beaconsfield. Drake, Sir Francis, English courtier, naval officer and explorer. See New World Biographies. Edward the Confessor, King of England, 1004?-1066; built West- minster Abbey (350). It has been remodeled. Edward II, King of England, 1284-1327; crowned and deposed m Westminster Abbey (350); defeated by Robert Bruce at Ban- nockburn (367). Edward III, King of England, 1312-1377; crowned in Westmmster Abbey (350). Elijah, Hebrew prophet, about 900 B.C.; warned Ahab the Kmg m 298 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY Jerusalem (495); the Jericho road (496) along which Elisha followed Elijah until he was translated. Eliot, Sir John, English patriot, 1592-1632. Tower of London in which he died (349). Elizabeth, Queen of England, 1533-1603; imprisoned in this tower (349) by her sister, Queen Mary. Here also her mother had been beheaded. Crowned and buried in Westminster Abbey (350). Traitors were hanged from London Bridge (348) in Queen Elizabeth's day. Virginia (100) named in her honor. Ferdinand, 1452-1516, and Isabella, 1451-1504, King and Queen of Spain; took the Alhambra Palace at Granada (436); became rulers of Naples (453, 454) in 1504. Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria-Hungary, 1830^1917; born at Vienna (462, 463). Early in his reign, 1848 to 1849, Hungary fought for independence but was defeated. Later the Austria- Hungary state was formed (464, 463). Scenes in Lombardy which Francis Joseph was compelled to cede to Italy in 1866 (458, 459). Frederick I, surnamed Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor, 1121- 1190; in 1155 marched to Rome and was crowned in St. Peter's (450, 451); took Milan twice, the second time he razed the city (458). Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Italian patriot and soldier, 1807-1882; born at Nice, the son of a sailor (431) ; took part in the struggle made by Uruguay (312, 313) against the Argentinean dictator, Man- uel Rosas; joined the Revolutionary government at Rome (450 to 452); he and his wife Red in a small fishing craft to Venice (457) and his wife died from the hardship; fled to Tunis (557); later lived in New York (25 to 31) ; in 1860 helped in the re- volt of Sicily and entered Palermo (455) ; entered Naples (454) with only one or two friends to prove that he was a liberator, not a conqueror. It is largely through his efforts that Italy as a nation was unified (450 to 459). Gautama (the Buddha), philosopher and religious teacher of India, middle of sixth century. Followers of Buddha bathing in the sacred Ganges before the Temple of Benares (501) where he began his preaching. Views in India and China where the teachings of Buddha have had the greatest influence (499, 500, 504, 513 to 524). Gladstone, William Ewart, English statesman, 1809-1898; born at Liverpool (347) ; as member of Parliament, Chancellor of the Exchequer, British Premier, he was for nearly half a century the greatest man in London (348 to 352). Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von, German poet, 1749-1832; studied law at Strassburg (389) although he lived his life at Weimar; Venice (457) and Florence (456) received only short visits, so eager was he to reach Rome; remained a year in Rome (450, 451, 452); also visited Naples (453, 454) and Sicily (455). The . THE OLD WORLD 299 Rhine valley and German people figure largely in Goethe's writings (389 to 393). Goldsmith, Oliver, British poet, born in Ireland, 1728-1774; at- tended Trinity College in Dublin (350); ran away to Cork (375) because he was involved in a college riot; in Edinburgh (365) studied medicine. The last years of his life were passed in London (348 to 352). In Westminster Abbey there is a monument to Goldsmith (350). Gordon, Charles George (Chinese Gordon), English general, 1833- 1885; in 1860 took part in the capture of Peking (519, 520); in 1872 was sent to Bulgaria (468, 469) as British Minister for regulating traffic on the Danube; was invited by the Khedive to be governor of Sudan (560). He was killed at Khartum. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, 1594-1632; born at Stockholm (416, 417). Hadrian-Publius .ffilius Hadrianus, Emperor of Rome, 76-138; born in Rome (450 to 452) ; made Trajan governor of Syria (492, 493); he loved and spent much time in Athens (475). Castle of San Angelo was the tomb of Hadrian (451). Visited the Colossi at Memnon (567). Haig, Sir Douglas, English general, 1861 — ; in 1899 and 1901 was in the Boer War in South Africa (580) ; later held a command in India (499 to 508) ; in the World War has had charge of Eng- lish troops in France (426) succeeding General French. Hastings, Warren, British statesman, 1732-1818; at the age of eighteen he went to Calcutta and later became the first viceroy of India (500); served as member of the Council in Madras (499); was impeached before the House of Lords (352). Henry III, King of England, 1207-1272; rebuilt Westminster Abbey (350). Henry VI, King of England, 1421-1471; crcwned King of England in Westminster Abbey (350) ; crowned King of France in Paris (421 to 425) on Nov. 6, 1429; imprisoned in the tower (349). Henry VII, King of England, 1457-1509; crowned in Westminster Abbey (350). The coasts of Labrador (278) and Newfound- land (279) were discovered by John Cabot in Henry's reign. This was the foundation of the English claim on America. Henry VIII, King of England, 1491-1547; born at Greenwich (353); crowned in Westminster Abbey (350); made Wolsey Arch- bishop of York (360) and put into his hands almost supreme powet. The Tower (349) where Anne Boleyn was beheaded. Hindenburg, Paul von Beneckendorfl und von, German general, 1847 — . In 1916 Commander-in-Chief of the forces of the (Cen- tral Powers (385). Homer, Greek poet, between 900 and 1100 b. c. Homer described the life of the ancient Greeks (475 to 480). His poems were the foundation of Greek education. Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Roman poet, 65-8 b. c. Horace 300 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY lived and wrote in Rome (450 to 452) ; studied the Greek poets in Athens (475). Hugo, Victor Marie. French novelist, 1802-1885; spent much of his life and died in Paris (421 to 425); lived in Madrid in 1811 and 1812 (435); fled to Brussels (395) but was later expelled from that city; during his exile he lived in Jersey (364). Notre Dame Cathedral which plays so large a part in Hugo's writ- ings (425). Huxley, Thomas Henry, English scientist, 1825-1895. Lived in London (348 to 352) where he held position in Government School of Mines. Jointly with Tyndall he published a book on the movement of glaciers (427, 428, 446). Ibsen, Henrik, Norwegian writer, 1828-1906. The Norway he de- scribed so wonderfully (407 to 409, 414). Scene's in Rome where Ibsen lived a long time (450 to 452). Ivan the Great, first Czar of Russia, 1440?-1505. The Kremlin, the citadel of Ivan's capital, Moscow (483). James I of England and VI of Scotland, 1566-1625; born in Edin- burgh (365); in 1603 was crowned King of England in West- minster Abbey (350). The settlement of Jamestown was made during the reign of James I (100, 98). Jesus, 0-33. Jesus grew to manhood in the city of Nazareth (497) ; traveled from Jerusalem to the Jordan, no doubt by the Jericho Road (496). "Two women shall be grinding corn. One shall be taken and the other left" (498). He was often in Jerusalem (495). It was in this city he was tried, con- demned and crucified. Joffre, Joseph Jacque Cesaire, Marshal of France, 1852 — ; in 1915 had command of both the French and English armies in France (426) ; in 1917 was special representative from France to America (146) ; later, in July, 1917, he welcomed General Pershing and the American troops to Paris (421 to 425). Joseph, Hebrew ruler. Scenes in Egypt to which Joseph was car- ried as a slave and of which he became the ruler (565 to 568). Irrigation and farming in Egypt (561, 562, 564). Josephus, Flavins, Hebrew historian, 37-? a. d. ; born in and lived at Jerusalem (495) ; after the fall of Jerusalem he lived in Rome (450 to 452); Governor of Judea (496 to 498). Joshua, Hebrew judge; led the children of Israel into the promised land, Palestine (495 to 498). Kitchener, Horatio Herbert, Earl Kitchener, British soldier, 1850- 1916. He was born in county Kerry, Ireland {577, 378); served in Egypt (SS8 to 569) and became second in com- mand of the Egyptian army; captured Khartum and conquered the Sudan; went to South Africa as Chief of Staff to Lord Roberts; was in command of British forces in Boer War (580, 582); was Commander-in-Chief of the Indian army (499 to 508); in the war with Germany and Austria was lost in the THE OLD WORLD 301 North Sea, his ship being destroyed, doubtless by a German submarine acting under orders from Berlin (384, 385). Knox, John, Scottish reformer, 1S0S-1S72; preached in Edinburgh (365). Lafayette, Marquis de, French patriot; aided American Independ- ence, 1757-1834; friend of Washington, made a journey to Mt. Vernon to show his respect (96); an honored guest in Wash- ington (90 to 93, 87) ; was also warmly welcomed in New York (28); died in Paris, 1834 (421). The grandson of Lafayette, the Marquis de Chambrun, was one of the French war commis- sioners sent to the United States in 1917 (146). LaSalle, Rene Robert Cavelier, French explorer. See New World Biographies. Li Hung Chang, Chinese statesman, 1823P-1901. Scenes in China where he was practically next to the throne (513 to 524). In 1896 he represented China at the coronation of Emperor Nich- olas II of Russia (482, 483); made a tour of the world, visited Germany (383 to 385), France (421 to 425), England (347 to 351) and the United States (87 to 95). Livingstone, David, British missionary and explorer, 1813-1873; born in a humble Scotch home near Glasgow (373); explored the Zambesi River (575); discovered Victoria Falls (576). Scenes in the region where Livingstone explored and worked (577, 578). Buried in Westminster Abbey (350). Lloyd George, David, English statesman, 1863 — ; opposed the Boer War (580) ; on Dec. 6, 1916, was made Prime Minister of Eng- land (347 to 352). Louis IX, King of France, 1215-1270; ruled in Paris (421 to 425); while on a crusade was captured by Mohammedans in Egypt (558 to 569) in 1250; remained in Palestine (495 to 498) until 12S2; went to Tunis (557) on his second crusade. Louis XVI, King of France, 1754-1793. Paris (421, 423), capital of France and center of the French Revolution. Was marched down Avenue des Champs Elysees (422). LutHer, Martin, German reformer, 1483-1546; writings were burned in Cologne (393); made visits to Rome (450 to 452). Macaulay, Thomas Babington, English essayist, historian, poet, and statesman, 1800-1859; member of the House of Peers (352); member of the Council for India (499 to 508). Maccabaeus, Judas, Hebrew patriot, second century B.C.; fought for liberty of Jerusalem (495); appealed to Rome (450 to 452). Magellan, Fernando de, Portuguese explorer. See New World Biographies. Marconi, Guglielmo, Italian electrical engineer, 1874—; invented the wireless telegraph now used all over the world (256). Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 1755-1793; born in Vienna (462) ; was taken down the Champs des Elysees (422) to prison and death. 302 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, claimant of English throne, 1542- 1587. In Stirling Castle (367) Mary when a baby eight months old was crowned Queen of Scotland. She was reared in France (421 to 425), married to the Dauphin who died in 1560. Edin- burgh was Mary's capital. Here she was honored as queen and to Edinburgh (365) she was brought as a prisoner; was mother of James I. Maximilian, Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria and Emperor of Mex- ico. See New World Biographies. Michelangelo Buonarroti, great Italian sculptor, painter and ar- chitect, 1475-1564; studied and worked in Florence (456). Rome contains much of his best work (450). St. Peter's church shows much of his genius (451). In 1529 he fled to Venice (457). Miltiades, Greek general, died about 489 b. c. Athens (475) the city of Miltiades. Mohammed, Arabian religious teacher and founder of Moham- medism, about 570-632. Views in Mohammedan countries (472 to 474, 503, 506, 555, 556, 560, 566). Moltke, von, Helmuth Karl Bernhard, German statesman and sol- dier, 1800-1891. Received his military training in Copenhagen (404 to 406); resided and died in Berlin (383 to 385); re- organized the Turkish army in Constantinople (472 to 474); directed the siege of Paris in 1870 (421 to 425). Montcalm, Louis Joseph, French officer. See New World Biog- raphies. More, Sir Thomas, author and chancellor of England, 1479-1852; was beheaded in the Tower (349). Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver, about 1500 b. c. Scenes in Egypt where Moses was born and grew to manhood (561 to 569). Scenes in Palestine toward which he led the Israelites (495 to 498). Mozart, John Wolfgang Amadeus, German composer, 1756-1791; lived and died in Vienna (462, 463). Napoleon Bonaparte, French military genius and ■ Emperor of France, 1769-1821. Notre Dame Cathedral where he was crowned (425). On May IS, 1796, he stood in Milan's Ca- thedral (458). Scenes near the Battle of the Pyramids (565, 566). Entered Vienna (462, 463) in 1805; entered Berlin (383 to 385) in 1806; closed the port of Hamlsurg to British trade (386); took Madrid (435) in 1808; found Moscow on fire Sept. 14, 1812, and was forced to retreat (483). Near Brussels the battle of Waterloo was fought (395). Nelson, Horatio, Lord Nelson, English hero of Trafalgar, 1758- 1805. Very near to Alexandria . was fought the Battle of the Nile which prevented Napoleon's getting control of Egypt (558). He retired to Naples (454) after the battle of the Nile; gained a great naval victory at Copenhagen (404 to 406). Newton, Sir Isaac, English mathematician and scientist, 1642-1727, THE OLD WORLD 303 a great astronomer; by ingenious experiments with his tele- scope made discoveries with regard to light (593 to 600) ; is buried in Westminster Abbey (350). Nogi — Count Nogi Maresuke, Japanese general in Russo-Japanese War, born 1849. Scenes in Japan (525 to 541) from which Nogi drew his army. Chinamen sawing timbers for the Japanese army (523). Okuma, Count Shigenobu, Japanese statesman, 1838—. Tokyo, the Japanese capital, where he lives (526). Patrick, St., Apostle to Ireland, 373P-463?; fleeing from slavery in Ireland was taken on board a French ship and carried to Marseilles, France (429). His bell is in the museum at Dublin (380). Paul, the Apostle (the first century); born at Tarsus (491); be- came prominent in Jerusalem (495) first as a Jewish teacher and later as a Christian one; was converted while on his way to Damascus (493) ; preached in Athens (475) ; preached and wrote letters to the Corinthians (477) ; appealed to Rome (450 to 452) for trial and probably was executed there. Pericles, Athenian statesman, 495P-429 B.C.; greatest statesman of Athens. Many of her most beautiful buildings were built un- der his directions (475). Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, founder of St. Petersburg, 1672- 1725; born at Moscow (483); founded Petrograd and made it the capital of his Empire (482). Peter (Simon), Hebrew apostle (first century). Scenes in Pales- tine where Peter followed Jesus (495 to 498). He was taken a prisoner at Rome (450 to 452), where he was probably executed by Nero. Pisistratus, Greek tyrant, 605-527 b. c. Pisistratus ruled Athens (475). Pizarro, Gonzola and Francisco, Spanish conquerors of Peru. See New World Biographies. Plato, Athenian philosopher, 427-347 B.C.; lived in Athens (475); traveled in Egypt (560 to 568). Polo, Marco, Venetian geographer and writer, 1250-1324; belonged to a noble Venetian family (457) ; spent many years in China, which he described in his book (513 to 524). Pompey — Cneius Pompeius Magnus, noted Roman general, 106- 48 B.c; lived in Rome (450 to 452); annexed Syria (492 to 494) to the Roman Empire; also reduced Jerusalem (495); was killed in Egypt (558 to 565) and his head was given to Csesar. Ponce de Leon, Juan, Spanish explorer in America. See New World Biographies. Ptolemy I, King of Egypt, died 283 B.C. Scenes in Egypt where he ruled (SS8 to 568). Raleigh, Sir Walter, English explorer and colonizer in America. See New World Biographies. Rameses II, King of Egypt, maker of the first treaty known in the 304 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY world, 1340-1273; had a part in the building of the Temple of Karnak (568). Raphael Sanzio, great Italian painter and sculptor, 1483-1520. Earliest work was done in Florence (456); St. Peter's and the Vatican contain much of his work (451). The. cathedral of Milan contains some of his masterpieces (458). Rhodes, Cecil J., South African statesrnan, 1853-1902; in 1870 went to South Africa (575 to .584); in 1871 went to the Kimberley mines (581); became Prime Minister of Cape Colony (582); was investigated by British Parliament concerning his share in the Jamison Raid (352). The one aim of Cecil Rhodes's life was to extend British rule in South Africa. Rhodesia (575 to 578) was named for him. Richard I, the Lion-hearted, King of England, 1157-1199; crowned in Westminster Abbey , (350) ; Jerusalem (495) and the Holy Land (497, 498) for whose freedom from the Saracens he fought. Richelieu, Armand Juan du Plessis, Duke, French Cardinal, 1585- 1642. Paris (421 to 425) where he was ruler hi all but name. . In Rome (450 to 452) Cardinal Richelieu was consecrated. Roberts, Frederick Sleigh, Lord Roberts, celebrated English gen- eral, 1832-1914; Commander-in-Chief of the Queen's forces in the South African war between the English and the Boers (582, 580); Commander-in-Chief of the forces in India (499 to 508). Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore, French Revolutionist, 1758- 1794. Paris (421 to 425) the scene of the French Revolution. Rubens, Peter Paul, celebrated Flemish painter, 1577-1640; as a child lived in Cologne (393) ; studied art in Venice (457) ; also studied in Rome (450 to 452); was sent to Madrid on a diplo- matic mission (435); in London conducted diplomatic business so successfully that he was knighted by Charles I (348 to 352); spent most of his life and died in Antwerp (396). Rubenstein, Anton, Russian composer, 1830-1894. As a child he lived in Moscow (483); studied music in Paris (421 to 425); studied music and spent much of his life in Berlin (383 to 385) ; began teaching in Vienna (462, 463); lived and died in St. Petersburg (482). Ruskin, John, English author, art critic and reformer, 1819-1900; born in London (348 to 352) ; traveled through the Alps and Italy (427, 428, 440 to 459) ; visited the Lake District (361). Saul, first King of Israel, about 1050 b. c. Scenes in Palestine where Saul ruled (495 to 498). Savonarola, Girolomo, Italian preacher and reformer, 1452-1498. Savonarola's life work was given to Florence (456). Scott, Sir Walter, British poet and novelist, 1771-1832; born in Edinburgh (365) where he is honored by a great monument. Stirling Castle (367, 368). Everything that pertained to Scotch history or romance was a part of Scott's life. Ellen's Isle THE OLD WORLD 305 (369) described in " The Lady 'of the Lake." Highlanders (366) such as these figure largely in Sir Walter Scott's writings. Shakespeare, William, celebrated poet and playwright, 1564-1616. Shakespeare's birthplace (3S4). Anne Hathaway's cottage (3SS). Shakespeare's memorial theater (356). Sienkiewicz, Henry, Polish novelist, 1846 — ; born in Warsaw, Po- land (485) ; in 1876 visited California and wrote a description of the country (228 to 241). Rome under Nero (452) is the theme of his greatest novel, Quo Vadis. Smith, Donald Alexander, Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal. It is due to Lord Strathcona more than to any other man that the Canadian Pacific was completed (267, 273). Socrates, Athenian philosopher, 469-399 b. c; did his teaching in Athens (475). Solomon, Hebrew poet and king, about 1000 B.C.; built the temple in Jerusalem (495); Israel (496 to 498), the country over which he ruled. Solon, Athenian lawgiver, 639P-559 b. c; reformed laws of Athens (475). Stuyvesant, Peter; Dutch Governor of New York. See New World Biographies. Thackeray, William Makepeace, English novelist and art student, 1811-1863; born in Calcutta (500); studied art in Paris (421 to 425); lived and wrote in London (348 to 352). Themistdcles, Greek statesman, 514P-449 b. c. After the battle of Marathon, he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet (475). He induced the Greeks not to retreat to Corinth in the Persian War (477). Thorwaldsen, Bertel, Danish sculptor, 1770-1884; was born and lived in Copenhagen. Some of his best work was here (404 to 406). He studied in Rome (450 to 452). The Florence Acad- emy appointed him a professor in 1840 (456). Titian Vecelli, noted Venetian painter, 1477-1576. In Rome (450 to 452) Titian met and studied with Michelangelo and Raphael. In Vienna (462, 463) are some of his greatest works, the " Ecce Homo," etc. In Florence (456) some of his best work is to be found. Titus — Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, 40-81. Emperor of Rome (450 to 452); destroyed Jerusalem (495). Mt. Vesuvius (453) in eruption buried Pompeii and Herculaneum in his reign. Togo, Cotmt Heihachiro, Japanese soldier and statesman, 1847 — . In 1873 he was a student at Greenwich (353). In 1904 he was in command of the fleet which bombarded Port Arthur (522). He was a Japanese representative at the coronation of King George <350). Tolstoy, Count Lev Nicolaevich, Russian author, reformer, phi- losopher, 1828-1910; lived in Petrograd (482). Scene in Russia where he liv.ed and wrote (483). Trajanus, Marcus Ulpius, Emperor of Rome, 53-117. Scenes in 306 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY Rome where he ruled (450 to 452). Damascus (493) which he incorporated. He added Roumania to the Roman Empire. Roumanians (470, 471) today call themselves " Romans." Tyndall, John, British natural philosopher, 1820-1893. Studied the movement of glaciers (427, 428, 446) and wrote about them. Climbed the Matterhorn (448). He lived many years in Lon- don (348 to 352). Venizelos, Greek statesman, native of Crete. His ancestors were Greeks whose home was at the foot of the Acropolis (475); in 1909 arrived in Athens (476) where he became Prime Min- ister and almost re-made Greece. In the Balkan wars it was his influence that united the Balkan States, Serbia (467), Bul- garia (468, 469) and Roumania (470, 471) with Greece (475 to , 480) against Turkey (472 to 474). Later he united Serbia (467) and Greece (475 to 480) against Bulgaria (468, 469). Constan- tine. King of Greece, rnarried a sister of the German Emperor, therefore sided with the Central Powers in the World War (384, 385, 476). Constantine dismissed Venizelos from office but the people reinstated him and Constantine with his court left for Switzerland (440 to 449). The Greeks under the leader- ship of Venizelos are allied with England (347 to 362), France (421 to 431), Italy (450 to 459), Russia (481 to 488), and Amer- ica (1 to 261). Vergil, Publicus Vergilius Maro, Roman poet, 70-19 B.C.; went to Milan (458) (known to the ancient Romans as Mediolanum) to study; continued his studies in Naples (454, 453) and was buried there; studied and later lived in Rome (450 to 452); visited Athens (475). Verrazzano, Italian navigator. See New World Biographies. Vespasian, Titus Flavins Sabinus Vespasianus, 9-79 a. d.. Emperor of Rome (450 to 452); Governor of Egypt (558 to 568); began the siege of Jerusalem (495). Victoria, Alexandriana, Queen of England, 1819-1901; crowned in Westminster Abbey (350). The House of Lords showing the seat of the Queen (352). London (348 to 351) where the Queen lived and ruled. Queenstown (374) was narned for her at the time of her first visit to that city. Was proclaimed Empress of India (499 to 508). Vinci, Da, Leonardo, Florentine painter, 1452-1519; educated in Florence (456); about 1483 he removed to Milan and was em- ployed as an architect upon the Cathedral of Milan (458); in 1499 he removed to Venice (457); paid several visits to Rome (450 to 452) ; became court painter to Francis I of France and died in Paris (421 to 425), which city has a fine collection of his paiijtings. Voltaire, Frangois Marie Aronet, French free thinker and revolu- tionary writer, 1694-1778; was born and died in Paris (421 to 425); lived three years in Germany, the guest- of Frederick the Great (384, 385). THE OLD WORLD 307 Wagner, Richard, German musician and composer, 1813-1883; lived in Paris from 1839 to 1842 (421 to 425) ; in 188S lived in London (348 to 352); died in Venice (457). Wallace, Sir William, noted Scottish military leader and patriot, 1272?-130S. His one aim in life was to free Scotland from the English (368). Defeated the English at Stirling Bridge (367); was captured through the treachery of one of his own men and taken to the Tower of London and there beheaded (349). His head was hung on London Bridge (348). Wellesley, Arthur, Duke of Wellington, British soldier, hero of Waterloo, 1769-1852; born in Dublin (380); a member of the House of Lords (352) ; took part in the great naval battle of Copenhagen (404 to 406) ; in 1812 with his troops occupied Madrid (435); served his country as Ambassador to France (421 to 425) ; was Plenipotentiary to Austria (462, 463) ; in the great battle of Waterloo just outside of Brussels he broke the power of Napoleon (395). Wentworth, Thomas, Earl Stafford, English statesman, 1593-1641; member of the House of Lords and tried by it (352); was exe- cuted in the Tower of London (349). William the Conqueror, King of England, 1027-1087; built the Tower of London (349) ; the first king of England crowned in Westminster Abbey (350). William I, German Emperor, 1797-1888; accomplished the wonder- ful organization of the German army (385) ; considered him- self a supreme power above that of the Reichstag (384) ; said he ruled " by the favor of God and of no one else." On March 21,. 1871, he opened in Berlin the first Reichstag of the German Empire (383). William II, Emperor of Germany, 1859 — . The Royal Palace where the Kaiser lives (384). The laws of Germany are made here (383) and here are appropriated the billions of money which the Germans are using for the war. These are the soldiers with which Germany is fighting. William has made Germany into one great military machine (385). Germans did much damage with Zeppelins in the early days of the war (394). Such scenes do not take place during the war. The Kaiser's government has carefully regulated the food supply (387, 393). The River Meuse and Namur (397) have been in the front of the war. Over this ground the Kaiser's forces have strug- gled with those of the Allies. By this war the port of Ham- burg (386) is blockaded and foreign commerce of Hambur,*? is entirely stopped. To retaliate. Kaiser William ordered the ruthless submarine warfare which forced the United States to enter the war. Over all this land (387 to 393) the Kaiser asserts that he is the divinely appointed ruler and that all these people owe to him absolute obedience. William, 1650-1702, and Mary, 1662-1694. rulers of England; entered London Dec. 18, 1688 (348, 349); crowned in Westminster Ab- 308 ENGLISH — BIOGRAPHY bey (350). In their reign the Bank of England was founded (351). Wordsworth, William, poet, 1770-1850. Lake District where he lived (361). Rydal Mount, his home (362). Wren, Sir Christopher, English architect, 1632-1723; designed St. Paul's and many other churches in London and by many is thought to have planned the towers of Westminster Abbey (350). Xenophon, Athenian general and historian, 434? b. c-about 355? b.c. Born in Athens (475). Yuan Shih-kai, first President of China, 1859-1916. Scenes in China (513 to 524) where Yuan Shih-kai was first President. Zeppelin, von. Count Ferdinand, 1838-1917; German inventor of the Zeppelin flying machine used by the Germans (394). Note : — The story of the industries is an intensely inter- esting one. By means of Keystone stereographs and slides the great industries may be brought into the class room with life-like reality. This " 600 Set " will be found quite rich in industrial scenes but for a more extended list consult our General Catalog which will be sent free of cost. The Publishers. AGRICULTURE INTRODUCTION By CHARLES F. CURTISS, M.S.A., D.S. DEAN DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERr- MENT STATION, IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA. " At the head of all the sciences and arts, at the head of civilization and progress, stands — not militarism, the science that kills, not com- merce, the art that accumulates wealth — ■ but agriculture, the mother of all industry and the maintainer of human life." Never before in the history of the world has so much de- pended upon intelHgent, efficient, and well conducted agricul- ture. The great International war has not only brought about a marked shortage of food stuffs which is world-wide in its scope, but the determination of the outcome and results of the war promise to depend quite as much on the industrial forces as upon military achievement. Chief among the industrial forces of all of the great nations are those relating to the pro- duction of food and clothing. Agriculture has taken on a new significance throughout the world in recent years. Improved machinery, motive power and transportation facilities have tre- mendously increased production and widened the market for agricultural products. One hundred years ago it was neces- sary, under conditions then existing in the United States, for about ninety per cent of all of the population to engage in agricultural occupations in order to maintain a production that would meet the needs of the country and sustain the population. Even as late as fifty years ago, about two-thirds of the population of the United States was engaged in agri- cultural pursuits. Today, scarcely more than one-third of our population is engaged in farming and, notwithstanding this marked change and the tremendous increase of city popula- tion, agricultural production has made great advance and the farms have, until within the past few seasons, not only yielded abundantly for our own population, but a large surplus has 309 310 AGRICULTURE been exported to foreign markets. The great development of the manufacturing and commercial interests of the country, coupled with the demands growing out of the war, has created new economic conditions that have given to agriculture and to food production a new significance and a larger importance throughout the world. The agricultural problem has become a national problem, not only in the United States, but in for- eign countries as well. Government aid and encouragement in agriculture, as well as government direction and control of the distribution of food products on a fair and economical basis, will come about as an immediate result of the war conditions, but many of the policies inaugurated will have per- manent results. There is wide recognition of the need of thorough and effi- cient training for agriculture. This demand has become well nigh universal. Agriculture and home economics, or house- hold science, are now required subjects in the public schools of most of the states, but the Smith-Hughes bill passed by the present Congress provides an extensive and far-reaching sys- tem of- federal aid for vocational education that will give a tremendous stimulus to industrial education in the United States. Agriculture, home economics, and the trades and in- dustries are to constitute the basis of the system of industrial education fostered by the government under this measure. It is probable that this policy will eventually exert greater influ- ence upon the educational system of the United States than any federal legislation that has ever been enacted. Agriculture is a highly concrete, practical and definite subject. Agricul- tural education must be based upon principles and practice that are scientifically sound, and strong work in science should' support all agricultural training, yet it is well known that agricultural education made but little progress until it was definitely connected up with concrete problems, in a practical way. This is one of the vital and most difficult problems that is encountered in extending agricultural instruction into the public school system of the United States. The Keystone View Company's " 600 Set " of stereographs and lantern slides cover a wide range of most interesting material relating to agri- cultural education, and they will be of great service in effec- tually visualizing agricultural conditions and processes. 21. SOILS By ALFRED VIVIAN, Ph.G. DEAN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, O. PRESIDENT BOARD OF EDUCATION FOR STATE OF OHIO Without the soil we could not be living in this world today. The food which you eat could not be produced if there was no soil, for the. plants which make the food for animals, in their turn derive all their nourishment from the soil. So, you see, the soil is after all very important to mankind. We are so familiar with the soil as it now exists that most of us do not stop to consider that it was ever anything differ- ent, but it has really taken a long time for Nature to form what we call the soil, and in doing so she has employed the wonderful agencies about which something will be said in this article. Most of you know that if you dig down deep into the soil you will come to solid rock. Sometimes rock is reached a few inches below the surface, and again you must dig many feet before you come to it, but sooner or later you are sure to find a bed of stone. Soils consist for the most part of very fine particles of rock (rock powder) mixed with a small quantity of organic matter; i.e. the remains of plants which have formerly grown upon the land, and which have partially decayed or rotted in the soil. The rock powder was formed by the pulverization of the original rocks of the earth's surface, the grinding of the rocks being due to several forces. 1. SOIL MAKERS (a) Action of Weathering The alternate action of heat and cold upon the rock, especially when the rock is saturated with water, causes the rock to crack, and small pieces to chip off. These pieces in their turn are made smaller and smaller by the same action of heat and cold, freezjng and thawing. Freezing and thawing split the rocks into pieces. 3" 312 AGR.— SOILS 191 Yellowstone. Freezing and thawing split the rocks into pieces. 208 The Grand Canyon affords wonderful examples of weathering. 322 Chilean Andes. The softer parts of the stone are worn away first, leaving the harder points. 330 Cordilleras Mts., Peru. The bits of rock which are split off slide into the streams, and are carried away to form a soil elsewhere. 382 Giant's Causeway. The waves of the ocean also wear away the rocks. 440 Mt. Pilatus, Switzerland. Note the fine material loosened by weathering, which is sliding down into the valley below.- (b) Action of Running Water Running water grinds the rock into flour, especially if the stream is swift enough to carry particles of sand or gravel which rub against each other and against the bed of the stream until the rock is worn away and ground to a powder. In this way deep valleys are some- times cut into the surface of the earth, and the fine material is carried away to form a soil at some other place. 49 The water in Niagara Falls is gradually wearing away the face of the cliff over which it runs. 51 Palisades. Running water carves deep valleys in the face of the earth. 197 Yellowstone. This deep valley has been formed by running water. 207 Grand Canyon. The combined action of weathering and running water has formed this canyon, which is a mile in depth. 228 Yosemite. The material carried away by the streams is deposited somewhere to form a soil. 363 Bettws-y-Coed, Wales. When the stream is swift enough to carry boulders it wears the rocks more rapidly. 576 Victoria Falls. Such a rush o£ water carries large quantities of soil making material. (c) Action of Glaciers Another agency which helps to grind the rocks is moving ice in the form of glaciers. As the glacier moves along, it carries with it large quantities of rocks, grinding them against each other until they are reduced to particles of various degrees of fineness. When this ma- terial reaches the melting end of the glacier it is deposited, and the finest of the material is carried away by the glacial stream. A large part of the northern United States was once covered by a great gla- cier. 219 Paradise Glacier. The northern part of the United States was once all covered with a sheet of ice much thicker than this. 221 Mt. Hood. The glaciers of the present day give some idea of the action of the great glacier. 274 Victoria Glacier. Note the rock material which the glacier is carrying with it and which will be deposited at the end of the glacier as" the ice melts. TYPES OF SOILS 313 275 Illecillewaet Glacier. The ice sheet in some of the glaciers is very thick and has great grinding power. 276 Mt. Sir Donald. The action of weathering, running water and glaciers can all be seen in this picture. 427 Glacier des Bossotns. Note the amount of material which has been carried down by the glacier. A young forest is growing on part of the " moraine." 428 Mer de Glace. Such a sheet of ice has great power to pulverize stone. 446 Switzerland is noted for its wonderful glaciers. 448 Showing the sharp weathered point of the Matterhorn with the glaciers at its base. (d) Action of the Wind The wind carrying particles of dust and sand and hurling them against the rocks gradually carves the rocks into odd shapes and grinds them to powder. 200 Phoebe's Arch, Palmer Lake, Col. The wind carried particles of sand which wear away the softer parts of the rock. 201 Cathedral spires. Garden of the Gods. The wind carves the rocks into fantastic shapes. (e) Action of Volcanoes, etc. To a more limited extent volcanoes take part in soil formation by means of the ashes and lava which they throw out during eruptions. The soluble materials brought up by the hot springs, and the mechan- ical action of the earthquakes are of minor importance. 453 Mt. Vesuvius. Some soils consist almost entirely of lava from the volcanoes. 222 Crater Lake. The crater of an extinct volcano gradually being filled by the weathering of the side walls. 192 Yellowstone. The soluble material .in the water of the hot springs is deposited as the water cools. 194 Old Faithful Geyser. Note the cone formed by the material de- posited from the water of the geyser. 231 Earthquake fissure. In some few cases the surface of the soil is affected by earthquake action. 2. TYPES OF SOILS (a) Classification as to Origin Soils are designated as " residual," when the soils are formed from the underlying 'rock without being moved away or as " transported," when they are deposited at some distance from the rock from which they are formed. SIS Yangtze River. Soils which are transported by water and are deposited in the river valley are called " alluvial " soils. They are generally rich soils. 321 Mendoza River. The flat land near the river consists of alluvial sofls. 314 AGR.— SOILS 262 Acadian Land. The alluvial soils of the lowlands are generally- very productive. 408 Jordal Valley, Norway. In mountainous countries only the soil in the bottom of the valleys can be cultivated. 427 Chamonix, France. Soils which are transported by glaciers are known as " drift " soils. They usually contain much gravel ' composed of round particles of stone. Note the accumulation of " drift " at the foot of the glacier. 275 Illecillewaet Glacier. Soils which are transported by the wind are known as " loess " soils. A large part of the soils in the corn belt of the United States consist of loess. Note in this picture the particles of dust which the wind has deposited even at the top of the glacier. 322 Inca Lake, Chile. Lakes are gradually filled by the soil washed down from the surrounding high lands. 453 Mt. Vesuvius. Some soils are formed directly from the ashes and lava deposited by volcanic action. (b) Classification as to Composition Soils consist largely of four ingredients, sand, silt, clay and organic matter. When they contain considerable amounts .of organic matter they are known as " loams." The individual particles of clay are very fine and a soil consisting largely of clay is very sticky when wet and very hard when dry. It is the most difficult soil to cultivate. Sand is lacking in plant food. The silt particle is intermediate in size be- tween sand and clay. Some of the best soils contain a large proportion of silt. The organic matter consists largely of the more or less decayed remains of plants which have formerly grown on the soil. Soils are given various names, depending on the relative amounts of the four ingredients which they contain, such as sandy, sandy clay, silty, clay, sandy loam, clay loam, silty loam, etc. Soils which are very high in organic matter are called peat or muck soils. 357 Wheat thrives on a clay loam soil with rather a high proportion of clay. Farmers sometimes speak of such soils as " strong " soils. Wheat must have an abundance of available plant food. 147 Oats will grow in a variety of soils, but do best in a cool climate. 136 Indian corn, or maize, thrives on a loose, fertile, well-drained soil. It is at home in the silty loam soils, such as the loess of the corn belt. 47 Melons are usually grown on sandy loams. They will stand a large proportion of sand. 149 Harvesting celery. The soils formed in swamps and the bottoms of old lake beds usually contain a large percentage of organic matter and are called muck soils. They are adapted to celery and onions. Such soils must be well drained. 223 Sand dunes. Very sandy soils are so loose that they drift before the wind and are difficult to control. They are also very low in plant food. 183 Alfalfa. Such plants as clover and alfalfa will grow only in soils SOIL MANAGEMENT 315 which contain an abundance of limestone. If limestone is lack- ing in the soil it must be added before these crops can be grown. Soils formed from limestone are usually very fertile. 3. SOIL MANAGEMENT (a) Clearing the Land A large part of the cultivated land of the world was at one tinie covered by forests, and the trees had to be removed before the ground could be tilled and planted. 224 Felling tree, Oregon. Much labor and expense is involved in clearing such a piece of land. (b) Tillage — Plowing The oldest and most important tillage operation is that of plowing. The effect is to loosen the soil and to turn under manures and rubbish. The plow is the oldest tillage implement, varying from the ancient crooked stick to the modern gang plow with its steel mold-board. 561 The plow of Egypt is as old as the Pyramids themselves. 298 Cuban plow. The first plow was merely a pointed stick. 522 The agriculture of China is very ancient, but its plow is still the pointed stick. 488 Russian plowing. This plow is better than the pointed stick be- cause it will turn a furrow. 178 Tractor plow. The modern steel plow turns the soil and leaves it in much better condition than does the ancient plow. (c) Tillage — Harrowing After the land is plowed the harrow is used to break the clods and make the surface smooth. 179 Making good seed bed. The soil should be thoroughly pulverized after it is plowed. 332 Preparing the soil, Peru. Note the fine condition of the seed bed. 549 Filipino harrowing rice field. For rice the land is sometimes harrowed under water. (d) Tillage — Cultivation Certain crops are planted in rows and the soil is hoed and otherwise cultivated between the rows in order to kill the weeds, and to prevent the loss of moisture by forming a layer of loose soil on the surface ("dust mulch."). 105 Hoeing rice. The hand hoe is an effective implement with which to destroy weeds. 198 Cultivating beets. The horse cultivator covers the ground much faster than caji be done by hand. 419 Women weeding beets. Hand weeding is necessary with some crops. (e) Tillage — Dry Farming In regions of scanty rainfall, crops are sometimes grown every other year, the surface of the- soil being constantly stirred during the non- 316 AGR.— SOILS cropping year so as to conserve the moisture of two years for one crop. 199 Wheat raised by dry farming method. Dry farming greatly in- creases the crop yield in areas of scanty, rainfall. (f) Irrigation Growing crops use enormous quantities of water, 900 tons or more to the acre. In lands of insufficient rainfall the fields are artificially irrigated and in many places large dams and reservoirs are constructed to supply the water. Some crops like rice iiave to be flooded with water during a part of the growing season. S69 Assuan Dam. This great dam was built to provide water to irri- gate the farms in the Nile valley. 104 Rice land is covered with water during part of the growing season. 527 Note the patches of rice which are growing in the standing water. (g) Drainage Some soils contain so much water that the excess must be removed by means of ditches or tile drains. In Holland the water is collected in canals and pumped out by windmill power. 399 The canals of Holland serve to drain the land and are also used for transportation. (h) Fertilizing — Farm Manures Constant cropping removes the plant food from the soil, and if more food is not added the soil soon fails to produce a profitable crop. Much of the plant food removed by the crops can be returned to the soil if the manure of the farm animals is spread on the ground and ■plowed under. When the crops are fed in the field, as in the case of " hogging down " corn or pasturing sheep and other animals, the manure is left on the ground and helps to maintain the fertility of the soil. 159, 165 Group of dairy barns. The manure from cattle is the best . fertilizer. 57 The dairy cow is a great help in maintaining the fertility of the soil. 180 The manure spreader is almost indispensable on a farm. 183 Hogs in alfalfa pasture. A good way to maintain fertility is to feed the crops in the ground. This is what is known as " hog- ging down " alfalfa. 172 Hogs in rape field. This field will produce a large crop following the "hogging down" of the rape. 173 Sheep are said to have the " golden hoof " because the ground is thought to be more fertile after they are pastured on it. 480 Sheep on Argive plains. These old fields would be still less fer- tile if it were not for the flocks of sheep. (i) Green Manures — Leguminous Plants Green crops plowed under help to keep the soil fertile. Leguminous plants such as clover and alfalfa can by means of the bacteria which CROP RESULTS 317 grow in the nodules on their roots fix the nitrogen of the air and when plowed under they greatly enrich the soil. 181 Nebraska. When alfalfa land is plowed it is found to grow better crops than before the alfalfa was planted. (j) Fertilizing — Commercial Fertilizers In many cases it is necessary to buy commercial forms of plant food if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. This is especially true of phosphorus as it is sold from the farm in the grains, in milk, and in the bones of animals. Bone meal from the packing houses is used to supply phosphorus for fertilizers, but more of it comes from the so-called phosphate rocks which are found in several of the States. 1 IS . Mining phosphate. Deposits of phosphate rock are found in sev- eral places in this country. (k) Crop Results Careful observance of the practices which maintain the fertility of the soil make it possible to produce large crops continuously. 357 Wheat. England by careful fertilizing still produces large crops of wheat, although her land has been farmed for centuries. 149. Celery. The right conditions of moisture and plant food make large crops possible. 237 The orange growers of California know that they must irrigate and fertilize to obtain large crops. 47 Melons. In addition to plenty of water and plant food such a melon crop demands warmth and sunlight. 108 Pineapples. Such crops are not produced by accident, but are the results of following the laws of good husbandry. Note — For additional scenes on weathering and soil forma- tion see classification Natural Forms and Forces, also the Company's Special Catalog on Physical Geography and Ge- ology. It is free upon application. The Publishers. 22. FARM CROPS By W. M. JARDINE, B.S.A., LL.D. DEAN OF THE DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KAN. All children know that animals require food, water, air and warmth but they do not know so generally that plants also must have food, water, air, and warmth. Neither do they un- derstand the importance of plant hfe. All animal life, includ- ing human beings, is dependent upon plant life. The greater part of the food of both mankind and animals is vegetable. The meat that we eat is first derived from plants because the animals from which it is obtained live on plants. Without plants no animal could live ; therefore, the culture of plants is the most important phase of agriculture. Plants get their food from the. soil and the air through roots and leaves. The leaves of the plant take food material from the air in the form of gas. • The water in the soil absorbs plant food materials. This water is absorbed by the roots of the plant and the food materials are converted into plant tis- sues to serve, in turn, as food for animals. The plant secures all its water and ash and part of its organic matter from the soil through its roots. The soil then is very necessary to plant growth. All soils are not alike. By referring to the chapter entitled Soils, it will be found that soils differ in mode of formation and in the materials from which they are formed. Soils also differ in fertility and moisture holding power, and consequently in their ability to produce crops. It is not enough that there be plant food in abundance in the soil. This food must be in a form available for plant use. It is largely the business of the farmer who produces crops to handle the soil in such manner as to provide food in a form readily available for plant use. This may be accomplished by tilling or cultivating the soil and by supplying plant food to the soil. 319 320 AGR.— FARM CROPS CROP PRODUCTION Let us notice the steps in the process of producing and caring for a farm crop. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL The first thing necessary is to loosen the soil so that it may become permeated with air and warmth and absorb rain quickly ; also that the roots of plants may penetrate it easily. This is generally done by plow- ing. The soil must not be too loose, however, or it will not retain moisture. It must not be too rough or the seeds cannot be covered evenly. The lumps or clods must be broken finely and the surface made smooth before the seed is planted. A carefully prepared seed-bed will contain moisture and food ready for the plant. It will be sufficiently warm for seeds to germinate and loose enough for the roots of the young plants to penetrate readily. The following views show different means of preparing land for the planting of crops. I. Primitive Methods 561 Egypt; 522, China; 488, Russia. ^2. Modem Methods 136,398 The horse is a very important source of native power on the farm. 178 Plowing rich prairie soil with tractor. 179, 332 Clods of earth should be broken finely. 549 Even soil of flooded areas should be prepared. 161 For most crops excessive moisture must be removed. 180 Fertilizing manure spread evenly on the land and plowed under enriches the soil. 159, 165, 358, 364, 173 The best system of farming includes the keeping of live stock on the farm. 166 Rotation of crops is important in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Potatoes leave the soil in excellent condition for other crops, especially small grains. Tliis is tlje same farm as shown in view 165, originally a potato farm; the dairy was added to maintain fertility. PLANTING After the soil has been prepared as in view 179, the seed may be planted. The seed must be covered deep enough to get plenty of mois- ture to germinate it, but not so deep that air will be excluded. The young plants soon begin to make use of the light and air in preparing a part of their own food. CULTIVATION Some crops are planted in rows some distance apart and these crops require cultivation. Cultivation has a threefold purpose, viz., to de- IMPORTANT FARM CROPS 321 stroy weeds, to conserve moisture, and to make the plant food in the soil ready for use by the plant. Cultivation may be done by hand or by various tjrpes of horse cultivators. Crops planted thickly such as wlieat and oats, tend to keep out the weeds ; the protection of the ground from sun and wind tends to prevent escape of moisture from the surface, consequently crops so planted do not require cultivation. In regions where there is little rainfall, dry-farming is practiced. Under this system land is sometimes planted to crops only one season in two years. The season no crop is grown on the land, moisture is conserved by cultivation at frequent intervals. Frequent cultivation keeps the surface soil in a loose condition so that all moisture that falls is absorbed readily and prevents evaporation from the surface. In dry- farming cultivation is done chiefly to conserve moisture. 419 Women cultivating sugar beets by hand. 105 Another method of cultivating crops by hand. 198 Most of the cultivation of farm crops is done by means of the horse cultivator. 184 Corn — the greatest cultivated crop in America. 211,235 In arid regions special crops are produced which. have the power to grow with little rainfall and withstand long periods of drouth. HARVESTING After the crop has reached a certain size cultivation ceases and it is left to develop naturally until it is ripe or mature enough to harvest. Methods of harvesting different crops vary greatly as is shown in the following list of farm crops and in the classification on Production and Manufacturing. THRESHING, STORING, MANUFACTURING The handling of crops after harvest also varies greatly as will be seen by a study of some of the most important farm crops. IMPORTANT FARM CROPS Wheat . Wheat is grown most extensively on the fertile prairie soils of America and Europe. The United States and Russia are the greatest wheat producing countries of the world. The leading wheat producing states of the United States are North Dakota, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, Washington, and South Dakota. Wheat is used chiefly for human food because it is the best grain for making' light bread. Wheat is usually grown in large fields and most of the work is done by ma- chinery. In the following views it will be noticed that the men are doing very little work by hand. 178, 179 Show how the land is prepared before the seed is sown. 357 Harvesting wheat with the self-binder. This machine cuts the wheat, makes it into neat bundles, and ties a string around the bundle. 322 AGR.— FARM CROPS 199 The bundles are stood up in shocks, and the shocks stand in the field until the grain is dry enough to stack or thresh. 147 Wheat is hauled in this way to the stack or threshing machine. 177 Threshing wheat. Mountains of straw from which the grain has been removed. 233 In some dry sections wheat can be cut and threshed at one opera- tion. California. 218 Harvesting wheat in Washington — Combined reaper and thresher. 284 Mexico; 479 Greece; 497, 498 Palestine — Primitive methods. Corn Corn is the king of cereals. The average annual world's production is over 3.7 billion bushels which exceeds the yield of wheat, rice, or any other cereal. Corn is a native of America. The United States produces an average of over 2.7 billion bushels. This is over fourteen times as much as any other country in the world produces, and forms nearly three-fourths of the world's supply of corn. Other corn pro- ducing countries are Roumania, Egypt, Austria-Hungary, Argentine, Mexico, Italy, Russia, and Canada. Over half of the corn crop of the world is produced in the seven states : Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Mis- souri, Indiana, Ohio, and Kansas. 184 A field of corn in Kansas. 136, 160 Modern methods of harvesting corn. 16S, 159 Corn put into the silo and fed to stock yields a good profit and the manure from the stock aids in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Rice Rice is an important article of food for nearly half of the population of the world. It furnishes the principal food for more people than any other one crop. Rice is grown only in warm sections. India, China, Japan, Siam, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, East Indies, and the Philippine Islands produce most of the rice of the world. In the United States, rice is grown chiefly in South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texasj and Arkansas. Rice, unlike any. other grain, grows best when the plants are partially covered with water. It is therefore necessary that the land be very level so that the water will stand at an even depth over the field. Rice may be sown like wheat on well pre- pared land and water turned on the field after the plants get well started to grow. In some countries rice is planted in mud and water, or the plants are grown in small beds and transplanted into the mud just as we set out cabbage or tomato plants. The ground is kept cov- ered with water until the crop begins to ripen when it is drained off and the field allowed to dry before time to harvest the crop. In some rice growing sections, water is not left on the field con- tinuously. Sometimes there are three applications of water. The " sprout water " is applied as soon as the seed is planted and is left on only a few days. The " stretch water " is applied when the plants have two leaves and is left on about 30 days. When this water is turned oflF OATS — SUGAR 323 the field is allowed to dry and the weeds and grass are hoed from arnong the plants. View 105 shows a field in South Carolina receiving this cultivation. After the plants begin to joint a third and final appli- cation of water is made. This is the " loyby flow " and is left on until the plants are mature. 527 Rice fields in Japan. Low level land is best adapted to rice. 549 Filipino farmers preparing land for rice. 528 Rice planters at work, Japan. 104 Irrigation of rice fields from canals. 530 Rice fields under irrigation. , 105 Hoeing weeds and grass from among the rice plants before the water is turned on. 529 Harvesting rice just as wheat but in many countries primitive methods are still used. 550 Removing rough hulls from the grain before use as human food. Oats Oats are an important farm crop. They are grown extensively in the cooler part of the United States, in Canada and in Europe. 408 Oats growing in Norway within sight of a glacier. (Note method of curing hay in foreground.) 147 Harvesting oats in the corn belt • — • Illinois. Sugar Practically all the sugar of the world is made from two plants, sugar cane and the sugar beet. Each of these produce about one- half the supply. Sugar cane is a tall, coarse-growing plant raised chiefly in British India, Cuba, Java, Hawaiian Islands, Philippine Is- lands, the United States, and South America. In the United States it is grown chiefly in Louisiana and Texas. Sugar cane is started by laying a continuous line of stalks in a row and covering them. New plants start from the joints and grow to a height of 8 to 15 feet. When tpature the plants are cut and the tops and heavy leaves re- moved. The stalks are hauled to the factory and the juice pressed from them by means of heavy rollers. The juice is purified and heated to drive off the water. It then crystallizes into sugar. 332 Preparing the soil for sugar cane. Tractor drawing harrow and pulverizer, Peru, South America. 333 Replanting cane. Young cane plants will sprout up from the joints of stalks planted in furrows. 258 Cutting the sugar cane. A hundred years ago the sugar beet contained only 6 to 8 per cent, of sugar. By carefully selecting each year and planting for seed those beets which contained the highest per cent, of sugar, a type of beet has been developed which contains 16 per cent, or more of sugar. The leading countries in the production of sugar beets are Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and the United States. The beets are planted in rows and cultivated and hoed as are garden beets. When 324 AGR.— FARM CROPS ready for harvest they are pulled, the tops removed and the roots hauled to the factory. Here the roots are sliced finely and the sweet juice removed. From this juice sugar is made. 419 Cultivating beets, Sweden. The young plants require careful at- tention. 198 Cultivating beets, Colo. When the plants become larger a two- horse cultivator is used. 270 Beets stored in sheds with V-shaped bins having canals underneath to carry them to the washing drum. 271 Bfet pulp and juice flowing into large iron tanks where the sugar is removed from the pulp by water. 35 Filling and sewing bags of granulated sugar. 34 Conveyor with trays of loaf sugar received from the drying kiln. 185 Cattle are fed on the pulp of the sugar beets from which the sweet juice has been removed. Tobacco As a field crop, tobacco was first grown in Virginia in 1612. The world crop amounts to about 2.5 billion pounds of which nearly one billion is produced in the United States. Other countries which pro- duce tobacco are British India, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Japan, and the islands of Cuba and Java. 112 A tobacco field in Kentucky. 297 Harvesting tobacco, Havana Province, Cuba. Tobacco must be cut and the leaves hung up carefully to cure. The quality of tobacco is improved by growing the plants in partial shade, hence the companion crop of banana plants. In Florida it is some- times grown under sheds with partial roofs ; in Connecticut many acres are grown under canvas. Cotton Cotton is the greatest of all fiber crops. Most of the clothing of mankind is made from cotton. Cotton is grown only in warm cli- mates. Over three-fourths of all the cotton in the world is produced in the United States south of a line drawn from Norfolk, Virginia, to Memphis, Tennessee, thence west to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma and El Paso, Texas. In the United States cotton is exceeded in value only by corn and hay. Other countries important in the production of cotton are India, Egypt, and China. Much of the labor of raising cotton is done by hand. The crop is planted in rows much like corn. After the plants are three or four weeks old they are thinned to the desired stand. This rnust be done by hand. The crop is cultivated several times and usually hoed. When mature the cotton is picked by hand and hauled to the gin where the seeds are separated from the lint and the latter put into large bales weighing about 500 pounds each and bound with iron bands. 117 Picking cotton on a Mississippi plantation. 124 Loads of cotton ready for the gin. 119 Bales of cotton at the wharf ready for shipment. HEMP — FORAGE CROPS 325 An important fiber crop is hemp which furnishes material for making such articles as ropes, burlap, binding twine, and mats. Sisal hemp comes chiefly from the fiber of henequen, a plant which grows in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, and somewhat in Florida and in Africa. Henequen is very much like our century plant and grows on land that is apparently worthless for other crops. Hemp Manila hemp is derived from plantain, a tree-like" plant (abaca) of the banana family which grows in the Philippine Islands. Shawls are made from the finer fiber of plantain and ropes from the coarser fiber. Our binder twine and much of our other cordage is made from the henequen or sisal hemp plant. 289 Old henequen plants from which many leaves have been removed for the manufacture of the sisal fiber. Yucatan. 571 Henequen plants, showing the tall flower stalks. Uganda, Africa. SS2 Stripping the stems of plantain to obtain Manila hemp fiber. Forage Crops Forage crops and live stock are two great essentials to a permanent system of agriculture. Live stock will consume much rough feed and ■ convert it into valuable meat, at the same time producing manure which is of great value in keeping land fertile and productive. 172 Ames, Iowa. Rape makes a desirable hog pasture. 118 Harvesting peanuts, Arkansas. Qioice bacon and ham is pro- duced in thg south from hogs fed on peanuts. 183 Hogs in alfalfa. ' Alfalfa is our greatest legume. It is rich in protein- — the food which makes young stock grow. 317 Some of the famous beef cattle of Argentina are grown on alfalfa pasture. 181 Harvesting alfalfa. The modern method of handling hay. 388 The old method of handling hay, Germany. 408 Curing hay under difficult conditions, Norway. 127, 186, 301 The natural forage of extensive areas is harvested by great herds of cattle. 480, 190, 173 Sheep are also used to consume the wild plants of plains and mountains as well as the more abundant grasses of our best pastures. 185, 140, 370 Farm crops may be marketed as beef after being fed on the farm. 371, 403, 57 Crops fed to cows and marketed as milk yield a good profit. 211,235 Spineless cactus, a promising new forage plant for semi-arid regions. Other Agricultural Products 166 Potatoes grown in the famous potato region of the Red River Valley, Minnesota. Harvesting potatoes by use of potato digging machines. 47 Picking and loading cantaloupes. New York. 326 AGR.— FARM CROPS 118 Peanuts, a valuable food product. The pods are removed from the vines and allowed to dry thoroughly before marketing. 137 Pumpkins as an inter-crop with corn. 149 Celery raised on rich muck land. The bunches after being washed and packed- are sent to market ready for us as food. 294 Bananas on cultivated plantation. 285,287 Maguey plants from which pulque is made. 23. GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOODLOT By R. L. WATTS, M.S. PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, DEAN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- TURE AND DIRECTOR OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION, STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, STATE COLLEGE, PA. I. GARDENING The home garden as an economic factor cannot be over- estimated. Very many famiHes, by intensive cultivation, raise the summer supply of vegetables and part of the winter supply, on a very small plot of land. Since the war began, gardening has become a war measure in the conservation of food. These gardens are giving outdoor work to men who are accustgmed to work indoors and are doing a great health work. Market gar- dening is carried on wherever the produce can reach the cities. 83 The school-gardens' are an important part of industrial education and they will occupy a still more important place as the country grows older. They aid materially in the food supply, give the children habits of industry, and cultivate the art of using the hands. Also they cause some to take up farm life and become professional food producers. 47 The cantaloupe or muskmelon is an important trucking crop from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. This truck farm is on the Lake Shore, which is especially adapted to fruit-raising because the large body of water stabilizes the temperature, preventing the early spring budding and the late frost. 137 A field of pumpkins. While the pumpkin is not considered a hor- ticultural crop, it makes such good pies that every horticulturist likes to grow a few for home use. It is also worth noting that pumpkins generally command good prices in the larger local markets. 149 The celery industry in the United States has grown to mammoth proportions. Some years ago the Kalamazoo district was made famous by its extensive fields, but now we find immense areas of this vegetable in various parts of the United States, especially where there are muck soils for its culture. Celery thrives best in deep, moist soils and muck lands seem to provide these ideal conditions. 327 328 AGR.— GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 419 Beets are found in every home garden. Until the plants are large, some handwork is necessary to keep the weeds under control. The frequent and skillful use of wheel hoes, however, will reduce the handwork to a minimum and this is exceedingly important if the beets are to be produced more economically. The beets in 198 are grown under irrigation. 166, 47 The potato is for the most part grown as a field crop, but it is likewise an essential to the garden. The potato prefers a loose, loamy or sandy, well drained soil. There is scarcely any crop that responds so well to the heavy use of fertilizers. The potato is an important food crop in many countries. It thrives best in a cool climate. Dr. Patten, Dean of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, states that the potato was a direct factor in causing the great World War. The introduction of the potato to the sandy soils of Prussia enormously increased the food supply, which in turn was followed by marked increase in population, enabling Prus- sia to dominate Germany. 210 Irrigation. Most garden crops require abundant moisture. This may often be obtained by thorough cultivation, thus preventing evaporation of the ground moisture. More and more gardens are being irrigated by overhead spraying systems. Naturally in connection with our great irrigation systems supplying all needed water, gardening may be carried on most advantageously. The statement is made- that if Germany, at the beginning of the war, had been generally equipped with the most up-to-date irri- gation systems as we know them in most parts of America, she would have had no serious difficulty in maintaining an adequate food supply. 423 The city flower markets of foreign countries must be exceedingly interesting. Not only are the flowers beautiful but the people themselves add to the picturesqueness of these markets. It is gratifying to know that flowers are being sold more and more on our own city markets. II. LANDSCAPE GARDENING 10 The village people of New England give their street trees better attention than do the people of some other States. Note the device around the fine old elm to prevent insects from going up the tree. These fine old trees throughout New England are appreciated and everything possible is done to protect them. 36 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. This old cemetery is kept in excellent condition. It is an object lessop to those who are careless in taking care of the grounds where their loved ones are sleeping. Trees, shrubs, and hardy perennials should be used instead of tender annual "plants , which soon die and disappear. Zl Washington's headquarters at Newburgh on the Hudson. The splendid old trees in the background and vines on the building give .this old house a most pleasing appearance. Hundreds of LANDSCAPE GARDENING 329 humble homes might be made just as attractive as this one by the proper use of plants and trees. 90 Part of the city of Washington. The people of Washington are proud of their thousands of fine trees and shrubs. The collec- tion as found along the streets and in the parks represents a great number of different species. 91 The formal type of gardening as shown in this picture is pleasing to a great many people. The fountain in the center of the view is a prominent feature of the landscape. 93 A general view looking- over Washington. The student of land- scape gardening will be interested in noting the arrangement of trees in the foreground. They are arranged in groups along the avenues, leaving large, broad expanses without any trees. 95 Congressional Library, Washington. The curved walks and drives of this view help to make it highly attractive. The use of curves in landscape gardening is one of the means of making beautiful landscape effects. 169 A bit of water with a canoe and occupants and fine trees in the background always present a most pleasing appearance. Note the wigwam on the right, which is reflected in the water. 241 San Gabriel Mission. This old building would not be half so attractive without the splendid specimens of palms which beau- tify the foreground. 249 Street in Colon. This would be a very commonplace picture were ' it not for the tall palms planted near the house. They give the scene a restful appearance which could be secured in no other way. 259 Papaya trees in Hawaii. The people of tropical regions are fond of planting along their walks and streets palms and other tropi- cal plants, just as we like to plant maples and other shade trees along our streets and roadways. They provide more or less shade and make the landscape exceedingly beautiful. 262 . In the Acadian land. When we journey to the far North we are attracted by the fine specimens of evergreens. A few well- grown specimens as shown in the foreground of this picture are essential features in many of the northern landscapes. 316 A South American Park, Buenos Aires. This view is not unlike the ones which are common in the best parks in the United States. The broad, sweeping curves and splendid trees are noticeable features in this park. 355 Anne Hathaway's home. The well trimmed hedge and vines on ' the wall add greatly to the beauty of the scene. The well kept hedges of England are certainly more beautiful than the bare picket-fences once so universal in America. 356 Shakespeare's Memorial Theater, Stratford-on-Avon, England. Cattle, sheep, horses and other livestock always add to the beauty as well as the interest of a landscape. The contentment of these cows is thoroughly in accord with the quiet and beauty of the landscape. 330 AGR.— GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 360 In England great attention is paid to landscape gardening. These trees trimmed so closely and the wall covered with vines are typical of the country. 361 Lake Grasmere. Those who are interested in landscape garden- ing will do well to study the composition of this picture. Noth- ing can be omitted without sacrificing the attractiveness of the view. The massed trees which stand in the foreground, the expanse of water broken by the island in the middle, the village on the other side of the lake, and the mountains in the back- ground, all go to make this an unusual scene. In planting gardens and trees, care should be taken not to cut off beautiful views. 362 The home of Wordsworth. A very humble home made beautiful by the skillful use of trees, shrubs and vines. This is a splendid demonstration of what might be accomplished around thousands of inexpensive dwellings. TiTd Blarney Castle, Ireland. This old castle would have little to make it attractive were it not for the hedge and trees in the foreground. ill The Lakes of Killarney. After all, Dame Nature cannot be ex- celled as a landscape gardener ! 386 Hamburg. The water front is beautified by the planting of trees wherever that is possible. 422 Avenue des Champs Elysees, Paris. The French people love trees and they are careful to give their street plantings the very best attention. 534 In the Land of Flowers. The Japanese are great lovers of flowers and particularly of the cherry blossoms. The " Feast of the Cherry Blossoms " is an annual celebration and all the people go where they can see and admire the beautiful flowers of this tree. 535 A Japanese garden is extremely interesting to a landscape gar- dener. They are especially skillful in dwarfing trees. The gar- den is more like a picture, a beautiful miniature, than it is lijce a real garden. 586 A view in Melbourne, Australia. This is an exceedingly attrac- tive bit of scenery in the city of Melbourne. The small lake or pond is a striking feature, and there is abundant evidence that the trees and shrubs receive the very best care. In the fore- ground is another example of extreme formality in the arrange- ment of flowering plants. III. ORCHARDING 85 Peach harvest. New Jersey, Delaware, the Lake shore and warmer parts of the country produce immense quantities of peaches. These may be yellow or white with the pulp free from or clinging to the stone. Peach trees are very tender. They must be sprayed and pruned and carefully cultivated. They are short-lived trees. ORCHARDING 331 108 Harvesting pineapples. This picture gives you some idea of the extent of the pineapple industry in Florida. Pineapples are grown on a very large scale and shipped. They are largely used for canning and preserving. The industry is profitable when properly managed. 44 In order to produce good fruit, trees must be sprayed. A strong spray is used when the trees are bare and weaker ones when in leaf. The trunks must be kept smooth and clean. 175 Harvesting apples. Scenes of this character are now common in all apple-producing districts of the United States. A large proportion of the apple crop is placed in barrels, though many of the better specimens are packed in boxes. 234 An immense quantity of almonds, as well as other nuts, are grown in California for market. The student should note how thor- oughly -this orchard has been cultivated. This is one of the main reasons why the California horticulturists grow such fine nuts as well as fruit. They give their trees as well as their land the very best treatment. 236 California vineyards. These grapes are the result of intensive culture. The California vineyards have become famous for their large crops of grapes. Some of the bunches are mam- moth in size, as shown in the picture before us. 319 Vineyard in South America. This view shows the work which must be done in a successful vineyard. The vines must be cut back and the ground carefully cultivated. There must also be supports to keep the vines up with room to grow. 390 Some very fine vineyards may be found on the hills of Germany. These people have found it necessary to make all of their tillable land yield maximum returns. Note the thrifty growth of the vines. 237 A California orange grove of 10,000 acres. After seeing these immense orange groves of California, one wonders what' is done with all of the fruit. The most intensive systems of culture and management are used in these groves and all possible care is exercised in picking and forwarding the fruit to market. 238 Orange blossoms and fruit. To those of us who are accustomed to seeing such fruit trees as apples, pear, peach and cherry, it seems strange to see both fruit and flowers on the tree at the same time. The large green foliage and the beautiful blossoms and fruits of the orange make the trees exceedingly attractive. 437 Picking Valencia oranges. It is not a difficult matter to pick oranges from these low, well trained trees. Our American boys would not like to carry such a large load on top of their heads. 293 Mango trees laden with fruit. The mango is just as important to many people living in tropical countries as the apple is to people in temperate regions. The trees are evergreen with very dense foliage and some of them are very large. It is an important fruit crop in southern Asia, India, Brazil and other tropical countries. 332 AGR.— GARDEN, ORCHARD AND WOOD LOT 294 Harvesting bananas. This is exceedingly interesting to boys and girls as well as grown folks who are fond of bananas. They are practically green when harvested and shipped to northern storage houses for ripening. It is surprising how cheaply this fruit can be sold in our northern markets after being transported so far. 530 The tea farms are usually small and require careful cultivation and much attention, for the plant will thrive only in well manured or very rich soil. Although an evergreen, the leaves are useful only at a certain season. This Japanese maiden seems to be very happy as she starts out for a basket of tea leaves. The Japanese love plants and outdoor life, and all of us in America will do well to copy after them in this respect. 551 Husking coconuts. This beautiful scene of large piles of coco- nuts under the trees from which they have been harvested, gives " us some idea of the quantities of coconuts which are used. IV. THE WOOD LOT 1 Logging in Aroostook Co., Maine. Scenes like this are common in Maine and other states where the land is heavily forested. The land had to be cleared and some farmers, lacking foresight, cleared all their land as soon as they could. 72 Daisy field backed by woods. Woodland conserves rainfall. The rain cannot run off and the trees prevent rapid evaporation. The wood lot, then, is important in conserving moisture since the united woods of a neighborhood may cover an appreciable area. 74 On bare hills the rain runs off rapidly, swelling the stream at the base. This results in sudden floods very destructive to farm- ing interests. 445 The farmer with a wood lot has a constant supply of wood for fuel. 73 Pennsylvania; 445 Switzerland. The farmer with a wood lot has a supply of wood for posts, building material and all the uses so numerous on a farm. 38 Hudson Valley. Notice how the hills are wooded. That pre- vents quick drainage of rainfall. The low land is partly wooded. The force of wind in the district is broken. Each farmer has a constant source of revenue, as the trees suitable for cutting are taken out year by year and the others are allowed to grow. 70, 71 Chestnut, elm, maples and other hard woods are increasing in value each year. 107 Turpentine farm. In the South a piece of such timber would yield turpentine, rosin and tar, besides a supply of pine timber valued in building. 130 Tapping a maple tree. This work is attended to at the approach of warmer spring weather. There is something especially in- vigorating and uplifting in working among the trees at this THE WOOD LOT 333 season of the year. Farmers who do not have a maple sugar grove might add to their incomes as well as to the pleasure of their homes by planting a large number of -sugar maples along the roadside or perhaps on rough land which is not suitable for agricultural purposes. A maple grove is also a source of timber and fuel supply. 162 A huge sled-load of logs. It is surprising how many logs a team can haul if there is snow on the ground. 184 On our prairies and plains timber was very scarce and was ac- cordingly valued the more highly. Such a wood as is shown in the background will be carefully conserved. 70, 72, 184 Some states, to encourage the care of woodland, give a rebate on the taxes of such land. 224 A very large tree of the Northwest. Trees of such mammoth size are common in California and throughout the Northwest. It may interest our readers to know, however, that some very large trees may be found in the eastern part of the United States. For example, some years ago the writer measured a chestnut tree in Montgomery County, Md., which was 12 feet in diameter. In 1888 a white pine tree was grown near Lumber City, Pa., that measured 100 feet in length after the limbs were removed and the spar was ready for market. Sixteen horses were required to draw it to the river. The butt of the tree was about 5 feet in diameter. Note : — The Keystone View Company's General Catalog containing a list of thousands of stereographs and lantern slides will be sent free of cost upon application. It contains an extensive list of industrial subjects also a complete series of Travel Tours of the leading countries of the world. TuE Publishers. 24. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY By W. A. COCHEL PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KAN. History shows that no permanent and profitable system of agriculture has been developed without livestock as a dominant factor, except on comparatively small farms, when special crops are produced. The most powerful nations of the world are those which are noted for their extensive development of livestock. More than one half of all the expenditures for food in the United States are for animal products. The problems of maintaining soil fertility and increasing acre yields of crops are most easily solved when the by-products from feeding livestock are available. The usefulness and value of animals of all kinds on the farms is an item to which too much attention can scarcely be given. DAIRY CATTLE 57 New Jersey; 159 Wisconsin; 165 Minnesota; 403 Holland. Hol- stein cattle are distinguished by their color, which is always black and white, for their very heavy milk production, high total yield of butter, and low percentage of butter fat. These cattle are the largest of all the dairy breeds. 364 Jersey'cattle come from the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel. The predominative color is fawn varying from a golden yellow to black with brown marking. They are frequently found with white markings on any part of the body. They are noted for the extreme richness in butter fat of the milk they produce and are the most popular of all breeds as family cows and near cities where milk with a high percentage of butter fat is called for. 371 The Ayrshire is a typical breed of dairy cattle, originated in Scot- land. They do not produce as much milk as the Holstein, nor is it as rich as that of the Jersey. Their milk comes more nearly meeting the requirements of the best city's trade, without, modification than that from any other breed of dairy cattle.- The Ayrshire is smoother and more thickly muscled than the other breeds of dairy cattle, hence are not discriminated against too much, by buyers of beef cattle on the markets. They are 335 336 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY better grazers and thrive on poorer pastures than the other breeds of dairy cattle. 356 Dairy Shorthorn cattle, England. While the Shorthorn is mostly a beef breed, in England considerable attention has been given to the development of the Shorthorn as dairy cattle. Perhaps three-fourths of the milk delivered to the City of London comes from this breed of cattle. Usually stock raisers wish cattle highly efficient either for beef or milk production. Many farmers, however, wish cattle that will give a fair milk supply as well as being satisfactory for beef. The dairy Shorthorns meet this requirement. Such cattle are known as dual-purpose cattle. 339 The dairy cow indicated in this view does not represent any of the breeds of special dairy cattle but belongs to the ordinary common stock of the country. She has the typically long, nar- row head, sharp withers and depth of body and wedge shape which indicates that her performance at the pail would be creditable. BEEF CATTLE 317 The predominate breed of cattle in Argentina is the Shorthorn. They are very popular in America and Great Britain. Red, white and roan are the typical Shorthorn colors. These cattle are the largest of any of thj beef breeds, mature early and dress out a high percentage of beef to live weight. When finished the carcass yields a high proportion of high priced meat such as rib and loin, in which the fat and lean portions are so distributed as to present a beautifully marbled cut of beef. 358 Hereford cattle originated in Herfordshire, England. The tyjji- cal color is red with white face, a little white on crest and feet. They are noted as the best grazers of any of the breeds of beef cattle ; they mature at an extremely early age, are hardy and able to withstand extremely adverse conditions. This has made them the most popular of all breeds for range purposes. They are especially heavy in their fore ribs and heart girth, also in their loins. 370 Aberdeen-Angus cattle originated in Scotland. They are black and hornless, of the extreme beef type, short legged, blocky, thickly and evenly fleshed, mature at a very early age and pro- duce when slaughtered, a smooth even carcass .of well marbled beef. Aberdeen-Angus steers have won more championships for fat cattle at the leading American shows than those of any othe'r beef breed. They dress out an unusually high percentage of beef to live weight. 127 Texas range cattle have been bred up from a Spanish or native foundation by the use of E^reford and Shorthorn bulls, the re- sult of the attention to breeding has made the range cattle better for the production of beef and more desirable in the feed lots DRAFT HORSES 337 than those that are produceJf in the older farming sections of the country. 185 The steers feeding in this view are typical range cattle from the herds from Texas, branded so as to distinguish them from other cattle when they become mixed. These cattle were taken out of the pasture on the 15th of August and put on full feed of corn and cotton-seed rtieal.'bran and oats, the purpose being to put a sufficient amount of flesh on them to have them classify on the market as choice beef. They were fed ninety days. 186 Cattle shown in the round-up are of a mixed breeding and typical of the cattle that are found in the short grass country. The improvement being made by the use of pure bred beef bulls in herds of this sort is remarkable. 140 Stock yards, Chicago. These cattle are similar to those in 186 except that they have been fattened for market, probably on the farms in the corn belt. 589 The range cattle of Australia are similar in type to those de- scribed in views 127 and 317. 301 The cattle of Jamaica are typical of the old-fashioned long horned steers of the early days of Texas. The same kind of cattle are being produced in Mexico. They are cattle very deep in the heart girth, narrow through the crops and loins, with compara- tively little muscular development in the hind quarters. They are noted for their constitution and rustling abilities. 545, Java; 548 Philippines. The cattle of Southern Asia do not repre- sent any of the breeds which are of importance in America. They are from the same source ais the sacred cattle of India, which are used for draft purposes rather than for meat. DRAFT HORSES 138 Percheron horses originated in France, their popularity is due to the fact that the French government has encouraged their breeding. They are the most widely distributed of all the breeds of draft horses in America. They are noted for size, quality, and disposition. The predominating colors are grey and black. 166 The potato sections of the United States demand the heaviest type and highest priced draft horses that are produced, because of the heavy machinery which they must handle and the weight of the loads which they must take to market. 398 Belgian horses are of the extreme draft type, short legged, deep bodied, and heavily muscled. They are kept fat very easily, which makes them quite attractive. The predominant colors are sorrel, roan and bay. They are second in importance among the draft breeds in America. 320 The cart horse must have weight and substance in order for it to handle heavy loads without material effort. They usually pos- sess some blood of the draft breeds. The picture indicates a 338 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY horse of less bone and ligffter type than is usTSally used for this purpose. CARRIAGE HORSES 312 "Carriage horses have almost been eliminated from the city streets on account of the development of the automobile. They were usually matched as to color, size, style and action. Typical carriage horses were sixteen hands high and weighed 1,250 pounds each. They were symmetrical, carried their heads and tails well and were noted for their beauty of style and action. 19S Horses used on stage coaches are usually very rugged, of a type which is remarkable for endurance, quickness of action and sure footedness. They must be free from all unsoundness and extremely well broken. CAVALRY HORSES 71 Cavalry horses are lighter, quicker, and more compact than the draft breeds. The best type is from thoroughbred stock and has intelligence, speed and endurance. The Government is fos- tering the development of the cavalry horse industry, but in most farming sections, the heavy draft type is more profitable. PONIES 188 The cow ponies are horses of remarkable intelligence and endur- ance. They must be very quick, active and are very sure footed, in order not only to perform the service required of them, but not to endanger the lives of their riders. They are usually about fifteen hands high and weigh from 850 to 1,100 pounds. 182 The ponies used by the Indians are usually from thirteen and one-half to fifteen hands high, will weigh from 750 to 1,000 pounds, are very tough and have a remarkable endurance. In- dians usually prefer the horses of broken colors, with a con- siderable amount of white, which makes them more attractive to them. MULES AND DONKEYS 124 Cotton mules are very compact, and from fourteen and one-half to fifteen hands high, they are quick and active. 311 Mules are very largely used in the coffee plantations, asthey are very hardy, powerful and long lived. With inefficient labor they are the most useful of all work animals. 340, 341 The burro or donkey is a diminutive type of the jacks and jennets used in the United States for mule production. They are patient, slow plodding animals capable of carrying more than their own weights qp their backs. They are very sure footed, have great endurance, are bothered very little with flies and heat. SHEEP — GOATS — CHICKENS 339 SHEEP 173 Shropshire, Oxford and Cotswold sheep. The sheep in this view are of the mutton type as distinguished from the wool type and represent the breeds that are most generally used in the farm- ing districts of the United States ; they are short of leg, deep of body and wide of back. 190 Merino sheep on range. Range sheep are the most hardy and free from disease of all the sheep produced. They are the source of practically all the lambs which are marketed from the first of October to the first of May. GOATS 411 Norway, 447 Switzerland. In Europe more than in America the goat is an important feature of animal husbandry. There the milking goats are preferred and this variety is rather abundant. In America the milking ,goat is practically unknown, except among the European population in our industrial centers. With us the goat is raised for its hair, known commercially as mohair, and for its meat, which forms a considerable item in some mar- kets. Texas raises more goats than any other State. HOGS 172 The hogs used for pasturing rape in the corn belt of the United States are usually of the extreme lard or fat type, as distin- guished from the bacon type of hogs. 183 Poland-China hogs originated in the United States, are repre- sentative of the fat or lard type, and noted for their early ma- turity, thickness of flesh, good disposition and their popularity throughout the corn belt. CHICKENS 56 White Leghorn hens in laying house. Poultry keeping is one of the most important phases of animal husbandry. The farm flocks of the country produce eggs and meat that equal in value some of our most important grain crops. Near the city markets the raising of chickens is a specialized industry. No other form of animal husbandry appeals so strongly to the back-to- the-lander as chicken raising. No farm business is so widely ehgaged in by amateurs and none reports so large a number of failures. It is exacting work, requiring great regularity of effort and close attention to details. Because of their patient care in looking after the detailed work, women are even more successful than men in the handling of poultry. DUCKS AND GEESE ~ -* 216 Puget Sound, Wash. ; 401 Holland. Ducks and geese form -an important item in poultry production. They are raised mostly 340 AGR.— ANIMAL HUSBANDRY for the meat supply, but have considerable value also for eggs and feathers. They are water fowls and, if they have access to a stream or pond, will forage for a considerable part of their food supply. They are not so extensively raised as chickens although there are many large duck farms. PIGEONS 240 Pigeon farm, California. Pigeon farming for the raising of " squabs " is an attractive phase of poultry raising although not so widely engaged in as some other forms of poultry farming. Only those specially qualified and with good experience should engage extensively in this line. Raising the " squabs," prepar- ing them attractively for market and selling on a satisfactory basis require considerable skill and business ability. 25. FARM MANAGEMENT — FARM MACHINERY By MARTIN LUTHER FISHER, M.S. PROFESSOR OF CROP PRODUCTION AND FARM MANAGEMENT AND IN CHARGE DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. Assisted by WM. AITKENHEAD, A.M., M.E. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF FARM MECHANICS, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. I. FARM MANAGEMENT Farm management deals with the handling of the farm and its equipment so as to produce farm products with the great- est profit and still maintain, or even increase, the productive- ness of the soil. Management is dififerent from production. One may grow a big crop (production) but he may not dispose of it to the best advantage (management). One must decide what breeds of live stock he will keep and how many his fa;rm will furnish feed for (management), but he must breed, feed, and care for them properly also (production). It is not sufficient that the crops grown and the live stock kept are profitable — they should be the most profitable of their kind. Producing milk and butter may be profitable, but keeping beef cattle and selling fattened animals may yield a larger profit. Com, oats, and clover is a good rotation and may be profitable, but corn, wheat, and clover may yield a larger profit. Every good manager will study the conditions surrounding him in order that he may engage in the. type of farming best adapted to the soil, climate, labor supply, and markets. If the soil and climate are favorable and the markets accessible, grain farming may pay better than grazing live stock. In the disposition of the crops it may pay better to sell them than to feed them even though the manure be returned to land. If the prices of corn and hogs are too near alike, one had better sell the corn rather than feed it and thereby have the risk of loss by disease as well as the loss of labor and the grain fed. In the studies made of a great many farms it has 341 342 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT been found that neither the selling of all the crops nor the feeding of all of them gave the larger profits, but that where about 40% of the farm income came from the selling of the crop and the rest from the sale of live stock and live stock products the best results were obtained. It seems that it pays best to have some crop, or crops, to sell for cash. A great many people believe that the small farm is more profitable than th"e large one, but it has been shown many times that where the same type of farming is used on both farms the larger one is usually the better paying. A large income cannot be made from a small business. A large area furnishes the possibilities for big crops and a large number of market animals. The proper adjustment of equipment is important. The machinery, the teams, and the labor should be adapted to the size of the farm and the nature of the farming. A tractor is not profitable on a 40 acre farm but is quite likely to be so on a 200 acre area. Four-horse teams cannot- be used to very good advantage on the small, but are decidedly useful on the large farms. Grain farming does not require much hand labor but truck farming and gardening require ' hand work almost exclusively. A large labor income is what the good manager strives for. The labor income is found by subtractmg all expenses of opera- tion from the gross income obtained by the sales of crops and live stock, and from this remainder take the interest on the investment, say at five per cent. In counting up expenses the cost of the family living is not included. Also, in determin- ing the labor cost, .the labor done by members of the family and not paid for in dollars and cents should be calculated at a reasonable rate and added to the expenses. The labor in- come represents the farmer's salary. Beside this he has had the use of a house, garden and truck crops, butter, milk, eggs, and fruit — all of which has been found to amount to about ninety-five dollars per each adult member of the family. A. CHOOSING THE FARM In order to make a success at farming the farmer must give attention to the farm he selects. The farm ought to be well located for con- venience to roads, markets, and neighbors. The soil and climate must be adapted to the kind of farming which the farmer intends to follow. TILLED CROPS — GRAZING 343 1. CONTOUR (a) Tilled Crops Perhaps the first thing to give attention to in selecting the farm is its contour. 522, 488 Level or gently rolling land is easily plowed even by primi- tive equipment. 178, 179, 332 On level land tractors can be used and thus save horse labor. 180 This land is rolling, but not too much so 'to use the tractor effec- tively. 198 Level fields make easy cultivation and the loose soil will not wash away in heavy rains. 166 Level land is desirable for potatoes, sugar beets (198), corn (137) and all crops that need cultivation during the summer. 149 Celery is always grown on level land, usually peat soils found in regions of old lake beds. 333 Crops like sugar cane and rice (104, 527, 528) which need irriga- tion must be grown on level land. 147, 199, 357 Level fields make easy harvesting, and usually produce the largest crops. 218, 233 The large level fields of the West permit large machinery to be used. This cuts down the cost of production. 408 A mountainous country may have many rich valleys, but the fields will be mere patches and labor saving machinery cannot be used advantageously. (b) Grazing 38 This is beautiful scenery, but the land is almost too rough for till- age. It would be better for pasturing cattle or for growing orchards. 388 This land is too hilly for any but hand work. Unless labor is plentiful and cheap the cost of production runs high. It would be excellent pasture land, especially for sheep. 301, 317, 589 In sections where grain and cultivated crops are not grown extensively level lands are also used for grazing. 480 This level plain would probably return a larger profit if it were farmed in cultivated and grain crops. 183 If the farmer wants to graze pigs he will select level land so. that the crop grazed can be one in the regular rotation. (c) Fruit Growing 44 While orchards are usually planted on rolling or hilly lands, level land is also well suited and is desirable when large sprayers are to be used. Rolling land is better for fruits than level land on account of the drainage offered for both air and rainfall. The air drainage prevents damage from frosts. 390 Grape production is nearly always on hillsides, although level land is also used (319). 108 Pineapples need irrigation, hence level land must be selected. 344 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 2. DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION' (a) Drainage 147, 184 Good crops like these can be grown only on well-drained land. 390 This hillside does not need drainage. The hillside in the distance shows the effect of erosion. 180 Gently sloping lands tend to drain themselves naturally. 161 Our rich prairie soils often have to be drained to make them highly productive. 120 The delta lands are excellent for crops but must be drained. (b) Irrigation 104 Irrigation is the opposite of drainage. Lands must be quite level for successful irrigating. 527 The rice field shows how level the fields are in Japan. (c) Location 178 Farm life is isolated at its best and in selecting a farm one should give attention to location as regards roads, neighbors, and markets. This farm seems to be far from any human habitation. 180 This farm seems to be located near a traveled highway as there are several houses in the distance. 408 In this mountainous country there is little outlet to market. 147 The nearness of the house adds homelikeness to this farm. 43 The railroad suggests opportunity for marketing the products of the farm. The hauling of crops long distances to the shipping point is expensive. 108 The town in the distance suggests a marketing place as well as a shipping point. Unless the grower can ship and market his products easily and cheaply he is not ' encouraged to do his best. (d) The SoU 178 Much depends on the soil for successful crop production. Notice how black and mellow this soil is. 179 And see how nicely it works up when disked and harrowed. A good seed bed can be prepared without much labor in such soil. 120 The delta soils and the alluvial soils in river bottoms are the most productive and everlasting that can be found. 147, 184 Prairie soils are usually well adapted to producing grain. 413 If all other conditions were favorable the rocky soil here would prevent crop production. 38 Land like this is best for grass crops, like wheat, oats, and pas- ture. 166 Potatoes do best on a sandy loam soil. 149 Celery requires a rich muck or peaty soil. TYPE OF FARMING 345 (e) The Climate 408, 413 After all the climate determines what crops can be grown. In this region of snow and ice one cannot expect to grow any delicate crops. 136, 137, 147, 184 These are common scenes in the corn belt where con- ditions are most favorable for the production of the cereal crop. 199 Wheat can be raised in regions of scanty rainfall. 44, 175, 85, 390 The temperate zone is also the region of large fruit productions. 108 Pineapples, 294 Bananas, and 238 Oranges — grow in the sub- tropical or warm part of the temperate zone. 258 Sugar cane grows best under tropical conditions. B. TYPE OF FARMING When a farmer gets most of his income from the grain which he grows and sells, he is said to be engaged in grain farming; when his income is mostly from fruits, he is engaged in fruit farming; and when his income is from several sources like grain, live stock, fruits, etc., no one of which yields over 40 per cent, of the income, he is said to be en- gaged in mixed farming, and so on, the type of farming being named according to the source of income. 1. MIXED OR GENERAL FARMING In this type of farming, the farmer raises some of the grains, like corn, wheat, oats, rye, or barley; some of the kinds of live stock like horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs ; produces hay ; has fruits ; sells milk, butter and eggs, grains, and live stock. He has an income from several sources. General farming is the most common type because it is -the safest. All of the farmer's hope of an income is not based upon one source, but if one thing fails, it is likely that some other crop will suc- ceed. General farming requires a rather large investment. A good deal of land is necessary to run so many different enterprises and it takes a good many kinds of machinery, buildings, and other equipment to carry on the different lines of work. 136,137, 160 On the general farm the corn is usually cut and put in shock or in the silo. It is useful for winter feed. The corn- binder is a labor saving machine found in nearly all corn^belt farms. 172, 183 On the general farm in the corn belt many hogs are kept. These are usually pastured during the summer, because this is an economical way- of producing growth. Rape is used quite extensively for such a pasture. Alfalfa is an ideal pasture for pigs. It produces rapid growth and economical gains. 185 Feeding carload lots of steers is also common in the corn belt. 181 This is another example of large machinery on the general farm. The general farmer usually makes a good deal of hay to feed his stock in the winter season. 346 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 2. LIVE STOCK FARMING Live stock farming requires large areas of land because pasture is needed. Of course, cattle and horses require more pasture land than pigs and sheep. 127 The large cattle herds are in the West and on rather cheap land. 186 On the ranges it usually takes four to ten acres of land to fur- nish pasturage enough for an animal ; in the eastern part of the United States about two acres are enough. 301 Large ranches of cattle are also found in the tropics. 317 Argentina has vast areas of land good for growing alfalfa and other pasturage. These cattle come into competition with cattle in the United States to some extent. 3. PRODUCTION OF BREEDING STOCK On many farms the main source of income is from the sale of aniinals for breeding stock, that is, the sale of well-bred animals to start new herds and flocks. The fine stock business requires a big investment in animals, buildings, and care. They must be well housed, and carefully cared for by experienced men. If they can be sold for a good price the farmer will make money, but as work animals, producers of but- ter, milk, or wool, or whatever product is peculiar to the class of ani- mals, they are little better than high grade animals and these are not nearly so expensive to own and to care for. For various breeds of farm animals and comment regarding same see classification on Animal Husbandry. 4. GRAIN FARMING In grain farming large areas of land are used and usually the same grain is grown year after year on the same land. This is contrary to good practice in rotation of crops. In some sections the crop is corn year after year. On river bottoms which are frequently renewed by the deposits from overflows this continuous cropping does not seem to do harm, but on lands not so renewed the practice soon shows de-. creased yields. 218, 233 The best examples of grain farming on a large scale is seen in the large fields of. the West and Northwest. 179, 199 On these large grain farms of the West it may be that no live stock at all is kept since all the work can be done by machinery. Farming without live stock is disastrous unless great care is taken in returning the straw and stubble and -supplementing this with mineral fertilizers, like phosphorus and potassium. 177 Here we see large stacks of straw from the threshers. In nearly every case this straw is burned instead of scattering it back over the land. Such farming is wasteful of the soil's fertility and is called exploitive. FRUIT FARMING — DAIRYING 347 5. FRUIT FARMING Fruit growing is a form of specialized farming and is done in a more careful (intensive) way than grain and mixed farming. Fruit farm- ing requires special knowledge of the fruits that are grown. It also requires special apparatus for spraying, harvesting, and packing. 44 The fruit grower has to fight insects and diseases. This is done by spraying. 175 To get good returns from the market the fruit must be graded and carefully packed. Honest packing helps to sell the crop. 85 Most fruit growers give all their time to one or two kinds of fruit. There is a lot of work to do in spraying, pruning, thin- ning fruit, harvesting, packing, and marketing. 237 Oranges are grown on a very large scale in CaUfornia and Florida. Orange growing requires very special knowledge. 236 This grower gives all his time to his grapes. 390 This shows the extent of some of the vineyards and gives an idea of the labor necessary for maintenance. 6. DAIRYING Dairying as a business requires special knowledge of how to feed for milk production and how to care for the milk in the way to make the best product. A rather large investment is required in cows, barns, and land for grazing purposes.^ In America it rarely pays to keep cows up all the time. Labor is too scarce and high-priced, and our land is cheap as compared with European dairy sections. Also, we cannot get high enough prices for the butter or milk to pay for keeping animals on the soiling system. 159 This shows the large barns and valuable cows kept on this dairy farm. It is one of the most famous dairy farms in the United States. 165 This shows a more expensive equipment. Notice the large silos. Silage is one of the most important feeds for dairy cows. An expensive equipment means that the profits are cut down by a big interest on the investment. 57 It is a part of good management in a dairy to keep everything clean and sanitary. 7. POULTRY Poultry does not require a very large investment to get large returns. Knowledge of how to care for hens so as to make them lay is necessary. 56 There are many breeds of poultry. Most people keep poultry mostly for the eggs which they lay. The White Leghorn is one of the best laying breeds. 8. SPECIAL CROPS The risk of failure in special crops is greater than where general farming is carried on. If the season is unfavorable, the crop may 348 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT fail partly or entirely. If it is favorable, there may be so large a supply that the market is flooded and a very small price is obtained. When general, or diversified, farming is practiced it is likely that one or more crops will bring a good price, or make a good yield even if some do fail, special crops always furnish a labor problem, either a large amount is required, or else it must be highly skilled. Also, the special crop usually does not furnish regular and steady employment. 117 Cotton is the sole source of income for many farmers. It re- quires much hand labor at harvesting time. 198 The sugar beet requires much hand labor for thinning and har- vesting. The beet crop is a very profitable one. The farmer is always assured a market for this crop, because it is contracted for before it is "planted. 47 The cantaloupe is in great demand in all cities and growers make good returns from their fields. 149 Celery belongs to the group of truck crops. It requires a special soil like peat. 108 The pineapple also requires a special soil as well as special knowl- edge of the crop. This field is fixed for irrigation, thus remov- ing any danger or loss by drouth. 112 Tobacco is widely grown in some states. It requires almost con- stant attention to keep the tobacco worms (large caterpillars) from injuring the leaves. Special care is required in harvest- ing and curing. Large curing sheds are needed. C. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS It is not enough that the farmer manage his farming operations skillfully. He must also market his products to the best advantage. Profits from farming quite largely depend upon selling at the right time. Successful selling depends a great deal upon the quality of the article and the way it is presented for sale. Staple articles like the grains, hay, and live stock are so widely used and so constantly in de- mand that one can always be sure of a market. There is never a time when these articles cannot be sold for a fair price. Such articles as fruits and vegetables, and sometimes butter and eggs, are frequently so abundant that they bring a very low price in the market — often so low that the grower is discouraged and ceases to produce them. Such products as hay, grains, and live stock do not receive much picking over and arranging before being marketed, but fruits, vegeta- bles, and eggs need to be carefully assorted and put in convenient containers before being offered for sale. Clean, fresh articles, uni- form in quality and size, displayed in attractive containers will always sell better than articles not so arranged. The staple articles are usually sold in large quantities, but the less staple ones are sold in small lots. Wheat, corn, and hay, etc., are sold in carload lots; live stock are sold by the head or pounds weight, but potatoes,, apples, oranges, rhubarb, berries, etc., are usually sold QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT 349 by the small lots. In the larger cities there are usually market places for displaying the products and making sales. Sometimes it is in the open along the curbstone; other times it is in a covered place. 7 Many of the large cities have market houses. 423 This is a curbstone market for flowers. 395 A market where vegetables are sold. Selling in the market usually nets the producer the largest possible return for his product. 140 These animals have been shipped from the farms and will be sold to butchers. They are fine animals and will bring the highest price paid. 124 The cotton farmer markets his crop as seed cotton, that is, the seed is still attached to the fiber. Many farmers lose a great deal because they do not take the seed back to their farms and use it as a fertilizer. 339 This way of marketing milk may insure a fresh article, but it is wasteful of time, and time is money. 396, 487 These methods are economical in that they use cheap labor and a small amount of equipment. D. QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT The quality of the product produced has much to do with the farmer's profits. A large yield per acre of crops is a measure of his success, provided it has been produced without excess labor and expense. Well bred animals are able to return larger profits for their feed and care than scrub animals. The grade of product. put on the market is an indication of the farmer's ability. 160 The large ears indicate 60 or 70 bushels of corn to the acre, while the average yield is near 30 bushels. It took no more labor to grow the 60 bushels than to grow 30 bushels. 199 Here is a 30 bushel yield of wheat, while the average yield is about 14 bushels. Other things being eq,ual, the mAn with the large yield makes the money. 181 An alfalfa yield will give three or more crops in a season, while clover will not give more than two and timothy only one. 423 These flowers are the results of the florist's best efforts and will sell well. 236 The fine large clusters shown here indicate a heavy yield and that will give the grower a good income for his labor. 175 In any crop, and especially fruits, there is a considerable quantity of poor specimens. These should be graded out. 112 This excellent crop will probably bring its grower rnore than a hundred dollars an acre. 149 Notice how good a strand of plants are shown here. Truck grow- ing is intensive and expensive work and the farmer must have a good stand of plants. 47 These cantaloupes will sell for a good price. 198 This crop of sugar beets ought to bring its owner a hundred dol- 350 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT lars an acre. Twenty-five or thirty dollars will cover his ex- pense for production. 117 See how thick the cotton balls are on the stalks. This field will make a bale to the acre. The average crop is a quarter of a bale. 56 The kind of Jive stock one keeps and the way he keeps them shows something of a man's efficiency as a manager. Here is a lot of one of the best breeds of poultry and they are well and comfortably housed. 57, 159, 165 These fine barns and well bred cqws suggest successful dairy farming. 358, 364, 370, 398 The very appearance of these animals tells of their good breeding. 172, 183 Note the sleek, thrifty appearance of these pigs. 185 It pays to feed crops to such animals as these: 173 These are the kind of sheep that pay. They will produce good fleeces of wool and furnish a good lot of mutton of high quality besides. E. LABOR Labor is of two kinds : man labor and horse labor. The efficiency of labor is greatly affected by climate, skill of worker, and the use of ma- chinery. In the extremes of climate workers cannot do their best. In cold regions the worker is not comfortable and the amount of clothing worn hinders his movements ; in hot regions the worker must go slowly or be overcome by the heat. Workers who have been trained to do any kind of work become skillful in performing it and thus quite efficient. Some workers know no trade and are not inclined to learn. Their labor is usually expensive, because of their waste of time and materials in not knowing how to labor effectively. The use of improved machinery adds greatly to the amount of work which one man can do. In many cases one man does the work which formerly took several men to perform. A man with four horses to a gang plow, or driving a tractor, accomplishes just as much as two or more men used to do with less improved machinery. See Tools, Implements, and Farm Machinery. (a) Labor and Equipment 357 A man with a self-binder can harvest as much wheat in a day as ten men used to cut with the cradle. 136, 160 One man with the corn binder and. two other men to put up shocks can handle as many, acres in a day as five or six men working with corn knives and do it more easily. 181 The scarcity of man laborers on farms has compelled farmers to buy improved machinery. The hay loader saves the labor of at least two men. 284, 479, 497, 562 The primitive method of threshing shown here can- not be so complete as that shown in 177. Too much grain re- mains in the straw and is lost. But the cost of production is LABOR AND FIELD CROPS 351 often less than that under modern methods, because of inexpen- sive equipment and low cost of labor. 177 The work here is completely done but at a high cost of produc- tion. The machinery is expensive and the labor high-priced. A larger yield per acre must be obtained to offset these costs. 138 A farm hand will take pride in doing his work when provided with a good team and equipment like the one shown here. Such a team is able to do a good day's work, too. 561 One would not expect much pride to be taken in an outfit like this, nor expect to do much work in a day. S49 The water buffalo is a homely animal, but he is the most efficient work animal for the rice farmer. 178, 179, 180, 332 On large farms much horse labor has been done away with by using the tractor. One man driving a tractor does as much work as three or four men and as many three-horse teams. (b) Labor and Live Stock 127, 186, 301, S89 The grazing of cattle can be managed with very little labor. The labor cost per head is thus very small. 190, 480 The life of the shepherd is very lonesome and monotonous, but not at all laborious. With the help of a good dog one man cares for hundreds of sheep. 183 Grazing hogs on alfalfa, or clover, is a cheap way of making pork. It requires little labor. (c) Labor and Field Crops 528 Rice probably takes more hand labor than any other crop. 105 Where a large number of workers are employed it is necessary to have an overseer or manager to direct the work. 419 Sugar beets require hand labor for weeding and thinning. This makes the beet a costly crop to produce. 112,297 Tobacco requires much hand labor. 166 Potatoes require extra labor for picking up at harvesting time. 117 Negro help is used almost entirely for cotton picking. 118 Peanuts have to be hand picked and sorted. 258 Sugar cane is handled mostly by man labor. The cultivation is performed by horse labor. 47, 149 Truck growing requires mostly hand labor. Larg-e areas can- not be handled by one man. 147 'Wheat is a good example of an extensive crop, that is, one that does, not require much labor per acre farmed. The same -is true of the hay crops like timothy and clover or alfalfa (181). (d) Labor and Fruit Crops 44, 175, 236, 390 Fruit crops require a somewhat higher intelligence and skill than ordinary field crops. 294, 302, 551 ' Tropical products are gathered entirely by hand. 352 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT (e) Skill in Laborers 396, 487 Women and children often do a great deal of unskilled labor and are rated as cheap labor. 485, 119 In many cities a great many workers are idle and do not seem to be concerned about their living. 105 This is a good example of labor that has to be directed. With- out a " boss " not much work would be done. 419 This is an illustration of how to get an important piece of work done by cheap labor. 47 The harvesting of cantaloupes and other truck crops requires more or less intelligence to know when the crop is ready for marketing. 136, 160, 177, 178, 180 The modern farmer needs to have skill in handling machinery. (f) Keeping Labor Employed 130 One of the problems of the farmer is to furnish work which will keep him or his hired help busy the year around. The sugar- camp employs labor early in the spring before the field work can be done. 403 Dairying requires work the year around. 57 Where dairying is done on a large scale the milking is a part of the regular day's work. 44, 175 Fruit growing requires work practically all year. The winter season is taken up with pruning, spraying and making boxes and barrels for packing and shipping. 218 Grain farming furnishes labor only for short seasons. The re- mainder of the year there is little to do. 185 Winter feeding of stock furnishes profitable work for the farmer and his hired help. II. TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND FARM MACHINERY As has been noted under Farm Management; the equipment of a farm has a great deal to do with the success or failure of its opera- tions. Every farmer should strive to have enough machinery and tools to carry on his work effectively. Oftentimes loss is caused by not having enough equipment to put out a crop in proper season, or to harvest it when ripe. On farms of large area and level surface, machinery of large capacity can be used to advantage, but on hilly farms and on small-areas small sized machinery, or even hand tools, must be used. See Labor and Equipment. 1. HAND TOOLS 529 The oldest tool used for harvesting is the hand sickle. Less than an acre can be harvested in a day by one man. Consider how much more the farmer in 357 can do in a day. 388 The rough surface makes hand tools necessary here. The grass TRANSPORTATION 353 has been cut with a scythe (the scythe was the first improve- ment over the sickle) and now it is being raked into bunches with hand rakes. Note how different this is from 181. 105 The hoe was the first cultivating tool and is still used on small areas. It is very effective for killing weeds and loosening the ground when vigorously used. 47, 108, 175 The basket is a very useful piece of farm equipment. The average mature person can handle a basketful of almos.t any article grown on the farm. Besides the basket is useful to gather articles into larger piles. 2. TRANSPORTATION 449 The most primitive method of transportation is on the human back. This method is laborious, slow, and capable of moving only small articles. 311,396,438,454 The two-wheeled vehicle drawn by one or more animals is a great improvement over the " burden bearing " method. 124, 138 The most satisfactory means of transporting about th,e farm is the use of the two-horse wagon. 147, 177 When the wagon box is replaced by a hay-rack, or " hay-lad- der," the wagon is useful in handling bulky material like hay, straw, or sheaves before they are threshed. 47 The one-horse wagon is very convenient on the farm and espe- cially on a truck farm. 162 The sled is useful in handling timber in the forest. 3. TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS 488, 522, 561 Very crude types of plows. Only in very rich soil and with plenty of hand labor could such plowing of the ground produce a crop. 549 This harrow is much like a big, coarse comb and is adapted to the peculiar conditions under which the Filipino farmer works. 178 Here we see the most modern and up-to-date method of breaking the ground. This tractor is pulling three plows and doing the work of three two-horse teams and doing it quicker. One man can operate all the machinery and is thus saving the time and wages of two other men. This outfit will plow about one acre an hour. 179 It would take seven horses to draw the implements shown here and they would not be able to do it so quickly either. 180 Tractor and manure spreader. The tractor is of special value in plowing sod. The manure spreader scatters the manure evenly over the ground. The manure spreader pulls hard and when it is loaded furnishes a heavy load for a team. 332 The tractor is being used every place where large areas are to be prepared for crops. 354 AGR.— FARM MANAGEMENT 198 The two-horse cultivator is the most common tool for cultivating crops. 4. HARVESTING MACHINERY 357 With the self-binder one man and a team do the work of a team and five or six men. This is an American binder at work in England. See the name Piano on the grain shield. 136 The corn binder is a much later invention than the wheat binder. The corn binder saves the labor of two or three men and a great deal of hard work. 160 This binder has an elevator attached which carries the corn up and drops it on the wagon. This saves the labor of two men necessary to gather the corn from the ground when it is dropped as in 136. 181 The hay loader is a great labor saver and also time saver. 166 The potato digger is also a great labor saver. The hardest work here is the picking up of the potatoes. 5. THRESHING MACHINERY 284, 497 It takes a long time to thresh a crop of grain in this way. 17^ The primitive methods would thresh only a few bushels in a day, while an outfit like this will thresh more than a thousand and have the grain clean enough to go to market. 218 This machine harvests the heads of wheat, threshes the grain, and drops it into sacks for the teams to haul to market. 233 Here the horses are . replaced by a steam engine. By using a tractor for preparing the seed bed and sowing the seed the grain farmer can handle large areas of farm land and not have a single horse. 6. MISCELLANEOUS 161 The power ditcher saves a great deal of man labor. Notice the peculiar wheels on this machine. They are called caterpillar wheels, and move the machine slowly. Such a machine and two men will dig the trench and lay the tile for 100 rods, three and a half feet deep, in a day. 44 The power sprayer enables the orchardist to spray several hundred trees in a day. The sprayer is mounted on a wagon and the gasoline engine seen at the back forces the 'spray out of the nozzles. 26. FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE By A. E. WINSHIP, Litt.D., LL.D. LECTUSER, editor " JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON Marvelous changes in country life have occurred in recent years. These have made great progress toward retaining all that is best and most wholesome in rural living conditions and at the same time they have eliminated much of the drudgery and isolation of former days. A new era is at hand. For- tunately, most of the labor saving devices not only make the work more pleasant but also far more profitable so that the luxuries of yesterday are becoming the commonplaces of to- day. The country will never retain its boys and girls merely be- cause they can get a good start in life easier there than in the city, nor merely because it is more and more profitable to live in the country. Boys and girls must learn to love the coun- try in childhood and youth. They must be given real oppor- tunity for the joys of childhood in the country. Days of hard work must be limited as to hours. Life must not be all drudgery. Most men who flee from the country safety to city dangers are usually ticketed for the city by the poky life they lead in the country home. Nowhere is social live so easily made safe or so attractive as in the country, arid no homes need the illustrated weekly and monthly magazines, music and other forms of pleasant recreation as do those in the country. The automobile is doing its full share to overcome the isolation of rural life. It is not without significance that our greatest farming states have the greatest number of automo- biles per thousand of population. The telephone, the trolley line and the daily mail delivery bring the farm into close touch with the community, the county and the outside world. The self binder, the hay loader and stacker, the silo, the cream 3SS . 356 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE separator, the tractor and the whole range of modern im- provements make for efficiency and profit in farm life. With families of the same means a country home can be made infinitely more attractive than a city home. Nothing homey is possible in a large city for a family of small in- come, while in the country even with a small income a place can easily be made very attractive and homelike. Cleaning up and dressing up for the evening meal will greatly help to make a country home attractive. Be sure that the whole family eat the evening meal together and that all sit at the table until all are through. The evening should have some- thing especially attractive to the whole family. In summer time out-of-the-house social life should be promoted. Appreciation of nature is of first importance in the coun- try. With teeming life growing and unfolding on every hand, there is that intimate association with nature that lifts one's mind to the higher and nobler things of life. Nowhere else is right living and high thinking so easily attained as in farm life; nowhere else is faith in human nature so significant. 1. THE FARM HOME 91 White House, 96 Washington's old home. The city at its best can show no lovelier homes than the country. Washington, when President, used to long for the time when he could return to his country home at Mount Vernon. 37 Newburg, N. Y., 38 Hudson Valley, 262 Nova Scotia. The quiet beauty and prosperity of farm homes such a§ we see here is very attractive. There is no smoke, no dirt, no neighbor so close as to be almost in your own house. 102 North' Carolina. Can you imagine anything more beautiful than this view which can be seen front this farm home? Travelers come hundreds of miles to see it. 367 Stirling Castle. The nobility of the British Isles, even the royal family, have homes in the country. 362 Wordsworth's home, 372 Burns' cottage. Very many of the great poets have lived in the country and found their inspiration there. 373 Highland home. This simple home in the Scotch Highlands seems to radiate contentment. and cleanliness. 113 Lincoln cabin. In the pioneer days of our country, this was a common kind of home and some people still think of a farm- house as a place without comfort or conveniences. 147 Illinois. This kind of a farmhouse is far more frequently seen than the one above. 181 W. J. Bryan's home. You would expect a great man's farm to be up-to-date. This one has a windmill which pumps water for INDEPENDENCE — CHILDREN 357 use in the house and barns. Very many farmhouses now have bathrooms and all the sanitary appliances of the best city homes. * 236 Vineyard, Cal. Here is another modern farmhouse with modern conveniences. When the grapes are ripe the air is full of de- licious fragrance, very different from the odor of a city street. 2. INDEPENDENCE The farmer is the most independent of men for his farm supplies most of his living. If he is thrifty and wise, his food is the freshest and best. 57, 159, 364, 371 Dairy cattle. The country home is always sup- plied with milk and cream and fresh butter. 183, 172 Hogs, 185, 358 Beef cattle. Very often the farmer raises and prepares his own meat. Home cured hams, home made sausage and such things are delicious indeed. 141, 142, 143, 144 Packing house scenes. This kind of work in a crowded city cannot be half so pleasant nor so satisfactory as raising the live animals in the open, sunny fields. 56 Poultry. Every farm can have its chickens and fresh eggs. 83 School garden, 149 Celery field. Vegetables fresh from the gar- den have a much finer flavor than those which have stood in markets and stores. 166 Digging potatoes. A farmer seldom if ever buys potatoes. 47 Cantaloupes, 85 Peaches, 175 Apples. It is very pleasant to pick ripe fruit and have it fresh every day. The farmhouse cellar is always rich with fruit stored away for winter. 147 Oats, 184 Corn, 357 Wheat. The farmer also raises grain for his family bread and to feed his livestock. 130 Tapping sugar maple. The Indians showed the first white settlers how to make maple sugar. A. maple sugar camp in the woods in the early spring is a delightful place. 137 Pumpkins. With his milk, and eggs, the farmer must of course raise pumpkins for pie and for food for his cattle. 85 Delaware. 112 Kentucky. 149 Michigan. 136 Indiana. 160, 161 Wisconsin. 178, 179 South Dakota. Usually the farmer is his own boss. He is working for himself and his family and this adds zest to life. 3. CHILDREN The country is an ideal place for children. IZ Daisy pole. Children love the wild flowers and are so safe in their play. They roam through the fields and woods. 359 Nightingale. They see the birds and animals in their native homes and learn their ways. 2 Wild moose; 189 Wild elk; 359 Nightingale; 583 Gannets; 584 Pen- guins. Sights of this kind are never seen in cities. 83 City school gardens. Country children are not confined to a tiny patch of garden. 358 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 236 Vineyard, California. They share in the life of the whole farm. 522 Chinese farm scene, 239 Ostrich farm. Children seem especially interested in little animals of all kinds. Calves, lambs, colts, as well as little ostriches, delight them. S6 Chicken farm. Very many country children like to gather eggs and feed chickens. 4SS Palermo, Sicily. It seems too bad that the little children of the tenements cannot play with the flowers and birds in the sunny fields. 4. SCIENCE Sometimes farmers as a class have been looked upon as ignorant and unprogressive. If that ever were true, it is not so today. It takes real mental vigor to be an up-to-date farmer. 93 Overlooking Agricultural Department and grounds, Washington, D. C. In the Agricultural Department trained men are con- tinually studying and supervising experiments for the benefit of the people of the United States. 172, 173 Ames, la. Several colleges are devoted to agriculture and in them men and women are especially taught, the best methods of farming. Nearly all our colleges have courses in agricul- ture. 83 Philadelphia. Because the tilling of the soil is necessary to the life of the people, and for its educational value, even the pub- lic schools are teaching it. 235 Improving plahts already known and developing new varieties that will be useful is an important interest of agricultural sci- ence today. 44 Spraying apple trees. Spraying prevents disease and saves mil- lions of dollars' worth of fruit each year. 175 Picking apples. It is nice to sort fragrant apples in the orchard. 115 Phosphate, 180 Manure, 183 Nitrogen-fixing plants. The sci- entific farmer of today studies .his soil and applies the kind of fertilizer needed. 57, 159, 165, 364, 371 Dairy cows, 185, 358, 370 Beef cattle, 138, 398 Draft horses, 172, 183 Hogs, 173 Sheep. The scientific farmer breeds his stock to suit the purposes he intends. Men enjoy ' greatly the owning and handling of fine stock. 161 Draining land. Also the farmer must be somewhat of a civil engineer to drain his land where it is too wet, or to lay out his ditches so as to irrigate it if too dry. 5. THE METHODS OF WORKING A large part of the farm work of the United States is done by ma- chinery. The farmer of today must be a mechanic. 388 Hay making, Germany. Here we see the old way of making hay. When work has to be done by hand, only small fields can be cared for. METHODS OF WORKING 359 181 Hay loader, Nebraska. This is the American way. It does away with the continuous lifting. 561 Primitive plowing. This kind of plow has been in use in Egypt over 5000 years. There has been no improvement. 522 Plowing, China. And this is a fair sample of plowing in China. 488 Plowing, Russia. This plow may not last much longer, as Russia is importing great quantities of American farm machinery. These scenes show how our ancestors worked. 178, 179, 180 Tractors. This is the way the great fields of the west- ern United States are plowed and prepared for seed. 66, 67 Steel works. 178, 180 Farming. Driving the tractor in the open air and sunshine seems much pleasanter and more health- ful than the hot, dangerous iron mill. 149 Celery, 68 Coke. These pictures show out-of-doors work but cer- tainly the farmer has the best of it. 529 Cutting rice. All grain was harvested with a sickle in ancient times. It was very slow and laborious. The sCythe and cradle seemed a wonderful invention. 357 Harvesting wheat. The reaper and binder greatly lessen the work of the harvest. 199 Shocking wheat. Then the bundles must be set up to dry. 147 Loading oats. Later they must be hauled to the barns to be threshed. 284, 479, 497, 562 Primitive threshing. This way of threshing has been used by all primitive people. It must be pleasant, this lei- surely work in the open air, but it is very inefficient. 177 Threshing wheat. The modern American way is efficient. See the mountain of straw that may be made into paper, or used to bed animals or perhaps be returned to the land as a fertilizer — unforflinately, at times it is burned. 3, 4 Quarrying, 41 Factory, 156 Smelting, 177 Threshing. All these pictures show work that is hard for the lungs because of dust or vapors. The threshing has the advantage of being in the open air where the wind can blow the dust away from the workers. 218, 233 Harvesting wheat. Sometimes reaping and threshing is done by one machine. Only the heads of the grain are cut off leav- ing the straw to be plowed under. 76 Anthracite, 155 Copper mining. Who would choose to work in a mine underground, when he might be raising corn? 184 Corn field, Kansas. There is no lovelier sight than a field of wav- ing corn. This grain makes a wonderful return to the planter. 160, 136 Corn harvesting. Corn is now cut and cared for by machiti- ery making the farmer's work much lighter and the returns much greater. 47, 149 Market gardening is very profitable near large cities and very attractive work. 419 Sugar beets. Weeding done by hand is very tiresome. Vet is it more so than shopwork? 360 FARM HOME AND FARM LIFE 18, 23, 24, 86 Factory scenes. Here one must sit or stand all day in a closed room with the dust and rattle and jar of machinery and the discomfort of bad air. 198 Cultivating beets, Colorado. Fortunately, in America, the culti- vator drawn by horses makes handwork less necessary. This man seems to be enjoying his work. 44 Spraying apple orchard. Fruit raising is a most attractive kind of farm work. Along the lake shore where this picture was taken the air is filled with the scent of fruit from cherry blos- som time till apples are gathered. 85, 44, 175 Apple and peach orchards. Trees are no longer just let grow. They are now carefully attended and the perfect fruit fully repays the work. 237 Oranges. Careful cultivation such as is shown in this picture is hard work. But in such a place with such a view to rest one's eyes, we find hard work in its pleasantest form. 238 Oranges, 236 Grapes, 234 Almonds. One of the joys of farming lies in the fact that the farmer sees the finished product of his labor. 11, 12, 41 Shoe manufacture. These people who are skilled work- men do only one thing day after day. The monotony is wear- ing. 159, 165, 185, 358^ 364, 370, 371 Well bred cattle. All over the civ- ilized world men take pride in breeding fine cattle. 57, 46 Modern dairying. Can you even imagine what we should do without milk? Because the health of the whole people depends largely on the milk greatest care is taken that it may be health- ful. 127, 186, 188 United States, 301 Jamaica, 589 Australia. Some men love the wild, free life of the cattle or horse ranch with the rid- ing and open air. 173 Ames, la. 190 Idaho. Most farmers keep a iew sheep. But in the west vast flocks containing thousands roam over the land. Tending the flocks was one of man's earliest occupations. The life out in the open under the skies brings man in close har- mony with nature and with nature's God. Shepherd peoples have been notably religious peoples. It was not without reason that the Good News came first to the shepherds tending their flocks on the plains of Bethlehem. 104, 105 Rice, 112 Tobacco, 117 Cotton, 118 Peanuts. Negroes are especially adapted to the farm work in the south. Their orig- inal home was in the torrid zone and they thrive best in the warmer lands. 104, 105, 528, 527, 529 Rice farming. These five views of rice growing present vastly different conditions. 6. SOCIAL SIDE OF COUNTRY LIFE 72 D^sy pole. The country is a good place for children and pleas- ure parties. SOCIAL SIDE OF COUNTRY LIFE 361 118 Arkansas; 113 Lincoln's cabin. Very many city people think of farmers as living in homes like these and under poor condi- tions. Nothing is farther from the truth today. 45, 46, 47 New York. 56 New Jersey. 124 Texas. 165 Minnesota. 180 Nebraska. 184, 185 Kansas. 177 North Dakota. 175 Mis- souri. These and many other views show that farmers are not necessarily poor. 150, 151, 152 Automobile factories. An irjcreasing number have auto- mobiles. These carry them so quickly to and from the city that farmers may be said to have all the best advantages of city and country. 71 _ Pennsylvania. Good roads have done much to make country life easier. 166 Minnesota. The harvesting of a crop brings the country people together. 218, 233, 177 Threshing in the country is the occasion for exchange of work which unites the farmers and emphasizes community feeling. 188, 186, 127 Men on big ranches become like a large family. 210 Arizona. 198 Colorado. 236, 237 California. In irrigated districts the people live close together on small plats which are in- tensively cultivated with the most improved machinery. There is a community of interest not known in more favored sections. This often results in city improvements for the district such as the best of schools, electric lights, etc. 211 New Mexico. 199 Colorado. 224, 225 Oregon. The sparsely settled western communities have a friendliness not known in the more densely populated regions. 178, 179, 102, 103 Distance from cities causes the farmers to club to- gether in ordering goods from mail order houses. 38 Hudson Valley. Farmers in a progressive community are usually •organized into a grange for social and economical purposes. 195 Yellowstone. 201 Colorado. 207, 208 Arizona. 221 Oregon. 228, 229 Yosemite. After the crops are cared for very many farm people travel to see their country. 93, 173 The Agricultural Department, and Agricultural Colleges send out men to hold rrieetings which are very enjoyable and profitable. They promote sociability and impart the knowledge that makes improved farm conditions possible. 172, 183 Hogs. Pig clubs are likewise efficient in improving animal husbandry and at the same time through the club meetings pro- vide social opportunities. 184 Corn field, Kans. 136 Harvesting corn. Corn clubs have given young people a greater interest in agriculture. They make for improved farming conditions and afford many social occasions. Other products than corn are equally available for club work. Canning clubs also serve the double purpose of forwarding the work in Domestic Science and promoting sociability. 96 George Washington after he had been through the Revolution and had served as President said he saw no way of doing more serv- ice for his country than by improving its agriculture. Note : — Keystone Industrial Sets and Travel Tours are especially rich in visual instruction material. Thousands of scenes covering all important countries are conveniently listed. Our General Catalog containing this material will be sent free upon application. The Publishers. NATURE STUDY INTRODUCTION By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON NATURALIST AND AUTHOR, GREENWICH, CONN. FOUNDER AND CHIEF WOODCRAFT LEAGUE An ideal recreation is one which cortibines exercise of body, brain and senses with profit and interest that begets en- thusiasm which creates perseverance; one which gives va- riety, outdoor activity and in which, above all things, teachers and scholars of all ages can go together, — both of them mak- ing discoveries. Surely Nature Study is the one, perhaps the only one, that completely fits these requirements, and whether we focus our -power on animal or plant life, we find oppor- tunity for exercise and discovery that never loses its zest. For this is a well known secret : The naturalist never grows old. Because the eye gate is the main entrance for nature lore, we find our series of views of prime importance in making the acquaintance of the living things of our world. Your attitude will have muth to do with your pleasure and your progress. If, you wish to enjoy these pictures that set before you the ways of the animal world, begin by realizing that the animals and ourselves are very much alike. That they have been evolving for ages, much as we have done, only we have gone farther on the road of mind growth; our faculties are far beyond theirs, but their senses, in most cases, are much more acute than ours. The hearing of a dog or a fox is far better than that of a man, and the sense of smell of these creatures is as superior to that of man as the speed of an eagle is beyond that of a mud turtle. Man has, perhaps, better eyesight than a dog, but the birds 36:i 364 INTRODUCTION are as superior to man in this department as the dog is in smell sense. In touch sense man is well developed, better than most big animals, but is probably far inferior to such delicate things as mice and insects; the same remark applies to taste. There are yet other senses, less generally discussed, such as direction, electric sense, etc., in which the animals seem far better equipped than we; and the sum total of such observations leaves us convinced that both we and our wild brothers have struggled along in the ages of evolution, each fighting the same battle, only we had the luck to find a higher trail and with that reach a plane of higher joy and larger sorrows. This thought of kinship enlarges our sympathies, but we should not obscure the fact of man's supremacy and his right of eminent domain. We are justified in using all the animal kingdom for our lives and comfort ; but every law of profit, logic, and goodness forbids the infliction of unnecessary cruelty or destruction. What America is suffering today from the wanton destruc- tion of birds and wild life, should be a lasting warning, and solemn admonition to repair at once the damage — restore again the bird life whose loss is robbing us of our forests, or an even larger calamity shall be our inevitable and national punishment. It was recognition of the close relationship of forests and animals that led to their being grouped together as Nature Study. An utter novice has no difficulty in telling you the difference between plants and animals; a trained naturalist is not so sure. The difference between a man and an oak is very obvious, but lower down in the scale we have animals which sprout into two and we also have sensitive plants that behave like animals; so that the dividing line is much dis- cussed if it exists at all. The animal, being nearer to man has usually first claim on the interest of the young naturalist; but, strange to tell, I know of some men who began by studying birds and quad- rupeds and later drifted away to trees and plants; the reason given being : The latter are easier to study ; they do not run and hide when you wish to be with them, and they respond so much better to attempts to cultivate and propagate them. 27. PLANTS AND PLANT ASSOCIATIONS By JOHN M. COULTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR AND HEAD DEPT. OE BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Assisted by GEORGE D. FULLER, Ph.D. INSTRUCTOR IN PLANT ECOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO I. PLANT ASSOCIATIONS Plants are not scattered indiscriminately over the surface of the earth, but live together in definite communities called associations. For example, forests, meadows, swamps, are plant associations, each determined by the conditions for plant life. The factors whose combination determines what plants can live on a given area are water, temperature, soil, light, wind, etc. The most conspicuous plant association is the forest, in which trees are the dominant plants. The forest is called the climax type because in the history of every region there is a succession of plant associations, and the final association is some form of forest. A great many areas have not yet reached the forest stage. The kind of forest depends upon the region and its history. A. TROPICAL FORESTS Abundance of rain, a continuous growing season, and high tempera- ture give the richest and most luxuriant of forests. They have thin, broad evergreen leaves; the trees are often not large but of many di- verse kinds, growing crowded tog'ether with entangling vines and abundant herbaceous plants. 2SS Rich tropical forests are seen near the Panama Canal. 592 Fiji Islands. The even temperature of the south Pacific Ocean in- duces the development of rich evergreen forests. 247 Panama. The rubber tree grows in such rich forests. Ferns growing perched on the trunks of palms are often found in tropical forests. 259, 294, 570 Bananas are among the most useful trees of the tropical forests, as they supply materials for houses, baskets, and for food. Note their broad leaves. 307 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Some of the richest tropical forests in .36s 366 NATURE STUDY — PLANTS the world are in Brazil. This view is in a somewhat drier re- gion, but the trees are still evergreen. B. SEMITROPICAL FORESTS 576,577,574 When the rainfall is not quite sufficient, or some other conditions are less favorable, a less luxuriant forest develops. Palms often grow in such a forest. 575 Near Victoria Falls, Rhodesia, Africa. A moderate amount of rain in the tropics gives, only a poor, often scrubby forest. C. GLOSSY-LEAVED FORESTS In lands with hot dry summers and cold wet winters, the ever- green trees often have hard shining leaves, such as those of the olive, orange, and tea. 238 Oranges; 480, olive grove in distance; 530, tea. D. TEMPERATE EVERGEEN FORESTS 376, 377 The climate is so mild in Killarney and neighboring parts of Ireland that rnany semitropical plants grow freely, and evergreen shrubs and vines are abundant. One reason for the name " Em- erald Isle " is to be found in these evergreen forests. E. CONIFER FORESTS The cone-bearing trees form some of the most valuable forests in the world. The most important kinds are the pines, spruces, and firs. They are evergreen, holding their small needle-like leaves for several years, and are found in lands of cold winters and warm moist sum- mers. 224, 215, 216 The richest conifer forests in the world are those of the Pacific Coast. They are composed of Douglas fir, hemlock, tide water spruce, western cedar, and western larch. They produce more lumber per square mile than any other forests in the world. Mountain Forests 195, 196, 222 In the mountains of the west the most abundant forests are often those composed of spruce and fir. 221, 409, 427, 445 Many mountain sides have rich forests of pine, spruce and fir. Pine Forests 162, 221 Pine forests of the northern United States have been valuable but are being rapidly cut over. Southern Pine Forests 107 The longleaf or Georgia pine has for several years furnished the larg:est cut of pine lumber in the United States. See also Yel- low Pine Forests following. FORESTS 367 Northern Forests 1, 246 The forests of Maine, Alaska, and Canada are often largely made up of white spruce and balsam fir. Bigtree Forests 229 The mountains of California have rich forests of pine and fir en- circling the giant Sequoias or " big trees." European Pine Forests 388 Germany has carefully preserved" and cared for her pine forests. Yellow Pine Forests 191, 201, 228 On the slopes of many mountains of the United States yellow pine forms valuable but rather open forests. See also southern pine forests above. Pinon Forests 201, 206, 211 Even the semiarid slopes of the southwestern United States have scrub forests of nut, pine and junipers. Scrubby Forests 200, 201, 228 Scrub oaks often mingle with pines in a scanty forest in dry regions. Mixed Forests 162 Evergreen and deciduous trees often form mixed forests. Petrified Forests ■ 206 Trees have turned to rock in the petrified forest of Arizona. The climate has evidently changed for at present the only trees grow- ing there are scrubby junipers. Zonation of Forests 221, 228, 445 Forest zonation is shown on many mountains and high cliffs. Often the more open pine forests are at the base of the mountains and the richer spruce and fir forests above. 213 When the mountain is in an arid region the forests are limited to the higher parts, where moisture is secured from clouds. 408, 409 Sometimes only the lower parts of the mountain are covered with forests of spruce and fir. The snow remains too long upon the higher parts to allow trees to grow. Pioneer Forests 39, 51, 191 Forests often have a difficult time becoming established on rocky cliffs and hill sides. Arctic Forests 413 As the Arctic circle is approached the trees become low and stunted because of the short season, the cold and the strong winds. 368 NATURE STUDY — PLANTS F. DECIDUOUS FORESTS In the lands where there is a season too cold or too dry for trees to grow continuously, the forests shed their leaves at a certain time of the year, usually in the fall. Climax Forests 38, 70, li, 130, 169 Many rich forests of this type are found in the United States. They abound in beech, maple, oak, tulip, chest- nut and other trees. Oak Forests 361, 369, iT) Rich forests of oak, ash, and similar trees once covered much of the British Isles, and a few, bits still remain. 103, 114 Oak forests are among the most useful. Flood Plain Forests 470 The rich soil of flood plains often has forests of great luxuriance. Stream-side Forests 2, 120, 173 Along the water's edge willows and alders are common trees. Japanese Forests S2S, S27, 529 The forests of Japan are very similar to those of the eastern United States. They contain considerable pine, spruce and fir. Nevir Zealand Forests ■ 591 Those of New Zealand are rich, containing both conifers and broad-leaved trees. G. GRASSLANDS Natural grasslands are usually found in regions where the rainfall is not sufficient to produce forests. They naturally become the feeding grounds of herds of cattle, horses, and sheep. Prairies 178, 179, 180, 181 These are the richest of the grasslands and are abundantly developed in the central United States. Pastures 73, 173, 183, 301, 480, 589 Their grasses are both native and introduced. 127, 188, 190, 589 Scanty rainfall in mountainous regions makes the grasses short and scanty. Lawns and Parks n, 316, 482, 586, 587 These show by their close turf the effect of good care and constant water supply. CONIFERS — BROAD-LEAFED 369 Forest and Grassland 38 This is the usual type of landscape in the eastern United States. Farther to the west, in the prairie regions, trees are usually found only along the banks of streams as in 182. II. DEFINITELY IDENTIFIED PLANTS A. TREES — CONIFERS 162 (lower right), 26S White pine (Pinus strobus) has been the most valuable tree in North America, but few large forests of it re- main. 191 (in valley), 200, 201 (on top of ridge), 228 (in valley). Yellow pine {Pinus ponderosa) , the most valuable pine tree of the western portions of the United States. 107 Georgia pine (Pinus palustris), also called long-leaf pine. Now the mgst valuable pine in the United States, growing upon the sandy plains of the southeast and yielding lumber, resin, turpen- tine, and fiber (from needles). It is a yellow pine. 388,407,418 Scotch pine {Pinus silvestris), the most valuable pine of Europe. 427,428,449 Mountain pine (Pinus montana), common on the high mountains of Europe. 201 (on slope), 211 (on hill) Nut pine {Pinus edules), a small scrubby tree with nutlike edible fruit. 1,262 White spruce (Picea canadensis) a tree of the northern United States and Canada, valuable for lumber and for paper pulp. 246 Alaska spruce (Picea sitchensis) also known as tide water spruce, a tall tree growing along the coast from Alaska to Washington. 412 Norway spruce {Picea excelsa), one of the valuable trees of north- ern Europe. Often planted for ornament in America. 162 (one tree in center) Balsam fir {Abies balsamea), used for pulp wood. 222,228 (on higher parts) Red fir {Abies magnifica), a fine tall tree of western mountains. 191,276 Mountain Balsam fir {Abies lasiocarpa), a tall slender tree common in the higher parts of the Rocky Mountains. 216,224 Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga Douglasii), also called red fir and Oregon pine, is the most valuable and one of the largest trees on the Pacific coast. 206 Arizona juniper {Juniperus monosperma), a small scrubby tree of the arid southwest of the United States. 229 Bigtree {Sequoia gigantea), the largest and oldest tree in Amer- ica. It attains an age of 1300 years, a height of 300 feet, and a diameter of 35 feet. B. TREES — BROAD-LEAVED 249,259,551,574 Cocoanut palm {Cocos nucifera), a tree that supplies building material (stems), thatch (leaves), fiber (husk of nut) food, and drink (nuts). It is widespread in tropical lands. 370 NATURE STUDY — PLANTS SS6, S66 Date palm {Phcenix dactyliferd), a most valuable tree, fur- nishing food in many semi-desert parts of Asia and Africa. 294,297,302 Banana {Musa sapientum), a very broad-leaved tropical fruit tree. SS2, SS3 Manila hefnp (Musa textilis), a broad-leaved treq of the banana family, whose leaves and petioles yield a valuable fiber. 120, 173 Black willow {Salix nigra), a common tree along stream bor- ders. 182 Cottonwood {Populus deltoides) , grown along streams even in prairies and desert regions. 466, 489 Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra italica) , a tall tree of re- markably upright. growth, a native of Europe but much planted in America. 1, 162 Paper or Canoe birch {Betula papyrifera), a hardy tree with papery white bark. 263 shows the bark of this tree used by Indians for tent covering. 10,37,71,96 American elm {Ulmus americana). 146 White Oak {Quercus alba) in background. 537,538 Silk mulberry {Morus alba), a small tree cultivated for its leaves, which are fed to silk worms. 70 Chestnut (^Castanea dentata). It often produces shoots from the base of the trunk. 130 Sugar maple {Acer saccharum) , valuable both for wood and for the production of sugar. 379 Box tree (Buxus sempervirens), a small tree with glossy ever- green leaves. Often trimmed into ornamental shapes and used in hedg'es. 534 Flowering cherry (Prunus pseudo-cerasus) , much grown for or- namental purposes in Japan. 259 The papaw (Carica papaya), a very broad-leaved tree grown in many tropical lands for its fruit. 480,485 The olive (Olea europaea), an evergreen tree of the Mediter- ranean region. 489 The fig (Ficus carica). Three trees in foreground. 237,238,437 The orange (Citrus aurantium), a tree with glossy ever- green leaves, valuable for ornamental purposes and for its fruit. 209 The Mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) is one of the largest trees of the Arizona deserts. It belongs to the pea family. 44 The apple (Pyrus malus) is usually, seen in orchards only. 85 The peach (Prunus persica) . 234- The almond (Prunus amygdalus). 303 Cacao tree (Theobroma cacao). 302 The coffee (Coffea arabica) is a small tree with evergreen leaves. 293 Mango tree (Mangifera indica) bears one of the most 'highly prized fruits of the tropics. 530 Tea (Thea sinensis) is from a small evergreen tree. 209 Giant cactus (Cereus gtganteus), the giant of the deserts, growing to a height of 35 feet. SHRUBS— VINES — HERBS 371 C. SHRUBS 3SS European privet (Ligustrum zmlgare) much grown for hedges. 362, 379 Rhododendrons are fine evergreen shrubs with beautiful flowers. 188, 190 Sage brush (Artemisia tridentata). 209 Creosote bush {Covillea me.ricano), one of the small shrubs com- mon in the deserts of the southwestern United States. D. VINES 37 Boston Ivy (Psedera tricuspidata) , a hardy vine from Japan, much grown in Boston and the New England States. 354, 362, 376 English ivy (Hedera helix) grows abundantly upon the houses and castles of the British Isles. The " Ivy " of litera- ture. 236,319,390 Grape (Vitis vinifera), excellent as an ornamental vine as well as for its fruit. 137 Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo). 47 Cantaloupe (Cvcumts melo). 359 Gill-over-the-ground (Nepeta glechoma). E. HERBS 37, 285, 287 Century plant (Agave americana) . 91 Cannas (Canna glauca, C. annaei, and hybrids). 258,333 Sugarcane (Saccharum ofUcinarum). 136, 184 Corn (Zea mays) . 172 Rape (Brassica campestris). 297,112 Tobacco (Nicotiana iabacum). 198, 270, 419 Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris). 72,102 Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). III. CONDITIONS UNFAVORABLE FOR PLANT LIFE Although vegetation covers most of the earth's surface, there are cer- tain areas in which plants grow with difficulty. The result is a scanty vegetation made up of a few kinds of plants that are specially fitted to endure the hard conditions. The principal unfavorable conditions ap- pear in the following classification. A. TOO DRY Deserts 209, 563, 565 Where rain seldom falls only a few hardy plants survive. Semi-deserts 190,200,201,495 With scanty rainfall a scanty vegetation results. Small trees scattered widely over the soil use all the meager rainfall. 172 NATURE STUDY — PLANTS Dwarf Trees S3S The Japanese by planting trees in pots and limiting the supply of water so that life is barely maintained, produce curious dwarf trees. Individuals 12-18 inches high may be a century dtd. B. TOO WET 161 Too much water is almost as bad as too little, but drainage will improve this condition. C. TOO COLD Arctic Snows 243, 342, 34S, 346 Near the poles the continuous cold excludes all plants. Alpine Deserts 219, 276, 279, 322, 323, 440, 441, 448 Where the perpetual snow covers the mountain tops plants are absent. Arctic Forests 244, 413 The cold winds make low shrubbery forests. Ice Burden SO, 191 Snow and ice crush trees and break off branches. D. TOO MUCH INJURIOUS GAS 62, 63, 68, 187 Smelters, coke ovens, and other industrial plants often send forth great volumes of fumes and gases. These are de- structive to vegetation and wasteful as well, resulting in the loss of millions of dollars' worth of valuable chemicals that might be reclaimed by proper methods. 453, 300 Volcanoes emit great volumes of poisonous gas. City Conditions 6, 26, 27, 48, 61 The soil in the city is often too dry as the water is carried off in sewers. The houses crowd out plants, and smoke and gases destroy the foliage. E. TOO LITTLE SOIL Rock Plants 189, 208 Rocks permit few plants except mosses and lichens to flourish. A few find a foothold in cracks, and crevices and gradually form more soil. Pioneer Plants 197, 191, 51 Forests slowly conquer steep cliffs and hillsides, but the pioneers have a hard struggle. WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS 373 On Ruins 478, 281, 284 As stone houses, castles and other stone structures fall to ruins, plants find resting places in shelves and crevices. They aid in breaking up the stones, forming soil and crumbling the building to the ground. F. TOO UNSTABLE SOIL Steam Erosion 191, 197, 207, 208 As rivers cut away their banks the vegetation is de- stroyed. Plants find the crumbling soil precarious footing. Volcanic Hills 453 The ash and cinders from volcanic action make plant life difficult and uncertain. Sand Dunes 223 The wind moves the sand so readily that no plants can live. IV. WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS Probably the greatest of all dangers to plants is the lack of sufficient water. For deficiency in supply see under Conditions Unfavorable for Plant Life. The use and economy of the water supply is largely de- termined by the foliage condition of the plant. Broad thin leaves lose water rapidly. Such leaves are seen in: 160, Corn; 294, 297, 302, Bananas; 258, 333, Sugar cane; 259, Papaw; 172, Rape. Tropical evergreen forests abound in broad thin leaves using water freely. See under Tropical Forest. 237, 238, 530 In lands with hot dry summers and cool winters the leaves are often evergreen, but have glossy surfaces which prevent the -rapid loss of water. 224, 388, 591 When the winters are cold, such evergreen leaves are re- duced in size to mere needles. 249, 259, 301, 574 Palms have large leaves, but they have a hard surface which retains water well. 10, 427 In lands with cold winters, many trees conserve their water by shedding their leaves in the autumn. See also under De- ciduous Forests. 209 Desert trees often retain their leaves only' during a few weeks when moisture is most abundant. 188, 190 Sometimes, as in the case of the sage brush, the small leaves which constitute the foliage are covered with a thick coating of hairs that helps them to retain the water. 209,211,235,281 The greatest economy of water in perennial plants is seen in Cacti, with no leaves and thick juicy stems. Some will live for more than a year upon the stored water they contain. 374 NATURE STUDY — PLANTS V. LIGHT RELATION OF LEAVES From the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and the water of the soil green plants are continually making food. The energy for this manu- facture comes from the sunlight, and to obtain this sunlight many dif- ferences in leaf size and leaf arrangement show their success by the large areas of the earth's surface they cover. 294, 297, 302, Bananas; 112, 297, Tobacco; 259, Papaw; 249, 259, 301, 574, 556, Palms. Large broad leaves work well where water is abundant. 247, 255,592 Broad thin leaves seen in tropical forests work efficiently every day of the year. 237, 238, 437 Hard glossy leaves, being able to cling to the trees during the hot summers, are often very efficient. 169, 87, 70 Some trees, although only retaining their leaves during the summer, have large broad ones and so possess a good working capacity. 182, 537, 120 Some deciduous trees have smaller leaves but still thrive. 224, 229, 591 The conifers have small needle-shaped leaves, but by re- taining them for years do efficient work. 161, 173, 175, etc. The long ribbon-like leaves of the grasses cover vast areas of the earth's surface, testifying to their success. See Grasslands. 160, 258, 333 Corn and sugar cane expose great areas of green leaf surface. 181, 183, 317 Alfalfa is successful with innumerable small leaves. 571 Rosettes of leaves seen in a favorite type of arrangement. 556, 564, 566, 574 Rosettes on. the top of long stems are probably still more effective. 47 Cantaloupes. Mosaics over the ground are formed by many vines. 37, 354, 362, 376 Mosaics upon walls give climbers good leaf exposure. 224, 388, 591 Small leaves of pines and other conifers let light pass through to reach those below. 209, 211, 235, 281 Cacti have usually no leaves, the leaf work being done by the fleshy stems. VI. FOOD STORAGE The manufacture of food by. the leaves of green plants not only pro- vides for the growth of the plant itself, but there is frequently a sur- plus supply stored in some of its organs. This food takes various forms. 285, 287 Water storage occurs in thick leaves, such as those of the century plant, or in the stems of cacti (209, 211, 235, 281). 551. Water storage also occurs in cocoanuts and in juicy fruits. See Fruits. Sugfar is stored in fruits (which see) and also in the sugar maple. 130 Sugar maple; 198, 270, 419, Sugar beets; 258, 333, Sugar cane. Starch storage is most abundant in cereals and grains (which see). 166 Starch also abounds in the potato. ECONOMIC PLANTS 375 Protein storage is most abundant in nuts, such as: Peanut, 118; Al- mond, 234; also in beans, 562. Oil abounds in: 480, 495, Olive; 118, Peanut; 303, Cocoanut. Drugs and flavors are stored in: 112, 297, Tobacco; 530, Tea; 302, Coilee; 303, Chocolate; 259, Papaw (pepsin) ; 108, Pineapple (pepsin). VII. ECONOMIC PLANTS See classifications on Production and Manufacturing, and Farm Crops, Horticulture and Textiles and Clothing. VIII. PLANTS FOR ORNAMENT For classication dealing with plants for ornament see Horticulture. Note : — A more complete series on economic botany may be secured by consulting the extensive list of industrial sets con- tained in the company's General Catalog. This catalog will be sent free of cost on request. The Publishers. 28. ANIMALS By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON NATURALIST AND AUTHOR, GREENWICH, CONN. FOUNDER AND. CHIEF WOODCRAFT LEAGUE I. HORSES We do not know whether the horse was first used as a saddle beast or as a draft animal ; but probably it served as a pack animal before it was either of the others. The pack of camp stuff was naturally fol- lowed by the human rider, and later some rude kind of drag was in- vented. Just as the travois of our Indians was evolved from the tepee poles being hauled from camp to camp. But men must have had roads before they had wheel vehicles, and that was a long time later. In the most primitive form of agriculture the donkey and the ox are found in service, but one is too small and the other too slow for the best results. It is a remarkable fact that agriculture cannot flourish without the horse. (A) DRAFT AND FARM HORSES It is difficult to believe that the magnificent elephantine draft horses are from the same stock as the Shetland pony; but it is generally con- ceded that such is the case, and it illustrates what can be done by se- lective breeding. 138 A champion team of Percheron draft horses. 398 Belgian draft horses, world champion in foreground. 71 A fine 6-horse Percheron team. 218 A 20-horse team on combined reaper and thresher. 166 Three fine 4-horse teams on Minnesota farm. 147 A good road and farm team. 149 A good truck farm team. 136 Percheron horses excellent for heavy work. 180 Horses still necessary on modern farm. 42 Percheron draft horses. 198 A good farm team, Colorado. 162 Hauling logs, Minnesota Pineries. 181 Horses hauling hay, Nebraska. 177 Horses hauling grain to thresher, North Dakota. 226 Teams used to haul in salmon nets. 357 Harvesting wheat, England. 488 Russian peasant plowing. 497 Horses treading out grain, Palestine. 377 378 NATURE STUDY — ANIMALS 537 Horse as pack animal in Japan. 167 Draft horses, Minneapolis; 273 Winnipeg; 424 Paris; 454 Naples; 406 Copenhagen; 420 Gothenburg; 484 Nizhni Novgorod. (•B) ROAD AND CARRIAGE HORSES 195 Stage teams, Yellowstone National Park. 221 Typical stagecoach horses on way, to Mt. Hood. 229 Hauling sight-seers in Yosemite Valley. 201 Taking sight-seers through Garden of Gods, Colorado. 209 Light driving horse, Arizona. 312 Carriage horses, Montevideo, Uruguay. 320 Two wheeled gig, Argentina, South America. 39 Hansom, best type of two wheeled gig, London. 383 Cab drivers, Berlin, Germany. (C) SADDLE HORSES The proudest place of all for the horse is as a saddle beast. Fashions may change, breeds may come and go, or other means of traction win a place ; but the saddle horse is always in fashion. The best saddle horses are of Arabian blood and there is some reason for believing that these are of a different wild stock from the heavy draft horse. The readiness of man to accept the horse is shown in the history of our own Indians. Two hundred years ago they had no horses, and within fifty years of getting them, they so gloried in their steeds that they pretended the horse had always been among them and was