m'''^"": . I ,I', 1 i-'.-i'fii^ji.g.,''- [ , ' paMi'**^'ifit^'t'-3i ^'Diiii i!!;!! Mil III AMl^OUETGESMESll^T. ^ O I * < • ^ THE By A. J. H. DUGANNE. ji Seyised and Enlarged JSdition. -#-♦♦— f*-*- This work is now in the Author's hands for revision and extension. The new edition will contain between one and two hundred additional pages, and bringing the historical matter concerning European and Amer- ican States', down to the latest date before issue from the press. It will comprise the amended Constitutions of the United States and of the several States, and accounts of the reconstructed Governments of Ger- many, Italy, and other States of Europe; presenting a complete and accurate view of the progress of Civil Society, and the Structure of National Governments, from the earliest periods to the present time. OF THIS VALUABLE HISTORY, A critical reviewer has said : ".It is impossible to convey an accurate idea of its scope; bo immense is tie amount of information that it gives. It commences at the very out- set of the formation of human society. Gives an account of the natural law of nations, and proceeds to describe the first combination of individ- uals, the patriarchal system, the tribe life, the earliest forms of democracy, the first commonwealths, the formation of aristocratic, autocratic, and hie- rarchal systems. Thenpe the author proceeds to give brief and exceedingly accurate histories of the various kingdoms arid commonwealths of antiquity, none being too small to escape his vigUant scrutiny. Proceeding, he gives graphic delineations of the earliest limited monarchies — such as the Gqjhic, Saxon, Frankish, and Moorish. Then he proceeds to describe the forms of government prevSling in the Middle Ages. Following this, we have admirable descriptions of the modern monarchies : the Persian, Turkish, Japanese, Eussian, Prussian, Austrian,, the smaller German States, the British, Spanish, etc. Then come fall accounts of the Confederations and Republics of Europe, and an admirable clear and concise description of the American Eepublicap States, including a separate history of each State, and its peculiar constitution and government. " This is a vast design to unfold in one volume, but the author was competent to his task. He has not used a superfluous sentence. Every word tells. He has thoroughly and completojy mastered his difficult sub- ject. Dispensing with everything extraneous, he has kept himself to facts, * which he has arranged most oxcellontly, and expressed in terse, vigorous, expUoit terms. A man might read a thousand volumes on these important subjects, and not be as thoroughly wall informed as he can make himself by the perusal of this one volume. It is the cream of the History of Gov- ernments, carefully collected by one who has given years to its study and analyzatlon." OOlTTBlNrTS KATITRAL LAWS OP NA- TIONS. — Combination of Individu- als — Progress of Society— The Patri- archal System — Emigration from the Family — Nomadic; or, Wandering Life — Settled Tribe-life — National Equality — Early Democracy — Par- ties in a Democracy — A Common- wealth or Republic — Independence of a State — Increase of Wealth — Growth of Classes — Representation — Early Aristocracy — Monarchy ; or. Kingly Government — Early Lan- guage of Mankind— Early Religion of Mankind — Origin of Nations — Hierarchal Authority. CONTENTS— Continued. . HTBRARCHAI. SYSTEMS OP GOVERNMENT. — Tlieocracy of tte Hebrews — Ethiopian Hierarchy — Egyptian Hierarchy — Hindu Hie- rarchy — Theocracy of Thibet — Ko- man Hierarchal Monarchy — Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics — Canaanito Republican Tribes — ^Phoe- nician Confederacy — Carthaginian Commercial States — Grecian Tribes — Republic of Athens — Lacedemoni- an Republic — Other Grecian States — Roman Commonwealth. ANCIENT MONARCHIAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. — Assyrian Despotic Monarchy — ^Me- dian Despotism — Persian Despotism — ^Macedonian Military Monarchy — Roman Empire. EARLY UMITBD MONAR- CHIES — ^Gothic Nations — ^Normans and Saxons — Frankish or French Monarchy — Visigoth and Moorish Monarchies. GOVERJSTMENTS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES— Holy Ro- man Empire of Germany — Feudal System of Chivalry — Origin of Sla- very. MORBRN MONARCHIES.— Persian and Turkish Despotisms — Chinese Patriarchal Despotism — Jap- anese Military Despotism — Russian Feudal Despotism — Prussian Mili- tary Despotism — Austrian Absolute Monarchy — Brunswick — Saxony — Wnrtemburg — Danish Kingdom — Norway and Sweden — Government of Great Britain — Spanish Monarchy — ^Portuguese Monarchy — Brazilian Empire — Government of the French — Constitutional Kingdom of Belgi- um — Kingdom of the Netherlands. CONFEDERATIONS AND REPUBLICS OP EUROPE.— German Confederation — Swiss Con- federation — Italian Republics — Han- seatic League of Free Cities — Mod- ern Free Cities. ABrlERICAN REPUBLICAN STATES. — Republican States of North, and South America. GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. — The Presi- dent, the Congress and the Cabinet. STATE GOVERNMENTS OP THE FEDERAL UNION— Under this department is embraced a full and clearly defined Statement of the forms of government imder each of the State Constitutions, from Maine to Oregon. To the foregoing List of Contents will be added in the forthcoming Edition, Chapters on RECONSTRUCTED GOVERNMENTS, Showing the changes that have occurred in the Poli- tics, Laws and Constitutions of our American Repub- lican States, and of the re-organized Governments of Continental Europe; the whole forming a. complete Text-Book of Government History, written in such a concise, comprehensive and interesting style, as to be relished equally by the old and young, the teacher and the student. We offer the following, out of numerous OPIMONS OF THE WORK. FROM DISTRICT ATTOKNBY A. OAKET HALL. IW^'" Its statements of familiar propositions, and its illustrations of politi- cal history, make this professedly 'pupil' book, a means of interest to the professional teacher. It should belong to the common school department of every State, and be introduced by legislative sanction. A subject usually forbidding has become in these pages interesting from simplicity of state- ment, yet accuracy in retention of all the important and philosophical principles of government." FKOM JUDGE J. W. EDMONDS. " I have examined this work with care, and am struck with the plain and simple manner in which are treated the essential elements of history as connected with Gfovemment. 1 cannot but think that it must be an excel- lent school-book. It vrtU be more than that to me, for it is already to me a ' ready reference' to the more important parts of history." PKOM WrLLIAM CUETIS NOYES, LL. D. " I like this book on governments exceedingly. It is full to ovQrflow- ing of what is most valuable, and what aU young persons ought to know. The author's power of compressing, as well as of expression, is remark- able." PROM KET. A. D GILLETTE, D. D. "I consider the issue of such a work most timely. We need just the information this book gives. Its compactness and comprehensiveness are amazing." ■ *** Orders for the New Edition, should be sent in at an early day, to EGBERT M. DE WITT, Publisher, 13 Frattkfort Street, JV. Y. Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031446275 HISTORY OF GOVERNMENTS; SHOWINO THE PEOGHESS OF CIVIL SOCIETT AND THE STRUCTURE OP ANCIENT AND MODERN STATES. AUG. J. H. DUGANNE, AUTHOR or "A COMFREHEHSITE SITUHART OF HISTOBT AND SIOGBAFHT/* "SKETCHSS OP NATURAL AND GENERAL PHIL030FHT," ETC., ETC. §.bapl«b to popular ^tabing anb for tfej ^st of School*, NEW YORK: ROBERT M. DE "WITT, PUBLISHER, 13 FRANKFORT STREET Entered iiecording to Act of Con/rress, In tha yair 1860, Vf ROBERT M. DE WITT, In the Clerk*ti Office of the District Court of tbe United Stutes, for the Southern District of New York. W. H. TiNKo>, SteraolTpflr. flio. RutwBLL & Co., rrinteis. PREFACE AND DEDICATION. The title and table of contents of this book sufficiently indicate its subject and scope. Simplicity of style and accuracy in facts have been main considerations with the author ; and the result is submitted, after much labor and research. A popular treatise upon the principles of various govern- ments has long been needed ; and the work here presented embraces a wide field. To students it offers matter for comparison and judgment. By viewing the workings of their own political system, in connection with others, they may better comprehend the foundation and aims of all human authority. The general reader will find it a synop- sis of governmental structures, valuable for reference in this era of journalism and popular inquiry. All doctrinal views of political, social, or religious ques- tions have been carefully avoided in these pages, which are respectfully dedicated to the people of our Union, by the author, A. J, H. DUGANNE. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. «-=. The Natural Laws of Nations, . . . • . .11 CHAPTER II. Combination of Individuals, . . . . . . •17 CHAPTER III., Progress of Society, ........ 22 CHAPTER rV. The Patriarchal System,. . . . . . . • ^5 CHAPTER V. Emigration frAm the Family, . 28 CHAPTER VI. Nomadic, or Wandering Life, > 3 ' CHAPTER VII. Settled Tribe-life, 34 CHAPTER vm. Natural Equality, • - • 3^ CHAPTER IX. Early Democracy, . . . . . . . • '3^ CHAPTER X. Parties in a Democracy, 4® CHAPTER XI. A Commonwealth or Republic, ... . . 44 iv Contents. CHAPTER XII. PAGB Independence of a State, 45 CHAPTER XIII. Increase of Wealth, ........ 49 CHAPTER XIV. Growth of Classes, ........ 54 CHAPTER XV. Representation, . . . . . . . . -57 CHAPTER XVI. Early Aristocracy, ......... b2 CHAPTER XVII. Monarchy, or Kingly Government, ...... 66 CHAPTER XVIII. Early Language of Mankind, . . . . . . .71 CHAPTER SIX. Early Religion of Mankind, ....... 75 CHAPTER XX. The Origin of Nations, . . . . . . . . 8l CHAPTER XXI. Hierarchal Authority, . . . . . . , .8^ HIEEAECHAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER I. Theocracy of tlie Hebrews, . . . . . _ .81; CHAPTER II. The Ethiopian Hierarchy, ■•..., CHAPTER III. The Egyptian Hierarchy, CHAPTER IV. The Hindu Hierarchy, ...,., ^ CHAPTER V. The Theocracy of Thibet, CHAPTER VI. The Roman Hierarcha] Monarchy, 95 99 107 lis "7 Contents. v ANCIENT REPUBLICAN SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER L Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics, . . . . . 1 20 CHAPTER II. Canaanite Republican Tribes, ..... .124 CHAPTER IIL The Phoenician Confederacy, . . . . . . . iz6 CHAPTER rv. The Carthaginian Commercial States, . . . . .130 CHAPTER V. The Grecian Tribes, . . . . . . . .134 CHAPTER VL The Republic of Athens, . . . . . . .143 CHAPTER VIL The Lacedemonian Republic, . . . . . . .150 CHAPTER Tin. Other Grecian States, . . . . . . . .155 CHAPTER IX. The Roman Commonwealth, . . . . . .161 ANCIENT MONARCHICAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER I. The Assyrian Despotic Monarchy, ...... 183 CHAPTER II. The Medean Despotism, . . . . , . .187 CHAPTER ni. The Persian Despotism, ..... ... igo CHAPTER IV. Macedonian Military Monarchy, ...... 195 CHAPTER V. The Roman Empire, 197 VI Contents, EARLY LIMITED MONARCHIES. CHAPTER I. The Gothic Nations, CHAPTER II. Normans and Saxons, ..... CHAPTER III. The Prankish or French Monarchy, ..... CHAPTER IT. The Visigoth and Moorish Monarchies, .... GOVERNMENTS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. CHAPTER I. The Holy Roman Empire of Germany, .... CHAPTER II. The Feudal System and Chivalry, ..... CHAPTER III. Origin of Slavery, ........ MODERN MONARCHIES. CHAPTER I. Persian and Turkish Despotisms, CHAPTER II. Chinese Patriarchal Despotisms, CHAPTER III. Japanese MiHtary Despotism,. . . . , CHAPTER IV. Russian Feudal Despotism, . . . , CHAPTER V. The Prussian Military Despotism, . CHAPTER VI. The Austrian Absolute Monarchy, . 203 206 ZO8 214 217 Z20 228 234 238 248 252 259 266 Contents. vii CHAPTER Til. rAOE Brunswick — Saxony — Wurtemberg, ...... 269 CHAPTER VIII. The Danish Kingdom, ........ 272 CHAPTER IX. Norway and Sweden, . 274 CHAPTER X. Government of Great Britain, ....... 277 CHAPTER XI. The Spanish Monarchy, . . . . . . .288 CHAPTER XII. The Portuguese Monarchy, ....... 289 CHAPTER XIII. The Brazilian Empire, . . . . . . . .291 CHAPTER XrV. The Government of the French, ...... 292 CHAPTER XT. Constitutional Kingdom of Belgium, ...... 297 CHAPTER XVI. Kingdom of the Netherlands, .298 CONFEDERATIONS AND REPUBLICS OF EUROPE. CHAPTER I. The German Confederation, ....... 300 CHAPTER II. The Swiss Confederation, . 302 CHAPTER III. Italian Republics, ......... 305 CHAPTER IV. Hanseatic League of Free Cities, 3lg CHAPTER V. Modern Free Cities, 320 viii Contents. AOB AMERICAN REPUBLICAN STATES. Republican States of North and South America, . . • 3^^ GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. The President, the Congress, the Judiciary, and the Cabinet, . 331 STATE GOVERNMENTS OF THE FEDERAL UNION. CHAPTER I. State of Maine, 347 CHAPTER II. State of New Hampsliire, 349 CHAPTER III. Stace of Vermont, ........ 350 CHAPTER IV. f tate of Massachusetts, . . . . . . . • 35^ CHAPTER V. State of Rhode Island, 353 CHAPTER VI. State of Connecticut, 354 CHAPTER vn. State of New York, 355 CHAPTER VIII. State of New Jersey, 357 CHAPTER IX. State of Pennsylvania, 359 CHAPTER X. State of Delaware, .361 CHAPTER XI. State of Maryland, 363 Contents. ix CHAPTER XII. p^oj, State of Virginia, 365 CHAPTER Xin. State of North Carolina, . . . . . . . .366 CHAPTER XIV. State of South Carolina, . . . . . . . • 367 CHAPTER XT. State of Georgia, ......... 369 CHAPTER XVI. State of Kentucky, ......... 370 CHAPTER XVII. State of Tennessee, . . . . , . • 'S7^ CHAPTER XVIII. State of Ohio, ......... 373 CHAPTER XIX. State of Louisiana, . . . . . . . . -374 CHAPTER XX. State of Indiana, . 375 CHAPTER XXI. State of Mississippi, 377 CHAPTER XXII. State of Illinois, 378 CHAPTER XXin. State of Alabama, 380 CHAPTER XXIV. State of Missouri, 381 CHAPTER XXV. State of Arkansas, 382 CHAPTER XXVI. State of Michigan, 384 CHAPTER XXVII. State of Florida, 385 X Contents. CHAPTEK XXVIII. tage State of Texas, 386 CHAPTER XXIX. State of Iowa, 388 CHAPTER XXX. State of Wisconsin, . . . . , . . .389 CHAPTER XXXI. State of California, ......... 300 CHAPTER XXXII. State of Minnesota, . . . . , . . .391 CHAPTER XXXin. State of Oregon, . . .391 HISTOKT OF GOYERMEITS. CHAPTER I. THE NATURAL LAWS OF NATIONS. I. — (1.) The progress of every nation resembles the growth of a single human being. (2.) It is also marked by epochs or seasons, like the natural year that divides time. (3.) The first epoch of a nation is its Infancy, or Spring-time, which is the season when im- pressions are made upon it. (4.) The second epoch is its Youth, or Summer-time, which is the season of active labor. (5.) The third epoch is its Prime, or Autumn, which is the season of skill and strength. (6.) The fourth epoch is its Maturity, or Winter, which is the season of steadiness and repose. II. — (1.) In the first epoch the heart of a nation receives impres- sions. (2.) This is because human affections are called into action. (3.) Individuals depend upon each other for assistance and defence. (4.) They help one another to obtain food, and to overcome natural obstacles and dangers. (5.) This mutual assistance forms a bond L — (1.) What does the progress of a nation resemble? (2.) How is it otherwise marked ? (3.) What is said of the first epoch of a nation? (4.) Of the second? (5.) Of the third ? (6.) Of the fourth ? n.— (1.) What takes place in the first epoch ? (2.) Why is this ? (3.) What is said of individuals? (4.) What do they do? (5.) What is the effect of this mutual assistance? (6.) Of what is mutual assistance the beginning? 11 12 History of Governments. to unite one person with another. (6.) It is the beginning of a connection between human beings, which is called Society. III. — (1.) In the second epoch the limls of a nation grow strong and active, (2.) This is because eyery individual seeks to improve his condition, and help others to improve theirs. (3.) One man assists another to hunt, or fish, or build a house. (4.) One person teaches to his fellows whatever he learns himself. (5.) In this way all the individuals act together, like limbs of one body, (6.) They combine their labor and skill, in order that each may be benefited. IV. — (1.) During the second epoch people learn by experience and by observation. (2.) Experience means whatever a person suffers, or undergoes, or enjoys. (3.) When he suffers cold, or undergoes hardship, or enjoys food or drink, he experiences those things. (4.) Observation is the memory of experience, by which it may be known another time. (5.) When a person closes his eyes, he experiences darkness. (6.) When he remembers the darkness he experienced, he may be said to have observed it. V. — (1.) When a person closes his eyes at one time, and opens them at another, he finds the effects different, through observation. (2.) He compares one effect with the other, and learns that shutting his eyes causes darkness, and opening them reveals light. (3.) In this way he explains effects and causes by experience and obser- vation. (4.) This method of explanation becomes constant and familiar. (5.) The individual applies it to everything that occurs in his daily life. m. — (1.) What occurs during the second epoch? (2.) Why is this? (3,) How is this done? (4.) In what other manner? (5.) What is the effect ? (6.) What do they do? IV. — C1-) What else talses place during the second epoch ? (2.) What is mesjit hy JSxperience? (3.) Give an example of experience? (4,) What is Observation? (5.) What is said about experience? (6.) What about observation ? V. — (1.) What is discovered through observation ? (2.) What is learned by these operations ? (3.) What is explained ? (4.) What is said of this explana- tion ? (5.) How does an individual apply it ? The Natural Laws of Nations. 13 VI. — (1.) The result of experience and observation is known by the name of Education. (2.) The term comes from a Latin word, edum, signifying "to lead or draw out." (3.) Experience leads or draws out memory and comparison. (4.) Observation drawg out a person's thoughts, causing intellige9ce. (5.) When education is sound and active, the intelligence of an individual or a nation expands as it proceeds. VII. — {1.) In the third epoch, the body-politic of a nation is formed. (2.) The body-politic means a union of education and activity in the mind and limbs of a community. (3.) This union is known as political life, and causes government or organized power. (4.) Government signifies the power of regulating the actions of a number of individuals, according to the desire of one, or several, or all. VIII. — (1.) In the fourth epoch, a nation ought to be peaceful and strong. (2.) All persons in a community ought to be alike to one another, as members of the body-politic. (3.) One should be assisted in obtaining happiness in the same way that another is assisted. (4.) The life of one person should be safe just as the life of another is safe. (5.) Accordingly as the mind and heart of a nation have been educated, this will be the case or not. (6.) If they have been guided properly in the three former epochs, the fourth epoch will be quiet and secure. (T.) If they have beea misdirected in those seasons, the fourth will be marked with trouble and suffering. IX. (I.) The same laws of health and happiness that apply to a VI. — (1.) How is the result of these operations known? (2.) From what does the term proceed? (3.) What does experience draw out? (4.) What does observation draw out ? (6.) What is said of education ? Vn. — (1.) What takes place at the third epoch ? (2.) What is meant by the body-politic? (8.) What about this union ? (4.) What does government signify ? Vm. — (1.) What ought to be the character of the fourth epoch? (2.) What is said of persons in a community ? (3.) What should be done ? (4.) What should be secured? (3.) On what does this depend? (6.) What if they have been properly guided ? (7.) What if they have been misdirected f TTT . ^1.) What is remarked concerning the laws of health and happiness? 14 History of Governments. humaa individual apply also to a community. (2.) A community or nation signifies a number of persons combined. (3.) It is a col- lection or multiplication of individuals. (4.) The proper education of a nation begins with the proper teaching of one person as a member of the collection. X. — (1.) A collection of several individuals is called society. (2.) When they are combined to help each other, they become or- ganized, and form a state or nation. (3.) When they make regula- tions to guide one another, they create a government, and their regulations are known as laws. XI. — (1.) An organized collection of individuals is the body- politic. (2.) If an individual is in health he stands erect, and is able to move and act as a human being. (3.) His blood flows in regular currents, and every limb or organ performs its functions in harmony with other limbs and organs. (4.) A state is in health when the rights and duties of every member are distinctly defined and clearly understood. (5.) When the interests of citizens do not conflict, a community or body-politic is said to enjoy political and social health. XII. — (1.) No human body enjoys unvarying health, with entire freedom from pain or liability to contract disease. (2.) In every stage of life, the human body is susceptible to injury from many causes. (3.) Changes of climate and temperature, and other agen- cies, interrupt the continuance of bodily health. XIII. — (1.) In like manner, no community or body-politic has (2.) What does a community signify? (3.) Of what is it a collection? (4.) How does its proper education begin? X.— (1.) What is the collection of individuals called? (2.) How do they become organized, and what do they then form? (3.) What takes place when they make regulations ? XI.— (1.) Explain the body-politici (2.') What is said of an individual in health ? (3.) How is his health manifested ? (4.) When is a body-politic oi state in health ? (5.) How is the health of a community known ? XII.— (1.) What is said about a human body? (2.) To what is the body Busceptible ? (3.) What interrupt its health ? XnL— (1.) AVhat is remarked in regard to the community or body-politif f The Natural Laws of Nations. 15 been known to endure, for any long period, without abuses of its political weU-beiug. (2.) Derangements take place, because social life is subject to change and injury, just as individual life is liable to the same. (3.) It is to preserve the individual bodily health that the skill of physicians and aid of medicine are found necessary. (4.) In the same way, laws and regulations of government are re- quisite to maintain social and political health. (5.) These laws must correct all deviations from just principles, and secure to every element of society its proper place and action. XrV. — (1.) A wise physician knows that entire physical health is not compatible with mortal life. (2.) He applies his knowledge and skill to the discovery of causes and cures of disease. (3.) In like manner, a good statesman or citizen does not look for perfection in the operations of any political system. (4.) He seeks, through experience and observation, to discover what form and spirit of laws are best fitted to meet the wants of combined individuals or society. (5.) He endeavors to harmonize, as far as possible, all the elements of a community. (6.) He tries to equalize their po- litical and social rights, privileges, burdens, and benefits. XV. — (1.) Every human body is liable to be attacked by outward elements dangerous to its health. (2.) Too much heat or cold, water, fire, wind, and other forces, threaten it always. (3.) Every human body is subject to abuse, derangement, and decay, from neglect or injury. (4.) Every body-politic or community is also opposed by foreign elements, or enemies. (5.) It is liable to inter- nal disorders, growing out of a disregard of rights and duties. (6.) Political and social health suffer more or less from these causes. (2.) Why do derangements take place f (3.) What are necessary to preserve bodily health in an individual? (4.) What are requisite for social and political health? (5.) What must these laws effect? XIV. — (1.) What is said of a wise physician ? (2.) How does he apply his knowledge and skill? (3.) What about a good citizen? (4.) What does be seek ? (5.) What is his endeavor ? (6.) How does he effect this ? XV (1.) To what is the human body liable ? (2.) What threaten it ? (3.) To -what is it subject ? (4.) How does the body-politic resemble the human body? (5.) To what is the body-politic liable? (6.) Whs*, result takes place ? if> History of Governments. XVI. — (1.) Danger threatens a state on account of the neigh- borhood of ambitious or unruly states foreign to itself. (2.) Dan- ger threatens it from the attacks of wandering people who come out of other parts of the earth in quest of subsistence. (3.) Dis- order may arise in a community by reason of its containing bad men, wlio contrive to usurp power. (4.) Its members maybe de- prived of rights, or have unjust burdens imposed upon them. XVII. — (1.) When a human body possesses robust^ natural health, it is in a condition to endure or resist outward attacks. (2.) If it loses some vitality, the loss is soon repaired, because its life-currents are not obstructed. (3.) All its natural forces act in harmony with each other. (4.) The possession of a sound bodily system renders an individual less liable to injuries from without. (5.) He is not in danger of disease so long as he keeps his system properly nourished and protected. (6.) Some portion of his body must be weakened before disease can attack him. XVIII. — (1.) A body-politic is influenced by similar causes, and undergoes like operations. (2.) Its health and life are governed by laws, and subject to agencies of injury, corresponding to those which affect an individual. (3.) As " the child " is said to be " father of the man," so an individual serves as a type or pattern of the state. XVI. — tl.) How may dangers threaten a state ? (2.) To what other danger is it liable ? (3.) What else may arise ? {i.) What may result from this ? XVH. — (1.) What is said of a healthy human body? (2.) What if it loses some vitality ? (3.) How do its natural forces act ? (4.) How is an individual bene6ted by a sound bodily system ? (o.) What advantage does he possess? (6.) What must take place to cause disease ? XVlll.— (1.) What is said of a body-politic ? (2.) How are its health and life governed ? (3.) What remark is made concerning an individual? CHAPTER II. COMBINATION OF INDIVIDUALS. I. — (1.) The spring-time, or infancy, of a community is its season of natural health. (2.) This is more or less robust according to the harmony that exists between the individuals combined together. (3.) In a combination of individuals, each person may be independ- ent of every other person. (4.) He may, on the other hand, relin- quish a portion of his independence and submit to be ruled by one or more of his fellows. II. — (1.) In the infancy of every community, each individual mem- ber of it acted more or less independently of all other members. (2.) The body-politic was developed and strengthened in proportion to the development and growth of the individuals combined. (3.) The experience of one man guided others, and his observations assisted all to whom he made them known. (4.) The experience and observations of each formed a stock of knowledge for the com- munity. III. — (1.) Every individual was master of his own actions, but all were mutally dependent. (2.) This was because they exchanged one another's experiences and discoveries. (3.) Mutual dependence was the link of hnman intercourse, and organized society proceeded out of it by degrees. rV. — (1.) A solitary human being might be able to tame wild L — (1.) "What is the spring-time of a community? (2.) What about its health ? (3.) What may be the character of a combination ? (4.) What may each individual relinquish ? n. — (1.) What about the infancy of every community ? (2.) How was the body-politic developed ? (3.) What took plaee in such a community ? (4.) What was formed ? ra — (1.) What is said of every individual? (2.) Why was this? (3.) What is said concerning mutual dependence? IV. — (1.) What individual power might a solitary human being possess? l8 History of Governments. animals and make them his companions and servants. (2.) He could teach the dog to guard his hut, and the horse to bear his burden. (3.) But his combination with dogs and horses could not form a state. (4.) This is because the bond of a state, or com- munity, consists of mutual sympathy and understanding, expressed by human language and affections. (5.) Such a bond could not ex- ist between man and the brute creation. V. — (1.) A state, or human society, must be founded in relations of sympathy, affection, and interest. (2.) Accordingly as these re- lations harmonize or conflict, so the community is healthy or other- wise. (3.) Common interests and objects of society are founded upon privileges and rights of individuals. (4.) The first right of an individual man is his right to live, the second is his right to be free, and the third is his right to seek happiness. VI. — (1,^ If two human individuals dwell together, in a place otherwise uninhabited by man, their intercourse is known as society. (2.) Their combination, for mutual assistance and defence, consti- tutes the simplest form of a community. (3.) Such combination may be called a state in its infancy. (4.) If one of the two indi- viduals snares game in the forest, and the other takes fish in the river, and they divide these spoils, they establish a community of food or subsistence. (5.) If one keeps watch while the other sleeps, to guard against dangerous animals, they form a community of de- fence. (6.) If they sympathize with each other in tastes and hab- its, they constitute a community of friendship or affection, (t.) Com- bined in this manner they are a healthy society, or state. VII. — (1.) If a third individual be added to the community of (2.) What could he do ? (3.) What could he not accomplish? (4.) What was the reason? (5.) Where could not such a bond exist? V. — (1.) On what'must a state be founded? (2.) What is said regarding these relations ? (3.) On what are common interests and objects founded? (4.) What are the rights of every individual? VL — (1.) Explain what is meant by society? (2.) What is a simple commu- nity? (3.) What may it be called ? (4.) What is a community of subsistence? {5.) Describe a community of defence? (6.) What is a community of friend- ship ? (9.) What does this constitute ? VII. — (1.) What may cause a separation of interests in a simple community" Combination of Individuals. 19 two, a separation of interests may take place. (2.) The third per- son may possess greater physical strength, or be more crafty than the others, and so claim a superiority or authority. (3.) He may be able to unite one of the original companions to himself, and then make the third a servant, through fear. (4.) Should such a sepa- ration of interests take place, the society would no longer consti- tute a healthy community. (5.) The authority of one individual over his companions, maintained by his superior strength or cunning, and because of their weakness, would be disease. (6.) It would disturb the relations that before existed, and endanger the individ- ual rights of life, of liberty, and of happiness. VIII. — (1.) The forced inferiority of a portion of the small community to another portion would allow unequal burdens to be imposed upon the weakest. (2.) The rights and interests of the latter would then be destroyed. (3.) This Would cause disorder in the entire body-politic. (4.) Such disorder, and conflict of individ- ual interests, would soon endanger the community's existence. IX. — (1.) The injured or oppressed persons might manifest their sufferings by outward speech or action. (2.) Such manifestations in a community are termed divisions, conspiracies, rebellions and revolutions. (3.) Sometimes they act like spasms of pain in a hu- man body. (4.) They are always an evidence that disease or derangement exists, and that the community seeks relief from its afflictions. Z. — (1.) Every human body containing life mnst possess some power to manifest that life. (2.) A diseased body-politic, or nation. (2.) What may the third person possess and claim ? (3.) What may he be able to do ? (4;) What would be the effect ? (5.) What would the third person's authority be ? (6.) Why would it be disease ? VIH. — (1.) What would forced inferiority of a portion allow? (2.) What would be destroyed? (3.) What would this cause? (4.) What would it en- danger ? IX. — (1.) How would the disorder be shown ? (2.) What are such manifes- tations called? (3.) How do they sometimes act ? (4.) Of what are they an evidence ? X. — (1.) What about every human body? (2.) What of a diseased nation ? 20 History of Governments. may have healthy citizens who know when the state is disordered. (3.) The healthy citizens use their faculties to show others where disease exists. (4.) This sometimes occasions a morement of all, and changes the whole state. (5.) Such a change is known as revolution. XI. — (1.) If three persons in a community of five submit to obey a single person as their rnler, they surrender their right to be inde- pendent. (2.) The agreement of three out of five to obey, gives one the privilege to command. (3.) The state then becomes a monarchy, and the one who commands is king. (4.) If four obey one in everything, his authority is absolute. (5.) The state is then a despotism. (6.) If four obey one only at certain times, and for certain purposes, and are independent otherwise, the ruler's authority is restricted. (7.) The state is then a limited monarchy. XII. — (1.) If five persons forming a community agree that three may make all regulations, and that one shall see those regulations observed, the state becomes republican. (2.) The three persons who make regulations are the legislature, or law-making power. (3.) The one who takes care of their observance is the magistrate, or executive power. (4.) This is the form of government called a popular republic. (5.) It is popular because the larger number of all the people agree in organizing the state. XIII. — (1.) If three persons of the five choose a fourth to make the laws, telling him what kind of laws they wish made, the single person represents all. (2.) The state then becomes a repre- sentative popular republic. (8.) If the three choose another to be (3.) What do healthy citizens do? (4.) What does this occasion? (5.) What is thejjhange called ? XI. — (1.) What is said of a community of five? (2.) What follows this ? (3.) What takes place in the state ? (4.) What makes absolute authority ? (5.) What is the state then called? (6.) What makes restricted authority? (Y.) What does the state then become ? XH.— (1.) How is a republic formed? (2.) What is the Legislature? (3.) What is the ExecutiTe power? (4.) What is such form of government called ? (5.) Why is It popular ? Xm. — (1.) How may one person represent all? (2.) What is such a form of government called? (3.) How is a representative monarchy formed? Combination of Individuals. 21 kiug, according to the laws they have made, they organize a repre- sentative monarchy. (4.) If they allow a eon or daughter of the king to succeed the father without their interference, the state becomes a hereditary monarchy. (5.) Three out of five have always a right to change or modify any form of government. (6.) This is because three form the larger number, or majority, of five. (7.) Whenever they surrender this right entirely, the state becomes diseased. XIV. — (1.) In studying the history of mankind we meet with various forms of government. (2.) Many of these forms have been the cause of disorder in the state. (3.) History tells us how the people of states have tried to escape disorder by changes of gov- ernment. (4. ) The history of every nation is an account of individuals endeavoring to combine their several interests. (5.) Those interests have always been comprised in the right of each person to live, to be free, and to seek for happiness. XV. — (1.) When any government is capable of securing every individual the enjoyment of his rights, the nation in which that individual lives may be called healthy. (2.) All persons have an" equal interest in maintaining such a state or nation, as an entire body-politic. (3.) It is only by good government that individual rights can be protected. (4.) It is the duty of every person in a community to assist in making good government. (4.) What makes a hereditary monarchy? (6.) What is said of three persons out of five ? (6.) Why is this ? (Y.) What occurs when this right is sur- rendered ? XIV. — (1.) What do we meet with, in studying history? (2.) What have many of these forms caused ? (3.) What are we told by history ? (i.) What is the history of every nation ? (5.) In what are those interests comprised? XV. — (1.) When is a nation healthy ? (2.) In what have all persons an in- terest? (3.) How are individual rights protected? (4.) What is every per- son's duty? CHAPTEE III. PROGRESS OF SOCIETT. I.— (1.) The Creator of all things saw fit, in his wisdom, to leave the first parents of onr race to the guidance of their own instincts. (2.) The development of their capacities was to proceed out of the experience of each individual. (3.) This experience was to be gained in combination with other individuals. II. — (1.) Divine foresight had measured the difficulties through which mankind was to work out its destiny. (2.) God gave to each object that he created certain capacities. (3.) He placed all the stores and forces of nature at the disposal of human beings alone III. — (1.) Mankind was to become powerful and enlightened by a simple and natural progression. (2.) Daily experience, and cer- tain laws of growth and expansion, were to direct and govern every person. (8.) The same laws were applicable, in a more limited degree, to the vegetable and geological world. IV". — (1.) An oak-tree could not spring at once to luxuriant maturity, but must grow gradually. (2.) Its growth is assisted by various natural forces. (3.) These forces work in harmonious combination. v. — (1.) Heat, light, and moisture, contribute their assistance I. — (1.) What is said of the Creator? (2.) How was the development to proceed ? (3.) How was each person's experience to be gained? n. — (1.) Wh&t had Divine foresight done ? (2.) What did God give to each creature ? (3.) How did He distinguish human beings? TTT . — (1.) How was man to be developed? (2.) What were to direct every person? (3.) To what were the same laws applicable ? IV. — (1.) What is said of an oak tree? (2.) How is its growth assisted? (3.) How do these forces work ? y, (1.) What three elements of nature contribute their assistance? Progress of Society. 23 to the life of every tree. (2.) From a small acorn hidden in the earth, a tender sprout springs upward. (3.) The sprout grows, and becomes clothed with bark, branches, and leaves. VI. — (1.) In like gradual process, the sun's heat draws mist from the earth. (2.) Clouds gather in the air, and rain descends from them. (3.) Firstly a small mountain stream is formed. (4.) This stream widens into a river, and broadens into a lake. VII. — (1.) In course of time trees wither, and molder back into earth. (2.) They then undergo new influences of nature. (3.) They become hardened into foundations for new forests. VIII. — (1.) Thus the laws of growth, development, and change, govern physical nature. (2.) The same laws, overwatched by an all-wise Creator, regulate mankind in its progression. (3.) Indivi- duals and nations are alike governed by them. IX. — (1.) Mankind is first observed as a pair. (2.) This is the relation or community of husband and wife. (3.) The intelligence of this community was first measured by the extent of its expe- rience and observation. (4.) Its desires were limited by the instincts of human nature. X. — (1.) Experience showed the convenience of personal cover- ing, as protection against heat or cold. (2.) Observation taught the utility of precaution and defence. (3.) Weapons were invented and used against wild animals. (4.) The first rude attempt at building was made by arranging some bower or hut for shelter. (2.) How does growth proceed ? (3.) What progressive changes take place ? VI.— (1.) Wh£it does the sun's heat do? (2.) What happens then? (3.) What is first formed from the falling rain ? (4.) What then follows ? Vn. — (1.) What takes place in course of time? (2.) What do they undergo? (3.) What do they become ? Vm. — (1.) What is said concerning certain laws? (2.) What further is remarked? (3.) How do these laws operate ? IX. — (1.) How is mankind first observed ? (2.) What relation is this ? (3.) How was the intelligence of this community measured? (4.) How were its desires limited ? X. — (1.) What did experience show to this first community? (2.) What did observation teach ? (3.) What about weapons ? (4.) What about building ? 24 History of Governments. XI. — (1.) By experience the changes of temperatnre and alter- nation of seasons became known. (2.) Obserration revealed the growth of vegetation. (3.) The community learned the time of seed and of harvest, of winter and summer. XII. — (1.) The stores and forces of nature opened to mankind a source of unfailing subsistence. (2.) It became known that exer- tion was necessary on the part of each individual. (3.) The community learned to provide simple stores of clothing and food for its wants. (4.) These stores accumulated, and were kept for future use. (5.) They thus became separated from the general stores of nature, common to wild and domestic animals. XIII. — (1.) The collection of such simple articles of use, for their reservation by the community, was the beginning of owner- ship. (2.) The articles kept became property. (8.) The idea of property, or ownership, thus grew out of prudence in reserving stores for the future. XIV. — (1.) The community was to grow larger, and a new bond of interest was to be added to the household. (2.) The family of two, or husband and wife, was to become a family, or community, of three — husband, wife, and child. XI. — (1.) What became known by experience ? (2.) What did observation reveal ? (3.) What did the community learn ? XH. — (1.) What was now opened to mankind ? (2.) What was also shown to be necessary ? (3.) What did the community learn ? (4.) What of these stores ? (5.) From what were these stores separated ? Xm. — (1.) What was the beginning of ownership? (2.) What did the articles become ? (3.) Prom what did the idea of property grow ? XIV.— (1.) What was to take place in the community? (2.) What wag the family of husband and wife to become ? CHAPTER IV. THE PATRIARCHAL SYSTEM. I. — (1.) The community of husband, wife, and child, was the first form of familism, or domestic society. (2.) As time passed, the members of this community grew numerous. (3.) It became neces- sary to distinguish one individual from another, by more particular designations than the terms, parents, brethren, and children. (4.) Male and female names were bestowed or adopted. (5.) The division and classification of descendants then began. II. — (1.) The first-born son and his children were supposed to represent a direct succession. (2.) They were held distinct from the descendants of the second-born son. (.3.) This separation of children was made for the convenience of the household or family society. (4.) It was the first step toward wider social, and future political, divisions. III.- — (1.) The distinction enjoyed by a first-born son and his descendants constituted what was called their birthright. (2.) They claimed a sort of authority over their other brethren, from genera- tion to generation. IV. — (1.) The first father was considered during his life to be head of the household. (2.) He exercised the highest influence in deciding differences. (3.) He dispensed such lessons of knowledge as his more extensive experience and observation had accumulated. I. — (1.) What is said of the community of husband, wife, and child? (2.) What took place as time passed ? (3.) What became necessary ? (4.) What was then done ? (5.) What was begun ? n.— (1.) — What were the first-born supposed to represent? (2.) How were their descendants held ? (3.) Why was this separation made? (4.) To what did it lead ? ni. — (1.) What constituted birthright? (2.) What claim did this birth- right allow ? IV (1) How was the first father regarded? (2.) What did he exercise? (3.) What did he dispense ? 26 History of Governments. v.— (1.) la this relatioa the first-born was venerated and obeyed by his children and their offspring. (2.) He occupied the position of father or patriarch. (3.) His authority constituted that form of domestic control which is called, in history, the patriarchal government. VI. — (1.) The Bible gives an account of patriarchal authority, as it existed in the family of our first parents. (2.) This form of authority continued through the families of Noah, and later still, through the households of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. VII.— (1.) Sucl> authority was the first kind of human regulation recognized by man in his infant state. (2.) It was founded upon affection and reverence for the head of the family. VIII. — (1.) At this period of history the term of mortal life was a long one. (2.) The authority of a patriarch was extended over several generations of his descendants. IX. — (1.) Children, as they grew up, were taught their relations toward the head of the family. (2.) They learned to heed his counsels and submit to his authority. X. — (1.) The patriarchal regulation was a very necessary and natural one in the household. (2.) This was because the Jitart, or affections, are impressed during a nation's infancy. (3.) The child- ren revered the father, and trusted in his superior knowledge and prior experience. (4.) The father ruled the children through love and respect which they bore to him. V. — (1.) What was the effect of this relation ? (2.) What was the position of the first-born ? (3.) What did his authority constitute ? VI. — (!.■) What booli gives an account concerning patriarchal authority? (2.) What is said of this form ? Vn.— (1.) What was this authority ? (2.) On what was it founded ? Vin.— (1.) What is said of mortal life at this period? (2.) How did this influence the patriarchal authority ? IX.— (1.) What were children taught? (2.) What did they learn? X.— (1.) What is said regarding the patriarchal regulation ? (2.) Why was this? (3.) How did children regard the father? (4.) How did the father rule the children ? The Patriarchal System. 27 XI. — (1.) A patriarch occupied the first place at all times; for him the children gathered fruits and flowers, and to him the youths ap- plied for counsel. (2.) The wife, or partner, shared his love, and looked np to him with affectionate confidence. XII. — (1.) The Patriarchal System is noticed in all the earliest records of our race. (2.) It is practised, with slight modifications, at the present time, in many parts of the earth. (3.) Eude com- munities, not yet expanded into the relations of organized govern- ment, usually dwell under a patriarch. XIII. — (1.) In portions of Asia and Africa, numerous communi- ties or families are regulated by patriarchal systems. (2.) House- holds and claus of Arabian and Tartar races are each governed by a central Sheikh or Father. (3.) Their mode of government is the same as was practised in the earliest times under Abraham. XIV.— (1.) The word Patriardi signifies Father. (2.) It de- notes the relationship of head, or chief, of a family. (3.) The Greek word from which it is derived, ivas Patriarches {■na-piapxn^)- (4.) This signifies head, or principal, of the patria, {narpia), or fam- ily. (5.) It was formed of two Greek words, pater (jraTep), father, and arches (apxog), a chief. (6.) In later times, the title patridus, the Latin word for father, was bestowed on nobles and senators in Rome. (7.) The Eoman higher class was called the patrician class. SI. — (1.) What distinctions did the patriarch enjoy? (2.) What relation did his wife or partner bear to the patriarch ? SH.— (1.) Where is the Patriarchal Systena noticed ? (2.) Does it still con- tinue ? (3.) What sort of communities are usually under a patriarch ? Xm. — (1.) Where do numerous communities of this kind now exist? (2.) What is said of Arabian and Tartar races ? (3.) What of their mode of government? XIV. — (1.) What does the \roTi patriarch signify ? (2.) What does it denote ? (3.) From what is the term derived? (4.) What does that signify ? (5.) How was the Greek word formed ? (6.) What is said about the word patricius / (7.) What was the patrician class of Rome ? CHAPTER V. EMIGRATION FROM THE FAMILY. I. — (1.) The patriarchal system was dependent upon bonds of kindred and domestic relations. (2.) Its sphere was the house- hold, or united family. (3.) It was influential in proportion to the respect that all the members of a domestic community accorded to the chief father. II. — (1.) As time passed and families multiplied, the central control began to lose force. (3.) The patriarch increased in years, and his age caused a loss of bodily and mental vigor. (3.) Younger members of the family expanded in capacity and knowledge. (4.) New wants and separate interests grew up by degrees. III. — (1.) The superiority claimed by descendants of the first- born son, began to create discontent. (2.) Those who were de- scended from the second, third, and other sons of the first father, grew dissatisfied. (3.) This caused rivalry between various lines or branches of descent. (4.) As the right of ownership iu property became defined, the various branches began to compete with each other in accumulating good-. IV, — (1.) The effect of such rivalry was to make a separation of household interests. (2.) It led to the occupation, by different branches, of separate fields and dwelling-places. (3.) One brother and his descendants lived apart from another brother and his descend- ants. I. — (1.) On what was the patriarchal system dependent? (2.) What was its sphere? (3.) How was it influential ? n. — (1.) What tooli place as time passed ? {'2.) What is said of the patri- arch ? (3.) What concerning other members of the family ? (4.) What grew up by degrees ? in. — (1.) What created discontent? (2.) Who grew dissatisfied? (3.) What did this cause ? (4.) What then occurred? IV (1.) What effect had such rivalry? (2.) To what did it lead? (3.) What was the result? 23 Emigration from the Family. 29 v. — (1.) It soon came to pass that oae of the branches grew tired of patriarchal authority and desired to separate altogether from the rest. (2.) The head of such a branch then collected his wealth, consisting of arms, clothing, and simple implements of in- dustry. (3.) He gathered his wife, children, and dependents, to journey with him from the place where they dwelt. (4.) He bade farewell to his brethren and the patriarch, and set forth with his followers, to wander in search of some other plain or valley. (5.) He sought to be independent of control, and to find better fields or more abundant game. VI. — (1.) This was the first emigration, or passage from one locality of dwelling to another that promised superior benefits. (2.) Experience had satisfied man that the patriarchal system was not suited to his wants. (3.) He wandered away, to better his con- dition. VII. — (1.) The first emigrants abandoned the general family,to seek their fortune in untried wilds. (2.) They unconsciously became the pioneers of national life. (3.) Their progress was to be the measure of mankind's march toward future civilization. VIII. — (1.) Emigration usually results from a desire to escape restrictions, hardships, or privations. (2.) Human beings change their homes, to find other localities where human wishes may be satisfied and human conditions bettered. IX. — (1.) Just such human desires and efforts influenced the first wanderers from a household. (2.) They sought out other dwelling- V. — (1.) What soon came to pass? (2.) How did the head of such a branch proceed? (3.) What else did he do? (4.) To what did he bid farewell? (5.) What did he seek? VI. — (1.) What was this movement? (2.) What had experience done! (.3.) What was the object of man's wandering. Vn.— (1.) What did the first emigrants do? (2.) What did they uncon- sciously become? (3.) What was their progress to be? Vm. — (1.) From what does emigration result? (2.) Why do human beings change their homes? IX. — (1.) What influenced the first wanderers ? (2.) What did they seeij 30 History of Governments. places, ill order to form communities. (3.) Similar motives impel savage tribes and families at the present day, in some parts of the earth. (4 ) They pass their original limits, and locate in other territories, and sometimes among other peoples. X. — (1.) The first emigrants wandered to a sheltered valley, by the borders of a river, or to the sea shore. (2.) There they pitched tents or built rude huts. (3.) There they began anew the system of family government, or else combined themselves in a tribe or clan. XI. — (1.) In combining as a tribe, the community became known under the name or title borne by its leader or head. (2.) Such name was likewise used to distinguish the district or area of country where the tribe located its dwellings. XII. — (1.) We read in the Bible that Canaan, a grandson of Noah, gave his name to his followers and kindred who dwelt with hira. (2.) They became known as the tribe or people of Canaan, and were called Canaanites. (3.) The territory which they occu- pied, with their habitations, was known as the land of Canaan or the land of the Canaanites. (3.) What is said of the same motives now ? (4.) What do these tribes do ? Z. — (1.) Whither did the first emigrants wander? (2.) What did they do? (3.) What did they begin ? XI. — (1.) How did the community become l;nown? (2.) What did the name also distinguish ? Xn.— (1.) What do we read in the Bible? (2.) What were they called? (8.) How was their territory known? CHAPTEK VI. NOMADIC, OE WANDERING LIFE. *: I. — (1.) A RUDE family of men, women, and children, in the wil- derness, could only depend upon their skill and courage to procure the necessaries of life. (2.) They travelled from one forest or plain to another, seeking good hunting-grounds, where they might snare or kill game. II. — (1.) This wandering kind of existence was called by the Greeks nomadic life. (2.) Nomadic comes from a Greek word nomadiJios {vouadiKog). (3.) It signifies wandering or living by grazing. (4.) Most of the early nomads travelled with asses or camels, and stopped at places where grass was plenty. III. — (1.) Some tribes were destitute of beasts of burden. (2.) These depended on their own limbs and weapons for security and subsistence. (3.) They hunted and killed wild animals to ob- tain food and clothing. IV. — (1.) At the present day, there are tribes that wander, hunt, and fish, just as there were in the earliest ages of the world. (2.) Arabs and Tartars generally live by pasturing flocks in the wil- dernesses of Asia. (3.) The red tribes of America subsist on game and fruits. (4.) Both races dwell in tents or huts, and move from place to place in the manner of ancient tribes. I. — (1.) On what could a wandering family depend? (2.) What did its members do ? n. — ( 1.) What was this mode of existence called ? (2.) From what does the word "nomadic" come? (3.) What does this word signify? (4.) How did most early nomads travel? in._(l.) What is said of some tribes? (2.) On what did these depend? (S.) What did they do? IV._(1.) What are there at the present day? (2.) How do Arabs and Tartars live? (3.) How do the red American tribes subsist? (4.) In what respects do these races resemble each other ? 81 32 History ot (jovernments. V. — (1.) Jealousy of restraint aud dislike to obey fellow indi- viduals, caused the first emigrants to prefer a wandering life. (2.) In a wilderness they could select their own abodes and hunting- fields, aud be independent of other men. (3.) Freedom of shoice and desire of change became constant motives of action. VI. — (1.) The property possessed by each individual, in a tribe that wandered in search of game, was of little value. (2.) It was usually confined to clothing, arms, and other necessaries. (3.) No individuarcould boast of superiority on account of what he owned. (4.) He could only claim to be stronger, braver, or more skillful than another. (5.) The property most valtred by the tribe was a good hunting-ground, where all could find game. VII. — (1.) When a hunting community became at variance with another tribe, the cause of quarrel was generally a dispute concern- ing the possession of some hunting-ground. (2.) Sometimes the difficulty arose from a grievance inflicted by an individual of one tribe on an individual of another. VIII. — (1.) In a war between two hunting tribes, each sought to kill as many individuals as possible. (2.) If prisoners were taken they were either tortured to death or adopted as members of the tribe capturing them. (3.) Captives were seldom or never made to serve as slaves. IX. — (1.) Slaves were of no use among a tribe of hunters, be- cause there was no labor for them to perform. (2.) The males of such a tribe killed their own game, and their food and clothing v. — (1). What caused the first emigrants to prefer a wandering life? (2.) What advantage had they in a wilderness ? (3.) What were their motives of action ? VI. — (1.) What is said concerning property in a hunting tribe? (2.) To what articles was it usually confined ? (3.) Of what could no individual boast ? (4.) What alone could he claim ? (8.) What property was most valued ? Vn. — (1.) What was generally a cause of quarrel between hunting tribes? (2.) What other cause sometimes occurred? VIII. — (1.) What was sought in the warfare of such tribes? (2.) What was done with prisoners? (3.) What is said of captives? IX. — (1.) Why were slaves not made by a hunting tribe f (2.) What is Nomadic, or Wandering Life. 33 were prepared by tlie females. (3.) Slaves could not be profitable to a community that existed only by the chase. X. — (1.) When a wandering tribe became stationary in some district of country, tbe condition of nomadism was changed to that of setllenient, or Y\\\a.ge life. (2.) Settlement consisted in establish- ing a locality, or permanent dwelling-place, and there making habi- tations for all the families of the tribe. XI. — (1.) Settlement was the beginning of social and political growth. (2.) A settled or located tribe was a nation in its infancy. (3.) Here commenced the regular tillage of ground, and the culti- vation of corn and frmt.s. (4.) Here man ceased to depend altogether upon the chase for his livelihood. (5.) He looked to seed-time and harvest as means of supplying his wants. XII. — (1.) We must trace the progress of such a settled community through changing forms of growth, organization, and regulation. (2.) By this means we may understand what is meant by government. (3.) We shall learn in what respects one kind of government may differ from another. XIII. — (1.) We recollect, in this connection, that every commun- ity, or body-politic, is like a single human being. (2.) It is subject to injury and disease, as well as to laws of health and growth. (3.) We .sihall find that each community has suffered or enjoyed, ac- cording as it departed from, or adhered to, the rules of health and prudence. (4.) It has possessed real power in proportion as its members were individually free and useful. (5.) It has decayed and perished, because its citizens were personally neglected or abused. said regarding such a tribe ? (3.) What is said about the profit of slaves ? X. — (1.) What took place when a tribe became stationary? (2.) In what did settlement consist ? SI. — (].) Of what was settlement the beginning ? (2.) What was a settled tribe? (.3.) What here commenced? (4.) What did man here cease to depend upon ? (a.) To what did he look ? 211. — (1.) What must we now do? (2.) What shall we understand by this means ? (3.) What else shall we learn ? XIII.— (1.) What do we recollect? (2.) To what is it subject? (3.) What shall we find? (4.) How has a community possessed real power ? (6.) Why has it decayed and perished ? 2" CHAPTER VII, SETTLED TRIBE-LIFE. I. — (1.) In the earliest settled life of a tribe it enjoyed robust health and rude independence. (2.) Individuals were combined only through kindred and friendship. (3.) Each savage individual went hither or thither as he liked. (4.) He was responsible for his actions only to himself. II. — (1.) In the beginning of tribe-life, property consisted of the individual's cabin, or tent, his arms, net, and clothing. (2.) To these were added, rude house implements and ornaments for his wife and children. III. — (1.) The male members of the tribe went in companies to hunt or fish. (2.) All provision obtained was either consumed immediately, or kept in a common store for future use. IV. — (1.) This combination of individuals was the simplest form of tribe-life. (2.) Individuals did not collect personal wealth, or property, in the form of cattle and land. (3.) The desire to accumulate did not cause rivalry between different individuals. ■y. — (1.) The community depended for subsistence upon tilling the soil more than upon hunting and fishing. (2.) A division of responsibility here took place. (3.) The men went out in com- I. — (1.) What did a. tribe enjoy in its earliest settled life ? (2.) How were individuals combined ? (3.) What did each savage do ? (4.) To whom was he responsible ? II. — (1.) Of what did property consist? (2.) What were added? in. — (1.) What is said of the male members of a tribe ? (2.) What was done with provision ? IV. — (1.) What was this combination ? (2.) What is said about property ? (3.) What was the effect of this? v.— (1.) On what did the community mostly depend for subsistence ? (2.) What took plnca ? (3.) What did the men Of such » community do ? »4 Settled Tribe-life. 35' panies to hunt or fight. (4.) The woraea prepared grouud for seed and gathered in the harvest. VI. — (1.) When the products of the chase and of the soil were collected, they were placed in store for future use. (2.) At stated seasons shares were distributed among all the different families of the community. VII. — (1.) We find' this form of tribe-life among savages of North and South America at the present day. (2.) They dwell in villages of huts, or tents, cultivate the soil, and hunt wild animals ibr food. VIII. — (1.) In earliest tribe-life, all idea of ownership iu property was confined to the bow and spear, clothing or armor of skins, and tlie hut or tent used for habitation. (2.) These articles of property were distinguished by some mark chosen by the owner. (3.) This mark might be the figure of a turtle, a snake, a tree, a bird, fish, or beast. (4.) By its use, on his clothing or person, one savage became known from another. IX. — (1.) The dwelling of every savage was left in charge of the women. (2.) The women had care of children and domestic animals. (3.) Every man, in his own dwelling, was sovereign, and independent of all other men. (4.) Each savage exercised undis- puted authority over his own family and dependents. X. — (1.) All females occupied inferior or subject positions. (2.) They performed the hand-labor and domestic service. (3.) They (4.) How did the women of such a community occupy themselves ? VI. — (1.) What was done with products of the chase and the soil? (2.) How were they afterward disposed ? VII. — (1.) What do we discover at the present day? (2.) What is their mode of life ? VIII. — (1.) To what was all idea of property confined? (2.) How were these articles distinguished ? (3.) What might this mark be ? (4.) Of what importance was such a mark ? IX. — (1.) Who had charge of every dwelling? (2.) Who took care of chil- dren and animals? (3.) What was every savage in his own dwelling? (4.) What did each exercise ? X.— (1.) What position did females occupy? (2.) What did they perform? (3.) What else is said concerning the labor of females, and their condition f 36 History ot (jovernments. cultivated the ground, prepared food, and were the slaves cf their male superiors. (4.) Their condition was rendered easier by the relations which they held as wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters. XL— (1.) The combination of a tribe, in this manner, secured almost entire independence to every individual. (2.) The right of each man to personal life and liberty was recognized. (3.) Every savage pursued his own happiness ia the manner he deemed best. CHAPTER VIII. NATURAL EQUALITT. i. — (1.) Permanent inferiority of one man to another was not known in earliest tribe-life. (2.) Eauk or grade was not claimed except as it arose naturally from an individual's strength or talent. II. — (1.) The most skillful hunter was a leader cf the chase. (2.) The most valorous warrior was chief of a hostile expedition against a rival tribe. (3.) When hunting vfas over, or war ended, a leader or chief went back to his place among the rest. III. — (1.) A savage community, existing in this form of simple independence and equality, was a healthy state. (2.) Independence and equality are natural elements of human society. (3.) Natural (4.) By what relations was the condition of females rendered easier ? XI. — (1.) What did such a combination as this secure? (2.) What was recognized ? (3.) What did every savage do ? I. — (1.) What was not known in earliest tribe-life ? (2.) What was not claimed ? II (1.) Who was a leader of the chase ? (2.) Who was chief in a war party ? (3.) What became of him afterward ? III. — (1.) What was a savage community in this form? (2.) What are natural elements of human society ? (3.) On what is natural independence Natural Equality. 37 independence is founded on an individual's consciousness of man- hood. (4.) Natural equality is asserted by the natural dislike of one human being to be controlled by another human being. IV. — (1.) Every individual in simple tribe-life was equal to another. (2.) No person claimed or exercised more authority than tlie whole community, or the people, might be willing to allow him. V. — (1.) In such a simple tribe we find the earliest form of popular government or sovereignty of the people. (2.) All authority, wielded at certain times by a leader, was simply an authority allowed by consent of the whole tribe. VT. — (1.) When a tribe deliberated, individuals came together as individuals. (2.) Speech or action was more or .less independent, according to the personal character of a speaker or actor. VII. — (1.) All the savages seated themselves on the ground, and entered into discussion according to ability. (2.) Wisdom, experience, eloquence, craft, or boldness, were thus developed. (3.) The influence of each man was measured by the power or attraction of his personal character. VIII. — (1.) This popular combination, in a rude, savage tribe, was its mode of government. (2.) Independence of each member, and equality of one with another, were the features of such a govern- ment. (3.) The authority or power of the whole tribe, or people, was exercised by all together, or through persons selected by all. IS. — (1.) A popular combination of this kind is known as founded ? (4.) In what manner is natural equality said to be asserted ? IV. — (1.) What was every individual in simple tribe life ? (2.) What waa the limit of personal authority ? V. — (1.) What do we find in such a tribe? (2.) What was the character of all individual authority ? VI. — (1.) How did the tribe meet to deliberate ? (2.) What was the charac- ter of speech or action ? VII. — (1.) What did all the savages do? (2.) What were thus developed? (3.) How was each man's influence measured? Vm (1.) What was the popular combination in a tribe ? (3.) What were its features ? (3.) How was authority exercised ? IX. — (1.) By what distinguishing name is such a popukr combination known? 38 History of Governments. democracy. (2.) Democracy means the people's power, or popular sovereignty. (3.) The word "democracy" is derived from two Greek words, {demos) dTjjiog i. e. "the people," and kratos {Kgarog), power, or krateo (Kparew), to govern. (4.) They signify, the power or authority of the people. CHAPTER 15. EARLY DEMOCRACY. I. — (1.) Simple democracy could be made practical only in a small tribe, or community. (2.) Its foundation was an agreement or consent of all the people to any course of action. II. — (1.) It was not necessary that every individual member of the tribe should express his consent. (2.) The will, or voice of the larger number, or majority, and the consent or submission of the smaller number, or minority, was an agreement of the whole people. III. — (1.) The democratic principle rested on a sovereignty of numbers, or majorities. (2.) It provided that a few should yield or agree to the expressed desire of many. (3.) It allowed every individual to be heard, for or against any measure or purpose, before it was decided. IV. — (1.) In a council, or public meeting, every male member of a savage democracy claimed the right to take part. (2.) His (2) What is meant by Democracy? (3.) How is the word derived? (4.) What do these words signify? I. — (1.) Where was simple democracy practical? (2.) What was its foundation? IL— (1.) What was not necessary? (2.) What constituted a democratic agreement ? m. — (1.) On what did the democratic principle rest? (2.) What did it provide ? (3.) What did it allow ? rV. — (1.) What did every male savage claim ? (2.) What was hia in- fluence ? Early Democracy. 39 voice, or opinion, possessed influeuce jnst in proportion to his per- sonal ability, or his popularity with others. V. — (1.) Each individual savage submitted to the expressed will of the greatest number. (2.) This principle governs every democratic body, whether it meet in a savage village, or in a civilized city. VI. — (1.) The origin of all assemblies of the people, as they now exist iu communities, may be traced to savage tribe-life. (2.) All the warriors and hunters associated in council. (3.) They con- stituted, when together, a popular, law-making body. (4.) The old men of the tribe formed a smaller body. (5.) They represented the reflection and prudence of the whole community. (6.) They were called the Elders, or wise men, and exercised influence by reason of their experience. VII. — (1.) The meeting of all the male members of the rude community was the basis of democracy, or popular rule. (2.) The more limited council of elders gave advice when necessary. VIII. — (1.) Out of the two bodies a number of old men were selected, as agents. (2.) These agents carried measures into action, when agreed upon. (3.) The persons selected became tem- porary magistrates, or leaders. (4.) They performed only what was directed by the whole tribe. (5.) They administered the authority of the tribe. (6.) They constituted the first delegated government, or executive power. IX. — (1.) All popular governments resemble this simple organiza- V. — (1.) How did each individual act? (2.) What is said of this principle of submission ? VI. — (1.) What is said about assemblies of the people? (2 ) What did all tlie warriors and hunters do? (3.) What did they constitute when together? (4.) What did the old men form ? (5.) What did they represent? (6.) What were they called ? Vn. — (1.) What was the basis of democracy? (2.) What was the council of Elders ? Vm (1.) What were selected? (2.) What did these agents do? (3.) What were they ? (4.) What did they perform ? (5.) What did they administer ? (6.) What did they constitute ? IX.— (1.) Whit is here remarked concerning all popular governments? 40 History of Governments. tion of a, savage, democratic tribe. (2.) The Eoman popular meet- ings, or assemblies of the people, decided all measures of importance. (3.) They elected delegates or agents to administer their will. (4.) The Eoman Senate was a body of'elder citizens, selected on account of superior judgment, virtue, and experience. (5.) This body prepared regulations, and suggested measures, which the people adopted in their Assembly. (6.) The Eoman tribunes, or consuls, were agents chosen to administer law and preserve order in the state. X. — (1.) The earliest history of savage tribes shows that com- bined human individuals naturally establish popular or democratic bodies, to make and carry out their own regulations. (2) This indicates the natural and best form of government in larger states and nations. CHAPTEE S. PARTIES IN A DEMOCRACY, I. — (1.) We perceive that in early tribe-life each individual held himself the equal of another. (2.) We also see that all met in council, for exchange of independent opinions. II. — (I.) When a tribe met to deliberate in the council, its mem- bers learned to understand one another's wishes and opinions. (2.) When they afterward mingled in war or hunting, the bonds of intimacy between individuals and families grew stronger. (2.) What did the Roman assemblies decide ? (3.) Whit did they elect ? (4.) What was the Roman Senate ? (5.) What did the Senate do ? (6 ) Who were the Roman Tribunes, and what were their duties ? 3C.— (1.) What is shown by the earliest history of tribes? (2.) What does this indicate ? I. — ^(1.) What do we see in early tribe-life ? (2.) What else do we see ? n. — (1.) What did men learn in council? (2.) What afterward took place ? Parties in a Democracy. 41 III. — (1.) A feeling of fi-ieudship between man and man was fostered. (2.) They associated in danger and hardship, and expe- rienced grief or joy in companionship. (3.) They learned to know and esteem each other in greater or less degrees. IV. — (1.) In rude cominunities, tliis feeling of friendship was greatly stimulated. (2.) The brotherly intimacy of two or more individuals furnishes many interesting episodes of history. (3.) The friendship that existed between Jonathan and David is recorded in the Bible. (4.) This was no uncommon kind of association in early times. (5.) 'We read that pairs of Gallic youths bound their left wrists together with a chain, so that in battle, or even death, they might not be separated. "V. — (1.) A sentiment of friendship marked the intercourse, more or less, of all members of a savage tribe. (2.) They were accustomed to regard each other, and their own community, as superior to all stranger individuals or tribes. VI. — (1.) This feeling of exclusive regard extended to the locality where a tribe dwelt. (2.) The people learned to love their habitations, fields and hunting-grounds. (3.) Here was founded the sentiment of fatriutism. (4.) Patriotism means the affection that a person feels for his native country. VII. — (1.) It was natural that certain individuals of a tribe should possess skill, bravery, generosity, and other attractive quali- ties, in a larger share than others. (2.) Such individuals grew to be highly esteemed by their associates. (3.) They gained the favor and confidence of their whole tribe. m (1.) What was fosteret} ? (2.) What did they do ? (3.) What did they learn ? IV. — (1.) Where was this feeling stimulated? (2.) What is said about brotherly intercourse ? (3.) What is recorded in the Bible ? (4.) What is said respecting this ? (5.) What do we read concerning Gallic youths ? v.— (1.) What was a feature of savage tribes? (2.) To what were their members accustomed ? VI (1.) Where did this feeling extend? (2) What did the people learn? (3.) What was here founded ? (4.) What does patriotism mean ? VII (1.) What was natural ? (2.) What was the effect of this ? (3.) What did they often gain ? 42 History of Governments. VIII. — (1.) When the council of a tribe decided on any course of action, it became necessary to have agents to carry the decision into effect. (2.) The favorites of a tribe were selected as these a,gents. (3.) They became, for a time, leaders or captains of the tribe, to conduct any necessary action. (4.) They were assisted by as many hunters or warriors as the business required. IX. — (1.) If a warlike expedition ended prosperously, its leaders become greater favorites than before. (2.) A habit of conndence in their abilities and respect for their opinions grew up among their companions. X. — (1.) Favorite men in this way became leaders on various occasions. (2.) They could always count on devoted adherents. (3.) The independence of individuals was endangered through the personal respect inspired by such a leader. XI. — (1.) The custom of deference and respect to a favorite led to a habit of obedience. (2.) Some were ready to support his authority as a superior, or chief. (3.) But a meeting of the people was still the foundation of all combined power. (4.) A leading savage was only looked upon as an equal among equals, in assem- blies of the tribe. XII. — (1.) A single man's popularity was not pleasing to all. (2.) Other able and ambitious men became more or less jealous of his influence over the tribe. (3.) These jealous individuals had their own admirers and adherents among members of the body-politic. (4.) One demagogue, or popular leader, became a check upon Vin. — (1.) What became necessary? (2.) Who were chosen as agents ? (3.) What did they become? (4.) How were they assisted? IX.— (1.) What occurred after a prosperous expedition ? (2.) What grew up? X. — (1.) What did favorites become? (2.) On what could they always count? (3.) What was endangered? XI. — (1.) To what did the custom of respect lead? (2.) What were some ready to do? (3.) What was the meeting of the people? (4.) How was a leading savage loolced upon ? XII. — (1.) What is said of his popularity? (2.) Who were jealous of his influence ? (3.) What is said of these other men ? (■!.) How did they operate ? Parties in a Democracy. 43 another. (5.) The followers of one arrayed themselves in the council against the followers of another. XIII. — (1.) This was the origin of parties, or factions, in a com- munity. (2.) So long as their leaders contended only for the pub- lic good, no ill effects followed. (3.) When they were nearly equal in numbers, the power of one was a balance to the power of another. XIV. — (1.) Free individuals, with independent judgment and opinions, always take sides on questions of policy. (2.) Every democratic or representative organization is distinguished by parties in opposition. (3.) Each party becomes watchful of the other. (4.) They help to maintain the balance of power that is necessary to public security. XV. — (1.) Whenever one party, or faction, in a state, first sought to establish power by force, it became dangerous. (2.) When it succeeded in suppressing the independent action of any other party, the individuals lost their freedom. (3.) The state fell a prey to disease in the shape of absolute power or misrule. (5.) What did the followers of various leaders in a democracy do? Xm. — (1.) Of what was this the origin? (2.) Were these parties good or bad? (3.) How did they operate when nearly equal in numbers ? SIV. — (1.) What is said of free individuals ? (2.) How are democratic organi- zations distinguished ? (3.) What does each party become ? (4.) How do they operate ? XV — (1.) When did a party become dangerous? (2.) When did the indi- viduals lose their freedom ? (3.) To what did the state fall a prey ? CHAPTER XI. A COMMONWEALTH OR REPUBLIC. I. — (1.) Every iudividual in a popular or democratic tribe, felt an interest iu the peril or welfare of every other individual member. (2.) A sentiment of common dependence and sympathy was recon- ciled with personal independence and freedom. II.— .(1.) A savage who injured another was held responsible by his tribe to the family of the aggrieved man. (2.) If the offence were one for which apology or amends could be made, the whole tribe tried to make peace. (3.) When compensation or punishment was demanded, the entire community enforced the claim. III. — (I.) The matter was settled without written laws, and only by the popular expression of individual judgment. (2.) A savage body-politic was the guardian and guaranty of all its members. (3.) All persons were bound to preserve to each the right of life, liberty and happiness. IV. — (1.) The interest that one individual shares with another in any community, is an interest in the commonwealth. (2.) The commonwealth means all that is required to give every man his natural rights as a member of the community. 'V.^(I.) A commonwealth is otherwise known as a republic. (2.) All states governed more or less by the people themselves, are I. — (1.) What did every individual in a popular tribe feel? (2.) Wiiat were reconciled ? II. — (1.) What is said of a savage who injured another? (2.) What was then done ? (3.) What did the community enforce ? m. — (1.) How was the matter settled? (2.) What was a savage body- politic 1 (3 ) What were all bound to do ? IV. — (1.) What is said of mutual interests? (2.) What is meant by the commonwealth ? V. — (1.) How is a commonwealth otherwise known ? (2.) What are com monwealths or republics? (3.) What is a democratic republic? (4.) What a Independence of a State. 45 common wealths or republics. (3.) A Stat.e in which authority comes directly from all the people, is a democratic commonwealth or republic. (4.) Every human iudividual is naturally a democrat and a republican. VI. — (1.) As an individual, he is jealous of any assumption of authority on the part of another individual. (2.) As a democrat, he respects any power that is based upon mutual agreement of all the people. VII. — (1.) As a republican, he feels an interest in the liberty and prosperity of his fellow-individuals. (2.) He recognizes the com- bined body-politic to be the guaranty of his own personal security. VIII. — (1.) The term republic is derived from a Latin word, respMica. (2.) It means common or general things or interests, i. e., commonwealth. (3.) The original Greek derivative is ta koina (ja Kotva), signifying things or affairs of a community. CHAPTER Xir. INDEPENDENCE OF A STATE. I. — (1.) A SAVAGE democracy was an independent body-politic, sovereign in itself. ''2. "I It refused allegiance or respect to any other body-politic. II. — (1.) It was liable to be attacked by the people of another tribe, stronger in arms or numbers. (2.) It might thus be reduced to enforced dependence or servitude. is every human iudividual naturally? VI. — (1.) How does man act, as an individual? (2.) What does he respect, as a democrat ? Vn (1.) Hoiv does be feel, as a republican ? (2.) What does he recognize ? Vm (1.) From what is the word republic derived ? (2.) What does it mean ? (3.) What does the original Greek word signify? I. — (1.) What was a savage democracy ? (2.) What did it refuse ? II. — (1.) To what was such a democracy liable? (2.) What might happen to it ? 46 History of Governments. III. — (1.) Many savage communities have been destroyed in this manner, while in a democratic stage of progression. (2.) They perished in infancy, as a human individual is cut oif when a child. IV.— (1.) Other bodies politic survived and continued the deve- lopment of social human existence. (2.) In following the progress of a single community, without negard to other combinations, we trace the course of civil society. v. — (1.) We see the sentiment of friendship strengthened in a tribe by intimacy of association, under mutual trials and experiences. (2.) We find it ripened into a love of locality and birth-place, which is called patriotism. VI. — (1.) The sentiments of friendship, and patriotism related to fellow-members of the tribe and to the community itself. (2.) Op- posite feelings were encouraged toward other men and communities. VII. — (1.) A feeling of dislike or suspicion was felt toward individuals not belonging to the tribe. (2.) A contempt of the land occupied by obnoxious strangers was generally encouraged. VIII. — (1.) A savage individual was inspired by kindly senti- ments in his intercourse with savages of his own tribe. (2.) He formed ties of sympathy with them that could only be broken by death. (3.) On the other hand, he distrusted strangers ; he regarded strange individuals and tribes as natural foes of himself and race. IX. — (1.) The natural jealousy that every individual felt, regard- ing another's authority, protected his own independence. (2.) His m. — (1.) What is said of many savage communities? (2.) When did they perish ? rV. — (1.) What survived ? (2.) How shall we trace the progress of society ? V. — (1.) What do we see ? (2.) fl'hat else do we find? VI. — (1.) To what did the sentiments of friendship and patriotism relate ? (2.) What is said of opposite feelings ? VII. — (1.) What was felt regarding foreigners ? (2.) What other sentiment was encouraged ? Vni. — (1.) What is said of the intercourse of savages in their own tribe? (2.) What ties did each savage form ? (3.) How did he look upon strangers ? IX. — (1.) How was the independence of an individual protected within his own tribe ? (2.) How was his liberty secured ? Independence of a State. 47 claim to be an equal of any other man, secured his own personal liberty. X. — (1.) The jealousy that one tribe felt toward another, main- tained its own independence as a tribe. (2.) The pride of one tribe, in its own power or spirit, was a safeguard to its rude freedom. XL — (1.) The dislike or jealousy entertained by one savage tribe toward another tribe, caused a close combination of all the members of each community. (2.) This combination insured an independent separation of one tribe from another. (3.) By tliis means every independent community grew to be self-reliant and sov- ereign by itself. XII. — (1.) When war arose; all the members of a tribe com- bined, as one man, to resist any hostile assault. (2.) Their union in this way gave them strength to withstand the attacks of a larger power. XIII. — ^(1.) War was often the means of uniting the members of a tribe more closely in defence of each other. (2.) This pre- vented the destruction or dispersion of their community. (3.) War also caused one tribe to compete with another in gaining strength, skill, and wealth. XIV. — (1.) The meeting of individuals with each other, in the popular councils of a tribe, was the means of strengthening their acquaintanceship and social relations. (2.) When they gathered for mutual defence against foreign force, their friendship for each other became enlarged into love of country. X. — (1.) How was the independence of a tribe maintained? (2.) Wliat is paid of the pride of a savage tribe ? XL — (1.) What did the dislike or jealousy of a tribe cause? (2.) What did Hie combination insure ? (.3.) What was the effect ? XII. — (1.) What effect had war on the members of an independent tribe? (2.) What was the effect of this union ? Xm. — (1.) Of what was war the means? (2.) What did this prevent ? (3.) What did it also cause ? XIV. — (1.) What is said of popular meetings ? (2.) What did their friend- ship afterward become ? 48 History of Governments. XV". — (1.) The existence of one tribe separate from another, caused trade and other intercourse between them, as between indi- viduals (2.) The separation often occasioned events that distinguished one community from another. (3.) These events were remembered and recorded as history. XVI. — (1.) The rivalship of separate communities produced the same result' as the competition of individuals. (2.) It preserved the independence of tribes, and occasioned incidents, to be recorded for the example of mankind. XVII. — (1.) Individuals of a tribe were to learn by experience and observation, whatever was necessary for their ultimate welfare. (2.) Communities, or nations, were to profit by the experience and trials of other distinct communities, as recorded in history. XVIII. — (1.) Different tribes were permitted by the Creator to grow up and become hostile to each other. (2.) The experiment of each one's life as a body-politic was thus tried independently, with its own members. XIX. — (1.) Different forms of government were allowed to be instituted. (2.) They were to be proved good or bad by the experience of the people who established them. XX. — (1.) The record of all governments and their effects upon public affairs, is before our own consideration, as students. (2.) We can examine them through the light of history, and thus learn to appreciate the best form of government. XV — (1.) AThit was caused by separate existence of tribes? (2.) What did this separation often occasion. (3.) What is said concerning history ? XVT. — (1.) What is said of the rivalship of separate communities? (2.) What was the consequence? XVn — (1.) What were individuals of a tribe destined to learn ? (2.) How did communities resemble individuals in this particular ? XVm. — (1.) How did the Creator permit communities to grow up? (2 ) What was the design of God in permitting this ? SIX. — (1.) What were allowed to be instituted? (2 ) What was to result from this independent action ? XX.^1.) What is now before our consideration as students? (2.) How shall we c-camine this important matter ? CHAPTEE XIII. INCREASE OF WEALTH. I. — (1.) An early savage democracy exhibited individualism, or personal independence, in agreement with combination. (2.) There was no positive regulation existing between members of the tribe, except a respect for natural rights. II. — (1.) Personal bravery was relied upon as protection of per- sonal security. (2.) When iujuries were suffered, retaliation was allowed to the degree or amount of wrong inflicted. m. — (1.) Property iu a tribe accumulated by degrees through various means. (2.) It increased according to the activity of com- petition between individuals. IV. — (1.) The common store, by which a combined tribe made provision for the wants of all its members, was a prudent measure while the community was small, lilie a single family. (2.) When numbers increased, each individual sought to provide for his own household. V. — (1.) Competition then commenced between one man and another. (2.) Each tried to obtain, and to appropriate to his own use, whatever was regarded as wealth or property. VI. — (1.) Corn and fruits were collected, cattle were raised, and clothing, arms and ornaments were accumulated. (2.) Each L — (1.) What was exhibited in an early savage democracy ? (2.) Did any compact exist between members of a tribe ? II. — (1.) What was the protection for personal security? (2.) What is said of retaliation? in. — (1.) How did property accumulate ? (2.) How did it increase ? IV. — (1.) What is said regarding the common store? (2.) What took place afterward ? V. — (i.) What did each individual seek ? (2 ) What did each try to do I VI. — (1.) What was the result of this competition? (2.) How was pro- perty distinguished ? Q 49 50 History of Governments. collection was kept in the separate field or dwelling-place of the individual who collected it, VII. — (1.) Erery cabin became a store-house for the man and the family who occupied it. (2.) This or that ox, sheep, ass, weapon, or armor, was identified as the property of this or that individual. (3.) It was guarded by his personal care from being appropriated by any other member of the tribe. VIII. — (1.) The collection of articles for his own use by one savage excited the emulation of others. (2.) The desire to amass grew stronger as the practice of collecting continued. IX. — (1.) One individual, by superior skill, or, better fortune, was able to accumulate faster than another. (2.) He became the possessor of large numbers of cattle and quantities of goods. X. — (1.) When individuals went out to war they often came back with spoils wrested from their defeated enemies. (2.) The victors were accustomed to divide their spoils among themselves. XI. — (1.) Such spoils usually consisted of cattle, goods, and arms. (2.) Sometimes they comprised captives, taken in battle, or dragged from their homes. (3.) The captives were regarded as property, like cattle and armor, and were divided with other plunder. XII. — (1.) The possession of slaves thus grew out of the settled life of a community. (2.) Enemies who would have been slain out- right, or reserved for torture, by a tribe of hunters, were captured by a settled tribe, in order that they might be made servants. Vn. — (1.) What did every cabin become ? (2.) Wliat is said of property ? (3.) How -was it guarded ? Vm. — (1.) Wliat is said of the collection of property ? (2.) What of the desire to amass ? IX.— (1.) What followed the pursuit of wealth ? (2.) What was the effect ? S. — (1.) What was the result of a warlilve expedition ? (2.) How were spoils divided? XI. — (1.) Of what did these spoils usually consist? (2.) What else did they comprise ? (3.) How were these regarded ? XII.— (1.) What is said about the possession of slaves? (2.) What about enemies ? Increase of Wealth. ^l XIII. — (1.) Each captive became a means of increasing tlie profit of a settled savage. (2.) He relieved his master of labor in the field and habitation. XIV. — (1.) A soldier who returned with a captive either made him his own slave, or transferred him to another member of the tribe as a gift, or for a price. (2.) It soon grew customary to expose and sell prisoners in the streets or markets. XV. — (1.) The dangerous influence of increasing wealth now began to be felt. (2.) It caused a disturbance of that equality which had previously existed between all members of the com- munity. XVI. — (1.) When plunder was divided among families whose males had taken part in a war expedition, the leader's share was usually larger than that of others. (2.) He thus had favors at his disposal to a greater extent than his fellows. XVII. — (1.) Sometimes such a leader distributed his share among those whom he desired to attach to his interest. (2.) The recipients often became his personal adherents. XVIII. — (1.) In this way wealth accumulated in the hands of a portion of the community who were more fortunate or more skillful than others. (2.) Plunder in war, increase of flocks, products of the soil, and captives, were continual sources of wealth to some individuals. Xni. — (1.) Of what was eTery captive made a, means? (2.) What did he do? XrV. — (1.) How did traffic in slaves originate ? (2.) What afterward became customary ? XV.— (1.) What was now felt in the savage community ? (2.) What did it cause ? XVI. — (1.) What is said about a division of the plunder talsen ? (2.) What advantage would a leader thus have ? XVn. — (1.) What did a leader sometimes do ? (2.) What was the effect ? XVin. — (1.) What is said regarding wealth ? (2.) What were the sources of wealth ? 52 History of Governments. XIX.— (1.) There were other members of the community who lacked energy and skill, or were less fortunate than their fellows. (2.) These failed to gather so much property. (3.) They lived in the households of richer friends or relatives. (4.) They assisted the latter in cultivating the soil, manufacturing arms and clothing, watching herds, or building dwellings. XX. — (1.) When captives were made slaves, the poor members of a savage democracy found themselves unnecessary to their richer fellow-citizens. (2.) This was because the labors of field and household were transferred to the slaves. XXI. — (1.) Poor citizens were obliged to occupy, with their families, a position much like that of the slaves. (2.) The wealthy could remain idle, letting servants do all the work necessary for their support. XXII. — (1.) Wealth in the hands of a few individuals was de- structive of independent character in many who remained poor. (2.) Democratic sentiment, through which the people ordered all public affairs, began to decline. (3.) The power of riches possessed by ambitious men began to undermine popular power. XXIII. — (1.) The combined strength of the community ap- peared to be greater, but only because its numbers were greater. f2.) Sympathy between individuals was weakened because rich and poor no longer counted on mutual friendship. (3.) Slaves multi- plied, but were allowed no rights. (4.) Poor men multiplied, but their interests in the commonwealth decreased. XIX. — (1.) Were all the members of a tribe thus wealthy? (2.) What is said of these ? (3.) How did these subsist ? (4.) How did the poorer class occupy themselves to procure a livelihood ? XX. — (1.) What was the effect of slavery on this poorer class of the com- munity ? (2.) Why was this ? XXI. — (1.) What position did the poorer citizens occupy ? (2.) What could the wealthy do ? XXII.— (1.) What evils were now felt? (2.) What began to decline? (3.) What was undermined ? XXm. — (1.) Was the combined community stronger at this period? (2.) How was the state injured ? (3.) What is said of slaves? (4.) What of poor men ? Increase oi Wealth. 53 XXIV. — (1.) The forced relation of master and slave placed one pei:)On entirely at the disposal of another. (2.) This contra- dicted the principle of equality formerly recognized between man and man. XXV. — (1.) The labor of slares, in household, and field, and market, was injurious to their owners. (2.) It allowed the latter to live in idleness, and to pursue only their own pleasures. XXVI. — (1.) Owners of goods, houses, cattle, and slaves, were able to command labor and service from their destitute and depend- ent fellow-citizens. (2.) Unthrifty, or unfortunate men, were obliged to live precariously, without store for future necessities. XXVII. — (1.) The body-politic no longer possessed a simple democratic character. (2.) Its members were divided into classes. (3.) There were rich citizens, poor citizens, and slaves. XXVIII. — (1.) The independence of every single man had been the basis of democracy in the tribe. (2.) Democracy itself was the exercise of power by all the individuals of a tribe combined as equals. XXIX. — (1.) The popular assembly or council of the commu- nity had been common ground for all. (2.) Each man there claimed his right to speak and have his opinions considered by his fellow- men. XXX. — (1.) In war, or in the chase, every man of the tribe had ZXIV. — (1.) What was the effect of the relation of master and slave? (2.) "What did this contradict ? XXV. — (1.) What is said concerning the labor of slaves? (2.) What did it allow ? XXVI (1.) What were owners of property able to do ? (2.) What is said about other people ? XXVn. — (1.) What was the condition of the tribe at this stage 1 (2.) How wore its members divided ? (3 ) What were these classes ? JIXVKI.— (1.) What had been the basis of democracy? (2.) What was democracy ? Xi~IX (1.) What had been the character of the popular assembly? (2.) What did each man claim in the popular meeting ? XXX. — (1.) What other rights did the members of a tribe exercise ? 54 Flistory of Governments. participated, carrying into execution wliatsoever the combined people resolved upon, (2.) The shares of honor and profit were equally distributed. XXXI. — (1.) Now individual independence became outweighed by influence of wealth. (2.) In the popular assembly those who were dependent dared not assert equality with the rich. (3.) They either preserved silence, or echoed the voices of their patrons. (4.) In warlike expeditions, those only who could provide arms and support themselves, were allowed to share in the spoils of battle. CHAPTER XIV. GEOWTH OP CLASSES. I. — (1.) The democratic principle was based on a desire of each individual to be personally independent of others. (2.) This individ- ual desire became now merged in a jealousy of class regarding class. II. — (1.) The poorer citizens continued to maintain that equality was a just principle. (2.) They complained of their own poverty and of the possessions of their fellow democrats. III. — (1.) The distinctions founded on possession of property in land now began to be recognized. (2.) Ownership of cattle and slaves became the measure of occupancy or apportionment of land. (2.) What shares were equally distributed among the members ? XXXI. — (1.) What change now took place ? (2.) How were the poorer people affected in the popular assembly ? (3.) What did they do ? (4.) What is said concerning warlike expeditions ? I. — ^(1.) What is said of the democratic principle ! (2.) What about different classes ? II.— (l.) What did the poorer people do? (2.) Of what did they complain? in. — (1.) What distinctions now began to be reoognized? (2.) What ia gaid about land occupancy ? Growth of Classes. 55 IV". — (1.) In the earlier .democracy every man who raised flocks and herds, permitted them to graze wherever good pasture was to be found. (2.) Cattle roamed here and there, under the care of sons, daughters or dependents. v. — (1.) When planting and cultivating land became known, each individual, or a household, selected as much land as could be used by the force at command. (2.) Whatever crops were raised belonged to the cultivator or household. VI. — (1.) When a household increased in numbers, its members occupied more land. (2.) When they added slaves, as laborers, they demanded still more for use. (3.) A small household, without slaves, was restricted in its use or possession of land, because unable to work it. VII. — (1.) A family of increased numbers, comprising children, domestics and slaves, required still more land. (2.) Its members were powerful enough to occupy and keep for their own use a large proportion of the best grazing and planting land. VIII. — (1.) Connection by marriage began to take place between families who owned the largest flocks and used the most land. (2.) This was done, in order that the wealth of each might be increased. IX. — (1.) The members of a small household, or sons and daughters of domestics and other dependents, could only choose their marriage partners from families of their own condition. (2.) Such persons, therefore, did not increase their store of flocks or use of land by marriage. IV. — (1.) How did flocks and herds subsist in earlier times? (2.) Where did they graze ? V.^(l.) How was land occupied for agricultural purposes ? (2.) What be- came of crops ? VI. — (1.) How did the occupation of land increase? (2.) How was it re Btricted ? VII. — (1.) How did land possession increase in some families ? (2.) What were its members able to do ? Vm (1.) How did wealthy families combine with each other ? (2 ) What was the reason of this ? IX.. — (1.) How did the small and weak families choose their partners iu marriage '! (2.) What was the consequence ? 56 History ot Governments. X. — (1.) A few families, increasing in number and power, were able to obtain possession, by constant use, of all the best land. (2.) This confined weaker families to that land only which remained. XI. — (1.) The poorer people were compelled to labor on limited spaces of soil in order to support a few animals, or raise grain to sustain their own lives. (2.) When their families increased in num- bers the land became insufficient for their support. (3.) They were obliged to give up what they worked for themselves, and to become dependents upon larger landholders. (4.) They then employed themselves in hand-labor, making clothing, arms, ornaments, and utensils, which they gave to the rich in exchange for provisions. XII. — (1.) The poorer people thus became artisans, manufactu- rers, and laborers, in a tribe. (2.) Children of these persons were taught to follow the business of their parents. (3.) Poor families became connected by marriage and soon formed a separate class. (4.) Members of this class were only distinguished from the slaves by having a right to mingle in the popular meeting. XIII. — (1.) In this meeting the voice of an artisan, shepherd, or domestic was still regarded to be of like weight with that of a man who held flocks and herds, and occupied large tracts of land. (2.) Large landholders, however, increased in power and influence. (3.) They claimed a social superiority over their fellow-democrats, founded on the possession of the best fields and chief wealth of their tribe. (5.) They left the cultivation of land to servants and slaves, and devoted their own days to sports, idleness, or other methods of dissipating time. X.— (1.) What followed from this distinction ? (2.) How were other fami- lies affected ? SI — (1.) What was the condition of the poorer people ? (2.) What fol- lowed? (3.) What were they then obliged to do? (4.) How did they then employ themselves ? XH. — (1.) What did the poorer people become ? (2.) What is said of their children ? (3.) How did they become connected, and what was formed there- by ? (4.) How was this class distinguished from the slaves ? Xin. — (1.) What privilege did a poor freeman still retain? (2.) What is said of large landholders t (3.) What did they claim ? ^4.) How did thev conduct themselves ? Representation. j'y XIV. — (1.) Possession of land and the relations of masteiship and servitude encroached upon individual independence. (2.) The body-politic had grown healthy through the independence of each member. (3.) It became diseased by the idle luxury of the rich and unprofitable toil of the poor. XV. — (1.) Political equality and a true commonwealth of the people cannot exist with a separation of interests. (2.) Individual independence cannot continue where one class is held in contempt or regarded as inferior by another. CHAPTEE XV. REPEESENTATION. I. — (1.) At this period of a commonwealth, personal ambition began to display itself. (2.) More than one individual aspired to control, for selfish purposes, the power exercised by all the people. II. — (1.) Sometimes one man, and sometimes another, through influence of gifts, or by attractive manners, succeeded in influenc- ing his fellow-democrats. (2.) He gained followers who sustained his opinions in the meetings of the tribe. III. — (1.) A popular man of this sort often induced the tribe to declare hostilities against other tribes. (2.) He was then selected, through the influence of his friends, to be a leader or chief in the expedition. XIV. (1.) How wa9 the body politic affected thereby? (2.) How had it grown healthy ? (3.) How did it become diseased ? XV. (1.) What is said regarding poUtical equality and a true common- wealth? (2.) What concerning individual independence? I.— (1.) What began to display itself at this period ? (2.) What is said of individuals ? n.— {!.) What was the result of this ? (2.) What did such a man gaiu ? m.— {1.) What could a popular man do ? (2.) How did he profit by this ? 2* 58 History of Governments. IV.- -\i-) This sometimes awakened tiie jealousy of some other ambitious man, whose influence controlled another party. (2.) The two leaders then dis^puted for the ascendency. v.— (1.) Each leader became the head of a faction of the com- munity. (2.) The people, in supporting one or the other, forgot that neither of them possessed any real claim to authority. VI. — (1.) Sometimes one of these ambitious leaders succeeded in gaining the support of the priests. (2.) He combined with them to control the whole community. "VII, — (1.) In such case the priests declared a man whom they supported to be appointed by the gods as a leader or chief of the tribe. (2.) They called upon all the people to follow his direc- tions. VIII. — (1.) If the people submitted quietly to this decision, the fortunate leader became chief, or governor of the tribe. (2.) He exercised powers^ more or less arbitrary, over his fellows. IX. — (1.) Sometimes an ambitious leader called upon the poorer class to sustain him against the rich. (2.) He promised the former a share in the lands and wealth of the latter, in return for obe- dience to himself. X. — (1.) Leadership and chiefdom arose through various means, more or less violent. (2.) It always grew out of a division of interests between individuals and classes. (3.) It was based on the decline of personal independence and political equality. IV. — (1.) What followed such a course ? (2.) What did the two leaders do? V. — (1.) What was each leader? (2.) What was the position of the com- munity toward those men ? VI. — (1.) What sometimes happened ? (2.) AVhat was the result? VII. — (1.) What was the course of the priests? (2.) What did they call upon the people to do V Vin. — (1.) What occurred if the people submitted? (2.) What powers had he ? IX. — (1.) In what other way did an ambitious man operate ? (2.) What did he promise ? X. — (1.) How was leadership gained ? (2.) What did it grow from ? (3) On what was it based ? Representation. 59 XI. — (1.) The people were not always ready to yield themselvea quietly to the guidance of a leader. (2.) They often resisted the projects of wealthy or ambitious men. XII. — (1.) In such cases poorer citizens sustained each other in the popular meeting. (2.) They demanded that their numbers should be respected, and their rights acknowledged. XIII. — (1.) When such a movement took place, class was arrayed openly against class. (2.) The wiser persons of the tribe saw a necessity of explaining the relations between citizens, whe- ther poor or rich. XIV. — (1.) The result was an agreement or compact made by all the tribe, assembled in public council. (2.) A method, or regu- lation, of power was adopted, with the consent of all. XV. — (1.) By the agreement a limited number of individuals was selected from all the members of a tribe. (2.) These indivi- duals became established, as a body, by themselves. XVI. — (1.) Each party or class selected one or more from its number, to represent the wishes or claims of all. (2.) The persons selected were authorized to consult upon matters of interest to the whole tribe. XVII. — (1.) Th£ selected persons had power to decide what public action was necessary in regard to all classes. (2.) When a decision was made, the whole tribe assembled in popular meeting, to accept or to reject it by their voices. SI. — (1.) Were the people always ready to submit? (2.) What did they often do ? Xn. — (1.) What combination was then formed? (2) What did they demand ? VTTT.. — (1.) What did such a movement occasion ? (2.) What was founa necessary ? XTV. — (1.) What was the consequence ? (2.) What was adopted ? XV. — (1.) What did this agreement effect? (2.) What became established? XVI. — (1.) How was this body constituted ? (2.) What authority was given to it? XVn. — (1.) What power had this representative council? (2.) What after ward took place ? 6o History or vjovcmineiub. XVIII. — (1.) This was the beginning of delegated authority, or popular representation. (2.) Each individual iu the tribe gave up his personal right to state his own grievance, or to originate any action in the assembly. XIX. — (1.) The people were, at first, tenacious of individual sovereignty, and only delegated a limited power to propose measures or regulations. (2.) They reserved to themselves the right to reject or accept all measures after they should be proposed. XX. — (1.) This early method of representation was an effort of natural equality to assert itself. (2.) The people, as individuals, desired relief from injurious oppression. XXI. — (1.) The body-politic became aware that disease was encroaching upon its life. (2.). It sought a remedy, by instituting a new action in the system. XXII. — (1.) In choosing representatives, each class selected persons who were esteemed for wisdom and virtue. (2.) The first representative body chosen in a tribe comprised the bravest warriors and wisest old men. (3.) Such a body became justly honored for the ability and honesty of its members. XXIII. — (1.) When the earliest democratic representation was formed in Greece, its members were distinguished by the title arLtns, or the. lest. (2. ) Their authority was termed aristocracy, from arl-ios [apiCTTOf], the best, or wisest, and kratea \_Kparriu], to govern, or XVm. — (1.) Of what was this the beginning? (2.) What did each indivi- dual yield ? XIX. — (1.) How was the representative body restricted? (2.) What power was reserved to the people ? XX (1.) What is said concerning this first method of representation ? (2.) What did the people desire ? XSI (1.) Of what did the body pohtic become aware ? (2.) What did it seek ? XXII. — (1.) What was regarded most in choosing delegates ? (2.) What iid the first representative body comprise? (3.) What was the result of this? XXni. — (1.) What is said about the earliest democratic representation iu Greece ? (2.) What was their authority termed ? liepresentation. 6i kratos [/cpaTOf], power. (3.) The whole signified the power, or authority of the wisest or best citizens. XXIV". — (1.) The aristocratic form of government was, at first, purely representatiye. (2.) It was delegated by the people, and was limited in its powers. (3.) The first aristocrats were repre- b'untatives of all free individuals and of each class of the community. XXV.- — (1.) One or more of the old men represented the opinions and interests of all the elders dwelling in the tribe. (2.) One or more of the warriors represented the effective war-power of the community. (3.) One or more of the landholders represented the property-possessors of the tribe. (4.) One or more of the rustic or dependent class, represented the mass of the people not possessed of herds, slaves, or lands. (5.) One or more of the priests, represented the religious character of the community, or the interests of their gods. XXVI. — (1.) The original savage democracy became first modi- fied by the formation of such a limited deliberative body. (2.) Each interest, or division of the people, possessed its own exponents in the body of select or best men. XXVn. — (1.) This original representative body, of the best and wisest, became afterward corrupted. (2.) It then gave place to an overbearing class of pretenders who called themselves aristo- crats, or nobles. (S.) What did the combination of words signify ? XSIV. (1.) What was the original character of aristocratic government ? (2.) How was it formed ? (3.) What were tlie first aristocrats ? XXV. (1.) What did the old men represent? (2.) What did warriors represent? (3.) What did landholders represent? (4.) What did rustics represent ? (5.) What did priests represent ? XSVL (1.) What was modified? (2 ) What did each interest possess? XSVII.— (1.) What happened to this body of wise men? (2.) To what did it give place ? CHAPTER XVI. EAKLT ARISTOCRACY. I. — (1.) Eepkesentation of classes secured a consideration of va- rious interests in the body of select wise men. (2.) It did not re- press the ambition of popular leaders, or their influence over tlie people. II. — (1.) All questions, after being agreed upon by the wise men, were submitted to the people's meeting for final determination. (2.) In the people's meeting, an ambitious man could oppose the wisest measures. (3.) If he were cunning and influential, he was able to cause their rejection by the people. ni. — (1.) This caused disagreement between the people and their representatives, and the latter were constantly changed, (2.) Wise men often gave place to ignorant and dishonest delegates, who cared more for personal than for public interests. IV. — (1.) The wisest or best men of the community became out- numbered by the election of delegates of inferior character. (2.) The representative body grew corrupt and unscrupulous. V. — (1.) A few cunning men exercised all power in the state. (2.) They were able to propose measures in the representative body. (3.) They could afterward influence a large party in the popular meetings. I. — (1.) What did representation secure? (2.) What did it not do? n. — (1.) What is said of public questions ? (2.) What could an ambitious man do ? (3.) What was he able to cause ? in. — (1.) What effect did such a course have ? (2.) What result followed ? rv.—(l.) How did the wise representatives become outnumbered? (2.) What then took place ? V. — (1.) What did a few men then do? (2.> What were they able to pro pose ? (3.) What further power had they ? C2 Early Aristocracy. 62 VI- — (1-) These meu increased their power by combining the priestly interest with that of the wealthy class. (2.) They com- bined these classes with that of the warriors, who defended the com- munity against other tribes. yil. — (1.) The community became thus divided into two princi- pal orders. (2.) The first order comprised priests, landhold- ers, and soldiers. (3.) The second was composed of all persons who did not possess property, but were obliged to labor. (4.) These two divisions formed the body-politic or freemen. (5.) The rest of the population were slaves without rights or privileges. VIII. — (1.) The wealthy division possessing lands and slaves was independent of the other. (2.) The poorer division, composed of individuals more or less jealous of each other, occupied a depend- ent position. (3.) Many of the latter were ready to follow any leader, in the public meeting, who promised them favors. (4.) Am- bitions leaders flattered their vanity, by calling them equal to the wealthier people. IX. — (1.) The voices of this class were sometimes raised in sup- port of a good man or measure. (2.) Again they were lifted in favor of a bad man or measure. (3 ) The people were usually igno- rant, and influenced by orators in the public meeting. X. — (1.) The orators were men who could talk in an artful and popular style. (2.) The people listened to them and followed their advice. XI. — (1.) When republics existed in Greece, such talking men were often found in the meetings of the people. (2.) These were VL — (1.) How did they increase their power? (2.) What else did they do ? Vn. — (1.) How did the community become divided ? (2.) What did the first order comprise ? (3.) Who composed the second? (4.) What did the two divisions form ? (5.) What is said of the remaining population ? Vm. — (1.) What is said of the wealthy division ? (2.) What of the poorer ? (3.) What were many of the latter ready to do? (4.) How were they Influ- enced ? IX. — (1.) How were their voices raised at times ? (2.) How at other times! (3.) What is said of the character of these persons ? Z. — (1.) Who were the orators ? (2.) How did the people regard them ? XX. — (1.) What were found in Grecian republics? (2.) What were such 6.-} History of Governments. culled demagogues, — from two Greek words dsfiog, the people, and ayuyog, a leader. (3.) The whole signified leaders of the people. XII. — (1.) When the people of a community became divided into two classes, the power soon passed into the hands of a few cun- ning men. (2.) These few proposed measures, and the represen- tative body followed their directions. XIII. — (1.) They took care to favor only those who were will- ing to obey them. (2.) When a captain was to be chosen for the soldiers, they proposed a man of their own party, devoted to their interest. (3.) They induced the people to choose such a captain. XIV. — (1.) When such a leader returned from war, bringing captives and spoils, the soldiers, priests and rich men, were often disposed to make him chief, or ruler, of the tribe. (2.) This was because they knew he would be influenced by them. XV. — (1.) They took advantage of his popularity with the peo- ple, because of his triumph over enemies. (2.) They proposed to the public assembly that he should be called their head man, judge, or king. XVI. — (1.) The usual way in which a king was elected, was by the voices of all the people. (2.) In return, a chief was willing to give a share in the government to those who had proposed his election. XVII. — (1.) He selected different men from the soldiers, the priests, and the land holders, and made them his assistants. (2.) talking men called in Greece ? (3.) What does this signify ? XII (1.) What followed the division of a community into classes? (2.) What did the few propose ? XIII. — (1.) What did the few influential men take care to do? (2.) What sort of captains did they propose for the soldiers ? (3.) What did they then do? XIV. — (1.) What were the combined classes often disposed to do? (2.) Why was this ? XV (1.) Of what did they take advantage ? (2.) What did they propose ? XVI. — (1.) How was a king elected? (2.) What was the chief willing to do in return ? XVn.— (1.) What did the chief select? (2.) What did he call these assist- ants? Early Aristocracy. 65 Some of thera he called heads of his household, others captains of tens and captains of hundreds, others judges, and others keepers of his lands or flocks. XVm. — (1.) The chief, likewise, provided for sons, brothers, and other kindred, of- his first favorites. (2.) He bestowed upon them gifts and employment. (3.) Their interests became united with his. XIX. — (1.) The people learned to regard their chief as the source of honors and dignities in the commonwealth. (2.) An indi- vidual was considered to be more or less fortunate according as he was in favor with the king. XX. — (1.) This was the beginning of the distinctions of rank or honor. (2.) Such distinctions afterward caused certain men to be called noble, and their class to be considered superior. (3.) The ' first persons of notability were those alone who represented the people. (4.) These persons afterward became powerful enough to set themselves above the people. XXI. — (1.) Tlie community no longer thought of delegating its own power. (2.) All classes desired to represent the power and favor of the king. (3.) Those nearest to him were considered the highest or best mea. (4.) Every member of the community tried to win his approbation. XXII.' — (1.) The most numerous division of the people remained poor, and were obliged to labor for their daily bread. (2.) They continued to marry only among tiiemselves, and brought up their children to their own condition, XVin.—(l.) What else did the chief do? (2 ) How did he do this ? (3.) What is said of these persons ? SIZ. — (1.) What did the people learn? (2 ) How was an individual conoi- dcred? XX. — (1.) Of what was this the beginning? (2.) What did they cause: (3.) What were the first nobles? (4.) What did these afterward become ? XZI. — (1.) Of what did the community no longer think? (2.) What did all classes desire ? (3.) Who were considered as the best men? (4.) For what did each individual try ? XXII. — (1.) What is said of the most numerous class? (2.) What did thej continue to do ? 66 History of Governments. XXin. — (1.) Sons of the king's favorites, or supporters, usu- ally married daughters of their own class and associates. (2.) The distinctions between rich and poor grew wider with each generation. X2IV. — (1.) Individuals who owned land, or served the king, or the altars of gods, constituted higher or ruling ranks. (2.) Peo- ple who possessed nothing and lived by labor, sank into the lower or submissive population. XXV. — (1.) One by one the rights of individuals were ne- glected and became forgotten. (2.) The people at large were no longer considered to have any interest in government. (3.) They were ranged under of&cers set over them by the higher classes. (4.) Laws were framed to protect the interests of the landholders and followers of the kinor. CHAPTER XVII, MONARCHY, OK KINGLY GOVERNMENT. I. — (1.) When a leader of soldiers was chosen king over his tribe, he relied naturally on the support of those who had been his comrades in battle. (2.) He increased the number of his military followers. (3.) Sometimes he hired the poorer individuals of his tribe to become soldiers. II. — (1.) Wealthy members of the community provided arms, clothing, and food for the king's military followers. (2.) Persons who could only live by labor, were glad to become soldiers. (3.) They were then supported by the king with the money of rich men. XXin (1.) Who did the sons of favorites marry ? (2.) What was the effect ? XXIV. — (1.) Who became the higher ranlis? (2.) Who the lower ? XXV (1.) What is said of individual rights ? (2 ) What of the people at large ? (3.) How were they ranged ? (4.) What laws were framed ? I.— (1.) On whom did a king rely? (2.) What did be do ? (3.) Who were hired to be soldiers? II. — (1.) "Who supported the soldiers? (2.) Who vere glad to become soldiers ? (3.) How were they then supported ? Monarchy, or Kingly Government. (rj III. — (1.) When an army was collected, the king appointed its commanders. (2.) He selected tliese from his older soldiers, or from the sons and relations of wealthy people who paid the soldiers. IV. — (1.) J^avorites and friends of the king were thus placed in power over the people. (2.) These officials were answerable only to the king himself. v. — (1.) When the army was led out to war, and other tribes were conquered, all lauds and wealth taken from defeated com- munities, become property of the victors. (2.) They were divided among those persons whose money supported the king and soldiers. VI. — (1.) Many captains and soldiers were also enriched with the wealth gained by warring in the service of their king. (2.) Some of these returned to their own community with slaves and treasures, and became landholders themselves. VII. — (1.) When a hostile tribe was subdued, the victorious king added its soil, or country, to that of his own tribe. (2.) He obliged its members to send him certain gifts, in slaves and cattle, every year, in token of their subjection. VIII. — (1.) The king appointed one of his friends, or captains, to rule over the subject tribe, as his lieutenant or representative. (2.) This individual became governor of the new community, and was answerable for his conduct only to the king who appointed him. IX. — (1.) Every subject tribe was placed in charge of some friend of the king. (2.) Its members were obliged to obey the m.— (!.■) Who did the king appoint ? (2.) How did he select them ? IV (1.) Who were thus placed over the people ? (2.) To whom were they answerable ? v.— (1.) What is said of spoils taken in war? (2.) How were they dmded ? VI.— (1.) Who were enriched by war ? (2.) What did some of these do ? Vn. — (1.) What was done with the country of another tribe ? (2.) What were the conquered people obliged to pay ? VIII.— (1.) What appointment was made? (2.) To whom was such a governor answerable? IX. (1.) What is said of subject tribes ? (2.) What of its members >■ 68 History of Governments. commands imposed upon them by their conquerors. (3.) Manv were reduced to the condition of household slaves. X,— (1.) By additions of subject tribes, a great nation was formed, under dominion of the single king. (2.) He governed the whole through inferior rulers, assisted by soldiers and priests. (3.) Sometimes one of the subject communities grew restless. (4.) Its members tried to shake off the oppressive rule of strangers. (5.") The king then collected an army from other tribes, and marched against the troublesome, or rebellious, tribe. XI. — (1.) The authority of the king soon came to be regarded as the only real power in the state. (2.) His commands were received and obeyed on all occasions. (3.) He was considered to be the commander of the army and the head of religion. (4.) He took care not to offend the priests or rich men, for fear of losing their support. XII. — (1.) The king's authority being respected, his body was considered sacred. (2.) A feeling of veneration veas manifested in connection with the obedience rendered by his followers. XIII. — (1.) This veneration was stimulated and encouraged by the priests. (2.) They were the king's chief supporters and the instructors of the people. (3.) They taught the community that its chief was under constant protection of their gods. XIV. — (1.) The king was usually admitted to the priesthood. (2.) He then exercised the functions of chief priest, as well as (3.) What did some of these become ? X. — (1.) What was formed by adding subject tribes to the first community ? (2.) How was such a nation governed ? (3.) What sometimes occurred ? (4.) What did its members do ? (6.) What did the king do then ? XI. — (1.) How did the king's authority come to be regarded? (2.) How were his commands received? (3.) What was he considered to be? (4.) Wliat care did he talce ? XII.— (1.) How was the king's body considered ? (2.) What feeling was sliown ? Xm.— (1.) What is said of this feeling? (2.) "What position did the priests hold ? (3.) What did they teach the community ? SIV.— (1.) To what was the king usually admitted? (2.) What did ha Monarchy, or Kingly Government. 69 chief ruler. (3.) He was looked upon by all ranks as the principal representative of the gods. XV. — (1.) A feeling of patriotism, or a love of country,, had been cherished by members of the democratic community, (2.) That feeling was now replaced by the sentiment of devotion to a king. (3.) The new feeling became known as loyalty. XVI. — (1.) Soldiers and others were encouraged by their ofScers, and by the priests, to be loyal or true to their king. (2.) They were taught to regard it an honor to die in his service. XVII. — (1.) The sentiment of loyalty for the king himself was afterward made to include all members of his family. (2.) The bodies of all the king's relatives were held to be sacred and worthy of respect. XVIII. — (1.) The people became accustomed to believe that the king's power represented the power of their gods. (2.) They were commanded to receive all his words as laws, and to regard his officers as representatives of supreme authority. XIX. — (1.) The king's eldest son was held to be next in honor after his father. (2.) Many persons regarded him as the rightful successor of his father, in governing the nation. XX. — (1.) The ceremony of choosing a king by the people, or by governors of tribes, or captains of the army, was sometimes con- tinued after the death of the first ruler. (2.) The choice usually then exercise ? (3.) How waa he looked upon ? XV. — (1.) What is said about patriotism ? (2.) How waa this feeling changed ? (3.) How did the new feeling become Isnown ? XVI. — (1.) What were soldiers encouraged to be? (2.) What were thev taught ? XVn. — (1.) How was the sentiment of loyalty extended? (2.) What is said of the king's relatives? XVm. — (1.) What did the people become accustomed to believe? (2.) What were tliey commanded ? XIX.— (1.) Who was held next in honor after the king? (2.) What did many persons regard him to be? XX. — (1.) What ceremony was sometimes continued? (2.) On whom did the choice usually fall ? yo History of Governments. fell upoa the deceased monarch's eldest son, or some favorite mem- ber of the royal family. XXI. — (1.) When the office of king descended from father to son, without election, the royal authority was hereditary. (2.) It passed to the heirs of a family, in the manner that land or other property passes from one relative to another. (3.) The succession of a family was termed a dynasty. (4.) The period during which a king occupied his throne was called his reign. XXII.- — (1.) The name of king was given as a title of honor to the chief. (2.) Titles of honor were also bestowed upon the king's favorites and officers. (3.) These titles at first served to distinguish and compliment their possessors. (4.) They afterward came to be regarded as family distinctions. (5.) They were made hereditary, and descended from fathers to sons. XXIII. — (1.) Equality of persons was no longer known in the community. (2.) Individual independence was replaced by univer- sal veneration for one man. (3.) The common people of the nation were oppressed by a multitude of inferior officers. (4.) These officers derived their whole power, through various grades, from the king's will alone. XXIV. — (1.) This was the political character of the most numerous and powerful nations of early history. (2.) The form of government was called a monarchy. (3.) Monarchy means the authority of a single ruler exercised iu a greater or less degree. XXI. — (1.) When was the royal authority hereditary? (2.) How did it pasa ? (3.) What was the succession of a family called ? (4.) What was the period of a single king's government called? XXH. — (1.) Why was the name of king given to a chief? (2.) How were titles otherwise bestowed ? (3.) What was the first design of these titles ? (4.) How did they come to be regarded ? (5.) What more is said about titles ? XXm. — (1.) What was no longer known ? (2.) What is said of individual Independence ? (3.) What of the common people ? (4.) Whence did the oiScera derive their whole power? XXIV. — (1.) Of what was tliis the political character? (2.) What was this form of government called? (3.) Vi'bat is understood by monarchy? Early Language of Mankind. 71 (4.) Many great nations are governed in this way at the present day. XXV. — (1.) All political governments may be comprehended under three heads. (2.) The first is democracy, the power of the people. (3.) The second is aristocracy, the power of classes of the people. (4.) The third is monarchy, the power of one person over the people. XXVI. — (1.) These three kinds of political government are subdivided into several varieties. (2.) The difference between them consists in the number of rulers, and the amount or character of the power which is exercised. CHAPTER XVIII. EAELY LANGUAGE OF MANKIND. I, — (1.) The earliest society of individuals were assisted by ex- perience and observation. (2.) The moral education of each pro- ceeded from feeling and reasoning. II. — (1.) Sensations of the body were caused by impressions upon the nerves. (2.) Mental emotions were distinct from isodily sensations. III. — (1.) An individual either reposed in solitude, or mingled with his kind in quest of pleasure or subsistence. (2.) He became (4.) What is said of monarchy in relation to the present day ? XXV. — (1.) How may all political governments be comprehended? (2.) What is the first? (3.) What is the second? (4.) What is the third? XXVI. — (1.) What is said of these three kinds of political government? (2.) What constitutes the difference between such varieties. I. — (1.) By what was the earliest society of mankind assisted ? .(2.) From what did moral education proceed ? n. — (1.) How were bodily sensations caused ? (2.) What were distinct from these ? in. — (1.) What is said of an in Jividual ? (2.) Of what did he become aware ? 72 History ot Crovernments. aware of internal impressions, different from the effects of sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smell. IV.- — (1.) He grew conscious of certain natural operations in his mind. (2.) He experienced the emotions of wondering, of imagin- ing, of hoping and of fearing. (3.) He began to reflect concern- ing uncertain objects and beings. v. — (1.) The habit of memory collected a variety of single images in each individual's mind. (2.) The image of a tree, a river, a star, became familiar. (3.) He grew accustomed to compare the relations and associations of one with another. VI. — (1.) Every sensation conveyed through a nerve was recog- nized, or perceived, by a mental faculty. (2.) It then became an idea, snch as the idea of ligkt or sound. (3.) The idea of light was perceived through the visual newe, from a person's eye. (4.) The idea of sownd was recognized through the aural nerve, from the ears. (5.) The idea of heat or cold was perceived through the nerves of sense or toiicA, from any part of the body. VII. — (1.) When a sensation was jpercciueijit became a perception, or a simple idea. (2.) When it was reflected upon, it became a iixed image in the mind. (3.) It was then called a fixed or complex idea. (4.) The fixed perceptions of pleasure, of pain, of honor, and of existence were all complex ideas. VIII. — (1.) By degrees every human individual became possessed of all the ideas that naturally arose out of sensation and perception. IV. — (1.) Of Tphat did he grow conscious ? (2.) What did he experience ? (3.) What did he begin to do ? V. — (1.) What is said of memory? (2.) What became familiar? (3.) To what did he grow accustomed ? VI. — (1.) What is said of every sensation ? (2.) What did it then become ? (3.) How was the idea of light perceived? (4.) How was the idea of sound recognized ? (5 ) How was the idea of heat or cold perceived ? VII. — (1.) What made a simple idea ? (2.) What took place when a simple idea was reflected upon? (3.) What was it then colled? (4.) Give examples of complex ideas ? Vm.— (1.) Of what did every human individual become possessed? Early Language ot Mankind. 73 (2.) These related generally to objects about him and experiences of his actual daily life. IX. — (1.) The voice or tongue of an individual at this period was used to express simple ideas in relation to objects around him. (2.) Speech, or conversation, was an effort to exchange re- flections, between individuals. (3.) They compared ideas concerning what they observed and experienced. X. — (1.) Human speech, at first, consisted of such vocal sounds as were required to distinguish one object from another. (2.) One sound of the human voice was employed to signify a ma7i • another to denote animals, and a third to distinguish a tree. (3.) Members of the first family received the names or sounds which signified ideas from their patriarch. (4.) The words of all individuals, thus living together, formed a common stock jinderstood by every person. XI. — (1.) When emigrants separated from the family, one indi- vidnal sometimes went westward, and another eastward. (2.) Each of these emigrants met new objects and experienced new sensations. (3.) Each emigrant gave different names to his new ideas. (4.) The two individuals were no longer able to compare their ideas because they were separated. XII. — (1.) If a hundred families dispersed in various direc- tions, and each family met with some new animal, each adopted a peculiar sound, or word to denote such animal. (2.) In this man- ner one hundred different words were invented to distinguish the (2.) To what did these generally relate ? IX. — (1.) For what was the voice or tongue used ? (2.) What is said of speech or conversation ? (3.) What did individuals do ? X.— (1.) Of what did human speech at iirst consist ? (2.) What is said con- cerning vocal sounds? (3.) How were names first received ? (4.) What did these form ? XL — (1.) What occurred when emigrants separated? (2.) What did each meet and experience ? (3.) What did each do ? (4.) What were the two un- able to do ? xn. — (1.) What is said of a hundred families? (2.) What would be the effect of this ? 4 7^1 History oi uovcuuucuLa. same object. (3.) If the hundred families had remained together, one word would have explained the object to all of them. XIII. — (1.) The early separation of families was always the cause of different languages. (2.) Erery family, in wandering to new localities, was sure to meet with strange objects and experience new sensations. (3.) It became necessary to invent new sounds or words to express them all. XrV.— (1.) Vocal sounds were invented to denote lions, serpents, swords, and the like. (2.) Other vocal sounds were adopted to ex- press emotions of love, of hate, of admiration, of fear. (3.) In this way, every object met, or emotion experienced, by any human in- dividual, received a name to distinguish it. XV. — •(!.) Families often separated and grew np into different tribes, and then came together once more. (2.) When this took place the various words in use by the scattered tribes became united in a common stock, for the new nation. XVI. — (1.) The Arabian nation of the present day consists of many hundred wiindering tribes, or families, who mingled and ex- changed the original stocks of words. (2.) In the Arabic language there are more than five hundred words to signify a lion, two hun- dred to denote a serpent, and a thousand expressions, or names, for a sword. XVII. — (1.) American savage tribes, living apart from each other, used many hundred different languages. (2.) If the tribes had come together in one nation, they would have had as many dif- ferent names for an arrow as the Arabs have for a sword. (3.) How would it have been if the hundred families had not separated? XTTT. — (1.) What caused different languages? (2.) With what did every family meet ? (3.) What became necessary ? XIV. — (1.) What were invented ? (2.) What else were adopted ? (3.) What took place ? XV (1.) What often occurred ? (2.) What then took place ? XVI. — (1.) What is said of the Arabian nation? (2.) What words are in the Arabic language ? XVH. — (1.) What is said of American tribes ? (2.) What is said regarding these tribes ? Early Religion of Mankind. 75 XVIII. — (1.) The earliest individuals and communities learned to explain by vocal language whatever they thought about things seen and unseen. (2.) They invented expressions to describe love, hatred, cold, sleep, and death, and other images of the mind. XIX. — (1.) They became accustomed to express the sentiment of veneration or worship. (2.) They used a word given by the first father to denote an Invisible Being who had created the world. (3.) They described the powers and qualities of this Being by other vocal sounds, signifying Highest, Holy, Lord, Master, and God. XX. — (1.) All human language had its origin in the first sounds made by the human tongue. (2.) During the emigrations, wander- ings, and settlements of our race, words and forms of speech con- tinually multiplied. (3.) Their modifications and changes now express all shades of thought and capacities of feeling. CHAPTEE XIX. EARLY RELIGION OF MANKIND. I. — (1.) Under the instruction of patriarchal wisdom, the earliest human language was used to express each individual's devotion to his Creator, through praise and prayer. (2.) The. direct continuation of the patriarchal system preserved in a single line of families the knowledge and adoration of One Supreme God. II. — (1.) After the first emigrations from a patriarchal commu- XVm. — (1.) What did the earliest individuals learn to explain ? (2.) What did they invent ? XIZ. — (1.) What did they become accustomed to express? (2.) What word did they use ? (3.) What else did they describe? XX. — (1.) In what did human language have its origin ? (2.) How did it grow? (3.) What is said regarding words and forma of speech? I (1.) For what was human language at first' used? (2.) What did the patriarchal system preserve ? n. — (1.) What occurred after the Srst emigrations of mankind ? 76 History of Governments. nity, mankind soon dispersed in various climes, and wandered under different leaders. (2.) The early knowledge of unseen truths was lost by most of the nomadic tribes. (3.) The greater portion of all human indiYiduals forgot the origin of their race. in. — (1.) The vocal words, or sounds, adopted to signify a Supreme Being, remained still in use among different tribes. (2.) They became mingled with other expressions that obscured or contradicted their meaning. IV. — (1.) These other expressions were first used by their framers to explain the powers and excellences of God. (2.) In course of time, their real meaning was covered over with human notions and fancies. V. — (1.) The earliest individuals had given a name to the sun, to denote its cheering light and warmth. (2.) They had given other names to the moon and stars, to signify their beauty and use- fulness in the night. (3.) They had bestowed another name on the earth; to describe its fruitfulness. VI. — {1.) After the dispersion of mankind, in their wanderings, different families adopted different names to denote influences and appearances of sun, moon, and stars. (2.) Those names were afterward confused with each other. (3.) They also became con- founded with words that described the Supreme Being. VII. — (1.) When expressions grew thus confused, men endea- vored to explain their meaning in various ways. (2.) Some persons said that many superior beings were described by words which, in reality, only alluded to qualities or influences of one Supreme Being. (2.) What early knowledge was lost ? (3.) "What was forgotten ? TTT . — (1.) What remained in use ? (2.) What is said of these ? rV. — (1.) For what had these expressions been originally used? (2.) What took place in course of time ? V. — (1.) What had the earliest individuals done? (2.) What else had^;hey done? (3.) What else ? VI. — (1.) What occurred after the dispersion of families? (2.) What happened to those names ? (3.) How were they otherwise confounded ? Vn. — (1.) What was then sought? (2.) What did some say ? Early Religion of Mankind. "7 VIII. — (1.) These persons tried to account for the heavenly bodies, by imagining that they were under the care of angels or inferior gods. (2.) They said that one Supreme Being had appointed several vpatchers or guardians of the world. IX. — (1.) Ignorant individuals and families were induced to pay veneration to the spirits or gods of the sun, moon, and stars. (2.) They prayed to them to obtain blessings for mankind from the Suprem.e Euler. (3.) They carved images of the sun, moon, and stars on stones to remind each other of the gods that were said to live in those heavenly bodies. X. — (1.) As time passed, persons began to think of other influ- ences of the planets. (2.) They then fancied new spirits or invisible gods having charge of those influences. XI, — (1.) When the sun parched the earth with its beams, or lightning consumed animals and trees, some persons said that the god of heat was angry. (2.) They pretended to regard five, lightning, and thunder as so many gods, with power to harm them. XII. — (1.) There were always such individuals, continually trying to account for everything they could not understand by fancying some spirit or god to be concealed behind it. (2.) Those individuals were looked upon by ignorant people as wiser than the rest. XIII. — (1.) They tried to explain the wind to be under charge of an invisible god. (2.) They said that water was governed by another unseen deity. (3.) They declared that woods were filled VHt (1.) How did they try to account for heavenly bodies? (2.) What did they say ? IX. — (1.) What were ignorant people led to do ? (2.) For what did they pray ? (3.) AVhat else did they do ? X. — (1.) What occurred as time passed? (2.) What did they then fancy ? XI. — (1.) AVhat did some persons say ? (2.) What did these persons pre- teud to do? SH. — (1.) What is said concerning such individuals? (2.) How were those individuals regarded ? Xm.— (1.) What did they try to explain? (2.) What did they say about water ? (3.) What about woods ? 78 History of Governments. with spirits. (4.) They gave names to hundreds of imaginary beings, and taught that all were to be revered as gods. XIV. — (1.) The separation of families helped to multiply ideas about these false gods in the same way that names of visible objects were multiplied. (2.) Every tribe contained persons who tried to explain unknown things by their own fancies. XV. — (1.) Another early practice assisted to spread false reli- gion. (2.) This practice was the use of symbols, or written language. XVI. — (1.) When human individuals lived together, they made themselves mutually understood by their vocal sounds, or speech. (3.) When they separated, and still wished to communicate with each other, they were obliged to invent a new method. XVII. — (1.) This method was at first rude and simple, to carry out the purpose of its users. (2.) A person communicated the idea of a tree, by carving or marking the figure of a tree. XVIII. — (1.) If a tree was to be cut down, the figures of a tree and an axe were marked. (2.) When hunting was to be described, a bow and arrows and some animal were marked, and fishing was expressed by a net and fishes. XIX. — (1.) When powers or qualities of the Supreme Being were to be denoted, the figures, or symbols, were various. (2.) The superintendence of God was described by the picture of a star, or a dog, because the stars shine at night, and the dog is a watchful animal. (3.) To denote the superiority of God, a lion was painted, (4.) What else did they do ? XIV. — (1.) What is said of the separation of families? (2.) What did every tribe contain ? XV. — (1.) What ia said of another early practice? (2.) What was this? XVI. — (1.) What would be done by families living together? (2.) What was necessary when they separated ? XVII (1.) What is said of this method? (2.) What did a person do? XVm (1.) What denoted cutting down a tree? (2.) How were hunting and fishing described ? XIX.— (1.) What is said concerning the Supreme Being? (2.) What described the superintendence of God? (3.) What denoted His superiority? Early Religion of Mankind. '/9 because a lion is tbe most powerful of beasts. (4.) To denote the control of God over waters, a fish and star were pictured. (5.) To denote Divine wisdom, a 5erperaf was marked. (6.) Those figures were all marked with another figure that expressed the name of a Supreme Being ; this was generally a arch, because a circle has no begin- ning or end. XX. — (1.) These symbols were carved or marked on wood and stones, with representations of sun, moon, lightning, fire, and what- ever other objects the people chose to make. (2.) All such objects were intended to signify powers and qualities of a Supreme Euler. XXI. — (1.) In course of time, the figures of images, marked on stones or altars, were confounded with foolish ideas of gods and spirits. (2.) Ignorant people forgot that those figures only signified powers and qualities of One God. (3.) They began to regard each figure, as the picture, or likeness, of some good or evil spirit. XXII. — (1.) Another form of idolatry grew up from the re- spect which men felt for brave hunters, warriors, or patriarchs. (2.) Many persons said that when such distinguished men died, they were placed in the stars, and made assistants of the gods. (3.) Some were supposed to have charge of tribes and villages of people. (4.) The ignorant raised altars to those departed heroes. (5.) Skillful carvers made images of them, and the people offered up prayers to such images. XXIII. — (1.) Figures of dogs, oxen, lizards, snakes, monkeys, (4.) How was His control over waters described? (5.) What described Dirine wisdom? (6.) "What usually described the Supreme Being's name? SX (1.) What is said of these symbols ? (2.) What were they all intended to signify ? XXL — (1.) What occurred in course of time ? (2.) What was forgotten? (3.) How was every figure regarded? XXII. — (1.) From what did another form of idolatry grow up ? (2.) What was said of these ? (3.) What was supposed regarding some ? (4.) What did the ignorant people do ? (5.) What else was done ? XXin. — (1.) How did various figures come at length to be considered ? 8o History of Governments. and other animals, and also images of human beings, came to be rere- renced as likenesses of gods. (2.) They were placed npon altars to receive sacrifices from the people. (3.) In this manner, some form of idolatry, or the worship of false gods, grew to be the reli- gion of nearly every tribe. XSnr.— (1.) Wheresoever any tribe wandered, individual members of it carried the images of their false gods, and set up altars for worship. (2.) Every sort of foolish and wicked idolatry was thus increased, till all but one nation abandoned the true wor- ship of One God. XXV. — (1.) This single nation consisted of patriarchal families, whose history is recorded in the Bible. (2.) Idolatry became the custom of all other communities, whether democratic, patriarchal, nomadic, or settled. (3.) Idols were attended, and false doctrines taught to the people, by numbers of individuals called wise men, or priests. XXVI. — (1.) These priests, in the first place, were persons desii- ous of devoting themselves to objects of reverence. (2.) For this purpose, they made their dwelling-places near the altars or images of stone and wood. XXVII. — (1.) The common people gathered around such per- sons, for instruction and counsel. (2.) People learned to look upon them as teachers and ministers of religion. (3.) They were allowed to set themselves apart from all other men, and were considered to be chosen ministers of the god whose image they attended. XXVIII. — (1.) Many priests were willing to take advantage of respect paid them by the people. (2.) Some claimed vencra- (2.) Wtat was done with them ? (3.) What was the result of all this ? XSIV. — (1.) What is said of tribes? (2.) What was the consequence? XSV. — (1.) What single nation remained constant to the true religion ? (2.) What is said of idolatry ? (3.) How were these idols attended? SXVI. — (1.) What were these priests at first! (2.) What did tlicy do? XXVIL — (1.) What did the common people do? (2.) How did people learn to regard them ? (3.) What were they allowed to do ? XXVnt. — (1.) What were many priests ready to do? (2.) What did some The Origin of Nations. 81 tioQ on account of superior goodness and power. (3.) Others declared themselves specially appointed to explain the will of their gods. XXIX. — (1.) Priests pretended to hold communication with invisible powers, and to speak for them to the people. (2.) They regulated the manner in which images should be worshipped, and the kind of offering required. (3.) Offerings of fruits, bread, meat and vvine were brought to the priests, for sacrifice. (4.) Gifts of gold, jewels, and costly goods, were made to every altar or image. XXX. — (1.) The priests were thus supported by the people, and looked upon as friends and confidants of the gods. (2.) A class of men so set apart, and favored, increased constantly in num- bers, and acquired a great influence in every community. CHAPTER XX. THE OEIGIN OF NATIONS. I. — (1.) The earliest record of human history is preserved in the book called Genesis, in the Holy Bible. (2.) By this we learn that the first dwellers on earth were drowned by a great flood, in punish- ment of their wickedness. II. — (1.) One family only was saved from the general destruction. (2.) This was the family of Noah, who escaped in an ark, or ship, that he had built by command of God. III. — (1.) Noah had three sons, whose names were Shem, Ham, claim? (3.) What did others declare themselves appointed to do ? XXIS.— (I.) To what did these pretend ? (2.) What did they regulate ? (3.) What were brought to the priests? (4.) What gifts were made? XXX. — (1.) How were priests supported and regarded? (2.) What is said concerning the class of priests? L — (1.) Where is the earliest record of human history? (2.) What do wa learn by this ? n. — (1.) What was saved ? (2.) Whose family was this ? HL — (1.) What were the names of tho patriarch Noah's eons? A* 82 History of Governments. and Japhet. (2.) From these three, the nations of ancient times descended. IV. — (1.) Several sons and grandsons of Japhet, the eldest of Noah's sons, became leaders of their families in various emigrations. (2.) These families increased into many tribes, and founded differ- ent nations in Europe. V. — (1.) One of Shem's sons was named Ashur, who became leader of an emigration which settled the plains of Southern Asia. (2.) He is supposed to have founded the nation called Assyrians. VI. — (1.) The sons of Ham dispersed to different parts of the earth, and founded many nations of Asia and Africa. (2.) One of these sons was Mizraim, who settled Egypt, and another was Canaan, who settled the land of Canaan. VII. — (1.) Abram, the father of two great nations, was de- scended from Shem. (2.) He was a believer in the true God, whilst other families and tribes in his time were idolaters. VIII. — (1.) Abram's first son was called Ishmael, who founded the Ishmaelitish tribe. (2.) This tribe branched out into many nomadic nations, afterward known as the Arabians. IX. — (1.) Abram's second son was called Isaac, the father of Jacob the Patriarch. (2.) Jacob emigrated into Egypt with twelve sons, and founded the Hebrew people. (2.) Who are descendants of these three sons of Noah ? rV. — (1.) What is said of Japhet's sons and grandsons? (2.) What is said of their families ? V. — (1.) What is said of Ashur ? (2.) What nation is he supposed to have founded ? VI. — (1.) What did the sons of Ham do? (2.) AVhat two sons of Ilam are mentioned? VH. — (1.) What descendant of Shem is here noticed? (2.) What was Abram's religion ? Vni. — (1.) Who was Abram's first son ? (2.) What is said of Ishmael's tribe ? IX. — (1.) Who was Abram's second son? (2.) Where did Jacob go? CHAPTER XXI. HIERARCHAL AUTHORITY. I. — (1.) When a number of human individuals, or tribes, con- tinued in settled life, their priests or rehgious teachers often became a ruling class. (2.) When this was the case, they made regulations to govern the people. II. — (1.) Sometimes they selected one of their own number to be chief ruler, under the name of king or high-priest. (2.) At other times they appointed some distinguished soldier of the nation as chief, and made laws to regulate his conduct. III. — (1.) Many powerful nations in ancient times were governed in this manner, by a priestly class. (2.) The members of such a class filled all the offices of state. (3.) They made laws, and were the king's counsellors. (4.) They were judges and teachers of the whole community. IV. — (1.) When a priesthood appointed the king, and made laws, the form of government was known as a hierarchy. (2.) A hierarchy means a body or band of religious chiefs. (3.) They could exercise their influence either through monarchies or aristo- cracies. V. — (1.) A hierarchy represented the supreme power of one or more gods. (2.) The form of hierarchy which governed the Hebrews, as recorded in the Bible, was called a theocracy. (3.) The Hebrew priesthood represented the commands of one Supreme God. I. — (1.) What did priests often become ? (2.) What then occurred ? n.— (1.) What did they sometimes do? (2.) What did they do at other times? TTT- — (1.) What is said about a priestly class? (2.) What did its members do ? (3.) What else ? (i.) What were they, in the community ? rv. — (1.) What was the form of government called ? (2.) What is meant by a hierarchy ? (3.) What could they do ? V. — (1.^ What did a hierarchy represent ? (2.) What form of hierarchy governed the Hebrews ? (3.) What did the Hebrew priesthood represent? 84 Hlstoiy of Governments. VI. — (1). When the first parent exercised patriarchal aatbority over his descendants, he was also reverenced as their religious instructor or priest. (2.) He taught the members of his household that they were protected by one God who had created their father and mother after his own image. VII. — (1.) The patriarch summoned his family at morning and evening, to impress upon them their duties toward the Supreme Being. (2.) He prayed aloud, and oifered sacrifices in their pre- sence. (3.) He implored the blessing of God upon each and all in proper undertakings. Vni. — (1.) A patriarch was the mouthpiece of communication between his family and their creator. (2.) He held the relation of priest, or interpreter of religious knowledge to his children. IX. — (1.) "When the patriarch Noah was saved with his family from the Flood, that had drowned all other persons, he continued to exercise the pa,triarchal authority, and the duties of a priest. (2.) Afterward, the same authority was possessed by Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. (3.) The true religion, or worship of one God, was thus preserved in a line of families governed by the patriarchal system. X. — (1.) Each successive head of the family was chief priest of all his descendants. (2.) This form of patriarchal government con- stituted a hierarchal monarchy. (3.) It continued till the descend- ants of Abraham were combined as the Hebrew nation. VI. — (1.) How waa the first parent reverenced ? (2.) What did he teach f Vn.— (1.) What did the patriarch do? (2.) What further did he do? (8.) What did he implore ? Vm. — (1.) What position did a patriarch occupy ? (2.) What relation did he hold ? IX. — (1.) What is said of the patriarch Noah? (2.) By whom was this authority afterward possessed ? (3.) What was thus preserved ? X. — (1.) What was each head of the family ? (2.) What did this form ol government constitute ? (3.) How long did it continue ? HIERARCHAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER I. THEOCRACY OP THE HEBREWS. I. — (1.) The Hebrew community began in the household, or pa- triarchal body-politic, of which Abraham was the head. (2.) While Ishmael, the patriarch's first son, became a chief of the wan- dering tribe of the Arabians or Ishmaelitcs, the second son, Isaac, settled as a herdsman and agriculturist. II. — (1.) Isaac's son, Jacob, left the land of the Canaanites, where Abraham had lived, and went down with his family of seventy persons, into Egypt. (2.) They made a settlement, and each of Jacob's twelve sons founded a distinct line of descendants. III. — (1.) The Hebrews suffered much oppressive treatment from the Egyptians during several hundred years. (2.) They were after- ward led out of Egypt by Moses, one of their chief men, under the direction of God himself. IV.— (1.) The whole number of persons in the nation when they left Egypt, was six hundred thousand men with their families. (2.) Moses divided them into twelve tribes, each comprising the descend- ants of one of Jacob's sons. I. — (1.) Where did the Hebrew community begin ? (2.) What is said of Abraham's sons? n. — (1.) Where did Isaac's son Jacob go ? (2.) What was done there ? m. — (1.) What did the Hebrews suffer ? (2.) What became of them ? IV. — (1.) How many individuals were led out of Egypt? (2.) How were they di Tided? 85 86 History of Governments. v.— (1.) After leaving Egypt, the Hebrews lived a nomadic life, wandering from place to place, with their cattle and tents, for forty years. (2.) Each tribe had its camp, and a chief or headman. (3.) Moses was general of the nation, and chief judge, deciding dis- pntes between individuals, or between different tribes. VI.— (1.) Moses subdivided each tribe of the Hebrews int« thousands, hundreds, fifties aud tens. (2.) Each thousand men se- lected their headman, or judge. (3.) Under the thousands, were chosen rulers of hundreds ; lower still, rulers of fifties, and lowest, rulers of tens. VII.— (1.) A ruler of ten heard simple complaints, where judg ment was not too difBcult. (2.) More serious matters were passed upon by higher rulers. (3.) Moses was respected as chief judge, and was considered to stand between the nation and God himself.' VIII. — (1.) When the Hebrews went out to battle, a military leader was appointed, to command the fighting men of each tribe. (2.) Moses selected a chief captain over the whole army. (8.) God himself was always thought to be the real leader of the Hebrews, and their general was supposed to be directed by heaven. IX. — (1.) This mode of government continued while the Hebrew tribes journeyed through wildernesses in a nomadic state. (2.) The fighting men of the nation made war on other nations which they encountered. (3.) They conquered and took possession of a great part of the country occupied by Canaanites. X. — (1.) They divided this country among the tribe?, each tak- V.— (1.) What then occurred to them? (2.) What did each tribe have? (3.) What was the position of Moses ? VI (1.) How did Moses subdivide the tribes? (2.) What did each thou- sand do ? (3.) What were then chosen ? VII. — (1.) What is said of a ruler often? (2.) How were more serious matters determined? (3.) What is said of Moses? VIII. — (1.) What took place when the Hebrews went to battle ? (2.) What did Moses do ? (3.) Who was thought to be the real leader of the Hebrews ? IX. — (1.) How long did this mode of government last? (2.) What did the fighting men do ? (3.) Of what did they take possession ? S (1.) How did they divide the country of the Cauaanite people? Theocracy of the Hebrews. 87 ing a larger or a smaller portion, according to the number of its families. (2.) Every tribe then allotted its particular laud among its own families. XI. — (1.) There were about 600,000 families in the nation, and the land was divided so as to secure a farm of about twenty-five acres to each family. (2.) The owner of such a farm was allowed to lease, but forbidden to sell, his land. XII. — (1.) While the Hebrews resided in Egypt, every father, or other head of a family, acted as the priest of his household. (2.) He offered up such prayers and sacrifices as he considered accept- able to God. XIII. — (1.) After the tribes departed from Egypt,' God com- manded Moses, their leader, to appoint one high-priest for the whole nation. (2.) The first priest appointed was a brother of Moses, named Aaron. XIV. — The office and authority of the high-priest were made hereditary, or descending from father to son. (2.) It was ordained that no one should succeed Aaron, as high-priest, unless he belonged to Aaron's famUy. XV. — (1.) Forty-eight cities were allotted to the twelve tribes in the country of Canaan. (2.) Bach tribe was represented in the nation by an elder, or chief man. (3.) The people in every city selected seven magistrates, to decide their differences. XVI. — {1.) The family of the high-priest belonged to a small (2.) What was done by each tribe -with the land allotted to it? XI. — (1.) What is said of the division of land ? (2.) What was the owner permitted and forbidden? Xn. — (1.) Who acted as priests among the Hebrews in Egypt ? (2.) What did he do ? Xni (1.) What was afterward commanded? (2.) Who was first ap- pointed ? XrV.— (1.) What is said of the oQSce of high-prlost? (2.) What w!\s or- dained ? XV (1.) What la said about cities? (2.) How was each tribe represented in the nation ? (3.) What did the people of each city select ? XVI, — (1.) To what chosen tribe was the high-priest obliered to belong ? 88 History of Governments. tribe, descended from Levi, called Levites. (2.) The Leyites were set apart as a holy, or sacerdotal tribe, to furnish the high-priesta with assistants, in the service of God, and to supply teachers for the people. XVII. — (1.) Levites were not allowed to live in cities apart from other Hebrews, but were scattered through all the cities and districts of the commonwealth. (2.) Every magistrate was re- quired to associate with himself two Levites, called scribes. (3.) These scribes acted as councillors, and explained the laws that gov- erned the nation. XVIII. — (1.) Those laws were considered to have come directly from God, through Moses, the first chief of the nation. (2.) They could only be administered by the high-priest, and his subordinates, the Levites. XIX. — (1.) During its earliest settlement in the country of Canaan, the Hebrew nation was a theocratic aristocracy. (2.) The high- priest was its head, as a representative of God's government. (3.) The tribes selected their own headmen, and appointed their own local magistrates. XX. — (1.) The high-priest resided in the chief city of the com- monwealth. (2.) The tribes sent their elders" to that city, to act in connection with a number of Levites selected by the high-priest, as a national senate, XXI. — (1.) The high-priest and senate composed a chief gov- erning body. (2.) This body decided disputes that could not be settled in the tribes and cities. (3.) It had power to make peace or call the tribes to war on permission of the high-priest. (2.) What is said concerning tliis particular tribe of Levites ? XVII. — (1.) Where did the Levites live ? (2.) What was every magistrate required to do? (3.) How did the scribes act? XVm.— (1.) What is said of those laws? (2.) Who administered the laws ? XIX. — (1.) When was the Hebrew nation an aristocracy ? (2.) Who was at its head ? (3.) What part did the tribes have in the government ? XX.— (1.) Where did the high-priest reside ? (2.) What did the tribes do ? XXI. — (1.) How was the chief governing body composed ? (2.) What ju riadiction did it possess ? (3.) What pow ir did it have ? Theocracy of the Hebrews. 89 XXII. — (1.) God was always reverenced as the supreme poli- ical head of the nation. (2.) The senate was considered to speak the will of heaven, made known through the high-priest. (3.) All political and civil regulations were made in agreement with Leviti- cal or sacred law. XXIII. — (1.) The Levitical law directed the Hebrew people to visit their chief city three times a year. (2.) Once in seven years there waa a great festival held there, called the Feast of Taberna- cles. (3.) When assembled at this feast, the Hebrews lived in tabernacles, or tents. XXrV. — (1.) The sacred laws were read and explained to the Hebrews, by their high-priest, at the Feast of Tents. (2.) Men, women and servants were commanded to remember these laws and obey them strictly. XXV. — (1.) The Levitical laws were also taught by appointed persons, in every city, to all the children. (2.) They were thought to be the first and best knowledge for youth to possess. XXVI. — (1.) Ou one day in seven, Levitical teachers called the Hebrews together in cities, towns, and other communities. (2.) This day was devoted to prayers and public instruction, and became known as the Sabbath day. XXVII. — (1.) All sacred festivals were required to be held in the chief city. (2.) It was forbidden to offer sacrifice to God in any place except the temple in the chief city. (3.) The whole peo- vyTT. — (1.) How was God regarded by the Hebrew nation ? (2.) How was the senate considered? (3.) What is said of all regulations ? XSHL— (1.) What was directed bythi3 law? (2.) What oocur-'cd ouce in seven years ? (3.) What did the people live in, during this Feast ? ZXIV. — (1.) How were the Hebrew laws explained ? (2.) What wab .-00)- manded? XXV. — (1.) How were the laws taught? (2.) What were they thougnt to be? XXVI. — (1.) What is said of one day in seven? (2.) To what was this diiy devoted, and what was it called ? XXVU. — (1.) Where were sacred festivals held? (2.) What was for- bidden? (3.) What national characteristics did the people possess? go History of Governments. pie possessed one central city, or capital, one high-priest, and one temple. (4.) The twelve independent tribes were held thus together, as one nation. (5.) Eeligious laws and a common worship of God constituted their bond of union. XXVIII. — (1.) The Hebrew theocracy, at this period, combined two forms of government. (2.) These were the hierarchal, or priestly, authority, and an aristocratic form of popular power. (3.) The twelve tribes constituted a confederacy, under one military leader and one religious head. XXIX. — (1.) The united tribes continued to choose a chief, or general, in time of war. (2.) lu peace, they were governed by their high-priest and senate. (3.) The generals were sometimes made chief judges, or principal magistrates, on account of their services to the nation. XXX. — (1.) Judges continued to be chosen till the time of Samuel. (2.) Samuel desired to make the office hereditary, like that of the high-priest. (3.) He divided the commonwealth into two districts, each to bo governed by one of his sons. XXXI. — (1.) The sons of Samuel were corrupt in office, and sold their judgments for bribes. (2.) The tribes became dissatisfied, and demanded a king to rule over the nation. XXXII. — (1.) Samuel was not in favor of monarchical govern- ment for the Hebrews. (2.) He thought the commonwealth would be stronger and healthier as a theocratic aristocracy. XXXIII. — (1.) Samuel asked advice of G-od, and was com- (4.) How were the twelve tribes united? (5.) What was the uniting bond? XXVm.— (1.) What is said of the theocracy at this period? (2.) What were these forms ? (3.) What did the twelve tribes constitute ? 'SSXS. — (1.) What did the tribes continue to do ? (2.) How were they governed in time of peace ? (3.) What were the generals sometimes made ? XZX. — (1.) How long did judges continue to be chosen ? (2.) What did Samuel desire ? (3.) AVhat divisions did he make ? XXXI. — (1.) What is said of Samuel's sons ? (2 ) What was the conse- quence ? XXXn. — (1.) Of what was Samuel not in favor? (2.) What did he think? XXXm. — (1.) What course did Samuel pursue, and what followed? Theocracy of the Hebrews. gi manded to tell his countrymen that they would suffer greatly under kings. (2.) He was directed, at the same time, to comply with the wish of the tribes. XXXIV. — (1.) He called a meeting of seventy elders of the people, and introduced to them a young Hebrew named Saul. (2.) This young man belonged to a poor family of the tribe of Benjamin. XXXV. — (1.) Samuel directed the twelve tribes to cast lots, to decide from which tribe the ruler should be chosen. (2.) The lots were drawn, and the tribe of Benjamin gained the choice. (3.) All the families belonging to the tribe of Benjamin then cast lots, to decide from which family the king must be taken. (4.) The lot fell upon a family called the Matri family. (5.) All the male members of this Matri family then cast lots, to decide which of them should be king of Israel. (6 ) The lot fell upon the young Hebrew Saul, who had previously been named by Samuel, under direction of God. XXXVI. — (1.) Samuel gave up his own authority, as judge, into the hands of Saul. (2.) The high-priest and senate acknow- ledged Saul as military chief of the people. (3.) Saul became the first king of the Hebrews, and ruled as judge and commander till he was killed in battle. XXXVII. — (1.) At Saul's death, another Hebrew chief named David, belonging to the tribe of Jesse, was set up by that tribe as king. (2.) Saul's sou was afterward killed, and all the tribes ac- knowledged David as monarch. (2.) What further direction did this prophet receive from God? XXXIV.— (1.) What did Samuel then do? (2.) What is said of tliis young ' (1.) What did Samuel direct the tribes to do ? (2.) What tribe gained the choice? (3.) What was then done? (4.) What family was suc- cessful? (5.) Who next cast lots? (6.) On whom did the lot fall? XXXVI — (1.) What did Samuel then do? (2.) What was done by the high-priest and senate ? (3.) What did Saul become ? XXXVn.— (1.) What took place at Saul's death? (2.) What was the con- sequence ? 92 History of Governments. XXXVIIL— (1.) David made Jerusalem his chief city, and called it the city of David. (2.) The high-priest resided ia that city, and the national senate met there on important occasions. XXXIX. — (1.) King David caused the Hebrew people to be numbered and divided into three classes. (2.) The first class com- prised Levites, the second citizens, the third strangers. (3.) From the class of strangers, servants and laborers were taken to perform work for the Hebrews. XL. — (1.) Six thousand Levites were selected to be judges and scribes. (2.) The remaining members of the Levitical tribe were appointed to act as assistants of the high-priest, and teachers of the people. XIjI. — (1.) The army of the tribes was organized in twelve divisions, and a captain was set over each. (2.) The principal men of the Hebrews were selected to be rulers over cities and villages, collectors of revenue, and other officers. XIiII. — (1.) Solomon, the son of David, made alliances with many powerful kingdoms. (2.) David and Solomon extended their own territories by making war on neighboring nations. (3.) The simplicity of the commonwealth gave way to luxury and pride. (4.) Captives taken in war were reduced to servitude. (5.) Subject nations were made to pay tribute, or were cruelly treated. XIiIII. — (1.) When Solomon died, a civil war broke out, and the nation was split into two kingdoms. (2.) Two tribes continued XZZVin — (1.) What did David do ? (2.) "What is said of that city ? XXXrX.— (1.) What was done with the Hebrew people ? (2.) What did each of the three classes comprme ? (8 ) What were taken from the class of strangers ? XL. — (1.) Who were made judges and scribes? (2.) What became of the remaining Levites ? XU.— (1.) How was the army organized? .(2.) What is said of principal men? XLn. — (1.) What did Solomon do? (2.) How were the Hebrew territories extended? (3.) What was the consequence ? (4.) What was done with cap- tives? (5.) How were subject nations treated? XLm.— (1.) What took place when Solomon died ? (2.) What is said of two tribes ? Theocracy of the Hebrews. 93 to be governed by Solomon's descendants. (3.) The other ten tribes chose another king. (4.) The Hebrew people then formed two separate theocratic states. (5.) The two tribes became known as the kingdom of Judah, and the ten tribes composed the king- dom of Israel. XLIV. — (1.) The kingdom of Israel continued to exist as a theocratic monarchy under the reigns of nineteen monarchs. (2.) It was at last conquered by the Assyrians, and its ten tribes were carried as captives beyond the borders of Syria. (3.) The kingdom of Judah remained a theocracy under the rule of twenty monarchs. (4.) It was at last- overwhelmed by enemies, and its two tribes car- ried into captivity by the Assyrians. XLV. — (1.) A Hebrew theocracy existed, whenever the people, as a nation, obeyed the Levitical or sacred law. (2.) Under this law, the high-priest and senate directed either the kingly or aristo- cratic government. (3.) When wicked kings were allowed to usurp powier, the sacred laws and commands of God were disregarded. C4.) God then permitted the nation to become weak and distracted through foreign wars and domestic disorder. XLVI. — (1.) When the kingdom of Judah was overthrown by the Assyrians, the principal Hebrews were carried away captive to Babylon, with their families. (2.) There theyjemained scat- tered, during seventy years. (3.) They were then released, and allowed to rebuild their city and temple. XIjVII. — (1.) After the captivity, public affairs were conducted (3.) What of the other ten ? (4.) What did the Hebrews then form ? (5.) How were the separate states known ? SLTV. — (1.) How long did the theocratic monarchy of Isfael last ? (2.) What took place at last? (3.) How long did the theocracy of Judah exist? (4.) How was it ended ? SLV. — (1.) What is said of Hebrew theocracy ? (2.) What body directed government under this law ? (3.) What took place under wicked kings ? (4.) Wliiit did God then permit? SLVI. — (1.) What occurred when the kingdom of Judah was overthrown ? (2.) How long did these families remain in captivity ? (3.) What then became of them ? XLVn. — (1.) How were the Hebrews governed after their return from 94 History ot" Governments. by a succession of higli-priestg, assisted by military governors, nntil the deatli of Hyrcanus, tlie last of the priesthood. (2.) The real theocracy ended with Hyrcanus, and all power fell into the hands of rival chiefs, who contended against each other. (3.) Some of these styled themselves kings, and others priests, but most of them were oppressors of the nation. (4.) At last all political power passed away from the Hebrews, and their country became a pro- vince of the Eoman empire. XLVIII. — (1.) The Hebrews were driven away by foreigners from their own territory. (2.) They became a scattered people, and so remain at the present day. (3.) They still regard the Levitical laws as their religions rule, but submit to the civil govern- ment and laws of any country in which they live. XXiIX. — (1.) The history of Hebrew theocracy shows how a nation prospered when obedient to the laws of God. (2.) The troubles and final dispersion of the nation resulted from the wicked- ness of rulers and strifes among the people. captivity? (2.) Wlien did the real theocracy end, and what government succeeded? (3.) What is said of these rulers? (4.) What was the fate of Judah ? XLVin.— (1.) What became of the Hebrews ? (2.) What befell thenp ? (3.) How are they now governed ? XIiIX. — (1.) What does Hebrew history show? (2.) What is remarked concerning the nation ? CHAPTER II. THE ETHIOPIAN HIERARCHT. I. — (1.) The ancient people known as Ethiopians, inhabited plains and mountains of Africa, above the land of Egypt. (2.) They were divided into fighting tribes, pastoral tribes, hunting tribes, and people dwelling in towns. II. — (1.) The nation of Nubians lived nearest to the Egyptians, and possessed a religion resembling theirs. (2.) They were a settled people under dominion of the Egyptians. (3.) The civilized Ethiopians dwelt above the Nubians, on banks and islands of the Nile. (4.) They inhabited cities and towns, and were governed by a king and queen. (5.) They were divided into priests, merchants, farmers, artisans, and slaves. III.. — (1.) The civilized Ethiopians were known as the people of Meroe. (2.) Their chief city was the head-quarters of traffic with Arabians and wild tribes of Africa. (3.) Their merchants travelled into the deserts and mountains to trade with savage nations. (4.) Caravans of Arabs and other roving people visited the markets of Meroe to sell their goods, animals, and slaves. IV. — (1.) The government of Meroe was hierarchah (2.) The priesthood formed a ruling tribe, and selected from their own members the king. (3.) They pretended to do this under direction I. — (1.) Where Aid the ancient Ethiopians live ? (2.) How were they divided? n. — (1.) What is said of the Kubians? (2.) Uuder what government did they live ? (3.) Who dwelt above the Nubians ? (4.) What is said of them ? (o.) How were they divided? m. — (1.) How were the civilized Ethiopians known ? (2.) What waa their chief city? (3.) What did their merchants do ? (4.) What strangers visited Meroe ? IV. — (1.) What form of government had Meroe ? (2.) What did the priest- hood form ' (3.) What did they pretend regarding the choice of king ? 96 History or ijovemmciiLs. of their chief god. (4.) They asserted that" the monarch stood in place of a god over the people. v.— (1.) The king was highly venerated, but his power was regulated by ancient laws made by the priests. (2.) He was not allowed to reward or punish any subject without consulting the chief priests. (3.) When any criminal was judged deserving of death, an officer of the priests was sent to him with a command to kill himself. (4.) It was considered disgraceful to disobey such a command. VI. — (1.) When the priests thought that a king had reigned long enough, they sent a messenger with an order for him to die, by direction of the gods. (2.) It was then the king's duty to put himself to death with his own hands. VII. — (1.) The Ethiopian state of Meroe contained a military force of two hundred and fifty thousand soldiers. (2.) Its popu'i'- tlon comprised a half million of merchants and artisans. VIII. — (1.) The hierarchy of Meroe extended its dominion over many tribes! and small nations beyond its settled limits. (2.) The bonds connecting these diiferent people were those of religion and traffic. (3.) Members of different tribes came from distant places to worship in the temples of Meroe. (4.) They brought productions of their countries to sell in the market of the city. (5.) These tribes were composed of independent families, like African tribes of the present day. IX. — (1.) Savage tribes living near the sea-shore were fisher- men. (2.) Those who inhabited grassy valleys and plains were (i.) What did the Ethiopian priests teach ? v.— (1.) What is said of the king? (2.) What was he not allowed to do? (3.) Wliat is said of criminals? (4.) What was considered disgraceful ? VI. — (1.) How was a king removed? (2.) What was then the king's duty? Vn — (1.) How large an army had Meroe? (2.) What did its population comprise ? Vni. — (1.) How was the priestly dominion extended? (2.) AVhat bonds connected all these people ? (3.) For what did members of tribes come to Meroe? (4.) For what other purpose? (3.) How were those tribes composed ? IX. — (1.) What were Iribes near the sea-shore ? (2.) What were those on The Ethiopian Hierarchy. yj herdsmeu. (3.) Those who roamed in the forests were hunters. (4.) Those who lived near the rirers were more settled, and culti- vated the earth. X. — (1.) The military ranks of Meroe were originally Egyptian soldiers. (2.) They emigrated in a large army from their own country, and obtained a grant of land from the Ethiopian priest- hood. (3.) They elected their own generals, but were subordinate to the hierarchy of Meroe. XI. — (1.) The priests of Meroe exercised great influence by pretending that they heard the voices of their gods in the temples. (2.) These pretended voices were called oracles. (3.) Colonies of priests were often sent out to make settlements among distant tribes. (4.) Wherever they settled they set up altars and were supported by the people. Xn. — (1.) The Ethiopian priests were at first worshippers of the sun, moon and stars. (2.) They represented a star by the pic- ture of a dog, to denote its watchfulness over the world. (3.) The sun and moon were represented by other figures or emblems. Xni. — (1.) The first priests came from mountainous regions, and were of light color. (2.) They descended to the plains and valleys, where dark-complexioned tribes roved, and taught them religion and trade. XIV. — (1.) They first set up stones or altars, to denote that the gods lived in high places. (2.) Superstitious people, of various the plains? (B.) What were the forest tribes? (4.) What tribes formed settled communities ? X. — (1.) What were the soldiers of Meroe? (2.) What is said of them? (3.) What did they elect? XL — (1.) How did the priests exercise influence ? (2.) What were these pretended voices called ? (3.) What other means did the hierarchy adopt, to extend their power ? (4.) What is said of these colonies ? Zn. — (1.) What did the Ethiopian priests first worship ? (2.) How did they represent a star ? (3.) How did they represent the sun and moon ? XIII — (1 ) What is said concerning the first priests? (2.) What did they do? XIV. — (1.) What did they first set up? (2.) What did the people do? 98 History of Governments. tribes, came from different parts, to bring gifts to the priests. (_3.) Members of distant tribes grew acquainted with each other, and ex- changed their presents. (4.) This was a beginning of trade or commerce. (5.) As it extended, the priestly settlements grew more numerous, and a town was built. XV. — (1.) Persons who resembled the priests iu color were made their assistants and first favorites. (2.) Those of darker com- plexion came to be regarded as inferior. (3.) Tribes of different complexions were afterward placed in distinct classes. XVI.— (1.) The priests extended their authority, and combined seyeral tribes into a nation. (2.) They were able to establish hier- archal government in Meroe, Egypt and other countries. XVII. — (1.) At the present day there exist remains of the ancient hierarchy, as established in Meroe. (2.) A modern African state occupies the site of the ancient one, and is governed by a high pontiff, or prince-priest. (3.) Under this monarch the priests act as teachers and magistrates. (4.) The tribe is engaged in commerce, and its merchants travel in caravans to Arabia and through the African desert. (5.) Priests travel with the caravans, and are venerated by all the rude tribes. XVIII. — (1.) Priests were the civilizers of many early nations. (2.) They planted colonies, which grew up to be flourishing states. (3.) Meroe and Ammoneum in Ethiopia, and Memphis, Thebes and Heliopolis, in Egypt, arose from the erection of a single altar. XIX. — (1.) In such states the greater numbers were usually (3.) What followed this ? (4.) Of what was this a beginning ? (5.) What was the effect ? XV. — (1.) Who were made the first favorites? (2.) Who were regarded as inferior? (3.) What was the consequence of this distinction ? XVI. — (1.) What did the priests accomplish? (2.) What were they able to do? XVn.— (1.) What exist at the present day ? (2.) What is said of a modern state ? (3.) How do the priests act in this hierarchy ? (4.) How is the tribe engaged ? (5.) Who accompany the caravans ? XVm. — (1.) What is remarked concerning priests ? (2.) What did they do ? (3.) What flourishing cities were founded by colonies of priests? XIX. — (1.) What is said of such states as are here mentioned ? The Egyptian Hierarchy. 99 oppressed by the smaller class. (2.) False religion made the people superstitious. (3.) The ruling classes of priests and soldiers reduced all working people to the condition of slaves. CHAPTER III. THE EGYPTIAN HIERAKCHT. I. — (1.) The earliest inhabitants of Egypt were descendants of Mizraim, one of the grandsons of Noah. (2.) They lived in huts made of reeds, and were clothed with garments woven from grasses of the Nile. (3.) They subsisted on fish, and fruits that grew from the soil without culture. II. — (1.) Improvement in the coudition of these savage people was brought about by degrees. (2.) The priests who had taught the worship of planets in Ethiopia, descended to the land of Egypt. (3.) They jjlanted colonies among the people, and taught them to raise altars and dwell in villages. III. — (1.) The different tribes of Egypt learned to till the ground, to make canals, and to build houses and walls. (2.) The priests divided them into classes, and gave them various occupations. (3.) These occupations were such as could be followed best in the places which they inhabited. IV. — (1.) The priests, and those who came with them into (2.) What was the effect of false religion ? (3.) What did the ruling classes do? I. — (1.) Who were the earliest inhabitants of Egypt? (2.) What was their mode of life? (3.) On what did they subsist? n. — (1.) How were improvements brought about? (2.) Who came to Egypt? (3.) What did these priests do? m. — (1.) What did the tribes learn? (2.) How were they divided by the priests? (3.) What were their occupations? TV. — (1.) What did the priests and their adhereuta now form? 100 History of Governments. Egypt, continued to form an exclusive tribe, or class, called a caste. (2.) They selected the most intelligent and courageous Egyptian tribes to be next to them in rank. (3.) They raised from these tribes a class, or caste, of soldiers, and made them defenders of the rest. V. — (1.) The priests and soldiers became the superior classes. (2.) All other tribes were made working people. (3.) These last were subdivided into cultivators, fishermen, merchants, artisans, laborers and herdsmen. VI. — (1.) When the priests became powerful, they divided the whole land of Egypt into districts. (2.) They settled a colony of priests in every district, to oversee and instruct the native people. (3.) Each of these priestly colonies established a temple, and made the superstitious people worshippers of their gods. (4.) They pre- tended that those gods were dwellers in the planets. VII. — (1.) The original rude tribes of Egypt grew accustomed to look upon the priests and their teachings as sacred. (2.) By this means a union was brought about among tribes that were pre- viously at war with each other. VIII.' — (1.) A combination, which afterward expanded into a great nation, was thus made by the priesthood. (2.) Several cities were built, and a numerous population settled around each of them. (3.) A majority of the nation labored with their hands, whilst the soldier tribe defended their cities against neighboring savages. IX. — (1.) Many savage tribes roamed in the wildernesses around Egypt, and years elapsed before they were subdued. (2.) At length (2.) What selection did they make? (3.) What did they raise? V. — (1.) Who became the superior classes? (2.) What were all other classes? (3.) How were the last subdivided? VI.— (1.) How did the priests divide Egypt? (2.) What did they settle in each district? (3.) What is said of these colonies? (4.) What did they pre- tend concerning the gods ? VH. — (1.) What is said of the original tribes? (2.) What was the result of this ? Vni.— (1.) What combination was made ? (2.) What followed ? (3.) What was the condition of the people ? IX.— (1.) What is said of savage tribes? (2.) What took "place at length? The Egyptian Hierarchy. lol the states of Egypt became strongly established, and were consoli- dated as a nation under the hierarchy. X. — (1.) The priestly caste chose a king from the soldier tribe; and placed him at the head of the nation. (2.) They associated with him a high-priest, whose sons were made his attendants and counsellors. (3.) The power of the king was restricted by the influence of his associate priests. XI. — (1.) The native people of Egypt at first owned the land which they cultivated. (2.) Afterward the priests and kings ob- tained possession of it by purchase. (3.) They rented it out to farmers, and received an annual portion of the produce. XII. — (1.) The priestly caste used their oracles, or divine voices, as means of governing the people. (2.) They pretended that these voices delivered laws from the gods. XIII. — (1.) Wherever a settlement of priests was made, a pOT- tiou of the land was set apart as their property. (2.) They rented this land to farmers, and obtained their living from its proceeds. (3.) Priests were judges, physicians, lecturers, architects, and practi- tioners of all arts and sciences then known. XIV. — (1.) Every district had its principal temple, and the idols there kept were considered gods of the district. (2.) The Egyptian people and strangers from abroad brought offerings of various kinds to these temples, to obtain the favor of the priest- hood. XV. — (1.) The priesthood became the highest and wealthiest X.— (1.) What chief ruler was constituted? (2.) Who was associated with the king ? (3.) How was his power restricted ? XI.— (1.) What is said of the land in Egypt ? (2.) What afterward occurred ? (3.) What did the priests do with the land ? Xn.— (1.) What is said of the oracles ? (2.) What did the priests pretend ? Xm.— (1.) What was done in every colony of priests ? (2.) What was done with such land? (8.) What were the occupations of priests ? XIV. — (1.) What did each district possess? (2.) What were brought to these temples ? XV. — (1.) Whstt did the priesthood of the Egyptian nation become ? 102 History of Governments. caste of the Egyptian nation. (2.) Its members filled civil offices and carried on the most lucrative branches of business. XVI. — (1.) The warriors, or soldier caste of Egypt, were next in dignity. (2.) This caste was divided in two classes, under the names of Hermotyhi and Calasari. (3.) The first class numbered 100,000, and the second 250,000 men. XVII. — (1.) The monarchs of Egypt were always appointed from the soldier caste. (2.) The king was commander-in-chief of Egyptian warriors. (3.) His power in time of peace was restricted by the religious law taught by the priesthood. XVIII. — (1.) The soldier caste was wealthy, owning large lauded estates, lilie the priestly caste. (2.) Every soldier possessed twelve acres of land, which he rented to cultivators. (3.) One thousand warriors from the Hermotybi, and one thousand from the Calasari, were appointed every year, to be the king's bodyguard. (4.; They were allowed regular rations of bread, meat and drink. XIX. — (1.) The soldier caste was not scattered through the different districts of Egypt, like the priestly caste. (2.) Its mem- bers lived in villages throughout a particular district, where, land was divided for them. (3.) They left this district of their residence only in seasons of service. XX. — (1.) The most considerable of the inferior Egyptian castes was that of the trading citizens. (2.) It comprised merchants, (2.) What ia said of the members of this priesthood ? XVL — (1.) What caste was second in Egypt? (2.) How was it divided? (3.) What were its numbers? SVIL — (1.) From what caste were Egyptian monarchs always appointed? (2.) What military ranli did the king hold? (3.) How was his civil power restricted ? ZVm.— (1.) What is said concerning the soldier caste? (2.) What did each soldier possess ? (3.) What constituted the king's guard ? (4.) What were allowed to these ? XIX. — (1.) In what respect did the priestly and warrior castes dlfifer? (2.) Where did members of the latter reside ? (3.) When did they leave this district? XX.^(1.) What was the most respectable of the inferior castes ? (2.1 What The Egyptian Hierarchy. 103 artists, mechanics and farmers. (3.) The sons of each individual were usually instructed to follow the occupation of their father. XXI. — (1.) Another Egyptian caste was composed of persons known as Navigators. (2.) These were persons who dwelt on or near the river Nile and the various canals intersecting the country. (3.) They comprised the boatmen, fishermen, dyke builders, and ditchers of the land. XXII. — (1.) Another caste of the Egyptians was known as that of Interpreters or Brokers. (2.) These were strangers, who inter- married with the natives. (3.) They instructed their children to speak Egyptian and foreign tongues. XXIII. — (1.) The caste of herdsmen comprehended the native pastoral tribes who had charge of cattle and flocks. (2.) Some of these kept their herds in fields and pastures. (3.) Others were nomads, who wandered through the wilderness that bordered Egypt. (4.) The swineherds were the lowest inhabitants of Egypt, and consisted of a native tribe not allowed to enter towns or temples. XXIV.— (1.) The priests possessed all sacred and historical writings of the Egyptians. (2.) They explained the laws and ordained religious ceremonies. (3.) Their laws imposed strict rules of life upon the kings. XXV. — (1.) The king's daily duties of all kinds were fixed by law. (2.) Certain hours were specified for his sacrifices, his meals, his amusements, his studies, and his sleep. (3.) He was did this caste comprise ? (3.) Wiiat is said of the sons of individuals ? XXL— (1.) What composed another caste ? (2.) Who were these ? (3.) What did they comprise ? XXn. — (1.) How was another caste known? (2.) Who composed this class ? (3.) How did they instruct their children ? XXHL — (1.) What did the caste of herdsmen comprehend ? (2.) How did some of these tribes keep their herds ? (3.) What were others ? (4.) What were the swineherds ? XXIV.— (1.) What did the priests possess? (2.) What did they do? (3.) What did these laws impose ? XXV (1.) What were fixed by law? (2.) What were specified? (3.) What was the king forbidden? 104 Histc,_, „. forbidden to order puuishments except in accordance with prescribed cnstoms. XXVI. — (1.) The priests understood astronomy, and pre- tended to interpret dreams, or foretell future events, by reading the stars. (2.) They exercised great influence, in this way, over a superstitious multitude. (3.) The king was not permitted to com- mence any undertaking without the sanction of oracles in the temples. (4.) The lowest Egyptians were accustomed to ask advice from their nearest priest on every important occasion. XXVII. — (1.) All civil officers employed to keep records, collect revenues, or expend moneys, were required to be priests. (2.) The judges and pleaders before tribunals, were appointed from the sacerdotal caste. (3.) Magistrates in every city and village were selected from the priesthood. XXVin. — (1.) A national council, composed of thirty judges, had authority over all inferior officers. (2.) These constituted a high court of the nation. (3.) Ten of these judges were from the city of Memphis, ten from the city of Thebes, and ten from the city of Heliopolis. (4.) They were all sworn to be honest, and to deal justly. (5.) Their decisions were supreme and final, and became laws of the nation. XXIX. — (1.) The Egyptian kings continued to succeed from the soldier class until a priest named Sethos seized the throne. (2.) This caused the soldier class to revolt, and Sethos took away their lands, which he distributed among the other castes that sup- ported him. XXVI. — (1.) What did the priests understand and pretend? (2.) What influence did they exercise ? (.3.) What tras not permitted to the kin" ? (4.) To what were the lowest Egyptians accustomed ? SXVn.— (1.) What was required of civil officers ? (2.) What other officers were priests ? (3.) Who were magistrates ? SXVill.— (1.) What body had supreme authority? (2.) What did thfi thirty judges constitute? (3.) From what cities did the judges come? (4.) How were they sworn ? (5.) AVhat is said concerning their decisions ? XXIX — (1.) What is said of a priest named Sethos? (2.) What followed this? The Egyptian Hierarchy. I05 XXX. — (1.) When Sethos died, twelve chiefs of tlie soldier and merchant castes took possession of all anthority, and formed a government, in connection with the priests. (2.) One of these chiefs hired foreign soldiers and overthrew the eleven others. (3.) He soon established a military despotism supported by foreign troops. (4.) The offended native soldier caste then emigrated from the country, and settled in Ethiopia. (5.) Civil war fol- lowed, and a king was elected by the foreign soldiers. XXXI. — (1.) The priestly caste continued to be more or less powerful, but the throne was sustained by foreign mercenaries. (2.) The kings sent out armies, overran Syria, and held possession of the. land of the Hebrews for a short period. (3.) Afterward Egypt was invaded by enemies, and the great city Thebes was cap- tured by a Carthaginian army. XXXII. — (1.) The land was afterward conquered byCambyscs, king of Persia. (2.) It was made subject to that despot, as a pro- vince, and governed by a ruler called a satrap. (3.) When the Ma- cedonian conqueror, Alexander, became monarch of the Persian empire, he built a new Egyptian city, and called it Alexandria. (4.) This city grew to be the capital of Egypt, but the ancient city of Memphis was still venerated as the seat of the priesthood. XXXIII. — (1.) The hierarchal monarchy of Egypt had then lasted thousands of years. (2.) When Alexandria became the chief city, its inhabitants were divided into three classes. (3.) Those in the first class were called Alexandrines, and comprised foreigners from all countries, but principally Grecians and Hebrews. (4.) The second were Egyptians, consisting of the priests and lower orders of XXS. — (1.) What took place when Sethos died? (2.) What did one of these chiefs do? (3.) What was then established? (4.) What then took place? (5.) What follows ? 2XXI.— (1.) What is said of the hierarchy ? (2.) What did the kings do ? (3.) What afterward occurred ? XXXII. — (1.) By whom was Egypt conquered ? (2.) How w.i3 it governed ? (3.) What did Alexander of Macedon do ? (4.) What did this city become ? XXXm. — (1.) How long had the hierarchul government lasted ? (2.) How- were the inhabitants of Alexandria divided ? (3.) What is said of the first class? (4.) What of the second ? 5* io6 History of Governments. native citizens. (5.) The third class comprised all foreign soldiers ill the service of the governmeut. (6.) Persons outside of these were looked upou as slaves. XXXrV. — (1.) The Grecians and Macedonians were numbered as citizens, and dwelt in all the wards of the city. (2.) The dis- tricts of Egypt were placed under separate governors, selected from the foreign citizens. XXXV. — (1.) There were five magistrates in Alexandria — a Governor, a Chief Judge, a Eegister, and a Chief of Police. (2.) The priesthood, as a body, were deprived of all political power. XXXVI. — (1.) After the death of Alexander, his military empire fell to pieces again. (2.) A Macedonian general, who was governor of Egypt, made himself an independent monarch of the country. (3.) His successors governed Egypt during three centu- ries. (4.) It was finally conquered by the Eomans, and became a province of the Koman empire. XXXVII. — (1.) We have seen how the great Ethiopian and Egyptian hierarchies arose, flourished, and fell. (2.) The original inhabitants lived in small tribes, under patriarchal chiefs. (3.) They were brought together by the influence of religious teachers. (4.) From a community of rude barbarians, the Egyptian state grew to be a flourishing empire. (5.) But the people were kept in subjection to a higher class, and they became superstitious and servile. XXXVIII. — (1.) There was no commonwealth in Egypt, and (5.) What of the third class ? (6.) What were all other persons considered ? XXXrV. — (1.) How were Grecians and Macedonians numbered ? (2.) How were the districts of Egypt governed ? XXSV.— (1.) What magistrates were in Alexandria? (2.) What befell the priesthood? ZZSVI. — (1.) What occurred after Alexander's death? (2.) Who made him- self a monarch ? (3.) What of his successors ? (4.) What was the fate of Egypt ? SXXVn. — (1.) What have we seen? (2.) How did the original inhabi- tants live ? (3.) How were they combined as a people ? (4.) What is said of tlie Egyptian state ? (5.) What is said of the people ? XXZVIII. — (1.) What is remarked concerning Egypt ? The Hindu Hierarchy. 107 no intelligent love of country. (2.) Priests and native soldiers first oppressed the lower classes, and, afterward, despots and merce- naries took their place. (3.) The consequence was, that the Egyp- tian community became divided in itself, and military conquerors were able to overthrow the government. (4.) This has always been the fate of nations, where one class of the people claimed to be better than another class. XXXIX. — (1.) We learn from the history of Egyptian govern- ment, that a hierarchal despotism, where the priests are supported by suldiers, must fall whenever the soldiers revolt. (2.) We also learn that when foreign armies are depended on, to support a government, the nation must soon sink under their power. CHAPTEK IV. THE HINDU HIERARCHY. I. — (1.) The first inhabitants of India lived In scattered families and small communities. (2.) The origin of the nation known as Hindus, was like that of the Ethiopians and Egyptians. (3.) Several barbarous tribes were combined under the influence of a more intelligent tribe. II. — (1.) Members of the leading tribe became teachers and priests of the others, who formed the people. (2.) The bravest and strongest persons, in all the tribes, were set apart as soldiers and defenders of the rest. (2.) Who oppressed the lower classes ? (3.) What was the consequence ? (4.) What is here remarked ? XXXIX (1.) What do we learn from the history of Eg-yptian govern- ments t (i.) What further do we learn? L — (1.) What was the earliest mode of life in India? (2.) What is said of the origin of Hindus ? (3.) What were combined? II. — (1.) Who became teachers and priests? (2.) Who were set apart as soldiers ? io8 History of Governments. III. — (1.) Ill this way, two divisions or classes of the nation were made superior to the remainder of the combiutid individuals. (2.) New divisions afterward arose out of difference in occupation. IV. — (1.) The divisions became known as castes, like the classes of Egypt. (2.) The leading division was called the caste of Brah- mins, or sacred class. (3.) All priests, teachers, lawyers, men of science, and officers of law, were taken from this caste. (4.) Its members were required by their religion to be virtuous, and to lead peaceable lives. V. — (1.) The second class comprised the warriors, and was called the Kyetra caste. (2.) Kings, generals, and military gover- nors, were taken from this caste. VI. — (1,^ The third class of Hindus was composed of farmers and traders, and was called the Vaisu caste. (2.) Members of the Vaisv, caste could not be priests, but were allowed to read the religious books. VII. — (1.) The fourth class of Hindus contained people en- gaged in various mechanical handicrafts. (2.) They lived with the higher classes, as their servants. (3.) This class was known as the Soodra caste. Vm. — (1.) The lowest division of the Hindus comprised slaves and degraded persons, and was called the Pariah caste. (2.) Mem- bers of this caste were deprived of all privileges. (3.) Tlrey were forced to follow the meanest employments. HL — (1.) What did this occasion ? (2.) What afterward arose ? IV.— (1.) What name was given to these divisions ? (2.) What was the leading division called? (3.) Who were taken from this caste? (.4.) What was required of its members ? v.— (1.) What is said of the second class ? (2.) Who were taken from this caste ? VI. — (1.) What of the third class of Hindus ? (2.) What was forbidden to members of the third class, and what were they allowed ? VII — (1.) What was the occupation of persons in the fourth class? (2.; What else did they do ? (3.) What was this class called ? vm. — (1.) What is said of the lowest division ? (2.) Of what were its members deprived ? (3.) What were they forced to do ? The Hindu Hierarchy. 109 IX. — (1.) Mercantile and mechanical pursuits generally descended from family to family. (2.) A son succeeded to the business or handicraft of his father. X. — (1.) Members of the Soodra caste were forbidden to marry out of their own caste. (2.) They were not allowed to read or to be taught anything, except to obey the upper classes as servants. XI, — (1.) Foreigners and persons whose parents had unlawfully married out of their own castes, belonged to the Pariah caste. (2.) Persons degraded from other castes, on account of crime, were con- sidered to be Pariahs. XII. — (1.) The soldiers, or Kyetra caste, lived in coflimunitiea on the borders of India. (2.) It was their duty to defend the country from invaders, and assist the priesthood, kings and generals. XIII. — (1.) The Brahmin caste, or priesthood, extended through- out all India. (2.) Its members possessed lands wherever they resided. (3.) Brahmins were allowed to bear arms, like soldiers, and to engage in mercantile transactions of some kinds. (4.) They were strict in religious duties, and kept apart from all inferior Hindus. XIV. — (1.) The monarch of the Hindu nation was called a Eajah. (2.) He was selected from the soldier caste, by direction of the Brahmins. (3.) He was chief of the army, and could make war, after consulting with the Brahmins of his council. (4.) His IX. — (1.) What is said of certain pursuits? (2.) To what did a son fiucoeed ? Z. — (1.) What were members of the Soodra caste forbidden ? (2.) How were tliey otherwise restricted ? XI. — (1.) What persons belonged to the Pariah caste ? (2.) What other persons were considered Pariahs ? XII. — (1.) Where did the soldiers reside ? (2.) What was their duty? Xni. — (1.) What is said of the Brahmin caste ? (2.) What did its members possess? (3.) What privileges had the Brahmins? (4.) What was their character ? XTV. — (1 ) What was a Hindu monarch called ? (2.) How was he ap- pointed ? (3.) What was his authority ? (4.) Ir what was he restricted ? I lo History of Governments. civil authority was restricted by the power of the priests, who filled all other offices of government. XV.— (1.) The rajah's daily life was regulated by sacred laws written in the Brahminical books. (2.) He was obliged to reside in a retired palace or castle, with a wife selected from his own caste. XVI. — (1.) The rajah was assisted by a chief counsellor, who was usually a head Brahmin or high-priest. (2.) He also appointed a council of eight persons, with a director of foreign affairs, and a superintendent of internal affairs. (3.) All were taken from the caste of Brahmins. XVII.— (1.) The director of foreign affairs took charge of am- bassadors from other nations, and appointed agents and messengers to visit foreign lands. (2.) The director of internal affairs adminis- tered the revenues, and appointed collectors and other officers. (3.) Both these officers were under direction of the rajah and council of Brahmins. XVIII. — (1.) The director of internal affairs named the head- men of villages or townships, and appointed commissioners to visit every district of the country. (2.) These commissioners examined into the way local magistrates performed their duty. XIX. — (1.) The whole country was divided, for government purposes, into townships. (2.) Each township included a village and the farms around it. (3.) A headman was set over every township. (4.) Over ten towns a higher headman was placed ; XV.— (1.) How was the rajah's life regulated? (2.) What was he obliged to do? XVL — (1.) By whom was the rajah assisted? (2.) What other officers had he ? (3.) From what were they all taken ? XVn.— (1.) What did the director of foreign affairs do? (2.) What did the director ol' internal affairs do ? (3.) Under whose direction did these ministers act? XVm. — (l.) What were other powers of the director of internal affairs? (2.) What is said of the commissioners ? SIX.— (1.) How was the country divided? (2.) What was included in a township? (3.) Who was set over each ? (4.) What other rulers are men- The Hindu Hierarchy. ill over twenty, a superior ; and over a hundred, a still higher ruler. (5.) The highest headman was one appointed over a thousand townships. XX. — (1.) The headman of a township reported to the headman of ten townships. (2.) The ruler of ten or twenty was responsible to the chief of a hundred. (3.) The chief of a hundred made his returns to the governor of a thousand. XXI.' — (1.) The headman of a single township was supported by the contributions of its inhabitants. (2.) These contributions consisted of food, drink, fuel and personal service. (3.) A headman of ten townships received for his share the produce of two acres of land. (4.) The ruler of twenty townships enjoyed the fruits of five acres. (5.) The chief of a hundred townships was entitled to the revenue of one small township, and the governor of a thousand towns received the revenue of a large township. XXII. — (1.) A Hindu township was a small state in itself. (2.) The members of such a community were composed of farmers and traders. (3.) They had twelve officers and functionaries. XXIII. — (1.) The first of the twelve was the headman or magis- trate ; the second, town clerk ; and the third, town watch or con- stable. (2.) The fourth was a man to distribute water from the river, or public reservoir, to irrigate the fields. (3.) The fifth was an astronomer or calculator, who advised the people what days were lucky or unlucky. tioned? (6.) Over how many townships did the highest rule? XS (1.) To whom did a township headman report? (2.) To whom was a ruler of ten responsible? (3.) To whom did the chief of a hundred towns niiike return ? SXI. — (1.) By whom was the headman of a single township supported? (2.) What were these contributions? (3.) What did the laeadman of ten town- sliips receive? (4.) What did the ruler of twenty get? (5.) To what were the chiefs of a hundred and a thousand townships entitled? SZn. — (1.) What was each Hindu township? (2.) Of what were its mem- bers composed? (3.) What officers had they ? XXni. — (1.) What were the first three functionaries? (2.) What was the fourth? (3.) What was the fifth ? 112 History of Governments. XXIV". — (1.) The sixth town fanctionary was a cartwright, to make and repair the rude vehicles used. (2.) The seventh was a potter, who manufactured and mended earthen utensils. (3.) The eighth was a washerman, who cleaned the cotton garments of families. (4.) The ninth was a goldsmith, who made ornaments and offerings for the priests. (5.) The tenth was a barber, the eleventh a musician, and the twelfth was both schoolmaster and poet. XXV. — (1.) These twelve functionaries subsisted on contribu- tions made by the farmers and traf&ckers — the headman directing all. (2.) This simple division of labor and management was com- mon to all the townships. XXVI. — (1.) In the chief city of the Hindus, there were high officers corresponding to the inferior functionaries of townships. (2.) The rajah's chief minister was headman of the nation, under monarch and chief brahmins. (3.) There were a chief of punishment, or high-sheriff, and a chief gate-keeper, or warden of the kingdom. (4.) There were a chief advocate, or attorney-general, and a super- intendent of instruction. (5.) There were a chief of police, a chief of agriculture, and a head chamberlain, or master of the horse. XXVII. — (1.) The proprietors of land paid their taxes by giv- ing an eighth part of their crops. (2.) The lands of the rajah and Brahmins were cultivated by servants taken from lower castes, or foreign-born slaves. XXVIII. — (1.) Taxes were imposed on merchandise carried XXrV. — (1.) What was the sixth town functionary ? (2.) What was the seventh ? (3.) What was the eighth ? (4.) What was the ninth ? (5.) What were the remaining three ? SXV. — (1.) How were these functionaries supported ? (2.) What is said of this regulation ? XXVI. — (1.) What is said of liigher officers? (2.) What was the rajah's minister? (3.) What chiefs are mentioned? (4.) Name others. (5.) What other officers are mentioned ? XXVn. — (1.) How did the landholders pay their taxes? (2.) Who culti rated the lands of the rajah and Brahmins ? XXVin.^(l.) On what were taxes imposed by the Hindu government? 1 tie Irlindu irlierarchy. 1 13 over public roads or rivers, and on manufactures sold in the public marlcets. (2.) Tlie industrial classes generally paid their taxes in labor for the Brahmins. XXIX. — (1.) The hierarchy issued laws, from time to time, to regulate trade in goods. (2.) These laws fixed the prices of all merchandise, and ordered five per cent, of the profits to be paid to government. XXX. — (1.) The smaller communities of India were republican in effect, but all authority was fixed by custom and the laws of caste. (2.) The rajah was limited in his power by the same religious influence that regulated the headmen of towns in their jurisdiction. XXXI. — (1.) The Hindus occupied a region of country that was separated from the rest of Asia by a great chain of mountains, (2.) The ocean bounded all other sides, but was not much used by the inhabitants for navigation. XXXII. — (1.) Being separated from other nations, the Hindus lived quietly and prospered under their hierarchal form of govern- ment. (2.) The division of castes was taught by their religion, and members of lower orders submitted without complaint to political inferiority. XXXIII. — (1.) The frame of government of the Hindu nation was very much like that of the Egyptian hierarchy. (2.) The sacer- dotal, or priest caste, was the superior class, and religious laws regu- lated all powers of the king. (3.) Priests had charge over all legislation, appointments, and matters of learning and science. (2.) How did the industrial classes pay their taxes? XXIX. — (1.) What laws did the hierarchy issue? (2.) What did these laws ordain ? X2Z.— (1.) What is said of Hindu communities ? (2.) What of the rajah ? XXXI.— (1.) What is said of the Hindu country? (2.) How was it bounded ? XXXH. — (1.) What was the consequence of this separation of the land? (2.) What is said of the population ? XXXTTT. — (1.) What did the Hindu frame of government resemble? (2.) What is remarked of its religion ? (3.) What authority had the priesthood ? 114 History ot Governments. (4.) la both nations the soldier caste was next to that of the priests. XXXIV. — (1.) The Hindus remained a peculiar nation while their hierarchal goyernment continued. (2.) The three higher classes maintained their character as citizens, and the lower orders were always slaves. (3.) The country was invaded by Alexander the Great, and its northern inhabitants were forced to pay tribute. (4.) India was afterward conquered by diiferent military monarchs and warlike tribes. XXXV. — (1.) The Hindu state was not powerful enough to make long resistance against invaders. (2.) The lower classes possessed no rights to lose, and submitted to one master as readily as to another. (3.) Arabs and Tartars overthrew the hierarchic governments and established military monarchies. XXXVI. — (1.) The Hindu hierarchal system was followed by a succession of despotic rajahs, who ruled the people with great severity. (2.) Finally, the country was conquered by the English, and it is now governed as a province of the British empire. XXXVII. — (1.) The government of all hierarchal states was based upon inequality of condition between different classes. (2.) It was opposed to personal independence and the rights of individuals. (3.) It was a system of government which could not be permanent, or able to resist foreign enemies. (4.) In what other respect were the two hierarchies similar? XXXIV.— (1.) How did the Hindus remain? (2.) What is said of the castes ? (3.) What took place ? (4.) What afterward occurred ? XXXV.— (1.) What is said of the Hindu state? (2.) What of the lower classes? (3.) What was the consequence ? XXXVI.— (1.) What followed the hierarchy ? (2.) What finally occurred ? XXXVn.— (1.) What is said of Hindu government? (2.) To what was it opposed ? (3.) What is remarked of the hierarchal system ? CHAPTER V. THE THEOCRACY OF THIBET. I. — (1.) The extensive country of Thibet, between China and India, is governed as a theocratic hierarchy. (2.) Its ruler is called the Grand Lama. (3.) He is supposed to be Boodh, the national god, in a human form. II. — (1.) The worship of Boodh first flourished among the people of Thibet. (2.) It is now common among most of the nations dwelling in China, Tartary, and India. III. — (1.) The followers of Boodh, in Thibet, believe that a being who once lived under that name became after death their chief god, (2.) He then returned to the earth in the body of a young child, and grew up to be the first Grand Lama of Thibet. IV". — (1.) The Grand Lama is held to be supreme ruler of Thibet, but the country is under military protection of the Emperors of China. (2.) Under the Grand Lama are spiritual governors of provinces, who are called hoo-took-toos. (3.) The Grand Lama is supposed to be continually at prayer, and an officer called a nomekhan is chosen to perform the duties of chief ruler. V. — (1.) Thibet is divided into two provinces, with a Chinese military governor over each. (2.) The two provinces are su-}» divided into cantons, with a hoo-took-too over every canton. I. — (1.) What is aaid of Thibet? (2.) What is the name of its ruler r (3.) What is he supposed to be ? n. — (1.) Where did the worship of Boodh first flourish ? (2.) What is saia of this worship ? HL— (1.) What do the followers of Boodh iu Thibet believe? (2.) What else do they believe ? IV. — (1.) What authority exists in Thibet ? (2.) What officers are subordi- nate to the Grand Lama? (3.) What is said of the nomekhan ? V. — (1.) How is Thibet difided ? (2.) How are the provinces sub-divided? r-15 1 1 b History of Governments. VI. — (1.) The nomekhan and the hoo-took-toos are selected from the sacerdotal tribe of lamas, or priests. (2.) This priesthood is very numerous, and is the ruling class. (3.) All teachers, magis- trates, and rulers, are taken from the class of lamas. (4.) Most of the lamas reside in large religious houses. (5.) One of those houses sometimes contains fifteen thousand lamas in a community. VII. — (1.) Lamas are arranged in different ranks, according to the studies they have gone through. (2.) The principal lamas are heads of religious houses, and chief ofBcers of government. (3.) They are supposed to be filled with divinity, like the Grand Lama himself. VIII. — (1.) When a Grand Lama dies, the god Boodh is sup- posed to go into the body of another infant. (2.) The hoo-took- toos assemble in the principal city, with solemn ceremonies. (3. ) The highest lama families then send in the names of their new- born infants. (4.) The assembly of hoo-took-toos choose three out 3f the number to be brought to the capital. (5.) They put slips, containing the names of the three babes, in an urn, and draw one out. (6.) The child having its name drawn, is declared to be the Grand Lama, and immediately worshipped as head of the nation. IS. — (1.) The Chinese governors who reside in the provinces of Thibet are changed once in three years. (2.) All their subordi- nates and soldiers go back to China with them. (3.) The Emperor of China is a believer in the religion of Boodh, and protects the worship of the Grand Lama. VX — (1.) E-n are the nomekhau and hoo-took-toos selected? (2.) What is said of the priesthood, or lamas? (3.) What are taken from this class? (4.) Where do most of the lamas reside? (5.) What is said of those houses? VTL— (1.) How are lamas arranged ? (2.) What are the principal priests ? (3.) What is thought of them ? Vm. — (1.) Wbit is supposed when a Grand Lama dies ? (2.) What do the hoo-took-toos do ? (3.) What is done by the highest lama families ? (4.) What is done by the assembly of hoo-took-toos ? (5.) How is this choice proceeded with ? (6.) What is the result ? EK. — (1.) What is said of the Chinese governors? (2.) Who return -Kita them to China? (3.) What is said of the Emperor of China? CHAPTER VI. THE ROMAN HIEEAECHAL MONAECHT. I. — (1.) After the establishmeut of Christianity, members of Christian communities formed combinations called churches. (2.) Churches were divided into smaller assemblies, with a priest or deacon over each. (3.) Over the priests there was chosen a higher priest, called the bishop. (4.) A certain number of bishops were placed under the direction of a still superior priest, who was called the archbishop. II. — (1.) The bishop, who lived at Rome, received the name of Pope, which means father. (2.) Another bishop, who lived at Con- stantinople, was called the patriarch. (3.) Afterward the believers of the Christian religion became separated into two opposite churches. (4.) The Christians whose head, or father, resided at Constantinople, have been since known as the Greek church. (5.) The Russian people all belong to this Greek church. III. — (1.) The followers of Christianity whose bishop, or father, resided at Rome, have been always known as the Roman church. (2.) Nearly all civilized people were followers of the Roman church during the middle ages. (3.) The popes and chief bishops of this church constitute the Roman hierarchy. IV. — (1.) The earliest Christian bishops did not exercise author- ity over government affairs, but were religious fathers or chief . , — . L — (1.) What was done by members of Christian communities? (2.) How were churches divided ? (3.) Who was chosen to preside over the priests and deacons? (4.) Who were the bishops placed under? n. — (1.) What is said of a bishop who lives at Kome? (2.) What of another bishop ? (3.) What afterward occurred ? (4.) What is said of a por- tion of these ? (5.) What people belong to the Greek church ? m. — (,1.) What is said of another body of Christians? (2.) What people followed the Roman church? (3.) Who constitute the Roman hierarchy ? rV. — (1.) What is said concerning the earliest known Christian bishops? 117 Il8 History of Governments. priests of the churches. (2.) The Emperor Charlemagne gave the city of Eome and other territories to a bishop named Leon, to gov- ern them as his kingdom. (3.) Leon and. his successors paid an annual tribute to the emperor, in return for their possessions. (4.) Afterward, the popes became independent temporal sovereigns. V. — (1.) The territories now governed by the Koman hierarchy consist of several Italian provinces called the Papal States. (2.) These are divided, politically, into twenty districts. (3.) The city of Eome is the capital, and has a governor who acts under the hierarchy. (4.) There are seven provincial governments called de- legations, with a ruler over each, who is appointed by the pope, as his delegate. (5.) The remaining twelve provincial governments are called legations, and each has a ruler appointed by the pope, called a legate. VI. — (1.) The hierarchy is constituted from an aristocracy of chief priests called cardinals. (2.) The cardinals are associated in a religious senate called the Sacred College. (3.) The number of cardinals is limited to seventy, and all vacancies are filled by ap- pointment of the pope. (4.) A president of the Sacred College of Cardinals is chosen for life, and is called the Cardinal-Chancellor. VII. — (1.) The pope is elected for life, and when he dies, the Cardinal-Chancellor occupies his place, and summons the College of Cardinals to assemble at Eome. (2.) The Sacred College meet to choose a successor on the tenth day, from one of their own number. (3.) A majority of two-thirds of the seventy is required to agree upon the choice. ( 2.) What did the Emperor Charlemagne do ? (3.) What followed ? (4.) What afterward took place ? V. — (1.) Of what do the Roman hierarchy's territories consist? (2.) How are they politically divided? (3.) What is said of the city of Kome? (4.) What of the governments called delegations? (5.) What is said of the remaining twelve ? VI. — (1-) From what is the hierarchy constituted? (2.) How are the car- dinals associated? (S.) What is the number of cardinals ? (4.) What is said of the Cardinal-Chancellor? VII. — (1.) What is said regarding the pope? (2.) What does the Sacred College do? (3.) What is required? The Roman Hierarchal Monarchy 119 VIII. — (1.) The pope is assisted in his government by a (Jardi- nal-Secretary of State, who is chief minister. (2.) A board of cardinals is appointed to preside over each department of public affairs. IX. — (1.) Every provincial government is administered by a de- legate or legate, and a council. (2.) The council consists of an officer called a gonfalonier and four counsellors. (3.) The gonfalo- nier is chosen by the people of his district, and the four counsellors are named by the pope, to serve five years. X. — (1.) The provinces are sub-divided into districts, over each of which a sub-governor is appointed. (2.) These sub-governors are judges of all civil cases affecting property under a certain amount. (3.) They determine minor criminal causes, subject to ex- amination by a higher tribunal called the Collegiate Court. (4.) The Collegiate Court is composed of the pope's delegate and a board of officers. XI. — (1.) There are three courts superior to the Collegiate Courts of provinces. (2.) These three courts sit at three principal cities, and examine the decisions of inferior tribunals. (3.) There is also a Supreme Court of Cardinals at Eome. (4.) All judges and other civil officers are required to be priests. (5.) The army and navy comprise about twenty thousand men. VUL — (1.) How is the pope assisted in government? (2.) What body pre- sides over each department of public business? IX. — (1.) How is every provincial government administered ? (2.) Of what does this council consist ? (3.) How are these appointed ? X. — (1.) What is said of the provinces ? (2.) What authority have the sub- governors? (.3.) What is further said of them? (4.) How is the Collegiate Court formed ? XI. — (1.) What higher courts are mentioned? (2.) What is said of these ? (3.) What of a still higher court ? (4.) What is required of all civil oflScers ? (5.) How large are the army and navy of the Papal States? ANCIENT REPUBLICM SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER I. STEIAN AND AKABIAN RELI&IOUS KEPUBLICS. I. — (1.) The ancient people called Syrians were descended from one of the sons of Shem. (2.) They were divided into seyeral tribes, settled in cities and villages, under direction of their patri- archs and elders. II.— (1.) The Syrian tribes were independent of each other, and formed popular governments. (2.) Each community conducted its affairs in public assemblies. III. — (1.) Leading families grew up into an aristocratic branch of each tribe. (2.) The patriarchal authority gave place to that of a chief, at first elected, but afterward hereditary. TV. — (1.) When a tribe increased in numbers and strength, it was able to control smaller tribes. (2.) These grew up into a kingdom, more or less despotic, according to the talents and charac- ter of the chief. L — (1.) From whom were the Syrians descended ? (2.) What was their maimer of life ? n. — (1.) What government had these tribes ? (2.) How did each community conduct its public business ? HI. — (1.) What is said of leading families ? (2 ) To what did the patriarchal authority give place ? rv. — (1.) What was a tribe able to do? (2.) To what did these grow? 120 Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics. 121 V. — (1.) There was a priesthood among the Syrians, which exercised great influence. (2.) It was composed of several classes, each having distinct duties to perform in the worship of idols. VI. — (1.) Some of these priests killed animals offered in sacri- fice, 'others attended the altars, and others were musicians and singers. (2.) There were also priestesses, who often pretended to be crazy. (3.) The high-priest was chosen every year by the others, and wore a purple dress, with a golden mitre. VII. — (1.) The Syrians had a city which they called holy, where was situated a temple. (2.) Multitudes of people assembled in the holy city, to offer sacrifices. (3.) The priests were supported by offerings brought by pilgrims. (4.) The Syrians at first existed as small independent nations, till the weaker ones were subdued by a powerful tribe called the Syrians of Damascus. VIII. — (1 ) The Arabians were descendants of Shem, and dwelt in the wilderness, as nomadic tribes. (2.) Ishmael, the second son of Abram, became a ruler and high-priest of the Arabians. IX, — (1.) The posterity of Ishmael, in later times, exercised power as kings of the principal tribe of Arabians. (2.) Most of the Arabian tribes continued to lead a nomadic life. (3.) A few settled in towns, and occupied themselves with agricultural and commercial business. X. — (1.) The wandering tribes drove their flocks from place to place, and used camels as beasts of burden or for domestic service. V. — (1.) What exercised great influence among the Syrians ? (2.) How was it composed ? VI. — (1.) What were duties of these priests? (2.) What else were there? (3.) What is said of a high-priest? VII.—(1.) What city had the Syrians? (2.) Who assembled there? (3.) How were the priests supported ? (4.) What is said of Independent Syrian tribes ? VHr. — (1.) Who wevn the Arabians ? (2.) What did Ishmael become ? IX. — (1.) What is said of Ishmael's posterity? (2.) What did most of the tribes continue to do? (3.) What is said of a few? X. — (1.) What customs of the wandering tribes are mentioned ? 6 122 History of Governments. (2.) JNomad Arabians regarded the settled tribes as degraded by their labor and peaceful mode of life. (3.) The former preferred to remain in freedom aud poTsrty, while town-dwelling Arabs grew rich by trafBc and industry. XI. — (1.) Arabians who settled in towns and villages made divisions of the soil, and carried on husbandry, with many other lucrative kinds of labor. (2.) They became travelling merchants, journeying in large companies, called caravans, across the desert, from country to country. XII. — (1.) Arabian tribes were controlled, in a great measure, by their magicians and priests. (2.) They -maintained their cus- toms and wild independence during all the wars of Asia. (3.) Their latest descendants wander as nomads in the same wilderness wherein Abram journeyed and Ishraael was born. XIII. — (1.) Each early tribe of Arabians was an independent community, under patriarchal government. (2.) When a few tribes settled together, they became known in history as some nation under kingly or aristocratic government. (3.) The authority of their mon- archs was always balanced by that of head families or aristocracy. XIV. — (1.) Arabian tribes claimed rank according to their des- cent from the different sous of their first patriarch. (2.) There was one tribe, called the Koreish, regarded as superior to the rest. (3.) This tribe occupied a fertile portion of Arabia, and possessed a holy city named Mecca. SV. — (1.) The Midianitea were a tribe of Arabians. (2.) They were governed by an aristocracy of several chiefs, with one at their (2.) How did the nomads regard settlers ? (3.) What did the former prefer ? XI. — (1.) What did settled Arabians do ? (2.) What did they become? XII.— (1.) How were Arabian tribes controlled ? (2.) What did they main- tain ? (3.) What is said of their descendants ? Xm.— (1.) What was every early Arabian tribe? (2.) What to.ok place when a few tribes settled together ? (3.) By what was their monarch's author- ity balanced ? XIV^l.) What is said regarding the rank of Arabian tribes? (2.) What was the highest tribe ? (3.) What is said of this tribe ? XV.— (1.) What were the Midianites? (2.) How were they governed? Syrian and Arabian Religious Republics. 123 head acting as judge and priest. (3.) They were classified as shep- herds and traders. XVI. — (1.) The shepherds dwelt in tents, keeping herds and flocks, and forming a military branch of the tribe. (2.) The mer- chants travelled in caravans, with camels and servants, from place to place through Arabia and Syria. XVII. — (1.) Moses, the Hebrew leader, resided among those Midianites during forty years, while he was banished from Egypt by Pharaoh. (2.) He married a daughter of Raguel, a priest-chief, who afterward joined the Hebrew nation. XVIII. — (1.) Another Arabian tribe is mentioned in the Bible, under the name of Ammonites. (2.) They were descended from Ammon, the son of Lot, who was brother of the patriarch Abraham. XIX. — (1.) The Ammonites were ruled by a principal chief, in connection with a priesthood. (2.) The priests erected a hollow image, as an idol for the nation to worship. (3.) It had seven mouths, in which the people placed offerings ; and these offerings served to support the priests. XX. — (1.) Another Arabian tribe was known as Moabites, de- scended, lilie the Ammonites, from Lot. (2.) They dwelt in vil- lages, under a king, and raised herds of cattle. (3.) They had an aristocracy of principal families, and were allies of the Midianites and Ammonites. XXI. — (1.) Arabian nomads who pitched their tenta near the (3.) How were they classified by occupations? XVI (1.) What was the shepherds' mode of life? (2.) What was that of the merchants ? XVH.— (1.) What is said of the Hebrew Moses? (2.) Who did Moses marry ? XVHL — (1.) What other Arabian tribe is mentioned in the Bible? (2.) What is said about them ? XIX. — (1.) How were the Ammonites ruled? (2.) What did the priests erect ? (3.) What is said of this image ? XX. — (1.) What was another Arabian tribe ? (2.) What life did they lead? (3.) What gOTernment had they? XXI. — (1.) What did certain tribes of Arabian nomads often become? 124 History of Governments. sea-coast often became pirates and plunderers of shipwrecked Tea- sels. (2.) Wild Arabian tribes who roved the desert were likewise predatory or plundering tribes. (3.) The settled Arabians devoted themselves to manufactures and agriculture, and formed a class of travelling merchants in the most ancient times. CHAPTER II. CANAANITE EEPUBLICAN TRIBES. I. — (1.) The Canaanites were descendants of Canaan, son of Ham, and grandson of Noah. (2.) They formed separate com- munities under various names, and occupied a large portion of the country between Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. II. — (1.) Some of the Canaanites lived iu cities and villages, and others roved over plains and hills as shepherds. (2.) Settled tribes carried on agriculture and commerce, and engaged their wilder countrymen as soldiers. III. — (1.) The Canaanites were ruled by chiefs called kings, whose office in some tribes was hereditary, and in others elective. (2.) All public business was discussed and decided upon in assem- blies of the people. (3.) Magistrates were chosen from the chief families. rV. — (1.) Rude tribes, who dwelt in tents, often made war against the settled Canaanites, and obliged them to pay tribute. (2.) What were other wandering tribes ? (3.) To what did the settled people devote themselres ? I.— (1.) What were the Canaanites? (2.) What is said of them ? n. — (1.) Where did the Canaanites reside? (2.) What did the settled tribes do? m. — (1.) How were the Canaanites ruled ? (2.) Where was public business decided on? (3.) What is said of magistrates ? IV. — (1.) What is said concerning the impositions of rude tribes ? Canaanite Republican Tribes. 125 (2.) A nomad tribe of Canaanites called Elamites is mentioned in tlie Bible as conquering several other tribes. V. — (1.) Abraliam, the patriarch, lived with the Elamites for several years, and assisted their king, Ghedorlaomer, in his wars against other tribes. (2.) Abraham was also an ally of Melchize- dek, king-priest of Salem, a city of the Canaanites. VI. — (1.) Abraham was originally a nomadic chief, and emigrated from the plaius of Shinar, where the Assyrians dwelt. (2.) He wandered with his family and servants from place to place, during many years. VII.— (1.) Another tribe of Canaanites, called the Hittites, lived near the borders of Egypt. (2.) Abraham and his household visited the Hittites, and bought of them a burial-place, called the Cave of Machpelah. ■yin. — (1.) When the Hebrews came out of Egypt, under their leader Moses, they made war on all the Canaanite tribes, and took possession of their country. (2.) The. defeated nations were either reduced to servitude or driven from their ancient territory. (2.) What conquering tribe is mentioned in the Bible ? V. — (1.) What is said of Abraham ? (2.) Of whom wag Abraham an ally ? VI.— (1.) What was Abraham originally ? (2.) What did he do ? , Vn. — (1.) What other tribe of Canaanites is mentioned? (2.) Who visited this tribe, and what did he do ? VlJi. — (1.) What is said of the Hebrews under Moses? (2.) What became of the defeated nations ? OHAPTEE III. IHE PHffiNIOIAN CONFEDEBACT. I. — (1.) One tribe of the Canaanites, inhabiting the scarcoast of Syria, snceeeded in preserving its independence against the Hebrew invaders. (2.) This tribe possessed territory npon the headlands and islands of the Mediterranean Sea. II. — (1.) The first large city founded by this tribe of Canaanites was named Sidon, and its inhabitants became known in history as Phoenicians. (2.) The next city built was Tyre, which afterward obtained celebrity as a chief city of the Phoenicians. III. — (1.) Several other cities were bnilt by the Phoenicians upon the coast and islands. (2.) Each city was independent of the others, and governed by its own laws. (3.) In some cities kings were elected, in others they were hereditary, and in others there were no kings. rV. — (1.) The government of every Phoenician city was more or less aristocratic in form. (2.) The magistrates always belonged to a few^ wealthy families. (3.) The assemblies consisted of chief citizens, who chose a senate from their own ranks. (4.) The power of the king, or chief magistrate, was limited by the principal families. V. — (1.) The various Phoenician cities were connected with each other by alliances. (2.) At certain periods, a general congress or I. — (1.) What is said of one tribe of Canaanites ? (2.) Where did this tribe make settlements? n.— (1.) What is said of a city of this tribe ! (2.) What of another city ? III.— (1.) What is said of other cities ? (2.) What of each city ? (3.) What about kings ? rV. — (1.) What was the government of each city ? (2.) What is said of the magistrates? (3.) How were the assemblies composed? (4.) What was the chief's power ? V. — (1.) What connected the various cities? (2.) What took place at cer- 126 The Phoenician Confederacy. 127 meeting of the chief men of all the cities, was held in cue of the cities, to deliberate on matters of importance. (3.) The cities thus formed a confederation, under separate chiefs. VI. — (1.) Next to the king, or other chief, in a Phoenician city, was a magistrate, who shared the power with him. (2.) This officer was responsible to the chief families who elected him. VII. — (1.) In each city there were several orders of priests, who exercised much influence. (2.) The king's counsellors were taken from the priesthood. (3.) The priests were considered next in dignity to the king. VIII. — (1.) The Phoenicians grew wealthy by traffic with other countries. (2.) They built many ships, and navigated all the seas then known. (3.) They dispatched caravans to trade with Syria and more distant countries of Asia and Africa. IX. — (1.) Merchants, in every Phcenician community, constituted the most powerful and important class of citizens. (2.) The soldiers employed in foreign wars were usually foreigners, hired and paid by each city. X. — (1.) It was the policy of every Phoenician community to guard against over-population. (2.) They did not wish their cities to become crowded with idle or other useless inhabitants. XI. — (I.) They sent out companies of emigrants, from time to time,, to settle in other places. (2.) Those emigrants planted colo- nies, which afterward grew to be flourishing communities. XII. — (1.) Whenever a Phoenician settlement was made, the taiu periods ? (3.) What did the Phoenician cities form ? VI — (1.) What officer was next to the chief of a Phoenician community ? (2 ) To whom was he responsible ? Vn.— (1.) What were there in each city? (2.) What officers were selected from those orders? (3.) How were the priests regarded? Vm. — (1.) How did the Phoenicians prosper? (2.) What did they do? (3 ) What IS said of their trade ? IX. — (1.) What did merchants constitute ? (2.) Who were the military ? X. — (l.) What was the Phoenician policy ? (2.) What did they not wish ? XI. — (1.) What did they send out ? (2.) What did these emigrants do ? Xn. - (1.) What was done when a Phoenician settlement was made ? 128 History of Governments. colonists built a town and began to trade with the people near them, and the cities from which they had emigrated. XIII.— (1.) One of these companies of Phoenician emigrants planted the colony of Carthage, which afterward became a powerfnl and famous city. (2.) Phoenician merchants sailed in their ships to all parts of the known world, and traded with every country. XIV.— (1.) The most notable feature of Phoenician communities was their mercantile enterprise. (2.) Another feature was their organization into independent states, each with its city and district government. (3.) A third, was their practice of sending out colonies, to make new settlements, wherever an opportunity was afforded for trade. XV. — (1.) The history of the Phoenicians furnishes an example of divine wisdom, in directing human affairs. (2.) The Hebrews were permitted to take possession of the land of the Canaanites, in order to bring about the future civilization of distant countries. XVI. — (1.) Some Canaanitish tribes were dispersed throughout Syria, and became merchants, travelling in great caravans. (2.) These caravans were the means of making remote countries known to each other, through traffic and intercourse. (3.) Other Canaanitish tribes were driven to the sea-coast, and there formed communities of sailors and merchants. (4.) These latter built ships, and sent out colonies to all parts of the world, civilizing savage tribes wherever they settled. XVII. — (1.) We read in the Bible that in King Solomon's time the Phoenicians were allies of the Hebrews, and traded with them. -(1.) What did one of these companies do ? (2.) What did Phoenician merchants do ? XIV. — (1.) What was the most notable feature of Phoenician communities? (2.) What was another? (3.) What was a third ? XV. — (1.) What does Phoenician history furnish ? (2.) I'or what purpose were the Hebrews permitted to take possession of Canaan ? XVT. — (1.) What resulted to some of the Canaanitish tribes ? (2.) Of what were these caravans the means ? (3.) Where were other Canaanitish tribes driven? (4.) What was the consequence ? XVn. — (1.) What do we read in the Bible concerning the Phoenicians? The Phoenician Confederacy. 129 (2.) Hiram, king of Tyre, assisted in building the temple at Jeru- salem. (3.) Solomon and Hiram joined in sending colonies into Syria, where they planted settlements which afterward became pros- perous cities. XVIII. — (1.) The Phcenician states were destined to experience the fate of all luxurious and arrogant communities. (2.) The wealthy city of Tyre became the most powerful of the confederacy, and often assumed control over the rest. XIX. — (1.) The aristocracy oppressed the poorer people, and bought slaves, to perform every kind of labor. (2.) They hired mercenary soldiers, to spread their dominion over weaker nations. XX. — (1.) The increase of luxury was fatal to the peace and existence of the state. (2.) The riches of Phoenician merchants, and splendor of their cities, excited the envy of more powerful states. (3.) Tyre, the capital, was at last captured and plundered by the conqueror Alexander. XXI. — (1.) The merchants of Phoenicia succeeded in building up a wealthy confederacy, and spread their name and power to all parts of the world, as navigators and merchants. (2.) They erred in trusting all labor to slaves, and hiring strangers to defend their cities. (3.) They had no free and independent citizens to support the commonwealth. XXII. — (1.) Phoenician arts and enterprise were of great im- portance in civilizing distant countries. (2.) Many colonies of Tyre continued to flourish long after the great city itself had fallen to decay. (2.) What did Hiram, king of Tyre, do? (3.) What is said of Solomon and Hiram ? XVm.— (1.) To what were the Phoenician states destined? (2.) What did the city of Tyre become ? XIX.— (1.) What did the aristocracy do? (2.) What did they hire? XX.— (1.) What is said about luxury? (2.) What results took place? (3.) What was the fate of Tyre ? XXI. — (1.) What did the merchants of Phoenicia succeed in doing ? (2.) What error did they commit? (3.) What was the result? ■ XXn.— (1.) What is said of Phcenician arts and enterprise? (2.) What is remarked of colonies ? 6* CHA-PTEE IV. THE CARTHAGINIAN COMMEKCIAL STATES. I. — (1.) Carthage was planted on the northern coast of Africa, where Tunis now stands in the Mediterranean Sea. (2.) Its found- ers were a colony of Phoenicians, who emigrated from Tyre. (3.) The settlers were principally merchants, with their families and slaves. (4.) They hired land from native savages, who claimed its possession. (5.) These savages lived in tribes, some being nomadic, and offers settled in villages. II. — (1.) The savages who lived in villages were afterward made subject to the colonists, when the latter increased in power. (2.) The wild tribes would not submit, but retreated into the wil- derneai, with their flocks and herds. in. — (1.) As the settlement of Carthage began to prosper, many emigrants came from Tyre, and other Phoenician cities, to join the first colonists. (2.) The mercantile class continued to be the wealthiest and most influential part of the community. (3.) Mem- bers of this class owned large tracts of land, which they let, for cul- tivation in farms. (4.) The rest of the community was composed of professional persons, manufacturers, laborers, hired soldiers and mariners. IV". — (1.) The Carthaginians copied, in some respects, the politi- cal institutions of older Phcenician cities. (2.) They formed a mixed republican government, partly democratic and partly aristo- cratic. I. — (1.) Where -was Carthage planted? (2.) Who were its founders? (3.) What were these settlers? (4.) What did they do? (5.) What of the native savages ? n. — (1.) What occurred to the village savages ? , (2.) What did the wild tribes do ? m. — (1.) What took place after the settlement began to prosper ? (2.) What did the mercantile class continue to be? (3.) What did its members own? (4.) How was the rest of the community composed ? • IV.— (1.) What did the Carthaginians copy? (2.) What did they form ? 180 The Carthaginian Commercial States. 131 V. — (1.) They chose two chief magistrates or judges, called suffetes, who presided over the state, with limited powers. (2.) They also organized a senate, selected from leading famih'es of wealth and merit. VI.— (1.) This senate consisted of several hundred persons. (2.) Out of the senate was afterward chosen a smaller body, to serve as a select council. (3.) The two suffetes were chosen for' life, but were subject in many respects to the council and senate. VII. — (1.) When the senate was elected by the assembled people, it appointed from its own body a number of committees, to which was intrusted the charge of all public business. (2.) These com- mittees consisted each of five senators, and from them were chosen a select body or council, called the gerusia. (3.) Members of the gerusia held office for life. VIII. — (1.) The select council first prepared all business, to be deliberated upon in the senate. (2.) In connection with the senate, it made appointments to ofSce, and controlled the affairs of state iu peace and war. IX. — (1.) Next to the office of suffete was that of general. (2.) This officer was nominated by the select council, and elected by the senate and assembly of the people. (3.) Commissioners were appointed to attend the generals, as advisers and paymasters. X. — (1.) The settlement of disputes between citizens was intrusted to magistrates elected by the people. (2.) There was a principal tribunal, composed of wealthy citizens who had previously held offices of trust in the government. (3.) The members of this su- V (1.) What did they choose ? (2.) What did they constitute f VI. — (1.) Of whom did the senate consist? (2.) What was afterward chosen ? (3.) What is said of the suffetes ? VII. — (1.) What did the senate do ? (2.) What is said of these committees? (3.) How long did members of the gerusia hold office ? Vin.— (1.) What did the select council do ? (2.) What else? IX. — (1.) What was next to the office of suffete? (2.) How was this ofScer appointed 1 (3.) Who attended the generals ? X.— (1.) Who were judges in Carthage? (2.) What principal tribunal was there ? (3.) What is said of the members ? 132 History ot liovernments. premc cuuit were at first chosen for life, but became dangeroas to the state as an oligarchy. (4.) Their term of of&ce was afterward limited to one year. XI. — (1.) When Carthage was established, its citizens imitated their Phoenician ancestors, by sending out colonists to make new settlements and build towns. (2.) These colonies depended at first on Carthage, but soon afterward became independent allies. XII. — (1.) The Carthaginians made -war by means of merce- naries, against the neighboring nomadic tribes, under patriarchal chiefs. (2.) Many of these tribes were reduced to seryitude, or made to pay tribute to Carthage. XIII. — (1.) Colonies planted by the Carthaginians became more or less noted for their own importance. (2.) They were always confederated with the principal city, and ready to assist her. (3.) Some of them were governed by officers appointed by the senate of Carthage, but most of them were separate republics. XIV". — (1.) The Carthaginian goyernment constructed large fleets, and employed powerful armies, for purposes of defence and to extend their territory. (2.) Soldiers were enlisted from other nations, or wild tribes, and paid by the state. (3.) Captives taken in battle, and slaves bought in the market, comprised most of the common laborers. (4.) These persons were employed to make roads and other public works, and to row the war-ships. XV. — (1.) The Carthaginians forced all subject nations to pay tribute in slaves, cattle, corn, or other products. (2.) The govern- (4) How was their term of office limited ? XI. — (1.) How did the Carthaginiana imitate the Phoenicians ? (2.) What about these colonies ? Xn. — (1.) What is said of their making war? (2.) What was the result? SHI. — (1.) For what did Carthaginian colonies become noted? (2.) What relation did they bear to Carthage? (3.) How were they governed? XIV. — (1.) What did the Carthaginian goyernment do? (2.) How were the forces organized ? (3.) Who comprised the laborers ? (4.) How were they employed ? XV. — (1.) What did the Carthaginiana do to subject nations? (2.) What did the government own? The Carthaginian Commercial States. 133 ment owned mines in Spain, which were worked by slaves, under, overseers. XVI. — (1.) The commerce of Carthage was carried on by sea and land. (2.) The merchants hired Arabian and African wild tribes, as guards of their caravans. (3.) The government grew enormously rich ; but the people were heavily taxed, and often severely oppressed by oligarchies. XVII. — (1.) Oligarchies differ from aristocracies mainly in the number of persons exercising power. (2.) An aristocratic state is one where a dass of the people have exclusive power to elect governors and make laws. (3.) An oligarchal state is one where a few families, or a few individuals, of a class, possess this exclusive power. XVIII. — (1.) The Phcenician and Carthaginian states often became oligarchal, from a small number of influential men usurping nuthovity. (2.) Such usurpation generally resulted in open war Iietween different classes and parties. XIX. — (1.) The Carthaginian state experienced domestic trou- bles during its greatest commercial prosperity. (2.) Its citizens quarrelled among themselves, and the state fell a prey to disorder. XX. — (1.) The Carthaginians became involved in three succes- sive wars against the Eomans. (2.) The public treasures failed, and the government at length yielded to foreign conquerors. (3.) Carthage fell from the position of a flourishing commercial state, and became a city of ruins and poverty. XXI.— (1.) Thus, a small colony, of emigrant traders, grew XVI. — (1.) How wag Carthaginian commerce carried ou? (2.) What did t);e raercliants do ? (3.) What waa the condition of the state ? XVII. — (1.) How do oligarchies differ from aristooracies ? (2.) What ia au iiriKtocratic state ? (3.) What is an oligarchal state ? XVni (1.) What is said of Phrenician and Carthaginian states? (2.) In what did such usurpation usually result ? XIX.— (1.) Wh.it did the state experience ? (2.) What took place? XX. — (1.) In what did the Carthaginians become involved? (2.) What re- sulted ? (3.) What was the fate of Carthage? XXL — (1.) What ia said concerning the small colony of emigrant traders? 134 History of Governments. up into a great commonwealth, controlling rich cities and subject provinces. (2.) It became unjust to other nations, oppressed the weak, and reduced tribes and communities of freemen to slayery. (3.) The consequence was, that disease and disunion undermined its power, and its merchants and nobles passed away, with their possessions. CHAPTER V. THE GRECIAN TRIBES. I. — (1.) The Grecians are known in history as communities of men who occupied cities and small territories. (2.) They were originally savage tribes, wandering as nomads over the country which afterward became divided among civilized states. II. — (1.) The earliest inhabitants of Greece subsisted on fruits and roots. (2.) Their clothing was formed of bark, grass, or the skins of animals. (3.) The most intelligent of the wild nations thus existing was called the Hellenes. III. — (1.) The Hellenes consisted of four tribes or branches. (2.) These four were called lonians, Dorians, ^olians and Achse- ans. (3.) From these descended the Grecian people, afterward variously divided. IV. — (1.) The two first-mentioned tribes, lonians and Dorians, were able to absorb the others. (2.) The Grecian people became classed, in later times, as Doric and Ionic. (3.) The Dorian Greeks (2.) AVhat did it become ? (3.) What was the consequence ? L — (1.) How are the Grecians known in history? (2.) What was their ori- ginal condition? IL — (1.) On what did the earliest Grecians subsist ? (2.) What was their clothing? (a.) What was the most intelligent tribe called? in.— (1.) Of what did the Hellenes consist? (2.) What were these tribes called? (3.) Who were their descendants? IV. — (1.) What is said of the first-mentioned tribes ? (2.) How were the Grecians afterward classed ? (3.) What is said of the Dorian Greeks ? The Grecian Tribes. 135 were more simple ia manners and partial to old customs. (4.) The Ionic were given to change and excitement. V. — (1.) The different dispositions of these two leading tribes influenced the political partitions of the people. (2.) Communities settled as civilized dwellers in cities, were each regulated by laws adapted to its members. VI. — (1.) All the Grecian states or communities possessed free constitutions. (2.) By free constitutions the people were able, in a greater or less degree, to call their rulers to account. (3.) They were always republican in spirit, though sometimes democratic, sometimes aristocratic, and sometimes monarchal. VII. — (1.) The Grecian constitutions, or laws regulating their government, diifered according to the wants and numbers of every state. (2.) They acknowledged all supreme power to be in the citizens, or members of a community. VIII. — (1.) In some of the Grecian states all the citizens were allowed to have a voice in public affairs. (2.) States of this kind were denominated democracies, or republics where the whole people exercised power. IX. — (1.) In other states, the laws were made, and government administered, by members of certain families, or by certain classes of the people. (2.) These bodies-politic were called aristocracies. X. — (1.) In a Grecian democracy, all the people met and parti- cipated in the popular assemblies. (2.) Every citizen, whether (4.) What was the character of Ionian Greeks ? V. — (1.) What did the different dispositions influence? (2.) How were set- tled communities regulated ? VI. — (1.) What is said of all Grecian communities? (2.) What were the people able to do ? (3.) What were they in spirit? Vn. — (1.) How did Grecian constitutions differ? (2.) What did they all acknowledge ? Vm. — (1.) What was allowed ia some states? (2.) What were such states ? IX (1.) What is said of othei states? (2.) What were such called ? X. — (1.) What is said of a Grecian democracy ? (2.) What privilege had 13^ History of Governments. poor or rich, could vote in these assemblies. (3.) The magistrates of a true democracy were taken from all classes of citizens, without distinction. XI. — (1.) In a Grecian aristocracy, the wealthier classes pos- sessed exclusive or superior privileges and authority. (2.) In some aristocracies, the highest dignities of the state were continued from father to son, in a few leading families. XII. — (1.) In an aristocracy, the higher, or ruling class, con- sisted of citizens who were owners of landed estates, or else of those who claimed descent from leading warriors or persons of dignity in ancient times. (2.) Sometimes the possession of wealth, in money or land, and liljewise superiority of birth, were necessary to consti- tute an aristocratic family. XIII. — (1.) Such famOies could raise horses and maintain sol- diers for the state service. (2.) They often managed to keep the magistracies and oflSces of justice in their own hands. (3.) When this was the case, the republic became a real aristocracy. XIV. — (1.) The possession of wealth by a few families gave them the power to buy lands. (2.) The soil thus fell into the hands of a limited number of owners. (3.) The poorer classes were only able to occupy lands by permission of owners, and by paying a yearly sum as rent. XV. — (1.) Mechanical trades and other occupations, more or less laborious, were at first carried on by slaves. (2.) Citizens who possessed no land were obliged to become mechanics, like every citizen ? (3.) Whence were magistrates taken i XI. — (1.) What is said of a Grecian aristocracy ? (2.) What was the cha- racter of some aristocracies ? Xn. — (1.) Who were the ruling class in an aristocracy ? (2.) What waa sometimes requisite? XTTT. — (1.) What could such families do? (2.) How did they often man- age ? (3 ) What was the consequence ? XrV. — (1.) What power did wealth give ? (2.) Into what hands did the soil fall? (3.) How were the poorer classes affected by this ? XV. — (1.) Who first carried on mechanical trades? (2.) What were land- less citizens obliged to do? The Grecian Tribes. 137 slaves, or to serve the higher class and the state, as laborers and soldiers. XVI. — {!.) All inhabitants of a Grecian state or city were not considered to be citizens. (2.) The right of citizenship was claimed on certain grounds, defined by law and custom. XVII.— (1.) In some communities, the right to be called a citizen, and to enjoy a citizen's privileges, belonged to a Greek whose parents had both been citizens. (2.) In others, it was neces- sary that a person's ancestors, three generations back, should have been citizens. XVIII. — (1.) In some states, citizenship was allowed to any man whose mother was born on the soil and whose parents were free. (2.) Other sta.tes admitted foreigners to the rights of citizens by special laws or by vote of the people. XIX. — (1.) In some Grecian states, the inhabitants of a chief town or city were allowed the privileges of citizenship, and the resi- dents of villages and the surrounding country were deprived of them. (2.) In others, there was no distinction made between the people of a town and the rural population. XX. — (1.) Citizens constituted that portion of the free people who could take part in popular meetings. (2.) They might speak and vote far officers of government, and on public affairs brought before them for deliberation. (3.) Citizens of towns were separated into dwelling districts, or wards. (4.) Eural citizens were separated into cantons, or neighborhoods. XVI — (1.) What is said concerning citizens? (2.) What of the right of citizenship ? XVn. — (1.) What constitutes citizenship in some communities ? (2.) What in others? XVm. — (1.) What is said of citizenship in some states? (2.) How did other states admit ? XIX — (1.) What is said of distinctions, as to chief cities? (2.) What of other states without such distinctions ? XX.— (1.) What did citizens constitute? (2.) What were their privileges? (3.) How were citizens of towns separated? (4.) How wore rural citizens separated ? 138 History of Governments. XXI.— (I.) The name of every citizen was registered with that of the ward or canton in which he resided. (2.) The wealthier citizens usually lived in wards or quarters by themselves. (3.) Each citizen was taxed for the support of government according to the amount of fortune which he possessed. XXII. — (1.) Expenses of the state were principally borne by owners of large property in lands, houses, slaves and money. (2.) The whole body of citizens constituted a militia, or armed force of the state. (3.) Each was obliged to contribute a certain amount and kind of service during war. XXIII. — (1.) Popular assemblies among the Greeks were com- posed of all citizens who chose to attend them. (2.) In early times these meetings were called by the king, chief, or other leader of a tribe. (3.) At a later day, the power to call them was given to some special magistrate. XXIV. — (1.) Before voting on important matters, and for offi- cers, the citizens were sometimes numbered. (2.) Absence from the place of voting was often made a punishable offence, (3.) It was regarded as a particular duty of every citizen to attend the public meeting and exercise his rights. XXV. — (1.) In some Grecian cities the assemblies were regular >xud held on fixed days. (2.) Extraordinary and special meetings were called when necessary. XXVI. — (1.) The business brought before popular assemblies in Grecian states was of three kinds. (2.) The first kind embraced XXI (1.) What is said of citizens' names? (2.) Where did wealtliier citi- zens live? (3.) How were citizens taxed ? XXn. — (1.) How were state expenses borne ? (2.) What constituted a militia ? (3.) What was each obliged to contribute ? SXm. — (1.) How were popular assemblies composed? (2.) How were these first convened ? (3.) How in later times? XXIV. — (1.) What is said of numbering the citizens ? (2.) What was an offence ? (S.) What was regarded to be a duty ? XXV. — (1.) When were assemblies held? (2.) What is said of other meetings ? XXVI. — (1.) How many different kinds of business came before the popular assemblies ? (2.) What did the first kind of business embrace ? The Grecian Tribes. 139 legislation, or passing of laws. (3.) The second related to the choice of magistrates . (4.) The third class of business was that of deciding questions of justice and right between citizens. XXVII. — -(1.) In some democratic republics of Greece the poor citizens were often possessed of dangerous power. (2.) They received pay for attending assemblies, and sold their votes to wealthy candidates for election to office. XXVIII. — (1.) In some cities, the popular assembly was very seldom called together ; or if a meeting was convened, it consisted of select persons. (2.) In this manner, a mixture of aristocratic and democratic government was formed. XXIX. — (1.) In most Grecian cities, there was a smaller body selected from members of the popular assembly. (2.) This smaller body prepared business to be acted upon in the democratic meeting. (3.) It was called a council, and its members were chosen from leading persons in each profession or division of the people. (4.) This council was chosemto act during one year. XXX. — (1.) In many communities there was a permanent body of citizens formed, instead of a yearly council. (2.) This was a senate, or body of elders, who were obliged to be of a certain age. XXXI. — (1.) Sometimes a senate was composed of the most capable and honest elders, chosen to serve during life. (2.) Gene- rally the term of office was limited to one or more years. (3.) To what did the second relate? (4.) The third? XXVn. — (1.) What was often the case in democratic republics ? (2.) What did they receive and do ? XXVm. — (1.) What is said of the assembly in some cities? (2.) What was formed by this ? - XXIX. — (1.) What was selected in most Grecian cities ? (2.) What did this body prepare ? (3.) What was this body called ? (4.) For how long time was it chosen ? XXX. — (1.) What was done in many communities ? (2.) What was this body? XXXI.— (1.) What was the character of the senate ? (2.) What was gene- rally its term of authority ? 140 History of Governments. XXXII.— (1.) The assembly, or popular gathering of every Grecian commnnity was like a modern town meeting. (2.) The council of leading citizens, or senate, was like a board of aldermen, or legislature, at the present day. XXXIII.— (1.) Every Grecian city had a certain number of magistrates. (2.) These officers exercised various powers, and per- formed different duties. (3.) They were kept distinct from priests, teachers, or ambassadors. (4.) Grecian magistrates were usually answerable to the people for their conduct while in office. (5.) In some states they were called to account by the council or senate. XXXIV. — (1.) In most of the Grecian republics all magistrates were chosen by the people. (2.) In a few it was customary to se- lect these officers from one or more leading families, in hereditary succession. (3.) The general principle was election by the people, from the most popular or leading men. XXXV. — (1.) In many communities the magistrates were elected by casting lots, so that chance decided among a number. (2.) The lot was usually employed for a selection of two out of a number of candidates. XXXVI. — (1.) In a Grecian democracy, members of every class of citizens, whether rich or poor, claimed equal votes. (2.) When an aristocratic party arose, its first effort was to limit the number and classes of citizens who might be entitled to vote. XXXVII. — (1.) Grecian magistrates did not receive fixed sala- •gTfgTr — (1.) What modern institutions did a Grecian assembly resemble ? (2.) What did a Grecian council or senate resemble ? •KXXIII . — (1.) What did CTery city have? (2.) What authority did they possess ? (3.) From whom were they distinct ? (4.) To whom were they an- swerable ? (5.) Who called them to account in some states ? XXZIV. — (1.) How were magistrates generally appointed? (2.) How were they selected in a few states? (3.) What was the general principle of their choice ? XXXV. — (1.) What is said of magistrates in many communities ? (2.) For what was the lot usually employed ? XXXVL — (1.) What did citizens claim in a democracy ? (2.) What was the first effort of an aristocracy ? XXXVn.— (1.) What is said concerning the pay of Grecian magistrates ? The Grecian Tribes. 141 ries for the labors they performed. (2.) The honor of being elected was considered to be of more importance than gain. (3.) Members of the poorer classes were seldom able or willing to hold office. XXXVIII. — (1.) When a few families gained control of all the assemblies, they were able to have the magistrates chosen always from their own members. (2.) The state then became an oligarchy, as before explained. (3.) The difference between an oligarchic and an aristocratic state consisted in the first being governed by a few privileged families, and the second oy a dass of privileged citizens. XXXIX. — (1.) Magistrates were usually chosen for a limited term, such as one year, .and in some cases for only half a year. (2.) When a magistrate usurped powers not belonging to his office, or refused to render an account to the people, he was called a tyrant. XL. — (1.) The distinguishing Institutions of all Grecian repub- lics were three in number. (2.) The first wa* an assembly of the people ; the second, a smaller council, or senate ; the third, an election of magistrates. (3.) Accordingly as the popular assembly possessed more or less power, and the magistrates were chosen by a greater or less number of citizens, the state became a deraocraty, an aristocracy, or an oligarchy. XIiI. — (1.) Laws enacted in popular assemblies, or by senates, were committed to writing, and intrusted to the keeping of officers. (2.) Popular assemblies acted as courts of justice in certain cases. (2.) What was the honor of election considered ? (3.) Who seldom held office? XXXVirr.— (1.) what ia said of a few leading families? (2.) What did the state then become ? (3.) What is the difference between an oligarchy and an aristocracy ^ XXXIX (1.) For how long a time were magistrates chosen? (2.) What was a magistrate called who assumed too much power ? XL (1.) What is said of distinguishing institutions ? (2.) What were thej ? (a.) What did their modifications produce? XLI.— (1.) What is said of Grecian laws ? (2.) What of popular aasem biles y 142 History of Governments. (3.) They gave decisions ia accordance with the laws, and by a majority of votes. XLII. — (1.) The popular assemblies, acting as courts, decided questions and punished offences which affected the community as a body politic or social. (2.) Disputes between individuals, or other private grievances, were passed upon by smaller courts, consisting of a number of citizens. XLIII.- — (1.) Members of the smaller courts were selected by lot, from the popular assembly. (2.) They were required to be thirty years of age, of good reputation, and not indebted for taxes to the state. XLIV. — (1.) The larger courts were sometimes composed of many hundreds of citizens. (2.) They listened to the accusers and defendants, to the counsel, styled orators, and to the witnesses, and then made decision. (3.) Courts of this kind among the Greeks were like juries in modern times, except that they were more Bamerons. XLV. — (1.) There were other inferior tribunals connected with public matters. (2.) These made preliminary examinations in mat- ters of dispute or offence, and disposed finally of simple cases. XLVI. — (1.) Every Grecian commonwealth was an independent republic, having its own constitution, magistrates and laws. (2.) The principal states entered into alliance and formed a confederacy. (3.) The confederation was often interrupted by wars between two or more states. (3.) How did these assemblies give decisions ? XT ill — (1.) What did these popular assemblies do ? (2.) How were disputes between citizens passed upon ? XliXll. — (1.) How were smaller courts formed? (2.) What were members required to be? SLIV.— (1.) What ia said of the larger courts? (2.) What was their method of proceeding ? (3.) What modern body did the Grecian popular courts resemble ? XLV — (1.) What is said of other tribunals ? (2.) What was their business? XLVL — (1.) What is said of every Grecian commonwealth? (2.) What was done by the principal states ? (3.) How was the confederation often interrupted ? The Republic of Athens. 143 XLVII.— (1.) The confederacy of Greciau republics was known as the Amphictyonic League. (2.) It was represented in a gene- ral conrentioD, composed of delegates chosen by the leading states. (3.) These delegates met in council twice every year, at Thermopylae and Delphi, two of the Grecian cities. XLVIII. — (1.) The Amphictyonic Council comprised the repre- sentatives of twelve principal Grecian cities. (2.) Each city sent ten chosen citizens to the meetings. (3.) This council decided im- portant questions between different states, (4.) It had charge of the Temple of Delphi, which was the chief religious shrine of Greece. CHAPTEE VI. THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. I. — (1.) The state of Athens originated in a colony of Egyptians, under Cecrops, their leader. (2.) This colony united with savage inhabitants of the country and captives taken in battle. (3.) It existed as a republic, under mixed forms of government, during seventeen hundred years. II. — (1.) Cecrops, the founder, exercised authority as the head, or king of the state. (2.) He was succeeded by hereditary kings, limited in their jurisdiction. XLVn. — (1.) What was the Grecian confederacy called? (2.) How wa3 it represented ? (3.) Where did the delegates meet ? XliVHI. — (1.) What did the Amphictyonic Council comprise ? (2.) How many delegates did each city send? (3.) What was the business of the coun- cil? (4.) Of what had it charge ? I. — (I.) What was the origin of Athens? (2.) With whom did this colony unite? (3.) How long was it a republic? II. — (1.) What was the authority of Cecrops? (2.) By whom was he suc- ceeded ? 144 History of Governments. III.— (1.) Cecrops divided the population into classes of citizens and slaves. (2.) A third class was afterward formed, consisting of foreigners who arrived at Athens after the settlement. (3.) The names of all the people were registered, under the heads of citizens, strangers, or slaves. rV.— (1.) At the death of a popular king, called Codrus, the people of Athens altered and limited the powers of their chief magistrate. (2.) They deputed a wise citizen, named Solon, to prepare for them a constitution, or frame of government. v. — (1.) Solon separated the class of citizens into four sub- divisions. (2.) These persons, with their descendants, he denomi- nated /reemfijj o/^iAerw. (3.) They were privileged to assemble in town meeting, to make laws and choose magistrates. (4.) Each freeman was obliged to pay a tax to the state, in proportion to the value of his property. VI. — (1.) The class of strangers in Athens comprised all foreign- ers, and those born in Athens who were neither citizens nor slaves. (2.) These strangers were required to wear certain badges, to dis- tinguish them from the citizens. (3.) Every stranger was per- mitted to select some citizen as a protector, who was called his patron. VII. — (1.) It was the duty of a patron to guard the stranger who selected him from all oppression or illegal practices. (2.) A stranger was obliged to pay the same tax as a citizen. (3.) An extra sum was required from the whole body of strangers, toward the support of government. in (1.) What division did Cecrops make ? (2.) What class was afterward formed? (3.) What is said of citizens' names? rV.— (1.) What did the people do at the death of Codrus? (2.) Who was deputed as a law-maker ? v.— (1.) What divisions did Solon make? (2.) What were these persons denominated ? (3.) How were they privileged ? (4.) What was each obliged to do? VI. — (1.) Whiit did the class of strangers comprise in Athens ? (2.) What was required of them? (3.) What was every stranger permitted ? VII. — (1.) What was a patron's duty ? (2.) What was a stranger obliged to pay? (3.) What extra demand was made upon strangers? The Republic of Athens. 45 Vni. — (1.) The slaves, who constituted the third class of the Athenian population, were not obliged to pay a tax, and were not considered to have any rights. (2.) They were allowed to earn money for themselves, with permission of their masters or owners. (3.) They were permitted to buy their freedom, If able at any time. IX. — (1.) Slaves consisted of captives taken in battle, or bought from traders. (2.) They were natives of various countries then known, and of all complexions. (3.) They were occupied in culti- vating land, building, quarrying, carrying burdens, and all other laborious occupations. (4.) They were also employed as domestic servants of citizens and strangers. X. — (1.) When population grew more numerous, the four sub- divisions of citizens were partitioned again. (2.) In later days, the voting people of Athens comprised ten tribes. (3.) Each of these ten tribes was entitled to select, from its members, certain officers of the state. XI. — (1.) Every tribe chose fifty of its members as representa- tives in a state council. (2.) The state council, or senate, consisted of five hundred citizens. (3.) Senators were chosen either by lot or by vote of their fellows in every tribe. XII. — (1.) When senators were to be chosen by lot, the names of all freemen in a tribe were engraved on small brass plates and placed in an urn. (2.) Into another urn were dropped the same number of beans, all of which were black except fifty. (3.) Then Vm. — (1.) What is said of slaves iu Athens? (2.) What T^ere they al- lowed? (3.) What else were they permitted? IX. — (1.) Of what persons did slaves consist? (2.) Of what nation and color were they? (3.) How were they occupied ? (4.) How were they other- wise employed ? X (1.) What took place when population increased? (2.) How many tribes or wards of voters did the citizens afterward comprise ? (3.) To what was each tribe entitled ? XI. — -(1.) What did every tribe choose ? (2.) How many members had the senate ? (3.) How were senators chosen ? XIL — (1.) What was done when senators were to be chosen by lot ? (2.) . What were dropped into another urn ? (3.) What was furthermore done ? 7 1^6 History oi ^jovcuhhciilo. one name aud one bean were taken out at the same time, till all were drawn. (4.) Every citizen whose name came out with a white bean was then declared a senator. XIII.— (1.) Important matters relating to war and peace, were first brought for discussion before the senate. (2.) Senators were usually paid a certain sum for every day of service. XrV. — (1.) For purposes of war and taxation, t^e Athenian citizens were divided into four classes, according to their income. (2.) Every member of either of the two wealthier classes was re- quired to keep and provide a horse and soldier. (3.) Citizens of the third class were obliged to serve as heavy armed, and citizens of the fourth class as light armed soldiers, or as mariners and oarsmen of the fleet. XV. — (1.) A chief magistrate, called an Archon, was elected by the citizens, to serve during life. (2.) The oflBce was at first made hereditary in the family of Codrus, the last king. (3.) Archons were accountable to the people for their conduct. XVI. — (1.) The archon's term of office was afterward reduced to ten years. (2.) At a later period, the government of a single chief ruler was changed for that of a board, or council of nine magistrates, each elected for a single year. XVII. — (1.) The first of the nine magistrates was still called the archon. (2.) He presided over the board, and the year in which he served was called by his name. (3.) The second magis- trate had the title of king, or BasUeus. (4.) He presided over (4.) "What wa3 the result of the drawing 2 VIII . — (1.) "What matters did the senate first discuss ? (2.) What did sena- tors usually receive ? XIV. — (1.) How were Athenian citizens divided? (2.) "What was every member of the wealthier classes required to do ? (3.) What were citizens of the third and fourth classes obliged to do ? XV.— {I.) What was an Archon ? (2.) What was the oBSce at first ? (3.) To whom were archons accountable 1 X'VL — (1.) To how many years was the archon's term reduced ? (2.) What was done at a later period ? X'VII. — (1.) What was the first of these magistrates called ? (2.) What is said of him ? (3.) What title had the second archon ? (4.) What was his Ihe Kepublic ot Athens. 147 religious matters in tine state. (5.) Tlie third magistrate was called the Pokmarch. (6.) He superintended the military affairs of the republic. XVIII. — (1.) The remaining head magistrates, six in number, presided as judges over courts of the people. (2.) The body, or board of nirie, formed a supreme council of state. XIX. — (1.) These magistrates, and all other elected officers, were chosen by citizens in their assemblies. (2.) The candidates for office were almost always taken from the two wealthy classes, or the middling rank of citizens. (3.) The fourth class shared in the rights of assembling and voting, but were too poor to hold offices without pay. XX. — (1.) The public assembly framed the laws, elected magis- trates, and had a voice in all matters concerning the republic. (2.) In this assembly, or popular meeting, every citizen fifty years old might address the people. XXI. — (1.) When Athens became a powerful state, the popular assembly numbered twenty-one thousand persons. (2.) This assem- bly of the people was called the Ecdesia. XXII. — (1.) After the senate was formed, from delegates chosen by tribes, all public matters were first prepared in its meetings. (2.) After having been sufficiently debated in .the senate, these mat- ters were submitted to popular vote in the Ecdesia. XXIII. — (1.) The highest court of justice in Athens was called the Areopagus. (2.)- Its members were chosen out of the wisest drity ? (5.) What was the third archou called ? (6.) What was his business ? XVIH (1.) What did the remaining archons do ? (2.) What did the whole body form ? XIX. — (1.) How were the magistrates chosen? (2.) From what classes were candidates generally taken? (3.) What did the fourth class share? XX. — (1.) What is said of the public assembly ? (2.) Who might address the people ? XXI. — (1.) How many persons were in the popular assembly? (2.) What was this meeting called ? XXn.— (1.) What took place after the senate was formed? (2.) What course did these matters take ? XXm.— (1.) What was the Areopagus? (2.) Of whom was it composed? 148 History ot (jovernments. and best citizens who had held the dignity of an archon, or chief magistrate. (3.) The meetings of this court were held in the open air. (4.) It deliberated on all causes in the night time. XXIV. — (1.) The areopagns had charge of the public treasury, and guardianship of all the laws. (2.) It exercised supervision over the education of youth, and appointed teachers for them. (3.) It had authority to inquire into the morals and habits of the people, to punish disorderly persons, and to reward sober and useful citizens. XXV. — (1.) All religious ceremonies were regulated by the areopagus. (2.) It possessed authority to call any citizen to ac- count, and make him declare how he obtained his living and spent his time. XXVI. — (1.) Judges of the areopagus were required to be of the strictest integrity and morals. (2.) It was considered to be a high offence for one of them to be seen in a tavern, and they were ex- pected to maintain at all times a grave and reserved demeanor. (3.) A judge who became intoxicated was punished sometimes with death. XXVII. — (1.) The inferior courts of the people were com- posed of a greater or less number of citizens, chosen by lot. (2.) Decisions of cases were generally made in the same manner, by drawing black and white beans. (3.) A member of one of the courts received three oboli, or five pence, for hearing a case. (4.) These Athenian courts were like modern juries, but more numerous. (5.) The larger ones comprised several hundred members each. (3.) Where were ita meetings held ? (4.) When did it deliberate ? ZXrV (1.) Of what had thia court charge? (2.) What did it exercise? (3.) What authority had the areopagus ? XXV. — (1.) What is said of religious ceremonies ? (2.) What power did the areopagus have over every citizen ? XXVI — (1.) What were members of this court required to be? (2.) What is said concerning them ? (3.) What is said of intoxication in an areopagite judge ? XXVn. — (1.) How were the inferior courts composed ? (2.) How were decisions made ? (3.) What did the members of popular courts receive ? (4.) What were Athenian courts lilie ? (o.) What is said of the larger ones ? The Republic of Athens. 149 XXVIII. — (1.) A number of persons were authorized to attend every court, to argue the suits on either side. (2.) These officials were called orators, and were like pleaders of law in modern courts of justice. (3.) Appeals to the whole people could be made from a decision of any court except the supreme tribunal of the Areopagus. XXIX. — (1.) Athens continued to be governed by archons, senate, and popular assemblies, till a citizen named Pisistratus usurped supreme power. (2.) His sway was followed by a period of oligarchic government, in which thirty self-appointed magistrates held all the chief offices. (3.) The period of their control was called the reign of the thirty tyrants. XXX. — (1.) After the thirty tyrants fell, Athenian citizens re- covered their sway in assemblies of the people. (2.) The power of the populace became greater, and the citizens were divided into disorderly factions. XXXI.' — (1.) At this period, the republic of Athens was considered to be a complete democracy. (2.) The number of freemen, or citizens entitled to vote, was comparatively small. (3.) These citizens seldom, if ever, exceeded twenty-five thousand, whilst there were four hundred thousand slaves, who had no rights at all. XXXII. — (1.) The Athenian people, in their freest days, formed an aristocratic despotism. (2.) The free citizens, who were twenty- five thousand in number, possessed unlimited authority over half a million of slaves and foreigners. XXXin. — (1.) The state carried in itself the disease which XZVm. — (1.) Who were authorized to attend courts? (2.) What were these officials called, and what were they like? (3.) What is said of appeals ? XXTX. — (1.) What is said of Athenian government? (2.) What followed the sway of Pisistratus? (3.) What was this period called? XSX.— (1.) What followed the oligarchy ? (2.) What then took place ? XZXl (1.) What was Athens considered to be ? (2.) What is said of the citizens? (3.) How did they compare in number with the slaves ? XXXn.— (1.) What did the Athenian people form ? (2.) How was this despotism manifested ? XXXin. — (1.) What is here remarked concerning the Athenian state? 150 History of Governments. was to destroy it. (2.) The Athenian people became tyrannical and arrogant. (3.) The voting classes were divided into parties, and the rich employed their wealth to oppress the poor, or purchase their support in the assemblies. XXXrV. — (1.) At length, Athens became involved in war with other republics of Greece, and her citizens were deprived of their rights and privileges. (2.) The commonwealth fell a prey to dema- gogues at home, and at last sank under the military despotism of Alexander the Conqueror. CHAPTEE VII. THE LACEDEMONIAN KEPUBLIC. I. — (1.) The Lacedemonian or Spartan republic owed its politi- cal organization to the labors of a law-giver named Lycurgus. (2.) It originated, like other Grecian states, in a consolidation of two or more tribes of savage people. II. — (1.) The chief persons of the commonwealth were two ma- gistrates, with the title of kings. (2.) They were generals of the republic, in time of war, and chief priests of the nation. (3.) Their authority was hereditary in two branches of an ancient family. (4.) It was restricted by laws and by the power of the people. III. — (1.) A law-making body, called the senate, constituted a national council. (2.) Its members were elected by the Spartan (2.) What did the people become ? (S.) What divisions followed, and what effects? SXXrV. — (1.) What was the result of this condition of affairs? (2.) What was the fate of Athens ? I. — (!.■) What is said of the Spartan republic ? (2.) How did it originate ? II. — (1.) Who were chief in the commonwealth? (2.) What authority had they? (3.) What was its duration? 4.) How was it restricted ? m.— (1.) What constituted the national council? (2.) What is said of its The Lacedemonian Republic. 151 people, and were twenty-eight iu number. (3.) All public matters were first discussed in this senate. IV. — (1.) An assembly of the people acted upon laws and regu- lations submitted to their discussion. (2.) Only such matters came before the assembly of the people as had been considered by the senate. (3.) Action of the senate was not legal unless it received the sanction of the citizens afterward. V. — (1.) The laws of Sparta were not allowed to be written, as in other Grecian states. (2.) They were taught to children by tlieir parents and masters. (3.) All citizens were required to have the laws fixed in their memory. VI. — (1.) There was a high court or council of five magistrates, called EpAori. (2.) The JEphori had jurisdiction over morals, took charge of the treasury, and had authority to call kings and senators to account at any time. VII. — (1.) The Ephori, in connection with the senate, held the power of life and death over kings and citizens accused of offence against the state. (2.) They decided disputes between individuals, and could impeach senators and officers. (2.) Two of the Epkori accompanied the kings in military expeditions. (4.) They were elected yearly from citizens who had been senators. VIII. — (1.) The Ephori presided over the education of Spartan children, and called the people to meet in their assemblies. (2.) They had power to levy troops, and send them to war, and gave orders to the kings, when the latter acted as generals. members ? (3.) What about public matters ? IV.— (1.) What is said of a popular assembly ? (2.) What matters came before it ? (.3.) What is said of the senate's action ? V. — (1.) What about Spartan laws ? (2.) To whom were they taught ? (3.) What was required of citizens? VI. — (1.) What high court was there in Sparta? (2.) What authority had these magistrates ? Vn.— (1.) What penal power did the Mphori hold ? (2.) What did they do ? (3.) What did two of them do? (4.) How were the Ephori appointed? Vm— (1.) What other authority was exercised by these magistrates? (2.) What military power had they ? 152 History of Governments. IX. — (1.) The twenty-eight senators were chosen for life, by the citizens, in popular assembly. (2.) They were selected from the eldest and most respectable citizens. (3.) In connection with the Ephori, they directed all public measures, in peace or war. (4.) They were judges of the people in questions that concerned property and life, X. — (1.) The assemblies of the people were composed of all citi- zens over thirty years of age. (2.) No Spartan citizen was per- mitted to engage in mechanical or menial pursuits. (3.) All Spar- tan youths were educated to be soldiers, and remained at home to defend the state till they became entitled to the name of Spartan citizens. XI. — (1.) Land, in the Lacedemonian territory, was divided equally among the citizens. (2.) There were thirty-nine thousand allotments of land in this manner. (3.) The proprietors of these shares were not allowed to sell them. XII. — (1.) The Lacedemonian people were of two classes — na- tive born and freedmen. (2.) Those born of Spartan parents, and brought up under the state regulations, were eligible to civil and military offices. (3.) The other class of citizens consisted of persons whose parents were not native, or who were not educated according to law. (4.) Members of the latter class were permitted to vote, but could not hold office. (5.) Strangers and released captives belonged to the second class. XIII. — (1.) The electors of the chief Lacedemonian city, called 12. — (1.) What is said of the senate? (2.) How were senators selected? (3.) What were the senators' powers? (i.) What judicial authority had they? S. — (1.) Who composed the popular assemblies ? (2.) How were Spartan citizens restricted ? (3.) What is said of Spartan youth ? XI. — (1.) How was land divided in Lacedemonia? (2.) How many allot- ments of the soil were there ? (3). What was not allowed to landholders? SU. — (1.) How were the Lacedemonian people classed? (2.) Who were eUgible to hold office? (3.) Who constituted the second class? (4.) How were members of the second class restricted ? (5.) What persons belonged to the second class ? »■■' — (1.^ When and where did the Lacedemonian electors meet ? The Lacedemonian Republic. 153 Sparta, met in their assemblies twice a year, or oftener, when con- vened by the Ep/wri. (2.) Free citizens of other towns, in the re- public, sent delegates or committees of their number, to meet with the assembly of Sparta. XIV. — (1.) The Lacedemonian senate was presided over by the two liings. (2.) Each of the kings possessed a vote, like any other citizen, but no power over the meeting except what was required to enforce order. XV. — (1.) Besides native citizens, and freedmen entitled to attend the assemblies, there were two other classes of inhabitants in Lace- demonian territory. (2.) The first of these, consisting of descend- ants of a former Grecian tribe, were called helots. (3.) These helots were deprived of all power in the republic, and considered to be slaves of Spartan citizens. XVI. — (1.) Helots cultivated the lands owned by Spartan citi- zens, paying a fixed rent for them yearly. (2.) They carried on mechauical trades, and followed the Spartan soldiers to war as ser- vants. (3.) Sometimes helots were permitted to acquire wealth, and occasionally they were admitted to citizenship, as a reward of meritorioas actions. (4.) They were usually treated with great cruelty by their masters. XVII. — (1.) The lowest class of the population was made up of slaves, of various nationalities and colors, (2.) These persons per- formed rongh labors and menial services, required in public and domestic offices. (2.) How were free citizens of other towns represented? XTV (1.) Who presided over the senate ? (2.) What influence had the kings over this body ? XV. — (1.) What other classes made up the Lacedemonian community? (2.) Of what did the first of these classes consist? (3.) What is said of these helots ? XVI.— (1 ) What labors did the helots perform ? " (2.) What other occupa- tions had they? (3.) What privileges did they sometimes have? (4.) How were tnt'y usually treated ? XVQ. — (1.) What made up the lowest class of Lacedemonian population ? '2.) What labors did they perform ? 154 History of Governments. XVIII. — (1.) The Lacedemonian republic became famous among Grecian states, on account of the bravery and hardihood of its citi- zens, who were all soldiers. (2.) The state of Sparta was often engaged in wars with Athens and other Grecian cities. (3.) It become powerful and feared, but at length suffered the fate of all ambitious states. (4.) It fell a prey to inward disorder and violence from without. XIX. — (1.) The Spartan government was founded on principles of great value. (2.) Its laws were opposed to luxury, and pro- vided for the education of every citizen from his childhood. (3.) But the privileges and rights of citizenship were confined to a limited class. (4.) Members of this class were allowed to tyrannize over other classes of their fellow-men. XX. — (1.) The servile population of Sparta became more nume- rous than the free citizens, (2.) They had no share in the com- monwealth, and no interest in the soil. (3.) Their education was not cared for, in youth, and they were allowed no position when they grew up to manhood. XXI. — (1.) The consequences attending such inequality of classes were felt when the state grew rich and powerful. (2.) The free citizens tyrannized over other classes, and demagogues divided the population. (3.) At last a foreign enemy was able to conquer the republic without difficulty. XVill. — (1.) For what did the Lacedemonian republic become famous ! (2.) In what was Sparta often engaged? (3.) What is said of it ? (4.) What was its fate ? XIX. — (1.) What is said of Spartan government ? (2.) What of its laws ? (3.) How were popular rights restricted? (4.) What was permitted to this class? XX. — (1.) What did the servile population become ? (2.) In what had they no share or interest? (3.) What was their social condition? XXI. — (1.) What is said of the consequences attending such inequality ? (2.) What results followed ? (3.) What was the end of these troubles ? CHAPTER VIII. OTHEK GRECIAN STATES. I. — (1.) Besides the republics of Attica, or Athens, and Lace- demon, or Sparta, many other small Greek states grew up with popular institutions. (2.) The earliest government of each was hereditary chieftainship. (3.) Every tribe was a clan, led in its wanderings by a headman. (4.) In this respect, the early Grecian communities were like all other savage tribes before settlement and cultivation of land. II. — (1.) A nationality of the separate savage tribes of Greece was brought about through their common religion. (2.) All of them worshipped the same set of gods, and attended one principal temple, situated in a place called Delphi. (3.) Members of different tribes met at this temple, and formed a body of their headmen, to consult about sacrifices and festivals. (4.) This was the origin of the Am- phictyonic Council, afterward composed of delegates from each Gre- cian state. III. — (1.) Athens and Sparta grew to be the leading states of Greece. (2.) Athens was chief among the communities descended from louian tribes. (3.) Sparta was principal of the communities descended from Dorian tribes. IV. — (1.) Aecadia was an independent district of Greece, con- taining several cities. (2.) In each city were wardens, or chief I, — (1.) What is said of other Greek states ? (2.) What was the first govern- ment of each ? (3.) What was every tribe ? (4.) What did Grecian communi- ties resemble, in this respect ? n. — (1.) How was Grecian nationality brought about? (2.) What did they all do? (3.) What did members of different tribes form? (4.) Of what was this the origin ? HI. — (1.) What two grew to be leading states ? (2.) Among what commu- nities was Athens chief? (3.) Of what other communities was Sparta the principal ? rV. — (1.) What was the Grecian state of Arcadia? (2.) What were ia 155 156 History of Governments. magistrates of the people, and a senate, elected by the popular assembly. (3.) lu time of war, a leader, or king, was chosen by all the cities ; but tbey were usually independent of each other. v. — (1.) The Akgive republic was a Dorian state, governed by a senate, and a body of citizens chosen from the wealthiest persons of the community. (2.) It was thus based on an aristocratic con- stitution, with magistrates chosen from a ruling class. VI. — (1.) The AcHAiAN republics consisted of twelve cities, each with seven or eight districts, or cantons. (2.) Each of the twelve was an independent state, with a democratic constitution. (3.) They were combined by a league, or compact, which made them a con- federated nation. (4.) The Achaian states, thus confederated, were able to defend themselves from other nations, and live in peace and happiness. VII. — (1.) The republic of Corinth was governed by its citizens, in general assembly, and a senate. (2.) The chief inhabitants were merchants, forming a wealthy class. (3.) From this class the magistrates and senate were usually selected, making it an aristo- cratic state. VIII. — (1.) The aristocratic republic of Elis consisted of several districts, each choosing a magistrate from the tribe occupying it. (2.) A senate, of ninety members, met at the capital, and held office during life. IX. — (1.) The BcEOTiAN republic embraced a number of small states, each possessing a chief city and several villages. (2.) They were combined as a nation by a league, with the state of Thebes at each city ? (3.) What was done in time of war ? V — (1.) What was the Argive republic ? (2.) What wag its basis ? VI. — (1.) What were the Achaian republics ? (2.) What was each district ? (3.) How were the twelve combined ? (4.) What is said of this league of republics ? Vn. — (1.) What about the republic of Corinth? (2.) Who composed its chief inhabitants ? (3.) How were magistrates and senates appointed ? Vm.— (1.) What is said of the republic of Elis? (2.) What about its senate ? EE. — (1.) What did the Boeotian republic embrace? (2.) What united them? Other Grecian States. 1^7 its head. (3.) BcEOtia was divided into four districts, each having an assembly of citizens. (4.) These assemblies chose eleven ofBcers, called Boeotarchs, who governed the confederacy as civil magistrates and military commanders. (5.) Bach Boeotian city was ruled by a small body of men, elected by law from a few leading families. ( 6.) It thus constituted an oligarchic state. X. — (1.) The republic of Megakis was governed by magistrates chosen for short terms by the people. (2.) All power was in the hands of the citizens at large who were not slaves so that the con- stitution was democratic. XI. — (1.) The island republic of Crete was made up of a num- ber of cities, sometimes united and sometimes at war with each other. (2.) Every city had its own constitution, with a senate elected from the citizens. (3.) The magistrates of each city were ten in number, always taken from certain privileged families. (4.) These officers, called cosmi, were supreme, and governed as an oli- garchic body. XII. — (1.) All Grecian states were in the practice of sending out companies of their citizens, to settle on islands and in districts of other countries. (2.) In this way, many Grecian colonies grew up, and became flourishing states. (3.) These colonies were usually governed as republics, with democratic, aristocratic, or oligarchic constitutions. XIII. — (1.) Syeacuse was the most powerful of all Grecian colo nies. (2.) It was planted in the island of Sicily, and grew up under an aristocratic form of government. (3.) The chief power was, at (3.) How was Boeotia divided? (4.) What did the Boeotian assemblies choose? (5.) How was each city ruled ? (6.) What did it thus constitute ? Z. — (1.) How was the republic of Megaris governed ? (2.) In whose hands was the power ? XI. — (1.) What is said of Crete? (2.) What did every city have ? (3.) What is said of magistrates ? (4.) What government did these officers constitute ? XH. — (l.) What was the practice of Grecian states? (2.) What resulted ? (3.) How were such colonies governed ? Xm. — (1.) What was the most powerful of Grecian colonics? (2.) What is said of it? (8.) Iii what class was chief power lodged ? 158 History of Governments. first, lodged in the hands of the richest class. (4.) A democratic party afterward arose, and, by the help of the slaves, who rose against their masters, drove the aristocratic leaders away. (5.) The aristocrats called foreigners to their assistance, and regained power by establishing a foreigner as king. (6.) Syracuse continued a monarchy till another revolution of the people restored republican- ism, under the democratic form. XIV. — (1.) Under a democratic constitution, magistrates and other ofiBcers were elected by lot. (2.) Parties and factions then grew up, and a general named Dionysins made himself king, and was succeeded by a line of absolute monarchs. (3.) The republic was restored by a patriot named Timoleon, but after his death the supreme power fell into the hands of different tyrants. (4.) The political history of Syracuse teaches the evUs of civil war and social divisions among the people of a state. XV. — (1.) The republic of Massilia arose from a Grecian colony planted on the coast of ancient Gallia. (2.) Its government was aristocratic, of a liberal form. (3.) The chief power was exercised by a body of six hundred citizens, calied timuchi. (4.) They were chosen for life, and were obliged to be married men with families. (5.) Xone but those whose grandfathers and fathers were citizens, as well as themselves, could belong to this body. (6.) At the head of the council of six hundred were fifteen principal men. (7.) Three of these were the chief magistrates of the state. (8.) The Massilian republic was prosperous, and became the seat of learning and philosophy. 1^4.) What afterward occurred ? (5.) What did the aristocrats do ? (6.) What was the consequence ? XrV — (1.) How were magistrates elected by the Syracusan democracy? (2.) What grew up, and what followed? (3.) What afterward took place? (4.) What does the political history of Syracuse teach? XV. — (1.) From what did the republic of Massilia arise ? (2.) What was its form of government? (3.) By whom was chief power exercised? (4.) What is said of the timuchi? (5.) Who only could belong to this body ? (6.) Who were at the head of the council? {1.) What did three of these constitute? (8.) What was the condition of the Massilian republic? Other Grecian States. 159 XVI. — (1.) The republic of Taeentum grew from a settlement of Dorian Greeks in Italy. (2.) It became rich and prosperous through traffic, but lost its power by the increase of luxury among its citizens. (3.) The government was, at first, a liberal aristocracy, magistrates being selected half by lot and half by a majority of votes in public meeting. (4.) The senate had the power of making war. (5.) When its free institutions became corrupted, Tarentum sunk into a province of Eome. XVII. — (1.) The republic of Croton rose from a colony of Achaian Greeks. (2.) Its institutions were democratic, re-organ- ized by the philosopher Pythagoras. (3.) Pythagoras formed a secret association of citizens to improve the government, by educat- ing young native citizens, of capacity, to fill all offices of state. (4.) Members of this secret society were called Pythagoreans, and they spread throughout many cities of Italy. XVIII. — (1.) The republic of Sybaris was a Greek settlement, founded, as Croton was, by Achaiaus, incorporated with the native tribes. (2.) It increased to twenty-five cities, and became noted for wealth and luxury. (3.) All foreigners were admitted to citi- zenship, so that the republic grew excessively populous. XIX. — (1.) The Sybarites remained democratic till a foreigner named Telys was elected chief magistrate. (2.) Telys usurped su- preme power, and expelled five hundred of the principal native citi- zens. (3.) The banished citizens fled to the republic of Croton, which espoused their cause. (4.) A war followed, and the Sybarite state was destroyed by the Crotonians. XVI. — (1.) From what did the republic of Tarentum grow? (2.) What is said of the state ? (3.) What was its government ? (4.) What power had the Tarentine senate ? (5.) What befell Tarentum ? XVH. — (1.) From what did the repubhc of Croton rise? (2.) What were its institutions ? (3.) What did Pythagoras form? (4.) What is said of this society ? XVHL— (1.) What was the republic of Sybaris 1 (2.) How did this colony flourish ? (3.) Who were its citizens? XIX (1.) What ia said of the Sybarite government? (2.) What did this foreigner do ? (3.) What became of the banished citizens ? (4.) What fol- lowed this? i6o History of Governments. XX. — (1.) The republic of Thurii was founded by Athenian colonists, near the site of Sybaris. (2.) Many Sybarite families joined the Thurians, and, by means of their wealth, bought all the best lands, and created an oligarchy. (3.) The poorer classes ex- pelled them, and adopted a democratic form of government. XXI. — (1.) The Grecian republic of Locri, in Italy, was founded by bands of colonists from all parts of Greece. (2.) These people adopted an aristocratic form of government, placing power in the hands of a hundred select families. (3.) The citizens met in public assembly, and elected a magistrate called a cosmopolis, from one of the select families. (4.) They also chose from their own numbers a general senate, of a thousand members, to make the laws. XXII. — (1.) The republic of Khegium arose from a colony of peninsular Greeks. (2.) The government was aristocratic, all power being placed in the hands of a thousand men selected only from Messenian families. (3.) These families grew to be an oligarchy, and afterward a member of one of them found himself able to usurp supreme power. (4.) The state then fell a prey to parties, and sunk at last into a Roman province. XXIII. — (1.) Most of the Grecian colonies in Europe grew up to be free states, smaller or larger. (2.) They were principally planted on that portion of Gallia now known as Lower Italy. (3.) The principles of republicanism were in this manner spread from Greece to different countries. (4.) The free Grecian cities of Italy formed the pattern for free Italian states in after ages. XX (1.) Who founded the republic of Thurii? (2.) What families joined the Thurians ? (3.) What did the poorer classes do ? XXI. — (1.) How did the republic of Locri originate? (2.) What form of government was adopted ? (3.) What chief magistrate was elected ? (4.) What body was chosen? XXn. — (1.) From what did the republic of Rhegium rise ? (2.) What form of government was adopted ? (3.) To what did these families grow ? (4.) What was the consequence ? XXHI. — (1.) What is said of Grecian colonies in Europe? (2.) Where were they principally planted? (3.) What resulted from Grecian colonization f (4.) What did the free Grecian cities of Italy form ? The Roman Commonwealth. 16' XXIV. — (1.) Whenever moderate democratic institutions of the Grecians were allowed fair trial, they were found to insure pros- perity in a state. (2.) When corrupted by wealth and ambition, in particular classes or individuals, they became feeble, and dangerous to the people. (3.) The evils of Grecian republics consisted in the luxury of the rich, the dependent condition of poorer citizens, and the practice of holding great numbers of slaves. XXV. — (1.) The rich obtained possession of all the land. (2.) They were often able to buy the votes of the poor, and conld maintain possession of offices and make the laws. (3.) Slaves were depended upon to perform all labors for the rich, and the poor could not command employment. (4.) Poor citizens, who possessed votes, were used as instruments by ambitious men, and often sup- ported by them. CHAPTER IX. THE KOMAN COMMONWEALTH. I. — (1.) The state of Rome grew from a combination of settlers belonging to several agricultural tribes. (2.) They formed a com- munity ou the shores of the Tiber, a river of Italy, and there built a town. II. — (1.) The earliest inhabitants of Rome adopted a form of government resembling that of Grecian republics. (2.) They es- XXIV. — (1.) What is said of moderate democratic institutions? (2.) Wiiat took place when such institutions became corrupted ? (3.) In what did the evils of Grecian republics consist? XXV (1.) What principal cause operated against democracy ? (2.) What were the wealthy able to do? (3.) What persons -were depended upon as laborers? (4) What is said of poor citizens ? I. — (1.) From what did Rome grow ? (2.) What did the tribes do ? JL—{1.) What form of government was adopted? (2.) What did the people do ? l62 History of Governments. tablished a body called the senate, and elected a chief, or king, by votes of the people la general assembly. in. (1.) The Eoman commonwealth was organized with much system, even in its infant years. (2.) Many of its institutions con- tinued to grow stronger as the state advanced in power and popu- lation. IV. — (1.) It was an object with the early settlers of Kome to increase their numbers. (2.) They agreed that all free-born strangers who joined the colony, should enjoy the privileges of citizens. V, — (1.) At that time the territory occupied by the Romans amounted to about fifty square miles. (2.) The citizens divided this quantity of land, in order to sustain individuals and meet the expenses of a body-politic. VI. — (1.) They first separated the districts suitable for cultiva- tion, into three unequal proportions. (2.) The smallest portion was reserved for religious purposes. (3.) Temples of the gods, and fields to secure rents and products for support of a priesthood, were included in this reservation. VII. — (1.) The land comprised in the second part was called the king's land, and devoted to the raising of funds to meet the ex- pense of government. (2.) The third division of soil was considered to belong to the people. VIII. — (1.) The Roman people were at first separated into three tribes. (2.) Each of these three tribes represented one of the nations that inhabited the country when Rome was founded. (3.) The in (1.) What is said of the Koman commonwealth ? (2.) What of its in- atitutiona ? IV. — (1.) What was an object, with early settlers? (2.) What did they agree ? V. — (1.) What territory did the Roman settlers occupy? (2.) What did the citizens do with this territory ? VI.— (1.) What divisions did they first malie? (2.) For what was the smallest portion reserved? (3.) What were included in the reservation ? Vn. — (1.) What was the second portion of land? (2.) To whom was the third division considered to belong ? Vin. — (1.) How were the Romans at first separated? (2.') What did each tribe represent ? (3.) What were the names of the three ? The Roman Commonwealth. 163 first were Sabines, the second Albanes, and the third was composed of all strangers, of various nations. IX.' — (1.) In later times, the tribes of Eome were increased to four, and each took its name from that part of the city where its members lived. (2.) As Kome grew more populous, new sub-divi- sions were made, till the number of tribes at last reached to thirty- five. X. — (1.) Every tribe was politically divided into ten parishes, each called a curia. (2.) The Eoman people were afterward sepa- rated into classes of society, to distinguish the higher and lower citizens. XI. — (1.) The first class was composed of the elder and wealthier citizens of Eome, who were csdled patricians. (2.) The word patri- cian is derived from pater or patridus, a father. (3.) Citizens who had the most numerous families, and means to support them all, were distinguished in early days of the republic as most honorable. XII. — (1.) The first Eoman council or senate was selected from the fathers of families. (2.) The word senator has the same mean- ing as elder. (3.) The first senators, and other officers of the com- monwealth, were allowed to call their families patrician families. (4.) The senate consisted, at first, of one hundred, next of two hundred, and afterward of three hundred. XIII. — (1.) Families whose fathers served in early days as sena- tors, were afterward called patridi, and became the aristocratic or higher class of Eoman citizens? (2.) The great body of citizens remained plebdi, or plebeians, signifying common people. IX. — (1.) What took place in later times ? (2.) What was done as Eome grew populous ? X. — (1.) How was each tribe politically divided? (2.) How were the people afterward separated ? XI. — (1.) Of what was the first class composed? (2.) From what is the word patrician derived ? (3.) Who were first distinguished as honorable ? XII. — (1.) From what portion of the community was the first council se- lected? (2.) What is the meaning of the word senator! (3.) What were the first senators allowed to do ? (4.) What number composed the senate ? Xm.— (1.) How did patrician families originate ? (2.) What did other citi- zens remain ? 164 History of Governments. XIV. — (1.) Patricians, in- early times, were called patrons, because they patronized or protected the poorer sort of people. ^2.) The latter, in return for protection, were glad to pay respect to the former, and follow them as clansmen. (3.) A patron was generally the head of a large number of these followers, who were called his clients. (4.) They were usually remote relations, stran- gers, persons engaged in industrial trades, and sellers of merchandise. XV. — (1.) After a patrician class was established, magistrates and officers of the army were mostly chosen from its members. (2.) Certain vyarriors were selected to defend the city, and each of these was furnished with a horse by the commonwealth. (3.) The horsemen were called the equestrian order, or class of gentle- men. (4.) They were allowed to wear a gold ring, to distinguish them from the common people, who were forbidden to wear such an ornament. XVI. — (1.) Equestrians were considered next in rank to the senators. (2.) Senators wore a robe marked with large spots of purple silk, aud called the latidavium. (3.) Equestrians wore a robe, with smaller spots of purple, called an augustidavmm. (4.) A sena^ tor was generally required to be worth about thirty thousand dol- lars, in land aud slaves. (5.) The property of an equestrian, or gentleman, was expected to be in value about half that sum. XVII. — (1.) The divisions of aristocracy, in Eome, proceeded from complimentary distinctions originally allowed by the people to certain families. (2.) The founders of such families served the XTV. — (1.) What other name had patricians? (2.) What is said of poorer citizens? (3.) What was the position of a patron? (4.) What were these clients ? XV. — (1.) What tools; place after a patrician class was established? (2.) What body was created? (3.) What were these horsemen called ? (4.) What were they allowed ? XVI. — (1.) What was the rank of equestrians? (2.) What did senators wear ? (3.) What did equestrians wear? (4.) What was a senator required to be worth in property ? (5.) What was expected to be the wealth of an equestrian ? XVn. — (1.) From what did the two aristocratic divisions proceed! (2.) What is said regarding the founders of such aristocratic families ? The Roman Commonwealth. 165 state in various capacities, and were honored, as good citizens and protectors of the community. (3.) Their descendants insisted ou maintaining the distinction, and set themselres up as claimants to the principal offices. XVIII. — (1.) The history of the Eoman commonwealth pre- sents a constant straggle between the democracy, or plebeians, and the aristocracy, or patrician orders. (2.) All who boasted descent from the first senators, and first horse-soldiers, of the republic, con- sidered themselves patricians. XIX. — (1.) Plebeians of Eome were generally comprised under the name popidus, or the people. (2.) They carried on all occupa- tions and ways of livelihood, that are usual to poorer citizens. (3.) The most respectable of these were traders, manufacturers, ar- tisans, farmers, and herdsmen. (4.) The lower sort were idlers, vagrants, and persons following disreputable courses to gain a sub- sistence. XX. — (1.) The privileges, or freedom, of a Eoman citizen, could be obtained in three ways. (2.) The first way was by hirthright, from one or both of the person's parents, and himself also, having been free-born in Eome. (3.) This class of citizens became known as original citizens. XXI. — (1.) The second way of obtaining citizenship, was by receiving it as a gift, in consideration of services rendered, or as a mark of honor conferred. (2.) A foreigner could in this manner be adopted to citizenship. (3.) In latter days of the commonwealth, (3.) On what did their descendants insist ? XVm. — (1.) What does Roman history present ? (2.) Who claimed to be patricians ? XIZ. — (1.) Under what name were plebeians comprised? (2.) What were their occupations ? (3.) How were the most respectable employed ? (4.) What persons comprised the lower sort ? XX. — (1.) How could privileges or freedom be obtained ? (2.) What was the first? (3.) What were such citizens called? XXI. — (1.) What was the second way of obtaining citizenship ? (2.) Who could in this manner become a citizen? (3.) What took place in latter days? i66 History of Governments. whole nations were sometimes admitted to citizenship by a decree of the senate. XXII. — (1.) The third method of maliing a freeman, was by manumission, as when a master resigned control over a slave, and gave him a cap, in token of liberty. (2.) A servant obtained his freedom either by serving out his term of indenture, or paying money to his master, or else by gift of his owner. (3.) A manu- mitted servant was called a freedman. XXIII. — (1.) The lowest descriptions of Roman population were the bondmen and slaves. (2.) The former comprised individuals bound by indentures or sentence of the courts. (3.) The latter were persons in slavery, and subject to the will of their owners. (4.) The first embraced apprentices, gladiators, and debtors serving for the benefit of creditors. (5.) The latter comprised captives taken in war, or persons bought in the market-place, as property. XXIV. — (1.) The class of slaves and their descendants became very numerous in Rome. (2.) Slaves had no rights, and could not be witnesses, and their masters had unlimited power over their persons. XXV.^ — (1 .) When the Roman people were separated into three tribes, the soil settled upon by citizens was divided accordingly. (2.) Each tribe had ten parishes, and the land was allotted in thirty portions, for thirty parishes. (3.) The individuals of each parish then agreed regarding the distribution of the land among themselves. XXVI. — (1.) The chief of the state was commander of all the XXII. — (1.) What wag the third way of making a freeman? (2.) In what manner did a servant obtain his freedom ? (.3.) What was a manumitted ser- vant called ? yiTTTT (1.) What persons composed the lowest descriptions of population ? (2.) What were the former ? (3.) What were the latter ? (4.) What did the first comprise ? (5.) What did the latter comprise ? XXIV. — (1.) What class became numerous ? (2.) What is said of slaves? XXV. — (1.) What is said of the division of soil ? (2.) In what proportion was the land allotted ? (3.) What did the individuals do ? XXVI. — (1.) What is said concerning the chief of the Roman state ? 'I'he Roman Commonwealth. 167 militia, or citizens capable of bearing arms. (2.) The chief could not make war without consultation with the elders of the people. XXVn. — (1.) The chief was head of the priesthood, and directed all services and sacrifices in Eotnan temples. (2.) Other priesls were appointed, to attend the altars of different gods wor- shipped by the people. XXVIII. — (1.) Priests and judges of the Eomans, at first, con- sisted of old and respectable members of each tribe. (2.) They were called fathers of the people, and were held in respect by all members of the early community. XXIX. — (1.) The people who founded Rome embraced per- sons employed in cultivating land, others who raised flocks, and others engaged in handicraft. (2.) Higher and lower classes grew up, by degrees, out of this common society. XXX. — (1.) Roman citizens met in general assembly, to cast their votes for senators and other officers, and to approve or reject laws. (2.) In the first years of the state, this assembly was sum- moned to meet by the king and elders. (3.) Afterward the people fixed certain periods of holding sessions. XXXI. — (1.) The office of king was abolished at an early date, and two chief magistrates, called consuls, were chosen instead. (2.) The senate possessed the power of framing laws, and grew in authority as the commonwealth increased in importance. XXXn. — (1.) The custom of distinguishing families of senators and knights as honorable, was the only foundation to the claim of (2.) How was the chief restricted ? XXVn. — (1.) AVhat peculiar position had the chief? (2.) For what were other priests appointed ? XXVm. — (1.) Who comprised the first judges and priests ? (2.) What were they called ? XKIX.— {1.) What class of persons founded Rome ? (2.) What is remarked concerning other classes ? XXX. — (1.) For what did Roman citizens assemble? (2.) How was the assembly summoned at first ? (3.) What was afterward done ? XXXI. — (1.) What is said of the kingly office? (2.) What of the Roman senate ? TnnnT - — (l.) What was the only real claim of patricians to superiority? i68 History of Governments. those orders to superiority. (2.) By admitting tliis claim, the people suffered them to encroach upon democratic power and obtain most of the offices. XXXIII. — (1.) Patricians and knights grew rich, through large grants of lands, taken from neighboring nations subdued by the Eomans. (2.) The plebeians possessed very little land, though their class was the most numerous. (3.) The patricians divided nearly all the soil, and bought slaves to cultivate it for their own profit exclusively. XXXIV. — (1.) The plebeians endeavored to check such increas- ing power of the patricians, by making a law in relation to holding lands. (2.) This law provided that no person should own more than five hundred acres of land, nor any child more than half that quantity. yyx V. — (1.) The seuate, being composed principally of large landowners, took care that this law should not be enforced strictly. (2.) It fell into disuse, and the nobles became more oppressive to\va.vd the people than before. XXXVI. — (1.) The people elected of&cers, called tribunes, to serve for one year, as their representatives in the government. (2. ) These officers were deputed to check the power of the nobles and protect popular interests. XXXVII. — (1.) A struggle commenced between the plebeian people, who were poor and landless, and the privileged classes, who owned all the wealth, in money, slaves, and productive estates. (2.) This struggle continued daring all the time that the republic endured. (2.) What did the people suffer them to do ? XXXMl. — (1.) How did the higher orders become rich ? (2.) What is said of the plebeians ? (3.) What did the patricians do with the soil ? XXXIV. — (1.) What did the plebeians endeavor to do ? (2.) What did this law provide ? XXXV. — (1.) What did the senate do regarding this law? (2.) What was the consequence ? XXXVI. — (1.) What officers did the people elect? (2) What were the tribunes deputed to do ? XXXVn. — (1.) AVhat commenced in the commonwealth ? (2.) How lone did this struggle last? The Roman Commonwealth. i6g XXXVin. — (1.) At an early day of the commonwealth, all customs and usages of the people were collected into a system of regulations, called the Laws of the Twelve Tables. (2.) The Laws of the Twelve Tables were compiled by three magistrates appointed for the purpose. (3.) They were ratified by the people in public assembly. (4.) The condition of the popular classes was not much bettered by their operation. XXXIX. — (1.) One of the laws prohibited marriage relations between patrician and plebeian families. (2.) Another decreed that none but patricians should be chosen consuls. (3.) These two laws were opposed by the plebeians for nearly a hundred years before they could secure their repeal. XL. — (1.) The reason that patricians had power to prevent the more numerous class of plebeians from changing oppressive laws, was a simple one. (2.) It was because the privileged orders were united as a body, and possessed all the wealth. (3.) They grew able to influence leaders of the people, or to buy a sufficient number of popular votes to carry out their own views, without regarding the interests of plebeians. (4.) The result was, that Eoman sena- tors became the instruments or supporters of an exclusive and privileged aristocracy. XXiI. — (1.) While two parties of patricians and plebeians were struggling in the commonwealth, the Koman republic engaged in wars against neighboring states. (2.) Those states were subdued, -one by one, until Eome stood first of all the Italian communities. (3.) Many captives, taken in these wars, were allowed to become citizens of the republic. XXSVTLL — (1.) What wag done at an early day? (2.) How were these laws prepared ? (3.) How were they ratified ? (4.) What effect did these laws have on the commonwealth ? XXXIX.— (1.) What did one of the laws prohibit? (2.) What did another decree ? (3.) What was the result of these two laws ? XL (1.) What ia said concerning the power of patricians? (2.) What was this reason ? (3.) What were they able to do ? (4.) What was the result ? XIiI (1.) What foreign matters occupied the Roman republic ? (2.) What foUowed these wars ? (3.) What was allowed to many captives ? 170 History ot Cjovemments. XIjII. — (1.) The plebeians grew powerfnl enough to pass a law that one of the two chief magistrates, called consuls, should be elected from their class. (2.) They succeeded in electing other magistrates, at different periods, whenever they united as a body of citizens. (3.) They increased the senate to one thousand, instead of one hundred members, and elected plebeians, as well as knights and patricians, to that body. XLm. — (1.) Roman magistrates consisted of all officers who exercised civil, religious, or military authority. (2.) The powers of magistrates were not strictly specified or limited by law. (3.) A senator could be deputed to command a military force, and judges, or financial officers, might belong to the priesthood. (4.) Whenever democracy triumphed in the state, plebeians were chosen to all offices, and sometimes made priests. XIiTV. — (1.) There were two distinct descriptions of magis- trates in the Roman commonwealth. (2.) The first were enume- rated as consuls, tribunes of the people, censors, sediles, prastors and quaestors. (3.) These were chosen at regular intervals, and were common under the republican form of government. (4.) They were termed ordinary magistrates. XLV. — (1.) The other description of magistrates comprised dictators, decemviri, military tribunes, and an officer called the interrex. (2.) These functionaries were chosen only in emergencies, and were called extraordinary magistrates. XLVI. — (1.) Roman magistrates were chosen either from the XLIL— (1.) What law did the plebeiana pass ? (2.) What did they succeed in doing when united as a body ? (3.) How did they modify the senate ? XTiTTT. — (1.) Of whom did Koman magistrates consist ? (2.) What author- ity had magistrates ? (3.) What is said of senators, judges, and other officers ? (4.) What occurred when democracy triumphed ? XlilV. — (1.) How many descriptions of magistrates were there ? (2.) How were the first enumerated 1 (3.) What is said of these ? (4.) What were they termed ? XIiV. — (1.) What did the other descriptions comprise? (2.) What is said of these ? XIiVL — (1.) From what classes or persons were Roman magistrates chosen ? The Roman Commonwealth. 171 noble classes, or from the people at large. (2.) Those elected from the former were called patrician magistrates ; those from the latter, plebeian magistrates. XLVII. — (1.) Patrician magistrates could claim to be priests. (2.) They possessed power, as such, to dissolve an assembly of the people, if they considered the day of meeting, or other circumstances, to be unlucky. XLVIII. — (1.) The magistrates called consuls were elected annually, after the last king had been expelled. (2.) Authority was exercised by two alternately — that is, one governed the first month, another the second month. (3.) No citizen was considered eligible to be consul till he was forty-two years old. XIiIX. — (1.) A consul was attended by twelve officers, called lidors, or sergeants. (2.) Each carried a bundle of birch rods, with an axe in the middle of them. (3.) The rods signified authority to punish small offenders, and the axe denoted power to deal with great criminals. L. — (1.) The governing consul sat in a chair of state, made of ivory, called the Curule Chair. (2.) He wore a purple gown, richly embroidered, to distinguish him from other magistrates. (3.) The year in which consuls held authority was called by their names. LI. — (1.) After the creation of consuls, two other officers were appointed by the senate, and called censors. (2.) Censors made a registration of the people, and placed every citizen in the hundred, (2.) How were they distinguished ? XliVn. — (1.) What could patrician magistrates claim to be ? (2.) What power did they possess when priests ? XIiVHL — (1.) When were the consuls elected? (2.) How was au- thority exercised by them? (3.) When wag a citizen not eligible to be consul ? •gT.nr. — (1.) How was a consul attended? (2.) What did each lictor carry? (3.) What did these emblems signify? L (1.) How was the governing consul distinguished? (2.) What did he wear ? (S.) What is said of the year during which consuls held office ? LL — (1.) What other officers were appointed by the senate? (2.) What J 72 History of Governments.^ or parish, where he belonged. (3.) They valued each man's pro- perty, and had power to inquire into his manner of life. (4.) If a citizen were a bad father or husband, an idler, or loose in his habits, the censors took notice, and could punish him for his faults. LII- — (1.) Censors remained in office during one lustrum, which consisted of five years. (2.) It was their duty to divide and estab- lish tributes, taxes, imposts, and tolls, and make reports at the end of their term. (3.) They were required to be men of the best repu- tation for virtue. LIII. — (1.) Two other officers were appointed for the assistance of consuls in government. (2.) These were called PreEtars, and exercised authority in matters of justice. (3.) One of them judged controversies between citizen and citizen. (4.) The other examined matters of dispute between citizens and foreigners. (5.) The number of praetors was increased with the growth of the commonwealth. LIV. — (1.) Another Eoman magistrate was called the City Prefect. (2.) He had authority to decide matters between masters and servants, or orphans and guardians, and buyers and sellers. (3.) This officer, in later times, wielded great powers, and acted as chief magistrate in the absence of the regular head of gov- ernment. LV. — (1.) Consuls were at first chosen from the nobility, and none but a noble was considered worthy of the office. (2.) This occasioned violent disputes, until an arrangement was made between the patricians and plebeians. was the business of censors? (3.) What did they do, and what power had they ? (4.) What authority had they over bad citizens ? TiTT. — (1.) What was a censor's term of ofiBce ? (2.) What was it their duty to do? (3.) What were they required to be ? Iiin. — (1.) Who assisted the consuls ? (2.) What is said of these officers ? (3.) What did one of them do? (4.) What did the other do? (5.) How was the number of praetors increased ? LIV. — (1.) What was another magistrate called? (2.) What was his author- ity ? (3.) What was the position of this officer in later times ? LV. — (1 ) What is said concerning consuls at first ? (2.) What did this occasion ? The Roman Commonwealth. 173 LVI. — (1.) By agreement, the consuls were discontinued, and two chief magistrates were chosen, called Tribunes, or protectors of the people. (2.) They were elected by the assembly of the people. LVII. — (1.) Tribunes possessed power to stop any proceedings of the senate which they deemed injurious to the people. (2.) They were not allowed a Toice in the senate, but sat outside the hall of meeting. (3.) When a law was passed by the senators, it was sub- mitted to the tribunes. (4.) If they did not consider it just, they returned it, and if they approved it, they subscribed the letter T. LVIII. — (1.) Tribunes kept their houses open by night and day, and were obliged to remain in the city every day in the year. (2.). Citizens who were oppressed or injured could claim protection and shelter in the house of a tribune. IjIX. — (1.) The jEdiles were another class of Eoman magis- trates. (2.) The first eediles were chosen from the senators. (3.) To these were afterward added plebeian aediles, elected by the people. (4.) Senatorial aediles possessed authority one year, and plebeian sediles the next year. IiX. — (1.) JEdiles had charge of repairing public buildings, and supervising the location of private ones. (2.) They inspected weights and measures, and examined frauds and adulterations in provisions and other wares. (3.) They took care of aqueducts and other water-works, and made arrangements for festivals, games, and public ceremonies. IiXI. — (1.) There was another class of sediles, acting as super- LVI. — (1.) What was effected by agreement? (2.) How were tribunes elected ? IiVn.— (1.) What power bad the tribunes? (2.) What were they not .allowed? (3.) What part did they take" regarding laws? (4.) What did they do? IiVm. — (1.) What was the custom of tribunes? (2.) What could be claimed of them? IiIZ. — (1.) What were the ^diles f (2.) How were the first aediles chosen ? (3.) What were afterward added ? (4.) What authority was possessed by each ? LX.— (1.) Of what had ffidilea charge ? (2.) What else did they do ? (3.) What other duties were performed by aadiles ? IiXI (1.) What is said regarding another class of these Koman sediles? 1 74 History of Governments. intendents of markets, overseeing corn and meats. (2.) They pro- vided for seasons of scarcity, by storing up grains for public benefit LXII.— (1.) The Triumviri, or Triumvirs, were different ma- gisterial bodies, or commissions, of three men each. (2.) One of these committees of three comprised the three high-sheriffs, who took charge of prisons and the punishment of malefactors. (3.) Another commission of three acted as bankers, and had authority to pay poor men's debts out of the public treasury. (4.) Another body of three enlisted soldiers for the army, and another made ar- rangements for Koman citizens who wished to go out as colonists. IiXIII. — (1.) The first officers sent to govera provinces and colonies received their commissions from the senate. (2.) They were called consuls and prastors, the first being military, and the last civil, heads of provinces. (3.) The consul was commander-in- chief of the soldiers, the praator chief judge of the people. (4.) Afterward these officers were called Proconsuls and Froprators (5.) There were other provincial officers called quaestors, or trea- surers, besides military tribunes, centurions, prefects, and other assistants. LXIV. — (1.) Roman magistrates, called quaestors, were public treasurers and collectors of revenue. (2.) The tributes, duties, taxes, and all money due from districts, corporations, or individuals, were collected by these officers. (3.) They were called city quaest- ors, to distinguish them from provincial quaestors. (4.) Plunder taken in war was given in charge to the city quaestors. LXV. — (1.) A body of extraordinary magistrates, called Decem- (2.) What did they provide for? IiZH. — (1.) What were the triumviri, or triumvirs ? (2.) What did one of these committees of three comprise ? (3.) What was another ? (4.) What were other triumviri ? T.'gTTT. — (1.) How were provincial governors commissioned? (2.) What were they called ? (3.) What were their distinct positions ? (4.) AVhat were these officers afterward named ? (5.) What other provincial ofiScers ? LXrV. — (1.) What were the quaestors? (2.) What is said of public moneys? (3.) By what name were they distinguished ? (4.) What is said concerning plunder ? LXV. — (1.) What is said concerning the Decemviri, or body of Ten Men ? The Roman Commonwealth. 175 oiri, or Ten Men, was established by the Eomans between the time of consuls and period of tribunes. (2.) Under the Decemviri, the laws of the Twelve Tables were adopted, and written on twelve tablets of brass. (3.) The power of these magistrates was the same that had been exercised by consuls. (4.) One of the ten acted as chief magistrate the first month, another the second, and so on. (5.) These Decemviri became oppressive, and their of5ce was abol- ished in the third year of its existence. LXVI. — (1.) Another extraordinary magistrate was taken by lot, in times of need, from the senate, to supply a vacancy that might occur in the chief magistracy. (2.) This magistrate was called an Inierrex, and his authority, while it continued, was the same as the officer whose place he filled. IjXVII. — (1.) The Dictator was a chief magistrate chosen in time of sudden war, or when dangers menaced the commonwealth. (2.) The Dictator was supreme ruler of the state, and called Popvli Magister, meaning master of the people. (3.) He was elected for six months, and if necessity continued, could be reelected. (4.) He appointed a lieutenant, called master of the horse, to govern in his absence from the city. (5.) There was no appeal to the people from the acts of a Dictator. XiXVIII. — (1.) There were military tribunes holding command in the army, who were generally chosen by the people in their as- semblies. (2.) Sometimes they were elected by the soldiers them- selves. (8.) They exercised the authority that is in modern times held by marshals, or colonels. (4,) Bach military tribune com- manded a thousand foot soldiers. (2.) What laws were adopted under them ? (S.) What was the authority of the Decemviri ? (4.) How did the ten magistrates exercise power ? (5.) What became of the body of officers ? LXVL — (1.) What magistrate was chosen by lot? (2.) What is said of this magistrate ? LXVn (1.) What was a dictator ? (2.) What was his power ? (3.) What was his term of office ? (4.) What did he appoint? (5.) What is said regard- ing his acts ? ULVJJI. — (1.) What is said of military tribunes? (2.) How were they sometimes chosen ? (3.) What authority did they exercise ? (4.) How many men did a military tribune command ? 176 History of Governments. IjZIX, — (1.) The creation of extraordinary officers, sncli as dictators and other absolute rulers, occasioned the ruin of the Roman republic. (2.) Unscrupulous men became possessed of un- limited power over the revenues and armies of the state, and used both for their personal aggrandizement. T.yy. — (1.) When Sjlla, a Koman general, was made dictator for life, he ruled the state despotically, and established his authority by murdering thousands of his fellow-citizens. (2.) He was the chief of an aristocratic party, overthrowing Marins, a leader of the democracy. LXXI. — (1.) Julius Caesar, another Eoman general, overcame Pompey, his rival, after a civil war, and was made dictator for life. (2.) He received the title of Imjperator, or Emperor, as a mark of honor. (3.) Imperator was a military title, Ijestowed on a general who bad slain a thousand men in battle. T.TTyTT . — (1.) After Julius Caesar's death, a triumvirate of magistrates had chief power given to them in the commonwealth for five years. (2.) When five years expired, the triummrate refused to resign their authority. (3.) They possessed power to make new laws, or change old ones, without consulting either senate or people. (4.) They could judge and condemn any Eoman at their pleasure. LXXin. — (1.) One of this triumvirate succeeded in usurping entire authority, and made himself Imperator. (2.) The Roman citizens then lost all voice in choosing their magistrates, and the republic was changed into a monarchy, supported by military force. TiXix. — (1.) What is said of the extraordinary officers ? (2.) Who became thereby possessed of power ? LXX.— (1.) What is said of Sylla ? (2.) What position did he hold ? LXXL — (1.) What is said of Julius Caesar? (2.) What title was given to him ? (3.) What is said of this title ? TiXXTT. — (1.) What took place after Julius Ctesar's death ? (2.) What was the result? (3.) What power did this triumvirate possess ? (4.) What could they do ? T.vviil. — (1.) What did one of the triumvirs succeed in doing ? (2.) What followed the usurpation ? The Roman Commonwealth. 177 LXXIV. — (1.) The history of the Komaii commonwealth shows what evils arise from the influence of privileged classes. (2.) The distinction yielded to older and wealthier families, and to those who held office, led the descendants of such persons to consider them- selves better than the children of poorer people, who had not held office. (3.) This occasioned separation into higher and lower ranks of citizens. LXXV. — (1.) The next disorder that afflicted the community was the inequality of condition occasioned by luxurious habits of the higher classes. (2.) These habits induced them to buy large estates, and hundreds of slaves to perform all labor for them, (3.) This deprived the poorer citizens of employment, as means of sup- port, and made them dependent on the rich. IiXXVI. — (1.) By degrees, the poorer classes lost their influ- ence, and were stripped of political privileges and rights, one by one. (2.) A nobility obtained control of all offices, and the repub- lic fell into the hands of ambitious soldiers. (3.) At last, it was overturned, to make room for a despotism. LXXVII.— (1.) When the Eoman community was small, every individual claimed a share in government. (2.) Roman citizens met together in the market-place of their city, and gave their votes in a loud voice. (3.) In those meetings, all males over seventeen years old, and under sixty, were allowed to have a voice. XiXXVIII. — (1.) Afterward, the people elected their magis- trates by ballot, in a simple way. (2.) The name of every candi- ZiXXIV. — (1.) What does the history of the Eoman commonwealth show ? (2.) What remark is made regarding different families ? (3.) What did this occasion ? LXXV.— (1.) What disorder next afflicted the community ? (2.) What did these habits induce ? (3.) What was the effect of this ? LXXVI (1.) What is said of the poorer classes? (2.) What followed? (3.) What was the last consequence ? LXXVn. — (1.) What was the position of an individual when the community was small? (2.) What did Roman citizens do? (3.) Who were allowed a voice ? LXXVItt.— (1.) What afterward took place? (2.) What is said of canJi- 8* 178 History of Governments. date for ofBce was written on a small tablet, and each voter re- ceived all the names. (3.) Ttie people then went up to the place of voting by hundreds, each company under leadership of its oldest citizen. (4.) Every voter then cast whatever tablet he liked into a chest as he passed. (5.) The names on all the tablets were after- ward examined by appointed tellers, or counters, called scrutators. (6.) The citizen whose name was on the greatest number of tablets was declared elected. IjXXIX. — (1.) When a law was proposed to be passed upon by the people, it was written on a large tablet and hung up in the market-place. (2.) There it remained during three market-days, so that all the people might read and think about it. (3.) The citizens were then called together, and each received a small tablet with the letter A. on it, and another with the two letters V. R. on it. (4.) "A." was a vote against the law, and "V. R." a vote in favor of it. (5.) The citizens then marched by the chests and threw in whatever tablets they liked best, each individual for him- self. (6.) When the tablets were examined, it became known whether the law was passed or not. T.yyy. — (l.) Every Roman citizen did not have the right of first proposing a law. (2.) Only certain of the principal magis- trates enjoyed that privilege. (3.) These principal magistrates had power, likewise, according to their rank, to call meetings of the people, or to adjourn them, if they considered the time unfavorable. (4.) They belonged to the priesthood, and were called Augurs. IjXXXI. — (1.) The privilege of adjourning public assembhes was given to priestly magistrates, because of the superstition of the dates ? (3.) What did the people do ? (4.) What did each voter then do ? (5.) What was afterward done ? (6.) What was the result ? liXXlX. — (1.) What is said about a proposed law ? (2.) How long did it hang there ? (3.) What was then done ? (4.) What was signified by those letters ? (5.) What did the citizens do with their tablets ? (6.) What was the result ? LXXX.— (1.) What is said about proposing a law? (2.) Who enjoyed the privilege ? (3.) What other power had they ? (4.) What were these magis- trates ? T.-gyyT. — (1.) Why was the privilege of adjourning public meetings given The Roman Commonwealth. 179 people. (2.) It was thought that these ofiScers knew what days were unlucky, and the citizens yielded to them the authority to convene or dismiss. (3.) This authority was afterward used to favor the higher classes and oppress the plebeians, XiXXXII. — (1.) There were three kinds of public assemblies among the Eomaus. (2.) The first were meetings of citizens in their parishes, or curice, of which there were thirty. (3.) The second were meetings in hundreds, or centuries. (4.) The third were assemblies of wards, or tribes. IiXXXUI. — (1.) The earliest Koman political meetings, for choice of officers, or legislation, were assemblies of all the people. (2.) The citizens of each parish followed their principal man to the market-place, and every citizen cast his own vote. (3.) This was a democratic form of exercising the right, and insured popular government. IiXXXrV. — (1.) An alteration of this simple democratic form was made in the time of TuUus Hostilins, third king of Eome. (2.) The people were numbered and divided into hundreds, or centuries, and citizens voted by centuries, instead of by each man's ballot. XiXXXV. — (1.) Under Servins TuUius, "sixth king, a second encroachment on the people's power was brought about. (2.) The value of every man's property was ascertained, and the whole popu- lation was divided, according to property, into six classes. XiXXXVI. — (1.) The first class consisted of citizens who pos- to priestly magistrates ? (2.) What was thought ! (3.) In whose favor was this authority exercised ? T.'gxxii — (1.) What is said of popular assemblies ? (2.) What were the first? (3.) What were the second? (4.) What were tho third ? LXXXHL — (1.) What were the earliest political meetings ? (2.) What did the citizens of each parish do ? (3.) What is remarked concerning this practice ? TiXXXTV. — (1.) When was this simple form changed ? (2.) How were the people arranged to vote ? LXXXV — (1.) What occurred under the sixth Roman king ? (2.) What arrangement was made affecting the people ? IiZXXVL — (1.) Of what did the first class of Roman citizens consist? i8o History of Governments. sessed a thousand dollars' worth of property. (2.) There were nine thousand eight hundred citizens in this class. (3.) They were ar- ranged into eighty bands, containing a hundred footmen each, and eighteen bands containing a hundred horsemen each. (4.) This formed ninety-eight centuries of citizens, every citizen worth a thousand dollars. (5.) Members of this division were called dassi- cal citizens, to distinguish them from all other persons. LXXXVII. — (1.) The next class, or division, comprised all Roman citizens whose property was valued at seven hundred dollars. (2.) This class contained two thousand two hundred citizens, ar- ranged in twenty centuries of footmen, and two centuries of ar- morers and other artists. IiXXXVTII. — (1.) The third class consisted of citizens worth five hundred dollars each. (2.) Of these there were twenty cen- turies of footmen. (3.) Members of the fourth class were required to be worth two hundred dollars each ; this class contained twenty centuries of footmen, and two centuries of musicians, such as trum- peters, drummers, and the like. XiXXXIX. — (1.) The fifth class was composed of citizens who had not less than one hundred dollars in property, and it contained thirty centuries of footmen. (2.) The sizth, or lowest class, con- sisted of thriftless poor men, who owned nothing, of whom there was about one century. XO. — (1.) All these classes together composed the army, or militia, of the republic. (2.) Half the centuries in each clar,s were made up of young men, who could go out to war, and the other half (2.) How many were there? (3.) How were they arranged ? (4.) What did this form ? (5.) What were these citizens called ? LXXXVII.— (1.) What did the next class comprise ? (2.) How many citi- zens were there in this class ? liXSSVin.— (1.) Of what did the third class consist? (2.) How many centuries were in it ? (3.) What is said of the fourth class ? IiXXXIX. — (1.) Who comprised the fifth class ? (2.) What was the cha- racter of the sixth class ? XO (1.) What did all these classes together compose? (2.) How were the centuries classified, as regarded the old men and the young men? The Roman Commonwealth. i8l of old men, who could defend ihe city at home. (3.) The comman- der of each hundred was called a centurion, XCI. — (1.) In casting ballots, a vote was first taken among all the members of a century. (2.) If a majority of all voted for a particular person, or law, this was considered the choice of the entire hundred. (3.) Each century then cast its united vote ac- cording as the decision had been. (4.) The wealthiest class of citizens, containing ninety-eight centuries, had ninety-eight votes, wheo the ballot was taken by hundreds. (5.) It possessed the privi- lege, or prerogative, of casting its votes before the other five classes. XCII. — (1.) The other five classes, altogether, contained only ninety-three centuries, and could cast but ninety-three votes. (2.) If the centuries of the first class agreed for or against a candidate or a law, they could outvote all the rest of the people. (3.) If cen- turies of the first class voted similarly, the other classes were not called to vote at all. XCIII. — (!•) When the people became more numerous, they ordained that the right of prerogative, or voting first, should be determined by casting lots. (2.) A century which drew the first lot gained the privilege of voting first, and the wealthier centuries followed. (3.) The rich classes were usually combined, and able to carry elections against the poorer people, even when the latter com- prised a larger number of citizens. XCIV. — (1.) The freedom and independence of a Eoman citizen depended upon his being allowed to vote and speak as an individual in the popular assembly. (2.) Privileges and rights consisted in (3.) What was the captain of each hundred called? SCI (1.) What is said about casting ballots? (2.) What is said of a majority of the century? (3.) What did each century then do ? (4.) How- many rotes had the first class of citizens ? (5.) What pecuHar privilege did it possess ? XOn (1.) What is said of the other five classes? (2.) What was the consequence? (3.) What if centuries of the first class all voted alike ? XCUl. — (1.) What took place when the people became more numerous? (2.) How did this result ? (3.) What is said of the wealthier classes ? XOrV (1.) On what did a Roman's freedom and independence depend? (2.) What constituted his privileges and rights as an original citizen? l82 History of Governments. his admission to office and equality before the laws. (3.) All these blessings were lost to the Eoman people because they became indif- ferent to their value. (4.) They permitted the power to pass from their hands whilst they quarrelled among themselves. (5.) They allowed classes to grow up with distinct interests, dividing one from another. (6.) Consequently, when a dictator, or other despot, oppressed them, they were destitute of the combination necessary to overthrow his power. (3.) What occasioned the loss of these blessings ? (4.) What did the Roman people permit ? (5.) What did they allow ? (6.) What was the consequence of this? ANCIENT MONARCHICAL SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT. CHAPTER I. THE ASSYRIAN DESPOTIC MONARCHY. I. — (1.) AsHUR, the son of Shem, settled on a plain called Shinar, with his family and descendants, and their flocks. (2.) Nim- rod, the grandson of Ham, wandered through the wilderness, living as a hunter. (3.) After Ashur and his people had cultivated the land in which they dwelt, and were living a peaceful life, Nimrod came upon them, with his wild followers, and took possession of the country. II. — (1.) The nation of Assyrians was founded by the children of Shem, and afterward the descendants of Ham came from the wilderness and shared the land with them. (2.) Several cities were erected upon the plain of Shinar. (3.) Babylon was the principal of these cities, and became the capital of the Assyrian empire. (4.) It was built by Nimrod, who made himself master of the territory. III. — (1.) Ashur emigrated from Babylon, with his family and many followers. (2.) He settled another part of the country, and founded the city of Nineveh. (3.) The future Assyrian nation thus I.— (1.) What is said of Ashur ? (2.) Of Nimrod ? (3.) What did Nimrod do to Ashur ? n. — (1.) What is said of the Assyrians? (2.) What were erected? (3.) What was the principal city ? (4.) Who built it ? m.— <1.) What did Ashur do? (2.) What city did he found? (3.) What 133 184 History of Governments. sprang from two families that had increased to tribes. (4.) One of these tribes was composed of people who tilled the ground, and raised flocks and herds. (5.) The other tribe was a nomadic, or wandering tribe, subsisting by the chase. rV. — (1.) The settled tribe became farmers, laborers, and shep- herds, building towns, and houses, and cultivating the soil. (2.) The hunter-men were soldiers, or defenders of the settlers, and grew to be most powerful. (3.) Nimrod, patriarch of the hunters, was probably the bravest and strongest man of all his people. (4.) They were, therefore, willing to obey him as a chief, as well as a father of the tribe. v. — (1.) When Nimrod became chief, or king of the two tribes, he chose his ofiBcers from the tribe of hunters, who were his own descendants. (2.) These he set over the settled tribe as governors of tens, hundreds, and thousands. (3.) When Nimrod died, he left his eldest son to be chief ruler or king, in his place. (4.) Thus the government was continued as a hereditary monarchy, passing from father to son. VI. — (1.) In the course of time, the Assyrian kingdom aug- mented in the number of its people, and became a very powerful state. (2.) It was joined also by a small nomadic tribe called Chaldeans, descendants of Arphaxad, one of the sons of Shem. (3.) These Chaldeans were more intelligent than the two original Assyrian tribes. (4.) They were a shepherd people, who came from the mountainous regions, and pretended to be descended from the gods. VII. — (1.) The Chaldeans taught the people of Assyria that the is said of tiie future Assyrian nation ? (4.) Of what was one tribe composed ? (5.) What was the other ? IV. — (1.) What is said of the settled tribe? (2.) Of the hunter tribe? (3.) What was Nimrod? (4.) What were his people willing to do? v.— (1.) Who were Nimrod's officers? (2.) How did he arrange them? (3.) What did Nimrod leave? (4.) What did the government become ? VI. — (1.) What did the kingdom become? (2.) By whom was it joined? (3.) What is said of the Chaldeans? (4.) Whence did they come ? VII. — (1.) What did the Chaldeans teach to the people of Assyria? The Assyrian Despotic Monarchy. 185 moon and stars were abodes of superior beings, who had charge of the world. (2.) They said that the souls of kings and heroes would go to those heavenly bodies after death, and become gods of the Assyrians. (3.) They taught also that a principal god, and a mul- titude of inferior gods, dwelt in the planets. (4.) They declared it right to worship them all, and to build altars for the offering of sacrifice. VIII. — (1.) The Assyrian kings and warriors believed what the strangers taught, and made inferior people erect altars and build houses near them for the Chaldeans to live in. (2.) The Chaldeans became a priestly family, or sacerdotal tribe of the Assyrians. (3.) The houses built for their residence near the altars were called temples of the gods, and the priests were regarded as special ser- vants of those deities. IX. — (1.) The Chaldean priests were supported by offerings which the people brought to their temples. (2.) They instructed the children of the king and chief warriors, and were selected by the monarch as his counsellors and keepers of records. (3.) They carefully kept apart from all other people, and devoted themselves to study. (4.) They examined into all the ancient customs of the nation, and collected them together in sacred books. (5.) The Chaldeans thus became depositories and interpreters of law, and gained great influence with both rulers and people. X. — (1.) When the Assyrian nation grew powerful, the kings were accustomed to lead out large armies against neighboring tribes. (2.) In this way they extended the empire, by adding conquered countries to their own. (3.) The king of Assyria dwelt in one of (2.) What did they say concerning souls of kings and heroes ? (3.) What did they teach concerning gods? (4.) What did they declare to be right ? Vni.— (1.) What did the Assyrians do? (2.) What did the Chaldeans become ? (3.) What were their dwellings called, and how were they regarded themselves ? IS — (1.) How were the Chaldean priests supported? (2.) What stations did they hold? (3.) How were the Chaldean priests distinguished? (4.) What did they do regarding laws ? (5.) What did they thus become ? X. — (1.) What was the custom of Assyrian kings? (2.) What did they accomplish ? (3.) What is remarked concerning the mode of life pursued by i86 History of Governments. liis great cities, surrounded by chief officers, priests, and warriors. (4.) He appointed or removed these officers at will, and was vene- rated as representative of the nation's gods. XI.— (1.) The king set princes of his own family, or chief favor- ites, over all subject countries. (2.) He appointed governors of provinces from principal Assyrian families, or from his personal ser- vants. (3.) Generals of his army were chosen from the most faith- ful soldiers. (4.) Over cities were set rulers, who appointed infe- rior officers, as judges and sheriffs. XII. — (1.) A royal treasurer was placed in every subject coun- try or province, with officers to collect tribute, or taxes, of the people. (2.) Every provinciar ruler was assisted and watched by one or more counsellors appointed by the king. (3.) Chaldeans filled many offices, and devoted themselves to the study of astronomy and other sciences, interpretation of dreams, and prophesying. XIII. — (1.) Next to the king himself was a prime minister, or chief ruler, who was responsible with his life for fidelity to the monarch. (2.) Under this chief ruler there were three presidents, or princes, who had charge of three great departments of the empire. (3.) Under the presidents were princes of provinces and governors. XrV. — (1.) Members of the priesthood were subject to the king, as well as the princes and people. (2.) The monarch possessed power of life and death over every inhabitant of his empire. XV. — (1.) During the reigns of Assyrian kings, they subjected a great number of countries to their sway. (2.) Sometimes they the king? (4.) What is said of the monarch's power and position ? XI. — (1.) What chief rulers did the Ijing appoint ? (2.) What other gov- ernors? (3.) Who were his generals ? (4.) How were cities governed ? Xn. — (1.) What was placed in every subject country? (2.) How were provincial rulers assisted ? (3.) What is said of the Chaldeans? Xm. — (1.) Who was next to the king? (2.) Who were under this chief ruler ? (3.) Who were under the presidents ? XIV.— (1.) What is said of the priesthood? (2.) What power did the monarch possess ? XV. — (1.) What did the Assyrian kings do? (2.) What did they sometimes The Medean Despotism. 187 made all the inhabitants of such countries their captives, and brought them from their own homes to labor as servants in the land of Assyria. (3.) Usually, however, the conquered people were allowed to remain as before, provided they paid tribute to rulers set over them. XVI. — (1.) The ancient Assyrian empire was overthrown in the time of Daniel, the Hebrew prophet, as we learn from Scripture. (2.) In its earliest condition, the Assyrian nation was innocent and simple, but the greater part of its population ignorant and feeble. (3.) They became an easy prey to an invading horde of roving soldiers. XVII. — (1.) The laboring and agricultural tribes sank to in- feriority, while the hunter tribe formed a class above them, headed by a despotic chief. (2.) The seeds of decay were planted in the Assyrian nation in its earliest infancy. (3.) The disease of despot- ism fastened upon the people, and grew stronger as the empire increased, by means of conquest and extension of territory. CHAPTER II. THE MEDEAN DESPOTISM. I. — (1.) The Medean nation was descended from one of the descendants of Japhet, the eldest son of Noah. (2.) The original family was nomadic, and branched off into six tribes, which roved between the Caspian Sea and Mt. Taurus. II. — (1.) Each Medean tribe was governed by a patriarch or do to the inhabitants ? (3.) What was their usual practice ? XVI. — (1.) When was the Assyrian empire overthrown ? (2.) What is said of the Assyrian nation ? (3.) What did the people become ? XVH. — (I.) What distinctions were made between tribes ? (2.) When did decay attack the nation ? (3.) What is said of despotism ? I. — (1.) From whom was the Medean nation descended ? (2.) What was the original family ? n. — (1.) How was each tribe of the Medean family, or nation, governed? l88 History of Governments. chief elected by the people. (2.) He was the leader in war, and judge in time of peace. (3.) During the reigns of Assyrian kings, the Medes were obliged to pay tribute to those despots. III. — (1.) The tribes settled, at length, in villages, and devoted themselves to cultivating the earth and raising flocks. (2.) Differ- ent communities were not always governed well by their judges, some being unjust and others tyrannical. rV. — (1.) The judge of one of the tribes was Dejoces, who was a wise and politic man. (2.) His judgments were so excellent, that he reconciled all the people of his tribe, and made the village in which he lived a model of order. V. — (1.) The reputation of Dejoces spread through all the tribes, and people came from every village to bring their disputes to be decided by his wisdom. (2.) In this way, he became the most respected man among all the Medean people. VI. — (1.) When Dejoces found himself so much sought, and that his countrymen thought him the wisest of men, he suddenly resigned his position as judge. (2.) He declared that the duties were too hard to perform, and interfered with his domestic in- terest. "VII. — (1.) He advised the tribes to meet together in council, and consult for themselves concerning the best way of deciding dis- putes and adjusting differences. (2.) A great meeting was there- fore called, composed of all the Medes. VIII. — (1.) Dejoces did not go to the council, but took care to have his friends there. (2.) These friends proposed that the tribes (2.) What authority had the chief? (3.) What were the Medes obliged to do? m. — (1.) What did the tribes do? (2.) What is said of different com- munities ? IV. — (1.) Who was Dejoces ? (2.) What is said of his judgments ? V. — (1.) What was the consequence of the judge's wisdom ? (2.) What did Dejoces become ? VI.— (1.) What did Dejoces then do ? (2.) What did he declare ? VTL— (1.) What advice did Dejoces give the tribes? (2.) What was called? VUL — (1.) What course did Dejoces pursue ? (2.) What did his friends The Medean Despotisni. 189 should continue in one nation, and choose Dejoces to be its king. (3.) The Medes agreed to this, and elected Dejoces, who thereupon became monarch. IX. — (1.) When Dejoces became king, he called upon his coun- trymen to build him a palace, strongly fortified. (2.) He sur- rounded himself with a strong guard, of his own relatives and personal friends, to secure his authority. X. — (1.) From the interior of his palace, Dejoces sent out his commands, to be obeyed as laws. (2.) He fixed certain days on which to hear causes, and never appeared before the people except with great ceremony. XI. — (1.) Dejoces built great cities and temples, and consoli- dated the six tribes. (2.) His successors led the people to war, and became despotic rulers, subjugating other countries, and ex- tending the Medean territory. (3.) The Medes became masters of the Assyrian empire, but were afterward deprived of their own independence. (4.) Their country sank, at last, iuto a province of the Persian empire, established by Cyrus the Great. XII. — -(1.) The Medes, in infancy, were a peaceful, wandering people, but afterward became warlike and predatory. (2.) Each individual preserved a rude freedom, until the cunning of one of their rulers secured the supreme power. (3.) The tribes then became divided into clans, and were no longer a united people of free individuals. XHI. — (1.) When the Medean tribes submitted to a single king, propose ? (3.) What was agreed upon ? IX. — (1.) What did their new king ask the Medes to do ? (2.) How did he strengthen his power ? X. — (1.) What did Dejoces then do? (2.) How did he conduct himself toward the nation ? XI. — (1.) What did Dejoces accomplish ? (2.) What was done by his suc- cessors ? (3.) What occurred to the Medes ? (4.) What was the fate of their country ? Xn. — (1.) What is said concerning the Medes ? (2.) What of each indi- vidual ? (3.) What did the tribes then become? Xm. — (1.) What followed the choice of a king over th<> Medean tribes? i^o History of tfovernments. they became a nation of conqaerors, oppressing weaker states. (2.) The effect of this was to make them Inxnrions tyrants, who forced their captive enemies to perform all labor for their support. XrV. — (1.) Medean history shows how independent and hardy tribes were brought under national government and made powerful. (2.) It also shows how such a nation was corrupted by success in war, until it became feeble, and yielded its own independence with- out a struggle. CHAPTER III. THE PERSIAN DESPOTISM. I. — (1.) The Persians were a nomadic people, occupying moun- tainous regions of Central Asia, and divided into ten clans. (2.) Three clans composed the fighting men, three were tillers of the earth, and four were keepers of sheep. (3.) The earliest govern- ment of each clan or tribe was patriarchal. II. — (1.) The three soldier tribes were distinguished from each other by being more or less intelligent. (2.) They were nuited under a single chief, in time of war, and were always superiors of the other seven tribes. III. — (1.) Cyrus, elected chief of the principal tribe, was the first who led the whole nation on a great expedition. (2.) Under this chief, the ten tribes revolted against Medean government, and overthrew the Assyrian empire. (2.) What was the effect of this ? XIV. — (1.) What does Medean history show? (2.) What else does it show? I. — (1.) Who were the Persians? (2.) How were (he ten clans divided? (3.) What was the government of each ? n. — (1.) How were the soldier-tribes distinguished from each other? (2.) How were they united in time of war, and what was their condition ? m.— (1.) Who was Cyrus ? (2.) What did the Persians do under Cyrus ? I'iie Jt'ersian Uespotism. 191 rV. — (1.) Cyrus took the title of king of the Persians, and established a great military monarchy. (2.) He placed his coun- trymen in all positions of authority. (3.) He distributed Persian generals and officers throughout the whole empire. (4.) He formed large armies of Assyrians, Medes, and other subject people. V. — (1.) Under Cambyses and Darius, the Persian state became a despotism, and was divided into extensive districts. (2.) These districts were called satrapies, each governed by a royal officer called a satrap. VI.— (1.) The king of Persia claimed unlimited authority over all his subjects, high and low. (2.) He issued edicts, which at once became laws, for his officers to execute, and his subjects to obey. (3.) He was supreme judge in all concerns of government and people. VII. — (1.) The despot of Persia was called the Great King. (2.) His person was held sacred as a divinity, and was approached by all with adoring respect. VIII. — (1.) The Persians venerated a body of priesthood called Magians, or wise men. (2.) These wise men were teachers of the people, as the Chaldeans had been, among Assyrians and Medes. IX. — (1.) The Magians kept the sacred books of Persian reli- gion and laws. (2.) They always remained a distinct tribe, not mingling with other tribes or people. X. — ■(!.) The king selected counsellors, and appointed judges, from the Magian priesthood. (2.) Local judges held tribunals in IV.— (1.) What is said of Cyrus ? (2.) What did he do ? (3.) What did he distribute ? (4.) What did he form ? V. — (1.) What took place under Cambyses and Darius ? (2.) What were these districts called, and how governed ? VI. — (1.) What did the liing of Persia claim ? (2.) What were hisedicrts? (3) What was his authority ? Vn. — (1.) What was the Persian despot's title ? (2.) How was his person regarded? VHr. — (1.) Who were the Magians? (2.) What were these wise men ? IX. — (I.) What did the Magians lieep ? (2.) What did they always remain •> X.— (1.) Who were the Iiing's counsellors and judges? (2.) What is a^ of judges? 192 History of Governments. every city and district, and higher judges made regular joninieys through provinces, to hear and determine difificult causes. XI. — (1.) The Great King was always surrounded by ministers, favorites and flatterers. (2.) A rigid system of ceremony was maintained, to which all submitted who approached the royal pre- sence. Xn. — (1.) Courtiers, masters of ceremony, guards and slaves, crowded all the passages of the king's palace. (2.) It was through their influence only that a stranger conld approach their master. XIII. — (1.) Enlers were placed over cities, towns, and parts of towns. (2.) These were appointed by the satrap who governed the province over them, and were accountable to him. Xry. — (1.) Messengers constantly travelled throughout tlie em- pire, to discover new delicacies for the king's table, furniture for his palace, and garments or ornaments for his wear. (2.) The choice of everything produced in any province belonged to the king. (3.) It was secured for him by the satraps and rnlers, without regard to expense of treasure or life. XV. — (1.) The court and palace of every satrapwere modelled after that of the Great King. (2.) Governors and rulers under a satrap were required to pay him almost royal honors. XVI. — (1.) Inhabitants of nations under Persian rule were obliged to pay a tax for the support of the king, and to maintain his governors and rulers. (2.) The Persian tribes alone were free from tax, being masters of the rest. XVII. — (1.) When the Great King wished to distinguish or re- XL — (1.) Who surrounded the Great King ? (2.) What system was ma'in- tained ? XTT. — (1.) Who crowded the royal palace? (2.) What is said of these? XTTT. — (1.) Where were rulers placed ? (2.) By whom were they appointed ? XIV. — (1.) For what did messengers traverse the empire? (2.) What be- longed to the king? (3.) How was it secured ? XV.— (] .) What is said of a satrap's court ? (2.) What of his subordinates ? XVI.— (1.) What were subjects obliged to do? (2.) Who were exempt from this tax ? XVXL — (1.) How were favorites of the Persian Great King rewarded! The Persian Despotism. 193 ward a favorite, he sent him to govern a rich province, as satrap. (2.) The satrap was receiver of taxes, paymaster of the troops, and representative of his master over the people. XVm. — (1.) A military officer was appointed by the king, as general over the army of ^very satrapy. (2.) This officer was ac- countable to the monarch, for security and order in the province where he held command. XIX. — (1.) Scribes, or secretaries, were sent by the king, to re- side in the palace of every satrap. (2.) These scribes acted as spies and agents of the monarch, and communicated his commands to the satrap. (3.) The satrap was obliged to obey those com- mands, whatever they might be, or else suffer death. XX. — (1.) The Great King sent out military commissioners, every year, to travel through all the empire, with an army of faithful sol- diers. (2.) These commissioners possessed authority to inquire into the management of provinces, and to punish or commend the satraps, according to their deserts. XXI. — (1.) Sometimes a satrap became popular and powerful enough to revolt against the Great King, and set up an independent despotism over his own province. (2.) When such a revolt took place, the king marched with a large army, from other satrapies, to punish the rebellious ones. XXII. — (1.) Common people of the Persian empire were num- bered by tens, each ten having a captain. (2.) Over these were captains of hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands. (3.) The generals appointed the commanders of ten thousands and thousands. {2.) What position did a satrap occupy ? XVm. — (1.) What was appointed in every satrapy? (2.) How was this officer accountable ? XIZ. — (1.) Who resided in every satrap's palace ? (2.) What was their conduct ? (3.) What is said of the royal commands ? XX.— (1.) What did the Ising send out yearly? (2.) What authority had these ? XXL — (1.) What did a, satrap sometimes become ? (2.) A\Tiat did the king do f XXn. — (1.) How were Persian subjects numbered ? (2.) Who were set ever these? (3.) What commanders did tlie Persian generals appoint to office? 194 History of Governments. (4.) The commanders of ten thousands appointed the captains of hundreds and tens. XXIII. — (1.) Being thus disciplined, the Persian armies could be mustered for war very quickly. (2.) Military officers were always Persians, other nations being regarded as bondsmen to the ruling tribes. XXIV. — (1.) The great Persian despotism was controlled by one leading people. (2.) The original Persians, being a brave and vigorous race of men, maintained mastery over less warlike nations. XXV. — (1.) The Persian empire was an extensive military des- potism, established by conquest, and sustained by force. (2.) Un- limited sovereignty in the king, and unmurmuring obedience by tlie people, were its characteristics. XXVI. — (1.) The Persian tribes, before the time of Cyrus, were a rude and barbarous people, dwelling among rocks and bar- ren hills. (2.) Their clothing was skins, their food wild fruits, their drink water. XXVII. — (1.) In the course of a few reigns of Persian kings over rich countries, the nation lost its simple habits, and became corrupted by luxury and power. (2.) The ruling tribes grew to be haughty tyrants over inferiors, and servile followers of their des- potic monarch. XXVIII. — (1.) On this account, the Persian state became dis- eased, and ready to decay. (2.) It was destroyed, in its tu.r", as (4.) Who did the commanders of ten thousand appoint ? XXiTT — (1.) What was the consequence of this discipline ? (2.) What were the oflBcers? XXrV.— (1.) What is said of the Persian despotism ? (2.) Who were the masters ? XXV — (1.) What was the Persian empire? (2.) Wliat were its character- istics ? XXVI.— (1.) What were the Persian tribes before Cyrus? (2.) What was their condition ? XXVn — (1.) What took place afterward ? (2.) What did the ruling tribes become ? XXVin — (1.) What was the consequence ? (2.) AVhat befell the eirpire ? Macedonian Military Monarchy. 195 ii had overthrown the Medean empire. (3.) Alexander the Great made Persia a province of his Macedonian empire. (4.) After Alexander's death, it fell under various masters, till the Mohammedan nations at last subdued it. CHAPTER IV. MACEDONIAN MILITARY MONABCHY. I. — (1.) The military empire of Alexander the Great arose from a small sovereignty called Macedon. (2.) Macedon was originally a colony of Grecians from Argos, who settled among the native barbarous tribes, and became ruling families, or nobility, of the communities which they founded. II. — (1.) The district of country occupied by Macedonians formed a boundary line of Europe and Asia. (2.) They were often obliged to pay tribute to the despots of Assyria, and afterward of Persia. III. — (1.) The government of Macedon was oligarchical. (2.) A few families of the nobility held all chief offices, and regarded their king as only first among themselves. (3.) The authority of the king was merely that of a military leader, but it descended from father to son. rV. — (1.) When Philip succeeded to the throne of Macedon, the state was divided by factions, and threatened by foreign war. (2.) Philip created a new military force, called the Macedonian (3.) What was the fate of Persia ? (4.) What became of the country after Alexander ? I. — (1.) From what did Alexander's empire arise ? (2.) What was Macedon? IL — (1.) What is said of the Macedonian territory? (2.) What were the Macedonians often obliged to do ? m. — (1.) What form of government had Macedon? (2.) Who controlled it? (3.) What was the king's authority? rV. — (1.) What was the condition of Macedon when Phihp became king? (2.) What did Philip do ? 19^ History of Governments. phalanx, and obliged herdsmen and farmers of his country to become soldiers. ^- — (1-) When he grew strong enough, Philip declared war against several neighboring cities, and made them tributary to Macedon. (2.) He then contrived to have Macedon acknowledged by Athens, Sparta, and other Grecian republics, as a member of the Amphictyonic League, or Confederacy of Grecian States. VI. — (1.) Philip became noted as an able military commander, and was chosen chief of all armies raised by confederated Greek republics, to defend their territories against the Persians. (2.) In this manner the Macedonian king was able to exert a commanding influence in Grecian affairs. VII. — (1.) He established a body-guard, composed of members of the Macedonian nobility, and organized a squadron of horse sol- diers, from warriors of Thrace, a conquered country. (2.) After his death, the government of Macedon descended to his son, Alex- ander, afterward called " the Great." VIII. — (1.) Alexander consolidated all the states under his con- trol into a military monarchy. (2.) He placed Macedonian nobles in chief places of trust and authority. (3.) He collected a numer- ous and well-disciplined army, and prepared to make war against other countries. IX. — (1.) Alexander subjected Greece to his authority, and de- stroyed the Phoenician city of Tyre. (2.) He conquered the Egyptians and Persians, and led a powerful army against Northern India. (3.) Wherever he carried his arms, he was victorious, and placed Macedonian governors to rule over subject countries. V. — (1.) What did Philip accomplish ? (2.) What else did he achieve ? VL — (1.) To what station was Philip chosen by the Grecian states ? (2.) What was the consequence ? VH. — (1) What new forces did Philip organize? (2.) Who succeeded Philip as king of Macedon ? VUL — (l.) What did Alexander do? (2.) How did he govern them? (3.) What did be collect ? IX. — (1.) What were Alexander's first conquests ? (2.) What next did he do ? (.3.) What was his success ? The Roman Empire. 197 X. — (1.) Alexander established his seat of empire at Babylon, and adopted the ancient costume and luxurious habits of Assyrian kings. (2.) He died at the height of power, and Macedonian des- potism became broken into fragments. (3.) Governors and gene- rals of the Conqueror divided the different provinces among them- selves. XI. — (1.) In the space of a single lifetime, the Macedonian state arose from a small union of pastoral tribes, to be a great despotic power. (2.) It controlled mighty armies, and overthrew ancient dynasties. (3.) In the lapse of another generation, all its posses- sions were lost. (4.) Thirty years after Alexander's death, not one of his kindred or family remained upon the earth. XII. — (1.) Macedon remained chief among Grecian states, and sought to deprive various republics of the remnant of freedom which they retained. (2.) This brought the Macedonians into con- flict with a superior power, and their state was soon after made a Eoman province. CHAPTER V. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. I. — (1.) The appointment of Octavius Csesar as first magistrate of the Eoman state, during life, ended the republican form of government in Rome. (2.) Supreme power was yielded by senate and people into the hands of a single individual. X. — (1.) Where did Alexander establish his seat of government ? (2.) What toolc place ? (3.) How wag the Macedonian empire divided ? XI. — (1.) What is said of the Macedonian state? (2.) What did it accom- plish as such? (3.) What speedily followed ? (4.) What is said of Alexan- der's family ? XII. — (1.) What did Macedon remain, and what attempt ? (2.) What was he result of the attempt? L — (1.) How was the Koman republic ended? (2.) What was done by this appointment ? 198 History of Governments. n. — (1.) Octavius was declared consul forever, and, by decree of the senate, his person was rendered sacred from approach. (2.) The titles of Imperator and Augustus were conferred on him, and he was made pcmtifex maximus, or high-priest. (3.) He was granted the authority of censor, and clothed with dictatorial privileges and power. III. — (1.) Octavius endeavored to avoid the appearance of wielding usurped power, by accepting his offices and titles for a term of years, renewed constantly. (2.) At his death, the imperial power passed quietly to his son. IV. — (1.) The senate remained a permanent body in the state, but its influence departed with the popular independence, from which it was originally created. (2.) A secret council of favorites, selected by the emperor, determined all principal matters of public importance. V. — (1.) The office of City Prafed, or lieutenant of the city, was placed under control of the emperor. (2.) Another office was made permanent, having charge of provisions in the city. (3.) ilany new places were created by the emperor, to reward his friends and dependents. VI. — (1.) The militia of the Eoman commonwealth gave place to standing armies, composed of foreigners, hired to fight the emperor's battles. (2.) All military officers were appointed by the emperor. (8.) The soil formerly owned by the state, and all new territories seized from subject nations, were declared crown- lands. n. — (1.) What is said of Octavius ? (2.) What titles and office were given to him? (3.) What authority was yielded to him? ITT. — (1.) What did Octavius endeavor to avoid ? (2.) What took place at his death ? IV. — (1.) What became of the Eoman senate ? (2.) What other body was created? V. — (1.) What office was placed under the emperor's control? (2.) What other office was made permanent ? (3.) What is said of more offices ? VL— (1.) To what did the Roman militia give place ? (2.) Who appointed military officers? (3.) What is said concerning the soil? The Roman Empire. 199 VII. — (1.) Taxes and revenues from the provinces, and spoils of war, were paid into the imperial treasury. (2.) The emperor controlled finances, armies, and most of the civil offices of state. VIII. — (1.) Assemblies of the people continued to be held, but their ancieat power was wholly transferred to the senate. (2.) The senate remained the highest tribunal of state, but was always under control of the emperor. (3.) It became the instrument of tyranny whenever a despotic sovereign was at the head of government. IX. — (1.) The history of Eome, after the fall of her republican system, is a history of arbitrary rule, exercised by magistrates, and abject submission on the part of the people. (2.) The ancient authority of a senate dwindled to mere ceremony. (3.) The em- perors relied on mercenary armies to support their tyranny. (4.) The soldiery of Eome grew powerful enough to raise their generals to the throne or depose them, whenever they pleased. X. — ■(!.) The Eoman state became a military despotism, and the seat of government was removed from Italy to Byzantium, on the Black Sea. (2.) A new division of the empire was made, with four prefectures. (3.) Each prefecture was separated into dioceses, and the dioceses subdivided into provinces. XI. — (1.) An officer called a praetorian prefect was appointed over each prefecture. (2.) Under this officer were placed pro-consuls and presidents, over dioceses and provinces. (3.) These various governors were responsible to the emperor only. XII. — (1.) The emperor constantly created new offices, to favor his high servants or court. (2.) A grand-chamberlain was chief of Vn. — (1.) What became of revenues ? (2.) What did the emperor control? Vm. — (1.) What ia said of assemblies of the people? (2.) What did the senate remain ? (3.) What did it become ? IX (1.) What is the history of imperial Eome ? (2.) What became of the senate's authority ? (S.) On what did the emperors rely? (4.) What is said of the soldiery ? X. — (1.) What afterward took place ? (2.) What new division was made ? (3.) How were the prefectures divided ? XI (1.) What was placed over each prefecture? (2.) Who were his subordinates ? (3.) To whom were these responsible ? XII. — (1) What did the emperor constantly do? (2.) What is said of a 200 History of Governments. the sovereign's household ofiBcers. (3.) A chancellor, or minister of the interior, had charge of tribunals and civil offices within the empire. (4.) A grand-treasnrer, or minister of finance, was in- trusted with the collection and custody of public revenues. (5.) A quaestor, or advocate-general, was the emperor's minister of justice and secretary. (6.) A privy-treasurer was an officer who provided for the sovereign's personal expenses. (1.) Two commanders had charge of the emperor's guards ; and several other military chiefs were known as masters of the infantry, masters of the horse, comites, or counts, and duces, or dukes. (8.) At the head of the army was a general, responsible to the emperor. XIII. — (1.) All inhabited provinces, under imperial dominion, were subject to severe taxation. (2.) Taxes were levied on all who owned land or property in cities, and on articles of commerce, public highways, water-works, and every kind of improvement. XIV. — (1.) Eoman government became corrupted in all de- partments of its administration. (2.) The mass of the people sank into ignorance and hopeless servitude. (3.) Ambitious military leaders arose everywhere, and foreign invaders swarmed upon the rich provinces of Italy, Spain, and the East. (4.) At length, the empire fell asunder, and two absolute sovereigns directed its sway. (5.) One of these reigned at Eome, the other at Constantinople. (6.) The first, or western empire, was soon overrun by the Ostro- goths, and became the empire of Charlemagne. XV. — (1.) The decline of the Eoman empire was a natural con- sequence of despotic authority usurped by government, and slavish grand chamberlain? (3.) What of a chancellor? (4.) What of a grand treasurer? (5.) What of a qusestor ? (6.) What of a privy-treasurer? (7.) What of two commanders ? (S.) Who was at the head of the army ? XIIL — (1.) To what were provinces subject? (2.) What taxes were levied ? XrV. — (1.) What is said of Eoman government? (2.) What of the people? (3.) What of ambitious leaders ? (4.) What took place at length ? (5.) Where did the two emperors fix their courts ? (6.) What befell the first, or western empire ? XV. — (1.) Of what was the decline of the Koman empire the consequence f The Roman Empire. 20 1 submission to it by the people. (2.) The city of Kome became crowded by an impoverished population, dependent upon the pos- sessors of wealth. (3.) Such a population was ready to follow any ambitious leader who flattered and fed its needy members. (4.) It furnished the tools and assistants of the first Csesars, in their at- tempts to overthrow liberty. (5.) The lower classes became sol- diers and guards of royalty, until the employment of foreign mer- cenaries reduced them to military slavery. XVI. — (1.) A proud and luxurious aristocracy, an ignorant and superstitious class of voters, and the jealousies of rival families, were the first disorders of the Roman state. (2.) These were suc- ceeded by treacherous combinations of magistrates and senators, the quarrels of victorious generals, and seizure of all power by a few ambitious chiefs. (3.) The senate became an instrument of tyranny, standing armies were hired to support government, and the people were looked upon as only a little higher than the slaves, who swarmed everywhere. XVII.— (1.) The Eoman state rose and flourished under free institutions and by the temperance of its people. (2.) It tyrannized over the world, and afterward fell into ruins, by reason of despotic government and extremes of wealth and poverty in the com- munity. XVIII. — (1.) The name of a Roman empire continued to exist in the East during several centuries after the overthrow of Rome herself. (2.) The government then became a half civilized despotism, with an irresponsible head. (3.) So wicked grew the tyrants, that one, it is said, ordered a plate of human noses to be brought to his (2.) What is said of the city of Rome ? (3.) What was such a population ready to do ? (4.) What did it furnish ? (5.) What became of the lower classes? XVL — (1.) What were the first disorders of the Roman state? (2.) By what were they succeeded? (3.) What was the consequence ? XVn. — (1.) How did the Roman state flourish ? (2.) What was its subse- quent career ? XVm. — (1.) What continued to exist? (2.) What did the government then become? (3.) What is related of its tyrants ? 9* 202 History of Governments. table, and another tortured his officers, by suspending them, heads downward, oyer slow fires. XIX. — (1.) The show of an imperial system was kept up by eastern emperors till the descendants of Arabian races succeeded in overrunning all the ancient countries of Syria, Phoenicia, Chaldea, Egypt, Ethiopia, Persia and Greece. (2.) From that period to the present, all those countries have been governed by Mohammedan monarchical systems. (3.) Most of the territory successively ruled by Assyrian, Medean, Persian, Macedonian and Eoman despotism, is now possessed by semi-barbarous nations and wild tribes. XIX . — (1.) To what period was the show of empire kept up ? (2.) What has since been the government of those countries? (3.) What is said of the seats of ancient despotisms ? LIMITED MONARCHIES. CHAPTER I. THE GOTHIC NATIONS. I. — (1.) While the communities of Greece and Eome were grow- ing from small settlements of families to be powerful states, thou- sands of nomad tribes wandered through northern countries of Europe and Asia. (2.) They subsisted in the usual manner of rude people, by the chase, by fishing, or precarious tillage of land. II. — (1.) These wild tribes increased and multiplied by degrees into great armies of people. (2.) The countries which they inhabited were crowded with their numbers. (3.) It became necessary that new abodes should be found, and many thousands, in families and tribes, began to migrate southwardly. III. — (1.) Prom northern Asia multitudes of nomads descended, as emigrants, toward Europe. (2.) They resembled the Tartar tribes that now rove in that region. (3.) These people passed into Europe oyer chains of mountains and desert plains. rV. — (1.) Many multitudes wandered in communities, like Arabs, with herds of cattle. (2.) Others emigrated in rude wagons, and I. — (1.) What is said concerning different communities? (2.) How did these wandering people subsist? n — (1.) What was the progress of these tribes? (2.) What is said of their dwelling-places ? (2.) What became necessary ? m. — (1.) What emigrations took place ? (2.) What did these people re- semble ? (3.) Where did they go ? rV. — (1.) What is said of some multitudes ? (2.) What concerning others? 204 History of Governments. settled wherever they found good lands for pasture or cultivation. (3.) These wandering nations were courageous in spirit, and •accus- tomed to hardships and dangers. V. — (1.) The cause of emigration from northern countries was a desire to better their condition. (2.) They expected to find a more temperate climate, abundance of fruits, and room for all their num- bers, without one tribe or individual interfering with another. (3.) They journeyed under their headmen, as they had been accus- tomed to wander, in their nomadic way of life, during ages. VI. — (1.) The emigrant nations who first approached civilized southern countries, were generally called barbarians. (2.) They ■were considered to be collections of all Asiatic tribes. (3.) At later periods they were distinguished as Germans and Gauls, and as Ostro-Goths and Visi-Goths. (4.) The last two names signified Goths from the east and Goths from the west. (5.) Still later emi- grants became known as Huns, Scandinavians, and Northmen. "VII. — (1.) These various wandering nations moved onward, till they overran all the territories governed by Eoman power. (2.) They found it easy to conquer luxurious cities and towns of Greece and Italy. (3.) After the fall of Eome, they established themselves in the countries now known as Spain, Prance, and Germany. VIII. — (1.) These barbarian immigrations comprised hundreds of tribes distinguished by different names. (2.) Among them were Franks, Bnrgundians, and Lombards, who afterward settled in France and Italy. (3.) Others, called Angles and Saxons, passed (3.) What was the character of these wandering nations ? V. — (1.) What was the cause of emigration? (2.) What did the emigrants expect? (3.) Under whose direction did they proceed? VI. — (1.) What were the emigrant nations called? (2.) What were they considered to be ? (3.) How were they distinguished at later periods ? (4.) What did the last two names signify? (5). How were later barbarians called? Vn (1.) What did the wandering nations do ? (2.) What did they find easy ? (3.) Where did they establish themselves ? Vni. — (1.) What did the immigratiQns comprise ? (2.) What were some of these ? (8.) What is said of others? The Gothic Nations. 205 over to Britain, and the Huns, Pannonians, Allemanni, and Sarma- tians, founded different states of Germany. IX. — (1.) The mode of government most common, among the nations called Ostro-Goths, was that of an elective monarchy. (2.) The chiefs or headmen of various tribes constituted an aris- tocracy. (3.) When the tribes were united under one leader, for a war, or for an emigration, this aristocracy elected a king. X. — (1.) An Ostro-Gothic army, composed of numerous tribes, and their headmen, under a common sovereign, formed a federal combination. (2.) When such an army made a permanent settle- ment, its leading tribe usually gave name to the entire nation. "^ ■ — (1.) The chief men, or leaders of tribes, became lords or landholders of any country that was conquered and settled by an emigrant army. (2.) They selected a king from the chief family of a leading tribe. XII. — (1.) When a sovereign desired to name his successor, it could only be with consent of the leaders of triBes. (2.) When he died without indicating a preference, some member of his family was chosoD, or, if there were none left, a king was taken from another head family. XIII. — (1.) After a Gothic nation settled in new possessions, the king appointed headmen of tribes to be officers of government, with the title of dukes and counts. (2.) Dukes were highest military commanders, and counts were the princfpal civil dignitaries. (3.) A duke was general of a province in which he was placed, and exer- IX. — (1.) What mode of government had the Gothic tribes ? (2.) What constituted an aristocracy ? (3.) What did this aristocracy do on certain occasions ? X. — (1.) What did an Ostro-Gothic army form? (2.) What is said of its settlement 1 ZI. — (1.) Who became lords of a conquered country ? (2.) From what class was the king selected ? Xn. — (1.) How could a king appoint his successor? (2.) What occurred when he did not appoint ? Xm. — (1.) What took place when a Gothic army settled? (2.) What were dukes and counts? (3.) What power was exercised by the Gothic duke? 2o6 History of Governments. cised supreme power, under the orders of his sovereign. (4.) A count was chief judge, with power to appoint and suspend inferior judges, and review all decisions made by them. XIV. — (1.) Counts named subordinate ofBcers, or lieutenants, to preside in their absence over a town or province, with limited powers. (2.) A count could call out the militia or citizens of his district on occasions of importance. XV. — (1.) Ostro-Gothic monarchs exercised absolute sovereignty over their subjects, though their proceedings were influenced by na- tional usages. (2.) The whole body of dukes and counts was sometimes called together, to represent their tribes in council. (3.) All inferior ofBcers were appointed by the sovereign, through his dukes and counts. (4.) The king issued orders to the army, and imposed taxes at his pleasure. CHAPTEE II. NORMANS AND SAXONS. I. — (1.) Inhabitants of northern Europe, who emigrated toward civilized countries after the destruction of Eoman empire, were known as Scandinavians, or Northmen. (2.) They originally wan- dered among Gothic hordes, in those great wildernesses that now compose parts of the Eussian empire. II. — (1.) Scandinavian invaders began to be powerful in Europe while the Pranks were organizing kingdoms in Gaul and Germany. (4.) What authority had a count ? XIV. — (1.) What subordinate officers were named? (2.) What could a count do ? XV.— (1.) What authority had Ostro-Gothio kings ? (2.) What great coun- cil was sometimes called? (3.) How were inferior officers appointed? (4.) What did the king do ? I. — (1.) What were emigrants from northern Europe called? (2.) Where did they originally wander ? n. — (1.) At what period did Scandinavian immigrants become powerful? Normans and Saxons. 207 (2.) These invaders came iu ships, which they had navigated through northern seas. (3.) They ravaged coasts and plundered cities wherever they landed. III. — (1.) The Normans, as those who came in ships were called, took possession of a large portion of Prankish territory. (2.) Their leader became a duke of the conquered district, and it was after- ward called Normandy. (3.) Like other princes of Prance, the dukes of Normandy acknowledged the kings of Prance as sovereigns, but governed their own territories in what manner they pleased. rV. — (1.) Another Scandinavian nation settled near the borders of France, in the German country. (2.) This nation was known under the name of Saxons, and consisted of several combined tribes, each governed by its chief. (3.) Prom these chiefs, or headmen, the people elected their king, in the manner of other Gothic nations. V. — (1.) Saxon kings were considered only as first magistrates, whose authority depended upon their personal ability to control other chiefs. (2.) Saxon laws were made in an assembly of the elders, or wise men, of each tribe. VI. — (1.) The common people of Saxon tribes did not possess the law-making power. (2.) The headmen formed an aristocracy, for purposes of government. (3.) All oificials were appointed by the king from this aristocracy. VII. — (1.) Saxons were divided into three ranks, like other Germanic nations. (2.) The first rank was composed of nobles, who were proprietors of nearly all the lands. (3.) The second class (2.) How did these invaders come? (3.) What did they do? m. — (1.) What did the Normans do ? (2.) What did their leader become ? (3.) What is said concerning dukes of Normandy ? rV. — (1.) Where did another Scandinavian nation settle ? (2.) What is said of this nation ? (3.) How was a Saxon king chosen ? V — (1.) How were Saxon kings regarded? (2.) How were Saxon laws made? VI. — (1.) Who did not possess legislative power? (2.) Who formed an aristocracy ? (3.) What is said of officials ? VI.^1.) How were Saxons divided? (2.) Of whom was the first rank composed? (3.) Of what did the second class of Saxon people consist? 2o8 History ot Governments. coQsisted oifmrnen, comprising soldiers, sailors, merchants, and the professions. (4.) The rest of the people were classed as slaves. (5.) The second rank could be admitted among the first in certain cases. VIII. — (1.) Slaves were deprived of all political or social rights. (2.) They were separated into household servants and bond-slaves, or serfs. (3.) Some orders of population in Eussia, at the pres- ent day, occupy a similar position to that of the ancient Saxon serfs. IX. — (1.) There v?ere several courts of justice and degrees of magistracy known among the Saxons. (2.) Judges were always selected from the proprietors of land. X. — (1.) Saxons migrated from their settlements in Germany, and took possession of the British Islands. (2.) There they mingled with tribes who were known as Britons and Angles, and established a number of small separate kingdoms. CHAPTER III. THE PRANKISH OK FRENCH MONARCHY. I. — (1,) When later barbarian immigrations pressed down toward Italy and Greece, they invaded tribes and communities that were settled in the path of their migration. (2.) Many of these tribes joined their numbers, under the name of Franks, or fnemm, and marched upon the Eoman provinces in Gaul. (4.) How were the remainder classed? (5.) What is said of the second rank ? Vni. — (1.) What was the condition of slaves? (2.) How were they sepa- rated? (3.) What persons at the present day resemble ancient Saxon elavea in condition ? IX. — (1.) What is said concerning courts of justice ? (2.) What class furnished magistrates ? X.— (1.) What new possessions did Saxons gain? (2.) What did they do in the British Islands ? I. — (1.) What is said of later barbarian invasions ? (2.) What did many if these tribes do ? The Fraukish or French Monarchy. 2og II. — (1.) The Prankish tribes were democratic ia their separate organization. (2.) They elected their kings by Totes of all the people, given through their headmen. (3.) When they took pos- session of Gaul, the headmen received grants of land from the mon- arch, and were made his chief officers and couacillors. III. — (1.) Frankisli kings acknowledged the right of their great officers to a Toice in all matters of war and governmeot. (2.) The great officers met with their people in the camp, or public assembly, and deliberated on public business. IV. — (1.) Frankish kings had no power to make laws, and could only be judges in certaiu cases. (2.) The people, in general assem- bly, once a year, passed laws to govern the nation and individuals. (3.) In these meetings, the king could cast but a single vote, like a common soldier. (4.) In time of actual war, the king was abso- lute, as general, but possessed only limited civil authority. v. — (1.) The emigrating Franks were governed by military dis- cipline, but each individual felt himself equal to another in rank. (2.) After their settlement in Gaul, each tribe retained its peculiar laws and customs. (3.) The privilege of meeting in public assem- blies was generally extended to the conquered native inhabitants. (4.) Thus, the founders of the French nation constituted a simple democratic state VI. — (1.) When leaders, and other officers of Frankish tribes, fixed themselves in Gaul, they drove out or destroyed many Gallic n. — (1.) What political character had the Frankish tribes ? (2.) How did they elect their liings? (3.) What occurred when they took possession of Gaul? in — (].) What did Frankish kings acknowledge ? (2.) What did the great officers do ? IV. — (1.) What is said of the kingly power? (2.) How were laws made? (3.) What privilege had the king in those assemblies ? (4.) When was the king most powerful ? V. — (1.) How were the emigrating Franks governed? (2.) What took place after their settlement? (3.) What privilege was extended to others? (4.) What is remarked concerning the Franks ? VI. — (1.) What did the Frankish leaders do, after permanent settlement f 210 History of Governments. chiefs who resisted their arms. (2.) Non-resisting possessors of land were left in occupation, on condition of submitting to the invaders. VII.— (1.) In this way the soil of Gaul remained parcelled out in large tracts among Prankish and Gallic principal men. (2.) Each of these chiefs supported a number of followers on his domain. (3.) Smaller estates were possessed by inferior persons. VIII. — (1.) The insecurity of life which arose from constant warfare caused owners of smaller estates to place themselves under protection of larger proprietors. (2.) A chief so selected, as pro- tector, was obliged to keep a large force of soldiers under his orders. (3.) The. expense of this force was defrayed by contributions of money and provisions, made by the smaller landlords. IX. — (1.) While high officials, such as dukes and counts, were generals and chief judges, the larger landholders acted as inferior judges and subordinate commanders. (2.) In time of danger, the dukes summoned all landed proprietors to assemble their soldiers and servants. (3.) .In seasons of quiet, large land proprietors exer- cised the duties of magistrates, each one settling the disputes of his tenants and retainers. X. — (!•) Large landholders became known as seigneurs, or lords, gentlemen, and esquires. (2.) Seigneurs were highest, under the dukes, counts, and royal family. (3.) Some of them held their lands by grant from the king, and some by favor of the dukes and counts. (4.) Large landholders, or seigneurs, often made small grants of soil to gentlemen and esquires, on certain conditions of service. (5.) The rest of the people cultivated land as tenants or vassals, (2.) How were non-resistants treated ? Vn.— (1.) What is said of the soH of Gaul ? (2.) What did each chief do ? (3.) Who possessed smaller estates? Vm. — (1.) What did insecurity of life cause? (2.) What was a protecting chief obliged to do ? (3.) How was the expense defrayed ? IX. — (1.) Who were magistrates and judges? (2.) What was done in lime of danger ? (3.) What is said about seasons of quiet ? X. — (1.) How did larger landholders become known? (2.) Who were the highest ? (3.) How did they hold their lands ? (4.) What did seigneurs often do? (S.) What is said of tlie rest of the population? The Frankish or French Monarchy. 211 and were obliged to follow their superiors to war, ia consideration of their protection. XI. — (1.) The first regular organization of government and laws among the Franks, was made by their monarch Charlemagne, or Charles the Great. (2.) This king became very powerful, and ex- tended the Prankish dominions throughout Gaul, Italy and the German territory. XII. — (1.) Charlemagne established a general assembly, or coun- cil, to meet twice in every year. (2.) This council was called a parliament, and comprised, firstly, the principal nobles and land- holders of the kingdom ; secondly, the highest order of priests, called bishops and abbots ; and thirdly, twelve representatives of the people at large, from each district governed by a count. (3.) The three classes were divided- into three bodies, or chambers, at their place of meeting. (4.) Large land proprietors constituted a Chamber of Nobles ; religious lords were called the Chamber of Bishops ; delegates of the people formed a Third Estate, or Chamber of the People. XIII. — (1.) Charlemagne provided for civil government in his provinces, in addition to the military command exercised by dukes or generals. (2.) He appointed a number of commissioners, or royal judges, whose duty it was to visit every province once in four months, and, at each visit, hold a court of justice. XIV. — (1.) The commissioners, or royal judges, were commanded to hear the causes of the poor first. (2.) Next, they were to decide in matters concerning the king. (3.) Thirdly, they were to settle questions relating to the clergy. (4.) Fourthly, they were to listen to complaints of the people at large. XI. — (1.) When were the Franks first regularly organized ? (2.) "What is said of Charlemagne ? XII. — (1.) What did Charlemagne establish ? (2.) What is said of this council? (3.) How were the delegates of these three classes divided? (i.) What did each class constitute ? XIH. — (1.) For what did Charlemagne provide ? (2.) What did he ap- point? XIV. — (1.) What was the first duty of royal commissioners ? (2.) What the second? (3 ) Wliat the third? (4.) What the fourth ? 212 History of Governments. XV. — (].) The commissioners summoned a meeting once in every year, of all the bishops, abbots, nobles and deputies of every pro- vince governed by a count. (2.) At these meetings they examined, as chief judges, into all the affairs of a province, and inquired into the conduct of the count and his subordinate magistrates. XVI. — (1.) When the general assembly, or parliament, met twice a year, the royal judges made their report to the king and the three chambers, or estates. (2.) The condition of the whole kingdom was thus made known, and public affairs were kept in constant view of the people. XVII. — (1.) The dukes of Charlemagne's dominions held the largest landed estates, and each duke was a military chief over the province wherein his lands were situated. (2.) When the monarch summoned his dukes to war, they were obliged to call out all the strength of their provinces to perform military dnty. XVIII. — (1.) New territories conquered by the Franks were divided into districts, provinces and townships. (2.) They were generally distributed by the king among his followers, who had done good service. (3.) The original inhabitants were not driven out, but remained in occupation of the soil on certain terms, after- ward known as feudal laws. XIX. — (1.) The democratic character of the Frankish people made them, in a great measure, independent of the king. (2.) They banded in communities of towns and villages, each with its leadin- men or nobles. (3.) The nobles protected the people in occupat' .» of their lands, and the people, in return, supported the nobles. XV (1.) What did the commissioners summon? (2.) What did they do at the meetings ? XVI. — (1.) When was a report made to government? (2.) What was the consequence of this ? XVn. — (1.) What ia said of Charlemagne's dukes? (2.) What was the military duty of dulies? XVm. — (1.) How were conquered territories dirided ? (2.) How were they distributed ? (3.) What became of the original inhabitants ? XIX. — (1.) What is said of the democratic character? (2.) How did they combine ? (3.) What relations existed between nobles and the people ? The Frankish or French Monarchy. 213 XX. — (1.) Iq districts of country where traffic was profitable, merchants established towns and surrounded them with walls. (2.) Some neighboring chief, either a duke, count, or influential noble, was chosen by the citizens as protector, or lord of the town. (3.) The inhabitants paid an annual tax to him for his protection, and he agreed to defend them from aggressions by the king or other chiefs. XXI. — (1.) The citizens of a town conducted their own local affairs. (2.) They chose magistrates from their principal men, and met in public assemblies. (3.) Sometimes a bishop or abbot was seigneur of a city, and taxes or tribute was paid to him, on the same conditions as to a seigneur. XXH. — (1.) The duke of a province was sovereign over all the counts and seigneurs who held lands, or were lords of towns and villages, in his territory. (2.) When he went to war, these seigneurs attended, each bringing men according to his means, beneath his own banner or pennon. XXIII. — (1.) Under early Prankish kings, dukes often warred among themselves, and seized the land of inferior lords from one another. (2.) Afterward, some dukes became nearly as strong as the king himself, in followers, lands and treasures. (3.) Of these were the Dukes of Normandy, Burgundy, Brittany, and other dis- tricts of country, sometimes embracing several provinces in one dukedom. XXI v. — (1.) Dukes, counts, and other officers, were called by such names, at first, only as officers of the king. (2.) Afterward, the titles were allowed to descend from fathers to sons, as marks XX. — (1.) What did merchants do ? (2.) Who was chosen as their protec- tor ? (3.) How did the town people engage with this protector ? XXI. — (1.) How were town affairs conducted? (2.) What did they choose? (3.) What is said of a bishop or abbot? XXII.— (1.) What was a. dulse's authority? (2.) Who followed him to war ? XXIII.— (1.) What did dukes often do ? (2.) What did some dukes become ? (3.) What powerful dukes are mentioned? XXrV. — (!.'> How did the titles dvkes and counts originate ? (2.) What did 214 History ot Governments. of family distinction. (3.) Under these high nobles, there grew np an aristocracy of landholding chiefs, who, when united, could com- pel the king to do whatever they desired. XXV. — (1.) The Prankish nation, after Charlemagne's time, became classified in three divisions, or conditions, of the people. (2.) The first embraced religious and military nobles, called dukes, counts, seigneurs, bishops and abbots. (3.) The second contained merchants, sniall landholders, and inferior clergy, or persons follow- ing trades and professions. (4.) The lowest division comprised all persons called serfs, or vilains. (5.) These last were laborers, bound to the soil, and inferior servants, without rights or privileges. XXVL — (1.) Out of these separations of the people, in the em- pire established by Charlemagne, arose two other modes of political combination. (2.) The first of these became famous as the Feudal System. (3.) The second was afterward known as the League of Free Cities. CHAPTER IV. THE VISIGOTH AND MOORISH MONAECHIEa. I. — (1.) That branch of the barbarian nations called Visi- goths, conquered the Eoman districts of Spain, and established a kingdom. (2.) Their kings were elected by the chiefs, or headmen of tribes. (3.) These chiefs formed an aristocracy, which kept the royal authority in check. they afterward become 1 (3.) What grew up under the Frankish dukes aud counts ? XXV. — (1.) How did the nation become classified? (2.) Who comprised the first division ? (3.) Who composed the second ? (4.) What did the third comprehend? (S.) What was the social and political condition of the last division ? XXVI. — (1.) What arose out of these separations of the people ? (2.) What was the first of these ? (3.) What was the second ? I.— (1.) Wliat is said of the Visigoths ? (2.) What of the kings ? (3.) What did the chiefs form ? The Visigoth and JVJoonsh Monarchies. 215 II. — (1.) The Visigoths, after settlement, adopted and imitated the Eoman laws and customs. (2.) They collected Eoman laws in a code, and prepared commentaries or notes to explain them. III. — (1.) The Visigoths were oppressors of the native inhabi- tants. (2.) They seized two-thirds of their property, and claimed sole ownership of the soil. (3.) The Visigothic possessions in Spain were afterward inraded by the Saracens, or Mohammedan Arabs, called Moors. IV. — (1.) The Moors overran the greater part of Spaii^, and established a Mohammedan empire. (2.) The Gothic Christians were driven to the mountains, where they formed a small monarchy. (3.) The provinces and cities of Spain, under the Moors, were gov- erned by nobles called Emirs, responsible to a sovereign known as a EJialif. (4.) At a later period the Khalifs were replaced by nine independent princes, governing as many provinces. V. — (1.) The remnant of Goths that survived the Moorish con- quest grew up into several nationalities of Spaniards. (2.) Tliey struggled against the Moorish princes during several centuries, and at length expelled them from the country. VI. — (1.) The Spanish descendants of Goths received many chartered privileges from their monarchs. (2.) The people of char- tered towns associated as vecinas, or neighbors, under a written charter called a, fuero. (3.) The Spanish chartered towns, chose their own magistrates, under the name of alcadcs. VII. — (1.) During the middle ages, Spanish laws and customs were modified by feudal usages. (2.) An aristocracy was estab- II.— (1.) What did the Visigoths adopt? (2.) What did they collect ? m. — (1.) What is remarked of the Visigoths ? (2.) What did they do ? (3.) What befell them ? IV.— (1.) What is said of the Moors? (2.) What became of the Goths? (3.) How was Spain governed by the Moors ? (4.) What took place at a later period ? v.— (1.) What is said of the Goths ? (2.) What did they do ? VI. — (1.) What did the Spanish people receive? (2.) How did they asso- ciate? (3.) What privileges had the chartered towns ? VH. — (1.) What occurred during the middle ages? (2.) What was estab- 2i6 History ot Vrovernments. lished, consisting of two ranks. (3.) The wealthy land-possessors were called ricos hombres, or rich men. (4.) The miUtary nobles were known as hidalgos. (5.) Another class was composed of town magistrates and other elected officers. (6.) People who worked the soil, or labored in handicrafts, were considered to be in- ferior, and possessed no voice in local government. lished? (3.) What were wealthy landowners called? (4.) Who were thr hidalgos? (5.) What other class was there? (6.) What ia said of other Ttejsonr,? GOVERNMENTS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. CHAPTER I. THE HOLY ROMAN" EMPIRE OF GERMANT. I. — (1.) The Germans, in earliest periods of history, were known by the general name of barbarian tribes. (2.) They belonged to numerous savage families, that dwelt or roved in the wilder- nesses bordering on Europe and Asia. (3.) From one great stock they branched in several directions, under various leaders and national names. II. — (1.) Each Germanic nation was composed of as many tribes as chose to associate together for war or emigration. (2.) The earliest appearance of Germans in history is under the name of Gauls. (3.) They made settlements on the continent of Europe and the northern islands. III. — (1.) In later times other Asiatic families pressed south- ward upon the first emigrants. (2.) Old and new barbarians be- came mixed, and formed new nationalities and divisions. (3.) They appeared in history as Gauls, Germans, and eastern and western Goths. (4.) Prom these branched out Franks, Lombards, Saxons, L — (l.) How were Germans originally linown? (2.) To what did they belong ? (3.) What did they do ? H. — (1.) How was a Germanic nation composed? (2.) Under what name did they first appear in Europe ? (3.) Where did they settle ? HL— (1.) What took place afterward? (2.) What then occurred? (3.) Under what names did they appear ? (4.) What branches are mentioned ? 10 211 2i8 History of Governments. Normans, Angles, and other nations, which have since given their names to European countries. (5.) The Gauls originally gave name to the country now called France, but were displaced in pos- session and name by the Franks. rV. — (1.) Government, among German clans, was usually in the hands of a military aristocracy, composed of chiefs or headmen of tribes. (2.) These chose a king, as bead of a combination of tribes, and shared authority as his counsellors and governors. V. — (1.) Two general forms of government were in use among German nations. (2.) One of these is represented in the limited monarchy adopted by the Pranks. (3.) The other was a more ab- solute nsoiiarcby, as observed in the Gothic systems. VI. — (1.) After the subjugation of Eome by Goths, the terri- tory of Germany remained in possession of many rude tribes, under distinct names. (2.) Among them were Huns, Pannonians, Sarnia- tians, Sclaves, Avarians, and Helvetians. (3.) From these tribes descended Hungarians, Eussians, Poles, Bohemians, Austrians, and Swiss. VII. — (1.) The various tribes were conquered by generals of Charlemagne. (2.) Districts in which they dwelt were joined to the Frankish or French empire. (3.) After the death of Charle- magne they revolted, under their chiefs' and elected a monarch of their own. (4.) This revolt was the origin of the German empire. VIII. — (1.) The German empire was, at first, a combination of independent nations, each with its sovereign. (2.) They united only (5.) What is said of the Gaula ? IV.— (1.) How were German tribes governed ? (2.) What did the chiefs do ? V. — (1.) How many general forms of government are mentioned? (2.) What did one form represent ? (3.) What was the other form ? VI.— (1.) What is said of Germany? (2.) Name some of these tiibes? (3.) What nations have descended from these tribes ? Vn.— (1.) Who conquered the various tribes? (2.) What became of their territories? (3.) What occurred at Charlemagne's death ? (4.) Of what was this the origin ? Vm. — (1.) What was the German empire at first ? (2.) What was the ob- The Holy Roman Empire of Germany. 219 for purposes of war, and to extend their dominion. (3.) Tiie Ger- man emperors succeeded in obtaining sovereignty over portions of Prance and Italy. (4.) The German Confederacy protected the authority of Eoman Popes, and took the name of Holy Roman Empire. IX. — (1.) The emperors were chosen by votes of the minor monarchs, in a council called the National Diet. (2.) The name of elector became a title to designate one of the chiefs, or sovereigns, who was entitled to vote for an emperor. X. — (1.) The confederation of electoral states continued to be called the Holy Eoman Empire of Germany during several centu- ries. (2.) Its separate princes remained independent of each other, and were sometimes at war on opposite sides. (3.) The principal governments afterward became consolidated under jurisdiction of the Emperor of Austria. XI. — 1. At the death of Charlemagne, most of the nations of France, Italy, Germany, and the English islands, were divided into higher and lower orders of people. (2.) The feudal system began at that period, and continued through several centuries known as the dark ages. ject of their union ? (3.) What was the result? (4.) What did the German Confederacy do ? IX (1.) How were emperors chosen ? (2.) What did the name of elector become ? S.— (1.) What is said of the Confederation? (2.) What of its princes ? (3.) How were the principal governments consolidated? XL — (1.) What divisions took place at the death of Charlemagne ? (2.) What system Xhim. began ? CHAPTER II. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM AND CHIVALRY. I. — (1.) When unciyilized nations became masters of Europe, nearly all the laws of Greece and Eome were replaced by regula- tions founded on barbarian customs. (2.) The conversion of the invading people to Christianity softened their rude manners, but did not teach them the lost knowledge of ancient times. II. — (1.) In many respects, the administration of political affairs amorjg barbarian nations was based on justice. (2.) The custom of meeting in assemblies, of electing chiefs and kings, and transact- ing other public business in common, as among the Pranks, was founded on principles of liberty and popular independence. III. — (1.) When conquering tribes established themselves in rich countries, their kings and chiefs became ambitious to retain authority over the people during peace, as they had exercised it in war. (2.) To effect this, the new monarchs appointed their chief followers to govern, under the names of dukes, counts, and mar- graves, or marquises. IV. — (1.) Dukes, as before mentioned, were made military com- manders over provinces, and were next to the kings in authority. (2.) Sometimes a duke bore the title of viceroy, meaning that he stood in place of the monarch. (3.) Counts were next highest in jurisdiction. (4.) They had authority as magistrates, in peac-e, and were summoned as subordinate leaders, in time of war. I. — (1.) What is said of Grecian and Koman laws ? (2.) What was eflfected by Christianity ? n. — (1.) What is said of barbarian governments ? (2.) What customs are reraarlied upon ? in. — (1.) What occurred when barbarous tribes settled ? (2.) What did the new monarchs do ? IV.— (1.) What is remarked concerning dukes ? (2.) What title did a duke sometimes bear ? (3.) What were counts? (i ) What was their authority 3 220 The Feudal System and Chivalry. 221 V, — (1.) Marquises, or mardiers, were officers who exercised tlie authority of dukes aud counts on the borders, or marches, of the country. (2.) They were representatives of the dukes and the king, in defending the frontiers of a kingdom. (3.) Marquises oc- cupied forts, called castles, generally built by the king and placed in their charge. VI. — (1.) Sometimes an officer of the king received a grant of land on which to build a castle, with the provision that he should keep off all enemies from that part of the frontier. (2.) He thus became a marquis, or lord of the border. (3.) Sometimes a large landholder erected a castle at his own expense. VII. — (1.) "Wherever a castle was held, it was necessary for its lord to keep in pay a requisite number of soldiers to defend it. (2.) People who tilled the soil, or worked at handicraft, settled around each stronghold, for personal security. (3.) The lord of a castle permitted them to establish a village on his lands and to plant in the soil. VIII. — (1.) In return for a noble's protection, as well as the use of his land for dwelling and tillage, those who settled obligated themselves to certain conditions. (2.) They promised to devote a part of their time to cultivating the landlord's fields, and waiting on him in other domestic service. (3.) They agreed to follow him in time of war, and to bring their disputes to him for settlement. IX. — (1.) In course of time, castles were built whenever a pro- prietor of land could control the means and establish a claim to nobility. (2.) In many cases, they were erected by unprincipled V. — (1.) What were the marquises? (2.) Who did they represent? (3.) What did they occupy ? VL — (1.) What did an officer sometimes receive ? (2.) What did he become ? (3.) What did a large landholder sometimes do? Vn. — (1.) What was necessary when a castle was built? (2.) Who settled near it? (3.) What did the lord permit them to do 1 VUL — (1.) How did the people obligate themselves ? (2.) What did they promise ? (3.) To what did they agree ? IZ. — (1.) What took place in course of time ? (2.) What occurred in many cases? 222 Flistory of Governments. adventurers upon rocky eminences, and used as mere dens of robbers. X. — (1.) Sometimes an unscrupulous soldier raised a band of daring comrades and took possession of a castle, driring out its owner. (2.) EstabliJiiing himself with his ruffians, he tyrannized over inhabitants of the neighboring villages, and tillers of the soil. XI. — (1.) The owner of one castle often made war on the pos- sessor of another, and forced him to yield up his stronghold and village. (2.) The heir of one castle's lord often married the heiress of another castle, and the two properties became united. XII. — (1.) In this manner, and by gifts of the monarch or dukes, the lower classes of nobles grew to be more powerful. (2.) The dukes and counts, and other holders of large territories, continued to augment their possessions and privileges by similar means. XIII. — (1.) The members and families of nobility became a great aristocracy of landholders. (2.) They took care of their own advantage, as individuals or a class, without regard to any interests . of the community at large. (3.) On occasions, they found them- selves powerful enough to combine against the king, and force him to yield to their pleasure. XIV. — (1.) The landed nobility became the ruling class in a nation, because monarchs depended on them for the defence of royal authority. (2.) During feudal ages, there was generally one or anothur noble at war with a neighbor, or in rebellion against the monarch, his master. (8.) The king was often forced to call upon friends among the nobles, in order to protect his throne from at- tacks of another portion of the nobility in open arms against him. X. — (1.) What was sometimes done? (2.) How did he conduct himself ? XI. — (1.) What did the owner of a castle often do? (2.) What else took place ? XH. — (1.) What was the result of these things? (2.) What is said of large landholders ? XriL— (1.) What did the nobility become ? (2.) How did they act? (3.) What did they find themselves ? XIV.— (1.) What is said of the landed nobility? (2.) What is said of theii conflicts ? (3.) What was the king often obliged to do ? The Feudal System and Chivalry. 223 XV. — (1.) The nobility exercised authority over all inferior peo- ple, according to their rank and power. (2.) A second or third class noble could be a tyrant within the limits of his own domain, unless some one equal or superior to himself interfered to oppose him. (3.) This was in accordance with the whole Feudal System. XVI. — (1.) By this system, the king was placed at the head of the powerful nobility merely as a sign that they belonged to one nation, and as a leader in warfare. (2.) Whatever power he enjoyed proceeded from the possession of great and commanding personal qualities. (3.) When he could control the nobility by his will, he was an absolute monarch. (4.) Accordingly as nobles were combiued against him or in his favor, so far was his authority des- potic or limited. XVII. — (1.) Similar restrictions governed the power of nobles. (2.) They all pretended to regard the monarch as owner of their lands, and acknowledged themselves bound to his service, in con- sideration thereof. (3.) Every heiress of a noble, who became an orphan, was considered to be under guardianship of the monarch. (4.) He claimed the right to take charge of her income and dispose of her in marriage. XVIII. — (1.) A monarch assumed authority to summon every noble of his kingdom, high or low, to answer for any offence, to take oath of allegiance, perform stipulated service, or pay customary tribute. (2.) A monarch possessed the right to propose laws for the raising of revenue, by tax or otherwise, and to assemble the par- liament to have them acted upon. XIX. — (1.) Superior nobles, such as dukes and other great ZV (1.) What authority did nobles wield? (2.) What is said of inferior nobles ? (3.) With what was this in accordance ? SVI (1.) What was the king's position? (2.) What power could he exer- cise ■? (.3.) When was he absolute ? (4.) How was his authority influenced ? XVIL— (1.) What is said of the power of nobles? (2.) What did they .all pretend? (3.) What is said of an heiress? (4.) What did tfre monarch claim ? SVHX — (1.) What authority did a monarch assume ? (2.) What right did he possess ? XIX. — (1.) What were superior nobles called during feudal ages? 224 History of Governnients. landholders, were called crown-yassals and barons of the kingdom. (2.) The king usually selected his counsellors from among these. (3.) Crown-princes, or brothers and sons of the monarch, were the highest among them. (4.) They usually possessed largs estates, sometimes entire provinces, which were called appanages of the crown. (5.) Some crown-priuces governed principalities or duke- doms, in their right, as vassals of the monarch, and were independ- ent rulers over their own domains. XX.— (1.) Besides dukes, counts, marquises, and other high nobles, there were others, called viscounts, earls, barons, knights and baronets. (2.) There were church dignitaries, or ecclesiastical lords, who held possessions in lands, castles, and even towns. (3.) These were cardinals and bishops of the Roman church, and heads of convents and other religious houses, styled abbots and priors. XXI. — (1.) The people of a town, village, or district, could acknowledge a bishop, or other church dignitary, to be their liege lord, and obligate themselves to do service, to him for use of his lands, or for his protection. (2.) The bishop, on his part, was expected to maintain armed men to defend the people. (3.) He was also expected to secure a proper administration of jastice, as a magistrate. XXII. — (1.) Laws ordained by parliament, or otherwise estab- lished, were seldom observed as rales by nobles on their own domains. (2.) Each seigneur, according to his degree, his position, or the extent of his lands, claimed to be a sovereign over the classes beneath him. (3.) Powerful barons made their own pleasure and will the only laws of their action toward inferiors. (2.) What did the king select from these ? (3.) Who were the highest nobles ? (4.) What did they usually possess? (5.) What is said of some crown-princes? 2X. — (1.) What nobles are enumerated by their titles? (2.) What is said of church dignitaries ? (3.) Who were these dignitaries ? XXI. — (1.) What could the people of a town do ? (2.) What was expected of the bishop ? (3.) For what else was he looked to ? XXH. — (1.) How were parliamentary laws regarded? (2.) What did each seigneur claim ? (3.) What did powerful barons do ? The Feudal System and Chivalry. 225 XXIII. — (1.) A moaarch claim.ed the exclusive privilege of making war and peace, coining money, and exercising other sover- eign authority. (2.) Powerful nobles often assumed such privileges themselves, and raised forces or issued money from their own territories. XXrV.— (1.) The nobility defied their superiors, the kings, at every opportunity. (2.) They oppressed their vassals and robbed the industrious classes. XXV". — (1.) The masses of the people, under feudal usages, were divided into trading and laboring classes. (2.) Merchants were able, in some countries, to combine and build walled cities. (3.) Several of these cities united in a league of commerce and mutual defence. (4.) They thus became formidable tothe nobles, and often assisted the king in his struggles against rebellious vassals. XX. V I. — (1.) Agriculturists and mechanics were in general httle better than slaves. (2.) Laborers who lived on the estates of nobles, as tenants, or vassals, were considered to belong to the land which they cultivated. (3.) A baron was permitted, by feudal law, to condemn one of these vassals to any punishment whatever. (4.) He exercised supreme authority over the persons of his serfs and their families. (5.) He could sell them, with his lands, and they were forbidden to escape from bondage. XXVII. — (1.) Under the feudal system, there was no guaranty, by law, for an individual's life or property. (2.) The weak were always X X 111. — (1.) What did a monarch claim ? (2.) What did powerful nobles often assume ? XXIV.— (1.) What was done by the nobility ? (2.) What wrong did they commit ? XXV. — (1.) How were the people divided? (2.) What were merchants able to do? (3.) What is said of such cities? (4.) What was the effect of their combination ? XXVI. — (1.) What was the condition of farmers and mechanics ? (2.) What is said of tenants or vassals ? (3.) What power had a baron over vassals ? (4.) What authority did he wield? (5.) What was the relation between lords and serfs ? XXVTL — (1.) What security was there for individuals under feudal law? (2.) What was the rule of authority under custom of feudalism? 226 History of Governments. subject, more or less, to the attacks of the strong. (3.) As an ar- bitrary remedy for this condition of insecurity, the institution of Chivalry arose. XXVIII. — (1.) Chivalry was the title bestowed upon a practice which came into vogue during the feudal ages. (2.) This consisted in the establishment of bodies of men under the name of Orders of Knighthood. (3.) Those who devoted themselves to a life of chi- valry were called knights. XXIX. — (1.) Knights were bound by oath to be virtuous, brave, and patient, under hardships. (2.) They were sworn to pro- tect the innocent, redress injuries, and defend the weak, more par- ticularly defenceless women. (3.) Many knights were accustomed to wander from land to land, and were known as knights-errants. XXX. — (1.) Admission to knighthood was esteemed to be a great honor. (2.) There were religious orders of knights, bound very strictly by their vows. (3.) The institution of knighthood was of great use in softening the ferocity of war, and preserving respect for the female sex. (4.) It did not effect much for the oppressed people, but was usually manifested in romantic devotion to honor between noble or " high-born " individuals. (5.) It became cor- rupted afterward to a mere distinction of rank. XXXI. — (1.) Monarchs, in feudal times, discovered their dignity to be decreasing, as the higher class became stronger. (2.) They endeavored to check the power of nobles by encouraging the third estate, or class of the people. (3.) They granted merchants and other citizens the privilege to choose their own magistrates in cities wliich they occupied. (4.) They established laws, ordaining that (3 ) What arbitrary remedy arose from this state of things ? ZXVm.— (1.) What is said of chivalry ? (2.) Of what did this practice consist? (3.) What were members of such bodies called? ZXIX. — (1.) What is said of knights ? (2.) To what were tbey sworn ? (3.) Who were the knights-errant ? XXX. — (1.) How was knighthood regarded ? (2.) What is said of religious knights? (3.) What is said of knighthood ? (4.) What did it not effect? (5.) What was the end of knighthood? XXXI. — (1.) What did monarchs discover? (2.) What did they eodeavor to do? (3.1 How did they proceed to do this ? (4.) What laws did they sane- The Feudal System and Chivalry. 227 serfs who might escape from the estates of their lords, and live in cue of the free cities for a year, should become freemen, and be no longer liable to service. (5.) Courts of law on estates were also abolished, by degrees, and Ising's or parliament's decrees were de- clared laws of the land. XXXII. — (1.) The most serious checl;; given to the feudal sys- tem was by the establishment of armies under control of the sove- reign. (2.) With soldiers to execute their authority, the monarchs were able to punish their rebellious barons. (3.) The money neces- sary to support armies was contributed by merchants and working classes, in taxes paid to the royal officers. (4.) Armies were re- cruited from the people at large, and officered by the king. (5.) The industry and commercial wealth of the people were thus made to balance the landed property of the nobility. XXXIII. — (1.) The increase of wealth and general prosperity of communities, protected in trade and labor, enabled tbem to assist the monarchs who encouraged them. (2.) The union of citizens iu free towns, and the foundation of commercial or Industrial leagues, enabled the middle classes to exert their first influence on govern- ment. tion ? (6.) What other changes were effected V XXXn. — (1.) What -was the moat serious check given to feudal customs? (2.) What were monarchs able to do with such armies ? ( 8.) Who furnished means to support the king's soldiers? (4.) How were the armies formed? (5.) What balance of interests was thus brought about ? XyXTTT. — (1.) What was the consequence of commercial prosperity ? ('i.) What did combinations enable citizens to do ? CHAPTER III. ORIGIN or SLAVERY. 1. — (1.) The custom of enslaying individuals originated in two motives. (2.) The first was a merciful desire to save life ; the second, to obtain victims for sacrificial purposes. (3.) Love of gain afterward modified the practice, and rendered it common among ancient nations. II. — (1.) The earliest conflicts between savage tribes were cruel and sangainary. (2.) When numbers constituted the main strength of a war party, it was the object of combatants to kill as many foes as they could. (3.) In this way, a whole tribe was often extermi- nated by enemies. III. — (1.) A community that depended on the products of hunt- ing, for subsistence, could not support captives in a condition of servitude. (2.) They made prisoners in battle only for the pur- pose of inflicting tortures upon them, or devoting them as sacrifices to the gods of their worship. IV. — (1.) Some ferocious or needy tribes were cannibals, and presei'ved their prisoners for food. (2.) Others permitted a cap- tive to join their ranks, when some family of their number desired to adopt the stranger, with his own consent, as a member. v. — (1.) When mankind became numerous in nations, the prac- tice of killing enemies after a battle, was generally abandoned, except in cases of revenge or punishment. (2.) Prisoners were I. — (1.) How did slavery originate? (2.) What were these motives? (3.) How was the practice modified ? n. — (1.) What is said of savage war? (2.) What was an object with com- batants? (3.) What was often the consequence? in. — (1.) What is said concerning a community of hunters? (2.) Why did they make prisoners ? IV. — (1.) What is remarked of some tribes ! (2.) What of others? V. — (1.) When was the practice of killing enemies abandoned ? (2.) What 223 Origin of Slavery. 22g spared and held for ransom by their captors. (3.) By ransom was meant the privilege of redeeming a captive for a certain price in weapons, cattle, or other valuables, paid by his coantrymen or kindred. VI. — -(1.) The equivalent demanded for liberating a captive was more or less, according to the person's rank or importance among his countrymen. (2.) This equivalent was generally required to be paid within a stated time. VII. — (1.) If a prisoner's tribe or family did not pay ransom, the captive was transferred for the price to any other person who required service done, either among the captors or strangers. (2.) Unransomed captives became subject to the pleasure of purchasers, and slavery was thus established among early nations. (3.) The practice extended in proportion as their hunting life was exchanged for agricultural or pastoral pursuits, because the labor of servants grew valuable in the same degree. VIII. — (1.) When communities were formed, dwellings built, and fields cultivated, settlers began to exchange the products of agricul- ture for other commodities possessed by wandering tribes. (2.) They sold corn, wine, oil, weapons and ornaments, and received in return the skins of beasts, ivory and ornaments. (3.) When wan- dering traders saw that servants were in demand, they bought prisoners taken in battle, and bartered them for whatever goods the settlers had to sell. IX. — (1.) Traffic in slaves thus became a regular branch of commerce. (2.) Some of the wandering Arabian tribes devoted themselves entirely to the business of buying and selling men, women and children. (8.) The Midianite merchants who purchased Joseph, other course was adopted ? (3.) What was understood by ransom? VI. — (1.) What was the amount required for ransom? (2.) When was it paid? Vn. — (1.) What was done when ransom was not paid? (2.> What was the result of this? (3.) How did the practice extend? VliX. — (1.) How did traffic or commerce begin to grow? (2.) What ex- changes were made? (3.) What is said of servants ? IX. — (1.) What did traffic in slaves become ? (2 ) What is said of some Arabian tribes? (3.) What Scripture incident of slavery is mentioned? 230 History of Governments. as related io Scripture, belonged to one of these roving commumties. (4.) Slave-makiug and slave-trading were considered proper to com- mercial intercourse between both barbarous and civilized nations. X. — (1.) The hardships and sufferings of slavery in old tinjes were greater or less according to the disposition of masters, or the regulations of society and government concerning slave-holding. (2.) Among Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians and other nations, slaves were deprived of all rights and privileges, and made entirely subject to those who owned them. (3.) Among Hebrews, the condition of slaves was improved by law, and they were restored to liberty at certain festival seasons. XI. — (1.) During the first wars of the Roman commonwealth, it was usual to make captive all the inhabitants of a captured city, and sell them like cattle, at public auction. (2.) In after years, when Roman armies conquered whole nations, the prisoners taken in battle were usually enslaved, and the rest allowed to escape. (3.) Sometimes thousands were reserved to fight one another, as gladiators, in the Roman theatres. (4.) Gladiators were generally taken from among Thracians, Dacians and other rude tribes. (5.) They were trained in schools, to fight with different weapons, for public amusement on holidays. XII. — (1.) Military conquerors, in early times, were accustomed to reduce entire nations to slavery. (2.) Kings of Syria, Persia and Egypt carried the Hebrew nation into foreign captivity on several occasions. (3.) Titus, who destroyed Jerusalem with a Roman army, made slaves of one hundred thousand of the Inhabi- tants. (4.) In the wars of Julias Caesar, a million captives were taken from their homes and sold into slavery. (4.) How were slave-making and slave-dealing regarded ? X — (1.) What is remarked of ancient slavery? (2.) What nations oppressed slaves most? (.3.) What nation had laws to improve their condition? XI. — (1.) What was the custom of early Romans ? (2.) What was their practice afterward ? (3.) What is s.aid of gladiators ? (4.) From what natitns were gladiators usually taken? (5.) How were they trained? Xn. — (1.) What were military conquerors accustomed to do? (2.) What uid early kings do ? (3.) Wliat was done by Titus ? (4.) What is said of Csesar'a wars? Origin of Slavery. 231 XIII. — (1.) During the feudal ages, captives taken in war were usually permitted to redeem themselves by paying ransom. (2.) Cap- tains and soldiers who made prisoners in battle were allowed to claim them as prizes, to be redeemed for stipulated suras. (3.) Kings, nobles, kuights, and other captives taken, were held at a price according to personal rank or wealth. XIV. — (1.) During modern centuries, barbarous nations, dwell- ing on the coast of Africa, engaged in the business of making pri- soners for the purpose of selling them into slavery. (2.) They built cities on the Mediterranean, and sailed out in ships, under the name of Tunisians, Tripolitans and Algerines, or Barbary pirates. (3.) They were Mohammedans, and captured merchant ships, or made descents on settlements, for the purpose of enslaving Christian crews and inhabitants. (4.) Their prisoners, when not ransomed by friends, were sold to perpetual slavery. (5.) This piratical slave trade continued to be common during several centuries, and has been but lately abandoned by Barbary nations. XV, — (1.) Savage tribes and individual natives of Africa were enslaved by ancient nations as fur back as human record extends. (2.) Egyptian and Ethiopian ruling classes made slaves of inferior Iribes, whether white or black. (3.) Black slaves were usually de- voted to household service. XVI. — (1.) When Spanish conquerors gained possession of Mexico, Peru, and other American countries, they forced the aborigi- nal inhabitants to work mines, build houses, make roads, and perform all hard labor and menial service. (2.) They treated these native in- Xm. — (1.) How were captives treated during feudal ages ? (2.) How were tliey claimed ? {.S.) What is said of their raosoms ? XTV.— (1.) What has taken place during modern centuries? (2.) What did the Barbary pirates do ? (3) What purpose had they ? (4.) What became of such prisoners ? (5.) What is remarked about this trade? XV. — (1.) What is said of African slaves ? (2.) What was the custom anjong Egyptians and Ethiopians? (3.) To what service were black slaves devoted? XVI. — (1.) What is said of Spanish conquerors? (2.) How did they treat the natives ? 232 History of Governments. habitants with such great cruelty, that sympathy became enlisted in their behalf. XVII.— (1.) It was feared that the Indians could not be ciril- ized or taught Christianity, unless they received better treatment from the Spaniards. (2.) The government of Spain encouraged its subjects to transport black slaves from Africa to America, in order to better the condition of native Indians. (3.) It was argued that both blacks and Indians would receive benefit, the first in being re- lieved from slavery, and the second by receiving instruction in the Christian religion from their Spanish masters. XVIII. — (1.) The African slave trade of modern times was thus established by law, and continued to flourish for a long while. (2.) Thousands of vessels were sent to the coasts of Africa, to obtain cargoes of slaves. (3.) Black tribes of that country made war on each other, for the sole purpose of taking prisoners, to sell to white traders. (4.) The greater number of slaves so bought were brought to America, and sold to the settlers. XIX. — (1.) During the present century, laws have been passed to abolish the traffic in slaves, among civilized nations. (2.) Black slaves are still held in various parts of the American continent. (3.) In the empire of Brazil, and some Spanish islands, blacks and their descendants are kept as slaves to perform agricultural and other labors. (4.) In several southern States of the American Union, slaves are still held as farmers, mechanics, and household servants. XX. — (1.) In African and Asiatic communities, at the present time, the ancient customs of slaveholding and slave traffic are in XVn. — (1.) What was feared? (2.) What did the government of Spain do ? (3.) What was an argument for the enslaving of Africans ? XVni. — (1.) What is said of the African slave trade ? (2.) What was the consequence? (3.) What did black slaves do? (4.) What became of the purchased slaves ? XIX.— (1.) What laws have been passed during the present century? (2.) Where are blacks held as slaves ? (3.) What is said of Brazil ? (4.) Of other American states ? XX. — (1.) In what other countries are slavery and the slave trade common ? Origin of Slavery. 233 force. (2.) White and black slaves are sold publicly in the market places of Turkey, Persia, and other countries. XXI. — (1.) During the feudal ages, slavery in Europe was known as serfdora, which was the condition of the lowest classes. (2.) These people were regarded as belonging to the lands they culti- vated, in the same way as cattle or other stock belong to farms. (3.) They were transferred from master to master, as the ownership of soil passed from lord to lord. (4.) They were called serfs, vas- sals, and thralls, or villains, in different countries. XXII. — (1.) The practice of holding poorer classes of laboring people in this condition exists at the present day in several countries of Europe. (2.) Villains, or serfs, constitute the agricultural and laboring population of the Eussian empire. (3.) Some estates of Russian nobles contain many thousand serfs. (4.) The emperor's serfs are numbered by millions. (5.) An effort is now in progress to release these multitudes from serfdom, and allow them to become free owners of small farms. (6.) Such an effort has been partially successful already, in parts of Poland and Hungary. XXIII. — (1.) In Mexico, and other South American states, a form of slavery exists called peonage. (2.) It is a species of serfdom to which persons are reduced by law, when unable to satisfy the demands of creditors. (3.) Condemued debtors are forced to labor, as peons, for their master's benefit. (4.) They must satisfy his claims for the original debt, and for the expense of their subsistence while laboring. (5.) Their families and children are also held, to satisfy claims for expense in their support. (2.) What is said of wliite and black slaves ? XXI. — (1.) What is said of serfdora ? (2.) How were feudal slaves regarded ? (3.) How were they transferred ? (4.) Under what names were they known ? XXII (1.) What is said of serfdom in present days? (2.) Where .are serfs numerous? (3.) What do some'Russiau estates contain? (4.) What 13 paid of the emperor's serfs? (5). What effort is now in progress ? (6.) Where has it been partially successful ? XXIII. — (1.) What is said o{ peonage? (2.) What is this form of slavery? (3.) What are Mexican debtors obhged to do ? (4.) What must they satisfy ? (6.) What is said concerning their families ? MODERN MONARCHIES. CHAPTEE I. PERSIAN AND T U E K I S H DESPOTISMS. I. — (1.) The ancient Persian despotism is now represented by an absolute monarch, called a Shah. (2.) He is assisted by a lieutenant, or grand vizier, and a chief treasurer, with subordinate governorK and other officials. II. — (1.) The grand vizier is general of the Persian army and minister of foreign affairs. (2.) The chief treasurer administers internal affairs of the kingdom, collecting revenue and selecting civil officers. (3.) Both ministers are appointed by the shah, and may be taken from the lowest class of people. (4.) They are slaves to the will of their master, and tyrants over all others. III. — (1.) Under the chief ministers a.Ye the sardars, or gover- nors of provinces. (2.) These are usually members of the shah's family, or high nobles. (3.) Each appoints a lieutenant, or hakim, and other inferior officers. rV. — (1.) There are two kinds of tribunals known in the Persian L — (1.) How is ancient Persian despotism now represented ? (2.) How ia the shall assisted ? II. — (1.) What is the grand vizier? (2.) What does the chief treasurer do? (3.) What is said of these ministers ? (4.) What is their position? m. — (1.) What officers are under the ministers ? (2.) What are the sar- dars? (3.) What does each appoint? IV. — (1 ) What is said of Persian tribunals? 234 Persian and Turkish Despotisms. 235 judiciary. (2.) One of these decides all questions, according to the Koran, or Mohammedan scriptures. (3.) In the other, judgments are governed by the ancient Persian laws and traditional customs (4.) The population of Persia is made up of various races, compris ing numerous wandering tribes, who pay annual tribute. V. — (1.) The people of Persia are divided into military tribes and dwellers in cities. (2.) The former are under chiefs, whose sons are often kept in the capital as hostages for the fidelity of their fathers. (3.) These tribes mainly continue to dwell in tents, in the manner of ancient Persian clans. (4.) The inhabitants of towns are more or less in a servile condition, according to their subordination under the royal princes. VI. — (1.) The ancient patriarchal communities of Arabians were combined, as a powerful nation, under Mahomet and his successors. (2.) Mahomet founded a monarchy called the Caliphate, guided by the precepts of the Koran, or religious revelation, which he com- municated. VII. — (1.) Themonarchs, called Caliphs, who succeeded Mahomet, ruled as hereditary despots, restrained only by regulations of the Koran. (2.) They conquered Persia, Syria, and several other countries, and their armies became famous, under the name of Sara- cens. (3.) At the time when Charlemagne reigned over France, the Saracens were very powerful, under a caliph named Haroun Alraschid. Vni. — (1.) Saracen armies carried the religion of Mahomet ■wheresoever they conquered. (2.) They invaded Spain, under the name of Moors, and held possession of a great portion of that coun- (2.) How are decision.s made by one ? (3.) How by the other? (4.) What ia the character of the Persian population? V. — (1.) How are tlie Persian people divided? (2.) What is said of the former ? (3.) What is their mode of life ? (4.) What is said of the inhabi- tants of towns ? VI. — (1.) What is said of Arabian communities? (2.) What did Mahomet found ? Vn. — (1.) What power had the caliphs? (2.) What ia said of their con- quests? (3.) At what period were Saracens very powerful? Vm. — (1.) What did Saracen armies do ? (2.) What country did they in- 236 History of Governments. try till near the sixteenth ceutury. (3.) They also subjugated the people of India and other ancient nations. IX. — (1.) Under the system of caliphs, Saracens were ruled despotically by one sovereign and the Mohammedan law. (2.) After- ward, generals of armies and governors of conquered provinces set up as independent rulers. (3.) Mohammedan monarchies were thus organized in Egypt, in Spain, and on the coast of Africa. X. — (1.) When the Saracen empire became divided, it was in- vaded by several barbarous tribes called Turkomans, or Turks, from the deserts of northern Asia. (2.) The Turks were under leader- ship of a chief named Othman. (3.) This chief united the tribes in a nation, adopted the Mohammedan religion, and took the name of Sultan. (4.) After his death, the nation, composed of Arabians, Saracens and Turkomans, came to be known as Ottomans, or Turks. (5.) They extended their power on every side, and took possession of Constantinople, overthrowing the Eoman empire of the East. XI. — (1.) The Turkish government is administered now, as formerly, under the guidance of the religious code given by Ma- homet in his Koran. (2.) It extends over countries once occupied by Carthaginians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Phcenicians, Hebrew.s, Arabians, and Syrians. XII.— (1.) The Sultan of Turkey possesses unlimited authority over the persons and property of his subjects. (2.) 'He is regarded as head of the national religion, and his government is known as the Sublime Porte. (3.) He is assisted in the administration of public affairs by tlie chief Mufti, or high-priest, and the Grand Vizier, or lieutenant of the empire, with a council of ministers. vade ? (a.) What nations did tliey subjugate ? IX. — (1.) llovr were Saracens ruled? (2.) What afterward took place? (3.) What were organized ? S. — (I.) By what tribes were the Saracens overrun ? (2.) Who was leader of the Turks? (8.) What did this chief do? (4.) What occurred after his death? (5.) Where was Turkish dominion extended? XI. — (1.) How is the Turkish government administered? (2.) Over what countries does it extend ? XII. — (1.) What authority has the sultan? ^2.) How is he rei'ardedf (3.) By what officers is he assisted? Persian and Turkish Despotisms. 237 XIII. — (1.) The chief mufti is styled Sheik-ul-Islam, or Priest of Mohaminedaaism. (2.) He is head of the supreme court of the empire, and chief of magistrates. (3.) The judicial officers, or magistrates, are persons learned in laws of the Koran, which direct both religious and social matters. (4.) These magistrates are called mollahs, cadis, imaums and ulemas. XrV. — (1.) The grand vizier is chief of administrative affairs, whether foreign or domestic. (2.) Under hira are his deputies and ministers of foreign affairs, of trade, of police, of agriculture, of religious institutions, of the home department, of the revenue, and of public worliS. (3.) Each of these ministers is appointed by the sultan, and responsible with his life for faithfulness. (4.) Other subordinates of the grand vizier talse charge of special matters of administration. XV". — (1.) A chief of military affairs, acting under the sultan, through the grand vizier, is called the Seraskier, or minister of war. (2.) He has authority over armies and their ofQcers, and is responsible for their conduct. (8.) A minister of marine, called the Capudan-Pacha, or high admiral, superintends the naval forces. XVI. — (1.) All ministers of departments unite with the vizier and Shiek-ul-Islam to form the sultan's council. (2.) This council is called the Divan, or ministry of state, but its members are controlled by the sultan, as they, in turn, control their subordinates. XVII. — (1.) Some large provinces of Turkey are under govern- ment of officers appointed directly by the sultan. (2.) Others preserve their own laws and chiefs, by paying an annual tribute to Xm. — (1.) What is the chief mufti styled? (2.) What is his position? (3.) Who are judicial officers? (4.) What are they called? XIV. — (1.) What is the grand vizier? (2.) What officers are under him? (3 ) What is said of these ministers? (4.) What do other subordinates do ? XV.— (1.) What is the seraskier? (2.) What is his authority ? (3.) What is the Capudan-Paoha ? XVI. — (1.) How is the sultan's council composed? (2.) What is said of this council y XVII. — (1.) How are large Turkish provinces governed ? (2.) What do 238 History of Governments. the Sublime Porte. (3.) Others are possessed by wild tribes, under military chiefs, who assist the Turkish goTerament iu time of war. (4.) Others are inhabited by pastoral communities, with patriarchal forms of authority. CHAPTER II. CHINESE PATEIARCHAL DESPOTISM. I. — (1.) The Chinese nation comprises an immense collection of families and tribes blended together as a people. (2.) The two na- tional classes are the original Chinese inhabitants, and their later conquerors, the Tartars. (3.) The sovereigns proceed, by hereditary succession, from the chief Tartar family. II. — (1.) The patriarchal system of government, as practised in wandering savage tribes, expanded, in China, with the growth of population. (2.) Authority is measured throughout all the empire by regular steps, descending from the sovereign downward. III. — (1.) There is no hereditary aristocracy in China, except the family of the sovereign. (2.) Whatever ofiScers are appointed from time to time, to administer the laws, constitute an aristocracy while they hold their offices. (3.) These officers are taken, according to personal merit, from the people at large. IV. — (1.) The most respectable people in China are those who have studied and become educated in all matters known among them. (2.) Accordingly as a youth or man gives evidence of others preserve? (3.) How are other provinces possessed? (4.) How are others inhabited? I. — (1.) What docs the Chinese nation comprise ? (2.) What are the na- tional classes ? (3.) What family furnishes the sovereigns ? IL^l.) What is said of the patriarchal system ? (2.) How is authority arranged ? in.— (1.) What is said regarding aristocracy? (2.) Who constitute a tem. porary aristocracy? (3.) AVhence are these officers taken? IV. — (1.) Who are the most respectable Chinese ? (2.) How is an indivi- dual reprarded in China ? Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 239 talent and learning, he is looked upon as VYorthy of advancement and consideration. v. — (1.) The lowest class of Chinese population are the slaves, who have no rights or privileges. (2.) Slaves are persons who have been condemned to servitude during life, for oifences, and captives or rebels, bought and sold. (3.) The poorest and uneducated people of the empire, who pay their taxes by public service, are in the con- dition of slaves. VI. — (1.) The domestic servants of Chinese families are gene- rally slaves. (2.) Masters are permitted to have absolute power over them. VII. — (1.) The Chinese nation is divided socially into four ranks or orders. (2.) In the first place is the learned, or literary class ; next, the cultivators, or agricultural population ; thirdly, the arti- ficers, or manufacturing class ; and fourthly, the merchants. VIII. — (1.) The only marked superiority is that held by the learned order, from whose members officers of government and ma- gistrates are usually appointed. (2.) There is an exclusive class of courtiers, who claim hereditary distinction, and are called " the ancient tribe." (3.) They have no authority except in matters of ceremonial about the royal palaces. IX. — (1.) All appointments to office in China emanate from the supreme government. (2.) Office-holders comprise governors, ma- gistrates, and all other officials. (3.) They arc selected on account of superior learning or talent, without regard to birth or property. X. — (1.) The supreme head of the Chinese state is the emperor, V (1.) Who constitute the lowest class of Chinese? (2.) What are the slaves ? (3.) What is said of the poorest people ? VI. — (1.) What are Chinese servants? (2.) What power have masters? Vn. — (1.) How is the Chinese nation socially divided? (2.) What arc these ranks ? Vm. — (1.) Which is the superior order? (2.) What exclusive class is men- tioned ? (3.) What authority have they ? IX. — (1.) Whence do all appointments emanate ? (2.) What do office-hold- ers comprise ? (3.) On what considerations are they selected ? X. — (1.) Who is supreme head or patriarch of the Chinese state ? 240 History of Governments. or patriarchal despot. (2.) He is worsliipped with divine honors, and considered to be present at the same time in every part of his dominions. (3.) The number of his subjects is estimated to be more than three hundred millions of souls. XI. — (1.) The emperor is supposed to worship heaven, and the people pay worship to the emperor, as high-priest of their nation. (2.) No person whatever can pass the gate of a royal palace on horseback, or in a vehicle. (3.) Even' the vacant throne, or a screen before it, is regarded as an object of worship. (4.) The par- ticular walks used by the sovereign, in his palace grounds, must not be trodden over by any other foot. XII. — (1.) The emperor possesses power to name his successor in government. (2.) His seal on all documents makes them sacred, and his dispatches are received by the most distant governors with :npense and prostration of the body. Xm. — (1.) All proclamations, orders, and laws, after being issued by the emperor, are published in an ofBcial paper, called the " Pekin Gazette." (2.) The sovereign's letters, and all reports from subordinate officials, appear in this gazette. XIV. — (1.) As high-priest of the nation, the emperor and those appointed by him for the purpose, perform all religious rites of prayer and sacrifice. (2.) This is a distinguishing feature of the patriarchal mode of government from earliest times. (3.) All religious temples and priests in China are supported by the inhabit- ants of districts to which they belong. (2.) What is his station ? ( 3.) What is the number of his subjects ? XI. — (1.) What is said of the emperor's sacred character ? (2.) What pecu- liar respect is paid to him? (3.) What other marks of veneration are men- tioned? (4.) What is said of his garden wallts? Xn. — (1.) How is tlie succession of emperors regulated? (2.) What is said of the emperor's seal and writings? xm. — (1.) How are laws made known in China ? (2.) What other docu- ments appear in this gazette ? XIV. — (1.) Who perform religious ceremonies in China? (2.) What is re- marked concerning this practice ? (3.) How are temples and priests sustained in China ? Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 241 XV. — (1.) The emperor appoints, as assistants, a ministry, called the Interior Council Chamber. (2.) His chief counsellors are four in number — two Tartars and two Chinese. (3.) The Tartars are superior, because the empefsr himself belongs to a Tartar family or dynasty. XVI. — (1.) Below the ministers are a number of assessors, or treasurers of the empire, who constitute with them a council of state. (2.) Principal ministers are selected by the emperor, from a great national institution of learning, called the Imperial College of the Han-lin. XVII. — (1.) The emperor has a secret council, formed of special ministers, selected on important occasions. (2.) Prom this body he appoints commissioners and envoys, to settle difficulties in the empire, or with other nations. XVIII. — (1.) Under the ministers are boards, or departments, having care of various details of public business. (2.) These boards are known as the Loo-poo, or Six Boards. XIX. — (1.) The Loo-poo comprise, first, a Board of Appoint- ments, which oversees the conduct of all civil offices ; secondly, a Board of Eevenue, regulating all money matters ; third, a Board of Eites and Ceremonies ; fourth, a Military Board ; fifth, a Supreme Court of Police matters ; sixth, a Board of Public Works. XX. — (1.) Another department of government is called the office for foreign affairs. (2.) The heads of this department are always Tartars. (3.) It takes charge of treaties and government business with other nations. XV. — (1.) Who are assistants of the emperor in governmeat? (2.) What is said of his cliief counsellors ? (3.) Who are superior ? XVI (1.) What subordinates are mentioned ? (2.) Whence are principal ministers taken ? XVn. — (1.) What other assistants has the emperor? (2.) What does he appoint from the secret council ? XVm. — (1.) What bodies are under the ministers? (2.) What are these boards called? XIX. — (1.) What are the different boards comprised in the Loo-poo ? XX. — (1.) What is another department called? (2.) What are the heads of this department? (3.) Of what has this department charge ? 11 242 History of Governments. XXI. — (1.) There is a department or office called the Board of Censors or Examiners. (2.) About fifty principal officers compose this board. (3.) These censors are sent to different parts of the empire, to examine into the way public business is conducted, in- spect the people, and make reports to the emperor concerning all they ascertain. (4.) They are privileged to present any advice or remonstrance to the emperor, without danger of losing their lives. XXII. — (1.) Chinese provinces are under charge of special rulers, appointed by the imperial government. (2.) The head officer of a single province is called a governor. (3.) That of two or more provinces is known as a general-governor, or viceroy. XXIII. — ■(!.) In each provincial government, there is a chief judge, who has special charge of criminal matters. (2.) There is also a treasurer, who examines into civil suits, and takes charge of royal revenues in his province. XXIV. — (1.) Separate cities and districts of every province are under supervision of respective magistrates, who rank according to the places they govern. (2.) The total number of civil magistrates in China is estimated to be fourteen thousand. XXV. — (1.) There is an official list called the Eed Book, printed quarterly, by authority. (2.) It contains the name, birthplace, and particulars relating to every office-holder in the empire. (3.) All changes made in office are regulated by this list. XXVI. — (1.) No person is allowed to act as magistrate in the province where he was born or belongs. (2.) Every public officer XXI. — (1.) What other department is mentioned ? (2.) How man}- officers compose it ? (3.) What is the business of these censors ? (4.) What privilege liave they ? yXTT. — (1.) What are provinces under? (2.) What is a cliief provincial officer called? (3.) What title has a ruler of two or more provinces ? XXm. — (1.) What other magistrate is placed in each province ? (2.) What imperial officer is there stationed ? XXIV. — (1.) How are separate cities and districts governed ? (2.) How many civil magistrates are there in China ? XXV.— (1.) What is said of an official list ? (2.) What does the Red Book contain? (3.) What are regulated by this list ? XXVI. — (1.) What restriction regulates magistrates ? (2.) What changes Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 243 is changed periodically, so as to prevent his permanent connection with any inhabitants of the district. (3.) A son, brother, or other near relation, is not allowed to hold office under a corresponding connection. XXVII.- — (1.) Once in three years, the viceroy or governor of every province makes a special report to the Board of Appoint- ments at Pekin. (2.) In this report he mentions every officer under his jurisdiction by name, with remarks on character and con- duct, as furnished by the immediate superior of each man. XXVIII. — (1.) Accordingly as an official is mentioned favor- ably or otherwise, in the governor's report, he may be expected to rise or be degraded so many degrees. (2.) Every magistrate is obliged to state publicly how many steps he has been raised or de- graded while holding office. XXIX. — (1.) Chinese officials are provided witti a regular code of laws fur their guidance. (2.) This code is divided into six clas- sifications, corresponding to the six boards, or central departments of government, called Loo-poo. XXX. — (1.) The first classification relates to the administration of civil offices. (2.) It is comprised in two books, one treating of the system of government, another of the conduct of officers. XXXI. — (1.) The second division of Chinese laws relates to statistics and money matters, and contains seven books. (2.) The first discourses of the enrollment of the people ; the second, of lands and tenements ; the third, of marriage statistics ; the fourth, of are regularly made ? (3.) What persons are not allowed to hold office under each other ? XXVII. — (1.) What is done once la three years? (2.) What does the gov- ernor mention In his report ? XXVni. — (1.) What Is the result of mentioning an ofBclal in his superior's report? .(2.) What is every magistrate obliged to state ? XXIX. — (1.) With what are Chinese officials provided? (2.) How is this code classified ? XXX — (1.) To what does the first classification relate f (2.) What is said of its books ? XXXL— (1.) To what does the second division relate? (2.) Of what do Itj books treat ? 244 History of Governments. public property; the fifth, of duties and customs ; the sixth, of pri- vate property; the seventh, of sales and markets. XXXII. — (1.) The third division of the code is in two books. (2.) The first regards sacred rites ; the second concerns miscella- neous observances. , XXXIII. — (1.) The fourth classification of laws relates to mili- tary matters, in five books. (2.) First, the protection of the em- peror's palace ; second, army regulations ; third, protection of the frontiers ; fourth, horses and cattle of the army ; fifth, public posts and expresses. XXXIV. — (1.) The fifth division of the code occupies eleven books, and is devoted to criminal laws. (2.) It specifies all offences, as treason, robbery, theft, murder, homicide, sacrilege, quarrelling, incendiarism, and other breaches of the law. XXXV. — (1.) The sixth and last classification treats of public works, under supervision of the board at Pekin. (2.) Its two books regulate all matters concerning public buildings, and public roads. XXXVI. — (1.) Patriarchal, or parental, authority is recognized through all ranks of the people. (2.) Fathers have, to some de- gree, the power of life and death over their children. (3.) If they kill them designedly, they are punished by only a year's imprison- ment. (4.) If they kill them after having received a blow from their hands, the law considers it justifiable. XXXVII. — (1.) Chinese modes of punishment for capital crimes SXXII. — (1.) How many books haa the third division ? (2.) Of what do they treat? XXXm (1.) To what does the fourth classification relate ? (2.) What are its five subjects ? XXXrV.— (1.) What is said of the fifth division? (2.) What does it specify ? SXXV.— (1.) Of what does the sixth classification treat? (2.) What do its books regulate ? XXXVI.— (1.) What autliority is universally recognized ? (2.) What power Save fathers? (3.) What is the penalty for killing children? (4.) What is said of killing children as punishment for abusing parents? XXXVn. — (.1.) What is said of capital punishments in the Chinese empire f Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 245 are very severe. (2.) Beating with the bamboo is the most common penalty for all offences not worthy of death. (3.) The penalty of striking, or even cursing, a parent, is death. XXXVIII.^(1.) The vital principle of Chinese government is submission to parental authority and to the written code. (2.) The laws are taught to every child in school and at home. Tnnmr . — (l.) The sacred books of China teach, that from the knowledge of oneself must proceed the proper family government, and from the government of a family must proceed that of a pro- vince or kingdom. XL. — (1.) The emperor is called father of his empire ; a gover- nor is called father of his province ; a mandarin, or city magistrate, is considered father of the city over which he presides. (2.) The father of every family is held to be the responsible ruler of his own household. XU. — (1.) In this manner, the principle of obedience to supe- riors is recognized through all grades of the people. (2.) Children obey and reverence their parents ; the young respect the aged ; the uneducated pay deference to the educated. (3.) All ranks unite in looking up to rulers set over them, and to the emperor as head and father of all. XXiII. — (1.) The people of Chinese communities sometimes hold public meetings for the purpose of addressing their magistrates. (2.) Honors are shown to worthy officials by a public presenta- tion of some testimonial when he retires from office. (2.) "What of minor puaishments ? (3.) What is the legal penalty for abusing a parent ? XXXVm. — (1.) What is the vital principle of Chinese government. (2.) What is said of the laws ? XXXTX (1.) What do Chinese sacred books teach ? XL. — (1.) What is said concerning the title of father? (2.) What is each family father held to be ? XLI. — (I.) AVhat principle is in this manner recognized? (2.) What is said regarding the practice of such obedience ? (3.) In what do all ranks unite ? XLII.— (1.) What popular privileges have the Chinese? (2.) How do thej honor worthy magistrates ? 246 History of Governments. XLiIII. — (1.) Education is strictly enjoined upon all children and youth, and incentives are offered for its acquisition. (2.) A book, called the Book of Sacred Instructions, is read in puVjlic by magistrates, upon days corresponding to the new and full moon. (3.) It contains sixteen discourses, teaching the duties of children to parents, juniors to elders, and the people to their governors. XLIV. — (1.) The penal laws of China are all printed in cheap form, for general circulation. (2.) Every person is expected to become familiar with their operation, and act accordingly. XLV. — (1.) Parents of children who offend against the laws are liable to be held responsible and punished. (2.) They are per- mitted to share in any honors conferred on their sons for the per- formance of meritorious actions. XLVI. — (1.) Every town and village in China has a place of public instruction, and wealthy families employ private teachers for their children. (2.) The chief ground of selection to ofBce, and promotion in rank, is the possession of cultivated talent. XLVII. — (1.) In every city and district there are periodical examinations of students belonging to all classes of society. (2.) The poorest persons, as well as the wealthiest, may present claims for government employment. (3.) This makes every Chinese youth honorably ambitions to distinguish himself by study. SLVIII. — (1.) At the public examinations, students are allowed to display their capacity and attainments. (2.) If government cannot appoint all to official places, it distributes honors, and XLm. — (1.) What 13 said of education in China ? (2.) What book is read in public ? (8.) What does this book contain? XlilV. — (1.) What laws are generally circulated? (2.) What is expected from every person ? XLV.— (1.) What responsibility have parents ? (2.) What distinctions are awarded them ? XLVI.— (.1.) What is said of Chinese schools? (2.) What is the chief ground for selection to office ? XLVII. — (1.) What examinations are made ? (2.) Who may claim to be candidates for official appointments ? (3.) What is the effect of this ? XLV 111. (1.) What are students allowed? (2.) What does the govern- ment do for worthy students ? Chinese Patriarchal Despotism. 247 promises future employment to the meritorious candidates eligible to preferment, either civil or military. XLIX. — (1.) Civil officers in China are treated with greater consideration than military ones. (2.) At public festivals, the former precede the latter. L. — (1.) All the military of the Chinese empire are under super- vision of the military board at Pekin. (2.) This board musters the forces, whilst a board of revenue furnishes funds, and a board of public works provides supplies. LI. — (1.) The emperor's guard is composed of Tartars, in eight divisions, of ten thousand soldiers each. (2.) The rest of the army is made up of Chinese regulars and the militia of provinces, amount- ing in all to about three-quarters of a million of men. (3.) The militia are engaged in other occupations, but receive a small sum per month for their service under arms. XiII. — (1.) The highest military rank in China is that of a Tartar general. (2.) Subordinate officers receive promotion ac- cording to desert, from the lowest grade. (3.) Officers and privates are alike subject to punishment with the bamboo by those set over them, for offences against regulations. IjIII. — (1.) The theory of Chinese government is despotic, through every grade, from the emperor down to the lowest officer. (2.) The people have a saying, that " the emperor is a charioteer — the royal ministers are his hands, officers below them are his reins, laws are the bits, and punishment the lash." (8.) The whole people are in this manner kept in harness and driven by higher authority. XLIX. — (1.) How are civil officers treated ? (2.) How is this shown? L. — (1.) What is said of Chinese military? (2.) What authorities provide for mustering and support of soldiers ? III. — (1.) Of what material is the emperor's guard composed? (2.) What makes up the rest of the army ? (3.) What is said of the militia? LIL — (1.) What is the highest military rank in China ? (2.) What is said of subordinate officers ? (3.) To what are all subordinates subject ? Ijin. — (1.) What is the theory of Chinese government? (2.) What is a popular saying ? (3.) What is remarked concerning this? CHAPTER III. JAPAKESE MILITARY DESPOTISM. I. — (1.) The government of Japan is a despotism, hereditary in the famihes of two sovereigns. (2.) One of the sovereigns is spirit- ual, and the other military, head of the empire. II. — (1.) The spiritual sovereign is called a Mikado, and resides in a sacred city from which he never removes. (2.) He is wor- shipped with divine honors, as one of the forms of the god Boodh. (3.) His council and officers superintend religion and education. m. — ^(1.) The temporal and military sovereign is called the Siogun. (2.) He commands the armies, appoints subordinate rulers, and resides at the capital city, Jeddo. (3.) The empire under him is divided into eight circles, or governments. (4.) These are sub- divided into provinces and districts, ruled through officers appointed by the siogun. IV. — (1.) Every province, or large district, has two governors, each ruling six months of the year. (2.) Whilst one governor is at his post, the other remains in Jeddo, and receives regular reports from his colleague. (3.) Each governor has two secretaries, who control, by turns of six months, the subordinate affairs of a province. (4.) When a governor and his secretaries go to their posts, they are obliged to leave their families behind, in Jeddo, as hostages for their fidelity. I. — (1.) What is the gOTernment of Japan? (2.) What ia the distinction between the two sovereigns? H. — (1.) What is said of the spiritual sovereign? (2.) What ia his sacred character? (3.) What do his officers superintend ? m. — (1.) What is the siogun ? (2.) What is said of the sovereign? (S.) How is the empire divided under him? (4.) What subdivisions are men- tioned ? rV. — (1.) How ia every province ruled? (2.) What is said of the governors J (3.) What of the secretaries ? (4.) What are the governors obliged to do ? Japanese Military Despotism. 249 V. — (1.) The princes of the empire are the highest officers under the siogun. (2.) Each is compelled to spend half the time in his circle of government, and half the time in Jeddo. (3.) He is ob- liged to leave his family as security, whenever he is absent from the capital . VI. — (1.) Governors are controlled by fixed orders, regulating their hours of sleeping, exercise and amusement. (2.) Their actions are strictly watched by spies placed near them by the government. (3.) The royal princes are watched in the same manner when on their rural domains. (4.) If two princes own neighboring estates, they are forbidden to reside on them at the same time, lest they may conspire together. VII. — (1.) Princes are compelled to furnish money from their domains, to pay all expenses of the Japanese army. (2.) This drains their resources, and keeps them without the means of becom- ing dangerous to government. VIII. — (1.) Next iu authority to the princes, are lords who govern smaller domains, and are controlled in the same manner as their superiors. (2.) Under the lords are hereditary burgesses, who preside in the form of councils, over cities and large towns. (3.) Under these rulers are ottonas, who have charge of a ward or street of the city. (4.) A street of any city in Japan is a certain number of yards in length, shut by gates at both ends, and contains about a hundred houses. IX. — (1.) Under the ottonas, or street governors, are overseers called kasiras, who have each charge of five houses and thei-r resi- V. — (1.) Who are highest officers under the siogun ? (2.) What ia each compelled to do ? (3.) What security must be given ? VI. — (1.) How are governors controlled? (2.) How are their actions ob- served? (3.) What is said of royal princes? (4.) What are princes for- bidden? Vn. — (1.) What are princes compelled to furnish ? (2.) What effect does this have ? Vm. — (1.) Who are next in authority to the princes ? (2.) Who are under the lords? (3.) Who are next in authority? (4.) What is said of a Japanese street ? IX. — (1.) Who are under the oMonas / 11* 250 History of Governments. , dents. (2.) Iq time of danger every house is required to furnish one man as a soldier. (3.) Five men form a troop, under command of the kasira ; twenty troops march under the ottona, (4.) This constitutes a militia, ready at any emergency. X. — (1.) Every head of a family is responsible for his neighbors and associates ; and each of five adjoining householders is holden for another, and must report his conduct to the kasira. (2.) If he fails to do this, he becomes liable to punishment, by fine, stripes, or im- prisonment in his own house. XI. — (1.) Imprisonment of this kind is effected by boarding up doors and windows for a hundred days, more or less. (2.) While imprisoned, the householder is not allowed to shave, work at his trade, or receive pay for any office he holds. XII. — (1.) No Japanese householder of the common people is permitted to remove from one house or street to another, without ' a certificate of good conduct from his neighbors. (2.) He must like- wise obtain permission to dwell among other neighbors. XIII. — (1.) Japanese population is divided into several castes, or classes. (2.) It is considered the duty of every man to remain in the class wherein he was born. XIV.— (1.) The highest class is that of the princes. (2.) The second is that of noblemen, who hold lands by performing military service for a prince, or for the siogun himself. (3.) They do this by furnishing a certain number of soldiers, according to the value of the estates they hold. (4.) The third class is the priesthood, (2.) What is required in time of danger? (3.) What is said of five men, and of twenty troops ? (4.) What does this constitute ? X.— (1.) What is said regarding responsibility ? (2.) What is tlie penalty for offending against this rule ? XI. — (1.) How is such imprisonment effected ? (2.) How is a prisoner otherwise restrained ? XII.— (!.■) What is a Japanese hou.seholder not permitted to do? (2.) What must he obtain ? Sni. (1.) How is Japanese population divided ? (2.) What is considered a duty ? XIV. (1.) What is the- highest class in Japan ? (2.) What is the second ? (3.) How is this service performed ? (4.) What is the third class of Japanese ? Japanese Military Despotism. 251 whose wives are priestesses. (5.) These families live in religious bouses near the temples of Boodh. (6.) The priests administer religious rites, grant absolution for sins, and are supported by con- tributions from pilgrims and other worshippers. XV. — (1.) The fourth class comprises the military, and is com- posed of the vassals belonging to estates, equipped and provided by the lords and princes. (2.) The siogun has 100,000 foot, and 20,000 horse soldiers in his private service. XVI. — (1.) The first four classes of Japanese are regarded as of higher rank than the second four. (2.) Of the latter, the first comprises the mosT; respectable citizens, such as inferior officials, physicians, and scientific men. (3.) The next is composed of mer- chants and wealthy shopkeepers, who are restricted by law from buying luxuries, even with their own money, and prohibited from showing any ostentation of manners. (4.) The seventh class con- sists of small tradesmen, mechanics, artists, and all manufacturers, except leather-dressers. XVII. — (1.) The eighth numbers all day laborers and peasants, the latter being serfs belonging to estates, and is much degraded. (2.) A ninth class is sometimes reckoned, comprising tanners, cur- riers, and all connected with the leather trade, which is considered to be an unclean business. (3.) These are outcasts from society, not being permitted to enter the houses of other men, and only allowed to act in cities as executioners and jailers. XVIII. — (1.) The mikado, or spiritual sovereign, is a type of divine power, dwelling in his sacred city. (2.) He is allowed twelve wives, and hundreds of servants. (3.) Every article he uses is de- (5.) Where do the priest-families reside ? (6.) AVhat is said of the priests ? XV. — (1.) What do the fourth class in Japan comprise? (2.) What does the siogun's military force number ? XVI. — (1.) What is said of the first four Japanese classes? (2.) What does the first of the lower division comprise ? (3.) How is the ne.tt composed ? (4.) Of what does the next, or seventh class consist? XVII. — (1.) What does the eighth class number? (2.) What is said of a ninth class ? (3.) What is the social character of these persons ? XVm.— (1.) What is said of the mikado ? (2.) What is he allowed ? (3.) What is done with articles used by him ? 252 History of Governments. stroyed when once used, as sacred to him only. (4.) The mikado enjoys no liberty, revenues, nor power, and is surrounded by spies of the siognn. XIX. — (1.) The siognn lives in a palace at Jeddo, and seldom is seen abroad, except when he goes to visit the mikado at seasons of festival. (2.) The business of the government is confided to a council of state, composed of thirteen high dignitaries. (3.) This council decides upon all measures, and appoints or removes officers. (4.) It carries on correspondence with the different provinces and rulers. CHAPTER IV. RUSSIAN FEUDAL DESPOTISM. I.^ — (1.) The Russian empire has arisen out of the extending do- minion of a northern nation called Muscovites. (2.) The predeces- sors of the present people comprised Scythian, Hungarian, Sarma- tian, and other tribes, of ancient northern barbarians. (3.) The country now known as Russia was formerly governed by chiefs of independent clans. 11. — •(!.) The Muscovite people remained in a state of barbarism till the reign of one of their monarchs, Peter the Great. (2.) Peter flourished about the beginning of the eighteenth century. (3.) He gave to his subjects laws and institutions, which have been modified and improved by later monarchs. (4.) How is the mikado restricted ? XIX. — (1.) What is said of the siogun? (2.) Who carries oq the business of his government? (3.) What is the authority of this body? (4.) Of what correspondence has it charge ? I. — (1.) From what has the Russian empire arisen? (2.) What were the predecessors of Russians? (3.) How were the Muscovites governed? II. — 1.) What is said of the Muscovite people? (2.) "When did Peter the Great flourish ? (3.) What is said of Peter ? Russian Feudal Despotism. 253 III. — (1.) The government of Russia is an unlimited moiiarcliy or despotism. (2.) Tbe emperor is called Czar, and Autocrat of all the Eussias. (3.) The title Czar is equivalent to the German Kaiser, or that of Csesar, held by ancient Roman emperoi's. (4.) It is thought the Russian emperors signify by it their pretensions to sovereignty over Constantinople and the eastern Roman empire, now controlled by the Turks. rV. — (1.) The Autocrat of Russia is a hereditary ruler, and is obliged to profess the Greek or eastern Christian creed. (2.) He is assisted in the administration of government by four principal councils. v. — (1.) The first of the four bodies is called the imperial coun- cil. (2.) Its members are selected from the higher nobility, or loyards of the empire. (3.) The boyards were, in early times, chiefs of tribes or communities. (4.) They are now the principal landholders of the country. (5.) The imperial council is presided over by the emperor himself, or his representative, VI, — (1.) The imperial council is divided into five committees or boards, having each charge of a distinct department of administra- tion. (2.) One of these boards supervises military matters ; another civil and religious ; a third, statistics and finance ; a fourth, laws and ordinances ; and a fifth, the affairs of provinces, including Poland and Finland, (3.) A secretary of state is placed at the head of each department. VII. — (1.) The imperial council deliberates as a body, in as- semblies of all its members, or through the members of committees, ni. — (1.) What is the form of Russian government? (2.) What are the emperor's titles? (3.) What is said of the title of Czar? (4.) What of its signification ? IV. — (1.) What is said of the Autocrat of Russia? (2.) How is he assisted in government? V. — (1.) What is the first body called? (2.) How are its members ap- pointed? (8.) What were the boyards formerly ? (4.) What are they now? (5.) Who presides over the imperial council? VI. — (1.) How is the council divided ? (2.) What do the boards supervise ? (3.) What is placed at the head of each ? VII. — (1.) How does the counril deliberate? 254 History of Governments. each voting oa its own affairs. (2.) A majority of votes ia the as- sembly, or in a committee, decides for or against any measure. (3.) The emperor is not bound by any decision, but accepts or rejects, as he considers best, being supreme ruler. VIII.— (1.) There is a legislative body in Eussia called a senate, presided over by the Czar or his representative. (2.) This body issues laws, and is the highest court of justice in the empire. (3.) The emperor reserves the right of reversing its decisions or annul- ling its laws, by edicts or proclamations, regarded as the highest authority. IX. — (1.) TheEussian senate is divided into eight judicial bodies, or departments. (2.) Each constitutes a court having chief juris- diction over particular provinces and districts. (3.) The senators comprising each high court make their decisions by a majority of voices. (4.)' Two-thirds of the votes of a court are necessary to a decision. (5.) If two-thirds of a single court, or judicial depart- ment, cannot be obtained, all the members of the senate assemble as a judicial body. X. — (1.) A code of laws is used in Eussia for the guidance of high and low tribunals. (2.) It consists of a digest or selection of the laws and edicts issued by different emperors during two centuries. XI. — (1.) A principal branch of Eussian government is the Synod of bishops and other ecclesiastics. (2.) The established reli- gion of Eussia is that known as Greek or eastern Christianity. (3.) The head of the church, called the Patriarch, resides at Con- (2.) What decides upon measures? (3.) How is the emperor affected-by deci- sions of the council ? VIII.— (1.) What is said of a senate? (2.) What is its authority? (3.) What power has the emperor over it? IX. — (1.) How is the Eussian senate divided? (2.) What does each con- stitute ? (3.) How are judicial decisions made ? (4.) What proportion of votes decide ? (5.) What is done if two-thirds of a single court cannot agree ? X. — (1.) What is said of laws ? (2.) Of what does the code consist ? XI. — (1.) What is a principal branch of government? (2.) Wbit is the re- li^ioi of Russia? (3.) What is said of the patriarch ? Russian Feudal Despotism. 255 stantinople. (4.) He is regarded to be chief bisliop, as the Pope of Eome is considered chief bishop of the Eomish church. (5.) The synod of bishops in Russia has charge of all matters relating to religion in the empire. XII. — (1.) The College of Ministers is the name given to a body of officers appointed by the emperor, as heads of departments or bureaus. (2.) These ministers are thirteen in number, and superin- tend as many departments of the administration. (3.) They have direction of the army and navy, courts of justice, educational mat- ters, and financial affairs. XIII. — (1.) The ministers have a seat and voice in the imperial council, and also in the senate. (2.) Under the ministry are civil and military governors of districts and provinces. (3.) There are fifty-one inferior governments or districts. (4.) Forty are situated in Europe, and the rest in Asia and America. XIV. — (1.) The civil affairs of every inferior district are con- ducted by a civil governor, and military matters by a commander. (2.) Several provinces combined are intrusted to a governor-gene- ral, with civil and military powers. (3.) This officer is responsible for the conduct of governors immediately under his direction. XV. — (1.) The people of Eussia are divided politically into four classes. (2.) First, are the clergy • next, the nobility ; thirdly, merchants and burghers, or freemen ; and fourthly, the serfs. XVI. — (1.) The clergy are of two grades, regular and secular. (2.) The regular clergy are those belonging to special orders of the (4.) How is he looked upon ? (5.) Of what has the synod charge ? Xn. — (1.) What is the College of Ministers ? (2.) What is said of these ministers ? (3.) What authority have they ? Sni. — (1.) Where do the ministers have a seat? (2.) What are under the ministry? (3.) How many inferior governments are there in Russia? (4.) Where are they estaVjIished ? XIV. — (1.) How are provincial districts governed ? (2.) What is said of a sjovernor-general ? (3.) For what is a governor-general responsible ? XV. — (1.) How are the Russian people politically divided? (2.) What are the distinctions ? XVI. — (1.) How are the clergy divided ? (2.) What are the regular clergy? 256 History of Governments. priesthood. (3.) They constitute the' higher church officials and dignitaries. (4.) The secular clergy are parish ministers, who are obliged to be married. (5.) They are poorly supported, and gene- rally very ignorant. XVII. — (1.) The nobles are of two grades, those claiming by birth, and those becoming such by service of the emperor. (2.) All officers of the army and navy, and all state functionaries, belong to some grade of nobility. (3.) There are fourteen of these grades, the lowest being a military ensign, or a college registrar. XVIII. — (1.) Officials who attain by services to the eighth grade, gain hereditary nobility. (2.) The rank of all below that grade dies with its possessors. (3.) An army major, a navy cap- tain, or a college assessor, may transmit his nobility to descendants. (4.) By these regulations the nobility of Russia is continually increasing in number. XIX. — (1.) Merchants and burghers, called the free class, form six grades, not including the nobles or clergy. (2.) The six grades always comprise the three guilds of capitalists inhabiting towns, the trades, the professions, and the colonists. XX. — (1.) Merchants of the first guild pay an annual sum of five hundred dollars for license to trade, and are unrestricted in commerce. (2.) Those of the second guild pay two hundred dol- lars annually, and are forbidden to make contracts exceeding $10,000, or to open banking or insurance offices. (3.) Those of the third guild pay fifty dollars annually, and are allowed to carry on (iJ.) What do they constitute? (4.) What are the secular clergy? (5.) What is said of the secular clergy ? XVII.— (1.) What are the grades of nobility. (2.) What is said of officials? (.S.) How many grades of nobility are there ? XVm.— (1.) What persons gain hereditary nobility ? (2.) What is said of ranks below the eighth ? (3.) What persons are mentioned as hereditary nobles ? (4.) What is the consequence of these regulations ? XIX. — (1.) What do merchants and burghers form? (2.) What do these grades comprise ? XX (1.) What do merchants of the first guild pay ? (2.) What do those of the second guild pay ? (.'*.) What do those of the third guild pay ? Russian Feudal Despotism. 257 retail trades or manufactures, but not to employ more than thirty- two workmen. XXI. — (1.) Burghers who pay from five to fifteen dollars annually, are restricted as to the trades they shall follow and the number of workmen they may employ. (2.) Those who take out no license, are confined to certain limits wherein to carry on their trades. (3.) All burghers are obliged to pay an annual head-tax. (4.) All are liable to be called upon to serve in the army, and may be punished by whipping. XXn. — (1.) The fourth division of Russian population com- prises the masses of the nation. (2.) They constitute the class of peasantry or serfs, the lowest division of population. (3.) They are slaves belonging to the estates or lands whereon they were born. XXIII. — (1.) The time and labor of serfs belong entirely to the owner of the estate to which they are attached. (2.) A master is permitted by law to inflict any punishment on his serfs that does not cause death within twenty-four hours afterward. (3.) The servants of an estate are sold with the land which they occupy. XXrV. — (1.) Of late years the condition of Eussian peasants has been improved by humane laws and edicts of the emperor. (2.) Most of the serfs who formerly belonged to the crown estates, have received their freedom. (3.) The great land proprietors of Eussia are now considering the policy of making their serfs free, and allowing them small farms to cultivate for themselves. XXV. — (1.) It is estimated that there are thirty-five millions of serfs in Eussia out of a population of sixty millions. (2.) The XXI. — (1.) What persons are restricted in trade ? (2.) How are unlicensed burghers restricted ? (3.) What are all burghers obliged to pay ? (4.) To what are all liable ? XXH. — (1.) What does the fourth class of population comprise ? (2.) What do they constitute? (3.) What is their condition ? XXIII.— (1.) To whom do the time and labor of serfs belong ? (2.) What authority is possessed by a master? (3.) How are peasants sold ? XXIV. — (1.) What has been done of late years ? (2.) What serfs have been benefited ? (3.) What are the landholders now considering ? XXV. — (1.) How many serfs are there in Russia? (2.) How many nobles 258 History of Governments. nublc ranks do not number a million persons. (3.) The remainder of the emperor's subjects, besides the burghers, include nine races of men, comprising eighty different tribes. (4.) Millions of these wander in nomadic communities, under chiefs, in the rudest state of barbarism. XXVI. — (1.) For educational purposes, the government of Kussia divides the country into university districts. (2.) In many of these districts chief colleges are now established. (3.) Each university district comprises several civil and military governments in its extent. (4.) The system of instruction embraces academies, or military schools, high schools, district schools, and parish schools. (5.) They are all superintended by the university ofiScers, under direction of the Secretary of Public Instruction. are there ? (3.) What do the rest of Russian subjects include ? (4.) What is said concerning these ? XXVI (1.) How is Russia divided for educational purposes? (2.) What are established ? (3.) What does each district comprise ? (4.) What does the system of instruction include? (5.) What is the superintending authority ? CHAPTER V. THE PRUSSIAN MILITARY DESPOTISM. I. — (1.) The Prussian nation is composed of descendants of a Scythian tribe named Borussians, who colonized a district of Ger- many. (2.) The government of Prussia at present is constituted on the system of a hereditary absolute monarchy, with a mixture of the representative principle in minor affairs. (3.) The king is mili- tary commander, and an irresponsible ruler of his subjects, all of whom are trained to bear arms. II. — (1.) The king selects a cabinet of ministers, to assist him in the government, and appoints all judges and executive officers. (2.) He revises, changes, or makes laws, with the assistance of a council of state, constituted under his direction. III. — (1.) The council of state is composed of all princes of the royal family, who are eighteen years old, together with the princi- pal officers of departments. (2.) The council of state meets regu- larly on stated days, during nine months of the year. IV. — (1.) Six committees are selected from members of the council at every annual session. (2.) The duties of these commit- tees embrace the consideration of public policy. (3.) They have charge of business relating to foreign, military, financial, judi- cial, domestic, and educational branches of administration and law- making. I — (1.) What was the origin of the Prussian nation? (2.) How is the Prussian government constituted ? (3.) What authority has the sovereign ? n. — (1.) How does the liing organize his administration ? (2.) What legis- lative power does he possess ? m. — (1.) How is the council of state composed? (2.) When does it meet? rV. — (1.) What are selected ? (2.) What are the duties of these commit- tees? (3.; Of what business have they charge ? 259 26o History of Governments. V. — (1.) Each state council committee consists of five members, uot conuected with that branch of government with whose policy they have to do. (2.) They possess authority to summon officials and other citizens to attend their sittings, as witnesses and advisers. (3.) The minister, as head of the department that is connected with a committee's labors, is required to be present when necessary, but speaks only by permission of the committee. VL — (1.) When a law or course of policy is discussed by a committee, the five members vote upon its adoption, and three voices decide in its favor. (2.) A report is then laid before the king, who may approve, reject, or change the proposition, according to his will. (3.) No law goes into operation without the king's permission and signature. VII. — (1.) A secretary of state, appointed by the king, takes charge of laws, and causes them to be promulgated, after adoption. (2.) Every committee maintains a body of clerks for its business. (3.) The state council furnishes books containing all the laws of the kingdom, for official use and distribution. VIII. — (1.) The administration of general authority is placed in charge of superintendents or ministers. (2.) One minister oversees the national accounts and debts. (3.) Another minister is at the head of spiritual or religious affairs. (^.) A third takes cognizance of matters connected with medical professions. (5.) A fourth su- perintends the education of the people, which is strictly enforced by law. (6.) The minister of each department exercises control over the publication of newspapers or books relating to the matters under his care. V. — (1.) What is said of each committee ? (2.) What authority do they possess? (3.) Who is required to be present at a committee's meetings? VI. — (1.) How is a law acted upon in a committee? (2.) What action ia then taken? (8.) What is necessary to a law? VII.— (1.) What ia done by a secretary of state? (2.) What does every committee maintain? (3.) What assistance is provided by the state council? Vin.— (1.) What is said of administration ? (2.) What does one minister do? (3) What is another minister's position? (4.) Of what does a third take cognizance? (6.) What does a fourth minister superintend ? (6.) What control is exercised by the ministers ? The Prussian Military Despotism. 261 IX. — (1.) The kiogdom is divided iuto eight, proTinces, politically ai'ranged ia larger districts called governments and circles, and smaller ones called commonalties. (2.) At the head of every pro- vince is a governor, known as the High President. (3.) He, by right of position, is a member of the council of state, in Berlin, the Prussian capital. X. — (1.) A high president of a province is assisted in his ad- ministration by a provincial council, a secretary, and subordinate oflicials. (2.) He is responsible for all departments of civil autho- rity, and acts in connection with the military commander, or gene- ral, of the province. (3.) The tax collectors and other provincial officers of the royal government are under his direction. XI. — (1.) An aristocratic assembly, or body of landholders, meets annually, in every province of Prussia. (2.) This body is composed, firstly, of nobles, who appear as representatives of the largest land proprietors, and secondly, of delegates chosen from towns and rural districts, by wealthy possessors of the soil. XII. — (1.) The provincial assembly members consider matters of interest to various districts, and prepare such measures of re- form as they deem proper. (2.) These measures are sent to the king, through his ministers of state. (3.) The king may reject or approve them at his pleasure. XIII. — (1.) Each Prussian province is politically sub-divided into lower administrations called governments. (2.) Each of these is conducted by a president and his assistants, called counsellors, responsible to the high president of the province. (3.) One coun- IX. — (1.) How ia the Prussian kingdom divided? (2.) Who is at the head of every province ? (3.) Of what is he a member ? X. — (1.) How is a high president assisted? (2.) What responsibility has be? (3.) What officials are under his direction ? XI.— (1.) What provincial assembly meets annually? (2.) How is such a provincial assembly composed? XII. — (1.) What action does the provincial assembly take? (2.) What be- comes of measures adopted by an assembly ? (3.) What power has tlie king over them ? Xm. — (1.) How are Prussian provinces sub-divided ? (2.) How is each of these conducted ? (3.) What do counsellors do ? 262 History of Governments. seller oversees schools and churches ; another, the collection of taxes ; a third, the public, or king's lands. (4.) Matters of im- portance are deliberated upon in a meeting of all the counsellors of a district. (5.) The counsellors are appointed by the ministers of state. (6.) The inferior royal officers of a district are generally appointed by the president, and the government treasurer, or other responsible agent, is chosen by the body of counsellors. XIV.— (1.) Each government, so called, is separated into infe- rior departments called drdes. (2.) The public business of each circle is conducted by a commissioner or counsellor, appointed by the high president of the province, and a committee of burghers, belonging to a local representative council called a Staande. XV". — (1.) The Staande of a circle is an assembly composed of the chief landholders and delegates chosen by towns and rural neighborhoods, called commonalties. (2.) The members of a staande in each circle are supposed to represent the inhabitants of cities, and the peasantry at large. XVI. — (1.) Commonalties, in Prussia, are towns or parishes, whose minor local affairs are conducted on a somewhat democratic principle. (2.) The officials of a commonalty are classed as repre- sentatives and magistrates. (3.) The number of representatives in a commonalty varies according to the population, from twenty to over a hundred. XVII. — (1.) Every house proprietor, or inhabitant, whose an- nual income is one hundred and fifty dollars, is entitled to cast a ballot for the choice of representatives. (2.) The body of repre- (4.) How are matters of importance acted upon? (5.) Who appoint the counsellors? (6.) What is said of other officers? SrV. — (1.) How are the governments sub-divided ? (2.) How is public business conducted in the circles ? XV. — (I.) AVbat is the «(1.) Congress alone has authority to coin money, and regulate the value of coined money. (2.) It passes laws to fix the standard of weights and measures throughout all the States. (3.) It makes laws to punish persons who counterfeit the national money. (4.) It has power to pass laws for the relief of debtors. (5.) It establishes post-offices and post roads, and authorizes contracts for carrying the mails. (6.) It makes laws for the protection and re- ward of authors and inventors, who produce valuable works. to its passage or adoption ? (4.) What must be done witli the bill if it be amended or altered ? (5.) What is then necessary to its passage ? XX. — (1.) What peculiar power does each house of Congress possess ? (2.) What may each house do ? (3.) What exclusive authority has each house ? XXL — (1.) What is Congress empowered to do? (2.) What regulations does it make ? (3.) What privileges does it grant? XXn — (1 ) What sole authority has Congress? (2.) What laws does it pass ? (3.) AVhat penalties does it establish ? (4.) What power has it to grant relief? (5.) What pinvers has it regarding posts ? (6.) What protection does it provide for certain persons ? Government of the United States. 337 XXIII.' — (1.) Congress provides for the establishing of national courts and tribunals under the Supreme Court of the United States. (2.) It establishes penalties for the punishment of piracy and other offences against the law of nations. (3.) It has power to declare war, regulate rules and methods of warfare, and raise and support armies. (4.) It has jurisdiction over the land and sea forces of the country, and can call out the militia of all the States, in case of ne- cessity. (5.) It claims exclusive government over the District of Columbia, and over all naval stations, forts, arsenals, and other works or territory owned by the United States. XXrV. — (I.) Congress possesses authority to dispose of public lands and territories not included under the jurisdiction of any State of the Union. (2.) It makes necessary laws and regulations for the government of persons residing on such lands. (3.) It has power to explain the offence of treason, and provide penalties for it. XXV. — (1.) Congress has power to admit new States into the confederacy, when such States are formed out of the public territory owned by the United States. (2.) It may regulate, by law, the times, places, and manner of holding elections for representatives, and the time and manner of electing senators. XXVI.— (1.) All laws, orders, and resolutions, necessary in ex- ercising the authority of Congress, must pass under the rules of both houses. (2.) They must be agreed to by at least a majority of the members of both. (3.) Every order, resolution, or vote (except a vote of adjournment), on which both houses act, is re- ZXIIL — (1.) What judicial institutions does Congress provide ? (2.) What penalties does it establish? (3.) What military authority does it possess? (4.) What military jurisdiction does it exercise? (5.) What exclusive gov- ernment does it claim ? XXIV. — (1.) What power has C!ongress over the soil? (2.) What laws does it establish over territories ? (3.) What offence may it define and punish ? XXV. — (1.) What power has Congress to enlarge the confederation? (2.) What elections may it regulate ? XXVI. — (1.) How must all legislation be conducted ? (2.) What is neces- sary to the passage of Congressional laws ? (3.) What is necessary to the legality of all action taken by both houses of Congress? ^8 History of Governments. quired to be submitted to the President of the United States before it can take effect. POWERS OF THE UNITED STATES SENATE. XXVII. — (1.) The Senate has power to judge of the rights and qualifications of its own members. (2.) It exercises exclusive jurisdiction over their conduct as legislators. (3.) It chooses an officer to jDrcside over its deliberations, in the absence of the Vice- President of the United States, who is the regular officer. (4.) It appoints all other officers and clerks and committees fiecessary to the transaction of its affairs. XXVIII. — (1.) The Senate has sole power of trying all cases of impeachment. (2.) Impeachment is a charge brought against the President, Vice-President, or any civil officer of the United States, for treason, bribery, or any other high offence. (3.) Impeachment must be presented by tlie House of Eepresentatives before being tried by the Senate. POWEKS OF THE HOUSE OF EEPRESENTATIVES. XXIX. — (1.) The House of Eepresentatives possesses the same jurisdiction and authority over its own members as is possessed by the Senate over members of that body. (2.) It elects a speaker to preside over its deliberations during the term for which each con- gress is chosen. XXX. — (1.) The House elects officers and clerks to perform various duties connected with its legislation. (2.) It possesses power, like the Senate, to appoint committees of investigation from XXVn. — (1.) What particular power has the Senate ? (2.) What exclusive jurisdiction does it exercise ? (3.) What chief officer does it choose? (4.) What other officials does it appoint? XXVUt.— (1.) What sole power has the Senate ? (2.) What is meant by impeachment? (3.) In what house must impeachment be made? XXIZ. — (1.) What particular authority is possessed by the House of Kepre- sentatires ? (2.) What chief officer does it elect ? XXX. — (1.) What other officials does the House elect? (2.) What power does it possess to appoint committees ? Government of the United States. 339 its members, and to give sucb committees authority to summon wit nesses and administer oatlis. XXXI. — (1.) The House has sole authority to place officers of the civil administration under impeachment. (2.) The House acts as an accuser of the party charged with offence, while the Senate is the tribunal to decide upon the charge. (3.) Two-thirds of the representatives must vote for an impeachment before it can be pre- sented to the Senate for action. XXXII. — (1.) The House has sole authority to bring forward measures for the purpose of raising a revenue to pay government expenses. PHIVILEGES OP MEMBERS OF CONGRESS. XXXIII. — (1.) Ill all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, members of Congress are privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session, and in going to or returning from the same. (2.) No senator or representative can be called to account elsewhere for any speech or remark that he makes during debate as a legislator. XXXIV. — (1.) Every senator or representative has a privilege to send letters, papers and other documents, through the post- offices without paying for the same. (2.) This is called the frank- ing privilege, and a member's autograph upon the article mailed is equivalent to a post-office stamp. XXXV. — (1.) Every senator or representative is entitled to receive, in addition to his salary, a certain amount per mile for the XXZI. — (1.) flhat sole power does the House possess? (2.) What is said of impeachment? (3.) What is required for the presenting of impeachments? XXXll — (1 ) What sole authority is exercised by the House of .Repre- sentatives ? XXXni. — (1.) What privileges have members of Congress ? (2.) How are they protected ? XXXIV — (1.) What privilege is possessed by every member of Congress? (2.) What is said of this privilege ? XXXV.--(1.) What particular emolument do members of Congress receive ? 340 History of Governments. distance which he travels at each session, in going and returning between his residence and the capital, or seat of government. XXXVI. — (1.) Each house of Congress possesses the privilege of ordering books, documents, and other printed matter and sta- tionery, for the use of every member. (2.) Most of the books printed by order of Congress are intended for distribution to libra- ries, and literary or scientific associations, through members of Con- gress, to whom they are assigned. RESTKICTIONS OF MEMBERS OP CONGRESS. XXXVII. — (1.) No senator or representative can hold any other civil office, either elective or appointed, while he continues to be a member of Congress. (2.) He cannot be appointed to any civil ofEce under the national government during the term for which he Wiis elected, if such office be created, or its emoluments increased, during that term. XXXVIII. — (1.) Senators and representatives, and all other officers of the United States government, are forbidden to accept any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state, without special consent of Congress. POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT. XXXIX.— (1.) The President of the United States is com- mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia of all the States, when the latter are in actual service. (2.) He may require a written opinion from the head of each department under govern- ment, upon any matter embraced in the duties of such department. XXXVI. — (1.) What privilege does each house possess ? (2.) What distri- bution is intended to be made ? XXXVn. — (1.) How is a member of Congress restricted as to holding office ? (2.) What appointments is he prevented from receiving ? XXXVrn (l.) what is forbidden to United States officials? XXXIX. — (1.) What military command has the President? (2.) What may Government of the United States. 341 (3.) He has power to graat reprieves and pardons fur offences com- mitted against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. XL. — (1.) The President has power to make all treaties, with consent of two-thirds of the Senate, at any of its sessions. (2.) He appoints ambassadors, agents and officers, under the national government, whose appointment is not otherwise provided for by law. XLI. — (1.) The President has power to call Congress to assem- ble on occasions when he deems it necessary. (2.) When a dis- agreement takes place between the two houses in reference to adjournment, the President may adjourn them to such time as he thinks proper. XIiII. — (1.) The President possesses power to prevent the enactment of any measure by Congress, unless two-thirds of the members of both houses vote in its favor. ELECTION OB PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT. XXiIII. — (1.) In order to be eligible to the ofBce of President, a person must have been born in the United States. (2.) He must have resided in the country at least fourteen years, and must be thirty-five years of age when elected. XLIV. — (1.) In order to be eligible- to the office of Vice- President, a person must possess the same qualifications as for that of President. (2.) The two officers are elected at the same time and for the same term. he require from heads of departments ? (3.) What judicial power does he possess ? XL (1.) What authority makes treaties ? (2.) What appointments does the President make ? XLI (1.) What power has the President to assemble the Congress ? (2.) What adjourning power has he ? ZLII. — (1.) What power has the President over congressional action ? SLin.— (1.) What is the first qualification for presidential office ? (2.) What other qualifications are necessary ? XlilV. — (1.) AVhat quahfications must the Vice-President possess ? (2.) How are both officers chosen ? 342 History of Governments. XLV.— (1.) The Vice-President is presiding officer of the Senate. (2.) If the office of President be vacated during a presi- dential term, the Vice-President becomes acting President, or chief magistrate. (3.) He then resigns his place as presiding officer of the Senate to some senator elected by that body. XL VI. — (1.) If the offices of President and Vice-President be both vacated during a presidential term, the powers and duties of chief magistrate devolve upon the Speaker of the House of Eepresentatives, XLVH.— (1.) The President and Vice-President of the United States are chosen, once in four years, by votes of electors delegated by the people of States in their respective districts. XL VIII. — (1.) The people do not vote directly for the names of President or Vice-President on a ticket or ballot. (2.) The voters of each State choose a number of officers, called electors, to represent them in an assembly denominated an electoral college. (3.) The electoral college of each State meets at its State capital immedi- ately after a presidential election. XLIX. — (1.) The number of electors chosen by each State is just equal to the number of senators and representatives to which such State is entitled in the national Congress. (2.) A list of the names of candidates for electors is printed on a single ballot. (3.) The whole list together is voted for by all the voters of a State. {i.) There may be as many lists as there are parties voting in the State. XLV.— (1.) What position does the Vice-President liold? (2.) 'Wliat office may he fill? (3.) "What does he do when called upon to act as President? XLVI. — (1.) What officer becomes acting President in case both elected officers are removed? XLVJJ. — (1.) When are President and Vice-President elected? SLVHL— (1.) What is said respecting the votes for President and Vice- President? (2.) What do the voters of each State do? (3.) When do the electoral colleges meet? XlilK. — (1.) What number of electors is chosen by each State? (2.) What is printed on a single ballot ? (3.) How are the electors voted for ? (4.) How many lists may there be ? Government of the United States. 343 L. — (1.) The persons named upon the list of candidates which receives the greatest number of votes in a State are declared elec- tors for President and Vice-President. (2.) They are supposed to represent the popular vote of the State. (3.) No United States senator or representative, and no person holding office under the national government, is eligible to be chosen an elector. LI.— (1.) When electors of a State are chosen in this manner, they proceed to meet and cast their own votes. (2.) Each elector votes for a President, and for a Vice-President. (3.) One of the persons for whom he votes must not be an inhabitant of the State which the electors represent. (4.) Each elector names on one ballot the person he wishes to be President, and on another the person he wishes to be Vice-President. (5.) A list is then made of all persons voted for by the college, with the number of votes for each. (6.) The electors sign, certify, and seal such list, and send it to the federal capital, directed to the president of the Senate. Ln. — (1.) When the president of the Senate has received a sealed Mst from the electoral college of every State, he opens all of them in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives. (2.) The number of votes recorded in each list is ascertained, and the entire number counted. XjIII. — (1.) The candidate for President, whose name appears on a majority of electoral ballots, is declared President. (2.) The can- didate for Vice-President, whose name appears in lilie manner on a majority of electoral ballots, is declared Vice-President. L. — (1.) What persons become electors for President and Tice-President ? (2.) What are these persons supposed to represent? (3.) What citizens are restricted from being chosen electors ? LI. — (1.) What do electors do when chosen? (2.) What does each elector do? (3.) What must one of his candidates not be? (4.) What does each elector name on his ballots ? (5.) What list is then made ? (6.) What is done with such list? LII. — (1.) What does the president of the Senate do? (2.) What action is then taken ? T.TTT- — (1.) What person is declared President ? (2.) What person is de- clared Vice-President? 344 History of Governments. LIV. — (1.) If no candidate for President appear to have received a majority of electoral votes, three persons, whose names were on the highest number of ballots, are placed as candidates before the House of Eepresentatives. (2.) The members of that House then proceed to ballot till one of the three names receives the votes of a majority of the States represented, or until March 4th next ensuing. LV. — (1.) In this ballotting, each State is allowed but one vote, which is cast by a majority of its representatives present. (2.) If the House of Eepresentatives shall fail to make its choice before March 4, then the Vice-President will act as President, according to the provision made in case of death or disability of the President. LVI. — (1.) The Vice-President is chosen by the members of the Senate, instead of the House of Eepresentatives. (2 ) Out of two persons whose names were on the highest number of electoral ballots for Vice-President, the Senate chooses one to be the Vice-President, and to act as President in case of no choice of a President, as above. JnDICIARY OF THE UNITED STATES. LVII. — (1.) The federal judiciary consists of a supreme court, circuit courts, and district courts. (2.) The supreme court is com- posed of a chief-justice and eight associate judges, appointed to hold office during good behavior. (3.) The judges of the supreme court are also circuit judges. (4.) The full supreme court holds one session a year at the national capital, for the review of cases on appeal, and the settlement of constitutional questions. (5.) A cir- cuit court, held twice a year in every State, is composed of one supreme court judge and one district judge of the State or district wherein the court sits. (6.) The district courts are held in fi.xed LIV. — (1.) What takes place if no person has been elected by the colleges ? (2 ) What do the representatives do ? LV. — (1.) How many votes has each State ? (2.) What follows in case of no choice by the House of Eepresentatives ? LVI. — (1.) Which House chooses the Vice-President? (2) How is ho chosen by the House of Eepresentatives ? LVH. — (1.) Of what does the federal judiciary consist ? (2.) How is the supreme court composed ? (3.) Who are the circuit judges ? (4.) What session does the full supreme court hold ? (5.) What comprises a circuit court ? (6.) Govemmeut of the United States. 345 districts comprising a State, or portion of a State, by a judge ap- pointed specially for the district. Cl.) In some cases, a single dis- trict judge has two or more districts under Ms charge. (8.) There are a district attorney and a marshal appointed in each district. (9.) The first acts as a federal prosecuting officer, and the second acts as a federal sheriff. (10.) All constitutional points and offences against United States law, not controlled by State jurisdiction, are tried in the federal courts. DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT. LVIII. — (1.) The chief officer of the cabinet is called Secretary How ia a sheriff commissioned ? VI. — (1.) What persons are voters in Maryland ? CHAPTER XII. STATE OF VIRGINIA. I. — (1.) Government is vested in governor, lieutenant-governor and legislature. (2.) The executive officers serve four years, must be citizens of five years' residence, and each thirty years of age. (3.) A State secretary, State treasurer, and State auditor, are appointed by vote of the legislature. (4.) An attorney-general is chosen by the people for four years. II. — (1.) The legislature, called General Assembly, consists of a Senate and a House of Delegates, (2.) The Senate comprises fifty members, elected from as many districts, half the number every two years, from citizens twenty-five years old. (3.) The House of Delegates numbers one hundred and fifty-two members, chosen by counties once in two years, from citizens twenty-one years old. III. — (1.) The judiciary is composed of a Court of Appeals, dis- trict courts, circuit courts and county courts. (2.) The Sta.te is divided into five judicial sections, each of which elects a judge, to hold office for twelve years, unless removed for cause by the legis- lature. (3.) The five judges so chosen constitute the Supreme Court of Appeals. (4.) There are twenty-one judicial circuits in the State, from each of which a circuit judge is chosen for eight years. (5.) A circuit judge holds courts in all counties comprised in his district. (6.) The twenty-one judicial circuits are separated into ten districts, I. (1.) "What 13 the government of Virginia? (2.) What is said of the executive officers? (3.) What State officials are appointed by the legislature ? (4.) What officer is chosen by the people ? n.— (1.) What is the General Assembly? (2.) What does the Senate com- prise ? (3.) What is the House of Delegates ? ]TI._(1,) What is the judiciary? (2.) What is said of judicial districts? (3.) What is the Supreme Court of Appeals ? (4.) What is said of judicial cir- cuits ? (S.) Where docs a circuit judge hold court ? (6.) How is a district court composed ? 366 History of Governments. and a district court is composed of all circuit judges in a district, presided over by the judge of appeals whose section covers the district. rV. — (1.) Every county is divided into four county districts, in each of which four justices of the peace are chosen. (2.) County courts hold monthly sessions, and are composed of three, four, or five, justices of the peace, one acting as president. (3.) The people of each county choose a,' county clerk and a surveyor, to hold ofi5ee six years. (4.) They elect a sheriff for two, and a county attoruey for four years. v. — (1.) The right to vote is shared by all white male citizens resident in the State two years and in a voting district one year before election. (2.) Votes are not given by written ballots, but by the voice in acclamation, unless in the case of dumb persons. OHAPTEE SIII. STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. I. — (1.) Governmental affairs are intrusted to a governor, a coun- cil of state, and legislature. (2.) The governor is chosen by the people, to hold ofBce two years, but cannot serve two terms in direct succession. (3.) He must be a citizen, thirty years old, resident in the State five years, and own freehold property worth five thousand dollars. (4.) The council of state is composed of seven persons chosen by the legislature, as advisers of the governor. (5.) An attorney-general is chosen by the legislature, for four years, and a State secretary and State treasurer, for two years. IV. — (1.) How are counties judicially divided? (2.) What is said of county tourts ? (3.) How are county clerk and surveyor elected ? (4.) What other officers are chosen in a county ? V. — (1.) What persons vote in Virginia ? (2.) How are votes given ? I. — (1.) What is the government of North Carolina? (2.) What is said of the governor? (3.) What must he be ? (4.) What is the council of state ? (5.) What State officials are chosen by the legislature ? State Governments. 367 II. — (1.) The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Commons, and is called the General Assembly. (2.) Senators are elected from fifty districts, one from each, to hold office two years. (3.) Senators must have been residents of their districts one year, and must own three hundred acres of land in the same district. (4.) Members of the House of Commons number one hundred and twenty, holding office for two years. (5.) They must have resided a year in counties which they represent, and own not less than one hundred and twenty acres of land within the same. III. — (1.) The judiciary consists of Supreme Court, Superior Court, admiralty courts, and justices of the peace. (2.) Judges are appointed by the legislature, and justices of the peace commis- sioned by the governor, to hold office during good behavior. IV. — (1.) The elective franchise is shared by all free white males, twenty-one years old, who pay taxes. (2.) The privilege of voting for senators is restricted to owners of freehold property, comprising fifty acres of land. CHAPTER XIV. STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. I. — (1.) Government consists of governor, lieutenant-governor, and legislature. (2.) The two executive officers are elected by the legislature, for two years. (3.) Each must have been a resident citizen ten years, and must possess a freehold worth six thousand n. (1.) What is the General Assembly ? (2.) What is the Senate? (3.) How are senators qualified? (4.) "What is the House of Commons? (5.) How are its members qualified ? ni. — (1.) What is the judiciary ? (2.) How are judges and justices ap- pointed ? IV. (1.) What persons are voters in North Carolina? (2.) How is tho franchise restricted ? L (].) What is the government of South CaroHna? (2.) How is the execu- tive formed ? (3.) What must be their qualifications ? 368 History ol ijovernments. dollars, free of debt. (4.) A governor cannot be appointed for two terms, in direct succession. (5.) A secretary of state, a sur- veyor-general, and commissioner of the treasury, are chosen by the legislature to hold office for four years. II. — (1.) The legislature is composed of a Senate and House of Representatives, called the General Assembly. (2.) The Senate consists of forty-five members, chosen from districts, to hold office four years, half being elected every two years. (3.) A senator must be a citizen, thirty years old, a resident of the State five years, and own a clear freehold worth fifteen hundred dollars ; and if he is a non-resident of his district, he must own five thousand dollars in freehold property. (4.) The House of Eepresentatives numbers one hundred and twenty-four members, chosen for two years. (5.) A representative must be a free citizen twenty-one years of age, a resident of the State three years, and must own a freehold of five hundred acres of land and ten negro slaves, or real estate worth seven hundred and fifty dollars clear. (6.) If a non-resident of the district from which he is chosen, he must have a clear freehold worth twenty-five hundred dollars. III. — (1.) The judiciary consists of supreme and lower courts, established by the legislature. (2.) There are courts of equity, presided over by four chancellors, courts of error, common pleas, and sessions. (3.) Probate courts are held in each district. (4.) Courts of magistrates and freeholders are held for the trial of offences committed by slaves and other colored persons. IV. — (1.) The elective franchise may be exercised by free white ^nak citizens, residents of the State two years. (2.) Every voter must own fifty acres of land, or a town-lot, or pay taxes in his elec- tion district. (4.) How is the governor's office guarded? (5,) What state officers are ap- pointed ? II.— (1.) What is the legislature? (2.) What is the Senate? (3.) What is required of a senator? (4.) What is the House of Representatives ? (0.) How must a representative be qualified ? (6.) How are non-residents qualified ? III. — (1.) What is the judiciary ? (2.) What are courts of equity ? (3.) Where are probate courts held ? (4.) What other courts are there ? IV. — (1.) What persons are voters in South Carolina? (2.) How must a voter be qualified? CHAPTER XV. STATE OF GEORGIA. I. — (1.) Public affairs are superintended by a governor and the legislature. (2.) The governor is chosen by the people for two years, must be thirty years old, a citizen of the United States twelve years, and of the State six years. (3.) A secretary of state, a State treasurer, and a surveyor-general, are elected to hold office two years. II. — (1.) The legislature, styled a General Assembly, is composed of a Senate and House of Eepresentatives, elected annually. (2.) A senator must be twenty-five years of age, a citizen nine years, a resident of the State three years, and of his voting district one year. (3.) A representative must be twenty-one years old, seven years a citizen, three years resident of the State, and one year resident of his county. III. — (1.) Tlie judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, and infe- rior courts established by the legislature. (2.) The State is divided into eleven circuits, with a judge for each, appointed by the legisla- ture, to hold office three years. (3.) A court is constituted in every county, with five justices chosen by the people for four years. (4.) The superior and county courts hold two sessions a year in each county. (5.) Justices of the peace are elected for four years, and clerks of courts for two years. (6.) Sheriffs are chosen to serve a single term of two years, without direct reelection. I. — (1.) What is the government of Georgia? (2.) What is said of the gov- ernor? (3.) What State officers are elected ? n (1.) What is the General Assembly? (2.) What must a senator be ? (B.) What must a representative be ? Ill (1.1 What is the judiciary? (2.) How is the State judicially divided ? (3.) Where are courts constituted? (4.) What courts hold two sessions a year? (5.) What is said of justices and clerks? (6.) What of sheriffs ? 16* 869 370 History of Governments. IV. — (1.) The privilege of suffrage is enjoyed by white male citizens, twenty-one years old, who have resided six months in the county where they vote, and paid taxes according to law. CHAPTER XVI. STATE OF KENTUCKY. I. — (1.) Governmental powers are exercised by governor and lieutenant-governor, holding office four years, and a legislature. (2.) Each executive officer must be a citizen, thirty-five years old, six years resident of the State. (3.) The same governor cannot be elected two terms in succession. (4.) A State treasurer, and State auditor, an attorney-general and register of the land-office, are chosen by the people, to hold office for four years. II. — (1.) The legislature, called General Assembly, consists of Senate and House of Representatives. (2.) The Senate is com- posed of thirty-eight members, chosen for four years, half being elected every alternate year. (3.) A senator must be a citizen, thirty years old, resident of the State six years, and of his voting district one year. (4.) The House of Representatives comprises one hundred members, chosen for two years, to represent towns and counties. (5.) A representative must be a citizen, twenty- four years old, resident in the State two years, and in his county one year. in. — (1.) The judiciary consists of a Court of Appeals, circuit courts, county courts, and justices of the peace. (2.) The Court IV. — (1.) What persons are voters in Georgia ? I. — (1.) What is tlie government of Kentucky ? (2.) What must executive officers be? (3.) How is the olfice of governor guarded? (4.) What State officers are chosen? n.— (1.) What is the General Assembly ? (2.) What is the Senate? (3.) What must a senator be? (4.) What is the House of Kepresentativea ? (5.) What must a representative be? III. — (1.) What is the judiciary? '2.) What is the Court of Appeals? State Governments. 071 of Appeals, supreme court of the State, is composed of four judges, elected from as many judicial sections, to serve eight years, one judge being chosen every alternate year. (3.) The circuit courts are held in counties by twelve district judges elected from as many judicial districts, to serve six years. (4.) The county courts are formed of a judge, president, and two associate judges, chosen by the county voters, to serve four years. (5.) Justices of the peace are elected in small districts throughout every county. IV.— (1.) A clerk of the Court of Appeals is chosen by all the voters of the State, to hold office for eight years. (2.) The state attorney is elected in every judicial district, and a circuit court clerk in every county. (3.) An attorney, a surveyor, a coroner, a sheriff, and a jailer, are chosen in each county. (4.) County offi- cers are chosen for four years, except the sheriflF, who holds office for only a single term of two years. V. — (1.) Every free white male citizen, twenty-one years old, resident of the State two years, of his county one year, and elec- tion precinct sixty days, is entitled to vote. CHAPTEE XVII. STATE OF TENNESSEE. I. — (1.) Governmental affairs are under supervision of a governor and legislature. (2.) The governor is elected for two years, must be a citizen, thirty years old, and resident of the State seven years. (3.) A secretary of state is chosen by the legislature for four years, and a treasurer for two years. (3.) What are circuit courts? (4.) What are county courts ? (5.) How are iustices made ? rV. — (1.) What clerk is chosen by all the voters? (2.) What attorneys and clerks are elected ? (3.) What county officials a^e chosen ? (4.) What is said of their terms? V. — (1). What persons are voters in Kentucky ? I. — (1.) What is the government of Tennessee? (2.) What is said of the governor? (3.) What State officers are appointed ? 372 History ui vjuvciiiiiiciiLa. II.— (1.) The General Assembly consists of Senate and House of Eepresentatives. (2.) The number of senators is limited to one- third as many as there are representatives. (3.) A senator must be a citizen, thirty years old, resident in the State three years, and in his county one year. (4.) The number of representatives cannot exceed ninety-nine. (5.) A representative must be a citizen, twenty- one years old, resident of the State three years, and of his county one year. (6.) Senators and representatives hold office for two years. III. — (1.) The judiciary comprises a supreme court, inferior courts established by statute, and justices of the peace. (2.) Three judges compose the Supreme Court, each elected from a judicial division of the State, for twelve years. (3.) Inferior judges are chosen for eight years. (4.) Supreme Court judges must be thirty-five years old, and lower judges thirty. (5.) Justices of the peace are elected iu districts of a county, each district having two, and one for the county town. IV".— (1.) State attorneys are appointed by the legislature, to hold ofSce six years. (2.) The voters of every county elect a sheriff and county trustee for two years, and a register for four years. (8.) A coroner and an officer called a ranger are chosen by justices of the peace in each county. V. — (1.) The right to vote is held by every free white male twenty-one years old, who is a citizen and resident of his county six months. (2.) Male adults of color who are allowed to be wit- nesses also possess the right of suffrage. 11 — (1.) What is the General Assembly ? (2.) "What is said of senators? (3.) What must a senator be? (4.) What is said of representatives? (5.) What must a representative be ? (6.) What is the legislative term? III.— (1.) What is the judiciary ? (2.) What is the Supreme Court ? (3.) What is said of inferior judges? (4.) Of what ages must judges be? (5.) What is said of justices ? IV. — (1.) What ofiScers are appointed by the legislature ? (2.) What county officers are elected ? (3.) What others ? V. — (1.) What persons are voters in Tennessee? (2.) What is said of colored adults 1 CHAPTER XVIII. STATE OF OHIO. I. — (1.) State affairs are conducted by a governor, lieutenant- governor, and legislature, chosen for two years. (2.) A secretary of State, a treasurer, and an attorney-general, are elected for the same term, and an auditor for four years. (3.) A board of public works, consisting of three persons, is elected for three years, one member being chosen every year. II. — (1.) The legislature, called General Assembly, comprises a , Senate and a House of Representatives. (2.) Senators and repre- sentatives are elected to serve two years. (3.) They must be citi- zens who have resided in the State one year. (4.) The Senate numbers thirty-five, and the House of Representatives one hundred members. III. — (1.) The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, district courts, courts of common pleas and of probate, and justices of the peace. (2.) The Supreme Court is composed of five judges, elected for five years by voters of the State. (3.) It holds an annual ses- sion at the State capital, and other sessions, as prescribed by law. (4.) District courts are formed by a supreme judge and common pleas judges of the district. (5.) Each District Court sits once a year ia every county of its jurisdiction. JY. — (1.) There are nine common pleas districts, each containing three or more counties. (2.) Each common pleas district has three I. — (1.) What is the governraent of Ohio ? (2.) AVhat other State officers are elected? C^.) "What public board is elected ? n (1.) What is the General Assembly ? (2.) How are the branches consti- tuted? (3.) What are qualifications of members ? (4.) What is the number of each legislative house ? m.— (1.) What ia the judiciary? (2.) What is the Supreme Court? (3.) What sessions does it hold ? (4.) What are district courts? (5.) When are they held ? TV (1.) What is said of common pleas districts ? (2.) What has each dia- 3r