(Qarnell Hmnecaiti) ffiibrarg CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLFAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 Cornell University Library GN 310.P59 The races of man, and their geographical 3 1924 023 244 993 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023244993 THE RACES OF MAN; Ci^tir @cograpI)icaI iitigtributton. By CHARLES PICKERING, M.D., MEMBEK OF THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION. NEW EDITION. TO WHIGH IS PREFIXED, AN ANALYTICAL SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. By JOHN CHARLES HALL, M.D., Fellow of the Boyal College of FhyBicians, Edinburgh ; Author of " Facta connected with the Animal Kingdom and Unity of Our Species." LONDON : H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVBNT GARDEN. MDCCCL. LONDON : DRADBURl AND SVANS.TUITITBRB, WHITBFBIARS, CONTENTS. PAGE An Analytical Synopsis of the Natural History of Man. By J. C. Hall, M.D vii CHAPTER I. Enumeration of the Races 1 CHAPTER II. Explanation of the Map . i CHAPTER III. The Mongolian Race — ^BrazU — ^Patagonia — The Antarctic or Magel- lanic Watermen — Chili — Peru — The Northwestern or Aleutian Watermen — Interior Oregon — Southwestern Oregon — Mexico — Yucatan — Northeast America — The Chinese — Other Mongolians . . 6 CHAPTER IV. The Malayan Race — Polynesians of the Coral Islands — Of Taheiti — Of Samoa — Of New Zealand — Of Tongataboo — Of the Ha- waiian Islands — Other Polynesians — Californians — Mexico and the West Indies — -Micronesians — Japanese — The East Indies — The Indo-Chinese Countries — Madagascar — Other Malayans . 44 CHAPTER V. The Australian Race 139 iV ■ CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. ' PAGE The Papuan Eace — The Feejeaus— Other Papuans . . • 146 CHAPTER VII. The Kegrillo Race— The New Hebrides— The Nitendi Group— The Solomon Islands — New Guinea — Luzon — Sooloo — Other Negrilloes 175 CHAPTER VIII. The Telingan or Indian Race— Eastern Hindostan — Western Hin- dostan — ^Madagascar 180 CHAPTER IX. The Negro Eace — Colonial Negroes — Eastern Africa — South Africa — ^Western A&ioa — Central Africa 187 CHAPTER. X. The Ethiopian Race — Barabra, or Nubians — Somali — Denkali — ' Qalla^-M'Kuafi — Mussai — Other Ethiopians . . . .210 CHAPTER XI. The Hottentot Race ... 226 CHAPTER XII. The Abyssinian Eace .228 CHAPTER XIII. The White, or Arabian Race — European Colonists — Hebrews — Armenians— Assyrians— Moguls-Afghans— Sikhs— ParBees— The Arab Countries — Europe 231 CHAPTER XIV. Association of the Races — Their Numerical Proportions . . 281 CONTENTS. V CHAPTER XV. PACE Relations between the Races 286 CHAPTER XVI. . The Gteographioal Progress of Knowledge 290 CHAPTER XVII. Migrations by Sea 295 CHAPTER SVIII. Migrations by Land 302 CHAPTER XIX. The Origin of Agriculture 308 CHAPTER XX. Zoological Deductions 311 CHAPTER XXI. The Introduced Animals and Plants of America .... 317 CHAPTER XXII. The Introduced Animals and Plants of the Islands of the Pacific . 322 CHAPTER XXIII. The Introduced Animals and Plants of Equatorial Africa . . 345 CHAPTER XXIV. The Introduced Animals and Plants of Southern Arabia . . 350 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXV. The Antiquities, and the Introduced Animals and Plants of Hindostan — The Budhist Caves — The Braminical Caves — Domestic Animals and Plants of Ancient India — Introduced Plants of Modem India 363 CHAPTER XXVI. The Introduced Animals and Plants of Egypt, enumerated in chronological order 368 LIST OP ILLUSTEATIONS. PAGE MAP, coloured to represent the Geographical Distribution of the Eaces of Man i A Man op the Kalaputa Tribe. From a drawing, taken in Oregon, by A. T. Agate 6 A Kalapuya Lad. From a drawing, taken in Oregon, by A. T. AGATE .32 David Malo. From a drawing, taken at the Hawaiian Islands, by A. T. Agate 44 Maleka. From a drawing, taken at the Hawaiian Islands, by A. T. Agate ... .... 46 Wellilnga, a native of the Interior of Australia. From a drawing, taken by A. T. Agate .... . . 139 Ko-m'beti. From a drawing, taken at the Feejee Islands, by A. T. Agate .146 A Feejee Giel. From a drawing, by A. T. Agate . . . . 151 An Aeamanga Lad. From a drawing, taken at Tongataboo, by J. Drayton . 175 loLO-Ki, 41 native of Western Africa ; who was brought from Mina to Rio Janeiro. From a drawing, by A. T. Agate . . 187 A BiSHARBE Woman. From a drawing, taken at the Third Cataract of the Nile, by E. Prisse . ... 210 A BosjESMAN Hottentot Lad. From a daguerreotype . . . 226 An Abyssinian. From a drawing, taken in Egypt, by E. Peisse 228 AN ANALYTICAL SYNOPSIS NATURAL HISTOEY OF MAN. QNE of the objects proposed by Dr. Pickering, a distin- gtiished member of the scientiiic corps attached to the TJmted States Exploring Expedition, was aa inquiry iato the varieties of the hxunan family ; aad he thought it highly important that the geographical boundaries of those races should be correctly defined, a pouit of considerable interest and affording no small assistance to the whole study of Ethnology. The results of his labours are given in an elaborate and very interesting quarto volume, the seventh of the series published under the superintendence of the Grovemment of the TJnited States. "When the work appeared last year, it attracted no small degree of attention in the scientific circles, accompanied at the same time with a feeling of regret, that the very high price (three guineas) at which it was published woiQd altogether close it to thousands, who otherwise had most gladly availed themselves of the very interesting and valuable information it contains. This difficulty, the enterprise of a British publisher has removed ; and the whole work, as it appeared in the American edition, together with its accurate and useful engravings, illustrative of the races of man, is now to be obtained for a few shiUings. In presenting this valuable work to the public in its present form, it has been thought desirable to give, both to the general reader, and also to students in our schools and universities, an epitomised description of the most generally received opinions with regard to the Physical History of viii AN APTALTTICAIi SYNOPSIS OP THE Mankind. With this view these introductory pages have been -written. CONTENTS. Pabt I. — Outline of the opinions maintained respecting the Eaces ol Man. — ^Do the Sacred Scriptures relate to the Adamio race only, or was Eve the mother of all living ? — Distinctive marks by which man is sepa- rated from every other animal — The erect attitude peculiarto all the races of man. — Structure of the foot, heel, pelvis, hands, skull, &e.— Monkeys not adapted for the erect position. — ^Relative proportion of the cranium to the face. — ^Examination of the skeleton of the Chimpanzee and Orang-Outang. — Opinions of Professor Owen and M. G. St. Hilaire. — The brain of man contrasted with the brain of apes. — Situation of the occi- pital foramen. — Peculiarities of the Negro skull; conclusions of Dr. Prichard. — Professor Tiedeman's investigations with regard to the brain of the African nations. — ^Wormian or triquetral bones. — Camper's error in the measurement of the facial angle. — ^Average weight of the brain ; weight of the brains of remarkable individuals ; weight of the skull.-— Language the miracle of human nature. — ^Language peculiar to man. — Man distinguished from every other animal. Pabx II. — Are the Ethiopian and Caucasian distinct species ? — Classi- fication of LlNN^US, BuiTON, BlTJMENBACH, CnVLBR, Lawbenoe, Mobton, Peiohaed, P10KEBIN8, Db. Caepbnteb, and others The Cameasiam, Mongolian^ Ethiopicm, Malayam, and Americcm varieties. — Table show- ing Dr. Pickering's division of the human family, from the colour of the hair and skin. — Terms, germs, species, and variety, explained. — ^Do aU the races of man' belong to the same species ?^Objections stated.— Recent objection of the celebrated Professor Agassiz. — Proofe of the unity of our species. — The proofe derived from Scripture History. — Chronological table of the sons of Noah, and their descendants. — Meaning of the Hebrew word Cush. — Examination of Egyptian Skulls, Mummies, and Monuments.— Opinion of Mr. Birdi, Mr. Gliddon, De Sola, Lindeuthal, Rosenmiiller, Prichard, Kitto, Plutarch, Herodotus, St. Jerome, Diodorus, Ptolemy, and others. — ^Ansdogy between ' the predictions of Noah and the state of those nations supposed to have arisen from his sons. Examination of the colour of the skm, and the texture of the hair of the Negro; cause.— Dr. Pickeriag's account of two Albinos.— The MelamcjXmtJims, and Lemous varieties of man.— Peculiarities observed in the skuU, pelvis, and other parts of the skeleton.- Varieties of the human skuU.— Curious instance of deterioration in form of the skull in some tribes of the native Irish.- There is no physical pecu- liarity in any of the races of man on which vaUd speciBc distinctions can be based.— How varieties may have arisen.— Infertility of Hybrids.— Unity of language.— Remarks by Bopp, Prichard, C. C. Bunsen and Sohlegel.— Opinion of Adelung, Lawrence, Cuvier, Blumenbaoh, Buffon and Prichard in favour of the unity of our species.— E^sum^ ' NAXTTUAIi HISTOET OF MAN. Jx The ptysical peculiarities and geographical distribution of the human family furnish one of the most interesting pro- blems in history ; and it is not a little singular, that, up to a ■ very recent period, this subject should haye been so totally neglected. The oldest records seldom speak of an unin- habited country, — ^the extremes of heat and cold, and the intervention of seas and chains of mountains, appear to have presented but trifling obstacles to the peopling of this world. The researches of modem navigators have proved that the human race is spread nearly over the whole earth : it has been found in the inidst of the most sultry regions, in the vicinity of the pole, and upon islands apparently separated by the ocean, from all intercourse with the rest of the earth. The islands of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, to the north, the Sandwich Isles, and the Isles of Falkland and Kerguelen's-land, to the south, appeared the only countries of considerable extent which were destitute of human inha- bitants. Under circumstances so infinitely varied, the con- dition of man would stiU appear to result from choice, rather than necessity: the Esquimaux, surrounded by an atmo- sphere so cold that mercury becomes frozen, is perfectly content to remain in his snowy desert, and would piae, and in aU probability perish, if removed to what we consider a more genial climate ; on the other hand, the Ai'BiCAif — ^the native of torrid regions and burning sands^-considers his abode an earthly paradise. Thus, in one part of the world, the human body sustains a heat higher than that at which aether boUs,* and in another, is exposed to a cold which occasions the congelation of mercury, t It would also appear, that from very remote ages, certain physical and moral peculiarities have existed amongst the people of every extended locality, of a sufficiently striking character, to dis- tinguish them from the inhabitants of the other quarters of the globe. The skin and hair of the Negeo are now the same as they were three thousand years ago : the Aeabians remain to this day what they were in the days of the patri- archs ; the Hiifnoo is now what the earliest writers described him ; and Dr. Morton points out that the charac- * ^thcr boils at a temperature of 98° Fahrenheit. + Mercury becomes congealed when the thermometer falls 40° below Zero. b i AN AUTAITTICAX STlfOPSIS Or THE teristic features of the Jews may be recognised m tTie scidptiire of the temples of Luxor and Kamac in 3ig3Tt, where they have been depicted for nearly thirty centuries. Thus, amid the constant change and succession of indi- viduals, we can trace to the earliest ages the form a,nd character &st impressed by the Creator, uninterruptedly transmitted from parent to offspring: "one generation passeth away," but another cometh, like in form, structure, habits, and the limits of its existence ; and man, howeyer he may become modified by education, however exalted his condition of mental and moral refinement, is yet, born the same helpless, dependent being, with the same dormant faculties of mind and body, as the first offspring of our original parents. This wonderful identity of physical formation, continued and preserved through countless generations, and that, too, under circumstances the most dissimilar, has given rise to many ridiculous theories respecting the first origin of the human family. The more generally received opinion is the one drawn from the Boot of Genesis, by which we are taught that Eve was the mother of all living, and that the eleven races, or varieties of man, described by Dr. Pickering, however they may appear to differ from each other iu their physical conformation, constitute, nevertheless, one genus and one species. It has been contended by distinguished naturalists that not only is proof wanting of the derivation of mankind from Eve, but that probability is opposed to it ; others detect an absolute difference of species in the beings placed upon the earth by the Almighty. Another class speak of separate acts of creation, by which certain of the more prominent nations had their individual origin in different parts of the earth ; and these mingling, afterwards, gave rise to those subordinate varieties hereafter to be described. Another class startle by putting aside the notion of the immutability of species, and boldly conjecturing that inferior organisations, either fortuitously, or by necessity, or by the operation of latent laws of nature, have by degrees become developed into the human form, and that hence have been created those wonderful diversities which have puzzled our ideas of unity, and defied alike the speculations of the NATUEAl HI3T0ET OP MAN. philosopher and the naturalist. It, therefore, becomes a very interesting matter to decide whether there be evidence of such a permanent character in the physical characteristics of the different races of men as would furnish to a zoologist materials for dividing them into distinct species. This question evidently admits of being considered in a great variety of ways. A very numerous class of readers think the matter set at rest by the decided authority of Scripture, and that any further investigation of the subject is altogether unnecessary. But, unhappily, we have not only to deal with those who altogether set at nought the autho- rity of the Bible, but with a very large number who, while they profess the utmost reverence and veneration for the Scriptures, tell us " that the inhabitants of certain regions, Negroes and Hottentots for example, are not members of the Abamic family ; that they are not men possessed of mental faculties of a similar kind to our own; that an impassable barrier exists between the hlack mem and the white mem, and that the lot of the former is perpetuai slavery to the end of time." Thus, it wiU be evident that amongst professing Christians the widest extremes of opinion may be found, even whilst it is equally admitted that " Grod hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on the face of the earth." Some include under the title of "men" all the individuals classed by the naturalist in the genus homo : others say " this genus includes many species ;" that a regular gradation exists between the highest and most intellectual of the ra«es of men, and the Esquimaux, Hottentot, and Australian. ; and that the Negro forms in truth the connecting link between man and the brute cre- ation, — an opinion which those best capable of investigating the subject have shown to be altogether opposed to facts ; and it is deeply to be lamented that men, altogether igno- rant of the anatomical structure of the human body, should have brought forward this supposed approximation of our Afcican brethren to the Simise ; that men who have " laughed and wondered if a Negro's soul could feel," should thus have likened him to a brute, and endeavoured to sink him* below the level of the human species, for the purpose of degrading him, thereby to palliate the cruel hardships he still suffers in lands over which the black plague-cloud of slavery even yet ^2 Xu AN AlfALTTICAI SYNOPSIS OF THE is permitted to remaia. The points of difference, as will he seen in the course of this investigation, between the European and the ISTegro, do not at all affect those importaut characters which separate man in general from the animal world ; the erect attitude, the two hands, the slow and ffradual development of the lody, the use of rectson, and consequent perfectibility, are attributes common to ioth and peculiar to man; the moral rights of men depend upon their moral nature, and so long as it can be demonstrated that the Negroes have the heart and consciences of human beings, it can never be right or just to treat them as the beasts of the field, even had Voltaire abundantly proved that the African races of man are but an improved kind of monkey, and himself a degenerate species of God. " I do not hesitate," says Mr. Lawrence,* " to assert that the notion of specific identity between the African and the Orang-outang is as false philosophically as the moral and political consequences to which it would lead are shocking and detestable. The human species has numerous distinctive marks by which under every circirmstance of deficient or imperfect civilisa- tion, and every variety of country and race, it is separated by a broad and clearly defined interval from all other animals, even of those species which from their general resemblaaice to us have been caEed anthropo-morphous." These distinctive features maybe thus briefly pointed out: There would appear to be four distinct major groups of Primates t:— the CatarrUni, consisting of the Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons of the eastern hemisphere ; the :Platyrrhvm, composed of the anthropoid animals of America • iheStrepsirrhini, or Lemurs (including Galsopithecus, and,' perhaps, Cheu-omys) ; and the Cheiroptera, or bats which last vary very essentiaUy in their dentition according as they are frugivorous, sanguivorous, or insectivorous. The chief characters which establish essential differences amongst the mammaUa, arise from the structure of the organs of touch^and manducation. On the formation of the first depends the ability and address of the animal; the second Lectm-es on the Natural History of Man, p. 87 (Bohn's edition). + Lmn«,us reduced all Mammalians to three groups. hTs order- Pa.MATEs, as extended to the Bimana, Quadrumana, Ini M-J^TZf Cuvier,-receives the approhation of the majority of Naturalists ^ NATTTHAl HISTOBX OP MAK. xiii decides the nature of its food ; and the two combined determine many things not only connected with the digestive functions, but also numerous other remarkable distinctions, extending even to their intelligence. I. The erect attitude is suited to the human orga/tdsation. — The foot of man is very different to that of apes; it is large, and the leg bears vertically upon it ; the heel is ex- panded beneath ; the toes are short, and but slightly flexible ; the great toe is longer and larger than the rest, and being placed on the same line with the others, cannot be opposed to them. The foot therefore, in. itself exhibits proof of having been constructed for the support of the body only, and not for climbing, or seizing food ; and as the hands are unfitted for wallting, Man may be said to be the only animal truly himanous and biped. That the erect attitude and biped progression is peculiar to man, the structure of the lower Umbs which support his trunk, and of the muscles which move it, sufficiently exhibits. His feet, as above shown, supply a larger base for support than those of other mammalians ; and the disproportionate length of the upper and lower limbs clearly points out the office each was intended to fulfil. This is not the case vdth the Monkey tribes ; and such a disproportion proves that they were not intended to walk erect. In examiniag the bones of the hands and feet in man, the bones of the latter are found to become perfect at a much earlier period than the former ; because in early infancy the hand is compara- tively of little use, but the feet, in ten or, twelve months after birth, are called upon to sustain the weight of the body. The legs are so connected with the trunk as to admit of wider separation than in any other animal ; and, from the peculiar formation of the pelvis, and the obliquity of the neck of the thigh-bone, that pyramidal form, so favourable to a just eqxuhbrium, is attained. In man, the whole tarsus, metatarsus, and toes rest on the ground ; the JSimits and the £ear have the end of the os calcis raised from the surface ; while, on the contrary, it projects in man, and its prominent portion has a most important share in supporting the back of the foot. In fact, no piece of mechanism can be more perfect : the size of the os calcis, and its posterior protube- rance, in which the muscles of the calf are inserted, prove it xir Au- AifAXTTiCAi s"oropsis or the an infaUible characteristic of man. In the Orang-outang the thigh-bone is straight, and its two condyles of equal lf^g*fi = in man, the thigh is placed in the same Une with the t™^. ! in animals, it always forms an angle with the spine, and this often an acute one. The unsteadiness of the erect attitude, and the difficulty of maintaining an equilibrium under such an arrangement, must be too clear to require additional illustration. _ . There are one or two peculiarities connected with the formation of the human pelvis so important, that a few words may be devoted to explaining them to the non-professional reader, the more so because, from this peculiar arrangement in the human skeleton, the connexion of the sacrum and coccyx with the ossa innominata forms a cavity resembling a basin, and by which alone man might easUy be distinguished not only from the anthropo-morphous simise, but from all other mammalia. The whole structure of the thorax proves man to be a biped ; and from the erect attitude of man arises another very distinguishing prerogative, viz., the most free use of his two very perfect hands. Several genera of the mammalia possess hands ; but they are much less complete, and conse- quently less useftd., than the hand of man, which well deserves the name given to it, by the Stagyrite, of " the organ of organs." The great superiority of that most perfect instru- ment, the human hand, arises from the size and strength of the thumb, which can be brought into a state of apposition to the jSngers, and is hence of the greatest use in enabling us to grasp spherical bodies, and to take up any object in the hand ; in giving a firm hold on whatever we seize ; in executing all the mechanical processes of the arts ; in short, in a thou- sand offices which occur every moment of our lives, and which either could not be accomplished at alL if the thumb were absent, or would require the assistance of both hands, instead of being done by one only. All the SimicB possess hands ; but the thumb, the distinguishing characteristic, is slender, short, and weak, and to be regarded, even in the most perfect, to use the language of Eustachius, as a " ridi- culous imitation of the human structure," omnino ridicu- 1ms! Monkeys are four-handed, being neither bipeds nor quadrupeds. NiLTTTBAX HISTOET Or MAN. XT That man was designed to walk erect — " Pronaque cum speotent animalia cajtera terrain, Os Iiomini sublime dedit ; caelumque tueri Jussit, et ereotos ad sidera toUere vultus." — hardly appears to require illustration ; because man could not, even it' he desired it, walk upon all fours : his short and nearly inflexible foot and his long thigh would bring the knee to the ground ; his widely-separated shoulders, and his arms too far extended from the median hue, could ill support the fore part of his body ; the great indented muscle which, in quadrupeds, suspends the trunk between the blade-bones, is smaller in man than in any one amongst them ; the head is heavier, on account of the magnitude of the brain, and yet the means of supporting it are weaker ; for he has neither a cervical ligament, nor such a modification of the vertebrae as to prevent their flexure forward ; the head could, therefore, only be maintained in the same line with the spine ; and from the position of his eyes, which must then be directed to the ground, he could not see before him : these organs are quite perfect if he walk erect, and admirably adapted for that position. II. MxmTceys are not adapted for the erect position. — ^IVom. the perfect mechanism of the (human foot, and the concavity of the sole, space and protection are afforded to its muscles, nerves, and blood-vessels, and an additional safeguard is sup- plied by a layer of granular fat and a thick integument. If we examine the foot of the most perfect monkey, it is found to resemble a hand : it rests upon the outer edge, the heel does not approach the earth, and the tarsus is contracted. An examination of the various muscles is also conclusive on this point ; and Aristotle has truly said, that " the calves of the legs can only be ascribed to the human race." K the skeleton of an ape be compared with that of a man, the latter wiU be seen well fitted to move onward in the manner peculiar to our species ; whilst the former evinces that the erect position is not natural to them, but artificial, and can never be anything but unsteady, painful, and irksome. Nor win it be necessary to state, that when monkeys are seen walking in an upright position, the circumstance is to be traced to discipline and instruction, and the first glance XVI XS AJifALTTICAI. SXtfOPSIS Or THE convinces the mind tliat sucli a gait is -unnatural : the narrow- ness of the pelvis, the angle of the thigh in connexion with the trunk, thfe want of muscles to form calves, and the structure of the foot, prove such a position to be imsuitable. No proof has ever been adduced of an ape, or any animal, save man, supporting his body upon one foot only. Monkeys cannot do this : " They go," says Daubenton, " almost erect on the feet, hut the legs and thighs are bent, and sometimes the fore-paw touches the groimd to support the reeling body ;" they are -unsteady, if any attempt is made to stoop in the upright position ; the heel only rests upon the ground, the sole of the foot beiag raised; and they can remain but a short time iu this position, which is altogether unnatural. Such are some of the leading features of difference between man and those animals which most nearly resemble him, so far as the -trunk and extremities are concerned : those which belong to the skull, and the braia contained within it, -wiU not be found less remarkable. One of the most striking differences between man and aU. other animals consists in the relative proportions of the cranium and face. The organs which occupy the greater portion of the face are those of -vision, smeUing, and tasting, and the instruments for mastication and deglutition. In proportion as these are more developed, the size of the face, compared with that of the skuU, is increased. No quadruped approaches man in the magnitude and convolutions of the hemispheres of the brain ; that is to say, of that part of this organ which is the principal instrument of the intellectual operations : the posterior portion of the same organ extends backwards, so as to form a second covering to the cerebellum- even the form of the cranium announces this great size of the brain, as the smaUness of the face shows how slightly that portion of the nervous system which influences the external senses predominates in him.* "The human and brute face,'; says Mr. Lawrence,t "are not more strongly contrasted m size, and in their relation to the cranium than m general configuration, in the construction of individual parts,and the motions and uses to which theyare subservient " In the latter, the face is an instrument adapted to procure * Cuvier's Animal Kingdom. Introduction, p. 47. t Lectures on the Natural History of Man, p. 118. IfATTJEAL HISTOET OF MAN. XVll and prepare food, aad often a weapon of offence and defence ; the former is an organ of expression, — an outward index of what is passing in the busy mind within. Elongated and narrow jaws, sharp cutting teeth, or strong, pointed, and formidable fangs, make up the face of the animal ; the chin, Hps, cheeks, eye-brows, and forehead, are either removed, or reduced to a size and form simply necessary for animal purposes ; the nose is confounded with the upper jaw and lip ; or, if more developed, is stiU. applied to offices connected with the procuring of food; we have a muzzle, or snout, rather than a face. In man, even in. the AustraUan (Plate V.), the Negrillo (Plate VIII.), or the poor Bosjesmcm lad (Plate XI.), the animal organs, the jaws and teeth, are reduced in size, and covered from view ; hence, in compa- rison with other animals, the mouth is extremely small, and neither used, or capable of use, in directly taking or seizing the aliment. The chin, hps, cheeks, bridge of the nose, eye-lids and eye-brows, as Mr. Lawrence has so clearly pointed out, receive a play of action, which is seen in no other animal. The constant motions of this finely formed countenance correspond with the inward workings and emotions, and are a most important medium of influence and communication with our fellow-creatures — ^inviting and attracting them by its expansion, in love, friendship, affec- tion, and benevolent feelings ; warning and repelling, by its fearful contraction, in indignation, scorn, malice, and hatred. " When to the human fece we add the ample and capacious forehead, the organisation of the intellectual and moral being is perfect ; the contrast with all others even of the man-like class pointed and complete ; how admirably do the positions of the face in the erect attitude of man and the prone posture of brutes correspond to these striking differences in construction!"* Camper assigned the want of the intermaxilLary bone as one of the grand characteristics which distinguish the human head from that of every other animal. Since this bone is found where there are no incisor teeth, as in the homed ruminants, in the elephant and the two-homed rhinoceros of Africa ; and also where there are no teeth, as in some of the * Lectures on the Natural History of Man, p. 119. xviii AS AlfAIiTTIOAI, STNOPSIS OP THE whale kind and in tlie ant-eater ; Blumenbach has descnbed it as the " OS mtermamllwre:" * of the existence oi this bone in the fetus we shall hereafter speak. The Chimpanzee and the Orcmg are the only members ot the monkey family who make any considerable approach to the human form. These anthropoid apes have been classed by Mr. E. Owen and M. Geofiroy St. HUairet in two sub- genera, termed Troglodytes and Pithecus. We are under no small obligation to Mr. Owen for the important light his investigations have thrown on the anatomy of these creatures, in comparison with man and with each other. It now appears that Tyson, Camper, Vicq D'Azyr,^ and the earlier anatomists who have written on the structure of the Simise, have formed all their conclusions upon an examination of young orangs ; and hence their remarks on the facial angle, teeth, and relative proportions of the cranium and the face^ are quite erroneous when applied to the adult animal, and have led, as this distinguished naturalist has very clearly proved, to an opinion that the transition of mankind to the Simiae is much more gradual than it really is.§ Thus, in the human foetus what appears to be a separate maxillary bone may be traced, in common with the monkey and other inferior animals. The ground for this opinion is the existence in the foetus and chUd of a small transverse fissure in the palate, behiud the alveoli of the incisors, but presenting this very obvious and important difference, that in the human subject no vestige of a suture can ever be traced between the alveoli, much less on the upper and anterior surface of the jaw. The braiu of the ape attains its fullest size at a very early period, not being destined, like the brain of man, for further development ; and, therefore, when the jaws become enlarged and lengthened, with the increase of the maxillary apparatus, and the zygomatic arch is extended, without any correspond- ing downward growth, and development of the brain, or extension of the cavity in which it is placed, a material change * De Generis Humani Tarietate Natwa, pp. 3S-6. + Annales du Musdum, torn. xix. J Memoires de I'Acad. des Sciences de Paris, 1780. § On the Osteology of the Chimpanzee and Orang. By B. Owen Esq F.R.S. Zoolog. Trans, vol. i. p. 343. NATXTEAIi HISTOET OE MAS. takes place in the proportions of the cranimn to the jaws. "When the cranial portion of the head preponderates over the facial and maxillary part, it approximates proportionally to the human form ; the facial angle is -wide, the occipital fora- men more in the centre, and the zygomatic arches, when the basis of the skull is examined, appear confined to the ante- rior half of the cranium. It has been proved by Mr. Owen, and by Dr. Prichard,* that when the skulls of adult apes are compared with those of man, the most strongly marked and important features distinguish the quadrumanous type from that of the human skull. The cranium, a small rotmded case, is posterior to, and not above, the face ; the antero-posterior diameter of the basis of the skuU is much longer than in man ; but the situ- ation of the zygomatic arch, in the plane of the base of the skull, presents the difference in the most striking manner. In all the races of men, and even in Jiwnan idiots, the entire zygoma is included in the anterior half of the basis of the shull : in the head of the adult chimpanzee and also in the orang, the zygoma is placed in the middle region of the skull, and in the basis occupies just one-third part of the entire length of its diameter. The situation of the great occipital foramen furnishes yet another most distinguishing feature. In the human head it is very near the middle of the basis of the skull, or, rather, speaking anatomically, it is situated immediately behind the middle transverse diameter ; while in the full-grown chimpanzee it occupies the middle of the posterior third part of the base of the skull. The principal peculiarities in the general form of the more strongly-marked Negro skull may be referred to the two characters of lateral compression, or narrowing of the entire cranium, and the greater projection forwards of the jaws. The head is proportionally narrower, and the upper jaw is more protruded than in the ordinary form of other races. Some anatomists have fancied they have discovered certain pouits of relation between the skulls of Negroes and those of monkeys. Now, as the Negro skull is the narrowest and most elongated of human skulls, and as the crania of apes * Physical Histoiy of Mankind, vol. i. Third Edition, pp. 286-8. XX AN AKAlTTICAl STWOPSIS OF THE and all other animals of the monkey tribe are much longer and narrower than those of men, it could hardly be supposed but that some points of resemblance should exist between the ape and the African. These analogies are of much less weight than they are supposed to be ; the differences between the heads of Simiae and those of men have been already described. Dr. Prichard says, he has " carefully examined the situ- ation of the foramen magnum in many Wegro skulls. In all of them the position may be accurately described as being exactly behind the transverse line bisecting the antero-poste- rior diameter of the basis cranii." This is precisely the place which Professor Owen has pointed out as the general position of the occipital foramen in the human skuU. In those Negro skulls which have the alveolar process very protuberant, the anterior half of the line above described is lengthened in a slight degree by this circumstance. If allowance be made for it, no difference is perceptible. " The difference," says Dr. Prichard, " is in aU instances extremely slight, and it ia equally perceptible in heads belonging to other races of men if we examine crania which have prominent upper jaws. If a line is let fall from the summit of the head at right angles with the plane of the basis, the occipital foramen vriU be found situated immediately behind it, and this is precisely the same in Negro and in European heads." The projection of the muzzle, or, more correctly to speak, of the alveolar process of the upper jaw-bone, gives to the Negro skuU its peculiar deformity, and to the face its ugly, monkey- looking aspect ; and to the same circumstance, the differ- ence, noticed by Camper, in the facial angle, between the head of the European and the head of the Negro, may be attributed. In the Negro, the external organ of hearing is also wide and spacious, and, as it appears, proportionately greater than m_ Europeans. The mastoid processes, represented in the chimpanzee by a protuberant ridge behind the auditory fora- men and which Soemmering remarks can scarcely be disco- vered m apes, are as fully formed in the Negro as in our own race. In the Negro, the sti/loid process of the temporal bone IS fuUy and strongly marked; in the chimpanzee, orang- outang, and aE apes, it is entirely wanting. "Wormian or IfATTTEAI, HISTOET OF MAN. Xxl triquetral bones have been thougbt to be rare in the skuUs of Africans, and Blumenbach even doubted their existence ia the crania of any of the African races.* There is an Austra- lian skull in the museum of Guy's Hospital, in. which there are some of considerable size, and Dr. Prichard describes f a Negro's skull in his possession, having Wormian bones. He also justly remarks that the features of the Negro races are by no means vddely diffused in so strongly-marked a degree as some descriptions might lead us to suspect. The Negroes of Mozambique have a considerable elevation of forehead, and an examiaation of several crania in the museum of Gruy's Hospital, of the Negroes of this locality, wiE show that they display a less protuberance of jaw. The facial angle contains, according to Professor Camper's tables, 80° in the heads of Europeans ; in some skulls it is much less, and in Negroes only 70°. In the Orang it has been estimated at 64°, 63°, and 60°. This error has been already pointed out ; an angle of 60° is the measurement of the skulls of young apes. Professor Owen has shown the facial angle of the adult Troglodyte to be only 35°, and in the Orang, or Satyr, it is only 30°. The Peruvian cranium, described by Tiedeman, possesses so very remarkable a con- figuration, that some might be inclined to adopt his opinion that it belonged to an original and primitive race, were it not known that it had been produced by artificial means. We have examined several of such skulls, brought from Titicaca, in Peru, and in. another place J have given a sketch of a skull brought from this locality, and which is now in the museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons. Dr. Morton § has given several drawings of skulls, so altered by this pressure as almost to have lost the outlines of hmnanity. In one skull brought from Peru, the intervention of art is very manifest in the depression of a forehead naturally low. The lateral swell is not very remarkable, and the parietal protuberances are flattened ; and these two peculiarities are the weU-known types of the formation of the crania of these people. That the Caribs of St.Vineent flattened the heads • Page 88. t Pp- 296-7. J On the Animal Kingdom and Unity of our Species, by J. C. Hall, M.D. plate iv. p. 87. London, 1840. § Crania Americana, by S. Morton, M.D. Philadelphia, 1839. Xlii AN ANAITTICAI SYNOPSIS OP THE of their offspring is well known; and tlie inspection of Blmnenbach's engraving of a Caribbean skull will convince any one of tbe great amount of deformity which may be produced. Among the Columbian tribes, the child imme- diately after birth is put into a cradle of a peculiar construc- tion, and pressure is applied to the forehead and occiput. After the head has been compressed for several months_ it exhibits the most hideous appearance : the antero-posterior diameter is the smallest, while the breadth from side to side is enormous, thus reversing the natural measurements of the cranium. In comparing the measurements of the Negro's skull with that of an European, it must be remembered that many of the skulls in our museums do not present the true characters of this race : they have been taken from unfortu- nate creatures kidnapped on the coast, or their enslaved offspring, and that conclusions are to be drawn from the formation of the head in the whole race, and not from the crania of particular museums. TFith regard to the hrain Dr. Cadwell remarks, " In both the Negro and Caucasian races we have the brain, which, except in point of size, is precisely the same in the African as the European." The foUowing are the conclusions of Dr. Tiedeman :* — 1st, In size, the brain of a Negro is as large as an European. 2nd, In regard to the capacity of the cavity, the skuU of the Negro in general is not smaller than that of the European and other human races ; the oppo- site opinion is ill-founded, and ^together refuted by my researches. 3rd, In the form and structure of the well- possessed spinal chord the Negro accords in every way with the European, and shows no difference except that arising from the different size of the body. 4th, The cerebellum of the Negro, in regard to its outward form, fissures, and lobes, is exactly similar to that of the European. 5th, The cerebrum has, for the most part, the same form as that of the European. 6th, The brain, in internal structure, is composed of the same substance. 7th, The brain of the Negro is not smaller, compared as to size, nor are the nerves thicker. 8th, The analogy of the brain of the Negro to the orang- outang is not greater than that of other races, " except it be ' On the Brain of the Negro; Philosophical Traijs. 1838, p. 498. NATrEAl HISTOKT OP MAN. XXlll in the greater symmetry of the gyri and sulci; which I very much douht." As these features of the hrain indicate the degree of intel- lect and faculties of the mind, we must conclude that no innate difference in the intellectual faculties can be admitted to exist between the Negro and European races. The oppo- site conclusion is founded on the very facts, which have been sufficient to secure the degradation of this race. " The more interior and natural the Negroes are found in Africa, they are superior in character, in arts, in habits, and in manners, and possess towns, and literature to some extent. "What- ever, therefore," says E«binson, "maybe, their tints, their souls are stni the same." It is the opinion of Dr. Prichard, also, that there is nothing whatever in the organisation of the brain of the Negro which affords a presumption of inferior endowment, of intellectual or moral faculties. This writer has also given the weight of several skuUs of nearly the same size, from which it would appear that there is little constant difference.* The average weight of the brain of an European is about 44 ounces troy weight. Dupuytren's brain weighed 64 ounces : Cuvier's, 63 ounces : Abercrombie's, 63 ounces : the brain of the cele- brated Dr. Chalmers only reached 53 ounces ; he had a large head. Some other peculiarities might be noticed, such as the articulation of the head with the spine ; the teeth are all of one length, and arranged in an uniform unbrpken series. In the Simise, whose masticatory apparatus most nearly resembles mam, the cuspidati are longer, often very much longer, than the other teeth, and there are intervals in the series of each jaw to receive the cuspidati of the other. Table extibiting the \reigbt of several skulls, nearly of the same size, lbs. oz. Skull of a Greek . . . 1 UJ „ Mulatto . . 2 10 „ Negro, 1 . . 2 „ Negro, 2 . . 1 12J „ Negro, 3 . . 1 SJ , Negro,4, (fromlj jj, Congo) J ^ From the researches of Professor Tiedeman it appears that the average weight of the European brain is from 3 lbs. 3oz., troy weight, to 4 lbs. Skull of a New Zealander 1 lOf „ Chinese ... 1 7^ „ Gipsy, without'! , joi lower jaw .... J * of a Gipsy, with 1 „ „ lower jaw ... .J XxiV AN AJS^ALTTICAI. STSTOPSIS OF THE Tte lower jaw of man is distinguished by the proininence of the chin, a necessary consequence of the infenor mcisora being perpendicular; by its shortness, and by the oblong convexity and obUquity of the condyles. This remarkable featute in the face of our species is found in no anunal. In the orang-outang it appears as though the part were cut aww. There yet remains the grand distinction between all the races of man and other animals — LAKGHTAeE ! the miracle of human nature ! ! The lower animals can iudeed communicate with each other by sounds and signs, but they cannot speak. The language of man ia the product of art ; animals derive their sounds from nature. Every human language is derived from imitation, and is inteliigible only to those who either inhabit the country where it is vernacular, or have been taught it by a master or by boots. Homer and Hesiod distinguished man by the title of /x£poi|/, or voice-dwidm^ ; and Aristotle says, " 8peech is made to indicate what is expedient and what is inexpe- dient ; and, ia consequence of this, what is just and what is imjust. It is therefore given to men, because it is peculiar to them that of good and evU, of just and unjust, they only, with respect to other animals, possess a sense or feehng." The existence of language, therefore, says an American writer,* is in itself a proof of the specific character of huma- nity in aU those among whom it is found. The distinguishing characteristics of man, and the peculiar eminence of his nature and his destiny, as these are universally felt and acknow- ledged by mankind, are usually defined to consist in reason aud the faculty of speech. IVederick Von Schlegel has, how- ever, suggested that the peculiar pre-eminence of man consists in this, — ^that to him alone, among all other of earth's crea- tures, the "woed" has been imparted and communicated. "The word" he continues, "actually delivered, and really communicated, is not a mere dead faculty, but an historical reality and occurrence. In the idea of the word considered as the basis of man's dignity and peculiar destination, the word is not a mere faculty of speech, but the fertile root, whence this stately trunk of all language has sprung."t * Unity of the Human Races, by the Rev. T. Smyth, t).D. t The Philosophy of Histoiy (Bohn's edition). NATTJBAIi HISTOEX OF MAK. XXV Man may, therefore, he said to differ &om every other animal, whatever the family ia which he is classed and the colour of his skin : — a. In his feeble and long mfcmey, late puberty, and slow growth. b. In possessing the power of speech ; holding cormmmion with his fellow-men by words. c. Smoothness of sMn; no natural weapons of offence or defence. d. In the general conformation of the body ; the structure of the pelvis, thighs, and legs ; the incurvation of the sacrum am,d os coccygis. e. The erect posture ; the adaptation of certain muscles to that state; the peculiar structure of the feet ; the posi^ tion of the eyes ; the possession of two hands, beautvfull/y [an, p. 15. XXX XS AJiTAlTTICAL STIfOPSIS OP THE temperate parts of the continent. The student is warmly recommended to study what Dr. Pickering has said with regard to the distribution and peculiarities of this remark- able race, to which we shall again refer when considering the grounds of objection to the unity of our species—a race which, he truly observes, is " destined one day to fill an impor- tant place iu general history." * IV. The Malay Eaoe. s. The Malay Family, t: The Polynesian Family. The complexion of the Malay Eace is a reddish brown ; Affiir, black, coarse, and lank ; the eyelids are drawn obliquely upwards at the outer angles ; the skull is square, and the forehead low ; there is also a tendency to a peculiar prolon- gation and projection of the upper jaw-bone. The peculiar features of this people are admirably pourtrayed in Plates lEL and IV. In the Malay Eace there is a siagular diversity of stature : the members of the Polynesian family (Taheitcms, ■Samoans, and Tonga Islanders') are of a higher stature than the rest of mankind ; but the Indian tribes, and the inhabi- tants of the Indo-Chinese countries, fall decidedly below the general average. Both divisions of the race derive the gfreater part of their food from the vegetable kingdom, — the East Indian living upon rice ; the Polynesian, to whom every kind of grain is unknown, feeds upon fruits and fari- naceous roots of similar consistence. The large stature of the Polynesian chiefs is a singular circumstance, the more so when it is remembered that they are hereditary. Dr. Pickering attributes it, in part, at least, to the larger quantity of food they receive when young ; and, if this be so, it shows the remarkable influence of food, and other external circumstances, upon the human figure. V. The AMiEBioAN Eace. u. The American Family. V. The Toltican Family. The principal features in this family are, a brown com- plexton; long, lank hair; scanty beard; black, sunken eyes; tumid and compressed lips; mouth, large; nose, large and aquiime ; skull, smaU, wide from side to side, prominent at the vertex, occiput flat. In their mental character the * See chsipter ix. p. 187— 209 of the present edition. KATrEAIi HISTOET OF MAlf. TYT1 Americans are described, by Dr. Mortoa, as "averse to cultivation, slow ia acquiring knowledge, restless, revengefiil, fond of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adventure."* The following table has been constructed so as to give to the student at a glance the classification adopted by Dr. Pickering in the following pages. Colour. a, "Whttb . b. Brown. .- c. Blackbh Brown . d. Black •{ Families. 1. Arabiwii . . i 2. Abyssinian -i 3. Mongolian 4. Hotteniot . \ 5. Malay • ■ •■{ 6. Papuam, . . -I 7. Negrillo . .-[ 8. Indian . . -I 9. Ethiopian, i 10. Aiisirdlia/n-i 11. Negro. . . . Distinguishing Physical Characteristics. Nose prominent; lips tliiu; beard abundant; hair straight, — ^flowing. Complexion hardly florid; nose prominent; hair crisped. Beardless ; hair straight and long. Negro features; hair wooUy; stai- ture small. Features not prominent in profile ; complexion darker; hair straight, — flowing. Features same as No. 5 ; beard abundant; hair crisped or frizzled. Beardless ; features negro ; hair woolly ; stature small. Features Aia;bian; hair straight or flowing. Features between the Indian and Negro; hair crisped. Negro features; hair straight or flowing. Hair woolly ; nose flat ; lips thick. The terms genus, species, variety, and race, require a few words by way of illustration. The word species, from specio, to behold, signifies, literally, the form or appearance, and hence it denotes a class or division causing the same, or similar sensations, to the sight. This term may be used in a popular, a logical, and a zoological sense. In the popular sense, species means any class, either of subjects or objects, which are included under a more general class. In its logical sense, by the word species we understand any class Crania Americana, p. 6, SXxii AN ANALTTICAl SXITOPSIS Or THE ©f whatever natuie, which is disting^shed from all other Glasses by an indetenniaate miiltitude of properties not derivable from another class, and which is not divisible into other kiads. In a zoological sense, the words yemw*, species, and variety, may be thus defined : — ■ A race of animals or a tribe of plants marked by any peculiarities of structure, which from one generation to another have always been constant and undeviatiag, form a species ; and two races are described as specifically distinct, if they are distinguished from each other by some peculiari- ties which the one cannot be supposed to have acquired, or the other to have been deprived of by any operation of physical causes with which we are acquainted ; so that imder the term species are comprised all those animals which are supposed to have arisen in the first instance from a single pair. This, according to Dr. Prichard, is the sense in which, speaking zoologically, the word species has been compre- hended by all writers on the difierent departments of natural history. Cuvier says, " We are under the necessity of. admitting the existence of certain forms which have per- petuated themselves from the beginning of the world, with- out exceeding the limits fiirst prescribed ; all the iadividuals belonging to one of these forms constitute what is termed a species."^ De CandoUe* adds, "We vrrite under the designation of species aE those individuals who mutually bear to each other so close a resemblance as to allow of our supposing that they may have proceeded originally from a single pair." The term ffenus (ycvos) has a much more extensive apphr cation. There are several species which so exactly resemble each other as immediately to suggest the idea of some near relation between them. The horse, the ass, the zebra, and others of the horse kiad, are examples of this remark ; the different species of elephant is another; and a third is furnished by the several kinds of oxen, buffaloes, bisons, and so on, all belonging to the ox genus', and bearing a striking resemblance to each other. As we are aware of no physical causes which could have operated so as to produce these Terences of structure which exist between the several * Pbysiologie V^g^tale, tome ii. p. 689. NATTJEAIi HISXOET 01" MAX. XXXUl species of one genus, it is concluded that they origiaaHy sprung from different individuals. A genus consequently is a collection of several species on a principle of resemblance, and it may comprise a greater or less number of specieSj. according to the peculiar vievrs of the naturalist, In natural history, varieties are such diversities in indi- viduals and their progeny as are observed to take place within the limits of species ; such varieties in animals and plants may be produced by the agency of external causes — they are congenital ; that deviation from the peculiarities of the parent stock which is occasioned by the mixture of breed has been looked upon as a kind of variety ; but throughout the animal kingdom varieties very often arise as the result of mere agencies, often very little understood, on the breed, independently of such mixture; varieties are hereditary, or transmitted to offspring with greater or less degrees of constancy. Varieties are distinguished from species by the circumstance that they are not original or primordial, but have arisen within the limits of a particidar stock or race. Permanent varieties are such as having once taken place, continue to be propagated. The properties of species are two — 1st, original difference of character ; 2ndly, perpetuity of transmission.* Races are properly successions of individuals propagated from any given stock. Do AIIi THE KACES OF MAK BEIONG TO THE SAME SPECIES ? a. Objections. 1st, It is said that the record found in the book of Genesis has reference only to the first parents of the Sacred, Jevmh, or Camcasicm race ; and that this early history of man has in itself evidence of being composed of different productions, and refers to the creation and history of different races. It is also maintained that the Bible itself supplies evidence of different races of men living on the earth contemporaneous with the family of Adam, in the statement of Moses regarding " the sons of God," and "the daughters of men;" and that to prevent their intermixture and the corruption of these different races, the present yariations in form and colour were introduced. * Physical History of Man, p. 109. XXxiv AW ANAIiTTICAIi SYNOPSIS OF THE 2nd, Differences in colour, hair, and the structure of the extremities, trunk, and skull, from which it is contended that different kinds of men were originally created. It is there- fore asserted, ^«^, that all the existing races of men hare arisen from a single pair ; second, that the existing races are the descendants of seTeral distinct pairs, which originally were created with those peculiarities of colour and physical formation, which now are seen to exist in men that appear most widely separated from each other. Those who object to the unity of the species say that the leading characters which sepaj-ate the races of men are permanent, and must have been transmitted by their original progenitors. " If," says Professor Agassiz, " by the unity of the races of man be meant nothing more than that all mankind were endowed with one common nature, intellectual and physical^ derived from the Creator of all men, — were imder the same moral government of the imiverse, and sustained sLaular relations to the Deity, I side vrith those who maintain the unity of the races. It is quite a different question whether the different races of men were descended from different stocks, and I regard this position as fully proved by Divine revelation. The Jewish history was the history, not of divers races, but of a single race of mankind ; but the existence of other races is often incidentally alluded to, and distinctly implied, if not absolutely asserted, in the sacred volume." He now agrees with Voltaire that there were other races of men in co-existence vpith Adam and his son Cain, dweUing ia the land of Nod, and among whom Cain married and built a city. In a paper " On the G-eo- graphical Distribution of Animals," Professor Agassiz endeavours also to show that " there is no common centre, or several centres of origin, among all other animals beside man, but that they were all created in the localities they naturally occupy, and in which they breed either in pairs or in multitudes ; and, therefore, that there was no common central origin for man, but an indefinite number of separate creations from which the races of man have sprung." b. Proofs of the Unity of our Species. For that period of the world's history from the Creation NATTJBAL HISTOET OP MAIT. XXXT to the Deluge, we are solely indebted to tie Mosaic records, the truth and credibility of which are proved by the most striMng testimonies of natural and civil history. The various, though distorted, traditions which have prevailed in almost every nation respecting the first creation of the world, bear so close a resemblance to the facts mentioned by the great Hebrew annalist, that we can account for them only on the supposition of their having originated from one common source. The idea of a chaos, and of the creation of all things by the agency of a supreme mind ; the arbitrary division of time into weeks — ^the formation of man in the moral image of God — his temptation, fall, and consequent depravation of human nature — ^the longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs, — all these circumstances, and others of a kindred nature, are either expressly alluded to by ancient historians or shadowed forth in the legendary fragments which stiU remain ; and, further, the paucity of mankind, and the vast tracts of uninhabited lands in the first ages, together with the late invention of the arts and sciences, agree in confirming the accuracy of the Mosaic narrative. Adam was bom about 4000 years before Christ; he lived 930 years. ' ' 1 ' Cain. Abel. Seth, lived 912 years. Methuselah, lived 969 years. * NoaJi, lived 950 years. Cashmere Las been by some regarded as the ancient Paradise, because the Himmalah mountain, being considered as the highest in the world, first arose out of the waters. The four rivers' mentioned in the sacred writings as flowing around it, would in this case be, the Ganges, the Indus, the Burhamputer, and the Jihon. With regard to this river, " the same which compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia," the land of Africa is not meant, but another country in Asia adjoining the easterly mouth of the Euphrates, called by the Hebrews Oush, by the Greeks and Latins Sttsiana, and now, by the Persians, Chtmstcm, that is, the province of Chus. * The flood, about 23S0 years before CJbrist, when Noah was in the 600th year of his life. AN ANAITTICAIi STNOPSIS OE THE Sons of Noah from wlioiii the present races of man descended. SHEM.» Elara, Assur, father of father of the the Assyrians ; Persians. founder of Nineveh. 3 Lud. Aram, I father of Abraham, 1 The Lydians. the Syrians. Arphaxad. _l_ Jacob, Esau. fether of the Israelites. Ishmael, &om whom the Arabs claim descent. HAMf Chus. I Nimrod. Tower of Babel, Misraim. I Meso, father of the itians. Phut. I 'i Libyans. 1 Canaan. I Sidon, founder of the city of this name, in Phoenicia, JAPHETH.t Gomer. Magog. I T I Germans. Gog and Ma- The gog are the Medes, — I — ; 1—^ Madaj. Javan. T T- -\ central na- ,.r Tubal. Meshech. Thiias. ! Tartars, Muscovites. Thracians. tions porth Elisa, Tarsia, of the Cau- | | casus, the ? ? Spaniards, Caspian sea, &c. Chittim, Dodanim. Greeks ? and Bomans, * From the Mahommedan accounts, it would appear that Shem is the father of the Eastern nations — the Hebrews, Persians, Arabians, and also the Greeks Eind Romans. + Ham, from the Mahommedan annals, was the common founder of the Southern jiationa — the Moors, Africans, and Indians. t Mirkhond and Khondemir, the Oriental historians, differ from the gene- alogy of the Bible. They give to Japheth eight sons : — 1. TnaKi, fether of the Turks, Tartars, Monguls. 2. Chin, father of the Chinese. 3. Secub, father of the Slavi. 4. MiMEinK, father of the Mamelukes. S. Gomari, Either ofthe Cimmerians, Germans, 6. Koziii (?), 7. Bos, father of the Russians. 8. Bazag (?), Natiteai histokx op MtTs r. xxxyij To the first objection, that the Scriptures relate only to the Jewish, Sacred, or Caucasian race, it may be answered, that Adam called his wife " the mother of all living " — of all human beings, of aU the sons of men, and, therefore, of all the races of mankind. The New Testament in the most clear and positive manner states that God " hath made of one blood aU nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habita- tation;"* the obvious meaning of which, says Pyle, is that " Grod hath created the races of man all from Adam, their first parent, whose posterity were by degrees dispersed over the several countries of the earth." In the commentary on the Holy Scriptures, in Hebrew and EngKsh, by De Sola and Lindenthal,t it is shown that the word Adam, used in Genesis to designate man, is " the generic name of the human species." Among the Jews, writes the very learned Eosenmiiller, "Adam was the generic name of the whole species, and used only, singularly, for the first man (Genesis i. 27), or collectively, as in the 26th and 28th verses of the same chapter, where it must be referred to the whole human race." Taught by the same learned writers we pro- ceed to an examination of the assertion that a plurality of races is proved by the passage, " male and female created he them" (Genesis i. 27) ; but the original is, " «■ male and a female created he them," and this interpretation will be found to be in the most strict and critical unison with the Hebrew rule, by which a thing thus spoken of is to be limited to one. J Speaking of these words "male and female," Bishop Kidder says, "that is, one male and one female." In reply to another objection, that the Bible furnishes evidence of different races of men, contemporaneous with the Adamic race, because Moses makes mention of " the sons of God" and " the daughters of Eve ;" it may be stated that all BibHcal scholars are agreed, that by " sons of God," or, more correctly rendered, the eminent ones, the sacred writer is * Acts xrii. 26. + London, 1846, p. 4. X Compare this passage mth I'CLron. xvii. 3 ; 2 Sam. vi. 19 ; Deut. vi, 13 ; Matthew iv. 10. This Gospel, probably, was first written in Hebrew. XXXTUl AN ANALYTICAL SYNOPSIS OE THE speaking of the descendants of Setli, Enos, and other pious men, in contradistinction to the posterity of Cain. The Apostle St. Paul, in his Epistle to the Eomans (ch. v. V. 12), says, " By one man's disobedience, sin entered into the world, and death by sin ; and so death passed upon aE men, for aU have sinned ;" and the same Apostle goes on to urge, that seeing aU the world has become guilty before their Creator, God, who " so loved the world as to give his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth on him might not perish but have everlastkig hfe," now " commandeth all men every where to repent, because he hath appointed a day on which he will judge the world in righteousness, by that man whom he hath ordained ; whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he hath raised him. from the dead." "When Eve was created she was called Woman (Grenesis ii. 23), "she shaE be caUed woman;" that is, says Bishop Patrick, " partake of my name, as she doth of my nature," "for he called her Isha, as he was called Js^;" but after the fall Adam called his wife " Eve" (Genesis iii. 20), "because she was the mother of all living;" he had pre-r viously, says Dr. Eennicott, called her " woman, because she was taken out of man," and now he called her " Eve, because he found she was stiU to be the mother of aU living ;" or, as the Chaldee better translates the passage, "the mother of all the sons of men:" the Arabic translation is, "because she was to be the mother of every rational living animal." We now come to that remarkably clear exposition, by Moses, of the way in which the earth was peopled, (in the 9th chapter of the Book of Genesis, and w. 17, 18, 19,) " And God said unto Noah, This is the token of the covenant, which I have established between me and all flesh that is upon the earth. And the sons of ^N'oah that went forth of the ark were Shem and Ham and Japheth; and Ham is the father of Canaan. These are the three sons of Noah, amd of them was the whole earth overspread" On these three men and their posterity a separate destiny was pronounced: to the race of Japheth was promised extension—" God shaD. enlarge Japheth ;" to the chUdren of Shem, blessmg—" Blessed be the Lord God of Shem-" on the progeny afSam the lot of bondage— " Cursed be Canaan, a seryant of servants shall he be ;" and to each of these races NATTJEAI, HISTOET Or MAIf. tytcit ■would undoubtedly lie given a moral and a physical nature in harmony with the destiny God had designed them to fulfil. The race of Japheth have occupied Asia and Europe. By the descendants of Shem, Judaism and Christianity have been established, and from the sons and daughters of Ham have proceeded the nations of Africa — the servants of other nations — and the Canaaaites who were the slaves of the Israelites. This prophecy is the last record given of the life of Noah, who lived 350 years after it was pronounced ; " it is a prophecy of the most remarkable character, haviag been delivered in the infancy of mankind ; in its undeniable fulfil- ment reaching through four thousand years, dovpn to our time ; and being even now in a visible course of fulfilment." * In the tenth Chapter of Genesis is given an account of the generations of Noah, of the sons of Japheth, Ham, and Seth, and by these were the isles of the Grentiles divided ; the word rendered Gentiles meaning, more correctly, in the Hebrew, a multitude of people or "nations," as the same word is translated ia the last Chapter. " These," says the sacred historian — " these are the families of the sons of Noah, after their generations, in their nations ; and by these were the nations divided in the earth after the flood." A very slight examination of this part of the Scriptures will suffice to show an evident intention on the part- of Moses to dwell most at length ia his genealogy upon that line from which Christ, "the seed of the woman," should proceed. StiU, although but little is said in the Bible about the pos- terity of Cain and of Ham — ^the race of Seth and Shem being more particularly dwelt upon ; enough information (see our table) is supplied to enable us to trace some of them. " These are the sons of Ham ;" from Ham came the Egyp- tians, the Libyans, the Phutim, and the Cushim or Ethiopians. Plutarch says that Egypt was called " Ohemia" or the country of Ham.t The father of Qush {Cfhurri) was the brother of Mizraim (see table) the father of the Egyptians. In the Bible, the \ * Kitto's Bible Cyclopadia. See also Nolan's Bampton Lectures. + In his work " De Iside et Osiride." See also Caliuct's Dictionary, art. Ammon. Dr. Morton defines tke Egyptians to be the children of Ham. xl XS ANAITTICAI. SYNOPSIS OP THE CusMtes are the same as the Ethiopians. The name Ethic pian was once giren to all those whose colour was darkened by the sun. Herodotus distinguishes the Eastern Ethiopians who had straight hair, from the Western Ethiopians who had woolly hair.* Strabo terms them " a two-fold people, lying extended in a long tract from the rising to the setting sun ;" (i e from East to West). The same description is given by Homer, t Eusebius J teUs us, the Ethiopians in the West came to Egypt, § from India in the East, and thence passed over the red sea into Africa, the whole of which they peopled. It is the opinion of Dr. Pickering that Ptolemy's most distant country, Agizymba, is Kissimbany in the island of Zanzibar, a Negro countay. Sallust, in his Jugurthine War, placed Ethiopia next to the countries " exusta solis * Herodotus, vii. 69, 70. + Lib. i.p- 60. J Chronicles, p. 26 ; Calmet, S— 27 ; Smyth, 35. § Dr. Morton thinks there is such a coincidence between all the sources of evidence with regard to the physical characters of the ancient Egyptians, as to have little ground for doubting that this nation was more closely united to the Negro race than any other of the great sub-divisions of the human family ; therefore, unless we regard them as having proceeded from a parentage altoge- ther distinct from that of any of the nations by which they were suiTounded, we must believe that tbey constituted a branch of the great African stock, and thus that they are either elevated of the Negro type, or that the Negro races are degraded forms of the Egyptian type. Some curious facts have come to light which prove that the Egyptians, though of a brown or dusky complexion, were not really black, and that considerable difference existed among them in the colour of -their skin. Two old Egyptian contracts, the interpretation of which has been given by Professor Boeckh, which, though belonging to the Ptolemaic period, relate to native Egyptians, have been found, describing the parties to the deed by their form and colour ; the seller, whose name is Pa- monthes, is termed iieKayxpi'S, and the buyer ;uE^lXp Dubois, Dr. Groldsmith, and others, are not all of them Albinos, but belonging to the Xanthous variety, which appears at times not only in those melanocomous races which are of a less swarthy shade, but in others. Amongst the ancient Egyptians it would appear to have now and then arisen. Diodorus remarks that red-haired persons were not frequent in the native stock of Egypt, but light brown hair has been found on Egyptian mummies ; and among the Negro tribes of Africa, both in their native climate and in other places to which they have been transmitted, the Xanthous variety frequently arises. J The skin is sometimes quite healthy in appearance, and the complexion ruddy, as in an European of sanguine temperament. Pallas§ has given a very minute description of a white Negress, bom in Jamaica of Negro parents, and seen by him in London ia 1761. He says she was small in statiu-e, and had a fair complexion, vrith ruddy lips and cheeks. The iris of her eye was neither red nor blue, but of a brownish-grey colour. Her hair was of a yellow colour, or what the French call " llond." This girl had negro features strongly marked and every appearance of genuine negro descent. We have also a description from the pen of Mr. BurcheU of an individual of the Xanthous variety, bom from the race of black Kafirs in South Africa ; the parents were geniune Kafirs. She was sixteen when Mr. BurcheU saw her, " the * Cook's Voy., apud Hawkesworth, vol. ii> p. 188. -f- PhUosopbical Transactions, 1699. t Prichard, vol. i. p. 228. § Novae Species Quadinpedum, pp. 10, 11. xlviii a:s anaitticaIi synopsis or the colour of her skin was that of the fai/rest Europecm, or more correctly described it was more pint and white. Perhaps it wUl be more intelligible to a painter," says this gentle-; man, " if I describe it as being compounded of a pure white, and a moderate tint of vermilion, without the admixture of any other colour. Her hair was of the same woolly nature as her countrywomen, but it was of a siagularly pale hue, nearly approaching to the colour which is termed flaxen. Her features, however, were those of a genuine Kafir." Dr. Ascherson mentions a boy having at his birth white hair and violet-coloured eyes with dart red pupils; at the age of three years the hair had become a light brown, and the eyes blue. Speating of this boy. Dr. Graves, of Dubhn, says, " it was my good fortune to meet with a similar case myself In my younger days there were two children, a brother and sister, Hving near me, who presented such stnting symptoms of leucosis ia their eyes, hair and stin, that they were recog- nised as Albinos even by non-medical persons. My atten- tion was lately drawn to them by an advertisement ia which their name occurred, and I learned that the brother had become a tobacconist ; hut to my great astonishment when I went to see him, I found, his eyes had cha/nged from violet-red to grey, and his hair from white to light hrown, and that the siisceptibility of the eyes to light had greatly diminished."* We frequently meet with persons of a swarthy complexion and dart blaci hair amongst our neighbours aitid friends, who are altogether free from any admisture of sable blood ; their stiQS are white, but not so fair and transparent as the light- haired ; when exposed to the sun the complexion of the blact-haired soon assumes a yellow or brownish hue. It may also be poiated out that we have daily examples of the deve- lopment of pigment ceUs.in particular portions of the bcfdy ; to this may be traced the tan or summer frecile, the result of the action of the sun and light, which occasions an aggre- gation of brown or red pigment celb,— to the same source must be traced the dart blact areola around the nipple during pregnancy, and this too in the fairest of women ; at the same tiiie it is by no means an unfrequent occurrence to see large portions of the body become dart or even blactened. * DuUiu Journ; of Med. and Chem. Science, No. XV. NATTJBAL HISTOEX OF MATS'. ilis While, on the one hand, Dr. Prichard has collected cti- dence of the springing up of the Xanthous variety out of every melanocomous tribe, and there is something in the tem- perately cold regions of Europe and Asia which favours its production, _/or it is in some instances the general character of whole tribes — ^there exists on the coast of Malabar a race of Jews, which is known by the name of "White Jews," and who, from documents in their possession, appear to have migrated to India soon after the destruction of the Temple by Titus, but who still resemble European Jews ia features and complexion.* The Jews, like the Arabs, are generaEy a black-haired race ; but many Jews may be seen vnth light hair and beards ; and in some parts of Grermany the Jews are remarkable for red bushy beards. Every shade of colour clothes vrith its tints the body of the Jew, from the jet black of the Hindoo to the ruddy white of the Saxon. On the Malabar coast, to which refer- ence has just been made, is a second colony of Jews, perfectly black.t Thus even Hamilton Smith admits J in the Cau- casian race every variety of colour, from pure white down to melanism nearly as deep as the genuine Negro. On the other hand, Dr. Prichard has shovm that there are instances in which feir races have become dark, without any considerable change ia external conditions. We find the Grermanic nations, which were unanimously described by ancient authors as very fair, possessing red or yellow hair, and blue or gray eyes, have become much darker since that time, so that these peculiarities are far from being common amongst them, and must now be rather looked for in Sweden. That an amelioration of the cHmate of central Europe has taken place during the same period cannot be doubted ; but the climatic change scarcely seems decided enough to account for such an alteration in the physical characters of the popu- lation. Explain the fact as we may, it is an evidence of the variability of the races of men, since it is altogether impos- sible to question the purity of the descent of the Germanic nations, or that the change of complexion has resulted from any admixture of a foreign element. * On the Animal Eingdom and Unity of the Species, by J. C. Hall, M.D., p. 141. + The White Jews are at Mattacheri, a Xovra of Cochin. J Natural History, p. 368. 1 Air ANALYTICAL STNOPSIS Or THE "With regard to the Tiair, it may be shown by microscopic examination that the hair of the Negro is not really wooly and that it differs in its intimate structure firom that of the fairer races only iu the greater quantity of pigmentary matter which it contaias iu its interior ; and the same may be said of the jet-black hair so often seen in England. The crisp twisted growth of the Negro hair is the only character by which it can be separated from the straight ; a,nd this cannot for a moment be relied on as a proof of original dif- ference, since these national variations do not exceed those which present themselves within the limits of any one race, and we daily meet Europeans vrith hair quite as black and woolly as that of the Negro ; and if we examine the tribes in Africa, every possible gradation is found, from the so-called woolly hair to simply curled, or even flowing hair. The fact of red hair occurring amongst the Negroes of Congo has been alluded to by Blumenbach, who saw many Mulattoes with red hair. Dr. Prichard observes, that even if the hair of the Negro were really analogous to wool, which it is not, " it would by no means prove him to be of a peculiar and separate stock, unless the peculiarity were constantly pre- sented by all the nations of Negro descent, and were restricted to them alone ; for there are breeds of domesticated animals which have wool, whilst others of the same species, under different climatic influences, are covered with hair." * Two other popular distinctions between hair and wool may be drawn from the fact that wool falls off altogether in a mass, and leaves the animal bare, while hairs fafl. off singly, and from time to time. The growing part of the fibre of wool varies in thickness according to the season, being thicker in proportion to the warmth of the atmosphere, and smallest of all in winter ; on the contrary, the filament of hair is gene* rally of imiform thickness, or tapering a little towards a pointvt • The hairs issue from bulbs or rbots, situated in the cellular web, under the cutis ; these bulbs have an external vascular root, -which is probably the source whence the hair derives its nourishment ; there is, besides, a mem- branous tube or sheath which envelopes the hair, and passes out with it through the different layers of the skin. The hair consists of an external homy covering, with an internal vascular part — the medulla, or pith. The colouring principle is evidently of a common nature in the skin and hair. + Bakewell on Wool, p. 9. KATTTEAX HISTOBX OP MAIT. Ti The peculiarities observed ia the structure of the bony skeleton, more particularly of the cranium and pelvis, next claim attention ; for these have been thought to furnish more important guides for the separation of the races of men into distinct species than either the colour of the skin or the texture of the hair. Since the works of Camper and Blu- menba«h appeared, repeated efforts have been made to arrange the different members of the human famUy iato distinct species, the conformation of the skull being the guiding characteristic. To select a Negro, an European, an American, or a Malay skull, when strongly-marked pecu- liarities were presented, would probably be no very difficult task ; but are these types common to the entire races they are said to represent ? — ^have they that permanency and inva- riability which is requisite to found a specific distinction ? — and the facts which have been accumulated ia answer to these enquiries prove, 1st, That these peculiarities are far from constant in the several nations of one race, or even ia the several individuals of one nation ; and, 2nd, That external conditions being improved, they are liable to undergo alter- ations, — changes which every influence that exalts the general habits of bfe, and calls iato exercise the faculties of the miad, has no iaconsiderable influence in produciag. The leading types of configuration of the skull are reduced by Dr. Prichard to three ; and he states there is sufficient evidence for con- necting them with different habits of life. Amongst the rudest tribes of men, hunters, and the savage inhabitants of forests, dependent for their supply of food on the accidental produce of the soil or on the chase, among whom are the most degraded of the African nations and the Australian savages, a form of head is prevalent which is most aptly dis- tinguished by the term prognathous, indicating a prolongation or extension forwards of the jaws ; and with this characteristic other traits are connected. A second shape of the head, very different from the last- mentioned, belongs principally to the Nomadic races, who wander with their herds and flocks over vast plains, and to the tribes which creep along the shores of the Icy Sea, and live partly by fishing, and in part on the flesh of their rein- deer. These nations have broad and lozenge-shaped faces, and what Dr. Prichard has termed pyramidal skulls. The Hi AN AITALXTICAI. STNOPSIS OF THE Esquimaux, the Laplanders, Samoiedes and Elamtschatkans, belong to this department, as well as the Tartar nations, meaning the Mongolians, Tungusians, and Nomadic races of Turks. In South Africa, the Hottentots, formerly a nomadic nation, who wandered about with herds of cattle, over- the extensive plains of Kafir-land, resembUng, in their manner of hfe, the Tungusians and the Monguls, have also broad faces, pyramidal skulls, and, in many particulars of their organisation, resemble the northern Asiatics. Other tribes in South A&Lca approximate to the same character ; so do many of the native races of the New World. The most civilised races, — ^those who live by agriculture^, and the arts of cultivated life — all the most intellectually improved natives of Europe and Asia, — ^have a shape of the head which differs from both the forms above mentioned. The characteristic form of the skull among these nations may be termed oval, or eUiptical.* It has been proved that all these typical forms are not permanent, but are capable of being altered under the influ- ences of civilisation ; and Mr. LyeU. found, after numerous inquiries from medical men, resident in the Slave States of America, and the testimony of all who have paid any atten- tion to the subject is to the same effect, that, without any admixture of races, the Negroes who are brought into close contact vpith the Whites approximate, each succeeding generation, more and more to the European configuration of head and body. Another example of the modification of the form of the skuU, out of the many before us, is supplied by the descend- ants of those tribes in the North and East of Europe, who appear to have been in possession of it before the amval, in that part of the globe, of the races of Indian descent. Some of these are well knovm under the name of Lappa and Einns, whose similarity of origin cannot be doubted, although they now present the most important differences in their physical formation. The Lapps still maintain, in a remarkable manner, the pyramidal skuU, whilst in the modern Einn the skull is becoming more and more oval. We have close at our own doors an example of a degenera- * NaturalHistory of Man, p. 108. NATUUAI, HISTOBY OF MAN. Kii tion in the form of the skuH, as the result of the continued application of depressing physical, and degrading moral influences, to which Dr. Prichard has alluded, and which is thus faithfully and graphically described ia the "Dublin University Magazine :" * — " On the plantation of Ulster, and afterwards on the successes of the British against the rebels of 1641 and 1689, great multitudes of the native Irish were driven from Armagh and the south of Down into the mountainous tract extending from the barony of Flews eastward to the sea ; on the other side of the kingdom the same race were expelled into Leitrim, Sligo and Mayo. Here they have been almost ever since exposed to the worst effects of hunger and ignorance — ' the two great hrutalisers of the hwnan race — .' The descendants of these exiles are BtUl readily distinguishable from their kindred in Meath and in other districts where they are not in a state of physical degradation ; being remarkable for open projecting mouths, with prominent teeth and exposed gums, their advancing cheek bones, and depressed noses, bearing barbarism on their very front. In Sligo, and northern Mayo, the consequences of two centuries of degradation and hardship exhibit themselves in the whole physical condition of the people, affecting not only the features but the frame, and giving such an example of human deterioration from known causes as almost compensates by its value to future ages for the suffering and debasement which past generations have endured in perfecting its appalling lesson. Five feet two inches upon an average, pot-bellied, bow-legged, abortively-featured, their clothing a wisp of rags, — these spectres of a people that were once well grown, able-bodied and comely, stalk abroad into the daylight of civi- lisation, the annual apparitions of Irish want and ugliness. In other parts of the island where the population has never undergone the influence of the same causes of physical degradation, it is well known that the same race furnishes the most perfect specimens of human beauty and vigour, both mental and bodily." Professor Weber has made a most careful examination of the different forms of the human pelvis ; he has proved that all the existing varieties in the shape of this bony structure reduce themselves to fov/r principal forms, which are described by him in substance as follows : — a. The oval form — Die oval v/r-bechen-form. In this kind of pelvis the upper opening is egg-shaped, " in such wise that this aperture at the anterior part, viz., at the symphysis pubes, is narrow, but towards the middle of the same aper- ture, and the junction of the ilia with the os sacrum, becomes * No. xlviii. liV AN ANAXTTJCAJ. SYNOPSIS OF THE gradually and proportionally- widened," and again becomes somewhat narrower in passing backwards towards the pro- montorium, when it ends in an obtuse point. b. The rovMd form pehis ; a pelvis in which the upper opening is round; the circumference, particularly at the symphysis and horizontal branches of the pubes, is more spread out than in the round oval form, whereas the conju- gate has nearly the same eytent as the transverse diameter. c. The square, or four-sided form, is the shape of a pelvis of which the sides, especially that formed by the os pubis, are flat and broad, so that the upper opening forms nearly a perfect square ; the transverse diameter is greater than the conjugate. d. The wedge shape — Kdl-formige w-lecTcen-form, belongs to the pelvis which appears on both sides compressed, so as to be narrower from side to side than frojn front to back. The ossa pubis unite under an acute angle, and the hori- zontal branches run backwards in a straighter direction than in the oval form ; the conjugate is lengthened, and the upper opening is oblong, rather than oval. All the existing varieties in the form of this bony struc- ture belong to one or other of the above four principal forms; and as specimens of each form can be found in the different races of men, it follows, that there exists no particular figure of the pelvis which is a permanent characteristic of any one race. M. "Weber has also laid down a similar arrangement ia the forms of the skuU, maintaining that four principal forms, bearing corresponding designations, may be pointed out in the shapes of the head, and that skulls pre? senting a conformity with each and every one of these principal types, are to be found in several different races. Differences in other parts of the body undoubtedly present themselves, if individuals of one race be compared with those of another. The bones of the leg of the Negro are much more convex in front than in Europeans, producing what is commonly known as " the cueumher-sUn ;" the foot is less arched, being broad and flat, but the same conformation is often seen in Europeans. It has been said that skeletons of Negroes have sometimes six lumbar vertebras, but Dr. Prichard saw an instance of this in an European. With regard to stature, the same physician observes, that " there NATTJBAI, HISTOBT OF MAN. Iv are no varieties of stature in. different nations which are so considerable as those which frequently occur in the same famUy."* We have now examined the principal peculiarities which have been relied upon by those naturalists who seek iu them authorities for dividing mankind into different species ; but the colour of the shin — ^the texture of the Aair-^the shape of the shull — x\ieform of the pelvis, &c., &c., have alike failed to supply, either singly or collectively, the slightest grounds for maiivtaining any valid specific distinctions. Both Blumenbach and Lawrencef have remarked that no naturalist can carry his scepticism so far as " to doubt the descent of the domestic swine from the vrild boar." All the varieties, therefore, through which this auimal has since degenerated, belong, with the original European race, to one and the same species ; and since no bodily difference is found in the human race, either in regard to stature, colour, the form of the skull, or in any other respect, which is not observed in the same proportion in the swine race, this comp^spn, it is to be hoped, wiU silence those sceptics who have thought proper, on account of those varieties of the human species, to admit more than one species. The whole difference between the cranium of a Negro and that of an European is not in the least degree greater than that equally striking differeuce which exists between the craniiun of the wild boar and that of the domestic swine ; and Blumenbach continues, " I now add, the swine in some coun- tries have degenerated into races which, in singularity, far exceed everything which has been found strange in bodily variety amongst the human race. Now as it is absurd to maintain that the vast variety of swine have not descended from one original pair, so is it not less unreasonable to contend that the varieties of man constitute so many distinct species." It was contended by Cuvier that the " human species must be single since the union of any of its members produces individuals capable of propagation :" although this is now known, to be not strictly correct, we are, nevertheless, inclined to attach more weight to it than many other natu- » ToL i. p. 358. t Page 2S0. Ivi A2I ANAITTICAI, SYNOPSIS OP THE ralists of the present day. It has been shown by Dr. Prichard* that distinct species do not freely intermis their breed, and hybrid plants and animals do not propagate their Mnd, at most beyond a very few generations, and no real hybrid races are perpetuated ; but mixed breeds, descended from the most distinct races of men, are remarkably prolific; the inference he draws is obvious — if the mixed propagation of men does not obey the same laws which universally govern the breeding of hybrids, the mixed breeds of men are naturally hybrid, and the original tribes from which they descend must be considered as varieties of the same species.t The infertility of hybrids has always been a stumbling- block in the way of the theory which is opposed to the unity of our species : to a consideration of this question. Dr. BachmanJ has brought much learning, the most patient industry, and an immense amount of facts ; and he is satisfied " that all the ingenuity of the believers in the fertility of hybrids is insufficient to produce a solitary case in which they have clearly proved that a single race of animals, or birds, has been perpetuated from hybrids of two or more species." In the case of the common cow with the buffalo, among quadrupeds, and that of the common and China goose, among birds, which are the only two very well attested cases, hybrids have been productive, but barely for one or two generations, and could not be prolonged without returning to the pure blood of either stock. Professor Owen says, " The tendency of all the natural phe- nomena relating to hybridity is to prevent its taking place, and when it has occurred, to arrest the propagation of varieties so produced, and to Hmit their generative powers so * Vol. i. p. 375. t Dr. Carpenter, after considering, in a very interesting chapter in the later editions of his " Principles of Physiology," the mutual relations of the principal branches of the human family, concludes, that from the analogical argument derived from the phenomena presented hy the domesticated species among the lower animals, and from none of the variations existing between the diffierent races of mankind having the least claim to be regarded as valid specific dis- tinctions, we are required, by the universally received principles of Zoological Science, to regard all the races of mankind as belonging to the same species, or as having had an identical or similar parentage. — Pp. 63, 64. J On the Unity of the Speciesi, NATrEAI. HISTOEX OP HAS. Ivii as to admit only of reversion to the original specific forms ; the individuals of different species do not voluntarily copulate. In a fevr exceptionable cases, serving only to establish the rule of their inferiority, specific hybrids have been known to propagate together and produce a degenerate intermediate race, which soon becomes extinct. It more commonly happens that a hybrid is sterile, or propagates only with an individual of pure breed." It may be stated, then, 1st, That there is no ease on record where a single new race of animal or bird has sprung up from an association of two different species ; 2nd, That aU. the varieties of the human species are known to propagate with each other, and to produce a fertile progeny, which has continued for ages to propagate,. and in this way new races (varieties) have been formed and perpetuated. The accounts with which the Crania Americana of Dr. Morton is pregnant fully prove that many intermediate tribes of nations have derived their origin from an admixture of Mongolian, Malayan, Americaji, Caucasian, and African blood. There is a large and increasing tribe in South Africa, called the Grriqua, on the Orange Eiver, being a mixture of the original Dutch settlers with the Hottentots. This tribe consists of more than five thousand. The following facts at this stage of the inquiry cannot fail to be read with much interest. It is not a little singular that it often happens, when the parents are of two different varieties, — as, for example, one of the xanthous and the other of the melanous variefy, — ^the offspring frequently presents the physical peculiarities of one parent entirely. It would appear, also, that in certain families of Negroes there is an hereditary tendency to produce white children. An instance is related by Dr. Parsons.* In a small plantation belonging to a widow lady, two of her slaves, being black, were married, and the woman brought forth a white girl. When the poor woman was told the child was like the children of white people, she was in great dread of her husband, and therefore, begged that they would keep the place dark, that he might not see it. "When he came to ask her how she did, he wanted to see the child, and wondered why the room was shut up, for it was not usual. When he had the child brought to the * Philosophical Transactions, vol. iv. iTiii AN ANALTTICAB SYNOPSIS Or THE light he was highly dehghted, and said to his wife, " Tou are afraid of me, and therefore keep the room dark, because my child is white. But I love it the better for that ; for my father was a white man, though my grOmdfather am.A grand- mother were loth as black as you and myself, and though we eamie from, a place where no white people were ever seen,, yet there was always a white child in every family that was related to us." At the age of fifteen the child was sold to Admiral Ward, and brought to London in order to be shown to the Eoyal Society. Dr. Parsons also describes a girl that he saw in London in the year 1747. 'Fa.e father was a hlach man, servant to a gentleman who Hved in the neighbourhood of Grray's-Inn- Laue, the mother a white (Engtisk) woman, who Hved in the same family^ When the infant was bom, it was as fair to look at as any offspring of white parents, and her features exactly like the mother : " the right iuttock and thigh were as hlack as the father, as my notes specify." Dr. Prichard mentions the case of a Negress who had twins by an Englishman : " one was perfectly black, with short woolly curled hair; the other was white, with long hai^."* We have already pointed to spoken language as one grand feature of distinction between all the races of man and that animal which philosophers may please to select to connect the last link m the chain of hiunan nature with the brute creation. That language should exist at all, and that it should exist among every people and community of the earth, however low in the scale of civilisation, is in itself a powerful argument for the unity of our species : in truth, the classifi- cation of language is the classification of mankind, and the migration and iatermixture of languages are records of the changes and movements of man over the face of the globe. The unity of all human languages, if it could be established. Would be a powerful proof of the unity of all the races of man. What number of words found to resemble each other in different languages would Warrant the conclusion that they had a common origin, is a question that has been asked, and to the answering of which Dr. Young has applied the mathematical test of Ws calculus of probabilities. He concludes that " nothing could be inferred as to the relation * P>370,vol>i. NATTJEAL HISTOBT OF MAN. lil of any two languages, from the coincidence of sense of any single word in both of them : the odds would be three to one against the agreement of any two words ; but if three words appear to be identical, it would then be more than ten to one that they must be derived in both cases from some parent language, or introduced in some other manner ; sis words would give more than seventeen hundred chances to one ; and eight, nearly one hundred thousand ; so that in these cases the evidence would almost amount to a certainty." Ethnography, says a recent writer,* " has ftimished conclu- sive evidence that the family of American languages has had a common origin with that of Asia. A lexical comparison has established an identity in one hundred and seventy words, although this study is yet in its infancy, and this is an argument which cannot be controverted," AH dialects, says the Petersburg Academy,-^" all dialects are to be considered as the dialects of one now lost. It is the opinion of Klaprotn, ' that the universal affinity of lan- guage is placed in so strong a light, that it must be consi- dered by all as completely demonstrated.' Herder, who does not believe the Mosaic record, admits ' that the human race, and language therewith, go back to one common stock, to a first man, and not to several dispersed in different parts of the world.' Balbi most truly asserts, that no monument, ' either historical or astronomical,' has yet been able to prove the books of Moses untrue ; but with them, on the contrary, agree in the most remarkable manner the results of the most learned philologers and the profoundest geometricians." It is indeed interesting to note, how much recent dis- coveries, as well as the classification and nomenclature of lang^uages previously adopted, connect themselves also vsdth the recorded tripartite division of mankind into the three great families, the dispersion of which, after the Scriptural deluge, we have already traced. Some of the most remark* able results, suggests a very high authority,t recently obtained, " are those which disclose relations hitherto unsuspected or unproved, between the language of ancient Egypt and the Semitic, and Japhetic languages of Asia; thus associating together, in probable origin, those three • The tJuity of the Buman feace, by the Rev. T. Smyth, D.D., p. 219. + Quarteiiy Reviewj December, 1849. e 2 Ix AJU AJSTALYTICAIi SXTfOPSIS OF THE great roots whicli, in their separate difiusion, have spread forms of speech over aE the civHised parts of the world. Taking the Japhetian, or Indo-Teutonic branch, we find these inqiiiries embracing and completing the connexions between the several families of language which compose this eminent division of mankind, already dominant in Europe for a long series of ages, and destined, apparently, through some of its branches, to still more general dominion over the globe." One of the results of this refined analysis has been the reduction of the Celtic to the class of Indo-Teutonic languages, through the labours of Bopp, Piichard, and Pictet, whereby an eighth family is added to one great stock, and the circle finished which defines the rela,tion of the one to the other, and also to the other languages of mankind. And, although many nations of the earth have been settled in their present countries at a period even beyond the reach of exact historical tradition, still, says Schlegel, their languages are manifestly nearer, or more distant varieties of a single mother tongue, spoken by one family of people, and prove, that in a distant and inter- mediate antiquity emigration took place over wide tracts of country, from a common and original abode. This is no hypothesis, but a fact clearly made out.* Dr. Prichard, from the beginning to the end of his valuable volumes, places a very high value u^on fundamental affinities of language,' as proving a family relationship amongst groups of nations." "We are told by Moses, (Gen. xi. 1,) " the whole earth was of one language (lip) and one speech," and that during the building of the Tower of Babel, " God confounded their language, that they might not understand one another's speech." The learned are not now agreed whether we have any remains of the primitive language of man ; and on this point the Scriptures supply no information. It is probable that the old Hebrew or Syriac is the most ancient language that has descended to us ; and the Jewish historians state that the sons of Eber, or Heber, did not take a part in the building of the tower, and, therefore, retained the primitive language, — an opinion supported only by tradition. Sir W. Jones says, "the original language is entirely lost." The result of the first inquiries into this subject appeared alto- * Preface to Prichard's Egyptian Mytliology, pp. xix, xx. NATUEAIr HISTOET OF MAN. Ixi gether adverse to the Mosaic record ; but more mature and extended labours, in which the scholars of the Grerman universities pre-emiaently shine, show, that the 3064 lan- guages of Adelung, and the 860 languages, and 5000 dialects of Balbi, may be reduced to eleven families, and these, again, are found to be not primitive and independent but modifica- tions of some original language.* "We shall conclude this part of the argument almost in the words of the Chev. Bunsen,t one of the most able writers on this subject, who, after giving a classification of the languages of men, and stating the two possible hypotheses : first, that there has been a great munber of beginnings, out of which different tribes have sprung, and with them different languages ; and second, that the beginning of speech was made only once, he continues, — " If the first supposition be true, the different tribes or families of languages, however analogous they may be, as being the produce of the same human mind upon the same outward world, by the same organic means, wiU, nevertheless, offer scarcely any affinity to each other, in the skill displayed in their formation, and in the mode of it ; but their very roots, full or empty ones, and all their words, monosyllabic or polysyllabie, must needs be entirely different. There may be some similar expressions in those inarticulate bursts of feeling, not reacted on by the mind, which grammarians call interjections. There are, besides, some graphic imita^ tions of external soimds, called onomatopoetica, — words, the formation of which indicates the, relatively, greatest passivity of the mind. There may be, besides, some casual coinci- dences in real words ; but the law of combination, applied to the elements of sound, gives a mathematical proof that, with all allowances, such a chance is less than one in a milli on for the same combination of sounds, signifying the same precise object. If there be entirely different beginnings of speech, as philosophical inquiry is allowed to assume, and as the great philosophers of antiquity have assumed, there can be none but stray coincidences between words of a different origin. Eeferring to what has already been stated, as the • Wiseman's Lectures. See also Encyclopsedia Brit., vol.vi. p. 27S. + The results of recent Egyptian researches, in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the classification of Languages, read before the British Association at Oxford, by C. C. J. Bunsen, D.C.L. Ixii AN -ANALTTICAIi SYNOPSIS 01" THE fesult of the most accurate linguistic iaquiries, such a coincidence does exist between three great families spread- ing from the North of Europe to the tropic lands of Asia and Africa. It there ecdsts, not only in radical words, hut even in what may appear as the work of an exolusi/veh/ peculiar comage, — the formative words and inflections which pervade the whole strwctwre of certain families oflamguages, — and are interwoven, as it wer^, with every sentence pronounced in every one of their hramches. All nations which, from the dawn of history to our' days, have been the leaders af cvoilisa- tion, in Asia, Mtrope, and Africa, must consequently have had one beginning. This is the chief lesson which the know- ledge of the Egyptian language teaches us." It is very true this statement of the veiy learned writer just quoted has more especial reference to the Semitic, Japetic, and Chametic languages only ; but the same reasoning and conclusions equally apply to the Turanian stock, that stock beiag a branch of the Japetic. Thus, ia a most wonderful and altogether unexpected way, modem Egyptological researches have greatly contributed to establish the proofs of a common origia of aU the languages of the globe, and to strengthen the evidence of all the races of man having derived their existence from one common parent. OPimONS OF THE MOST LEARNED NATURAUSTS ON TEE XJNITY OP OUR SPECIES. ADELxrua. In the introduction to his great work on language, Adeltjng* has summed up what history discloses to us on this subject ; and, as it has an important reference to the present object of inquiry, I hope the length of the extract will be excused. " Asia has been in all times regarded as the ooiintry where the human race had its beginning, received its first educa- tion, and from which its increase was spread over the rest of the globe. " Tracing the people up to tribes, and the tribes up to * Mithridates, oder allgemdne Sprachenhmde, &c. 1'. Th Berlin. 1806. 2'. 3', 4'. Th. von, J. S. Vater, Berlin, 1809—1817, a most importan work in relation to the history of our species, and the affinities and migration! of various tribes. NATUEAI HISTOKT OF MAS'. ' kiii families, we are conducted at last, if not by history, at least by the tradition of aU old people, to a single pair, from which families, tribes, and nations have been successively produced. The question has been often asked, what was this first family, and the first people descending from it ? where was it settled ? and how has it extended so as to fill the four large divisions of the globe ? It is a question of fact, and must be answered from history. But history is silent ; her first books have been destroyed by time, and the few hues preserved by Moses are rather calculated to excite than satisfy our curiosity. " In the first feeble rays of its early dawn, which are faintly perceived about 3000 years before the commence- ment of our present chronology, the whole of Asia, and a part of Africa, are already occupied with a variety of greater and smaller nations, of various manners, religion, and lan^ guage. The warlike struggle is already in fuU activity: here and there are polished states, with various useful inventions, which must have required long time for their productions, "development, and extension. The rest of the hmnan race consists of wild hordes occupied merely with pastoral pursuits, hunting, and robbery ; thus a kind of slave-trade is seen in the time of Abraham. Soon after a few weak glimmerings of light discover to us Europe in a similar state of population, from the Don to the PiUars of Hercules ; here and there traces of culture, industry, and commerce ; for instance, the amber trade in the Baltic, at least in the time of Homer, and that of the British tin. All this is per- ceived in remote obscurity, where only a few points of light occasionally shoot across, to show us the germs of future history, which is stUl profoundly silent respecting the time and place of such events. Nothing is left for us but humbly to assume the garb of ignorance, to look round us in the great archives of nature, and see if there are any documents which may at least lead us to conjectures. Happily there are such. " The present structure of the earth's surface teaches us, what Moses confirms, that it was formerly covered to a certain depth with water, which gradually lessened, from causes unknown to us, so that various spots became dry and habitable. The highest dry surface on the globe must, therefore, have been the earliest inhabited ; and here nature, or rather her Creator, will have planted the first people, Ixiv AN ANAIiTTICAl SYNOPSIS OF THE whose nniltiplieation and extension must liave followed the contimial gradual decrease of the water. "We must fancy to ourselves this first tribe endowed with all human faculties, but not possessing all Imowledge and experience, the subsequent acquisition of which is left to the natural operation of time and circumstances. As nature would not unnecessarily expose her first-born and unexperienced son to conflicts and dangers, the place of his early abode would be so selected, that all his wants could be easily satisfied, and every thing essential to the pleasure of his existence, readily procured. He would be placed, in. short, in a garden, or paradise. " Such a country is found ia central Asia, betweSn the 30th and 50th degrees of north latitude, and the 90th and 110th of east longitude (from Ferro) ; a spot which, ia respect to its height, can only be compared to the lofty plaia of Quito in. South America. Prom this elevation, of which the great desert Gobi, or Shamo, is the vertical point, Asia sioks gradually towards aU the four quarters. The great chains of mountains, running in various directions, arise from it, and contain the sources of the great rivers which traverse this division of the globe on all sides ; the Selinga, the Ob, the Lena, the Irtisch, and the Jenisey, in the north ; the Jaik, the Jihon, the Jemba, on the west ; the Amur and the Hoang-ho (or TeUow Eiver), towards the east; the Indus, Granges, and Burrampooter, on the south. If the globe was ever covered with water, this great table-land must first have become dry, and have appeared lilie an island in the watery expanse. The cold and barren desert of Gobi would not, indeed, have been a suitable abode for the first people ; but on its southern declivity we find Thibet, separated by high mountains from the rest of the world, and containing within its boundaries all varieties of aip and climate. If the severest cold prevails on its snowy mountains and glaciers, a perpetual simimer reigns in its valleys and well- watered plains. This is the native abode of rice, the vine, pulse, fruit, and all other vegetable produc- tions, from which man draws his nourishment. Here, too, all the animals are found wild which man has tamed for his use, and carried with him over the whole earth ; — the cow,* * To determine the original stock of our domestic animals is one of the KATTJEAI HISTOET OP WAK T. IxV horse, ass, sheep, goat, camel, pig, dog, cat, and even the serviceable rein-deer, his only attendant and friend in the icy deserts of the frozen polar regions. Close to Thibet, and just on the declivity of the great central elevation, we find the charming region of Cashmire, where great eleva/- tion converts the southern heat into perpetual spring, and where nature has exerted all her powers to produce plants, animals, and man, in the highest perfection. No spot on the whole earth unites so many advantages ; in none could the human plant have succeeded so well without any care."* This spot, therefore, seems to unite all the characters of paradise, and to be the most appropriate situation in Asia for the brrth-place of the human race. W. LAWEENCE, ESQ., E.B.S. The human species has numerous distinctive marks, by which under every circumstance of deficient or imperfect civi- lisation, and every variety of climate and race, it is separated by a broad and clearly defined interval from aU. other animals .f PEOrESSOR BITTMElfEACH. The peculiar characteristics of man appear to me so very strong, that I not only deem him a distinct species, but also put hiTTi into a separate order by himself. Ilis physical and moral attributes place him at a much greater distance from all other orders of mammalia, than those are from each other respectively. Order, Simana; Oenus, Somo; Species, Single, with several varieties. Characters, erect stature, two hands, both approximated and of equal length ; the inferior incisors perpendicular; prominent chin; rational, endowed with speech; unarmed, defenceless.J most difficult undertakings in zoology, I know no data on which the ox-kind can be referred to any wild species in Asia. Cuvier has concluded, from a minute osteological inquiry, that the wild ox (urus or bison of the ancients ; aurochs of the Germans), formerly found throughout the greater part of temperate Europe, and still met with in the forests of Lithuania, of the Carpathian and Caucasian chains, is not, as most naturalists hare supposed, the wild original of onr cattle ; but that the characters of the latter are found in certain fossil crania ; whence he thinks it probable " that the primary race has been -annihilated by civilisation, like that of the camel and dromedary." — Dea Animaux fosxiles, v. iv. ; Ruminans fosdlea, p. SI. * Adelung ; 1'. Theil. Einleitung, p. 3 — 9. ■)• Lectures on the Natural History of Man. (Bohn's edition.) X T>e Generis Humani Yarietate Nativa. kvi AS ANAIiTTICAIi STWOPSIS OP THE BTrrFON. Every circumstance conctirs in proving that mankind are not composed of species essentially different from each other; on the contrary, there was originally but one species, which, after multiplying and spreading over the whole surface of the earth, Ss undergone various changes, by the influences of climate, food, mode of living, epidemic diseases, and the mixture of dissimilar individuals.* JAMBS COWLES BBICHAEB, M.B. E.E.S. It is well known that this able and lesimed physician devoted the leisure hours of a long and active professional life to a consideration of the varieties of the human race. He felt that the Sacred Scriptures, whose testimony is received by all men of unclouded minds with implicit and reverential assent, declare that it pleased the Almighty to create of one blood all the nations on the earth, and that all mankind are the offspring of common parents ; and he then resolved to discover how far the conclusions of reason and of science were confirmatory, and what the data for arriving at the conclusion, that aU the races and diversities of mankind are really derived from a single pair, placed on the earth for the peopling of its surface, both in times past, present, and to come, during those ages which it may please the Almighty to assign to the present order of existence here. This writer has not only considered the subject as ^physiological, — including all which relates to the physical conformation of man, his menta.1 endowments, the question of the unity or plurality of species, and the laws which permit and limit the deviation froin a common standard ; but, 2ndli/, the pMh- logical, including aU which belongs to human languages, their connexions, diversities, the theory of the changes they undergo, and the history of such actual changes ; and, lastl^, the historical — ^taking the term in its most extended sense, as including all written histojy, inscriptions, traditions, mythology, and even the more common usages which designate and distinguish the different races of man, — has been examined, the facts carefully collected, and conclusions based upon those facts set before us. We have reserved to near the conclusion of this synopsis the result of his * Natural History, translated by Wood, vol. iii. p. 446. TTATTJBAIi HISTOET OF MAIT. Ixvii inquiries, and the opinion wHcli this great man expressed only a short time before his death deprived the profession of one of its brightest ornaments. He says, that the different races of men are not distinguished from each other by strongly marked, uniform and permanent distinctions, as are the several species belonging to any given tribe of animals ; all the diversities which exist are variable, and pass into each other by insensible gradations; and there is, moreover, scarcely an instance ia which the actual transition cannot be proved to have taken place. Thus, if we consider the varieties of the figure which are generally looked upon as the most important, and begia with those of the skeleton and the skuH as their foundation, we shall find every particular type undergoing deviations and passing into other forms. We have seen that in many races, who have generally and originally, as far as we can go back towards their origin, heads of the pyramidal figure, with broad faces, or the Mongolian type, the oval or European shape with European features display themselves in individuals, and often become the characteristics of tribes. The shape of the head in the Black races varies in like manner. The Sudanian nations have a black complexion, with a form of the head different from that of the Negro ; the type varies in particular tribes and even in the same tribe. Towards the south, the black and crisp-haired Africans display in the highland of the Kafirs a form resembling the European, and in the country of the nomadic Hottentots make a signal approximation to the physical character prevalent among the nomades of high Asia. Among the aboriginal races of the new world, similar varieties and similar deviations occur. With respect to colour, it is still more easy to trace the greatest variations within the Hmits of one race ; there is, perhaps, not one great family of nations, having its branches spread through different countries, which does not display, in this particular, the most strongly marked varieties. We have traced them in the instances of the Jews and Arabs, in the tribes of Hindoos, or rather of the Indian race spread through India, compared with those of the Himalayan counlries. It has been said that the native tribes of America present an exception to the general observ9.tion deduced from a survey of the nations of the old world, and that the com- plexion of the American displays no relation to chmate. We kviii AIT AJTAIiTTICAl SYNOPSIS OF THE have proTed on the conta-ary, that tribes alike belonging to the American stock manifest the influences of external agencies not less distinctly than do the white iohabitants of Europe compared with the black races of Africa;* for example, compare the black CaJifomians with the white Americans of the north-west coast. He also proves, to our mind most satisfactorily, (and we are writing after having devoted many hours to a patient and careful examination of the immense amount of facts collected by Dr. Prichard,) that the dark coloured tribes of Africa are not a distinct people, separated from aU the other families of man, and tmiform amongst themselves, such as we " ideally represent under the term Negro." Nor can it be pretended that any intellectual superiority of one human race over another, which can be imagnied to exist, furnishes any argument against the conclusion that all men are of the same species. If it be admitted that the Negroes are deficient in mental capacity, this would not prove them to belong to another family ; for it would be no difficult matter in many towns and villages of this country to dis- cover families inteUectually inferior to the generality of AfricanSjt and it is a fact which cannot be controverted that there are and have been many Negroes whose mental facul- ties may be measured by the standard of European intellect j nor must it be forgotten that external influences, civilisatioii and social culture exert no trifling power in awakening and developing the faculties of the mind. If this psychologicaii comparison be extended to others, even to the poor Buslt- men, we have the authority of Mr. BurcheUJ for saying that the females, though nearly naked, displayed as much the signs of modesty as Europeans, " the girls were as dehcate in feelings of modesty as if they had been educated in the most decorous manner." Of the men — destitute of flocks and herds, living on the wild roots of the wildemess, on reptiles, locusts, and the larvae of ants, assimilated to the * Pp. 473 — 475, 545. We give the svhtlxmoe of what Dr. Prichard has stated ; want of space obliging us very much to abridge the original text, + We might select thousands of the Caucasian race that are inferior to thousands of the more intelligent Africans ; as the deficiency in the former would not prove that they were not Caucasians, so a lower grade of general intellect would not exclude the Negro from the species to which we belong. X Travels in Africa, vol.i. p. 434. IfATTJEAL HISTOST Or MAS. ItiV ■wild beasts in their habits — ^the same writer adds, " I dis- covered among them traits otkmd and social feelings, and all the essential attributes of humanity ;" well, then, might Dr. Priehard conclude, that when — " We find every where the same auseeptibility, though not always in the same degree of forwardness or ripeness of improvement, of admit- ting of the cultivation of these universal endowments, of opening the eyes of the mind to the more clear and luminous views which Christianity vmfolds, of becoming moulded to the institutions of religion and civilised life ; in a word, the same inward and mental nature is to be recognised in all the races of men. When we compare this feet with the observations which have been heretofore fully established as to the specific instincts and separate physical endow- ments of all the distinct tribes of sentient beings in the universe, we are entitled to draw confidently the conclusion that all hvma/n races are of one species and one family." — ^p. 545, vol. ii. Sestwie. We must now bring this pari; of the work to a close. In the following pages the reader will find that Dr. Pickering has sketched most clearly the peculiarities by which the various Races of Man are distinguished from each other. Our task has been to determiue whether in the colour of the skin, the shape of the trunk and extremities, the conformation of the skull, the structure of the brain, &c., &c., &c., there exist such diflferences between any two families as to justify the conclusion that they are not of the same species. In doiug so, we have first considered the skeleton of the Afi-ican in relation to that of the Chimpanzee and Orang-Outang, and then endeavoured, after comparing the structure of those parts of the body in the Negro which are thought to differ most materially from the European, to show how aU. the Eaces of Man are separated from every other animal by a clear and not to be approached boundary. We have next investigated the question of the unity of our species, and after giving the objections which have been urged against the probability of aU men being of one family and one species, the proofs on which that opinion rests have been fuUy investigated. Mrst, the subject has been studied as presented to our notice by the Mosaic account of the creation : next, it has been regarded as altogether a question for scientific research ; and the large amount of facts relating to the Natural History of Man, which have been collected, from a great variety of sources, will not only, we hope, be of Ixx AN ANALTTICAL STNOPSIS OP THE interest to the general reader, but also of use to the students of our public schools and universities, in conducting the inquiry, — whether all the races of man which are dispersed over the surface of the earth, and whose portraits, as sketched in the following pages by Dr. Pickering, will be found to exhibit the most remarkable contrasts in feature and in colour ; and not only to differ in complexion and in physical conformation, but also in languages, manners, customs, modes of worship, &c., &c., &c. ; have arisen from Adam and Eve, or are the offspring of several original and distinct parents ? It may, and probably wiU, be urged that this problem has long ago been so decidedly solved by the authority of the Bible, that no room is left for doubt or for discussion ; but we think that it is impossible to devote the energies of the mind to a more noble undertaking than an investigation of the natural history of the races of man-^a branch of that great tree of science which includes the histoiy of aU organised life, which carries us along the phases of creation, through all the numberless gradations of vegetable and animal existence, till we reach those wonderful instincts and stiU. more exalted functions of reason and intelligence, of speech and of language, the possession of which, as already demonstrated, separates man by a wide chasm from the cattle of the field, — with a view of showing the harmony existing between the facts which are exhibited in the Book of Nature, and the record given of them in the Word of Grod. We cannot lay down our pen without expressing an opinion as to the unity of our species ; and, although the profession to which we belong instinctively directs the eye to look for physical anatomical identity,— to consider the shape of the head, the figure of the pelvis, and the colour of the skin, — ^to search for physiological identity amid the varied changes to which the human constitution is liable; and, looking at the varieties of the gemts homo, to ask, how, when, and where these varieties arose, and what is known of the springing up of analogous varieties in the present day, and of which some instances have been given ;* still • The Keviewer of Dr. Pricliard's work, in the « Quarterly," contends, that " from the fact of nature producing frequent Varieties in all races, as striking as are the extreme diversities amongst men, and that there is an entice conti- nuity in the gradations which occur in nature from one diversity to another," NATTJEAL HISTOSX OF MAN. Ixxi VTOuld we venture for one moment to direct attention to the psychical and moral bearings of the question, of more importance far than many of those on which so much labour, during many years, has been expended. When we observe that all the races of man, civilised and savage, have the same powers of utterance, — ^that both speak naturally, and are equally understood; when we find all languages, dialects, and tongues reduced to a few families, and pointing, so far as human wisdom yet can trace, to one common origin; when we see in all men, whatever the climate they inhabit and the colour of their skin, a belief in a world beyond the grave ; %hen even the poor Bushmen exhibit some glimmerings of family relations and habits, and some mingling of human sentiments ; when we discover the use of fire, artificial clothing, instruments by which the labours necessary to procure food and raiment are facilitated — weapons of offence and defence — ^the club, the spear, the sickle, and the fishing-hook, — characteristic of mankind ; when we see objects of worsliip, prayers to the gods, sacri- fices to obtain real or imaginary blessings, — sacred festivi- ties, pilgrimages, — the priests and priestesses upon whom the divine services of the Negroes depend, and who are supposed — (tbus, a striking example is afforded, ih a Negress having an Albino ofispringi without pigment cells, a fact whicli iilcludes all tbose minor varieties of colour \vhicli aire so familiar to us In tlie same community, and even in the same family; and continuous gradations of colour, from the Negro to the native of Northern Europe, are proved to exist,) "that the argument for the unity might be left as sufficient, even if it ended here," and derived no addi- tional confirmation from the analogies presented by the inferior grades of animal life ; and evidence has been given "which proves the actual deviations of man from a common standard are less than those found in the animals which are rendered familiar to us by domestication. 1. The conclusion that all the Races of Man are of one species, may be drawn from the harmony of the general laws of the animal economy ; for if, after a due allowance is made for the effects of climate, habits of life, &c., it should appear that in two races of animals the duration of life is the same, that their n^tut^l functions observe the same laWs, that they are susceptible of the same diseases, thene is a very strong presumption that they are of the same species. Now, the grand laws of the animal economy ai'e the same in their operation upon all men, and the slight deviations which occur are not greater than the common varieties of constitution which exist within the limits of the same family, 2. From the eicistence in the same admitted species amongst the inferior tribes of animals of varieties analogous to those which occur in mankind. 3. l^rom the circumstance of varieties being really known to have sprung up among men more or less similar to those which distinguish different nations. — Oh the Animal £mgdom and Unity of mir Species,hj J. C, Hall, M.t).,p. 93. Ixxii AN AJJAIiTTICAI, SXNOPSIS, &C. to have confidential intercourse with the gods ; when we find ia the Negro's breast some beUef in the unmortahty of the soul, and a state of retribution; when we he^^ the savage describing his abode beyond the grave as a feriale hunting-ground, and the Christian speakmg of his para^se as a place, the joys of which eye hath not seen, nor the mind of man conceived; when everywhere are presenM funeral rites for the dead,— burning, sepulchre, embalmii^ mummies ; when we behold mounds without number scat- tered over ail the northern nations of the world, the only remaining records of races now extinct ; when we examme the wonderfully constructed Pyramids of Egypt, the graves of the ancient Peruvians, the monuments of the PolynesiaBs| when certain religious observances are considered,— it may be the worship of the Sun, or the petition of the savage to the Great Spirit, or the prayers, masses, and litanies offered for the dead and for the living, in the churches of Europa the temples of Eastern chmes, or the mysterious rites of Pagan altars ; and when all these are regarded as ■phensy mena in the history of the most refined and barbarod nations, and as springing from those co mm on faculties and sensibilities, of feeling, passion, and of hope, which speak of close and unalterable resemblance, and attest the great natural relation of aU men to each other, forming " a piece of Divinity within us, — something that was before the elements, and ovring no homage to the sun;" and when lastly, in the joyful laughter, and ia those bitter tears which are common alike to the civilised and cultivated citizen of London, and to the untutored savage of the desert, are furnished proofs of family identity, which convince the mind far more powerfully than aU. the subtilties of argu- ment; for — " One touch of nature makes the whole world kin ;" 'We are fully satisfied, that all the races of man are, as the Grospel clearly expresses it, "of one blood" — that thb BiAOK Man, Eed Man, and the White Man, abb links in one gbeat chain of relationship, and alike children which hate descended peom one comholf Pabent. JOHN CHARLES HALI,, MJ). Sheffieu), July 9th, 1850. PHYSICAL HISTOKY OF MAN. CHAPTEE I. ENUMERATION OF THE RACES. Theee races of men are familiarly known ia the TJnited States, and are admitted by general consent. The same three physical races have been considered by eminent natu- ralists (who, however, have not travelled) to comprise all the varieties of the human family. Blumenbach has indi- cated a fourth race, the Malay ; and even a fifth has been shadowed forth in the accounts of the Australian Seas. It was impossible, however, from the materials fiimished by books, to define the geographical boundaries of these races ; a point which seemed of importance, as forming in a good degree the basis of our reasoning on the whole subject. This then was one of the objects of investigation I pro- posed to myself on joining the Exploring Expedition ; and my previous experience as a naturalist, a pursuit calling for the constant exercise of the powers of discrimination, gave me some advantages in conducting the inqvuiy. At one time during the voyage, I thought my task nearly accomplished ; and, after visiting Australia and New Zealand, I actually penned an opinion, that the races of men were five in number. Soon, however, I was compelled to admit three more : neither was this the limit of the productiveness of nature, in new and undreamt of combinations of feature. More careful observation than at the outset had seemed necessary was now called into requisition ; and often, for a time, I experienced perplexity. One difficulty arose, in fixing 2 PHTSICAI HISTOBT OF MA>:. ia the mind, -while passing from place to place, the relative shades of complexion. Fortunately for my purpose, tattooing was practised in many of the coimtries visited, and these marlongs afforded a convenient test of the depth of hue. Individuals, also, of three or more races being present among the crews of our vessels, afforded the means of making some direct comparisons. In the end all difficulties vanished, and I was enabled to arrive at satisfactory conclusions. It shoidd be observed, that in the countries visited by the Expedition, the inhabitants present among themselves great uniformity of feature and complexion : while in the Arab countries and in "Western Hindostan, there is an astonishing diversity of aspect in the population ; independently, to all appearance, of the great mixture of races. The mountaia region of Abyssinia is said Kkewise to present a seemingly • heterogeneous population ; but iu all the countries which I have myself visited, the varieties of feature have appeared susceptible of reduction to the arrangement adopted in the present work. I have seen iu all eletek eacbs of mew ; and though I am hardly prepared to fix a positive limit to their number, I confess, after having visited so many different parts of the globe, that I am at a loss where to look for others. They may be emmierated conveniently enough in the order of complexion; and beginning with the Ughtest, I will add some of the more obvious distinctive characters. a. White. 1. AEABiAif. The nose prominent, the lips thin, the beard abundant, and the hair straight or flowing. 2. ABTSsrfriAM! The complexion hardly becoming florid ; the nose prominent, and the hair crisped. b. JBroicn. 3. MoNGOLiAS-. Beardless, with the hair perfectly straight and very long. 4. Hottentot. Negro features, and dose wooUyhair; and the stature diminutive. 5. Maiat. Features not prominent in the profile ; the complexion darker than in the preceding races, ajid the hair straight or flowing. EirPMEEATION OF THE EA.OES. 3 c. SlacMsh-brown. 6. PAiTrAN. Features not prominent in the profile ; the beard abundant, tbe skiu barsb to the touch, and the hair crisped or frizzled. 7. NegeiiiLO. Appaxently beardless; the stature dimi- nutive, the features approaching those of the Negro, and the hair woolly. 8. Inbiait or Telht&ait. The features approaching those of the Arabian ; and the hair iu like manner, straight or flowing. 9. Ethiopiait. The complexion and features interme- diate between those of the Tehngaa and Negro ; and the hair crisped. d. Black. 10. AttstbatiTatt. Negro features, but combined with straight or flowing hair. 11. Negbo. Close wooUy hair ; the nose much flattened, and the Hps very thick. In an absolute sense, the terms "white and black" are both inapplicable to any shade of the human complexion ; but they are sanctioned by general usage, and there may be some convenience in retaining the above four general divi- sions. Two of the races may therefore be designated as white, three as brown, four as blackish-brown, and two as black. live of the races have the hair straight or flowing ; while in the others it is more or less crisped, and in two of them it may with propriety be termed wool. Other modes of associating the races may be also men- tioned. Maritime habits, and the part they appear to have taken in colonising the globe, would lead us to separate the Malay, Negrillo, and Papuan ; or the three island, from the eight continental races. Again, looking to their distribution over the surface of the globe : sis of the races may be regarded as Asiatic or East Indian, and four as African ; the eleventh (the White race) being in common, or holding geographically an inter- mediate position. The existence of races, it should be observed, is a pheno- menon independent of climate. All the physical races that b2 4 PHYSICAL HIBTOBT OF MAN. occur in cold regions can be traced by continuity to the Tropics ; where, moreover, we find other races in_ addition. By the same evidence of geographical continuity, the population of one hemisphere can be satisfactorily derived from the other; but a difficulty arises in narrowing the circle. On the one hand, it seems quite impossible to trace the four African races to any part of Asia ; and on the other, it will be equally difficult to connect the Mongolian race with the African continent. CHAPTEE II. EXPLANATION OF THE MAP. The geographical distribution of these eleven races of men is represented on the accompanying map by different colours. I have preferred,lEbr this purpose, an unusual projection ; on account of its exhibiting at one view the true area of the surface of the globe, or, in other words, the relative size of the different countries. I have inscribed on the map my own route of travel, in order that it may readily be perceived when I speak from my own knowledge ; in which case only can I be held responsible for my opinion. "Wherever I have seen for myself, all difficulties have disappeared ; not so in various instances, where I have been obliged to decide on conflicting statements. In general I have found oral testimony more satisfactory, in the present inquiry, than books. But I would here state, that I yet feel much uncertainty about the tribes inhabiting the important range of islands between Timor and the Solomon Q-roup, both inclusive. The dotted lines are intended to illustrate the subject of ■ the diffusion of mankind over the globe ; marking such as are presumed to have been the main routes of migration, by land and sea. AU coasts may be referred to three principal divisions ; which are likevsdse represented, but without pretension to minute accuracy. These are the allwmal, the rochy (exclu- sively or alternating), and the coral-bormd. The coasts of the latter description I am enabled to give chiefly through EXPLANATION OF THE MAP. 5 the assistance of Mr. Dana; and they deserve attention as havmg an important bearing, to be hereafter noticed, on human migrations. . "^"^ phases of climate, varying especially in the propor- tions of moisture, partition out the soil and its vegetable growth into three well-marked divisions. 1. There are countries which are almost entirely devoid of vegetation. 2. Other extensive regions are more or less covered with herbage, or produce scattered bushes and stunted woody plants, but are destitute of proper forests. 3. A third description of territory is, in its natural state, clothed with continuous woods. This state of things is likewise repre- sented on the map, not merely from its connexion vrith geo- graphical botany, but as a point eminently illustrative of the history and present condition of the human family. Art indeed cuts down the forest, and encroaches slightly on the barren territory; but yet the above three natural divisions vrill very nearly correspond with desert, pastoral, and agricultural countries. It is a mistake to suppose, with many, that pastoral or nomadic life is a stage in the pro- gressive improvement of society. The condition is inscribed upon the face of nature ; and widely-extended regions minister to the wants of man, where nevertheless cultivation is impossible. Take, for instance, the vast interior of the Eastern conti- nent. "We have, in the first place, a great desert tract extending through Northern Africa, Arabia, and "Western India; the domain of the Barabra, Tuarick, and Arab. The presence of man in this terrestrial void is often solely dependent on the milk of the camel. Next follows on the north and east, a pastoral region of still greater extent; where the face of nature is somewhat softened, so that the horse and bullock can obtain sustenance ; and hence the development of the Tartar or Scythian tribes. Continue the survey on the map towards the borders of the continent, and there will not, I apprehend, be any difficulty in distinguishing the principal seats of population and national power. In proceeding to the consideration of separate races, I shaU adopt an arrangement partly geographical, and shall refer to these several heads, such miscellaneous observations as have appeared worthy of preservation. PHYSICAL HISTOET OP MAIT. CHAPTEE, m. THE MONGOLIAN RACE. I HATE thougtt to disting^sh in the Mongolian race physical traits and a style of featurei at variance in some respects with those of the remaining series of races. One of these peculiarities consists in the occurrence of a feminine aspect in both sexes. In the absence of any striking difference in stature or dress, I have ofben seen the stranger at a loss to distinguish men from women ; a diffi- culty not depending altogether on the absence of a beard; and which, so far as my observation extends, does not take place in the other races. The well-characterised MoHgoliaii head is less compressed at the sides than is the head in the other races, so that when viewed in front, it presents a more rounded contour. The forehead recedes; but in continuation of a general curve from the chin upwards ; and it frequently happens that the nose is likewise arched. The latter withal is less prominent than in the "White race, and the lips are some- what thicker. The complexion is always sufficiently light to show a. flush, and in the far North, it sometimes becomes decidedly florid. This is said to be the ease with the coast-tribes ot Northwest America ; and indeed I have seen among them two females, in aU probability of unmixed race, who from their fair complexion might very weU have passed for Europeans. The Mongolian is pre-eminently a beardless race, tSie chin often remaining perfectly smooth, even to extreme age. In the instances where a thin beard does make its appear- ance, I have never seen it attain a greater length than two or three inches, and it was always perfectly straight. The hair also has appeared to me more uniformly straight, and to have a tendency to grow longer than in the other races ; A KAi A P TI T .'^. • ■ A[ A N . i,'ArT\T: OF 3jj;c-;'N. THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 7 when left to itself, I thiut it wiQ, not unfrequently, reach the groimd. As lo the "oblique eye," so generally spoken of as cha- racteristic of the Chinese, I have found it among them ia some instances, and also among the Chinooks of Northwest America ; but I have not been able to make much use of it as a distinctive character. I have moreover seen indivi- duals of the Malay race haviug their eyea small and as if half-closed, and I am induced to think some confiision may have arisen from this source. I was not more successful with the alleged " absence of a projecting ruuer angle to the Uds," whick has Kfcewise been spoken of as a Chiuese pecu- liarity.^ Some writers have found a want of clearness in the sclerotica, or " white of the eye," of the aborigioal American j a point I have not examined, but which seems to deserve attention. For characteristic figures of Mongolians, I would particu- larly refer to "West's paintings of aboriginal Americans ; so fep, at least, as, I can judge from copies.' The Arctic Eegions seem exduaively possessed by the Mongolian race ; which besides is diffused through a greater variety of climates than any other, and over a far larger area. This comprises about one half of Asia, and with a slight exception all aboriginal America, or more than two- fifths of the land-surface of the globe. Notwithstanding the recent encroachments, the greater portion of the American continent is still inhabited by Mongolian tribes ; and while some of them wander towards the North, fiirther than civilised man has hitherto been able to foUow, others are stiU the nearest dwellers to the Southern Pole. BRAZIL. Tti conforming, wherever it is practicable, to the order of the Voyage, Brazil is the first place that claims attention. During a stay of sis weeks at E.io Janeiro, including journeys to and beyond the Organ Mountains, I did not meet with the least traces of aboriginals ; neither, on inquiry, could I hear of the presence of an individual in the city. Some, it was said, were living at the distance of two or three days' journey, who might have been visited, had other objects been abandoned. 8 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OF MAIT. PATAGONIA. I was again unsuccessful in meeting witli aboriginals during our short and interrupted visit to the Eio NEaBO, in North Patagonia ; but I learned that some ciyilised natives were residing at the Spanish village, about twenty miles from the mouth of the river. Incursions are sometimes made by distant tribes, for the purpose of steahng horses ; and one of the pilots had been in a conflict with a party of these marauders. He repre- sented them as being " aU horsemen, armed only with a long pike. They used the war-cry of ' cha cha,' and they charge in a body at a chosen poiat, too impetuously to be resisted ; but having broken through the opposing line, they continue their course without giving further trouble." Mr. Coan, of the Hawaiian mission, once spent some months in SoTiTHEEif PATAflONiA, with the tribe bordering on the Straits of Magellan, (the same repeatedly mentioned in the Voyage of the Beagle,) and I am indebted to him for the following particulars. " The Patagonian tribes do not appear to have bloody wars ; but he once witnessed a severe fight between two individuals, unarmed. The stature of these people is nothing unusual, but it is exaggerated by their peculiar mode of dress. They are all -horsemen, but having no canoes, they cannot pass the Straits : the Fuegians do this sometimes, when they are seized and reduced to slavery. The Araucanians never cross the Andes into this country, neither do the Patagonians visit theirs. A native, who was acquainted with the whole of Patagonia, and who had acquired some Spanish words at the settlements on Eio Negro, informed Mr. Coan that he once made the attempt ; and that he reached a place beyond which his horse could not proceed from the want of feed, and further on there was only snow." THE ANTARCTIC OK MAGELLANIC WATERMEN. . The great chain of the Andes, considered as continuous throughout all America, terminates with singular symmetry, North and South, in a high broken border-archipelago; presenting a labyrinth of sounds and channels that afibrds room for the development of a maritime population. THE MOITGOMAlf EACE. 9 The Souttem Watermen, or the Puegiaas, are far less advanced in the art of navigation than their Northern brethren. Their canoes are smaller, and inferior in con- struction. They are not known to venture forth into the open sea ; and even the PaUdand Islands, although so near the coast, appear to have remained unvisited by them. Something, indeed, should be allowed for the more tempestuous character of the surrounding Southern Ocean. In February, 1839, the Yincennes came to anchor in Orange Harbour ; and on the day of our arrival, a small canoe made its appearance, coming from the direction of the islet of Cape Horn, which was nearly in sight. I was on shore at the time ; and before I could reach the ship's side, the canoe departed, without giving me a distinct view of the occupants. During the nine following days, that elapsed before the sailing of the EeUef, no other natives made their appearance ; and notwithstanding I landed at different points almost every day, and extended my walks as far as sis miles inland, the whole countiy appeared to be a solitude. Sometimes, however, in follovdng the coast, I would come upon a deserted hut ; scarcely distinguishable in the midst of the rank growth of herbaceous plants, and always situated immediately in the rear of the beach. In shape it was hemispherical, having the apex unfinished for the passage of smoke ; and it seemed to be the work of but a few hours with the unassisted hands. A heap of mussels and limpets uniformly encumbered the entrance, and indi- cated the chief support of the proprietors. A footpath was in general traceable, not leading inland, but only to the water's edge ; and in a single instance a weed remained behind, a Nettle, that had been unintentionally transported from its native soil. Such was the only change man had here wrought upon the face of nature. By what means the Fuegians procure fire, so precious in this chilly and humid climate, I am uninformed ; but the process would seem to be difficult, since they are careftd. always to take a supply in their canoes. At first it appeared a surprising circumstance, that living where snow is not unfrequent, and so near the Antarctic circle, these people should be entirely destitute of clothing ! And no tact so 10 PHTSICAL HISTOET OF MAS. plainly disclosed the absence of the severe winters of the Horth. Indeed we afterwards found, that in the Southern hemisphere, vegetation is nowhere checked by a season of cold ; but that iu many respects a tropical dunate may be said to extend to the Antarctic snows. After the sailing of the Belief, the natives made theic appearance more jfrequently ; and from oral descriptions, and the drawings of the artists, I was enabled to satisfy myself of the physical identity with our Northern abori- ginals. I was, however, particulaiiy struck with the foUow- ing testimony, obtained after spending two years among the tribes of the Pacific and Southern Oceans ; when, having again directed our course to America, we arrived in the Straits of De Fuca. On here viewing the Chiaooksi. a highly intelligent and observing officer remarked in my hearing, " that he could not discover much difference between them and the Puegians ; they appeared to him essentially the same sort of people." Among the few articles mamifactured by the Euegjaaaa of Orange Harbour, we observed that the strings are exclusively of animal fibre, and that the weapons consist only of slmffs and spears ; the latter used apparently not for the purposes of war, but for proctiring fish, and perhaps seals. The spear-heads are formed of the soKd bone of some marine animal; and in shape and mode of attachment, they present an obvious analogy to the bone-pointed arrows and sabuon- spears of Northwest America. A ftffther unexpected anar logy is perceived iu the shape of ^e paddles; the Fnegiana making the blade even narrower than do the Northwestern tribes. The EeUef, previous to my going on boaa-d, had touched at G-OOD-STJCCESS Bat, at the eastern extremity of Terra del Fuego. And the "superior stature and condition" of the natives seen at that place, induced eye-witnesses to suppose, that they belonged to a different class from the people fre- quenting Orange Harbour. Indeed the possession of bows and ajTows, and the wearing of the skins of land quadrupeds, indicate a. hunting tribe ; or, at least, one not altogether depending on the products of the sea. They were perhaps a specimen of the tribes which frequent the unknown Interior of the main island of Terra del Puego. THE MOITGOIIAS EACE. 11 The hows obtained at Grood-succesff Bay are simply of wood, without the addition of sanew. The surows are pointed with flint-stone, and are of the usual American pattern ; but they are feathered only on two sides, and the shaft is more highly finished and more beautiful than I have seen it in. the Nortk A hank of yam, made apparently of the wool of the guanaco, was worn by the natives on the head; but the manufacture of leather does not appear to have reached these Southern tribes. The presence of the dog among the tribes inhabiting this extreme point of America, is another feet that deserves attention. CHILI. The "White race is evidently far in the ascendancy in lfori;hem Chili; and I looked for some time among the population of Valparaiso and Santiago, before I could dis- tinguish traces of the aboriginal stock. It was novel and interesting to perceive one physical race thus quietly giving place to another, without outrage or oppression. Mixed blood cannot, however, be called rare in Korthem Chili ; and, at the foot of the Andes, I found whole families that appeared to be purely aboriginal ; though in their houses, customs, and mode of living, they did not differ jfrom the other inhabitants of the country. It afterwards became evident, that the semi-civilisation of ancient Peru had aboriginally extended its influence over Northern Chili. PERU. In Peru, on the other hand, I found a preponderance of aboriginal blood, especially at a distance fi?om Lima, and on approaching the Andes ; yet neither singly nor collectively did the original stock appear to have much political weight, or to have taken any very prominent part in the recent history of the country. Certain peciJiar customs have indeed tmiversally prevailed; but, olierwise, no obvious trace remains of the institutions of the Incaa, even in the districts where their language continues to be spoken. By an exception to the usual tendency of European civili- sation there are grounds for questioning whether Peru has altogether gained by the change. Personal security certainly 12 PHYSICAL HISTOET 01' MAN. does not appear to have been promoted ; and, notwithstand- ing the introduction of new useful animals and plants, agri- culture seems to have been fully as flourishiag under the rule of the Incas. In company with others I made an excursion to the crest of the Andes, where we experienced heavy frosts and frequent snows, which, moreover, perpetually invested the projecting peaks. The moist and chilly climate reminded us of Terra del Fuego ; and, as ia that region, wild geese were feeding on the close-set herbage. During the three nights w'e passed at Casa Cancha, most of our party suffered from the "puna;" an affection accompanied with headache, fever, and vomiting, in some respects analogous to sea-sick- ness, as it is apt to accompany a first introduction to these heights. "While ascending on foot to the mine of Alpamarca, we remarked the frequent necessity of resting, for the sake of taking breath. The cause did not seem difficult of expla- nation ; for, at the elevation of fifteen thousand feet, the atmosphere had lost one half of its density, so that we were obliged to double the number of our inspirations, to procure our accustomed supjjly of air. The English superintendent stated, that " a residence of years does not relieve this shortness of breath, and inabuity of long-continued mus- cular exertion, and that the aboriginals bom on the spot suffer equally with strangers." I have, however, been assured by Mr. Quimby, who has travelled much among the Andes, that a " perceptible tendency to enlargement of the chest has been remarked among the people of the mining districts." Coca (which consists of the leaves of the Erythroxylon mixed with lime) formed the resource and consolation of the miners of Alpamarca; and its use, in preference to tobacco, had extended to European residents. I was here first struck with the superior powers of endurance of the aboriginal American ; an important item, as it has appeared to me, in the profitable working of the South American mines. I did not learn the precise footing on which the aboriginals are employed in Peru, but I was assured that " they are very rarely slaves." I visited also several abandoned Inca villages in the THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 13 vicinity of Lima ; together with Pachicamao, wMcli appears to have been the aboriginal capital of the district. The cemetery at this place deserves attention, as the climate is favourable to the preservation of relics ; and as it does not seem probable that bodies have been placed here subse- quently to the Spanish conquest, or the conversion. I remarked among the articles exhumed a small roundish gowBr-shell, having a square opening, precisely as it is now seen in the Lima market ; also a short-eared black variety of maize, vrhich is stiU common, and another variety having the graias slightly pointed ; the Pachya lean, and a frpe- seeded variety of the cotton-plant; fragments oi woven cloth, all of cotton, but of various degrees of fineness, and even of different colours, among which llue was distinguishable; fish-nets, also of cotton, and made after the usual method, which is common alike to Europeans, Polynesians, and Pee- jeeans ; and a neatly-made sling, which was the only sem- blance of an implement of wai-, though probably not so intended : slings, it has already been observed, are used by the Fuegians, but not, that I am aware of, by our North American tribes. Stone hatchets, very similar to those found in the United States, occur among the antiquities of Peru, a circumstance unexpected ia a people acquainted with the use of metals, though we may note the possibility of their belonging to the anterior period of Peruvian history. A head-dress, stated to have belonged to " Atahualpa, the last of the Incas," has recently been sent to "Washington; and it is here mentioned on account of the analogy, in the style of ornament, to the bands of Dentalium shells of Northwest America. The knowledge of metals, in aboriginal America, appears to have been almost exclusively confined to Peru and Mexico, with the intervening countries. The value espe- cially attached to the "precious metals" by the natives of these countries is a suspicious circumstance, which even tends to invalidate the supposition of any independent development of civilisation. It should be observed that the knowledge of metals has certainly not been derived through the islands of the Pacific, for they scarcely afibrd traces of ores and even metallic implements do not appear to have 14 PHTSIOAIi mSTOET OF IIAU'. been aborigmally conveyed beyond the western extreme of New Gkiinea. Extending now these limits, fio as to include Australia, and I think we have nearly defined the portion of the globe whose inhabitants were found by Europeans to be destitute of metals. I do not know whether preeiows stones were anywhere prized in aborigiaal America, but they are among the articles which travelled fiirthest during the early period of commercial intercourse; and, by tracing them to their several localities, additional light may hereaftea- be thrown on certaia portions of history. THE NORTHWESTERN OR ALEUTIAN WATERMEN. In 1841, as the Yiacennes approached the entrance of the Straits of De Euca, a good deal of interest was excited by the appearance of a canoe. As it drew near, a report spread "that there were White men on board;" and indeed, after having been for two years accustomed to the personal appearance of the Polynesians, we all noticed the superior lightness of complexion, together with the greater length of hair. The novelty of hats next engaged attention; and perhaps it was their conical shape, combined with the short stout person, and the general sl^le of dress, that brought to mind representations of Siberian tribes. The fashion, however, of the conical hat, extends further than the opposite coast of Asia ; and we subsequently had occasion to notice it in various parts of the East Indies. Afber the soft languages and rapid enunciation of the islanders, the Chinooks presented a sing^ar contrast in the slow, deliberate manner in which they seemed to choke out their words ; giving utterance to sounds, some of which could scarcely be represented by combinations of known letters. Their deportment was hardly less unlike ; espe- cially in the absence of a salutation, and of all signs of approbation at anything they saw. As we proceeded up the Straits, canoes frequently came round, bringing, as subse- quently, an abundant supply of fish. Sometimes the occu- pants seemed to be attracted by curiosity; but they were .always eager to traffic away the various articles in their possession, although to our eyes the result seemed increased impoverishment. THE MON&OLIAN BACB. 15 The Vincennes ancliored in Diacoyery Harbour; and shortly afterwards I went on shore. Unlike the state of things in Terra del Fuego, paths were, seen leading in various directions ; and I shall not soon forget the rush of sensations, on my first interview ia the forest with the aboriginal proprietor. On reWning to the strand, I observed that a party bringing rails and mats in their canoes had established a temporary encampment. Indeed the whole details of aboriginal Hfe contributed to render this day memorable. Scarcely two centuries ago, our New England shores presented only scenes like that before me ; and -what was to be the resiiLt of the lapse of the third ? As the Vincennes proceeded to the head of Navigation Bay, I landed at various points, and had other interviews with these maritime people. One thing about them was very striking ; the air of quietness that attached to their residences and all their movements. They appeared to Hve, as it were, on a good understanding with the birds and beasts, or as if forming part and parcel of the surrounding animal creation; a point in correspondence with an idea previously entertained, that the Mongolian has peculiar qualifications for reclaiming; or reducing animals to the domestic state. The want of personal cleanliness, usual with the North American tribes, was sufficiently obvious. It is true, the lighter complexion shows dirt more conspicuously than does that of the Polynesian ; and in a chilly chmate, it is not strange that sea-bathing should be avoided. Veindovi, our Teejee captive, after getting over his astonishment at the sight of so much land, imbibed a profound contempt for the Chinooks ; though on one occasion he condescended to initiate some of them into the art of using vermilion. On our return to the vicinity of Discovery Harbour, I ivas fortunate enough to fall in with one of the permanent stockaded villages. It was built in a concealed situation, on the bank of a small stream of fresh water, that afforded access by canoe ; and it was not far from the anchorage at Dungeness. It appeared to be the proper home of all the natives we had seen within many miles ; amoimting, perhaps, to as many as three hundred persons. ' In one of the houses I witnessed the remarkable treat- 16 PHTSICAI. HISTOET OP MAlf. ment to whicli the Chinook infants are subjected ; being confined to a wooden receptacle, with a pad tightljr ban- daged over the forehead and eyes, so that it is alike unpos- sible for them to see or to move : and I further remarked that when the child is suspended according to usage, its head is actually in a lower position than the feet. Some of the men had their faces blackened, and I thought at first they were not pleased with my visit. However, I was conducted freely about the village ; and afterwards to an enclosure, of about a quarter of an acre, planted with potatoes, in which they seemed to take a deal of pride. The art of cultivation was recent in this quarter ; it having been communicated, not without some pains on the part of the Hudson Bay Company, through Catholic missionaries. On returning towards the ship, I observed a skull lying on the beach ; a circumstance that surprised me, as I was aware that these tribes take much pains in the disposal of their dead. On pointing it out to my attendant native, he looked sorrowful, and made some gestures which I thought referred to the common lot of mortality. He also showed me the marks of a wound, received by him, as well as I could make out, in an engagement with a Northern tribe. The Vincennes touched at Classet, just within the entrance of the Straits, and where the capture of whales is chiefly carried on. The natives here were more numerous, more insolent, and had acquired a greater number of English words than those living further up the Straits. Several had a ring through the septum of the nose ; others had trinkets in the ears; and others, again, had the face fancifully marked with lines of soot, somewhat after the pattern of New Zealand tattooing. Arrows were kept in flat wooden boxes, with the Hd set in ; and I observed also the double- pointed arrow for shooting fish. Mantles were procured here, made of vegetable fibre, perhaps bark ; similar, but of iiiferior workmanship, to those of New Zealand. A jealousy was found to exist at Classet between the two principal men of the tribe, and one spoke of the other as a " small Indian." All the natives inhabiting the southern shore of the Straits, and the deeply indented territory as far and includ- ing the tide-waters of the Columbia, may be comprehended THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 17 under the general term of Chinooks ; thougli various minor subdivisions are recognised. They were found to hold some aboriginal commerce with the inland tribes ; and they appear to have enemies only in the North, iu the " Too- kulty" or Nootka people. I did not myself see the Chinooks of the Lower Columbia ; but the only particular difference I have found iu the accounts of them, consists in the substi- tution of the water-proof basket (derived apparently with other arts and customs from California) lor the square wooden bucket of the Straits. The Chinook canoes were distinguishable, in the distance, from the Polynesian, by the oblique position in which the paddle is hel^d ; the end moreover, ia making a sweep, being elevated above the plain of the horizon. On two occasions we were surprised by the approach of a canoe larger than usual, some of the men standing and flourishing their paddles, and all singing in chorus, in a loud clear voice : these canoes were found to contain principal men or chiefs. Sails were very rarely seen ; and one of matting, which we procured, has been pronounced to be of the "Kussian pattern :" so that there is room for doubt, whether the use of sails is aboriginal in this part of America. The Chinook canoes are of wood and from a single trunk, and their construction has been much admired. By what means they are excavated, or the split boards for the houses proctu-ed, we did not aacerrain. We saw no stone hatchets in Oregon. The Chinook household mats, Kke the Califomian, are made of rushes (Scirpus lacustris), placed side by side, and strung at intervals, somewhat after the pattern of Canton matting. The Chinooks have "vi/mpitm" of the usual description ; but strings and bands of Bentalkm sheila, of somewhat similar model, seem principally to subserve the purposes of money. They have the same art of preparing soft leather as our Eastern tribes, but being much exposed to wet they use it for clothing more sparingly. They likewise weave blankets and belts, principally from the wool of the Mountain Goat (Capra Americana, an animal said to be abundant to the northward) ; and I thought I could perceive in the tissue, some correspondence with the Peru- vian cloth. These blankets are diversified with angular 18 PHTSICAIi HISTOBX OE MAN. figures of aboriginal pattern; and on examination, it appeared, that tte red, green, yellow, and blue yam had been procured from traders ; wmle the black yam seemed to be the hair of their shaggy dogs, a material otherwise reported to be used for this purpose. The latter circum- stance, together -with the use of the dog as a beast of burden in the far Iforth, is possibly connected with the aboriginal iutroduction of the animal iato the American continent. The Chiaooks appear to be unacquainted with the art of dyeing, but they have some aboriginal paints ; such as the black and the dull-red colours, used in ornamenting their hats, canoes, masks, and other implements. The other colours we observed, may have been obtained from traders. Sufficient has already been stated of the Chinooks, to show their greater advancement in the arts, over the hunt- ing tribes of North America ; but some of their ingenious devices for procuring fish and game may be here noticed. We observed tall masts set up in particular situationa, " to intercept, by means of connecting nets, the flight of water- fowl at night." A sort of fish-raike was successfully employed ; but we saw nothing of fish-nets or seines, and indeed the sudden deepening of the water is unfavourable to their use. A peculiar mode of " spearing" or rather of noosing sturgeon, at surprising depths, was repeatedly spoken of; together with a method of capturing the whale,' an exploit never dreamed of by the islanders of the Pacific, who are otherwise by no means deficient in enterprise. Specimens of ornamental carving in clay-stone, executed by the Chiaooks, have become common in museums. Those now obtained, represent little else than the novel objects introduced through European intercourse ; and the original patterns appear to have been abandoned. Specimens of anterior date are therefore more interesting, and they usually consist of figures of grotesque imaginary quadrupeds, strangely grouped together ; to which it has been supposed "that some meaning, now lost, was formerly attached." Some stone saucers, obtained by the Expedition, although not free from the suspicion of borrowed ideas, serve to THE KONGOLIAN EACE. 19 remind us that genius is not the exclnsive offspring of civilisation. Chinook skuUs are well known in museums, from the remarkable peculiarity of beiag artificially flattened. This is accomplished during infancy by the strange treatment already noticed. Children, in consequence, sometimes pre- sented a Tery remarkable appearance ; *■ but as they grow up, the_ cranium tends to resume its natural shape, so that the majority of grown persons hardly manifest the existence of the practice. One effect, however, seemed to be perma- nently distinguishable in the unusual breadth of fece. The personal appearance of the Chinooks differs so much from that of the aboriginal tribes of the United States, that it was difficult at first to recognise the affinity. Taking them coUectively, they are even inferior in stature to the tribes of Interior Oregon ; the general form is shorter and more squat, and the face is rounder and broader when viewed in front. Instances occurred of a fairness of complexion, which I have not seen in other parts of aboriginal America ; and in young children, the colour was often not strikingly deeper than among Europeans. The oblique eye I have scarcely noticed in other paits of America; nor such frequent difficulty in distinguishing men from women, whether in youth or age. The arched nose was, however, very preva- lent among the Chinooks. The beard was not always absolutely wanting, but it occasionally attained the length of an inch or more. One man had both beard and whiskers quite thin, but fiiU. two inches long ; and in other respects he much resembled some representations I have seen of the Esquimaux. The portraits in the fourth and fifth volumes of the Narrative (the Tatouche chief, Eamsey, and Greorge), give a very good idea of the usual appearance of the Chinooks. Slavery exists among the Chinooks, though, from all accounts, in a somewhat milder form than among their Northern neighbours. It was reported, whether on suffi- cient authorify I was unable to ascertain, " that the descendants of slaves obtain freedom at the expiration of three centuries, and that they have the means of keeping * See the portrait in the Narrative of the Expedition, vol. iv. p. 388. 2 20 PHTSICAI HISTOET OF MAN. the reckoning ; and further, that slaves may in general be distinguished by the head not being flattened, though they are careful to perform this process on their children." The practice of slavery is possibly connected with the first peopling of the American continent ; and we are at the precise geographical position which may be regarded in many respects as the natural point of influx ; but on this subject Mr. Hale's ethnographical map, considered in reference to the existence of a pass over the Snowy Eange of mountains, affords further elucidation. A surveying party having been despatched across the Straits, some canoes of the TooKtrLTT made their appear- ance, a circumstance said to have produced a lively sensation among the accompanying Chinooks ; but the operations of the survey were interrupted, without the opportunity of an interview. Some Nootka masks were procured through a different source; and they are ornamented with pieces of the Halyotis shell, which is likewise a favourite article with the coast tribes of California. Such is the superior mildness of the winter in this region, that the H. B. Company's steamboat runs through the inlaud channels as far as latitude 58° N., throughout the year. Some marvellous accoxmts were related to us of the more NoETHEBN TEIBES ; of " their unwiUingness to admit any superiority in the White man ; and of their attempts to discover the motive power in the steamboat, after construct- ing various devices in imitation." Eye-witnesses agreed in their superior lightness of complexion over the Cmnooks ; and a tribe was spoken of, who apply "pressure to the cranium in such a manner that the top is elevated." That mechanical skill and refinement increase on advancing North, is evident from the manufacture of another descrip- tion of leather, from the richly embroidered cloaks, from the paintings, and from the canoes, which wiU be spoken of hereafter. With respect to the fiiture prospects of these maritime tribes, the greater density of a spirited population, and the scanty proportion of agricultural territory, seemed to pro- mise a different fate from that which has hitherto befallen their continental brethren. They can only give place to a maritime people, hke themselves. It is certain that the THE MONGOLIAN SACE. 21 Chinooks are not altogether unaware of the threatening storm, and on one occasion they gave us to understand that " we had no business there ; the land belonged to them." In dociUty the tribes of North-west America are not to be compared with the Polynesians ; and they are regarded by traders as the " moat dangerous people in the Pacific, after the Eeejeeans." INTERIOR OREGON. Preparations for a journey iuto the Interior having been completed, our party, under the charge of Lieutenant Johnson, left the head of Puget Sound, on the 20th of May, 1841. The natives selected to accompany us, chiefly belonged to the Nisquallt tribe, a portion of which was encamped in the neighbourhood of the fort ; and we obtained the assistance of two Canadian interpreters. Even among the Chinooks I ha!d observed individuals who were not readily distinguishable from the aboriginals of the United States ; but now such instances occurred more frequently, and I remarked taller forms, and, independent of the absence of artificial pressure, a more " hard-featured" countenance. Indeed, I could not make out any physical difference from our Eastern tribes, except in the inferiority of stature, everywhere observable in Oregon. The country near the coast was interspersed with flowery prairies, and afforded some game, chiefly deer ; but as we approached the moimtains, the woods became continuous. In all this distance we saw no villages, and but three or four habitations ; and these, with one exception, appeared to be deserted. Three or four individuals were fallen in with on the way, and they were persuaded to join our party. After some days, our natives became as jovial among them- selves as so many Polynesians, and I once heard one of them humming a low plaintive tune. They combed their hair with a pronged stick somewhat resembling a clothes-pin. The Canadians on all occasions termed them "savages;" and they had adopted the epithet, unsuspicious of the implied opprobrium. The pam we followed had been but once previously traversed by civilised man. It leads over the crest of the Snowy Eange, which at a point about twenty mUes north of 22 rnxsicAi nisTOBT of man. Moimt Eainier, seems practicable for horses during four or five montts of tlie year; and indeed the chief obstacle arises from young spruces, that prevent the snow from setthng around them ia a solid mass. The passage was accomplished by transferring the luggage from the horses to the natives, an extra number having been engaged for this purpose. It did not appear to have been remarked at the time, that there were slaves in the party ; and I afterwards had some reason to suspect that one man had been over- loaded. However, they got through wonderftdly well, and were admitted by general consent to have surpassed the Polynesians. The mode of carrying burdens was the same so general ia America, by means of a strap around the forehead. Most of the horses eventually got through in safety. But in the mean time Lachemere, a native, was sent forwards to find a chief, who resided at some distance below ; and from whom we proposed to purchase additional horses. Xachemere, although, according to his own account, in part WaUawaUa, considered himself as belonging to the NisquaUy tribe. He bore a high character among the residents ; and he accom- panied us through the whole of our journey ; and proved, with Pierre Charles, the Canadian, the main reliance of our party. We now proceeded along the bank of the Spipen, and after two days fell in with the chief we were in search of, who awaited our approach. He was seated under a tree, in a pleasant spot of o;pen ground, where some horses were grazing; and he received us with all the state and dignity attributed to the former " sachems" of New England. His features were of the aboriginal type strongly pronounced, and in fact were not unlike the portraits of Eed-jacket, thB Iroquois chief. He inquired, " who was the greatest man," our leader or the principal of the Hudson Bay Company : and he said, that " his heart was good, and that his people did not kill anybody." On mentioning a theft committed by one of our natives then present, he at first assumed a " severe, look, but afterwards said, "that as he belonged to another tribe, he could do nothing with him." He traced on the sand a map of the country through which we were to pass ; and he gave us news from "WaUawalla, of the death of THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 23 the superintendent of the fort. The interpreter added, that the chief's " people lived altogether in one town ; and that he was formerly a veiy wicked man, though now a great jBriend to the Whites, having been converted by the missionaries." Having procured two or three additional horses, we left the Spipen ; and turning northward, proceeded over a high roUing country, arid and barren, and for the most part destitute of trees. On the inrst elevated ground we fell in with an encampment of about fifty natives, chiefly women and children, engaged in procuring and drying biscuit- root ; which was found to be a tolerable substitute for bread. On the following day, we looked down into a broad valley, which proved to be that of the Uppee Yakima. In descending, we were met by some men on horseback, and we here experienced the inconvenience of a multipUcity of languages. A native had joined us on the Spipen; but although hving so near, he was able to communicate with these persons only through a third language, known to one of the opposite party. This was then translated to Laehemere, and by him, through the traders' jargon, to the Canadians ; and as the latter spoke only Canadian IVench, the substance finally reached the Enghsh through the medium of five interpreters ! Our new fiiends conducted us to a considerable encampment on the river-bank, where we procured an acceptable supply of salmon. The pride of the viQage was an aboriginal beUe, and we were permitted a sight of herself and finery : her dress was of buckskin, and entirely resembled the Oregon female dress figured in the fourth volume of the Narrative. There were no canoes ; and, as the stream was much swollen, recourse was had to our portable balsas : and, in the midst of our operations, an ingenious attempt at theft failed of success. At this place we first met with water-tight baskets. We had been led to anticipate " oppressive heat in the Ulterior plains," but on the following morning, Jxme 3rd, we were surprised with a fall of pellets of snow. Leaving the low grounds, the latter half of this day was taken up in the gradual ascent of the broad opposing ridge, on the summit of which we encamped ; the barometer, unexpectedly, indicating a greater elevation than we had hitherto reached. 24 PHXSIOAL HISTOET OF MAN. On the morning of the 4th, we soon reached the eastern decU-rity, and obtained a distant view of the Columbia Eiver, or rather of its position ; for we could only see an enormous trench, winding through the lower country. Indeed, the Columbia and its main branches are everywhere sunk from one to two thousand feet below the general level of the country, so that Interior Oregon is in reality a table-land. Continxiing the descent, we arrived in the afternoon at the margin of the river, a little below the mouth of the PiscoTJS. The junction of this large stream had given rise to an unusual circumstance, a spot of ground that admitted of cultivation. A portion of it was planted with potatoes ; but we hunted grouse for some time around ttie place before remarking the cabins of the proprietors. Por two days we proceeded along the western bank of the Columbia ; having been delayed in the first place by the Piscous, waiting for a canoe ; and some twenty mUes above, another stream required the same convenience. A httle beyond, some natives were established, then engaged in taking sahnon ; and Mr. Brackenridge observed the mode of burial, which "differed essentially from the Chinook, the graves being marked by a heap of stones siurounding an upright post." It was necessary at last to cross the main Columbia; and these natives having become dissatisfied, from some unknown cause, the chief saying " his heart was bad," were unwiUing to lend us a canoe, until they unex- pectedly found us independent of them, in some measure, by the possession of balsas. One of our Canadians lost his gun; but it appeared literally to have been borrowed without leave, as subsequently, at the Company's Post, it was considered recoverable. On the 7th, we left the river, and ascended to the plain above ; where we passed a night without water, except a little we had brought with us, and almost without mel. The country was more level than that west of the Columbia, and somewhat green and grassy ; and, but for the scarcity of water, seemed well enough adapted for pasturage. On the Sth, we arrived at OKONAGAif, where we found two White men, Canadians, and the usual accompaniments of a trading-post, numerous half-breeds, and a smaU encamp- THE MONGOIiIAIf BACE. 25 ment of natives outside the stockade. Three or four " bateaus," of similar construction to our river-boats of burden, ■were laid up on the bank. Canadians, it appears, are exclusively employed in navigating the Columbia; for the knowledge the natives have of the river is local, extend- ing only to particular sections. On the bank of the Okonagan River, a large tributary which enters the Columbia at this place, I observed a "sweating-house." It was low, rounded, and covered with clay, affordiag scarcely room for more than a single person ; and it might readily have been mistaken for the work of a beaver or some similar animal. The steam was said to be produced by means of heated stones. We remained a day or two at the fort, and then re-ascended to the grassy plain. Saliae efflorescences were occasionally mixed with the soU, yet were not found to affect sensibly the water of the district. This was especially remarkable in the bottom of the " Grande Coulee," where were ponds or small lakes without outlets. We sometimes got a view of distant hills in the North, on the borders of the country, which is here called New Caledonia. We were told that these saline efflorescences extend into New Caledonia; and reference was also made to sudden variations in the weather in that country, " the ground being one day covered vrith a foot of snow, while on the following the green grass would be visible." It is an elevated region, shut out from the coast by the Snowy Eange of mountains ; and, from a box of minerals which was shown me at Okonagan, its geological structure appears to be Primitive or Grranitic* We saw no natives until we reached the mouth of the Spokane ; and indeed, throughout our whole journey, natives were only met with where I have specified ; a circumstance that ynR convey an idea of the scarcity of inhabitants in Interior Oregon. Scattered pines make their appearance along the Columbia * The Tahkali, inhabiting the northern part of New Caledonia, are dis- tinguished among American tribes by the remarkable peculiarity of burning their dead. This is certainly an unexpected locality for a Hindoo custom , and it may be worth inquiry, whether any connexion can be established througb the Siberian tribes. 26 PHYSICAL HISTOET 01' MAN. as low down as the point where we first left the river ; but, after crossing the Spokane, I found them more abundant, and not confined to tiie immediate banks ; presenting, with the absence of undergrowth, natural parks, and some unex- pected analogy to the Australian woods. A single lodge was seen on the margin of the Columbia; and as we approached CoIiTILie, two natives called to us from the opposite bank. Oolville is almost a village, containing an outside row of buildings for the accommodation of the Whites and half-breeds in the service of the Company; while the peculiar local circumstances at the head of the " Kettle Falls " permit the establishment of a farm. Our horses having been brought up among the aboriginals, were quite unused to these signs of civiLisaiion. We remained three days at the fort, and then proceeded south about sisty miles, to Chimikaine, the recent establish- ment of Messrs. Eels and Walker, of the American Mission. At a point about half-way We found an encampment of natives ; where a woman, in place of the Chinook plan of suspension, was swinging her child from side to side ; and where we saw wampum made of bird bones, and some tons of " kamas root," stored in sacks neatly made of matting. In this district, the natives " cut down the pines for the sake of the black lichen (Alectoria ?) which grows upon them, and which is made into bread, or mixed with kamas in a sort of pudding." The Missionaries stated, that the "winter here began about the 1st of November, and lasted tiU the middle of March ; and that there was frost on the preceding 4th of June. But flowers, notwithstanding, were to be found in the middle of February." A fine-looking old chief, well known from his respectable character, and from his having been a great friend to the Whites, joined our party at this place. He belonged to the tribe called Pondeeet by the Canadians, which inhabit a district to the eastward. On the 21st of June, we again set out, and, after proceed- ing about ten miles, we recrossed the SpoKAifE by means of a canoe left for the convenience of travellers. This river, throughout the greater part of its course, very nearly coincides vrith the boundary of the open country. To the THE MOlfGOLIAir EACE. 27 eastward of the Spokane, the surface is more broken and hilly, with rocks and scattered trees ; a portion of territory sometimes called the "Blue Mountains." On the other hand, the plain intervening between the Spokane and the junction of the two branches of the Columbia is so mono- tonous, that " a native guide has hitherto been found always necessary in crossing it." Our course was now parallel with the river ; and on the second day we came upon a large enbampment, contaioing about twenty lodges, and perhaps three hundred natives. They were engaged in procuring kamas, while numbers oi horses were feeding around. Some of the lodges were, as usual, of mats ; and to my surprise, I saw also buffalo robes, and conical skin-lodges, like those used on the Missouri. This place, however, is not within the range of the buffalo, although apparently well adapted for them; and but "a single instance was on record of a stray animal having been seen in the vicinity of Colville." Ever since leaving the Snowy Mountains, we had heard of natives being absent " iu the buffalo country," but we now for the first time saw evidence of these visits. Prom some unexplained cause, game is almost wanting in Interior Oregon ; and in the course of a journey of eight hundred miles, the only large quadruped we saw was a solitary wolf. Antelopes, however, are occasionally pro- cured by the natives. Notwithstanding, therefore, the "moccasin" and original "buckskin pantaloon," the Oregon natives hardly merit the name of hunting tribes ; neither, indeed, can they strictly be termed wanderers. Salmon forms their principal resource, eked out with kamas and other roots, so that a certain round becomes necessary in procuring subsistence ; but a tribe always occupies the same station at the same season of the year.* Since the introduc- tion of horses (derived from the Spaniards of New Mexico), pasturage has in some degree influenced the selection. A half-breed was living as a " free trapper" with the band in question ; the first instance of the kind we had met with. He stated, that " the party had come from the upper part of the Spokane Eiver: also, that beaver were formerly • See the Ethnography of the Expedition. 28 phtsicjll histoet or mak. common in all these streams, and were caught by the natives by setting baskets ; but, owing to the introduction of beaver- traps, they had become almost extinct." we here had some diffictdty with a native about the ownership of one of our horses. The introduction of new and valuable property might be expected, in the absence of law, to give rise to numerous disputes ; but, whatever may be the case in dealings with strangers, no difficulty, I am assured, " has ever been known to arise among the natives themselves." On the following day we passed a similar though smaller encampment, but, being desirous of avoiding unnecessary trouble, we did not visit it. Further on, we met a party iu motion, with all their horses and other property. Infants on the board were suspended to the flanks of the horses, a practice said to be " derived from the eastern side of the mountains ; " and the lodge-poles were disposed in such a manner that one end was left trailing on the ground. Several of the horses were spotted black and white, such being favourites with the Oregon natives. On the 25th, we arrived at Lapwai, the mission establish- ment of Mr. Spalding, situated on the Kooskoosky Eiver. This was the first stream flowing into the Western Ocean, reached by Lewis and Clarke ; and " the tradition of that expedition still remains among the natives ; of surprise at the personal appearance of the new-comers, and at the sight of strong beaxds." Nevertheless, it was said that "no idea of difference of race, such as is recognised by Europeans, ever enters into the heads of the natives." Several ladies of the American mission had travelled by land from the United States ; and they were, I think, the first White females seen in Oregon. In the mission-house we had a meeting of natives, to whom some of the principal events of our Yoyage were nar- rated ; and with the aid of a map, they seemed entirely to comprehend the course. As some shadow of governmental protection might be useful to residents in this remote quarter, the occasion of our visit was stated in these words : " our great father had sent out his ships to look after his children in aU parts of the world." In return, they gave us some specimens of native eloquence, which however did not THE MOIfaOLIAN BACE. 20 come up to our anticipations ; the burden of their story seemed to be, that " they were themselves a poor miserable people." No one can be regarded as altogether safe in the "Indian country;" and, from some superstitious idea, a member of the Hudson Bay Company had been recently assassinated. Mr. Spalding had neat cattle and sheep, which thrive remarkably weU ; also a mill and a plot of ground cultivated by irrigation, a novel idea to the farmer from the United States. A field of wheat looked remarkably weU, as also various garden vegetables ; and maize succeeds here, and even it is said at Colville, although it had hitherto failed on the coast. Many of the natives had followed Mr. Spalding's example, and he gave them the character generally of being "an exceedingly industrioiis T^eoT^le." Here was abundant evidence, were any needed,'that the North American tribes are in nowise averse to the arts of civilisation, or devoid in any respect of the common attributes of humanity. The plantations of the natives, situated in a small lateral valley, were visited on the following morning. One man had adopted entirely the customs of the Whites, having built himself a comfortable log-house, whUe his wife, an interesting-looking woman, was neatly attired in the European fashion. The little valley seemed, in fact, an earthly paradise, which I could not quit without misgivings as to the future. After proceeding about fifteen miles, we arrived at the forks, having passed on the way not less than a thousand horses distributed over the country ia scattered bands, while others were here undergoiag the process of ftunishing hairs for halters. The natives, to the number of some forty families, were congregated in a siagle circular building formed of rails ; and, after some delay, they furnished us with canoes, by the aid of which we crossed the Shoshonee, or great southern branch of the Columbia. A similar building to the last was seen a few miles below on the opposite bank ; but our path soon diverged from the vicinity of the river. On the third day, we reached the waters of the "Walla- walla Eiver at a place where we found I think one or more native habitations, and in the evening we arrived at 30 PHYSICAIi HISTOEY OF MAX. the Fort, which is situated a few iniles helow the junction of the two branches of the Coluinhia. Various games were as usual going on outside, some requiring skill and agility, but aU apparently having gambling for their foundation, and this seems to be the "business of Ufe" with the natives, when they are encamped around the forts. We saw here a waggon the first that had been driven aU the way from Missouri, and during our three days' stay, a White man in the service of the Company arrived from the "Snake Country." We also received a visit from Mr. Grray and Dr. "Whitman, from the American Mission Station, which was; several miles distant. The multiplicity of languages in Oregon, is even greater than in the Eastern part of North America, and is clearly independent of peaceM relations. In this respect a striking contrast is presented with Polynesia, where, in spite of the geographical isolation, a similarity of language prevails over a wider space than ini any other part of the globe. The diversity of languages in America is a serious obstacle to missionary operations, and I have sometimes thought it may have had a very important bearing on the destmy of our aboriginal tribes. When, too, it is considered that the professed interpreters seldom acquire a correct knowledge of these languages, it may be questioned whether the people themselves have hitherto been fairly reached ? On the 4th of July, we proceeded on our journey, and crossing the main Columbia, we again entered the valley of the Takima. On the following day we crossed this river with the aid of a canoe, at the residence of a single family. A small canopy, hardly sufficient to shelter a sheep, was found to contain four generations of human beings, seated in the posture which takes up the least possible room. They had just retiuned from procuring their day's sub- sistence, which consisted of the berries of the Comus, and the insight into aboriginal life was by no means prepos- sessing. Nevertheless, the attentions bestowed on the eldest of the party showed an interesting trait in the native character, in strong contrast with the conduct of the Poly- nesians. I remarked also, that the eldest alone had the cartilage of the nose pierced. The country, as throughout a great part of the Interior, THE MONGOIiAJT EACB. 31 did not appear to become green at any season of the year, but presented a hoary aspect, chiefly from the prevalence of Artemisias. _ The river was observed to pass the minor transverse ridges, very much as the Potomac and Susque- hanna do the different ranges of the AHeghanies ; and it pretty uniformly receives a tributary just prior to entering the gaps. On the 7th, we arrived at the forks, where the Takima seemed to be fordable at this season ; but we did not make the attempt, as we were able to avail ourselves of a canoe belonging to a native family. We now proceeded up the banks of its tributary, the Seipen, the valley gradually narrowing and the hills begin- ning to assume a tint of green, while teees once more made their appearance. On the 8th, we fell in with our acquaint- ance, the chief who formerly sold us horses, and he joined our party for the remainder of the journey. His " town " consisted of only five or sis cabins, so that his influence did not appear to be widely extended. One of his sons came on horseback to meet us, and exhibited the same exuberance of spirits we often remark at home in young men who regard themselves a Httle elevated by fortune. A few miles above we regained our former path. "We had no difficulty in recrossing the mountain ridge, for the snow was mostly gone from the summit, exposing unexpectedly an undergrowth of bushes. "We were again interested in the virtues of the native character, on the occasion of meeting a party carrying along a dying man. The streams to the westward of the ridge having- now subsided, we got on more rapidly than before. About twenty miles from the coast a portion of the Nisquallt tribe had established themselves for some temporary pur- pose. At our last encampment, before parting with our natives, the idea of initiating them in gymnastic exercises was somehow taken up, and they entered into the sport very willingly, and with some spirit. On the 15th, we reached the Fort and rejoined the Vin- cennes ; previously, however, being somewhat surprised at our horses going into the salt water to drink, at a place too where small sharks, flounders, and other inarine fish are abundantly taken. The circumstance, however, was not regarded as unusual by the people on shore. 32 PHTSICAI HISTOET OF MAIf. SOUTHWESTERN OREGON. I am iadebted to the notes of Mr. Agate and Mr. Brackenridge for the following particulars respecting the natives seen on the journey from the ColiunDia to San Francisco in California. " The party left the Willamette settlement on the 9th of September, and on the same day met with some EiiCKATAia from the neighbourhood of Vancouver, who had come on a hunting excursion. This tribe is distinguished by having the lower part of the septum of the nose cut away. 10th, Crossed a creek, near a large native burial-place, where wooden utensils and other articles were deposited. On the 13th, footsteps of natives were seen, and afio a fish-weir. " On the 14th the party fell ia with an old Kalaptjta, whose portrait was sketched by Mr. Agate. He wore moccasins, an elk-skin dress, a cap of fox-skin with the ears remain- ing, and his quiver was of seal-skin. Mr. Agate remarked further, that the costume of the Kalapuya women is not unlike the Polynesian. Por the last four days the prairies were found to be stripped of herbage by fires, some stiH burning, that had been kindled, it was said, to facilitate the gathering of sun-flower seed." No marks of fire had been observed in Interior Oregon. " On the 15th the party crossed the Kalapuya or Elk Eidge, which is upwards of a thousand feet in elevation, and separates the waters of the "Willamette and TJmpqua Eivers;" and likewise, to all appearance, the Kalapuya from the TJMPQrA tribe. " 16th, Mr. Agate was of the party that visited the Port. The Canadian in charge was in daily expectation of an attack from the natives, partly in consequence of a refiisal to supply them with ammunition : he attributed the hostile disposition of the natives south of this place to the circumstance of the smaU-pox having been accidentally inti-oduced among them, and he discouraged any attempt to proceed further. I7th, In the mean time the camp was visited, both on this and on the preceding day, by different natives, who appeared friendly and inoffensive, and soon went away. " On the 18th, the journey was resumed, and the party I-:^ ® Ki 'S L D A K 'RACE A HAL A.f riTA I, AT, WAjrVE or OB-EGOM" THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 33 crossed a prairie that was still bumiag. 19th. Two unarmed natives were seen, who wished to come into the camp, but this was not permitted. The bark of the Arbutus procera appeared to be made use of in this quarter for some purpose not ascertained. 20th. Fell in with four or five natives, who said that the people on the Umpqua were waiting for Michel's party .(trappers of the H. B. Company), inten&ig to attack them. 21st. Encamped at the foot of the TJmpqua Eidge, which divides the waters of the Umpqua and Eogues rivers. The pass is very steep and difficult, and is also considered dangerous on accoimt of the bad character of the natives, who, according to report, sometimes shoot arrows at travellers or their horses, from places of concealment. " On the 22nd the party crossed the ridge without .icci- dent, and without seeing natives, and encamped at its southern base. 23rd. Eested for the day. Three men of the Klamet tribe would have passed us without speaking, had not our guide addressed them. All the natives seen since leaving the Willamette, have been a squalid miserable set of beings, shy in approaching white men. 24th. Ee- sumed the journey ; and, in the course of the day, several natives were seen hiding among the trees and bushes, but they did not appear disposed to molest us. 25th. Encamped on the banks of Eogues Eiver. One of the hunters reported that, after having killed a deer, he had been shot at with arrows, and forced to abandon it. 26th. Some natives* were seen, and also canoes, which were excavated from logs, and appeared to be used principally for spearing fish in the shallow waters. Eeached Turner's camp, where a party of traders had formerly been defeated, and compelled to return. Human bones were strewed around. 2'7th. Continuing along the river, natives were heard shouting on the opposite • A native was reported to have been seen, wearing a species of cuirass ; in all probability, similar to the one obtained from the same tribe through the Hudson Bay Company. This cuirass is composed of flattened parallel sticks, ■woven together by means of twine; most of which is of vegetable fibre, and the residue of human hair. The shoulder-straps are of the usual soft leather^ but with the hair remaining on. Apart from the peculiarities in the manu- &cture ; this, and the slight leather shield of the Missouri, form the only examples I am acquainted with of the use of defensive armour by the American tribes. D 34 PHTSICAIi niSTOET OE MAK. bank. At a place where a former party had been annoyed, several of the company dismounted and scoured the bush. Some natiyes at a great distance took shelter behind a tree, and it was evident that the rifle was much dreaded in this vicinity. After leaving the river, three mounted natives were seen maJdng off at a rapid rate." The horses had doubtless been derived from some trading party, and were the only ones seen on the route. " The mistletoe was abundant, and in many instances formed the only foliage on the trees. 28th. Some natives again were heard shouting. Encamped at the base of the Shasty or Boundary Eidge, which very nearly coincides with the forty-second parallel of latitude, or the political boundary between Oregon and California. Another trading party had been defeated at this place, and compelled to return. On the foUovring day, however, the ridge was crossed without seeing natives." The further continuation of this journey wiU. be found noticed in the account of the Califomians. It is known that the Mexican annals derive the origin of the Aztecas (the intrusive Mexicans) from the North, in the direction of Oregon. The connexion may not be easily traced ; but a doincidence has been spoken of, in the occur- rence of the terminal "tl," so characteristic of the Mexican language, among the Nootka people. I remarked that the same termination was common with the Chinooks; and I heard it even in the Nisq^uaUy tribe. The lateral fringe to the trowsers, universal in Oregon, is known to occur among the aboriginal Mexicans ; with whom, moreover, it is said to subserve the purpose of an inventory.* The fashion, aboriginal with the Oregon females, of wearing the hair in two lateral braids, is also widely diffused in Spanish America ; and we observed it even in Chili. The use of masks, which is also common to Mexico and the north-west maritime tribes, wHL be adverted to hereafter. And further, a distinct correspondence in style of art is traceable between the ancient paintings and sculptures of Mexico and Tucatan and the carved-stone pipes of North-west America. Another fact not irrelevant to the point in question, is the observa- tion made by the missionaries, that the tribes of Interior * See Basil Hall's Travels. THE MOKQOLIAir EACE. 36 Oregon are at this day " all pressing gradually towards the south."* It was only after leaving the country that I learned the existence of sculptured rocks on the banks of the Columbia. Mr. Drayton was unable to remain many momenta at the spot, and among a considerable variety of figures he obtained only a rapid sketch of three of them. The importance of the subject, however, has appeared to me to warrant the insertion of a copy in. this place. And it will be observed, that the figures are simple, and present some analogy to the sculptures found on the Orinoco, as given by Humboldt. MEXICO. It ia said that the aboriginal stock so preponderates in Mexico, that the people do not " regard themselves nation- ally as belonging to the white race." I have myself seen but very few Mexicans, and these have been chiefly of pure Spanish descent. In two or three individuals of mixed race, met with in the United States, the Mongolian traits were sufficiently obvious. On the other hand, a Mexican of some note from the province of Sonora, whom I saw in California, was scarcely distinguishable, in his personal appearance, from the pure Malay. I have, therefore, positive evidence of the aboriginal presence of two races in Mexico, though in what proportions I am altogether uncertain.f Some travellers in Mexico have spoken of a "large admixture of the Negro race;" but as true negroes are at the same time admitted to be rare, the opinion may have * See Ethnography of the Expedition, p. 224. *)■ In the Letters of Cortes, mention is made of '' albinoes having apartments in the palace of Montezuma." This point may have some hearing on the question at issue ; for I have heard of the occun'ence of albinoes in the Malay race, but not among Mongolians* d2 36 PHTSICAIi HISTOET Or MAN. reference to the Malay stock. A distinction m personal appearance is also said to exist " between the inhabitants of the table-land and those of the low country." The " Mexi- can of Mechoacan," figured by Humboldt, is evidently Mongolian. I confess, therefore, that the distribution given on the accompanying map, of the two races in Mexico, is not entirely satisfactory. YUCATAN. Some bas-reliefs from Palenque, in Yucatan, now depo- sited in "Washington, contain a human profile: and it is eminently characteristic of the Mongolian, and seems deci- sive as to the physical race of the people who reared the remarkable ancient structures discovered ia that part of America. NORTH-EAST AMERICA. The aboriginals of the United States have appeared to me ia every respect physically identical with their brethren west of the Eocty Mountains. They have, however, a marked superiority of stature ; and they do not in point of size, fall below Europeans. I have seen examples of the tribes of the Missottbi and Upper Mississippi, in the delegations which, from time to time, have visited Washington: as, Menomenies, Winne- bagoes, Sauks and Poxes, Sioux, Pawnees, Otoes, Miamies, and lowas. I have been interested in hearing the Missoiiri drum and flute ; and have felt regret that no one should have turned his attention to the preservation of the music of this fading people. I saw neither musical instruments nor dancing among the Oregon tribes ; nor anything like pottery ; such as is used by the aboriginals of our Southern States. I have also seen Ceees, from the centre of the Continent, north of the waters of the Missouri, where the same supe- riority of stature appears likewise to prevail. The Upsa- EOKA, or Crows of the head-waters of the Missoiui and Yellowstone, are also to be ranked among the Eastern tribes ; and, judging from a portrait at "Washington, they belong to the MongoEan race. Ieoqttois formed part of the crew of the Hudson's Bay THE MONQOIIAN EAOE. 37 Company's steamboat at Nisqually ; and I saw one of them employed in building operations near the Port. I once also met with a man of this tribe, in western New York. The only Deiawaee I have ever seen, had been brought up among Whites. To a resident of Philadelphia, it was almost startling, to hear of this tribe in Oregon joining the Black- feet in hostile iacursions into that countty. I once visited the Natick tribe, residing within a few miles of Boston ; and found them few ia number, and much intermixed with Negroes. I recently fell in with a party of Penobscots, on their return from a visit to Boston. They had tents ; and the women were neatly dressed, and all industriously occupied, chiefly ia weaving baskets of various pattern, which they disposed of by the way. Several could speak English ; and on asking one of them about her journey, she replied in a low voice, and with an anxious look, " The country is too full ! " I saw no marks of Negro admixture ; but those of European were sufficiently obvious. They were aU fairer than the usual aboriginal standard ; and one of the men was in no respect distinguishable from a European. The Semotoies, I have been informed, " mix with Negroes, but are careful to keep the children out of sight." I have never seen Seminoles, but from portraits and descriptions, I am satisfied that they belong to the MongoHan race. I may say the same of the Cheeks ; in regard to whom, however, I have fewer materials for forming an opinion. The aboriginals of our Eastern States have been suffered to pass away, with little care taken to preserve a record of their attainments, and the arts in their possession. Another century, and of their implements, stone hatchets and arrow- heads wiLL almost alone be left, to teU that such a people has existed. Figures of human heads have been obtained by MJr. Squier from the ANCIENT MOrNDS of the Ohio, and the features are unequivocally those of the Mongolian race. The various accompanying articles (such as pipes, representations of the toad, deer, puma, &c.) afford another instance of the univer- sal rule in monumental history, that the most ancient works are not only the most gigantic and enduring, but they mani- fest great refinement of workmanship, and purity of taste. 38 PHTSICAIi HISTOBI OE MAN. In tHs instance, however, refinement was unexpected from tribes who were evidently in the " hunter state." CHINESE. A few scattered Chinese are settled in the principal cities of the United States, but the number is so small that their existence is not generally known. Some of these families I had seen ; and, indeed, I had satisfied myself of the physical identity with the aboriginal American before joining the Exploring Expedition. At the BLi-WAHAif Islands I had more ample opportuni- ties for verifying this result, the Chinese being now among Polynesians. It is true there was no juxtarposition of Chinese with aboriginal Americans; but we sailed from these islands to the American, coast, and returning at the close of summer, proceeded, while the impression was new, to the East Indies, where we again saw Chinese siurounded by a Malay population. The hghter complexion of the Chinese was very strikiiig when they were standing among Hawaiians, and the nose was decidedly more prominent ; so that a commonly urged objection to identity vrith the aboriginal Americans, disap- peared. They had been brought in American vessels, and they seemed permanently established, being engaged in various employments, such as those of servants, shopkeepers, and sugar manufacturers. The number seen, did not exceed twenty, including one female, who was partly Portuguese, from Macao. They had a burial-place about three miles from Honolulu, where the tombs were constructed after the national fashion, which has often been figured and described. Maitlla was crowded with Chinese ; and I was surprised at the scanty clothing of the majority of them, reduced often to the simple belt or sash, as with the Feejeeans and some Hawaiians. They had small retail shops, and were evidently the principal artisans. One of the most remarkable speo- tacles to a stranger, was the confined space in which they carried on, without interfering with one another, all mecha- nical employments. A competent judge of these matters remarked, "that he had never seen mechanics require so little room, and at the same time do their work so neatly THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 39 and faitLfuUy." In passing through the streets occupied by them, I repeatedly selected individuals, who, if transported in a different dress into the American forest, might, I thought, have deceived the most experienced eye. In stature they were by no means so much degenerated as the Malays, but vrere reported to be less cleanly in their habits. The upper classes of Chinese presented a very different picture, and I was much impressed with the respectability of their standing, with their general intelligence, and then- ease, politeness, and refinement of manners ; in all which there was evidently nothing derived from their Spanish rulers. They had shops furnished with costly articles of Chinese manufacture ; and individuals were pointed out to me, who would undertake commercial transactions of tens of thousands of dollars. One man was desirous of procuring an engraving of a steamboat, "to send to his friends in China; who," he said, "had been much alarmed at the accounts they had heard of these vessels." The maui object with the Chinese of all classes was alleged to be, " to make a fortune and return home." They inter- marry freely with the Malays ; but whether in such cases the children are admitted into China, I did not leam. Per- sons of mixed descent were numerous in the city ; but in the Interior I could not discover the least trace of the Chinese : it was said that, whenever they leave the city, "they are subject to imposition and bad treatment, as the Malays have an aversion to them." They in consequence confine themselves to the commercial ports, as throughout the East India Islands, where they everywhere bear the char racter of being the most flourishing class of the population. Chinese umbrellas were observed to be in general use among the Malay population, and the importation of them must form an important branch of commerce, not only at the Philippines, but in the other Malay countries. A few Chinese were settled at the capital of the island of SooLOO, where they had the best shops, and conducted machinery for hulling rice. Their presence sufficiently dis- proved the assertion, that in the East Indies " the Chinese require European protection ;" although, it is true, they are ready to avajl themselves of its advantages. It is linown, too, that the Chinese have independent establishments on 40 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAK, Borneo ; but the acquisition of political power does not enter into their plan of operations in foreign countries. At SiNGAPoaE, some iinlooked-for testimony came to the support of views already expressed ; and on a point of this kind I woidd lay great stress on the observation of un- civilised man. Our Teejeean, Veindovi, was now, for the first time, brought in contact with a body of Chinese ; and he at once identified them with his old acquaintances, the tribes of North-west America. Singapore differs essentially from all the other cities I have visited ; bearing the character rather of a commercial camp. The female portion of the population numbers about " one-tenth ; " but a woman was very rarely seen, partly ia consequence of the practice of seclusion, which pertains to the principal classes of visitors. The Chinese were present ia many thousands, and com- posed one-half of the entire population. Among them all, I was assured, there were only " two real Chinese women ; though there were persons who could go back seven gene- rations before reachmg the Malay mother." The prevalence of the depressed nose, was perhaps, in some measiu'e attributable to this partial Malay descent. There was, however, great imiformity in the complexion ; as I repeatedly remarked, when crowds were standing with their shaven heads exposed to the fuU power of the mid-day smi. They were aU of the lowest class. Mechanical employ- ments were comparatively rare ; and there were no Chinese residents of equal standing vpith those established at Manila, or those, according to report, at Batavia. Here, however, the Chinese were under less restraint than at Mamla ; perfect freedom of opinion being tolerated at Singapore, and each nation allowed to foUow its own customs, so far as these did not conflict with civil order. Our arrival, too, was at an auspicious moment, at the com- mencement of the Chinese holidays ; and we enjoyed perhaps as fair an opportunity of viewing the people, as we should have had at Canton, during the then existing war with the Enghsh; for it should be observed, that the Chinese commerce with Singapore remained uninterrupted. In the evening, the streets in the Chinese quarter pre- sented a novel and astonishing spectacle. The shops were THE lIOIfGOLIAN BACE. 41 all thrown open, and tlie whole population seemed assembled for one purpose, that of gamhlmg. The stakes in general were trifliag ; but the variety of games was inexhaustible ; and while looking on, some of reputed European invention, appeared to be traceable to a Chinese source. Again, the occurrence of numerous games of chance in aboriginal America, seemed to intimate in that quarter something more than an accidental coincidence. Stages were erected by the side of the street, and theatrical representations were going on at all times ; the rich tinsel of the evening, suffering however materially by the daylight. A numerous and attentive audience were always listening, and at times appeared a good deal affected, maintaining their ground notwithstanding the interminable length of the pieces. The movements of the actors were sometimes graceful ; but there was everywhere a mixture of the grotesque, not agreeable to Eiu"opean taste. Female characters were personated by men singing in "falsetto." The male characters wore masks ; these were always much broader than the face of the wearer, and often resembled the Chinese as conventionally depicted by themselves, not such as I have found the people in nature. There was always a full orchestra, and I confess being pleased with the music ; notwithstanding the predominance of gongs, which has procured for the Chinese the reputation of being a " noisy people." The feats oi " tumbling" exceeded every- thing of the kind I have elsewhere witnessed. Among other fantastic exhibitions, a masked demon, seeming ready to devour the bystanders, was led through the streets ; and although it was mid-day, made a really formidable appearance. At first, this appeared the very original of Humboldt's "Mexican priest, in the act of swallowing a human victim ;" and my companion, who also recollected the figure, observed that " he was thinking of the same circumstance." On referring, however, to the book a few days afterwards, we found only a general resemblance, more apparent in the profile. On the front view, the Chinese mash more resembled the head of the lion, (an animal foreign to China, and an emblem of Buddhism) ; while tails of various quadrupeds were hanging over the shoulders of the wearer. Some further connexion, may 42 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OE MATT. possibly be established between Chiaa and Mexico through the use of grotesque masks by the maritime tribes of North- west America. The temple was to me a very interesting object ; for it is impossible in a picture to do justice to Chinese architecture. Amid the endless details of fanciful carved work, there was nothing uncouth ; and on receding, the more delicate sculp- tures disappeared gradually, leaving a finished and pleasing general effect at all distances. In the outline, and especially in the form of the roof, I thought I could equally, as ia the Malay architecture, distinguish the Feejeean style. I remarked in the interior of the building, a difference from other Oriental forms of worship, in the apparent absence of a sanctuary. I visited likewise one of the "junks" at anchor in the harbour ; and found occasion to dissent from the common opinion, condemning the construction of these vessels. Pipes were offered by different persons on board, as we passed along ; and in one instance cigars, by a man who invited us into his apartment, and spoke some Spanish words, which of course he had acquired at Manila. The cables were of rattan ; and such must be extremely strong, besides possessing some advantages on a coral bottom. The figure of an eye in front, about which much has been said ia ridicule, occurs likewise on Indian and Arab vessels, and even in some instances, on those of the Mediterranean. The small Chinese boats, short and triangular, impelled by a man standing and pushing the two oars, were again a novelty in the way of navigation. In the Chinese quarter of the city were several opium shops, or rather cells, for they contained merely lounging space for the votaries of this enervating and destructive species of intoxication. In addition to this vice, the Chinese make use of ardent spirits, tobacco, and betel. At the Cape op Good Hope, I observed a few scattered Chinese ; who however did not give rise to any particular remark, other than that they had lost their nationality, and had arrived in European vessels. A Chinese was also seen at St. Helena. On my second Voyage, however, I found Chinese around the borders of the Aeabiait seas, who had not been assisted THE MONGOLIAN EACE. 43 in their wanderings hj Europeans. Most of these were established at Bombay ; where I met with a dozen or more. A Chinese was residing at Zanzibar ; and I remarked that he had adopted the Arab costume, but I did not learn his history. Many years since " a Chinese came to Mocha, turned Muslim, and married an Arab woman." His son, " Ali Cheena," retained strong marks of his paternal origin, and seemed hardly at home amid the surrounding population. He was observed to be fond of frequenting the bazaar ; but was annoyed by the Arabs sometimes suggesting that " he had better return to his father's country and put on a hat." He served us during our stay in the capacity of cook, and he was the third native of the place, who could speak some words of English ; the only European language known at Mocha. During the few days spent at Muscat, I did not faU in with any Chinese. I have already referred to the superior powers of endur- ance of the aboriginal American; while in perseverance, patient industry and frugality, the Chinese will, I think, be admitted to excel other nations. These are qualifications that promise to have an important bearing on the fature prospects of the Mongolian race. In regard to antiquities, there are prohably few nations so rich in monumental history as the Chinese : especially in their paintings, preserved for many centuries by such an indestructible material as porcelain. OTHER MONGOLIANS. Travellers have spoken of a resemblance between some of the Interior people of Boeneo and the Chinese. I have not sufficient materials for a decisive opinion ; though all oral testimony has been unfavourahle to the presence of Mon- golian aboriginals on that island. I have not however met with persons who have seen the " Idan" of the northern, mountains ; tribes, that under this point of view may deserve further inqiiiry. The same class of people, some- times bearing the name of "Igorote," are known to occur loth on Palawan and Luzon. I have followed Blumenbach in referring the Lapiandees to the Mongohan race. Dr. R. E. Griffith has seen some PHTSICAL HISTOBT OP MAlf. of these people, and he considers them as "differing physically from their neighbours on the south, and .as approaching, so far as an opinion may be formed from descriptions, the Esquimaux." They appear to be con- nected with the Siberian Mongols, through the Samoiedes. CHAPTEE rV". THE MALAY RACE. If the Mongolian occupies a larger portion of the surface of the globe, the Malay is yet the most widely scattered race, and, in some respects, it is also the most remarkable. In institutions and social condition it exhibits, perhaps, greater variety than all the other races combined ; and, from a imi- versal, instinctive attachment to the water, it almost merits the appellation of " amphibious." Endowed, too, with a wandering disposition, less regardful of a home than the rest of mankind, its march has been truly " upon the waves;" and, beyond the Atlantic, it has reached almost every islet in the ocean that affords the least means of subsistence. The Malay complexion is very uniform, and is always decidedly darker than the Mongolian. I have never seen it light enough to show the least trace of a flush, nor, on the other hand, so dark but that the marks of tattooing were conspicuously visible. The colour may be termed reddish- brown, more nearly than in the Mongolian race, approaching the hue of tarnished copper. The hair seems in greater quantity than in the other races, the Papuan, perhaps, excepted ; and it is straight, or at most wavy, and usually raven-black. "When cropped within about two inches, I have observed that it wiU gene- rally stand erect, owing, apparently, to a coarser texture than in the Telingan and White races. The beard grows long, but is almost always thin, though some variety prevails in different countries. The East Indian tribes are nearly beardless ; while among the Polynesians a beard is not unusual, though it does not seem to get strong tUl late in life. I have occasionally seen Polynesians, in whom the PI 3 MAL^.YAH KACE, DAVID KALO. A NATIVE OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. THE MALAY EACE. . 45 teard was nearly thick enough to conceal the skin. The practice, however, of eradicatuig it prevails very generally in. the countries inhabited by the Malay race. In style of feature there is often no striking dissimilarity from Europeans, especially in middle-aged and elderly men, many of whom have the nose aquiline; while in females and young men it is almost always flattened. Nevertheless, I think it wUl be found that there is less prominence of profile in the Malay than in any other race. This appears to be owing, in part, to the absence of rigidity in the carti- lage of the nose, as with the Negro. The Ups are likewise thicker than among Europeans. The profile has appeared to me usually more vertical than in the white race ; but this may be owing in part to the mode of carriage, for the skuU does not show a superior facial angle. A more marked peculiarity, and one very generally observable, is the elevated occiput, and its slight projection beyond the line of the neck. The face, in conse- quence, when seen in front, appears broader than among Europeans, as is the case with the Mongolian, though for a different reason. In the Mongolian the front is depressed, or the cranium inclines backwards, while in the Malay it is elevated or brought forwards. The Mongolian traits are heightened artificially by the Chinooks ; but it is less gene- rally known that a slight pressure is often applied to the occiput by the Polynesians, in conformity with the Malay standard. A peculiarity in the Malay skull has been pointed out to me by Dr. Morton, in the tendency to unusual prolongation and projection of the upper maxilla. This character, though not universal, is strikingly exemplified in several East Indian skulls ; and I have found traces of the same in the Hawaiian skulls obtained by the Expedition. It accords with the remark of Mr. Hale, " that the upper lip is very often, among Polynesians, slightly turned up." Eor characteristic representations of the Malay race, I would refer to the following portraits, taken during our Voyage, a part of which only have been published : among Taheitians, to those of Otore, Paofai, and the " girl " among Samoans, to those of Malietoa, Mary Olo, Emma Malietoa, Matetau, and " children ;" among New Zealanders, to those 46 PHTSICAL HISTOET OT MAIT. of John Sac, and the " girl ;" among Hawaaians, to those of the King and Queen, David Malo, Liholiho, and Haiha ; and to that of " the native of Luzon." A very good idea of the Malay standard of female beauty may be obtained from the portrait of the Hawaiian girl, in Byron's voyage. TeUow is the favourite colour throughout the countries inhabited by the Malay race, and it appears to be reaUy the one most becoming to the deep brown complexion. Wreaths, too, are very generally worn for ornament, and they have appeared to me peculiarly adapted to the Malay style of feature. A remarkable variation in stature occurs in the Malay race. The Polynesians (particularly the Taheitians, Samo- ans, and Tonga islanders,) appestr to exceed in size the rest of mankind; while the Bast Indian tribes, and the inhabi-' tants of the Indo-Chinese countries, fall decidedly below the general average. I will not undertake to offer an eipkr nation; but there are facts connected with the nature of the food that have appeared worthy of notice. Both divisions of the race live principally on vegetable food ; but there is this striking difference : the food of the East Indian consists almost exclusively of rice, while the Polynesian (to whom grain of every kind is imknown) draws his subsistence mainly from farinaceous roots, and from certain fruits of similar consistence. The further superiority in the stature of the Polynesian chiefe seems a remarkable circumstance, when we consider that they are hereditary. At the Hawaiian Islands, residents declared, that it depended very much on "the greater quantity of food they obtained while young;" and I have reason to believe that the remark is not without foundation. "We are reminded here of the process of forming a queen among bees. At the same time, certain kinds of food are undoubt- edly more favourable than others for fuUy developing the human frame. Notwithstanding I had formerly seen in the United States some individual Malays, I had not then learned to distinguish the race from the Mongolian, and my proper acquaintance with it dates from my visit to the islands of the Pacific. I there spent in all about two years among the PoiiTNESiAKS, who, though so widely separated, may be P14 m^.y"'"7/-''-: -^"^ l.r A L E K A. A NATIVE OF THE HAWAIIAN ISL'ANDS. THE MAIAT EACE. 47 regarded as forming one people, and in many respects as a single nation, aittough composed of distinct branches or tribes. CORAL ISLANDS. a. Hastern Pawnotuans. On leaving tie coast of Peru, in July, 1839, we directed our course westward, and, after tliirty-one days' sailing before tbe wind, we arrived at length on the borders of the exten- sive coral archipelago interposed between the Marquesas, Society, and Grambier groups. The first land we made differed remarkably in its appearance from any previously seen. At first trees rose iato view, and again sunk out of sight, alternating with the swell of the ocean. Soon, how- ever, they seemed to acquire stability ; the duU white coral strand became visible, and afterwards the surf, while from aloft the whole interior was found to be a lagoon. The term of " waterland " seemed fairly applicable to this offset of the new world we were entering ; where, however, similar scenes soon became sufficiently familiar. The island was called, on the charts, Glermont Tonnerre ; and, after nearing it, we for some time could discover no signs of inhabitants. At length two natives loomed up among the scattered low plants and shrubs, and became the subjects of a good deal of scrutiny vpith the glass. They made no motions, and did not appear to be noticing us. "Whether ovring, in some measure, to the clear tints around them, the deep blue of the ocean, the paler sky, the snowy whiteness of the surf, and the fresh green of the foliage, their almost naked forms exhibited a very decided tinge of red. I was of a party that eagerly sought the shore, regardless of the double danger, from the sun and natives. As our boats advanced, the brilliant hues of the submarine creation came into view, a far different spectacle from the universal dulness in turbid continental waters. Notwithstanding the variety of objects, it was exclusively a display of " animal life ;" for even hydrophytes, or marine vegetables, were very nearly wanting. We landed, crossed the narrow rim, some twenty feet in elevation, to the margin of the lagoon ; and, after remaining about two hours, we returned to the 48 PHTSICAI HISTOET OE UAJX. boats. The "miaeral kingdom" vaa found to be likewise absent ; and the whole immense mass of animal debris, sur- rounded by: unfathomable waters, clearly justified placing the coral isles among the marvels of nature. The natives had kept out of sight while we were on shore ; but, on the following day, on our attempting to land at a different point, they collected in a small body, men and boys, to oppose us, as is related in the Narrative of the Expedition. They were armed only with the long javelin, the favourite weapon of the Polynesians. I was not near enough to get a very distinct view of their features ; but I could see that they had lank hair, and that beards were absent. They were naked, except a small covering, which yet conveyed an air of decency. Mr. Couthouy, who obtained the nearest view of these people, stated that " some individuals were painted, but there were no marks of tattooing." Serle Island, distant some thirty miles to the westward and northward, was next visited. In general appearance it entirely resembled the island we had left; and, indeed, one description, with very slight modifications, vrill answer for all the coral rings. Lieutenant Alden, while engaged in the sinrey, approached near enough to induce some of the natives to swim off. " They first sent away their javelins, and a new-comer, bearing one, was turned back. They seemed friendly enough, though disposed to help themselves without much ceremony, but they could not be persuaded to get into the boat. One man seized his note-book, and was making off; but he returned it on seeing the anxiety of the owner, backed, however, by the offer of a piece of iron. This material they were very desirous of procuring, having evidently obtained a knowledge of it from trading vessels." In return for articles distributed, Lieutent Alden procured plumes or bunches of the feathers of the frigate-bird; a long strip of matting, of rather fine quality, about eight inches in breadth, and evidently intended for clothing; two cocoar nuts ; a bundle of the tvrining Cassytha stems, that was worn by one of the party; a large fish-hook, (perhaps of turtle-boiie), in form and tie similar to those we afterwards saw at the Disappointment Islands ; also " sinnet," or braided cord of cocoa-nut fibre, which is in use throughout THE MALAY EACE. 49 the islands of the Pacific; and twisted cords, or twiae, of different degrees of fineness, some composed of fibrous bark, (apparently of some Urticaceous plant,) and others of human hair. The absence of canoes at the above two islands is possibly connected with the like circumstance among the inhabitants of the neighbouring Mangareva or Gambier Grroup. Two days' sail now to the northward, in the direction of the Marquesas, brought us in sight of Honden Island. The mynads of sea-birds, and the absence of cocoa palms, announced that there were no human inhabitants. So, on landing, did the absence of the house-fly, and of the Morinda ; although the soU was found to be chiefly over- grown with the Pandanus. A third danger, however, pre- sented itself, in the sharks, which were more numerous than at any other place visited. Our boats were regidarly followed by long processions of them; and as the swell sometimes elevated the foremost above us, it required some familiarity with the sea to dispel apprehensions of an attack. Indisputable evidence of their prowess was found in the mutilated condition of the turtle that had sought refuge on the strand. In passing round the island, some " oar-Hke implements " were seen from one of the boats. A stone hatchet also was picked up on shore, that presents some correspondence with the Hawaiian workmanship. At all events, the article had been derived from some of the high rocky islands ; and it may probably mark the fate of a maritime enterprise. b. Ottiane. After sailing thence for two days to the westward, we came in sight of the two Disappomfment Islands. "While yet several miles from the land, we were surprised hy the appearance of canoes, which indeed had approached quite near us before they were discovered. They were very small, scarcely capable of containing more than two persons, and had a projecting beak at the stem and stem to take hold of, in getting into them from the water. The paddle also was remarkable on account of its curved blade. The natives sometimes came near enough to touch the ship's side, and picked up the difierent articles that were thrown 50 PHTSrCAIi HISTOET OF MAX. to them ; but nothiag cotild induce them to come on hoard. From their vrildness and their neglected persons, I thought at first we had really got among " savages," such as are depicted ia the imaginations of ■writers ; and, indeed, their miserable appearance was almost sufficient to inspire doubts whether they could be human. One of them was addressing us, saying, as it appeared, "you have got a fine canoe;" ajid, indeed, the contrast was amazing ; but it appeared less wonderful after we had seen their implements of construction. A boat was sent to the island, to ascertain further the disposition of the inhabitants. A cluster of them was seen to collect near, on the beach, who at one time set up a dance. The report on the return of the boat was rather unfayourable, though no actual violence had been offered ; and various articles of native manufacture had been procured. On afterwards coasting along the shore in boats, we passed two or three canoes, which kept pace with us for a while, but would sheer off on any attempt to get near them. Some natives, however, were swimming, and we soon per- ceived that all were swarming with vermin. Here and there upon the shore were men bearing branches, or dancing, with a long club held by both hands above the head ; and among them I observed one woman. As we approached the station of the chief, he arose £pom under a Pandanus, and was rendered conspicuous in the distance by having (edematous or dropsical legs. He was grey, and looked the grandfather of a good part oi the population; and as the boats stopped, he came down to the water's edge, making various motions and grimaces. On being given to understand that there was a present for him, there was a manifest change in his countenance, and he seemed rather amdous to avafl himself of his prerogative. He swam off to the boat and received the proffered article, presenting in return the cape or mantle of matting on his shoulders. He came off with others two or three Imies, and commenced a long harangue while still in the water, the purport of which was however lost upon us. More than one of our party mentioned afterwards being struck with the personification of the Grecian Neptune, as he lay floundering, his long THE MALAY EACE. 51 wMte beard streaming in the water.* He was nnw illiTi g to have us land ; but some boats of the squadron effected a landing at a different point, and had communication with the natives. On the following day, a visit was made to the smaller island, distant about eight miles from the first. The natives, who were all men, and in number did not much exceed a dozen, were assembled at the water's edge ; but they made no hostile demonstrations, other than pushing back the boat. The surf being but slight, we had the advantage in the last resort, had intereoxiise of that Mnd been desirable. Several of us, therefore, landed by swim- ming, and we then obtained a nearer view than was alto- gether agreeable ; for there was no escaping the Polynesian sign of friendship, that of touching noses. Our explora- tions, however, were circumscribed ; for the natives, during a prolonged interview* were unwilling to have us leave the beach ; and on parting, they gave us some evidently heart- felt adieus. A landing was subsequently effected at the further end of the island, and the principal vegetable pro- ductions were ascertained ; but our new friends were soon on the spot, and the morning scene was re-enacted. I had now obtained a satisfactory view of the natives ; and I was struck with the deeper hue and more European style of feature, than in the aboriginal Ajnerican ; while a connection was already manifest, with the far-distant East Indians. The array of thoughtful and venerable countenances bore some whimsical analogy to the leading members of a civilised village community ; and I could not avoid mentally selecting the corresponding dignitaries, with their sphere of action, however ridiculously limited. We did not learn the precise relations between the people of the two islands. They did not appear to be altogether on a friendly footing ; though, from the number of old men, we supposed that wars were not common. The beard was universal ; but I observed no marks of tattooing. • As the same circnmstance was observed, in the cruise of the Peacock, both at the Union and EUice Groups, the coincidence could hardly have been accidental. The Polynesians, like the ancient Greeks, are fond of " tracing their genealogy to a god ;" and it may be worth inquiry, whether something practical is not intended ? £2 52 PHTSIOAL HISTOKT OF lIAlf. Among the articles procured at the larger island were oar-shaped clubs, six or eight feet long (their jarelins they would not part with) ; pearl shells ; adzes, the handles made of kneed roots, and the cutting portion of shell, either the Tridacna or Cassis. There beiag no production of the coral islands harder than shell or coral, a poiated instrument of bone was regarded by the crew with some curiosity, and was thought to be connected with the manufacture of pearl-shell fish-hooks. The bone was evidently that of some large land animal, and there being but one kind on the island, it seemed to throw new light on the enticements in similar situations, sometimes held out to visitors. The wood-work was rasped, probably with the skin of the Shagreen-ray, which is used at other coral islands. The jaw of the toothed bonito (Sarda ?), was sometimes fastened to a stick, for some purpose not ascertained. Mats, principally, were used for clothing; but "tapa," or bark cloth (pro- bably from the wild Procris), was not altogether wanting. Heaps of coral blocks, Kke monuments, long baskets set up in various places, and a stick of timber resting on two posts, were seen from the boat. Mr. Agate was of the party that landed on the larger island ; and he remarked, " that the huts were very low, aifording only room to creep under, and that water was kept in cocoa-nut shells," as afterwards observed at Saraka and the Union Group. In all my subsequent experience, I have not found else- where anything that looked like a relapse from a more improved condition of society ; and in this case, from the surrounding circumstances, it seems unavoidable. If we examine the handiwork, we shall perceive an apparent aiming at former arts, as though the knowledge were present, and the materials only wanting. From various points of difference observed (as in respect to wearing the beard), I have thought these people should have a separate place from the islanders first visited. Perhaps some connection, notwithstanding the geographical distance, may be established with the Penrhyn Islanders, especially as there exists strong analogy in the manufactures. Penehtst Island, situated nearly half way between the Marquesas and Union Groups, was subsequently visited by the Porpoise. " It was covered with cocoa pahns, and was THE MALAY BACK. 53 densely inhabited by the wildest set of natives that had been met with during the voyage. These natives had no hesita- tion about coming on board, but it required some vigilance to prevent them from pilfering everything they could lay hands on." They agreed with the Disappointment Islanders in " wearing the beard, and in the absence of tattooing ; and their canoes, though much larger, were equally destitute of sads." The articles obtained from them show further resemblance, as the mats used for clothing, the fish-hooks of pearl-shell, the oar-shaped clubs, and the rasped wood- work. But we observe, in addition, large wooden shark- hooks, an article known likewise at the Vaitupan or EUice Group ; while the fine cords made of human hair, and the " bimch of feathers seen," remind us of the Serle Islanders. Even where insignificant in point of numbers, the inhabi- tants of the more secluded coral islands are formidable in cases of shipvreeck, holding, as they do, shores lashed by a heavy surf. The tide of civilisation may finally reach them, but they hardly seem in danger of being robbed of these lonely reefs by the substitution of any different race of men. In order, however, to a better appreciation of the circum- stances attending a home on the Coral Islands, some account of their vegetable productions may be here inserted. A remarkable uniformity was found everywhere to prevail; the same set of plants recurring, whatever the geographical distance. The species did not amount to more than thirty in all ; none of them, perhaps, altogether pecidiar. These facts are of importance in geographical botany, for it will be perceived that the coral islands do not connect the vegetation of the rocky groups.* Often a small proportion only of the soil is sufficiently elevated for a vegetable growth, which is besides more or less scattered, and consists of trees, shrubs, and some detached herbaceous plants. The species unequivocally indigenous, contribute in a very slight degree to supplying * Elevated coral islands, like Metia, and those consisting of an extensive plain, as Tongataboo, form an exception to tLe above rcmari;. Another ex- ception takes place, when a coral island is in close proximity to a high and rocky group. 54 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OP MAN. . wants. Ttey afford, indeed, timber ; and an urtica- tree amd sbrub ftmiish sparingly " tapa" (or native human ^ ceous tree cloth) and cordage. Pvirskne (of two species) is pretty common, and forms a gratefdl esculent to visitors, though I have not seen it used by the natives themselves. With the above exceptions, the useful plants appear to be of foreign origin. The Cocoa palm is the priucipal one ; and so invariably is its presence attributable to human operations, that it haa become a guide to the traders, in seeking for natives. The uses of this princely gift of nature, are by. no means confined to its esculent properties, but far exceed in variety those of any other known plant. Without going into details, I will only quote the old remark, that it is possible to " build vessels, fit them for sea, and freight them, exclusively from the materials afforded by the Cocoa palm." The Pandanus prevails more generally ; and unlike the Cocoa palm, it has evidently diffused itself in a good mear sure without human aid. The only important exception to its universal presence was found at Wake's Island, which is uninhabited, and remote from other lands. The slight pulp aroimd the base of the seeds is said to form an important resource for food, at the Caroline, Sadack, and some neigh- bouring groups : but so far as my own observation extends, the chief use has been of the leaves for matting. I should mention that the leaves of the various species of Pandanus I subsequently met with in the East Indies and in East Africa, were unsuitable for this purpose. Some few stocks of the Mormda citrifoUa usually occurred on the coral islands, presenting likewise every appearance of spontaneous growth. On the rocky groups, however, the tree, besides being common, was observed to be sometimes planted, although the fruit was for the most part neglected. At the Coral Islands it may be more valued. According to Mr. Kich, the root is used iu dyeing, both in Polynesia, and in the East Indies. Of the great variety of cultivated plants known to the Polynesians, the above three only appealed sufficiently hardy to bear the exposure of coral islands, of those at least which were visited by myself. It should also be observed, that at these islands marks of cultivation were only seen in the THB MALiZ EACE. 55 occasional planting of the cocoa palm, and there were no accompanying weeds. At some coral groups, situated far to the westward of the Paumotus, and visited by the Peacock, a few additions to the above Hst were remarked. The two Arwms (C, escu- lenta and C. macrorhiza) were unerpectedly found under cultivation at the EUice and Kingsmill Groups ; and at the Union Group, a flabellate Palm and the G-ardenia. It appeared, too, that foreign seeds, accidentally drifted to the shore, were (arefully planted by the natives; as was witnessed by Mr. Eich in the instance of the Hemandia. I would note, also, that the Tacca was seen growing on coral, in the Balabac Passage, and again at Zanzibar ; but in the Pacific, I have only found it on the high islands, where it is commonly natnrafised. e. Anaans, or Western Fav/motuams. After leaving the Disappointment Islands, we directed our course to the southward and westward, and the next island seen was Taiara. We had now learned caution ; and in our rambles on shore, we looked with some anxiety for the appearance of natives. Their traces were abundantly evident, ia a deserted hut, swarms of flies, the remains of a raft in the lagoon, and bundles of cocoa-nuts ready for transportation ; but they were probably at that time absent from the island. An excavation was found cdSitaining fresh water, the existence of which, on the Coral Islands, seems a remarkable circumstance. The cocoarnut does not, as some have supposed, afford an adequate substitute. The Morinda waa first seen at this island. On the foEovring morning we reached .BoraAa, and saw the Taheitian flag, a subject of general congratulation ; and for myself, I may say that never on any occasion was an emblem of civilisation more welcome. It brought visions of a watery kingdom in this much-avoided region of the globe, that should iasure future safety to the mariner. It is hardly necessary to add that we met with a friendly reception from the several families established here, including a native Taheitian missionary. All were now cleanly in their persons, and free from vermin ; and we were here first struck with the orderly and respectful behaviour of the 56 PHYSICAL HISTOBX OF MAN, Polynesian children. The men had their beards shaven, and were nnifonnly large and stout, giving evidence alreadj" of superiority of stature in the Polynesians. Their huts were very clean, and were neatly maide; and there were some regular plantations of young cocoa palms. Numbers of young tern (a blackish species with pale spots) were running about the huts in a half-domesticated state, a circumstance that was not observed elsewhere. An important change had taien place in the social con-> dition of the human family ; and the people we were now among were not permanent inhabitants of the islands on which we found them, or, at least, they were accustomed to hold intercourse with other and distant islands. Two large sea-going canoes, which had apparently con- veyed the whole party, were drawn up on the beach. Similar vessels are in use throughout the Western Paumotus, making occasional voyages to Taheiti ; but their proper rendezvous appears to be at Anaa or Chain Island, which is the centre of navigation in Eastern, as Tongataboo is, in "Western Polynesia. The Western Paumotuans have, in consequence, experienced the influence of the general Poly- nesian civilisation. Their nationality was abundantly recog- nised at Taheiti. Kawaki was visible jEfom Earaka, and, on inquiry, the natives said there were people upon it. The party from the "Vincennes " ^d not find them, and saw but two or three cocoa palms." The next island visited was Aratika, where a white flag was flying. Among some twenty inhabitants, one man could speak a few words of English; and various articles were also seen that had been derived from Europeans. We were surprised at finding here a considerable fresh-water pool. And for the fitrst time we met with the war-conch (formed of the Triton variegatum), which is in general use among the Pacific Islands. The portraits taken by Mr. Drayton show the chequered pattern of tattooing, which seems distinctive of the Western Paumotuans. MamMi was next visited ; and some of our party walked over to the entrance of the lagoon, where some natives had established themselves. They reported, on their return, that the " chief declared himself a relative of the one-armed THE MALAY EACH. 57 chief of Earaka ; and spoke also of going over to Akii (an island in sight), to procure a certain kind of fish fi-om the lagoon." We subsequently landed on Ahii, and found a grove of cocoa pabns, but no appearance of inhabitants. JRairoa, or Dean's Island, next offered its extensive outline of some sixty miles in the longest diameter ; and being only in part visible as we coasted along, it presented a novel appearance. "We did not land, but at one point two small canoes came off to us. Tihehau, an island in sight from the last, was passed chiefly during the night. On the following morning we were awakened at an early hour to see, as it was termed, a "real island." It presented a remarkable appearance, for it was flat-topped, some two hundred and fifty feet in height, and seemingly inaccessible ; the mural cliff being in many places actually undermined by the surf. The island, notwithstanding, proved to be exclu- sively composed of coral. It is called Metia, and is situated withLa a day's sail of Taheiti. On coasting around in boats, it was perceived that the cliff did not everywhere rise directly out of the sea ; but on one side, a narrow intervening beach afforded a landing- place. The natives assisted in drawing up the boats. They were upwards of three hundred in niunber, Uving in the midst of abundance ; and we experienced from them all the kindness and hospitality attributed to the Taheitians of the olden time. At first indeed, we were disposed to class them with the Taheitians; but there were some large double canoes on the strand, insufficient, however, to receive the whole population. Several of the men could speak some words of English ; and more than one of them wished to be taken on board. Their houses were at the base of the cliff; but a paved path was constructed to the summit ; where we found a fertile soU, and first met with the usual objects of Polynesian cultivation. Other islands in the Paumotu Archipelago, were subse- quently visited by the Porpoise ; but for the account of them, I must refer to the fourth volume of the Narrative. d. Other Coral Qrotips. The coral islands, subsequently visited by the Vineennes, were uninhabited; but as aU these Oceanic resting-places 58 PHTSICAl HISTOEY 01' UXS. and their resources, claim attention, I will insert some notices of tiem. . I landed on Bdlimghmsen Island, which is quite smaU, only some three or four miles ia diameter, and is situated to the westward of the Taheitian Group. No traces of natives were discovered; but the sea-birds breeding ia numbers, the large fishes ia the pools of the coral-shelf, and the fear- lessness of the sharks ia the lagoon, all betokened the absence of a general distuibiag cause. On my first laiTiding on a coral island, I was about seizing a spotted eel (Mursena), coiled ia a small cavity ; when Sac, our New Zealand sailor, held my hand, with a friendly wamiag. Here, however, some of large size did not always wait for the attack ; and a bite, like the cut of a hatchet, was received by one of our men. The Cocoa palm and the Morinda were both absent ; but the Pandanus was abundant. I landed also on ItOse Island ; which is situated far west- ward of the preceding, and withia a day's sail of the Samoa or Navigator Grroup. It is stiU. smaller than BeUinghausen, although possessing an openiag into the lagoon ; and at high water it is chiefly submerged. The whole flora of the island was found to consist of but two species of plants; the Pisonia ? forming a grove of some three or four acres ; and a Portulaca, scattered about the outskirts. The grove was tenanted by myriads of sea-birds : and the tern, as they rose from beneath the low branches, might almost be taken in armfuls. Among species of different genera, each bird was observed to have but a single egg ; as though the reported compact of some of the Islanders, had extended to the feathered tribes. Blocks of lava, from five to thirty pounds in weight, were met with on different parts of the reef; and it seemed difficult to account for their presence ; driffc-wood affording a barely possible means of conveyance. We never met with a second instance of the kind. On the passage from the Feejee to the Hawaiian Islands, the Vincennes passed through the PncEifix Geotjp. The first island visited was small, and was named on the charts Gardner's Island. On landing, I observed that the house- fly was absent, as weU as the cocoa palm ; and the only evidence of the visits of natives, consisted in the presence of great numbers of rats. THE MALAr EACE. 59 On tte foUo'wiiig day, a small patch of coral was dis- covered, and not being down on the charts, it received the name of M'Kecm's Island. Its very insignificance rendered it formidable to the navigator. I obtained a seat in one of the boats sent to examine it, and on our way experienced the novelty of being within three nules of land, without the possibility of discerning it : for it rose very slightly above the water, and produced neither trees nor bushes, but only low-scattered herbage and tufts of grass. It was a mere roosting-place for sea-birds, and was Hterally crowned with them ; while, as it was near sunset, others were arriving from all directions to take their stations in the throng. While we remained in the vicinity, a large shoal of porpoises came dashing along, and after frolicking about the boat, at length arranged themselves in a novel manner, with the eyes above water, gazing at the imusual spectacle. At another island of the group, a number of " black-fish " were equally inquisitive ; and some apprehension was entertained, lest in their gambols, one might chance to fell upon the boat. Some days afterwards I landed on Mull's Island, where the presence of cocoa palms attested the former visits of Polynesians ; but in this instance the Pandanus appeared to be wanting. A Frenchman, with a party of Taheitlans, had been left here " for the purpose of procuring turtle ; and during the four months of their residence but one ship had visited the island." A party from the Vincennes landed on Mnderhy's Island, which is small, and destitute of a proper lagoon. The Pandanus was again observed to be absent, and there were no large living trees ; but drift-wood was found, which had possibly famished the means of transport to the rats and lizards (Scincus). The latter animals, it should be observed, have doubtless, in many instances, accompanied the voyages of the Polynesians. About a year afterwards, the Vincennes visited "Wake's Island, which is situated nearly midway between the Hawaiian and the Ladrone or Marian Islands. It is larger than the islands seen in the Phoenix Grroup, being apparently about six miles in diameter. On landing, I could find neither the cocoa palm, Pandanus, nor the house-fly ; but rats and lizards were the only, and uncertain signs of 60 PHYSICAL HISTOBT Or MAN. aboriginal visitors. Kshes were abundant, and in greater varie^ than before observed around the Coral Islands. There were no large trees, except a single dead trunk, lying prostrate. A friend of mine once passed several months on I'anning's Island, in company with a party of Hawaiians. Cocoa palms were abundant ; * an important fact, taken in connexion ■with the central position of this island, in regard to the Hawaiian, Union, KingsmUl, and Marquesas Groups. Indeed, after the above examples, it would seem that few, if any, of the Tropical isles of the Pacific have escaped aboriginal discovery. Jbktis' Island, situated to the southward of Fanning's Island, and nearly under the Equator, was visited by the Peacock. No attempt was made to land; but the island was ascertained to be " destitute of both trees and shrubs." For an account of the inhabitants of the TTnion, Elhce, Tarawan or Kingsmill, and Eadack Groups, which were successively visited by the Peacock, I must principally refer to the Narrative and Ethnography of the Expedition. It will be perceived that I have enumerated tribes differing materially in their customs and languages, and, in some instances, not strictly belonging to the Polynesian family ; but they all dwell on coral islands, and their imion here has reference to their being subjected to the same external circumstances. At the Union or OTAiTAir Gaorp, a landing was effected on the island of Otafu. " The cocoa palm, Pandanus, and Morinda, were all present, together vdth the Grardenia, the flowers of which are worn for ornament at Taheiti." Mr. Agate observed, that the inhabitants " derived their supplies of water from the rains, by means of a cavity cut in the base of the cocoa stems ;" a process familiarly known also on the high islands. At Ibikaafo, the island on which the chief resided, Mr. Eich again observed " the four plants above-mentioned ; and in addition, the flabeUate palm, which is cultivated at the Samoa and Tonga Islands. A sort of spirit-house was • In a mediciil point of view, it may he of interest to state, that an exclusive cocoa-nut diet was complained of, as producing a species of urethiitis. THE MALAY EACE. 61 found here, and a purple-crowned yellow pigeon, which had been tamed." The apparent absence, at this group, of the use of fire, merits further inquiry : indeed, I do not remember to have seen any signs of fire at the Disappointment Islands. Swain's Island, which is detached from the rest of the group, and is not far jfrom the Samoa Islands, " appeared to be uninhabited ; but it was covered with cocoa palms, mixed with the Pandanus." At the EUice or YAiTUPAif GrBorp, the pains taken in dressing the hair in a variety of modes, recalls the customs of the Feejeeans. An Albino also was found here, who, according to Mr. Agate, " had blue eyes, and was at first mistaken for a European:" and the circumstance deserves further notice, as albinoes seem to be of rare occurrence in the Malay race. Chequered mats, of different colours, were obtained at the Yaitupan Grroup ; and they seem to show affinity with the manufactures of the East Indies. "Wooden shark-hooks were also obtained, which may be compared vriith those of Penrhyn Island. At the extensive Kingsmill or Taeawan Geoitp, accord- ing to Mr. Eich, " no large trees, except cocoa palms, were visible. The CalophyUum, however, and a branch of the mangrove, indicated a greater variety of productions than is usuid at the Coral Islands : " doubtless owing to a greater continuity of surface. Mr. Eich ascertained here, "that rice-paper is manufactured from the root of Scoevola lobeUa;" a fact confirmed by subsequent inquiry in the East Indies (where this common indigenous plant of the Coral Islands is likewise found). Besides the two kinds of tare, plantations of" bread-fruit " were spoken of; the bamboo was known, and likewise "mullet-ponds," as at the Hawaiian Islands. Dogs were seen, and also fowls ; the latter were " not eaten, but were kept in cages for fighting." It appears, moreover, from MJr. Hale's Vocabulary, that all the introduced animals and plants have Polynesian names. In other respects, a marked change had taken place from the customs of the Polynesians. There was a word for lying, and even for sarcasm. Divination or sorcery was also known ; and the natives paid worship to the manes or spirits of their departed ancestors. The conical hat was found here, and had given its name to one of the islands of the group. A 62 PHYSICAL HISTOKT OF lii^. novel use was made of the cocoarpalm, to produce a kind of molasses ; and, in conformitj ■with, a common belief, these were the only islanders seen in the Pacific " who had decayed teeth." Shortsightedness was well known ; and again, vmlike the Polynesians, the majority of the population were of inferior stature. The limit in respect to children was here extended to three. Although there was little communi- cation even between the different islands of the group, Mr. Hale found a traditional knowledge both of Banabe (or Ascension) in the Caroline Group, and of Samoa. The branching shark's teeth saws, a weapon so unique and formidable in appearance, together with the defensive armour of cocoa fibre, were found at Drummond Island. The form of the cuirass is nearly the same with that of Ombay, as figured in the Erench Voyages. Moreover, the Tarawan paddle resembles the oar of the Persian Gulf: and we note also, that children were betrothed at an early age, and that the Pharaonic custom was observed, of naming a child after the grandfather. No direct communication was had with the inhabitants of the extensive Badack Gboup ; but the information obtained by Mr. Hale respecting Mille (one of the southernmost islands), will be found of much interest. Kotzebue appears hitherto to have enjoyed the best opportuni^ of becoming acquainted with the Sradack islanders ; and I must refer to his work, and especially to the plates of Choris, who accom- panied him. Pleasaitt Island is situated near the Equator, some four hundred miles west of the Tarawan Group, and a little beyond Ocean Island. The following particulairs respecting its inhabitants, are extracted from a notice by T. Beckford Simpson, originally published in an Australian gazette : " They appeared to be a very mild and weU-disposed set of people, and had the appearance of being of the same stock with the natives of Ascension, which island he had formerly visited. Unlike them, however, these islanders have no tradition of their origin, or the manner their fore- fathers first came to the island. They have no religion of any kind, neither do they believe in a future state ; but they appear to have some slight idea of an evil spirit. The popu- lation was estimated at not less than, fourteen hundred, THE MALAY aACE. 63 divided iato seven or eight clans, eact governed by a chief; and there is a queen, who presides over the whole. It is her duty to decide aU. disputes among the chiefs ; and in her also is vested the sovereign prerogative of making peace or war among the different clans. They have canoes. Their food consists chiefly of cocoa-nuts, the fruit of another description of palm, and fish, which are not very numerous. They have also a few very srnaU. fowls. The dress of the women con- sisted of a piece of native cloth round the waist ; and the men wore the maro, made of dried grass. Several Europeans of doubtful character were residing on the island, and one who was now gone, had deliberately murdered eleven of his associates." TAHEITI. Leaving the Coral Islands, I shaU. next speak of the Poly- nesians of the high and rocky groups. The transition is truly remarkable, independently of the release from the straitened circumstances heretofore surrounding the human family. We had enjoyed at Metia a shght introduction to the new order of things ; and on the following day (in September, 1839), the Vincennes reached Taheiti, where we remained fourteen days. Among the first subjects to attract notice, was the ready and cheerful salutation which everywhere met us on our rambles ; the attention to cleanhness in. the details of do- mestic economy ; the large, airy, elliptical houses, so admi- rably adapted to the climate ; and yet in all, the wide difference from^ the customs of Europeana. A journey across the island having been projected, we asked our guides about the ascent of Oroena, the central mountain or most elevated point of the island. They replied with great simplicity, but, as it appeared subsequently, with a good deal of truth : " No Taheiti man had ever been able to get there, and therefore a white man could not go." They appeared to have no measurements for short distances or short periods of time, corresponding to a mile or an hour ; but always pointed to the place in the heavens where the sun would be when we should arrive at the proposed station. The " Queen " had. groves of cocoa palms at intervals along the road, or, in other words, these were reserved for the use 64 PHTSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. of travellers. Other cocoa palms were " taboo," and bore a mark of private reservation; for this regulation has the advantage over the "law" of civilised nations, of being universally respected. The Taheitians have been found to excel in the culinary art; and their mode of cooking has been often described. Our repast was served up on leaves, a number being handed to each person, in Ueu of a plate. There was refinement, we found, in eating with the fingers ; and for the want of practice, our party acquitted themselves but awkwardly. A cocoa-nut shell containing water, afterwards formed a sub- stitute for finger-bowls. In another particular, we equally found ourselves at fault ; for having always worn clothes, and been accustomed to the use of chairs, it was impossible to assume postures (sometimes, it is true, not according with our ideas of grace) in which we saw the natives resting easily. This greater suppleness of limb gave them many advantages over us ; and the most active of our guides, after lashing his heels together, would ascend a cocoa pabn almost as rapidly as we would have walked over the same horizontal distance. After leaving the coast, our way lay up the valley of a mountain torrent, which we were obliged to ford frequently, and sometimes to travel in its bed. We were exposed for some days to frequent and heavy rains, and soon began to envy the naked condition of the natives, who became dry in a few moments, whereas our clothing once wet, remained so for hours. This circumstance led to some views on the sub- ject of clothing, particularly in tropical climates, which had not before occurred to me. Man not being created an aquatic animal, his skin may not with impunity be exposed to per- petual moisture, whether directly applied or arising from perspiration retained by dress. Indeed, we subsequently heard complaints among Polynesians, that " they never had colds until they began wearing clothes." At the same time, we ourselves could not with impunity have laid clothing aside : the skin with us was in. an unnatural condition, over- sensitive, from the exclusion as well of light as of air, or, according to a term used by naturalists, " etiolated." The importance to health, therefore, of keeping the, skin dry, does not appear to have hitherto received due attention. THE MALAY EACE. 65 Near the head of the valley, we unexpectedly fo\md a family residing, and at a point below we obserred one or two abandoned houses ; but with these exceptions, the Interior appeared to be whoUy uninhabited. We next traversed a ridge of about twenty-seven hundred feet in elevation, were ferried over the lake on a raft of wild banana stems, and on reaching the opposite coast, learned to our surprise, that " we were the first white men who had ever crossed the islaad of Taheiti." The pass, indeed, is very seldom used by the natives, who confine themselves to the coast, making limited excursions along the mountain ridges, to procure the iruit of the "fehi," or vpild banana. According to an intelligent chief, " the wild people who formerly inhabited Taheiti were accustomed to go all over the mountains ; but there was no one now who knew the way." The gradual abandonment of the Interior was of so recent a date as to have been in part witnessed by the missionaries ; and it was stated by them, that even " within a few years, some natives made their appearance, who were quite unaware of the changes brought about by the residence of Europeans." Contmuiag our journey, we completed the circuit of the larger section of the island by the weU-known and indeed only route — ^that along the coast. An innovation on ancient habits was observed, in the joint ownership of a large sugar plantation by an association of natives. " Landed property was said to be at the bottom of most of the quarrels and difficulties among the native population ; " and on the autho- rity of the chief above mentioned, " it was always the prin- cipal cause of war." The missionaries, however, spoke of " a spirit of emulation be1;ween the different districts, that showed itself in various modes after the cessation of the wars ; and at one time cock-JigMmg * was much practised." The Gruava plant has now overrun much of the productive sod, and is commonly complained of, as " having ruined the island." Yet, according to the missionaries, "the popu- lation, for the last thir&jr years, did not appear to have diminished." * "We note here an apparent connection ivith the occurrence of the same kind of amusement at the Tarawan Group, and with its unusual prevalence at the Philippine Islands, F 66 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OE MAIT. A second mountain excursion was undertaken, and ve procured the services of a native named Veheori. This man proTided himself with a rope, and took with him his son, for the purpose, as he said, " of teaching him the way to the mountains, as after a while he should himself die, and then nobody would know." It appeared, however, in the eequel, that another reason had entered into his views, as he " owned a tract of land " at the limit of our excursion. "We started at an eaily hour, and in the afbemoon we had attained an elevation of between four and five thousand feet, along the crest of a j&ightful knife-shaped ridge, such as I have only seen in the island of Taheiti. We here looked upon the wild and romantic scenery of the Interior, from a new point of view. Amidst the luxuriance of the forest, immense numbers of the radiating crowns of the fehi banana were conspicuous in the distance. I had previously, from below, wondered at the presence of these graves in situations that seemed inac- cessible to human foot. IFor the plant is multiplied only by suckers, and the natives (those at least of the existing generation) take no part in disseminafcing it, although the igreen fruit, which becomes farinaceous when cooked, contributes largely to their sustraianoe. The fehi differs from the common banana in having a simple raceme, and the substitution at Samoa of a second variety may be regarded as proof that the species was originally foreign to both places. Some mystery therefore seems connected with this plant, and the period and mode of its introduction into Taheiti. Our time being limited, perhaps fortunately, it was now necessary to think about returning, and Veheori led us to a point, where, much to our supprise, the descent was prac- ticable. On the following day, we returned midway along the flank of the ridge, and deriving assistance only once from the rope, made our final exit by the valley below. In aU. my subsequent experience, I have never met with a people so serviceable to the traveller as the Taheitiaas ; for they seemed in fact to command at all times the prin- cipal conveniences of life. Half an hour of daylight was siimcient for building a bouse, of the stems, and leaves of the fehi banana, and fire was produced by rubbing sticks. In THE MALAY BACE. 67 one place, the running water was deeply sunk among stones, but by workiag in banana leaves tney brougbt it to the surface. The chase of eels (AnguiUa), which ia these drippiog mountaias become almost amphibious, offered another iostance of their ingenuity. They also tore off with their teeth the fibrous bark of the "purau" (Hibiscus tQiaceus), and a moment after, apphed it to noosing small fish. If one was sent for fruit, he would usually make a basket on the way, by plaiting the segments of a cocoa-nut . leaf. A mat was manufactured with almost equal ease. Clothing was always at hand, and a banana leaf served for an umbrella ; or in fine weather they would weave garlands of flowers. Tumblers and bottles were supplied by single joints of the bamboo, and casks or buckets by the long stems ; and whether we asked for a hatchet, knife, spoon, toothbrush, or wash-basin, we never found our guides at fault. The women, on meeting a near relation after a long absence, express their emotion by protracted weeping ; and we witnessed the commencement of such an exhibition, on the occasion of one of our guides faOing in ■nith his mother. Among the Taheitians, conversation, it appears, is too open and ingenuous for European taste ; but, in the absence of guile and false refinement, it may weO. be supposed there is less to corrupt the heart, than in our self-styled " civilised" society. The Taheitians measure long periods of time by " moons," or lunations ; and they have a calendar, which will be hereafter noticed. "We often witnessed the universal familiarity with the plants and other productions of the island; and also, their more minute subdinsion of the external parts of the human frame, than is known to our sculptors and anatomists. It appears from Porster, that they aboriginally held some commerce " with Taha, Borabora, and the Low coral islands ; and they procured red feathers from Whennuarora, ten days' sail to the westward." This last-named place is one of the Peejee Islands. In their personal appearance, I could find no difference from that of the Paumotuans. I saw little resemblance to the Mongolians, but some individuals might in the United States have been mistaken for mulattoes : the hair was not f2 68 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAIT. universally black, but in some instances had a russet tinge, as was subsequently observed at Samoa and Tonga. Albinoes were spoken of, but I did not see any. Spectacles were occasionally worn by old people. (Edematous legs were quite common, perhaps attributable, in some measure, to constant wading on the reefs. The skin was seldom entirely free from scars, Kke the vestiges of imposthumes. Several instances were observed of the loss of the nose by xdceration, and in one mixed family, the disease in the European father was transmitted to the children. The Vincennes touched at Avmeo ; situated about twelve miles from Taheiti, and forming a iia,tural dependence of that island. It is excessively rugged, and some of its mountain ridges are even perforated. On ascending one of them, I again met with fehi groves. The Vincennes afterwards passed among the other high islands of the group, and we saw Huaheine, Tahaa, and Borabora, but we had no intercourse with the inhabitants, neither were we at any time very near the land. SAMOA. Passing Bellinghausen and Eose, two coral islands already noticed, we on the 8th of October reached Mammi, the summit of which was at the time concealed by clouds. Together with the neighbouring double islet, it is somewhat detached from the remainder of the group, and although the distance is only about sixty miles, there appears to be very little intercourse. The inhabitants have always been some- what noted for their warlike character, but we found them in every respect nationally identical vrith the other Samoans. The name of " Navigator Islands " was suggested to the Erench discoverer, by the graceful shape and superior work- manship of the canoes. These are formed of irregular pieces, sewed together by means of a raised interior margin, a construction which, at these islands, is by no means a matter of necessity. The outrigger is placed nearer than usual to the body of the canoe, so that they overset rather easUy, an inconvenience which however is not much regarded by the natives. We landed on Manua, and met with a friendly reception, THE MAIiAT BACB. 69 but the majority of persons seen were observed to be women. The usual Samoan costume consists of a cincture of the leaves of the Ti plant (Draccena), divided into sUps, so as to form fringe : the yellow-leaved variety makes a somewhat gaudy appearance ; and indeed this style of dress seems well adapted to set off a fine figure in either sex. Hostilities had but recently ceased between the two districts of this small island. A New Zealander applied to us for a writing-pencil, and called himself a "missionary." "We did not meet with another instance of this profession among his countrymen, nor among the Hawaiians, although they are equally scat- tered over the Pacific. It is chiefly to Taheitians, that the world is indebted for the great change recently effected throughout Polynesia. I here joined the Porpoise ; and leaving Manua, we directed our course to the three principal islands of the group, which are in closer proximify to each other, and the iohabitants of which are accustomed to constant intercourse. As we approached Upolu, a native was received on board fi^om a canoe. He was greatly deKghted with a musical-box ; and when it happened to run down, as one of our party commenced playing on a different instrument, he said, as it appeared, " it had stopped to listen." "We remained a day at Apia ; where I was at once struck with the inferiority of the Samoan houses, as compared with those of Taheiti. In the aspect of the population, I could find no particular difference. I saw the same large men, and occasionally individuals of truly Herculean proportions. The " age of heroes " still exists in this quarter of the globe, and I am inclined to think, the Homeric heroes would probably have suffered by a comparison with some of the men of Samoa and Tongataboo. The first Polynesian with fizzled hair was seen at Manua, and other instances occurred, both in the Samoan Group and at Tongataboo. Except in the hair, these individuals did not differ from the surrounding natives; and the peculiarity is perhaps attributable in part to art, to an imitation of the Feejeeans. ]\Ir. Couthouy, during his visit to Upolu, obtained some information respecting a crocodile, believed by the natives 70' PHTSIOAI* HISTOKY OV MAN. to exist in one of tlie streams. A species of crocodile (C. biporcatus) is known to oeeur as far east as New Ireland, and Mariner relates an instance of a straggler liaTing reached the Peejee Islands. It seems possible, then, that another straggler may have reached Samoa. Some apparent con- nexion will be perceived with the " image of a large lizard, formerly placed on one of the moraia" at Taheiti; and also with the fact that " crocodiles are still held in veneration at Timor." Stwaii,. the largest and loftiest island of the group, was next visited. Besides the philological identity in name, it has local points of resemblance vrith the widely separated Hawaii, and is indeed the only other island I have examined, that had been overspread with kva streams. The land rises everywhere with a very gradual and regular slope towards the broad central summit, which is almost constantly con- cealed by clouds. Notwithstanding: the pro&se rains, I saw no signs of streams; but the water, sinking through the porous lava, gushes out in copious springs at the margin of the sea. Owing apparently to this absence of streams, there are no large openings through the coral reef: and vessels being thus excluded, very little change had taken place in the primitive manners of the inhabitants. Two boats landed at Sapapali ; and on reaching the English mission house, a number of bhe natives collected around us, having " never before seen so many A^Mte men." We learned that remarks were made complimentary to the good looks of our party ; and that some declared " they would like to- go to Bnglaaid, since it contained so many handsome people." In company with. Lieut. Maury, I remained on shore for nine days ; but as time at the outset was a matter of uncertainty, my first excursion was directed into the Interior. Six natives were procured as guides,, but before proceed- ing further, it was found necessary to obtain leave of the- " keeper of the forest ;" a functionairy, whose existence was now for the first time brought to light, and who, as will be seen presently, holds an important office in times of scarcity. This man joined our party, and proved a somewhat more efficient woodsman than the others ; for I soon found a wide difference between them and the Taheitians. THE MALAX EACE. 71 I did not get more than eight miles from the coast, rather, however, from the want of an interpreter, than from any natural obstacles. The weather, iudeed, was raiay ; but the forest was not seriously incumbered with undergrowth, and was composed of loftier trees than I have seen in the other Pacific Islands. The Interior appeared to be not only unia- habited, but uavisited ; an unexpected circumstance in this quarter of the globe. On the second day out, I was abandoned by most of my guides ; but in the evening they re-assembled at the camp. The principal motive which had induced them to offer their services was now apparent, as I perceived that each man had loaded himself with wild yams : (a species not seen else- where, which yields a profasion of roots, and forms a safe- guard against famine.) One of my astute companions proved to be the elder brother in a large family, and the father being deceased, the duty devolved upon him " of bringing in all the provisions ; while, as in similar instances, he was exposed to jeers in return for his trouble." A Samoa pHLow had been prepared for my supposed convenience. The model was subsequently found to be Feejeean, somewhat varied and mitigated by the substitu- tion of bamboo for solid wood. This imitation deserves attention, for the physical reason which gave rise to the custom does not exist in Polynesians. On returning to the coast, the sound produced by the beating of tapa gave the first indication of the vicinity of habitations. This is the constant occupation of the women ; and it is a discouraging one, for the article when finished is very frail, and is soon worn out, or destroyed by wet. It more resembles paper than cloth, and does not form very graceful drapery. The paints used for deUneating figures on it are polished black and dull red ; the latter consisting of red earth " from the mountains." Our place of residence was always surrounded by a body of natives, and it was impossible to move about without' a train of both men and boys ; never indeed offering the slightest molestation, but from motives of curiosity, watch- ing the least of our movements. Small children were usually terrified on seeing us ; but the larger boys would keep pace for nules. Nothing showed a greater difference 72 PHTSICAl HISTOET OF MAN. from our own customs than to see well-grown young women joining with the rest, with unconfined limbs, and frolicsome as any of their associates. A small house built on poles proTed to have been the work of the boys of the Tillage, numbers of whom slept there at night. This appeared to have been only a freak ; at least I heard nothing of any exclusion of the bachelors, such as is stated to exist further west, in the vicioity of the East Indies. I was present at an interview with Malietoa, the greatest of the Samoan chiefs ; a highly iuteUigent and venerable old man, extremely courteous and dignified in his deportment. Accordiag to the Eev. Mr. Hardie, many of the natives are not only "intelligent, but really weU-ioformed men. He had often heard them express surprise at the ignorance of sailors ; asking, how it was possible that men like these had been brought up in a civilised country." At the time of our visit, paper for writing formed one of the best articles of traffic with Samoa, a circimistance which seemed anomalous ia a people as yet unacquainted with the use of money. " Their former wars were sometimes brought on by murders, and these were occasionally committed by design- ing men for that special purpose. Another cause was the abduction of women. Sometimes women, from some dis- satisfaction, would, with the help of two dry cocoa-nuts, swim across the channel between TJpolu and Savaii." A person was pointed out to me who had "remained three days in the water, until the abdomen softened." The natives of the vicinity of Sapapali had all been con- verted, and I saw no ti-aces of their former superstitions. A resident WTiite spoke of a " collection of remarkably crooked sticks having been formerly kept near one of the Spirit-houses." The property at our place of residence was regarded as safe, so far as the people of the island were concerned ; but some apprehensions were expressed by the natives concern- ing a stranger, a Hawaiian, from whom however we did not suffer loss. On the day of our departure, we received a visit from several of the beUes of the village, arrayed in their best attire, and dripping with scented oil; but our THE MALAY EACH. 73 attendant soon drove them away, considering with some truth that the presents they might receive would be so much abstracted from their own just dues. I had formed some acquaintances among this people, a community that dwell together and love one another, and on parting, I felt regrets not experienced at any other place we visited. The ten days spent at the island of Tutuila were not marked by any particular incident; except the arrival of three canoes from Upolu, with streamers flying, and the men singing or rather shouting in chorus. They had been expected, from the wind having recently changed, to the westward ; an occurrence, it was said, that rarely takes place without bringing visitors. This practice of visiting had been discouraged by the missionaries ; formerly it was much more frequent, so that some individuals would quarter themselves altogether on the hospitality of the different districts. In one respect the "Western differ remarkably from the Eastern Polynesians ; they are by no means a licentious people. Possibly something may be due to the indirect influence of the neighbouring Peejeeans ; but there was every appearance at Samoa, of this social condition being spontaneous and directly conformable to nature. What wUl be the result of European intercourse, after the secret shall be made known, that it is possible to hoard up property or to change its form at vnll, remains to be developed. Ophthalmia, resulting usually in the loss of but a single eye, was extremely common in both young and aged per- sons ; and I have never visited amy other place where there were so many humpbacks. The oedematous leg was again common ; but I saw only a single instance, and heard of but one more, of ulceration of the nose. The implements and manufactures of the Samoa Islands may readily be distinguished by the style of workmanship. Eugs which are made of vegetable fibre, and sometimes stained yellow, seem peculiar to this group. The javelins are very rudely made, though the barbs give them a formidable appearance. Once only I saw the bow in use ; a native, in the evening, stealthily seeking to destroy thereby a large bat (Pteropus), which was making free with his 74 PHTSICAI. HISTOKT OF MAN. bread-fimit. Some arrows of a novel consfeniction were pro- cured ; intended, it was said, for " 'bringing pigeons to the ground aliTe without iajtiring them." NEW ZEALAND. Before proceeding with, the account of the Tropical Poly- nesians, I hare concluded to follow the order of the Voyage; which next conducts us to the Austral division of the Poly- nesian family. In company with others of my associates, I took passage at Sidney in a merchant vessel, and we reached the Bay of Islands on the 24th of February, 1840. We remained in New Zealand about six weeks, until the return of the Vin- cermes from the Antarctic cruise. Nothing so much surprises the European emigrant as the physical difference between the natives of Australia and New Zealand, two neighbouring regions situated between the same parallels of latitude : the change in habits is likewise radical. The remark may be extended to the other territories of the Southern Hemisphere which are remotely detached, and are noted for their remaxkable yet dissimilar natural productions : for it will be diffictdt to select from the human family four nations more unlike than the Aus- tralians, Austral Polynesians, ITuegians, and Hottentots. It will further be observed that they severally pursue the precise four ultimate methods of procuring sustenance, and may be classed respectively, as hunting, agricultural, pisca- torial and pastoral tribes. The "hunter state" indeed is impossible in New Zealand from the absence of game. By an anomalous distribution of the vegetation, the open grounds of this extensive country are almost exclusively covered with fern. There is no pasturage for grazing animals ; neither, on the other hand, have any woodland quadrupeds been allotted to the forests. Although fish enters largely into the diet of the New ZealanderS) they are not an exclusively maritime people Kke the piscatorial tribes of America, but they are diffdsed throughout the interior country. Moreover, what is a little remarkable in the Malay race, they rather avoid the open THE MALAY EACE. 75 sea ; holding, aevertteless, occasional communieation along the coast. The geographical position and chilly clLmate,, unsTiited to Tropical plants, depiived, of course, the first Polynesian emi- grants of their accustomed agricultural resources. Forced, therefore, to Hve on the spontaneous products of the new country, (and principally on fern-root and fish), it might be supposed that their descendants would have relapsed into a, ruder condition. "We do not, however, find them at all behind the other Polynesians, iu arts, knowledge, or acquire- ments. But to go iato some seeming exceptions : a few Poly- nesian plants have actually proved hardy enough to with- stand the New Zealand climate; and Cook found here "coccos or eddas, sweet-potatoes, and some gourds." Of the first-namod plant, or the taro, I sometimes observed a few stocks near the native houses ; but it is of no impor- tance as an esculent, since the root does not arrive at per- fection. I observed, also, the gowrd (Lagenaria) ; but I do not remember to have anywhere seen its finiit eaten by Polynesians. The iatatas, or sweet-potato, is really of importance as an esculent, at least in. the northern districts, although its cultivation appears to have been, notwithstand- ing, limited. Its presence, however, was not coeval with the first settlement of New Zealand, but the natives have ' preserved a distinct account of its introduction. The tra- ditionary "canoe, formed of separate pieces," describes pre- cisely the model used at Saanoa : and further confirmation of a Samoan source was offered by the small finger-Hke variety of this root, which we met with only at the two places; while yet another concurrent tradition made this " the only kind formerly known in New Zealand." A fourth esculent, the " Cape gooseberry," (PhysaUs edulis), may perhaps be added, as it had. every appearance of being of aboriginal introduction. It is, however, only a weed, abundantly naturalised in waste places-;, and so it ia in the other Polynesian islands, where I have never seen it regularly cultivated. On now comparing the whole Hst of Polynesian useful plants, it wiU perhaps be found that these four alone are capable of enduring the New Zealand chmate. The aboriginal absence of the domestic animals of the 76 PHTSICAX HISTOET OF TVfATT. Tropical Polynesians (the pig, the dog, and the domestic fo'Vfl,) seems more difficult of explanation. It is true, in regard to swine, there appears to be a dearth of sustenance : even at the present day they have not run mid, as at Taheiti, but they continue the inseparable companions of the New Zealand household, and are called to partake of the family meals. I am not sure that the dog was altogether unknown to the aboriginal New Zealanders. The absence of the outrigger was unexpected, and may possibly be connected with the greater roughness of the Southern ocean. In the management of a canoe or boat, the natives by no means fall behind their Tropical brethren, as we had many opportunities of witnessing, even in the instance of the pilot at Sidney, who had selected New Zealanders for the crew of his open boat. Unlike the Tropical Polynesians, they were not seen bathing, a circum- stance attributed to the coolness of the water, but they are otherwise less cleanly in all their habits. Their huts, too, are very small and close, built of bundles of "rapoo," (Typha), and roofed usually with leaves of the wild pajin. We now met with stockaded or fortified vUlages, which are unknown in the rest of Polynesia, excepting only at Tongataboo, where the usage had been derived directly from the Feejeeans. Their presence offers an index to the political condition of New Zealand, for there is no approach to a centralising of authority, as in other parts of Polynesia. It was said to be impossible to hire natives for any distant journey, as " they would not enter districts where their relatives had been formerly killed ;" and by their method of computing relationship, families are rather extensively rami- fied. Even the Bay of Islands was districted, a circum- stance which had the effect of preventing many axticles from being brought to us for sale. The New Zealanders have always borne a warlike charac- ter ; and I was, therefore, much surprised at the inefficiency of their weapons. Besides the stone mace, their principal one is a straight sword-Hfce club, which is wielded with both hands. This is a remarkable change from the weapons of the Tropical Polynesians ; for the javelin appears to be unknown, likewise the bow, and, according to Mr. Hale, the sling. Their wars, indeed, do not appear to have ever been THE MAIAT BACE. 77 very bloody ; and, notwithstanding tlie eagerness manifested in seeldng possession of muskets, these had been used, for the most part, at extravagant distances. The Bay of Islands, two years previously, had been the seat of war. " Persons from distant clans were attracted to the spot, and the parties on their arrival would divide to the right and left, brothers, and other members of the same family, often taking opposite sides. On the restoration of peace, Pomare's tribe, having killed many of the Kororarika people, gave their opponents a tract of land by way of compensation. The soil was said " to be held by the chiefs, although the consent of each member of the tribe was necessary to a sale." It appears that in the alleged sales to Europeans, the natives have not Tinderstood that they were alienating their lands absolutely ; nor, if I am rightly informed, would the European view of such transactions be admitted among other Polynesians. Tattooing is incised, and is a much more painfLd operation than in the rest of Polynesia. The quantity of markings about the face seemed to be very much in proportion to the rank of the individual ; each chief, however, having some variation in the pattern. It was said that " in signing a document the chiefs trace this pattern on the paper, such a signature being readily recognised by all the natives who have ever seen the individual." This was the nearest approach to writing that I found among the Polyn.esians, and the practice appeared to be quite unknown elsewhere. Instances of the various effect of the taboo were noted. At one village an aged man had " tabooed himself, and, in consequence, he could not quit the spot of ground he had selected." At another village we found a large hog tabooed, it having been given to an aged female. On kindling a fire it was taboo for one of our guides to light his pipe by it, and he requested us to strike a fresh light for him. A deserted camp was tabooed, as it was a station to which invalid natives sometimes resorted. And, lastly, we were told that on the occasion of some difficuliy with the Europeans, Pomare, as an act of vengeance, " tabooed the fish in the Bay." The productions of New Zealand have all received native names, and they appeared to be universally known, as in 78 uhtsicaIj histoet of man. Tropical Polynesia. According to Moholas, tiie New Zear landers " have divided the stars into constellations, and they make inquiries vrhen certain stars will make their appear- ance." The custom of touchiag noses, and never the Hps, they have in common with the other Polynesians and the Feejeeans. The New Zealand mamifaotures «how skill at least equal- Hag that of their Tropical brethren; although, in most Lastances, it has heen necessaiy to employ different mate- rials. The manufacture of tapa is unknown ; and, iadeed, we saw no genuine TJrticaceous plants. "Woven mantles of the New Zealand flax (Phormium. tenax) are substituted by the men; while the women wear a broad cincture, somewhat Uke a rug. The handle of the sword-Kke clubs usually has a tufb of hair, the use of which might not readily be. divined : it serves in traveUing, to protect the hand against the roughness of the fern. On the route to Hokianga lived a chief of bad character, who was in the practice of laying European travellers under contribution. I enjoyed his hospitality on the way out, but the denouement was reserved for my return, in the form of a sale. Prom other natives I experienced some disinterested and delicately-tendered acts of kindness, that, considering the general character of the New Zealanders, were quite unexpected. " I was assured that every part of the Northern island is intersected with paths, and that the Interior had all been traversed by Europeans." Notwithstanding the introduc- tion of new means of subsistence, {domestic animals, the common potato, maize, and peaches), it was generally con- ceded that the population around the Bay of Islands had materially diminished. Children were unusually rare, as is generally observed wherever Polynesians have come much in contact with Europeans. The New Zealanders are ready enough to enter into the European system of civilisation, and adopt the arts and fashions of the "Whites ; but, under the new order of things, they have been found to possess the failing of extreme covetousness. They are, besides, apt to be morose and discontented, and not very scrupulous in adhering to their bargains. They have not the amiable temperament of the THE MALAY EACE. 79 Tropical Poljraesians, who are more general faTourites -with. European residents. SaiC, our sailor-oliief, did not conceal his disgust at the treatment he received &om his former neighbours, and made up his miud to spend his eamiugs within the Tropics. It was stated, also, that a " party of New Zealanders, tired of the disturbances at home, once entertained the idea of forming a colony in New South "Wales, in order that they might «njoy the benefit of regular laws." It is usual to represent the JSew Zealanders with a pecu- liar cast of countenance, and espeeiaOy with the nose more prominent than ia other Polynesians. It is true the cheeks seemed ia general thinner, and the frame not so well filled out, (owing, perhaps, ia some measure, to the scarcity and inferior quality of the food) ; and I once met with an assemblage of veiy rugged-looking men. On the whole, it appeared to me, that there was some optical illusion arising from the peculiar style of tattooing; for, in the countenances that were mostly free from these marks, I saw only the same series of expressions as at Taheiti and Samoa. In stature, howerer, the New Zealanders were inferior to the inhabi- tants of those places, and they did not, on the average, appear to exceed Europeans. The set of diseases previously noticed as prevailing among the Tropical Polynesians, appeared to be now, for the most part, wanting. I saw neither humpbacks, dropsical leg, nor sxLj instance of ulceration of the nose ; neither, indeed, was ophthalmia freqiient, though I sometimes remarked defects ia the eye. The Yincennes kfb New Zealand on the 6th of April 5 and on the 14th we obtained a distant view of Sv/nday Island, which is high and rocky, but of limited extent, and which, according to report, is inhabited only by a small party of Europeans. TONGATABOO. Oir the 22nd, having re-entered the Tropics, we were among the scattered Tonga Grroup. ^oa was first seen, a continuous lump of land, " about sis hundred feet in elevar tion, and, accorxiing to report, the highest island of the group, except perhaps the active volcano of Tofooa." The 80 PHTSICAIi HISTOBT Or MAlf. light green appearance of its surface was stated to be owing to " clearings and yam-patclies ;" and with the glass we coiild distinguish scattered Casnarina trees (iron-wood or club- wood), but no huts, and only a single native on the beach. Politically, Boa fijrms an appendage of the neighbouring larger island of Tongataboo, wHch is of very dissimUiar aspect, and consists of a low level surfece of coral. The " Sacred Tonga," for that is the meaning of the name, has long exer- cised, and may probably continue to exercise, important influence in Polynesian affairs. The son now poured forth its fruits in abundance, and the foliage had resumed the freshness of eternal youth ; but this transition was not more striking than the moral change, from the morose and selfish New Zealander to the free and open- hearted Polynesian of the tropics. AVe looked with pleasure on the numerous children, the lively and good-humoured countenances, the fulness of cheek, the weU-tumed hmbs, and the superior development of frame. In addition to the usual costume, the men were observed to have their faces gaudily painted with various colours ; and some wore a band of yeUow flowers over the forehead, or fiUets of dried leaves around the limbs and shoulders. The gay appearance was the "pomp and circumstance" of war. The peculiar curved club, usually carried on the shoulder, was evidently the national weapon. At the strand, rein- forcements were arriving in large double canoes, from the more remote islands of the group. Several of the strangers at once recognised the Yincennes, although disguised by an additional deck since they had seen her at Yavao : and on gettiag further acquainted with the crowd on shore, all the principal branches of the Polynesian family were found to be represented. I'he war had been precipitated through the indiscreet zeal of one of the European missionaries, and had " lasted for nearly a year ; but the recent arrival of ' King Greorge,' from the other division of the group, vpith a body of several hundred warriors," promised to bring it to a conclusion. This state of things was unfavourable to the pursuits of the naturalist ; and as strategies of war were not unknown, and an act of treachery had recently taken place, our walks were necessarily very much circumscribed. THE MAIiAT EACE. 81 My principal excursion was made in a canoe to the teathen village of Moo, situated near the centre of the island, and at the head of the inlet or lagoon. It was fortified after a plan evidently borrowed from the Feejeeans, being surrounded by a ditch, and having low gateways strongly built of logs ; but the greater part of the wall consisted only of wicker- work of small sugar-cane. Secondary enclosures of wicker- work divided the interior of the town, and formed regular streets. The chief, Paatu, received our party with great dignity and politeness, in the only house that in size and neatness approached those of Taheiti. In the traffic for provisions which ensued, he was observed to take no other part than occasionally to give directions for the bringing of additional supplies. It appeared that " he and his people were regarded rather as neutral in the present difficulties, and were not much disturbed." In the course of conversation he stated, that " he was willing to have a missionary reside at the village, and for such persona to follow his instructions as might choose to do so ; but it could not be expected that all should change their customs at once." A resident "White remarked, " that the heathen were less inclined to fight than the converted natives ;" and there were other circumstances that abundantly indicated the aggressing party. I was surprised at the number of individuals who could speak a httle EngHah, especially as it had not been acquired by serving on board vessels. One man joined me while walking about the plantations, and pointed out the kinds of sofl. that were favourable or otherwise for the culture of bananas ; though, for my own part, I was unable to perceive the difference. "While questioning him on the subject of tattooing, I accidentally touched his knee on the inner side : his countenance at once changed, and he rejoined, " Tou are a very saucy man." An islet near the anchorage was regarded as neutral ground ; and, notwithstanding Faatu's alleged position, our canoe-men took refage there for the night, regarding the main shore as unsafe. I have before spoken of a difference in social relations between the Eastern and "Western Poly- nesians : and many of the Tonga women, who had attained full grovrth, were found on inquiry to be unmarried. The 82 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAN. same Met was fiequented by the women of both contending parties ; and in reference to the abore subject, a European resident used these words : " No amount of property would here avaU ; for the reason that there is no one present to exercise control over them." The natives of Tongataboo; unlike the other Tropical Poly- nesians, were observed to avoid the water, on account, it was said, of the "numbers and voracity of the sharks." Many of the women had lost the little finger of one hand, a custom apparently derived from the Feejeeans, and which is discon- tinued in converted families. A portion only of the men were tattooed; another circumstance attributable perhaps to the example of their Peejee neighbours. The markings, when present, were chiefly confined to the thighs, as with the Samoans. The houses, too, were much Hke the Samoan, except in the use of wicker-work of the small-stemmed sugar- cane. An explanation of the plan of a European house, "with its separate floors, and as high as a cocoa pahn," excited some merriment. Individuals with frizzled hair were numerous, presenting otherwise no difference in feature or complexion from the rest of the population, and no appearance of mixed descent. I could not learn with certainty that the peculiarity was the work of art ; and, indeed, frizzled hair was said " to be not esteemed." My informant further stated, that the prepara- tion of Ume, here first seen applied to the hair of Polynesiams, " was for the purpose of making it stand upright." These statements, however, are not irreconcilable with Eeejee cus- toms ; and we subsequently met with some unequivocal imitations. The confusion in the pubHahed accounts of the population of the more western groups is, perhaps, in part atfaributable to this artiScial mode of dressing the hair. I had not much opportunity of observing the prevailing diseases. Humpbacks were common, but the proportion was less than at Samoa; and I met with one instance of the loss of the nose. One of the chiefs, Paatu, ofiered the first Polynesian example of corpulency. With regard to manufactures, the gathering of people from different quarters had brought together a great many articles of foreign make. We obtained a variety of Eeejee wax-clubs; and, indeed, the favourite curved Tonga club THE MALAX EACE. 83 appears to have been copied from a Feejee model. We noticed two new canoes, built of separate pieces ; but tbe presence of some Samoans afforded a ready explanation of the circumstance ; and the other small canoes were excavated from a single trunk. The mode of propulsion, by vertical sculling, had also been introduced from the Peejee Islands. Excluding articles of foreign or mixed origin, it may not be an easy task to point out the proper Tonga style of work- manship. The superior finish, over other Polynesian manu- factures, is evidently attributable to Feeiee schooling. I would remark, however,- that wicker-work was employed more extensively than among the Peejeeans ; and that the large fans of a single pahn-leaf, used by the Tonga women, were not met with elsewhere: neither, indeed, were the canoe-houses, which on a smaller scale resembled the ship- houses at our navy yards. The sea-going canoe, which is double, seems to be of genuine Tonga model : though the circumstance that these canoes are occasionally met with at the Feejee Islands has led to some conftision. It appears, indeed, from the obser- vation of traders, that they are all built "at the Feejee Islands ; but by Tonga people alone, who make visits of several years' duration, for this special purpose." This, then, seems the foundation of the intercourse which has long existed between the two groups ; and, as the Fee- jeeans are furthest advanced in the arts, the Tonga people undergo a species of education, and have even improved their knowledge of maritime affairs. The result, in other respects, has been humorously compared to the advantages accruing to our own young men from a visit to Europe. From Tongataboo, the vessels of the squadron proceeded to the Feejee Islands : but I did not myself go to any of the outer islets where the Tonga people build their canoes. At the various points visited on the two principal islands, I met with but one Polynesian (excepting those introduced by Europeans at Eewa and Muthuata); this was a woman, seen at Mbua Bay, and the very fact of her presence implied a tragedy. On the occasion of Tanoa's visit to the Yincennes, I remarked that the royal canoe exceeded in dimensions the accompanying seargoing Tonga canoe ; and that the latter a2 84 PHTSICAIi HISTOHT OP HAN. contained among the crew tliree or four Peejeeans. It was observed also, with some surprise, that although the Tonga men appear smooth-chinned at home, many had here managed to foster considerable beards, in imitation of the fashion of the new country. During the interview, Tubou-totai, the Tonga chief acted as "secretary," or mouth-piece to Tanoa. His advice on various occasions, and general influence with Tanoa, were much distrusted by the European residents. They, however, asserted " that he was the rightful king of Tonga, though now excluded through the management of King Grsorge ;" and indeed, the existing state of affairs in the Tonga Grroup was evidently favourable to a designing aspirant. Tubou-totai, although there were no external indications, was known to be, partly of Peejee descent, and when it is considered that "royal blood " is counted by the female line throughout the Pacific islands, the fact wffl be found to have further interest. In conclusion, I would refer to the work of Mariner, which, although seeming Kke a romance, rather than a narrative of the realities of hfe, was universally regarded by the missionaries as strictly and remarkably accurate. Our own experience was in every respect confirmatory, even to his account of the Peejee Islaiids, which, it should be observed, was entirely derived from Polynesian testimony. In personal character, the Polynesian appears to advantage over the Peejeean, and the meu of Tonga, may probably be regarded as the most splendid set of "barbarians " at pre- sent in existence. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. After leaving the Peejee Islands, the Vincennes sailed through the Phoenix coral group, and in September, 1840, arrived at the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands. This group is situated far to the northward of the other Polynesian islands, and is remote from other lands, holding a singularly central position in the North Pacific. My stay was a prolonged one, of seven months (including the duration of the second visit) ; but my remarks will be restricted, especially as so much has already been published about these islands by various intelligent observers. After the fertility of the other Polynesian islands, I was THE MALAY BACE. 85 unprepared for the desert-like appearance of Oaku, a con- siderable portion of tlie soil being absolutely devoid of vege- tation. It is true, we had approached one of the most arid districts, though, throughout the group, the proportion of soil capable of cultivation is extremely limited. The recent introduction of the use of sun-dried brick on the leeward side of the islands affords suificient proof of this aridity. There exists, however, at the Hawaiian Group, a singular epitome of climates, with a very local distribution of the rains. The windward side of the islands is in some places subject to excessive moisture, and even one portion of Honolulu, being more open to the valley, receives showers that do not extend to the remainder of the town. The difference in cUiiiate from Middle Polynesia is fiirther illus- trated by the orange succeeding only on Tauai, and, in a single district ; by the guava being local and cultivated, and by the bread-fruit being scarcely found in perfection beyond the vicinity of HUo. Honolulu at a distance might be mistaken for a European village, but, onnearing it, the preponderance of native housep imparts a decided Feejeean aspect. It is a new and flourish- ing commercial town, and the principal seat of innovation on aboriginal customs. Natives were continually attracted to it from all parts of the group ; often from mere curiosity, " and many were afterwards compelled to remain, from the inabiEty of paying their expenses home." A remarkable variety of mixed costume was to be seen in the streets, often gay and tastefully arranged, and there being no prevailing rule or fashion, it afforded quite a study for artists. It was a novelty in Polynesia to see persons along the roads, bringing wood, charcoal, and provisions of various kinds, to supply a market ; in short, a subdivision of labour, and regular system of industry, in accordance vrith the customs of Europeans. It appeared further, that salt, manufactured principally from sea^water, had become an important article of exportation to the countries on the Pacific, from Chili to Kamtschatka ; and that sugar, tutui oil, and arrow-root, also entered into Hawaiian commerce. Engraving was an unexpected accompUshment to find among Polynesians ; and some drawings of ships were shovm to me, which exhibited a neatness and a correct- 86 PHYSICAL HISTOET OP MAIT. ness in minute detail not often met Tritli. I mtnessed at the mission schools the remarkable universal talent and fondness for mathematical pursuits, about which so much has been said. Printing, too, was conducted by natives, under foreign superintendence. And the missionaries had furnished a liberal supply of mental nurture, in translations of a variety of useful books ; these amounted to quite a library, and yet difficulty was erperienced in keeping up with the demand. It appeared, notwithstanding, that no native had hitherto been found to possess all the qualifications requisite to take charge of a shop, or to conduct any mercantile business. The missionaries regarded as one main obstacle to improve- ment, the extremely limited views of the Aatives in respect to style of living ; " a little fish and a little poi, and they were content." By adopting the use of coin, they had placed themselves in many respects in the condition of indigence ; and in conformity with the new standard of value, a native, I was assured, "could be supported for less than two cents a day." Innovations were also going on in political institutions : and during our stay, the first public execution took place ; the prerogative of a chief being at the same time infringed. Much interest was indirectly excited, by the discovery of the meaning of the word "conscience," fi)r which there is no corresponding expression in the Hawaiian language ; and one of the natives explained the new idea, as " a magistrate within." For several years, the Hawaiians had been in a state of virtual, though peaceful revolution ; and one, it may readily be supposed, having a depressing influence on the spirit of the nation. Among other consequences, the natives, supposing that the conversion involved the abandonment of all ancient usages, voluntarily left oif many useful customs ; and, on the other hand, adopted some that seem unsuited to the climate and circumstances of the country. It is true, the practical utility, in some instances, was dicectly " connected or associated with former religious observances." One fact may be noted, in relation to the establishment of the new order of things ; — ^the efficient agency of a Taheitian. Even the canoes had not escaped the general change ; and THE MALAY EACE. 87 the " representations given by the first "visitors wotild now be recognised only by old people. The model bad been altered," and tbe triangular Peejeean sail bad been aban- doned. The canoes seen were excavated from single logs. In addition, vessels of European construction had been pur- chased, both by the government and by individuals, and were employed between the different islands of the group. Aai some of the native commanders had acquired the general confidence of residents, in. respect to their seamanship, and correct judgment in nautical matters. One distant com- mercial enterprise had been imdertaken ; which, however, in its result, proved xmfortunate. In the midst of these advancements, the population is nniversally conceded to be diminishing ; and the scarcity of children is a subject of common remark, especially as a few sequestered situations offer an exception. The immoral tendency of European contact has doubtless contributed to the diminution ; but, perhaps, sufficient stress has not been laid on the drain of provisions, occasioned by the great influy of foreign shipping ; for the group, it will be observed, yields only a fixed quantily. The disuse of some former modes of taking fish has likewise deducted from the means of sub- sistence. According to John Ely, an Englishman, who had resided here for " nearly twenty yeairs : in foimer tnnes, the natives were decidedly less oppressed by the chiefs and their retainers than at present. All could uien procure meat or fish, but now many are forced to go without. There is more groimd at present imder cultivation, but the quantity of taro is less:" and the latter article, it should be observed, forms peculiarly the support of the native population. It had been ascertained, however, that of the large number of married women belonging to one of the churches at Honolulu, " one only out of three had had children." All that I have thus fer stated of the Hawaiians relates more or less directly to tiie results of foreign influence. I shall now speak of the aboriginal customs. From my first landing, I was sxirpiised at the scanty clothing of many of the men and boys; their dress consisting often of a mere sash, as with the Eeejeeans ; except only that the colour was not fixed by fashion. The large-firated variety of gourd or calabash was only seen here ; asad the 88 PHYSICAIi HISTOET OE MAlf. shells were in general use, as a subsfitute for baskets, buckets, and chests. All burdens were carried by means of the balance-beam ; and this Hindoo and Ancient Egyptian method is common to aU parts of Polynesia except New Zealand, but is not practised at the Feejee Islands. The green and pleasant aspect of many of the valleys was found to be owing to aboriginal irrigation ; not, however, for the production of upland crops, but to form artificial marshes and pools for the cultivation of taro. These pools subserve a double purpose, being likewise used for keeping mullet ; the young fry of which are captured along the coast, and by a course of management are brought to live in fresh water, where they acquire superior size and flavour. In the ponds nearest the coast, I have seen two other kinds of sea-fish, the Butirinus and the Dules. lish-ponds appear to be un- known at the southern Polynesian groups. The most approved delicacy of the Hawaiian Islands consists of a particular breed of dog, which is fed exclusively on "poi" (fermented taro-paste), and is not allowed to taste animal food. Salt had been always used " to cure pork and fish;" in which business, in a small way, the Hawaiians rather excel : and it was observed, that they did not manifest aversion to our salted provisions, like the other Polynesians and the Peejeeans. Another novelty occurred, in the pro- fession of the fowler ; and numbers of small birds were offered for sale aUve, which had been captured with a species of birdlime. The houses are of medium size, compared with others among the Polynesians, and are closely built ; having the walls and roof usually thatched with dried grass. In this chmate, a covering is necessary at night ; and layers of " tapa" serve for a blanket, and are even preferred for this purpose by many European residents. The bed consists of a layer of mats ; and we were shown some specimens of matting of fine texture, that had required the labour of years. A string of tutui-nuts forms a candle ; in the same manner as castor beans (Eicinus) are sometimes employed at the Peejee Islands. Among the other Peejeean analogies, it appears that whale-teeth were " highly prized in former times, and were cut into various ornaments." I observed also the nose-flute, THE SIALAT KA.CE, 89 as througliotit Tropical Polynesia. It is no longer easy to procure specimens of Hawaiian weapons of war; anc^ in general, the aboriginal arts and manufactures are rapidly disappearing, with the prospect of there being little left of them, after a few years, except what may be contained in museums. An estimable and highly intelligent Hawaiian lady gave me the following particulars respecting former customs. She had never seen a mask, such as are represented in. pub- lished works ; but she had heard " that they were formerly iised in battle." The " ape " (or large Arum) served as a safeguard against famine, as now at the Feejee Islands. " Money was certainly known ; for with a string of cowries (Cyprea monetas) it was possible to buy any article wanted. Specimens of the same shell that were finer than usual, having a high polish and deep yellow colour, were extrava^ gantly valued, and could only be worn by the highest chiefe, who also exclusively possessed wooden calabashes. The natives are unable to form any conjectm-es as to the origin or object of the practice of tattooing. Formerly, the body was much more covered with these markings than at present, one side often being completely blackened ; and, to a certain extent, it would have been possible to designate individuals by the copy of the pattern." At present, letters are frequently inscribed ; and I remarked, in some instances, the name of the individual. As at Taheiti, there is a central government. The suc- cession is maternal ; and, moreover, the source of political power is vested in a woman. Even at the present time, " the king does no act without first obtaining the consent of this personage." There does not appear to have been a distinct " ehiers language," as at Samoa ; but, according to the missionaries, "the chiefs and priests formerly used some esjressions that were not understood by the common people. It happened in former times, that " the brother of the king of Hawaii made a friendly visit to Oahu, where he was received with this greeting : ' Tou have come, it is well ; had it been your brother, my calabash would have been fuU.' This was a sentence of death ; the allusion being to the practice of preserving relics of great chie&. The a&ir 90 PHXSICAIi HISTOBT OF MAN. led to the extermination of the chiefs of Oahu ; for although the ting of Hawaii died soon after, his declared design was carried into effect by his ally and dependant, the king of Maui." The missionaiies further stated, that the Hawaiian dances were ef " three kinds : the first, licentious ; the second, a kind of dirge, or memorial; and the third, a sort of pane- gyric addressed to their chiefs, in which epithets were used improper to be applied to a mortal. On the occasion of Cook's arrival, it was commonly supposed that he was a god, who had been absent on a visit to Taheiti ; or that he and his companions were some of their own relations returning from that island." It appears that several of the conflicts with Europeans arose ftom the desire of ascertaining whether the strangers really did partake of the divine nature : all which may be compared with what has already been stated respecting Polynesian demi-gods. " A super- stitious reverence for lizards existed in former times, at the Hawaiian Islands." That a people unacquainted with the art of writing should possess a literature, was unexpected ; much less, fliat this should be regarded as deserving of, and, from its extent, as requiring the study of years. In respect to the Hawaiian poetry, there was but one opinion, " that the thoughts are often really sublime." In the midst " of the fiction of their songs, their real history is embodied," even, if I am rightly informed, as far back as the colonisation of the group. The preservation of this literature constituted a distinct depart- ment of the government ; and a class of persons were regu- larly appointed as depositaries. David Malo, the well-known Hawaiian author, had been one of these persons. Agarn, as the missionaries have become better acquainted with the Hawaiian language, it has been found to "possess a force and compass that at the beginning would not have been credited." In respect to the Calendar, I must refer to the informa- tion collected by Captain "Wilkes and Mr. Hale. It appears that the Polynesians had a fixed measure for their year, by observing the rising of the Pleiades ; and it may be here remarked, that this cluster has been very generally regarded by other nations as "leading the heavenly host," or as THE MALAY BADE. 91 situated in the first sign of the Zodiac. The Polynesian reckoning is by lunations, with the use of an iutercalary month ; and on aU these points the practice of the Greeks* and other nations of antiquity may be compared. It appears further, that the profession of " astrology and sooth- sayiug " had likewise reached the HawaiLan Islands. Licentiousness prevailed at this group to a degree not witnessed elsewhere ; and ia the former state of society, when " men were living vdth several "wives, and women with several husbands," there appears to have been reaUy an approach to .promiscuous urtereouTBe. In all the other countries which I have visited, more regard has been paid, in this respect, to the indications of nature. It appears, that since the introduction of the laws of civilised nations, " a decided improvement has been observed, and there are now very many individuals of exemplary conduct. A singu- lar indifference, iowever, has been manifested on the subject of rearing a femily." I Tvas myself struck with the few instances met vdth, of any manifest conjugal attachment; and among the younger portion of the community I scarcely observed more than one. On the 27th of October I landed on Tauai, and walked to Waimea, where an aboriginal American was seen, who had been residing vsdth the natives for several years. Mr. Brackenridge and myself afterwards crossed the remarkable table-land which occupies so large a portion of this island. Although its general elevation is only about four thousand feet, " all attempts at cultivating the soil had hitherto failed ; but snow sometimes falls, and natives have perished here from the inclemency of the weather, or, in other instances, have been kUled by bands of dogs" that have run wild in this uninhabited region. On the 3rd of November we again reached Oahu ; landing near the western extremity of the island. In some of the secluded dells of Mauna Kaala, the " kava " (Piper methys- ticum) was found to be still cultivated. The drying of fish was practised on the coast ; an occupation rarely seen in Polynesia. A green Conferva was collected in the tide- pools, as an article of food ; and on the reefs, sea-weed * See Herodotus, Euterpe, 68 ; Thalia, 90, &c. 92 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAIT. (ruci), but not indiscriminately, as one species was stated to be "actually poisonous." In considering tbe limited resovirces and fixture destiny of these islands, it may- be questioned whether another race of men would be willing to take advantage of such means of subsistence. Even the national dish of poi finds at present but little favour with foreign residents. The use of the diving-dress, for some repairs to the vessels, excited the utmost curiosity among the native population ; which, iudeed, might have been anticipated fi-om their pecn- liai habits of life. Some of their former feats of diving in the natural way are still recollected, such as " pushing an anvil overboard, and afterwards roUing it on the bottom of the sea to the shore." The proposal to employ in the squadron a number of natives occasioned an overwhelming crowd of applicants. Those selected for the Yincennes did not give entare satisfaction during their short trial ; but one element in the failure may be mentioned, an evident jealousy on the part of the remainder of the crew. On the 9th of December the Yincennes arrived at HUo, on Sawaii. The view fi-om the anchorage is magnificent. The eye is deceived by the vastness of the prospect and the evenness of the gradual slopes ; and probably most persons would pass the island without suspecting its extraordinary elevation. Often, indeed, while travelling in the interior, it was difficult to realise that the country was mountainous. I visited the crater of KHauea, where I first witnessed volcanic action ; and I now perceived the inadequacy of coal- beds, or indeed of fuel, to produce the result. Some insight is here permitted into the interior of our planet — Nature's great laboratory ; and rock, the constituent of the earth's surface, familiar to aU. fi-om infancy, is produced before the eyes by the cooling of a fluid mass. Indeed, the whole phe- nomenon, with its accompaniments, resolved itself into a simple spring or fountain of liquid rock. A. pit of such enormous dimensions was of itself a novel object, as it afibrded a view of part of an actual section of the globe, and rendered strikingly manifest the relative insignificance in point of size of the living beings on its surface. During the ascent of Mauna Eoa, a mountain nearly THE ItfATAY EACE. 93 tMrteen thousand five himdred feet in height, the natives abandoned us ; a circumstance not to be ■wondered at, con- sidering their scanty clothing and the severity of the cold. The undertaking was completed through the aid of part of the crew of the Viacennes, who, however, proved decidedly less efficient in carrying burdens. The bleakness of the exposure on this mountain is illustrated by the presence of a species of goose which here finds a congenial climate, as other kinds do on the Ppruvian Andes and ia Terra del !Fuego. After remaining about the summit for five days, I returned to Hilo ; and next, in company with Mr. Brackenridge, set out for Mauna Kea. Two days' joiimeying through a dense and humid forest, brought us to the region of frosts, and to the open pastoral district where cattle have run wild. Mauna Kea is about two hundred feet higher than Mauna Eoa, but its upper portion being steeper and more uneven, affords shelter from the winds, and the traveller is ftirther favoured in respect to fnel and water. The terminal hillocks only were brushed with snow ; but on reaching them, we found the wind violent, while water froze in a few moments in the bright sunshine. We returned through a different part of the before- mentioned forest, and arrived at the coast about twenty miles from Hilo. Owing, however, to the numerous and very deep ravines, and the want of good landing-places, there is very little communication ; and we even experienced diffi- culty in purchasing provisions, as coin was not valued. Two rough blocks of stone near the path were pointed out ; and we were told that in former times " the penalty of death was attached to coming within their shadow." In the district of Hilo, poi is sometimes made from the bread-fruit, but it is less esteemed than the usual kind ; nevertheless, I was surprised at the little attention given to gathering such an important esculent as the bread-fruit. The cocoa-nut, also, was found to be much neglected through- out the group. On the 20ih of January, 1841, I set out on an excursion to the new lava-stream, which had issued from Kilauea a few months previously. The route was throughout the south- eastern portion of the island, which has all been overspread 94 PHTSIOAi HISTOET Or MAN. with, ancient lava streams; and I remarked, at intervals, rounded spaces of an acre or more, whioli though probably coeval with the rest of the surface, looked as if burst upwards by internal force. One of these was pointed, out as a former "worship-place;" and at another, according to the natives, " sacrifices were offered in times past, in consequence of an assemblage of people having been destroyed there." My guides also pointed out a spot where " a woman had suddenly perished; " but in this- instance there was no change in the lava surface. The new lava had reached, and encroached upon the sea at a place called Nanavali ; among other changes, forming a sand beach, where there was none before ; whUe, towards the interior, the forest had beem swept away, and the surface of the lavarstream was ste-ewed with dead trees. The scene was stupendous ; and it was difficult to realise that such a mass of matter had been contained within, the crater of Kilauea. Kgures might declare that the contents of a square mUe, three hundred feet deep, were equivalent to thirty square miles by ten feet ; but to the senses it seemed nevertheless impossible. Vegetation, however, was extend- ing, and Mora was rapidly regaining her reign ; and, after a few years, the new lava may cease to attract notice, and be traversed with the Kke indiflference as any other portion of the earth's surface. We traced the new layarstream for several miles inland, and then left it for the south-eastern coast. At Kaimo, a town little visited by strangers, the natives collected around us from motives of curiosi'^ ; and, this was the only spot at the Hawaiian Islands where I found children nimierous. My interpreter, John Ely, was struck with the circum- stance, and remarked, that " it was many years since he had seen so many children." He fiiriher stated, that " formerly, he could not, as now, have left his house unoccupied for days in succession ; and that robbery and murder used to be quite common." On passing a woman at work in a taro pond, he remarked, " that she was probably without a husband ; and that the natives are in general very regardless of their rela- tions, leaving all to look out for themselves." "We passed the ancient "worship-place" of "Wahaura, which is quadrangular, and regularly built of stone, and is THE MALAY EACE. 95 in a perfect state of preservation. In the district of Panau, we turned from the coast, ascending the black rivers of hardened lava, that seemed as if still pouring down from the heights above ; but there is probably less real danger here than iu many other situations. This district consists exclu- sively of a bare surface of rock, on which, in despite of a commonly received opinion, the natives have the art of raising crops. It is true a handful of soil is brought from a distance to start the seeds ; but the only addition subse- quently made to the growing plants of the sweet potato, consists of pebbles. The inhabitants, moreover, are obliged to resort to a variety of devices to procure water for their own use, since the porous lava absorbs the rain as fast as it falls. We stopped for the night at the chief's house, half way up the slope. A monument had been erected "to the memory of the sister of the chief's wife," with thick stone walls, and having the form of an ordinary Hawaiian house. " Old times were back again in this portion of the island, together with gambling and drinking of the sourish liquor which is procured from sweet potatoes." The chief accom- panied me for the two following days, and, on parting, refused any remuneration for his services. In the plain above, I inspected most of the pit-craters, which extend in a line from EJilauea to where the surface begins gradnaUjc to decline towards the northern coast. I also fell in with a party of about twenty natives, on their way to the woods- beyond Kilauea to drag a canoe down to the coast. On the 15th of February, I left HUo in a Hawaiian schooner, during a spell of fine weather at that place, an unusual and suspicious circumstance ; accounted for, when we got clear of the island, by the existence of a south- western gale. We found a lee for four days under the lofty mountain at the eastern end of Maui, ajid on the fifth day, we landed on that island, at Lahaina, the present seat oi government. The king, it was said, had been influenced in the selection by " a desire to avoid, as far as possible, being appealed to by the resident Whites in disputes growing out of mercantile transactions." Lahaina may berecommended as a favourable station for the study of marine Zoology, 96 PHYSICAL HISTOET OE MAN. especially as the natives are accessible, and ttey, in common ■witli the other islanders of the Pacific, possess more practical knowledge than Europeans do of marine animals and their habits. I ascended the before-mentioned mountain, which is called Mauna Haleakala, and which, though regarded as of secondary importance, attains the height of more than ten thousand feet. It is an extinct volcano, having in place of a crater a wide open crevice, down which the lava has flowed in both directions to the coast. The native account is, that "Peli (the goddess of fire) once resided here, but became alarmed at the nearness of the sea, and fled over to Hawaii." The approved Geological .view of the case does not much differ, except in regard to the fear of water, for it is not ia the power of the ocean to quench the fires of Peli. A native made regular visits to the summit of this mountain to watch sUk-worm eggs, which have been found to " hatch irregularly" ia the warm country below. On the 19th of March, I landed for the third time on Oahu. The feeling of good-wiU towards the TTrdted States is illustrated by the inquiries of the younger portion of the community on the approach of a ship of war : " is it French, English, or one of our own ?" Besidents have assured me that, after careful search, no clay suitable for the manufacture of pottery has been dis- covered at the Hawaiian Islands. This may account for the aboriginal absence of the art ; and yet the mineral con- stituents of the soil appear to be the same as at the Peejee Islands. In person, the Hawaiians, like the New Zealanders, did not appear conspicuously larger than Europeans, and they evidently fell below the ptatnre of the Tongans, Samoans and Taheitians; indeed, residents have informed me that " they sometimes recognised Taheitians at Honolulu, by the size." The Hawaiian chiefs, however, were almost imifonnly large men. The chief women (and this had not been observed at the other groups) were truly remarkable for their large stature, and some of them far exceeded, ia this respect, any whom I have seen elsewhere. . In the barren portion of the group, I sometimes remarked a complete coincidence between the Hawaiian complexion and the colour of the soil. THE MALAY RACE. 97 The Hawaiians exhibited fewer external marks of disease than the other Tropical Polynesians. I saw scarcely an instance of the loss of the nose. CEdematons legs were rare, notwithstanding that the people habitually resort to the water, though less frequently than at some of the southern groups. Opthahnia and humpbacks were Kkewise rare. Hip-joint disease was stated to occur only among boys. Cases of mental alienation were sometimes met with, and the malady had caused one individual to build some monu- ments that might have perplexed the antiquary. Another huiatic was a subject of dread to our native guides, and indeed was hardly in a fit state to be left at large. Pulmo- nary complaints were observed in the humid climate of Hilo. The natives unifonnly attribute the introduction of syphilitic disease to Europeans, a point of some medical importance ; and my inquiries resulted in the conviction that the native testimony was to be relied on. The habits of the people favouring a rapid extension, the disease is at present unusually diffused, though apparently confined to the milder form. Parturition was reported to be extremely easy. OTHER POLYNESIANS. I shall here insert some scattered notices of Polynesians inhabiting for the most part islands and groups not visited by the Expedition. In the early part of the voyage, the Vincennes touched at Uea, or "WalHs' Island, which is situated less than three days' sail to the westward of Samoa. It seemed not more than three hundred feet in elevation, and consisted of one principal and several smaller islets, all enclosed within a common reef. Cocoa palms were observed to be abundant. A white flag was flying near an opening in the reef, and " a canoe came off with a native, who spoke broken English, and offered to pilot us in." I lost the opportunity of being present at this interview. On the succeeding day we came in sight of HoOEiT Island, which is about "two thousand feet in elevation," and resembles Manua, except that it is larger and a little more broken. Cocoa palms were seen ; but we did not approach near enough to hold any communication with the inhabitants. 98 PHYSICAL HISTOKT OF MAN. Specimena of their clotli, obtained subsequently from a trader, sliow amalogy mth the Peejeeaai article. The king, of EoxriLA was residiag at the heathen village im Tongataboo, an iEdi¥idual of large stature, haraig the nose siliightly arched,, an unusual circuiastance in the Malay race. His attendants, however, irom. the same island, were not distinguishable from the Tonga men around.. " He had been brought here by a whale-ship, together with his numerous wives •"' and. when questioned on the subject of his rank, he. manifested some aiflB.dence. He was among those who recognised the Vincennies, having seen her during her former cruise. Another body of sis or eight Eotuma pec^lei had been conveyed in a tradiag vessel to Muthuata, in. the Peejee Islands^. A woman was of the party; whose husband was shortly afterwards put out of the way, and she became one of the principal wives of the king. She had a house of her own, buit was noti altogether satisfied vrith her honours, and she evidently had no particulair affection for her new master. I once, however, observed some signs of dislike towards a, Peejeean rival. She wore her hair erect, and sis or eight inches in length, in imitation of the Feejeeans. These Eotuma people, in common vrith other Polynesians, though detesting the Feejeeans and their practices, were yet content to remain in the country. Individuals from the EAEATONGfA, or Hervey Group, were seen both at Samoa and Tongataboo. They did not present any remarkable difference from the other Poly- nesians. A peculiar style of ornamental wood-work pre- vails at the Earatonga Grroup ; and stone-adzes are more highly wrought here than m the other islands of the Pacific. MAEQrESAS islanders were commonly seen at Taheiti and Gahu. Many of them serve on board trading vessels ; and I halve seen individuals who bore an excellent character. The bread-firiit of the Marquesas Islands is highly com- mended, and is said to constitute a principal part of the sustenance of the inhabitants. Eecently, in the United States, I have met vrith a native of Lapa, or Oparo, a detached island, situated far to the south- east of Taheiti, and outside the Tropic. He spoke English, THE TWAT.A -y EACE. 99 whkh he had acqiiiired ia a whale-ahip; and stated, that Lapa had been "much: depopulated smce the aniTal of missionatiea ;" it is presmnea, Taheitians. The Polynesians employed as saJloDS are almost exclu- sively from New Zealanid and from the Eastern groups ; whUe SainoaDa> and Tonga men, at present, are rarely met with. MALAY AMERICANS. a. Califorma. On the 15th q£ April, 1841, the Tincennea sailed from the Hawaiian Islands for the Straits of Ue Fuca, and after remaining there ahout three monthsj^ proceeded south, to the Bay of San IVancisco. After leaving the Chinooks, the physical diversity of race was sufficiently apparent ; ajid the first glance of the Califomians satisfied me of their Malay affinity. I was pre- pared for this result by the opinion of Mr. Ifnttall, commu- nicated to me before leaving home ; and also by the figures of Choris and Langsdorff ; but on this point, I am able to adduce ftirther testmiony. The intelligent Hawaiian lady before mentioned; who had seen individuals from aill parts of the coast, regarded " the C'ahfornians as difiering from- the northern tribes, and as identical with her own people." Mr. Agate, who entered California by land, recorded in his- note-book on, reaching the Sacramento, that " the com- plexion is darker than in the natives to the north of them, and their general appearance reminded him of the South Sea islanders." In the course of our boat excursion up the Sacramento, Lieut. Alden, after witnessing the superior stature of the people over the Chinooks, their darker com- plexion and different style of countenance, their crowding to the river bank, their ready salutation and cheerful open behaviour, expressed Hmseu satisfied of their Polynesian relationship. Here, then, seemed to be a clue to some points in CaJifor- nian history, which are at variance with our experience on the eastern side of the continent. Such, for instance, as the capturing of the native women for house-servants. The men would be treated with as little ceremony, could they be h2 100 PHYSICAL HISTOET OP MAX. induced to remain in the settlements ; though, as they can he hired for a trifle to come in and labour, there is no object in enslaving them. The difference in physical race seems to hold out some prospect that the destiny of the aboriginals of this part of America may he different from that of the eastern tribes ; and in connection, the circumstance may be noted, that the crews of trading-vessels on the coast belong equally, for the most part, to the Malay race. The reason assigned for this was, " that in a country actually ■without government, White seamen had proved troublesome;" and Polynesians were selected, as being more tractable, and not disposed to create difficulty. In Oregon, also, the "islanders were preferred for labourers to Whites from beyond the movintains, as being more faithful to their engagements, and, besides, always good-natured." And lastly, while the Whites are arro- gating to themselves the islands of the Pacific, Polynesians have actually found their way into the United States, and in some of our seaports appear to have established themselves permanently. There were many Polynesians at the Bay of San IVancisco, and for a while I was unable to distinguish them from the half-civQised Califomians. After, however, a test had been once pointed out, there was no flirther difficulty; for the hair of the Califomian is invariably straight, wlule that of the Polynesian is waved, or more or less inclining to curl ; a difference that may not be very easy of explanation. In both nations the quantity of hair was marufestly greater than in the Oregon tribes. There was novelty in hearing a half-breed Hawaiian maintain that "the Spaniards of California fell below his countrymen in education, intelHgenee, and everything per- taining to ■ civilisation." He was, however, unwilling to admit the least affinity with the aboriginals, whom he termed "a most insignificant set of beings." The "Mission" villages, in wKch the aboriginal popula- tion was collected by the Catholic Fathers, have been much neglected since the admittance into the country of colonists from Mexico. The natives, however, appeared to be the only artisans, though I saw little room for variety in trades. The houses were low, and buUt of sun-dried brick, THE MALAX EACE. 101 and both. Spaniards aad natives lived miserably enough; but much in the style prevailiag in the interior of Peru. Whether owing in any degree to their state of tutelage and abject condition, the Mission natives certainly had not the good-humoured expression of the Polynesians. A class-mate and early friend of mine, Mr. John Marsh, after spending eighteen years on our western frontier, traversed New Mexico, and became the first settler in the interior of North CaUfomia. He established himself beyond the Mission villages, among the imreclaimed Sait Pkancisco TBIBES, where the Spaniards were unwilling to venture. A year afterwards, he was followed by Captain Sutter, a Swiss gentleman, last from Missouri, who had fixed his residence on the tide-water of the Sacramento, near the head of navi- gation for sea-vessels. . One of " his natives " accompanied our boats, and although he had not previously made the journey by water, was of some use in guiding us to the spot. I was here interested in observing some thirty natives engaged in making sun-dried brick, standing up to their knees in mire, and working steadily the whole day, so unlike our eastern tribes. Other natives had charge of the cattle ; and, as great attention was given to adjusting the accounts for wages, aU seemed cheerful and well satisfied. "The labourers had been sent in by the chiefs of difierent villages ; and some had come from as far as the vicinity of the moun- tains." A profit was even derived from reletting their labour to the settiers on the coast. I remarked that the mode of carrying iurdens was the same as with the Oregon tribes, except only that the strap, instead of crossing the forehead, passes over the top of the head. One evening I witnessed a dance by the native boys, who had ornamented the face and difierent parts of the body with streaks of white clay, according to published represen- tations. The strong contrast with the complexion, pro- duced at night a striking efiect, which could not have been successftdly imitated by the lighter Mongohan. One of the boys recently "captured" from the wild tribes had evidently never learned to dance ; but he entered into the sport with some spirit, and was making progress in the new 102 PHTSIOAIi HISTOBT OT M\S. accompEskment. Totir or five boys stancliag apart consti- tuted the orchestra; and both then and an. a subsequent occasion, the Califomian music appeared to me of a superior order to that heard among other American tribes. I also visited a neighbouring Tillage, attended by one c£ the native boys. The huts were hemispherical, consisting of a Hght framework thatched with rushes, and were appa- rently intended only for shelter dm-ing the rains of the nSld winter. The inhabitants had left them, and were encamped in the open air, half a mile nearer the river, having set up branches of trees for ^hade, and some enclosures of rush- mats. The men, with their chief, were yet a little apart, occupied in various methods of gambling away their earn- ings. The women were engaged in domestic avocations, and chiefly in the preparation of food. Large stores of various minute seeds were lying in heaps ; but the principal resource evidently consisted of acorns ; and several women were at wort, removing the shells preparatory to drying. Other women were pulverising dried roots, perhaps of the Scirpus lacustris. Some of the water-tight baskets were ftdl of porridge of different kinds, made at combinations of the above materials, and cooked by being placed among hot stones. I tasted some of these messes ; but the only thing that Europeans would have considered edible was a string of fish from ihe river, that arrived as I was taking leave. I was surprised at finding no canoes on these waters. It was said, " that the natives had some formerly, which were composed of ru^es, and were nsed not only on the Bay, but (what requires confirmation) to communicate with the islands along the coast to the southward." And fiirther, that they "much admire wooden canoes, when they get hold of them." In the tide-water of the Sacramento, I sometimes observed natives ferrying themselves over, standing upon a couple of split logs. On the Upper Sacramento these were dispensed with; and I began to think the people had lost the amphibious character of their race ; but it appeared, that in the absence of clothing, and the cHmate being warm and the river narrow, they did not need artificial navigation. On the 25th of August, the boats left Captain Sutter's THI! UAXAT BACB. 103 residence; but, owing to Tarions delays, did not leacli the jxmction of Feather Biver until noon of the following day. At this spot there had been a hitria^ltice, consisting of several circular pits, three or four feet in diameter hy as many in depth ; and skulls were picked up by some of our party. A similar btirial-place was subsequently examiaed, a few miles above, situated in like manner, at the mouth of a tributary stream, where the bank was a Utfcle higher than ■usual ; but the pits were here filled nearly to the surface, and skulls were lying around, together with a few articles of European manufacture. Above tide-water to the end of our excursion, the valley of the Sacramento presented a uniform appearance ; that of a level plain, many miles across, and devoid of brush or timber, except a sferip of scattered oaks along the river. Immediately beyond the trees, the surface was usually a few feet lower, and there were extensive tracts covered with rushes, — Scirpus lacustris.* It was an unexpected circumstance to md an aquatic plant thus growmg ia the dry plain ; but the sterna at this season conformed to the general tint of the herbage, being withered and brown ; the revival taking place with the extensive winter inundation. The preseaee of a large proportion of saline matter in the BoU was considered, at the time, an objection to any kind of cultivation ; but this has appeared less valid aifter visiting the alluvial flats of the Nile. Above Peather Eiver the Sacramento became winding and contracted ; but it main- tained constantly its breadth of about two hundred feet, and although at this season some twenty feet below the top of the banks, it was deep, and the current gentle. A few mileB above the junction I landed on the eastern bank, vdth Mr. Geiger from New York, who accompanied our party. The natives had abandoned the vicinity, " in consequence of a conflict, a few months previously, in which they had assailed the boats of Captain Sutter :" acting, as it appeared afterwards, under a misapprehension, there being in the boats some natives of an inimical tribe. The scarcil^ * Tbis plant is called " tula" bj tlie -colonists, JTom tbe Mexican name "tuUtl." 104 PHTSICAI. HISTOET OF MAN. of game ia the immediate neighbourhood was attributed to the Canadians of the Hudson Bay Company, "who had been in. the habit of coming this way in large parties for the last ten years." On the 27th, elk were frequent on the western bank ; and a herd of some thirty of them made a fine, appearance, rallying at iutervals. and facing us, but not allowing a near approach. A distant fire was seen in the evening ; but the following day was passed without further signs of natives, except the remnant of a platform of poles with cordage, at the water's edge, erected apparently for the purpose of taking salmon. About noon on the 29th, we had our first interview with the SiCBAMEifTO TEIBES. Several men made their appear- ance on the bank, armed with bows and arrows and some inferior javeUns, and kept pace with the boats in silence. For quivers, they used the skins of quadrupeds, such as the fox, lynx, and cub-bear, suspended at the side, or sometimes carried in the hand. Shortly afterwards, we landed on the western bank, where three natives were seated, awaiting our approach ; but they appeared rather shy, and we could coromunicate only by signs. Other natives gradually joined them, and a young man, who appeared to be the chief, presented Captain Einggold with a plume of white feathers ; which we regarded as a sign of friendship. Several of the natives wore feathers on the head, either in a tall upright plume, or large ones single ; and one man had a tuft of blacMsh feathers, stripped in halves and twisted,' so as to resemble the frigate-bird plumes of the Western Paumotuans. They were, in general, fine stout men, of superior stature to the Oregon tribes, and fuUy equalling in this respect the European standard. Polynesian expressions of countenance were remarked, and the hair was not worn long, as with the northern tribes ; but the scantiness of beard seemed a perplexing circum- stance, together with its deficiency in length. It is true, we saw no aged persons ; and the men abiost universally had some show of a beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine. I subsequently found, that Mr. Marsh also regarded " the CaUfomians as more hairy than the tribes of the United States." THE MALAY BACE. 105 Ii^ost of the men. had some slight marks of tattooing on the breast ; disposed like a necklace, tmifonnly according to the pattern represented ia the accompanying figure. The presence of the custom among the Malay Americans should be noted, ia considering the origia of the slight tattooing found occasionally among the Chiuooks and the more northern tribes ; even, it is said, to the vicinity of Bhering Straits. After a while, the natives invited us to the village; which was visible in the distance, with some of the inhabitants perched upon the roofs. The houses were constructed some- what differently from any met with elsewhere. They were partly subterraneous, being bmlt over a large roundish pit, three or four feet in depth. The roof, although firm and covered with earth, could hardly have been intended for pro- tection against wild beasts ; and, on the other hand, the difference in climate from that of the Bay did not seem to demand this closer construction. We observed, however, in one of the houses, a blanket or cloak, made of the feathers and down of water-fowl ; very similar to one seen in the Straits of De Fuca. We saw but two or three women, and these took to flight on our approach ; a circumstance readily explained by the fear of captivity. The natives, moreover, were said to be " extremely jealous of their women ; and ready at any time to engage in a conflict on their account." No free trappers had hitherto taken up their residence among the Sacramento tribes, nor, indeed, in aU the region south of the Umpqua. I had now an opportunity of hearing the language, and found it almost as soft and as rapidly uttered as the Poly- nesian dialects, which it further resembled in the repetitions of syllables. I remarked, however, in some instances, the use of terminal consonants. According to Mr. Marsh, the " languages vary from tribe to tribe, as in the United States, but are always comparatively soft; the grammatical con- struction, however, is the same as in the other American languages." We encamped at the spot where we had landed; the natives withdrawing at sunset, and most of them crossing 106 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. the river. Nothing occurred to interrupt the Btillness of the night, except the usual concert (rf coyotas (the small wolf, or Americaji jacfeal), and the falling of a large branch of an oak, at no great distance. On the 30th, near noon, we again saw natives on the western bank, including, now, some women. They were not so silent as the last, and they made motions for us to come on shore ; but we did not stop to make their acquaintamce. Towards sunset, we found ourselves several nules above the " Butes," and had an interview with another body of natives on the western bank. The chief welcomed us to the spot, evidently comprehending our intention of passing the •jaight there ; and soon after he withdrew, at our request, •with aU. his people. " It had been Tisufll with travelling parties, to give orders to shoot down amy one approaching the camp at night ; and the natives had a perfect under- standing on this subject." On the morning of the 31st, we soon arrived at the village of our new acquaintances ; where we found a fish-weir ex- tending across the river, — a representation of which is given in the Narrativo. The natives were preparing to make an opening for the boats, but were motioned to desist. On landing, the women were still suspicious, and feq)t at a distance, or altogether out of sight. A small party, myself included, was detached to proceed by land to a second fish-weir, further up the river. Imme- diately outside the village, a boy pointed out to me the recent track of a grizzly bear. It appears that the natives Bometimes famish a meal for this animal, although in general it is not of a very bloodthirsty disposition. After such an occurrence, the bear is reported by the natives, " to lose ita hair ;" and though I cannot find that bears have been seen in this condition, the account reminds us of a Virginia tradition, recorded by Jefierson. The Califomian tribes, like the Laplanders, take pattern from the bear in the economy of life; liheir ordmairy food (with the exception perhaps of river-mussels,) "being almost identical, and varying according to season in the same manner. They further have a prejudice against eating the flesh of the bear, the wolf, and all the other animals that feed on man." A native walking by my side had a strongly marked THE IVfAT.AY HACE. 107 Polynesian cotrntenance ; and I placed my tamd npon his slioiilder, for the purpose of examining the texture of the sMn : this coincided, m its extreme softness ; and I per- ceived, moreover, as sometimes among Polynesians, that by the act I had won his confidence. So far as pliysiognomy may be regarded as a test, there appeared to be great diversity of character among these people ; and some indi- viduals had a very ordinary expression. In about an hour, we reached the upper viQage, some of the men coming forward to meet us ; and beneath the scat- tered oaks, we witnessed a scene of aboriginal life that might truly have been worth perpetuating. "We entered the village uninvited ; and our numbers being few, the women did not avoid us as before ; and indeed our arrival did not appear to excite much curiosity. We remarked, however, that our two guides kept aloof, although, from the " broad trail," the two villages must have been on friendly terms. The upper village, Kke the others, consisted of about a dozen houses ; and no change was remarked in their con- struction. "We saw, in all, not less than a hundred persons ; but none of them ofiered to conduct us to the fish-weir, which was a little beyond, and we proceeded thither almost •unattended. It was found to be entirely similar to the first ; and the river above was a little broader, and barely fordable ; while the strength of the current was somewhat increased. On returning to the boats, we perceived that numbers of men and boys had crossed the river, and were seated on the bank in the midst of our party. Others were diving for river-mussels, which they put in a small "bag of netting attached to the breast ; and they soon furnished our cook ■with an opportunity of trying his hand at unio soup. In the afternoon, we commenced our xetum down the river ; and although detained by the survey operations., we reached Captain Sutter's residence, in a little less than four These vidld tribes ofiered the third instance met vrith on our voyage, of people living in a state of nudity ; but, unlike the Puegians and Australians, this occurred in only one sex. The women on the Sacramento wear clothing ; a state of things that brought to mind Ledyard's encomium ; but I •wiU not undertake to ofier any conjecture as to the cause of 108 PHYSICAL HISIOET Or MAK. this remarkable difference. The dress of the •women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of strings of " Californian flax" (Apocymim), or sometimes of rushes. It yaries, however, from the Polynesian cincture, in beiug longer, and open at the sides. In addition to their domestic avocations, and the bringing of water from the river, the women appeared to take a prin- cipal part in procuring the food ; that portion of it at least which is denved from the vegetable kingdom. They col- lected the grass-seed and other small seeds ; but with regard to procuring acorns, I am uninformed. The men seemed to lead a comparatively indolent hfe; and from the anxiety manifested to get hold of two antelopes we had killed, it was inferred that they were not expert in procuring game, As far as my own observation extended, the marriage tie appeared to be recognised ; and I was informed by others, , that " the men in general have but one wife." The CaUfomians differ from the other North American tribes, " in the absence of the tomahawk, and of the practice of scalping." Infants are not carried on the board, neither did we see dogs about the villages. A further diversity takes place in their political condition. According to Mr. Marsh, among our eastern tribes (and the same ap- peared to hold tarue in Oregon), "a chief has no other authority than the influence arising from personal character; but among the Califomians there is something more:" a remark confirmed by our own short experience. In aU these points, Polynesian analogies will be per- ceived ; and some additional ones may be enumerated. Thus we were reminded of the Hawaiians, by the fondness of the Califomians for showy feathers, with which they ornament basket-work. Wreaths even were sometimes met with, formed of leaves, which in one instance were yellowish. Their arrows had sometimes wooden barbs, which I have not seen in other American arrows. And again (but not ex- clusively among the tribes of this continent), they cook with hot stones, and occasionally use the javeHn. With regard to a Polynesian derivation, especially if the different con- dition of New Zealand be objected, it may be remarked, that the language and customs of colonists would naturally be preserved in a country previously uninhabited; but this doea THE MAIAT EACE. 109 not necessarily follow,- if small numbers are brought iu contact ■with a different people. On the whole, however, there is a strong American impress in the Califomian manufactures. The how, especially, is scarcely ' distinguishable from that used by the northern tribes, and it is in like manner coated externally with sinew ; but a portion of the string is covered with downy fur, for the purpose of deadening the sound. The arrows, too, are similar to those in use throughout the continent, and are neatly finished, and invariably pointed with flint-stone. JaveUns are pointed in the same manner, except that the stone is larger, or in some instances bone is substituted ; the shaft is small and light, and not very straight, from the obvious difficulty of procuring better ; and sometimes the end is simply sharpened. Wampum occurs among the articles procured at the Bay ; together with a dress of quill-feathers, of frightful appearance, said to be worn on stated occasions. Unexpected analogy to the ancient Britons is offered, in the use of acorns as a principal article of food, and in the bows being made of yew. A native on the Tipper Sacramento was observed to be pitted with the smaH-pox. The tribes having intercourse with the settlements were suffering much from syphilitic diseases, which had been derived through converted natives, from Europeans. The land party from Oregon, after travelling for several days without seeing natives, fell in with a body of them when they reached the main Sacramento. Some sensation, as I am. informed, was produced by their personal appearance, giving rise to such exclamations as : Kanakas ! how Hke the South Sea islanders ! The following particulars are from the journal of Mr. Brackenridge. " d the evening we were visited by about thirty natives, who sold us bows and arrows, and white-fleshed salmon. They appeared to be a very good-natured, sociable set of beings, and behaved themselves very orderly. They were mostly in a state of nudity. They brought us a kind of black bread, probably composed of pounded acorns, mixed with seeds of various kinds, and sweetened apparently with the fruit of Arbutus tomentosa ; also cones of a species of pine (P. Coidteri), which we had met with yesterday, the seeds of which these people eat. 110 PHTSIOAIi HISTOEX OE MATf. They sheltered themselves behind a sort of barricade of branches and stems of trees." Mr. Agate' remarked the use of a.bla»kish pigpsaent on pojrtiojis of their bodies, as in the Califomians figured by Choria; but which I did not myself meet -with. Notwithstanding, then, the distance of a hundred miles from the limit of our boat excursion, the only esBential variation noted ia the habits of the. natives consists- in the. use of piae-cones,. which they are enabled to> procure by reason of the vicinity of the mountains.. After leaving tlufi spot, the party kept to the eastward of the. Saeramiemto, in general at a sumcient distance to avoid the bends of the river, and did not meet with natives until arriving at Captain. Sutter's residence; To go back a Uttte ia the narration: we: left the same, party on the 29th of September,, at the ridge which divides Oregon from California. The political boiMidaiy proved to be ailso a natural one ; for " a change took place ia the. general appearance of the country, which was now mostlisr bare, the vegetation having been dried \m by the heat of summer ; while the northern slope was well wooded as &r as the eye eould reach," A difference also was soon appaient ia the habits and dispositaoft of the natives,, who bdonged to. the Shasty tribe. After crossing the ridge, the party remained during the 30th, at their encampment, by the side of a small stareami. At this plaice- " an old. feaither dress was fouad haioging, near the remains of twO' huts, the only ones seen on the whole route ;" and which, according to Mr. Agate's drawing, were, similar to those of the San itancisco tiibess, On the 1st of October, the party soon " reached the main river ; and conr tinuiag over a level plain, again struck it towards evening,, and encamped on its banks. An interview was had with some natives, who sold us a species of white-fleshed salmon, which abounds in this river." One of these natives (whose portrait was taken by Mr. Agate), wore a hemispherical cap,, of the same kind of majjufecture as the water-baskets ; and his quiver, in the drawing, resembles those of the Sacramenta tribes, and is carried in the same manner. " Another native had a dresfi of leather, devoid of hair," and of the usual aboriginal manufacture. " On the 2nd, the pariy proceeded over a gently undulating THE MAIAT EACB. Ill prairie, aboimding in saJine efflorescences, and encamped on a small stream." Tte eneampmenit was " visited by several natives, who sold bows aad arrows ;" and Mr. Agate Kkewise obtained a sketch, of one of these individuals. Both Mr. Agate and Mr. Brackenridge think the Shasty should be associated vdth the Oregon tribes ; and they were first struck with the physical change on arriving at the Sacramento. I would observe, however, that the complesion! in the drawings is too dark for the Mongolian race ; and among other variations in. habits, that "the bundles of rushes for canoes, in the form of a lashed-up haimmock" (mentioned in the Narrative), entirely correspond with Choris'a representation of the Califomian canoe. On the 3rd, the party crossed the commencing ridge of a mountainous tract of country, " and encamped on a small stream, which was said to be one of the tributaries of the Sacramento. On the 4th, the forest was at first rather open,, the undergrovrth having been recently burned by the natives ; and the trunks of some of the large pities were still on fire. Kres were also remaining at some native camps, but the people kept out of sight ; and, ia one iastance the retreat had been so precipitate, that a woman's basket and bag had been left behiad. According to one of the Canadians,, ' these natives subsist principally on seeds and small fruits ; have no huts, but take shelter behind rocks and trees ; and clothe themselves in. undressed deer-skins.' The route for. the two following days continued through a rugged moun- tainous country, full of deep ravines, and covered with boulders and angular fragments of rock ; the natives still avoiding the party, although from the frequent occurrence of trails, they must be numerous. The horses having suffered from the want of food, the party encamped early at a patch of grass, and remained there during the 7th. The journey was resumed on the 8th, and during this and the succeeding, day, the country continued much of the same character. On the 10th, however, the ridges were observed to be less steep,, with the general surface declining gradually towards the south and west ;" and on the same day, as already mentioned,, the party reached the main Sacramento. On reviewing now this account, it would seem that the natives who avoided the party may have been women 112 FHTSICAL HISTOET OF MAIT. collectmg food. The description, however, of the Canadian seems to indicate the existence of a separate tribe. A lad, "purchased ia the Shoshoitee, or Snake country, had been brought by the way of Oregon" to Captain Sutter's residence. I did not distinguish him among his new com- panions ; but I am unprepared to speak decisively of the physical race from this single instance. Mr. Geiger, who had visited the Shoshonee country, was of opinion " that the people should be associated with the Califomians." A tribe inhabiting the same quarter has been described as " orna- menting their persons with white streaks ;" which is another point in favour of the reference. In regard, however, to the SoTXTHEBir Calepoeniass, there is no ambiguity, if we may depend on the concurrent testimony of all visitors. The figures of them, by Venegas, also confirm the identity in physical race with their northern brethren. b. Mexico and the West Indies. ■ I have already spoken of a Mexican, from the province of Sonora, who was seen at San !Pranciaco. In personal appeaiv ance he was so similar to the Polynesians; that I should not have suspected any claims to European descent. In coming from the United States, Mr. Marsh mssed through New Mexico. The route led from Santa Fe to Chihuahua ; thence to Casas G-randes (a place celebrated in the aboriginal history of Mexico), and along the Eiver Gila to the Colorado, and afterwards by the coast. He spoke of extensive ruins. " The population throughout was chiefly of the aboriginal stock ; in some districts wild and hostile, in others civilised and very numerous. He crossed nothing Hke a ridge of mountains, although hiUs and mountains were frequently in sight. He found the country in general exces- sively arid ; yet many places afforded sustenance for herds of cattle. Cacti abounded ; and a certain species, if cut in a particular manner, affords drink for the suffering traveller. In one district a sort of armour was used in riding, for the protection of man and horse against the rigid and thorny vegetation." The Eev. Mjp. Chamberlain, of the Hawaiian mission, had naitei Acapulco, where he " was struck with the resemblance THE MATiAY EA.OE. 113 of the natives to the Polynesians," ia contradiatitiction to the aboriginals of the United States. Basil Hall, too, speaks of a " Malay type " among the people of the same part of Mexico ; and taaders at Saa iPrancisco assured me that " th6 natives were alike along the vrhole western coast." The presence of two ahoriginal races in Mexico recalls some seeming coincidences ia the ancient history of that country. It is stated of the Toltecas, the predecessors of the Aztecas, that they " were acquainted with agriculture, manufactures, the workiag of metals, and various other arts of civilisation, and even that they introduced the cxdtivation of maize and cotton." Wow the art of cultivation could not have heen derived from Oregon, where the idea was aborigi- nally absent ; a state of thmga connected apparently with the high northern source of the Mongolian population of America, the climate precluding agriculture m the parent countries. If, then, this art was iutroduced from abroad into America, it must have arrived by a more southern route, and, to all appearance, through the medium of the Malay race. I would remark, further, that the route must have been yet south of San Francisco, where I observed only one, and that a doubtful instance, of aboriginal agriculture. Another remarkable tradition, mentioned by Humboldt as common both to the Mexicans and to the widely-separated Muyscas of Bogota, attributes the " origin of their civihsar tion to a man having a long beard." Now, a long beard is precisely a circumstance that would be apt to mate a lasting impression among a beardless people, and at the same time is one which they woiald not be likely to invent : further, it is not inconsistent with the physical character of the Malay race. At Singapore, I was reminded of this tradition by the continual recurrence of long-bearded masks on the Chinese stage. The influence of a second physical race might be expected to extend beyond its precise geographical' limits ; and I wUl here note the occurrence in .Ajnerica of some additional Malay analogies. A variety of Polynesian customs are men- tioned in the accounts of the native tribes of Panama and Central America, and even some coincidences in the names of places around the Mexican and Caribbean seas. Two distinct styles of costume may be recognised in paintings 114 PHTSIOAIi HISTOET OB MAN. of aboriginal Americans ; and tte cincture and wreatli of uprigbt featters are not found among the noriihem tribes. The American languages are also susceptible -of geographical division ; beiag on the one hand soft, with principally the vowel termination ; and on the other harsh, with terminal consonants :* a point that acguires interest from the fact, that no portion of the Malaj race has hitherto been found using a harsh language. • Tti the United States, the Cherokees, and others of our southern tribes, are known to epeak comparatively soft lan- guages. Malay analogies will also be perceived in the following particulars respecting the Creeks,t communicated by Dr. Boykin, of Cteorgia, and even something similar to the East Indian practice of running a muck. " Sometimes a Creek will become desperate, or one of them may be teaaed to that point of exasperation, that he will declare aji inten- tion to ' kill the first man he meets,' which he will be sure to do, whether fiiend or foe : such persons are often put to death by their own people. No incident, however trifting, can take place in the nation without the knowledge of the chiefs ; who have, moreover, a species of chief's language, ia the use of figurative expressions, that are not understood by the common people." If, however, any actual remnant of the Malay race exists in the eastern part of North America, it is probably to be looked for among the Chippewas and the Cherokees. "With respect to the extinct aboriginalB of the West IiTDiES, I have seen an oil painting by Brunias, which was presented to Harvard University in 1790, and which repre- sents three " Native aboriginal Caribs of St. Vincents." The complexion, features, and general aspect agree very well with the Malay race ; but the costume presents analogy with that of our northern tribes ; and it is also evident that red, and not yellow, was the favourite colour. This single example has not enabled me to form a decided opinion on the ques- * This distinction occurs in languages generally, although not always ex- pressed in the orthography ; and depends on two distinct methods of utterance, which may he termed conveniently enough^ the masculine and feminine forms of language. + A tradition exists among the Creeks, as I am informed hy Mr. Leconte, " that^they came originally from the "West, from "heyond the Mississippi.'' THE MA.LAT BACE, 115 tion of race ; but probably additional materials may exist in pamtings and tapestry on tbe other side of the Atlantic. It is possible that the Malay race may be more widely extended in Mexico and South America, than is represented on the accompanying map ; and, indeed, I am disposed to refer to that race whatcTer is authentic in the accounts of " black aborig^als." G-eographical considerations render it improbable that any third race had reached America prior to the European diacorery. MICRONESIANS. After leaying California, the Tassels of the squadron proceeded again to the Hawaiian Islands ; and on the 27th of November resimied their course to the westward. I have already, in the account of the coral islands, spoken of tribes which, from the affinities of language, should per- haps be referred to the Micronesians. Most of the widely scattered Caeoliite Isiastds are equally composed of coral ; Oualaa and Ascension forming the principal exceptions. The accordance of all published figures and descriptions, leaves no room for doubt as to the physical race of the inhabitants ; especially as such a carefiil observer as Char misso unites the Sadack and CaxoUne Islanders with the Polynesians. Choris, who accompanied Chamisso, has given a figure of a Caroliiie Islander ; and it so minutely corresponds with one of those taken by Mr. Agate at Depeyster Island (in the Vaitupan Group), as to lead to a suspicion that the two natives were countrymen. Belts of banana fibre, "from the islands of Egoy and Ascension," were obtained by the Expedition ; and they indicate a more refined state of the arts than the Tarawan, Polynesian, or even the Peejeean manufactures. The reported use at the CaroUne Islands of " a sort of compass," is a point deserving further inquiry. Lieutenant EJnox, in the schooner, visited M'Kenzie's Island; a clustered coral island, situated between the Pelew and Marian Groups. He found the inhabitants " resembling the Caroline Islanders, but having their teeth much dis- coloured, apparently from the use of betel." The western limit of the Micronesians remains uncertain ; and from the descriptions of MorreU and Jacobs, there is I 2 116 PHYSICAL HISTOHX OE MAJT. even reason to suspect their presence on the north coast oJ New Guinea. I saw the two natives, from islands in the vicinity of the AiMiEALTT GEOrp, who were brought to the United States, several years ago, by Captain MorreU. One of them belonged evidently to the Malay race ; but in place of the openness and simplicity of the Polynesians, he possessed rather the East Indian temperament. He was younger than his companion, and less skimd in throwiog the javeUn ; and I observed, also, that he was unacquainted with the proper manner of holding a pen-knife. I do not remember any marks of tattooing. Mr. James Eead, of Philadelphia, " once landed on Pirio MIaeieee, a small island north-east of Jilolo, and found the natives, a very large and fine-looking set of people, and beautifiilly tattooed." On proceeding thence to the Peiew IsLAifDS, Mr. Eead perceived " a striking diminution of stature, together vrith an entire absence of tattooing :" in these particulars agree- ing with the general population of the Philippines and other East Indian Islands. After leaving the Hawaiian Islands, the Vincennes sailed through the northern portion of the Ladrone or Maeiait Geottp ; and we saw in the distance Grigan and Assumption, two isolated moimtains rising abruptly out of the sea, with their summits concealed by clouds. We had now entered a region where the development of coral is less extensive ; and what is of iinportance in regard to the subject of migrations, we here reached the limit of the monsoons. I had previously at San IVancisco seen a Ladrone Islander, and I had no difficulty in referring him to the Malay race, not perceiving any traces of even mixed descent. The stature was a little below the European standard ; the complexion fuU as dark as ia the Califomians and Hawaiians around; and his small eyes and half-open eyelids, were perhaps an individual peculiarity. JAPANESE. An A merican whale-ship arrived, as we were leaving the Hawaiian Islands, having on board four or five " natives," who had been taken from an islet " not represented on the THE MALAY KACE. 117 charts, situated in about N. lat. 30°. They had been driven thither by bad weather, in a small boat, which resembled the flat-bottomed skifis of New England. The islet, though high, afforded scarcely any other vegetation than low reeds ; and they had been obliged to subsist principally on sea- birds (gannets, &c.), uncooked. They had remained there several months, and were in a famishing condition. When they came on board the vessel, they made a low bow, placing the hands together in front ; and being allowed to stay, they soon learned to assist the crew ;" but theyoimgest only, a half-grown lad, had acquired some words of English. " They kept sacred one day ia every fortnight, complamiag ' that our Sunday came round too often ;' and they gave an exact account of the number of days and moons they had passed on the islet. They recognised rice, which they hap- pened to see soon after coming on board, and which had evidently formed their accustomed food: they were also acquainted vrith maize, and, it was thought, with oranges." On the other hand, cocoa-nuts and the common Hawaiian esculents were new to them; and it thus appeared that these men did not belong to the Loo Choos, nor indeed to a tropical chmate. To inquiries respecting their native country, they uniformly answered, "Tosa," which is the name of a district iu one of the southern Japan islands. Their personal appearance differed from my preconceived ideaa of the Japanese ; and, for a time, I was unwilling to admit their connejdon with the Malay race. In my note-book I find recorded, that " they were all short, rather stout built men, vrith the complexion nearly as dark as in the Hawaiians; which, together with their slight profile, the nose rather flat, and their thick black hair, left me for some time in doubt." Mr. Drayton at once recognised the Polynesian features in the eldest of the party (who had a beard), and in this individual the resemblance was obvious ; but his companions had the contour of the face on the front view, more rounded than is usual with the Polynesians : the lad, however, had the nose so remarkably broad and flat, that all idea of the MongoUan race vras out of the question. The eyes were neither small nor obliquely placed, though there was perhaps something of the " rounded inner angle." Two of these persons were pitted with the smaU-pox. 118 PHTSICAIi HISTOBT OB MAN. After laying aside tteir national costume, they had suffered their hair to grow ; but they explaiaed, that it was usual at home to share the top and sides of the head, aad bringiag the remaining haiir forwards, to fasten it in a short tuft over the crown. Their language was rather soft, and was rapidly uttered, with usually the vowel termination; hut the final " ng" was sometimes heard. They bowed veiy politely when we took our leave. Dr. Jndd, of the Hawaiian mission, found them to be " of the lowest class, fishenaen, and very ignorant ; but theic countenances brightened at the mention of some places in the south of Japan, with which they had been accustomed to trade." Dr. Jndd had formerly seen some educated Japanese, from Matsmai, in the north, who, he had already informed me, " appeared to him, unlike the Chinese, identical in physical race with the Haiwaaians." EAST INDIANS. a. Luzon. On the 8th of January, 1842, the Vincennes reached the Bashee IsLAifDS, near the northern end of Luzo% and at the same time, an EngKah bark in the distance proved a cheering spectacle, after the lapse of twenty months without finding the ocean enlivened by a sail. The islands were high and broken, and one of them was sufficiently elevated to b® cloud-capped. "We passed the nearest of the group, at a distance of about four miles, and were surprised ait its barren appearance, for it had a general brownish tint, and seemed altogether unwooded. Even the western coast of Lrzoir bore an unexpected resemblance to California, and we saw only openings and scattered trees, nothing like a continuous forest, imtil we' had proceeded as fer south as the vicinity of Manila. The^ armed government launch boarded us in the bay; and affojrded the opportunity of recognising in the crew, the identity in race with the Polynesians. There was, however, an expression of countenance that betokened education in the midst of more refinement, and also a striking diminution in stature, for in common with the other East Lidians, they fell decidedly below the average size of Europeans. The THE MAIiiT KA.OE. 119 predominaiice of blue in tte dress reminded ua that we were now in the region of indigo. On landiag, the soldiers were found to be all natives : the officers in general Spanish, though sometimes of mixed descent. The troops were all in uniform, and the discipline was European and highly commended, together with the music by natiye performers. "As there are sectional ani- mosities, besides the four or five languages spoken at the PhiHppiries, advantage could be taken of all these, circum- stances ia the detail of the service." It was interesting to ebserve the numbers of brown ladies ridiag ia carriages : while ia intelligence and refinement of manners, so far as one may judge without a knowledge of the language, many of them did not suffer by comparison with Europeans. It appeared, however, " that these persons were mostly intermarried with Spaniards, or were more or less of mixed Spanish parentage." It was further said, that " the descendants of Spaniards, mixed or otherwise, bear great hatred to the new-comers fi-om Europe, to whom the govern- ment offices are mostly given, and who regard the former as iaferiors, although often more wealthy, more intelligent, and better informed than themselves." The infusion of Spanish blood is, however, trifling beyond the precincts of the Capital ; and it appears that out of " a population of two and a quarter miUions,* in the Marian Islands and Spanish part of the Philippines, the Europeans number less than three thousand." In the inland villages, I was struck with the apparent absence of all foreigja admixture; and the traveller often experiences difficulty in finding persons who understand the Spanish language. Wealth does not at the Philippines bring about luxury in diet ; but I was assured, that " the native families, whether rich or poor, lived almost exclusively on rice." The native Jiouses were all alike, small, built of bamboo, and set on posts about six feet feom the ground, and this mode of construction, which in a rainy climate seems con- ducive to health, was found to be general throughout the Bast Indies. In the shape the Eeejeean architecture was * See an " extract from a work printed at Manila, 1818-] 9;" quoted in Afoore's Papers on tlie Indian Archipelago. 120 PHYSICAL HisioBT or MAir. readily reeogmsed ; but there was less regard to neatness, and the workmanship was inferior, particularly about the roof and thatchiag. The interior arrangements, however, ■were different, and mats were not so generally in use as with the Polynesians and Feejeeans. The usual mode of carrymg hirdens was the same as with the Tropical Polynesians ; 'but for the first time in the course of the voyage, we observed articles occasionally borne on the head. Children were sometimes supported astride on the hip, as coimnonly seen among the Poly- nesians, and the mode of caressing them was likewise by rulMnff noses. It appeared ftirther, that the practice of shamifoomg was not unknown ; but neither here, nor in any other part of the East Indies, did I see the slightest marks of tattooing. I was surprised to learn, that hardly any genuine instances of running a muck occurred in this pait of the Philippines. Among the strange sights to a visitor may be enumerated the universal bloody appearance of the mouth and teeth, derived from the use of betel, and the great niunbers of per- sons who earn a livelihood by the teaffic in that article. Also, the singular prevalence of the amusement of eock- figTttmg; natives being seen everywhere in the streets, bearing the bird under the arm, wMle the crovring is inces- sant at all hours of the day and night. The hwffdlo, too, contributed ta the novelty of this phase of civilisation, an animal which in stoutness of frame, the naked skin of the colour of mire, and its semi-amphibious habits, seems fairly an associate of the elephant and hippopotamus. Although dangerous to Europeans, it is regarded, in the hands of the natives, as rather a docile animal. I saw, however, a native bearing the marks of a frightful wound inflicted by a buffalo, one cheek, including the eye and nose, having been torn away, and left hanging like a large tumour, with the profile still distinguishable, on the side of the head. Passports having been obtained for an excursion into the Interior, a party of us left Manila in two canoes, conve- niently furnished with sliding roofs and dry floorings of bamboo. The water was smooth, and although the current was strong, our progress against it by paddlmg was rapid. The banks of the steeam were Uned with houses ; and the THI MALAY BACE. 121 very numerous population was obviously umnfluenced by European fasHona. Occasionally a native migbt be selected as lie stalked forth, who, in attitude, dress, and whole per- sonal appearance, seemed the miniature image of a Tonga man. Numbers of women were fishing with the hook and line, standing in the water, or jn canoes, or sometimes in half-canoes ; but the large square dip-nets, provided with a lever and weights, were always managed by a man. "We were all struck with the ease with which the necessaries of Hfe seemed procurable ; and especially with the great quantity of food obtained from this narrow quiet water-course. The rearing oi chicks was practised on a scale not dreamed of in our quaxter of the globe, and in its details afibrded a very curious spectacle. WhUe to complete the aquatic scene, buffaloes were led by a cord to their evening bath, and many of them might be observed having only the mouth and eyes above the water. We landed at one place, and rarely have I felt so entirely separated from home, since in the midst of a civilised and intelligent population, it would have been diflS^cult to explain who we were, the objects of the voyage, or even where our country was situated. Towards sunset we changed our crew, and having obtained a mast and mat sail, we entered the lake, proceedmg among aquatic fences of slips of bamboo, which had been carried out for miles in the shallow water for fishing purposes. After clearing these, we parted from the other canoe, and having shut down our roof, sought repose in our slight but commodious vessel. It was nearly calm, and our crew paddled until three in the morning, when they landed to cook some lice; they shortly afterwards resumed their labours until eight, the time of our arrival at Santa Cruz. Mr. Sturgis, Lieutenant Eld, and myself^ here procured horses, and proceeded along a road constructed under Euro- pean supervision, and paved a good part of the distance, although hardly intended for wheel carriages. Cocoa palms formed the principal article of cultivation ; and they were in immense numbers, having the tops united by bamboo stems, to obviate the necessity of descending while going through a plantation : indeed, wealth at ManUa was said to be often estimated by the thousand of cocoa palms. The chief pro- duct appeared to be an ardent spirit, whether of aboriginal 122 PHYSIOAI HISTOBT OF MAN. manufacture I did not ascertain. Joints of tamboo were used for bottles^ as among the Pacific Islands. Pour plants, tie bamboo, cocoa palm, pandanus, and rattan, give a direction to domestic economy in the East Indies and the neighbouring parts of Asia ; and it is sur- prising how many of the conveniences and elegancies of life they render attainable: while it should also be observed, that it is precisely in these same countries that the art of living in a tropical climate is best understood. In about three hours we arrived at the Mission of May- jajjay, where we found extensive stone edifices, a church, school, well supplied market-houses, and various outbuildings. These were not the only innovations on the original customs of the country ; and I have nowhere witnessed a more plea- sant sight than that of the surrounding population on their way to church, all neatly arrayed in their best attire. There had been continual rains on the mountain of Banajao ; but, in the midst of discouraging accounts, it was decided to make the ascent. The horses brought for ua,, were very small, and of most unpromising appearance, and we were surprised at the good, service they rendered. The same smaE breed is found in the other East India islands, and, together with the buffalo, is of aboriginal introduetiDn. These two were the only new domestic animals thus far met with in voyaging westward ; for the biillock, which was rare, appeared to have been first made known in this part of the East Indies by Europeans. After passing through the inhabited region, we arrived at tie woods, where tie acdivity was too steep for horses ; and it was now a work -of five hours to reach the summit, which is the highest point of the island, being about sit thousand five himdred feet above the sea. It was here very cold, and the rain still accompanying us, we did not remain longer than was necessary to complete the observations; but so much time had been lost through the mismanagement of our guides, that we were obliged on our way down, to pass the night at the half-way station. Tiere was but little sielter iere from tie ieavy rain ; and our large company of natives,, unlik e the Polynesians and aboriginal Americans, proved utterly helpless in auci an emergency. They slept very little during the night; but though nearly naked, having THE MALAY EACE. 12S tie skm. inured to exposure, they were probably ia less danger than. OTirselves of an atfcaek of acute disease. "We were glad to leave on tlie first appearance of dayligbt, and finding our horses at the place where we had left them, we mounted, and before noon again arrived at the Mission. Among other attentions, Father £omano y Aranda presented us with a rare edition of the Tagala grammar, " printed at Manila in 1610," and containing specimens of the aboriginal alphabet, which has been superseded by the Eoman letters. " He had never been able to find manuscripts in this charac- ter, and did not think any person now living could read it." He fiirther mentioned, that some have supposed the Malay population of Luzon to have been. " derived from Borneo ; and also, that on the first arrival of the Spaniards, there were officers coUecting tases or tribute for the Borneo rajas." In the afbemoon, we returned to Santa Cruz, and embark- ing in our canoe, spent another night upon the lake. "We landed early on the morning of the 19th, at the hot spring of Banos, and after remaining awhile, again set out with a fresh but not altogether favourable breeze. Notwithstanding we had the assistance of paddles, one of the large narrow canoes used on this lake, having a double out-rigger, went to the windward of us with ease. Before dark, we reached the village at the outlet, where a theatre was said to be "kept open dTiring the holidays;" and having now the current in our favour, we proceeded at a rapid rate, and landed in the eity at an early hour in the evening. The government of the Philippines is nominally military, but the population appears to be ruled principally through the priests, whose ascendancy is such that " no instance had occurred of the murder of one of them in insurrections, and even acts of violence towards them have been extremely rare.' ' In short, the internal action of government appeared to be mild and primitive, and the people contented and. happy ^^ and the traveller is carried back to those times when the: Cathojic missionaries first reached this quarter of the gl(it)e. Of all the immense region of the East Indies, the Spanish portion of the Plulippines has alone been converted ; while the proceedings of the other European, powers appear to dis- advantage, even afber making every al&wanee for the prior visits of the MusUmSi. 124 PHYSICAL HISTORT OF MATT. On the 21st of January, the Vineennes sailed from Manila to the southward, proceeding among some small islands, and afterwards along the western coast of Mutdoko. The aspect of the land was much like that of Luzon ; but we could dis- tinguish few signs of inhabitants, further than the smoke of fires. At the southern extreme of the island one of our boats visited " a small Malay Tillage." Eocks and rocky islets were occasionally in sigit to the southward and west- ward ; and after leaving Mindoro, we obtained a distant view, in the opposite direction, of the high mountain of " Setoal." The western shore of the important island of Pakat, presented the same general aspect ; but there were evident signs of inhabitants, as houses, cocoa-nut plantations, and even some buildings of Spanish construction. A party landed at a spot where the Spanish flag was flying, and re- ported on their return, "that there was only one white resident, then absent, and that the people appeared to be much frightened at the visit." Our native pilot persisted in asserting that the Spaniards kidnap the people in this quarter, for slaves. b. Mmdanao. The next land seen, the western end of Mindanao, was clothed in great magnificence with an unbroken forest; a circumstance that seemed to account in part for the inde- pendence of the inhabitants. The Spaniards, notwithstand- ing their convict establishment, do not daim the sovereignty of this island, which, by their account, "belongs to the Moors." On turning the extreme point of Mindanao, we found ourselves close to the small Spanish fort of Caldera, where the Vineennes anchored. It bore on the walls the date of 1784, and was occupied by a few Malay soldiers, with a European officer. The latter stated, that " it was intended merelj for protection against the Moorish (or Muslim-Malay) pirates, who, in their boats, carry persons away for slaves, or to obtain a ransom. To prevent, therefore, a night surprise, the natives have sleeping-huts in the trees, elevated many feet above the ground." On the following day, in company with others, I took a THE MALAY HACI!. 125 ramUe of a few miles along a path leading into the luxuriant forest. Por the first time, I saw monkeys in the wild state, and had an opportunity of witnessing their wonderful agility. I saw also homhiUs, species of merops, trogon, colaris, and other birds, as well as insects of brilliant hues ; and I realised finding, at last, the gigantic and showy animal creation asso- ciated with our usual ideas of the Tropics. Such was the seeming correspondence in the surrounding natural objects, that there was difficulty in giving credence to the alleged absence of the elephant, rhinoceros, and all the larger quad- rupeds. "We were not, however, awaxe at the time, that the Pythons (the "anacondas" of the Eastern Continent) "were extremely common; although often escaping notice from their resemblance to large woody vines hanging among the tree- tops." !From my subsequent inquiries, I am inclined to think that Mindanao may be regarded as the head-quarters of these reptiles. Towards evening, we again left the fort, to visit a village in the vicinity, with the injunction " to be very cautious, and not trust to the Moors." "We found only a few scattered Malay houses, of the usual construction, some of which we entered. The people were civil ; and they even had in use some articles of European manufacture. Our Malay soldier, however, pronounced them " Moors," and spoke with a com- passionate air of "their ignorance." I was a little perplexed with the personal appearance of these Muslims, as the complexion appeared to me (though not to others) lighter than in the pure Malay race ; and one individual had a different expression of countenance. This was certainly not Mongolian ; but from my present recollec- tions, I am not sure of the entire absence of an Arab tinge. 'We passed through a field of maize, which at a distance would hardly have been recognised. Although planted " in hOls," these were so near together that we had difficulty in forcing our way between the stems, which were about eight feet in height. It should here be observed, the maize is regarded by Crawford as of aboriginal cultivation ia the East Indies. A boat from the Vincennes visited the large town of Samboangan in the vicinity, the Spanish convict establish- ment before mentioned, and one of our officers was here 126 PHYSICAL HI8T0ET Or MAN. struck -with the " large proportion of persons who seemed to be of dunese lineage, and lie saw some real Chinese. The resident Catholic Father, who was highly intelligent, communicated some late news from Europe and America." It appeared, that the efforts for conversion were reserved for the "pagan Indians;" experience having shown the futility of all attempts with the Muslims. I have not met with any examples of the Haeapoea tribes, described as inhabiting the interior of Mindanao, Booro, Ceram, and Celebes, and as possessing the entire island of JUolo. What is alleged of the superior stature and bodily perfection of these people, is worthy of notice ; together with the existence among them of the practice of tattooing, or at least of staining the skin. These partictilars, taken in connexion with what has already been stated of the inhabitants of Pulo Mariere, seem to have a bearing on the question of the origin of the Polynesians. Dalton,* after enjoying unusual opportunities for forming a correct opinion, has Identified the Harafora of Celebes with the Dayaks of Borneo. Dr. Dickenson, of the American Mission at Singapore, had visited the interior of Borneo ; " in most parts of which island it is not difficult to travel, though some of the coast people are to be avoided. The Dayaks are not, Hke the Chinese, Ughter-complexioned than the Malays ; he had conversed with Dayaks, who stated, among other matters, that it was usual with them to ' eat their gi^andfathers when they became very old.' There are neither elephants nor tigers in Borneo." Hunt,t in speaking of the Idan and Moruts, who appear to replace the Dayaks at the northern extremity of Borneo, states, "that they are fairer and better featured than Malays, stronger and more robust ; the Dayer much daa-ker and more resembling the Malays. The inhabitants of Mount Kiney-Baulu, are nearly as fair as Europeans." Dalton likewise mentions Dayak " women from the moun- tains, having colour on the cheeks." As I have never seen the pure Malay Ught-complexioned enough for this I am inclined to suspect some mixture of another race; and geographical considerations point, as intimated in another • In Moore's Papers on the Indian Archipelago. ■f Ibid. THE MAXAT EAOE. 127 place, to the Mongolian. The aceoimt by Znniga, of the " Tgorotes " of Lnzonj may also be compared. b. Sooloo. On the Ist of Pebruary, the Vincennes sailed from Caldera, passing in the first place, the considerable island of Basecajst. Although in plain sight from Caldera, it is beyond the reach of Spanisn influence ; and some individuals had recently been murdered there, on landing from a Euro- pean Tessel. On the following day, our course was among scattered rocks and islets ; in some instances, low and exclusively of coral, resembling on a smaller scale those of the Pacifi.c. We had previously seen but slight indications of coral in the East Indies. We soon reached the island of SooiiOO or Jolo, seemingly one of the most pleasant we met with in the whole course of the voyage. Its surface appeared to be in great part under cultivation, and the resemblance to some of the Feejee Islands was at once recognised by Yeindovi. As we pro- ceeded along the coast, many small canoes came around, having double outriggers, double-bladed paddles, and con- taining each from two to five persons, who had brought fruit, fish, and other articles for sale. Even here, the value of coin did not appear to be well understood, but direct exchanges were generally preferred. The complexion was now deep brown, and the features were in all instances, TinequivoeaHy Malay ; while from the seeming good humour of those who came on board, from everything except the inferior stature and absence of tattooing, the scene scarcely varied from many we had vdtnessed in the Pacific. A different state of things, however, was found to exist on shore. The Vincennes anchored at Soung, the capital of the island, and the centre of political power in the surrounding region. Shortly afterwards I landed with others and walked through the principal part of the town. The style of build- ing was found to be essentially the same as ia Luzon, except that many of the houses were placed over the water, with long platforms or bridges connecting them with the shore. The men went habitually armed ; but ia place of the bow 128 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAX. or club, they had the spear, shield and straight sword, each siagularly resembliag the ancient Greek pattern of these weapons. It should further be observed that the intro- duction of these three weapons iato this part of the East Indies, is attributed to the Muslims. "We had landed on Eriday, the Musliin sabbath, and the " Sultan" was at his devotions in the "mosque :" this was a building larger than the others, but devoid of any traces of the proper Muslim, style of architecture. "We visited the " Dattoo " (or Vizier), who understood Spanish, and seemed intelligent enough, although he evidently did not appreciate scientific researches. In the midst, however, of seeming politeness, he appeared disposed to take Ms ease, smolnng and loHmg upon a sort of canopied bedstead. One of his children, an infant, was carried about, attended by a train of females, and also by a man, who had been appointed to the office of his sword-bearer. After a while, the Sultan, with his suite, bearing one or two large umbrellas, was seen to leave the mosque, and word was soon brought, that he was ready for an interview. The result so far as I was immediately interested, was unfavourable to an excursion into the Interior; it being alleged, that " the people were so bad, there was no safety for us ;" and indeed, after making allowance for motives of policy, oitt subsequent experience led us to think, that Lis highness had reason. Up to the time of the interview, no incivility had been offered, or if anything particular had been remarked, it was some signs of aversion on the part of the women ; but on now returning through the town, we found a marked change in the deportment of the inhabitants. Streets through which we had previously passed, were now prohibited ; but we were allowed to extend our walk along the water's edge, where some twenty proas were drawn up. We afterwards reassembled at the landing-place, forming a considerable party, and although well armed, we were not sorry to get away in our boats before dark. Two "Lascars" were found here, one of whom spoke English, and having been in London, he drew a rather striking contrast between the condition of the people in the two places. He further stated, that "he had been captured with Captain Gregory, when the pirates, making their THE MALAY EACE, 129 accustomed distinction of colour, had saved him alive. He had been here for a year, the Sultan telling him, that after he had paid one hundred dollars he might go." "We had been prepared, by common report, for a visit among thieves ; and it appeared by the account of the Lascar, that here they do not even preserve honom: among themselves ; whUe, in addition to other troubles, the practice of running a muck was extremely common. There were no European residents at Soung; and vessels visiting tliis place, inciur very little risk of desertions. In the words of our native pilot, " the padre was an Arab," and he returned my Arabic salutation ; his eye, I thought, moistening at the sound of the language, but I was unable to hold further communication with him. In the expression of his countenance, I perceived some difference from the surrounding population, but none in complexion, stature, or features ; and he appeared equally beardless at a distance, but it was found, that pains had been taken to preserve a few very long scattered hairs. I am uninformed as to the precise origin of the Malay-Muslim priests, who, together with the chiefs, are apparently of mixed descent (perhaps even having a tinge of Abyssinian), but among the mass of the Sooloo people, I could find no evidence of the presence of a foreign race. Commencing at Caldera, these were the first traces met vrith in our progress westward, of Muslim institutions, and of the Muslim system of government. On the morning of the 5th, a well armed party, including four marines, proceeded in two boats to the island outside the harboiu-. It was found to be composed of coral, sur- roimding a knoll of trap rodi some three himdred feet in height. The day was spent to advantage, so far as concerned researches in natural history : the knoU. had been ascended, and we were about leaving, when it was proposed to touch at the further end of the island. We accordingly landed again, and on resuming our avocations, the voice of chanti- cleer announced unexpectedly that the island was inhabited. Our marines, accustomed to the manners of the islanders of the Pacific, were pleased with the idea of procuring refresh- ments ; others were desirous of an interview ; and for myself, I followed, although better aware from yesterday's experience, of the kind of reception we might expect. 130 PHYSICAL' HISTOBT Or MAN. The Tillage, which had been concealed by the mangroves, presented the novel appearance of a cluster of houses in the middle of a lagoon, built on posts, and accessible only to canoes. We continued our walk to the outlet of the lagoon ; but no one came near for some miautes, the sound of voices giving evidence of a consultation. At last, a man approached in a canoe, but kept aloof until he was joined by a second canoe containing three persons ; when they all landed without hesitation. I offered some trifles, but they seemed hardly to know what to make of them, or whether to accept them. An old man in the rear, prompted apparently by some remaining feelings of benevolence, made motions to us to go away. Another of the party was less equivocal, making grimaces as he held a drawn kris, and pointed to his spear ; all which we took in good part ; and even this individual seemed moUified as I handed him a small present. It was evident, however, that there would have been little difficulty in bringing these people to the last resort ; and as this did not enter into our plans, and also as reinforcements were arriving, we commenced retracing our steps. The natives seemed now in better humour, and invited us to return ; but having once parted company, there appeared no sufficient inducements for a renewal of the acquaintance. Something indeed had been said about the Sultan ; and it was true, we were intruders, having landed without his permission. These people did not appear to differ from the rest of the population in ;the vicinity ; and I do not know to what par- ticular class they are to be referred. They may have been BiAJir, or "people of the sea;" but they were certainly not tattooed. Their profession was evidently that of fishermen ; and they were probably a fair specimen of the population of the numerous small islands scattered over the Sooloo Sea. The inhabitants of the capital, according to Hunt, " came originally from Banjar-masin," on the southern coast of Borneo. AH accounts, however, agree in the piracies being carried on by the Lahun of the great southern bay of Min- danao, who frequent this place for the purpose of disposing of their wares. If there were any of the Lanun present at the time of our visit, we did not distinguish them. The " jobas " or interpreter, according to his own account, belonged " to the island of Tbenati, and was called a Dutch- THE MALAX EACE. 131 man and a Ckristiano :" in physical race he was evidently pure Malay. Although quite young, the extent of his acquirements in the way of languages was remarkable ; and he wrote also in the Arabic character with great ease and beauty. He too was held for ransom ; but being so useful a person, we feared much for his prospect of a speedy release. On the 6th, the Yincennes left Sooloo, and a few hours afterwards we passed more coral islands, similar to those of the Pacific, but with the trees too taU. and dense to allow a view of their Interior. On the following day, we passed BIagatan Sooioo, an island of some importance, and much resembling Sooloo, but smaller. According to our native pilot, it is inhabited, as well as all the islets we had seen, " and by very bad people." On the 8th, the Vincennes anchored at the Mangsi Islands, small coral patches situated between the extreme points of Palawan and Borneo, in the middle of the Balabac Passage. They were tminhabited at the time, but bore various marts of visitors. A Casuarina tree (the club-wood or iron-wood of the Pacific) was grovring near the remains of a habitation, where it had evidently been planted : and the iact seemed the more interesting, from the geographical position in this main oceanic pass between the East and West ; while on the other hand, the plant is so rare at the Philippines, that Blanco knew of but one instance of its occurrence.* "We remained four days at the Mangsi Islands, adding materially to our collections, not only in marine productions, but rather unexpectedly, in plants. The high island of Balabac was in sight to the northward, and that of Banguey to the southward of the anchorage. N^ear the last named island, one of our surveying parties " saw some natives, who manifested intentions of an attack, but who appeared much afraid of fire-arms." Our pilot stated, that " these people were very bad, but that those of the mountains were worse, eating men, and having tails ;" and he measured with his hands a space of more than a foot, as the length of this appendage. Such a curiosity, if it reaQy existed, woidd hardly have escaped the European ^ See Blaiico*3 Flora of the Philippines, E 2 132 PHXSICAIi HIBTOBT OE MAIT. Establishment formerly in tlie vicinity : but I had not before met -with a locality for this weU-known legend. The coast of Borneo is said to be low, and we did not get sight of it either before or after leaving the Balabac Passage. Continuing our voyage, we saw no land until we reached the two islets of Pulo Aor and Pulo Pedang, which are lofty and covered with woods, but are of small dimensions, and are situated near the southern extreme of the Asiatic continent. d. Singapore, Shortly afberwards, we arrived at Singapore. The Malay population was here lost amid a crowd of strangers, prin- cipally from China and Hindostan ; but individuals were occasionally met with, and the original Malay village at the further end of the harbour, was still remaining. The inhabitants were nationally Malay ; this term, in a strict sense, belonging to one only of the East Indian tribes. The houses were built on posts, in the same style of archi- tecture as at the PhUippines ; and even in this native village, the Chinese appeared to be the principal shopkeepers and artisans. The original population had, however, found a congenial occupation in the exclusive management of the light " sam- pans," the passenger-boats, which have been so much admired, and which, with some similarity in the arrange- ments, form a decided improvement on the Manila canoe. Malay labourers were also seen on some of the plantations of the vicinity. Notwithstanding the unfavourable reports in respect to character, and the general preference given to Manila men, the proper Malays appeared to me to have an air of greater self-respect, and to be in a more advanced state of society than the general population of the Philippines. The Malays are all Muslim, and are so strict, that they would not take any part in the celebration by the Indian Muslims of the 21st of Pebruary, " regarding it as a corrupt proceeding." Malay bearers had, however, been secured for the shrine, as was said "to be usual on occasions requiring any extra amoimt of labour." The language of this tribe has become the general medium of communication throughout the Archipelago. But if, like other East Indian languages, it ever had a peculiar alphabet, THE MALAY BACE. 133 this has long since been replaced by the Arabic letters. An extensive and important collection of Malay manu- scripts was procured at Siagapore, through Mr. North, of the American mission. In one respect, Singapore offered novelty; for man was now no longer the undisputed "lord of creation." One of the local advantages, urged at the time when the English selected this spot, was the " absence of wild elephants and tigers ;" but it appeared, iu the sequel, that the island pre- sented no attractions to the latter animal, until a city had been built. The invasion took place about six years prior to our visit, doubtless by swimming from the main land, which is at no great distance. The number of persons who have since " been taken by tigers, amounts to some hun- dreds;" there being scarcely any other kind of prey; and instances sometimes occurred within two miles of the centre of the city. It was said that these animals " attacked in the daytime, though perhaps, more frequently at night; but they were not apt to come out into the main road, or to fall upon a palanquin and horse. Such a thing as a tiger pouncing upon a man without killing him was unknown at Singapore ; although it sometimes happened, when several persons have been in company, that the tiger has been immediately frightened away. There were persons who made a profes- sion of killing tigers, and government had been paying a premiiun of a hundred doUars for a head, but having recently reduced this to fifty, the business was for the present at an end:" in reference to these prices it should be observed, that the value of money here is fivefold greater than with us. In the wildest recesses of North America, the traveller may throw himself upon the ground to pass the night ; not so in these countries ; where, without disparagement to the rifle, I may state my belief, that it would not prevail. Tigers, however, require covert ; and they will disappear whenever the island shall be cleared of woods, an event not likely soon to take place. Under present Circumstances, there is little difficulty in keeping out of their way ; and European residents, by observing certain precautions, do not much regard them. An important moral effect has been produced by this 134 PHTSICAI. niSTOET OF MAK. state of things. " A decided dimiaution of crime has taken place," owing to the circiunstance that thieves and other crimiaals are deprived of their former resource of escaping to bhe woods. A raja of Celebes was said to have been so impressed with the advantages of such a system of police, as to have seriously " entertained the idea of introducing it into his dominions." The tiger, though perhaps inferior in strength to the lion, is, in respect to the human family, a far more formidable animal. It may even be said to rule in a good measure those wooded countries in which it has obtained footing, such as Java, Sumatra, the peninsula of Malacca, the Indo- Chinese countries, and a portion of Eastern Hindostan. In Western Hindostan, so far as my recent tour extended, the true tiger appeared to be unknown, the country being in general open; but in the thick woods towards Bengal, we read of a district where " villages have been sometimes broken up by the ravages of tigers." The Btjgis of Celebes, now the dominant tribe or nation in the East Indies, " resort in great numbers to Singapore at a certain season of the year. Some, however, are present at all times ; and as they are distinguished from the proper Malays, only by a slight variation in costume," I may have unwittingly seen some of them. They are strict Muslims ; and Celebes appears to be the most eastern point from which pU^images are made 1;o Mecca. Several Bugis manuscripts are in the collection obtained at Singapore ; and a font of Bugis type had been prepared at the Ajnerican Mission press ; but the national literature, so highly prized among the people themselves, remaias unknown to Europeans. After leaving Singapore, we sailed through land-locked channels, and in sight of the Dutch factory of Ehio, on the island of Bintang. On the following day we passed several rocky islets, hardly of sufficient importance to be inhabited. On the 1st of March, as we were entering the Straits of Banca, we fell in with a bark under Dutch colours, that did not pay attention to our signals. On boarding her, the circumstance was explained: the captain being a Malay, together vrith aU his crew, had not understood the language THE MALAI BACE. , 135 of a ship of war. Many of the Englisli vessels at Singapore were said to be likewise manned exclusively with Malays. The eastern shore of Sumatra is low : and the land rising very gently towards the interior, presented everywhere an unbroken forest, without any distinguishable signs of inhar bitants. The landscape, as throughout the East Indies, notwithstanding the exuberance of the vegetation, was decidedly more sombre than in Brazil. In the vicinity of the Straits of Sunda, the land becomes mountainous, with clearings and other marks of cultivation, and evidently sustains a dense population ; who, I believe, are nationally styled Lampohg. We saw houses, also small canoes, two of which came oif at different points ; but as they directed their course to the other vessels of the squadron, I was depriWd of a view of the inmates. We kept near the Sumatra shore, passing islets of little importance, except to the navigator ; but we could distin- guish extensive clearings on the opposite mountains of Java, again indicating a numerous population. On the 7th, having passed Java Head, we were relieved from the confined waters of the Archipelago, aaid once more entered upon the open sea. During our rapid progress through the East Indies, I had little opportunity of noting the prevaiLbig diseases. The external marks were rare, owing, perhaps, in some measure, to the concealment usually attending a more advanced state of society. Dysentery is the chief bane of the East Tndian. cUmate : " vessels rarely remain any length of time in the harbour of Manila without having it on board;" and Singapore, even, is not altogether exempt from this disease In the Straits of Banca we fell in with a vessel from Batavia, nearly disabled in consequence of the loss of twelve of the crew by dysentery. We experienced in the East Indies a greater difference between the night temperature on the land and on the water, than among the Pacific islands ; and a further comparison seems to intuaaite, that this tendency to gastric affections may possibly form an element in the physical degeneracy of the population. We were thirty-three days in crossing thB vsride expanse of the Indian Ocean without seeing land, until we reached the African coast, eastward of the Cape of Goon Hope. 136 PHTSICAL HISTOET OF MAIT. On. landing at Cape Town, I remarked among the popula- tion many persons who were obviously of Malayan descent, more or less mixed. I did not, during our short stay, ascertain their precise origin, whether from the East Indies or from Madagascar; and I felt the less interest on this point, as they had been introduced through the agency of Europeans, and all nationality had been lost. THE INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES. The Cochin-Chiitese were easily distinguished at Singa- pore by the black national dress. I there had an inter- view with a highly intelligent young man, who " had been educated by the IVench missionaries ; and who spoke English, and had visited France, where he was a good deal noticed." He readily admitted the defects in the pohtical institutions of his own country ; but he seemed resigned. He had been sent to Singapore by his king, in charge of the cargo of one of the two national ships then in the harbour. It appears, that " a century ago, or more, a French ship happened to be wrecked on the coast of Cochin-China ; and the people have continued to copy her model, with great particularity, to the present day." Here, then, was a singular revival of the antiquated European mode of con- struction ; but on visiting these vessels, the workmanship was pronounced, by oiir naval critics, " exceedingly rude." We were shown a finely-executed chart of the coast of Cochin-China, apparently the copy of some European survey, with the names of places written in Chinese characters. Every individual on board appeared to be physically Malay ; and there were no marks of Chinese lineage. In stature, however, they were perhaps inferior to the insular East Indians. The Siamese also frequent Singapore; though there happened to be none present at the time of our visit. They "have likewise vessels of European model, chiefly old Enghsh merchant ships which they have purchased, and they employ English commanders." Siam and Cochin- China were then at war, but I did not hear of any naval engagements. The "twins," well known in the United THE MALAY EACE. 137 States, are the only Siamese I have ever seen, and they bear the distinctive marks of the Malay race. Dr. Betton, of Philadelphia, on visiting Biemah, found " the Birmese to belong to the same class of people with the Malays of the East Indies: the Malay character of the population commencing suddenly a few miles beyond the Eastern mouth of the Ganges. He regarded the Karens, however, as belonging to a different race;" and, from the descriptions and figures, they would appear to belong either to the White race or to the Mongolian. MADAGASCAR. During my recent visit to Zanzibar, I remarked, among the lower class of the population, four or five individuals who evidently belonged to the Malay race. Two of them were ascertained to he Ovahs from MLadagascae ; or, as they were here termed, " Ambolambo from Bookin." They were held as slaves by the Arabs. One was a lad of sixteen years, " from Nos Bey," and the other a middle-aged woman ; but having been both stolen when quite young, they could give no account of their native country. Their hair was very dense, and they exhibited other obvious marks of the unmixed Malayan. This resemblance was admitted by Europeans present ; and it appeared, also, that the Arabs had remarked the identity in physical race of the Ambo- lambo and the East Indians. The survey of the immense series of ocean migrations was here completed ; the Malay race having been traced, by actual inspection, from the shores of America, through the Pacific and East Indian islands, to the immediate vicinity of Africa. OTHER MALAYANS. About two years previous to my visit to Zanzibar, "a canoe, from the Maldive Islands, drifted near enough to the African coast to be picked up and brought in by a dow. There were several persons in it ;" and Mr. Waters was first led to make inquiries respectiug them from their peculiar personal appearance, and he termed them " Malay-looking people." Various interesting subjects being connected 138 PHYSICAL HISTOET Or MAN. with the question of the physical race of the Maldire islanders, I regret that I have nothing further to add to the published accounts, which are far from satisfactory. Mr. WiUiainB, of the American mission in China, foimd, on visiting Cetlok, " a Malay expression of countenance among the Cingalese; a class of the population who, by their own account, are ' diminishing in numbers, in conse- quence of the Tamul people of the neighbouring continent coming among them.' The canoes in Ceylon have outrig- gers ;" a custom which seems derived from the East Indies. And it may also be observed that, judging by the descrip- tions of the Cingalese, the ambigfuity, in respect to race, lies, as with the Maldive islanders, between the Malay and the White. Among aU the people of Hindostan who have passed under my own notice, one individual only offered some traces of Malay mixture, — a Lascar sailor, serving on board the Calcutta steam-boat. To return to Ceylon, I would here notice one source of confiision in the recent introduc- tion of " a regiment of real Malays." In Upper Egypt, Southern Arabia, and "Western Hindo- stan, a large proportion of the p6pulation have the Malay complexion; moreover, the Bedouins of the vicinity of Mocha are often beardless, and have a good-natured expres- sion of countenance ; but I was unable, in any of these countries, to detect the physical Malay. It is true, certain individuals, by a change of costume, might perhaps have escaped my notice in the midst of a Malay population ; but hardly, I think, the reverse. Erom Mocha there is direct commimication vdth the East Indies, affording conveyance to pilgrims ; and, indeed, I witnessed the arrival of an Arab ship from Batavia : but, in general, the " Malays " spoken of at Mocha, are White Muslims from the Malabar coast. n.5. h n S T 3S A L A M [RACE, WILLrLNQA A NMI Vh OF THE 1 N TERMOR OF AUSTRALIA. THE AUSTRALIAN EAOE. 139 CHAPTEE V. THE AUSTRALIAN RACE. The Australiaii may be characterised in general terms, as haTing the complexion and features of the Negro, with hair in the place of wool. On closer examination, however, other points of diversity are remarked ; and I thint it will be very generally foimd that the forehead does not recede as ia the Negro, an unusually deep-sunk eye giving it rather the appearance of projecting. The eye, at the same time, though uniformly small, is uncommonly piercing. "With regard to other races fiomewhat approximatiag in personal appearance, the genuine hair will at all times distinguish the Australian. About thirty Australians came under my own observation, who neither had the lips so uniformly thick, nor the nose so much depressed, as ia the Negro ; but in certain instances both nose and mouth were wider. Some iudividuals were of surpassing ugliness; while others, contrary to all anticipation, had the fkce decidedly fine; and several of the young women had a very pleasing expression of countenance. The general form, though sometimes defective, seemed, on the average, better than that of the Negro ; and I did not find the undue alenderness of hmb which has been commonly attributed to the Australians. Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an AustraHam as the finest model of the himian propor- tions I have ever met with ; in muscular development com- bining perfect symmetry, activity,^ and strength ; while his head might have compared with an antique bust of a phUo- eopher. The Australian complexion appeared to me fully as dark as that of the Negro ; but I did not institute a critical com- parison, neither did I see the two races in company. The hair seemed rather coarse, and instead of being perfectly straight was usually undulating, or even curling in ringlets. 140 PHTSICAIi HISTOBT OF MAN. The head was by no means deficient, though less abundant than in the Teejeean. Per characteristic representations of Australians, I am hardly wirnQg to refer to any except those in Mitchell's Tour, and the portraits taken by Mr. Agate ; among which latter I have been most pleased with that of Bamboro-kain. The coloured figures iu the Prench Voyages are deficient in that depth of hue which at once arrests attention ia the Australians ; the best I have seen is the fuU-length portrait in the "Voyage aux Terres Australes." Natives in a state of starvation may have borne some sort of resemblance to the deliueations given in inost publications; but, in general, these have appeared to me simply caricatures. EASTERN AUSTRALIANS. On leaving the Samoa Islands, in 1839, the vessels of the Squadron proceeded to New South "Wales; and arrived at Stdbtet at the close of the month of November. An hour after landing I happened to meet an aboriginal ia the street, wearing the European costume, but who was iastantly recog- nised; and this single example seemed to dispel all danger of subsequently confounding the Australian with any other race of men. In short, I soon found, that while persons at a distance are doubting and disputing, at Sydney every one knows that an Australian is not a Negro. Among other attentions shovsTi us by residents, an invi- tation was received from Mr. W. Stephens, to visit his estate at Peuen Beuen, near the source of the Httntee Eivee. Mr. Dana and myself accordingly went on board the steam- boat, on the evening of the 2nd of December ; and after a night at sea, we entered, on the following morning, the estuary of the Hunter. The channel led for many nules directly towards the interior; and, near the head of tide-water, where the breadth was inconsiderable, we obtained a sight of a native canoe. This appeared to have been formed, without much art, from the hollow trunk of a tree ; but I may have been deceived in this particular, as I believe bark is the usual material of construction, most of the Australian timber sinking in water. The natives are said to make a rough bark canoe without much trouble, whenever occasion may THE ATTSTEALIAIf EAOE. 141 require ; but their canoes are suitable only for a placid sur- face, and the Australians do not appear to venture upon the open sea, either amid the heavy waves of the Southern Ocean, or in the comparatively quiet waters along the northern coast. The occupants of the canoe, a man and his wife, crossed the water, and were afterwards seen strolling along, attired in worn-out European clothing. At our place of debarkation three or four other natives were seen ; and one of them, who held some implements of warfare, announced himself in English, as " king of the country." On inquiring further respecting his place of residence, he added, that " he lived in his master's kitchen." Although the range or territorial limits of the different Australian communities are careftdly observed, the idea of any ownership in the soil does not appear to have occurred to these people. They neither at any time resisted the new- comers from Europe, nor did they withdraw from the con- tact ; but they continue to ramble over their old domain, complaining only of the disappearance of the kangaroo. Eor this loss, which they attribute to the " White man's kangaroo (the sheep and bullock) having driven away their' own," they consider themselves entitled to indemnity. On the frontiers, the natives doubtless occasionally spear the cattle ; though it was evident that they have been far more sinned against than sinning. They have further been peculiarly unfortunate in being exposed to the contact of such a class of people as the escaped convicts. According to common report, "the natives cannot be induced to cultivate the soil, and are equally averse to all other kinds of labour ;" but in the towns I met with one or two individuals who appeared to be engaged in some occu- pation. I am not aware, however, that any instance is on record of an Australian being employed as a mariner. A striking difference from the aboriginal Americans, and perhaps from all other known people, is found in the abso- lute rejection of aU innovation by the wild communities. European customs or articles of manufacture do not make the slightest progress among them, and relations of com- mercial intercourse continue altogether unknown. In a region which has not added to the Kst of esculent 142 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OF MAIT. plants, it does not appear surprising tliat cultivation should be unknown ; especially as the soil rarely affords the capa- bility. Moreover, such is the forbidding character of the natural vegetation, that this contributes very slightly to the sustenance of man ; and I have sometimes doubted whether any different branch of the human family could have maiti- tained its existence on the slender natural resources of Interior Australia. The origiaal population, notwithstand- ing its spaxseness, was yet in proportion to the means of subsistence ; and the European accession has been owing solely to the introduction of sources of supply previously unknown. The Australians are strictly m the " hunter state," deri- ving their subsistence from game, and from the spontaneous productions of the country ; and they can only be compared with the hunting tribes of America. The parallel, however, is not very obvious ; and the Australians appear almost as anomalous as the inferior animals and plants of the same quarter of the globe. They have commonly been placed at the bottom of the scale of civUisation ; yet in the few arts in their possession they have displayed singular ingenuity : for instance, in the method of ascending trees by making successive notches ; the " throvring-stick " for the fight jave- fin ; and especially the boomerang, the curved missUe whose devious course remained so long the subject of increduhty. Their manufactures, indeed, are chiefly confined to their peculiar weapons, which serve both for warfare and the chase. They also use defensive armour, the light oblong shield, which is rendered efficient only by the height of skill' and activity. Coming from among the Pacific islands, I was surprised at the facility with which the Australians acquire the English language, and at the correctness of their pronunciation. The latter circumstance is doubtless attributable chiefly to the frequent occurrence of terminal consonants in their ovm lang^ges. " A chiLd educated at a school in Sydney showed inteEectual capacity equal in every respect to that of his European companions." A difiSculty, however, had been experienced in undertakings of this sort, in consequence of the mothers " returning to claim and carry away their children." THE AIJSTBAXIAlf BACB. 143 Half-breeds must be rare, as I did not meet •witli an instance ; but some were spoken of ; and native women were occasionally seen accompanying the wagons from the Interior. There are no proper mountains in sight from Peuen Beuen, but only gently rolling lulls, perhaps sis hundred feet above their base. The " New England " district to the northward, and nearer the Tropic, was spoken of as being elevated, and as sometimes visited with falls of snow, which are nearly unknown at Sydney. After remaining some days at Peuen Beuen, without, however, seeing natives, we set out on our return. On the 9th, we stopped at Bauman's estate, at the only house near the road for a distance of about thirty mUes. Great numbers of sheep were here pas- tured, the AustraUan climate having been found peculiarly adapted for the production of the finer qualities of wool. Much was said of the ravages of the "native dog," or rather Australian wolf; for, although the animal is some- what at variance with the zoological character of Australia, I could not learn that it is ever the companion of man. The only specimen I ever saw was kept in confinement ; and I found other reasons for suspecting that it is a peculiar species. If these inferences are confirmed, the Australians will be found to be destitute of domestic animals ; a circimi- stance, perhaps, &irly unique. Indeed, I know of no other branches of the human family that are thus situated, besides the inhabitants of a few detached coral islands, and possibly the Califomians of Sacramento. Continuing our journey, two natives were seen in the distance, who were shoutmg, occupied apparently about a particular tree ; but we did not go near them. Being in their original state of nudity, I supposed at the time that they belonged to the wild communities ; but I was subse- quently informed that the locality was not far enough in the Interior. In Australia both sexes are destitute of clothing ; and here we have a people of whom it may literally be said, that " they know not that they are naked." On the 16th we again reached Sydney, where I remained until the 8th of February ; most of the time, however, con- fined to- the house by illness. The only other natives I saw were begging, sometimes two or three in company, in the 144 PHTSICAXi HISTOBT OF MAN. -streets. I must refer the reader to the Narratiye and Ethno- graphy of the Expedition, for various interesting particulars respecting the Australians ; involving, among other matters, the absence of any proper form of government, and of the idea of attributing superiority to one man over another. NORTHERN AUSTRALIANS. A great imiformity in the habits of the people appears to prevail throughout Australia ; and it is only in the extreme north-east, in the immediate vicinity of Tobees Stsaits, that any important variation is known to take place. In this quarter Elinders observed the use of " the bow ; and he met with some individuals in the Gulf of Carpentaria, who appeared to have been circumcised; but further west the usual Australian weapons again made their appearance." A missile club, analogous to the Eeejeean, is represented in the " Voyage aux Terres Australes," but belonging, I think, to a different part of the continent. The source of these innovations may readily be divined : but a greater one was found by Flinders at the Murrmj Islands, immediately vsdthin the Straits ; " the cocoa-nuts, bananas, and joints of bamboo filled with water, that were brought off by the natives," showing a knowledge of agri- culture ; while, at the same time, no physical difference from the continental Australians appears to have been remarked. There are other reasons for supposing that the Australian race does actually extend among the Uttle-known islands of the same vicinify. All visitors speak of seeing straight- haired individuals among the natives of the Lotiisiabe ; and one of the figures of the natives of Eastern New GrxrnfEA, contained in Belcher's Voyage, seems to correspond vrith the Australian. It seems also probable that, as we become better acquainted with this portion of the globe, there will appear less isolation in the customs of the Australians. "We can at present refer to various connecting circumstances : to the use of a throw- ing-stick for the javelin, in Eastern New Guinea, in New Britain, and even in New Caledonia ; to the oblong shield or buckler, worn in the Louisiade and around Dampier's Straits ; and also to some corresponding methods of dressing the THE ArrSTEALIAJT JtACE. 145 hair. Some words, too, appear to be in common: thus, " dundu " (the AustraHan name for the. black swan) occurs in New Britain, where, according to Morrell and Jacobs, it is applied to a species of emu or cassowary. TASMANNIANS. "We come now to the controverted point of the physical race of the natives of Van Diemen's Land, situated to the southward of the continent. They were spoken of at Sydney as readily distinguishable from the Australians by their " wooUy hair ; peculiar, however, in its texture ;" and, at the same time, all idea of affinity with the Negro race was rejected. Mitchell has some observations on the Tasmannians, and concludes in favour of associating them with the continental Australians ; and this opinion seems the most probable. Indeed, the portraits of Labdlardiere would have much weight viith me, as they exhibit very decidedly the project- ing forehead of the Australian. Not being aware of the presence of a Tasmannian in Sydney, I lost the opportunity of seeing him : those who were more fortunate were imable to recognise any resemblance in the Peejeeans, whom we shortly afberwards visited. OTHER AUSTRALIANS. It is hardly probable that I have met with the Australian race in a different quarter of the globe ; but the personal appearance of two individuals, seen at different times, so strongly reminded me of it, that I have concluded to men- tion the particulars. The first iostance was that of a " Calcutta man," who commanded one of the schooners plying among the Hawaiian Islands. He came on board the Vincennes in company with two Chinese, when the inferior stature of all three became very striking ia the midst of our men. His complexion, I noted at the time, was " as black as the darkest Negro we have on board ;" the features, too, were similar to those of the Negro, but the hair was entirely like that of Europeans. The other individual referred to was seen by me when travelling ia Western Hindostan. I here fell in with 146 PHYSICAL HI8T0BT OF MAN. several of the immense droves of bullocks, owned and accom- panied by the Brinjarry women, who, with their husbands, evidently belonged to the "White race. On one occasion I was surprised to see, as I supposed, a Negress among them ; but I was immediately corrected by my Parsee attendant ; who added, that "many of them are Kke this woman ;" and, on a nearer approach, I perceived that her hair was perfectly straight. In connexion with these two examples, I would refer to the reported existence of a tribe of blacks in the vicinity of Lake Zurrah, in central Persia ; and also to the description by Herodotus, of the "Asiatic Ethiopians." CHAPTEE VI. THE PAPUAN RACE. The term" Papuan," notwithstanding some ambiguity, may be conveniently applied to a race of robust blacks, of whom the only examples I have seen (with probably one exception), have been the natives of the Eeejee Islands. So far as my observation extends, the Papuan race differs from the 'rest of mankind in one remarkable physical pecu- liarity, the hardness or harshness of the skin. This point long since attracted the attention of those Tonga people,* from whom Mariner derived his accurate notices of the Eeejee Islands. It is proper to add, that I have not examined the quality of the skin in the Negrillo race. The hair of the Papuan is in great quantity, is naturally frizzled and bushy, and so coarse as to be rather wiry than woolly. When dressed according to the Eeejee fashion, it forms a resisting mass, and offers no slight protection against the blow of a club. I have had occasion to remark that it actuaEy incommoded the wearer when lying down ; and to this circumstance, rather than to any foppery, I am disposed to attribute the origin of the wooden neck-piUow. The beard does not appear to grow so long, or to cover so * See Mariner's Toiiga Islands. ko-m'beti. A NATIVE OF THE FEEJEE ISLANDS. THE PAPTJAlf EACE. 147 large a portion, of the face as in the White race ; but the Papuan exceeds the remaining races, in the quantity of beard. The complexion is of a deeper shade than in the Malay race, but is much the same as in the Bengalee or TeHngan. The features in many respects resemble those of the Negro, but the hps are not quite so thick, and the nose is somewhat more prominent; while a very general elongation of the face imparts a different aspect. I did not meet with a really fine head among the Feejeeans, but the countenance was ofben grave and peculiarly impressive ; and I had frequent occasion to remark, that strangers did not readily forget the features of Teindovi. In average stature, the Peejeeans were found to exceed the "White race ; but they fell below the men of Tonga and Samoa. The profile in general appeared to be as vertical, if not more so, than in the "White race ; but this, I find, is not confirmed by the facial angle of the skull, and it may possibly be accounted for by some difference in the carriage of the head. The Feejeean skulls brought home by the Expedi- tion, win not readily be mistaken for Malayan ; they bear rather the Negro outUne; but they are much compressed, and differ materially from all other skulls that I have seen. For characteristic representations of the Papuan race, I would refer to LabiUardiere's "man of Beaupre," and "woman of New Caledonia." Also, to the portraits taken by Mr. Drayton and Mr. Agate ; particularly those of Tanoa, Veindovi, Tui-Mbua, Thokanauto or Philips, Ko-Mbeti, and the girl with stained hair. FEEJEEANS. a. Tongatdhoo. A dark race, having been long known to occupy New Gruiaea and some of the neighbouring Pacific islands, I did not, at the time of our leaving Sydney, doubt its being the Australian. Indeed, the personal appearance of the four Peejeeans seen at Tongataboo, hardly led to any satisfactory conclusion. One of them, a warrior, particularly attracted my attention ; and afber my subsequent experience in regard to the Peejeean character, I can revert more underatand- l2 148 PHTSIOAIi HISTOBT Or MAJT. ingly to the circumstance. He was arrayed on tlxe side of the Christians, yet he had no interest in the quarrel, no sympathies -vvitn the surrounding population: what, then, was the secret motive that had prompted him to pursue far away from his native land his dangerous vocation ? He and another warrior had doubtless arrived in the Tonga canoes, by the same mode of conveyance as the indi- viduals met with by Mariner and Cook ; and these instances form the only ones known of aboriginal wandering on the part of the Peejeeans. Two Feejeean women had been brought to Tongataboo in an English vessel ; and as we were on the point of leaving, they escaped from the shore, in the hope of getting back to their own country; but Captain Wilkes decided not to receive them on board. b. JE'eejee Islands. On the morning of the 4th of May, 1840, the Squadron left Tongataboo ; and towards the evening of the following day we came in sight of Tttetle Island, which is small and unimportant, except as a guide to the navigator. "We rested on our course for the night ; but by daylight we had drifted among the other outermost Peejee Islands. Those in sight were small and moderately high; and according to our European pilot, were "destitute of yams, although perma- nently inhabited." On the 7th we reached Otolatj, a small island, that from its central position, and from its being the place of residence of some White men, has become a convenient rendezvous for vessels. The broken and mountainous land, in great part covered with woods, and situated in a moderately rainy climate, presented a varied and most inviting aspect ; and we felt that we were now in a part of the world, which, except to a few traders, was very little known. On the 8th we entered the reef, and dropped anchor before the village of Levuka ; and our first greeting was a shout of admiration from the shore, when the sailors suddenly ascended the rigging. Canoes soon made their appearance, moving in different directions, and by a singular method of propulsion : a man standing in the centre of the canoe, held an upright oar, and as he threw his weight upon it from side THE PAPUAN UACE. 149 to side, seemed sictiially to walk over the water, and at a surprising rate. At length, three or four canoes approached us, one bearing upon an elevated platform the chief of Levuka, who introduced himself to our acquaintance, with the accustomed present of yams. Independently of the texture of the hair, the people differed strikingly from the Australians in their stoutness of limb, and in the entire absence of graceful forms. At first, indeed, we did not distinguish them from Negroes ; and this resemblance was even recognised by Negroes on board ; one of whom made use of the expression, " people at home would hardly believe that these were natives." But it was soon perceived, that a Negro in the midst of a party of Feejeeans, presented a marked distinction in colour. I obtained other evidence of the lightness of the Peejeean complexion ; for on scanning with a glass the crowd of natives on the shore, I had supposed one-half of them to be Polyne- sians ; whereas, upon landing, they proved to be all Feejeeans. There seems, indeed, to be much variation among individuals ; and on comparing the darkest Polynesians with the lightest Peejeeans, there ■nill probably be found no essential difference in the shade of colour. I sometimes thought I perceived a purplish tinge in the Peejeean complexion, particularly when contrasted ii^ the sunlight with green foliage; and the epithet of " puiplo men" might be given to this race, if that of "red men" be retained for the Malayan. The circumstance that first tended to show the diversity from the Negro, was the personal appearance of the children of resident Whites ; for they were evidently not " mulattoes." The hair of the Peejeean girls also conta-ibuted to remove the Negro aspect. The ashy colour, indeed, was extraneous ; but the hanging locks, although always somewhat crisped, proved that the erect mode of wearing the hair, and its woolly appearance in grown persons, were partly the work of art. Liquiry being thus awakened, careftd observation soon led to the conviction, that the Peejeeans belong to a peculiar physical race. As evidence of the prevailing stoutness of hmb, the instance may be mentioned, in which the measure of a Peejeean's leg was found to encircle three united of three of our men. Another physical pecidiarity was remarked, in 150 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OT MAK. the frequent examples of mnisual shortness of neck. The tallest Peejeean met with measured six feet six inches, and he was tolerably weU proportioned, though more slender than his companions. It was stated on good authority, that there were Feejeeans who exceeded ia size' any of the Tonga men ; but sO' far as my own observation extended, the average stature was less. One of our first inquiries on landing regarded the safety of traveUing ; and we were informed; that " we should be entirely secure within the territory of the chief of Levuka." It appeared, however, that his dominion included part only of the coast of this smaU. island ; while the interior was hefl by independent mountain chiefs. On my first excursion to the woods, at no great distance above the village, I came upon the lair of a " mountaineer ;" an impression left on the herbage, by reclining to watch a small crop of upland tare. The man had fled, and vpith the other mountaineers of the vicinity, kept out of sight ; having been forewarned; "by putting the ear to the ground," of the approach of footsteps. Next to the indiscretion of travelling alone im these islands, the visitor soon learns not to precede his guide. I soon began to perceive the resemblance of the Peejeeans to LabiUardiere's portraits of New Caledonians; and a fiirther acquaintance with the people presented novelty at every step. Points connected with their personal appear- ance fljst arrested attention ; as the presence of wigs, and the variety of colours imparted to the hair. Of these, the flaxen or ashy tint alone appeared to be the result of a process of dyeing ; while the coal-black and the red were derived from the mixture of foreign substances. Among a variety of fashions, the men sometimes wore very numerous slender braids ; and though I saw nothing to justify the report, that "the Peejeeans count the separate hairs," the attentions bestowed on the head-dress occupy no inconsider- able portion of their lives. The seeming absence of tattooing was at first attributed to the circumstance that the Peejee complexion is too dark to show the markings conspicuously. It appeared, however, that the women have the practice, and cover the markings by the dress. Ornament and national designation are in this n.7. tPAIPU/\W KAGE, A FEEJEE GIB.1 THE PAHJAN BACE. 151 case out of the question ; and the reasons assigned by the Peejeeans are probably not more reliable than their tales respecting circumcision and the remoTal of a finger-joint. Tattooiag occurs among the modem Arabs, derived apparently from certain nations of antiquity; and there seems every probability, that the custom originated with a light-coloured race. The question wiE acquire further interest, if it can be made to appear that in this one instance the Peejeeans have borrowed a custom from the Polynesians. In many iastances, the women were further marked on the arms and upper part of the breast with elevated scars ; such as have been observed to replace tattooiag in. other countries where the complexion is very dark. These scars had sometimes the form of stars, or of concentric circles. With the change in complexion, a change had taken place in national taste in regard to colours ; yellow, the favourite with the Malayan race, giving place, among the Peejeeans, to vermilion-red. White seemed in some measure a rival ; for the lace-like tapa covering the hair of the men in the semblance of a turban, together with the belt or sash completing their dress, were invariably white. By a coinci- dence showing actual accordance with the complexion, red and white were subsequently found to be the favourite colours with the equally dark Tehngans of TTindostan ; and were used almost exclusively in the dress of those seen at Singapore. Another difference in Feejeean taste consisted in an abatement of the excessive fondness for flowers, which is manifested by the Polynesians. Many differences from the Polynesians, involving even traits of character, may be traced to another physical cause ; to the harshness of the skin. The Feejeean does not permit himself to be handled ; but there is a mode by which the quality of the skin may be conveniently examined. Indeed, I was often amused at the readiness vrith which the people would present themselves to have their faces touched with vermilion : the fears of the children would vanish, and grave- looking dames and their haughty lords, would submit to and approve the process. The Peejeeans again, imlike the Polynesians, rarely anoint themselves with cocoa-nut oU ; but I saw this practised in one or two instances. A woman of rank, who was awaiting 152 IHTSIOAl HISTOET OP MAS'. the return of her husband, had her face marked with irregular lines of clay. I heard nothing of the practice of shampooing ; though, it is true, I did not make particular inquiries on the subject. In caressing their children, the Feejeeans agree with the Polynesians, in touching noses, and not the lips. The balance-beam is absent ; and leaving aside the example of the Polynesians, the circumstance will be found to tally with the practice of the Hindoos and andent Egyptains ; for the Feejeean men are not the regular carriers of burdens. The armlets (made of the outer rim of the large Trochus), although worn by the men, offer also a seeming connexion with the Hiudoos and Arabs. I found the lobe of the ear perforated, in both men and women, the opening being sometimes enlarged to about an inch in diameter. The necklace of small shells was said to be " reserved for women of rank." The Peejeeans practise a remarkable method of cHmbing cocoa palms. By applying the soles of the feet to the stem, with a hand on either side, they literally walk up on all fours : a feat which I have never seen accomplished by persons of a different physical race. In admtion to the Polynesian implements of war, the Peejeeans use a short missile club ; which may be regarded as the national instrument of assassination. The men habitually wear one, stuck in the belt behind. The bow is used in warfare by the Peejeeans ; and they have great skill in tlirowing the javelin; but their battles are prin- cipally decided by then" favourite weapon, the large heavy club. Among the musical instruments, one not previously seen, (but well known in the East Indies,) the syrinx or Pipe of Pan, made its appearance; and the nose-flute was more common than among the Polynesians. Indeed, we soon began to perceive that the people were in possession of almost every art known to the Polynesians, and of many others besides. The highly-finished workmanship was un- expected ; everything being executed, until recently, and even now for the most part, without the nse of iron. In the collection of implements and manufactures brought home by the Expedition, the observer wiQ, I think, distinguish in the THE PAPTTAir EACE. 153 Feejeean division something like a school of arts for the other Pacific islands. The origin of Polynesian circumcision was now explained ; and various other customs, which had previously appeared unaccountable, were found to rest on physical causes, having heen extended abroad by the process of imitation. The personal aspect of the Feejeeans is unprepossessing. But all residents concur in regarding them as " a fax more ingenious people than the Polynesians." They employ a greater variety of improvements in domestic economy, are better cultivators, and are even more skilful in the manage- ment of a canoe. In architecture, the Feejeeans have made no mean progress ; and they are the only people I have seen, among those classed by Europeans as " savages," who manifested a taste for the fine-arts; while, as with the ancient Greeks, .this taste was universal. The esculent plants of the Polynesians occur equally at the Feejee' Islands, and in general are cultivated in greater variety and perfection. The only apparent exceptions were : the batatas or sweet-potato, which we did not meet with ; the vi-a^le (Spondias),'heard of in but one locality; and the ianana, as there seemed to be fewer varieties of it than at Samoa. To counterbalance these deficiencies, roots and fruits, unknown at the more eastern islands, made their appearance ; and, indeed, the number of cultivated plants is found to increase with great regularity, on receding from the Hawaiian and approaching the Feejee Islands. Fish, in variety perhaps unexampled, are prociu-ed by the people of the coast ; and by means of numerous devices, nmong which the Samoan method of frightening was men- tioned. Some of the Feejeean nets and seines are of ex- ceedingly neat workmanship ; and others are of coarse material, for capturing turtle. Shell-fish also exist in great Tariety and profusion ; and a peculiar large species of crab abounds in certain localities. A small whitish Holothuria, proof against other than Feejeean powers of mastication, is sometimes used for food ; but this did not appear to be the case with the species of commerce, the "biche-le-mar." iFowls are abundant ; but pigs and turtle are reserved for feasts. In times of scarcity, recourse is had to the large Arum (C. macrorhiza), which is cultivated in certain 154 PHYSICAL HISrOET OF MAN. localities ; and even to the fruit of tlie Bruguiera, a species of mangroTe. Dried squid (Octopus) were once met with; but other- wise I saw no cured meats. Salt is Readily obtained from sea-water, but the Teejeeans use very little ; and they uniformly manifested dislike on tasting our salted provi- sions. Spirituous liquors do not meet with more favour, although tobacco in one locality was making some slight progress. Cooking is not, as with the Polynesians, conducted exclusively by the use of heated stones, and iu the open air ; but articles of food are steamed rather than boiled, ia earthen pots. Yams constitute the prineipal support of the population ; and are kept for months in elevated store- houses : a paste is Kkevrise prepared from them which resembles the fermented bread-fruit of Taheiti, and in Like manner " is deposited in the ground." The Feejeeans have besides a variety of compound dishes. They dwell in the midst of abundance ; and it has been truly remarked of them, that " no people in the South Seas could live more comfort- ably and happily, but for their continual treachery towards each other." On the 12th, I witnessed the landing of Tanoa, of Mbau, the most powerful of the Feejee chiefs. The Levuka chief with a party of attendants were on the beach to receive him, and remained squatting close to the ground until he had passed by. It is the rule, when two canoes meet, for the person of inferior rank to have the outrigger in a particular position; and, indeed, it will be difficult to find another nation so observant of etiquette as the Feejeeans. On meeting with Captain Vanderford, Tanoa said, " that he himself should not die while his old acquaintance was alive :" this supposed union of destiny being a common superstition with the Feeieeans. Tanoa had formerly pro- tected Captain Vanderford and his companions when wrecked at Mbau ; but not to violate further the custom of the country, he connived at the robbery of all the property, after it had been placed in his own house. For the particulars of the reception of Tanoa on board the Vincennes, I must refer to the Narrative. I would add, however, that he was at first disconcerted at the imusual THE PAPTTAN BACE. 155 display, apparently dreading some more substantial evil. He was also greatly astonished at the noise of the cannon, and the effect of the shot upon the water ; but, unlike his retinue, he manifested terror rather than approbation, and at his request the firing was discontinued. I remarked also that after some discussion among themselves, one of the natives set about taking the dimensions of the Yincennes. Tanoa's life had been an eventful one ; and owing appa- rently to the regard for his personal character, he had been allowed to exceed the usual limit of years. He had become, however, quite timid, and with reason ; for Iq a country where naimral death is scarcely arrived at by the common people, the precarious state of royalty may be imagined. Indeed, it was said, that his son at times, did not scruple to remind him of the Feejeean privilege. A general system of parricide was a novel social institu- tion ; but where the quantity of food is fixed, one result wiU. be perceived to foUow : an increased proportion of persons in the prime of Hfe, " for the service of the state." Every Feejee village has a sacred house or "mbure," constructed with more care and more regard to architectural taste, than the ordinary dwelling-houses. The name shows a connexion with the "morais" of the Pol3mesians. Women are excluded from the Feejee mbures ; which are used by the men as places of public resort, and around which they are often seen lounging. Strangers are entertained and lodged, and kava-drinkings and feasts are held in these houses. It was reported that on some occasions, a sort of " grace" is sometimes pronounced, and a great variety of toasts and compliments interchanged. At Samoa, we had seen women only employed in the pre- paration of kava ; but here the process " is conducted ex- clusively by the men." The kava-bowls are shallow, and of the same general pattern as the Samoan, but are much larger and finer ; indeed they cost so much labour, and are so highly valued, that it is no easy matter to procure one. A specimen is, however, contained in the museum at Salem. There was also at Levuka a small high-pointed building, somewhat conspicuous, which contained the Oracle. The Feejeeans possess a regular system of mythology. Accord- ing to report, regard is paid in the selection of their priests 156 PHYSICAL HISXOBT OP MAN. to the capacity of mamtaioing a voluntary fit of tremor ; an instance of which feat I witnessed. Human sacrifices are not unknown, as was shown in an attempt by some Mbau people, on the lives of two women near Levtika, to provide for " the consecration of a new mbure." The " taboo " is recognised, but I did not meet with any outward tokens of its being in force. Indeed, from the settled character of the Peejee institutions, and some dif- ference in the division of landed property, there would seem to be fewer occasions for its exercise than among the Polynesians. Everything relating to the procuring and preparing of food, except in part the taking of fish, appeared to devolve upon the women ; and I often met them bearing (on the back) enormous loads of firewood and yams. On the other hand, I do not remember to have seen the men carry- ing burdens, unless when hired (through the chiefs) to bring supplies of wood, water, and provisions, for trading vessels. The men, however, exclusively manage the canoes, which, as well as the houses, they also build ; they construct the terraces for taro cultivation, and engage in other details of agricultural industry. These occupations, however, take up a comparatively small portion of their time ; and in reference to the prevalence of polygamy, I heard a resident declare, that the care of a Feejee household was " too much hard work for one woman." This custom of the country may not be so easily avoided ; for as gifts when refused are destroyed, in the case of the present of a wife, considerations of humanity will place a resident stranger in a dilemma. European ideas of " loyalty " make but a slight approach to the deep feeling entertained by the Feejeeans towards their chiefs. In this the women appear even to exceed the men ; arid their devotion to their chiefs was said to be so entire, " that they regard it as an honour to receive death from their hands." No point of difference from the Polynesians was so striking as this poHtical change. Leaving the Vincennes aib Ovolau, the Peacock sailed for the island of Viti-lbtu ; and on the 16th, reached the anchorage about six miles below the town of Eewa. Some English missionaries were established near Eewa. But the ladies could never have anticipated the terrible THE PAPUAK KACE. 157 sights they had been compelled to witness at the Peejee Islands. Contrary to what takes place in the other countnes I have visited, the most experienced residents at these islands invariably entertain the worst opinion of the native character. The missionaries were assisted, and to some extent pro- tected, by a body of converted Tonga men. The field was most unpromising ; and I saw but one converted Peejeean, whose motives, as he was growing old, were not altogether free from suspicion. Mbau not being included among the three mission stations at the Peejee Islands, Tanoa, it was said, would not now receive a missionary unless arriving from abroad. Eewa appears to advantage when seen from the river on which it is situated ; and we were astonished to find, in a country Uke this, so considerable a town. After the house of the queen dowager, the most conspicuous building was a high and much-omamented monument, erected on the spot where the late king was assassinated. The dwelling-houses usually rested on a basement, three or four feet in height, constructed of angular stones laid without cement. These had been brought down the river ; and timber rafts, also, were seen lying in front of the town. I visited Ngaraningiou's house, the finest in the place, and which was regarded " as on a par with any other at the Feejee Islands." It was buUt on the usual plan, and the increased labour had been chiefly expended on the interior arrangements ; the timbers being all covered with a layer of rods (stems of the small sugar-cane), and each rod coated with sinuet. The mode of access, was that in common use, by means of a plank, with cross-bars, each of which is made to retain a small quantity of water for cleansing the feet. On the 20th, we took leave of Eewa, and proceeding down the river, our boat stopped at a village where earthen-ware is extensively manufactured. In a few moments after it became known that we were desirous of purchasing some, a crowd gathered around us with such a superfluity of articles, that we were glad to conclude our traffic and escape from the noise and confusion. In the evening, the boats all rejoined the Peacock. 158 PHTSIOAL HIBTOET CfE MAS. "We had become acquainted with the noted chief, Thoka- nauto (or Phillips), who was very sportive and agreeable as a companion, and who spoke English fluently. It was said, that he had also " some knowledge of lYench and Italian, and that he manifested a desire to learn every new language that he heard." He had made a voyage to Taheiti and back in. an American vessel, and, unuke the other Feejeeans, he had manifested in his house some predilection for the furnitiire and fashions of Europeans. He besides owned a small schooner, which had been built by the resident Whites. Thokanauto was "vasu" of Mbau, his mother having been the woman of highest rank in the district, and, in con- sequence, he had the privilege of appropriating therefrom whatever he fancied. Thus even Tanoa was obhged to send our present of a rifle to a distant part of the group, lest it should be seen and claimed by Thokanauto. So absolute is this regulation, that on the occasion of a battle between the Eewa and Mbau people, Thokanauto actually "supplied himself with ammunition from the ranks of the enemy." It appears that there are several degrees in Eeejeean warfare, corresponding, according to Thokanauto, to the force of the challenge ; and only certain esyressions of defiance are prosecuted to final extermination. In describing one of his exploits in the Interior, he stated " that the river ran blood :" and from another source, we heard of a battle in which " sis himdred persons were slaughtered." It was evident, however, that in their frequent and bloody wars, the Eeejeeans are not influenced by views of extending their possessions, according to the European idea of conquests. Notwithstanding the slippery tenure of Feejee royalty, the honour is sought with a devotion perhaps unparalleled elsewhere. " yes," said Thokanauto, " me would like to be king ; me would like to walk about and say, do this thing, and do that." The path was a very plain one ; and in extenuation it may be observed, that the institution of polygamy virtually dissolves the ties of relationship. A Eeejeean king has no scruples in putting a subject out of the way, even on the most trivial occasions : and Thoka- nauto gave as an instance, the accidental " breaking of a cup." We heard from another source, that the executioner usually THE PAPUAIf BACE. 159 eommunieates his errand ■witi an harangue, and that the victim submits without resistance or attempting to escape, often simply remarking, that " whatever the king says, must be done.' ' Thokanauto himself had been sometimes charged with such commissions. He acknowledged having killed as many as fifty persons with his own hands. On our explaining to him the rule of European nations in regard to murder, he appeared sxirprised and thoughtful for a ixme, and at length exclaimed, "ah! no good law, no good." He stated that he had been " a very wicked boy," and described some of his juvenile pranks. He admitted that at the same period of life, he had once unwittingly " tasted human flesh, his father afterwards frightening him by pro- ducing the hand." Residents however asserted, that he had been reared in no inconsiderable degree upon this species of food, and considering the unusual pains bestowed on his education, such a circumstance is not so improbable as it may appear at a distance. One who has had many oppor- tunities of forming a correct opinion, considered Thokanauto as being " in reality a very cruel man ; and as continuing to indulge in the national propensity, although he now takes pains to conceal the fact from Europeans." On the 21st, the king and queen of Eewa, together with Ngaraningiou and Thokanauto, visited the PeacocL One of our survey-flags having been stolen, the delinquent was now brought to us, already, however, punished by the " deprivation of Ms house, lands, wife, and all his property." Residents thought that the king was probably " not unwilling to avail himself of an excuse to take the property ;" from which it may be inferred, that the regal authority is not unlimited on this point, or at least, that it is exercised with some discretion. As is related in the Narrative of the Expedition, the royal family were detained by Captain Hudson, until Veindovi should be given up. Thokanauto was apart from the others when the drum beat to quaiters, but he at once showed signs of distrust. It was a severe blow to his special interests, Veindovi being a partisan. He, however, put the best face on the matter, and made himself merry about the alarm of the king and queen. A native seUing a pig, for which he was to receive a hatchet, Thokanauto said, " Eeejee 160 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAK. man fool White man, for the pig is not fat, but me fool Feejee man ; " i. e. by taking the hatchet himself; but after a while he returned it. Intercourse with the shore being prohibited, one of the canoes alongside got astray, and was on the point of receiving a shot, when it was recalled with the aid of Thokanauto. The two other royal brothers, it was imderstood, acknowledged privately that " they were afraid of Veindovi, and considered him their enemy." Ngaraningiou was despatched to bring him on boao-d. Some forty natives remained on board the Peacock ; and in the evening, imder the direction of Thokanauto, they per- formed a dance, singing in a monotonous tone, and keeping time by clapping hands, according to the well-known Arab custom. The Teejeeans have a great variety of dances, some of them making an unexpected approach to a system of military tactics : and the children even dance with singular precision. Unlike the majority of the Polynesian dances, only in a single instance did I witness one that was indecent. On the following day, Veindovi was brought on board ; and after a long conversation with him, the king took leave. "We had proposed carrying Thokanauto around the group, but he hkevrise went away, evidently a good deal disturbed. The parting of Veindovi from his immediate adherents, was really affecting. They embraced his knees, and some even offered to accompany him, which, for a Peejeean, is no slight sacrifice. Veindovi' s offence was the murder of part of the crew of an American vessel, some years previous. According, how- ever, to his own version of the affair, he was deputed by higher authority ; which is not at all unlikely. As an example of the Peejeean idea of justice, I vrill mention that, subsequently on our arrival at Oahu, Veindovi expressed penitence, declaring, " that he perceived, what he had never before believed, that White men had told him the truth about the houses and customs of civilised countries ; and he intended, therefore, on his return to the Peejee Islands, to put to death all those persons who had assisted him in kiUing the Whites." The Peejeeans, according to the testimony of residents, are yearly becoming bolder and more dangerous in their schemes for capturing vessels. When successful, the lives THE PAPTJAir BACE. 161 of the crew axe sacrificed ; and it is highly imprudent, under present circumstances, for an unarmed ship to venture among the Peejee Islands. In seeking to accomplish their purposes, natives have been known, during a stormy night, to cHmb up the cables of a vessel at anchor. In the recent capture of a Prench brig, the principal allurement was said to have been, " the sight of some glass decanters." On the 23rd a Hawaiian came on board, to act as barber to Teindovi. He had been sent by Thokanauto, who placed in his hands the sum of ten dollars, with which to make purchases in America ; and the articles wanted were very particularly specified. This man was subsequently transferred to a different vessel, and being thus separated from Teiadovi, he concluded not to leave the Peejee Islands. The Peacock sailed on the morning of the 23rd, and we were for some time in sight of Kantavu ; but being becalmed, the intention of touching there was finally aban- doned. Ve next passed near Vatttlele, which presented every appearance of a raised coral island, not so high as Metia, but resembling it on a smaller scale. On the 26th the Peacock entered the great barrier reefs, on the leeward side of the group ; and we obtained a view of the Island of Melolo, which was soon afterwards the seat of a tragedy. Our pilot stated that the inhabitants of this and the other AsArA islands " spoke a different dialect from the remaining Peejeeans, with whom they were at enmity." The Sinbad-Hke story of a gigantic bird was likevidse referred to the Asaua islands. The Peacock now sailed for some hundreds of miles behind these reefs, along a narrow passage close to the rocky shores of the two main islands, keeping always in the leeward portion of the group. The face of the country in this portion is in great part bare of trees ; and there is less rain than in situations exposed to the south-east trades. We first coasted Yiti-levu, where the villages, perched everywhere on the hiU-tops, plainly indicated the social condition of the district. Our boats landed a few miles from Mba, but the town was concealed by mangroves, it beiag evidently situated at the mouth of a considerable stream. We saw no natives ; 162 PHYSICAL HISTOBY OP MAN. but in consequence of the bad character of the neighbour- hood, we did not extend our walks far from the beach. On the 1st of June the boats landed at an islet connected with the main land by a shelf of coral, over which a party of natives were seen retreating. We remained on shore for some hours, and made considerable additions to our botanical collections. On the 2nd the boats landed at a detached islet, not far from the town of Eake-rake. At the simiinit we founi remains of trenches and stone-work, similar to those sub- sequently seen on the islet near Muthuata. On descend- ing through some open ground we found ourselves suddenly sinking in marshes; and it appeared, on ftirther examination, that the tract was artificially terraced, and had been once appropriated to the culture of taro. The whole vicinity had been desolated by the Mbua people. Its present inhabrtants bore the character of being " extremely civil." Some six or eight of them visited us. The boats landed at another detached islet, situated near the usual point of departure from Viti-levu. This islet like- wise contained abandoned plantations ; showing that it had once been inhabited. On the 5th the Peacock crossed over to Vanua-leytj, the second principal island, and anchored in Mbua or Sandal- wood Bay. During our stay I visited repeatedly the two fortified villages, situated on the middle stream emptying into the bay. They had strong palisades and low gateways, but the ditch did not appear to be planted with stakes, as in some Feejee fortifications. The canoes "having been chiefly destroyed during the war " which was pending, none made their appearance about the ship. The contending parties were a father and son, who, to oiitward appearance, were reconciled by Captain Hudson; although, as it proved, his intervention did not lead to any permanent result. On the lltb the Peacock left Mbua Bay, continuing along the coast of Vanua-levu, and came to anchor in the passage separating the considerable island of Anganga. The natives of this vicinity sustain a bad character ; but one of our boats had some communication with them. On the 12th the Peacock reached Naloa. Captain Eagle- THE BAPTTAK EACH. J63 ston, in the sMp Leonidas of Salem, was here engaged in the Mehe-le-mar fishery. The groundwork of success in this occupation, appears to be the hardihood of the Peejeeaias in diving, a point in which they excel even the Polynesians. A large drjdng-house must be built at each fishing station ; and the management of the natives, who may work or not as they happen to be in the humour, independent of interrup- tions fi^m frequent wars and outrages, afibrds ample scope for the exercise of tact and prudence. Add to this, the state of watchfiilness that must be kept up for months ; and the conversion of the labour of such a population to general purposes of utility, will demand a place among the most remarkable triumphs of commerce. Whale teeth are extrayagantly valued at the Feejee Islands, and may be regarded as in some respects repre- senting the precious metals. Purchases may be made vrith them ; but they hardly form a " currency," since it is unsafe for a person not of the class of chiefe to retain one. What becomes of the great quantities brought here by traders is a problem yet unsolved. Whales are common among the Peejee Islands ; and it seems remarkable that a people so ingenious should not, like the tribes of the northern shores of the Pacific, have devised some method of capturing them. I visited the village, at a little distance from the coast ; and, on the way, I observed some basaltic columns, from which the earth had been removed for the purpose of quar- rying them. The undertaking will appear of some import- ance, when it was considered that beasts of burden and all mechanical contrivances for assisting transportation, are unknown. An old bridge, about two hundred feet in length, consisted of a single hne of cocoa trunks, supported by a pile or post at each point of junction. At another village, built on the islet near the anchorage, young women were seen bearing bamboo stems, on their way to procure water : this was drawn up from an excavation Kfce a weU, about ten feet in depth, by means of a cocoa-nut shell fastened to a pole. Other women were employed in pottery, working altogether by hand, but making large vessels of great regularity in size and shape : the resin of a species of Dammara, closely aUied to the Kauri of New Zealand, was used for glazing. Some twenty canoes were lying on m2 lQ4i PHYSICAL HISTOBT OF MAS'. the beacli, forming the largest fleet met with at the Feejee Islands. I returned from the islet in one of these canoes, ■with a rapidity unequalled by European sailing vessels ; the outrigger being lifted above the water sometimes for a dis- tance of fifty yards. On visiting the Leonidas, I met with the solitary instance of a Feejeean who was really and generally esteemed by traders. It appeared that an unfortunate "native from another district, who came to assist in procuring biche-le- mar, had been waylaid at night: " fishing operations were in consequence at an end, and Captain Eagleston had con- cluded to quit the station. On the I7th the Peacock left Naloa. In sailing along the coast, fires were frequently observed on the hills, having been kindled, it was said, " for burning over the grounds, as the season had now arrived for planting yams." On the 19th the Peacock reached Muthuata ; one of the most important of the Peejee towns. Owing to the close vicinity of the highlands, the mountaineers make frequent visits to this part of the coast. And in reference to the character of the natives, the district was regarded by traders as one of the worst in the whole group. In front of the town we saw some turtle-pens, which were shallow pits formed within the flow of the tide, and sur- roimded with stakes. The cattle brought from Taheiti about five years previously by Captain Eagleston, were stiH remaining. The location seemed a more favoiffable one for cattle than any part of the windward or rainy side of the group ; but I remarked an unlooked-for obstacle in the aro- matic properties of some of the most abimdant grasses. On the 24th I set out with a party to ascend the heights, under the guidance of one of the Eotuma men ; and we were joined by other inhabitants of Muthuata, who took advan- tage T)f this opportunity of visiting, to them, a new country. Before entering the hamlet of mountaineers, situated about half-way up, our guide warned us to have our fire-arms in readiness. We however met with a friendly reception ; but there was some unexpected difficulty even here, in finding a person who could direct us to the summit. "We at last reached a position near it ; and ascertained the height to be about twenty-three hundred feet. THE PAPUAN KACE. 165 On the 25th I visited the village, which is situated ia a low and fertile spot, about two miles back of Muthuata. I was conducted to a house where dimier happened to be ready, consisting, in this instance, of arrow-root made from the Tacca ; and using as a spoon a sUp of cocoa leaf, according to the fashion of the country, I paxtook of Feejee hospitality. On another day, Mr. Peale and myself took a ramble along the coast to the westward, passing, in the first place, through the banana plantation, which, as usual, appeared to be carried on by the joint labour of the village. We pro- ceeded about two miles, to a small stream, where some natives, having formed dams, were engaged in poisoning the fish with the stems of the climbing Glycine. Our Feejee guide would not sufier us to taste the water. I was desirous of purchasing some of the fish, of a woman who was stand- ing a little apart ; but,' as was usual with the women when away from the villages, she took to flight at our approach. "We returned by an inland route, stopping at a cluster of three or four houses, into one of which we were invited, and were offered yams. Our guide, it appeared afterwards, had looked to us for protection in this excursion. In a country where there is hardly an interchange of friendly visits, and where it is often a hazardous thing to go to the nearest village, it may well be supposed that the inhabitants do not travel much. Greographical knowledge is therefore extremely limited ; and I can readily give cre- dence to the allegation, " that many persons on the larger Peejee islands are quite unaware of the existence of the ocean." In this paxticidar there is a wide difference from the Polynesians, who have universally a thorough acquaint- ance with their respective groups. On the 30th an excursion was made to another portion of the heights, whence a view was obtained of the interior of the island, a region fuU of mountains, vrith some sharp peaks that appeared to be not less than four thousand feet in elevation. In returning, our party passed through another hamlet of mountaineers, and we were invited into one of the houses. The male inhabitants were absent at the time, engaged, it was said, in "cooking a man;" a statement wHch, although it was not doubted, we did not feel particu- larly desirous of verifying. 16G PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN. On the 1st of July tte Peacock sailed from Muthuata, retracing her previous course. Many on board, finding the natives ia their deportment always " timid and obKgiag," began to have doubts as to their reputed character ; and even -their cannibalism was called in question, in a discus- sion the same evening. We might have returned home with conflictiag opinions on this point, but on the following morning they who had refused to believe were made to see ; and as we were repassmg Naloa an incident occurred, for the particulars of which I must refer to the Narrative. On the 5th the Peacock re-entered Mbua, or Sandalwood Bay, and the Vincennes arrived there a few hom-s after- wards. The weather, up to this date, had been invariably fine, but a change now ensued, and it continued stormy and rainy for several days. On the 12th news was received of the seizure of one of our boats, at a place about twenty miles distant ; and two natives, who had delivered themselves up on the occasion, were brought on board the Vincennes. WhUe a party was getting ready for the scene of action, Tui Mora proffered his assistance, and proposed " to carry the big guns by land." On revisiting the two fortified villages, I was surprised at the advance in the season during our five weeks absence, as shown by the various wild shrubs that had come into flower. In the cultivated ground, the banana plants had been strip- ped of their leafy portions, and the old stocks had been grubbed up, while the soil had in great part been burned over. Formerly, according to Captain Vanderford, "this neigh- bourhood was in a much more flourishing conditioii, when the whole distiict was ruled by the father of the present king. The Feejee Islands, witlnn his experience, had been generally depopulated, and a marked diminution had taken place in the number of canoes ; but the inhabitants were always in a state of war." In my previous visits to the two villages I had been at some pains to make acquaintances, and I was therefore sur- prised at meeting with no marks of recognition. This, with a single exception, was everywhere the result of a few days' absence. From the terms on which the Feejeeans live together, it is hardly to be expected that friendship should THE PAPTfAN KACE. 167 exist among them; and indeed I did not witness any mani- festations of it. Where parricide is an established custom, all affection may at first seem questionable^ but the institution, in reality, is a sacrifice in faTour of the children, towards whom we often remarked various proofs of strong attachment. !Pee- jeean society is highly artificial; and a more intimate acquaintance with the people, will doubtless show less vari- ation than at first appears fiwm the common attributes of the human character. One piece of romance was hardly anticipated : according to Yeindovi, " when two fall in love, and the young man, from poverty, is unable to make the accxistomed present to the parents of his intended bride, the lovers will run away ;" an undertaking which, at the Feejee Islands, is rather serious. Among the Polynesians we had been everywhere impor- tuned by individuals desiring to be taken on board, to go they knew not whither; but after entering the present group, we were entirely free from such applications. On sometimes speaking with Peejeeans on the subject, it did not appear to be an easy matter to persuade them to leave their homes. Captain Vanderford stated "that he never knew one of them to become a sailor, and that he had invari- ably found them useless on shipboard." In all which there appears something beyond the mere result of institutions. Another difference from the Polynesians is found in the existence of strong national pride. The Peejeeans are fiiUy persuaded that their own institutions are superior to those of other countries, and are disinclined to adopt foreign customs. On the 17th Mr. Brackenridge and myself set out on an excursion to a ric^e of mountains, about seven miles back of the watering place. Tui Mora appointed two guides to accompany us, the route being through a district that was under his authority. At the base of the mountains we found scattered houses and plantations, and other unex- pected indications of a peaceful neighbourhood. Half way up we came to a cluster of three or four houses, belonging apparently to mountaineers, and after speaking to the chief we went on, at first through open grounds, which had been burned over, and completed the ascent. The summit 168 PHYSICAL HISTOET OE MAlf. appeared to be about two thousand feet in elevation ; but, owing to tbe rainy weather, we were unable to get a distant view in any direction. "We descended by a more direct route ; but, before reach- ing the bay, night came on, and we began to feel some anxiety about our situation. Tui Mora, returning with his party from the watering place, relieved us, and we all took the path leading to a village that occupied a strong military position, being surrounded by a morass and deep water- channels. These were crossed on a pole placed horizontally nearly a foot beneath the surface of the water ; and, to a "White man, were passable only in one mode, astride the neck of a Feejeean. A woman had been gathering shell-fish among the mangroves, and, on our arrival at the village, the product of her industry was brought to us, together with yams. "We passed the night in a small house, with the chief and one or two of his men ; and, in the morning, we returned to the watering-place. It has been asserted that a European, "knowing the language, could travel throughout the Peejee Islands, pro- vided that he carried nothing to tempt the cupidity of the natives; that he would be everywhere hospitably enter- tained, and would fare as well as the people themselves." A European woidd doubtless have many advantages over a native in such an undertaking, but I did not hear that any one had made the trial. I was informed, however, that the ioumey had been " once made by land, from Mbua Bay to Naloa." On the 20th Mr. "Waldron, Mr. Brackenridge, and myself, accompanied by a European interpreter, set out on a visit to the sandalwood distaict. "We supplied ourselves with provisions, being forewarned of the necessity of it by Tui Mbua, who further stated that " it was more than ten years since a A¥hite man had been at his village, and that we should be objects of some curiosity." We were conveyed in his canoe, for he stiU. had command of the water, and was thus enabled to keep up a communication with the dis- jointed portions of his former dominions. After proceeding among the mangroves, more than a mile up the northern stream, we landed at a place where Tui Mbua's "former town was situated;" but, being hemmed THE PAPUAN EACE. 1G9 ia by the defection of his own people, he had been forced to remove to the summit of a high rocky knoll, about two miles inland. ■ Afber reaching the existing Tillage, and resting awhile, we proposed making an excursion into the country beyond, and Tui Mbua appointed two natives to accompany us. We had scarcely proceeded a hundred yards before our guides pointed to another rock-viUage, less than a mile distant, and it appeared that there were enemies, even in this direction. Turning to the right, we were led through one or two small plantations, and over some diversified ground, where we added to our botanical coUectiona. Towards evening we re-ascended to the village by a different route. "We were afterwards entertained with a dance, and passed the night at the mbure house. Our previous acquaintance with Tui Mbua had created an interest in his personal cha- racter and his misfortunes ; and we could not avoid a feeling of sympathy, on taking leave of his dreary abode upon the top of a rock, and of his people reduced for subsistence, as a last resort, to the fruit of the mangrove. On the 29th, the Vincennes sailed from Mbua Bay, and being favoured by the wind, anchored in the evening at Naloa; and I was enabled to revisit the two villages. The breeze continuing, we arrived, on the 30th, at Muthuata. ISews here reached us, by one of our survey-boats, of the murder atMelolo of two of our officers, Mr. Underwood and- Mr. Henry. For the particulars, I must refer to the Narrative. On the 4th of August, I went on board the Leonidas, in company with Captain Vanderford. We found here a young chief, whom he had formerly confined on board ship as a prisoner ; but the meeting was frolicsome, and without any manifestation of a sense of injiuy . The squadron having re-assembled at Muthuata, we sailed on the 9th ; and on the following day we reached Mali. On the 11th, we passed through the reefs that had so long hemmed us in, and once more welcomed the bounding waves and the free ocean atmosphere. Our stay, nevertheless, had been instructive; for, however well versed a person may regard himself in the knowledge of mankind, a visit to the Peejee Islands will bring new ideas. 170 PHTSlCAIi HISTOET OF MAIT. In regard to the diseases, I met with, the same set as . among the neighbouriBg Polynesians ; though, perhaps, .in somewhat fewer instances. Ophthalmia, with the loss of at least one of the eyes, was frequent: an instance was observed of the loss of the nose ; also, several cases of (Edematous or dropsical leg ; and a few hiunp-backs. One lad, at Muthuata, was very much deformed ; but being unwilling to show him- self, I got only an accidental glimpse of him. I was in- terested, however, in finding that the Peejeeans do not destroy these unfortunates. In cases of vrounds, an extra- ordinary method of blood-letting is sometimes practised ; a dender iastrument of bone being passed into the lurethra, and thence outwards through the perinevim. The half-breeds between the Polynesians and Peejeeans were precisely intermediate in their personal appearance ; only in some instances the complexion was not strikingly lighter than in the Peejeeans. The half-breeds between the whites and Peejeeans differed from mulattoes, not only ui the expression of countenance, but in the hair ; which, so far as observed, was hardly distinguishable from that of Europeans. I thought, at first, that they had not a thriving appearance, but tms had not been remarked by residents. They, like the Peejee children, are very generally subject to the " dthoke;" a peculiar eruptive disease, which for a time disfigures them exceedingly ; but after getting through, they were said to be healthy enough. The same affection, to afl. appearance, has been mentioned in the accounts of the more western groups ; but, so far as at present known, it does not extend beyond the islands inhabited by the Papuan race. The alleged non-susceptibility of the syphilitic virus must rest on the authority of residents. These likewise asserted, that the women live apart during child-bearing until the period of weaning ; a fact having an important bearing on the existence of polygamy. On the other hand, it was said, that in war-time the men will sometimes separate from their wives for years together. The son of the Muthuata chief was found to be nearsighted, — a novelty to us, among the natives of the South Sea islands; though examples of the opposite fault of vision had been re- marked in elderly Polynesians. He was greatly surprised at the improvement produced by spectacles ; which were now THE PAPUAN UACS. 171 first made kaown to the Pegeeans. The Muthuata queen was disposed to corpulency, — a rare circumstance among the I'eejeeans. I did not meet with an instance of a defective tootii. At Eewa, I saw a dwarf, who had been carried to the United States ; hut the disparity in stature was not very re- markable; and an ordinary Feejeean would probably have excited more curiosity. I have also heard of a lad who was brought to the United States ; but he was soon sent away ; and I did not ascertain his subsequent history. Several Albiuoes were enumerated by residents ; and I am iacUned to think that they occur more frequently in the Papuan race than in any other. I saw one of them, — a man, whose complexion was even fairer than that of Europeans when equally exposed to the sun, but was not free from brownish specks. The iris was blue, without any perceptible tinge of red ; and he had his brows always knit, as if affected by the light. The hair was not white, but flaxen; and on my second visit, he had changed it to coal-black, accord- ing to the fashion of the country, and made a very odd appearance. An excellent portrait of him. was taken by Mr. Agate. In other parts of the globe instances of cannibalism have occurred, sometimes from extreme necessity, or as a deed of savage ferocity ; and we read of tribes who practise it as a ceremony, rehgious rite, or even as a manifestation of affection. At the Feejee Islands the custom rests on dif- ferent grounds. It is here interwoven in the elements of society ; it forms in no slight degree a pursuit ; and it is even regarded inthel^ht of a refinement. Instances are of daily occurrence ; and the preparation of human flesh calls into requisition a variety of cufinary processes, and is almost a distinct art. There are, however, degrees ia the practice, in different parts of the group ; ajid some revolting details were given, which it seems hardly worth while to repeat. In common with arts and attainments, the traces of can- nibalism existing among the Polynesians have appeared to me referable to a Peejeean source. And it is an interesting circumstance, that this practice should not have acquired general and permanent foothold among a people so easily influenced by example. In passing through the Polynesian 172 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAS'. Groups, I made special inquiries on the subject ; and tMs seems a suitable place for recording the result. At the Samoan Islands, according to the missionaries, " the natives had never been tannibals, in the proper accep- tation of the term ; but human flesh had been sometimes tasted in the wars, as an act of vengeance." At New Zealand, the existence of cannibalism was denied by those who were most intimately acquainted with the natives ; and notwithstanding some authentic instances on record, I was satisfied that there had been much exaggeration on the subject. At Tongataboo, the missionaries stated, that " the natives strenuously deny having ever committed acts of cannibalism; and that they are offended at the charge." But one of the missionaries thought that, nevertheless, there had been a few instances. The amount of Tonga cannibalism may indeed be gathered from the work of Mariner. Cannibalism was certainly once practised at the Hawaiian Islands ; not by the community generally, but rather, it would seem, by a class of outlaws. According to the Hawaiian lady so often quoted, " persons travelling singly, or even two in company, were sometimes waylaid, and their flesh was cooked in stone vessels having somewhat the form of jars." The latter circumstance, differing so essentiafly from the usual Polynesian cookery, together with the " neck- laces of human teeth worn by the Hawaiians in former times," have appeared to me to point distinctly towards a Peejee origin. Prom the concurrent testimony of visitors it would appear that cannibalism is more frequent at the Marquesas than at the other Polynesian groups ; and likewise that it is carried on there more in accordance with the customs of the Feejeeans. OTHER PAPUANS. Of the two natives brought to the United States by Captain MorreU, about the year 1833, one probably belonged to the Papuan race. I have a clear recollection of his large stature, stout limbs, and crisp hair ; and I think I can recall in some measure his. features, which were rather good-humoured than impreBsive. It would seem from 'XHE PAPUAif ItACJi;. 173 the account given by Jacobs,* that he came from the vicinity of the AbmiraIiTT Geottp, but from a separate island from his companion. Mr. Hadley, of Wenham, on visiting BouGAiimLLE IsLAiTD, found the natives to be " much the same sort of people as the Feejeeans, except that they were in a ruder con- dition. They were fully as large, and their complexion he thought was blacker. The men were entirely naked. They brought off sugar-cane in their canoes, which were much more roughly made than those of the Feejee Islands. In the course of much experience, the Teejeeans were the only ' savage people' he had ever met with who would give reasons, and with whom it was possible to hold a connected conversation." Captain Jackson, of Salem, spoke of " the inhabitants of the east coast of New GunraA as being a very large set of men, soot-headed, and resembling the natives of Bougain- ville Island." Indeed, the "huge black men" of Dampier, and those described by Sonnerat as having a " hard and rough skin," can, I tMnk, be only referred to the Papuan race. To the same race I would refer the natives of New Caledohta, judging from the figures of them by LabU- lardiere. That of the "woman" in particular, even to the attitude and dress, is eminently characteristic of the per- sonal appearance of the Feejee women. The Vincennes visited Hunter Island, which is near the south-east end of New Caledonia, but is too unimportant to be inhabited. The Papuan race may thus be traced with tolerable cer- tainty from the Feejee Islands to the shores of New G-ninea. The population appears to be everywhere dense, and to bo divided, as at the Feejee Islands, into two classes that are poUticaily independent, the fishermen or people of the coast, and the mountaineers. The practice of camiibalism seems also co-extensive with the race, while the surrounding islanders, though often in a less advanced state of society, as generally hold it in horror. The Papuan race appears also to extend through a portion of the East India islands ; but it probably does not occur to * AdventiireB in the Pacific Ocean. — New York, 1844. 174 PHTSICAi HISTOaX OF MAN. the westward of PiOEis, or Bnde. Dr. Dickenson " had seen some natives of Ploris, who came in a proa to Macas- sar ;" and he did not at first recognise ia Veindovi the least similitude ; but was less positive on being informed that Veindovi' s mode of wearing the hair erect, was ia part artificial. "We read of a class of unmanageable " blacks who have been sometimes taken with other slaves to the PhUippines ;" and all the attendant circumstances seem to iadicate the Papuan race. Mr, JenMns, of the English mission in the Tamiil country, " was once reading to some Hindoos, DUlon'a account of the Peejee Islands ; when his auditors became greatly interested, perceiving that the same description of people had been mentioned in their sacred books. They were indeed spoken of in these books rather as a species of demon, but they were clearly designated, and their geo- graphical position, ' far in the Southeast,' was likewise indicated." All which may be compared with the inter- course known to have existed from ancient times with the Molucca Islands. Notwithstanding the various remarkable coincidences ia customs, as the use of the neck pillow, circumcision, similar modes of dressing the hair, even to the staining of it of a flaxen hue, the Papuan race does not appear to exist ia Eastern Africa. At Zanzibar I met with two or three indi- viduals of mixed race who somewhat resembled Peejeeans ; but the softness of the skin at once marked the absence of true affinity. Fie. K E € IFiC t,[LO KftC. E, A2>y ASAMAJs!(iA LAD. THE NEGEILLO EACH. 175 CHAPTER VII. THE NEGRILLO RACE. The Negrillo race has much, the same complexion as the Papuan ; but differs in the diminutive stature, the general absence of a beard, the projecting of the lower part of the face or the inclined profile, and the exaggerated Negro features. The hair also is more woolly than in the Papuan, though far from equalling in knotty closeness that of the Negro. On a direct comparison with the Negro, I have observed that the complexion appears to be rather red than black. Por characteristic figuresi of Negrilloes I would refer to that given in Orawfurd's TndiaiTi Archipelago ; to the por- trait by Choris, of the girl of Luzon, which may be compared with another, taken Ukewise at Maiula, by Mr. Agate, and to that of the Aramanga lad, by Mr. Drayton. NEW HEBRIDES. One day, at Tongataboo, I observed, as I supposed, a Negro lad sporting in the midst of a group of native children. I should, perhaps, have thought nothing of the circumstance, had I not been told by a resident that he was a native of the island of AsAMAif GA. It appeared that " he had been brought in a trading vessel about ten years previous." My informant, who was on board the vessel, stated, " that the object of the voyage was to cut sandalwood, but so much opposition was experienced from the natives, that after obtaining a little the enterprise was abandoned. Beards were rare at Aramanga." On invitation, the lad subsequently came on board the Vincennes, bringing a little present of fruit ; and I was thus enabled to examine his features more particularly. The forehead was remarkably retreating, with a horizontal 176 PHTSIOAL HISTOET OF MAS. sulcus or furrow, and the lower part of the face was very prominent ; the lips were thick, the nose hardly as broad as in the negro, and the eyes, though small and deeply sunk, were very lively; the cheeks were thin, and the limhs slender, with the calf of the leg high. Notwithstandiag his orang features, the countenance was yeiy pleasing, and he seemed unusually active and intelligent. Having been brought away when a child, he had forgotten every word of his native language. It Was reported of him, that at night, instead of seekiag, like his companions, the protection of houses, he resorted " to the sea-shore, and buried himself ia the sand." Captaiu Vanderford once visited Aramamga ; and, ia cir- cumnavigating it, "attempted at various points to open communication with the natives ; but he could get notMng from them, except a spear or a stone. They were the most singular-looking people he ever beheld, and appeared to him rather like monkeys than men." The last expression will be found to be nearly identical with the terms used by Forster, in speaking of another island of the same group. While the Squadron was at Sydney, news arrived that the Eev. John WiUiams had been killed by the natives of Aramanga. The following particulars were communicated by Mr. Cunningham, who was present on the occasion. " The party first landed on Tanna, an island in a high state of cultivation, where they were received in a friendly manner. The inhabitants spoke a langsj.age much like that of the Hervey Islanders, so that the missionaries were enabled to make themselves understood." " After leaving some of the Samoan assistants, the mis- sionaries next proceeded to Aramanga, which, although at so short a distance, proved to be uncultivated and barren. It was also inhabited by a different race of men, who were black, and had woolly hair, and whose language they were totally unable to comprehend. The natives seemed suspi- cious from the beginning, but made no hostile demonstra- tions ; and the missionaries " — who, it should be observed, had been accustomed to the habits of the PoljTiesians — " landed, and amused themselves with picking up shells and pebbles along the beach. They had stroUed some distance ^om the boat before the attack commenced ; which, although THE NEGRILLO EACE. 177 apparently not preconcerted, soon became general, with arrows, spears, and stones." Forster expresses himself as having been much surprised at the behaviour of the people of Malikolo (a third island of the same group) ; and it wiU. appear the more extraor- dinary to one familiar with the usual deportment of the islanders of the Pacific. " They came on board, and climbed up the rigging to the mast-head ; and at dark they procured torches, and continued about the ship till midnight. They were the most intelligent people we had seen ia the South Seas. They coveted eve:^lung, but did not repine at a refusal. They had curiosity enough -to learn our language, which they pronounced with great accuracy, and set about teaching us their own." True, however, to the character of the race elsewhere, they expressed unwillingness for the continuance of the acquaintance. Erom the remainder of Porster's account, it may be inferred that the island is thictly peopled, like others in the vicinity, and that the inhabitants cultivate the soil, dwell in cabins, have the same useful plants and animals as the Polynesians, and construct canoes, though of indifferent workmanship. NITENDI GROUP. Of aU writers, D'Urville appears to have enjoyed the best opportunities for becoming acquainted with the Negrilloes of the Pacific, and principally at Vanikobo, the scene oi the shipwreck of La Perouse. I must refer to his account, published in the Voyage of the Astrolabe, citing only one remarkable peculiarity, that of " wars being carried on by the people of different districts, while the chiefs remain friends." SOLOMON ISLANDS. This group, which is sometimes called New Georgia, was visited by D'TJrviUe, in his recent voyage ; and he ascer- tained that the principal island is inhabited by the race under consideration. The bows and arrows from New G-eorgia, presented to our Expedition, are scarcely dis- tinguishable from those of the Peejee Islands. 178 PHYSICAL HISTOET Or MAIir. NEW GUINEA. The Malays at Singapore have a few Negrillo slaves, who, however, might readily recover their freedom, were they suf- ficiently well informed to take advantage of the laws. I met with three of them ; and, notwithstanding an air of content- ment, they seemed to be rather passing with the crowd than belonging to it. Their stature was dwarfish, even amidst the surrounding population. Their complexion was not darker than in the Telingans of Eastern Hindostan. One individual had the mouth unusually wide ; and in all three the features were coarser than in the Negro race, the fore- head being more retreating, and the lower part of the face yet more projecting. According to the missionaries, the Malays uniformly declare, " that this class of people come from Papua (or New Guinea), and are brought by the Bugis." Dr. Dickenson had visited Tidore, where " he had witnessed the common importation of this description of slaves, together with birds of paradise, direct from New Gruinea." These statements, being somewhat at variance with other accounts of the popu- lation of New Gruinea, seem to call for further remark. "We learn from Porrest that commercial intercourse takes place across the western peninsula of New Guinea by means of the deep gulf or inlet ; and further, that slaves are brought to the harbour of Dory from the eastward. The accounts obtained by Morrel and Jacobs of the population of the interior of New Guinea, and the discovery by them of a large river emptying into Geelvink Bay, may probably furnish the required explanation. It appears further, that proas occasionally visit the har- bour of Dory, situated near the entrance of Geelvink Bay ; and this seems to form the proper eastern limit of the navigation of the East Indians. LUZON. NegrUloes inhabit the mountains in various parts of Luzon, and even, it was said, those at the entrance of the bay of Manila. So far as I could learn, they are an inoffen- sive people. Nevertheless, some asserted that the Malay TUE NEOEILIiO BA.CE. 179 " buifalo-himters do not scruple to shoot tliem like ■wild game, when they chance to meet one ia the woods." Ne- grillo children are sometimes caught and held iu slavery; but when " they attain the age at which the Spaaish laws set them free, they, with but a single known exception, return to the woods." After some inquiry, a Negrillo slave-girl was found at Manila, who in physical race was identiEed by Mr. Drayton with the Aramanga lad. I was absent at the time in the interior ; and I did not meet with any of the Negrilloes of the Philippines. At the mission of Mayjayjay, Pather Aranda communi- cated the unexpected intelligence, that "the Kegrilloes of Luzon do not possess a peculiar language, but use the Tagala ; that they have houses and vUlages ; and that indi- viduals win sometimes come into the settlements and labour for a few days, until they have earned some trifling sum, when they wm again retire to the mountains." SOOLOO. I saw a Negrillo at the capital of Sooloo, a young mam, who was probably a native of the island, and who bore the marks of mixed descent. According to Hunt, the aboriginal Negrilloes were on a former occasion " chiefly instrumental in driving out the Spaiiiards. They hold the mandates of the Sultan in high respect, and continue on friendly terms, while the other Interior people are at open war with him ; and," what I have never heard of any other branch of the race, "they are converts to Islamism." OTHER NEGRILLOES. The Andaman islanders, from the concurrent accounts, may be referred to the Negrillo race, which seems also to be present in the Malayan Peninsula, if not in Sumatra. On the other hand. Dr. Dickenson heard nothing of Negrilloes in Borneo : they appear to be equally absent from Celebes and Mindanao, where the Interior is occupied by Harafora tribes, and from Java, where the population is comparatively n2 180 PHTSTCAL HIBTOBT OF MAN. advanced. Indeed, the geograpliical distribution sufficiently indicates that the Negnllo race once occupied more space than it does at this time, and that in many instances it has preceded the dissemination of other races. CHAPTEE Vni. THE TELINGAN OR INDIAN RACE. The Eastern Hindoos, those at least who make visits to the East India islands, present great uniformity in their per- sonal appearance ; and, in this respect, they agree with the tribes and nations situated to the eastward of Hindostan. The complexion is much the same as in the two pre- ceding races, and is so decidedly darker than in the Malayan, that by common consent it is called black ; although, on comparison, the hue differs widely from that of the unmixed Negro. The true colour may be formed by mixing red and black ; and in reference to the use of the term of " purple- brown" and that of "oUve," it should be observed that neither blue nor green enter into any variety of human complexion. The features approximate very closely to those of the White race; but, in general, the mouth appeared to be wider, the nose rather less prominent, and the lips sensibly thicker. The profile was observed to be less vertical than in the surrounding Malays ; the lower part of the face pro- jecting with a regular arch, as in the Mongolian ; and there was a further correspondence with the latter race, in the frequent instances of the arched nose. The skin was ascertained to be very soft. The beard occurred more frequently, and was decidedly more copious than in the Malayan race. The hair was straight and fine, and I have never seen it of any other colour than black. I have not met with Albinoes in the Telingan race. I am unable at present to refer to a characteristic portrait of the Telingan race; most of the published figures of Hindoos having been taken either from the White race or from mixtures. THE TElIlTGAir BACE. 181 EASTERN HINDOSTAN. " Lascars " usually enter into tie composition of the crews of Anglo-Indian vessels, and they thus reach Mcmila, where I. once met with four or five of them ia the streets. I did not, however, hear of any who were permanently settled at the Philippiae Islands. At Sooloo, I saw two Lascars; who had been brought there equally though indirectly through the agency of Europeans, and were held in a state of captivity. As they stood ia the midst of the native population, the " hatchet- face," the more prominent nose, and darker complexion, rendered them quite conspicuous. At Singapore, on the other hand, the Hindoos had principally arrived by .their own means of emigration, in the manner described by Crawfurd and others. Next to the Chinese, they formed the most considerable part of the ' population ; and, like them, they were mere visitors, bringing no women with them, and purposing to return after a series of years. A large proportion were from Peninsidar India, and were called " TeUnga people," or, more commonly, " KHngs." Coming, as we did, from among the tribes of the further Bast, the transition to the Hindoos and Chinese was very striking. Not on account of the costume, which continued, in many instances, as scanty as in the Pacific ; whUe the dances, shows, and processions might have passed for mummeries ; but these had accompanied all the substantial advantages of civilisation, laws, civil order, security of person and property, from a period anterior to the rise of Greece and Eome. Ve were looking upon people who have remained essentially the same throughout the revolutions which have befallen other nations, and upon ceremonies, that, for aught we can see to the contrary, may yet be destined to survive the institutions of Europe and the "West. While we were at Singapore, a play was performed by the Hindoo workmen residing on Mr. Balestier's plantation. In the music I remarked a similarity to the Spanish airs heard on the western coast of America, but I should hardly have ventured an opinion on this point, had not Mr. Eich (who passed his earlier years in Spain) recognised the identi^. The connexion may probably be established 182 PHT8ICA1 HISTOET OE MAIf. tltrougli the Muslims, but I must leave it to others to decide upon the relative claims of priority. A " clown " was in atteadanoe, whose sayings and pranks appeared to be much relished. This custom has even reached the Peejee Islands, but it does not occur upon the Chinese stage. The regular acting consisted principally of singiug and danciag conducted in the open air, and, to one unacquainted with the language, was rather monotonous. But the style of the gilded head-dresses seemed to resusci- tate the Egyptians of antiquity; and even the " vulture-cap" was present upon the head of one of the actors. A Bramin, on account of some difficulty, was residing at Singapore ; and as the hereditary growth of the nobili^ of Europe was comparatively ephemeral, I examined with some interest his personal appearance. The complexion was the same as in the low-caste Hindoos, and the countenance might not have attracted notice in the street ; but the mouth was small, the lips thin, and the facial angle approached unusually near to ninety degrees. The latter circumstance was not perceived in another Bramin belonging to the Tehngan race, who was subsequently seen at Bombay, though in both the lobe of the ear was broader than usual ; and, contrary to a custom which ' occurs among various uncivilised tribes, as well as in the Cutch Banians, and in representations of Hindoo deities, it was not perforated. The Bramin first mentioned was very affable, spoke English correctly and fluently, and was ready to answer any questions in relation to his religion, or to go into an argu- ment in its defence. He stated that " the Braminical religion can only be inherited ; that ' caste,' when once lost, cannot be regained, either by the individual or by his descendants ; that Bramins would lose caste by partaking of animal food, or by the commission of any immorality ; and that a Bramin could leave his own and enter either of the inferior castes." The system of thus visiting the sins of the parent upon the children seems intended to offer the utmost inducements towards leading a pure life, whatever may be said of the selfishness of the principle. The reported national faiUngs, however, tempt us to suppose, that lying and pecuniary offences can hairdly be mentioned in the Brammical code. THE TELINGAN BACE. 183 The Bramin further asserted that the burning of widows "continues to be practised in Hindostan, at least among the upper classes, though, in consequence of the inter- ference of the government, it is now done priyately." Hook- swinging, according to Ms explanation, is a manifestation of faith, the sufferer " believing that if he has courage to go through the ordeal, the Deity will protect him from harm." This penance, and that of running through the bed of coals, had been sometimes practised by the Hindoo emigrants at Singapore. The temple was foiand to be a substantial stone building, much in the style of the two mosques ; but the Bramin would not admit the resemblance, alleging that there was a difference in the shape of the dome. In the details of these three buildings, I thought I could discover traces of the ancient Egyptian style of architecture, something corre- sponding to the incorporation of the Grreek and Eoman in our modem dwelling-houses ; but I found no confirma- tion subsequently in Western Hindostan. I was not admitted into the main building, and it was the same with the more select temples of Western Hindostan ; the idea of a sanctuary being common to the Braminical, Parsee, and MusUm, as well as to various ancient forms of worship. The Hindoos at Singapore, according to the Bramin, were " nearly all Sudras, or fourth-cast men ; and there were no Parias in the place." He denied that there were " Bramins on Bali," and spoke of the system prevaiUng on that island as "the Hindoo religion;" which term he likewise applied to the Buddhism of China and the Indo-Chinese eountnea. The rules of caste would restrict the Hindoos from inter- marrying with the Malays, even if there were no objections on the other side. The descriptions, however, of the Amboynese, seem to correspond with the TeUngan race. Stavorinus states, "that the Chinese intermarty with the Bouginese and women of Macassar, but not with the Amboynese ;" a circumstance which seems to indicate the presence of a third physical race. We have abundant evidence that a commercial intercourse has existed with this quarter from a very early period. The Papuan race, as already mentioned, is noticed in the Hindoo sacred books. In the fourth century, the Chinese traveller 184 PHYSICAL HISTOET OP MAN. Pa-hian, sailed from Southem Hindostan to the East Indies ia a vessel maimed by Braminical Hiadoos. The cloves and nutmegs of Amboyna and the Moluccas appear to have been known in the Mediterranean as early, perhaps, as the time of Fa-hiaQ. According, however, to the foUowing deduc- tions, we have a much more ancient notice of the countries beyond Hindostan. Cinnamon is mentioned by Herodotus, and likewise in the books of Moses ; and the article could not have been obtained from any place nearer than Ceylon. During my recent visit to Bombay, I learned that the word " cinnamon" is only in part Sanscrit ; the Mahratta or modem Sanscrit name for the article being " dhal-Einna," which means "China-wood." That " cinna " really means China, is shown in "cinnabar," another article of commerce, well known to the ancient G-reeks and Eomans ; but the place referred to is probably the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, the only country, I believe, besides Ceylon, where cinnamon is cultivated. I observe that "maun," in the Tamul language of Southern India, is in some respects the equivalent of the Sanscrit "dhal;" and this point, it will be seen, involves the subject of the antiquity of the Tamul language. I would add, that the Tamul literature was regarded by the mis- sionaries as being " equally rich with the Sanscrit, although hitherto very imperfectly explored." The larger portion of the Ikdiajs Muslims at Singapore, and particularly those of the lower orders, did not appear to differ physically from the Telinga people. Both the Mushm and the Chinese holidays took place during our short visit ; thus affording a favourable opportunity for inspecting these two classes of the population. On the evening of our arrival, after witnessing various Chinese exhibitions, I met with one of a totally different character, comparatively rude, and which I perceived at once belonged to Hindostan. It was a prodession, accompanying two boys who were dancing ; their close red female attire brushing the ground, while the bells on their ankles chimed with the music. Their faces were whitened, and one wore a tiara cap, which was higher than those I afterwards saw in Egypt. They were preceded by swordsmen bearing shields, THE TEMNGAK EACE. 185 engaged in mock combat. Tlie same procession was renewed on subsequent evenings ; and the people were found to resort to some booths " established temporarily on account of the Muslim holidays." One of the booths was a place of wor- ship, and contained an ffluminated screen; and the "jos sticks," or tapers of the Chinese temples, were also in use. This was Islamism, apparently in its most corrupted form. The annual celebration, in memory of the death of the two sons of Mohammed, took place on the 21st of Febru- ary, 1842. Among three or four thousand persons who took part in the ceremony, many bore the marks, more or less obvious, of partial "White descent ; and such individuals were often distinguished by being more robust ; but unmixed Whites were rare. I saw but one green turban — ^the badge of the lineal descendants of the founder of the religion, Neatness and decorum prevailed throughout. This was not the case in the disorderly proceedings I witnessed at the same celebration, held on the 19th of January, 1845, at Bombay; in which I recognised scarcely any points of resemblance besides the bearing of paper shrines. In connexion with the Telingan race, it is of importance to note, that Muslim political influence in India " never reached the eastern coast." The practice of seclusion, I believe, prevails on that coast ; and it may in part account for the circumstance, that I saw but one woman of Hin- dostan at Singapore. Individuals who called themselves " Arabs " were nume- rous at Singapore, but their claim was not in all instances free from suspicion, on account of an obvious motive — Arab influence being paramount with the Malays, "who plume themselves according to the proportion of the blood they may have in their veins;" while, on the other hand, they look down upon the Indian Muslims. These self-styled Arabs were mostly persons of mixed descent, but I was not prepared at the time to distinguish the Ethiopian from the Telmgan admixture ; and, indeed, the task may not prove of easy accomplishment. One of these persons had his beard striped longitudinally gray and black (it is presumed by artificial means) ; and the same was observed in an Abys- sinian Arab from Mukdusha, who was likewise residing at Singapore. 186 PHYSICAL HISTOET OB MAN. Throiagli the operatiaas of modem eommeree, people of Hindostaji have been sometimes carried far to the eastward of their limits when left to. their own resources. Besides those seen at Sooloo and Manila, I found several living in Sydney. A " native of Calcutta " had taken up his resi- dence with the white men at Ovolau, in the Feejee Islands. Others were seen at Oahu, where, too, I heard of " persona who called themselves Arabs," and saw, if my memory serves me, a Muslim tomb. WESTERN HINDOSTAN. During my recent visit to Bombay and the Dekkan, I was much surprised at the rare occurrence of the TeUngan race, at least, in a condition at all approaching purity. I some- times thought I could distinguish traces among the low- caste Mahrattas ; and of two " TeHuga Bramins, who came from the vicinity of Hyderabad," one (the uidividual above noticed) was devoid of any marks of intermixture with the White race. This man stated that " his caste iatermairied with the Bramins of the Dekkan, but not with those of Bengal or GruzeratI' ' All the Mahratta Bramias I met with, appeared to be of unmixed White descent ; but one of them said that " the TeHaga Bramins were highly respected, while the Bengal, Gruzerat, Cutch, and Cashmere Bramins were regarded as impure." IVom repeated iaquiries it appeared that the rules of "caste" are independent of colour or physical difference between the two races ; and further, that, imlike what takes place ia other countries and ia respect to other races, no such distinction is recognised by the people themselves. I am not, on this account, prepared to abandon the claims of the Teiingan to be considered a distinct race ; but I confess the population of this part of India seemed so blended that I was unable to define the precise limits. To the westward of Hindostan, at Muscat, I saw two individuals whose personal appearance agreed entirely with that of the Teiingan race. They were from Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf. 119. lOLO-KI A NATlVt OF WESTERN AFRICA. THE NE&EO EACE. 187 MADAGASCAR. On the passage from Singapore to the United States, the Yincennes touched at the island of St. Selena; where I found myself, as I supposed, again among Lascars, in this instance, more or less mixed with Negroes. On inquiry, I was greatly surprised to learn that, notwithstanding the admitted resemblance, " this class of the population had been all brought many years siace from Madagascar." On the other hand, I was unable to detect the slightest appearances of Tehtagan admixture among the numbers of Madagascar people seen subsequently at Zcmzibmr. It is true, these had been derived, perhaps exclusively, from the Sakalava country, on the western coast. In regard, how- ever, to the alleged origin of the St. Helena people, Ellis's* description of the "Betanimena and Betsimisaraka " seems to correspond ; and in another place he expressly mentions the occurrence of " straight-haired blacks " among the popu- lation of Madagascar. Drury appears to have been the only writer who has seen some of the " Vazimbi " of Madagascar ; and he speaks pf them as being a distinct race from the other inhabitants of the island; but his description does not well correspond with the Tehngan race. CHAPTEE IX. THE NEGRO RACE. At the present day, the personal appearance of the Negro is generally familiar ; and the thick Kps, flattened nose, retreating forehead, close woolly hair, and dark complexion, have become proverbial. The Negro appears to exceed aU other races in depth of hue, and in the close woolly texture of the hair is rivalled only by the Hottentot. The absence of rigidity and of a divided apex in the cartilage of the nose * History of Madagascar, vol. i. p. 130, Sic 188 PHYSICAL HI8T0BT OF MAK. is a character common equally to tte Malayan, and, probably, to some of the other races. In the case of two Albino children, the Ifegro aspect had so entirely disappeared, that they might have passed for the children of Europeans, but for the remarkable appearance of the hair, which I could only compare to a white fleece. The Negro race seems to occupy about one-half of Africa, and, excluding the northern and southern extremes with the table-land of Abyssinia, it holds all the more temperate and fertile parts of the continent. These limits, to all appear- ance, would not have been exceeded to this day, aside from foreign interference ; but, as one consequence of the events of the last two centuries, the Negro race seems destined to fill hereafter an important place in general history. COLONIAL NEGROES, a. Mwropeanised Negroes. Negroes are now to be found in most parts of the globe where Europeans have established themselves ; and although separate notices seem hardly to be required, I have selected the following. Durihg a week spent in different parts of the island of Madeira, I met with no Negroes, except at the port of Punchal; and the few individuals seen at this place may have been connected with the foreign shippiag. On the other hand, the population of the Cape Verd Islands, judging from our hasty visit, appeared to be prin- cipally composed of Negroes ; and they were living in a very rude state for the subjects of a civilised government. They, however, exhibited a certain air of independence, not seen in the same race in the United States. Brazil had more of the aspect of a European colony, although Negroes formed the most numerous class of the population of Mio Janeiro and its environs ; and instances of even mixed descent were comparatively rare. Most of these Negroes were slaves ; but very many were employed as soldiers iu the military police. Others held places of honour and trust under the government ; and one man was spoken of, as being distinguished for his abilities as an advocate. THE NEGBO EACE. 189 Several of the women too moved, -with their Portuguese husbands, in the first circles of society. I was careful to look among the imported Negroes for traces of some different race ; but I was unable to detect any ; neither have I met with more success in other parts of America. A second race may have been sometimes included in the importations from Madagascar; but otherwise, I think, instances have been extremely rare ; prior at least to the recent introduction by the English of people of Hindostan. Some Negroes were seen among the " guachos" or mounted herdsmen of the Bio Negro, in North Patagonia. "They had come by land from Buenos Ayres," and they hardly appeared to be on the footing of slaves. There are, perhaps, fewer Negroes in Chili than in any other Europeanised portion of America. I do not remember seeing more than ten or twelve, during the eighteen days I spent in Chili, chiefly at the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago. In Fern,, Negroes are common, but they are chiefly con- fined to the vicinity of the coast, where many of them are held as slaves, and where the practice of merely " requiring them to furnish their masters with stated sums of money, had contributed essentially to the frequency of robberies." Some of the free Negroes seen at Lima had reached the middle class of society, but I did not hear of any one who had acquired eminence, or who held an important office. In the churches, however, some deceased Negro priests had been canonised. Among the military, Negroes were some- times observed in the ranks ; together with a much larger proportion of persons of mixed origin, " zamboes and mulattoes." In the region of the Aides I saw but one Negro, who held some subordinate office in a small village. isx New South Wales I met with two or three Negroes in the streets of Sydney ; but I saw none on my visit to the district of the Hunter Eiver. Pree Negroes were occasionally seen on such of the Foly- nesian islands as have resident Whites ; having been derived, as in various other parts of the world, chiefly from the American shipping. I also met with a few half-breeds, between the Negro and Polynesian. Up to the time of our 190 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAlf. visit, no Negroes liad taken up their abode at the I'eejee group. Among the East India islands, Negroes seem to be very nearly wanting ; and, iadeed, we read of their being carried to the Indo-Chniese countries as curiosities. At Singapore, situated in respect to the route of travel at the entrance of the whole region, I met with three Negroes ; and one of them had been introduced partly through the agency of Europeans. This man was large and muscular in comparison with the surrounding population, and was called a " Koffii," a class of persons said to have been originally imported from Mozambique into Southern India, and who bear a high character for fidelity. It seemed singular that their identity with the Negro was not recognised even by American residents. At Ca^e Town the lower class of the population appeared to be composed chiefly of Negroes ; and, according to report, " they had been derived principally from Mozambique and Madagascar." They appeared to be more cleanly, and to live on a better footing vrith their White neighbours, than their brethren in our northern cities. At St. Helena, the Negro portion of the popidation, as already stated, had been " derived exclusively from Mada- gascar." A remarkable deviation from direct commercial intercourse may be here noted; the circumstance "that slaves from Africa are now carried across the island of Madagascar, to be sold to Europeans from its eastern coast." One or more Negroes from the United States had taken up their residence at Zanzibar, and others again at Bombay; conforming to the customs of their several adopted coimtries, and having no wish to return to the land of their nativity. In passing through the Mediterranean countries, I observed two or three Negroes at Malta, and as many at Marseilles ; but I met vyith none at the Sicilian and Italian ports, nor in the interior of Prance. The general excellence of the Negro ear for music is a subject of common remark in the United States, and is mani- fested in many of the ordinary occurrences of life. Indeed it Tias been stated, apparently on sufficient grounds, that much of our popular music can be traced to a Negro origin. Observations on my recent journey have led me to suspect THE ITE&JIO EACE. 191 that some of this music may have a yet more distant source, and one perhaps more ancient than is commonly supposed. h. Arahised Wegroes. With the exception of the two individuals at Singapore, I first saw Muslim Negroes in Hgypt. In this country, the Negroes seem to be in a good measure confined to the two cities of Cairo and Alexandria ; and, excepting a large body of soldiers, are principally employed as house-servants. It sometimes happens that one of them " inherits his master's property together with the charge of his family ;" in accord- ance apparently, with ancient usage, with Abraham's selec- tion of an heir from among the members of his household. Negroes are occasionally purchased and educated both by Copts and by resident Europeans ; but the influences of locality prevailing, they do not form a distinct class from the MusUm Negroes. I do not remember to have seen Negro servants among the Jews, either at Cairo or anywhere in the East. I did not in Egypt observe Negroes engaged in the labours of agriculture. Neither, indeed, are they so represented on the ancient monimients ; where Whites, distinguished by their profile from the proper Egyptians, are often serving in the capacity of slaves. Negroes are figured principally in connexion vpith and as illustrating the military campaigns of the eighteenth dynasty ; and there is evidence, moreover, that one of the Pharaohs of this dynasty (Thouthmosis IV.) selected a negress for his queen. I do not remember seeing Negroes represented on the anterior monuments, nor indeed on those of a much later date ; though I did not, as carefully as the case requires, search the records of the Ptolemaic conquests. I am not aware of any fact contravening the assumption that Negro slavery may have been of modem origin ; and the race even seems to have been very little known to the ancient Greeks and Eomans. I have seen the Negro stuU which was exhumed in the island of Malta, among the ruins of Hadjerkim ; but, in the absence of inscriptions, I am not aware that any date has been assigned to these anomalous constructions, other than referriiig them indefinitely to idolatrous times. In regard, however, to the general subject 192 PHYSICAL HISTOaX OF MAIf. of the ancient Oracles, I will mention, on the authority of Dr. Schembri, that " the name of ' dodon' is to this day applied by the Maltese to a particular variety of black pigeon." At Suez I remarked one Negro among a party of "Arabs of the Hedjaz," and this man wore the same costume, and appeared to be living on a footing of equality with his companions. At Mocha Negroes were numerous, and they had been derived from two distiuct portions of Africa. Some had come, like those of Egypt, from the "White Eiver of the Nile, and were called "Nuba." These were "highly esteemed as soldiers, and, as such, were kept in numbers by some of the more powerful chiefs of Southern Arabia." The majority, however, of the Negroes I saw at Mocha had been brought from Zanzibar. At Mocha I also met with a class of persons more or less mixed, who were called " TTadem," a term which appeared to be equivalent to that of "low people," and which was used in other instances to be mentioned hereafter. They were characterised as "a sort of Arabian Negro comiug from the Interior or the Desert, who, among other usages, practise eating dead animals." Of the individuals pointed out to me, some were not distinguishable from the Arabs of the country ; but others presented traces of Negro descent, and one man had the aspect of an immixed Negro. At Muscat the influx of Negroes appeared to be exclu- sively from Zanzibar, and, excepting those brought as slaves, they consisted chiefly of Soahili. The latter were perhaps only visitors, siuce they compose the principal part of the crews of the numerous dows trading to the African coast. The Soahih are all Muslims, and I did not hear of any who were held in slavery in this part of Arabia ; but at Mocha I met with slaves who called themselves Soahili. In the streets of Bombay I frequently fell in with Soahili, who belonged, as before, to the Arab shipping. But at Singapore I saw none of these people, and their absence was confirmed by the testimony of the Abyssinian Arab. At Zanzibar the Soahili were found to assume the exclu- sive management of the small dows trading along the coast THE NEGKO EACE. 193 as far south, as Mozambique and Madagascar ; wMle anotter, and, in their own estimation, a more responsible class of navigators, direct the larger vessels to Arabia and North- vrestem Hindostan. The SoaMLi are a mixed nation, consisting principally of Negroes, but embodying the remains of an infusion of Whites ; and many individuals among them would not be distinguished from Arabs. The inhabitants of the fertile islands of Zanzibar and Pemba are chiefly Soahili, together with, in all probability, the mass of the population at Mombas and in the Arab towns in the delta of the Juba. Soahili, however, are scattered along the coast beyond these limitB, and adventurers sometimes join the caravans of the interior Negroes, and make visits to the Great Lake, or, in conjunction with Comoro men, form independent trading expeditions for minor distances. The Soahili language has, iu consequence, become the medium of commercial intercourse. along the eastern coast of Africa. It contains niunerous foreign words, derived principally from the countries around the Persian Gulf; but it is properly a Negro language. At the same time, instances may probably be found of the transmission of words in the opposite (Erection. My interpreter, Sadii, a Soahili of mixed race, who was bom at Marka, gave me the following account : " The people of Brava, Marka, and Mukdusha, all came originally from Arabia, and established these towns in the Somauli country. The island of Lamo was formerly uninhabited ; while the Sela (Soahili) dwelt at Ketao, a town directly opposite, on the main land. The Arabs settling upon the island, 'made them low.' The Soaluli do not lie this state of things, but they cannot help themselves. The Soahili did not in former times fight the Galla, but the people of Lamo now fight them, when they come to steal." " The Soahili have feeling, but the Arabs have none, and are a very bad people. Arabs wUl kiU a man to get the money in his pocket, and he had known of their killing their parents when they happened to have property. A blind man had mentioned several instances of theft, accom- plished by Arabs taking advantage of his infirmity. The 194 PHTSICA.Ii HISTOET OF MAN. Negroes are fools; but if they had knowledge, lite the Arabs, tbey would be a better people." Sadik was for a time enraptured with a musical box which was provided with an. artificial bird ; but on recovering from his reverie, and the price being named, he remarked, "Who would give two hundred dollars for a bird like that, while one that God made can be bought for a farthing ? " The Soahili, besides the usual Muslim calendar, have one of their ovm. Their new year commenced, in 1844, on the 29th of August, or, more precisely, at 6 p.m. on the even- ing of the 28th ; and I remarked further, that it immediately foHowed full moon. Sadik stated that the Soahili year " consists of twelve moons and ten days ; and that from the weather on these supernumerary days the peopk prognos- ticate that of the whole year. The months or moons are numbered, and three only have names, Shaban (under- stood to indicate the time of planting), Eejib, andEamadan ;" appellations which are weL. known in the Mushm calendar, jideed it was reiterated " that the Soahili year is the same with the Arab, and consists in like manner of three himdred and sixty-five days, or of twelve moons and ten days," a statement which seems to refer to some agricultural calendar used in Southern Arabia. The following additional particulars were obtained from the Sultan of the Soahili, a highly intelligent personage of mixed race, who, agreeably to ancient usage, was retained with other Sultans at the seat of government. "The person, who has charge of the Soahili year, resides on Tombat (an inconsiderable islet detached from the larger island of Zanzibar). He looks at the sun and makes figures on the ground, when, on comparing his work with a book (written in Arabic), he declares which is the first day of the year." A Parsee, then in Zanzibar, identified the day with the commencement of one of the Parsee years though he spurned the idea of any connexion in the calendars. The 29th of August is well knovsm to be new-year's day with the Abyssinians and Egyptians, except that these nations have not abandoned their reckoning of the lapse of time, as has been done, to a certain extent, by modem Europeans! and on this point the Parsees and Soahili are commonly THE NEGEO BACE. 195 supposed to have borrowed in their calculations. Accord- ing to the aboTe authority " the Parsee year now contains three hundred and sixty-five days, while formerly one-fourth of a day was added." The SoahUi Sultan stated, in regard to his own family, that " his ancestor came from Sheerazy (Shiraz in Persia) about two centuries ago, and finding the country ruled by a woman, married her." He assigned the same date to the arrival of the people of Muscat, and he placed the " coming of the Portuguese about a century earlier." As to the predecessors of the Portuguese, he was uncer- tain ; but others spoke of the " DebiJly people, who were straight-haired," and who perhaps belonged to North- western India. An old fortification forms a conspicuous object at the city of Zanzibar, and, like similar ones along the coast, it has been commonly attributed to the Portuguese. Besides the pre- sence of plastering on the outer walls, a little attention to other details will show that these constructions have no reference to the use of artillery ; and they thus reveal one secret of the successes of Europeans in this qimrter of the globe. I have seen similar fortresses, having the Kke round towers, in the interior of Hiudostan ; and all such may be referred to the early Mushms, or, in a general way, to the time of the Caliphs. Indeed, the Soahili have preserved a tradition, that one of the " Haleefeh sent out, as it were, missionaries to convert Eastern Africa." Notices of Eastern Africa have been found, of a date anterior to the time of the Caliphs, and particularly, I believe, an account by Arrian, which I have not consulted. With respect to " Agizymba, the most distant country known to Ptolemy," I have been struck with the similarity of the word to " Kissimkazy," " Kissimbany," and other local names which occur in the island of Zanzibar. The " Cazembe," a shadowy personage who fig^es in some Portuguese accounts of the interior of East Africa, may also have a connexion with the same island. The city of Zanzibar does not present any striking vari- ation from other Arab tovfus, unless in the greater number of Negroes. There seemed, however, to be more than the usual proportion of ancient Hebrew and ancient Egyptian o2 196 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OE MAN. customs. Amulets, composed of a variety of articles strung together, are tied around the heads of infanta ; and a SoahiLi at once recognised the purpose of an ancient Egyptian amu- let which I happened to have in my possession. Independ- ently of the regiiilar slave trade, child-steaUng is practised by adventurers from the outer coast of Arabia, and on much the same footing as formerly, according to Homer's description, by the Phoenicians. The visitor will agaia be remiaded of early Grreece, in the attitude and costume of various indi- viduals walking with spears ; and some particulars in the construction of these weapons will be found to correspond with the Mosaic regulations. One article of Zanzibar manufacture is exported in great quantities to the Arab countries — ^the shallow earthen water- jars, which in their general shape approach the Feejeean. Siace the recent iatroduction of profitable articles of cultivation, slavery in Zanzibar has assumed a form more resemblitig its condition in America; and there are now wealthy proprietors and large bodies of agricultural Negro slaves. On the other hand, the state of things commencing through the agency of Europeans in Western Africa, where the " Kroo-men " have of late taken up maritime pursuits, seems to offer some parallel to Arab influence on the eastern coast. c. Malayised Negroes. This class of people is confined to the immediate vicinity of Eastern Africa, and constitutes the chief part of the population of the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. The languages and customs of these islanders are not Arab, but correspond with those of the East Indies ; and most of the plants cultivated have evidently been derived from the same quarter. There are no records and no existing intercourse. Aboriginal Negroes may, or may not, have once dwelt upon these African islands, but the state of things now prevailing is clearly the result of East Indian colonisation. Indeed, the Malayan race is actually present in Madagas- car, and is still dominant there ; and as to the time of arrival, it is sufficiently evident that Malay influence has preceded the visits of the Arabs. The Madagascab people seen at Zanzibar, with the THE NEQEO EACE, 197 exception of the two Ovahs aLreadv noticed, were all Negroes, ■who did not even present any distinguishable traces of Malayan admistiu'e. I did not hear that any of them had voluntarily left their native country, bnt many appeared to be free ; and a cluster of their houses was pointed out to me as an example of the Madagascar style of building. All the Madagascar people whose origin I ascertained, belonged to the " Sakalava " nation. CoMOEO men were found to be yet more numerous at Zanzibar, where they form a very considerable portion oi the population of the city. I was equally at a loss to discover in tlie Comoro men any traces of the physical Malayan ; and some of them assured me that " there are no long-haired people upon their native islands." Many of these Comoro men were said to be " slaves, who had been sent to Zanzibar, to earn something for their masters ; " but others seemed to be really independent set- tlers and adventurers. These join the Soahili in trading excursions, and thus become the medium of carrying Malay influence into the heart of AJ&ica. They likewise engage in maritime pursuits, and many of them serve on board Ameri- can vessels, which is hardly the case with the Soahili. The Comoro men have undergone a double tutelage ; the second, not only in visiting Zanzibar, but also from the extension of Aj-ab power to their own islands, where the people are now perhaps nominally Muslim. Among a col- lection of Arabic pamphlets which I obtained at Zanzibar, several had been written at the Comoro Islands, and some even at Madagascar. ABORIGINAL EASTERN AFRICA. On one of my visits to the slave-market at ZAifziBAE, a Negro among the bystanders attracted my attention on account of the rudeness of his dress and his whole appear- ance. The race was evidently pure ; and if there was any peculiarity, it was only in the beard being nearly wanting. On inquiry, I learned with surprise that he was an aboriginal of the island ; and further, that having come from an unfre- quented district, he was acquainted with the original lan- guage. He searched out two other " Hadem," in order that 198 PHTSIOAX HISTORY OF MAN. T might hear him. converse in it; but these, it appeared, could only speak Soahih. A vocabulary would doubtless have been interesting, and I regret being xmable to give more than a single vford, "monakela,"* which signifies "a small boy." Zanzibar, being situated nearly twenty miles from the main land, these circumstances have a bearing on the question of the original population of the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. The above three individuals were the only aboriginal Ne- groes I have met upon thar native soil ; for, notwithstanding that I have looted upon a large portion of the outline of -the African, continent, it has been my lot to set foot on it only ia Egypt and at the Oape. I have, however, seen great numbers of the exported aboriginals, belonging probably to most of the countries that afford slaves ; and at Zanzibar I have seen, ia addition, a few aboriginal Negro visitors. The following details respecting the tribes which inhabit the main land of Eastern Africa were collected at Zanzibar. The "Wanika possess the country around Mombas, and their towns were found by Dr. Krapf to be " protected by being buQt in clumps of thick woods;" it is presumed, against the incursions of the Ethiopian tribes who border on the north and partly on the west. The Wanika are known at Zanzibar only as slaves, and, as such, are in request for the special purpose of "procuring toddy;" for, from living on the coast, they have been accustomed to eluiib cocoa-palms. Notwithstamding that they were said to be common on the plantations, I feU. in. with but a single individual. This man bore the marks of national designation, consist- ing of a single notch filed between the two upper front teeth, with nxunerous small scars on the breast. He gave me the following account of himself and his nation : " He belonged to G-iriama, a tovm on the beach, two days' journey to the northward of Mombas. The "Waruka extend from Giriama, two days' journey into the interior, and the country beyond is uninhabited." He had not heard of the river Oozy ; but from the opposite direction the " Mombas people axe con- * In the Negro languages of this part of Africa, the plural ie fomied by changing the initial " m" into " w." An inBtance of some analogy may he remarked in our English " me" and " we." THE HE&EO BACB. 199 tiimaHy coming to Gririama. The Wanika fight with the bow and arrow, and, at close quarters, with the sword. The blade is made by the M'Sig^a and AiVajiika from iron obtained partly from the Arabs, and partly dug out of the ground and brought by the "Wafcamba. The "Wanika bury their dead, placiag the head to the east; and it is customary, after waiting ten days, to kill a bullock and make a feast, pouring th& blood upon the grave. The Wanika are all freemen ; and, in regard to his own case, he stated that on the occur- rence of a famiae about three years previously, families were obliged to seU some of. their members to purchase food. The "Wamka circumcise, and are aU Muslim." Some by- standers, however, thought that they had no other claim to the title, than the practice of the rite as an aboriginal custom. " The "Wakamba are friends, and would joia the Wanika in fighting against the &alla. The M'Sigua are likewise friends, and come to Gririama: the Chaga do not come, but the Wanika sometimes make visits to the country of the Chaga." With respect to the Ethiopian tribes, he stated " that he had been at the market to which the Galla come to trade, after a journey on their part of two months. They are bad people, but, after having taken an oath, they may be visited. The G-alla are rich, but the M'Kuafy are poor. The latter do not come to market, and they once robbed his town, when, being intercepted on their return, they did not succeed in carrying off the booty. He had once visited a place called ' Eombo,' and saw at a distance a town belonging to the Mussai, who are bad people, and are like the M'Kuafy." A detached tribe of Negroes are found upon the African coast north of the Wanika in the delta of the Juba. The Sultan of Patta termed them Pokomo, and also " Hadem;" and he spoke of them as " rather a good sort of people, who win pull a boat up the Oozy, being relieved at each town by a fresh set of hands. They Kve on one side of the river, the other side belonging to the Gralla. Boats ascend the Oozy, which is excessively winding, for twenty-five days, and no more ; and he thought that the Juba must be the same river, since persons proceeding from the mouth of each channel, meet together." The Cha&a dwell in the interior, to the southwest of 200 PHYSICAL HISTOET OE MAN. the Wanika, and on the upper part of the Pungany Eiver. A Comoro man stated that he " was fifteen days in reaching the country of the Chaga, journeying towards the setting sun. The party he accompanied was commanded by a Makamba man, who had often conducted similar expeditions, and who knew all the languages on the route. Some Soahili were of the party, but no Arabs. The object in Tiew was to pro- cure ivory, and not slaves ; and some M'Kuafy and Wakamba were seen, who were on the same errand. The Chaga have plenty of bananas, yams, sugar-cane, Indian com, and other cultivated plants. They are bad people, all the same as slaves, black and like Negroes, while the Mussai are Kke Arabs. The Mussai," if I understood him aright, "look upon the Chaga in the light of slaves ; but the two nations cir- cumcise in the same peculiar manner." All accounts of the Chaga agree in representing them to be an agricultural and a Negro nation. Individuals were said to be common at Zanzibar, but I did not succeed in finding any. In all my inquiries respecting the people of Eastern Africa, I could not hear of pastoral Negroes, nor of Ethiopian cultivators ; but there are some undetermined tribes holding an intermediate position along the borders of the cultivable soil, who may offer trifling exceptions. These minor tribes are situated to the westward of the Wanika, and apparently to the northward of the Chaga, and they may be conveniently noticed in this place. The TFa^amha, already alluded to, have, by some writers, been termed " Merremengo." Sadik stated that " they are not bad people, but all the same with the Monomoisy ; they trade and do not fight. They do not bring slaves, except a few, but trade in ivory." Dr. BIrapf, writing from Mombas, considers them a kindred nation to the 'Wanika and M'Sigua, but as having no affinity with the M'Kuafy, and it may therefore be inferred that they use a Negro language. He further states, that they " five partly among the Wanika and partly extended into the interior, that they throw their dead in the bush, and that some lead a pastoral life, and possess a fine breed of cattle." I did not meet with any of the Wakamba, although they were spoken of as not rare at Zanzibar. The TFataita seem also to be borderers, their country THE KEaEO EA.CE. 201 " commencing not more than a five days' journey from the coast." They were spoten of as " good people, who do not flght unless the Wakamba come out agamst them." Sadik called them "Wanika, but a different nation." They were enumerated among the tribes pillaged by the M'Kuafy. The Tavaiti dwell to the westward of the preceding: and a girl belonging to this tribe was seen at Zanzibar. She was apparently iu the condition of a slave, though not of the lowest class ; and she spoke, it was said, neither the Chaga nor the M'Kuafy language. Her hair was cropped close ; and from the hasty glance I obtained, I was unable to decide whether the Negro race was entirely pure. The Wampuffo appear to be quite a local tribe ; dweUiug, according to the M'Kuafy lad, " on the river Euvu, which comes into the Pungany, and not more than half a day's journey from his own country." Sadik said that "they brought ivory, and not slaves." The MoNOMOiSY, on the other hand, occupy an exten- sive territory, which is situated far ia the interior of the contiaent, and is bounded on the west by the " Great Lake." An Arab informed me, "that on his journey to the Monomoisy country he crossed numerous rivers coming from the mountains ; none of them, however, of greater depth than mid-leg, and donkeys had been taken the whole distance. He was four and a half monthsnn going, and was absent, in aU, three years ; but he did not visit the Lake. He returned with a party of seven hundred persons, and was only seventy-sis days in reaching the coast." I did not inquire of him the point of arrival ; but I would observe, that, according to some authorities, Kilwa (QuUoa) is nearer than Zanzibar to the Monomoisy country. In some memoranda communicated to me at Zanzibar,- 1 find the following statement of a Soahili, who " was eleven months absent on a similar journey. He saw the Great Lake, which has many islands. The canoes carry from five to fifteen men. He did not go armed while he remained among the Monomoisy. The kings fight much among them- selves. The Monomoisy have no money, but they are fond of beads and brass." I learned, moreover, that the Imaum has some sort of 202 PHTSIOAl HISTOET OS MAIT. patriarclial influence with the Monomoisy, and that the great carayans which come to Kilwa and to the coast opposite Zanzibar "bring him a present and look to him for protection during their stay." Beasts of burden appear to be entirely unknown to the Monomoisy ; and the ponderous elephant tusks, when brought to the coast, have been sometimes found to con- tain a little box or other article, deposited under the fancied idea that " it will lessen the weight." According to Sadik, " the Monomoisy trade only iu ivory, and do not bring slaves ; but sometimes a bad fellow among them -wjU manage to seU his friend." One of the Monomoisy caravans reached the coast just before my arrival at Zanzibar ; and several individuals, attracted apparently by motives of curiosity, came over to the island. They had a general air of superiority over the Zanzibar Negroes ; and some of them were taU and manly in their bearing, and had finer countenances than I have elsewhere seen in the Negro race. Their teeth were shghtly filed, but there were no marks or scars upon the skin ; and the head was shaved, with the exception of a small tufb on the crown. I had some conversation with three of them, through the medium of two interpreters. " They had been a week at the coast, which they were four months in reaching, travel- ling directly towards the rising sun. At the coast they obtain brass, and their armlets and the beads on their ankles were manufactured by themselves from this foreign material. They carry brass to their neighbours on the opposite side of the Lake, who, at the same time, dig brass and cast it, and sell it to them. Their neighbours go to the Malungo, a four months' journey to the westward, but not to the sea, and procure ivory and slaves, passing many nations on the route. The Malungo go to the western sea, likewise, after a journey of four months, and find "White people, from whom they procure beads, cotton cloth, and other articles." An intercourse across this portion of the African continent has long been known to exist ; and the circumstance is in accordance with Mr. Hale's remark, that dialects of one general language prevail throughout. The three Monomoisy further stated, that " two days nre THE NEGEO EACE. 203 required to cross tie Lake, sleeping at night on an island, the inhabitants of which are friendly, and sometimes come down to the coast. The length of the Lake is a two months' journey by water," and one of the party asserted that he had been the whole distance. " The canoes keep near the shore, and occasionally land to procure provisions. Sails are not used, and the paddle is held vertically. The water flows from south to north ; and sometimes during raias, it rises and covers houses." On mentioning the Moviza and Makua, they said that " the latter were far from them, but that the former, the "Wabiza, were near." " Their own town, or district, is on this side of the Lake;" and, if I understood rightly, its name is "Tengasha;" but " Tarika " was also mentioned. "Every town has its king, and theirs is Eiswagara. "Wutumbara, a large town, and the principal one of the Monomoisy nation, is five days' journey from them. Another town, Wajiji, distant from them a ten days' journey, is situated close to the Lake, and has a market, with great abundance of fish. The Mono- moisy towns are stockaded, but are all built in the plaias, and not upon high hiUs or rocks." Cannibalism was evidently a new idea to my informants, who shuddered as it was explained ; saying, " that there are plenty of tribes who fight and rob, but none that eat men." ■ " It is sometimes cold in the Monomoisy country ;" but my informants were found to be unacquainted with snow or ice, a fact implying the absence of high mountains. " Salt is procured from a hUl, distant about two days' journey from their town. Honey is abundant, and there are plenty of wild trees. Coffee is also abundant in the bush, and is not cultivated. Ginger, too, is plentiful, together vrith a production resembling Cardamum seed, but large." The " Monomoisy cultivate ' paddy ' or rice, also peas (Cajanus), hecms, pea-nuts (Arachis), sweet potatoes, cassada, and ' Sindi' corn;" but whether they are acquainted with juari (Sorghum), I could not clearly ascertain. " Gourds, the same as at Zanzibar, are plentiful, and are called 'buyu ;' and in some places there is suga/r-cane, which was likewise seen on the journey to the coast." Some Arab bread proved acceptable to two of the party, but was not to the 204 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAN. taste of the third, who asked for dates. A hand-organ at once absorbed their attention, and they listened with great delight. They added, that " in the Monomoisy country there are neither horses, donkeys, tame geese, nor ducks, but the com- mon domestic fowl is well known. Dogs are numerous ; and there are a few cats, which have been carried from Zanzibar. Goats and sTieep abound ; also coios, which are milked in the morning and evening, and are not used for riding." In connexion with this latter circumstance, it should be noted that bullocks were not seen labouring at Zanzibar, where they belong principally to the Banians, whose religious scruples exempt the female of this animal from all kinds of employment. The Wabiza (Moviza of some writers), who have been alluded to above, appear to be the neighbours of the Mono- moisy on the south. According to another account, " they dwell at the Grreat Lake, and generally come to Blilwa." The N'Tasa, who inhabit the islands and perhaps the further shores of the Great Lake, seemed to be the most distant tribe known at Zanzibar. Individuals in the state of slavery were not uncommon; and one of them stated " that he was one day in reaching the Great Lake, and spent another in crossing' it, making two days to the Monomoisy country." Another individual, evidently a visitor, had taken up the profession of a strolling musician, and went about collectiiig com in small quantities, which he poured into a goat-skia. He had a bow provided with a half gourd-sheU, which was applied to the breast, while the string was beaten with a slender wand ; and wearing below the knee rows of a rat- tling hai'd-sheUed fruit something like sleigh-bells, he danced to his own music. There was no regular tune, but only the constant repetition of some half-a-dozen notes. The M'SiGTTA dwell on the coast, and appear to be much scattered among the Wanika, although their proper country, I believe, is south of the Pungany Eiver. Individuals were commonly seen in the slave-market at Zanzibar, where they were recognised by the numerous small scars on the temples. Dr. Krapf speaks of the M'Sambaea, who dwell somewhat further in the interior, as " a kindred nation to the M'Sigua, THE ITEGBO UACE. 205 "Wanika, "Wakamba, and SoaHH ; " groimding his opinion, it is presumed, principally upon tlie affinities of language. With the exception of the M'Sigua, almost all the slaves offered for sale at Zanzibar had been brought from the southward, and principally from Kilwa. Small dows arriving from that place were crowded with the living freight ; and the influx was represented as being much greater at a differ- ent season of the year. The Makua occupy the coast immediately to the north- ward of Mozambique, and trade with that city. They were spoken of as " bad people, who kill the crews of vessels that happen to get on shore ; and dows, in consequence, do not visit that part of the coast, unless several are in company." A Makua girl, pointed out to me in the slave-market, bore the national mark of a crescent-shaped scar in the middle of the forehead. The district of the M'Kindo is back of EJUwa ; and a man of this tribe, who was seen in the slave-market, w^as only " two days in reaching Kilwa." A slave girl, who likewise belonged to a tribe near Kilwa, had a thread-like scar a little below the hair, quite encircling the head. The country of the M'Hiao is much further in the inte- rior, and must be extensive, since it furnishes a large portion of the slaves offered for sale at Zanzibar. The markings vary in different individuals, but often consist of raised scars or welts, crossing each other like stars. Many of the females have the upper lip perforated ; and the opening enlarging with age, at last forms a false gaping mouth, which destroys all natural expression of countenance, and singularly dis- figures them. I once observed two M'Hiao women, free residents of Zanzibar, in the act of purchasing one of these elderly deformed persons. A Soahili, who had travelled by land to the southward along the coast, gave me the following particulars : " The river Lufljy is larger than the Pungany, and has more plant- ations ; dows can ascend it for three days, and canoes for a long distance. The Lovuma is of the same size with the Luiijy ; canoes ascend it for more than two weeks, and no one has seen the end. The Wameea and "Wakondt dwell on the Lovuma ; and at the top, the Matiha and Makua :" from which latter circumstance it may be inferred that some 206 PHTSIOAIi HISTOET OF MAJiT. of tte head waters of the Lovuma are at no great distance from the coast. " All the people coming from the interior walk to Kjlwa; " and on my asking why they do not aTail themselves of the canoe navigation, he repUed, " they do not understand. Silver and gold are unknown to the people of that portion of Africa, and they have no money ; hut they wiE barter sheep, goats, and brass beads. They are acquainted with iron, and they dig copper, which is abundant ; but they do not know how to compose brass, otherwise there would be no trade. Copal is too plentiful near the coast to he worth the trouble of bringing from the interior ; and ivory is the only article of commerce which comes from a distance." Among many individuals interrogated at Zanzibar, no one had voluntarily entered the condition of slavery; neither could I, from amy source, obtain evidence of the existence of such a practice. On comparing the various circumstances already men- tioned, it may, I think, be inferred that if the outlet of the Monomoisy river or lake is upon the eastern coast, it is to be looked for only in the Juba. It may also be observed, that the mouth of the Juba being situated in barren terri- tory, its waters must be derived from a distance, either from the mountains of Abyssinia or from the rainy region to the southward. Some of the Negroes imported from Mozambique into Bio Janeiro had come from the southern part of the above- described slave-district ; and Mr. Hale met with Wakondy, M'Hiao, and Makua. Others, however, had been brought from further south, as "the Takwast, from the Zambezi Eiver, and the N'Tambau'A, from Inhambane." The latter were observed to be marked in a singular and unique man- ner with a row of fleshy knobs like buttons, which had been artificially formed upon the forehead. SOUTH AFRICA. There were no EArsEBS at Cape Tovm at the time of the visit of the Vincennes ; but from statuary and other sources I obtained abundant evidence that these tribes belong physi- cally to the Negro race. They appear, however, to be more familiar with pastoral life than their brethren on the north ; THE KEGEO EACE. 207 but they agree in their dialects, -which, according to Mr. Hale, form a subdivision of the same general language. A fortnight previous to our arrival, some families of the Fingo tribe were encamped in the vicinity of Cape Town ; but on visiting the spot designated, I found that they had departed. The owner of a neighbouring plantation stated that " a large body of Fingoes once remained there for seve- ral weeks, and formed a regular town or 'kraal.' Their hair was exactly like that of the Negro ; but the complexion varied, in some individuals beiug nearly as light as that of the Hottentot, and iu others quite black. The men marry as many wives as possible, as by this means they secure at aU times a support." WESTERN AFRICA. I have seen aboriginal Negroes of "Western A&ica only at Eio Janeiro, where I enjoyed the advantage of being present duringmany of Mr. Hale's examinations, and of thus learning the precise place of origiu of the different iadividuals. They mostly belonged to the countries south of the Equator, to tribes speaking dialects " of the Oongo-Makuan subdivision of the general language, such as the BengiteIiA, KliSANGi, and Congo ; the BLAjorNBA, from the Congo Eiver ; and the MirerBJOiiA, from the country back of Loango." The Negroes from the coast north of the Equator, or from GrTDTBA, had been brought principally from Mina, a port in the- Ashantee country. They, as a class, and particularly individuals from the far interior, were much dreaded by the planters. I saw one man who spoke a little Arabic ; and " in the instance of a former insurrection, the slaves were said to have corresponded in this language." Por a more particular account of the various Negro tribes furnishing the slaves brought to Eio Janeiro, I must refer to the Narrative. I would remark, however, in reference to the condition of "Western Africa, that the descriptions I have read, exhibit, on the part of the natives, no deficiency in shrewdness and natural good sense, accompanied, however, by a grossness of manners not found in those parts of the world which I have visited. 208 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. CENTRAL AFRICA. Natiyes of Central AMca were chiefly seen in Egypt, where, through the assistance of Dr. Gasparino, I was enabled to learn the history of a number of individuals selected from the Negro regiment. On inquiring for " ShiUuk," sereral were at once pointed out ; but it appeared, that the term as here used had reference to height of stature, rather than to the river tribe bearing the name. The persons designated called themselves Janga ; and one very tall maa " came from the mountains, and spoke the Denkawi lan- guage." Three other Janga, one of whom was short, were from the plains. Three individuals called themselves Nttbawi, the name of the class of Negroes who have been already mentioned as well known at Mocha and in Southern Arabia. One Negro from KoEDorAN termed himself an Arab, and said that his language was the Arabic ; and the same account was given by three other natives of that country, although they were all manifestly of unmixed race. Another Negro styled his nation Hamajatjwt. And two individuals were from Fazoglo. It appeared that all present, without exception, came from the Bahr el Abiad or the White Eiver ; and as late accounts place Darfour within the vaUey, it is quite possible that no Negroes may reach Egypt from countries beyond the waters of the Nile. I did not find, in Egypt the scars and marks on the skin, or the filed teeth, which usually distinguish aboriginal Negroes. In the slave-market I remarked among the females considerable variety in the mode of dressing the hair ; and much pains had been often taken to form it into roUs, or in other instances into numerous slender braids. I once observed the eyehds coloured with blue paint, as a sub- stitute for "kohhl," which latter material would hardly m this instance have been conspicuous on the complexion. The Negroes seen in Egypt appeared to me unusually slender, even after making every allowance for the style of dress. The following extract fr-om Leo Africanus, which is borne THE NEGBO EACE. 209 out in some measure by Bruce' s account of the Sliangalla, refers to the primitive condition of Central Africa, prior to tlie visits of the Muslims. " The land of Negroes was then inhabited by men living in the manner of beasts ; without kings, lords, senates, government, or taxes. They hardly sowed com, had no clothing but skins, and no property in wives. They spent the day in tending their herds, or in labouring the ground. At night they met in little com- panies of ten or twelve, men and women, in bowers covered with boughs of trees. They never made war, or travelled, but contentedly lived all their days in their native country, and never set foot out of it." At the present day, three important Muslim-Negro king- doms are found along the southern border of the Desert : Darfour, Bomou, and Soudan. An account of the two last may be found in the work of Denham and Clapperton. Darfour is less known ; although, in the eye of the Egyptian Arab, it ranks as one of the three great political powers which divide the earth ; the two others being Persia and Constantinople. At Singapore I saw two Negroes in the shop of the Abyssinian Arab, who, in their deportment, in their air of resolution and self-respect, seemed a different class of beings from those of their race I had previously met with. On inquiry, I was informed that " the black Arabs come chiefly from Sennaar ;" and on regarding the two individuals more closely, I thought I could distinguish the costume of Bomou, as figured by Denham and Clapperton. It appears, however, from Burckhardt, that pilgrims very rarely come from as far west as Bomou ; and the probable origin of the above injlividuals may have been Kordofan or Darfour. The head was habitually uncovered, and one had the wool so close as fairly to justify the appellation of " pepper-haired," which is so universally applied to the race in Eastern countries. They had doubtless come by the way of Mocha. But I did not meet with the same costume on my recent journey. 210 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OP MAK. CHAPTEE X. THE ETHIOPUN RACE The EtMopian race is ia some measure iatermediate in personal appearance between the Telingan and the Negro. The complexion: too seems generally darker than ia the Telingan race, holding the third rank in depth of hue. The hair is crisped, but fine in its texture ; and I hare never seen it wiry, as in the Papuan; from which latter race the Ethiopian differs, in having a soft skin and European-like features. Various modem travellers have been struck with the resemblance of the Ethiopian to the Telingan race. The same circumstance was noticed in ancient tunes by Herodotus, who also speaks of the remarkable beauty of those hving southwest of Arabia;* an opinion in which, from actual observation, I am now prepared to concur. The Ethiopian race occupies the hottest countries of Africa. Most of its tribes are purely pastoral ; and some of them are, perhaps, alone acquainted with aU the recesses of the Great Desert. The only portions of the race that are known to lead an agricultural life are the Nubians of the Nile, and some of the teibes bordering on the table-land of Abyssinia. Characteristic portraits of Ethiopians may be found in various works on Egypt and Nubia ; and I would refer par- ticularly to the figures given ia Hoskin's Travels on the Upper NUe. The Ethiopian race was not seen in its purity diiring the voyage of the Exploring Expedition, but it was doubtless present among some of the mixed Arabs at Singapore. My acquaintance with it commenced on the day of my landing in Egypt. * Herodotus, Thalia, 101, 114, &c. FllCK ETT M II ® PO ft P5 IS ACE, A BISH.A11£E WOMAJ^r THE ETHIOPIAN EACE. 211 NUBIANS. a. Bardbra of the Nile. The Barabra found in Lower Egypt are principally ad- ventttrers from the hanks of the Nile in Nubia, who seek employment for hire, and after a series of yearsr return to their own country. They are faToured in certain particulars by the government ; being " exempted from military duty, and being sometimes employed as task-masters, — an occupa- tion in which they particularly excel." They are extremely clannish ; and strong antipathies exist between them and the common Egyptian Arabs. Old residents hare assured me, that they hare never known in Lower Egypt of an instance of mixed offspring between these two classes. My own servant and interpreter was from Dongola, and he was con- sidered by eye-witnesses as a fair example of the people of his native country. Some of the boats on the Nile are manned and commanded by Barabra; who, however, hardly form mixed crews, or serve under Arab commanders. These Barabra boatmen appeared to belong principally to the immediate vicinity of the Cataract, where a fondness for the water is acquired in early life ; and they perhaps correspond to the " Ichthyophagi of Elephantine" mentioned by Herodotus. A third class of Barabra are the " Jellab," who procure slaves on the upper parts of the Nile, and conduct them in slave-caravans to Cairo and Alexandria. One individual of this class had the face unuaually compressed, a peculiarity noticed by Ledyard, but I did not meet with a second instance. A fourth class consists of a large portion of the slaves, those who in Egypt are termed " Abyssinians." Such as I saw offered for sale were nearly all children and half-grown persons ; having their hair dressed with much pains, ac- cording apparently to their respective national fashions. Some of the children proved to be " GlaUa;" but, through the diversity of dialects, their place of origin could rarely be ascertained; and they, perhaps, had not aU been derived from the southern border of Abyssinia. Oi}, ascending the NUe; I met with the first instances of p2 212 PHYSICAL HISTOET OS MAN. mixed descent at Kenneli, the modern capital of the Thebaid, abont thirty mUes below the site of ancient Thebes. Market-women of the Ethiopian race likewise made their appearance at Kenneh ; where a change took place in the weights and measures, and cowries were seen used as money; and where articles from " Hindi" were commonly offered for sale, such as black pepper, which had been brought, together with dates and coffee, from Mecca. Above Kenneh, men walking with spears were occasionally met with ; and, according to the words of my Barabra servant, " thief had finished." The true boundary, however, between the two races appears to be at Silsilis, about one hundred mUes above Thebes, and forty miles below the Cataract. The Kekoos begin at this point, and with them a change takes place ia the mode of raising water for irrigation, a task now accom- plished by means of the wheel. I saw numbers of Kenoos, on landing at different places, and particularly at Assouan and PhilsB, the limit of my journey. The Barabra boatmen above mentioned hardly appeared to form a distinct class. Contrary to the practice of the Arabs, the women were observed to take much pains in braiding and dressing their hair in a variety of modes ; but they had other customs which they had evidently borrowed from the Arabs, as the use of kohhl or eye-paint, and of tattooing ; both continued, notwithstanding the deep hue of the complexion. The Kenoos are all Muslims ; but they do not appear to regard very rigidly some of the observances of their religion, and swine were seen at Assouan. At the same place I fell in with a body of slaves on their way down the river, and also with an Arab merchant, proceeding with bales of goods to Sennaar. b. 3a/rdbra of the Desert. The Ababdeh inhabit the eastern desert of the Thebaid, between the Nile and the Eed Sea ; and I met with indi- viduals at Kenneh, and at other towns higher up the river, but principally at Assouan. The Ababdeh use the Arabic language, and they do not understand that of the agricul- tural Nubians. An opinion, however, prevailed at Assouan, that they once had a language of their own, as the Bishareen TH35 ETHIOPIAlf BACB. 213 now have, and that it was displaced by the Arabic. The Ababdeh "bring charcoal to Assouan, procuring it within two, three, or more days' journey ia the desert ; and they occasionally bring ostrich eggs, obtained at a distance of not more than two hundred miles." My Dongola servant expressed surprise at this statement, having supposed that ostrich eggs were at present prociu-ed altogether from Kordofan ; and he asserted that there were " none now in Dongola, and that Sennaar had been likewise exhausted." In returning down the river, I fell in with the Shekh of the Ababdeh, who was reported to hold authority likewise over the Bishareen. His personal appearance was indicative of mixed Arab descent, but I did not learn the history of his family. He wore a turban, in consequence, as he said, of being on his way to Cairo ; but he intended, on his return, to dress his hair after the fashion of his own country. He was well acquainted with Soakin, where he had seen some of the Somali ; and he spoke of the Eostan, as being an extremely troublesome and ferocious people. He was particularly desirous of ascertaining why Europeans came so far to look at antiquities ; and on learning that hieroglyphic characters could be read, he considered himself in possession of the secret. The BiSHAEEBir dwell in the district to the southward of the Ababdeh, and situated in. Kke manner eastward of the NUe. Two individuals seen at Assouan enabled me to identify the physical race. One of them wore a pin for dressing the hair, similar to the Peejeean, but shorter and curved. The Ababdeh and Bishareen do not mix with their hair any foreign substance except ghee or butter, which in this climate is entirely fluid, and is an effectual safeguard against vermin. The curved club which these tribes have been accustomed to use, from remote antiquity, is small and light in comparison with that of the Teejeeans. I could hear nothing in Egypt of the Tibboo of the central Sahara ; and it is possible that they may have no communication with the Egyptian Oases. Herodotus seems to allude to these people imder the name of the " Ethiopian Troglodytes ;" and they are probably to be regarded as the proper aboriginals of the Desert. According to Homeman 214 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OP MAK. and others, tte Tibtoo continue in part pagaia; and they hold their flocks about the widely separated wellB and Oases, some of which are perhaps known only to themselves ; yet in their trackless solitudes they are not altogether jGree from the depredations of the Tuariek and Arab. Some points in their history present unexpected analogy to the customs of the Australians ; as their use of a curved missile, and their counterfeiting a lump of black basalt in order to elude observation, as the AustraUans counterfeit a burned stump, Denham and Clapperton moreover state, that the Tibhoo couriers " are the only persons who will undertake singly to cross the Sahara." On my ioumey from Cairo to Suez I met the caravan returning from Mecca ; but it was unfortunately at night, and I obtained a view of the travellers only by the light of their own torches. There seemed to be a large proportion of Ethiopians, many of them, doubtless, from Nubia; but some, who made inquiries about Alexandria, and maintained a more independent bearing than the Egyptian Barahra, may have belonged to the far west. The Ethiopian profile has appeared to me to have famished the model for the Egyptian features of the earliest monu- ments, as far dovm as the conclusion of the eighteenth dynasty ; and we may otherwise look in vain for representa- tions of a people who at least must have been intimately known to the ancient inhabitants of the Thebaid. I am aware that the Desert tribes have been separately and distinctly delineated, though even here I would appeal to the profile ; and after making every allowance for a conven- tional style of art, those highly finished portraits of Egyptians in which the hair is disposed in numerous slender braids, have appeared to me intended for men of the Ethiopian race. The same rule respecting the hair will, I think, be found to prevail in the mummies (though few of these have proved to be of greater antiquity than the Greek or Ptolemaic period) ; and the wooden neck-piUow accompany- ing the mummies was certainly not an invention of men of the White race. On the monuments of the eighteenth dynasty, men of the White race are frequently represented, but chiefly as slaves, or as foreigners ; and they may always be distin- THE ETHIOEIAlf BACE. 215 guished by the profile from tie Egyptians, lie earliest uneqtiivocal representatioiis of the White race oocnr in the grottoes of Beni Hassan, excaTated duriag the tweMbh dynasty, or towards the conclusion of "the time of the pyramids ;" and it should also be observed, that some of the transactions here recorded seem connected •vrith the first appearance in Egypt of the Hyksos or Shepherds. The portrait of Osortasen I., discovered in Nubia, is, however, of a somewhat anterior date ; and it seems to agree best with the White race, so far as I can judge from copies. Most of the monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty, can be clearly referred to the White race ; and their portraits, in some instances, are even painted flesh-colour, as one of Eameses III., which I saw at Thebes. It may also be regarded as established, that subsequent to, if not before, the eighteenth dynasty, the Egyptians were regarded as belonging nationally to the White race. On the other hand, there exists abundant evidence that some of the Egyptian Pharaohs were physically Ethiopians. Eighteen of these were enumerated by the Egyptian priests to Herodotus : and if the place of birth may be regarded as an index in this question of race, the claims of the Elephantinite dynasty would seem to deserve special consideration. SOMALI. The Somali inhabit that projecting portion of the African continent which is opposite to, and hems in, the southern angle of Arabia ; and they extend, along the coast and more or less into the interior, from the Straits of Bab el Mandeb to the river Juba under the Equator. Their country, although arid and intensely hot, affords pasturage, and seems eminently adapted for rearing a peculiar close-haired variety of sheep. The Somali also engage in maritime pursuits ; and many of them are to be foimd established in separate communities, at the principal ports on the lower portion of the Eed Sea. The Somali seem to be very much confined to the above limits. I met with one individual who had strayed as far as Muscat. But I saw none of them at BowAay, where there 216 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. occurred but a single example of the Ethiopian race. I heard of a Somali woman at Cairo; but such instances, I presume, are rare. I observed, however, , a Somali lad among the crew of the English steamboat on the Eed Sea. The Somali appear to have had very little intercourse with Europeans prior to the recent establishment of the English at Aden. On landing at that place, their flaxen locks (stained Hfce those of the Eeejeean girls) rendered many of the Somali conspicuous ; and where this mark was wanting, their slender graceful forms and their European- like features, readily distinguished them from the Negroes around. They consisted chiefly of young men and boys in search of employment, after having brought from the oppo- site coast great numbers of sheep for the supply of the town. I also saw a few women offering articles for sale in the market-place. My Parsee interpreter, Manockjee, regarded the Somali as " a better class of people than the common Arabs of the country ; for, instead of stealing, they would work, and, if required, the whole night long ;" and from his having had much experience at Aden, having even suffered pecxiniary loss through a Somali, I have thought his opinion entitled to consideration. At Mocha the Somali women had monopoHsed the most laborious avocation of MusHm countries, that of water- carriers. At night they all retired to a village apart from the Jewish suburb, and consisting of thatched houses ; some of which were in the Afidcan style, cylindrical with a conical roof. On visiting this village, the women were foimd to perform most of the work for thp support of the family, as is the custom with the Peejeeans, and various other points of resemblance were recognised. The unmarried women were in Kite manner designated by an obvious sign ; not indeed by flaxen hair, (which was here worn only by the men,) but by the head being altogether destitute of a covering. Great pains were always taken by the women in dressing their hair, which was sometimes braided into fine cords, and in some instances these cords were united at the ends. On one occasion I witnessed a wedding-dance, which, contrary to the custom of the FeUah- Arabs of Egypt, was conducted exclusively by the women ; and, indeed, it THE ETHIOPIAN EAOB. 217 resembled the Egyptian ceremony only in the clapping of hands. The music consisted of three drums, each beaten by two female performers. The other women danced, two or three at a time, in the middle of the circle, with some- what energetic but not very graceful movements. It was evident, from the marks of designation above mentioned, that early marriages are not customary among the Somali. A principal branch of female industry among these people consisted in the making of matting from leaves of the Doum palm, and a variety of articles of this material were offered in the market. The plait was the same that is figured on the Egyptian monuments. The only colours were dull red and black, both of which are common among the Eeejeeans, and appear also to be aboriginal in North- west America. The Somali boys brought to market ropes or halters for camels, of very neat workmanship. The men were not seen engaged in any occupation, though their province was, doubtless, to procure fish, and, in their own country, to attend to the flocks. A small species of anchovy is taken abundantly at Mocha, and dried for the Java market. Quantities of these fish were spread out before the Somali houses, and a curious sight was offered by the gulls and terns persisting in obtaining a share, in spite of the boys who were in attendance ; for, as a general thing in these countries, no one thinks of molesting or frightening the brute creation. The men commonly wore a wooden pin for the hair, or a three-toothed wooden comb, both articles correspondiig to those used by the Feejeeans ; but, unlike the state of things among the last-named people, the Somali offered instances of baldness. The head was always uncovered in both old and young, and lads sometimes had it shaven. Eegularly towards evening the men would assemble to throw the javelin ; but their performances were trifling in comparison with those of the South Sea Islanders. Several of the Somali boys spoke a little English, which they had acquired at Aden ; and, on one occasion, I found them somewhat free with their tongues, now that they were beyond the reach of English rule. During the five weeks I spent at Mocha, from the latter part of April throughout the month of May, the tempera- 218 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OP MAST. ture did not fall below 90° Fahrenlieit. The Somali, how- ever, did not appear to be iacommoded by the intense heat ; and that they enjoy more robust health than the Arabs was a subject of common remark among the inhabitants of Mocha. I learned that some years ago "an English vessel anchored at Berbera, on th© Somali coast ; when, the captain with others having landed, the natives took advantage of the circumstance to drag the vessel ashore and pillage the cargo." Payment of damages having been promptly enforced by the Anglo-Indian authorities, the affair was said to have had a salutary influence throughout the vicinity. A trader who once visited Berbera, informed me that the natives, after working together during the day, would repair to the beach to fight ; often, until some of their number were badly wounded, or even left dead upon the ground. There were no Somali at Zanzibar at the time of my visit to that place, but during the other monsoon they were reported to arrive in great numbers, consisting, as it appeared, chiefly, if not exclusively, of persons who belong to the vicinity of Brava and Mukdusha. My Soahih inter- preter, Sadik, recognised a Somali comb which I brought from Mocha, and he was aware of the custom of staining the hair. He stated of the Southern Somali, that " they have many books, which are written with the Arabic character, but in a different language, and that there are learned men among the Somali, who make books. The language is harsh. He had never heard of the existence of antiquities or inscrip- tions in the Somali country. Each man carries three or four spears, but some have bows and arrows. They cannot fight the G-aUa, who are the strongest ;" but he declared at the same time, that " he had never heard of the GtaUa fighting the Somali." DENKALI. The Danakil tribes inhabit the district north of the Somali, and fronting on the lower portion of the Eed Sea; and on a line with Zeyla, they appear to be much extended into the interior. They " speak a different language from the Somali; and individuals visit Mocha for the purpose of THE ETHIOPIAN BAOE. 219 bringing slaves, wMch they obtain in tbe interior," and which, it is presumed, are chiefly G-ailla. The Deiiali were said to " conduct themselves weU while at Mocha, but to come only a few at a time." The first individual I met with happened to be of short stature and short-necked ; and he might readily have been mistaken for a Fedeean, agreeiug even in the disposal of his hair. Points of difference, however, were perceived on a closer inspection ; and the other Denkali seen, did not differ physically from the Somali and Barabra. GALLA. The G-aUa tribes have long been regarded as the terror of East Africa, and the extensive region they inhabit has been very little visited by strangers. The GaDa are, for the most part, purely pastoral ia their habits ; but, according to Mr. Isenbe^g, the tribes bordering on the highlands of Abyssinia cultivate the ground. The NosTHEEK G-AiLA furnish great numbers of slaves, principally women and children, whp are sent by the way of Abyssinia into Egypt and Arabia. In the latter country many of the tovm Arabs are of partia.1 GaUa descent. I did not meet with like instances at Cairo and Alexandria, where, however, the GaUa women hold a similar position with those in Arabia. Some of them, moreover, were married to European residents of the ilrst respectability : having been carefully educated, they proved elegant and accomplished companions. At Zanzibar I met vrith but one of the Northern G-alla, a slave-woman, who called her nation " Chory," and who, according to her own account, came " by the way of Mocha from Massowa." The point of embarkation interposes an objection to affinity with the Bishareen, and she was expressly termed a GaDa by the Arabs in company. The SouTHEEN GaI/LA are rarely slaves, but I heard of an instance in a " Musagna " woman, who was the only representative of these tribes at Zanzibar. It was said, that in times of scarcity the Southern Galla vrill sell some of their nmnber, who, however, are not esteemed ; for when 220 PHYSICAL HISTOBY OF MAK. directed to perform any service, they will ask questions, or reply " Gro and do it yourself." The nation is weU known by report at Zanzibar, as fre- quenting the western bank of the Oozy, and intercepting the land-route from Mombas to Lamo, and as visiting the settlements on the coast for the purposes either of plunder or traffic. The Southern G-alla refuse vegetable food, and Kve exclusively on nulk and meat ; the only semblance of an exception that I could hear of, being the fact, that they have been known to " steal com from the people of Brava." The Sultan of Patta and an Arab who was present at the interview, gave me the following account of the Southern GaUa : " Their country is called ' Bararata,' * and is situated eight days' journey from Patta;" perhaps not including the "two days to the river Oozy, where they come to trade. They bring cattle, which have a hump, and which are greatly superior to the Ijidian cattle at Zanzibar. They have camels, which they use for car^jong burdens, but not for riding. They elect a king every eight years, and the new king circumcises his subjects. They shave the head, preserving a lock of hair on it for every man they have killed. Their king, when sent for, wiU come to Oozy ; and, if a present were made, he would be vriUing to take an unattended European into the country, and would bring him back iu safety ; but if several persons wished to go, the visit would be impossible. Por the last eighty-five years, or since the time of his grandfather, the Patta people have not been able to go into the Gralla country. In person, the GaUa are tall and good-looking, and resemble the M'Kuafi, with whom they often fight ; both nations having precisely the same description of hair. The G-alla have strong beards, but these are habitually clipped. They have no bows ; and in warfare they use only the spear (which is held, and is not thrown), protecting themselves vrith shields. They are very much afraid of fire-arms." A " Vagugna" man, ftom Eassini, a town on the coast * As the transfer of geograpliical names serves to illustrate history, the resemblance may be here noted to Bahratta or Mahratbi, " the ancient name of India." THE ETHIOPIAN EACE. 221 near Patta, subsequently called on me, and assured me that lie had travelled in the Galla country ; and he made the fol- lowing statement : — " After the death of the former Sultan of Patta, there remained two brothers, who were enemies ; and when one of them returned from Muscat, the other withdrew with all the soldiers into the GaUa country, and obtained protection from the kiag of the G-aUa. These two rival brothers died, and the present Sultan of Patta is a fourth brother, and the son of a Galla woman ; but they all had one father." My informant was " one of the soldiers above mentioned ; and he was two months in going to Bararata, travelling always west towards sunset, in which direction the country is aH G-aUa. The Gololy Galla are next. After the first day's journey, he crossed no large river ; but there was no difficulty in finding water to drmk and towns to sleep in. No molestation was ofiered on the route, it being given out that the party was goiiig to visit the king. Eice was carried for provision; and sometimes the people of the country tasted it, but they invariably threw it away, and contemned the eating of such trash.* He remained among the GaUa for ten months, and he afterwards spent two in returning to the coast." " The Bararata eat beef, which they cook in boiling water ; and they ttiit blood and milk together for drink. They have no com, rice, nor bananas. Weemhi (Eleusine coracana) is sometimes planted by their slaves ; but the Bararata them- selves eat only milk and meat. The men have strong beards, sometimes two feet long ; and the king has one which is very large. They shave the head, which is always kept uncovered. They take as many wives as they please ; and they Uve in skin-houses, and are good people. They have donkeys, but not horses. They go out to fight every day; they fight Wama and other GaUa, also Gololy and Gingeero (a place I hadnamed), which is close to them." He had never heard of cannibals. On inquiring about Kaffa, he stated that " the Bararata go to Moorkafa. Bararata is close to Habbusheea, and aU the same ; and they do not fight. He knew three tovms in * Compare Herodotus, Thalia, 22 and 23. 222 PHYSICAL HISTOKX OF MAN. Habbusteea, but on this side ; one of them, a small town, is called Kebong. Some Baiarata go to Habbusheea, taking with them ivory and gums (aloes, gmn-arabic, and myrrh, all which they call 'lubannm'), but not slaves; and they briag back cloth, which is of the same description with that of Brava." " He once accompanied a Mend, on an excursion to kill elephants, as far as Looggoon, which is a large town. The inhabitants are free, but among them are some slaves. A few are Muslims, and the rest are Kafiri. They have coarse manners, and they pay no regard to the decencies of hfe. Men and women go naked, with the exception of a girdle round the waist, and a skin cloak over the shoulder. The men do not practise circumcision. They each carry two spears, and they possess many horses. These people go every year to the beach, which is about ten days distant m Hazaeen," or the Somali country. When asked about Massowa, he "thought it was the other side, iu Juda country ; he had heard one man speak of it. A slave, now living on the maiu land of Africa, was the only person about Zanzibar besides himself who had visited Bararata." M'KUAFI. TheM'Kuafi dwell in the interior, to the west of Mombas, and south of the proper GraUa country. The following in- formation respectmg them was derived from young persons seen at Zanzibar ; where, according to the Arabs, slaves of this class were formerly cheap and not much esteemed, but now bring high prices. A M'Kuafi girl stated, that " she had been captured by the Mussai, who kUled her father and mother, and who sold her to the Chaga. She was twenty- five days in reaching the coast, formerly, her nation was powerflil above others ; so that one woman with a stick would stop a thousand persons from passing through the country, unless a present was first made ; but her people are broken, and at present they would not fight the M'Sigua." " Her people do not cultivate the ground, and they eat only milk and meat. Children when hungry help themselves by direct application to the cow. Cattle are killed by THE ETHIOPIAir KA.OE. 223 piercing the spine ; mimbers of them every day, tmtil each family is supplied. The M'Kuafi have no fixed meal-times ; but they eat whenever they feel incUned, inviting their neighbours of the same village to partake with them. Each family has its own cattle, which all go to pasture together, and outside the town is a place to receive them at night. The men many as many women as they please, and each wife has a separate house. These habitations are tents of buEock-skin, supported by poles set around. The men decorate themselves with large beads, and their dress is made of sHn, and consists of a painted cincture full of openings and hanging stripes, and of a long cloak worn over one shoulder. Cloth, however, is now brought by traders. The women, by way of ornament, coil brass wire about the arm as far as the elbow. The beads and brass wire are procured at Pemba, by selling ivory obtained from .elephants, some of which are found dead, while others are purjiosely kiUed." " The M'Kuafi do not bury, but they put their dead in the bush for the wild beasts to eat. The friends afterwards cry from ten to twenty days, and then kill three bullocks and make a feast. The M'Kuafi have neither prayers nor religion, but they eat and sleep. The name of their deity is Angayai, and on some big days they take feathers and dance. They have cows, goats, donkeys, sheep, and dogs, but neither cats nor horses. They take off the fleece of the sheep and spin yam, with which they sew the skins together. They have gourd-shells for holding water, which are bought of the Chaga. They go out to fight with the Mussai frequently, sometimes every day ; and they take cattle : they fight also with the "Wampugo and the Wataita, but not with the Chaga. The country of the M'Kuafi consists of mountains and plains, and produces some trees which supply tent-poles, but there are no fruits. Persons while sleeping are sometimes eaten by leopards." On another occasion the same girl brought two of her companions, and they sung together some simple and plain- tive airs, such as are used " in getting children to sleep." Their dancing was not graceful, but was somewhat violent, and not altogether decent. Their language was soft ; and I heard terminal vowels only, the two syllables " goonga " frequently recurring. I read to them some translations in 224 PHYSICAL HISTOEY Or MA>'. the Galla ; but this proved to be a different language, and they did not recognise a word. On beiag questioned on the subject, the first girl said, " She did not wish to return home, for her relations were all dead;" and some tears followed the allusion to the subject. Beads being offered, she pre- ferred the red to the blue, according to the general taste in this part of AMca. Of the other girls, one came from " Kaputa," and the third from " Aseta." A fourth girl whom I interrogated was too young to give much information; and she, besides, had not yet learned the Soaluli language. It appeared that she " had been stolen by some Chaga ; that she came from the vicinity of the KiLmungaro mountaiu" (which is visible from the sea) ; and that she " understood the lang^uage of the other girls, when they were brought together." A highly intelligent lad, who had the lobe 6f one ear per- forated, stated, that the size of this opening among the M'Kuafi " indicates the rank of the individual, the king having one of very remarkable dimensions." "With regard to his own history, he stated, that " on the occasion of am attack by some foreign tribe, he with other children hid themselves ; but the circumstance had been observed from a distance by some Wampugo, who came to the spot and carried them away. The towns of the M'Kuafi are not fixed; but when the grass fails, a new one is made in another place. The M'Kuafi. ride donkeys ; they eat beef and sheep, and drink water and milk. It is customary when a man kills a bullock, to send a piece to the king, to give away another on account of circumcision, and then to eaU. his friends to eat the remainder. There aje camelopards in the country ; and poor people, who have no bullocks, HE them for food, taking them in pitfalls, or sometimes with poison. The mode of circumcising differs from that prevail- ing among Muslims. The government likewise differs ; and if one man kUls another, the price of blood is from ten to twenty bullocks." " The M'Kuafi put on a cap of ostrich feathers when they go out to fight. On a former occasion they beat the M'Sig^a, taking all the cattle, which they sold at Zanzibar. They fight with the "Wakamba, towards sunrise ; and they are so warlike, that they would fight even with their nearest THE ETHIOPIAJT EAOE. 225 relations. They sometimes go to the Monomoisy country, to fight and take property ; hut not into the country of the Chaga, with whom they do not fight, unless meeting by accident. They fight, however, with the Lupalaconga, who live on a mountain, and speak the same language with the Chaga," and who, accormng to his description, must he a. Negro tribe. " His people once went towards sunrise to fight with the Sikirwashi, who are the nation called Galla at Zanzibar. They saw a large river which ' came dry,' and men carrying large spears, who spoke a difierent language from their own. They took aU. the cattle, the donkeys, and the fat-taUed sheep ; but they disdained taking the horses, an animal they had never before seen. The king of the Sikirwashi wears a large beard, wHle the rest of the people shave, using for the purpose a sort of small iron chisel; and these practices prevail equally with the M'Kuafl." "When the lad was asked about the Mussai, he rejoined, with some emotion, " they who break my country ; he knew them well. They dwell further inland than the M'Kuafi." He did not know how old he was, and asked " if any one could tell him. His people have no prayers ; he could not speak lies. He did not wish to return to his native country ; he had got no bullocks. He was now a slave ; no matter, he should soon die. He did not know where he should go to after death. He had heard that Grod made him ; that was all." MUSSAI. The Mussai hold the country west of the M'Kuafi ; and they are the most distant of the pastoral tribes known at Zanzibar. According to the girl above-mentioned, they speak the same language as the M'Kuafi, with whom they agree in not cultivating the soU, and in Hving exclusively on milk and meat. Indeed, all the accounts show them to be a kindred nation. My interpreter, Sadik, had conversed with persons who, on a trading expedition to Chaga, saw there some of the Mussai. These were described as being " like the M'Kuafi, but stronger; and as having shields that reach to the breast, 226 PHYSICAL HISTOaT OP MAS. together with long-pointed spears and round-lieaded clubs, neither of which are missile. The young men only go out to fight, sometimes five hundred of them in a body; and when they capture a town; they put to death aU~ except the handsome women, remaining afterwards for two or three days upon the ground, lest they should seem to run away." OTHER ETHIOPIANS. I haye felt much uncertaiuty respecting the physical race of the Fellata of Central AMca, especially as the descrip- tions of them by Denham and Clapperton seem to accord entirely with the Ethiopian. The Foula, who dwell nearer the "Western coast, are said to be connected in language and customs with the Fellata, except that they are not Muslims ; and to differ fi-om the IsTegro tribes among which they are scattered, iu leading a pastoral life. A Poula, seen at the Cape Verd Islands by Mr. Hale, did not appear to him to differ in physical race from the Negro. A trader at Zanzibar, on seeing the MI'Kuafi above- mentioned, assured me that he had met with the same sort of people on the Western coast of Africa; but whether these were Foulas, or " Moors " of the Southern Sahara, he was uncertain. CHAPTER XI. THE HOTTENTOT RACE. I AM not sure that I have seen Hottentots of pure race ; and in the following account I am obliged to rely ia part on published figures and descriptions of them. Eye-witnesses uniformly agree in regarding the Hottentot as differing in physical race from the Negro, and they refer to the diminu- tive stature and the light complexion ; the latter, in some weU-authenticated instances, having even been known to exhibit a flush. Both races seem to be alike in the texture of the hair, A B0SJESlyU3I LAD, THE HOTTENTOT EAOB. 227 which is more closely wooUy than in the rest of mankind ; and to agree also in the general style of feature. But many travellers describe the Hottentot countenance as being to a marked degree peculiar. I am inclined to think that the coloured portrait of a Hottentot -woman in P. Cuvier's Mammiferes, will prove to be a characteristic representation of the race. The three days I spent at the Cape of G-ood Hope were in great part occupied in an unsuccessfill search for exam- ples of the Hottentot race. Some individuals of mixed descent were pointed out to me, and I thought I could my- self distinguish others. A waggon from the Interior was accompanied by several individuals who differed ia their per- sonal appearance from mulattoes ; and who, hke the other mixed Hottentots I saw, were rather good-looking. Hot- tentots were said to be extremely serviceable, and indeed indispensable, to military expeditions ; as well from their knowledge of the country, as from their intimate aeq[uaiat- ance with the habits of the Kaffer tribes. I have found many points of interest in the Hottentot character, as portrayed by travellers, who universally bear testimony to the faithfulness, efficiency, and courage of their guides in trying situations, amid the dangers of this difficult and desolate country. Unlike many wild tribes, the Hot- tentot did not shrink before the advance of Europeans ; but readily adopting the habits of civilisation, these people have ever proved active and useful assistants of the colonist, their history in this respect contrasting strongly with that of the neighbouring Kaffer tribes. Indeed, the advantage of the Hottentot character appears to have contributed essentially to the admission of Europeans into this, the only part of Africa that has proved accessible to foreigners ; and the benefit deserved a better return than unequal legislation. The following quotation is descriptive of the wild life led by the Bosjesmans of the frontier, who furnish abundant proof that man in his natural state is by no means a helpless animal. " They Hve among rocks and woods ; have a keen, vivid eye, always on the alert ; will spring from rock to rock hke the antelope ; sleep in nests which they form in the bushes, and seldom pass two nights in the same place, sup- dark ; and; in the absence of my interpreter, I should not have distinguished them from the rest of the peasantry. The Copts of Cairo and Alexan- dria have the fair European complexion, accompanied, fre- quently, with a Grreek or an Italian cast of countenance, that suggested doubts as to their exclusive Oriental descent. Although Egypt at present may be regarded as politically independent, it is not the less governed by Tueks ; and these have appropriated most of the offices of honour and profit. In appearance and manners the Turks of Egypt are not very distinguishable by strangers ; but they experience the same difficulty with Europeans in rearing their children in the climate of Egypt. The few Turks I saw in other parts of the Mediteiranean, were more readily recognised from their wearing a distinctive dress. As a class, the Turks are manifestly less inclined than the Armenians to assimilate with Europeans. Muslim Stbians were said to be numerous at Cairo, although I was unable to distinguish them. I do not know whether Christian Syrians are in the habit of visiting this city ; but I saw one of them at Malta, a person who had acquired eminence by his learning. Among the most interesting visitors at Cairo were a party of BEDOurtTS, from Petra, near Palestine,, who had accom- panied some travellers, and who were making their journey subserve the additional purpose of buying com. They were six or eight in niunber, and from their lineaments it was evident that they belonged to one family. The Lair was THE AEABIAN BACE. 259 stzraight, and Ishe features were those of the "White race ; but flie depth of hiie surarised me, as it fully equalled that of my Barabra servant, who chanced to be standing near. They were warmly clothed, ia which ' respect they differed from the southera Bedouias. I once met with three or four Aeabs oi' the Hebjaz, ia the streets of Cairo, and I was struck with their peculiarly dignified deportment. Their complexion was not paartieu- larly dairk, and the physical race could not be mistaken. At Suez, however, where this class of Arabs are frequent visitors, I observed signs of mixed descent; and in an instance aheady mentioned, a Negro vras iu company. In place of a turbaai, aU wore a mantle striped with yeUow, an aa^cle of dress, perhaps, general in. the Hedjaz, but which I have occasionally seen in Southern Arabia, and among Arab visitors at Bombay and Zanzibar. At the last-named place, a man wearing it was pointed out to me as a " Wahabi, who had fought against the Pasha of Egy-pt ;" and I have elsewhere heard this mantle termed the badge of the Wahabi. At Muscat I saw it worn by Negroes, whose filed teeth designated an African birthplace. c. Southern Arabs. On the 24th of March I left Suez ia the English steam- boat, aad on the 30th I landed at Aden, where I remained for three weeks, besides making two subsequent visits. Egress was here prohibited to the new comers; but the people of the country were often seen bringing upon camels articles of produce for the supply of the market. A body of these Arabs, hired by the English authorities, were at work on the road, and a few had become permanent residents. In some individuals the complexion was yet darker than I had seen it among the fellahs of the Thebaid ; while ia other respects the affinity with the White race was hardly distinguishable. I remained nothing peculiar in the cos- tume, except on one occasion, in the instance of three Arabs wearing caps, which were not padded Kke those of the Banians, but which equally resembled in outline the common monumental pattern of Egypt. On the 22nd of April I left Aden in the brig Cherokee, Captain Mansfield, <£ Salem ; and we arrived at Mocha on s 2 260 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. the following day. A boat soon came off to the anchorage, ■ bringing the interpreter, who, with three other persons employed in the intercourse with American vessels, were the only natives of the place who could speak a European language. The interpreter stated, that " Mocha had now a good governor, and that all was right ;" and he proceeded to descant, with great simplicity, upon the manifold advantages of good government. On landing, we visited the governor, who was called a Bedouin, but who resembled, in personal appearance, the other principal Arabs of the place. These seemed to be a superior set of men to the Muslims of Cairo. Many of them were tall and of large stature ; and although their physical race would anywhere be recognised, I thought I could distinguish a local cast of countenance, independent of the unusual shortness and scantiness of beard. Indeed, the only long beajds I saw among the native popidation of Mocha were those of the Jews. The common Arabs of the town varied more than the upper classes from the usual aspect of the "White race. Their average stature was decidedly inferior ; the beard was yet more scanty, and instances occurred of its entire absence, in combination, too, with the deep Malay-brown complexion. Polygamy seemed hardly to exist among the mass of the population, notwithstandxag the frequency of unfruitful marriages ; neither did I hear of any undue facility of divorce. I remarked many other points of differ- ence from the Egyptian Arabs: as in the costume (the head-dress usually consisting of a blue turban more or less covering the ears) ; in the eating of camel-meat ; and espe- cially in the universal diffusion of education. The country immediately behind Mocha is level, and, on a general view, appears to be utterly desert. Here and there, however, I met with small patches of cultivated soil that are irrigated from wells , a discouraging task in such a burning climate. On inquiring as to the safety of travelling, I was told that " it would be better not to go far from town, for, being a stranger, if I should happen to be robbed, I should be unable to teU by whom." I asked my informant if he would be willing to make the journey by land to Aden ? " Nothing would induce him to go among people with THE ASABIAN HACE. 261 whom he was unacquainted." I then asked whether the people of Mocha would fight for their governor? This question elicited surprise, and he rejoined, — " Why should we fight for the governor, who only taxes us ?" The poverty and primitive manners of the people rendered Mocha one of the most interesting places I have ever visited. The continual invocations brought to mind the passage, "then began men to call upon the name of the Lord." Indeed, a deep sense of the immediate guardianship of the Heiij, seemed at all times to pervade the community. The religion, unlike what I have witnessed in other Muslim countries, approached that of Abraham. Do you ever address prayers to Mohammed ? " Mohammed was a man ; we do not pray to a man." It was weE remarked by an eye- witness, that " this would be a beautiful world, were Chris- tians as observant of the precepts of their own religion as these poor Arabs are of theirs." The warehouse of the principal Arab merchant presented some striking analogies to the granary scenes of the Pha- raonic monuments, as well in the dress of the workmen, as in the large baskets made of matting, which they carried upon one shoulder. On proposing to the superintendent a shght change in the manipulation of some article, he replied, " Must We learn something new ?" Checkered baskets, like those imported from Nubia into Egypt, and which are represented on the Pharaonic monu- ments, are common in Southern Arabia, and are principally manufactured at Makulla. But flag-shaped fans, such as I have seen at the Cataract of the Nile, are made in quantities at Mocha. In addition to the slight tattooing usual with Arab women, I observed, at Mocha, ornamental markings vpith a black pigment ; but these occurred more especially upon children. Smilar markings with pigment, rather than true tattooing, have appeared to me to be represented on the Pharaonic monuments, on the bodies of certain foreigners. A cane which I obtained at Suez, having the oblique monumental handle, was recognised as being made after the pattern of Western Arabia; while the fashion of the rounded hook was referred to the cane of Muscat. The unusual fondness for cats, manifested by the Mocha 262 PHTSIOAIi HISTOET OP MAS'. Arabs, brought to raind Herodotus' s account of the ancient E^ptiains ; and, in further illustration of the permanency of manners and institutions, the governor, during a portion of the day, was usually to be seen sitting at the receipt of cus- toms. The interpreter, although ia general he asppeared to he well-informed, knew nothing of Toktan, Abraham, or even of Ishmael. An Arab was pointed out to me as the brother of a powerful chief, who, some forty years ago, plundered a Salem vessel. Of those on board, a lad (of whom I had heard at home) was alone spared ; and he was subsequently educated and married in Arabia, where he remained trntil his recent death. Pirates were said to be still numerous ahomb the Persian Gulf; but, since the proceedings of the English at Berbera, th^ had disappeared from the Eed Sea. The affair of the "Diaited States frigate, Potomac, on the coast of Sumatra, was well known at Mocha, the relations with that island being rather intimate. I saw, at Mocha, an English lad who had deserted from a trading vessel, and turned Muslim ; but the gulf between hi-m and ourselyes proved to be impassable. The arrival of an Italian adventurer, on his way to India, the probable presence of a Maltese, and the circulation of German crowns (or Venetian dollars), were the only tokfens of a direct communication with Europe. The few Bedotjins pointed out to me were hardly dia- tinguishable from the lower class of town Arabs, except by the absence of a turban. They were all young men, having uniformly the Malay-brown complexion, and the hair curling in ringlets all over the head. A powerful tribe of Bedouins, who sometimes rob and kill people, even vrithin a few hours of Mocha, interrupted the land-route to Aden. Couriers, however, are oecasionaHy dispatched, and we transmitted letters by one of them. " About eleven years prior to our visit. Mocha was seized by the Turks, (as the Egyptian forces were here called,) who left a garrison of some five hundred men." This state of things afforded a pretext to the Bedouins of the vicinity to piliage the place. " Assembling to the number of some thousands, they approached the town, regardless of the artillery, and scaled the walls with ladders. They after- THE AaABIAN EAOE. 263 wards robbed every house, and left the inbabitants almost literally naked." Mocha, since that event, has been ruled by a Bedouin. Among other results of the affair, it was found that Egyptian money, which had been in use during the short accession of Turkish power, gave place to the former currency. I sometimes heard references to the pahny days when "Mocha belonged to the king of Sanaa;" when her staple was more in demand, and especially when it was paid for in dollars. The recent death of the last-named potentate had added to the usual disturbances of the coimtry, and a battle was daily anticipated, in consequence of " the revolt of some of the villages belongiag to his soldiers." On the 31st of May we sailed from Mocha ; and, after stoppiag at Aden until the 13th of J une, we continued our voyage notwithstanding the adverse monsoon, and reached Zanzibar on the 20th of July. I have already spoken of the SoahUi inhabiting this Arab colony; but Zanzibar seems further to be the most favourable spot for meetiug with per- sons from all parts of Arabia, and, more especially, from the Seheery, or the coast fronting on the Indian Ocean. One individual attracted my attention, on account of his long braided side-lock, and the striking similarity in his whole appearance to the Eebo of the Pharaonic monuments. I did not learn his history ; but his complexion was unusually hght, and the incident called to mind the existence of a class of people very little known to Europeans — ^the Arabian mountaineers. BEDoriNS are ofben seen at Zanzibar — a circumstance the more unexpected, as I had ascertained that they do not visit Singapore. Besides the individual adventurers at Zanzibar, the Imaum sometimes imports bodies of Bedouins, to serve as soldiers in his military campaigns. On the 3rd of October I left Zanzibar in the barque, Wm. Schxoeder, Captain Jackson, of Salem; and, after making an unsuecessfnl attempt to land at Mombas, we arrived on the 18th at Mmmt. The people of this pasrt of Arabia, Kke those of the Hedjaz, have long beards, and they may be recognised by the checkered and banded turbaji, which I first saw at Zanzibar. Some individuals were found to be more poMshed and liberal-minded than any other Arabs 264 PnYSICAl HISTOBT OF MAir. I have met with ; and a more advanced tone of society per- vaded their principal town. I ■witnessed, however, at Muscat, the abduction of a child by its own father, who had taken advantage of the tempo- rary absence of the mother. The screams of the little one, while being borne to the landing, found no response from the bystanders, further than an expression of blame, for a right being exercised " in such a manner as to break its heart." The name of Ishmael was well known at Muscat ; and two classes of Arabs were recognised " who are fighting to this day. The Kahtan Arabs ruled formerly for a century and a half; and they are many of them a fine-looking set of men, having, unlike the Abyssinians, regular hair. They are aU Muslims, and are not rare in the interior, but there were none of them residing in Muscat. The Imaum's family came from the town of Adam, in TJzjd, and belonged to the other class of Arabs, the Hameer, as did, likewise, most of the people of Muscat, and many of the Bedouins. Inscrip- tions on the rocks are unknown in Eastern Arabia." At Muscat I saw an Egyptian of the lower class, who had arrived, doubtless, by the way of the Persian Gulf. I was also surprised by a reminiscence of Egyptian history. A wealthy Arab, in speaking of some law decisions, declared that the judges were " as bad as Pharaoon who took Mussera." The BEDOTJiifs visiting Muscat diflfered in personal ap- pearance from those seen at Mocha ; and they were more readily recognised as belonging to the "WTiite race. Their complexion, however, in most instances seemed to be yet darker than in the Mongolian race. Their long hair was much undulated ; and they usually wore a fillet around the head, such as is seen on the Pharaonic monuments in repre- sentations of captive monarchs. One of the Bedouins, who bore no outward marks of distinction, was pointed out to me as being chief " over a thousand men ; all to get angry when- ever he is angry, and at no expense." I was informed that no one came to Muscat from a greater distance inland than two or three hundred miles, and that the great interior of Arabia is unknown even to the Bedouins, who, however, suppose it to be inhabited. Persons THE ABABIAN EACT!. 263 sometimes go by land to Mecca, keeping near the Persian Gulf; but this is not often done, the route being considered dangerous from the scarcity of water ; and the usual course is by sea to Bahrein, and thence through the Interior. The communication along the outer, coast of Arabia is cairied on altogether by sea. Captain MTarland, of Salem, joined us at Muscat, after a voyage in an Arab dow, of forty days from Mocha, during the farourable monsoon. As the vessel touched at several places along the coast, he had unusual opportunities of viewing the country, which, he informed me, "looked everywhere alike;" broken, moun- tainous, and devoid of vegetation, as at Aden and Muscat. At Zanzibar and at Muscat also, two or three persons from Socotra were poittted out to me, otherwise I should not have distinguished them from the surrounding Arabs. Captain Jackson regarded the inhabitants of the interior of Socotra as being " much the same sort of people with the Bedouins of Muscat ; their Sultan in like manner wearing a fillet around his head. Their hair is long and straight, and not in the least incUmng to be woolly." On the 29th of October we sailed for Bombay, where we arrived on the 11th of November, and where I found, in the SiNMAN s of the Lower Indus, a striking resemblance to the Bedouins of Muscat. Indeed, the spot occupied by a body of these Sindians, who had brought horses for sale, was usually termed " the Bedouin camp." I frequently met with Arab visitors in the streets of Bombay ; and, judging from the costume, they were mostly from Eastern Arabia. And in instances where the original dress had been abandoned, the language often revealed the presence of Arabs of the lower class. In the territory of the Nizam, and more than two hundred miles from Bombay, I foimd the gate of one of the towns guarded by an Arab soldier. d. Indian Mitslims. I have spoken in another chapter of the Indian Muslims who were seen at Singapore, and who came chiefly from Eastern Hindostan. Those met with on my second Voyage belong to the North and "West ; and, for the most part, unequivocally to the White race. 266 PHTSICAIi HISTOKT OF MAN. As the pilgrim vessels usually touch at Mocha, numbers of Indian Muslims are to be met with in that city ; where I soon learned to distinguish them by the straightness of the beard; a point ia which they differ from Enropeans, and which is expressed in certain Greek aaid Eoman representa- tions of Orientals. Some of these Indian Muslims dealt ia precious stones, while others had becomeresidents, and had opened shops. A Bombay ship at the anchorage, was laden principally with Snrat cloth ; and had on hoard about forty merchants, each of tiiem, as ia the Chinese junks, having the charge of his own wares. The larger edifices at Mocha are buiLt ia much the same style a,s those of Cairo, except that there is greater resfine- ment of architectural ornament. This was traiced to the workmen of India: and I soon perceived, that the Arabs here, as everywhere, are a rude people; and that aE the arts requiring skill and ingenuity, belong properly.to Hiadostan. On proposing to have an umbrella covered, I was told that this " could not be done ; because the people of Moeha are not India people." I met with a class of individuals called Phesiaws, who are noted as the fairest Orientals that come to Mocha ; and who appear to me to have close affinity with the Indian Muslims. One of tkem accosted me in English, and among other matters, stated that "he was from Iraun, and that the Enghsh and his countrymen were friends :" although a person of much inteUigenoe, he had never before heard of America, and he was evidently at a loss to comprehend where it could be situated. I met with another of these Persians, immediately after he had performed a surgical operation ; and, to my surprise,'he described the " couching of the cataract ;" but I did not undo the bandages to verify his account. At £omI>m/, and throughout my journey ia the interior of India, I found myself always at a jdistance from the seat of arts above alluded to ; and my inquiries now placed it to the northward, and in the direction of the Indus. Other attendant circumstances, taken in connexion with the geographical position of the Upper Indus, seem to point yet further east. Bombay appears to be the head-quarters of the Indian THE AEABIAN EACE. 267 Muelims, and I remarked among them various CTidence of Persian descent, as in the custom of child marriages. Poly- gamy is rare, even among the wealthy ; but their religion has been much corrupted; "they have saints, and they address prayers to Mohammed, and even to Ali." I v?as informed, however, that four castes of Muslims are recognised at Bombay, who all eat together, but who will not intermarry. It has been sometimes asserted that the boatmen of the western coast of Hindostan are all Muslims. Eseeptions, however, must be made in regard to Cutch ; and a Eajpoot sailor was serving in the Bombay ship at Mocha luider a Muslim commander. Indian Muslims are likewise common at Zanzihar, and it was said of them, that " after getting married and mised up a little, they wanted to pass for Arabs." Most of the White women I saw at Zanzibar, belonged to the class of Indian Muslims. Two or three Bblooches were pointed out to me at Zanzibar, and others again at Bombay. They seemed to have affinity with the Indian Muslims, rather than with the Sindians and Bedouins ; but I am hardly prepared to decide from these few examples. Belooche women have been some- times imported for the harems of Zanzibar. e. Western Sindoos. In the various ports of Arabia and Eastern Africa, indi- viduals may occasionally be met with, who differ remarkaMy in their bearing and costume from the surrounding popula- tion. An equal difference will be found in the qualities of the mind, in a surprising amount of intelligence and general information. These people have influence, not, however, derived from battles; their empire is not of the sword; neither is it based on their religion. They are the idolatrous merchants of India, who, for ages, have mainly held the commerce of the above-named countries. My acquaintance with the Cutch BAinA.Na, commenced at Aden : and at first I mistook them for Parsees, whom they resemble in many striking particulars; as in then- names, in their general style of dress, and in their shaving the beard with the exception of the mustache (a circum- 268 PHYSICAL HiSTOBT o:e MAir. stance possibly connected -with, the prevalence of tlie same fashion at Cairo), hut on further acquaintance, I was soon able to distinguish a peculiar style of countenance. The Banians visitiiig Mocha and the^neighbouring parts of Arabia, belong to a different caste from those usually seen at Zanzibar, Muscat, and Bombay. They may be dis- tinguished by the more flattened turbaa; the shape of which, as is shown by Mebuhr's figure, has not changed for the last eighty years. At Zanzibar I was more particularly struck with the analogy to the ancient Egyptian priests ; for in like manner the Baaians seemed to be the depositaries of knowledge and of the relics of civilisation in the midst of barbarians. Herodotus says, that " the Egyptians venerate the cow ;" and this is a fundamental principle of the Hindoo religion. Also, in minor particulars, the undress Banian cap entirely resembles the pattern most frequently represented on the Egyptian monuments. One of the principal Banians at Zanzibar spoke EngHsh, and he repeatedly complained to me of the "hard life required in beiag a Banian. There are eighty-four castes of Banians ;" but, said he, " Grod made all men free. The Banians who go. to sea do not associate with those who remain in In£a ; and the same rule prevails among the Lascars, who are Sudras, and are allowed to eat fish. His own diet consisted of rice, dohl (Cajanus), some ghee or butter, and sometimes milk, but he did not eat oranges." It appeared that he was versed in pahnistnr, and he once asked me if I understood phrenology. He bestowed abusive expressions on the Arabs, for not permittiag the building of a temple ; adding, that there were " more than four hundred Banians ia Zanzibar, being a threefold increase within ten years, and that he supposed it will go hard with them when the present Imaum dies." He called a Calcutta dobi (or washerman), not a Banian, but a Hiadoo : the individual aUuded to was serving in a European household, and according to his own account was permitted to eat mutton, but neither beef nor fowls. A second Banian, who had recently arrived from Mombas, " had resided ia Eastern Africa for twenty years." I did not learn that any Banians were established to the south- THE AEABIAN BAOE. 269 ward of Keelwa, but I saw individuals on board the dows arriving from that town. Moreover, if reliance may be placed on the Arab accounts, the Banians are not entirely free from the suspicion of slave dealiiig. Banians are very numerous at Muscat, where they possess a more pervading influence than at the places I had pre- viously visited. They belong to the same class vrith those of Zanzibar, but they are not exclusively merchants, and I observed among them a blacksmith and other artisans. One of their singular-looking dows, having serrated streamers with a pair of flags at the stem, had just arrived from Cutch. An Arab merchant informed me, that having displeased the Banians by sending cattle on board an American ship of war, he was obliged at last to declare that " he would find out whether Muscat belonged to the Banians or to the Arabs ; for having a right to expend his money as he pleased, he would buy cattle, and slaughter daily for distribution among the poor." The Banians of Bombay, judging from the form of the turban, are mostly to be referred to the last-mentioned class; except only, that they had not in aU instances arrived by sea. They were spoken of as " Cutch and Gruzerati people, not properly belonging to this part of India, who, by their superior enterprise, have nearly or quite supplanted the original Mahratta caste of traders." Like their brethren of Cashmere and Bengal, they are regarded in the binary division of the Hindoos, as belonging to the "left hand" and inferior. The mass of the population of Bombay is composed of Hindoos who, by way of territorial distinction, are usually termed Maheattas. Trom my first view of them I could only regard them as Arabs ; as the unconverted idolatrous Arabs, such as we are familiar with in the history of the Mediterranean countries ; and I soon perceived that it was possible, at the present day, to obtain an insight into the influence on the mind of the ancient system of image- worship. I perceived also that in various points of difierence from the modem Arabs, the Mahrattas accord with the ancient Egyptians. Thus polygamy is rare; the women do not conceal the face ; the men carry burdens (with the balance- 270 PHTSlOAIi niSTOBX OF MAN. beam) on the ahoiilders ; and the drmking-cupB and water- jars are universollT made either of copper or- brass. Oth^ customs witnessed have not yet beeoBW obsolete in Egypt ; as that of the women carryiag burdens on the head, and their collecting manure (for fiiel) with the hands. It is true, the analogy in surrounding circumstances (periodical rains camDensatmg in reservoirs for the inundations of the Nile,) teiMs- doubtless to assimilate the population ; yet with every allowance, the Mahrattas appeared to me to be more than a counterpart to the Egyptians of Herodotus. The fact too should be noted, that the Sanscrit lang^uage, which has been inherited by the Mahrattas, is regarded by writers as originally foreign to India. In the vicinity of Bombay, stones, trees, and other natural objects, are often consecrated vdth a mark of red paint : the original intent of the practice being apparently to remind the passer-by of the omnipresence of the Deity. I heard a Mahratta of the lower class complainirig of the Parsees and saying, aa he pointed to the sea, " the Parsees worship the water, that is not Grod ; neither is jBre, nor the earth." Within my ovra. e:q)erience I have met with no evidence of the idea of a Supreme Being having spontaneoudy arisen in the human mind. I would enumerate, as possessing this idea, the Patriarchs, the ancient Egyptian priests, the Jews, Christians, and Muslims, and the Braminical Hindoos. I have never conversed on the subject with followers of the Budhist religion ; but the remaining portions of the humaa family are probably to be excluded; although not in aU instances unenHghtened, as appears from the writers of antiquity. On questioning the above-mentioned individual in regard to his own religion, he said, that the Mahrattas "have priestrgodS) or Bramins ; that he was himself a Mahratta of the Hindoo caste, though he did not go to the temples ; and that he was allowed to eat vegetables, mill?, butter, and eggs; but not pork, beef, mutton, nor even fish." His complexion was darker than usual, and in personal appear- ance he seemed to paitake of the Telingan race. On the other hand, the complexion of the Bramins of this part of India is in general lighter than the average, and coincides with the hue of the Cutch Banians, in like manner THE ABABIAS EA.CE. 271 hardly ever heeeniiig florid.. The physical race, too, ia most instaiices, is obviously pure. A Mahratta Braauia stated, in reply to some inquiries, " that it is not considered proper fiar a Bramin to take up occupations belonging to other castes ; and that even the work iu which he was then engaged (correcting a Mahratta Dictionary for the English Government) was rather deroga- tory to his dignity." With respect to the practicability of entering lower castes, if he could entertain such an idea, he thought that " the Sudras would probably receive him, and give him a wife; but this was by no means a matter of certainty ; and the Mahrs, who are the lowest of all castes, would refuse;" "Formerly there was a severe punishment for the un- authorised wearing of the Bramioical cord ; but the English government having declined, to interfere in the matter, it is not at present always easy to distinguish a Bramin. For himself, he thought he could not be deceived, but Bramins had been, frequently. This, he esclaimed, is the Age of Iron." " Two or more princes in. India, claim to be Kshatryas, together with some bodies of people, in one or more districts, who keep themselves aloof from other castes, and are respected by the Sudras ; but he thought that they have rather a sort of substitute for the Kshatrya caste." He expressei the same opinion respecting the "Wyse, or mer- cantile caste ; and said, that " a great mixture of Sudras exists among the persons who now exercise the profession." He further declared, somewhat unexpectedly, that "the Sudras themselves are nearly extinct." Mr. Allen, of the American Mission, had found " great variation in habits among the population of different parts oi Tudia,^ much confasion in the accounts of writers having arisen from attributing to the whole people that which is true in a district only. Bramins may compose, perhaps, one-tenth of the population of India. In some districts they are rare, and are confined to a few large temples, and have very Uttle influence throughout the mass of the popu- lation. Many, too, of the Bramins are quite ignorant, and have not even learned to read. The Mahrattas are the only Hindoos over whom the Bramins have obtained poUtical 272 PHYSICAL HISTOET OP MAN. ascendancy. Animal sacrifices are still practised in India ; and Bramins are permitted to partake of such meats. Bramin widows shave the head, and are not allowed to marry again ; but second marriages are by no means rare with other Hindoo women. In Bombay there are no less than five or sis castes of Bramins, who mil neither inter- marry nor eat together." " The original distinctions of caste have not been altogether efiaced among the natives converted by the Portuguese ; and in some places, towards the Eastern coast, the observance is quite strict." " Hereditary village-authorities form a peculiarity in the institutions of India ; and the practice has grown into the associations, feelings, and ideas of the people. When com- plaints of oppression have been substantiated, government has merely transferred the office to another member of the same family ; and this system has continued throughout all the revolutions of the country." " In former times the nations of India were principally four, corresponding with the four languages, — ^the Mahratta, Telugu, Canara, and Tamul. The Mahrattas have retained the Sanscrit alphabet, but they possess very little literature of their own ; and the Tamul language is the only one of the four that is rich in literary treasures." On the 16th of December I started on an excursion into the Interior, proceeding in the first place by water to Pan- weU. On the following day I traversed the Concan, or the low country ; and in the evening I reached the foot of the mountains. On the 18th I ascended the ghaut or mountain-slope, and entered upon the extensive table-land which occupies the interior of Southern India ; and which is commonly called the Dekkam. Its average elevation of about two thousand feet, is insufficient to produce any striking change in the vegetable growth ; but I soon perceived some difference in the climate. The nights were now colder, and the days,, perhaps, hotter ; while- the greater aridity was shown by the absence of dews after leaving the low country. The surface, generally, was found to be unwooded, and the far greater proportion of it uncultivated ; neither were cattle seen upon the hUls ; but, at this season, the whole THE ABABIAlf EACE. 273 country was covered with dried herbage, and wore the aspect of barrenness. I did not remark any particular change ia the habits of the people ; except that the cultivation of rice had become rare ; but I am informed that the inhabitants of the Dekkan and Concan do not much intermarry. _ An iQcident may serve to illustrate the train of associa- tions in the mind of the people of India. Meeting on the road with a woman who seemed to belong to the lower class of Hindoos, I inquired her caste of my iaterpreter. He informed me that she was a Christian ; not Portuguese, but Mahrass. What, I asked, is she carrying under that cover- ing ? He repUed, " It contaias a god." Stopping at KarU, I spent the remaiader of the day at the largest of the caves in that vicinity ; and on the following morning I resumed my journey. On the 20th I reached Poena, where I remained some hours. Muslims were said to be "common in this city; but to have no temples beyond the towns of the coast;" a rule, which has exceptions further in the Interior, in the dominions of the Nizam. Poona seemed to be in a good measure the limit of Parsee influence ; and thus far, wealthy Parsees have established houses along the road for the gratuitous shelter of travellers. Cowries were seen used for money at Poona, the species being Cyprea annulus. Hitherto I had met with but a single camel, which was laden with the baggage of a Bramin; and camels were seen in rare instances, further in the Interior. P*y« made their appearance in the villages beyond Poona ; a small variety, uniformly black and long- bristled. I do not remember meeting with luffhloes in the Dekkan ; but in many of those seen at Bombay, I remarked a white spot on the front ; showing, even in this animal, a tendency to become parti-coloured. The sheep appeared to belong to the same breed with those of modem Egypt; and I remarked that, in like manner, the majori^ of them were black. The outer garment, worn in the cool of the morning by the people of the Dekkan, has broad black stripes, formed, as in a dress common in Egypt, by combining the natural colours of the wool. And a similar manufacture is found, I think, among the Spanish Peruvians. 274 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. Althougli the Indian lulloek is regarded as identical in speeies witli our own, there is a striking difference ia the voice. I never heard any lowing from the cattle of India, but only a sort of grunt, somewhat like that of the hufialo. However, I have occasionally seen Indian bullocks, having long horns, and also a form of body approacHng that of our own varieties. On the 22nd I arrived at Gorputi (called by the EngKsh Seroor) ; a considerable village, where Mr. !EVench, of the American Mission, was residing. Some thin plates of metal were shown me, as examples of '" Hindoo household gods." Also the tomb of a British officer, before which the natives had erected an altar for burning incense ; ' the new Hindoo saint having been esteemed peculiarly efficacious for the ftilfilment of vows, until such proceedings were stopped, by being brought to the notice of the local authorities. The river Bima runs by G-orputi ; but, like the other rivers of the Dekkan, it contaiaed at this season very little water. The country beyond was found to be more level, with a larger proportion of the soil under cultivation. The crops, however, were suffeiing from drought, the rains during the preceding wet season having been scanty ; and there was every prospect of a famine. In the evening of the 23rd I reached the city of Ahnted- nuggur, the most distant of the Mission Stations. Messrs. BaUantine and Abbott had resided here for ten years, without having before seen one of their countrymen who was unooa- neoted with the mission. I resumed my journey on the 25th ; and on the morning of the 27th I reached Toka, on the bamks of the G-odaveri. Crossing the mouth of a tributary stream, I visited the principal village, which is iohabited exclusively by Bramins, many of whom were not distinguishable in personal appear- ance from the other people of the country. Two large flat- bottomed boats; each bearing a carved horse's head, indicated that the' river at a different season is navigable. Crossing the G-odaveri, I entered the Nizam's dominions ; but Muslim rule did not appear to have wrought any marked change in the character and habits of the popuJaAion. Among various agricultural details reminding me of ancient customs, I observed strings of bullocks treading out the ^ain. THE AKABIAir EACE. 275 On the 28tli I arrived at tke city of Aumngabad, the residence of the Nizam, whose government is still 'recog- nised, although it is much under English influence. A few Parsees were living here, fanning the revenue, as the Banians do at Zanzibar ; and one of them cashed a draft for me. A Parsee piiiest, who was called, by my interpreter, "the archbishop," stopped here, after travelling in eompany with us from Poena. The vidnity of Aurungabad is noted for producing Mandarin oramges of a superior quality. An English officer was riding the only elephant I met with in India, where, it appears, " elephants are principally confined to two separate districts, to a tract on the Granges, to the northward, and to the extreme south of the Peninsula." A man joined our party at Aurungabad, who had overtaken us on the road some da,ys previously, at which time he inquired our destination. It appeared that he belonged to the Jaie caste, and to the Eajpoot country to the north- ward ; and being of a more enterprising turn than the local population, he furnished the means of conveyance for the remainder of my journey. On the 31st I reached Adjunta, a place apparently designed by the early Muslims for an important city ; but the space enclosed by the massive walls is now principally vacant. I observed here small burnt bricks, of the same description vrith those of Southern Arabia ; and also, some- what unexpectedly, the Muslim custom of carrying water ia skins. I descended the ghaut which borders the basin of the river Tapti, and proceeded to Purdapur, a fine Muslim cara- vansary, converted into a petty modem viEage, the walls affording protection at night to the inhabitants and their cattle. Pires were seen in the distance, down the valley, kmdled, it was said, likewise for the purpose of " keeping off the tigers." I first heard of this animal at Adjunta ; and it proved to be, not the true tiger, but the ovmce, or pale-coloured leopard. A skin was shown me by a person, who stated, that " he had shot twenty-six of these animals in the course of his life ; and that they destroy not only cattle^ but in some instances even men. He and his companion were MuBlLm i2 276 I'nTSICAL IIISTOEY OF MATT. and Mawotti, from the Northward ; and one of them came from Lucknow." On the 1st of January, 1845, I visited the Caves, which are situated several miles from Purdapur, the nearest inhabited place. A stream comes out of the mountain-slope through a deep glen, waUed by cliffs sis or seven hundred feet in height ; and half-way up, a horizontal series of caves extends around a semicircular sweep. The river-bed being dry at the time of my visit, afforded access to the secluded spot ; and the first care on arriving was to discharge fire-arms "to start the tigers." The only response, however, was an alarm among multitudes of the domestic pigeon. Man had withdravm for ages, but his dweULng-place was not abandoned by his associate bird. I spent several hours in examining the caves, and my guides being unwilling to pass the night there, I left before dark, and taking the direct route, I reached Adjunta late in the evening. On the 2nd I commenced my return ; for the first few miles in company with a Bramiuical wedding-procession; the antique pattern of the cars calling to mind the heroic ages. Through some mismanagement one of the cars was overturned, and several women and children were severely bruised ; soon, however, one of the party came along bearing a flagon, and poured oil upon the wounds. By an exception to the usual cloudless sky of half the year, the heavens were obscured on the 3rd and 4th, and a corresponding change took place in the otherwise constant direction of the vrind. But the general use of adobes or sun- dried brick, affords proof that the rains in the Dekkan are never very copious. In geological structure, the Dekkan, to the Hmit of my excursion, was found to be a trap-formation ; and in this respect it corresponds with the table-land of Oregon. I left the main road at Phoohnarry, and on the evening of the 4th I reached Ellora, where I spent the following day ia examining the Caves. On the 6th I proceeded through a Muslim village, noted for the manufacture of paper. I next passed the base of the artificially insulated mountain of Dowlutabad; a stu- pendous work of the ancient Hindoos, requiring even at the present day the jealous care of govenmient. The vicinity of THE ARABIAN EAOE. 277 Ellora appears also to have been, the principal seat of Muslim power ; and it abounds in Muslim temples, whicli are now for the most part abandoned. In the evening I rejoined my former route, and on the following day I recrossed the Grodaveri. Hitherto, the numerous Hindoo temples and worship- places visited along the road had been found to be all dedicated to Siva. And I remarked that the offerings, like that of Caia, were confined to the products of the soil ; to Tagetes and other cultivated flowers, with occasionally fruits. Before, however, re-entering Ahmednuggur, a small temple attracted my attention, from some peculiarities in its con- struction, and from a second species of sacred fig (with the fruit devoid of an involucre) being planted around. The temple contained a simple flat-topped altar, on which Tagetes flowers were strewed, and it proved to be dedicated to the worship of Krishna. Some votaries of this Hindoo deity were encamped near, and they were called by my Parsee interpreter, " fakeer or beggars, but high-caste." The party consisted of men and women, several of the former wearing black turbans, and it appeared that they belonged to the Manabhawa caste. Among other peculiarities, this caste is remarkable for being kept up by purchase, for marriage is prohibited, and the children are all regularly kiUed. The grain being now nearly ripe, persons were sometimes stationed in the fields to drive away the birds by slinging stones. On the 11th I again arrived at Grorputi. • The following day, the 12th of January, " was regarded by the Hindoos as the winter solstice ; ia consequence of fol- lowing the Shastras in their calculations, without regard to the precession of the equinoxes." On the 16th I visited the lesser caves at KarH ; but I was not aware at the time that a "hiU-fort," another work of antiquity, exists iu the same vicinity. On the morning of the 18th I again reached Bombay. f. Irregular Castes of India. In India the term "caste" is not restricted to the fol- lowers of the Braminical religion, but it is used in a general sense ; and Parsees, MusUms, Jews, and Europeans are com- 278 PHXSIOAI, HISTOEY OF MAN. monly spoken of as so many castes. The population is hetero- geneous, made up of the remnants or -wrecks of a yariety of nations, some of which are perhaps ejriiniet at their place of origin ; for it would seem that amid " the violence with which the earth has been fiUed," toleration has existed only in India. The Mahaeb axe commonly supposed to be the origiaal inhabitants of the Dekkait. Three or four of them were pointed out to me at Ahmedmiggur; but in costume and personal appearance they did not present any marked differ- ence from the surrounding population. They may have been a little darker ; amd one individual, who accompanied me to Adjunta and back, seemed to be as dark as a TeUngan. I met with a party of Bhills on the road, near the limit of my excursion. They presented very distinctly the linea- ments of the White race, but I did not remark anything peculiar in their dress or personal appearance. One of the converts at Ahmednuggur " had formerly been in the service of a Bkillj during which time he had killed many persons." He showed me a bow, having two strings and a cross-band, for the purpose of shooting pebbles — a kind of weapon said to be common in the vicinity. Heber* found, among the Bhills, bows made of split bamboo; a peculiarity in construction which may be compared with Herodotus? 8 account of the TndiaTi bows. The "Beinjaeet" were principally met with on first entering the Dekkan ; their immense herds of bullocks some- times occupying the road for nearly a mile. At regular intervals, a woman in the midst was spinning or sevritng as she walked along, and one was carrying a dog ; an act which, according to my inteipreter, " neither Hindoos nor Parsees would do." The dress more resembled the European female costume than the Hindoo ; but the Brinjarry women had large anklets of fsiintastic pattern, with other brass omar ments. The men carried spears, having the broad blades covered with leathern sheaths. In parties returning towards the Interior, the bullocks, were all heavUy laden with mer- chandise. Except in the masculine forms of the women, I could find no physical difference from the general population of the • Heber's NanatiTe, vol, ii. p. 466. THJS AEABIAK EACE. 279 country. The liaeamenta of the WMte race were readily distinguishable, except in an individual abeady noticed as resemhUng an Australian. The herds were spoken of as the property of the women, who, indeed, had the air of being the heads of the community ; but whether the system M polyandry prfivails, as among certain classes in the south of India, I did not ascertain. The "DurNGXTE" were encamped near every village of importance, in small huts formed of rush-mats. I have seen these huts not only hemispherical in Aape, but disposed in a circle, with their entrances towa^rds the centre ; thus pre- senting an unexpected resemblance to the " kraals " of Africa. The Dungur have drays of a very rude and primi- tive construction, formed of three cross timbers resting on an axle, the wheels being merely sections of the trunk of a tree. The SiKLi&TJE have similar wandering habits, but they hold themselves aloof; they are less numerous, and are said to exercise the profession of " chatty-makers," or tin-men. I fell in with one of their encampments, whieh consisted of low woollen tents. This, I think, is the class of people to which the origin of the Gipsies has been sometimes referred. Some of the numerous irregular castes of India are sup- posed to be the remains of the aboriginal population. I did not meet with any direct evidence of this ; bmt I am inclined to think there may be something in the point of view. Some parallelism in social condition seems wanting in the White race ; and the required connexion may possibly be traced in the hiU-people of Nepaul, the Xarens of Birmah, and even tribes situated further to the southeast. g. Meturn to Egypt. On the 1st of February I left Bombay in the steamboat Victoria; and, after a thid visit to Aden, I arrived on the I7th at Suez. Comiag from India, I was struck with the ruddy sun-bumt hue of the Egxptians, who now seemed fairer than before ; and I thought I could ftirther distingiuish instances of that vridth of nostril which contributes to the un-European expression of the Bramins and Cutchi Banians. "Within a single year, marked ionovations on Arab customs had taken place at Cairo and Alexandria, in consequence of iaereased intercourse by steamboats with Europe. 280 PHYSICAL HISTOET OE MAN. EUROPE. On the 21st of February I left Alexandria in tie English steamboat Iberia ; and on the 26th I again arrived at Malta, where I passed quarantine. On the 14th of March I left Malta in the Neapolitan steamboat ; and I thus had the opportunity of land&ng in Sicih/, at Syracuse, Catania, and Messina. I remarked among the Sicilians some traditionary remembrance of wearing the Arab costume. We stopped at two or three places on the Calabrian coast ; and on the 18th we reached Nc^les, where the boat remained eight days. A "Calabrian" peasant, clad'iii a sheepskin jacket, was seen performing on the bagpipe, an instrument somewhat Oriental in the character of its intona- tions, and which, I beUeve, is now nearly confined to the extreme mountain-fastnesses of Italy and Scotland. The superstition of the "evil eye" is common in Italy; and I remarked traces of other /Arab customs, which gene- rally, in Europe, have become obsolete; and further, at Herculaueum and Pompeii, that the Arab analogies increase on ascending into antiquity. The environs of Naples offer a striking example of a suc- cession of languages within a given disimct, as is shown by the Latin inscriptions of the Eoman towns, and by the anterior Grreek inscriptions of the Catacombs : where moreover, at this distance in time and space, I did not anti- cipate meeting with evidence of the Hindoo worship of Siva. The severe penalty for killing a cow, according to Phny once in vogue at Kome, is another fact in point. On recurring to Hawaiian volcanic action, it appeared to me that a subterraneous lava-stream coming in contact with water, would account for the catastrophe of Pompeu. Afber leaving Naples, the boat touched at Civita Vecchia, Leghorn, and Q-enoa. Italy offers another subject of interest, in its rich monumental history continuing uninter- rupted through the Middle Ages. The boat flnally stopped at Marseilles ; and after a ride through JB^ance, I saued from Havre on the 12th of April, in the ship Iowa ; and on the 16th of the following month we arrived at New York. NCMEEIOAL PEOPOETIONS. 281 CHAPTEE XIV. ASSOCIATION.— NUMERICAL PROPORTIONS. In order to complete the foregoing account, I will here insert a specification of the several races occurring at each place visited ; or, in other words, an analysis of the popidation. In the United States, three races are familiarly known : the White, the If egro, and the Mongolian ; the latter repre- sented both by the aboriginal population, and by a few Chinese settled in our principal cities. A fourth race, the Malayan (represented chiefly by Polynesians), is not tmcommon ia the ports frequented by whale-ships ; and in some few instances I have met with a fifth race, the l!ehngan, or true Indian. At Madeira I met with two races : the White and the Negro ; but the latter race occurred in only a few instances, and exclusively at the principal seaport town. At the Cape Verd Islands I met with the same two races; but they occurred in inverse proportions ; and the White race was here comparatively rare. At Bio Janevro and the vicinity I fell in with only the same two races, — ^the WTiite and the Negro ; and they appeared to be here in nearly equal proportions. The same two races were again seen at the mouth of the Eio Negro, in North Patagonia; but a third race, the Mongolian or the aboriginal, was said to be present among the population of the neighbouring village. In Terra del Fuego there occurred but a single race, — ^the Mongolian, or the aboriginal. I have never heard of run- away sailors resorting to the southern side of the Straits of Magellan. In Northern Chili, at Valparaiso and Santiago, I met with the three races last mentioned : the White, the Mongolian or the aboriginal, and the Negro ; but the latter race was decidedly rare. 282 PHYSICAL HISTOET OT MAN. In Peru, at Lima and in the vicinity, I met with the same three races ; here, however, interspersed ia more equal proportions ; and a variety of complicated mixtures had sprung up, which were distinguished by different names. On the Aiides the aboriginal race was found to preponde- rate, and the Negro was rare. At San ibMncisBO, in North Oaliforma, I met with three races ; the Malayan, which is the aborigiual, and is also represented by the Polynesian crews of trading vessels ; the White race ; and, in a single instance, the Negro. Three races also occurred in Oregon ; the Mongolian, here the aboriginal, and far predominating at the tme of our visit ; the "White race, consisting principally of the mission- aries, and of persons connected with the Hudson Bay Company; and the Malayan, represented by a few Poly- nesians. A Negro, I believe, effected his escape from one of the vessels- of the Expedition; and, in this manner, a fourth race was added to the foregoing. Leaving now the shores of America, at the Swwaiian Islcmds, I met vfith five races ; the Malayan, here the abo- riginal ; the White ; the Negro ; the Mongolian, repre- sented by several imported Chinese ; and the fifth race, by an individual from Windostan. A single race occurred among the eastern Pmmtotm ; the Malayan, or the aboriginal. Li the western part of the same coral archipelago we received on boaid a shipwrecked European. At Takeiti, notwithstanding it is so much frequented by trading- vessels, I observed but two races ; the Malayan or the aboriginal, and the White race. The same two races occurred at the Scmvoan or Navigator Islands, where the resident Whites consisted of the mission- aries and of numerous deserters from trading vessels. The island of Tongataboo was the first place visited, where two races had been brought in contact without European intervention; these were, the Malayan or the aboriginal, and the Papuan from the Eeejee Islands. Three additional races had arrived in trading vessels ; the White ; the Negro, represented by a single resident ; and the NegriRo, by a lad from Aramanga. At the Fee/ee Islcmds the Papuan and the Malayan races MTTMEBIOAIi PEOPOETIOITS. 283 had again aborigiaaHy met together-: but Polynesians had likewise been introduced by trading vessels; as had the resi- dent Whites, and a native of Hiadostam; maJdng ia all four races. At the Bay of Islands, in Mw Zealamd, I met with but two races, — the Malayan or the aboriginal, and the WTiite ; the latter already settled in considerable numbers, before obtaining a cession of the sovereignty of the group. At ^dme/jf, and in the vicinity, I met with five races ; the Australian or the abori^al; the White, far preponderat- ing; the Negro, in a few instances; the Malayan, repre- sented by Polynesians, chiefly from New Zealand ; and the Telingan, by some natives of Hindostan. In Lueon there occurred five races, two of them abo- riginal, the Malayan and the Negrillo. The Mongolian race was represented by numerous Chinese residents ; the Tehngan, by a few Lascars from the shipping; and the White race by Europeans, and persons- of European descent. At Caldera, on Mmdanao, I met with but two races, the Malayan and the White ; the latter represented by the com- mander of the post, and possibly, also, by some traces among the Muslim population. At Sooloo I met with four races ; the Malayan ; the Negrillo, in an individual perhaps aboriginal; the Mon- golian, represented by a single resident Chinese ; and the Telingan, by two captive Laiscars. There was, besides, evi- dence of some mixture of a fifth race, in the persons of the chiefs and the Muslim priest. At Smgcipore, individuals belonging to no less than eight physical races, were found to be congregated together, lie White race was represented by Europeans, and by numerous Orientals ; the Mongolian, by Chinese ; the Malayan, by the native population of the East Indies ; the Telingan, by adventurers from Hindostan ; the Negrillo, by slaves from New Gruinea ; the Negro, too, was present in a few instances, as was likewise the tnie Abyssinian, and, in all probability, the Ethiopian, in some of the mixed Arabs. Indeed, as we had brought with us the Papuan, in the person of Veindovi, the Australian and the Hottentot were the only races remaining unrepresented at Singapore. 284 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAN. The existence of such a spot on the globe is a fact deserv- iag attention, especially when it is considered that this gathering is chiefly independent of European shipping, and of the modem town of Singapore ; the same causes, and the same modes of conveyance, having for many centuries directed emigration from various quarters to the Straits of Malacca. At the Cape of Good, Sope the Hottentot race is the ahoriginal ; but I did not meet with individuals who were unmixed. The four additional races introduced through European intercourse have also become much intermixed. At Cape Town the Negro appeared rather to preponderate in numbers over the White race, while the Malayan and the TeUngan were comparatively rare. At St. Selena, in a population of only a few hundreds, introduced in European shipping, I observed no less than four races : the White ; the Negro ; the Mongolian, repre- sented by a Chinese ; and, to all appearance, the Tehngan was present, in the descendants of individuals derived from Madagascar. At Zcfnzibar, on the east coast of Africa, I met with six races : the Negro, here preponderating ; the White, derived either directly or originally from Arabia, Persia, and Western Hindostan; the Malayan, represented by three or four Ambolambo from Madagascar ; the Mongolian, by one resi- dent Chinese; the true Abyssinian, observed in a single instance; and the Ethiopian, which, during the monsoon then prevailing, was somewhat rare. At Somlay I observed five races : the White ; the Te- lingan, rare in a state of purity ; the Negro, chiefly among the crews of Arab vessels arriving from Zanzibar ; the Mon- golian, represented by a few Chinese residents ; and the Ethiopian, which, in a single instance, was seen unmixed. At Muscat I met with four races : the White, represented exclusively by Orientals ; the Tehngan, apparently present in two individuals from the shores of the Persian Gidf ; the Negro, chiefly derived through Zanzibar ; and the Ethiopian, seen in individuals of mixed race, and in a single Somali. The same four races occurred at Aden. The Ethiopian, however, was here represented by numerous Somali visitors; and the Telingan, by individuals among the Sepoy regiments. MTTMEKlCAli PBOPOBTIONS. 285 At Mocha I fell in with five races : the "White ; the Mon- golian, represented in a half-breed Chinese ; the Abyssinian, seen in several instances; the Ethiopian, -which is here numerous ; as is, likewise, the Negro race. In Hgypt I met with but three races — ^the same known there from remote antiquity : the Ethiopian, the Negro, and the White. I learned, however, that individuals belonging to a fourth race, the true Abyssinian, are sometimes seen at Cairo. I observed two races at Malta : the AVTiite race ; and, in the instance of two lads, who were probably derived from the neighbouring Muslim countries, the Negro. On the continent of Utirope I met with the same two races ; but with the Negro only at Marseilles, and in the instance of two or three resident individuals. AU innovations resulting from the development of Euro- pean navigation, have been excluded from the accompanying map, which (the Arab countries being partially excepted), is intended to represent the aboriginal diffiision of the races. Of isolated districts, Africa appears to contain the greatest number of aboriginal races ; and, next in order, wiU probably foEow either Madagascar or New Gruinea. Density of population being independent of territorial extent, the races, when compared by the number of indi- viduals, rank differently from the appearance of things on the map. The usual estimates of the population of the globe vary from eight hundred to a thousand millions ; and, taking the mean, the human family would seem to be dis- tributed among the races in something like the following proportions : — The White . . 3SO,000,000 The Ahyssinian . 3,000,000 The Mongolian . 300,000,000 The Papuan . 3,000,000 The Malayan . 120,000,000 The Negrillo . . 3,000,000 The Telingan . 60,000,000 The Australian . 500,000 The Negro . . 55,000,000 The Hottentot . 600,000 The Ethiopian 5,000,000 PHTSICAI HISTOHT OP MAlf. CHAPTBE XV. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RACES. AiTHOrOH languages indicate national affiliation, their actual distribution is, to a certain extent, independent of physical race. Confusion has soimetimes arisen from not giving due attention to this circumstance ; and, indeed, the extension or the imparting of languages is a subject whieh has received very little attention. Writers sometimes reason as if nations vrent about in masses, the strong overcoming the w^eak, and imposing at once their customs, religion, and languages on the vam- qnished. But a careful examination of the present being regarded as the best guide to the history of the past, the foUowing examples, selected from among others which I have noted, may be found deserving of attention : — In the mining towns of the Perweicm Andes, the Spamsh language is not commonly spoken ; but Spaniards and other foreigners learn tlie Quichua, or the native Peruvian. In Luzon, though a " conquered country " for more than two centuries, the Tagala is still the general language, and the Spanish makes no progress in the interior towns and districts. At Singapore, where the native population is lost aniid the influx of foreigners, the current language is, neverthe- less, the proper Malay. Were foreign intercourse cut off from the Hawamm Islamds, I think I shall be supported in the opinion that, notwithstanding the large number of resident Whites, the English language would soon become obsolete. The English language makes no progress in Smdostan, neither do the Eoman letters ; and among the native popu- lation, newspapers are printed in five or six different alphar bets, and a yet greater variety of languages. The language most likely to prevail at Aden, in case EELATIONS BETWEEN THE EACES. 287 the Englisli establisliment becomes permanent, is the Hindoostanee. On the Hast Gomt of Africa, notwithstanding the large munber of resident Arabs, the general medium ofeommuni- cation is the SoahiE, a Negro language. 'h^.Malta, a Catholic and European island, Arabic is alone spoken hj the mass of the population ; moreover, it is not here a written language. The adoption of a language seems to be very much a matter of convenience, depending often on the numerical inajority. A stranger learns the language of the comtmu- ni^ ia which he may happen to fix his abode; and his children often know no other. On the supposition, then, that PoLTJTESiAifs in former times may have reached the shores of America, it does not necessarily foUow that we ought to meet with traces of their language. Some com- hinied association of iadividuals, some clanoism, seems requisite to the preservation of a language in the midst of a foreign nation. — Thus it may be inferred, that the Hbbeews retained their language during their sojourn in Egypt, while in their present dispersed condition they speak the languages of their several adopted countries, to the very common neglect of their own. — The G-ypsibs, who are almost as widely, though less individually dispersed, retain every- where something of their original langiaage. — ^But a more remarkable instance is found in the Tuchi, a tribe " long incorporated in the Creek Kation ; their peculiar language* abounding in low, difficult, guttural sounds, so that with the exception of a few words, no one but the children of the Tuchi has ever been able to acquire it. The following are instances of more compEcated relations : — A foreigner might naturally suppose, that he could learn, in the Vrdted States, something of Afeiean languages and customs ; but he might traverse the country without hear- ing a word of any Negro language, a single generation being sufficient to efiace all knowledge of Africa. — Rayti woiald furnish him a more perplexing case ; and perhaps nothing short of written history could solve the enigma of Erench feeing the language of that island. — Moreover, his search for * On the authority of Dr. Boykin, of Georgia, U.S. 288 PHYSICAL HISTOEY OE MAN, African institutions vonld not be more successful among the St. Viacent Caeibs. — And thus we have three examples where one physical race of men has succeeded to the language and institutions of another. Turning now to the Pacific and East India Islands, we find langpiages of the Malay class spoken by three distinct physical races ; and all analogy indicating that this type of language belonged originally to a single race, the particular source becomes a fair subject of inquiry. In determining this point, aid may be obtained from the geographical distri- bution of the three island races ; from the well-known com- position of the population of the East Indies, where the Malayan is an invading race, intruding and encroaching on the territories of the Negrillo ; and from the fact, that the Negro race uses the same type of language at the Comoro Islands and Madagascar ; whue at the last-named island, the physical race of the Vazimba remains undetermined. The relations between the three island races are further illustrated by the state of the diffusion of knowledge in the Pacific, where almost every Polynesian art can be distinctly traced to the Feejee Islands. Agriculture and civilisation are very commonly regarded as inseparable ; but the Eeejeeans, notwithstanding their ferocious and barbarous manners, are found to possens a high degree of skiU in cultivating the soil. A little further west, at Yamkoro, the trunk of a tree, rudely fashioned, is simply grooved to afford foothold, wMlo an outrigger is attached, and a mat is spread for a sail.* In our part of the globe, few would be wiUing, thus on a simple log, to launch out into an unknown ocean. The pattern, however, seems to shadow forth the Eeejee canoe ; and it by no means follows, that the race which ehcited the spark of civilisation, should have most profited by the advantage. The inventions of the Negrillo, a race so averse to, and almost refusing voluntary intercourse vrith strangers, were not likely to benefit the rest of mankind. If acquired, elaborated, and improved by the Eeejeeans, stiU, from the social condition of this people, their dislike of change, and * See the vignette in D'Urville's History of the Voyage of the Astrolabe. EELATIOIfS BETWEEN THE EACES. 289 unwillingness to leq,ve home, the knowledge might not have extended further. _ A third race is called into requisition, one of a roving disposition, the proper children of the sea ; who, naturally the most amiahle of mankind, are free from antipathies of race, are fond of noveltj, inclined rather to foUow than to lead ; and who, in every respect, seem quaUfied to become a medium of communication between the different branches of the human family. Such an office is even indi- cated in the geographical (nstribution ; for the Malayan alone makes a near approach to universal contact with the Other races. While admitting the general truth, that mankind are essentially alike, no one doubts the existence of character, distinguishing not only individuals, but communities and nations. I am persuaded that there is, besides, a character of race. It woiild not be difficult to select epithets, such as "amphibious, enduring, insititious ;" or to point out, as accomphshed by one race of men, that which seemed beyond the powers of another. Each race possessing its peculiar points of excellence, and at the same time counterbalancing defects, it may be, that union was required to attain the full measure of civilisation. In the organic world, each new field requires a new creation; each change in circumstances going beyond the constitution of a plant or animal, is met by a new adapta- tion, until the universe is full ; while among the immense variety of created beings, two kinds are hardly found fiilffiling the same precise purpose. Some analogy may possibly exist in the human family ; and it may even be questioned whether any one of the races existing singly would, up to the present day, have extended itself over the whole surface of the globe. 290 . PHYSICAL HISTOKT Or MAN. CHAPTEE XVI. GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS OF KNOWLEDGE. Lbating now tte physical diversity of the human family, and recurring to the order of the voyage of the Expedition : itt proceeding always west, the American tribes first engaged our attention, and next the widely scattered Polynesians. Among the latter people it soon became evident that their customs, arts, and attainments, were not of independent growth. And further, that the supposition of the Poly- nesians being the descendants — ^the scattered remnants of a highly civilised people now relapsed into barbarism, did not altogether meet the case. The East Indies being regarded by general consent as the place of origin of the Polynesians, it was natural to seek there for some correspondmg tribe, for something analogous to the relation among European nations, of England to the United States. But on the contrary, surprise arose at the want of resemblance, and the term " Malay origin," if used in a national sense, was discovered to be incorrect. So, in looking to Asia, to China, Japan, or the neighbouring coimtries, for some tribe corresponding vdth the aborigiaal Americans, we shall equally find ourselves at fault. Por the remote environs of Bhering Straits do not offer a fair exception. After being much perplexed for an explanation, it was only on taking leave of the East Indies that . the foUowiog simple reflection occurred to me : — If the human family has had a central origin, and has gradually and regularly diffused itself, followed by the principal inventions and discoveries, the history of man would then be inscribed on the globe itself; and each new revolution obliterating more or less of the preceding, his primitive condition should be found at the furthest remove from the geographic centre : as, in the case GEOGEAPHICAI PB0GEES8 OF EN'OWLEDGE. 291 of a pebble dropped into the water, the earliest waTe keeps most distant from the pouit of origin. If then we could go back into the early history of the East Indies, we might find there a condition of society approximating to that of the Polynesian Islands. And we can. readily understand how customs may continue in remote situations, after having become obsolete at the place where they originated. They who send ships over every sea, and who Hve where inventions from different sources become common property at once, may not readily appreciate the state of things in the absence of such imiversal intercourse. But on the other side of the globe, in the vast space between Arabia and the coast of America, traces of successive waves in society seem actually to exist. a. The Hast Indies. Thus, in the East Indies, in the north-eastern or the heathen part of Celebes,* we observe many striking coinci- dences with the state of societijr among the ancient Greeks. We have the spear, the shield, and the sword ; and these weapons are even almost identical in pattern. Altars and sacnfices, so generally obsolete at the present day, are here extant. Auguries continue to be drawn from the entrails of offered victims, and also from the flight of birds. A separate Hterature has become an object of national pride. While the proa of the surronnding seas approaches in many respects the ancient row-galley of the Mediterranean. A further analogy may even be found in the custom of putting to death strangers arriving by sea, which, it appears, was not unknown among the ancient Greeks. A httle to the west of Celebes, the literature of the Malay nation contains a translation of the Eables of .^sop ; who, according to the unsatisfactory accounts we have of him, was one of the earliest of the Greek writers. And further, the fact may be noted, that the ^sopian style of composition is still in vogue at Madagascar.! Superstitions also appear to be subject to the same laws of progression with communicated knowledge ; and the belief * See the acconnts, by D'Urville and others. -t* See KUia's Madagascar. D 2 292 PHTSTCAIi HISTOET OE MAiT. in ghosts, evil spirits, and sorcery, current among the ruder East Indian tribes, ia Madagascar, and ia a great part of Africa, seems to indicate that such ideas may have else- where preceded a regular form of mythology. In the East, Luzon is one of the most distant points reached by the invention of letters, or having an aboriginal alphabet. I was therefore much struct with some coinci- dences in the forms of the letters, between the obsolete Tagala' alphabet and the ancient G-eez of Abyssinia ;* while in the intervening countries the alphabets, although various, are altogether tmlike. It is true the connexion is not entirely obliterated, but may be traced in the mode of marking the termination of words among the Bugis and the Siamese. The multiplicity of alphabets in the East Indies seems to offer a parallel to the multiplicity of languages in America ; and I have found nothing, in all this, contravening the idea of a single soiu-ce to the invention. Many of the East India alphabets are plainly derived one from another, the form of the characters often being merely modified and new ones superadded : but I shall assume only that the know- ledge of the existence of the art was derived from abroad. Much of the difference, between alphabetic writing in the East Indies and our own more perfect system, seems attributable to the circumstance, that the alphabet trans- mitted to the West by Cadmus had been already elaborated. Let the reader, in thought, divest himself of his edu- • cation, and suppose that his mother tongue had never been reduced to writing; and, further, that the possibility of representing sounds by signs had simply arisen in his mind. The attempt to carry this idea into practice wiU. be foimd by no means so easy as it may at first appear ; and, by most persons, would probably be abandoned. "With the aid of example, there would be a greater prospect of success ; but even, with several characters communicated, their forms would probably be modified, and new letters invented, for sounds difficult to be reconciled, or that might be unrepre- sented. Where the model has been imperfect, it has appeared to me that the system founded upon it would * I refer to the " Nubian Alphabet,'' of Frye's Pantographiii. GEOGEAPHICAl PE0GEES8 01' KNOWLEDGE. 293 naturally be complicated; one requiring long study, and which might serve for a profession, a, means of procuring support ; in short, more resembling the iaconvenient alpha- bets of the East India islands, than the simple analysis of sounds which we hare in the Iloman letters. b. The Feejee Islands. Eastward from Celebes, and nearly equidistant with Madagascar, we have the Teejee Islands, situated entirely beyond the direct influence of the East Indies. "We find, nevertheless, a regular system of mythology ; oracles ; the iavehn, or throwing-spear ; the patera, or shallow drinldng- bowl; the "pipe of Pan;" and the " alabastron," with the practice of anoittting. We have Kkewise the wooden neck- piUow, and the practice of circumcision, both common to the ancient inhabitants of the Thebaid, and also to the modem Abyssinians and their neighbours on the south. We have, mrther, the legend of an enormous bird, the " Eok " of the Arabian Tales ; and a similar story is said to be likewise current in Madagascar and in the neighbouring parts of Africa. Among the subjects which promise to throw light on the affiliation of nations, none more deserves attention than the calendar and state of astronomical knowledge. These points have been much neglected in the accounts of the East Indian and Pacific islands. The Peejeeans have a regular calendar; and, I may add, that Yeindovi kept a strict acooimt of the number of the moons, dming the whole time he was on board the Vincennes. c. Polynesian. The Polynesians, notwithstanding their more eastern geo- graphical position, have most of their customs, arts, and acquired knowledge, in common with the Peejeeans ; but there are certain points which require a separate notice. The eagerness with which whole communities, young and old, devoted themselves to reading and writing, when these arts were iatroduced, and the care previously taken to pre- serve and transmit poetry and history by means of living records, are facts of interest, under more than one point of view. Whoever has witnessed something of this, wiU hardly 294 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OE MAW. be willing to admit that suet a people woiild ever liave lost the art of writing. It should seem, then, as has been remarked by others, that the Polynesians belong to a wave of migration that preceded the invention of letters. Corresponding results maybe deduced: from the ignorance of money, or of a medium of exchange ; although property is acknowledged, inherited, and guarded by regular laws, even to a division of the soU. And again, from the absence of all kinds of " grain ;" notwithstanding the advanced state of the art of cultivation. The strict adherence to truth among portions of the Polynesian family, stands opposed to the treachery of the Peejeeans ; and further, it seems to result mainly from the simplicity of the Polynesian character, the contrary prac- tice being looked upon rather in the light of an error of judgment. The pseudo-accomplishment, however, proved to be not unknown to the chiefs. Other traits in the moral man might be adduced ; for the " golden age," in accordance almost literally with the ideas of the ancient poets, still exists on some of the secluded Polynesian isles. d. America. I hardly know whether to refer here to America ; though in general the aboriginal Americans are to be regarded as in a less advanced state of society than the Polynesians. We note throughout Aboriginal America, the entire absence of poetry and literature. Eecords, indeed, of a certain description were preserved by the .Mexicans ; but among the tribes of the United States, the tradition of remarkable events is said to disappear in very few genera- tions. We note also in extensive and varied districts, a complete ignorance of agriculture ; and where it is otherwise there is usually no division of the soil. A further difference from the islanders, is found in the absence, in most instances, of hereditary governments. The custom of scalping, so well known in North America, may be noticed in this place, on account of its having been described by Herodotus ;* while it is not, that I am aware of, in vogue among any Asiatic tribe of the present day. * HerodotUB; Melpomene, 64, MIGEATIOlfS BY SEA. 295 CHAPTEE XVII. MIGRATIONS BY SEA. The state of the diffusion of knowledge, depends tien in a good measure on the facilities of intercourse, and, in tlie foregoing instances, of maritime intercourse ; for I think it will be admitted that the islands and countries referred to, were chiefly, if not exclusively, discovered and colonised by seafaring tribes. This, however, may be more evident to those who have some knowledge of maritime affairs, some ikmiliarity with the world of waters, and with that distiact class of human beiags who thereon seek subsistence. Many difficulties, which previously existed in. my own miad, have vanished since making a sea-voyage. Coral shores are vastly more productive in animal life than the ordinary sea-coast, and thus yield a more important contribution to human sustenance. Afber witnessing at the Pacific islands, the multitudes of persons who daily resort to the reefs, where they become familiar with the surf, I have questioned whether something like this did not first tempt man to venture upon the ocean. On coasts of a different character, destitute of harbours and of outlying isles, and especially where lashed by a heavy surf, the idea of quitting the land does not seem a very natural one. On the other hand a coral shore, an islet in sight, with water of an agreeable temperature, have appeared to me to constitute all the requisites for the birth of navigation. In considering why the comparatively narrow Atlantic so long proved impassable, the character of the coasts should be kept in view ; and those especially of the AjQican con- tinent. Something may be allowed for a difference in the natural disposition of the races ; and also for the probability that distant voyages were first made by following the coasts. 296 PHYSICAL HISTOET OE MAN. a. Tlie North Fadfic. To persons living around the Atlantic shores, the source of the aborigiaal population of America seems mysterious ; and volumes have been written upon the subject. Had the authors themselves made the voyage to the North Pacific, I cannot but think that much of the discussion would have been spared. In the absence of such an opportunity, a reference to a good globe may be useful before entering upon the question. But I confess it was only on actually visiting that part of the world, that the whole matter seemed to open to my view. The coast of north-western America is broken by countless inlets and channels, which penetrate the continent, as well as lead among islands ; and, for a distance perhaps unpa- ralleled, offer a land-locked passage to the largest vessels. The shores are everywhere occupied by populous maritime tribes, who derive subsistence from the abundant products of the water. This description of coast extends northward, almost without interruption, to the peninsula of Alashka; and, in contiauation, the islands of the Aleutian Group, stretching ia close proximity to the very borders of Asia, are inhabited by the same class of population. "Where, then, shall Asia end, and America begin ? To the southward, the character of the coast changes, near the mouth of the Columbia B.iver ; and beyond this point there is no room for the development of a maritime population. The canoes of the Straits of De Fuca are of wood, are weU made, and the natives frequently go ia them many mUes into the open sea. A little further north we meet with an improved model, the " baydar," or skin canoe, which is used among the Aleutian Islands, and generally throughout Eussian America. I have seen one of them, and, from its lightness, elegance, and the capacity of being rendered impervious to both air and water, I could not but admire its perfect adaptation to the purposes of navigation ; for it seemed to almost enable man to take a place among the proper inhabitants of the deep. Such vessels are obviously fitted to cope with the open sea, and so far as the absence of sails permits, to traverse a considerable expanse of ocean. MIGEATIONS BY SEA. 297 The presence of these skin canoes among the Esquimaux of the Greenland seas, was long regarded as proof, of the existence of a northwest passage ; and it likewise indicates the course of human migrations. I have not examiaed authorities to ascertain whether the passage across Bhering Straits is practicable for a people ia the purely hunter state. But, in view of the large portion of Northwest America in contact with maritime tribes, these tribes have appeared to me the most probable source of the inland population. It should be observed that there are two other portions of America that aiford room for the development of a mari- time population : the coral-bound West Indies, and the border Magellanic Archipelago. The latter is a counterpart to the region we have been considering; and its remote geographical position seems to imply an independent rise of navigation, together with an inverse order of descent, in the derivation of maritime from inland tribes. Men of a second physical race have aboriginally found their way to the western coast of America, and by the open sea, which latter circumstance will be found to have several important bearings. The Polynesian Groups are everywhere separated from South America by a vast expanse of ocean, where rough waves, and perpetually adverse winds and currents oppose access from the west. In attempting from any part of Polynesia to reach America, a canoe would naturally and almost necessarily be conveyed to the northern extreme of Califomia ; and this is the precise limit where the second physical race of men makes its appearance. So well under- stood is this course of navigation, that San Prancisco, I am informed, is commonly regarded in Mexico as " being on the route to Manila." Again, the northern extreme of Califomia is as favour- ably situated for receiving a direct arrival from Japan. At the present day, owing to a change in national policy, Japanese vessels are only by accident found at large. But, within a few years, one has been fallen in with by a whale- ship in the North Pacific ; another has been wrecked on the Sandwich Islands; and, a case more in point, a third has been drifted to the American coast, near the mouth of the Columbia Eiver. 298 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. b. The Mam Paeifie. Of the aboriginal vessels of tbe Pacific, two kinds only- are adapted for long searvoyages : those of Japan, just men- tioned, and the large double canoes of the Society and Tonga Groups. In times anterior to the impulse given to civilised Europe, through the novel enterprise of Columbus, Polynesians were accustomed to undertake sea-voyages nearly as long, exposed to equal dangers, and in vessels of far inferior construction. However incredible this may appear to many, there is sufficient evidence of the fact. The Tonga people are knovm to hold intercourse with Vavao, Samoa, the Peejee Islands, Eotuma, and the New Hebrides. But there is a document, published before those seas were frequented by whalers and trading-vessels, which shows a more extensive aboriginal acquaintance with the islands of the Pacific. I allude to the map, obtained by Porster and Cook from a native of the Society Islands, and which has been shown by Mr. Hale to contain not only the Marquesas, and the islands south and east of Taheiti, but the Samoan, Peejee, and even more distant groups. Again, in regard to the principles of Navigation, the Poly- nesians have been found to possess a better knowledge of the subject than is commonly supposed, as appears from recent discoveries at the Hawaiian Islands. One of the Hawaiian headlands has been found to bear the name of "the starting-place for Taheiti;" the canoes, according to the account of the natives, leaving iu former times " at a certain season of the year,* and directing their course by a particular star." The two blackish races, inhabiting the extensive archi- pelagoes, between the Peejee Islands and New Guinea, are often skilful enough in canoe-management ; but the absence of a wandering disposition, and peculiarities in civil insti- tutions, would seem greatly to impede diffusion and coloni- sation. The Peejeeans hold no intercourse with their brethren of the New Hebrides ; and a similar state of things appears to prevail at the more western groups: though the existence of intercommunication of some sort • Od tlie authoribf of the missionaries. MlGSATIOJifS BT SEA. 299 is shown by the use of beijel having reached the Santa Cruz or JSTitendi Group, and eren likopia * and the New Hebrides. North of the Papuan archipelagoes, the Micronesiams, lite their brethren the Polynesians, are a migratoiy people ; and they are reported to traverse, even in small canoes, the widely-extended archipelago of the Carolines. There is yet no direct intercourse with the East Indies, notwithstanding the advantage of the monsoons, for a good part of the distance. It will be perceived, then, that there are actually (though not so represented on the map,) two routes of migration leading from the East Indies into the main Pacific, one through the Micronesian groups and the other by the Papuan archipelagoes. c. The Mast Indies. The proas of the East Indies seem to be every way adapted for traversing the open sea; yet, in no instance that I am aware of, have they been found at any con- siderable distance from the outer coasts ; and these, even, are in a good measure avoided. There is certainly no exception to the usual semi-aquatic habits of the race ; for the East Indians are fully as fond as the Polynesians of beiog in and upon the water. At the present time the Bugis of Celebes may be said to rule the Bast Indian seas, their commercial enterprises extending to all parts of the immense closed archipelago, from the borders of Asia to the northern coast of Australia. The Chinese "junk" seems also to belong properly to the region under consideration; and being used chiefly within the limits of the monsoons and among land-locked expanses, where the Equator brings exemption from storms, the construction may prove to be by no means ill-adapted to the circumstances. d. The Bengal Sea. The TeHngan people, in companywith various adventurers from the eastern coast of Hmdostan, have long been in * See D'Urville, and others. 300 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OP MAIT. the iabit of resorting in large bodies to the East Indian islands. Among some thousands seen at Singapore, nearly- all the individuals I questioned had embarked at Madras. I observed, however, m the harbour of Singapore, a vessel from Cochin (near the southern point of Hindostan), It was clearly a proper sea-vessel, one vindicating the more advanced knowledge of Navigation in the West : moreover, the construction, although peculiar, offered, with the raking masts and the sharpness of huU, a nearer approach than was anticipated to a celebrated model at home. The Maldive islanders, likewise, are known to make voyages to and from the East Indies. I am not sure that I have met with any of these people, and I am even unde- cided as to their physical race, though a range of coral-reefs would seem to present attractions to but one branch of the human family. The geographical position, and reported enterprising character of the inhabitants, seem to indicate that these islanders may have taken an important part in colonising the surrounding regions ; and I can even con- ceive of the possibility of the whole population of the Malay countries having been originally derived from such a limited source. e. The Arabian Seas. "We come now to the fifth and last remove in the main route of marine migrations ; the tract of ocean interposed between Hindostan and East Africa, and terminating in two separate appended seas. Yoyages in this quarter are made by following the coasts ; and the navigation is chiefly in the hands of the Arabs. The vessels they employ are of uniform model, and are called « dows." A figure of one of them is annexed. MIGEATIONS BT SEA. 301 The Arabs, however, for several centuries, have exceeded these precise limits; as may be inferred, among other circmnstajices, from the extension of Islamism to the East Indies without its undergoing the modifying influence of Hindostan. Of late years, since the Arabs have procured European ships, and have learned to quit the coasts, this direct intercourse has much increased. I have myself seen, at Mocha, vessels arriving from the East Indies ; and I met with the circular-bladed oar of the Persian Gulf, both at Singapore and in the harbour of Manila. Arabia being situated entirely within a Desert region, the timber used by the inhabitants is aU imported from abroad, either from the Malabar coast, or from Zanzibar. And, leaving the absence of natural inclination for maritime pursuits, it would seem a fair inference, that navigation did not take its rise in a country devoid of the materials of construction. South of the Arab colonies of East Africa, we have Malay influence of unknown antiquity, at the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. Here, too, the outrigger makes its appear- ance, an article not used by the Arabs, but which is general in the Pacific, and occurs at Sooloo, and, if I am rightly informed, at Ceylon. The Maldive islanders make regular voyages only to the eastward ; but the fact of a Maldive canoe, with several persons on board, having recently drifted to the vicinity of the African coast, shows at least the prac- ticability of intercommunication. We have thus designated, between Eastern Africa and the coast of America, no less than five separate theatres of maritime intercourse. Each of these has different attendant circumstances, is navigated by a different people, and in vessels of a different construction; each, if thoroughly examined, would furnish ample materials for a separate volume ; and this state of things has existed for ages, notwithstanding the silence of History. 302, PHTSICAI HISTOKT OF MAlf. CHAPTEE XVIII. MIGRATIONS BY LAND. Wb are unacquainted, at the present daj, with " men hving in a state of nature," or devoid of all communicated know- ledge. Some idea, however, of such an original state, may he gathered from the condition of certain uncivilised trihes ; but not on the continents. Where iutercommunicatiom is imiversal, manners assimilate, changes become general, and sodety in some shape, seems an unavoidable result. Islands afford more scope for the development of local and independent institutions ; and one portion of the globe situated aloof from continental influence, more particularly demands attention : an island-world, where the widely- extended coasts have been for ages occupied by invading maritime tribes, to the seclusion of the people of the Interior. Man, in some of the larger East India islands, presents phases, difficult to be comprehended by those who have seen nim only on coasts and continents. I have selected, from authorities which I think maybe relied on, the four following examples of Life in the East Indies. And it will be observed, that some of the tribes spoken of, are in the " hunter state," and live on the spon- taneous products of the land ; a circumstance rare among islands : where, moreover, the proper "pastoral state," appears to be quite unknown. 1. I shall notice in the first place the Battas oi" Sttmatea; and chiefly on account of the extraordinary character of some of their customs ; for, compared with many tribes in the same quarter of the globe, they are an advanced, and in some respects even a polished people. They cultivate the soil, have a division of landed property, a currency, a regular system of laws and government, an alphabet, and a literature of their own : and yet, they not only eat their parents (a custom among other East Indian tribes, and mentioned MI&EATIONS BY LAKD. 303 eyen by Herodotus), but they seem literally to devour them ahve: — " Marsden * confines their cannibalism to two cases, that of persons condemned for crimes, and that of prisoners of war ; but they themselves declare that they frequently eat their own relations, when aged and infirm ; and that, not so much to gratify their appetite, as to perform a pious cere- mony. Thus when a man becomes infirm and weary of the world, he is said to invite his own children to eat him, in the season when salt and limes are cheapest. He then ascends a tree, round which his friends and ofispring assemble, and as they shake the tree, join in a funeral dirge, the import of which is,. ' The season is come, the fruit is ripe, and it must descend.' The victim descends, and those that are nearest and dearest to him deprive him of life, and devour his remains in a solemn banquet." Major Canning states,t "that during his residence at Tappanooly (1814), in the heart of the Batta country, he omitted no opportunity of maldng the most minute inquiries" on the subject of their cannibalism ; " all of which tended, not only fuUy to corroborate the reality of the practice, but that it is much more frequent than is generally imagined, and carried on in a manner even more savage than is related by Mr. Marsden. The following are the questions put by me to a native chief, selected indiscriminately from an assembly of several, collected on some particular occasion at the house of the officiating resident at Tappanooly, and his answers : — Q. " I understand the practice of eating prisoners taken in war, also malefactors convicted of certain crimes, is prevalent in the Batta country ; were you ever personally present at such a repast ?" A. " The custom you mention is prevalent throughout the Batta country, and I have been more than once present when it has been put in practice." Q. " Describe what takes place on such occasions." A. " Three posts are fixed in the ground ; to the middle * See Leyden, Asiatic Researches, vol. x. p. 202. t Malacca Observer, 1827 ; cited, as also the preceding extract, from Moore's Papers on the Indian Archipelago. 304 PHTSIOAL illSTOET OE MAJif. one the body of the prisoner or criminal is made fast, while his arms and legs are extended to the two others. (The narrator and other chiefs present, here simultaneously made with their arms and legs, the figure of St. Andrew's cross.) On a. signal being given, every one entitled to a share in the feast, rushes on him with hatchets and knives, and many ■with no other instruments than their teeth and nails. He is thus in a few minutes entirely cut or torn to pieces, and I have seen the guests so keen at a repast of this description, as severely to wound each other's hands and fingers. A mixture of lime-juice, salt, and chillies, prepared in the shell of a cocoa-nut, is always at hand on these occasions, in which many dip the fiesh previous to eating it." Q. " Then, the prisoner is not previously put to death, but devoured aKve and piecemeal ? " A. " The first wounds he receives are from the hatchets, knives, and teeth of his assailants, but these are so numerous and simultaneous as to cause almost immediate death." " The above are the questions and answers which I put to and received from the native chief; on which occasion it was remarkable that more than once, when he was pro- ceeding to give the latter, the others altogether, and at the same moment, joined assent, which leaves little room to doubt, that to most of them, at least, such scenes were familiar." 2. The second instance selected, that of the "Wild People 01' Oeeam, is of a widely difierent character. Society here appears hardly to exist ; but each family lives in a state of perpetual hostility with aU around. " Among* these Alforese (inhabiting the interior of Coram) there is another kind of savage people, who do not dwell in houses or huts, but upon high Warinje and other trees, that spread their branches wide around. They lead and intertwine the branches so closely together, that they form an easy resting-place ; and each tree is the habitation of a whole family. They adopt this mode, because they dare not trust even those of their own nation, as they surprise each other dxiring the night, and kill whoever they take hold of." * EumpLiuB, MS. ; copied in Stayorinus's Voyages. English edition, 17fl8i MIGBATIOirS ET LAITD. 305 3. But I cannot persuade myself ttat tie first natural impulse of man is to kill; and, in this respect, tlie third example, that of a Poeest Tkibe or the Maiat PENrfr- STTLA, especially deserves attention. The foUowing account* of this so-called "Original People" is stated to have been derived, partly from the Malays, and partly from people of iieighbouring tribes : — - "The Original People live in the dead of the forest. They never come down to the villages for fear of meeting any one. They live on the fruits of the forest and vrhat they take in hunting, and neither sow nor plant. When a young man and woman have engaged to marry, they proceed to a hQlock; the woman first runs round it three times, when the man pursues ; if he can get hold of her, she becomes his wife, otherwise the marriage does not take place, and they return to their respective families. Their language is not imderstood by any one; they lisp their words, the sound of which is like the noise of birds, and their utterance is very indistinct. They have neither king nor chief of any kind ; but there is one man whom they style Puyung, to whom they refer all their requests and complaints, and they invariably adopt his decision. They have no religion, no idea of a Supreme Being, creation of the world, soul of man, sin, heaven, hell, angels, day of judgment. They have no priests. The Puyung instructs them in matters relative to sorcery, ghosts, and evil spirits, in the belief of which they are all influenced. They never quarrel or go to war with another tribe. In sickness they use the roots and leaves of trees as medicines. When one of them dies, the head only is buried ; the body is eaten by the people, who collect in large numbers for that purpose." What is stated of their language is the more worthy of note, when it is considered that the dialects of the neigh- bouring and closely related tribes belong to the Malay class. Whoever has chanced to be thrown among people, not a syllable of whose speech he could comprehend, wiU know, that amid many inconveniences it is still possible to get along. And, in the condition of things to be next men- tioned, the nearest I have heard of to the " natural state of • From a printed sheet, obtained at Singapore. 306 PHTSICAI HISTOET OF MAK. man," it seems questionable whether a language of words is reaUy needed. 4. The instance alluded to is that of the ■Wild People OP BoBNEO, who are described by Dalton* in the following words : — " Further towards the north are to be found men hving absolutely in a state of nature, who neither cultivate the ground, nor live in huts ; who neither eat rice nor salt, and who do not associate with each other, but rove about some woods, like wild beasts. The sexes meet in the jungle, or the man carries away a woman from some cam- pong. When the children are old enough to shift for themselves, they usually separate, neither one afterwards thinking of the other. At night they sleep under some large tree, the branches of which hang low. On these they fasten the children in a kind of swing. Around the tree they make a fire, to keep off the wild beasts and snakes. They cover themselves with a piece of bark, and in this also they wrap their chUdren. It is soft and warm, but wiH not keep out the rain. These poor creatures are looked on and treated by the Dayaks as wild beasts. Hunting parties of twenty-fi.ve and thirty go out, and amuse themselves with shooting at the children in the trees with the sumpit, the same as monkeys, from which they are not easily distin- guished. The men taken in these excursions are invariably killed, the women commonly spared if they are yoimg. It is somewhat remarkable, that the children of these wild people cannot be sufficiently tamed to be entrusted with their hberty. Selgie told me he never recollected an instance when they did not escape to the jungle the very first opportunity, notwithstanding many of them had been treated kindly for years. The consequence is, all the chiefs who call themselves civilised, no sooner take them, but they cut off a foot, sticking the stump in a bamboo of molten damar ; their escape is thus prevented, and their services in paddling canoes retained. An old Dayak loves to dwell upon his success on these hunting excursions ; and the terror of the women and children, when taken, affords a fruitful theme of amusement a/j all their meetings." The * In the Singapore Chronicle, March and April, 1831. Reprinted in Moore's Papers on the Indian Archipelago. MIGEATIONS BT XiAND. 307 following additional information is, however, somewliat Tineipected. After speaking of the excellence of the iron and steel of the interior of Borneo, and of the extent of its manufacture among the Dayak tribes, Dalton continues : " Those men whom I have noticed, living in a state of nature, building no habitations of any kmd, and eating nothing but fiiiits, snakes, and monkeys, yet procure this excellent iron, and make blades, sought after by every Dayak, who, in their hunting excursions, have in view the possession of the poor creature's spear or mandow, as much as his head, improbable as it may appear." Above win be found something hie evidence, that man- kind have the ability to diffuse themselves widely over the globe, without associating, and in the absence of the invention of language. Beginning now at the extreme West: let us consider some of the barriers to such a diffusion, the means of over- coming them, and the geographical position of adjoining countnes. The fertile portion of Aftica is surrounded by water on every side except the north, where a vast uninhabitable space seems impassable to man in his ruder state. There exists, however, a natural highway across the Sahara, in the unique geographical position of the NUe; and individuals, by following the banks, or floating on the bosom of this remarkable river, could easily reach the countries of the North. The acquisition of domestic animals, and more particu- larly that of the camel, wrought a change throughout the region in question; and one of the camel routes may be here specified as connecting countries which make a con- spicuous figure in History. Commencing in the table-land of Abyssinia, and crossing the entrance of the Bed Sea, the route leads northward, and through the nairowest part of Arabia, to Persia (a country more conveniently accessible from the heart of Africa than may at first be supposed) ; continuing eastward, the route terminates in Hindostan, at the second grand natural barrier of races and nations, the Himalaya range of moimtains. In order to a clear understanding of the history of Ori- ental nations, it is necessary to observe, that the above x2 308 PHYSICAL HISTOET OF MAK. Desert tract contains four principal oases : the first consists of Egypt, or of the alluvial flats of the Nile ; the second consists of the aUuvial flats of the Euphrates ; the third, of a strip of land along the southern margin of the Caspian ; and the fourth, of the aLLuyial flats of the Indus. The difierence in the circumstances between intercourse by land and by sea inyolves a corresponding difference in the state of the diffusion of knowledge; but successive waves of social revolution are traceable in the relics or ancient nations preserved in Hiadostanj likewise in the slow progress of ionovation in mountain fastnesses and in other secluded situations. Thus the people of the western Sahara continue to entertain the beMef,, that Cimmerian darkness overhangs the Atlantic, and that the sun rises only for themselves. They have been known to ask visitors, "Do you sow barley in your houses ?" meaning the ships^ in which they supposed that Europeans were bom and passed their lives. CIIAPTEE XIX. ORIGIN OP AGRICULTURE. The alimentOTy resources offered to man by the natural vegetation of different countries are by no means in pro- portion to the fertility of the soil or the variety of the pro- ductions ; and the wanderer would be ia more danger of perishing from hunger in the wilds of Brazil than in Terra del Euego,. The first part of the voyage of the Expedition led into regions which present striking peculiarities and marked contrasts in the vegetable growth ; and, after visiting suc- cessively Madeira, the Cape Verd Islands, Brazil, Patagonia, Terra del Euego, Chili, the Chilian Andes, and Lower Peru, I hardly anticipated further novelty in the general aspect of vegetation. A new phase, however, awaited me at the very next stage of my progress, and one in regard to which I will enter into some details. The western slope of the Peruvian Andes, at the elevation OKIGISr or AGEICULTUHE. 309 of from six thousand to eleven thousand, feet, presents nothing of the wildness and magnificence of primeval forests: it is not, like some Northern "prairies," clothed with a grassy sward, or, at one season of the year, with a fleetmg array of a few kinds of flowers ; neither, again, like most open countries, is it fairly arid. There is no general tendency to the production of spines ; and if occasionally a woody plant of moderate height has a tree-like trunk, there are yet no marks of stunted growth. Proper shruhs, of various affinity, are common enough ; yet they nowhere grow ia contiguity, or form thickets. Cacti, too, are every- where conspicuous; not such as are familiarly known in green-houses, hut a varied and peculiarly fantastic series. The sou, however, is principally occupied by herbaceous and other humble plants, growing, not ia such a manner as to cover the surface, but detached, almost as if artificially set out. Ornamental plants are in profusion ; and, in the absence of all rankness of habit, they are precisely such as meet the general taste of florists. The most abundant of these showy plants may be enumerated in the order of colours: and here, again, instances wiU be observed, con- traveniag our usual associations. Scarlet shines forth in Salman, Scutellaria, Mutisias, and Indigofera, interspersed and tempered amid the blue of other Salvias, of Lvpineg, JPlmmbago, and Polygalece ; orange, too, is present ia the frequent Tropmolwms, Lobelia, and Loasas; and Hkewise purple in .Bacflsma, and in large-flowered ^oer/jaatiiaw/ but, over all, yeUow predominates, from the profusion of Cal- ceolarias, and of Senecios and other rayed Composites. While traveUiag in the midst of what I could only com-, pare to an artificial flower-garden, outspread over hiU and dale, the thought arose: In a region Kke this, producing also esculent and tuberous roots, how natural woiJd be the origia of agriculture ; how little seems here wanting to dis- close to man, in searching for his daily food, the secret of multiplying his means of subsistence. ia a forest, supposing a useful plant to be discovered, its cultivation would require a clearing, which seems too com- plex an idea for a first suggestion. On the other hand, the aridity of most open countries precludes cultivation, unless with the aid of irrigation, and this requires even further 310 PHTSICAIi HISTOET Or MAIT. advancement. Of countries not altogether barren we have an instance in Oregon, where, notwithstanding that the natives annually seek subsistence from bulbous and other roots, (none, however, tuberous,) the idea of assisting nature by art has not been developed. Again, on the Sacramento Eiver of Cahfomia, where, by a singular approximation to the use of grain, minute seeds of grasses and other plants constitute an article of food, the natives, nevertheless, have not advanced beyond gathering the spontaneous crop. In considering the topographical resemblance between Mexico and Peru, and the aboriginal condition of these countries, when compared with that of the rest of America^ the conclusion seems hardly avoidable, that table-lands are the natural birthplaces of civilisation. A further inference would seem to foUow : that, on entering a woody country, man wUl naturally relapse into a ruder state ; and he must either conquer and destroy the forest, or he wiLL himself yield before its influence. The remote and widely isolated geographical position of Peru favours the supposition of a spontaneous development of eivUisation ; and there are attendant circumstances which point to the same conclusion. In the mountain-region above described, and particularly in its more elevated portion, I met with small plantations devoted to three articles of aboriginal culture ; the Basella tuberosa, the Oicalis erenata, and the Tropceoht/m tuberosum. These are plants, which, besides, appear to belong naturally to the region in question ; and they aU! have tuberous roots. A fourth tuber-bearing plant was seen cultivated side by side; one, which did not aboriginally reach Mexico, but which has now become universally known, — ^the common potato. Again, Peru is possibly the only part of America that possessed indigenous domestic animals. The lama and the gnmea-pig* like the above-named cultivated plants, are * The fact may bo here noted, as of some interest in Zoology, — that these two animals have become particoloured, and also subject to individual vari- ation in colour, like other domestic animals. This change has equally taken place in the turkey, aecompanied with one of the additional marks of servitude — the dewlap. ZOOLOGICAL DEDTJOTIOirS. 311 actual natives of Peru. But the third American domestic animal, the twJcey, is well known to ha^e its proper home in the wooded portions of the United States ; and although not found in its domesticated state among the surrounding aboriginal tribes, it was probably reclaimed by a people less remote than the Peruvians. America contains two of the natural centres of civilisation; and Asia contains one, the table-land of Thibet ; all three beiiig iu the possession of the Mongolian race. If now we search the contiuents for a fourth table-land, which in height, extent, and geographical importance, can be ranted with the preceding, we shall find it only in Abyssinia. It is, however, tolerably certain, that agriculture was not spontaneously developed in any part of Africa ; and it should also be observed, that the cultivated plants of the East Indies and the Pacific Islands are not mountain pro- ductions. The same, indeed, may be said of the eassada (Jatropha manihot), a plant aboriginally cultivated in the hotter portions of America. CHAPTEE XX. ZOOLOGICAL DEDUCTIONS. Tkeee is surely no reason why the order of nature should be set aside, for the special accommodation of physical man ; and taking it for granted that he has been placed on the globe in unison with the rest of creation, and subject to the same general laws which guide us iu investigating other beings, we may proceed to search for his place of origia, iu the same manner as for that of other natural prodtictions. And, in the fiist place, let us examine his relation to climate. The species of organic beings allotted to the various legions of the globe have in no iastance been modified by climate or by other external circumstances ; but each has been origiaaUy fitted in structure and constitution, precisely to the station iu which it is naturally found. In a district exposed to extremes, whether of heat, cold, moisture, or 312 PHTSICAI HISTOEY OF MAS. aridity, the iadigenous animal or plant has the means of avoiding them, or else is protected against them in its outer covering purposes ; accomplished in various modes, some of which are sufficiently familiar. It will foUow, that it Europe were the proper home of the White man, he would be bom with natural clothing ; with, at least, some inherent provision securing the maintenance of life without aid from art. Man then does not belong to the cold and variable climates ; his original birthplace has been in a region of perpetual summer, where the unprotected skin bears without suffering the slight fluctuations of temperature. He is, in fact, essentially a production of the Tropics ; and there has been a time when the human family had not strayed beyond these geographical limits. Accordong to another principle, established by the obser- vations of naturalists, species are found to have a certain geographical range ; and notwithstanding a few instances of wide diffusion. Nature has not reproduced a species in different quarters of the globe. Bach of the main divisions of the globe has its own natural productions ; and these, moreover, are in such correspondence or consonance with each other, that any incongruity is rendered obvious, or, at least, may with prac- tice be detected. Independently, too, of structural affinity, a local aspect often points to the geographical origin. The experienced naturalist vrill in general be able to distinguish an American production, and even whether it is from Northern, Tropcal, or Austral America. The northern portion of the Eastern continent has an impress as clearly distinguishable on its animals and plants ; and so with the Sahara, South Africa, Australia, the Bast Indies, and even with various more limited districts. The supposition then put forth by some writers, that man was originally planted on frosty Caucasus — ^is disproved by his physical discordance with the surrounding natural objects. Nature in her productiveness seems, if we may use the expression, to delight in eluding our pursuit. In a given district, aU the outward circumstances may favour the pre- sence of beings of a certain class ; and yet their places will be found occupied by other and unlooked-for forms. Tropicai ZOOI,OGICAI( BEDirCTIOKS. 313 America offers indeed an extraordinary variety of climates ; nevertlieless, I thiak it could be shown on zoological grounds alone, that the human family is foreign, to the American continent, Tumiag now to the East Indies, we observe a marked interruption in the approximated lands, separatiag JSTew Guinea from the remainder of the archipelago. A change here takes place in the zoological productions. Those of New Guinea, it is true, are imperfectly known ; but so far as ascertained, they partake of the Australian character ; wliich precludes from this, quarter the origin of man. Madagascar being furnished with a peculiar set of qua- drupeds, is for that very reason, equally out of the question ; and the simple absence of groimd-quadrupeds is suf- ficient to set aside the claims of the fc-scattered Isles of tie Fadfia. We are thus restricted to the remaining Tropical portion of the Eastern continent, which yet includes extensive countries, all possessing the Quadrumana, whose undoubted affinity to man in physical structure may not in this iaquiry be neglected. Oriental tradition, in placing the origin of mankind in Ceylon, reconciles in many respects the requirements of Zoology. But there are certain co- iacidences which point in a different direction. Of aU parts of the globe, save only the very Poles, the EquatoeiaIi coTJifTEiES Continue the least known ; a^iva.^, in some measure, to the forests vrith which they are generally invested, to the rains, to ferocious beasts of prey, and to the unhealthiness of the coasts. The portions which I have myself visited, have not offered any striking variation in natural productions from the adjoining countries; and I only remarked a cooler climate than in the vicinity of the northern Tropic, It appears, however, that some of the most remarkable objects in the vegetable and animal creation have their home precisely under the Equator, In the vast area of the Pacific, the Equator, for two-fifths of the circumference of the globe, intersects only coral, islets; the Galapagos Group being excepted, and this is provided with remarkable reptiles and other productions, having no parallel on the neighbouring continent, or on the numerous and extensive archipelagos of the same ocean. 314 PHTSlCAIi HISTOET 01" MAN. A distinct correspondence, however, may be traced in. tte Indian Ocean, in the instance of the near approach of the Equator to the Seychelles. In the East Indies we have the Clove, " originally con- fined to five islets near the coast of GrUolo ;" the Nutmeg, from the same quarter, and in its native state not much more widely diffused ; and these two plants are not even cul- tivated to advantage at a distance from the Equator : we have, ftirther, the Dryobalanops (or precious camphor tree), limited " to a belt of three degrees in width across Sumatra and Borneo ;" also, the gigantic Eafflesias, and various other remarkable vegetable productions. Among animals, we have the Paradise Birds of New Gruinea; the Argus Pheasant, and other showy birds of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula ; the Q-aleopithecus ; the Tarsier of the Moluccas ; the Babyrussa and the Anoa Antelope of Celebes ; the long-nosed Ape of Borneo ; the Sumatran Tapir and Rhinoceros. And of the three Orangs, which of all animals, in physical conformation and even in moral temperament, make the nearest approach to humanity, one has been allotted to Borneo, another to Sumatra, and the third to a far distant region, but equally under the Equator, in Western Africa. Precisely in these countries physical man seems most in unison with the beings around him. On referring to the accompanying map, we shall find that the races of men could all be conveniently derived from the same two centres, the one in the East Indies, and the other in Africa ; and if we could suppose separate species, this, agreeably to known laws, would reconcile the geogra- phical portion of the subject. The objection of the slight external differences would not of itself be sufficient : for it is found in the organic world, that species differ by peculiarities which tend merely to change the aspect, whHe any radical change of structure involves the habits of Ufe, and marks out a genus or group ; in other words, that specific characters are external, while generic characters are anatomical. On the other hand, a very decided change may take place in the aspect, vsdthout a specific difference, as is more parti- cularly the case in domestic animals and plants. Among ZOOLOGICAI, DEDTJCTIONS. 315 these, moreover, we occasionally observe new varieties springing up at a distance from the original locality. Thus, new varieties of plums, apples, and pears have made their appearance in. America since the introduction from abroad of the parent stocks. Not so, however, with the human family. Notwithstand- ing the mixtures of race during two centuries, no one has remarked a tendency to the development of a new race in the United States. In Arabia, where the mixtures are more complicated, .and have been going on from time imme- morial, the result does not appear to have been different. On the Egyptian monuments I was unable to detect a change ia the races of the human family. Neither does written history afford evidence of the extinction of one physical race of men, or of the development of another previously unknown. It is true, varieties appear to have more permanence in. certain kinds of animals than in others. Thus, the breed of sheq), figured on the most ancient Egyptian monuments, is unknown at the present day ; and at least one variety of the hdloclc, formerly known in Egypt, has, in like manner, become extinct. On the other hand, among the many varieties of the dog, figured at Beni-Hassan, (anterior to the Pharaonic ages,) two have been pronoimced identical with the Greyhound and the Turnspit now existing. — "Within my own observation, I have found no tendency in varieties to revert, in the course of successive generations, to the original type. But this whole subject of varieties has received from naturalists very little attention ; and when it shall be better understood, it may, perhaps, throw light upon the origin of the races of the human family. There is, I conceive, no middle ground between the admission of eleven distinct species in the human family, and the reduction to one. The latter opinion, from analogy with the rest of the organic world, implies a central point of origin. Further, Zoological considerations, though they do not absolutely require it, seem most to favour a centre on the African continent. Confirmatory circumstances of a different character are not wanting, some of which may be worth enumerating. In the first place, we have no less than five races actually 316 PHYSICAL HISTOET 03? MAS^. inhabiting Tropical Africa, while the diversity dimitdshes as we recede, imtil districts of greater territorial extent are inhabited by but a single race. Again, some accordance may be found iii the history and habits of the Arab tribes, holding, as they do, the country interposed between the heart of AMca and extensive and important seats of population ; while these are occupied in regular succession by pastoral and agricultural nations. The disowning, too, by the Desert tribes, of such individuals as take up agricultural pursuits, looks very like the incipient extension of population. There is something, also, in the fixed condition of the African tribes, on which Time, in some instances, seems scarcely to make an impression; something in the near approach to the absence of Invention, or of the spontaneous evolution of knowledge ; something in the seeming yielding of civilisation before barbarism; and in the bounds pre- scribed to ambition, from the general failure of attempts to colonise this continent ; — ^Africa, under various guise, having been always sending forth streams of population, and at the same time prohibiting a return. rUTEODUCED PLANTS OF AMEEICA. 317 CHAPTEE XXI. INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OP AMERICA. Amemca, wlien first visited by Europeans, appears to have contained but a single species of quadruped of foreign origin, the domestic dag. The route of its introduction is indicated by various circumstances ; such as the aboriginal use of this animal for draught on both sides of Behring Straits, and the interweaving of the hair in blankets by the neighbouring maritime tribes. We shall find, moreover, a geographical coincidence ; for, according to the presumed order of human migrations, aU foreign animals, wheresoever occtirring in aboriginal America, should be equally in the possession of the North-western tribes. a. Plants of Ahonginal Itiiroduclion. Independently of the usual habits of sea-going people, the lati- tudes above referred to preclude agriculture ; and we have thus a ready explanation of the absence of this art from the adjoining more southern portion of the American continent ; for, until the recent visits of foreigners, " no Oregon native had ever thought of planting a seed." It is clear, then, that no cultivated plant was introduced into America by this northern route : but we cannot speak so positively in regard to weeds. — I found two weeds growing abxindantly around the Chinook villages, Poly- (jonum wvicvlare, and Ghenopodium album : and Mr. Brackenridge met with a third, Plantago major, in the secluded district of Gray's Harbour. Further south, I discovered some doubtful appearances of aboriginal agriculture on the Sacramento Eiver, in a bed of the "chilicoyote or wolf-poison," CitcurUtafcetidissima?, growing near a native village : as, however, the plant did not seem to be valued (the natives making no objection to my taking the fruit), it may nave been merely naturalised. I did not meet with any other weeds growing around the native villages of the Upper Sacra- mento ; but Solanwm nigrum was occasionally seen on the river bank. In the eastern part of America, both within and for a consider- able distance -without the Tropics, agriculture is known to have 318 PHTSICAIi HISXOEY OF MAN. existed aboriginally ; and, moreover, some of the objects of culti- vation appear to have been derived from abroad. The latter point is of importance ; for it may be, after all, that agriculture was not of spontaneous development in America. In the aboriginal condition of America the indigenous domestic animals and plants seem to have been principally and separately confined to the two centres of civilisation, Mexico and Peru : the lama and the Peruvian cultivated plants had not reached Mexico ; while the Mexican cochineal, agave, and tobacco had not reached Peru. On the other hand, the plants which seem to have been aboriginally derived from abroad were much more generally diifused, as in the corresponding instance of the dog. The plant most widely cultivated in aboriginal America is the maize, or Indian com. If it shall prove foreign, there is but one route open to its introduction, that of Japan. It is further mani- fest, from the local absence of the plant, that North California was not the point of dissemina/tion to other parts of America. I met with specimens of aboriginal cotton at the ancient Peru- vian cemetery of Paohicamac. The species differs from the Poly nesian, and is perhaps peculiar ; though the plants of this genus are sufficiently hardy to have been derived through Japan. "We have, moreover, a direct tradition (mentioned by Humboldt) that the culture in Mexico of both cotton and maize was taught by the Toltecas. Cloth dyed blue, apparently with indic/o, was also found at Pachicamac. The manufacture of indigo could not have been derived through the Polynesian islands. It should also be observed that there are indigenous species of indigo plant in America. Specimens of the small-fruited variety of gourd, which is still common in the market of Lima, were exhumed at the same ancient cemetery. I did not see the plant growing. The Lage- naria vulgaris is a hardy .tropical plant, that could have been introduced either through Japan or through the Polynesian islands. The sweet potato (Convolvulus bata!tas) is equally hardy in its constitution, and could have been introduced either by the route of Japan or that of the Polynesian islands. — The Portuguese Pilot (who set out in a. d. 1520 on liis voyages to the colony at St. Thomas, in the Gulf of Guinea) speaks of this plant, and stefces that it is called " batata " by the aboriginals of St. Domingo. The Capdcwm is sufficiently hardy to have been introduced by the route of Jajpan ; And so is Physalis edvlu. And Solanwm nigrum, : though the most convenient route for the three last-named plants is that of the Polynesian islands. On the other hand, the banana is too strictly tropical in its INTEOBrCEB PLAJTTS OP AMUBICA. 319 constitution to have been derived through Japan. The two American varieties, it may be observed, were not seen at the Polynesian islands. The Carica papaya likewise requires a tropical route ; and it could have been conveniently introduced through the Polynesian islands : The same remark will apply to the cocoa •paJm. — I am not sure that this plant is of aboriginal introduction ; but Oviedo (who was personally acquainted with some of the companions of Columbus, and who commenced writing in A. D. 1525) mentions the presence of cocoa palms in the West Indies. Ageralnmn, corvyzoides, perhaps an aboriginal weed, likewise requires a tropical route for its introduction. b. Anim/ds and Plants recently introduced into Northwest America. I shall mention, in the first place, the animals and plants which have been fairly imparted, and have attached themselves to the aboriginal tribes of Oregon : Horses were found by Lewis and Clarke among the tribes of Interior Oregon, having been derived from the Spaniards of New Mexico. — It seems, therefore, the more remarkable that horses have not been acquired by the wild tribes of the Sacramento. Hdianthus, an annual species, and the only weed I saw growing around the native ■\dllages of Interior Oregon, was perhaps aboriginally introduced from the southward. — ^I met with the same plant, however, at the California settlements. Pedoca/rya penicillata (a Boragineous plant) was seen on the north branch of the Columbia Biver, growing as a weed around Fort Okonagan, a post where the soil is not cultivated. The plant may have accompanied the cattle from the Lower Columbia and its history seems connected with that 'of the preceding plant. Moreover, these two were the only introduced plants I could discover growing around Fort Okonagan. Solanvm tuberosum. The French Catholic missionaries and the Hudson Bay Company have imparted the cultivation of the potato to the Chinooks of the Straits of De Fuoa. The potato was also seen cultivated at one native village on the north branch of the Columbia. The other plants and animals introduced by the Hudson Bay Company were found to be confined to the immediate environs oi Forts ColvUle, Nisqually, and Vancouver, and to the agricultural settlements on the Willamette and Cowalitz. The plants under cultivation at the two first-named places were few, and were not sjpecially noted ; but at Vancouver an extensive and weU-con- ducted garden had been established for many years. The original 320 IHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAIf. Eaokages of seeds were brought, some by sea, but chiefly overlAnd ?om Montreal. BuUocks were introduced into Oregon some years prior to our visit. Sheep were of somewhat later introduction. Cheiwpodium ajlhwm,, already mentioned as perhaps an abori- ginal weed. — Is yet, possibly, of European introduction. It was seen in the cultivated ground at Torts Nisqually and Colville, and, unlike the following plants, widely spread over the adjoining prairie. Plantago major, also mentioned as perhaps an aboriginal weed. — The plant was seen naturalised in pathways at Tort Colvile. Polygonv/m amcidare, also mentioned as perhaps an aboriginal weed, and observed growing in beds around the Chinook villages. — ^The plant was seen naturalised around Fort Colville ; but at Fort Nisqually I met with the broad-leafed variety only. Polygonv/m nigrum was seen estabhshed in the cultivated ground at Fort Colville. Anthemis cotvia had become an abundant weed around Fort ColviUe. Amaranihus, a weed in the cultivated ground at Fort Colville. A species, perhaps the same, was seen at the Kooskoosky station. CapseUa hursor-poMoris, a weed at Fort Colville. A single spe- cimen was found at Fort Nisqually. Sorichus oleraceus, a weed in the garden at Fort Nisqually. Poa annua, observed both at Fort Nisqually and at some of the posts in the Interior. . Triticwm sativwm, wheat, hardly succeeds at Fort Nisqually ; but it was said to be cultivated to some extent on the "Willamette and Cowahtz. Three or four varieties were seen at Fort Colville, whence they had been transferred to the Kooskoosky station. Sordeum mUgare, barley ; together with Avena sativa, oats ; and Secale cereale, rye, were observed by Mr. Brackenridge under cultivation at Fort Vancouver. Pyrus mains, the apple, was said to produce abundantly at Fort Vancouver. But fl?uit-trees could hardly be cultivated at Fort Colville, on account of the ravages of the small marmot. Pyrus communis, the pear. The tree was seen by Mr. Bracken- ridge under cultivation in the garden at Fort Vancouver, together with Vitis mnifera, the European grape ; Amygdalus Persica, the peach ; Armeniaca vulgaris, the apricot ; Prunus domestica, the European plum ; Prunus cerasus, the European or the common garden cherry ; UfTEOBUCED PLAJTTS OS AMEEICA. 321 Fragaria, several imported varieties of the strawberry ; Bihes ntbrum, the garden currant ; Bibes grossuhma, the European, or the common garden goose- berry ; Cwcumis sativus, the common cucumber ; Gucv/mis mdo, the muskmelon ; Cucwrbita Tndopepo, the squash ; Pisum sativum, the garden pea ; Phaseolus, the common kidney bean ; Solanum mdongena, the egg-plant, or aubergine ; together with Beta wlgaris, vaxi beet ; Apium d/idce, the celery ; Fetroselinum sativum, the parsley ; Allium cepa, the onion ; and all the other common garden vegetables. At the KoosKooSKT mission station, irrigation is necessary to agriculture ; and in all probability the seeds of some of the plants which were seen cultivated and naturalised had been derived from the United States. The following is by no means a com- plete list : Zea Mays, Indian com, which has always failed in the vicinity of the cogst, was found to be cultivated with success at the Kooskoosky station. Daucus carota, the carrot, was seen under cultivation ; together with Lycopersievm, escvlentum, the tomato ; Brassica oleracea, the cabbage ; and various other garden vege- Bidens trifida had become an abundant weed ; growing with Campanida amplexicavlis, in the irrigated and cultivated ground ; and accompanied by Poh/gomwm, persicaria : and these three plants were not met with in any other part of Oregon. At the Bay of Saij Francisco the introduced plants had arrived by a third route, that of Mexico ; and a variety of species (mostly- European) have become naturalised, notwithstanding that culti- vation is on a very limited scale. I shaU notice only the five following : MiraMlis jalapa, seen cultivated as an ornamental plant. Anagallis arvensis, naturalised abundantly, but not extending beyond the environs of the Bay. Sodium, probably a European species, and introduced with cattle. Perhaps the same with one seen naturalised at the Kooskoosky station, and also in Chili. Avenasativa, the common oat, has now overspread the environs of the Bay, in some instances taking exclusive possession of the 822 PHTSlOAIi HISTOEX OF MAK. prairie. Mr. Brackenridge, in coming -witli the land-party from Oregon, " first met with the oat in the valley of the Sacramento, about one hundred and fifty mUes above tide-water." MoUugo verticiUata was found by Mr. Brackenridge on the Upper Sacramento, in the vicinity of the Shasty Mountaiu. CHAPTEE XXn. INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. Prom the rapid changes taking place at these islands, through commercial intercourse, it is daily becoming more difficult to distinguish the plants which were aboriginally introduced. And observations, therefore, which at the present day seem trivial, may prove of importance hereafter. Notwithstanding many doubtful points that remain to be settled through the etymology of the native names, it is suffi- ciently clear, that in the aboriginal condition of the islands of the Pacific, the foreign animals and plants, were iavariably derived from the West. a. Animals and Plants of Aboriginal iTitrochiction,. Three of our own familiar domestic animaJs, were known throughout Tropical Polynesia prior to the visits of Europeans ; and they wiU be first enumerated : The pig, thriving amid the rank vegetation of the rocky groups ; The dog, frequent ; though the rearing on vegetable food, oi a particiilar breed for ciduiary purposes, seems peculiar to the Hawaiian Islands ; And the domestic fowl, likewise abundant in the rocky groups. — ^The above three animals are absent from the more secluded coral islands ; but they are known at the extensive Tarawan or Kingsmill Group, where they are regarded ia a somewhat pecu- liar light. According to Mr. Bich, the Tarawan Islanders "have dogs ; but will not eat fowls, which they keep ia cages for fighting ; neither will they raise pigs, on account of the dirt ; and they killed the goats landed from a whale ship." There are, however, uninvited attendants on human migrations ; such as a small species of rat, whose pKpsence throughout Tropical Polynesia seems nearly universal. On some of the more remote INTEODTJCED PLANTS OE POLYNESIA. 323 coral islets, the presence of this animal proved to be the only remaining evidence of the visits of man. On the other hand, the house fly, which so abounds at certain coral islands, was uniformly absent from the iminhabited ones. Various other insects have doubtless been transferred from island to island by human means. This, too, was probably the case with the lizards (Scincidse) ; for the agency of drift-wood seems insufficient to account for their universal presence. With regard to the plants, I have already noticed the few species introduced into the coral islands ; but as the same are equally found on the rocky groups, the following arrangement would be incomplete without repeating the enumeration : Thespesia popvlnea, was seen by Mr. Bich at the Tarawan Group. Morinda dtrifolia, growing on most of the coral islands visited. Oardenia Taitensis, a beautiful tree, the flowers of which are used by the Taheitians for decorating their hair. It was seen by Mr. Rich at the Union Group. Cordia sebestena, observed at Wake's Island, and at the Phoenix Group ; and, to all appearance, spontaneously disseminated. Mr. Eich found the tree at the Union and the Tarawan Groups. Hernandia sonora, was seen by Mr. Eich at the Union Group ; raised by the natives from a drifted seed. Borass'us flabeHiformis? the Fan palm was seen by Mr. Rich at the Union Group. Cocos nucifera, the Cocoa pahn. Notwithstanding that the fruit is well-adapted for floating uninjured over a wide expanse, I have never met with an instance of the cocoa palm having spontaneously extended itself from island to island. — Two distinct varieties are recognised at the Feejee Islands. Pandanus utUis, abundant, and perhaps spontaneously dissemi- nated on the coral islands : but it was seen planted, and also natu- ralised or native, on the rocky groups. — A species apparently different, and unquestionably native, grows on the mountain-tops of Tutmla, in the Samoan Group. Cohcada esadenta, the taro, was found by Messrs. Eich and Hale at the Vaitupan and the Tarawan Groups.— The taro is an important esculent throughout the rocky groups, and pa,rti- cularly so at the Hawaiian Islands. In the dry method of culture practised on the mountains of Hawaii, the roots were observed by Mr. Eich to be protected by a covering of fern-leaves. The cultivation of taro is hardly a process of multiplication ; for the crown of the root is perpetually replanted. Colocasia macrorhiza, was found by Messrs. Eich and Hale at the Vaitupan and the Tarawan Groups.— As the plant endures y2 324 PHTSICAI HISTOEX OE MAJT. for a series of years, the roots serve at some of the rocky groups as a security against famiae. Proceeding now to the rocky groups, I shall commence at the furthest remove from the soTirce of the introduced plants ; the number of which will be found to increase regularly on advancing south and west. A similar increase takes place in the number of cultivated varieties ; and even to some extent in the good quaUty of the product. With the exception of the Gardenia, Hemandia, and Borassus, the plants above enumerated, were all observed at the Hawaiian Islands ; together with the following in addition : Oossypiiim rdigioswm,? A shrub, naturalised around the cabins of the natives. — ^At Taheiti, the cotton is made into wicks, for burning cocoa-nut oil. Sida, a double-flowered variety of an indigenous species, culti- vated for decorating the hair. ^ Oa/rdiospermwm hdicacdbwm, a w;eed in cultivated ground and abandoned clearings : as also at the central groups. Oxalia repens, a weed, growing around the native cabins : as also at the central groups. Tephrosiapiseatoria, commonly naturalised in dry open grounds: as also throughout the central groups. LcMah vvlga/ris, the white-flowered species, naturalised in one or two locaJities. — It was seen growing around the native houses at the Peejee Islands. Phaseolus amoenus, growing in abandoned clearings. Agaii, a species apparently indigenous ; the flowers smaller than in A. grandiflora, and varying from scarlet to yellow. Jnssi(Ba angustifolia? growing in wet grounds, and apparently indigenous ; but possibly introduced with taro culture. Jamboaa Malaccensis, the red-finiited species, abundantly natu- ralised in elevated situations. Lagenaria wigaris, the gourd : the large-fruited variety was not met with at the other groups. Hyd/rocotyh, perhaps introduced with taro culture ; and pos- sibly distinct from the species growing around habitations at the central groups. Oeophila reniformh, in pathways, and in woods devoid of underbrush, not far from clearings. It grows in similar situ- ations at the central groups. Ageratum, conyzoides, abundantly naturalised in open grounds : as also at the central groups. Adenostema viscosum, a weed in abandoned clearings : as also at the central groups. Convolmilus haiatas, formuig in some districts the principal object of cultivation. — By an exception to the general rule, the sweet potato is rare at the Feejee Islands, where it was said to INTEODTJCED PLANTS OP POLYNESIA. 325 occur on one of the outer islets ; and it seems probable that it was introduced there by Polynesians. Several marked varieties are cultivated in the Polynesian groups. Oa^mumh, a small species, naturalised in abandoned clearings, and m dry open grounds. Physalis aTigidcUa? a smooth, low, and inconspicuous species, naturalised in waste grounds. Physalis e> :i3 .£3 ^ g i§:| R.S-9 3 ir 2 -^$ ..» «.S S ffl a § J ■of £9 »1 g S I „•« e3 H 0-S .Ei.£».fc.E;(;(;.fc ca ca ^ CO BQ >^ .S .£ > 'ot 'S ^ 'so . . ,'m *M ISIS : ; :S| B ^ I ^§1 ga g| 9 0) ■ a ..s a 3 33 3 = -^ a a a^ " a a 3 3 '3 ■ i3 i ■ •I a a : S ? S ■E' '-S eg : o a a a 1=1 S " 334 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAN. ^ a o ■■0 3 II I •1| 5 :S « .S =11 £■9 §■3 6-« S ^ Svj li SSI ■al .5 n ■a ; {^ > t> ^ >- > Slls.£ g I PI I ill I p c c « a .g .g fl g fl p s fl n =11111 =1 3 ".a =1 • s : • P ■ -5 5 : * !•• = ll 11 1 = I =1 =11111 =1 = =111 I .1 §".3.3.3 3 SS° ■S b. 'W 'Fri ^ 09 b- • .>: a .fc ^ .£; .; .3 ss.sS =.S.l.S3.Ss.g Si 03 > ■3 gs i-s tis .9 ° fl " .S B fl •II • = =li .9.9 .S.i fc: ^ t i SSI":; i .9 .9 .9 o .5 'to .- 3 > 5'^ .ts .gs . m 'w . .£ > £ . P^ > a § ° a " a fl ;s;« 43 £'S 3 .9 .9 0° : 3 : 3 9 9 S'S = 11 a d Sg ! 3 > ■■§3£ VS .9"o .9 ■ao'i >'S a OS 11 li SS sis. CO oi ^ f^ S 2 MA'S 3 2^ S « lilliilpillilililHI s„ : a a a :.g s,a jarS s S^-S ■3.ggg|g|||||g,ag-a« 336 FHTSICAIi HISTOET OF WATT. ..s Hi ^1 ■3 I I .6 S II 3S '3'3 "3 s a II I :->:>:>: -s -S >:>: -s t^ -5 ^' .5 .1^ ,Z w 'S .t .' "S 3 s "3 J 5 "3 "3 J i| ..fc.fc.& ..S.E:^.fc ''3'3'3 •'33'3'3 » « o o o u o •1=1 IBS I"" t- >. |> .5 |> t» *'33'3| •'B'B o o o g 5 5 ■ ^ >*=*: t; fl v! '.S.S 3 "'S ° = =113 a fc a ,g "3 a a o o B a ..fc :| ■ ■11°^ -I -11 .g.Sl " .3.9 : .g ..... e = - :=3 : : :! .s.S'a S ill P4 ■ :.ft2 ■3 •a .SS :B go 03 '; ed d •assS'.S-Sg'lls aoso||.g»Sfl S £ R 11^ ■1-S- til =iit.i.3iSgi«iiliiil.tg| oD d So nn s ° a g S ^ C3 > ■a-s •3 ■ 5 SB .6=u .SB'S s S .3 'S -fc J"-,?* e 5 g.S.9 I II Hi d St llli B .S -S .i ' . ■ "a'S -3 flfl '^1 .a.g h.- £ t " ^ : jj 3 a 33 : 3 3 B i3 «3 h " fl a rt .S £31 ,g a j a.g • ='5 .3 .3 -S •3 "is |-=S .£.fc .fc a 'to .3 . 11=1 = .2 .3 -S !3l.= 338 THTSICAI HISTOET 01' MAN. Some of the plaats enumerated in the New Zealand eolumn are not Tropical productions (like those generally accompanyiug the Polynesians), but they seem rather to belong to Northern climates, and yet they were found already in New Zealand by Cook and Forster. A careful examination into the fects, and a comparison of specimens, will doubtless explaia the seeming discrepancy with the laws of botanical geography. The plants referred to are : Sonchus oleracms, observed to be disseminated throughout the Interior. I have had occasion to remark, both within and without the Tropics, that this plant is one of the first to extend itself over the new countries in which it obtains foothold. Sicyos angidata, frequent around the native villages. The leaves are sometimes boiled for greens ; but I am not sure that this custom is aboriginal. Calystegia sepium, growing apparently wild on the borders of openings, and observed to be disseminated throughout the titerior. Phalaris Canariensis, likewise observed to be dissenunated throughout the open country. The natives of Austealia being for the most part devoid of clothing, and possessing very few manufactures, have contributed perhaps less than any other branch of the human family to the dispersion of seeds and plants. Moreover, if plants have been aboriginally introduced into Australia ; this has been done in all probability by visitors. Indeed, the Northern coast is known to have been frequented for many centuries by Malay tribes, and even by Chinese ; and it does not seem probable that the Eastern coast has altogether escaped accidental visits from Papuans and Polynesians. In the above Table of localities, the Australian colunm will be found nearly blank; and the species most deserving of inquiry, are reduced to the following : — Siegemeckia, observed growing on the flats of the Hunter Biver. The specimens have not been compared with Poly- nesian. Sapiwm, found by Mr. Eich in the agricultural district of Illawara. The specimens have not been compared with Polynesian. Calystegia sepium, observed only in wild situations ; as in New Zealand. Sicyos angidata, growing in wild situations on the Upper Hunter : and as already mentioned in New Zealand. Solanum avicylare, Forst. A naturalised weed, observed in the environs of Sydney, and also on the Upper Hunter. At New Zealand it becomes a tall shrub, and forms submaritime INTEODtrCED PLANTS OF POLTNESIA. 339 thickets, which harmonise with the natural vegetation ; and, although the only known example of the family in the New Zealand flora, it appears to be really indigenous. b. Animals and Plants of European Introduction. Within the past century, and for the most part within the memory of persons now living, a variety of animals and plants, have been introduced into the islands of the Pacific in European aad American vessels : — The hyUock was carried from Taheiti to the Samoan and Feejee Groups, a short time prior to our visit. At the Hawaiian Islands the animal has run wild for many years on the upper portion of Mauna Kea. The horse has been introduced into Taheiti, Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands ; but at the time of our visit it had not reached the Feejee Group. The goat has run wild at Taheiti, at the Hawaiian Islands, and at Ovolau in the Feejee Group, and it has recently been carried to Samoa. The sheep seems to have become permanently established at the Hawaiian Islands ; but at none of the other Tropical groups. The cat was seen at Taheiti, and at Tongataboo. It has run wild on Hawaii, and Ukewise, according to Mr. Eich, at Samoa, in the highlands of Upolu ; " where it has nearly exterminated a remarkable bird, allied to the ground-dove." The mouse occurs on those islands which have been most frequented by Europeans ; and it has run wild at the Hawaiian Group. The turkey is now abundant at the Hawaiian Islands, The Cruinea-fowl, was seen at the Hawaiian Islands. The common duck has been introduced into Samoa ; and like- wise into the Hawaiian Islands. The musk duck was seen at the Hawaiian Islands. The domestic oiyeoji has been introduced into Taheiti, and into the Feejee Grroup. We were informed at the Hawaiian Islands that the centipede was " introduced five years previously from Mazatlan." It has greatly multiplied at Honolulu, and during our visit it made its first appearance on Maui. The house scorpion likewise aboimds at Honolulu ; and its introduction was equally attributed to vessels from Mazatlan. The other Polynesian groups remain free from the above two pests. The natives of the Hawaiian Islands attributed the introduc- tion of the mosquito to the same quarter; and we obtained Z a '340 PHTSICAI HISTOBT 01" MAS'. evidence of the possibility of such an occurrence, in the larva continuing on ship-board for many days after we left Honolulu. One or more native species of mosquito were observed at the other Polynesian groups. In the following list of the plants, I have omitted those intro- duced direct from Europe into Australia and New Zealand, and in other respects, the enumeration is by no means complete : — Anona squamosa, cultivated by the missionaries at Taheiti, Samoa, and Tongataboo. It was also seen at Sidney, where, however it has not produced fruit. Brassica rapa, the turnip, naturalised at Taheiti, at Tonga- taboo, at the Feejee Islands, and in New Zealand. It was seen under cultivation in Australia and in Peru. Brassica oleracea, the cabbage, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti, at Tongataboo, and at New Zealand ; and at the latter place it grows tall and sufiruticose, with scattered coriaceous leaves, as if partaking of the surrounding perennial Vegetation. The cabbage was found by Dr. Holmes at the Auckland Islands. And it was also seen naturalised in Peru and in Australia. jSenebiera dicb/ma, a weed in the outskirts of the Hawaiian towns, and probably introduced by the way of Mexico. Cleome peniaphylla, a weed at Taheiti, and probably derived from Tropical America. Cleome spinosa, a weed at the Hawaiian Islands, and likewise in all probability derived from Tropical America. Argemone Mexicana, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands. Oxdlis Dieppe, a weed from the Mexican coast, naturalised at Hilo, on Hawaii. Gossypium herhacewm, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands. Urena hlata, already noticed, as of aboriginal introduction in Polynesia. A species, perhaps the same, has become a weed in the environs of Rio Janeiro. Bixa oreUana, the Amotto, is now cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands ; and, according to Mr. Rich, at Tongataboo. The Amotto was also seen in the East Indies, at Zanzibar, at Bio Janeiro and in Peru. Tribulija, a species, perhaps from Mexico, growing in arid situ- ations, in the vicinity of the Hawaiian towns. Meiia azederaeh, said to have been "brought by the Vincennes on a former cruise from the East Indies to the Hawaiian Islands." The tree was also seen at Taieiti. ■ Citrus aurantium, the orange, is now cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti, and at Samoa ; and the ftuit was seen in one instance at the Eeejee Islands. Citriis, the lemon, is now cultivated at Taheiti and at Samoa. IlfTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLTITESIA. 341 And the rough-skiimed variety is so abundant at the Feejee Islands that I have had doubts as to its alleged European intro- duction ; the question may probably be decided by the etymology' of the name given to the plant by the natives. Citrus hrmnum, the lime, was seen cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti, and at Tongataboo ; and a single tree was reported to exist at Samoa, the time and mode of its introduction being uncertain. Mangifera I-ndica, the mango, planted at the Hawaiian Islands ; but at the time of our visit the trees were not full grown. Cassia occidentalis, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti, and at Samoa ; and it was seen regularly planted at Tongataboo. Cassia tora, naturalised at Taheiti. Cassia scandens, cultivated at Oahu, in the gardens of the resident Whites. YachetlioL, apparently the Cihilian species introduced into Taheiti. Indigofera, a shrubby species, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands and at Taheiti, ajid planted by the missionaries at Samoa, The same species, perhaps, was seen in Peru, and in the East Indies. Inga Sinemariensis ? The pacai bean of Peru ; some stocks were seen growing at Taheiti. Cajanus Indicus, cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands. And also in the East Indies, and at Zanzibar. Desmodium, a low herbaceous species, said to have been brought from the Mexican coast, is naturalised in the environs of Honolulu. Crotcdaria, a species abundantly naturalised at Taheiti. Poinciana, already noticed as apparently of aboriginal intro- duction in the central groups. But at the Hawaiian Islands the plant was seen only in the gardens of the resident Whites. It was also seen cultivated for ornament, at Eio Janeiro. Agati grandiflora, in the gardens of the resident Whites at the. Hawaiian Islands. And also in gardens at Manila. LaMab, the purple-flowered variety or species was seen culti- vated by the resident Whites at the Hawaiian Islands. Inocarpm edulis, already noticed as apparently indigenous in the central groups. A few stocks, brought from Taheiti,. were seen in the gardens of a resident White at the Hawaiian Islands. Spondias dvlcis, also noticed as a tree of aboriginal introduc- tion in the central groups. A few stocks brought from Taheiti were seen in the garden of a resident White at the Hawaiian Islands. 342 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OP MAJT. Arnygdoilus Pefsica, the peach. At the Hawaiian Islands the " fruit has not been known to ripen, and the tree becomes ever- green, and will not flower unless artificially stripped of its leaves." The peach succeeds in Australia, and somewhat unexpectedly in New Zealand. Pndiy/m, the guava, at the Hawaiian Islands, ia hardly culti- vated with success in more than one district, wlule of late years it has overrun the more fertile portion of Taheiti, and is com- monly spoken of as " having ruined the island." The introduction of this plant was dreaded by the residents at Samoa ; but at the Feejee Islands, Mr. Brackenridge saw some stocks under cultiva- tion. The guava was seen abundantly naturalised in Brazil, and I met with it also in Peru and in the East Indies. Cv/nirhita pepo. The Peruvian variety was seen cultivated at Taheiti, and the North American variety in New Zealand and at the Feejee Islands. Cucnjurhiia citriMus, the water-melon, has been introduced into the Hawaiian Islands, Samoa, Tongataboo, the Feejee Islands, and New Zealand, and also into Australia. Sicyos angvlata, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in New Zealand, and perhaps even in Australia, The plant was also seen naturaUsed at the Hawaiian Islands. Opwntia Dillffnii ? A species of Cactus, has been naturalised for many years on Oahu, Portidacm oleracea, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands, at Ta- heiti, and at Tongataboo ; and likewise in'Peru. Talinv/m patens, an American plant, was seen naturalised at Talieiti. I met with it likewise growing as a weed in the envi- rons of Bio J^eiro. Fmnieuluin indgare, naturalised on the Hawaiian Islands, and probably introduced by the route of Spanish America. Daucus carota, the carrot, naturalised at the Hawaiian Manda and in New Zealand, and likewise in Australia, in Chili, and in North Patagonia. Gardenia jtorida, in the gardens of the resident Whites at the Hawaiian Islands. Coffea AraMca, the coffee plant, has been introduced into the Hawaiian Islands and into Taheiti. And it was likewise seen cultivated in the East Indies. Ageraiwm. conyzoides, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in Polynesia. It has been introduced into Madeira probably with taro culture. And it was also seen at St. Helena and at Bio Janeiro. Edipta, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in the Feejee Islands, , Growing also, as a weed at Bio Janeiro and in Peru. Sonchus ohraceus, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in New DfTEODUCED PLANTS OF POLTfSESIA. 343 Zealand. The plant was found by Dr. Holmes at the Auckland Islands ; and it was also seen naturalised in Peru and in North Patagonia. Sonchus, a more prickly species, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands and in New Zealand ; and apparently the same species in the United States. Xmahium strumariwm, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands, and also in North Patagonia. Datura stramonium, introduced probably from the United States into the Hawaiian Islands. Sokmum, a prickly species, having orange-coloured fruit, natu- ralised at tiie Hawaiian Islands. Sdanwn nigrum, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in Polynesia. The plant was seen naturalised in Australia, in St. Helena, in Chili, and on the Upper Sacramento in California. Nieotiana tahaxwm, tobacco, cultivated by the Natives in a small way, at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti, at Samoa, at Tongataboo, and even at the Peejee Islands. Tobacco was seen cultivated on a more extended scale in the East Indies, in Aus- tralia, in Peru, and in Brazil CapsicvrnifrtUesoens, already noticed as apparently of aboriginal introduction in Polynesia. The plant was seen under cultivation in Austraha and in Peril. PhyscMs edidis, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in Polynesia. The plant was also seen naturalised in Australia, in Peru, at St. Helena, and at Madeira. LyciiMi harbarwm, growing in the mission garden at Ton^taboo. Stachftatpheta, naturalised, at the Hawaiian Islands, and seen planted at Tongataboo. It is, perhaps, the species which has become an abundant weed in the environs of Eio Janeiro. PriiM lappvhwea, naturalised at Taheiti, and also seen growing as a weed in Peru, and in BraziL Cuscuta, a species seen at the Hawaiian Islands, which, how- ever, was considered by the natives as indigenous. Urlica wrens ?, seen naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands. Morus alba, cultivated at Taheiti, and at the Hawaiian Islands. Ewphorlia hypericifolia ?, naturalised at Taheiti, and also in the East Indies. Amaranthus, a species, derived perhaps from the United States, was seen naturalised in the Hawaiian Islands. Almrites triloba, already noticed as indigenous in Polynesia, or at least, of aboriginal introduction. The tree is now common in the environs of Eio Janeiro. Camarina equisetifolia, already noticed as of aboriginal intro- duction in Polynesia. The tree, vrithin a few years, has become common in the environs of Eio Janeiro. 344 . PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAIT. Canna Indica, in the gardens of the resident Whites, at the Hawaiian Islands ; also seen in gardens at Manila, and natural- ised around Eio Janeiro. Canna, a yeUow-flowered species, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands, Musa sapierav/m, already iioticed as of aboriginal introduction in Polynesia. A Chinese variety has been introduced by the mis- sionaries into Samoa. Musa, the fehi, already noticed as of abori^ai introduction in Central Polynesia. A few stocks brought from Taheiti were seen in the garden of a resident White on HawaiL Cocos nudfera, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in Polynesia. The cocoa-palm was seen at the Cape Verd Islands ; but neither in Brazil nor in Peru. Allium cepa, the onion, is now cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands, at the Feejee Islands, and in New Zealand. It was seen also in Australia and in Peru. Amaryllis avlica, has been introduced from Brazil into the Hawaiian Islands. Bromdia ananas, the pine-apple, is now cultivated at Taheiti, at Samoa, and at the Feejee Islands. The plant was also seen cultivated at Sydney. Furcrcea gigantea, has been introduced from Brazil into the Hawaiian Islands. Cofm/wsLinoL. — ^A species has been introduced into Madeira, and apparently with taro culture. I have not compared the specimens with PolynesiajDu Colocada esculenta, the taro, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in Polynesia. It is now extensively cultivate at Madeira. Typha, a species growing in one locality on Taheiti, and I am inclined to suspect that it was introduced either from Peru, or from New Zealand. The question may probably be decided by a comparison of specimens. Poa cmmta, was seen naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands, and in New Zealand. Bigitaria sanguindh, already noticed as apparently an abori- ginal weed in Polynesia. The plant has been introduced into St. Helena. Panicum, capiUare, a grass well known in the United States, has been introduced into the Hawaiian Islands. Eleusine Indica, already noticed as apparently an aboriginal weed at the Central Groups. But at the Hawaiian Islands the plant, according to some, had been introduced by the Whites ; and residents further assured me, that it had increased within a few years. INTEODrCED PLANTS OF ArEICA. 345 Eragrostis capiMaris ? naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands. Briza media, naturalised at the Hawaiian Islands ; and also in Australia. Kyllingia nuynocephala, already noticed as aa aboriginal weed in Polynesia. The plant has been introduced into St. Helena, and it was seen also at Bio Janeiro and in Peru. CHAPTEE XXIII. INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF EQUATORIAL ' AFRICA. Cektain domestic animals appear to have been introduced into Equatorial Afiica at a very ancient period, and in all probability either by the way of Egypt and the river Nile, or by the nearer and more accessible route of Southebn Arabia. To this class belong — The bvMoch, universally in the possession of the tribes of Eastern and Southern Africa, when these countries first beaame known to Europeans. The sheep, found in like maimer, universally in the possession of the same tribes. Some remarkable varieties of the sheep, have sprung up, subsequently, to all appearance, to the original intro- duction. , The domestic dog, which at the present day seems to be uni- versally known in Equatorial and Southern Aftica ; the animal being kept, as I was informed, by the Ethiopian tribes. A trader at Zanzibar pointed out to me a dog (like the common' Arab variety, but parti-coloured,) as a specimen, or rather, aa "altogether resembling the breed which prevails in Western Africa, where, also he had seen a variety that does not bark, though in other respects not materially differing." The goat which has reached the Comoro Islands, and is known to all the tribes of East Africa, as fer iu the Interior as the Mo- nomoisy country. The donkey, which has not yet reached the Negro tribes of the Interior, although it is well known to their Ethiopian neighbours on the North. The horse, which has a yet more limited diffusion, for although the animal has reached some of the Galla tribes, their Ethiopian brethren on the South, the M'Kuafi and Mussai have hitherto rejected its use. 346 PHTSICAl HISTOET OF MAN. And the camxL, which is well known in the Somali conntry, and which has also reached the Galla tribes. On the other hand, the more anciently cultivated plants of Equatorial AMca, appear to have been derived from a widely different quarter, and to have been iatroduced, together with the very art of cultivation, from the Malay counteies. But at pre- sent, I will not undertake to distinguish in all instances, the plants of ancient introduction. The domestic fowl, a bird well known among the Negro tribes of East Africa to the Monomoisy inclusive, may have been in like manner introduced by the East Indians : Together with the pig, an animal known at least to the Comoro Islanders. But to proceed with the plants — Citrus awrantiwm, the orange, abundantly cultivated at Zan- zibar, and the fruit, (which is more acid than usual,) forming an article of export to Bombay. I would observe, however, that I did not meet with the true orange, either in Hindostan, or in the East Indies. Tephrosia piscatoria, abundantly naturalised in open ground on the Island of Zanzibar. Ahrv^ precatorius, growing in wild situations on the island of Zanzibar. Cademosto (a.d. 1454,) met with this plant at the Senegal river. Lagenaria vulgaris, the gourd, cultivated by the Negro tribes of East Africa, and weU known to the Monomoisy of the Interior. Terminalia catappa, planted around houses on the island of Zanzibar. Ageratum conyzoides, a common weed on the island of Zanzibar. Eclipta, also a weed on the island of Zanzibar. Convolmdus batatas, the sweet-potato, cultivated on the island of Zanzibar, and as fer in the Interior as the Monomoisy country. Ocym/imi, three or four species, cultivated at Zanzibar, including perhaps the one seen among the Pacific islands. Capsicum frvtescens, cultivated on the island of Zanzibar. Carica papaya, planted around houses on the island of Zanzibar, Ricinus communis, naturalised on the island of Zanzibar. Piper betel, the plant seen at Zanzibar, Where the use of betel prevails, as it does at the Comoro Islands, and at Bombay ; but the custom is not in vogue in Arabia. Artocarpus integrifolia, the jack-tree ; frequently planted around houses on the island of Zanzibar. Cyca^ cirdrudis, was seen naturalised along the sea-coast The plant was said to abound at the Comoro Islands, and to be used by the inhabitants as an esculent. Cocos nucifera, the cocoa palm, abounding on the island of INtEODrCED PIA^STTS OF ATEICA. 347 Zanzibar, and on the coast of the main land opposite ; but it was said not to extend into the Interior of the continent. Areca catechu, the betel palm ; several stocks were seen grow- ing on the island of Zanzibar. Zingiber officinale, the ginger. The roots offered for sale at Zanzibar, were said to be brought from the Comoro Islands. Mma sapientvm, the banana, cultivated on the island of Zan- zibar, and by the Negro tribes of East Africa, to a considerable distance in the Interior. Dioscorea (data. Yams were seen on the island of Zanzibar. Tacca pinnatifida, growing in wild situations on the island of Zanzibar. MageUaria, a species apparently indigenous, and possibly dif- ferent from the Polynesian. Colocasia escvlenta, cultivated sparingly on the island of Zan- zibar, and according to the native account, originally introduced from the Comoro Islands. Oiysa sativa, rice, said to be unknown in the country around Brava ; but it is cultivated abundantly by the Negro tribes of East Africa, to the Monomoisy inclusive, bearing everywhere its Malay name, of "padi." Cademosto met with rice on the Gambia. And Lopes (a.d. 1586,) speaks of " a grain brought to Congo not long since from the river Nilus, and called ' luco :' " in which word we readily recognise the Egyptian name of rice. SoiCcharum officinale, the sugar-cane, cultivated abundantly by the Negro tribes of East Africa, and as far in the Interior as the Monomoisy country. Many of the plants above enumerated, are equally cultivated in Hindostan ; though this circumstance does not invalidate an original East Indian derivation. The following plants, however, seem to have had their source in Hindostan, and coming pro- bably from the vicinity of the Persian Gulf, the navigation of the Ancient Arabs in some instances, perhaps, furnished the means of conveyance : BaphMnus sativus. Eadishes were seen in the market at Zan- zibar. And the plant is perhaps of ancient introduction. Bombax anfractiMsum, a beautiful tree ; planted in the town of Zanzibar, and perhaps introduced by the Banians. Zizyphvs, the Indian glaucous-leaved lote-tree ; a single stock, planted near the town of Zanzibar. Mangifera Indica, abundantly planted on the island of Zanzibar. Arachii hypogea, the pearnut ; enumerated by the Monomoisy visitors, among the plants cultivated in their own country. Cajanus Indicus, also enumerated by the Monomoisy visitors, among the plants cultivated in their own country. It was per- haps introduced into East Africa by the Banians. 348 PHTSICAl HI8a?0ET Or MAN. Phaseolus ? Beans ; also enumerated by the Monomoisy visi- tors ; and others stated that beans are cultivated in the vicinity of Brava. Ccesalpinia sappan, naturalised on the island of Zanzibar. Pumca ffranatum, planted at Zanzibar ; but, perhai)s, only in the gardens of the Arabs. Jambosa mdgaris, the white-fruited rose-apple, vras seen at Zanzibar. Sesamvm, Orierddle, simsim, said to be cultivated in the vicinity of Brava, and of Mombas. Solanum mdongena, cultivated, and also naturalised, on the island of Zanzibar. Datura metel, a vreed in waste places on the island of Zanzibar. Ficus rdigiosa, the pipul-tree ; stocks planted by the Banians in the town of Zanzibar. Phoenix dactylifera, the date-palm ; two or three stocks planted on the island of Zanzibar, and having the foliage fresher and more flourishing than I have seen it elsewhere ; but they "had never produced fruit." Sorghvm, vidgare, juari, abundant in the market at Zajizibar, and said to be also cultivated in the vicinity of Brava. — Oade- mosto met with this plant in Senegal. Eleudne corocana, weemby, cultivated sparingly on the island of Zanzibar, but more frequently, it was said, in the environs of Brava. Jhis is the grain said to be " cultivated by the slaves of the GaUa." The following animals and plants appear to have been intro- duced into East Africa by the Portuguese ; and to have been derived, with one or two possible exceptions, from America ; — The turkey, now abundant on the island of Zanzibar. The Musk or Muscovy duclc (Anas moschata), abundant on the island of Zanzibar. — ^According to the received opinion, the bird is a native of Equatorial America. Bixa oreUana, the Amotto ; the capsules seen in the market at Zanzibar. Anacardium occidentale, abundantly planted on the island of Zanzibar, and well known, also, on the main land opposite. Psidium, the guava ; naturalised on the island of Zanzibar ; and, in one instance, I met with the fruit. Janipha manihot, the cassada ; now forming one of the prin- cipal objects of cultivation on the island of Zanzibar, and among the Negro tribes of East Africa to the Monomoisy inclusive. Bromdia ananas, the pine-apple ; abundantly naturalised on the island of Zanzibar, and said to be cultivated by the Negro tribes of the main land opposite. INTBODTJCED PLANTS OP APEICA, 349 Zea mays, cultivated by the Negro tribes of East Africa, and as far in the interior as the Monomoiay country. Subsequently to the departure of the Portuguese, a variety of animals and plants have been introduced into Zanzibar and the neighbouring parts of Africa, and chiefly by the Muscat Arabs ; — The domestic cat was perhaps introduced at an earlier period ; but the Monomoisy continue to carry oats from the coast ; and the animal was said to be unknown among the Ethiopian tribes. An/ma squamosa, was seen at Zanzibar, where it is called "Java ;" from which circumstance it may be inferred that the plant was probably introduced from the East Indies. Argemone Mexicana, the yellow-flowered variety, was seen naturalised in the cemetery at Zanzibar. Brassica rapa, the turnip, naturalised in waste grounds. Gossyviwrn herbaceum, the cotton. The cultivation does not succeed at Zanzibar, where I saw a few stocks growing. — It is said to fail, in like manner, at Liberia, on the Western Coast. Citrus Sinensis?, the Mandarin orange, cultivated on the Imaum's plantation. Citrus decumana, the shaddock, also seen, cultivated, on the Imaum's plantation. Nephdium lappacevm, bearing fruit at Zanzibar. The original stock reported to have been brought from Sumatra in an Ameri- can vessel. Vitis vinifera, the grape ; the fruit produced at Zanzibar was said to be of inferior quality. Amygdalus Persica, the peach. A single tree, which was "brought from America," seemed to be in a thriving condition, but it had not produced fruit. Jamhosa Malaccensis, was seen growing on the Imaum's plantation. . CaryophyUus aromaticus, cloves ; are now extensively cultivated, and form an important article of export from Zanzibar. Lactuca sativa, lettuce ; according to the traders, had been introduced from America ; but I did not meet with the plant. Dwrio dlethinus, several trees, were seen on the Imaum's ^ &fo»Zi tuberosum. Potatoes are weU known at Zanzibar, and are principaUy imported from India ; but I once saw the plant under cultivation. . ,, . . ,.,. Myristica moschata, the nutmeg ; trees, m a thnvmg condition, were seen on the Imaum's plantation. _ . » ., Ficus carica, the fig. A single tree, having unnpe frmt and unusually large leaves, was seen in a gaxden at Zaiizibar. In conclusion, it should be observed, that domestic animals and 350 PHXSICAI/ HISTOET OF MAN. plants of African origin, are not altogether wanting on the island of Zanzibar ; such as The domesticated ^mmea/ow?, abounding. Adansonia, perhaps originally introduced ; although young stocks were seen that had been spontaneously disseminated. The shell of the fruit is used by the Soahili as a substitute for -water- buckets. Erythrina, a large and magnificent tree, perhaps of Afiican origin, growing on a plantation on the island of Zanzibar. Momordica balsamina ; the fruit brought to the market at Zanzibar. This plant, also, is possibly of African origin. Jatropha curcas, naturalised around houses at Zanzibar, as likewise at Bombay. — I first met with the Jatropha curcas at the Cape Verd Islands, where it had the appearance of being indige- nous. And I observed a corresponding species, truly wild, in Yemen. CHAPTEE XXIV. INTRODUCED PLANTS OF SOUTHERN ARABIA. If the interior mountains of Yemen be excepted, agriculture ia very sparingly carried on in Arabia, and only by means of irriga- tion from wells. In the details of this process, maintained with great labour in the midst of a desert, weeds, which in other coun- tries accompany the footsteps of man, rarely obtain foothold, Baphmus sativus. Eadishes were seen in market both at Mocha and at Muscat. Oossypium herbacemn, a few stocks, observed growing in a court-yard in the outskirts of Mocha. Hibiscus escidentvs, the fruit abundant in the market at Mocha. Thespesia popithMa, a single tree planted in a court-yard in the outskirts of Mocha. The leaves were in demand, as an external application to wounds. Citrus medica, the sweet lemon, cultivated in the environs of Muscat ; and I have never seen it elsewhere. It is an insipid fruit. Citrus limonwm, the lime, was seen at Muscat. Citrus, the lemon ; the fruit seen in the market at Mocha. Citrus aurawtiwm. I did not meet with oranges ; but I was mformed that they are sometimes imported into Mocha from Egypt. Vitis vinifera. Grapes, of excellent quality, were unexpectedly met with both at Aden and at Muscat. INTEOBTICED PLANTS OP AEABIA. 351 ^zyphus, a species of lote-tree, planted in gardens at Muscat. Pistacia vera. Pistachio nuts were said to be sometimes brought to the market at Mocha. Mangifera Indica. The mangoes brought to the market at Mocha, are small, and of inferior quality. Parkinsonia aculeata, planted for ornament in the vicinity of Mocha. According to the Arabs, the tree was brought from India. Parkinsonia ?, a graceful tree, having the habit of Casuarina, and devoid of leaflets ; a single stock observed in a garden ai Muscat. Acacia NUotica, planted in the environs of Muscat. Amygdalus Persica, peaches ; said to be brought to the market at Mocha ; but at a later season than the time of my visit. Prunus domestica. Plums, of good quality, were found to be abundant in the market at Mocha. Prunus Armeniaca. Apricots, called "bertood," and also " mishmish," abound in the market at Mocha ; but those seen, were in all instances small. Pyrus rrudus. Apples, of good quality, " imported from Persia," were seen at Muscat. The apples brought to Mocha are very smaU, scarcely edible, and are chiefly worn for ornament. Pyrus communis. A quantity of pears, " brought from Bun- der-Abbas," was sent on board our vessel at Muscat. Pyrus cydonia. Quinces, of fine quality, were seen at Mocha. Punica granatum. The Muscat pomegranates are of superior quaUty. Pomegranates were said to be brought to the market at Mocha ; but a different season from the time of my visit. Terminalia caiappa, planted in gardens at Muscat, and perhaps introduced by the Banians. Lawsonia alba, henna, which forms an important article of commerce in aU the Arabian towns. Portulaca oleracea, the purslane, naturalised in gardens at Muscat ; and also seen, offered for sale in bundles, in the market at Mocha. JJacfenaria vulgaris, gourds, were seen at Muscat. Laffa, apparently the species cultivated in Egypt ; the fruit was seen in the market at Mocha. Cucv/mis sativum, the common cucumber, was seen at Muscat. Cucumis mdo. The musk-melons at Muscat are large, butof inferior quality; and those brought to Mocha are likewise inferior. Cuowrlita eitrvEus, water-melons, were seen both at Mocha and at Muscat, but they were invariably small. Convolvulus batatas, sweet potatoes ; abundant both at Mocha and at Muscat. 352 PHYSICAL HISTOET OP MAN. Solawum, melongena. Egg-plants are abundant at Mocha, ■where they bear their Egyptian name, " bedingan." 8olanvmi tiiheroswm. The potatoes seen at Mocha and at Mus- cat, had been imported from Bombay. Ocymum. Bundles of this, and of various other odorous Labiate plants, are offered for sale in the market at Mocha. Ficm carica, the fig ; the dried fruit imported into Mocha from the Persian Gulf. Ficui religiosa, the pipul tree ; in the Banian garden at Muscat. Cocos nvAxifera, is said to be cultivated " in the interior country, back of Muscat." Some young stocks were seen at Mocha. Phcenix dactylifera. The Muscat dates are of superior quality, and form an article of export to the United States, and also, through the Banians, into East Africa. Hyphoene coriacea, the Doum palm ; planted in the vicinity of Mocha, for the sake of the leaves, which are used for making mats. Pandarms odoratissirrms, cultivated in the environs of Mocha,- for the sake of the odorous flowers, which are regularly sold in the market. Musa sapientum, bananas ; common in the market at Mocha, but they seemed to be rare at Muscat. Allium oepa, onions ; common in the market at Mocha, and I saw some under cultivation. Polyanthus tvierosa. The flowers strung together, and also those of some alhed plants, are sold in the market at Mocha. 8acchani/m officinale, sugar-cane (the stems rather small), observed in the market at Muscat. Hordev/m vvlgare, barley (a young crop), was seen under culti- vation in the environs of Mocha. Sorghum vulgare, is the principal grain of Southern Arabia, and the stems, also, are used extensively for feeding cattle. The plant, bears its Indian name, " juari." Eleusine Indica, together with Pennisetum, and other coarse grasses, are regularly cultivated at Muscat for feeding cattle. rurther details might be given from a new source of informa- tion which now begins to be available — ^from the direct evidence of ancient writings and monuments. But I shall remark, only, that the Himyaritic relics discovered in Yemen, contain repre- sentations of the camel and of a tame hird (possibly intended for the pigeon) ; and that the mere presence of figures of living objects indicates a date anterior to the MusHm conversion. ANTIQUITIES AJSB PlAIfTS 01' INDIA. 353 CHAPTER XXV. ANTIQUITIES, AND INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF HINDOSTAN. The only monuments hitherto discovered ia India that can be regarded as fairly ancient, are, the caves, the hill-forts, and the Dowlutabad fortification ; situated, all of them, in. the Western districts. My acquaintance with the Indian monuments commenced at the Caves of Elephanta. And I wondered at the presence of so much architectural beauty, with nothing borrowed from Greece or Egypt ; and at the simplicity and grandeur of design, clearly, as in the last-named instances, surpassing the conceptions of the present day. With regard, however, to the peculiar style of architecture, I have thought to discover traces of the same in drawings of the ancient monuments of Cabul and Persepolis. a. The Budhist Caves. Two classes of oaves are recognised in India, the Budhist being the most ancient. And the principal Budhist caves hitherto dis- covered, are, the two series at Karli, the series at Adjunta, and the Kenneri Caves ; all which I visited. One of the caves at Karii is of somewhat imposing dimensions ; and I could only compare it to a mould, formed in the rock, of a fretted and vaulted palace. Among the colunuis, some are simple and octagonal, like the proto-Doric columns of Egypt (and in other Budhist caves I have even seen fluted columns) ; but this was the only semblance of a connexion in the architecture.^ Similar vaulted caves, but of smaller dimensions, occur in each Budhist series ; and they usually contain a " deghop," or large solid dome. While the flat-roofed caves adjoining have often a sitting statue of Budha, which receives the light from the narrow The features of these statues of Budha partalie strongly of the Malayan character ; the beard, too, is invariably wanting : but the nose in some instances, is too prominent for the Malayan race ; and the hair is always curled in knobs (as in the Persepo- litan bas-reliefs). And after giving much attention to the subject, 354 . PHTSICAL HISTOET OF MAN. I arrived at the canclusion, that the Indian caves were constructed by men of the White race. The Adjunta Caves contain paintings that are superior iu order of merit, over all elsewhere known in India. They are now reduced to a few remnants, which yet afford an insight into the manners, arts, costume, and physical character of the population at a remote period of tune, and pourtray a surprisingly high state of civilisation. — ^The attention of government has been directed to the importance of preserving these records ; but the artist appointed to copy them had not arrived at the time of my visit. As, therefore, the Adjunta caves are of recent discovery, and from their remote situation continue to be very little known, I will subjoin the substance of some notes taken on the spot : The pathway, leading to and in front of the caves, is paved with burnt bricks of large dimensions. Several of the caves have been left unfinished ; but in the whole series I could detect no interruption to unity in des^n, although so great an amount of excavation could scarcely have been accomplished within one generation. Cells or dormitories, for ascetics, are numerous, 'as at the other Budhist caves. Series of saints, or holy men, sculptured in bas-relief, repeatedly occur ; each individual having a circle round the head, and hold- ing the hands in the attitude of prayer. The stairways, according to the universal plan with the ancient Hindoos, are internal passages in the rock. Budha, as in the usual representations, is in all instances sumorted by the flower of the Mdwmbium. I/ions are sculptured at several of the caves, both at the entrance and in the interior. Elephants are frequently represented in the bas-reUefe ; in one instance, piercing a tiger on the ground ; in another, fighting among themselves ; and they sometimes carry a rider, but are devoid of saddle and other accoutrements : Buffaloes occur in the bas-reliefe ; and, in some instances, fighting. Also, a man riding an imaginary animal, which is formed of a combination of the horse, ram, and lion : An imaginary bird, taken chiefly from the peacock : And chowries, which I believe are made of the tail of the Yak, or moimtain bullock of Thibet. The cobra, or hooded snake, is repeatedly sculptured — an animal stiU worshipped in India — on account, it was said, of some supposed connexion with the febrile influence of the sun. The paintings are on a thin layer of plaster or chunam ; a material well known to the ancient Egyptians, ami which, at the ANTiQirrriES asb plants op dtdia. 355 present day, is applied to a great variety of purposes in Arabia and India. The colours employed were observed to be, pale blue, and deep ultramarine blue ; diill red, and pale orange-red ; pale green, and dark green ; white ; black ; light rose or flesh colour ; and deep brown. Among the objects represented in these paintings, are : — Clouds, together with various trees and flowers ; in some instances, having a rich and landscape-like effect : A man accompanied by a woman (the latter wearing anklets) ; the same personages make their appearance in several of the caves : A fine female figure, with drooping eyelids, brunette com- plexion, and abundant curling hair ; having a large roU in the lobe of the ear, beads round the neck, armlets, and a fillet encircling the head : Another woman ; having her long straight hair arranged so as to form a head-dress : A third woman ; having, however, the complexion dark brown, and wearing large ear-rings : Men, wearing a cincture, very similar to that still used in India: Other men, wearing, in place of the cincture, a belt or sash, the ends of which hang loose in front : Also, a man, armed with a club, and an incurved or bent shield : A king, or chie^ wearing a profusely ornamented head-dress : — ftirther, the complexion of most of the above human figures was observed to be deep brunette, or about the same as in the Mongolian race : Two persons seated ; each having an ornamented head-dress, tiara-like, and resembling some at Elephanta : Oeese, swimming among aquatic plants (the Nymphsea and the Nelumbium) : The Nymphmi stetlata, repeatedly and distinctly represented ; the margin of the leaves not crennlate, and the flowers bright blue : — one of these lotus flowers, is held out by a man having a fillet tied around his arm : The banana plant ; distinctly an4 repeatedly represented : A tree with pinnate leaves, like an Acacia; but apparently not intended for the Tamarind : Birds, green above and white beneath ; and, m form, resemblmg some of the species of cuckoo : m • a\ "Whitish monkeys (Entellus ?) ; and a baboon (Papio ?) : also, antdopes, apparently of three distinct species ; one having knotted horns ; a larger kind, with straight horns ; and a third kind, A \2 356 phtsicaIj histobt of mau. ■with low hind quarters : — these five animals might probably be identified by a person conversant with Indian zoology : A horse and rider : — and also a two-wheeled cart (the wheels ■with eleven spokes), dra^wn by a pair of horses ; a circumstance deserving of attention, since horses, at the present day, are rare, and are not used for draught in the interior of India. The most interesting cave contains the painting of a large ■wheel ; between the spokes of which are seen a multitude of human figures ; 'various, m complexion, from the fair European to blackish-brown; but all much alike in feature, and having long straight hair. Umbrellas make their appearance, some of them square-topped ; and others resembling the modem Chinese, except in being destitute of a projection above (as is sho'wn in the annexed wood-cut) : also de- pressed water-jars, similar in shape to those now used (but perhaps earthen); together ■with various other implements and manufec- tured articles. Li the same cave are repre- sented, horses saddled and bridled, and a huntsman attended by hounds ; two human faces looking out of a ■window ; two men, ■with mustaches, having beads round the neck, and each holding out an article like a small flower-pot ; a woman of rank, attended by a female umbreUarbearer, and dressed according to European fashion, in a petticoat (which is short-sleeved) ; a pinnate-leaved palm, intended apparently either for the Bate or the cocoa ; and, in consideration of the cEstance from the sea, probably for the Date : also, a plant in many respects resembling the Pandanus. Series of saints are equally represented in the vaulted caves ; where, however, there is a manifest change in style in the paint- ings. The figures of men are numerous, and they have the hair and beard straight, and the brunette complexion ; and some indivi- duals wear a striped garment hanging over one shoulder, ■while others are clothed in white, and others again, in long red robes. One of these vaulted caves contains remnants of inscriptions ; the characters (some of which are partially obliterated,) being, in one instance, traced ■with black paint, and in ajiother ■with white. These in- script ons appeared interesting, from being possibly coeval with the original construction, and I have therefore inserted copies. ANTIQriTIBS AITD PLANTS OF rNDIA. 357 Inscriptions in the " cave character" are peculiar to the Budhist caves ; but the above being excepted, &0. that are known are sculptured. A sculptured inscription in the " cave character," occurs on the outside of one of the caves at Adjunta, and a copy of a portion of it is inserted below. b. The Braminical Caves. The Beaminical Caves may be readily distinguished by the evidences of Polytheism, and by the presence of many-handed and many-headed personages : Budha himself being represented in the Braminical pantheon, as having three pairs of hands. Certani representations are common to both classes of the Indian caves, such as those of the Nelumbium, the Nymphsea, the cobra, chowries, lions, monkies, buffaloes, elephants (which in all instances are ridden without howdah or saddle), the goose, perhaps one of the antelopes, umbrella-bearers ; women wearing armlets and anklets, and men wearing the belt or sash. On the other hand, the following particulars seemed to be pecidiar to the Braminical caves, and they were noted principally in the most extensive of the two series hitherto discovered in the eaves at EUora : Eepresentations of the Mango, and of A Sacred Fig (neither of which trees were distinctly made out at Adjunta). The fig seemed to be the species devoid of an in- volucre, notwithstan(£ng that it was called the " wurr tree," by some Hindoos in attendance. Peacocks, separately and unequivocally represented. Scorpions, also represented ; together with BvUocks, which are caparisoned, and altogether resemble those of Modem India. Elephants, having, Kke the buUocks, bells round the neck ; also the elephant-headed god. A goddess seated on a galloping Lion, and bearing on one arm a parrying shield ; also, a man riding a Hon. _ Large shields which are provided with a distinct handle ; Clubs somewhat resembling the short Feejee club, but more sculptured and ornamented ; Straight swords which are rounded at the end ; And battle-axes. 358 PHYSIOAIi HISTOBT OF MAN. Men wearing caps, some of -whicli are like the modem Afghan, and others like the modem Turcoman caps. The god holding a trident ; And in reference to Feejee customs, it was observed that the male figures often have annlete, and that in one or more instances a boy is represented as wearing a neck-plate. I\Lrther, some of the male figures have anklets. The tiffer-headei god in the act of devouring a human victim. And among the numerous deities, " Juggernaut" was poiated out to me by some Hindoos in attendance. iJoiBi^headed personages are occasionally represented ; And also, 5oar-headed men and children. Winged personages or angels. Brama, represented as usual as having three faces. A dragon, vomiting forth a ram-homed Hon or griffin. Mermaids, but wiSiout the terminal fin : and other imaginary animals. A woman holding a flag-shaped fan, which is very similar to those now used in Nubia and Yemen. A man having a short "kids," which is less curved than that worn by the modem Arabs. Skeleton figures resembling the popular representation of Death. In one instance, a woman holding a small quadrangular box, perhaps for containing ointment : In another instance a man holding a flagon or bottle. Pigmies are repeatedly represented ; Together with cornucopias ; And a man holding a roU, or a cylindrical implement resem- bling one. Some of the angles of the door-ways were observed to have oblique perforations ; perhaps not coeval with the original construction, but entirely similar to those seen at Hadjerkim, in Malta. In the finest of the EUora caves, I observed some remains of ornamental painting, the colours employed being duU red, light blue, light green and yellow. The goddess having (like the Amazons of old) a single breast, or the combined personage, female on one side, and called " Par- butee and Mardao," was seen only at Elephanta. Where, too, representations occur of the Hindoo Triad, or of " the creating, the preserving, and the destroying power." The floor of some of the Mephanta caves is made to contain a thin stratum of water ; and, indeed, I remarked no provision for drainage in the other Indian caves. The Elephanta caves, regarded as a work of art, always ANTIQUITIES AM) PLAITTS OF HTDIA. 359 pleased me ; and even in the sculptvired figures, I found sometlting to admire in tlie grouping and in the boldness of the relief. On the other hand, the style of the immense excavations at Ellora is corrupt, and the general effect is not altogether agree- able. Some of the details, however, are worth the attention of artists. And the excavated building is interesting as a specimen of the style of temple-architecture at an ancient period. It should be observed, that there is a seeming mixture of class at EUora, in the presence of caves of the usud. Budhist character ; these, however, have every appearance of being coeval with the rest of the series ; and I was unable to discover about them any inscriptions in the " cave character." There are no nak«d figures in the Budhist oaves, neither could I find anything of an indecent tendency ; a striking point of difference from the Pharaonic and from the Tin man antiquities. The same remark may indeed be extended to the Braminical caves, for the emblems of Siva, which occur in some of them, have clearly nothing to do with the original construction. It may be inferred, however, from various circumstances, that the introduc- tion of these emblems was anterior to the MusUm Conquest ; a recently discovered cave at Elephanta was found, on removing the earth, to contain one of them. The Guzerati Bramins con- tinue to make pilgrimages to Elephanta ; " arriviog aimuaUy at Bombay in April and May." The excavated temple at EUora is called the "kylas." The name brought to mind a possible reference to the caves of India, by Herodotus ; in his account of the " Ethiopians bordering on Egypt, who use the same grain* as the Calantian Indians, and their dwellings are subterraneous." We have, however, notices of India of a much earlier date than the time of Herodotus. Homer, besides mentioning Bacchus and Nysa, seems to aUude to India in the expression, "Ethiopia wMch sees the rising and the setting sun." I may refer also to what I have already stated in another chapter, respecting the importation of cinnamon. The Pharaonic Monuments contain representations of certain foreigners, who are perhaps people of India. One of the nations defeated by Khamses Sethospnaies use of cars drawn by bullocks (according to the present custom of Hindostan) ; and the animals moreover, have the peculiar form of the .Indian bullock.t In the tomb of the same Pharaoh, one of the " four geographical * Herodotus ; Thalia, 78 and 97. It may le observed in reference to the Greek word avepfiari : that the same kinds of grain are actually cultivated m Nubia, and in the Dekkan ; as Sorghum, Pennisetum, and Milium. f Rosselini, Monumen. Stor., pi. 128. 360 PHYSICAL HISTOET Or MATS'. divisions of the world," is represented by men -virearing the hemi- spherical cap (aimilar to that of modem Cabul), and a lone richly ornamented scarf, winding repeatedly round the body.* The winding scarf, is strictly an Indian dress ; though sb far as my own observation extends, I have seen it worn by females only. The conquests of the immediate predecessors of Rhamses Sethos appear in general to have been more limited, yet the walls of Kamac offer representations of the Indian bullock, and of a fortress defended by men clad in the winding scajrft It may further be inferred from the above representations, that in the direction of the Indus the people were already, at that early day, distinguished for their skill in manufactures. Eariier, however, than the Pharaonic ages we have the religious symbol of the water-lily (Nymphaea) at the very commencement of the monumental history of Egypt. The presence of the same symbol on the earliest Indian monuments plainly indicates actual intercommunication. The asp, or cobra, is another religious symbol common to the monuments of India and Egypt. I have not found representations sufficiently exact to determine the species figured on the Indian monuments ; and it should be observed, that of the two known species of cobra, one is indigenous in India, and the other ia Northern Africa. c. Domestic Animals and Plants of Ancient India. In enumerating the domestic animals and plants of India, I shall begin in chronological order with the earliest monuments. The BuDHisT Caves, as already stated, contain representations of the following animals and plants : The goose, the species undetermined. The doff. — ^Not observed in the Braminical caves. The sheep, the head forming part of an imaginary animal. — Eepresented also in the Braminical caves, but only in the ram- headed personages. The korse, an animal that does not thrive in Southern India. The elephant. — Represented also in the Braminical caves. — ^The above five animals are all mentioned, according to Stevenson, in the Sama Veda,t and, according to the modem Bramins, in the Institutes of Menu. The buffalo, an animal apparently ind^enous either to India or to the Indo-Chinese countries. — The bufialo is likewise figured in the Braminical caves ; and is mentioned, according to Stevenson, * Loc. dt.pl. 158. t RoBselini, Monumen. Stor. pi. 80. J Stevenson's Siinhita of Uie Snnia Veda. London, 1842. A^-TIQriTIES AND PLANTS OE INDIA. 361 in the Sama Veda, and, according to Deslongohamps, in the Institutes of Menu. The ha-nana, a plant probably derived from the Malay countries. Possibly the Pandanus ; which plant, it should be observed, is confined to the coast. A pinnate-leaved palm, apparently intended for the Date pahn. Nym/phcea steUata, a plant, to all appearance, indigenous to India. Aid the Ndumhiwm, which plant is likewise apparently indi- genous to India. — ^The Nelumbium is, besides, commonly figured in the Braminical oaves. Representations of the following additional animals and plants make their appearance in the Braminical Caves : The bvUocK, agreeing altogether with the breed used in India at the present day. — ^The bullock is mentioned, accordingto Steven- son, in the Sama Veda, and, according to the modem Bramins, in the Institutes of Menu. The pig, in the figures of boar-headed personages. — According to the published versions, the pig is mentioned both in the Sama Veda and in the Institutes of Menu. The peacock, perhaps represented on the Budhist monuments. — ^The bird, according to Stevenson, is mentioned in the Sama Veda. The mango, possibly represented on the Budhist monuments. The tree is apparently indigenous in India, though, at the same time, it is abimdantly planted. And a species of Sacred Fig, the same, apparently, which I saw planted around the temple of Krishna. Leaving now monumental evidence, the following additional animals and plants are mentioned by ancient writers as existing in India. I have had, however, but little opportunity of consult- ing the works of these writers ; and the subjoined list is far from being complete. The honey-hee, according to the published versions, is mentioned in the Sama Veda, in the Institutes of Menu, and in the Maha- vansi of the Ceylon Budhists. . The domestic pigeon, according to Stevenson, is mentioned m the Sama Veda. . , . j • The domestic fowl, according to Deslongohamps, is mentioned m the Institutes of Menu. . ^^ a The qoat is mentioned, according to Stevenson, m the Sama Veda, and, according to the modem Bramms, in the Institutes ° ThT^nfev, according to the published versions, is mentioned in the Institutes of Menu, and even as used for ndmg by Bramms. Arrian, too, speaks of the donkey being used for nding in India. The caTnk, according to the published versions, is mentioned m 362 PHTSICAL HISTOET 01' MAN. the Institutes of Menu, and likewise as used for riding by Bramias. Herodotus and Arrian both speak of Indians riding on camels. The domestic cat, according to Deslongchamps, is mentioned in the Institutes of Menu. The gigantic reeds of India mentioned by Herodotus, can only be referred to the hamioo. — This plant at the present day is culti- vated, although rather sparingly, in Western India. Itice, according to the pub&hed versions, is mentioned in the Sama Veda and in the Institutes of Menu. Theophrastus speaks of rice being found by Alexander in India. Barley is mentioned, according to Stevenson, in the Sama Veda, and, according to Deslongchamps, in the Institutes of Menu. Theophrastus speaks of barley being found by Alexander in India. Wheat, according to Theophrastus, was found by Alexander in India. Gardens of myrtle trees, according to Arrian, were seen by Nearchus in India. — ^I met with some stocks of me myrtle in a European garden in the Dekkan. The Banian Fig (Ficus Indica) is distinctly described by Theo- phrastus, who states that it was found by Alexander on the river Acesines. — ^The tree ordy in rare instances acquires numerous trunks. The sugar-caiie, or rather its manufactured product, is men- tioned, according to the published versions, both in the Sama Veda and in the Institutes of Menu. The hemp, with the cloth made from it, is mentioned, according to the published versions, in the Institutes of Menu. Thecal, with the cloth made from it, is mentioned, according to the published versions, in the Institutes of Menu. — I met with the flax under cultivation in the Dekkan. The lentil (Ervum lens), according to Theophrastus, was found by Alexander in India. — ^At the present day the lentil is abun- dantly cultivated in India ; and its native name, " mussoor," seems to indicate that the plant was received from Egypt. According to Deslongchamps, the Institutes of Menu prohibit the higher castes " from eating the onion (Allium cepa), t\ei garlic (A. sativum), and the leek (A. porrum)." — These three plante are cultivated in India at the present day ; and the leek, it may be observed, bears its Egyptian name, " khorat." The cotton plant is mentioned as existing in India by both Herodotus and Theophrastus. Cotton thread, according to the modem Bramins, is mentioned in the Institutes of Menu. The henna (Lawsonia) appears to have been known in India in the time of Arrian, as may be inferred from his statement, "that ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 363 the people of India daub their beards white, red, purple, and green. I observed the use of henna by the Western Hindoos ; and the plant is abundantly cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay. Various other plants and vegetable products of India that were communicated to Egypt in ancient times will be found enumerated in another chapter. d. Introiwied Plants of Modern India. I will insert, however, in this place, a list of the additional introduced and cultivated plants which fell under my personal observation in "Western Hindostan : Aruma squamosa, cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay ; and, according to Graham,* the plant has a native name. Argemone Mexicana, the yellow-flowered variety, abundantly naturalised in the Dekkan, where also I observed fields of it under cultivation. Baphanus sativus, the radish, abimdantly cultivated in the Dekkan. Bixa oreUana, the amotto, cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay. Sibiscus rosa^sinensis, the flowers fi-equent among the temple- ofierings. I observed a stock, which had evidently been planted, growing in front of the lesser caves at Karli. Thespesia popvhhea, planted in the environs of Bombay. Adansonia trees were occasionally met with in the vicinity of Bombay, but differing somewhat in aspect from those seen on the island of Zanzibar. Bombajc anfractuoswn, planted in gardens at Bombay. Citrus sinensis ?, the Mandarin orange, cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay, and aJso at Aurungabad. Citrus deoumana, the shaddock ; the fruit observed at Bombay. Melia azedarach, planted around villages throughout Western Hindostan ; but it appeared to have been recently introduced ; and I found it commonly called, the " English tree." Azadiracta Indioa, a large tree, planted around the villages of the Dekkan. Cissus gniadranffidaris, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Vitis vinifera, the grape ; observed under cultivation. The plant was perhaps introduced by the Muslims ; I do not find that it has a native name. Averhoa Ulimbi, observed in gardens at Bombay. Ziiyphus lotus, the lote-tree ; planted around the villages of the Dekkan. * Catalogue of the plants growing in Bombay and its vicinity ; ty John Graham, Bombay, 1839. 864 PHTSICAX HISTOET OF MAIf. Zkyphim, the glaucus-leaved species ; planted with the pre- ceding, around the villages of the Dekkan. Anacardiwm occidentme, planted in the vicinity of Bomhay. Probably introduced by the Portuguese : and the nuts are, besides, imported from Goa. BosmelUathwnfera, observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. MoriTiga pterygosperma, planted around villages. Sophora tomentosa, in gardens at Bombay. Parkia bigland/idosa, suso in gardens at Bombay. TrwoTiellafynum-groecwm, abimdantly cultivated in the Dekkan. Sesoania JEffyptiaca, growing abimdantly in cultivated ground, in the environs of Bombay. Agati grandiflora, planted in gardens and around villages. Cicer arietinwm, the chick-pea ; abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan. Ahrus precaiorius, possibly indigenous. Cnjanusjlamis, the pigeon-pea ; abundantly cultivated. Ceratonia siliqwa, observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. According to Graham, the plant is of recent introduction. Vachellia Farnesiana,,Tp\aiXLted, and also naturaUsed. Acacia Ifilotica, planted within a few years, along roadsides in the Dekkan ; the trees appeared to be in a tliriving condition. Arachis hypogea, abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan. Ccescilpinia mppan, planted in gardens at Bombay. PoirunaiM pvlcherrima, in gardens at Bombay. Apparently, a different species from the one seen in Polynesia. According to Graham, it has a native name. Parkinsonia acnleata, planted for ornament in the environs of Bombay. yamanWiM/mrfiea, the tamarind tree ; planted and naturalised throughout Western Hindostan. Cassia alata, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Cassia fistida, appeared to be really indigenous on the mountaia slopes. According to Graham, it has a native name. Cassia tora, observed in the Concan, naturalised in waste grounds. Cassia OcciderOalis, also naturalised in waste grounds. Termincdia calappa, planted around Bombay. The tree was probably derived from the East India Islands. Punica granaium, cxiltivated in gardens, ; but the fruit pro- duced is of inferior quality. Psidium, the guava ; only seen cultivated, and I do not find that it has a native name. Lagenaria vtdgarisy the fruit offered for sale in the market at Bombay. Cucumis sativus, tlie common cucumber ; cultivated, and perhaps the same species indigenous. AKTIQTJITIES AKD PLAIfTS OF INDIA. 365 CvAiurKta citrullus, the water-melon ; the fruit offered for sale in the market at Bombay. Carica papaya, planted around villages. BryophyUwm adycinum, in gardens in the vicinity of Bombay. Opuntia DiUeniif, a red-fruited species, abundantly naturalised in the Dekkan ; where, by an adventitious adaptation, its thickets fiimish a congenial retreat for the porcupiae. Panax ? fruticosum, a shrub, frequent in gardens. I do not find that it has a native name. Panax ? cochleatv/m, a shrub, frequent iu gardens at Bombay. Mussoenda frondosa, observed only in the Botanic Garden at Bombay ; but according to Graham, the plant has a native name. Coffea Arabica, ia the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Carthanms tinctorius, abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan. Ageratum conyzoides, naturalised in waste places. Cacalia sonchifolia, a weed, observed growing around one of tlie villages in the Dekkan. Tagetes erecta, the flowers were observed to be among the most common offerings in the temples. This plant is regarded by botanists as a native of America ; and iadeed, according to Her- nandez, it has a Mexican name. Udipta, common in rice grounds. Edianthus annuus, the sun-flower ; observed in gardens at Bombay. Coreopsis tinctoria, also observed ia gardens at Bombay. Chrysanthemum Indicwm, the flowers were occasionally observed in the Dekkan, among the temple offerings. Mimusops hexand/ra, several trees observed, planted around a Muslim musjeed, at Imaumpore, ia the Dekkan. Olea sativa, the common olive ; ia gardens at Bombay. Ac- cording to Graham, it was introduced from Egypt m 1837. Jasminim,, a single stock observed, which was cUmbmg around a pipul tree (Picus religiosa), near one of the villages of ttie Dekkan. Nyctardhes arbor-tristis, in gardens ; and to all appearance, realhr iadigenous ia the vicinity of the Adjunta caves. Plumerm acuminata, planted around villages, throughout Western Hiadostan. Cerbera Thevetia, in gardens at Bombay. . AUamanda Aubletii, planted in gardens m the environs of °^o«ycamosa, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Asclepias Curassavica, observed only m the Botamc Garden at ^V^«-»a sto»«. planted in gardens at Bombay. SeLmim Orientate, abundantly cultivated m Western Hm- dostan. 366 PHYSICAL HIBTOET OF MAJT. Ifomcea phoenieea, in gardens at Bombay. I do not find that tlie plant has a native name. Ipomcea quamoclit, in gardens. And likewise apparently devoid of a native name. Convolmdus hatatas, the roots observed in the market at Bombay. Convolvulus arvensis, naturalised in the Dekkan. Solatium tuberosum. Potatoes of good quality, are abundant in the market at Bombay. Solanum mdongena, the Egg-plant ; abundantly cultivated. And I observed the large blue-fraited variety, -wrhich is now well known in the United States. Solanu/m, possibly the smooth-fruited esculent species of the Teejee Islands. Some stocks planted in pots were observed at Bombay. Capsicum frutescens, the fruit observed in the market at Bombay. Datura fastuosa, the flowers were occasionally observed in the Dekkan, among the temple ofieringa. Mawandya semperflorens, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Herpestis Mormiera, observed in the Dekkan ; growing in wet ground and possibly indigenous. Ocymum, sanctv/m, observed planted on the top of a brick column, at one of the temples in the Dekkan. Leonotis leonwrus, growing in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Stackytarpheta, observed in gardens in the vicinity of Bombay. Lantana, two species, observed in gardens. Omelina Asiatica, planted in gardens at Bombay. Tectona grandis, the Teak tree ; indigenous, and also seen in gardens. Phmhago rosea, in gardens at Bombay. According to Graham, it has a native name. Plumbago Capensis, also in gardens at Bombay. Boerhaavia procwmbens, the annual minute-flowered species, frequent in the Dekkan. It appeared to be identical with the one seen in cultivated ground at the Polynesian islands. Achyranthes aspera, abundant and possibly native. Gomphrena globosa, cultivated for ornament in gardens. Aerva lanata, abundantly naturalised in the environs of Bombay. Salvadora Persica, a tree, planted around villages in the Dekkan. Sanialum album, in gardens at Bombay. Euphorbia tirmalli, abundantly planted and naturalised in the environs of Bombay. In the East Indies I met with the plant growing m wild situations, and apparently indigenous. Euphorbia tithymcHoides, in gardens at Bombay. According to Graham, it has a native name. AITTIQUITIES AHD PIiilTTS OF HTDIA. 367 Sapiwm sebiferum, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. , Ridnus communis, naturalised in waste grounds ; and in the Dekkan, sometimes regularly cultivated. Jairopha curcas, naturalised in the environs of Bombay. Jampha manihot, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Codi(xumvarie^atum, cultivated for ornament at Bombay. Croton tinctonvm, gro-wing iu the environs of Bombay, and perhaps native. It appeared to be the species which I saw in Egypt. Mmrites trihba, planted in gardens at Bombay. According to Graham, it has a native name. Ficus rdigiosa, the "pipul " tree ; planted around temples and Ficus carica, the common fig, cultivated in gardens. Artocaripus incisa, the bread fruit ; in gardens at Bombay. Artocarpus integrifolia, the jack-tree ; in the Botanic garden at Bombay. Moms alia; some stocks observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay ; but the cultivation does not succeed. Casuarvna equisetifolia, planted in the environs of Bombay. Ckipresstis sempervirens, the cypress ; occasionally seen in the Dekkan. The tree was perhaps introduced by the Muslims. Piper niffrum, the plant observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Piper held, the leaves often seen in the market at Bombay. Aloe, a species naturalised in the Dekkan. Dioscorea acvleata, probably introduced from the Bast Indies by the Portuguese. The roots, "brought from Goa," common in the market at Bombay. Draccena termincdis, var. ferrea ; observed in gardens at Bombay. Asparagus officinalis, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Furcrcea gigantea, in the gardens of European residents. Bromelia ananas, the pine- apple ; sometimes seen in gardens, but the cultivation as a fruit does not succeed. Phcenix dactylifera, the Date pahn ; cultivated solely for the sake of the sap, for making " toddy." Areca catechu, the betel-nut palm ; planted in the environs of Bombay. Cocos nucifera, planted in the environs of Bombay. Cwryota urens, in gardens at Bombay ; and besides indigenous on the mountain slopes. Borasms flabelliformis, planted m the envfrons of Bombay. Pandanus odoratissimus, maritime, and to aU appearance indigenous. Colocada : a species, was said to be " cultivated in the Dekkan, for the sake of the leaves, which form a substitute for spinach." 368 PHTSICAIi HISTOKT OF MAN. Cohcasia gramdifolia, observed in gardens at Bombay. Cynodion dactyhn, abundant ; and according to Graham, much esteemed for feeding cattle. This use of the plant, as I formerly found, had attracted the attention of colonists in Australia. Dactyhcteniv/m ^gyptitKii/m, frequent in the environs of Bombay. Setaria, a species seen under cultivation iu the Sekkan. Pennisetmn typhoidevm, abundantly cultivated in. the Dekkan. Sorghum milgare, abundantly cultivated throughout Western Eiudostan. CHAPTEE XXVI. INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF EGYPT. In their original condition, the alluvial flats of the Nile, appear to have been a pastoral tract, devoid of trees, and in all proba- bility, abounding in game. In proportion as the soil became occupied for irrigation and cultivation, game doubtless became rare, and some of the larger kinds disappeared from the valley. There is, perhaps, no reason to suppose -Qie extinction of species-; for as the Nile, on the one hand, opened a path to Northern climates for the lion ; so, other animals inhabiting its banks, appear to have been originally Asiatic. The natural vegetation of these river-flats, is extremely simple, and consists of grasses, and other herbaceous and humble plants. The species are few in number ; and at least in affinity, are European. Tropical forms are rare, even in the Thebaid, and do not modify the general aspect of the vegetable growth. It is no new remark, that the cultivated plants of Egypt, have been all derived from abroad. Prior, then, to their introduction, agriculture was unknown on the banks of the Nile ; and the art accompanied the objects from some foreign and distant country. I shall proceed to enumerate the domestic g.nimalg and plants of Egypt, in chronological order ; beginning with those figured on the earliest monuments. 1. The Primitive Monarchy, or tlie Time of the Pyramids. Some of the tombs immediately around the Great Pyramid, have been ascertained to be coeval with it in their construction. These were first pointed out to me by Mr. Bonomi ; and, together with a tomb of the sixth d3Tiasty at Saccara, they contain representations of the following animals and plants : IiriEODUOED PLANTS Or EGYPT. 369 The domestic goose. The bird is likewise figured on all the subsequent monuments. The dog; in one or two instances, and having the taU curling, but the muzzle pointed like that of the jackal.— In the grottoes at Bern Hassan (belonging to the succeeding period), numerous varieties ot the dog are figured ; and, among them, the grey- hound, employed, as in modem times, for its superior swiftness in the chase. This kind of sport, moreover, is said to be well known • m Nubia. The hillock; a long-homed variety, which occurs on the monu- ments of the succeeding period, but hardly on those of a later date. Additional varieties of the bullock first made their appear- ance at Beni-Hassan, where, too, the animal is represented in the state of secondary wUdness, parti-coloured individuals being asso- ciated with other game ia the hunting scenes. The goat; a variety or breed, presenting nothing unusual in the form of body. — The goat is figured on aU the subsequent monuments. The sheep ; a remarkable variety, with spreading horns, and which appears soon to have become extinct. But the figure of the peculiar head continued in later times to form a hieroglyphic character. The donkey; kept in droves. And in the Saccara tomb some are caparisoned as beasts of burden. Associated with the above are certain other animals repre- sented in the reclaimed state. These were, perhaps, considered sacred, or were kept for sacrificing ; though some of them seem well adapted for economical purposes. To this class belong — The large, imdeteimined species of crane (Grus.) — ^At Beni- Hassan, the bird is represented as kept in flocks ; and I met with a single figure of this crane on an early Pharaonic monument. The oryx, or the large, straight-homed African antelope ; in some instances represented as kept in herds. On the other hand, the ibex, or Capricorn, is represented single, and is, perhaps, not to be regarded!^ as fairly domesticated. At all events, the two animals next in order are merely kept in captivity : The hedge-hog (Brinaceus auritus), carried in cages ; but, from the frequent figures, the animal seems to have been regarded as sacred. And a species of monkey (Cercopithecus) ; doubtless brought down the NUe, either from Abyssinia or from Central Africa. The ibis is also figured, but vnithout any accompanying evidence that the bird was kept in captivity. The habits of the primitive Egyptians appear to have been m great part pastoral ; but agricultural operations are equally repre- 370 PHTBICAIi HISTOBT OF TNTATT. Bented on the earliest monuments, together with the follomng plants : The grape; and, further, the process of making wine. — ^This art is liewise represented on the Pharaonie monuments. Grain, in stancung crops ; with the regular process of reaping. The species is, perhaps, rye ; but, possibly, wheat (Triticmn hibemum.) — ^I would observe, however, that the history of this latter grain is by no means clear. The aWov of Homer and Herodotus, according to the use of the term by the modem ■ Greeks,* is the Wheat. There is yet a third species of grain, which is possibly the one figured — the ^elt (Triticum spelta.) — According to the received opinion, the spelt is the " far " of the Bomans ; and the Latin word may probably be identified with the irupos of Homer, and the " var " of Genesis. Herodotus states that the presents sent by the Hyperboreans to Delos, were wrapped in the straw of the mipos. — Belon, among other modem writers, speaks of seeing the spelt in Bgypt. The paper-reed (Papyrus), and also the process of writing ; together with rolls, or books. This point, moreover, is in accord- ance with Manetho, who expressly mentions books that were written during this early period. At the present day, the paper- reed has nearly, if not altogether, disappeared from Egypt; a circumstance that may be cited among the proofc of a foreign origin. The writing-pens were probably made from the true reed (Arundo donax), and likewise the arrows figured at Bern-Hassan and on the Pharaonie monuments. In the time of Pliny, the reed appears to have been regularly cultivated in Egypt ; and its rarity at the present day may be attributed in part to the change in the mode of warfare. The sacred water4Uy, or lotus (Nymphsea cserulea) ; figured, also, on the subsequent monuments. The flowers, indeed, are rarely painted blue ; but the margin of the leaves, even in the most careful representations, is invariably entire. The N. cseru- lea is probably indigenous, or spontaneously disseminated in Egypt ; for plants that are strictly fluviatUe, agree in their geo- graphical distribution with fluviatUe animals. — ^I met with the dried flowers of a blue Nymphsea (probably N. steUata), in the Indian drug-shops at Mocha ; and also with a third species of blue Nymphsea (distinguished by its dentate leaves), growing on the island of Zanzibar. * Wherever, as in this instance, I have referred to the modem Greek usage without specifying the authority, I have been guided) by the Lexicon of Zalikoglous. Printed at Venice, a.d. 181& INTEODTICED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 371 Large river-barges, propelled by niimerouB oars, axe represented in the Saceara tomb ; and the timber for their construction, if not imported from abroad, or from the "Upper Nile, must have been derived from cultwated groves. The fruit of the common fig (Ficus oarica.) — ^Kgures of the entire tree occur on the Pharaonic monuments. The fruit of the pomegranate (Punica granatum.) — ^Figures of the entire tree occur on the Pharaonic monuments. The fruit of the water-mdon (Citrullus.) — ^Figured, also, on the Pharaonic monuments. Water-melons are mentioned in the Books of Moses, and under the name still given to this fruit in Egypt. The ffuit of the hairy cUcuTriber (Cucumis chate.) — Figured, also, on the Pharaonic monuments. This species of cucumber is cylindrical, and devoid of papillse ; and, if I understood aright, is called " gutteh " at Cairo. It seems, therefore, to be one of the plants mentioned in Exodus, is. 32. Some figures, among the offerings of fruits, are possibly intended for heads of the artichoke (Cynara scolymus.) — ^This plant is com- monly cvdtivated in Egypt at the present day ; and, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Kwapa of Sophocles and Ptolemy Euergetes. Other figures among the offerings correspond very well with the shaOot (AHium Askalonioum.)— This plant, according to the modem Greek usage, is the yr)»vov of Theophrastus. Alpinus is the only author I have met with, who mentions the shallot in connexion with Egypt. Herodotus mentions seeing an inscription havmg reference to the construction of the Great Pyramid ; and, as interpreted to TiiTTij containing notices of the three following plants : The Kooiiiwa ; according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, the onion (Allium cepa.)— This plant is unequivo- cally represented on the Pharaonic monuments ; and is men- tioned in the Books of Moses under its current Egyptian name, and by Homer under its Greek name. The aKODoSa ; according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, the garlic (Allium sativum.)— At the present day, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, this plant «is very spanngly cultivated in Egypt ;" and, indeed, Hasselqmst expressly men- tions the importation of garlic. J. 1. m X. And the -pigeons are expressly mentioned by Anacreon. Living plants in pots (possibly the Crocus) are carried by the delegates of a second foreign nation, in the above-mentioned Tribute-procession. With regard to the living exotic tree, carried by a third set of delegates ; the checkered receptacle denotes a Nubian or Arabian origiQ. The same species of tree is figured on other Pharaonic monuments ; and appears to have been regarded as sacred. — The account of the irepcrto by Theophrastus and Pliny, may be com- pared. Delile refers the Treptrea to the Balanites; and the place of origin corresponds ; for, according to Cailliaud, the Balanites "is found on the shore of the Bed Sea, as weU as aiong the Upper NUe from Sennaar to Fazoglo." The sticks of ebom/, figured in the same Tribute-processioii, rtJTEQDUCEI! PLANTS OE EOrPT. 375 were derived, in all probability, either from India or from Mada- gascar ; it may be from Madagascar, by the route of the Upper NUe. — This, at least, -was the probable source of the ebonj brought down the Nile in the time of Herodotus. Baskets, containing indigo, are figured in the same Tribute- procession ; and the manufactured substance was probably imported by sea, along the coast of Yemen, from Inia. — The iadigo plant does not appear to have been cultivated in Egypt > prior to the time of the Muslims. The sycamore fig-tree is figured on various Pharaonic monu- ments. Moreover, I have seen a wooden mummy-case of the time of the first king of the eighteenth dynasty ; and these cases are usually considered to be made of sycamore-wood. However, it has recently been asserted, that the mummy-cases are made of the wood of the Gordia myxa; a point, in regard to which, I am unprepared to offer an opinion. — ^Bird-Ume (a sub- stance said to be procured from the Cordia myxa) is mentioned in the book of Amos. Tufts of fern, and a forest (£ fir-trees (Abies picea), growing in a foreign coimlay, are figured on the walls of Kamac. The tall flag-staffs, placed on the Pharaonic temples, were doubtless spars (either of fir or pine) imported by sea ; and probably from Syria. A red fruit, agreeing in many respects with that of the loie-tree (Ziziphus lotus), is figured in a tomb at El Kab. — The lote-tree appears to be mentioned by Theophrastus, under the name, KuTos iraXioupos. I frequently observed the Z. lotus planted around the Egyptian villages ; the natives persisting in the assertion, that it bears " the fiiest of all known fruits." Branches of myrtle (Myrtus communis), carried by females, are figured on the Pharaonic monuments. — ^The myrtle is clearly a tropical plant, foreign originally to the Mediterranean coimtries. Indeed, Pliny speaks of the myrtle as a stranger to Italy ; men- tioning, however, that a stock was found growing on the site selected for the foundation of Eome. Theophrastus and Pliny both speak of the myrtle as existing in Egypt. And it is com- monly planted there in gardens at the present day. Erom the representations of the practice of anointing, the olive <01ea sativa), appears to have been known in Egypt during the jharaonic ages. I did not, however, meet with figures of the tree or the fruit. — ^The olive is mentioned in the Books of Moses, as well as in Judges (ix. 9) ; and under the name still current in Egyiit. Homer, too, mentions the olive. And Pliny speaks of trees growing at Thebes ; and quotes Fenestella, as stating, that in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus (b. c. 678) there were "no olives in Italy, Spam, or Africa." , . , ■„, The pear (Pyrus communis) seems to be figured m the Phara- 376 PHTSIOAIi HISTOET OF MAIT. onie plans of gardens. — Homer and Virgil both speak of this finiit. And it is commonly ctdtivated in Egypt at the present day. The flower of the NeVwmhium does not occvir on the Egyptian mo- numents ; but I have thought in various instances to distinguish the firuit. And according to this conjecture, it is the emblem designating Asiatic prisoners. Herodotus distinctly describes the Nelumbium, and as growing in Egypt. But at the present day the plant is known there, I believe, in but one or two gardens. Delile's figure does not altogether agree with the Indian species. The Cucurbitaceous plant with deeply-lobed leaves, figured on a 'Pharaonic monument as growing over framewodi, is, perhaps, the Luffa; but possibly the Momordica balsamina. Both these plants are commonly cultivated in Egypt at the present day. The Cucurbitaceous plant with serrated cordate leaves, twice figured (though without fruit)in the Tombs of the Pharoahs,is per- haps the (?ow(i(Lagenaria). From the epithet given to a particular variety of pear, it may be inferred, that the cucurbita" of Cato and Pliny is the Gourd. This plant is figured by Matthioh (a.d. 1573) ; and, at the present day, is abundantly cultivated in Egypt and in the other Mediterranean countries. The round-headed grain, figured in the tomb of Ehamses Sethos and also at El Kab, and which is pulled while the stems are yet green, corresponds in many respects with the Panimm Italicmn. I repeatedly met with this plant under cultivation in Egypt, where it is called " dokn" : the word occurs in Genesis, and in other portions of the Scriptures. Pennisetum typhoideum, (its spike being always erect, and in some varieties ovoid,) is possibly the figured plant. The fieXani of Herodotus and Theophraatus, and the "milium" of Pliny (xviii. 7), may also be compared. The Pennisetum is figured by Dodonseus (a.d. 1669) : and I repeatedly met with the plant in Egypt. Barley (Hordeum), is figured on the Pharaonic, if not on the anterior monuments. Further, the manufacture from barley of "booza" (a kind of beer), appears to have been practised in Egypt as early as the time of Herodotus. we next arrive at the commencement of Written History, or the lifetime of the earliest authors whose works are extant ; and from this epoch the testimony of eye-witnesses, in successive ge- nerations, extends .down to the present day. The terms in which the Exodus is narrated convey a date by the Egyptian Cycle. But the time of the completion of the cycle then pending, is an undetermined point of Chronology. Some remarks on the subject may therefore be deemed not out of place. INTEODTJCED PLANTS Or EGYPT. 377 Syneellus makes the folio-wing statement, the substance of which is supposed to have been derived from Manetho : — ^ToiT()j T^ e 6T6i Tov Ke' ^afTtKeitravTos Kayj(apews rris PtlyinrTov iirl rT)s is'' Svvaareias tov Kwikov \eyofl4vov kvk\ou irapoi Tip Mavefl^ anh tov irptiTov PcuTiXeios Kal oIkiittov MetTTpatfj. ttjs AiyiiTTOv, "TrXTjpovtfTai ctt; ^', fiaffiXeiav xe : " In the fifth yeai- of Concharis, the twenty-fifth king of Egypt during the sixteenth dynasty of the cycle called cynic by Manetho, from the first king and colonist of Egypt, Mestraim, were completed seven hundred years, twenty-five reigns." Turning now to the fragments of Manetho preserved by Josephus, and adding to the " five hundred and eleven years of Shepherd rule" the succeeding reigns, seven hundred and eleven years will bring us to the fifth year of the first Aoencheres. Again, a seem- ing record of the completion of the cycle occurs (at Thebes) on the waJls of the Eamesseum, and is repeated in the tomb of the builder's father, Menepthah ; a king, who holds the same relative position on the monuments as the three Acencheres do in Manetho's list. The length of the Egyptian Cycle is the time in which a mea- sure of three hundred and sixty-five days will traverse all the seasons. And on this point Pliny quotes a statement of Ma- nilius : " That the phoenix lives six hundred and sixty years, and that the revolutions of the Great Year correspond." Now, various reasons lead us to suppose, that the Egyptian Cycle is a multiple of seven ; and it will be observed, that two phoenixes and a third make fifteen hundred and forty years, and that theso divided by seven, give one-third of a phoenix. The quoted state- ment will then I thiok be found to agree with modem estimates of the length of the year ; after making allowance in these estimates for the velocity of light. In Egypt, however, the years ofthe cycle had been actually counted; and, as pointed out to me by Mr. Ghddon, the Egyptians have a palpable mark of the true length of the year in the singular constancy of the initial day of the inundation of the Nile : coincident, moreover, now as in the time of Herodotus* with the Summer Solstice. Most ofthe animals and plants above enumerated as figured on the Egyptian monuments, are mentioned in the earlier portions of the Scriptures, together with the following in addition : The honey-bee is mentioned in the history of Samson ; and aL;o by Hesiod and other ancient Greek writers. Peacocks, according to the English version, were brought in the ships of Solomon. The bird is mentioned by Aristophanes ; and according to Athenseus, by more ancient poets, such as Eupolis. In its wild state, the peacock is peculiar to Hindostan. • See Herodotus; Euterpe, 19. 378 PHYSICAL HISTOEX Or MAN. The cameL is mentioned in the books of Moses ; and also by Herodotus, and other ancient Greek -writers. The iigure of the camel occurs on the Himyaritic monuments of Yemen ; but (as remarked by Bonomi), is absent from the Egyptian monuments. There are indeed groimds for supposing that for some centuries the Egyptians actually shut out the camel from the West of Africa. I do not remember, that the animal is noticed in the Bomaji accounts of Numidia : and its final introduction into that region must have produced a revolution in society, by carrying peculation into districts previously uninhabitable. The ImiU (Ervum lens) is mentioned in the history of Esau, and under the name still given to the plant in Egypt. The lentil continues to be a fevourite article of diet with the Egyptians. According to the received opinioni, the terebiiOh (Pistacia tere- binthus), is mentioned in the books of Moses ; particular trees in Palestine being already noted on account of their extraordinary age. Various modem travellers speak of the import of terebinth seeds into Egypt ; and Belon mentions a tradition, that the Persians lived on these seeds before becoming acquainted with bread. I have not met with evidence that the terebinth tree is truly wild in the Mediterranean countries. The almand (Amygdalus communis), is mentioned in Grenesis XXX. 37, and imder the name stiU given to the plant in Egypt. The almond is also mentioned by Ctesias, Xenophon, and other ancient Greek writers. The "libneh" of Genesis xxx. 37, may be compared with the rosemary (Eosmarinus officinalis.) At the present day, the rose- mary is a favourite garden plant in Egypt. The heh (Allium porrum) according to the English and the Septuagint Versions, is mentioned in the books of Moses. A Greek word used by Homer is considered to have reference to the leek ; and Pliny expressly mentions the presence of this plant in Egypt, where at the present day it is commonly cul- tivated. According to the English and the Septuagint Versions, _/ra«i- incense (the product of the Boswellia) is mentioned in the books of Moses. This substance was doubtless imported through the medium of the Arabs ; as is intimated in Jeremiah vi 20, and as is expressly stated by Herodotus. Some remarks respecting cinnamon, another article of traffic mentioned in the books of Moses, have been already given in a. preceding chapter. Balm ^he product of the Amyris opobalsamum) is mentioned ia the books of Moses, and is known to have formed at a later period an object of cultivation in Palestine. Josephus mentions HfTEODTJCED PIAIfTS OP EGTPT. 379 a, tradition, that "the bahn-tree vras introduced into Palestine by the Queen of Sheba ;" and so far as the place of origin is concerned, this account may be compared with the statement of Strabo. The myrrh mentioned in the books of Moses was perhaps trans- ported by land from Yemen. The Somali country is the prin- cipal source of the myrrh of commerce ; but I learned at Mocha, that a portion is actually produced in Yemen. Herodotus speaks of myrrh, and the myrrh tree is distinctly described by Theo- phrastus. The "shittim wood" of the books of Moses is supposed to be the wood of an Acacia ; and it has been ascertained that two species, (A. s^al, and A. aitnmiif era,) in some instances becom- ing arborescent, grow wild in the Sinai Peninstda. It appears, moreover, that gum-arabic is actually collected there, though the principal source of this article of commerce is the Somali country. Gum-arabic is mentioned by both Herodotus and Pliny. I did not, while in Egypt, distinguish the above two species of Acacia ; but I met with no wild plant attaining the dimensions of a tree. I frequently observed the "sont" (A. NUoticd) planted around villages on the margin of the desert, and as men- tioned by Herodotus, the timber is used in the construction of river-barges. The lean (Vida faba) is mentioned in Samuel and in Ezekiel, and under the name still current in Egypt. At the present day this plant forms one of the principal objects of cultivation in l^ypt, for the sake of both the seeds and stems. In reference to the almbug-treei brought in the ships of Solomon, I would observe, that at the present day, the joists used to sup- port the floors and flat roofe at Mocha, are imported ready-made from Zanzibar. The musk-mdon (Cucumis melo) is in Egypt called "kauun," The "Mkayon" of Jonah may be compared, as well as the kucoos of some early Greeks, and the o-i/cuoj of Aristophanes and Theophrastus. According to the received opinion, the NigeB/J, sativa is men- tioned in Isaiah xxviii. 25 and 27. Belon states that this plant ftumshes the black seeds so generally sprinkled on bread in Egypt. The cummin (Cuminum cyminum) is mentioned in Isaiah, and by the name stiQ given to the plant in Egypt. The cummin is also noticed by Aristophanes, Hippocrates, and other Greek writers. The &uceda hortensis is in Egypt called " mullah." The " mal- luach" of Job xix. 4, maybe compared ; and, in reference to the associated plant, it may be observed, that "raetsem," according to Forskal, is the Egyptian name of a species of Atriplex. 380 PHYSICAIi HISTOEY OF MAIT. With respect to the " nard " or " spikenard " of Solomon's Song, the modern Arabic name seema to indicate the rose. Indeed, the notice of the " nard " in Mark is sufficiently descriptive of the essential oU (or attar) of roses. This substance is perhaps men- tioned by Homer and Pliny ; and Celsus (about a. d. 27) expressly speaks of the distillation of roses. Theophrastus and Pliny both aUude to the presence of the rose in Egypt. The plant is foreign to the natural vegetation of Egypt, but is extensively cultivated in that country for commercial purposes. It appears, however, that the copSos of the modem Greeks is the lavender (Lavandula). I have met with indigenous species of Lavandula both in Yemen and in Hindostan ; though, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the L. stsechas has been but recently introduced into Egypt. Two of the ancient Greek writers lived before the conclusion of the Pharaonic ages, Homer and Hesiod ; and, according to astro- nomers, the remark of Hesiod respecting the rising of the Pleiades involves the date of " b. c. 958." Prom the examples already given, it will be perceived that the Scriptural names of plants are stiU in use in Egypt. Further, in many instances, the current Egyptian name famishes a clue to the plants mentioned by Greek writers ; and the correspondence wUl even be found closer, the fiirther we recede into antiquity. The white poplar (Populus alba) is in Egypt called "hour." The ax^fais of Homer and Hesiod is but the sdlkne word softened into the Greek idiom ; and in later times we find a different one substituted. Theophrastus expressly mentions the presence of the white poplar in Egypt. The imKfSvris (uyetpoto of Homer (Od. vii. 106) may be compared with the aspen (Populus tremula). Belon met with the aspen at Constantinople ; and, according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, the tree is cultivated in the gardens of Cairo. The aiyeipos of Homer, Hesiod, and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion, is ih&Populv^ nigra. This tree has a native name in Egypt, according to Porskal and others. The chick-pea (Cicer arietinum) is in Egypt called " homraos." The Kuo/tos of Homer can be readily identified. Moreover, the singular resemblance in the seed to the head of a ram may account for the Kvafuoi being " regarded unclean" by the Egyptians of the time of Herodotus. The edible lupine is in Egypt called " termes." The epc/Su-flos of Homer can be readily identified. The statement of Theophrastus respecting the " woody stem " of the fpePivSos may also be com- pared. In later times, however, we find the Greek name trans- ferred to a different plant. It would appear, from the modem Greek usage, that the f« of rtfTEODrCED PIANTS OF UaTPT. 381 Homer is possibly the vetch ; though there is some confusion, perhaps arising from the practice of sowing mixed crops for feed- ing cattle. According to Forskal, the Vicia sativa is in Egypt called " faurum," in which word we readily distinguish the Latin "far." The V. sativa, however, is not enumerated among the cultivated plants of Egypt. With regard to the /htjAov of Homer and Hesiod, it will be observed that the plant, in all probability, was not received from Egypt ; and that the circumstance of the Greek word equally signifying a sheep, seems to cover an allusion to the downy coating of the quince (Cydonia vulgaris)". The " malum " of Virgil seems also to be the quince. I have had occasion to remark that the quince succeeds better than the apple in the Arab countries. The Abtoj of Homer, referred by Pliny to the " melUotus," is usually considered to be the Mdilotus officinalis. Clot-Bey and Figari enumerate the M. officinalis among the plants long known in Egypt.^ Homer's account of the Lotophagi may have some connection with the coincidence between the Arabic name of the fenugreek (TrigoneUa foenum-grascum) and that of a peculiar conserve, and with the practice of using this conserve for enticing children away from their parents. The fenugreek is a favourite article of diet with the Parsees of India ; and the account by Herodotus of the Tpi^vWov of thefr forefathers may be compared. Theophrastus, however, (according to the received opinion,) mentions the fenu- greek under a different name. Homer's account of the wirei'fles drug of Egypt is sufficiently descriptive of opium. Pliny not only mentions opium, and the fact of its being adulterated at Alexandria, but he speaks of its use being condemned by Diagoras and Erasistratus (who are sup- posed to have lived respectively b. c. 416 and b. c. 257). Pliny mentions also the " garden white poppy " (Papaver somniferum), from which the drug is obtained. Opium is still one of the staple productions of Egypt. Saffi-on-coloured garments are mentioned by Homer ; thus implying the use of the sqfflower, or Dyer's saflron (Carthamus tinctorius). At the present" day this plant is very generally cul- tivated throughout the Arab countries, from Egypt to the Dekkan inclusive. The ■TTTeKea of Homer and Hesiod, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the elm (Ulmus campes- tris). The elm is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants long known in Egypt. The /ieAio of Homer, Hesiod, and Aristophanes, according to the received opinion, is the ash (Fraxinus). Theophrastus mentions the presence of the ue\ia in Egypt ; where, accord- 382 PHTBICAIi HISTOE^ 01' IIAJS. ing to Clot-Bey and Kgari, F. excelsior is planted at the present day. The Spvs of Homer, Hesiod, and others, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the oak (Querciis). Theophrastus speaks of oaks growing around Thehes, from which vicinity they had already disappeareid in the time of Pliny. I have not found the oak mentioned by modem writers as existing in Egypt ; but I met with the tree under cultivation in the Botanic Garden at Cairo. The Kpaveia of Homer and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion, is the cornel (Comus). Two species are men- tioned by Theophrastus, and these are usually referred to the C. mascula, and the C. sanguinea. Belon met with the C. san- guinea in Greece ; and, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, both species have been recently introduced from Greece into Egypt. The KJvnepn of Homer and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion, is the European alder (Alnus). Hasselquist met with the alder in Egypt. The Kwrapurms of Homer and Herodotus, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the cypress (Cu- pressus sempervirens). This tree is at the present day planted in aU Muslim cemeteries. The Beiov of Homer, Theophrastus, and Pliny, according to the received opinion, is the Thuya OrierUcMs. Theophrastus, more- over, speaks of the tree as growing at the oasis of Ammon, and in Cyrene, localities in which it must have been planted. The Thuya continues to be a favourite ornamental tree in Egypt ; and Belon found it growing wild on the mountains of Asia Mmor. The irAaTocio-Tos of Homer and Herodotus, translated " platar nus " by Cicero, is, according to the received opinion, the Oriental plane (Platanus Orientalis). Pliny states "that the 'platanus' was first brought over the Ionian Sea to adorn the tomb of Diomedes." I frequently met with the P. Orientalis planted around villages in Egypt. However, from Forskal's account of the modem usage at Con- stantinople, the Acer plMtanus would seem to be the plamt aUuded to by the ancient writers ; and it wiU be observed that Aristophanes speaks of the tt^otokos as a wild tree of Greece. Theophrastus mentions the presence of the ■i!\a-ravos in Egypt ; and the A. platanus and A. platanoides are enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the trees planted at the present day in the gardens of Cairo. The 101/ of Homer and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion, is the Yiohj, odorccta. At the present day, the V. odorata is a favourite garden plant in Egypt. With respect to the viauvSos of Homer, inscribed, according to INTBODTJCED SIiASTS OF EGYPT. 383 Theocritus and Ovid, with alphabetical characters, something of this sort may be found on the calyx scales of certain Compositse, Buch as the Chrysamthenmin. Linnaexis, however, refers the voKiyBos to tiie Delphinium ajacis; and the current Egyptian name of this plant, " ayakbouh," seems to favour the reference. The mmetpos of Homer and Herodotus, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the genus Oyperus. Wilkinson states that seeds of the C. escvdentus have been found in the ancient Egyptian tombs. The living plant was seen in Egypt by Forskal, and also by DeUle. In reference, however, to the Greek word Km^ipos, it should be observed that Inula Arabica and I. undulata (two indigenous plants), together with Croton tinctorium, are in Egypt called "ghobbeyreh." IVom Belon's account of the modem usage at Constantinople, it would appear that the ceKivov of Homer, Aristophanes, and Plutarch, is the smaUage (Apium graveolens). The " apium amarum" of Virgil may also be compared. — ^Alpinus speaks of the cultivation of the A. graveolens in Egypt. The rye (Secale cereale) has been already noticed as possibly figured on the earliest Egyptian monuments. Erom the modem usa^e in certain parts of Italy, the oAupa of Homer and Herodo- tus is supposed to be the rye ; and, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, the " sekale " of Pliny is the same plant. — ^Alpinus appears to be the only modem writer who has seen rye in Egypt. The Keyxpos of Hesiod, Dioscorides, and others, is referred by Mathioli to the Panicum mUiacemn. Herodotus speaks of the Kpyxpos being cultivated both at Babylon and on the Borysthenes ; and the geographical range agrees only with that of P. mihaceum and P. Italicum. — ^Forskal and other modem writers speak of the presence of the P. miliaceum in Egypt ; and Hasselquist found the plant under cultivation in Palestine. Tte na\axn of Hesiod, Theophrastus, and others, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the mmow (Malva). Two species, M. verticOlata and M. sylvestris, are r^nlarly cultivated as esculents in Egypt. 4. The Greek Egyptian Period,. The fourth period in the history of Egypt commences with Psammeticus, or with the first introduction of a body of Greeks, about B. c. 650. In reference generally to the affairs of nations, the period under consideration might be termed "the time of the Greeks and Eomana." The Egyptian constractions of the Greek Period can be readily 384 PHTSICAI HISTOET OF MLUT. recognised, by a difference in the style of art, by the increased number of Meroglyphic characters, by the reduplication of the deities, and by the absence of all detafla relating to manners and to the mechanic arts. The Ptolemaic temples are comparatively uninteresting ; yet they are not devoid of architectural taste ; and their -walls, though chiefly devoted to mythological subjects, and ostentatious enumerations of conquests, contain genealogical tables, dates, and astronomical records that might be consulted to advantage. Few of the mummies hitherto discovered are older than the Greek-Egyptian Period. But the cases containing them often belong to the Pharaonic ages. I have seen a Pharaonic inner mummy-case that remained unopened. One of the new deities is figured as having the head of the cat. And in regard to the anterior ambiguous representations at Beni- Hassan, they appeared to me, on a careful examination, to he intended for varieties of the dog. Herodotus seems to be the earliest writer who mentions the cat ; at least, I have found no notice of this animal, by Homer or Hesiod, or in the Old Testament. According to Forskal, the Jfarcissus tazetta is found in the gardens of Egypt, where it is called " nardjis." The vapKiams of the Cyprian V erses and of Theophrastus may be compared. The description of PHny, however, seems to refer to the N. poeticus, which species I have not found mentioned as existing in Egypt. Pythagoras is said to have written on the medical properties of the squm (ScUla maritima), a plant mentioned also by Theophras- tus and Dioscoiides. — The squill is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants indigenous to, or, at least, long known in Egypt. The '' brassica," celebrated, according to Pliny, by Pythagoras, is considered to be the cabbage (Brassica oleracea) ; and, accord- ing to the modem Greek usage, the Kpanffii of Nicander and of the Batrachomyomachia is the same plant. In Egypt the cabbage is called " koroumb ;" and an etymological interference will here be perceived with the Greek words, xpa/i^, Kpofijiuo, and avpiuua. — " Kamabid," the current Egyptian name of the cauliflower, may also be compared with the KopvafiaSiav of the Lexicons, and with the KovmxmSi of the modem Greeks. The KOKKoiiriKoii of Hipponax (" bom b. c. 540 "), Aristophanes, and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion, is t^epLvm (Prunus domestica) ; possibly, the wild kind (P. insititia) ; but the irpoMT) of Theophrastus, or the " prunus " of Pliny, is considered to be the garden plum. — Several varieties of the plum are cultivated "1 Egypt ; but the fruit is said to be of inferior quality. The ivy (Hedera), is mentioned by Anacreon and Pindar ; ajid IJfTEODUOED PLaUTS OF E&TPT. 385 as a plant connected -witli the worship of Bacchus. Alexander according to Arrian, met with priests of Bacchus on the Upper Indus, who asserted that the ivy in that quarter grew only upon Mount Mercs. The plant is usually considered to be a native of Europe, but this is not altogether certain. — I have been informed of some recent unsuccessnil attempts to cultivate the ivy in 'Egypt. The Kpivov of Anacreon, Herodotus, and Theophrastus, accord- ing to the received opinion, is the white lily of the gardens, Liliwm eandidum. — ^According to Clot-Bey and ilgari, the cultivation of this plant in Egypt hardly extends beyond the Pasha's garden. ■ The Sesamvm and its oU are mentioned by Herodotus (" bom B. a 484") in his account of the Euphrates. Pliny, moreover, speaks of the Sesamum as existing in Egypt ; and the plant is well known there at the present day. Herodotus had heard of a kind of "plant growing in India, which, instead of fruit, produces wool, out of which the inhabitants make their clothes." In this description, we readily recognise cotton : and some centuries later, as appears from Pliny and others, the cotton plant was introduced into Egypt. Herodotus describes the edible Nyrrvphsa lotus, and as abound- ing in Egypt, where, however, the plant is possibly indigenous. Theophrastus also mentions the white-flowered lotus. The flpi5a| of Herodotus, Dioscorides, and Athpnseus, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the lettuce (Lactuca sativa). The lettuce is very generally cultivated in the Arab countries at the present day. . Hemp, Kavva$is, is mentioned by Herodotus ; and, as a plant, used by the Scythians for making cloth. — ^According to Lane, hemp was not used in Egypt to produce intoxication until about A. D. 1240. Herodotus speaks of the use in Egypt of the timber of the " Lotus of Cyrene ; " and this corresponds with the account by Clot-Bey and Mgari of the jujube (Zizyphus vulgaris). According to the modem Greek usage, the jujube is the " zizyphus" of Phny. The Pimpinella anisum is in Egypt called "yansoun." The avrnaiiv of Herodotus, and of some of the writings attributed to Hippocrates, and also the avurov of Dioscorides, may be compared. Pliny expressly mentions the anise as existing in Egypt. The aiKKuamfia of Herodotus may be compared with the Elae- agmus anguslifolia, which plant is said to yield the " zakkoum " oil of modem Palestine. — The E. angustifolia is enumerated by Deine and others among the garden jjlants of Egypt. According to Eorskal's account of the modem usage at Con- stantinople, the Kapua Uoi/Txa of CtesiasJ' Dioscorides, and Athe- najus is the Miert (Corylus avellana). ■ Virgil enumerates the 386 PHTSICAI HISTOET OE MAS'. filbert among cultivated plants, ajid Pliny expressly states that it "was brought from Pontus into Natolia and Greece." I do not find that the filbert has been seen growing in Egypt. 'Sh^ field-pea (Pisum arvense) is in Egypt called "besUleh ;" ia which word we readily recognise the iri^eXi of the modem Greeks. The ^acv^os of Aristophanes ("b. c. 400") and also the "Tolem faselum " of Virgil may be compared. — Clot-Bey and Figari speak; of the seeds of the field-pea being given to cattle in Egypt. The iriffov of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, and Pliny, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the garden^ pea (P. sativum). — ^Alpinus met with this plant in Egypt. The $\vTov of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, and Palladins, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Amaranthus hlitwn. — ^This plant is stUl cultivated as an esculent in Europe, and, according to Alpinus, also in Egypt. The pcupmis of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, and Cato may he compared with the coleseed (Brassica napus). At all events, the "Egyptian raphaninum oleum," mentioned by Pliny, was pro- bably obtained from this plant. — The manufacture of oU from the B. napus is at the present day well known in Egypt. The yoyyvhis of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, Columella, and Aretseus may be compared with the coUwort, or the turnip-rooted •cabbage (Brassica campestris). — ^This plant seems to be "brassica raposa," found by Alpinus in Egypt. The KopSoiMoj/ of Aristophanes and of some of the writings attri- iDuted to Hippocrates, according to the modem Greek usage, is the Lepidiwm, satimi/m, or pepper-grass. — The L. sativum is enu- merated among the plants cultivated in Egypt. The cairu of Aristophanes and Theophrastus is usually referred to the mustard (Sinapis). Pliny enumerates the mustard among the plants of Egypt ; and one species (S. nigra) has been found in the gardens of Egypt by Forskal and others. The heet (Beta vukaria) is in Egypt called " selk." The o-eutAok of Aristophanes and Dioscorides may be compared. The beet, under its Latin name, is mentioned by Plautus and Martial. The infyavov of Aristophanes and Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the rue (Euta graveolens) — ^The rue is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigari ■among the plants long known in Egypt. The garden basU (Ocymum basilicum) is in Egypt called "lyhan." The opiyavor of Aristophanes and the modem Greeks, may be compared. — Belon mentions the field culture of this plant in Egypt. And the 0. ligmyswrn, also occurs in that country, accoring to Clot-Bey and Figari. The genus Ocymum seems to be strictly tropical, and, of course, foreign origmaUy to the Mediterranean countries, INTEODTJCED PlAlfTS OF E&TPT. 387 The owTjeoj/ of Aristophanes and Theophrastua, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Anethiim (jraveolens. — This plant, according to Forskal, Delile, and others, "is at the present day cultivated in Egypt. The avnaiuvov of ^schylus and Athenseus, according to the received opinion, is the black mvlherry (Morus nigra). VirgU. and Dioscorides both speak of the black mulberry. — ^And it is enumerated, by Forskal and others, among the trees planted at the present day in the gardens of Egypt. The liapaBpov of Demosthenes and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). — The fennel is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Kgari among the plants long known in Egypt.* The earliest works extant, that are expressly devoted to the subject of Natural History, are those of Aristotle (who died "b. c. 322"), and of his pupil, Theophrastus. The writings of Theophrastus on Plants contain much that is of importance in the present inquiry ; and I regret that my opportunities of con- sulting them have been limited. The two-humped or the Bactrian ca/mel is figured on the ruins of Persepolis, and is mentioned by Aristotle. — This species of camel is used in the Crimea and the Caucasian countries ; but it appears to have always remained unknown in Arabia and Egypt. The pheasant (Phasianus Colchicus) is mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny, and Athenseus. — I have not found the bird referred to by modem writers as existing in Egypt. The (?m«eiAAup£o of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the PhyUirea. The Kvwfos of Pliny and of the modem Greeks may also be com-' pared. — ^The P. latifoHa is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the foreign plants cultivated in the gardens of Cairo. The OKT7J of Theophrastus, according to the received opioion and the modem Greek usage, is the Sammeus nigra. — ^The S. nigra is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Kgari among the plants long known in Egypt. The AAtlavSpeia 8a^w) of Theophrastus, or the " carpophyUon" of Pliny, is referred by Paikinson to the Mus&us hypophpiam. — ^This plant was found by Delile in the gardens of Cairo. The KMis, mentioned by Theophrastus as a Leguminous tree, may be compared with the Oerds siliquaMrwm. — This plant, accordimg to Clot-Bey and Pigaxi, is cultivated in the gardens at Cairo. The edible caper is, in Efffpt, called "kabbar." The Komifis of Theophrastus, Pliny, and Martial may be compared. The ayms of Theophrastus and Pliny, according to the i-eceived opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Vitex Offnus-castus. — The genus Vitex appears to be properly tropical, and, of course, UTTEODUCED PLAITTS OF EaTPT. 391 foreign originally to the Mediterranean countries. TheV. agnus- castus is enumerated by Forskal and others among the garden plants of Egypt. The poSavia of Theophrastus is referred by Fee to the Cerium oleander: and, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, the poSoScupyii of Dioscorides and Pliny is the same plant. — ^The oleander is enumerated among the garden plants of Jilgypt, and is said to abound in Syria in a seemingly mid state. The plant, however, does not accord with the natural vegetation of the Mediterranean countries ; and I have seen it truly indi- genous, on the banks of the Godaveri, in the Dekkan. The iat\ov MijSiKoy and Tlepa-mov, described by Theophrastus as " having thorns, and bearing at all seasons a fiTiit which is not eaten," seems to correspond with the sweet lemon (Citrus medica). Dioscorides, moreover, expressly states that the fruit is oblong. — That the sweet lemon preceded the other species of Citrus in the Mediterranean countries, may even be inferred from the cultiva- tion of the plant along the Persian Gulf. According to the received opinion, the Kepui/ia, mentioned by Theophrastus as existing in Egypt, is the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua). Pliny states that this tree is " found in Ionia and Syria, but not in Egypt." — And, indeed, it is rare in the latter country at the present day. The Ceratonia has appeared to me to be foreign to the natural vegetation of the Mediterranean comitries. Pepper (Piper nigrum) is mentioned by Theophrastus and by Pliny ; the dried berry being imported from India, or, perhaps, originally from the Malay countries. — ^I saw in the Thebaid a quantity of black pepper, that had been imported by the way , of Mecca. Cardamum seeds (Amomum cardamomum) are mentioned by Theophrastus and by Pliny.— This spice, at the present day, is. very generally used in the Arab countries ; and I met with a quantity that had been imported from India by the route of the Thebaid. .... The avZpaxvri of Theophrastus, according to the received opmion aadthe modem Greek usage, is tla.e> pwdain (Portulacaoleracea). This plant is mentioned also by Pliny ;— and is regularly culti- vated in Egypt at the present day. The genus Portulaca has appeared to me to be properly tropical, and foreign to the natural vegetation of the Mediterranean countries. The "black-fruited o-Tpux"'"" of Theophrastus maybe compared with lh.e.Solanum niffrum.—This plant has been found m Egypt "by Eorska^ Delile, and others.* * The « red-fruited tSTpvxvoi" of Theoplirastua may te compared with the 392 PHTSICAIi HISTOET OF MAlf. The neMTsia of Theocritus, according to Fee, is the lieXura-ofvT^ov of Dioscorides, the "apiastrum" of Vairo and Pliny, and the Melissa officincMs. — ^Hasselquist met with this plant both in Pales- tine and in Egypt. The "pomum" of Gate (who "died B.C. 149"), and of Virgil, according to the received opinion, is the apph (Pyrus mains). — The apple appears to be a native of Europe ; but it is commonly cultivated in the Arab countries, notwithstanding the inferior quality of the product. The "rapum" of Cato and Pliny, according to the received opinion, is the twnip (Brassica rapa) : and, according to the modem Greek usage, the " bunias" of Columella and Dioscorides is the same plant. — Various modern writers speak of the cultiva- tion of the turnip in Syria and Egypt. The " scamoneum" of Cato and Vegetius, according to the received opinion, is the scammony. — Convolimius scammonia, the plant which affords this drug, was seen in E^rpt by Hasselquist. Nicander ("b. o. 137") describes the pistachio^vi (Pistacia vera) : and Pliny states, that the plant was brought from Syria into Italy a little before the death of Tiberius ("a.d. 37"). — According to Clot-Bey and Eigari, the P. vera is now commonly cultivated in Egypt. The "nasturtium" of Varro and Columella is usually referred Solammn dulcama/ra. — This plant is iig\ired by Mathioli ; but I have not found it mentioned ns existing in Egypt. The iraiwyLa of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, according to the received opinion and the-modern Greek usage, is the garden peony, — 1 have not found this plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. Theophrastus had beard of " red lilies ;" and this appears to be the earliest notice of the lAlivmi martagon, Belon met with the L. martagon at Coa- stantinople. I have not found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. The trapBeviov, enumerated among edible plants by Theophrastus, may be compared with the Mercwrialia ; a reference favoured by the modern Greek usage, as well as by a statement of Cato. Hasselquist met with the M. annua in Palestine, but 1 have found no species of Mercurialis mentioned as existing in Egypt. The pa or prjov, mentioned by Theophrastus as brougbt from beyond the Bosphorus, is by some writers considered to be garden rhuharh (Rheum raponticum). The garden rhubarb is figured by Parkinson (a.d. 1640) ; but 1 have not found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. The \a.TraQov of Theophrastus and Pliny may be compared with the Rumcx pat^tia. This plant is still cultivated as an esculent in Europe ; but I have not found it mentioned as existing in Egypt. The rpayoTToyyuv of Theophrastus and Pliny, according to the received opinion and the modern Gfeek usage, is the salsify (T. porrifolius). I have not found this plant mentioned as existing in Egypt, rCfTEODrCEB PLANTS OF E&rPT. 893 to the water-cress (Nasturtium officinale). And, according to the modem Greek usage, the aKos of Dioscorides, and of writiags attributed to Hippocrates, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Sage (Salvia). — The S. oflS^cinalis is enume- rated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. The (TKopSwv of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem (Jreek usage, is the Teucrium scordium. — ^This plant, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently intro- .duced into Egypt. The /inpoy of Dioscorides is usually ooasidered to be the Tmuriv/m DfTEODrCED PLOTTS Or EGYPT. 395 manure.— According to Clot-Bey and Kgari, this plant has been recently introduced into Egypt. The ipKo/ios of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion, is the genus Verbascwm.— The Y. sinuatum is enumerated by Caot- Bey and Kgari among the plants indigenous to, or at least long known in, Egypt. The mKtryomv of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Poh/gormm avi(mlare.—'i\ns, plant was found ia Egypt by Dehle. The mTroKa,Tra0ov and ofuXoTraflov of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, are species of Dock (Eumex).— According to forskal, the E. obtusifolius has a native name in Egypt. The o|oAis of Dioscorides, according to the modem Greek usage, is the cultivated sorrel (Eumex acetosa). — This plant, according to Clot-Bey and Kgari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. — The H. acetoseUa, however, was found by Hasselquist at Damietta. The e\|in) of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the JParietaria officinalis. — The P. officinalis is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Kgari among the plants indigenous to, or at least long known in, Egypt. The eK^un) Kurffa/nreXos of Dioscorides, according to the use of the term by the modem Greeks, is the Convolmdus arvensis. — The C arvensis is enumerated by Delile among the weeds of Egypt. The ireirAor of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the Ey/phorhiape^us. — ^The E. peplus is enumerated by Forskal, DeUle, and others, among the weeds of Egypt. The Xoflupis of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Ewphorbia lathyris. — This plant, according to Clot-Bey and Mgaii, has been recently intro- duced into Egypt. The aeiQav luKpov of Dioscorides, according to the received opi- nion, is the genus Sed/um,. — ^Forskal met with a species of Sedum in the gardens of Cairo. The $av(pea\iios of Dioscorides is usually referred to the Clvrys- awtheimwm segetum. — ^Forskal met with this plant in Egypt. The TrapSiviov of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is the Matricaria chamomiUa. — This plant was foimd by Hasselquist both in Palestine and in The TptfioTuis of Dioscorides, according to the use of the term by the modem Greeks, is the Centawea calcitrapa. — ^Forskal and others have met with this plant in Egypt, where, however, it is possibly indigenous. 396 PHXSICAIi HISTOET OF MA^. The Povy\aaaov of Dioscorides, according to the received opi- nion and the modem Greek usage, is the Anckusa offi^irudis. — The A. ofB.cinalis is eniimerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. The ayxovaa of Dioacorides, described as " staining the hands," may be compared with the Echiimk rvhrwm. — A plant found by Torskal at Alexandria, but which is possibly indigenous. The TrtTpoaeKaov of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the re- ceived opinion and the modem Greek usage, is 'ChRfarsUy (Petro- seUnum sativum). — ^The parsley is enumerated by Forakal and others among the plants cultivated at the present day in Egypt. The Kopoj of Dioscorides and Phny, according to the received opinion, is the caraway (Carum carvi) ; — a plant at the present day commonly cultivated in Egypt. The (T/uiAol Kiysaio. of Dioscorides is usually considered to be the kidney^ecm (Phaseolus vulgaris). — ^This plant is figured by both Mathioli and Dodonseus. And De Soto (a.d. 1542) in speaking of the " kidney-beans cultivated by the aboriginals of Morida" alludes to those of Spain. — ^Forskal is the only writer I have met with who mentions the presence of the P. vulgaris in Egypt. The yXvKvppiOt of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the re- ceived opinion, is the liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra). — Forskal and other modern travellers have met with this plant under cultiva- tion in Egypt, The KoXx'Kov of Dioscorides is usually considered to be the Gol- chicum autvmmale. — The C. autumnale is enumerated by Clot- Bey and Figari among the plants indigenous to, or at least long known in, Egypt. The Kvirpos of the modem Greeks appears to be either the Phyl- Jirea or the Ligustrum vulgare ; and I have been unable to trace the latter plant to Egypt. On the other hand, the account by Dioscorides of the Egyptian Kmpos, the " bruised leaves of which redden the hair," corresponds in many respects with the henna (Lawsonia), I have not found the use of henna represented on the Egyptian monuments ; but some of the mummies are said to lave their nails stained with this substance. The Bidnus, or castor-oil plant, is distinctly described by Dios- corides, and is spoken of by Pliny as a plant not long known in Egypt. It was doubtless brought from India, or perhaps origin- ally from the Malay countries. The aXiKiMjo/Sos of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the received opinion and the modem Greek usage, is a species of JPhysalis. Pliny, moreover, mentions the plant as existing in ^gyp*- — The P- somnifera has been found in Egypt by FoiSkal, JDelile, and other modem travellers. The aXoTi of Dioscorides and Pliny is evidently the doe plant rSTTEODrCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 397 The drug obtaiaed from tliis plant is also mentioned ; and as " imported from India," thougt doubtless originally derived from Socotra and the Somali country. — ^Forskal, DeUle, and othersy have seen living plants of the A. vulgaris in the gardens of Cairo. Dioscorides and Pliny both mention the ^'iJij'er, referring to the dried root imported from India, or possibly from the Comoro Islands. In merenee to the latter place of origin, the folio-wing statement of CadUiaud may be compared : That ginger " is rare at QuamamiL (on the Bahr el Abaid), is called by the Negroes 'zymbane,' and comes principally from Abyssinia." Pliny speaks of a sensitive plant as existing in Egypt, doubt- less exotic, and probably derived from India. The "sebesten" of Pliny is usually considered to be the Cordia crenata. — This is another tropical plant introduced iato and still cultivated in Syria and Egypt. The peach (Amygdalus Persica) is not mentioned by Virgil ; but a century later we find this frmt well known in Italy ; and it is figured in the Herculaneum paintings. Pliny mentions the peach as existing in Egypt, — ^where at the present day it is commonly cultivated. The apricot (Prunus Armeniaca) is at the present day a favourite object of cultivation in the Arab countries, and is called "mish- mish." The myxa of Pliny may be compared. The " gariophyllon " of Pliny, according to the use of the term by the modem Greeks, is the Carnation, DiarUhus caryophyllus: — a favourite ornamental plant, and frequently kept in pots by the Arabs at the present day. Sugar is mentioned by Pliny and Galen, but only as " a pro-" duction of Arabia and India." The living plant, or the Su^ar-cane, does not appear to have been introduced into Egypt until a more recent period.* 5. The Time of the Early Christians; or the Coptic Period. Egypt seems to have been the first country that embraced Christianity ; but even here the progress of the new religion was gradual, and the converts had not acquired much influence by * The " siser'' of Varro and Columella is usually considered to te the skirret (Sium sisavum). — This plant is abundantly cultivated in Europe at the present day; but I have not found it mentioned as existing in Egypt. The " inula" of Pliny (the art of cooking which is said to have been taught by Horace) is considered to be the elecampane (Inula helenium). — Belon speaks of the root of the I. helenium being prepared for the table at Constanti- nople. I have not found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. The " amarantus" of Pliny is referred by some writers to the CeUsia cristata, —I have not found this plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. 398 PHYSICAI HI3T0ET OP MAST. their auinbers prior to a. d. 100 ; a date which may be conve- niently assumed as the commencement of the period xmder consideration. Egypt now no longer offers temples reared by princes ; yet some constructions of the early Christians abimdantly prove that architectural taste had not become extinct ; while remains of their villages in the Thebaid show more refinement in the style of living than exists among the present occupants of the country. Another point of interest is found in the fact, that the early Christians did not destroy the antiquities. Both Virgil and Pliny speak of sUk, and thus reveal the dawn- ing of intercourse with China. A little later ("a. d. 130") Ptolemy, the geographer, gives a distinct notice of the Chinese, under the name of Seres. The deposit of articles of Chinese manufecture in the Egyptian tombs is probably not more ancient ; and the same may be said of the accompanying eye-paint bottles manufactured on the Persian Gulf. The Emperor HeUogabalus (" a. d. 229 ") is said to have been "the first Eoman who wore a dress of sUk ;" and it is also on record that the Mh-^orm was introduced into the Mediterranean countries in " a. d. 661." The sUk-worm was, of covirse, accompanied ^y the white mid- lerry (Morus alba). Indeed, PUny, when remarking "that all berries in the end turn black," wpuld not have instanced the mulberry, had he been acquainted with the M. alba. The white mulberry is now common in Egypt. Coccvlus Indicus, the imported article, seems to be mentioned by Aretseus (who is supposed to have lived prior to a. d. 420). Cloves are mentioned by Paulus ^gineta, brought, of course m the dried state, irom the Molucca Islands. — I saw in Egypt a quantity of cloves that had been imported by the way of Mecca and the Thebaid. NiMbrmgs, fwffxoKopm, another production of the Moluccas, were probably imported into the Mediterranean coimtries as early as the Coptic period. The crevi of Actuarius iki doubtless the senna of commerce. According to Wilkinson, leaves and fragments of senna have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The species is not men- tioned ; but Cassia laneeolata furnished all the senna I saw in the warehouses of Mocha and Muscat. The Cassia ohovata, which furnishes a portion of the senna of commerce, is figured by Mathioli I saw this plant in the Botanic Garden at Cairo, and also seemingly indigenous near Suez, which place, however, is on a caravan route. Eorskal met with the C. obovata in the desert near Cairo, and gives " ssenna of the Hedjaz " as its Egyptian name. ETTBODUCTD PLAlfTS OE E&XPT. 399 The medicinal rhubarb seems to be mentioned by Paulus jEgineta, the drug being probably imported by the caravans, through the interior of Asia. Barthema or Vertoman (a. d. 1503), speaks of rhubarb beiug sold at Korasan. I have not found figures of the dourra (Sorghtan vulgare) on the Egyptian monuments ; but I have seen dourra stems iuter- mingled with those of the Papyrus in a parcel exhunxed at Saccara, possibly as ancient as the time of the Eomans. According to DeUle, the dourra is mentioned by Heliodorus, ia his account of Meroe. Dodonseus figures the Coix lachryma. Torskal found this plant in Egypt, where it bears a Coptic name, having a scriptural allu- sion (" diina ayoub ") ; and this circumstance seems to indicate that the plant was known to the early Christians. The Coix lachryma is a tropical production derived from India, or perhaps originally fi^om the Malay countries. The banana (Musa sapientum) is mentioned by Serapio, Avi-> cenna, Leo Africanus, and, according to Kasimirski, in the Koran. In the voyage of a Portuguese pilot (who set out a. d. 1520) the banana ia mentioned as occurring both at Alexandria and at St. Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea. The banana ripens its fruit freely at Alexandria ; and I am informed that it does so in certain situations even in the Azores. I have seen the plant growing in the open air both at Madeira and at Malta. According to Kasimirski, the tamarind is mentioned in the Koran (xxxiv. 15). CaiUiaud states that tamarind pods are imported in quantities by the Darfour caravans ; and it appears fi'om various authorities that the tree itself has been repeatedly introduced into Egypt. 6. The Early Muslim Period. The Muslims obtained possession of Alexandria in A. d. 641, and for nearly a thousand years Egypt was in a good measure withdrawn firom the knowledge of Europeans. Indeed, Europe, during the greater part of thM same period, does not afford us much light respecting her own condition ; whUe, amid the general dearth of writers, an occasional picture of the times may be gathered from the works of Arab-Egyptians. The origin of the so-called " Gothic style of architecture " is rather suspiciously connected with the entrance of the Arabs into Spain. But, leaving this question, the proper Muslim construc- tions are everywhere of one character, and may be recognised by the dome and the pointed axch. Muslim constructions, some of them very early, are numerous in Egypt ; but, owing to the absence of representations of living objects, they hardly afford aid m our present inquiry. 400 PHYSICAL HISTOBT OF HAJT. The establishment of the pilgrimage to Mecca doubtless tended to draw closer the commercial relations between India and Europe ; and these relations, it should be observed, were entirely in the hands of the Muslims. Indeed, after allowing for some slight divergence on account of Palestine and the route of the Euphrates, all the tropical plants which reached the Mediterranean prior to the discovery of America appear to have arrived by the way of Egypt. The luffcdo of India is the most important domestic animal introduced during the early Muslim period.. The buffalo is men- tioned by Allatafet (a. d. 1453), and the animal is at the present day extremely common in Egypt. Avicenna (about A. D. 1050) speaks of "Makassar," on the island of Celebes, and likewise of camphor, an article of com- merce, principally derived from China. According to Clot-Bey and Kgari, the camphor-tree (Laurus camphora) has been re- cently introduced into Egypt. The common cucvmier (Oucumis sativus) is in Egypt called " khyar," and \mder this name is mentioned by Avicenna. The plant appears to have been derived from Hindostan. The sanddlrwood (Santalum album) is mentioned by Arab- Egyptian writers ; and the living plant, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. Turmeric (Curcuma) was probably known in Egypt as an article of commerce during the early Muslim period. QvmAac, from Pegu, seems likewise to have been known in Egjrpt during the early Muslim period. Uvaria aromatica. The dried fiiiit is mentioned by Lobel, Mathioli, and Delile, as brought down the Nile from the interior of Africa. The Coffea, or coffee-plant (which grows wild in the region southwest of Abyssinia), is said to have been introduced into Yemen during the thirteenth century. According to Lane, coffee did not form an article of import into Egypt until about A.D. 1500. Alpinus met with the coffee-plant in the gardens of Egypt ; and, recently, it has been again introduced, as appears from a state- ment of Clot-Bey and Kgari. Gocoa-nwts are mentioned by Serapio and Avicenna. I saw in Egypt a quantity of cocoa-nuts that had been imported by the route of the Thebaid. The pea-nut (Araohis hypogea) was probably known in Egypt during the time of the early Muslims. The plant is mentioned in ■ the work of Purchas (a. D. 1 620) as cultivated in Equatorial Africa. The Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is figured by Mathioli, and is said to be mentioned by Serapio. Alpinus, Eorskal, and others enumerate the spinach among the esculent plants of Egypt. INSPEODUCED PlAIfTS OF BeXPT. 40i ■ {Jhevwpodiwm. C. album, C. rabrum, and C. flavum, were foimd in Egypt by Forskal. Gorchorus olitorius, is mentioned by Allatafet (a. d. 1453) ; and at the present day, ia a favourite esculent in Egypt. The ochra (Hibiscus escideutus) was probably cultivated in Egypt during the early Muslim Period. The plant is mentioned by Mathioli ; and under its Egyptian name, "bamia." , The -egg-plant (Solanum melongena) is mentioned by Avicenna ; and under its current Egyptian name. It is besides enumerated by Makrizi (in the beginning of the fifteenth century) among the plants cultivated in Nubia. The Utm (Citnis limonium) was probably introduced into Egypt during the eaxly Muslim Period. Belon (a. d. 1553) met with the plant at Cairo ;■ and it is figured by Parkinson. The lemon is enumerated by Makrizi among the plants culti- vated in Nubia. Lemons are mentioned among the productions of Abyssinia, by Alvarez, who visited that country in a.d. 1520. And Barthema or Vertoman (a. d. 1503) found lemons in Yemen. The orange (Citrus aurantium) is said to have been made known to Europeans by the Crusaders. Cademosto, in his Voyage to Madeira (a. d. 1454), mentions oranges ; and Vertoman found them in Yemen. According to Abd iJlatif, "seeds of the orange and lemon were brought from India in the three hundreth year of the Hegira, and were sown in Oman." The Melia azedarach is figured by Mathioli. And, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, the tree has been long known in Egypt. The Acacia lebbek, so abundant in the gardens at Cairo, was perhaps introduced during the early Mushm Period. Tlie plant is mentioned by Forskal ^.d. 1762). The weeping-^oillow (Salix Babylonica), likewise common in the gardens at Cairo, was perhaps introduced during the early Musmn Period. The tree was seen in Egypt by Forskal ; and in Palestine by Eauwolf. The yX'jKOKoKa/jios of Nicolaus Myrepsicus, according to the use of the term by the modem Greeks, is Cassia fistvla. This tree is figured by Belon ; and it is now common in the gardens of Cairo. The pods, besides, form an article of import by way of Yemen. Tamarix? Orientalis, is mentioned by Forskal ; and I repeat- edly met with it planted around the Egyptian villages. It is a large tree, resembling a Casuarina. fimis Salepensis was seen by DelUe in a garden at Cairo ; and, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the tree has been long known inE^Tpt. . Oucwbita polymorpTia, the cymbling or squash, was perha;ps known in the Mediterranean countries during the early Muslim 402 PHTSIOAI HISTOET OF MAIT. Period. Clot-Bey and Kgari, mention, the cultivation of the C. polymorpha in Egypt. Cucurbita pepo, the pumpkin, was probably known in Egypt during the eaxly Muslim Period. The plant is figured by Mathioli. And De Soto (a. d. 1542) states, that the pumpkins and kidney-beans, cultivated by the aboriginals of Florida, " are larger and better than those of Spain." Adansonia digitata ; the finit, according to AJpinus and others, is brought into Egypt from the Interior of Africa. AUfieaficifolia.-waa seen by Delile in the gardens of Cairo. Zavatera arhorea was seen by Delile in the gardens of Alex- andria. Eihisous Syriacus is enumerated by Formal, Delile, and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Hwismis triomim, a Tropical weed, was found in Egypt by Forskal, and also by Delile. The plant is figured by both MathioU and Parkinson. Mathioli figures the Cardiospemvum, JidicaccAwn,. This plant was found by Delile in the gardens of Cairo ; and by Cailliaud, in Dongola. Seeds of the Croton tiglvwm, according to Delile, are sold in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of the Sapindus ryteh, according to Delile, are sold in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of a species of Chrniweriphis, according to Delile, are sold . in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of the Datisoa cannabina, according to Delile, are sold in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of thePZanto^o psyUiimn, according to Delile, are sold in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of theiffiMS eoria/ria, according to Delile, are sold in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of ihsAmomwrn granorparadisi, according to Delile, are sold in the shops of Cairo. Seeds of the Abrus preoatorius, according to Alpinus and Has- selquist, have been sometimes planted in Egypt. The balsam-apple, Momordica halsamina, to all appearance, is mentioned by Avicenna and Abd Allatifl The plant was seen by DeUle in the gardens of Cairo. Momordica pedaia was seen by Delile in the gaJrdens of Cairo. The introduction of the Sesbania into Egypt probably took place during the time of the early Muslims. The plant is mentioned by Alpinus, Eorskal, and others. Solanwm, pseudooapdemn, was seen by Delile in the gardens of Cairo. Capsicum annuum is figured by Mathioli ; and is enumerated, by I\)rskal and others, among the plants cultivated in Egypt, DfTEODrCED PlAJfTS 01' EGYPT. 403 Datwra metel was seen in Crete by Belon (a. d. 1553). The plant is figured by Mathioli ; and its introduction into 'Egypt is probably as ajicieat as the time of the early Muslims.— 2>. fas- tiMsa, by some -writers considered as only a variety, was seen iu IWpt by DelUe. •^' CariTUi Indica is figured by Camerarius (a. d. 1586) ; and is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Narcissus jonqwiUa 13 enumerated by Clot-Bey and Kgari among the garden plants of Egypt. A species of Pancratiwm was seen by Hasselquist, and also by Forskal, in the gardens of Egypt. Polyanthes twerosa, according to Eorskal and others, has a native name, and is a common garden plant in Egypt. Muscari coTnosum was observed by Delile growing, seemingly wUd, in Egypt. Cynodon dactylon occurs in Egypt, according to Forskal, Delile; and others ; ajid if not regularly cultivated, it is at least used to some extent for feeding cattle. BcKtyhctenium ^gyptiaoum is figured by Parkinson ; and is mentioned,' by Alpinus and others, as existing in Egypt. This grass, together with the preceding, was probably derived from Xadia. CrypsU schoenoides was seen in Egypt by Delile. Crypsis actdeata is figured by Mathioli ; and Delile met with the plant in Egypt. Crypsis alopecuroides was seen in Egypt by Delile. Setaria iiiridis is enumerated by Delile among the weeds of Egypt. Setaria verticiHaia is enumerated by DeUle among the weeds of Egypt. Echinodoa cnis-gcdK is figured by Mathioli ; and the plant, occurs in Egypt, according to Forskal, Delile, and others. Bigitaria sangwimde was seen in Egypt by Hasselquist, and also by DeHle. Phaktris Canariends occvtrs in Egypt, according to Hasselqmst, Forskal, and others. Loliwm perenne was seen in Egypt by Delile. Lolium temidentum was seen in Egypt by Delile. Sordeum mwrinvm was seen in E^pt by Hasselquist. Irnpatiens bodsamina is figured by Mathioli ; and is enume- ratedi^by Clot-Bey and Figari among the garden plants of Egypt, Ewphorlia tirucaUi was seen by Delile in the gardens ot Cairo. Evphorlia ccdendvlifolia (of Delile), according to Clot-Bey and Figari, occurs only in the Pasha's gardens, 404 PHYSICAL HISTOE.T Or MAIT. Mogoriurh sambac is figured by Parkinson ; and is enumerated, by JForskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Jasminum officinale has a native name, and is enumerated, ty Torskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. The genus Jasminum appears to be properly Tropical; an(^ of course, foreign originally to the Mediterranean countries. Kalanchoe ^gyptiaca has a native name, and is emunerated, by Forskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Convolmdvs Cairms is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Kgari, among the garden plants of Egypt. Cuscwta Shiropca is eniimerated by Delile among the weeds of Egypt. Cmanchwm viminak was seen in Egypt by Alpinus. Vinca rosea is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Eigari, among the garden plants of Egypt. Lepidiwn latifolimm is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Eigari; among the plants long known in Egypt. Ch^vrwnihus annuus has a native name, and is enumerated, by Eorskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Ranunculus Asiaiicus has a native name, and is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the garden plants of Egypt. Banuncvlus aceleratus was seen in Egypt by Delile. NigeUa damascena is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Kgari, among the plants long known in Egypt. Adonis astivalis was seen in Egypt by Delile. Muta Hcdepensis is enumerated, by Delile and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Ammi nrnjus is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Eigari, among the plants indigenous to, or at least long known, in Egypt. Ammi visnaga is enumerated, by Alpinus and others, among the plants of Egypt. Artemisia drcumncvlus, the taragon, was seen growing in Egypt by Hasselquist. Artemisia ariorescens was seen by Delile in the gardens of Egypt. Artemisia Judaica is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Eigari, among the plants indigenous to, or at least long known in, Egypt. Balsamita wlgaris is enumerated, by Eorskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Conym, oMra, according to Eorskal and others occurs in the gardens of Egypt. Cnicus henedictv^ is figured by Mathioli,; and the plant was seen in Egypt by Hasselquist. Carduus marwmMS was seen by Belon, at Constantinople ; and Eorskal and others have met with the plant in Egypt. Centawrea moschata was seen by Forskal in the gardens of Cairo. mTEODtrCED PLAITTS 0]? EGYPT. 405 Anthemis grandiflora is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the garden plants of Egypt. Senedo iMgaris, according to Delile, has been observed in the yicinity of Damietta. Xanthium strumarium is figured by Mathioli, and is enume- rated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the plants of Egypt. Psoraha Palcestina was seen by Delile in the gardens of Cairo. Phaseolus mungo, according to Delile and others, is cultivated in Upper Egypt and Nubia. Dolichos tomah, according to Alpinus, Forskal, and others, is cultivated for ornament in Egypt and Nubia. Trifolium procv/miens was seen in Egypt by Hasselquist. Cassia Occidentalis was seen by DelUe in the gardens of Cairo. Cfissia absus is enumerated by Alpiaus, Hasselquist, Delile, and others, among the plants cultivated in Egypt. Cassia sophera, according to Delile, has a native name, and is cultivated in the gardens of Cairo. Bulus fruticosus was seen in Egypt by Delile. PotentiUa mpina was seen in Egypt by Delile. Urtica dioica is enumerated by Hasselquist, and also by Clot- Bey and Figari, among the plants of Egypt. Urtica wrens is enumerated, by Delile and others, among the weeds of Egypt. Urtica piMLifera occurs in Egypt, according to Delile and others. Veronica beccalmma is enumerated, by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants indigenous to, or at least long, known in, Egypt. Veronica anagattis was seen in Egypt by Delile. Lamium amplexicaide, according to Defile, occurs in the culti- vated grounds of Egypt. Teucrium Iva was seen in Egypt by Delile. Verbena officinalis is mentioned by Belon, and is figured by Mathioli. The plant is common in the waste grounds of Egypt, but the genus does not well accord with the natural vegetation of the Mediterranean countries. Verbena supina occurs in Egypt, according to Forskal and Dehle. Zapania nodiflora occurs in Egypt, according to Delile and others. Arenaria rubra was seen in Egypt by Delile. SteUaria media is enumerated by Hasselquist, Forskal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of Egypt. Oxalis corniculata is figured by Mathioli, and is enumerated' by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of Egypt. Hibiscus abelmoschus was seen by Delile in the gardens of Cairo. Sida spinosa was seen in Egypt by Delile. Sida mutica was observed by Delile in the gardens of Egypt. 406 PHTSICAI. HISTOET OE MAJT. Poh/gomum perdearia is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the plants of Egypt. Polygonum orientcde was seen in Egypt by Delile. Cissus rotundifolia, was seen by Delile in the gardens of Cairo. Achyranthes argentea was seen by Hasselquist in Palestine, and the plant, according to Eorskal, Delile, and others, occurs in Egypt. Aerca tOTMTiiosa was seen by Delile in Upper Egypt, and also in the gardens of Cairo. Cfomphrena glohosa is entunerated by Forskal and others among the garden plants of Egypt. Syringa mdgaris, the lUac, according to Mathioli, was broueht into It^y from Constantinople. Parkinson supposes the "Hue jasmine " of Serapio, to be the lilac, and quotes Alpinus, but I do not find the plant otherwise mentioned as existing in I^ypt. The hop (Humulus lupulus), is said to have been cultivated ia Germany during the ninth century. Eelon met with the hop at Constantinople, and accordiii^ to Clot-Bey and Pigari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt.* 7. The Modern M'udvm, Period. . The Voyage of Columbus took place in a.d. 1492, and from this date, Egypt ceased to be the main or only route througl which foreign animals and plants were transmitted to Europe. In the midst, however, of the general change, the influence of the new order" of things appears to have very slowly affected the TaUey of the Nile. * Diospyrm lotus is figured ly Mathioli. The plant perhsps reached Europe during the early Muslim period, but I do not find it mentioned as existing in Egypt. Oah/8tegia sepinim is figured by MatMoli. I have not found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. liibes, 1 do not find currants nor gooseberries mentioned as existing ia Egypt. Poh/gonum fagopyrum. Mathioli speaks of the cultivation of buclnrheat in Italy. I have not found the plant mentioned as existing ia Egypt. Pastmaca sativa, the parsnip, is figured by Mathioli. 1 have not foand the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. Cochlearia a/rmoracia, the horse-radish, is figured by Mathioli. . This, too, is a northern plant, 'which 1 have not found mentioned as existing in Syiia or Egypt. Belon, however, met -with it at Constantinople. Ttdipa Gesnerwma, the tulip of the gardens, is figured by Camerarius, 1 have not found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt. AUTwea rosea is figured by Mathioli. I have not found the plant men- tioned as existing in Egypt. ■ Sida ahutUon is figured by Camerarius. I do not find the plant men- tioned as existing in Egypt, IISTTEODTJCEB MAJj-TS Or EOTPT. 407 Among domestic animala, the most important modem acqui- sition is that of the tmhey. In Egypt, the tvirkey is sometimes called the " Maltese fowl ;" a oircumatance, indicating that the bird was received by the way of Malta. Amna squamosa, accordii^ to Forskal, Delile, and Clot-Bey and Keari, is successfully cultivated in Egypt* VacKeUia Farnesiana, is figured by Parkinson, and is enume- rated by Clot-Bey and Kgari, among the plants long known in Ectp*- Thuya Occident(dis, according to Clot-Bey and Kgari, is now cultivated in Egypt. . Cdtis OceidenteSis, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari is now cul- tivated in Egypt. Terminalia; two species, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, have been recently introduced, and are successfully cultivated in Egypt. i^ereidia platanifolia, according to Clot-Bey and Kgari, is now cultivated in Egypt. , Acer neffwido, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, is now culti- vated in Egypt. Bohinia pseudacacia, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, is now cultivated in Egypt. Gleditschia triacarUha, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now cultivated in Egypt. Bignonia catalpa, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, is now cultivated in the gardens of Egypt. Opuntia. Matliioli expresdy states, that the cactus was brought in his time from the West Indies. The plant is now conmion in Egypt. Bromdia ananas, the pine apple, according to Hasselquist, formerly existed at Damietta; and Clot-Bey and Figari state, that the cultivation of this fruit does not succeed in Egypt. Fragaria, the strawberry, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. The species is pro- bably the North American ; which, I believe, furnishes the most approved garden varieties. . Pddiwm, the guava, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced, and is successftdly cultivated in Egypt, Carica papaya, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced and is successfully cultivated in Egypt. The plant is figured by Parkinson, who received it from Braaal. Bamhusa anmdinacea, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has * JEsculus hijppocastanwm, the horse chestnut, -was trought to MathioK from Constantinople ; and Clusius also speaks of the plant, a, novelty in Europe, I have not found the horse-chestnut mentioned as existing in ^gypt. 408 PHTSIOAl HISTOBT OF IIAIT. .been . introduced, and is successfully cultivated in Egypt. Herodotus mentions the bamboo, but only as a production of India. 'Strychnos nux-vomica. The living plant, according to Clot-Bey and Kgari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. Delile met ■with seeds in the shops of Cairo. ; YaniJla aromatica. The living-plant, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, has been recently introduced, and has been found to thrive in Egypt. Tnalia dealbcaa, according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, has been re- cently introduced into Egypt from the Montpellier Grarden. Phi/tolacca decandra was found naturalised in Egypt by Forskal. Dehle also met vrith the plant in the gardens of Cairo. Phytolacca dioica, according to Clot-Bey and Kgari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. Zea mays. Whether the maize was introduced into Egypt from the East or from the West, I have met with no evidence that the plant existed in that country prior to the discovery of America. And indeed Ehamnusis (a.d. 1532,) expressly states, that the "maize was first seen in Italy in his time." Apiian didce. I have met with no evidence that the true celery of the gardens was known in Europe prior to the discoveiy- of America. The plant, according to Clot-Bey and Kgari, is culti- vated in the Pasha's gardens in Cairo. > ConwihvliM batatas, the sweet-potato, was seen by Hasselquist in Palestine ; and according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt. Solanum tviberosimi, the common potato, according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, is sometimes cultivated in Egypt. LycopersiciMih escvXentum, the tomato of Peru, is figured by Ca- merarius ; and the plant, according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, is now abundantly cultivated in Egypt. ' Physalis alhekengi is figured by Mathioli. And according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt, Cleome pentaphyUa, according to Caihaud, is cultivated as an esculent in Dongola. Clot-Bey and Pigari enumerate the C. pentaphyUa, among the plants employed in Egypt for feeding cattle. , Urtica nivea, according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, has been re- cently introduced from the Montpellier Garden, and is suceess- fiiUy cultivated in Egypt. Phormium tenax, the New Zealand flax, according to Clot-Bey and Pigari, has been recently introduced into Egypt from the Montpellier Garden. ' Polygonwm historta is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Pigari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. ' lOTEOHrQED PIiANTS OF EGYPT. 409 Polygonum, tinotoriwm, according to Clo1>-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into Egypt from the Montpellier Garden. Hdianthus anniius is figured by Mathioli, and is enumerated by Forskal and others among the garden plants of Egypt. Nicotiana tahamvm is figured by Camerarius. Tobacco, accord- ing to Lane, was introduced into the Bast about a.d. 1600. It is a remarkable circumstance, that the peculiarity in the customs of society, which more thaa any other marks the present age, should have been taught by the aboriginals of America. Nicotiana rustica is figured by Mathioli. According to Delile and others, this and the preceding species of Nicotiana are cul- tivated in Egypt. Lwniana camara, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, is culti-: vated in the gardens of Egypt. Aloysia citriodora, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, is culti- vated in the gardens of Egypt. Tropoeolum inajus, according to Delile and others, is cultivated in the gardens of Egypt. Dahlia pinnata, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, was intro- duced by the French into Egypt. Pdargonium zon^ale is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigari among the garden plants of Egypt. Pdargonium capitatum is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigari among the gaxden plants of Egypt. Passiflora coerulea is enumerated by Eorskal, Delile, and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. Poincianapvlcherrima is now frequent in the gardens of Cairo. The plant is mentioned by Clot-Bey and Eigari, and it was pro- bably derived from India. Mirabilis Jalapa is enumerated by Hasselquist, Eorskal, and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. The name " yimani," indicates that the plant was received by the way of Yemen. Tucca aloifolia, according to Clot-Bey and Eigari, is cultivated by the European residents in Egypt. Acanthus moUis is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Asclepias procera (Calotropis). I met with this plant m the. Botanic Garden at Cairo, and also wild in the desert of the Asclepias fruticosa (Gomphocarpus)is enumerated by Delile, and also by Clot-Bey and Eigari, among the garden plants of Egypt. SapoTMria officinalis is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigari, among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. _ ^pOanthes acmdla is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigan, among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Tcmacetum vvlgare, the tansy, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Eigari, among the plants recently introduced mto Egypt. 410 PHTSICiX HISTOET or MAK. CouxHia Kleinii is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among tlie garden plants of Egypt. Tagetes erecta is figured by botb Dodonseus and Mathioli ; and is enumerated by rorskaJ, Delile, and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. AcMUea miUefoliwrn is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. AmChemis nobilis, the chamomile, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Cemtaurea cyanus is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Cochlearia officinalis is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. GyTwahssmn officinale was found in Palestine by Hasselquist. According to Clot-Bey and Figari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt. Borago officinalis, according to Forskal and others, occurs ia the gardens of Cairo. lAgusticum Pdoponnense is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Omega officinalis is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. MdUotus coendea is figured by Mathioli ; and, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt- Onohrychis saiiva, the sainfoin, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. J)rcicocephalum Moldavicum is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari among the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Mentha rotundifolia is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari alnong the plants recently introduced into Egypt. Plectratmus crassifolia was observed by Delile in a green- house at Cairo. JDioscorea sativa? The yam, according to AJpinus, Hassel- quist, and others, has been sometimes planted in Egypt. Bnigmansia Candida, according to Graham, was introduced by the way of Egypt into Bombay, in A.D. 1837. INDEX. Ababdeh, of the Desert of the Thebaid, 212. Abd Allatif quoted, 401. Abies picea, 375. Aboriginals of Zanzibar, 197. Abrus precatorius 328, 332, 33i, 346, 364, 402. Absinth, see Artemisia absinthiiun. AbutUon, see Sida. Abyssinia, account of, by a native of East Africa, 221; table-land of Abyssinia, 311. Abyssinian race, 228; figured on the Egyptian monuments, 231. Abyssinians at Singapore, 185, 228 ; Barely seen in Egypt, 211, 228 ; Abyssinians at Zanzibar, 229; Abyssinians at Mocha, 229. Acacia, 328, 334. — NUotica, 351, 364, 379. — seyal.andA.gummifera, 379. — lebbet, 401. Acaeia % 355. Aoalypha Caroliniana, 330, 336. Acanthus mollis, 409. Acapulco, natives of the vicinity, 112. Acer campestre, 389. — platanus, and A. platanoides, 382. — negundo, 407. Achillea millefolium, 410. Achyranthes aspera, 328, 335, 366; — argentea, 406. Acorns used for food by the Califor- nian tribes, 102, 108, 109. Adansonia, 350, 363, 402. Aden visited, 216, 241, 248, 269, 263; diversity of races at, 284, 286. Adenostemma visoosum, 324, 334. Adjimta, a dty in the Dekkan, 275 ; the caves in the vicinity, 276, 354. Admiralty group, natives of, 116, 173. Adobes, or sun-dried brick, use of, recently introduced into the Ha-waiian islands, 85; used by the settlers in North Cahfomia, 100 ; used in the Dekkan, 276. Adonis sestivalis, 404. Aerva, 365, 406. .Sgineta quoted, 389, 398. ^Bchylus quoted, 387. jEscuIus hippocastanum, the horsa- chestnut, 407. ^sop, 291. Afghans, 247. Africa, agriculture did not originater in this continent, 311. African tribes, their fixed habits, 316. Agati, 324, 333, 341, 364. Agave, 318. Ageratum conyzoides, 319, 324, 334, 342, 346, 365. Agricultural nations, 5, 316. Agriculture, the art imparted to the aboriginal tribes of Oregon, 16, 24, 29, 266, 310, 317; the art practised, in the absence of soil, on the bare rock, 95 ; remarks respecting the introduction of the art into Aboriginal America, 113; agriculture among the Fcejeean^^ 412 164, 166, 288 ; in Arabia, 260 ; in Western Hindostan, 270, 272 ; origin of agriculture, 308 ; agri- culture introduced from abroad into Africa, 310. Ahii, in tlie Coral Archipelago, visited, 66. Ahmednuggur, a city in the Dekkan, 274. Aimeo, an island near Taheiti, visited, 68. Alabastron, 293. Albinoes, in Aboriginal Mexico, 35 ; at the Vaitupan coral group, 61 ; at Taheiti, 67; among the Feejee- ans, 171 ; Albino Negroes, 188. Alder, see Alnus. Aleurites triloba, the Tutui-nut, 85, 325, 335, 343, 367. Aleutian Islands, 296. AUamanda Aubletii, 365. Allatafet quoted, 400, 401. Allium porrum, the leek, 362, 378. — cepa, the onion, 321, 344, 352, 362, 371. — sativum, the garlic, 362, 371. — Askalonicum, the shallot, 371. Almond, see Amygdalus. Almug-trees, 879. Alnus, the European alder, 382. Aloe, 222, 367, 396. Aloysia' citriodora, 4'09. Alpamarca, mine of, 12. Alphabet of the Tagala of Luzon, 123 ; alphabets of Hindostan, 286 ; of the East Indies, 292 ; of the Battas of Sumatra, 302. Altars and sacrifices extant in the East Indies, 291. Althea ofSoinalis, 389. — ficifolia, 402. — rosea, 406. Amaraathus, 320, 343. — bUtum, 386. — cruentus, 326, 335. — tricolor, 332, 335. Amaryllis aulica, 344. Ambolambo of Madagascar, 137. Amboyna, natives of, 183. America, Aboriginal, state of know- ledge in, 294 ; origin of the popu- lation, 296. Ammania, tvfo species of, 393. Ammi, 404. Amomum cardamomum, 391. — grana-paradisi, 402. Amulets extant at Zanzibar, 196. Amygdalus persica, the peach, 78, 320, 342, 349, 351, 397. Amygdalus communis, the almond, 378. Amyris opobalsamum, 378. Anaa, or Chain Island, the centre of navigation in Eastern Poly- nesia, 56. ATi^a.Tigj 156. Anacardium, 348, 364. Anacreon quoted, 385. Anagallis arvensis, 321, 389. Anchovy, a species taken in quan- tities at Mocha, 217. Anchusa officinalis, 396. Andaman Islands, natives of, 170. Andes, the Northern and Southern, terminations, 8 ; the Chilian Andes visited, 11 ; the Peru- vian Andes visited, 11, 238, 282 ; the vegetation on the Andes of Peru, 308. Andropogon sohcenanthus, 332, 337. Anethum graveolens, 387. Anguilla, a species at Taheiti, 67. Anise, 385. Anointing, the practice of, 293, 368, 374. Auona squamosa, 340, 349, 363, 407. Antelope, the American, in Cali- fornia, 108. — Anoa of Celebes, 314. Antelopes, figured on the Indian monuments, 355; on the Egyp- tian monuments, 369, Anthemis ootula, 320. — grandiflora, 405, ■ — nobilis, 410. Antiquities of Peru, 13 ; of Oregon^ 34; of Yucatan, 36; ancient reUos, discovered by Davis and Squier» in the Valley of the Ohio, 37; INDEX. 413 antiquities of China, 43 ; of East Africa, 195; of Malta, 191, 253; of Egypt, 255 ; of Arabia, 352 ; of Cabul, and of Persepolis, 353. Ape, tlie Cynocephalus, 373. — the long-nosed, of Borneo, 314. Apium graveolens, 383. — duloe, the celery, 321, 408. Apooynum, or California flax, 108. Apple, see Pyrus malus. Apricot, see Prunus Armeniaca, Arabian Race, 231. — Seas, 300. Arab colonists at Sooloo, 129, 251 ; at Singapore, 186, 246, 251; at the Comoro Islands and Mada- gascar, 197; Arabs sometimes visit file Monomoisy Lake, 201 ; Arabs of the Mediterranean, 253 ; of the Hedjaz, 259 ; of Southern Arabia, 259 ; of Socoti-a, 265 ; of North- western India, 265 ; Arab visiters at Zanzibar, 263 ; Arab residents in Hindostan, 265; geographical position of the Arab tribes, 316, 399. Aiachis, the pea-nut, cultivated in the Monomoisy covmtry, 203, 347; in Hindostan, 364 ; in Egypt, 400. Aramanga, in the New Hebrides, natives of, 175. Aratika, in the Coral Archipelago, 56. Araucanians, have no communicar tion with South Patagonia, 8. Arbutus procera, the bark used by the natives of South-western Ore- gon, 33. Arbutus tomentosa, the berries eaten in North California, 109. Architecture of the Chinese, 42 ; of the East Indians, 119, 128 ; of the Feejeeans, 153, 157 ; of the East- em Hindoos, 183 ; of the Arabian Jews, 243 ; of Armenian emi- grants, 24 5; architecture at Mocha, 266 ; among the Somali, 216 ; of the ancient Hindoos, 353,358,359; the Gothic style, 399. Areca, the betel palm, 347, 367. Arenaria rubra, 405.. Aretseus quoted, 388, 398. Argemone Mexioana, 340, 349, 363. Argus pheasant, 314. Amtophanes, plants mentioned by, 386. Aristotle quoted, 387, 388. Armenians, 245. Armeniaca, see Prunus. Armour worn by the Klamet tribe of South-western Oregon, 33. Amotto, see Sixa. Artemisia dracunculus, 404. — arborescens, 404. — Judaica, 404. — ■ species of, in Interioic Oregon, 31. — absinthium, 388. — abrotanum, 388. Artichoke, see Cyhara. Artocarpus incisa, the bread-fruit, 325, 336, 367 ; grows only in cer- tain districts at the Hawaiian Islands, 85, 93 ; constitutes the chief .support of the Marquesas Islanders, 98. Artocarpus integrifolia, the jack-tree, 346, 367. Arts, some in Oregon, that seem to have been derived from California, 17; seat of the arts on the Indus, 266, 360 ; origin of the Polynesian arts, 288, 293. Arum esculentum, see Colocasia. — Rumphii, 330, 336. Arundo donax, the reed, 370. Asaua Islands, in the Feejee Group, 161. Ascension, or Banabe, in the Caroline Group, 62, 115. Ascetics among the ancient Hindoos, 354. Asclepias Curassavica, 365. — procera, 409. — fruticosa, 410. Ash, see Fraxinus. Asp, or Cobra, 354, 357, 3'60. Asparagus, 367, 389. Aspen, see Populus tremula. Assyrians, 246. Astrology, the aboriginal profession of, at the Hawaiin Islands, 91. 414i Astronomical kno-wledge of the Ta- heitians, 63, 67; of theNewZea- lauders, 78 ; of the Hawaiians, 91, 298 ; among the Hindoos, 277; of the Feejeeans, 293. Athenseus quoted, 387, 389. Atriplex, 389. Aubergine, or Egg-plant, see Solamnm melongena, 321. Auguries and omens in the modem Kast Indies, 291. Aurungabad, a city iti the Dettan, 275. Australia visited, 74 ; the European residents, 141, 239; character of the zoological productions of Aus- tralia, 318. Australian race, 74, 139, 283. — woods have some ana- logy in Interior Oregon, 26. Avena sativa, the oat, 320, 321, 388. Averhoa bilimbi, 363. Avioenna, quoted, 399, 400. Azadirachta Indica, 363. Azederach, see Melia. Airteoas, 34, 113. B. Babtlonias District, 246. Babymssa, 314. Bacasias of the Andes of Pmti, 309. Balabac Passage, in the East Indies, 131. Balanites, 374. Baldness, instances of, among the Somali, 217. Balm, 378. Balsamita Yulgaiis, 404. Bamboo, 327, 337, 362, 408 ; at the Tarawan Coral Group, 61 ; in Luzon, l22 ; at the Murray Islands, in Torres Straits, 144. Bamia, see Hibiscus esculeutus. Banabe, or Ascension, in the Caro- line Group, 62, 115. Banana, see Musa. Banian Fig, see Kcus ludioa. Bamans of Cutdi, 182, 248, 267, 279. Barabra of Egypt and Nubia, 211. Batarata, or the Galla Countiy, 220. Barbary Arabs, 246, 251, 252. Barley, see Hordeum. Barriers of races and nations, 307. Barringtonia spedosa, 328, 334. Basalt, blocks of, on a coral island, 58. Basella tuberosa, 238, 310. Bashee Islands, in the East Indies, lis. Basilan, island of, in the Sooloo Sea, 127. Battas of Sumatra, 302. Beans, see Vicia, Phaseolus and BoUchos. — cultivated in the Monomoisy country, 203. Bears in Califomia, 104, 106. Beasts of burden unknown in the Monomoisy country, 202 ; beasts of burden among the Brinjairy, 278; in the vicinity of Behring Straits, 317. Beaver, said to have been formerly numerous in Interior Oregon, 27. Bedouins of the vicinity of Mocha, 138, 260, 262 ; of the vaHey of the Euphrates, 246 ; of North-western India, 247, 265; of Palestrae, 268; Bedouin visiters at Zanzibar, 263; Bedouins of Oman, or of the vici- nity of Muscat, 264. Bees, 377. Beet, 321, 386. Behring Straits, the tribes around, 297, 317. BeUinghausen Island visited, 58. Belooohes, 267. Bengal Sea, 299. Benguela tribe, of Western Afiica, 207. Beni-Israel, 243. Berbers, or Lybians, 257. Beta vulgaris, the beet, 321, 386. Betel, used at the Caroline Islands, 115; in the East Indies, 120; in the New Hebrides, and in the Nitendi Group, 299; inEastA&ica, 346. Betula alba, 389. Ehills, 278. INBBX. 415 Biohe-le-mar, see Holothuria. Bidens trifida, 321. — odorata, 328, 335. Bignoroa stans, 365. — catalpa, 407. Bima, a river of Hmdostan, 274. Birch, see Betula. Birdlime, see Cordia myxa. Birmese, 137. Bishareen, of the Nubian Desert, 212, 213. Bixa Orellana, 340, 348, 363. Blaokfeet tribe, iohabitiag the Bocky • Mountains, 37. Blankets of North-west America, 17, 317. Blitum of the Eomans, 386. Blue Mountains of Interior Oregon, 27. Boerhaavia procumbens, 328, 335, 366. BOerhaaTias, of the Andes of Peru, 309. Bomhax an&actuosum, 347, 363. Bombay -visited, 186, 190, 243, 247, ; 248 ; diversity of races at, 284. Boiago of^dnalis, 410. Borassus, a flabeUate-leaved palm, , 65, 60, 323, 336, 367; fans made ' of, at Tongataboo, 83. Borneo, Idan o^ 43, 126; Dayaks, 126, 306 ; Wild people of Borneo, 306. Bomou, 209. BoHwellia, 378, 364. Bougainville Island, 173. Bows, used by the natives of Good- success Bay, in Terra del Puego, 11 ; used, in some instances, at liie Samoa Islands, 73 ; not used by the New ZeaJandere, 76 ; used by the Califomian tribes, 104, 109; used by the Shasty tribe, 111; used in the vicinity of Torres Straits, 144; sometimes used by the Feejeeana, 152 ; used in East Africa, 199, 218 ; used by : the Bhills, and by the ancient Hindoos, 278. a, representations of, 35S. Braminical oaves, 357. Bramius, interview with one at Singapore, 182; no true Bramins in the East Indies, 183; two Bramins, apparently of the Te- lingan race, seen at Bombay, 186; Mahratta Bramins, 186, 270, 271, 274, 276, 279. Brass, highly valued by the tribes of East Africa, 202, 206. Biassioa rapa, the turnip, 340, 349, 392. — eruca, 393. — oleraoea, 321, 340, 384. — napxis, 386. — campestris, 386. Brava, a town in East Africa, 193. Brazil, aboriginals of, 7. Bread-fruit, see Artocarpus ineisa. Brinjarry, of Hiiidostan, 146, 278. Briza media, 345. Bromelia ananas, 337, 348, 367, 407. Broussonetia, the paper-mulbeiST, 325, 336. Brugmausia, 410. Bruguiera, the fruit eaten at the Feejee Islands, 154. BryophiUum calyoinum, 365. Buckwheat, . see jPolygonum fagOr pyrum. Budhism noticed, 183. Budhist caves, 353. Buffalo, the American, unknown. in Oregon, except along the skirts of the Eocky Mountains, 27. Buffalo, the East Indian, 126, 273; 354, 360, 400. Bugis of Celebes, 134, 183, 292, 299. Bullocks, at the Hawaiian Group, 93; their introduction at the Feejee Islands, 164, 339; Bul- locks, known in the Monomoisy' country, 204 ; among the GaJIa and M'Kuafi, 220, 223 ; the cow, venerated by the Hindoos, ancient Egyptians, and early Romans, 268,: 280; the Indian bullock, 274, 278, 359; bullocks figured on the Egyptian monuments, 315, 369 ; 416 INDEX. introduced into North-west Ame- Tica, 320 ; figured in the Bramin- ioal caves, 357, 361. Bvirdens, mode of carrying in Ore- gon, 22; among the Polynesians and ancient Egyptians^ 88 ; in New Zealand and at the Peejee Islands, 88 ; among the Califor- nian tribes, 101 ; among the East Indians, 120 ; among the Pee- , jeeans, 152 ; among the Mahtatta Hindoos, 269, 270. Burial, mode of, on the north branch of ihe Columbia river, 24 ; and, further north, with the Tahkali tribe, 25 ; among the Chinese, 38 ; among the Califomian tribes, 103; among the Wakamba and M'Kuafi of East Africa, 200, 223; among the Parsees, 248, 249. Butirinus, a species kept in artificial ponds at the Hawaiian Islands, 88. C. CabeI^oe, 384. Oabul, people of, 247, 360 ; antiqui- ties of, 353. Cacalia sonchifolia, 365. — Kleinii, 410. Cacti, of New Mexico, 112 ; of the Andes of Peru, 309; species of Opuntia, naturalised at the Ha- waiian Islands, 342 ; in Hindostan, 364; in Egypt, 407. Cademosto quoted, 401. Csesalpioia sappan, 348, 364. Cairo visited, 255. Cajanus, the pigdon-pea, 341, 347, 364 ; cultivated in the Monomoisy country, 203 ; and at Zanzibar, 268. Calabrians, 280. Caladium, see Colocasia. Calceolarias, of the Andes of Peru, 309: Calendar of the Taheitians, 67 ; of the Hawaiians, 90 ; of the Soahili, 194 ; of the Pareees and Abys- : Biuiaas,194;ofthePeejeeans,293. Calendula officinalis, 394. California, visited, 99, 238, 282; geographical position of, 297. Califomian tribes use water-proof baskets, 17, 102 ; account of these tribes, 98; the men devoid of clothing, 102, 107 ; the southern Califomians, 112. ' Calophyllum, observed-at the Tara- wan coral group, 61. Calotropis procera, 409. Calyslegia, see Convolvulus. Camelopard, 224, 231. Camels, 378, 307; used by the Southern Galla, 220, 346; in India, 27S, 361, 362 ; figured on the Himyaritic monuments," 352; the two-humped or Baotrian camel, 387. Campanula amplexicaulis, 321. Camphor, 400. Canadians, residing in Oregon, 21, 24, 25, 32. Canara language, of India, 272. Canarium, 331, 333. Canes, those used in Eastern and Western Arabia, 261. Canna, 329, 336, 344, 403. Cannabis sativa, hemp, 362, 385. Cannibalism, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 203, 221, 241, 305; cannibalism oftheBattas, 303. ■■ Canoes, of the Puegians, 9; of the Chinooks, 17, 296 ; on the Upper Columbia, 24, 29; Of the Klamet tribe, in South-western Oregon, 33 ; none seen among the Eastern Paumotuans, 49 ; canoes of the DiKippoiutment Islands, 49; of the Anaans, or Western Paumo- tuans, 66 ; the paddle of the Tarawan coral group resembles that of the Persian Gulf, 62 ; canoes of Pleasant Island, 63 ; of the Samoana, 68; of New Zealand, 74, 76 ; of the Tonga Islanders, 80, 83 ; of the Hawaiians, 87; of the Califomian tribes, 102, 111 ; of Luzon, 121, 123 ; of Sooloo, 127; Sampans of the Straits of DTDEI. 417 Malacca, 132; canoes of tlie Aus- tralians, 140, 141 ; of the Feejee- ans, 148, 149, 153, lo4 ; of the Monomoisy Lake, 201 ; river- boats in the Godaveri, 274; canoes of Vanikoro, 288 ; of the North Pacific, and of the Greenland seas, 297 ; of the Comoro IsUnds, 301. Cape Gooseberry, see Physalis. Cape of Good Hope, Malayans at, 136; Negroes at, 190; diversity of races at, 284. CapeVerd Islands visited, 188,234, 281. Caper-bush, see Capparis. Capparis, 390. Capra -Americana, the wool used by the Chinooks, 17. Capra hirous, the common goat, 361, 369 ; known in the Mono- moisy country, 204, 345 ; known to the M'Kuafi, 223 ; lauded from a whale ship on the Tarawan coral group, 322 ; introduction of the goat into the islands of the Pa- cific, 322, 33.9. Capra ibex, 369. Capricorn, see Capra ibex. Capsella bursarpastoris, 320. Capsicum, 318, 325, 332, 335, 343, 346, 366, 402. Caravan routes, 307^ Caraway, see Carum. Cardamine sarmentosa, 327, 333. Cardamum, see Amomum. Cardiospermum helicacabum, 324, 332, 333, 402. Carduus, 405. Caribs, 113, 114, 288. Carica Papaya, 319, 325, 335, 346, 365, 408. Carob tree, see Ceratonia. Caroline Islands, 115, 299. Carrot, see Caucus carota. Cars of antique pattern in Hindos- tan, 276. Carthamus tinctorius, or Dyer's saffron, 365, 381. Carum carvi, 396. Caryophyllus, 331, 334. Caryophyllus, see Cloves. Caryota urens, 367. Cassada, see Jatropha. Cassia sophera, 405. — oceideutalis, 341, 364, 405. — tora, 341, 364. — seandens, 341. — alata, 364. — fistula, 364, 401. — lanceolata, 398. — obovata, 398. — absus, 405. Castanea, the chestaut, .890. Castes of India, 182, 186, 187, 267, 272, 278. Castor bean, see Ricinus. Casuarina equisetifolia, 80, 131, 329, 336, 343, 367. Catacombs of Naples, 280. Catalpa, see Bignonia. Cato quoted, 392. Cats, 339, 362, 382; carried from the coast to the Monomoisy coun- try, 204, 349 ; none among the M'Kuafi, 223 ; cats among the Arabs, 261. Cattle, see Bullocks. Cauliflower, 384. Caves of India, 353. Celebes, 134, 183, 291, 299, 400. Celery, see Apium dulce, Celosia cristata, 397. Celtis australis, 393. — ■ occidentalis, 407. Cenchrus calyculatus, 326, 337. Centaurea calcitrapa, 395. — mosohata., 405. — cyanuB, 410. Centipede, introduced into the Hawaiian Islands, 339. Ceram, wild people of, 304. Cerasus, see Prunus cerasus, 320. Ceratonia siliqua, 364, 391. Cerbera, 328, 335. — Thevetia, 365. Cercis siliquastrum, 390. Cercopithecus, 369. Cervua wapiti, the Americau elk, ia California, 104. Ceylon, notice of, 138. 418 htdei. Chaerophyllum sativum, 394. Chaga tribe, of East Africa, 199, 222, 223, 224. Chamseriphis, 402. Charity among the Parsees, 249. Checkered baskets of Yemen, 261, 373. Cheiranthus annuus, 404. Chenopodium album, 317, 320, 401. — rubrum, and C. fla- vum, 401. Cherokees, 114. Cherry, see Frunus cerasus, 320. Chestnut, see Castanea. Chichorium, the endive, 389, Chick-pea, or Cieer, 380. Chiefs language among the Polyne- sians, 89 ; among the aboriginal Americans, 114. Chili visited, .11, 189, 235, 281. Chimikaine, a mission station in In- terior Oregon, 26. Chinese, 38, 118, 146, 281, 283, 284, 299. Chinooks compared with the Fue- gians, 10 ; described, 14 ; their mode of flattening the head, 16 ; of the Lower Columbia, 17; their mats have some analogy with those of the Chinese, 17; the Chinooks are more advanced in the arts than the hunting tribes of North- west America, 18; capture whales, 18. Chittah, or hunting leopard, 373. Chory, of East Africa, 219. Chrysanthemum, 383. — Xudicum, 365. — segetum, 395. Cicer arietinum, or chick-pea, 364, 380. Cicero quoted, 382. Cimmerian darkness, 308. Cingalese, 138. Cinnamon, 184, 359, 378. Circumcision among the Feejeeans and Polynesians, 163 ; among the East African tribes, 199, 200, 220, 222, 224. Cissus quadiangularis, 363. Cissus rotundifolia, 406. Cltrullus, the water-melon, 342, 351, 366, 371, 372. Citrus aurantium, the orange, 340, 346, 360, 401 ; local at the Ha^ waiian Islands, 86 ; this fruit not eaten bythe Banians of Cutch,268. Citrus Sinensis, the Mandarin orange, 276, 349, 363. — torosa, 329, 333. — decumana, the shaddock, 331, 333, 349, 363. — the lemon, 340, 350, 401. — limonum, the lime, 341, 350, 401. — Medica, the sweet lemon, ?60, 391. Civilisation, traditions respecting its origin in America, 113; four nar tural centres of civilisation, 311. Civita Veoohia, 280. Classet visited, 16. Cleome pentaphylla, 340, 408. — spinosa, 340. Clermont Tonnerre, a coral island, visited, 47. Climate of the Southern Hemisphergj 9; of Interior Oregon, 23, 25, 26 J of New Zealand, 75 ; of the m- waiian Islands, 85, 91, 92 ; of North California, 102 ; of New Mexico, 112; of Australia, 143; of "Western Peru, 237; of the Peruvian Andes, 237; of the Val- ley of the Nile, the only portion of the tropics known to the an- cient Greeks and Eomans, 256 ; oHmate of Southern Arabia, 217, 218, 260 ; of Western Hindostan, 272, 274, 276 ; great variety of climate in tropical America, 312, 313 ; climate of the equatorial countries, 313. Clothing in tropical climates, re- marks on the subject, 64. Cloves, 184, 314, 349, 398. Clubs of the New Zealanders, 76 ; the club is the favourite weapon of the Tonga Islanders, 80 ; and of the Feejeeans, 162: clubs used IITOEX. 419 by the Nubians of the Desert, 214 ; \>j the Mussad, 226 ; by the an- cient Hindoos, 355, 357. Cnicus benedictus, 404. Coasts, three kinds of, 4. Cobra, or asp, 354, 357, 360. Coca, the leaves used by the natives of the Peruvian AndeSj 1 2. Cocculus Indicus, 398. Cochin, in Southern Hindostan, 300. Cochin-Chinese, 136. Cocliineal, 318. Cochleariaj 406, 410. Cock-fighting at the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; at Taheiti, 65 ; in the East Indies, 120. Cocoa palm, 323, 332, 336, 344, 34«, 352, 367, 400 ; absent from un- visited islands, 49; is the principal useful plant of the coral islands, 54 ; neglected at the Hawaiian Islands, 93 ; extensively cultivated in Luzon, 121; cultivated at the Murray Islands, in Torres Straits, 144; on the coast of East Africa, 198; and in the West Indies, 319. Codiaeum variegatum, 330, 336, 367. Coffee, 342, 365, 400 ; wild in the Monomoiay country, 203. Coix kchrpna, 331, 332, 337, 399. Colaris, 125. Colchicum, 396. Colocasia antiquorum, 393. Colocasia esculenta, 55, 323, 332, 336, 344, 347, 367, 393 ; in New Zealand, 75 ; constitutes the chief article of food at the Hawaiian Islands, 87 ; terraces for culti- vating taro at the Feejee Islands, 157, 162. Colocasia macrorhiza, 55, 323, 336 ; a safeguard against femine, 89, 153. Colocasia grandifoHa, 368. Colours, those used by the Chi- nooks, 18. Colubrina Asiatica, 327, 333. Columba, a species of pigeon, kept in captivity at a Polynesian spirit- house, 60, 61. Columba, the domestic pigeon, 192, 276, 339, 352, 361, 374. Columbia Elver, 24, 29, 30. Columella quoted, 392, 393. Commelina, 326, 336, 344. ColviUe, in Interior Oregon, 26, 320. Commerce, aboriginal, among the Chinooks, 17 ; at Taheiti, 67 ; none among the Australians, 141 ; aboriginal commerce at Tongata- boo, 298. Comoro Islands, population of, 197; Comoro men make trading excur- sions into the interior of Africa, 197, 200 ; the languages at the Comoro Islands, 288. Compositsa of the Andes of Peru, 309. Coucan, 272. Conferva, an esculent species at the Hawaiian Islands, 91. Congo tribe of Western Africa, 207. Convolvulus batatas, the sweet po- tato, in New Zealand, and in the other islands of the Pacific, 75, 324, 335 ; cultivated, without soil, in some parts of the Hawaiian Islands, 95 ; rare at the Feejee Islands, 153; cultivated in the Monomoisy country, 203, 346 ; in aboriginal America, 318 ; in West- em Africa, 318 ; in Yemen, 351 ; in India, 366 ; in Egypt, 408. Convolvulus sepium, 336, 338, 406. — arvensis, 366, 395. — scammonia, 392. — CairiuB, 404. Conyza, 328, 334. — odora, 404. Cooking among the Polynesians, 64, 154; among the Califomian tribes, 102, 108; among the Feejeeans, 154 ; among the Galla, 221. Copal, 206. Copper, obtained by the natives of East Africa, 206. Copts, 191, 257. Coral Islands, account of them, 47 ; a mode of procuring water at, 60; fire, not seen at certain islands, E E 2 420 IITDEX. 61 ; Tongataboo is a coral island, 80 ; elevated coral islands, Metia and Vatu-lele, 57, 161 ; European residents, 59, 62, 238, 282. Coral shores yield more food to man than the ordiuary searcoast, 295. Corchorus olitorius, 401. Cordia crenata, 397. — myxa, 375. — sebestena, 323, 335. Coreopsis tinctoria, 365. Coriander, 389. Cornel, see Cornus. Cornucopias, figured on the Indian monuments, 358. Cornus, the berries eaten hy the tribes of Interior Oregon, 30. Cornus mascula, and C. sanguinea, 382. Corylus avellana, the filbert, 385. Costume of the women of Interior Oregon, 23 ; of the Kalapuya tribe, 32 ; of the Eastern Pau- motuaus, 48; of the natives of Pleasant Islaiid, 62 ; of the Sar moans, 69 ; of the New Zea- landers, 78 ; of the Califomian women, 108 ; two styles of cos- tume in aboriginal America, 113 ; costume of the Feejeeans, 161 ; of the M'Kuafi, 223 ; of Chili and Peru, 237 ; of the Parsees, 250 ; of oriental women, 250 ; of the modem Greets, 264 ; of various nations of antiquity figured on the Egyptian monuments, 256, 257 ; costume of the Arabs, 259, 260, 263 ; and of the inhabitants of the Dekkan, 273 ; costume of the Brinjarry, 278 ; of the ancient Hindoos, 365, 357, 360. Cotton, 340, 350, 362, 385 ; among ancient Peruvian relics, 13, 318 ; a tradition respecting the cultxire of cotton in Mexico, 113 ; intro- duction of cotton into the Medi- terranean countries, 385 ; Gossy- pium religiosum, 324, 333 ; the culture of cotton does not suc- ceed in Equatorial Africa, 349. Cotula eoronopifolia, 330, S34. Couriers in Southern Arabia, 262. Cowries, see Cyprea. Cows, see Bullock. Coyota, see Wolf. Crane, the species figured on the Egyptian monuments, 369. Cree Tribe, 36. Creek Tribe, 37, 114, 287. Cress, 393. Crinum Asiaticam, 330, 336. Crocodiles at some of the western groups in the Pacific, 70. Crocus, 374. Crotalaria, 341. — qiiinquefolia, 331, 333. Croton tigUum, 402. — tinotorium, 367, 383, 393, 402. — variegatom, see Codiseum. Crypsis, 403. Ctesias quoted, 387. Cucumber, see Cucumis. Cucumis melo,the musk-melon, 321, 351, 379. — sativus, the cucumber, 321, 351, 364, 400. — ohate, 371, 372. Cucurbita, of Pliny, 376. — foetidissima, 317. — polymorphsi, the squash, 321, 401. — aurantiaca, 328, 334. — pepo, 342, 402. Cuirass of the EQamet tribe of North-west America, 33 ; of the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; of Ombay, 62. Cuminum cyminum, the cummin, 379. Cupressus sempervirens, 367, 382. Cupro, of Pliny, 396. Cm-cuma, the turmeric, 325, 336, 400. Cured meats, abori^al at the Ha^ waiian Islands, 88, 91 ; at the Feejee Islands, 154. Currant, see Eibes. Currency at Mocha, 262, 263. Cuscuta, 343, 404. INDEX. 421 Customs, some introduced from the Missouri into Oregon, 27 ; some, common to Oregon, Mexico, and South America, 34 ; some, com- mon to the Chinese and aborigi- nal Americans, 40, 41 ; customs of the Tarawan Islanders, 61 ; of Pleasant Island, 62 ; of the Ta- heitians, 63, 67 ; of the Samoans, 71 ; of the New Zealanders, 76 ; of the Tonga Islanders, 82 ; of the Hawajians, 87 ; customs com- mon to the CaJifomians and the Polyijesians, 108 ; to the Polyne- sians and the aboriginals of the West Indies, 113 ; customs of the Ta^la of Luzon, 118 ; of the Feejeeans, compared with those of the Polynesians, Hindoos, and Arabs, 84, 151, 152, 153, 169, 293, 358 ; and with those of Eastern Africa, 174, 214, 216, 217; the custom of perforating the lobe of the ear, 182; customs and pen- ances of the Hindoos, 182, 183 ; various ancient Egyptian customs, extant at Zanzibar and Mocha, 195, 196, 260 ; customs of the East Airioan Tribes, 199, 201 ; of the Tribes of Central Africa, 208; of the Kenoos of Upper Egypt, 212 ; of theM'Kuafi, 223 ; some aboriginal customs among the present inhabitants of Peru and Chili, 236 ; customs of the Arabian Jews, 244 ; of the Par- sees, 248 ; various customs com- mon to the Hindoos and the an- cient Egyptians, 269 ; Muslim customs in Central India, 274, 275 ; Arab, customs in Malta and in Italy, 253, 280 ; customs of the ancient Hindoos, 354. Cutch Banians, 182, 248, 267. Cycle, the Egyptian or Cynic, 376. Cydonia vulgaris, the quince, 351, 381. Cycas circinalis, 332, 336, 346. Cynanchum viminale, 404. Cynara, the artichoke, 371. Cynocephalus, 373. Cynoglossum, 410. Gynodon dactylon, 337, 868, 403. Cyperus, a species, 337. — esoulentus, 383. — articulatus, C. Alopecurus, and C. dives, 393. Cypreas monetas, a yeUow variety, extravagantly valued in former times at the Hawaiian Islands, 89; cowries used for money in the Thebaid, 212; and at Poena, in the Dekkan, the species being the C. annulus, 273. Cypress, see Cupressus. Cyprian verses quoted, 384. Daotylootenium, 368, 403. Dahlia, 409. Dammara, the resin used for glazing pottery at the Feejee Islands, 163. Dampier's Straits, 144. Danakil, or Denkah tribes, 218. Darfour, 208, 209. Date palm, see Phoenix. Datisca camiabina, 402. Datura fastuosa, 366, 403. — metal, 348, 403. — stramonium, 343. Daucus carota, the carrot, 321, 389. Dayaks of Borneo, 126, 306, 307. Dean's Island, m the Coral Archi- pelago, visited, 57. Defensive armour, used by the Kla. met tribe of North- west America, 33 ; used in the Tarawan coral group, 62 ; used by the Austra^ lians, 142; used by the ancient Hindoos, 355. De Fuca, Straits of, visited, 14. Deghop, 353. Dekkan, or the Table-land of South- ern India, 272. Delaware tribe, 37. Delphinium ajacis, 383. Demosthenes quoted, 387. Denkali, or Danakil tribes, 218, 422 lITDEX. Denkawi language of Central Africa, 208. Dentalium shells, used for ornament in North-west America, 13, 17. Desert tribes, 5, 212, 307, 316. Besmodium, 341. Desmodium purpureum, 327, 334. Desmochseta, 3^8, 335. De Soto quoted, 396, 402. Dewlap, an appendage acquired by domestic aounals, 310. DianthuB caryophyllus, the Camar tion, 397. Digitaria sanguinale, 326, 332, 337, 344, 403. Digitaria cUiaris, 329, 337. Dioscorea alata, the yam, 80, 154, 329, 336; yams in East Africa, 200, 347. Dioscorea pentaphylla, 326, 336. — bulbifera, 326, 336. — aculeata, 332, 336, 367. — sativa? 410. DioBCorides, plants mentioned by, 393. DiospyruB lotus, 406. Disappointment Islands Tisited, 49. Diseases, of the natives of the Coral Islands, 50, 62; of theTaheitians, 68 ; of the Samoans, 73 ; of the New Zealauders, 79 ; at Tongata- boo, 82 ; of the Hawaiians, 97 ; of the Californian tribes, 109 ; of the East Indies, 135 ; of the Fee- jeeans, 170; of Western Peru, 237. Diversity of physiognomy at Cairo, 258. Diversity of races at Cairo, ^uga- pore, and the other places visited, 258, 281, 284. Dodona, Oracle of, 192. Dogs, of the Chinooks, 18 ; of the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; dogs perhaps absent in aboriginal New Zealand, 75 ; dogs at the Ha^ waiian Islands, 88, 91 ; not seen among the Californian tribes, 108; known in the Monomoisy coxmtry, 204 ; known to the M'Kuafi, 223; kept by the Brinjarry, 278 ; figured on the Egyptian monuments, 3lS, 332, 369 ; the only quadruped aboriginally introduced into Ame- rica, 317, 318 ; dogs aboriginally introduced into the Polynesian groups, 322 ; figured on the Indian monuments, 360. Dolichos lubia, 388. — lablab, see Lablab. Domestic animals, a tendency in them to become particoloured, 273, 310. Domestic animals and plants, of the Monomoisy country, 203, 204 ; of the Ethiopian tribes of East Africa, 221, 223; of aboiiginal America, 310, 311, 317; of the islands of the Pacific, 322 ; of Equatorial Africa, 346; of South- em Arabia, 352; of India, 353; of Egypt, 332, 368; of New Zealand, 338 ; of Australia, 338. Domestic fowl, 361 ; at the Tarawan coral group, 61;atPleaBant Island, 63; absent in aboriginal New Zealand, 75 ; introduction of the domestic fowl into the Mediterra- nean countries, 332, 374 ; domes- tic fowls known in the Monomoisy country, 204, 346; and in the islands of the Pacific, 322. Dongola, natives of, 211, 213. Dor^eys, 361, 369; none in the Monomoisy country, 204 ; known to the Galla and M'Kuafi, 221, 223, 224. Doum-palm, see Hyphaene. Dourra, see Sorghum. Dowlutabad fortification, 276, 353. Dracaena terminalis, 69, 326, 386, 367. Dracocephalum Moldavicum, 410. Dragons, figured on the IncUan mo- numents, 358. Drays of the Dungur, 279. Drift-wood, at some coral islands, 59. Drummond Island, in the Tarawan coral group, 62. Dryobalanops, or precious camphor tree, 314. INDES.. 423 Ducks, 339, 348, 372 ; rearing of, in the East Indies, 121 ; no tame ducks in the Monomoisy country, Dules, a species kept in artificial ponds at the Hawaiian Islands, 88. Dungur, 279. Durio zibethinus, 349. E. Eab, the custom of perforating the lobe, 182. Earthquakes, 237. East Indies visited, 118; European residents, 118, 128, 240, 283; diversity of races in, 286 ; ad- vancement of knowledge among the inhabitants, 291. Ebony, 374. Echinochloa cms galli, 403. Echivim rubrum, 396. Eclipta, 332, 334, 342, 346, 365, 393. Education, universal among the Southern Arabs and the Arabian Jews, 244, 261. Eel, see Anguilla. Egg-plant, or Aubergine, lee Solanum melongena. Egypt visited, 191, 242, 255, 279 ; diversity of races in, 250, 251, 285. Egyptian cycle, 376. — emigrants, 264. Eleeagnus angustlfolia, 385. Elatine verticillata, 393. Elder, see Sambucus. Elecampane, see Inula helenium. Eleocharis, 332. Elephant, 222, 223, 276, 354, 357, 360, 374. Elephanta, caves at, 353, 358. Eleusine coracana, 221, 348. — Indica, 329, 332, 344, 352. Elk, see Cervus. EUice, or Vaitupan coral group, no- ticed, 61. Ellora, caves at, 276, 367. Elm, see Uhnus. Emigration, from various quarters directed towards the Straits of Malacca, 284 ; emigration from Africa, 316. Ende, or Floris, natives of, 174. Enderby's Island, in the Phoenix coral group, visited, 59. Endive, see Ghichorium. Engraulis, anchovy, 217. Engraving, the art introduced among the Polynesians, 85. Entada, see Mimosa scandens. Entellus, 355. Eoa, in the Tonga group, 79. Equatorial countries, productions of, 313, 314. Eragrostis capillaris, 346. Erinaceus auritus, 369. Erodium, 321. Erromango, see Aramanga. Ervum lens, the lentil, 362, 378. — ervilia, 388. Erythriua, 327, 334, 350. Erythroxylon, see Coca. Esquimaux, portraits of, resembling the Chinooks, 19 ; the Esquimaux again noticed, 44 ; canoes of the Esquimaux, 296. Ethiopian race, 210 ; Ethiopian tribes of East Africa, 198, 199, 211 ; some of the ancient kings of Egypt Ethiopians, 214 ; eunuchs, 230. Ethulia conyzoides, 393. Etiquette among the Feejeeans, 154. Eunuchs, 230. Euphorbia calendulifolia, 403. — tiracaUi, 366, 403. — tithymaloides, 366. — peplus, 395. — hypericifolia, 343. Euphorbia, 330, 336. — lathyris, 395. Euphoria, 331, 333. Euphrates, inhabitants of the valley, 246, 307, 308. Europe visited, 252, 280 ; diversity of races in Europe, 286. European colonists, 233 ; among the Polynesian Islands, 62, 238 ; 424 INDEX. at tlie Feejee Islands, 240 ; in the East Indies, 241; in Hindostan, 24,1. Europeans, 280. Evil eye, superstition of, 280. Evodia hortensis, 330, 333. f; Faba, 379. Farhian, a Chinese traveller of the fourth century, 184. Fakaafp, in the Union coral group, 60. Falkland Islands, not reached by aboriginals, 9. Manning's Island, a detached coral island, noticed, 60. Fans used at Tongataboo, 83 ; and at the Feejee islands ; the flag- ehaped fans of Yemen, 261, 358. Far,, of the Romans, 370, 381. Faselum, of the Romans, 386. Fazoglo, natives of, 208. Feejee Islands visited, 148 ; conver- sational powers of the Feejeeans, 173 ; EuropeaJi residents, 148, 239 ; diversity of races at, 283 ; state of knowledge at the Feejee Islands, 293 ; the Feejeeans hold no intercourse with the neigh- bouring groups, 298. Fehi banana, of Taheiti, see Musa. Fellahs, or cultivating Arabs, 216, 258. Fellata, of Central Africa, 226. Fennel, see FoeniovJum. Fenugi'oek, or Trigonella, 381. Fern, tufts of, figured on the Pha- raonio monuments, 375. Ficus Indica, the Banian fig, 362. — a second species of sacred fig, 277, 357, 361. — tinctoria, 329, 836. Ficus, 330, 336. — religiosa, the pipul tree, 348, 352, 367. — carica, the common fig, 349, 352, 367, 371, 372. Fig, see Ficus. Filbert, 386. Fillet, worn by Bedouins, 264. Fine, arts among the Chinooks : the style corresponding in some re- spects with that.of the sculptures of Mexico and Yucatan, 18, 34 ; fine arts among the Chinese, 41 ; among the Feejeeans, 152;, the decline of art in Egypt, 256'. Fir-trees, see Abies. Fire, prairies burned over, in West- em Oregon, 32, 33 ; fire not seen at certain coral islands, 61 ; known among the vrildeat tribes of Boi> neo, 306. Fire- worshippers, 248, 251. Fishing tribes of Terra del Fuego, 8; of North-west America, 14, 317. Fish-ponds at the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; at the Hawaiian Islands, 88. FlageUaria, 331, 336, 347. Flax, see Linum. Flight of birds, omens drawn from, in the East Indies, 291. Ploris, or Ende, natives of, 174. Fly, 323, 332 .; the house-fly absent fromtheuninhabited coral islands, 49, 58, 323. Foeniculum vulgare, 342, 387. Food of the East Indians consista chiefly of rice, 46 ; of the islanders of the Pacific, consists chiefly of farinaceous roots, 46 ; of the natives of Pleasant Island, 63 ; of the New Zealanders, 74 ; of the Hawaiians, consists chiefiy of taro, 88 ; of the Marquesas Islanders, 98 ; of the Californiau tribes, 102, 810; of the Feejeeans, consists chiefly of yams, 154 ; of the Southern Qalla and M'Kuafi, 221, 224; of the Mussai, 225; of the Cutch Banians, 268 ; of a Calcutta Hindoo, 268 ; the quantity of food afforded by coral shores, 295 ; and by the natural vegetation of difier- ent countries, 308. Fortified villages of New Zealand, 76 ; of Tongataboo, 81 ; of tho Feejeeans, 162. INDEX. a25 Foula, of Western Africa, 226. Fowler, the profession aboriginal at the Hawaiian Islands, 88. Fowls at the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; at Pleasant Island, 63 ; at the Feejee Islands, 153; absent in aboriginal New Zealand, 76 ; their iatroduction into the Medi- terranean countries, 375. See Domestic fowL Foxes in California, 104 Fragaria, the strawberry, 321, 393, 407. France visited, 280. Frankincense, 378. Franks, or Europeans, 232, 25i. Fra.xinus excelsior, 382. — omus, 390. Frigate-bird, see Tachypetes. Fuci, esculent species at the Ha- waiian Islands, 91, 92; and like- wise a poisonous species, 92. Fiiegians, account of, 9 ; devoid of clothing, 9; their implements analogous to those of North-west America, 10; the Fuegians com- pared with other tribes of the Southern Hemisphere, 10, 11. Fumaria officinalis, 394. Furcrsea gigantea, 344, 367. G. Gaiapagos Islands, character of the zoological productions, 313. Galega officinalis, 410. Galen quoted, 393, 397. Galeopithecus, 314. GaUa tribes, 199, 211, 219. Gambling among the tribes of Inte- rior Oregon, .30 ; among the Chinese, 41; among the Califor- nian tribes, 102. Game rare in Interior Oregon, 27 ; abimdant in North Cahfornia, 104. Gardenia Taitensis, 55, 60, 323, 334. Gardenia florida, 342. Gardner's Island, in the Phoenix coral group, visited. 68. Geese, see Goose. Gems do not appear to have been valued in aborigiaal America, 14 ; among the articles of commerce which in ancient times were transported from the greatest distances, 14 ; Indian Muslims, their traffic in gems, 266. Genoa, 280. Geological structure of the Dekkan, and of the Table-land of Oregon, 24, 276. Geophila reniformis, 324, 334. Gibraltar visited, 252. Giuger, see Zingiber. — in the Monomoisy country, 203. Gipsies, 279, 287. Gleditachia triacanthus, 410. Glycine, a species used for poison^ ing fish at the Feejee Islands, 165. Glyoyrrhiza, liquorice, 396. Gmelina Asiatica, 366. Goat, see Capra hircus. Godaveri, a river of Hindostan, 274, 277. Gomphooarpus fruticosa, 409. Gomphrena globosa, 366, 406. Goose, 355, 360, 369; a species inhabiting the crest of the Peru- vian Andes, 12 ; another species, on the high mountains of the Hawaiian Islands, 93; no tame geese in the Monomoisy countrv, 204. Gooseberry, see Eibes. Gorputi, or Seroor, >■ town in the Dekkan, 274, 277. Gossypium, see Cotton. — religioBum, 324, 333. Gourd, a species known to the an- cient Peruvians, 13 ; see also La- genaria. Grain, unknown among the islanders of the Pacific, 46, 294. Grande Coulee, in Interior Oregon, 25. Granges, 393. Granite of North-west America, 2S. Grape, see Vitis. 426 INDEX. Grass-seed, used for food by tlie Califomian tribes, 102, 108. Gratiola?, 330, 336. Greece -risited, 263. Greyhound, 316, 369. Grus, or crane, a species figured on the Egyptian monuments, 369. GuaohoB of Patagonia, 236, 237. Guava, see Psidium. Guinea, natives of, 207. Guiuearfowl, see Numidia. Guinea-pig, 310. Gum-arabie, 222, 379. Gum-lac, 400. Guzerati Banians, 269 ; Bramins, 369. — language, 250. H. Hadem, of Southern Arabia, 192 ; of the island of Zanzibar, 197; of the delta of the Juba, 199. Hadjerkim in Malta, ruins of, 191, 358. Halyotis shell, used for ornament, in the Straits of De Fuca, and also in California, 20. Hamajauwi of Central Africa, 208. Hameer Arabs, 264. Harafora tribes, 126, 304. Hats, worn in wet weather by the maritime tribes of North-west America, 14 ; the like conical form of hat occurs on the opposite coast of Asia, and in the East Indies, 14; also at the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; a hemispherical hat or cap worn in the Shasty tribe, 110. Hawaii, the island visited, 92. Hawaiian Islands visited, 84 ; Chi- nese at, 38 ; climate of, 85 ; the natives have shown a rema.rkable fondness for mathematics, 86 ; European residents, 84, 238 ; di- versity of races at, 282. Hayti, 287. Hazaeen, or the Somali country, 222. Health in tropical climates, a remark respecting, 64. Hebrew language, 243, 244, 287. Hebrews, 241. Hedera, ivy, 384. Hedgehog, see Erinaceus. Hedjaz Arabs, 259. Hedyotis paniculata, 330, 334. Helianthus, a weed in Oregon, 819. — annuus, 365, 409. Hemp, 385. Henna, see Lawsonia. Herculaneum and Pompeii, 280, 394. Hemandia sonora, 56, 323, 335. Herodotus, his account of the Ethio- pians quoted, 210, 211, 221, 359; his account of a maritime expedi- tion sent by Darius, 245 ; of the ancient Persians, 248, 381; of the complexion of the Egyptians, 254; of the Indian bows, 278 ; of the practice of scalping, 294; of the Calantian Indiaiis, 359 ; plants mentioned by Herodotus, 371, 385. Herpestia monniera, 366. Hervey, or Karatonga group, natives of, 98. Hesiod quoted, 380, 383. Heteropogon, 337. Hibiscus, 331, 333. — trionum, 402. — abelmoschus, 327, 406. — Syiiacus, 402. — tUiaceus (Paritium), 67. — rosa^sinensis, 327, 333, 363. — manihot, 333. — esculentus, the ochra, 850, 401. Hill-forts of India, 277, 353. Hilo, on Hawaii, visited, 92. Himalaya range of mountains, a na* tural barrier of races and nations, 807. Himyaritic monuments, 362. Hindoo customs in North America, 26. Hindoos, 181, 267; the ancient Hin- doos, 363. Hindostan, Eastern, natives of, 180 ; European residents in Hindostan, 240, 286; Western Hindostan, 267; INDEX. 427 formerly four nations in Hindos- tan, 272. Hipponax quoted, 384. History and literature among the Polynesians, how preserved, 90. Holothuria, esculent species, at the Feejee Islands, 153; the biche-le- mar, 163. Homer, the mode of warfare de- Bcribed by him illustrated, 257 ; Homer seems to allude to India, 359 ; plants mentioned by Homer, 371, 380. Honden Island, in the Coral Archi- pelago, visited, 49. Honey-bee, 361, 377 ; honey in the Monomoisy country, 203. Hoom Island, sighted, 97. Hop, see Hiunulus. Hordeum, barley, 320, 362, 376. — murinum, 403. HombiUs, in the East Indies, 125. Horee, among the tribes of Oregon, 22, 26, 29, 34 ; the small breed of the East Indies, 122 ; no horses in the Monomoisy country, 204 ; none among the M'Kuai, 223, 225 ; introduction of horses into Northwest America, 319 ; into the Polynesian Islands, 389 ; the horse figured on the Indian monuments, 356, 360; and on the Egyptian monuments, 373. Horse-chestnut, see .^sculus. Horse-radish, see Cochlearia. Hottentot race, 74, 226. House-fly, see Fly. Household gods of the Hindoos,274. Hoya camosa, 365. Hull's Island, in the Phoenix group, 59. Humulus, the hop, 406. Hunter's Island, near New Cale- donia, visited, 173. Hunter Eiver, in New South Wales, WO- Hunting tribes of Terra del Fuego, 10; of Oregon, 21; of North-west America, 36 ; of ancient America, 38 ; the hunter state does not exist in New Zealand, 75 ; it exists in Australia, 142 ; and in some of the East India Islands, 301, 305. Hyaointhus, 382. Hydroootyle, 324, 334. Hydrophytes, rare at the coral islands. 47. Hyksos, period of the, 215, 374. Hyphsene, the doum-palm, 217, 352, 372. Hyssopus officinalis, 387. I. Ibex, or capricom, 369. Ibis, 369. Man, of Borneo, 43, 126. Idolatry, 248, 256, 267, 269, 357. Igorote, see Ygorotes. Impatiens balsamina, 403. Implements of the Patagonians, 8 ; of the Feejeeans, 10, 11 ; of the natives of Good Success Bay, 10 ; of the ancient Peruvians, 13; of the Chinooks, 16 ; of the tribes north of the Chinooks, 20 ; of the Spokane tribe of Interior Oregon, 26 ; of the/natives of Serle Island, 48 ; of the natives of the Disap- pointment Islands, 50 ; of the Penrhyn Islanders, 52 ; of the Vaitupan Islanders, 68, 61 ; of the Tarawan Islanders, 61 ; of the Sa- moans, 73; of the NewZealanders, 78 ; of the Tonga Islanders, 83 ; of the Hawaiians, 89; of Hoom Island, 97; of theKaratongagroup, 98 ; of the CaUfomian tribes, 109; of the Shasty tribe, 110 ; of the Australians, 142; of the Feejeeans, 152 ; of New Georgia, or the Solo- mon Islands, 177; of the Soahili, 196; of the ancient Hindoos, 355) 366. India visited, 269 ; the antiquities, and the domestic animals and plants, 358. Indian or Telingan race, 180. Indigo, 318, 375. Indigofera, 341. 428 INDEX. Indigofera of the Andes of Peru, 309. ludo-Chinese countries, 136. Indus River, 266, 308, 360. Inga, 341. Innovation, among the Taheitans, 65 I among the Samoans, 72 ; among the New Zealanders, 78, 79 ; at Tongataboo, 81 ; at the Hawaiian Islands, 85; rejected by the Australian tribes, 141 ; inno- vations at Cairo and Alexandria, 279; the slow progress of innova- tion in mountain fastnesses and in other secluded situations, 308. InooarpuB edulis, 327, 333, 341. Inscriptions, ancient, in the caves of India, 356, 367, 359. Introduced animals and plants of the Coral Islands, 53 ; of the Tarawan coral group, 61; of New Zealand, 75; of Luzon, 121; none among the Australian tribes, 141, 142, 143. Inula Arabica, and I. undulata, 383. — helenium, the elecampane, 397. Iowa Tribe, 36. Ipomaea quamoolit, 366. — phcenicea, 366. Iraun, 266. Iris Florentina, 388. Iron, obtained and manufactured by the East African tribes, 199, 206, 225 ; manufactured by the Borneo tribes, 307. Iroquois tribe, 36. Irrigation, aboriginal in Peru, 11; and in the Hawaiian Islands, 88. Italy visited, 280. Ivory, trade in, 199, 202, 206, 222, 374. Ivy, Hedera, 384. Jaok-treb, see Artooarpus. Jair caste, of India, 276. Jambosa vulgaris, 348. — Malacoensis, 324, 334, 349. Janga Tribe, of Central Africaj 208. Japanese, 116, 297. Jasminmn, 365, 404. — sambao, or Mogorium, 403. Jatropha curcas, 350, 367. Jatropha manihot, the cassada, 367 ; cultivated by the Monomoisy, 203, 348; and in aboriginal America, 311. Java, 135. Javelin, the favourite weapon of most of the Polynesian tribes, 48; not tised by the New Zealanders, 76 ; some inferior javelins among the Califomians, 104, 108 ; jave- lins of the Australians, 142 ; of the Feejeeans,152; of the Somali, 217. JeUab of Egypt, 211. Jervis Island, a detached coral island, 60. Jews, 241, 260; the Beni-Israel, 243. Juari, see Sorghum. Juba River, in East Africa, 199, 206, 215. Juggernaut, 368. Juglans regia, the walnut, 390. Jussisea diffusa, 393. — angustifolia, 324, 334. Justicia purpurea, 330, 335. K. Kabyles, 267. Kaffers of South Africa, 206. Kagayan Sooloo, an island in the Sooloo Sea, 131. Kahtan, or Toktau Arabs, 262, 264. Kalanchoe .iJSgyptiaca, 316. Kalapuya tribe, of Western Oregon, 82. Kamas root, 27. Kambinda tribe, of West Africa, 207. Karens of Birmah, 187, 279. Karli, the oaves at, 273, 277, 363. Kasangi tribe, of Western Africa, 207. Kauai, or Tauai, in the Hawaiian group, visited, 91. INDEX. 429 Kauri, see Damirara. Kaya, see Piper methystioum. . . Kawaki, in the Coral Archipelago, 56. Kenneri Caves, 353. Kenoos of Upper Egypt, 212. Kidney-bean, see Phaseolus. KingsmiU, or Tarawam coral group, 61. Klamet tribe, of Western Oregon, 33. Klickatat tribe, of Western Oregon, 32. Klings, or Telinga people, 181. Knowledge, the imparting and geo- graphical progress of, 286, 288, 290. Kooskoosky, a tributary of the Columbia Riyer, 28. Koran quoted, 399. Kordofan, natives of, 208, 209. Kostan of Nubia, 213. Kraals of Africa, 207, 279. Kris of the ancient Hindoos and the modem Arabs, 358. Krishna, worship of, 277. Kroo men of Western Africa, 196. Kshatrya caste of Hindoos, 271. Kylas, at Ellora, 359. KyUingia monocephala, 327, 337, 346. L. Labiat. incert., 331, 335. Lablab, 341, 405. — vulgaris, 324, 334. Lactuca sativa, the lettuce, 349, 385. Ladrone or Marian Islands, 116. Lagenaria, the gourd, in New Zea- &nd, and in the other islands of ^^ the Pacific, 75, 324, 334; in Egypt, 332, 376 ; in the Monomoisy country, 203, 346 ; among the M'Kuafi, 223 ; in aboriginal Ame- rica, 318; in Yemen, 351; in India, 364. Lama of Peru, 310. Lamium amplexicaule, 405. Lampong, of Sumatra, 135. Languages, multiplicity of, in Ore- gon, 23, 30; the analogy with the Mexican, 34 ; languages of the CaUfomian tribes, 106; two divi- sions of American languages, 114 ; language of the Japanese, 118; of the Tagala of Luzon, 123 ; of the proper Malays, 132; a word com- mon to the natives of Australia and New Britain, 145; the Soahili language, 193; language of the aboriginals of Zanzibar, 197; of the Desert Tribes of Nubia, 212 ; of the Somali, 21 8 ; of the M'Kuafi, 223, 224; affiliation of languages, 233, 234; English language, in- creasing in Chili, 236; Hebrew language, 243,244, 287; language of the Parsees, 248, 250 ; languages of Hindostan, 272; succession of languages in the environs of Na- ples, 280 ; extension or imparting of languages, 286; the language used in Hayti, 287 ; a language of words, hardly needed by certain East Indian tribes, 305, 306. Lantana, 366, 409. Lanun of Mindanao, 130. Lapa, or Oparo, natives of, 98. Laplanders, 43. Lapwai, a mission station in Interior Oregon, 28. Lascars, two seen at Sooloo, 128, 181; Lascars at Manila, 181; at Singapore, 181. Lathyrus sativus, 388. Laurus camphora, 400. Lava, blocks of, on Rose Island, 58; lava-streams on Savaii, in the Samoa group, 70; on Hawaii, 92; of Vesuvius, 280. Lavandula, lavender, 380. Lavatera arborea, 402. Lavender, 380. Lawsonia, the henna, 351, 362, 396. Leather, not seen among the Fue- gians, 11; manufactured by the Chinooks, 17; another kind, ma- nufactured by the more northern tribes, 20; manufactured by the 430 INDBI. Klamet tribe, 33; by the Shasty tribe, 110. Leeks, 378. Legends of the Feejeeans, 293 Leghorn, 280. Lemna, 332, 336. Lemon, see Citrus. Lemon-grass, see Andropogon. Lentil, 378. Leonotis leonurus, 368. Leopard of East Africa, 223 j the hunting leopard, 373. Leopard of India, 275. Lepidium sativum, 386. — latifolium, 404. Lettuce, see Lactuca. Leucus decem-dentatus, 328, 335. Libyans, or Berbers, 257. Lichen, an edible species, in Inte- rior Oregon, 26. Ligusticum Peloponnense, 410. Ligustnim vulgare, the privet, 396. Lilac, see Syringa. Lilium candidum, 385. — martagon, 392. Lim^ visited, 11, 189, 236, 282. Lime, see Citrus limonum. Lindemia, 328, 335. Linnaeus quoted, 383. Linum, flax, 362, 373. Lions, sculptured in the ancient Indian caves, 354, 367. Liquorice, see Glycyrrhiza. Literature of the Polynesians, 90, 293 : of the Somali, 218; of the Bugis, 134, 291 ; of the Parsees, 261 ; of Madagascar, 291 ; no hte- rature in Aboriginal America, 294. Lizards, at the Coral Islands, 59, 323, Loasas, of the Andes of Peru, 309. Lobelia, of the Andes of Peru, 309. LoUum, 403. Looggoon, a town in the interior of East Africa, 222. Lote-tree, see Ziziphus. Lousiade, natives of the, 144. LovumaEiver, of East Africa, 205. Lubia, see DoUchos. Lucerne, see Medicago. Luffa, 351, 376. Lufijy River, of East Africa, 206. LupalacoDga tribe, of East A&ica, 226. Lupine, the edible species, 380. Lupines, of the Andes of Pern, 309. Luzon, Igorote of, 43 ; the island visited, 118 ; Negrilloes of Luzon, 178 ; diversity of races, 286. Lycopersicum esoulentum, the com- mon tomato, 321, 408. Lycium, 343. Lynxes, in California, 104. M. Macassar, mentioned by Avicenna, 400. . Madagascar, Malayans of, 137, 196, 197 ; Tehngans of, 187 ; the Va- zimba of, 187, 288 ; negroes of, 189, 196, 197 ; languages of Ma- dagascar, 288 ; character of the zoological productions, 313. Madder, see Bubia. Madeira, visited, 188, 233, 281. Magellanic Archipelago, 8, 297. Mahars, 278. Mahrattas, 257, 269. Maize, see Zea. Makamba or Wakamba Tribe, of East Africa, 199. Makrizi quoted, 401. Makua tribe, of East Africa, 203, 205, 206. Malacca, Straits of, emigration to- wards, 284. Malayan race, 44, 288 ; a trace of, among the people of Hindostau, 138. Malay class of languages, 196, 288. — MusUms, 124, 125, 132, 137; sometimes visit Mocha,138. — Peninsula, a wUd tribe of the, 306. Malikolo, in the New Hebrides group, 177. Maldive Islanders, 137, 300, 301. Mallea Eohrii, 329, 333. Mallow, cultivated in Egypt, 383. INDEX. 431 Malta visited, 190, 191, 252, 285 ; the language of the Maltese, 287. Malum of the Romans, 381. Malva alcea, 394. — sylvestris, and M. vertioillata, 383. Man, in a state of nature, does not exist at the present day, 302 ; various approximations, 305, 306. Manabhawa caste of Hindoos, 277. Manetho quoted, 257, 370, 377. ManiUus quoted, 377. Mangifera Indica, the mango, 341, 347, 351, 357, 361. Mango, see Mangifera. Mangroves, at the Tarawan coral group, 61 ; the fruit of the Bru- guiera, eaten at theFeejee Islands, 154. Manhii, in the Coral Archipelago, 56. Manila visited, 118. Mangsi Islands, in the East Indies, 131. Manu^, in the Samoa group, visited, 69. Manufactures, see Implements. Map, explanation of the accompar nying, 4. Marian or Ladrone Islanders, 116. Mariscus pauiceus, 329, 337. Maritime intercourse in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, 295, 301. Maritime tribes of Terra del Puego, 8 ; of North-west America, 14 ; they are more advanced in the arts than the hunting tribes, 18, 20 ; and more populous, 20 ; the tribes north of the Chinooks, 19, 20, 307. Marquesas Islands, natives of, 98 ; bread-fruit forms the chief sup- port of the inhabitants, 98. Marriage. — Child marriages among the Parsees and Indian Miislims, 250, 267 ; second marriages among Hindoos, 272 ; marriage prohibited in the Manabhawa caste, 277. MarseiUes, 190, 280. MaraUea, 327, 337. Martial quoted, 372. Masks used by the maritime tribes of North-west America, 18, 20 ; by the ancient Mexicans, 34 ; and by the Chinese, 41 ; masks were formerly, in some instances, used by the Hawaiians, 89. Mastich-tree, 387. Matricaria chamomilla, 395. Mats of theVaitupan coral group, chequered, like some made in the East Indies, 61 ; mats of the Chinooks, 17; of the Dungur, 279. Mauai, in the Hawaiian group, visited, 95, Mauna Kea and Mauna Eoa, in the Hawaiian group, 96. Maurandya, 366. Maviha tribe, of East Africa, 205. Mbua, or Sandalwood Bay, in the Peejee Group, 161, 166. Medicago sativa, 388. Mediterranean countries, visited, 190, 208, 211, 243, 253. Melastoma malabathrica, 328, 334. Melia azederaoh, 340, 363, 401. MelUotus officinalis, 381. — coerulea, 410. Melissa officinalis, 392. Melolo, in the Feejee group, 161. Melons, see Cuoumis