c. ( BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF 1891 JJIplA X^IL/.'Tjf... 6 mmim^ oe=tii9f5ii=f Bwirgffl .iw^S»4«l>r PRINTEDINU.S.A. The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924021 61 3082 Cornell University Library PA 2087.H285 A complete Latin grammar. 3 1924 021 613 082 COMPLETE i I / [ ■ LATIN GEAMMAR BT ALBERT HARKNESS, Ph.D., LL.D. PBOFESSOB BMEKITUS IN BROWN UNIVERSITY o>tio NEW YORK. :• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY t\-\\\\v3 OOPYKIGHT, 1898, BT ALBEET HAEKNESS. Entered at Stationers' Hall. HARK. COMP. GRAM. w. p. I PREFACE The volume now offered to the public is the result of lifelong labors in the field of grammatical study. A profound conviction of the value of the classical languages in a course of liberal edu- cation and an earnest desire to aid the student in mastering the intricacies of the Latin tongue with as much ease and rapidity as is consistent with true scholarship have led to the preparation of the present work. The instruments of education must of course be readjusted from time to time to the ever-changing methods in school and college. Accordingly the prime object of this volume is to adapt the work of instruction to present methods and present needs. In view of the heavy demands now made on the time of classical teachers and students a special effort has been made to develop the practical side of grammar, to make it as helpful as possible to the teacher in the difficult task of explaining the force of involved constructions in Latin authors, and as helpful as pos- sible to the learner in his early efforts to understand and appre- ciate thought in the strange garb of a complicated Latin sentence. Simplicity and clearness, ever of paramount importance in the work of the class-room, have received special attention. Designed at once as a text-book for the class-room and a book of reference in study, this volume aims not 'only to present a sys- tematic arrangement of the leading facts and laws of the Latin language for the benefit of the beginner, but also to make ade- quate provision for the needs of the advanced student. By brevity and conciseness in the choice of phraseology, and com- pactness in the arrangement of forms and topics, I have endeav- ored to compress within the limits of a convenient manual an amount of carefully selected grammatical facts which would otherwise fill a much larger volume. Syntax has received special attention. An attempt has been iv PREFACS made to exhibit as clearly as possible that remarkable system of laws which the genius of the Latin language has created for itself. Accordingly the leading principles of construction have been put in the form of definite rules or laws, and fully illustrated by carefully selected examples from Latin authors, a mode of treat- ment perfectly consistent with scientific accuracy, and sanctioned by the general experience of teachers as in the highest degree helpful to the pupil. Moreover, to secure convenience of reference and to give completeness and vividness to the general outline, these laws of the language after having been separately discussed are presented in a body at the close of the syntax. A special effort has been made to simplify and explain the diflftcult and intricate subject of the subjunctive. The ordinafy^i constructions of that mood in simple sentences and in independent clauses are first stated and illustrated with great fulness to give the pupil a clear idea of its distinctive nature and use, and thus to prepare him to understand the process by which the mood passes froin these simple independent uses to the more difficult dependent constructions. Too often the pupil sees no connection . between an independent and a dependent subjunctive; what he has learned in regard to the former is no help to an acquaintance with the latter, but with the method here adopted it is hoped that after having mastered the ordinary independent uses of the mood he will be able to recognize even in the most involved con- structions in subordinate clauses only new illustrations of prin- ciples with which he is already familiar. To him the subjunctive ' in a subordinate clause will be no longer a dreaded stranger, but an acquaintance and friend. The subject of Hidden Quantity has received due attention in this volume as in the author's earlier Latin Grammar. Indeed, that work is believed to be entitled to the honor of having been the first Latin Grammar that ever attempted to mark systemati- cally the hidden quantity of vowels, and to point out the means for determining it. Another consideration which has had weight in determining the character of this grammar is the importance of bringing the treatment which the practical needs of the school and college PREFACE T seem to demand into harmony with the learned results recently gathered by specialists in the field of historical grammar and linguistic study. On this point I deem myself fortunate in hav- ing secured the cordial cooperation of three of the eminent Lat- inists who are engaged in the preparation of the "Historische Gramniatik der Lateinischen Sprache" now in process of publica- tion at Leipzig, Professor P. Stolz of the University of Innsbruck, Professor G. Landgraf of Munich, and Professor H. Blase of Giessen, authors whose works are known and read by classical scholars throughout the world, and whose names are identified with the best scholarship of the age. In accordance with a previous arrangement the manuscript on Phonology, Morphology, and Etymology, when nearly ready for the press, was submitted to Professor Stolz with the distinct un- derstanding that if any part of the work was not found to be in full accord with the latest and best views within the range of his own special studies he should point it out, and suggest the best method of bringing the practical and the scientific views into harmony. By a similar arrangement the manuscript on Agree- ment and on the Use oi Cases was submitted to Professor Land- graf, and that on Moods and Tenses to Professor Blase. After a careful examination of the several subjects submitted to their consideration they made written reports with such suggestions as their special studies warranted, and subsequently in a series of personal interviews I had the rare opportunity of obtaining their views and their advice on the various doubtful questions con- nected with our subject. I desire, therefore, to express my grate- ful appreciation of their kindness in thus freely offering me the priceless results of life-long labors in their several spheres. I am happy to acknowledge my indebtedness to my colleagues in the University, Professors A. G. Harkness and W. C. Poland, who have read the proof, and given me the benefit of their accu- rate scholarship and large professional experience ; to Professor E. P. Morris of Yale University for important statistics in regard to Interrogative Sentences, Quod Clauses, and the Use of the Subjunctive in Plautus and Terence; to Dr. H. W. Hayley for aid in the revision of the Prosody ; to Dr. G. A. Williams of the vi PREFACE University Grammar School for the preparation of the indices, and to Dr. H. F. Linscott of the University of North Carolina for valuable suggestions on Phonology and Etyinology. My thanks are also due to many other friends who have kindly favored me with their advice, especially to Dr. C. B. Goff of the University Grammar School, Dr. W. T. Peck of the Providence High School, Dr. Moses Merrill of the Boston Latin School, and Dr. John Tetlpw of the Girls' High and Latin Schools, Boston. For the benefit of those who prefer to begin with a more ele- mentary manual in the study of Latin a school edition of this Grammar is published simultaneously with it. This is intended to meet the wants of ihose who do not contemplate a collegiate course of study ; for all others the complete work will be found far more helpful. In conclusion I desire once more to make my grateful acknowl- edgments to the classical teachers of the country who by their fidelity and skill in the use of my books have won for them such marked success. To their hands this work is now respectfully and gratefully committed. ALBERT HARKNESS. Brown University, June 8, 1898. CONTENTS Introduction PAGE 1 PART I. PHONOLOGY Alphabet .... Pronunciation of Latin . Quantity .... Accentuation .... Inherited Vowels and Diphthongs Vowel Gradation or Ablaut . Phonetic Changes . Changes in Vowels . Changes in Consonants 2 4 6 7 8 9 9 9 14 PAET II. MORPHOLOGY Nouns and Adjectives . . . . Gender Person, Number, and Case .... Declension First Declension, 4-Nouns and ^-Adjectives Second Declension, 0-Nouns and 0-Adjectives Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Third Declension, Nouns and Adjectives Nouns of the Third Declension Stems ending in a Labial : B ov P Stems ending in a Dental : D or T Stems ending in a Guttural : C or G Stems ending in a Liquid : X or i; Stems ending in a Nasal : Mot N Stems ending in S . Stems ending in / . Consonant and /-Stems combined Special Paradigms . Gender as determined by the Endings of Nouns vli 17 18 19 19 21 23 28 31 31 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 39 42 Vlll CONTENTS Adjectives of the Third Declension Fourth Declension, C/-Nouns . Fifth Declension, £-Nouns . General Table of Gender Indeclinable Nouns and Adjectives Defective Nouns and Adjectives Heteroclites .... Heterogeneous Nouns Comparison of Adjectives Numerals PRONOUNS Personal and Reflexive Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Determinative Pronouns Relative Pronouns . Interrogative Pronouns . Indefinite Pronouns Table of CoiTelatives PAGB 45 48 80 51 52 52 55 66 56 61 66 70 71 72 73 75 VERBS Voices, Moods, and Tenses 76 CONJUGATION Sum, I am ; Stems, es, fu First Conjugation : j4-Verbs . Second Conjugation : £- Verbs Third Conjugation : Consonant Verbs Fourth Conjugation : /-Verbs Comparative View of Conjugations Deponent Verbs .... Semi-Deponent Verbs 7- Verbs of the Third Conjugation • Verbal Inflections . Periphrastic Conjugations Formation of Stems Present Stem Perfect Stem . Participial System . Verbal Endings Personal Endings -. Mood £|.nd Tense Signs 80 82 86 90 94 98 102 103 103 106 108 111 111 112 114 114 114 115 CONTENTli ix PAGE Classification of Verbs . , 116 First Conjugation 116 Second Conjugation 117 Third Conjugation 119 Fourth Conjtigation 128 Irregular Verbs 130 Defective Verbs 138 Impersonal Verbs 140 PAETICLES Adverbs 142 Prepositions 144 Conjunctions 145 Interjections 147 PART III. ETYMOLOGY Inflection and Derivation 148 Boot Words — formed from Roots by Inflection 149 Primary Derivatives 150 Secondary Derivatives — Nouns and Adjectives .... 155 Derivation and History of Latin Verbs 165 Root Verbs 165 Thematic Verbs .166 Verbs formed with the Suffix io 166 The Formation of Verbs from the Stems of Nouns and Adjectives 167 Composition of Words 169 PART IV. SYNTAX Classification of Sentences 174 Elements of Simple Sentences . 176 Elements of Compound Sentences . 177 RULES OF AGREEMENT Subject Nominative 178 Agreement of Verb with Subject 179 Appositives and Predicate Nouns 182 Agreement of Adjectives - . .183 Agreement of Pronouns ].?6 CONTENTS USE OF CASES page Nominative and Vocative 188 Accusative 189 Accusative as Direct Object 189 Tv7o Accusatives of the Same Person 192 Two Accusatives — Person and Thing 193 Accusative and Infinitive 194 Accusative as Subject of Infinitive 194 Accusative of Specification 194 Accusative of Time and Space 196 Accusative as Limit of Motion 196 Accusative with Prepositions . . 198 Accusative in Exclamations 199 Dative 200 Dative of Indirect Object 200 Dative vrith Special Verbs 201 Datives vrith Compounds 204 Dative of the Possessor 205 Dative of the Apparent Agent 205 Ethical Dative 207 Indirect Object and Predicate Dative 207 Dative vrith Adjectives 208 Dative with Nouns and Adverbs 209 Genitive 209 Genitive with Nouns 210 Predicate Genitive 215 Predicate Genitive of Price and Value .216 Predicate Genitive with Befert and Interest 217 Genitive with Adjectives . . 218 Genitive with Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting . . . 220 Accusative and Genitive 221 Genitive with Verbs of Feeling 222 Genitive with Special Verbs 223 Ablative 224 Ablative Proper 224 Ablative of Separation 225 Ablative of Source 227 Ablative with Comparatives 229 Instrumental Ablative 230 Ablative of Association . . 230 Ablative of Cause 232 Ablative of Means , , . . . 233 CONTENTS xi PAGE Ablative of Means — Special Uses 234 Ablative of Price and Value 235 Ablative of Difference 236 Ablative of Specification 237 Locative and Locative Ablative 238 Ablative of Place 238 Ablative of Time 240 Ablative Absolute 242 Ablative with Prepositions 243 Summary of Constructions of Place and Space 245 USE OF ADJECTIVES Eljuivalent to a Clause 247 Comparatives and Superlatives 248 USE OF PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns 249 Possessives 250 Reflexive Use of Pronouns 250 Demonstrative Pronouns . . 253 Determinative Pronouns . . 254 Relative Pronouns 256 Interrogative Pronouns 258 Indefinite Pronouns 259 General Indefinite Pronouns 261 Pronominal Adjectives 262 SYNTAX OF VERBS Use of Voices, Numbers, and Persons 263 Distinction between the Three Finite Moods 264 Use of the Indicative 264 Special Uses 265 Tenses of the Indicative 266 Table of Tenses 267 Present Indicative 268 Imperfect Indicative 269 Future Indicative 269 Perfect Indicative 270 Pluperfect Indicative 271 Future Perfect Indicative 272 Tenses of the Subjunctive 273 Xii CONTENTS PAGE Distinction between Absolute and Relative Time . , . . 274 Sequence of Tenses 276 Table of Subjunctive Tenses 275 Peculiarities in the Sequence of Tenses '. . . . . 276 SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES Potential Subjunctive . 278 Optative Subjunctive . 279 Subjunctive of Will, or Volitive Subjunctive 280 Imperative Subjunctive and Imperative 282 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 285 288 290 291 292 Volitive Subjunctive in Substantive Clauses ... Volitive Subjunctive in Clauses of Purpose — Final Clauses . Potential Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses Potential Subjunctive in Clauses of Result — Consecutive Clauses Potential Subjunctive in Substantive Clauses .... Moods in Conditional Sentences . . ... 293 Indicative in Both Clauses . . . 294 Subjunctive, Present or Perfect in Both Clauses . . 296 Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect in Both Clauses Conditional Clauses of Comparison Conditional Adversative Clauses Moods in Adversative and Concessive Clauses Moods with Dum, Modo, Dummodo Moods with Quod, Quia, Quoniam, Quando Indicative and Subjunctive in Relative Clauses Moods with Quln . Subjunctive with Cu7n in Causal and Concessive Clauses Moods in Temporal Clauses with Cum . Temporal Clauses with Postquam, TJbi, Ut, etc. . Temporal Clauses with Dnni, Donee, and Quoad . Temporal Clauses with Anlequam and Priusquam 298 301 302 302 304 304 306 309 312 313 315 316 317 INFINITIVE. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES Origin, Early Use, and Development of the Infinitive .... 319 Infinitive Clause as Object 322 Infinitive or Infinitive Clause as Subject 324 Tenses of the Infinitive 325 CONTENTS GERUNDIVES, GERUNDS, SUPINES, AND PARTICLES PAGE Use of Cases in the Gerundive Construction and in Gerunds . . 329 Supines 332 Participles ■ ... .833 INDIRECT DISCOURSE — ORATIO OBLIQUA Moods in Principal Clauses . 336 Moods in Subordinate Clauses 338 Pronouns and Persons in Indirect Discourse 339 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse . .... 340 Indirect Clauses .... 342 USE OF PARTICLES Use of Adverbs 347 Use of Coordinate Conjunctions 348 RULES OF SYNTAX Rules of Agreement 350 Use of Cases 350 Use of Moods and Tenses 353 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES Arrangement of Words in a Simple Sentence ... 358 Arrangement of Clauses 363 Latin Periods 365 PAET V. PROSODY QUANTITY Quantity of Final Syllables 367 Quantity in Increments . . 369 Quantity of Derivative Endings 370 Quantity of Stem Syllables 371 VERSIFICATION General View of the Subject 372 Feet 373 Rhythmic Series, Verses 375 Figures of Prosody 376 xiv CONTENTS PASE Varieties of Verse 378 Dactylic Hexameter 378 Other Dactylic Verses 381 Trochaic Verse 382 Iambic Verse 383 Ionic Verse 385 Logaoedio Verse 385 Compound Meters 387 Versification of the Principal Latin Poets 388 Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Juvenal 388 Early Latin Rhythms .389 Saturnian Verse 390 APPENDIX Hidden Quantity 391 Figures of Speech 395 Roman Literature 397 Roman Calendar r . . 398 Roman Money 400 Abbreviations in Latin Authors 401 Index of Vekbs 403 General Index 411 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN CITING LATIN AUTHORS Caes. = Caesar, de bello Gallico C. E. P. = Cicero, de Re Publica Caes. C. = " de bello Civile C. Rose. A = " proRoscio Anierino C.Ac. = Cicfero Academica C. Rose. C = " proRoscioComoedo C. Agr. = " de lege Agraria C. Sen. = " de Senectute CAm. = " de Amicitia C. 1 Ver. = " in Verrem Actio I. C. Att. = " ad Atticum C. Ver. = " in Verrem Actio II. C.C. = II in Catilinam H. = Horatius, Garmina CDiv. = " de Divinatione H.E. = " Epistulae C. Div. C = •• Divinatio in Caeei- H.Ep. Epodi lium O. = Ovidius, Metamorphoses C. Fam. = II ad Familiares O.H. = " Heroides C. Man. = II pro lege Manilla PI. = Plantus C.N.D. = i.i de Deorum Natura S. = Sallustius, lugurtha C.Opt.6 = II de Optimo genere S.C. Catilina Oratorum T. = Terentius COr. = 11 de Oratore Tac. = Tacitus C. Q. Fr. = II ad Quintum fratrem Verg. = Vergilius, Aeneis C. Rab. = " pro Rabirio Verg. E. = " Eclogae CEab.P = (I pro Babirio Postumo Verg. G. = " Georgica LATIN aUAMMAR INTRODUCTION 1. The Latin language derives its name from the Latlni, the Latins, the ancient inhabitants of Latium in Italy. It belongs to the Indo-European family, which embraces eight groups of tongues, known as the Aryan, the Armenian, the Greek, the Albanian, the Italian, the Keltic, the Germanic, and the Balto-Slavic. All these languages have one common system of inflection, and in various respects strikingly resemble each other. They are the descendants of one common speech spoken by a single race of men untold cen- turies before the dawn of history. 2. The Latin, the Oscan, and the Umbrian are the three leading members of the Italian group of this family, and the resemblance between them is so great that they appear to be only different dialects o£ one common language. At the dawn of history the Latin was confined to the small district of Latium, while the Oscan was spoken in the southern part of Italy, and the Umbrian in the northeastern part ; but at the beginning of the Christian era, the Latin had not only supplanted the Oscan and the Umbrian in Italy, but it had already beconje the established language of a large part of Southern Europe. The Oscan and Umbrian dialects have been preserved to us only in very scanty remains, but the Latin is enshrined in a rich and valuable literature extending over a period of several centuries. 3. Erom the Latin has been directly derived the entire group of the Romaince languages, of which the Italian, Erench, Spanish, and Portuguese are important members. The English belongs to HAKK. LAT. GKAM. 2 1 2 PHONOLOGY the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family, but it is in- debted to the Latin for one third of its vocabulary. Hence the importance of a thorough knowledge of the Latin, if we would understand and appreciate our own vernacular. LATIN GRAMMAR 4. Latin grammar treats of the principles of the Latin language. It comprises five parts : I. Phonology, which treats of the letters and sounds of the language. II. Morphology, which treats of the form and inflection of words. III. Etymology, which treats of the derivation of words. IV. Syntax, which treats of the structure of sentences. V. Prosody, which treats of quantity and versification. PART I. — PHONOLOGY ALPHABET 5. The Latin alphabet' is the same as the English with the omission of j and w, but k is seldom used, and y and z occur only in words of Greek origin. 1. It originally consisted of only twenty-one letters, as o supplied the place of c and g ; 1 of i and j ; u of u and v and sometimes of y. 2. Subsequently G, formed from C by simply changing the lower part of the letter, was added to the Latin alphabet, and at about the same time z disappeared from it. Thus the alphabet continued to consist of twenty-one letters until the time of Augustus, when y was introduced into it from the Greek and z was restored from the same source. 3. Even in the classical period C was retained in abbreviations of proper names beginning with G. Thus C. stands for Gaius, and Cn. for Gnaeua. This is a survival from the original use of C for G. ' The Romans derived their alphabet from the Greek colony at Cumae. Throughout the classical period they used in general only capital letters. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS 3 4. XT and V, originally designated by the same character, are now used in many of the best editions, the fonmer as a vowel, the latter as a consonant, as in English. 6. Letters are divided according to the position of the vocal organs at the time of utterance into two general classes, vowels and consonants,' and these classes are again divided into various subdivisions, as seen in the following : 7. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTEES Vowels 1. Open vowel ^ a 2. Medial vowels ' e o 3. Close vowels i y u Consonants ( Gutturals Palatals Unguals Dentals tabials 4. Semivowels, sonant^ i = y V = w 5. Nasals, sonant n5 n m 6. Liquids, sonant 1,1: 7. Spirants, surd * h s f 8. Mutes, sonant g d b . 9. Mutes, surd c, q, k t P Note. — z = os, or gs, is a double consonant. 1 If the vocal organs are sufficiently open to allow an uninterrupted flow of vocal sound, a, vowel is produced, otherwise a consonant; but the least open vowels are scsurcely distinguishable from the most open consonants. Thus i, sounded fully according to the ancient pronunciation as §, is a vowel; but com- bined with a vowel in the same syllable, it becomes a consonant with the so^nd of y ; see 12,2. 2The vocal organs are fully open in pronouncing the open a, as in/aWier, less so in pronouncing the close vowels and the semivowels, and very nearly closed iii pronouncing the mutes. ' E is a medial vowel between the open a and the close i, o.a medial vpwel between the open a and the close u; i is a palatalyo-wei, u a labial. The vowel scale, here presented in the form of a triangloj may be represented as a linej with a in the middle, with 1 at the palatal extreme, and with u at the lahial extreme : i e - a o - u - < Sonant or-voiced ! surd or not voiced,' but simply breathed. 6 With the sound of n in concord, linger. It occurs befoTe gtrtturals,' con-' gressus, meeting: 4 PHONOLOGY 8. Observe that the consonants are divided, 1. According to the organs chiefly employed in their produc- tion into Gutturals, — throat letters. Palatals, — palate letters. Liiiguals, — tongue letters. Dentals, — teeth letters. Labials, — lip letters. 2. According to the manner in which they are uttered, into Sonants, or voiced letters. Surds, voiceless or breathed letters.^ 9. Diphthongs are formed by the union of two vowels in one syllable. The most common diphthongs are ae, oe, au, and eu. Ei and ui are rare. ROMAN PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN 2 10. The vowels are pronounced substantially as follows': !Long SI liort a like a in ah : a'-ra* a like initial a in aha': at e " e " they: age e " e " net: et i " i " pique : i'-vi i " i " pick: id 5 " " hole: OS o " " forty: Ob Q " u " rule : u'-su u " u " full: ut 1. A short vowel in a long syllable is pronounced short : sunt, u as in sum, su'-muB ; see 14 and 15. I The distinction between a sonant and a surd will be appreciated by observing the difference between the sonant b and its corresponding surd p in such words a,s,bad,pad. Bis vocalized, p is not. 8 This method is now generally adopted in the schools and colleges of our country. By the English method, which formerly prevailed, the letters are pro- nounced in general as in English. 3 But the vowel sounds must be kept as pure as possible, free from the glide or vanish heard in English. < Latin vowels marked with the macron ~ are long in quantity, i.e. in the duraT tion of the sound ; those not marked are short in quantity ; see 15, 4. Observe that tJie accent is also marked. For the laws of accentuation, see 16 and 17. 5 The short vowels occupy only half as much time in utterance as the long vowels, but they can be only imperfectly represented by English equivalents. They have, however, nearly the same sound as the corresponding long vowels, but.Tvith the exception of a, they are some#hat more open. 6 Or e like a in made ; » like e in me, and Q like oo in moon. ROMAN PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN 5 2. Y, found only in Greek words, is intermediate in sound between the Latin i and u, similar to the French u and the Gerhian ii : Ny'-sa. 3. IT in qu,' and generally in gu and su before a vowel, has the sound of ■w: qui (kwe); lin'-gua (Un-gwa); sua'-sit (swa^sit). 11. Diphthongs. - — In diphthongs, each vowel r sound : , ae nearly like ai in aisle : aes, men'-sae^ oe " ol " coin: foe'-dus au " ou " out: aut, au'-rum eu " eu " feud : neu, neu'-ter^ ei " el " veil : ei, hei ui " we oui (kwe) c in come : co'-ma, ce'-na ch " chemist: cho'-rus g " get: ge'-nus, glo'-ria y " yet: iam (yam), ius (yoos) r " rumor: ru'-mors s " son: so'-no, sa'-cer t " time: ti'-mor, to'-tus w " we: vel, vir qu " quit: qui, quo 12. Consonants. — Most of the consonants are pronounced nearly as in English, but the following require special notice : c like ch " S i " r B " t " qu 1. Before a word beginning with a vowel, or with h, a final vowel, or a final m with a preceding vowel, seems to have been partially suppressed in the ordinary speech of the Romans, as well as in poetry. It was rapidly and indistinctly uttered, and thus it readily blended with the following vowel. 2. Observe that i is sometimes a vowel and sometimes a consonant, that as a vowel it has, when long, the sound of i in machine or of e in me, and that as a consonant it has the sound of y in yet, yes. It is gener- ally a vowel between consonants and a consonant between vowels, and at the beginning of words it is generally a vowel before consonants and a consonant before vowels : si'-mus (se-mus), ma'ior (mah-yor) ; I'-re (e-ra), iam (yam). 3. In the aspirated forms of the mutes, ch, ph, and th, h is in general 1 This is sometimes called the parasitic u, as having been developed in many instances by the preceding consonant. '^ In pronouncing ae, endeavor to unite the sounds of the Latin a and e, and in pronouncing eu, unite the sounds of e and u ; but some scholars pronounce ae like ea in pear. s B should be trilled. 6 PHONOLOOY nearly or quite silent, though sometimes heard, especially in Greek words: cho'-rus (ko-rus"), pul'-cher (pul-ker); A-the'nae; phi-Io'-so-phus. 4. B has the sound of p before s and t: urbs, sub'-ter (pronounced urps, sup'-ter).i 13. Syllables. — In dividing words into syllables, 1. Make as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs : mo'-re, per-sua'-de, men'-sae. 2. Join to each vowel as many of the consonants which precede it — one or more — as can be conveniently pronounced with it : ^ pa'-ter, pa'-tres, ge'-ne-ri, do'-mi-nus, men'-sa, bel'-lum. But — 3. Separate compound words into their component parts : ab'-es, ob-i'-re.^ 4. A syllable is said to be open when it ends in a vowel, and closed when it ends in a consonant. Thus in pa'-ter, the first syl- lable is open, and the second closed. QUANTITY 14. Syllables are in quantity or length either long, short, or common, i.e. sometimes long and sometimes short.'' 1. Long. — A syllable is long in quantity, (1) if it contains a diphthong or a long vowel : haec, res ; and (2) if its vowel is followed by x, or any two consonants, except a mute and a liquid : dux, res, sunt. 2. Short. — A syllable is short, if its vowel is followed by another vowel, by a diphthong, or by the aspirate h: di'-es, vi'-ae, ni'-hil. 1 On Assimilation in Sound in this and similar eases, see SS, 1, footnote. 2 By some grammarians any combination of consonants which can begin either a Latin or a Greek word is always joined to the following vowel, as o'-mnis, i'-pse. Others, on the contrary, think that the Romans pronounced with each vowel as many of the following consonants as could be readily combined with it, a view which is favored by the fact tliat a syllable with a short voM'el becomes long, if that vowel is followed by two consonants, except a mute and a liquid ; as one does not see how the consonants can make the syllable long, unless one of them belongs to it. ' But it is a question whether this traditional rule represents the actual pro- nunciation of the Romans, as it seems probable that compounds were pronounced like simple words. * For rules of quantity, see Prosody. Two or three leading facts are here given for the convenience of the learner. ACCENTUATION 7 3. Common. — A syllable is common if its vowel, naturally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid: a'-gri.^ 15. Vowels, like syllables, are either long, short, or common ; but the quantity of the vowel does not always coincide with the quantity of the syllable, as a short vowel may stand in a long syllable. 1. Vowels standing before x or any two cbnsonants, except a mute and a liquid, are said to have hidden quantity. 2. It is often difficult, and sometimes absolutely impossible, to determine the hidden quantity of vowels ; but it is thought advisable to treat vowels as short, unless there are good reasons for believing them to be long. 3. Vowels are long before ns, nf, and gn: con'-sul, in-fe'-liz, reg'-num, ig'ms. 4. The signs ", and " are used to mark the quantity of vowels, the first denoting that the vowel over which it is placed is long, the second that it is common, i.e. sometimes long and sometimes short ; ubi. All vowels not marked are to be treated as short. ACCENTUATION 16. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first : men'-sa. 1. In Latin as in English accent is stress of voice. 17. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, the last syllable but one, if that is long in quantity,^ otherwise on the Antepenult, the last but two: ho-no'-ris, oon'- su-Iis. 1. The enclitics, que, ve, ne, ce, met, etc., never used as separate words, throw back their accent upon the last syllable of the word to which they are appended : ho-mi-ne'-que ; men-sa'-que ; e-go'-met. 2. Prepositions standing before their cases are treated as Proclitics, i.e. they are so closely united in pronunciation with the following word that they have no accent of their own : sub iii'-di-ce ; in-ter re'-ges. 1 That is, in the order here given, with the mute before the liquid ; if the liquid precedes, the syllable is long. * Thus the quantity of the syllable, not of the vowel, determines the place of the accent: regen'-tis, accented on the penult, because that syllable is long, though its vowel is short ; see 14, 1. 8 PHONOLOGY 3. A secondary or subordinate accent is placed on the second or third syllable before the primary accent — on the second, if that is the first syllable of the word, or is long in quantity, otherwise on the third : mo'-nu-e'-runt, mo'-nu-e-ra'-mus, in-stau'-ra-vi'-mnt. 4. A few long words admit two secondary accents : ho'-no-ri'-fi-cen-tis'- si-mus. 5. Certain words which have lost a final e retain the accent of the full form : il-lio' for il-li'-ce, il-lao' for il-la'-ce, is-tio' for is-tl'-ce, etc. ; bo-nan' for bo-na'-ne, tan-ton' for tan-to'-rie, au-din' for au-dls'-ne, e-duc' for e-du'-ce. 6. Gfenitives in I for ii and vocatives in i accent the penult : in-ge'-ni for in-ge'-ni-i ; Mer-cu'-ri. 18. Compounds are accented like simple words, but facio, when compounded with other words than prepositions, retains its own accent : oa-le-fa'-cit. 19. Original Accent. — Originally all Latin words were accented on the first syllable. This fact must be borne in mind in explain- ing phonetic changes. The syllable immediately following the original accent, i.e. the second syllable of the word, is called a Post-Tonic syllable. INHERITED VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 20. The Latin inherited from the parent speech the vowels, a, e, i, o, u; a, e, i, 6, ii ; and the diphthongs, ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou; ai, ei, oi, au, eu, 6u. In some words these vowels have been preserved unchanged as in the following examples : a : ago, am5, albus a : mater, fagus, clavis e : est, decern, fero S : lex, mensis, plenus i : fides, quis, minuo i : vis, vivus, simus o : octo, domus 5 : donum, notus u : super, ruber u : ratts, sus 1. The Latin also inherited an indistinct Indo-European vowel represented by an inverted e ; see 29. 2. The diphthong au retains its original form in classical Latin, as in autem, augeo ; but all the other diphthongs were more or less changed before the classical period, though most of those which begin with a short vowel occur in rare instances in early Latin. PHONETIC CHANGES 9 VOWEL GKADATION, OR ABLAUT 21. The Latiu also inherited certain vowel variations, which appear in the different forms of certain roots, stems, and suffixes. 1. Thus the common root of fod-io, / dig, and fod-I, 1 have dug, is fod in fod-io and fod in fodi ; that of fac-io, I make, and fec-i, / have made, is fac and fee ; that of gen-us, offspring, and gi-gn-6, I beget, is gen and gn ' ; that of do-num, gift, da-mus, we give, and de-d-i, I have given, is do, da, and d.i This variation in vowels is called Vowel Gradation or Ablaut. 2. These inherited vowel variations in some languages form a somewhat regular gradation, but in Latiu they have mostly disappeared as kindred forms have been assimilated to each other. PHONETIC CHANGES 22. Latin words in the course of their history have undergone important changes in accordance with phonetic laws. 23. The phonetic changes in vowels may be either Qualitative, affecting the quality of the sound, or Quantitative, affecting its length or quantity. I. Qualitative Changes in Vowels 24. An Indo-European a may become in Latin in post-tonic '■' syllables : (1) e, (2) i, (3) i or u, and (4) u. Thus : 1. A becomes e in post-tonic closed ^ syllables, except before labials and 1 : factus, but confectus ; captus, but acceptus. 2. A becomes i in post-tonic open''' syllables, except before labials, and in all post-tonic syllables before ng : ago, but adigo ; statuo, but constituo ; tango, but at-tingo. 3. A becomes i or u in post-tonio open syllables before labials and before 1 : capio, but man-cipium and man-cupium ; salid, but in-silio and in- BUliO. 4. A becomes u in post-tonic syllables before 1 -|- another consonant : salio, but in-sultus ; calco, but in-culco. 1 Observe that the vowel sometimes disappears : gen, gn; da, d. 2 Remember that the term post-tonic is applied to the syllable following the initial accent, I.e. to the second syllable of the word (19), and that a syllable is said to be open when it ends in a vowel, and closed when it ends in a consonant; see 13, 4. 10 PHONOLOGY 25. An Indo-Europeau e may become : (1) i and (2) o. Thus ; 1. E becomes i, (1) in post-tonic syllables, except before r: lego, but col-ligo ; emo, but ad-imo ; (2) in final syllables before s and t : salutes, salutis; Cereres, Cereris; *leget,i legit; *reget, regit; and (3) before n + a guttural : *tenguo, tinguo. 2. B becomes o after an initial v : *velt, volt^; *vemo, vomo. 3. Initial sve becomes so : *svenos, sonus ; *svedalis, sodalis. 26. An Indo-European i may become: (1) e and (2) i or u. Thus: 1. I final may become e, but it sometimes disappears as in neuter stems in ali and ari (103, 1) : *mari, mare ; *levi, leve. 2. I before r for s becomes e : *siso, sero ; *oinisis, cineris. 3. I becomes i or u in post-tonic syllables before labials: pontifez or pontufez. 4. Final er is sometimes developed from ri-stems, as follows : *acri-s, *acr-s, *aoer-s, acer.' 27. An Indo-European o* may become: (1) u, (2) e, (3) e or i, and (4) i or u. Thus : 1. O becomes u (1) in post-tonic closed syllables: *genos, genus; *donom, donum ; and (2) in accented syllables before 1 -f a consonant and before n -I- a consonant : *molta, multa ; *honc, hunc ; *oncos, uncus. 2. O becomes e when final : *isto, iste ; *sequiso, sequere. 3. O becomes e or i in post-tonic open syllables, except before labials : •sociotas, societas ; *novotas, novitas. 4. O generally becomes i, rarely u, in post-tonic open syllables before labials : aurifez, rarely aurufex ; mazimus, maxumus. 5. Final er is sometimes developed from ro-stems in the same way as from ri-stems (26, 4) : *agro-s, *agr-s, *ager-s, ager. 28. An Indo-Eui'opean u becomes i or u in post-tonic syllables before labials: old form dissupo, later dissipo; lacruma, later lacrima. 29. An indistinct Indo-European vowel, represented by an inverted e = 9, generally becomes a in Latin : *datos, datus; *S9tos, satus. 1 The assumed form from which the Latin word, as it appears in literature, is supposed to have been derived, is designated by an asterisk. 2 Volt subsequently became vult. 8 I in acri-s disappears, leaving r sonant, then r sonant becomes er, and final s disappears. * Alter V, u, or qu, o is preserved longer than elsewhere : servos, afterward servus ; so mortuos, equos, etc. PHONETIC CHANGES 11 30. The Indo-European liquids and nasals, 1, r, and m, n, are vocal- ized in Latin; 1 becomes ol, later ul, and r becoines or : *mlta, *molta, multa; *mrtis, mortis; m becomes em, and ii, en: *dekm, decern; *tntos, teutus. 31. Assimilation of Vowels. — A vowel is sometimes assimilated to the vowel of the following syllable: *c6nsuliuin, consilium; *exsulium, ezsiUum; *mehi, mihi; *tebt tibi; *nehil, nihil; »lione, bene; *me- mordit, mo-mordit , *pe-p6scit, po-poscit ; *ce-cunit, cu-currit. n. Qualitative Changes in Diphthongs 32. The diphthong ai is retained in early inscriptions, but it after- ward becomes ae and i. Thus : 1 . Ai generally becomes ae : *laiTos, laevus, scaevus, aevum. 2. Ai becomes i both in post-tonic and in final syllables : quaero, but in-quiro ; *mensais, men^s. 33. The diphthong ei becomes I in pronunciation, although sometimes written ei in early Latin : dico ; divus, fido, sometimes written deivus, feido. 34. The diphthong oi becomes oe, 6, and T. Thus : 1. Oi becomes oe in a few words : poena, foedus. 2. Oi becomes ii in most words : *oinos, *oenos, unus ; *moenia, miiiiia. 3. Oi becomes i in final syllables : *equoi, equi ; *equois, equis. 35. The diphthong au generally remains unchanged, but it sometimes becomes u in post-tonic syllables : claudo, but in-cliido ; fraudo, but de-fraudo, or de-frudo. 36. The diphthongs, eu and on, coalesce and become u : *deue6, *douc6, diico ; *ious, iiis. m. Quantitative Changes in Vowels 37. Vowels are lengthened before ns, nf, and gn : consul, infeliz. ignis. 38. Vowels are often lengthened in compensation for the loss of consonants. Thus : 1. For the loss of s or z in accented syllables before d, 1, m, or n : *nisdos, nidus, English 7ies{,- *isdem. idem; *acsla, ala; *prismos, primus ; *posn6, pono ; *texmd, temio. 12 PHONOLOGY 2. For the loss of h : *mahior, maior ; *ahio, aio. 3. A vowel lengthened before ns In final syllables remains long after the loss of n : *servons, servos ; *regens, reges. 39. Long vowels are shortened 1. Generally before other vowels : *audiunt, audiunt ; *audiam, audiam ; fidSi, fidei ; rei, rei ; but diei, illius. 2. In final syllables before 1, m, r, t, and nt: *aniniall, animal ; *ameni, amem ; *aiidiar, audiar ; ainat,i amat ; *amant, amant. 3. Final a is shortened in classical Latin in the plural of neuter nouns and adjectives and in the Nominative and Vocative singular of nouns in a of the First Declension: templa in Vlautus, later templa ; gravia, gravia; must, musa. 4. Final e, I, and o are sometimes shortened : *male, male ; *nisi, nisi ; *ibi, ibi ; *eg6, ego. 5. The shortening of final syllables is supposed to have begun in dissylla- bles with iambic measurement, i.e. with short penults. In these the final syllable was shortened by being assimilated in quantity to the first, as amat, amat ; bona, bona ; ego, ego. 6. Long vowels in syllables originally accented (19) are sometimes short- ened, and the following consonant is doubled in compensation : lupiter, luppiter; litera, littera ; *mIto, mitto. 40. Vowels may disappear from a word by syncope or vowel absorp- tion : *re-pepuli, reppulx ; *re-cecidi, reccidi ; *clavid6, claudo ; *pri- miceps, princeps ; *unudecira, iindeoim. 1. Final vowrels sometimes disappear: *aiiimali, animal; dice, die; *sine, sin. 41. Occasionally a short vowel, generally u, sometimes e or i, is apparently developed befoi-e a liquid or nasal: *stablom, stabulum; *stablis, stabilis ; but see 30. CONTRACTION OF VOWELS 42. Two vowels of the same quality are contracted into the corre- sponding long vowel : *treies, *trees, tres ; *ignees, ignes ; nihil, *niil, nil ; *coopia, copia. 43. Two vowels of different quality are contracted into a long vowel, generally of the quality of the first : *co-ag6, cogo ; *de-ago, dego ; *pro- emo, promo. 1 Final at, et, and it are preserved long in Plautus and other early poets: versat, habet, velit. CONSONAN-TS 13 1. The changes illustrated in the following verbal forms may have been produced either by contraction, or by the dropping of the syllable ve or vi before r or s : amaveram, amaram ; amavisse, amasse ; nevissem, nessem ; novisse, nosse. 2. Many combinations of vowels remain uncontracted, as ae, ea, eo, ia, ie, ua, and ue : aeneus, earn, moneo, animalia, dies, tngeuua, ingenue. CONSONANTS 44. The Latin inherited the following consonants : 1. The Mutes k, g, t, d, p, b, and the Aspirates gh, dh, bh. 2. The Nasals m, n, and the Liquids 1, i. 3. The Semivowels i and u, and the Spirant s. 45. The Latin inherited three series of k- and g-mutes, distinguished as Palatals, Velars, and Labialized Velars. These are represented in Latin as follows : 1. The Palatals k and g become c and g, and gh generally becomes h, but after n it becomes g : centum, decern, in which k becomes c ; ager, genus, in which g remains g ; humus, hortus, in which gh becomes h ; ango, fingo, in which gh becomes g. Note. — In a few words initial gh before u becomes f : fundo. 2. The Velars are developed like palatals, velar k and g becoming c and g, and velar gh generally becoming h, but becoming g before r : capere, cavere ; grus, tego ; hostis, hortor ; gradior. 3. The Labialized Velar k becomes qu, which becomes c before conso- nants : quls, que, quod, in which the labialized velar k becomes qu, which becomes o in *coc-sI, co^. 4. The Labialized Velar g becomes gu, which remains unchanged after nasals, but is reduced to g before other consonants, and to v when initial or between vowels: unguo, stinguo, in which the labialized velar g becomes gu; glans, agnus; venio, English come; vivus. 5. The Labialized Velar gh becomes f, when initial, gu after n, and v between vowels : formus, frio ; an-guis, nin-guit ; niv-is. 46. The Dentals t and d generally remain unchanged: pater, sep- tem; decern, deus. 1. The aspirate dh becomes f when initial: facio, fores, English door, and generally d when medial, but b before r : medius ; ruber. 47. The Labials p and b generally remain unchanged : potis, pSx, opus; lambo, lubrious ; but p became b in a few words, as in ab for *ap, ob for *op, sub for *sup, bibo for *pib6. 14 PHONOLOGY 1. The aspirate bh becomes (1) f when initial : f rater, English brother; fero, English hear, and (2) b -when medial : al-bus, amb-ituB. 48. The Nasals m i and n and the Liquids 1 ^ and r remain unchanged : medius, homo ; genus, donum ; linquo, ruber. 49. V generally remains unchanged: ovis, aevum; but it is some- times lost between vowels : *nevolo, nolo. 50. S often remains unchanged: est, sumus, suus ; but it gener- ally becomes r between vowels : ^ flos, floris ; genus, generis. CHANGES IN CONSONANTS 51. A Guttural — c, g, q (qu), or h (for gh) — before s unites with it and forms x : *duc-s, dux ; *rog-s, rex ; *coqu-si, coxl ; *trah-si, traxi. 1. For the loss of the guttural between a liquid and s or t, see 58, 1. 52. Note also the following changes in consonants : 1. Dt and tt become st before r ; in other situations they generally become ss, reduced to s after long syllables : *rod-trum, rostrum ; *fod-tus, fos-sus ; *plaud-tus, plau-sus ; *vert-tus, ver-sus. 2. D sometimes represents an original t : aput, apud ; baut, baud. 3. Dv initial sometimes becomes b : dvellum, bellum. 4. Sr, when initial, becomes fr ; otherwise br : *srlgus, Mgus; cold. -*funes-ris, from funes in funer-is, funebris. 5. A euphonic p is generally developed between m and s and between m and t : *com-sI, com-p-si ; *com-tum, com-p-tum. ASSIMILATION 53. A consonant is often assimilated to a following consonant. Thus : L D and t are often assimilated before s ; ds and ts becoming ss, which is simplified to s when final, and after diphthongs and long vowals : *concut- sit, concua-sit ; *lapid-s, lapis ; *art^s, ars ; *amant^s, amans ; *claud-sit, clau-sit ; *suad-sit, sua-sit. 1 M, when final, was a very weak nasal, and before words beginning with a vowel it almost disappeared in pronunciation. 2 L appears in place of an earlier d in about a dozen Latin words : lingua, old form dingua ; lacrima, olere. 8 R sometimes takes the place of final s, following the analogy of r for 8 between vowels; thus honos becomes honor from honor-is. S may be retained between vowels when it stands for ss: bau-si for *haus-si. ASSIMILATION 15 2. D is generally assimilated before c, qu, g, 1, n, p, and s : *hod-ce, *hoc-ce, hoc ; quid-quam, quic-quam ; *ad-ger, ag-ger ; *sed-la, sel-la ; *meroed-narius, meroen-nariua ; *quid-pe, quip-pe ; *claud-sit, *claus-sit, clau- sit. 3. T is assimilated before c and s : »sit-ous, sic-cus ; *conGut-sit, concus-sit. 4. N is assimilated before 1 and m : *un-lus, GUus ; *gen-ma, gem-ma. 5. R is assimilated before 1 : *ager-lus, agel-lus. 6. P is assimilated before f and m: *op-ficIiia, of-ficlna; *sup-mus, aum-mus. 7. S is assimilated before f : *dis-ficilis, dif-licilis. 8. For assimilation in Compounds of Prepositions, see 374. 54. A consonant is sometimes assimilated to a preceding consonant. 1. D and n are generally assimilated to a preceding 1 : *cal-dis, cal-lis ; *ool-nis, col-lis ; *fal-n6, fal-lo. 2. S is assimilated to a preceding 1 or r: »facil-simus, facil-limus; *vel-se, vel-le ; *fer-se, fer-re ; *aoer-simus, acer-rimus. 55. Partial Assimilation. — A consonant is often partially assimilated to the following consonant. Thus : 1. Before the surd s or t, a sonant b or g is generally changed to its cor- responding surd, pi or o : *scrib-si, scrip-si ; »scr!b-tus, scrip-tus ; *reg-si, re^ (81); *reg-tus, rec-tus. 2. Qu^ and h are also changed to c before s and t: *coqu-sit, *coc^sit, cozit ; *ooqu-tus, coc-tus ; *trah-sit, *trac-sit, trazit ; *trah-lus, trac-tus. 3. Before a labial, p or b, n is generally changed to the labial m: inpero, impero ; inperator, imperator ; *inbellis, imbellis. 4. Before n, a labial, p or b, is changed to the labial m in a few words : *sop-nos, som-nus ; *Sab-niom, Sam-nium. 5. M is changed to the dental n regularly before dental mutes, and often before guttural mutes : *eum-dem, eun-dem ; *e6rum-dem, eorun-dem ; *quem-dam, quen-dam ; *tam-tns, tan-tus ; *l]um-ce, hunc ; *prlm-ceps, pim-ceps ; num-quam or nun-quam ; quam-quam or quan-quam. 1 But b is generally retained before s in abs and in nouns in bs : urbs ; and before s and t in ob and sub in compounds and derivatives : ob-servans, ob-tQsus, sub-scribo, sub-ter. In these cases, however, b takes the sound of p, so that assimilation takes place in pronunciation, though not in writing. It is probable also that in some other consonants assimilation was observed even when omitted in writing. 2 Qu ig not a syllable ; u in this combination is simply a parasitic sound de- yeloped by q, which is never found without it. 16 PHONOLOGY 56. Dissimilation. — The meeting of consonants too closely related and the recurrence of the same consonant in successive syllables are sometimes avoided by changing one of the consonants. Thus : 1. *Caeluleus, from caelum, becomes caeruleus. 2. Certain suffixes of derivation have two forms, one with 1 generally used after r, and one with r generally used after 1 ' : alis, arls ; blum, bulum, brum ; clum, ctilum, cnim ; reg-alis, popul-aris ; vooa-bulum, delii- brum ; *ora^clum, ora-ciUum ; *vehi-clum, vehi-culum ; sepul-crum. LOSS OF CONSONANTS 57. Of two consonants standing at the beginning of a word, the first often disappears ; of three thus situated, the first two often disappear : *gnatus, natus ; *gnotus, notus ; *scoruscus, corusous ; stlis, lis ; *stlocus, locus. 58. Groups of consonants often lose one or more of their members. 1. A guttural mute — c, g, or qu — standing between a liquid and s or t, generally disappears : *mulcsit, mulsit ; *fulgsit, fulsit ; *spargsit, sparsit ; *torqusit, torsit ; *fulctus, fultus. 2. A guttural mute occasionally disappears in other situations, especially before m or v : *lucmen, lumen ; *exagmen, examen ; *iugmentum, iumentum ; *bregvis, brevis. 3. Cs and x sometimes disappear: *lucsna, liina; *sexdecim, sedecim ; *sexni, seni ; *axla, ala, wing. i. D generally disappears before so, sp, st : adscendere, ascendere ; adspicere, aspicere ; adstare, astare. 5. N, 1', and s often disappear : *in-gnotus, ignotus ; *equ6ns, equos ; *porscere, poscere ; *isdem, idem ; *iusdex, iiidex ; *prismus, primus ; audisne, audin. 6. I consonant generally disappears between vowels, and sometimes in other situations : *bi-iugae, *bi-iigae, *bi-igae, bigae ; abiicere, abioere.^ Note. — Separate words are sometimes united after the loss of v : si vis, sis, si vultis, sultis. 1 The suffix aris was formed from alls by dissimilation; from clum was formed crum by dissimilation, and culum by developing the vocal liquid 1; blum and brum are both inherited, but bulum was developed from blum. In reg-alis, alia is used because r precedes, but in popul-aris, aris is used be- cause 1 precedes. When neither 1 nor r precedes, the original suffix alls is used. 2 This is the approved form in verbs compounded of iacere and monosyllabic prepositions ; but abicere is pronounced as if written abiicere. The syllable ab thus remains long by position. NOUSrS AND ADJECTIVES 17 7. H often disappeare between vowels, or before i consonant ; piehendo, prendo, nihil, nil ; *ahio, aio ; *mahior, maior. 8. For the assimilation and loss of d and t before s, see 53, 1. 59. Loss of Final Consonants. — Final consonants often disappear. 1. Final d disappeared at a very early date after long vowels and after r : sententdad, sententia, ablative ; praedad, praeda ; *dat5d, dato, impera^ live ; *habetod, habeto ; *cord, cor. 2. Final t disappears after o and s : *lact (lact-is), lac, *ost, oa. 3. Final n disappears in the Nominative singular from stems in on, on : *leon, leo ; *homon, homo ; *egon, ego. 4. Final os disappears in the Nominative singular from stems in ro, and final a sometimes disappears in early inscriptions from other stems in o: *pueros, puer ; *viros, vir ; Roacioa, Roscio, later Roaciua ; Comelios, Cornelio. PART II. — MORPHOLOGY 60. Morphology treats of the Form and Inflection of vi^ords. 61. The Parts of Speech are — Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 62. Nouns, or Substantives, are Names, as of persons, places, or things : Cicero, Cicero; Roma, Rome; domua, house. 1. A Proper Noun is a proper name, as of a person or place : Cicero, Roma. 2. A Common Noun, or Appellative, is a name common to all the mem- bers of a class of objects ; vir, man ; equua, horse. Common nouns include Collective Nouns, designating a collection of objects: populua, people; ezercituB, army. Abstract Nouns, designating properties or qualities: virtiia, virtue; iijstitda, justice. Material Nouns, designating materials as such: aurum, gold; lignum, wood; aqua, water. 63. Adjectives qualify nouns: bonus, good; magnus, great; bonus vir, a good man. 64. Nouns and Adjectives have Gender, Number, and Case. BARK. LAT. GRAM. 3 18 MORPHOLOGY GENDER 65. There are three genders — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 66. Natural and Grammatical Gender. — In Latin gender is either Natural, as dependent upon sex, or Grammatical, as depen- dent upon an artificial distinction according to grammatical rules. Natural Gender 67. The names of Persons have Natural Gender. They are accordingly 1. Masculine, if they denote males; Caesar, Caesar; vir, man; rex, kiTUj. 2. Feminine, if thejr denote females : Tullia, Tullia; muUer, woman; regina, queen. 3. Both Masculine and Feminine, if they are applicable to both sexes : civis, citizen, male or female ; homo, a human being, man or woman ; but when used without distinct reference to sex, such nouns are generally masculine. Note. — A few names of the lower animals are sometimes used in the same way : bos, ox, or cow ; canis, dog, male or female ; anser, gander, or goose. But some names of the lower animals, though applicable to both sexes, have only grammatical gender determined by their endings (71) : cor- vus, raven, masculine ; aquila, eagle, feminine. Rules for Grammatical Gender 68. Masculine. — The names of Eivers, Winds, and Months are masculine: Ehenus, the Rhine; Notus, the South Wind; Martius, March; but 1 . The endings of some of these nouns give them a gender at variance with this rule. Thus names of rivers in a are feminine : Albula, the river Albula ; Allia, the Allia. 69. Feminine. — The names of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees are feminine: Graeoia, Greece; Roma, Rome; Delos, the Island of Delos; pirus, pear tree; but 1. The endings of some of these nouns give them a gender at variance with this rule. Thus plurals in i and a few other nouns are masculine CASES, __ DECLENSION 19 and nouns in um are neuter : Delphi, Pontus ; oleaster, wild olive tree ; pinaster, fir tree, masculine ; Latium, Saguntum, neuter. 70. Neuter. — Indeclinable nouns, Infinitives and clauses used as nouns are neuter: alpha, the Greek letter alpha, a; fas, the right; tuum amare, your loving. 71. Gender by Endings. — In most nouns and adjectives the grammatical gender is determined by the ending of the Nomina- tive singular. Thus nouns and adjectives of the Second Declen- sion (82) in us are masculine : amicus, /c/ejid; bonus, giood; nouns and adjectives in a are feminine: mensa, table; bona, good; and nouns and adjectives in um are neuter: templum, temple; bonum, good. PERSON AND NUMBER 72. The Latin, like the English, has three Persons, the First Person denoting the speaker ; the Second, the person spoken to ; the Third, the person spoken of; and two Numbers, the Singular denoting one, and the Plural, more than one. CASES 73. The Latin, unlike the English, has six cases : Names English Hquivalents Nominative Nominative, Case of the Subject Vocative Nominative, as the Case of Address Genitive Possessive, or Objective with of Dative Objective with to or for '.- ~ Accusative Objective after a Verb or a Preposition -Ablative Oh]ectiye with fronv, with, by^ in 1. Oblique Cases. —The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called the Oblique Cases. 2. Locative. — The Latin has also a few remnants of another case, called the Locative, denoting the Place in Which. DECLENSION 74. Stem and Suflixes. — The process by which the several cases of a,._..wprd..are formed is ..called Declension. It consists in the addition of certain sufELxes to one c6mmon base-called the-steiH.' 20 MORPHOLOGY 1. Meaning. —Accordingly, each case form contains two distinct ele- ments—the Stem,i which gives the general meaning of the word, and the Case Suffix, which shows the relation of that meaning to some other word. Thus, in reg-is, of a king, the general idea, king, is denoted by the stem reg ; the relation of, by the suffix is. 2. Characteristic. —The last letter of the stem is called the Stem Charac- teristic, or Stem Ending. 3. Case Endings. —The case suffixes appear distinct and unchanged only in nouns and adjectives with consonant stems, while in all other words they are seen only in combination with the characteristic, i.e. with the final vowel of the stem. The ending produced by the union of the case suffix with the characteristic vowel is called a Case Ending. Cases Identical in Form 75. 1. The Nominative and Vocative are alike in form, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in us of the Second Declension and in a few Greek nouns. In all other words the Vocative is simply the Nominative used in address, as the Nomi- native is used in English. 2. The Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative in neuters are alike and in the plural end in a. 3. The Dative and Ablative plural are alike. 76. Five Declensions. — In Latin there are five declensions, dis- tinguished from each other by the endings of the Genitive singular, or by the stem characteristic, best seen in the Genitive plural, as follows : Gen. Sing. Ending Characteristic Gen. Plur. ae a seen in mens-a-mm 1 is is us ei 1. The five declensions were inherited from the parent speech. 77. The First, Second, and Third Declensions contain both nouns and adjectives ; the Fourth and Fifth only nouns. 1 In many words the stem itself is derived from a more primitive form called a Root. For the distinction between roots and stems, see 320, 1. 2 The o in serv-5-ruin was orisinally short ; hence the characteristic is O. i In. this word the characteristic is t. Declension I. or A-Dec. II. " 0-l)ec. III. " I-Dec. '■■ " Cons. Deo. IV. " U-Dec. V. " B-Dec. o " serv-o-rum i " civ-i-um cons. " mHi-t-um" u " fruot-u-um e " di-e-nim FIRST DECLENSION 21 FIRST DECLENSION A-NouNs AND A-Adjectives — Stems in a 78. Latin nouns and adjectives of the First Declension end in I and are feminine. They are declined precisely alike, as follows : A-NouNS Mensa, table, a table, or the table. Singular Cases Meaning Case Endings' N.V.2 mSnsa a table, table a Gen. mensae of a table ae Dat. mensae to or for a table ae Ace. mensam a table am Abl. mensa with, from, or by a table ^ Plukal S, N.V. mensae tables, tables ae Gen. mensarum of tables arum Dat. mensis to or for tables is Ace. mensas tables as Abl. mensis with, from, or by tables is A-NoxiN'S AND A-Adjectives Bona, good Singular regma, qiieen. Cases Adjective Noun Meaning N. V. bona rgglna a good queen, good queen Gen. bonae reginae of a good queen Dat. bonae reginae to or for a good queen Ace. boneun reginam a good queen Abl. bona reglna^ with, from, or by a good queen 1 These case endings will serve as a practical guide to the learner in distin- guishing the different cases. The two elements which originally composed them have undergone various changes, and in certain cases, the one or the other has nearly or quite disappeared. 2 N. V. = Nom. and Voo. As the Vocative is only a special use of the Nomi- native, it is combined with that case in the paradigm. s The Ablative, used sometimes with a preposition and sometimes without, is variously rendered, but the Ablative of persnnal appellatives takes a preposition, as a or ab, from, by ; cum, with, etc. ; a bona regina, /rom or 6^ the good queen. ii MORPHOLOGY Plural N. V. bonae reglnae Gen. bonarum reginanun Dat. bonis reglnis Ace. bonas reglnas Abl. bonis reginis good queens, good queens of good queens to or for good queens good queens with, from, or by good queens 1. Steins. — In nouns and adjectives of the First Declension, the stem ends in a, shortened in the Nominative and Vocative singular. Thus the stem mensa becomes mensa in the Nominative, bona becomes bona, and regina, regina. 2. In the paradigms, observe that the several cases are distinguished from each other by their case endings. 3. Examples for Practice. — Like mensa and bona decline : ala, wing ; causa, cause; puella, girl; beata, happy; longa, long; pulchra, beau- tiful. i. Locative. — Names of towns and a few other words have a Locative singular in ae, denoting the Place In Which any thing is or is done : Bomae, at Borne ; militiae, in war. In the plural the Locative meaning is expressed by the ending la : Athenis, at Athens. 5. Exceptions in Gender. — A few nouns in a are masculine by signi- fication: agdcola, husbandman ; see 67, 1. Hadria, Adriatic Sea, is mas- culine ; sometimes also damma, deer, and talpa, mole. 6. Article. — The Latin has no article : corona, crown, a crown, the crown. 7. Original Case Endings. — The following are the original case endings with the forms which they assumed in the classical period : Singular Plural Original Classical Original Classical form form form form N.V. a a ai ae Gen. as, al ae asom arum Dat. ai ae ais is Ace. am am ans or as as Abl. ad a ais is 79. Of these original endings f om are found in Latin writers ; 1. a in the Nominative and Vocative singular in Plautus and Terence. 2. as in the Genitive singular of familia, in composition with pater, mater, filius and filia : paterfamilias, father of a family. 3. ai in the Genitive singular in the poets : aulai, afterwards aulae, of a hall. SECOND DECLENSION 23 4. ad in the Ablative singular in early Latin : sententiad, later aenten- tia, by the opinion. 80. Two other case endings, common in some other declensions, but rare in this, are 1. um^ in the Genitive plural, chiefly in the poets : agiicolum = agrico- lanim, of farmers; Dardanidum, of the descendants of Dardauus. 2. abus^ in the Dative and Ablative plural, especially in dea, goddess, and filia, daughter, to distinguish them from the same cases of deus, god, and filius, son : deabus, for the goddesses. 81. Greek Nouns. — Nouns of this declension in e, as, and es are of Greek origin, but in the plural they have assumed the Latin declension, as seen in mensa. In the singular they are declined as follows : Epitome, Aeneas, Pyrites, epitome. Aeneas. Singular pyrites. Nom. epitome Aeneas pyrites Voc. epitome Aenea pyrlte, pyrita Gen. epitomes Aeneae pyritae Dat. epitomae Aeneae pyritae Ace. epitomen Aeneam, Aenean pyriten Abl. epitome Aenea pyrite, pyrita 1. In nouns in e and es, the stem ending a is changed to e in certain cases. The stem of epitome is epitoma, of Aeneas, Aenea, and of pyri- tes, pyrita. 2. Many Greek nouns assume the Latin ending a and are declined like mensa. Many in § have also a form in a : epitome, epitoma. SECOND DECLENSION O-NouNS AND O-Adjectives — Stems in o 82. Latin nouns and adjectives of the Second Declension end in us, in r, from which us has been dropped, or in um. Those in us and r are masculine, those in um neuter. 1 This is the regular suffix iu nouns of the Third and Fourth Declensions. 2 bus in a-bus is the regular suffix for these cases iu the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Decleusious. 24 MORPHOLOGY 83. Nouns and adjectives in us and um are declined as follows : Amicus, Bonus, Templum, Bonum, friend. good. Singular temple. good. Nom. amicus bonus 1 bone > templum bonum Voc. amice Gen. amici boni templT boni Dat. amico bono templo bono Ace. amicum bonum templum bonvun Abl. amico bono Plural templo bono N. V. amici boni templa bona Gen. amiconim bonorum templorum bonorum Dat. amicis bonis templis bonis Ace. amicos bonos templa bona Abl. amicis bonis templis bonis 1. stem. — In nouns and adjectives o£ the Second Declension, the stem ends in o with an ablaut form e, seen in the Vocative singular masculine. O becomes u in us and um. The stem of amicus is amico, of bonus and bonum, bono, and of templum, templo. The Nominative masculine adds s and the neuter m : amicu-s, templu-m. 2. In the paradigms, observe that bonus is declined precisely like ami- cus, and bonum like templiun. 3. Like amicus decline dominus, master ; like templum, bellum, war; like bonus, beatus, happy ; like bonum, beatum, happy. 4. Locative. — Names of towns and a few other words have a Locative singular in i: Ephesi, at Ephesus; Corinthi, at Corinth; domi, at home; belli, in war. In the plural the Locative meaning is expressed by the end- ins is : Argis, at Argos. 5. Getmine Latin Proper Names in ius and the word iilius form the Vocative singular in i and accent the penult: Mercu'-ri, Mercury ; Si, son. Proper names in elus have ei or ei : Pompei or Pompei. 6. Nouns in ius and ium have in the Genitive singular ii or i, without a change of accent : fi-lii, fl'-li, of a son ; Clau-dii, Clau'di, of Claudius ; inge-nii, inge'-ni, of genius. The latter fw-m was in general use under the Republic, but the former became common in the age of Augustus ; both are used in editions of classical authors. In proper names many editors retain the Genitive in i : Publi Vergi'-li, of Fublius VergiUus. 7. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative singular in classical Latin, but is other- wise regular in that number. It is declined in the plural as follows : SECOND DECLENSION 25 N-V. (del) dii dl G^^- deorum, sometimes deum Ace. deos Dat. Abl. (dels) diis dis Note. — The inclosed forms, though regular, are rarely used. Dii is pronounced like di, and diis like dis. 8. The three neuter nouns in us,i pelagus, sea, virus, poUon, and vulgus, the common people, are declined in the singular as follows : N. V. Ace. pelagus virus vulgus Gen. pelagi viri vulgi Dat. Abl. pelagS viro vulgo 9. Original Case Endings. — The following are the original case endings with the forms which they assumed in the classical period : SlNGCLAK Masc. uline Neuter Nom. Voc. Original form OS e Classical form us J, Original C form cm lassical form um Gen. ei 1 ei i Dat. 6i o oi 6 Ace. cm um om nm Abl. od o od 5 N.V. oi' Plural i a a Gen. om orum* om orum Dat. ois IS ois is Ace. ons OS a a Abl. ois is ois is 10. The original endings os and om were retained after u and v until the Augustan age: ingenues, ingenuom, free-born; servos, servom, slave; 1 These may have been originally s-stems which by the loss of s became o-stems. Pelag-us is a Greek noun, and in general is used only in the singu- lar, though pelage occurs as an Aec. plur. Virus and vulgus are used only in the singular. Vulgus has a masculine Accusative, vulgum, in addition to the neuter form vulgus. 2 The endings us and e are seen only in nouns and adjectives in us. In the masculine of nouns and adjectives in r, the Nominative has lost the ending us, and the Vocative is like the Nominative. * The final i is probably borrowed from the Pronominal Declension. * A later formation after the analogy of the Genitive ending arum. 26 MORPHOLOGY equos, equom, horse; but during the reign of Augustus us and um became the common endings for all words of this class, though in some editions, especially of the earlier writers, os and om are still retained. 84. Old and Rare Case Endings : — The following occur ^ : 1. 6d in the Ablative singular : Gnaivod, later Gnaeo ; meritod, later merits, from merit. 2. a in the plural of neuters: templa, later templa. 3. um in the Genitive plural of certain nouns denoting money, weight, and measure : talentum = talentorum, of talents ; sestertium = seBtertio- rum, of sesterces ; also in a few other words : liberum, of children ; Argivum, of the Argives. 85. Nouns and adjectives in r of the Second Declension have lost the case ending us in the Nominative singular, and are declined as follows ; Puer, Liber, Ager, Ruber, boy. free. SlNOnLAR field. red. N.V. puer liber ager ruber Gen. pueri liberi agri rubri Dat. puero libero agro rubro Ace. puerum libenuh agi-um rubnim Abl. puero libero Plcral agro rubro N.V. pueri liberi agri rubii Gen. puerorum llberorum agronim rubrorum Dat. pueris liberis agris rubris Ace. pueros liberos agros rubros Abl. pueiis liberis agris rubris 1. In the paradigms, observe that puer and ager differ in declension from amicus, in dropping the ending us in the Nominative, and in forming no separate Vocative : Nom. puer from puer-us. 2. Liber is declined like puer, and ruber like ager. 3. 'Vhe stem of puer is puero, of liber, libero, of ager, agro, and of ruber, rubro. 4. Ager was formed from agros thus: *agr-o-s, *agr-s, *ager-s, ager.^ 1 A few other endings occur in inscriptions. 2 First o disappears, l-aving r sonant, then r becomes er, ♦ager-s, and finally 8 disappears, leaving agar. SmCOND DECLENSION' 27 5. Like puer decline gener, son-in-law; like ager, magister, master; like liber, miser, unhappy ; like ruber, niger, black. 86. Most nouns and adjectives in r of this declension are declined like ager and ruber, but the following nouns are declined like puer : 1. Vir, man, and its compounds : vir, viri, etc. ; triumvir, triumviri, etc., member of a triumvirate. 2. Compounds in fer and ger : armiger, armigeii, armor bearer; signi- fer, signiierf, standard bearer. 3. Adulter, adulterer; Celtiber,' Celtiberian; gener, son-in-law; HibSr,! Spaniard; Liber, Bacchus; liberi, children; Mulciber,^ Vul- can; presbyter, elder; socer, father-in-law; vesper, evening. 4. For Adjectives, thus declined, see 92. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDEE 87. A few nouns in us are Feminine : 1. Most names of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees: Aegyptus, Egypt ; Corinthus, Corinth ; Cyprus, Cyprus ; pirus, pear tree. 2. A few words in us of Greek origin: methodus, method; synodus, synod; diphthongus, diphthong. 3. Five other words in us : alvus, belly ; carbasus, linen ; colus, dis- taff; humus, ground; vannus, fan. 88. Three nouns in us are Neuter: pelagus, sea; virus, poison; vulgus, the common people. 89. Greek Nouns. — Nouns of the second decliension in os, 6s, generally masculine, and in on, neuter, are of Greek origin. They are declined in the singular as follows : Delos, f.,^ Androgeos, Ilion, Delos. Androgeos. Ilium. Singular Norn. Voc. Delos 1 D6le , Androgeos Ilion Gen. Deli Androgeo, Androgei ilii Dat. Delo Androgeo Ilio Ace. Delon Androgeon, Androgeo Ilion Abl. Delo Androgeo , Ilio 1 Celtiber and Hiber have e long in the Genitive as In the Nominative, and Mulciber sometimes drops e. 2 Observe that Delos, the Island Delos, is feminine by signification. 28 MORPHOLOGY 1. 'I'he plural of nouns in os and on is generally regular, but certain Greek endings occur, as oe in the Nominative plural, and on in the Geni- tive plural: Aictoe, the constellation of the Bears; Theraeon, of the Theraeans. 2. In the paradigms, the stems are Delo, Androgeo, and Ilio. 3. Most Greelc nouns generally assume the Latin forms in us and lun "and are declined like amicus and templum. Many in os and on have also a form in us and um, or at least assume the regular Latin forms in some of their cases. 4. Per Greek nouns in eus, see Orpheus, 110. 5. Panthiis has Voc. FanthQ. For pelagus, see 83, 8. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 90. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, as we have already seen, are declined like nouns of the same endings, but unlike nouns, each of these adjectives has three different forms, one for each of the three genders. Thus bonus is the form of the adjective when used with masculine nouns, bona with feminine, and bonum with neuter : bonus amicus, a good friend ; bona regina, a good queen; bonum templum, a good temple. 91. Comparative View of the three Forms representing the three Genders in Adjectives of this class. Masculine Feminine Neuter Bonus, bona. bonum. good. good. good. Nom. Voc. bonus 1 bone J Singular bona bonum Gen. boni bonae boni Cat. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bonam bonum Abl. bono bona PLnRAL bono N.V. boni bonae bona Gen. bonorum bonarum bonorum Dat. bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonos bonas bona Abl. bonis bonis bonis FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 29 Masculine Feminine Neuter Liber, libera, llberum, free. free. Singular free. N. V. liber libera liberum Gen. Uberi liberae liberi Dat. libera liberae libero Ace. llberum libei-am liberum Abl. llbero libera Plural libero N. V. liben liberae libera Gen. liberorum liberaram liberorum Dat. UbeioB libeiis libens Ace. llberos liberas libera Abl. llberis liberls liberls Masculine Feminine Neuter Ruber, rubra. rubrum, red. red. Singular red. N. V. ruber rubra rubi-um Gen. rubii rubrae rubii Dat. rubro rubrae rubro Aec. rubrum rubram rubrum Abl. rubro rubra Plural rubro N. V. rubri rubrae rubra Gen. rubrorum rubrarum rubrorum Dat. rabris rubiis rubris Aec. rubros rubras rubra Abl. rubris rubris rubris 1. In the paradigms observe that in the masculine bonus is declined like amicus, ITber like puer, and ruber like ager, and that in the feminine and neuter all the examples are declined alike : bona, libera, rubra like mensa ; bonum, liberum and rubrum like templum, and that all these forms con- tain the full stem, while in the masculine liber and ruber lose the stem vowel o in the Nominative and Vocative singular. 2. Adjectives in ius, unlike nouns with this ending, always have ie and ii in the Vocative and Genitive singular: egregius, excellent; egregie, Sgregu. 30 MORPHOLOGY 92. Most adjectives in r of the Second Declension are declined like ruber, but the following are declined like liber : 1. Satur, sated; satur, satura, saturum. 2. Compounds in fer and ger: morti-fer, deadly ; ali-ger, winged. 3. Asper, rough; dexter, right; lacer, torn; miser, wretched; pros- per, prosperous; tener, tender; but asper and dexter are sometimes de- clined like ruber : asper, aspra, asprum ; dexter, dextra, dextrum. 93. Irregularities. — The following nine adjectives have in the singular ius in the Genitive and i in the Dative : flnus una iinum one, alone s51us sola solum alone totus tota totum whole uUus uUa illlum any niillus nQlla nQlluiu not any alius alia aliud another alter altera alterum the other uter utra utrum which neuter neutra neutrum neither 1. The endings lus, i, and ud, as in ali-ud, are regular endings in tlie Pronominal Declension, from which they are borrowed ; see ist-ius, ist-i, ist-ud (179). . 2. Alius, regular in the plural, has one or two special irregularities in the singular, as follows : Nom. alius alia aliud 1 Gen. alius alius alius Dat. alii alii alii Ace. alium aliam aliud Abl. alio alia alio 3. Alius, for allius by contraction, is rare ; its place is sometimes sup- plied Jby alterius, the Genitive of alter, and sometimes by alienus, belong- ing to another. ' i 4. In the rest of these adjectives, the irregularity is confined to the^Geni- tive and Dative endings, lUS and i, but i in ius is often shortened by the poets; regularly- in alterius in dactylic verse. 5. The regular forms occasionally occur in the Genitive and Dative singu- lar of some of these adjectives. 6. Like uter are declined its compounds : uterque, utervis, uterlibet, utercunque, but i is short in utriusque. 7. In alter uter, both parts are declined : alterius utrius, but in alter- uter, only the latter part is declined : alterutrius. J- Alls for alius and alld for aliud, from the stem all seen in aliquls, some one, are rare. . ' THIRD DECLENSION 31 THIRD DECLENSION NoDNS AND Adjectives — SiEMS in a Consonant and Stems in I 94. The Third Declension, like the First and Second, contains both nouns and adjectives. Noxins of the Third Declension 95. Nouns of the Third Declension may be conveniently di- vided into four classes : I. Nouns with Consonant Stems. II. Nouns with I-Stems. III. Nouns with Consonant and I-Stems combined. IV. Special Paradigms.^ I. — Consonant Stems 96. Stems ending in a Labial : B or P. Princeps, m., leader, chief. Singular Case Suffixes N. V. princeps a leader, leader s Gen. principis of a leader is Dat. prlnoipi to, for a leader i Aco. prlncipem a leader em Abl. priQcipe with, Plurai from, by a leader e N. V. principes leaders, leaders es Gen. principum of leaders um Dat. principibus to, for leaders ibus Ace. principes leaders es Abl. principibus with, from, by leaders ibus 1. stem and Case Suffixes. — In this paradigm observe that the stem is piincip, which becomes princep in the Nominative singular, and that the case suffixes appear distinct and separate from the stem. 2. Variable Vowel. — In the final syllable of dissyllabic consonant stems, short e or i generally takes the form of e in the Nominative and Vocative singular and that of i in all the other cases. Thus princeps, piincipis, 1 For Gender, see 111-124. 32 MORPHOLOGY mHes, mllitis (97), and carmen, oarminis (100) all have e in the Nomi- native and Vocative singular and i in all the other oases. See also opus, opens (101). 3. In monosyllables in bs the stem ends in b, bi ; see urbs, 105. 4. For the Locative in this declension, see 108. 97. Stems ending in a Dental: D or T. Lapis, m., Aetas, f., Miles, m., stone. age. Singular soldier. N. V. lapis aetas miles Gen. lapidis aetatis militia Dat. lapldi aetati inlliti Ace. lapidem aetatem militem Abl. lapide aetate Plural mllite N. V. lapides aetates milites Gen. lapidum aetatum niilitum Dat. lapidibus aetatlbuB militibus Ace. lapides aetates milites AW. lapidibus aetatlbua militibus Nepos, m, ,, VirtQs, f., Caput, n., grandson. virtue. Singular head. N. V. nepos virtiiB caput Gen. nepotis virtutis capitis Dat. nepoti virtuti capiti Ace. nepotem virtutem caput Abl. nepote virtute Plural capite N. V. nepotes virtutes capita Gen. nepStum virtiltum capitum Dat. nepotibuB virtutibus capitibuB Aec. nepotes virtates capita Abl. nepOtlbus virttttibus capitibus 1. stems and Case Suffixes. — In these paradigms observe that the stems are lapid, aetat, milit, nepot, virtiit, and capit, and that the case suffixes are the same as those given for labial nouns, except in the neuter caput, vfhich has in the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative no case suffix in the singular and a in the plural. THIRD DKCLENSION 33 2. Miles has the variable vowel e, i, and caput, u, i. 3. Like nepos are declined, cos, whetstone; dos, dowry; sacerdos, priest. For flos, floris, see 101. 4. Like virtus are declined iuventtis, ymtth ; salus, safety ; senectus, old age; servltus, seroittide. Forius, iuris, see 101. 5. The Nominative of masculine and feminine nouns is formed by adding s to tlie stem. The dental, d or t, disappears before s : see 53, 1. 6. Neuters in a, stem in at, are of Greek origin ; see 110, 5. 98. Stems ending in a Guttural: C or G. Dux, in. and f., Radix, f., leader. root. N. V. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. N. V. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. dux duels duel ducem duee duces ducum ducibua dueSs dueibus SiNGCLAR radix radicis radi(5 radlcem radlce Plural radices i-adic\un radlcibus radices radlcibus Eex, ni., king. Case SiifHxes rex s regis Is re^ i regem em rege e reges es rggum um regibus ibus reges es rggibus ibus 1. stems and Case Su£Sxes. — In these paradigms observe that the stems are due, rSdlc, and reg, that the case suffixes are the same as those given in 96, and that a in the Nominative singular unites with c or g of the stem and forms z, as duc-s, dux ; reg-s, rex. 99. Stems ending in a Liquid: L or R. Consul, m.. Passer, m.. Pater, m consul. sparroiv. Singular father. N.V. consul passer pater Gen. consulis passeris patris Dat. cOnsuli passeri patii Ace. eonsulem passerem patrem Abl. consule passere patre HARE. LAT. GRAM. — 4 34 MORPHOLOGY N.V. consules Gen. consilium Dat. c5nsulibus Aoc. consules Abl. consulibuB Plukal passeres patres passerum patnim passeribus patribus passerea patres passeribus patribus 1. Stems and Case Suffixes. — In these paradigms observe that the stems are consul, passer, and pater, patr,i and that they do not take s in the Nominative singular. 2. Passer, Pater. —Most nouns in er are declined like passer, but those in ter, with a very few exceptions, are declined like pater. 3. Four stems in or have the variable vowel, o, u: ebur, ebor-is, ivory; femur, thigh ; ieour, liver ; robur, strength. 100. stems ending in a Nasal: M or N. Hiems, f., Leo, m., Virgo, f., Carmen, n., winter. lion. Singular maiden. song. N.V. hiems leo Virgo carmen Gen. hiemis leonis virginis carminis Dat. hiemi leoni virgin! ' carmini Aco. hiemem leonem virginem carmen Abl. hieme leone Pluhal virgine carmine N.V. hiemea leones virgines carmina Gen. hiemiun leSnum virginum carminum Dat. hiemibus leonibus virginibus carminibus Ace. hiemes leones virgines carmina Abl. hiemibus leonibus virginibus carminibus -In these paradigms observe that the 1 2 1. Stems and Case Suffixes. stems are hiem, leon, virgon, virgin,^ and carmen,^ that biem, the only stem in m, takes s in the Nominative and Vocative singular, while stems in n take no suffix in those cases, that leon and virgon drop n, and that virgS has the variable vowel o, i, and carmen, e, i. 2. Leo and Virgo. — Most nouns in 5 are declined like leo, but those in thei- cases. , .„ ; _ .. •., .- .• . - 36 MORPHOLOGY 102. Stems ending in I. the Genitive. II. — I-Stems -Nouns in is and es, not increasing in Tussis, f., Navis, f., Ignis, m., Auris, f., cough. ship. fire. SiNGDLAK Case Endings N. V. tussis navis ignis auris is Gen. tussis navis ignis auris is Dat. tussi navl igni auri i Ace. tussim navim, navem jgnem aurem im, em Abl. tussi navi, nave ignl, igne aure i, e Plural N.V. tusses naves ignes aures gs Gen. tussium navium ignium auiium ium Dat. tussibus navibus Ignibus auribus ibus Ace. ' tusses , tussis naves ignes aures es navis Ignis auris Is Abl. tussibus navibus ignibus audbus ibus. 1. stems and Case Endings. — In these paradigms observe tliat the stems are tussi, navi, igni, and auri, that the case endings contain the characteris- tic i, and that tussis, navis, ignis, and auris, differ in declension only in the Accusative and Ablative singular, tussis showing the final i of the stem in both of these cases, navis sometimes in both, ignis sometimes in the Ablative but not in the Accusative, auris in neither. 2. Like tussis — Ace. im, Abl. i — are declined biiris, plow-tail; sitis, thirst, and in the singular, names of rivers and towns in is, with the Geni- tive in is : Albis, the Elbe ; Tiberis, the Tiber ; Hispalis, Seville ; Ne&- polis, Naples. 3. Like navis — Ace. im, em, Abl. i, e — are declined the feminines clavis, key; iehxis, fever ; messis, harvest; pelvis, basin; puppi^, stern; restis, rope; seciiris, axe; sementis, sowing; turris, tower; strigilis, strigil. Note. — Araris, or Arar, for Araris, the Saone, and Liger, for Ligeris, the Loire, have Ace. im, em, Abl. i, e. 4. Like ignis — Ace. em, Abl. i, e — are declined: amnis, river; avis, bird; bilis, bile; civis, citizen; clasais, fleet; collis, hill; finis, end; orbis, circle ; postis, post ; unguis, nail ; and a few others. 5. Like auris — Aco. em, Abl. e — are declined all nouns in is, Gen. is, not provided for under 2, 3> and 4, except canis, doQy and iuvenis,. a uovth. THIRD DECLENSION 37 consonant steins which have assumed i in the Nominative singular. Apia, 6ee; mensis, month; and volucris, bird, often have um for ium in the Genitive. 6. Adjectives which have i in the Ablative generally retain i when used substantively, as in the names of months, etc. : Septembri, in September ; Octobri, in October; a familiari, fi-om a friend. But adjectives used as proper names take e : luvenSlis, luvenale, Juvenal. 103. Stems ending in I. — Neuters in e, al, and ar. Cubile, Animal, Calcar, couch. animal. Singular spur. Case Endings N.V. cubile animal calcar e — Gen. cubilia animalis calcaris is Dat. cubili animal! calcari i Ace. cubile animal calcar e — Abl. cubili animali Plural calcaif i N.V. cubilia animalia calcaria ia Gen. cubllium animalium calcarium ium Dat. cubilibus animalibus calcaiibus ibus Ace. cubilia animalia calcaria ia Abl. cubilibus animalibus calcaribus ibus 1. Paradigms. — Observe that the stem ending i is changed to e in the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative singular of cubile, and dropped in the same cases of animal, for *animale, and calcar, for *calcare ; see 26, 1, and 40, 1 ; and that the case endings include the stem ending i. 2. A few nouns have e in the Ablative singular, as names of towns in e : Fraeneste ; generally rete, net, and in poetry sometimes mare. 3. Neuters in ar, aris, with a short in the Genitive, are consonant stems : nectar, nectaiis, nectar. III. — Consonant and I-Stems Combined 104. This class of Latin nouns was produced by a fusion of consonant and i-stems. It consists of i-stems which have lost the final i in the singular and of consonant stems which have assumed i in the plural. 38 MORPHOLOGY 105. Nouns in es and nouns in s and x generally preceded by a consonant. IllilllU. Nubes, f. ,, Urbs, f., Arx, f., cloud. city. Singular citadel. N. V. nubea urba arxi Gen. nubia urbia arcia Dat. nubi urbi arci Aoc. nubem urbem arcem Abl. nube urbe Plural arce N. V. nubea urbea arcea Gen. nubium urbium arcium Dat. nubibua urbibus arcibus Aco. f nubea 1 nubia f urbea t urbia f aroea I aroia Abl. nubibua urbjbua aroibua 1. Paradigms. — Observe that these nouns are declined in the singular like oonsonant stems, and in the plural like i-stems. 106. To this class belong the following nouns : 1. Nouns in ea, Gen. in ia : caedea, slaughter; cladea, disaster; aedea, seat ; atruea, heap ; aubolea, sprout, although several of these are ocoasion- ally used as oonsonant stems, and a very few are generally so used, as ambagea (pi.), roundabout way; prolea, offspring; sedea; aubolea; and vatea, soothsayer. 2. Most nouns in na and ra ^ : cliena, client; cohora, cohort. 3. Monosyllables in a and x preceded by a consonant' : urba, city; arx, citadel. i. A few monosyllables in a and x preceded by a vowel : dos, dowry ; glia, dormouse ; lia, strife ; maa, a male ; nox, night ; via, force, and gen- erally fraua, fraud, and mua, mouse, and sometimes laua, praise. 5. Generally Patrial Nouns in aa, ia, plural in atea and itea : Arpinaa, pi. Arpinatea, the Arpinates ; Samnia, pi. Samnitea, the Samnites. 6. Optimatea, the aristocracy; penatea, the household gods ; sometimes nouns in taa : civitaa, state. Gen. pi. civitatum, sometimes civitatium. 1 X in arx = cs. C belongs to the stem, and s is the case snffix. 2 Some of these often have um in poetry, and sometimes even in prose, as parens, parent, generally has. s Except (ops) , opis, help, and a few Greek words. THIRD DECLENSION 39 Note. — Caro, flesh; imber, storm; linter, boat; uter, leathern sack; and venter, belly, have ium in the Genitive plural like i-stems. IV. — Special Paradigms 107. Sus, m.andf., Bos, m. and f., Nix,i, Senex,m., Vis, f., swine. ox, cow. snow, old man. force. N. V. sua Gen. suia Dat. sui Ace. suem Abl. sue N.V; suSa Gen.' suum Dat. ' suibua , SUbUB Ace. suea AW suibua . SUbUB Singular boa bovia bovi bovem bove bovea f bovum I bourn f bobua \ btibua bovea f bobua I bubua nix senex via nivia senia vial nivi seni vii nivem senem vim nive sene vi iSAL nivea senea virea nivium senum virium nivibus senibua viribuB nivea senea virea nivibua senibua viribua 1. stems. — In the paradigms observe that the stems of aua and boa are au and bou ; that the diphthong ou of the stem boii becomes 6 in boa and bobua, ii in bubua, and ov in the other forms ; that tlie stem nigv unites with a and forms nix ; that it becomes niv in the other forms of the singu- lar, and assumes i in the plural ; and that aenez is declined from two stems, aenec and sen, and via from two, vi and viai, which becomes ^nri. 2. Siis and griia, crane, .the only ti-stems in this declension, are declined alike, except in the Dative and Ablative plural, where grua is regular, gruibus. 3. luppiter (lou-piter ; piter = pater) is thus declined : luppiter, lovis, lovi, lovem, love. The stem lou became lii in lu-piter, which finally be- came luppiter, but it became lov in the oblique cases. 4. Case Suffixes and Case Endings. — The following are the original ca-se suffixes and case endings for masculine and feminine nouns, with the forms ■which they assume in the classical period : 1 The Genitive and Dative singular, vis and vi, are rare. 40 MORPHOLOGY For Consonant Stems For I-Stems Singular Original forui Classical form Original Classical form form N. V. S s ^ i-s is Geu. es is — ia2 Dat. ai i ei i Ace. em em i-m im' Abl. i e Plukal I-d i jST. V. . — esi ei-es es Gen. om um i-om ium Dat. . — ibusi i-bhos ibus Ace. ens es i-ns la^ Abl. — ibusi i-bhos ibus Note. — In this table observe that consonant stems borrow the endings es and ibus of the Nominative, Dative, and Ablative plural from i-stems, and that i-stems borrow the ending is of the Genitive singular from consonant stems. 5. Neuter nouns have the same case sufHxes and endings as masculines and feminines, except in the Nominative and Accusative, where, if conso- nant stems, they take no suffix in the singular, and the suffix a, from an original a, in the plural, and if i-stems, they have the ending e, from an original i, in the singular, and ia, from an original ia, in the plural. 6. Early and Rare Endings. — The following occur : es and us in the Gen. sing.: salutes = salQtis ; hominus = hominis. e in the Dat. sing. : aere = aeri ; Marte = Marti. id in the Abl. sing.: marid = mari. eis and is in the Nom. plur. : civeis and civis = Gives. eis in the Ace. plur. : civeis = cives or civis. LOCATIVE CASE 108. Many names of towns have a Locative singular in i or e, denoting the Place in Which any thing is or is done : Carthagini, or Carthagine, at Carthage; Tiburi, or Tibure, at, Tihur. In the plural the Locative meaning is expressed by the ending ibus : Gadibus, at Gades. 1 Borrowed from i-steras. '^ Borrowed from consonant stems. 3 But i-stems often borrow from consonant stems the endings em and es for im and is. THIRD DECLENSION- 41 GREEK NOUNS 109. Many Greek nouns of the Third Declension are entirely- regular, but some retain certain peculiarities of the Greek, espe- cially the following Greek forms : 1. A Vocative singular like the stem : Pari-s, Pari ; Orpheu-s, Orpheu. a. A Genitive singular in os : Pallas, PaUadis, PaUados. 3. An Accusative singular in a: Pallada. 4. A Nominative plural in es : Arcades. 5. An Accusative plural in as : Arcadas. 110. The following examples illustrate these peculiarities : Lampas, f., Phryx, m. and f ., Heros, m., torch. Phrygian. SiNGDLAR hero. N. V. lampas Phryx heros Gen. lampadis, lampados Phrygis herois Dat. lampadi Phrygi her5i Ace. lampadem, lampada Phrygem, Phryga, her5em, herda Abl. lampade Phryge Plural heroe N. V. lampades, lampades Phryges, I'hryges heroes, heroes Gen. lampadum Phrygum heroum Dat. lampadibus Phry gibus heroibus Aco. lampades, lampadas Phryges, Phrygaa heroes, heroas Abl. lampadibus Phry gibus heroibus Cotys, m. Paris, m. Singular i Orpheus, m. Nom. Cotys Paris Orpheus Voc Coty Pari Orpheu Gen. Cotyia Paridis Orphei, Orpheos Dat. Cotyi Paridi Orpheo, Orphei Ace. Cotym Paridem, Parim, Parin I Orpheum, Orphea Abl. Cotye Paride, Pari OrpheS I. In these paradigms the stems are lampad, Phryg, hero, Coty, Parid, Pari, and Orpheu. ^ As proper names, these words have only the singular in general use. 42 MORPHOLOGY 2. Observe that these paradigms fluctuate in certain cases between the Latin and tlie Greek forms : Lampadis, lampados ; heroes, heroas ; and between different declensions : between Decl. II., Orphei, Orpheo, Orpheum, and Decl. III., Orpheu, Orpheos, Orphei, Orphea. 3. Greek feminines in 6 may be declined either with ua in the Genitive and with 6 in the other cases, as Dido, Didus, Dido, etc. , or regularly from the stem in on, as Dido, Didonis, DidonT, Didonem, Didone. 4. Nouns in cles are declined as follows : Pericles : Voc. Feiicles, Pericle ; Gen. Fericlis, Pericli ; Dat. Pericli, or Pericli ; Aco. Periclem, Periclen, or Periclea ; Abl. Pericle. 5. Greek neuters in a, Gen. in atis or atos, often have is for ibua in the Dative and Ablative plural, and sometimes orum for um in the Genitive plural : poema, poem ; poematis or poematibus ; poematorum or poe- matum. 6. Vocative Singular. — Greek nouns in is, ys, and eus generally have the Vocative singular like the stem, as in the paradigms ; but those in Ss, Gen. in antis, have the Vocative in a : Atlas, Atla. 7. In the Genitive plural, the ending on occurs in a few titles of books : Metamorphoses (title of a poem), Metamorphoseon. 8. In the Dative and Ablative plural the ending si, sin, occurs in poetry; Troades, Troasin. 9. A few neuters used only in the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative have OS in the singular and e in the plural : melos, mele, song. GENDER AS DETERMINED BY THE ENDINGS OF NOUNS I. Masculines 111. Nouns of the Third Declension ending in o, or, os, er, and es, are masculine : Sermo, discourse; dolor, pain; mos, ciistom; agger, mound; gurges, whirlpool. 112. Nouns in 6 are masculine, except those in do and go, and abstract and collective nouns in io, most of which are feminine ; see 116. 1. Caro, flesh, and the Greek Argo and echo are feminine. 113. Nouns in or and os are masculine, except 1. The Feminines : arbor, arbos, tree ; cos, vihetstone ; dos, dowry. 2. The Neuters: ador, spelt; aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble ; os, mouth. THIRD DECLJENStON 43 114. Nouns in er and es are masculine, except 1. The Feminines : linter, hoat; merges, sheaf; seges, ci'op; tegea, mat. 2. The Neuters: cadaver, corpse; iter, way; tuber, tumor; uber, udder; a few names of trees and plants in er: acer, maple tree; papa- ver, poppy. Note. — Aes, copper, and ver, spring, are neuter. II. Feminines 115. Nouns of the Third Declension ending in do, go, 16 ; as, es, is, us, ya, x, and in s preceded by a consonant are feminine : Grando, hail; orlgo, origin; ratio, reason; contio, an assembly; aetas, age; nubes, cloud; navis, ship; virtiis, viVfue; chl2unys, cloak; pax, peace ; urbs, city. 116. Nouns in do and go, and abstract and collective nouns in io, are feminine, except cardo, hinge; ordo, rank; harpago, grap- pling hook; ligo, mattock; margo, harder, which are masculine. Notes. — 1. Twenty-five or thirty nouns in io, chiefly denoting material objects, are masculine, as pa^o, poniard ; waio, pearl; papUio, butterfly. 2. Nouns in do, go, and io are exceedingly numerous, nearly three hundred in all. 117. Nouns in as and is are feminine, except 1. The Masculines: as, the as, a coin; acinaces, scimiter; celes, a racer; lebes, chaldron; magnes, magnet; paries, wall; pes, foot; qua- drupes, quadruped; vepres, thorn bush; and Greek nouns in as, Gen. in antis: adamas, adamant. 2. The Neuter : vas, vessel. Note. — Most nouns in as, Gen. in adis, are feminine, but dromas, dromedary, and vas, surety, are masculine. 118. Nouns in is are feminine, except the following masculines : 1. Nouns in nis and guis : ignis, fire ; sanguis, blood. 2. Nouns in is, Gen. in eris : cucumis, cucumber; pulvis, dust; vomis, plowshare. 3. The following : axis, axle fascis, bundle piscis, ^A buris, plow tail fustis, cudgel postis, post caulis, stalk lapis, stone semis, brier collis, hill mensis, month torris, brand Basis, sword orbis, circle vectis, lever 44 MORPHOLOGY i. Sometimes a few other nouns in is. NoTE.^Nouns in is are very numerous, nearly one hundred and fifty in all. 119. Nouns in us and ys are feminine, except 1. The Masculines : inus, mouse, Greek nouns in pus : tripus, tripod, and names of mountains in ys : Othrys. 2. The Neuters: crus, leg; iiis, right; pus, pus; rus, the country; tus, incense. Note. — Fraus, fraud, and laus, praise, are feminine. 120. Nouns in x are feminine, except the following masculines : 1. Greek Masculines : coraz, raven ; thorax, ctiirass. 2. Nouns in ex, except the feminines : forfex, shears ; imbrex, hollow tile; nex, death; supelle:^, furniture. ■3. Calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; pboenix, phoenix ; tradux, vinelayer, and a few nouns in yx. 121. Nouns in s preceded by a consonant are feminine, except the following masculines : 1. Dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons, bridge; gen- erally, adeps, fat ; and rudens, cable. 2. Some nouns in ns, originally adjectives or participles vfith a masculine noun understood: oriens (sol), east; confluens (amnis), confluence; tri- dens (raster), trident; quadrans (as), quarter. 3. Sometimes forceps, forceps ; serpens, serpent ; stirps, stock. III. Neuters 122. Nouns of the Third Declension ending in a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, nxy and us are neuter : Foema, pnem ; tnare, sea ; sinapi, mustard ; misy, kind of mushroom ; lac, milk; animal, animal; carmen, song; caput, head; nectar, nectar; ebur, ivory; corpus, body. 123. Nouns in 1, n, and ar are neuter, except mugil, mullet; sal, salt ; sol, Sim ; pecten, comh ; salar, trout, which are masculine. 124. Nouns in ur and us are neuter, except 1. The Masculines: furfur, Iran; turtur, turtle dove; vultur, vulture; lepus, hare. 2. The Feminine: pecus (pecudis), herd of cattle. THIRD DECLENSION 45 ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 125. Adjectives of the Third Declension may be divided into three classes : I. Those which have in the Nominative singular three different forms — one for each gender : I-Stems. II. Those which have two forms — the masculine and feminine being the same : Consonant and I-Stems. III. Those which have but one form — the same for all gen- ders : Consonant and I-Stems. 128. Adjectives of Three Endings in this declension have the stem in i, and are declined as follows : Acer, acris, acre, sharp. Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. V. acer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. aciT acn acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Abl. acri acri acri Plural N.V. acres acres acria Gen. aciium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acres, acris acres, acris acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus 1. Here observe that the stem of acer, acris, acre is acil, and that the Ablative singular ends in i. 2. Adjectives in er of this class are regularly declined like acer, but celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before i, and when used as a substantive has um in the Genitive plural. Volucer, winged, sometimes has um. 3. In the poets and in early Latin, the form in er, as acer, is sometimes feminine, and the form in is, as acris, is sometimes masculine. 127. Adjectives of Two Endings are either from i-stems or from 8-stems, and are declined as follows: 46 MORPHOLOGY Tristis, triste 1/ sad. Singular Trlstior,^ trisi ;ius, sadder. M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. N. V. tristis triste tristior tristius Gen. tristis tristis tristioris tristioris Dat. tristi trlsti trlstiSri tristiorl Ace. tristem triste trlstiorem tristius Abl. trlsti trlsti Plural tristiore (i) 2 tristiore (I) ^ N. V. tristes tristia tristiores trlstiora Gen. tristium tristium tristiorum tristiorum Dat. tristibus tristibus tristloiibus tristioribus Ace. tristes, tristis tristia tristiores (is) 2 tristiora Abl. tristibus tristibus tristioribus tristioribus 1. Observe that tristis and triste have i in the Ablative singular ; that otherwise tristis is declined like ignis, and triste. like cubile (102, 103). 2. Tristior is the comparative (149) of tristis. 3. Like tristior, comparatives, as consonant stems, generally have the Abl. sing. In e, sometimes in i, the Nom. plur. neuter in a, and the Gen. plur. in um. But the comparative pliis, more, is declined as follows : Singular Plural M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. Nom. — plus pliires plura Gen. — pluris pliirium plurium D. Abl. — — pluribus pluribus Ace. — pliis plures plura 4. Complures is declined like the plural of plurSs, though it admits compluria for compliira in the neuter. 128. Adjectives of One Ending are declined partly from con- sonant stems and partly from i-stems. Most of them end in s or sr; a iew in i or ir. ■ '" " ' . Audax, atidacious. Felix, happy. Singular M. and F. Neut. M. and F, Neut. N. V. audax audax fellx fgllx Gen. audacis audacis fellcis felicis 1 Final i becomes e in triste, and the stem ending a becomes r between vowels, and finally this r usurps the place of s in the Nominative masculine. In the neuter Nominativeand Accusative, tristios is weakened to tristius. * The forms with the inclosed endings, tristiori and tristioris, are veryj:ar«-. THIRD DECLENSION, ADJECTIVES ■il Dat. audacT audaci felici felici Aoc. audacem audax fellcem felix Abl. audaci (e) audaci (e) PuraAL felici (e) felici (e) N.V. audaoes audacia felloes felicia Gen. audacium audacium felicium felicium Dat. audacibus audacibus felicibus felicibus Ace. audaoes (is) audacia felloes (is) felicia Abl. audacibus audacibus felicibus felicibus Amans, loving. Prudens, prudent. Singular M. and F. Neat. M. and F. Neut. N.V. amaiis amans prudens prudens Gen. amantis amantis prudentis prudentis Dat. amantl amantl prudenti priidenti Aco. amantem amans prudentem prudSns Abl. amante (i) amante (i) Plural prQdenti (e) prudenti (e) N.V amantes amantia prudeutes prudentia Gen. - aniantium amantium prudeuUum prildentium Dat. amantibus amantibus prudentibus prudentibus Aco. amantes (is) amantia prudentes (is) prudentia Abl. amantibus amantibus prudentibus prudentibus Vetus, old. Memor, mindful. Singular M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. N.V. vetus 1 vetus memor memor Gen. veteris veteris memoris memoris Dat. veteri veteri memori memori Aco. veterem vetus memorem memor Abl. vetere (T) vetere (i) Plural memori memori N.V. veteres Vetera memores — Gen. vote rum veterum memorum — Dat. veteribus veteribus memoribus — Aoo. veteres (is) Vetera memores (is) — Abl. veteribus veteribus memoribus — 1 The stem of vetus, veteris, is vetoa, vetes, but the endings os and es are ■only ablaut forms of the same suffix. 48 MORPHOLOGY 1. The participle amans differs in declension from the adjective prudens only in the Ablative singular, vsrhere the participle usually has the ending e and the adjective i. Participles used as adjectives generally have i. 2. A few adjectives have only e in general use in the Ablative singular, especially those in es, Gen. in itis or idis : ales, deses, dives, sospes, superstes, and caelebs, compos, impos, pauper, princeps, pubes. 129. Neuter Plural. — Many adjectives from the nature of their sig- nification are rare in the neuter. Some of these, like memor, lack the neuter plural ; all others have the ending ia, in the Nominative and Accusative, except fiber, ubera, fertile, and vetus, vetera. 130. Genitive Plural. — Most adjectives of the Third Declension have ium in the Genitive plural, but the following have um : 1. Adjectives compounded with substantives which have um : inops (opum), inopum, helpless; quadrupes, quadrupedum, /o!ir-/oo«ed. 2. Those which have only e in the Ablative singular (128, 2): pauper, paupere, pauperum, poor; sospes, sospite, sospitum, safe; compos, compote, compotum, master of. 3. Those which have the Genitive in eris, oris, uris: vetus, veterum, old ; memor, memorum, mindful ; cicur, cicurum, tame, and a few others. 4. The poets and late writers often use um in words which have ium in classical prose. FOURTH DECLENSION TJ-NouNS 131. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in us and u. Those in xis are masculine, those in u are neuter. They are declined as follows : XUAXU W D Fructus, fruit. Cornu, horn. Singular Case Endings N.V. fructuB cornu us u Gen. fructus corn us Qs us Dat. fructui cornfi ul u Ace. fructum cornu um u Abl. fructfi cornfi Q u Plural N.V. fructus cornua us ua Gen. friictuum cornuum uum uum T>a.tu fructibus cornibus ibus (ubus) ibus (ubus) Ace. friictfis cornua us ua Abl. fructibus cornibus ibus (ubus) ibus (ubus) FOURTH DECLENSION 49 1. Here the stems are fruotu and cornu, and the case endings contain the cliaracteristic u, weakened to i in ibus, but retained in ubus. 2. A few nouns retain ubus in the Dative and Ablative plural : regularly tribuB, tribe ; generally acus, needle ; arcus, bow ; artus, joint ; lacus, lake ; partus, birth; and sometimes portus, harbor; specus, cave; veru, spit; and a few other words. 8. In early Latin the endings uia, uos, and i occur in the Genitive singu- lar: fructuis, of fruit; senatuos and senati, of the senate. Senati is found even in Cicero. The Genitive in i is common in Plautus and Terence, as advent!, frilcti, gemiti, quaesti, etc. 4. A Dative in vl, the regular form in nouns in u, also occurs in nouns in us, but chiefly in poetry : fructu = friictui. 5. The following are the original case endings, with the forms which they assume in the classical period : Singular Masculine Neuter Original form Classical form Original form Classical form N.V. u-s US u fll Gen. eu-s US eu-s US Dat. u-ai ui2 eu U2 Aco. u-m um u ui Abl. u-d8 u u-ds U N.V. eu-es ■> ou-es / Plural UB u-a ua Gen. u-om uum u-om uum Dat. u-bhos ubus, ibus u-bhos ubuB, ibus Ace. u-ns us u-a ua Abl. u-bhos ubus, ibus u-bhos ubus, ibus EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER 132. The following nouns in us are feminine: acus, needle; colus, distaff; domus, house; Idiis, Ides; manus, hand; porticus, portico; quinquatrus, /east of Minerva; tribus, tribe. 1 The u in the Nom. and Ace. of neuters is of uncertain origin, perhaps a plural or dual formation. 2 The Dative in Q, used both as masculine and as neuter, is in origin a Loca- tive formation. 8 The ending u-d, from which Q was derived, was not inherited, but was formed after the analogy of the Ablative ending o-d from o stems, as in Gnaiv-o-d. HARK. LAT. GRAM. — 5 60 MORPHOLOGY 1. The only neuter nouns in common use are cornu, genu, and veru, but neuter forms are sometimes found in certain cases of other words, as artua from artus. 133. Second and Fourth Declensions. — Some nouns are partly of the Fourth Declension and partly of the Second. 1. Domus, f ., house, has a Locative, domi, at home, and is otherwise declined as follows : Singular Pldral N. v. domuB domus Gen. domus domuum, domorum Dat. domui, domo domibus Ace. domum domus, domos Abl. domu, dom5 domibus 2. Certain names of trees in us, as cupressus, ficus, laurus, pTnus, though generally of the Second Declension, sometimes take those cases of the Fourth which eiid in us, us, and u : N. V. laurus ; Gen. lauri, laurus ; Dat. lauro ; Ace. laurum ; Abl. lauro, lauru, etc. So also colus, distaff. Quercus, oak, regularly of the Fourth Declension, has quercorum in the Gen. plur. FIFTH DECLENSION E-NooNS 134. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in es and are feminine. They are declined as follows : Dies, day. Ees, thing. Singular Case Endings N.V. dies res es Gen. diei rii Si Dat. diei rgi m Ace. diem rem em Abl. die Plural re e. N.V. dies res Ss Gen. dierum rernm erum Dat. diebuB rebus ebus Ace. dies res 6s Abl. diebus rebus ebus TABLE OF GENDER 51 1. The case endings here given contain tlie characteristic e, which appears in all the cases. It is shortened generally in the ending ei, when preceded by a consonant, and regularly in the ending em. 2. The, Genitive and Dative singular sometimes end in e, and sometimes, though rarely, in i for ei, chiefly in poetry: acie,' die, fide, dii, facii.^ Note. — These forms in e are Locatives in origin, and they have retained their original Locative meaning in a few phrases found in early Latin, as die septimi, on the seventh day; die crastini, on the mojTow. Cottldie, hodie, pridie, and the like are doubtless Locatives in origin. 3. In early Latin the Genitive sometimes ends in es : dies, of a day. 4. Dies' and res- are the only nouns in this declension complete in all their parts. In other nouns the plural forms, especially the Genitive, Dative, and Ablative, are rare in the best writers. 5. The following are the original case endings with the forms which they assume in the classical period : Singular Plural Original form Classical form Original form Classical form N. V. e-s es e-es es Gen. e-s, e-i es, ei e-som erum Dat. e-ai gi 6-bhos ebuB Ace. e-m em e-ns es AW. e-d* e e-bhos 6buB EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER . -135. Dies, rffjy, .an,d. vapildyeB, jnid-day, are masculine, though dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially when it means a-defsito or fixed time. 136. GENERAL TABLE OF GENDER 1. Gender independent of endings ; common to all declensions.* Masculine Names of Males, of Rivers, Winds, and Months Feminine Names of Females, of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees Neuter Indeclinable Nouns, In- finitives, and Clauses used as Nouns 1 Acie,. Gen. and Dat. of acies, a shai-p ed;ie ; facli, of facies, appearance. 2. The piimjtive ending was probably ed, tliongh only e is found. ' For exceptions, see 68, 1 ; 69, 1. . - 52 MORPHOLOGY 2. Gender determined by Nominative ending.' Masculine as, es er, ir, us, os, os | 5, or, OB, er, ea, ex- cept do, go, and io FiKST Dkclension Feminine a, e Second Declension Thikd Declension do, go, io ; as, es, is, us, ys, X, B pre- ceded by a consonant rouRTH Declension um, on a, e, i, y, o, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us Fifth Declension _ I es I - INDECLINABLE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 137. A very few nouns and adjectives are indeclinable, hav- ing but one form for all cases. The following are the most important : 1. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, alpha, beta, etc. 2. Fas, right; nefas, wrong; nihil, nothing; instar, likeness; mtne, morning.^ 3: A very few adjectives: irugi, frugal, good; nSquam, worthless; miUe, thousand; potis, able. DEFECTIVE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 138. Many nouns, from the nature of their meaning, are used chiefly in the singular. To these belong 1 . The names of Persons and many names of Places : Cicero, Caesar, Roma, Bume ; Graecia, Greece ; but Proper names admit the plural to des- ignate Families or Classes: Scipiones, the Scipios; Caesares, the Caesars. 1 For exceptions, see under the several declensions. 2 But these nouns are not only indeclinable, but also defective, as they are regularly used only in the Nominative and Accusative singular, though rnSne also occurs as a Locative Ablative. DEFEOTIYE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 53 2. Most Abstract nouns : fides, faith ; iustitia, justice ; but many ab- stract nouns admit the plural to designate instances, or kinds of tlie quality : avRritiae, instances of avarice ; odia, hatreds. In the poets the plural is often used io the sense of the singular. 3. The names of Materials: aurum, gold; ferrtun, iron; but the plural may be used to designate pieces of the material, or articles made of it ; aera, vessels of copper. 4. A few special nouns : mendies, mid-day ; specimen, example ; su- pellex, furniture ; ver, spnng ; vespera, evening, etc. 139. Many nouns, from the nature of their meaning, are used only in the plural. To these belong 1. Certain Personal Appellatives applicable to Classes: maiores, fore- fathers; posteri, descendants; geminl, twins; liberi, children. An indi- vidual member of such a class may be denoted by iinus ex with the plural : unus ex IibeiTs, one of the children, or a child. 2. Many names of Cities: Athenae, Athens; Thebae, Thebes; Delphi, Delphi. 3. Many names of Festivals: Bacchanalia, the Bacchanalian Festival; Olympia, the Olympian (-fames. Here the plural may refer to the various games and exercises which together constituted the festival. 4. Certain special nouns : arma, arms ; divitiae, riches ; exsequiae, rite.s; exuviae, spoils; Idiis, Ides; indutiae, truce; insidiae, ambuscade; manes, shades of the dead; minae, threats; moenia, walls; miuiia, duties; nuptiae, nuptials; reliquiae, remai)is. 140. Plural with Change of Meaning. — Some nouns have one signification in the singular and another in the plural. Thus : aedes, temple aedes, (1) temples, (2) a house'^ auxilium, help auxilia, auxiliaries career, prison, barrier carceres, ban-iers of a race course castrum, castle, hut castra, camp comitium, place of assembly comitia, the assembly held in the comitium cOpia, plenty, force cOpiae, (1) stores, (2) troops facultas, ability facultates, loealth, means finis, end fines, borders, territory fortuHa,/orti(iie fortunae, possessiores, wealth gratia, gratitude, favor gratiae, thanks hortus, garden horti, (1) gardens, (2) park 1 Aedes and some other words in this list, it will be observed, have in the plural tw>> signilications, one corresponding to that of the singular, and the other distinct from it. 64 MORPHOLOGY impedimenta, (1) hindrances, (2) baggage litterae, (1) letters of the alphabet, (2) epistle, writing, letters, literature liidl, (1) plays, (2) public spectacle mores, manners, character natales, pedigree, parentage operae, workmen partes, {V) parts, (2) a party rostra, (1) beaks, (2) the rostra or tribune sales, witty sayings impedimentum, hindrance littera, letter of alphabet Itidus, play, sport mos, custom natalis (dies), birthday opera, work, service pars, part rostrum, beak of ship sal, salt 141. Many nouns, entire in the singular, lack certain forms of the plural. Thus : 1. Most nouns of the Fifth Declension, a few of the Fourth, and several monosyllabic neuters of the Third, are seldom, if ever, used in the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative plural: acies, sharpness; effigies, likeness; species, appearance, etc. ; metus, fear; situs, situation, etc. ; far, corn; fel, gall; mel, honey, etc. 2. Many nouns, especially monosyllables, othervpise entire, lack the Geni- tive plural: nex, death; pSx, peace; pix, pitch; cor, heart; cos, whet- stone; sal, salt; b51, sun; liix, light. 142. Some nouns, entire in the plural, lack certain forms of the singular. The following are the most important : N. V. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Meaning opem ope help vicem vice change precem prece prayer dapem dape food frugem frilge fruit Gen. opis vicis 1 dapis^ frugis precl dapl friisi 143. A few nouns are used only in certain cases of the singular : N. y. Gen, Dat. Ace. Abl. Meaning fors — — — forte chance lu6s — — luejn lue pestilence 1. A few verbal nouns in ii, and a few others, have only the Ablative singular in general use: iussu, by order ; mandatii, by command; rogatii, by request ; sponte, by choice, etc. 144. Defective Adjectives. — A few adjectives, from the nature of their meaning, are used chiefly in the plural, while others lack the Nomi- 1 Defective also in the Genitive plural. HETEROCLITES 55 native singular, or at least the masculine form of the Nominative singu- lar: complures, Mvera/ ,- pauoi,/ett!; plerique, ;/ios« ; (ceterus), cetera, ceterum, the other, the i-eM ; (ludicer), ludicra, ludicrum, sportive; (sons), sontis, guilty; (semiiiex), semiuecis, half dead. The inclosed forms are not in good use. HETEROCLITES 145. A few nouns, called Heteroclites (heteroclita) ' are partly of one declension and partly of another. 1. Of the Second and Fourth Declensions are a few nouns in us : domua, house; laurus, laurel tree, etc. ; see 133, 1 and 2. 2. Of the Second and Third Declensions are iugervun, an acre, generally of the Second Declension in the singular, and of the Third in the plural: iugerum, iugen ; plural, iugera, iugerum : vas, a vessel, of the Third Declension in the singular, and of the Second, in the plural : vas, vasis ; plural, vasa, vasorum. Note. — Plural names of Festivals in alia, as Bacchanalia, Satur- nalia, regularly of the Third Declension, sometimes have the Genitive plural in oruiii. AucHe, a sliield, and <>, few other words, have the same peculiarity. 3. Of the Third and Fifth Declensions are requies, rest, not used in the pluralor in the Dative singular, but having in the other oblique cases the forms both of the Third and of the Fifth Declension ; and fames, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, but with fame in the Ablative. 4. Many nouns of four syllables have one form in ia of the First Declen- sion, and one in ies of the Fifth Declension: luzuria, luxuries, luxury, materia, materies, material. 5. Many Verbal nouns have one form in ub of the Fourth Declension, and one in um of the Second Declension : conatus, couatum, attempt ; eventus, eventum, event. 6. Many nouns have only one approved form in the best prose, but admit another in poetry and in post^Augustan writers: iuventus (atis), youth; poetic, iuventa (ae): senectus (litis), old age; poetic, senecta (ae) : paupertas (^atis), poverty ; poetic, pauperies (ei). 146. Many adjectives have two distinct forms, one in us, a, lun, of the First and Second Declensions, and one in is and e, of the Third : hilarus and hilaris, Joyful; ezanimus and ezanimis, lifeless. 1 From Irepos, another, and KXltris, inflection, i.e. of different declensions. 56 MORPHOLOGY HETEROGENEOUS NOUNS 147. Heterogeneous (heterogenea ") Nouns are partly of one gender and partly of another. Thus : 1. Some Masculines take in the plural an additional form of the neuter gender : iocus, m., jest; plural, iooi, m., ioca, n. : locus, m., place; plural, loci, m., topics, Ioca, n., places. 2. Some Feminines take in the plural an additional form of the neuter gender: carbasus, f., linen; plural, carbasi, f., carbasa, n. -. margarita, t, pearl; plural, margaritae, f., margarita, n. : ostrea, f., oyster; plural, ostreae, f., ostrea, n. 3. Some Neuters become masculine in the plural: caelum, n., heaven; plural, caell, m. 4. Some Neuters generally become masculine, but sometimes remain neuter: frenum, n., bridle; plural, freni, m. ; frena, n. : rastrum, n., rake; plural, rastri, m. ; rastra, n. 6. Some Neuters become feminine in the plural: epulum, n., feast; plural, epulae, f. Note.- — Some heterogeneous nouns are also heteroclites, as epulum, epulae, just given. 148. Some nouns of the Second Declension have one form in us, masculine, and one in um, neuter : clipeus, clipeum, shield; commentaiius, commentarium, commentary. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 149. Adjectives have three forms, called the Positive, the Com- parative, and the Superlative : altus, altior, altissimus, high, higher, higliest. These forms denote different degrees of the quality ex- pressed by the adjective. 150. The Latin, like the English, has two modes of comparison. I. Terminational Comparison — by endings. II. Adverbial Comparison — by the adverbs magis, more, and masiini, most. 1. From Irepos, another, and 7^1105, gender, i.e. of different genders. COMPARISON 57 I. Termmational Comparison 151. Adjectives and participles used as adjectives are regu- larly compared by adding to the stem of the positive, stripped of its final vowel, the following Endings of Comparison Comparative M. and F. ior Neut. ius Masc. issimus SCPEKLATIVE Fern. issima altus, altior, altius, high, higher, or too high dunis, durior, durius, hard, harder levis, levior, levins, light, lighter Neut. issimum ^ aUissimum altissimus, altissima, highest, or very high durissimus, duiissima, durissimum hardest levissimus, levissima, levissimum lightest amans, amantior, amantius, amantissimus, amantissima, amantissimum loving, more loving most loving 152. Irregular Superlatives. — Many adjectives with regular comparatives have irregular superlatives. Thus: 1. Adjectives in er add rimus to this ending : ^ Seer, acrior, acerrimus, sharp, sharper, • shaipest asper, asperior, asperrimus, rough, rougher, roughest celer, celerior, celerrimus, swift, swifter, swiftest 2. But note the following : dexter, right, on the right, dexterior, dextimus inaturus, mature, maturior, maturissimus, maturrimus 3. Five adjectives in ilis add limus to the stem, stripped of its final Powel : ' 1 The Latin has three different superlative suffixes : (1) mus, seen in sirni- mus, highest; (2) timus, seen in ci-timus, nearest; op-timus, best; and (3) la-slmus, the usual suffix, compounded of is, the weak form of the com- parative suffix, los, lor, and simus, of uncertain origin, but probably a new formation after the analogy of certain words in simus, as pes-simus, worst ; plu-rimus for *plvi-simus, most; maxlmus for *mag-simus, greatest; vice- simus, twentieth; trioe-simus, thirtieth. 2 The suffix rimus is from is, the comparative suffix, and mus, imus, the superlative suffix: *acr-is-imus, which becomes *acer-s-imus, aoer-rimus; f is vocalized, or; i is dropped and s is assimilated to the preceding r; see 54, 2. 8 The suffix limus, like rimus, is from is-imus: *facil-is-imus, *facil-s-imus, facU-limus, s assimilated to a preceding 1; see 54, 2. 68 MORPHOLOGY facilis, facilior, facillimus, easy. dif&cilis, diffioilior, difficillimus, difficult, similis, similior, simillimus, like. dissiiuilis, dissimilior, dissimillimus, unlike. humilis, liumilior, humillimus, low, easier, easiest more difficult, etc. more like, most like more unlike, most, etc. lower, lowest 153. Compounds of dicus and volus form their comparatives and superlatives from the corresponding participial stems, dioent and volent, and compounds of ficus sometimes follow their analogy: maledicus, maledicens, slanderous, inaledloentior, maledicentissimus benevolus, benevolens, benevolent, benevolentior, 'benevolentissimus honorificus, honorable, honorificentior, honorificentissimus Note. — Maledicens and benevolens are found in early Latin. 154. Special irregularities of comparison sometimes arise from the use of different stems : bonus, melior. optimus. good. better. best malus. peior, pessimus. bad. worse. worst magnus. maior. mazimus. great. greater. greatest ^arvu3, minor, minimus. small. smaller. smallest 1. Here belongs multus, which lacks the comparative in the masculine and feminine singular : multus, — , plurimus, -v multa, — , plurima, > much, more, most multum, plus, plurimum, J 2. Note also : frugl, frugalior, frugalissimus, frugal, more frugal, most frugal nequam, nequior, nequissimus, xoorthless, more worthless, most worthless Defective Compaeison 155. In a few adjectives the Positive is either entirely want- ing, or used only in special constructiotis : 1. Positive wanting : citerior. citimuB, on this side, near. nearest deterior, deterrlmus. worse. worst interior. intimus. inner. inmost Ocior, ocissimus, swifter, swiftest prior, piimus. former. first propior. proximus. nearer. nearest ulterior, ultimua, farther, farthest DEFECTIVE COMPARISON 59 2. Positive used only in special constructions : (exterus),! exteriof, (mferus),^ Inferior, (posterus),' posterior, (superus),^ superior, extremuB, and extimus, outer, outermost infimus, and imus, lower, lowest postrSmus, and postumus,* later, last, last-born suprSmus, and summus, higher, highest 156. A few adjectives lack the Comparative : diversus, falsus, inclutus, invltus, meritus, novus. sacer, vetus, dlversissimus, falsissimus, inclutdssimus, inyitissimus, meritissimus, novissimus, sacerrimus, veterrimus. diverse, false, renowned, unwilling, deserving, tiew, sacred, old. most dieerse most false most renowned most unwilling most deserving last most sacred oldest 157. Many adjectives lack the Superlative : 1. Many ver agilis. bals in Ills and bms agilior, — agile, more agile docilis. docilior, — docile, more docile laudabilis. laudabilior, — laudable, more laudable optabilis, optabilior, — desirable, more desirable 2. A few special adjectivbs : alacer, alacrior, — active, more active diuturnus, diuturnior, — lasting, more lasting longinquus. longinquior, — distant, more distant procllvis. proclivior, — prone. more prone pronus, pronior, — inclined, more inclined propinquiis. propinquior, — near. nearer salutaris, salutarior, — salutary, more salutary 1 Nationes exterae, foreign peoples, occurs in classical prose. 2 Omnia supera. infera, all things above and below ; and ad superos, to those abovi', and ad inferos, to those below, occur in classical prose. 8 Posterus occni-s in a few expressions of time, postero die, on the following day ; in posterum diem, for the next day ; in posterum, for the future. Note also posteri, descendants. * Postumus means late bom, or last born. 6 The comparative of nevus is supplied by recentior, from recens, and the superlative, in the sense of newest, by recentissimus. 6 The comparative of sacer is supplied by sanotior, from sanctus, and that of vetus by vetustlor, from vetustus. 60 MORPHOLOGY 158. Three adjectives supply the Superlative as follows : adulescens, adulSscentior, minimus natQ, young, younger, youngest iavenis, iunior, minimus natu, young, younger, youngest senex, senior, maximus natii, uld, older, oldest II. Adverbial Comparison — by the Adverbs magis and mazime 159. Most adjectives in eus, ius, and uus, except those in quus are compared by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, most : idoneus, magis idoneus, maxime idOneus,' suitable more suitable most suitable neoessarius, magis neoessarius, mazime necessarius, necessary more necessary most necessary arduus, magis arduus, maxime arduus, arduous more arduous most arduous 1. Other adverbs are sometimes used with the positive to denote differ- ent degrees of the quality: admodum, valde, oppido, very; imprimis, or in primis, apprlme, in the highest degree. Per and prae in composition with adjectives have the force of very; perdifficilis, very difficult; prae- clarus, very illustrious. 2. Strengthening particles are also sometimes used : with the com- parative etiam, even, multo, longe, much, far; etiam dQigentior, even more diligent; multo diligentior, much more diligent: with the su- perlative multo, longe, much, by far, quam, as possible : multo or longe diligentissimus, by far the most diligent; quam diligentissimus, as diligent as possible. ADJECTIVES WITHOUT COMPARISON 160. Many adjectives, from the nature of their signification, are rarely, if ever, compared, especially such as denote Material, Color, Possession, or the relations of Time and Place : aureus, golden ferreus, of iron albus, white flavus, yellow maternus, of a mother paternus?, of a father Eomanus, Roman aestlvus, of summer sempiternus, eternal 1 Observe that this adverbial comparison by means of magis and maxime corresponds exactly to the English adverbial comparison by means of more and most. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 61 NUMERALS * 161. Numerals comprise Numeral Adjectives and Numeral Adverbs. 162. Numeral Adjectives comprise three principal classes : 1. Cardinal Numbers: unus, one; duo, two; tres, three. 2. Ordinal Numbers: pxisavs, first; secundus, second; tertius, third. 3. Distributives : singuli, one by one; bini, two by two, two each, two apiece. Note. — To these may be added 1. Multiplicatives, adjectives in plez, Gen. plicis, denoting so many fold: simplez, single; duplez, double; triplez, threefold; quadruples, fourfold. 2. Proportionals, declined like bonus, and denoting so many times as great: duplus, twice as great; triplus, three times as great. 163. Table of Numeral Adjectives Cardinals Ordinals Distributives 1. unus, una, unum primus, first singuli,! one by one 2. duo, duae, duo secundus,^ second bini, two by two 3. tres, tria tertius, third term or trini 4. quattuor quartus, fourth quaterni 5. quinque quintus, fifth quTni 6. sex sextus seni 7. septem Septimus septeni 8. octo octavus octoni 9. novem nOnus noveni 10. decern decimus deni 11. undecim undecim us iindeui 12. duodecim duodecim us duodeni 13. tredecim ' tertius decimus* terni deni 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus quaterni deni J6. quindecim quintus decimus quini deni 16. sedecim ' sextus decimus seni deni 17. septendecim Septimus decimus septeni deni 1 Distributives, singuli, bini, etc., are adjectives, used only in the plural. They are declined like the plural of bonus: slnguH, slngulae, singula. s Alter is often used for secundus. s Sometimes with the parts separated : decern et tres, etc. 4 Decimus, with or without et, may precede : decimus et tertius or deci- mus tertius. 62 MORFffOLOG.Y 18. duodeviginti ' 19. undeviginti i 20. viginti 21. ■ viginti unus unus et vigiuti^ 22. ■ viginti duo duo et viginti 28. duodetriginta 29. undetriginta 30. triginta. 40. quadraginta 50. quinquaginta 60. sexaginta 70. septuaginta 80. octoginta 90. nonaginta 100. centum 101. J centum iinus 1 centum et unus ^ 200. ducenti, ae, a 300. trecenti 400. quadringenti 500. quingenti 600. sescenti 700. septingenti 800. octingenti 900. nongenti 1,000. mille 2,000. duo milia ' 100,000. centum milia .,000,000. decies centena milia duodevicesimus '' flndeVicesimus 2 vicesimus vicesimus primus iinus et vicesimus^ vicesimus secundus alter et vicesimus duodetricesimus iindetricesimus tricesimus quadragesimus quinquagesimus sexagesimus septuagesimus octogesimus nonagesimus centesimus centesimus primus centesimus et primus ducentesimus trecentesimus quadringentesimus quingentesimus sescentesimus septingentesimus octiugentesimus nongentesimus millesimus tis millesimus centies millesimus decies centies millesimus duodeviceni ' iindeviceni 8 viceni viceni singuli • singuli et viceni 6 viceni bini bini et viceni duodetriceni iindetiiceni tricgnl qnadrageni quinquageni sexageni septuageni octogeni nonageni ceuteni centenT singuli centeni et singuli duceni treeeni quadringeiii quingeni sesceni ' septingeni octingeni nongeni singula milia' bina milia centena milia ' decies centena milia 1 Literally two from twenty, one from twenty, by subtraction ; but these numbers may be expressed by addition : decern et octo ; decern et novem or decern novetn: so 28, 2!S; 38, 39, etc., either by subtraction-jtom ..triginta, etc., or by addition to viginti, etc. . > i ,. 2 Sometimes.expressed by addition : octavus decimus ; nonus decimus. s Sometimes octoui deni ; noveni deni. ^ If tens precede the units, et is omitted, otherwise it is generally used. So in English cardinals, twenty-one, oneand twenty. 5 Sometimes viceni et singuli or singuli viceni. 8 In compounding numbers above 100, units generally follow tens, tens hundreds etc., as in English ; but the connective et is either omitted, or used only between the two highest denominations: mille centum viginti or mille et centum viginti, 1120. ' Often written millia. For duo milia, biua milia or bis mille is sometimes used. 8 Literally, ten times a hundred thousand; the table might be carried up to any desired number by using the proper numeral adverb with centena miUa: centies centena milia, 10,000,000 ; sometimes in such combinations centena jmilia is un,der3toQ4i an^.tbe adverb only is exgres^ed,^ and sometimes centum milia is used. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 63 1. Poets use numeral adverbs (171) very freely In compounding numbers : bis sex, for duodecim ; bis septem, for quattuordecim. 2. Sescenti and mille, and in poetry centum, are sometimes used indefi- nitely for any large number, as thousand is used in English. 164. Distributives are used 1. To show the Number of objects taken at a time, often best rendered by adding to the cardinal each or apiece : temos denarios acceperunt, they received each three denarii, or three apiece. Hence 2. To express Multiplication : decies centena mQia, ten times a hun- dred thousand, a million. 3. Instead of Cardinals, with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense : bina castra, two camps. Here for singuli and temi, iini and trini are used : unae litterae, one letter; trinae litterae, three letters. 4. Sometimes of objects spoken of in pairs : bin! scyphl, a pair of gob- lets; and in the poets with the force of cardinals : bina hastiUa, two spears. 165. In fractions the numerator is expressed by cardinals and the denominator by ordinals, with or without pars, as in English : duae tertiae, two thirds = f ; tres quintae, three fifths = | ; tres septimae, three sevenths = f . 1. When the numerator is omitted, it is always one. Then pars is gener- ally expressed : tertia pars, one third part = ^ ; quarta pars, one fourth part = |. 2. When the denominator is omitted, it is always larger than the numera- tor by one. Here partes is expressed : duae partes, two thirds = | ; tres partes, three fourths = |. Declension of Numeral Adjectives 166. Unus, duo, and tres are declined as. follows : * tinus, one. Singular Plukal Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. unus una iiniun uni unae una Geri: unius unius unTuB unorum unarum unorum Dat. uni uni uni finis unis uniB Ace. unum unam unum unos Unas una '■m>^' uno una uno ilnis unis unis b~: ^'1'.: 1 The Vocative of these numerals seems not to be iu use, though the Roman grammarians make mention of- tine, uni, and tres as vocatives. 64 MORPHOLOGY Duo, two. Trgs, three. Masc. Fern. Neiit. M. and F. Neut. Nom. duo duae duo' tres tria Gen. duorum duarum duorum ^ trium trium Dat. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus Aoc. duos, duo duas duo tres, tris tria Abl. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus 1. The plural of unus in the sense of alone may be used with any noun : uni Ubii, the Uhii alone; but in the sense of one, it is used only with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense : ima castra, one camp; iinae litterae, one letter. 2. Like duo is declined amb5, hoth. 3. Multi, many, and plurimi, very many, are indefinite numerals, and as such generally want the singular. But in the poets the singular occurs in the sense of many a : multa hostia, many a victim. 167. The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable, but hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus : ducenti, ae, a. 168. MTlle as an adjective is indeclinable; as a substantive it is used in the singular in the Nominative and Accusative, but in the plural it is declined like the plural of cubile (103) : milia, milium, milibus. 1. With the substantive mille, milia, the name of the objects enumerated is generally in the Genitive : mUle hominum, a thousand men {of men} ; but if a declined numeral intervenes it takes the case of that numeral : tria m3ia trecenti milites, three thousand three hundred soldiers. 169. Ordinals are declined like bonus, and distributives like the plural of bonus, but the latter often have um instead of orum in the Genitive : binum for binorum. ' 170. NuMBEAL Symbols Arabic Roman Arabic Roman Arabic Roman 1 I 6 VI 11 XI 2 11 7 Vll 12 XII 3 III 8 VIII 13 XIII 4 IV 9 IX 14 XIV 5 V 10 X 15 XV 1 In the ending o in duo and ambo, we have a remnant of the dual number which has otherwise disappeared from Latin, though preserved in Greek and Sanskrit. Compare the Sanskrit dva, the Greek Siio, the Latin duo, and the English two. 2 Instead of duorum and duarum, duum is sometimes used. NUMERAL ADVERBS 65 16 XVI 60 I.X 600 DC 17 XVII 70 LXX 700 Dec 18 XVIII 80 LXXX 800 DCCC 19 XIX 90 XC 900 DCCCC 20 XX 100 C 1,000 CIO or M 21 XXI 200 cc 2,000 MM or il 30 XXX 300 ccc 10,000 CCIOOor X 10 XL 400 cccc 100,000 CCCIOOOor G 50 L 500 lOorD 1,000,000 CCCCIOaOO or |xl 1. Latin Numeral Symbols are combinations of: 1 = 1; V = 5; X = 10 L = 50 ; C = 100 . 10 or D = 500 ; CIO or M = 1,000. 2. Eacli (inverted C) after 10 increases the value tenfold : 10 = 500 100 = 500 X 10 = 5,000 ; 1000 = 5,000 x 10 = 50,000. 3. C placed before I as many times as stands after it doubles its value 10 = 500 ; CIO = 500 X 2 = 1,000 ; CCIOO = 5,000 x 2 = 10,000. 4. A line oyer a symbol increases the value a thousand fold, and a line oyer and on each side of it increases the value a hundred thousand fold : X ■= 10,000 ; fx] = 100,000 x 10 = 1,000,000. Numeral Adverbs 171. To numerals belong also Numeral Adverbs. 1. semel, once 2. bis, twice 3. ter, three times i. quater 5. quinquies ' 6. sexies 7. septies 8. octies 9. novies 10. decies 11. undeeies 12. duodecies 13. ter decies 14. quater decies 15. quinquies decies ' 16. sezies decies ^ 17. septies decies JO ( duodevicies ' ( octies decies , g ( undevicies ' I nonies decies 20. vlcies 21. semel et vicies 22. bis et vicies 30. tricies 40. quadragies 50. quinquagies 60. sexagies 70. septuagies 80. octogies 90. nonagies 100. centies 101. centies semel 102. centies bis 200. ducenties 300. trecenties 400. quadringenties 50O. quingenties 600. sescenties 700. septingenties 800. octingenties 900. noningenties nongentles 1,000. milies 2,000. bis milies 10,000. decies milies 100,000. ceuties milies 1,000,000. decies centies milies 1. In compounds of units and tens above twenty, the unit, with et, ao, or atque, regularly precedes : bis et vicies ; the tens, however, with or without the connective, may precede, as vicies et bis, or vicies bis. ' In adverbs formed from cardinal numbers, ies is the approved ending, though lens often occurs. In ad^rerbs from indefinite numeral adjectives, lens is the approved ending : totiena, from tot, so often ; quotiens, from quot, how often. ^ Or quindecies and sedecies. HARK. LAT. GRAM. — 6 66 MORPHOLOGT 2. Numeral adverbs are often combined with Distributives : bis bina, twice two ; virgines ter novenae, three choirs of nine maidens each. 3. For the poetic use of these adverbs with Cardinals, as bis sex for duodecim, see 163, 1. i. Another class of adverbs, with the ending um or 6, is formed chiefly from Ordinals : prlmum, primo, for the first time, in the first place ; ter- tium, in the third place ; postremum, postremo, in the last place ; but primo often means at first,, in the beginning, in distinction froni primum, in the first place, and postremo often means at last, in the end, in distinc- tion from postremum, in the last place, lastly. PRONOUNS 172. In construction, Pronouns^ are used either as Substan- tives: ego, I; tu, thou; is, he; or as Adjectives: meus, my; tnuB,' i/our ; suus, his, her, their. 173. Pronouns are divided into seven classes : 1. Personal and Eeflexive Pronouns: tu, thou; sui, of himself, 2. Possessive Pronouns : meus, my. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns : hie, this; ille, that. 4. Determinative Pronouns : is, he, that. 5. Eelative Pronouns : qui, ivho. 6.. Interrogative Pronouns : quis, who ? 7. Indefinite Pronouns : aliquis, some one. I. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS - 174. Personal Pronouns,^ so called because they designate the person of the noun which they represent, sometimes refer back to the subject of the sentence, and thus have a reflexive use: puer se amat, the boy loves himself; se amant, they love themselves; te^amas, you love yourself 1 But in their signification and use, pronouns differ widely from ordinary suti- itatttiyea and adjectives, as theyi never name any object, action, or quality, but simply point out the relation of some object or action to the speaker, or to some other person or thing. ^ Also called Substantive Pronouns, because they are always used substan- tively. PRONOUN'S 67 175. Personal and Reflexive Pronouns are thus declined : Ego, J Nom. ego, /i Gen. mei, of me Dat. mihl, for me Ace. mg, me Tfl, thou Singular tu, thou' tul, of you tibt, /or you te, {Aee, yoa Abl. mg, xoith, by me, etc. te, with, by you, etc. Gen. Nom. nos, we r nostrum, of us ' Inostri, of us Dat. nobis, for us Ace. nos, us PLtTRAL v6s, you I vestnim,* of you Ivestri, of you v6bis, for you v5s, you Abl. nobis, with, by us vobis, with, by you Sul, of himself, of herself sui, of himself, etc. sibi, for himself se, himself s6, wi(ft, 6y himself, etc' sui, of themselves sibI, /or t^emseJoes se, t7iemse2ves se, with, by themselves 1. Ml is often used for milii in poetry, and sometimes in prose. 2. Nostxam and vestnim are generally used in a Partitive sense, as quia nostnun, who of us f but nostn and vestri are generally used in an Objective sense, as memor vestii, mindful of you. 3. Observe that the case endings of pronouns differ considerably from those of nouns. 4. Emphatic Forms. — Tiite and tiitemet for the Nom. tfi. All the other cases of personal pronouns, except the Genitive plural, have emphatic foijns in met : egomet, / myself; temet, you yourself. 6. The Reduplicated Forms meme, tete, and sese occur both in the Accusative and in the Ablative. 6. Ancient and Rare Forms are mis for mei ; tis for tui ; med, ted, sSd for me, te, se, both Accusative and Ablative. Forms in pte as mepte and septe are especially rare. In early Latin poetry, nostrorum and 1 Sgro has no connection in form with mei, mihi, etc., but it is identical, both in form and meaning, with the corresponding Greek prouomi. ^ TQ and v5s, as Vocatives, though recognized by certain Roman grammarians, are of doubtful authority. All other pronouas, except the possessives, meus and noster, lack the Vocative. s The Ablative gener^y takes a preposition, as cum, with, a, ab, by. * Vestrum and vestri are also written vostrum and vostri, though less correctly. Mei, 1;ui, sui, nostri, and vestri are in form strictly Possessives in the Genitive singular, but by use they have become Personal. Nostri and vestri have also become plural. Thus, memor vestri, minclful of you, means literally m.indful of yours, i.e. of your welfare, interest. Nostrum and vestnim, for nos'brSrum and vestrorum, are also Possessives ; see 176. 68 MORPHOLOGY nostrarum sometimes occur for nostrum ; and vostrum, vostrorum, and vostrarum, for vestrum. 7. Cum, when used with the ablative of a personal pronoun, is appended to it : mecum, with me ; tecum, with you. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 176. From Personal Pronouns are formed the Possessives: mens, mea, meum, my ; noster, nostra, nostrum, oui-; tuus, tua, tuum, tJiy, your; vester, vestra, vestrum, your; suus, sua, suum, his, her, its; suus, sua, suum, their. 1. Possessives are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions ; but meus has in the Vocative singular masculine generally mi, sometimes meus, and in the Genitive plural sometimes meum instead of meorum. 2. Emphatic forms in pte occur in the Ablative singular : suopte, suapte ; forms in met are rare : suamet. 3. The possessive cuius, cuia, cuium,i early form quoius, quoia, quoium, vihose 1 whose ; generally interrogative, is rare, but it occurs in the Nominative singular and in a few other isolated forms. 4. A few forms of the possessives, cuias, of whose country t and nostras, of our country, declined like aetas, aetatis, occasionally occur. III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS "177. Demonstrative Pronouns, so called because they point out the objects to which they refer, are the following : Hie, this, near me. Iste, that, near you. llle, that, near him, that yonder. 178. The Demonstrative Pronouns hie and iste are declined as follows, and ille is declined precisely like iste : Hie, this. Iste, that. SlNGULAK niasc. Fein. Neut. Slasc. Fem. Neut. Nom. hie haec hoc iste ista istud Gen. hiiius hiiius hiiius istlus istius istius 1 Cuius, whose? is formed from the Gen. cQlus of quis, whaf but ciiitta, whose, not Interrogative, is formed from ctiius of qui, who. FEONOUlfS 69 Dat Ace. Abl. Nom. Gen. Dat. Aoo. Abl. huic hunc hoc hi horum his hSs his huic hanc hac hae harum his has his huic hoc hSc Plubal haec horum his haec his Istl istum isto isti istOrum Istis istos Istis isti istam ista isti istud isto^ istae ista istarum istorum istis istas istis istis ista istis 1. Haec, for hae, feminine plural, is freely used in Plautus and Terence, and sometimes in classical prose. 2. The stems of hie, haec, hoc are ho, ha, strengthened in certain forms by the addition of another pronominal stem, i, and of the demonstrative particle oe, generally reduced to c. 3. The demonstrative enclitic ce may be appended to any form in s : huiuB-oe, hos-ce, has-ce, his-ce. 4. If the interrogative ne is appended to a form originally ending in ce, the result is generally cine, sometimes cne : hici-ne, hic-ne. 5. The stems of iste, ista, istud are isto, ista, and those of ille, ilia, illud are illo, ilia. 6. In early Latin ce, generally shortened to o, is sometimes appended to certain cases of ille and iste. The following forms are the most important, though others occur. Singular Masc. Fein. Neut. illic illaec illiic illic illic illlc illunc illanc illuo illoc iliac illoc Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. istic istaec istiic Dat. is tic istic istic Ace. istunc istanc istuc Abl. istSc istac istoc Plurai, Nom. — istaec istaec Ace. — — istaec Abl. istisce istisce istisce Ullsce UUsce illaec illaec — illaec illisce Ullsce 7. Syncopated Forms, compounded of ecce or em, lo, see, and certain cases of demonstratives, especially the Accusative of ille and is, he, occa- 1 Several ancient and rare forms of these pronouns occur. Thus : Of hie : hec for hie ; hoius for huius ; hm, hoic, for huic ; hei, hels, for hi ; horunc, harunc, for horum, harum. Of iste : forms in i, ae, for lus in the Genitive and forms in 5, ae, for i in the Dative. . Of ille : forms in i, ae, for ius in the Genitive and in 5, ae, for i in the Dative. For ille, ilia, a few forms of ollus, olla, are found. 70 MORPHOLOGY sionally occur In comic poetry : eccillum for ecce ilium, lo, see him ; ellum for em ilium, behold him; eUam for em lUam, behold her; eccum for ecce eum, behold him ; eccos for ecce eos, behold them. 8. Kindred to demonstrative pronouns are the following adjectives: talis, e, such; tantua, a, um, so great; tot, so many. Tot is indeclinable, the rest regular. 9. For talis, the Genitive of a demonstrative with modi, the Genitive of modus, measure, kind, is often used: huius modi or huius-modi, of this kind, such. In origin, huiusmodi is simply a limiting Genitive, but it has become practically an indeclinable adjective. 179. Special Pronominal Endings. — The declension of pronouns, in distinction from nouns, shows the following Special Pronominal Endings ius, in the Genitive singular : huius, istius, illius.i i, in the Dative singular : isti, illi. d, in the neuter singular of the Nominative and Accusative : id, istud, iUud. / IV. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS 180. Determinative Pronouns specify the objects to which they refer. They are : Is, ea, id ; he, she, it, that one, that. Ipse, ipsa, ipsum ; he himself, she herself, itself, self. Idem, eadem, idem ; the same, same. 181. The Determinative Pronouns are declined as follows : Is, he. Ipse, self.^ SlNGULAB i. 7 ./ Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fein. Neut. Nom. is ea id ipse ipsa ipsum Gen. 6ius Sius eius ipslus ipslus ipsius Dat. ei ei ei ipsi ipsI ipsi Aco. eum eam id ipsum ipsam ipsum Abl. eO ea eo ipso ipsa ipso 1 In the ending ius, observe that i is a consonant when it follows a vowel, as in huius, but a vowel when it follows a consonant, as in is-ti-us. 2 The stem of is, ea, id appears in three different forms, i, eo, ea. *8 The stem of ipse for ipsus is ipso, ipsa, but forms of ipse occur in which the first element, the demonstrative stem i, is declined, while pse is treated as PBOJtfOUX^S ? Pldkal Nom. il eae ea ipsi ipsae ipsa Gen. eOrum earum eOrum ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum Dat. ils ils ils ipsis ipsis ipsis Aco. eSs eas ea ipsos ipsas ipsa AlDl. lis ils iis ipsis ipsis ipsis 71 Idem, formed by appending dem to the pronoun is, the same, same. Only the first part is declined. Isdem is shortened to idem and iddem to idem, and m is changed to n before d ; see 55, 6. SlKGULAR Maso. Fem. Neut. Nom, idem eadem idem Gen. giusdem eiusdem eiusdem Dat. eidem eidem eidem Ace. eundem eandem idem Abl. eodem eadem eodem Plural Maso. Fem. Neut. idem eaedem eadem eOrundem earundem eorunde isdem isdem isdem eosdem easdem eadem isdem Isdem isdem -Certain less common case forms of is and idem are the 1. Case Forms, following : Of is : ei, ei, and eae for the Dative ei ; ei and i for the Nominative ii ; eiB, is, and ibus for the Dative and Ablative iis.^ Of idem : eidem and iidem for the Nominative plural idem, and eisdem and iisdem for the Dative and Ablative isdem.' V. EELATIVE PRONOUNS 182. The Relative qui, who, so called because it relates to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, called its antecedent, is declined as follows : ' an indeclinable particle : eum-pse = ipsum ; eam-pse = ipsam, etc. ; sometimes combined with re : rSapse = re eapse = re ipsa, m reality. Ipsus for ipse is not uncommon. 1 Other ancient and rare forms occur. 2 In early Latin, eisdem and isdem occur for idem in both numbers, and eidem and idem for idem. ' The relative qui, the interrogative quis, qui, and the indefinite quis, qui, are all formed from the same three stems, qui, quo, qua, seen in qui-s, quo-d, qua. Qui is for quo-i. Ancient and rare forms of qui are quel for Nom. sing, qui ; quis, quid, for qui, quae, quod ; quoius for cuius ; quo! for cui ; ques, quel, for Nom. pi. qui ; quels, quis, for qulbus ; and qui for quo, qua, quibus. 72 MORPHOLOGY Singular Plural Masc. Fern. Neut. ISasc. Fern. Neut. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Ace. quern' ^ quam quod qu5s quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus 1. Qui ^ = quo, qua, and quibus, with whom, with which, wherewith, is a Locative of tlie relative qui. 2. Cum , wlien used witli tiie Ablative of the relative is generally appended to it : quibus-cum. 3. Qulcumque and quisquis, whoever, are called from their signification General Relatives.^ Qulcumque is declined like qui, but its parts are some- times separated by one or more words : qua re cumque for quacumque re. Quisquis is rare except in the forms quisquis, quicquid,^ quoquo. 4. Relative Adjectives are: qualis, quale, such as; quantus, a, um, so great; quot, as many as; quotus, a, um, of which number; and the double and compound forms, qualisqualis, qualiscumque, etc. Quot is indeclinable. VI. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 183. The Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions. They are the following, with their compounds : Masc. Fem. Neut. 1. Quis, — quid 2. Qui, quae, quod 3. Titer, utra, utrum who ? what 1 used as a substantive. which? what? what kind off used as an adjective. which (of two persons) ? what or which (of two things) ? used both as a substantive and as an adjective. 1 An Accusative quom, also written cum, formed directly from the stem quo, became the conjunction quom, cum, when, lit. during which, i.e. during which time. Indeed, several other conjunctions, as quam, quamquam, are in their origin Accusatives of pronouns. 2 Compare this with the interrogative qui, how? why? (184, 4). ' Relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs may be made general in significa- tion by taking cumque, like qui-oumque, or by being doubled, like quis-quls : qualis-cumque, qualis-qualis, of whatever kind; ubi-cumque, ubl-ubi, wheresoever. ^ The form quidquid seems to be without good authority. M. and F. Nom. quis Gen. cuius Dat. GUI Ace. quem Abl. a qud PRONOUNS 73 184. Quis,' quid ? used in the singular, is declined as follows : Singular Neut. quid who what caius of whom of what cui for whom for what quid whom what quo by whom with what 1. Qui.i quae, quod? which ? what kind off used as an adjective, is declined like the relative qui, quae, quod. 2. Uter, utra, utrum ? which or what of two persons or things ? has already been given ; see 93. 3. Quis is sometimes used as an adjective, and qui sometimes as a sub- stantive, especially in dependent clauses. 4. Qui, a Locative, used cliiefly as an adverb, meaning how ? by what means ? occurs in special expressions, as qui scis ? how do you know ? qui fit ? how does it happen 1 and in the interrogative quin = qui-ne, why not ? 5. Strengthened forms of quis and qui are declined like the simple pro- nouns quis and qui : Quis-nam, — quid-nam who indeed f what indeed f as a substantive. Qui-nam, quae-nam, quod-nam of what kind indeed ? as an adjective. 6. Note the Interrogative .\djectives; qualis, e, of what kind? quantua, a, um, how great f quot, how many ? quotus, a, um, of what number f VII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 185. Indefinite Pronouns do not refer to any definite persons or things. The most important are quis and qui, with their com- pounds or derivatives. 186. Quis, any one, and qui, any one, any, are nearly the same in form and declension as the interrogatives quis and qui ; but they are used chiefly after si, nisi, ne, and num, and in relative clauses, and they have quae or qua in the feminine singular and neuter plural : si quae, si qua. 187. From quis and qui are formed various other indefinite pronouns and pronominal adjectives, to which iillus may be 1 The ancient and rare forms of the interrogative aula and qui are nearly the same as those of the relative qui. 74 MORPHOLOGY added. These may be divided according to their meaning as follows : 1. Some one, any one, some, any ; something, anything: Substantive Adjective ali-quisi . ali-quid ali-qul ali-qua ali-quod quis-piam quid-piam^ quis-piam quae-piam quod-piam^ quis-quam quic-quamS uUus uUa uUum Note 1. — Aliquis and quispiam are occasionally used as adjectives, and ajiqui occasionally as a substantive. Aliquis and aliqui have aliqua in the neuter plural. Note 2. — UIlus is the adjective corresponding to quisquam, of which it supplies the plural and sometimes the oblique cases of the singular. 2. Any one you please, anything you please; any whatever: Substantive Adjective qui-vis quae-vis quid-v!s qui- vis quae-vis quod-ias qm-libet quae-libet quid-libat qui-libet quae-libet quod-libet 3. A (pertain one, a certain thing, certain : Substantive Adjective qui-dam quae-dam quid-dam qui-dam quae-dam quodrdam Note. — In quidam, as in idem, m is changed to n before d: quen- dam, quan-dam ; quorun-dam, quarun-dam. 4. Every one, every thing, every, each : Substantive Adjective quis-que quid-que quis-que quae-que quod-que 188. The following words, with which we are already familiar, are called Pronominal Adjectives ; see 93 : alius, alter ; uter, neuter ; villus, nuUus. another, the other ; which? neither; any, not any. 1. Nullus, no one, not any, no, supplies certain cases of nemo, no one, and with res, also of nihil, nothing : 1 Aliquis i,? formed from quis by prefixing all, seen in ali-us ; qiiis-piana and quls-auam from quis by annexing piam and quam. ; . 2-Also written quipplam and quoppiam. 3 The form quidquam seems to be without good authority. PRONOUm: 75 Nom. Gen. Dat. Ago. Abl. nSmS nullius nSmihi neminem nulls nihil nulllus rel null! rel nitiil niilla re 189. The correspondence which exists between Demonstratives^ Rela- tives, Iiiterrogatives, and Indefinites is seen in the following Table of Cobeelativbs Interrog^tiTe Indefinite Demonstrative Relative quis, qui, who ? what?^ quis, qui,2 any one, any ; aliqiilRj^-some one, some ; quidam, certain one, certain ; hie, this one, this ; ' late, that one, that; ille, that one, that; is, he, that ; qui,2 who. uter, which of two? uter or alteruter, either of two; uterque, each, both;^ qui, who. qualis, of what kind? quaUslibet,2 of any kind ; talis, such ; quali8,2 as. quanttts, how great? aliquantus, some- what great; quan- tusvis, as great as you please ; tantuB, so great; quantus,'-' OS, as great.^ '-- quot,5 how many? aliquot, some; tot, so many; quot,* as, as many 1. Nescio quis, I know not who, has become in effect an indefinite pro- noun = quidam, some one. So also nescio qui, / know not which or whl\riKa, I have loved ; amavi = ^l\Tiirtt, I loved. The Historical Perfect and the Imperfect both represent the action as past, but the former regards it simply as a historical fact — I loved; while the latter regards it as in progress — I ivas loving. 1 The IniinitivB'has the characteristics both of verbs and of nouns. As a verb, it governs oblique eases and takes adverbial modifiers; as a noun, it is itself governed. In origin, it is a verbal noun in the Dative or Locative. In the example observe that the Infinitive exire is translated by the English Infinitive, to go out. 2 Participles are verbs in force, but adjectives in form and inflection. As verbs, they govern oblique cases ; as adjectives, they agree with nouns. Parti- cip leB a rB~sametimes best translated by English Participles and sometimes by Clauses. ■ -'..^'Sometimes called the Future Passive Participle. VERBS /J9 CONJUGATION 201. Regular verbs are inflected, or conjugated, in four differ- ent ways, and are accordingly divided into Four Conjugations,' distinguished from ^acli other by the stem characteristics or by the endings of the Infinitive, as follows : Characteristics Infinitive Kndings CoNj. I. a a-re II. e- e-re III. e ere rv. I i-re 202. Principal Parts. — The Present Indicative, Present Intui- tive, Perfect Indicative, and Supine, or the Neuter of the Perfect Participle," are called from their importance the Principal Parts of the verb. 1. In verbs which lack both the Supine and the Perfect Participle, the Future Participle may serve as one of the Principal Parts. 203. The Principal Parts are the stem forms of the verb, as they contain the three stems which form the basis of all verbal inflections, viz. : 1. The verb stem, which remains unchanged in all the various forms of both voices of the verb. 2. Two special stems,' the Present Stem, often identical with the verb stem, found in the Present Indicative, and the Perfect Stem, found in the Perfect Indicative. 204. The entire conjugation of any regular verb may be readily formed from the principal parts by means of the proper endings.* 1. Sum, I am, is used as an auxiliary in the passive voice of regular verbs. Accordingly, its conjugation must be given at the outset. 1 The Four Conjugations are only varieties of one general system of inflection. 2 The masculine form of the participle, sometimes treated as one of the Prin- cipal Parts, is unfortunately found only in transitive verbs, while the form here adopted covers nearly two hundred and fifty Supines and all Perfect Participles whether used personally or impersonally. s For the treatment of stems, see 246-253. * In the paradigms of regular verbs the endings which distinguish the various forms are separately indicated, and should be carefully noticed. In the parts de- rived from the present stem (233) each ending contains the characteristic ToWel. 80 MORPHOLOGY 205. Sum, / am; Stems, es, fu.i PRINCIPAL PARTS Pres. Ind Freg. Inf Perf . Ind. Put. Part. s\un2 esse 2 fuI futuruB Ikdicative Mood Present Tense SINGULAR PLURAL sum I am sumus^ loe are es thou art, you are estis you are est he is sunt they are Imperfect eram I was eramus toe were er3B thou wast, you wen eratis you were erat he was erant they were Future ero J shall be erimus we shall be eris thou wilt be * eritis you will be erit he will be erunt they will be Perfect fui I have been ^ fuimus we have been fuisti thou hast been* fuiatis you have been fuit he has been fuerunt fuere \ they have been Pluperfect • fueram I had been fueramus we had been fueras thou hadst been* fueratis you had been fuerat he had been fuerant they had been Future Perfect fuero I shall have been fuerimus we shall have been fueris thou wilt have been « fueritis you will have been fuerit he will have been fuerint they will have been 1 The forms of irregular verbs are often derived from different roots. Thus in English, am, was, been ; go, went, gone. 2 Observe that the stem es has two forms, es, seen in es-se, es-t, es-tls, and in er-am, for es-am (50), and a weak form, s, seen in s-um, s-umus, s-unt. " Observe that the endings which are added to the stems es and fu are dis- tinguished by the type. * Or, you will be, you have been, you had been, you will have been. The use of thou is confined chiefly to solemn discourse. ^Oi, I was; see 198, 2. YEBBS 81 Sim SIB sit essem esses esset Subjunctive Pbbsent singular may I he, let me be simus may St thou be ^ sitis let him be, may he be sint Imperfect I should be thou wouldst be he would be essemus essetia essent Perfect fuerim I may have been fueris thou mayst have been fuerit he may have been fuerimus fueritis fuerint Plupekfect fuiBsem I should have been fuisses ' thou wouldst have been fuisset he would have been fuissemus fuissStis fuissent plural let us be be ye, may you be let them be we should be you would be they would be we may have been you may have been they may have been we should have been you would have been they would have been Pres. es be thou Fut. esto thou shalt be ' esto he shall be Imperative este estote sunto Infinitive , Pres. esse to be Perf. fuisse to have been Fut. futunim^esse to be about to be. be ye ye shall be they shall be Participle Fut. futurus' about to be 1. In the paradigm all the forms beginning with e or s are from the stem es ; allothers from the stem fu.* 2. Rare Forms. — Forem, fores, foret, forent, fore, for essem, esses, esset, essent, futiirum esse ; siem, sies, siet, sient, or fuam, fuaa, faat, fuant, for sim, sis, sit, sint. 1 Or 6e thoii, or may you be, but remember that the proper translation of the Subjunctive can be best learned from the Syntax. 2 Or like the Present, or with let : be thou ; let him be. s FutHrus is declined like bonus, and the Accusative futurum in futurum esse like the Accusative of bonus: futurum, am, um; futttros, as, a. ^ Es and fu are roots as well as stems. As the basis of this paradigm they are properly stems, but as they are not derived from more primitive forms they are in themselves roots. HARK. LAT. GRAM. 7 82 MORPHOLOGY FIRST CONJUGATION! A-VERBS 206. Stems and Principal Parts of Amo. Verb Stem and Present Stem, ama^ Pres. Ind.' amo PRINCIPAL PARTS Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. am are amavi . Neut. Part, amatum ' 207. Active Voice. ■ Amo, Hove. Indicative Moot) Present Tense SINGULAR PLURAL amo.i I love ' amamua we love amaa thou lovest, you love amatis you love amat he loves Impei amant IFECT they love amabam I was loving amabamus we were loving am abas - you were loving * amabatis you were loving amabat he was loving FUT amabant URE ■they were loving amabo I shall love amabimus we shall love amabis you ibill love amabitis you will. love . .. -: amabit - he will love amabunt they will love Per ?EOT amavi I have loved^ amavimus we have loved amaviati • you, have loved amavistis you have loved amavit he has loved amaverunt, amavere they have loved ^ Plupe REECT amaveram / had loved amaveramus we had loved amaveras you had loved amaveratis you had loved amaverat he had loved Future amaverant Perfect they had loved amavero / shall have loved amaverimus we shall have loved ; amaveriB you will have loved amaveritis you will have loved amWeilt he will have loved amaverint they will have loved 1 The final a of the stem disappears in amo, amem, etc., and in amor, amer, etc. ? Amatum, Supine or neuter Perfect Participle. 3 Or / am loving, I do love. So in the Imperfect, / loved, I was loving, I did lave. - *Oi Ihou wast loving ; but see 205, footnote 4. 6 Oil loved; see 196, 2. FIRST CONJUGATION 83 Subjunctive Present amem amSs amet amarem amares amaret amavenm amaveiis amaverit amavissem amavisses amavisset SINGULAR may I love amemus may you love ametis let him love ament Imperfect I should love you would love he would iove amaremus aiuaretis amareut Perfect / may have loved you may have loved he may have loved amaverimus amaveritis amaverint Pluperfect / should have loved you would have loved he would have loved amavissemus amavissetis amavissent PLURAL let us love may you love let them love we should love you would love they would love toe may have loved you may have loved they may have loved we should have loved you would have loved they would have loved Fres. ama Fut. amato amato love thou thou shalt love he shall love Impeeative amate amatote amanto love ye ye shall love they shall love Infinitive Pres. amare to love Pert. amaviBse to have loved Fat. amatuTum^ esse to be about to love Participle Pres. amans^ loving Fut. amatuTMB^ about to love Gebund Supine Gen. amandi of loving Dat. amando for loving Ace. ameuadum loving Ace. amatum to love AW. amando by loving Abl. amatu to love, be loved _£ 1 For declension, see 128. s Amaturus is declined like bonus, and amaturum like the Accusative of bonus. 84 MORPHOLOGY FIRST CONJUGATION: A-VERBS 208. Passive Voice. — Amor, I am loved. Verb Stem and Present Stem, ama Indicative Mood Present Tense I am loved SINGULAR PLURAL amor ainamur amaris amamini amatur Imperfect I was loved amantut amabar amabamur amabaris, amabare amabamini amabatur amabantur Future I shall be loved amabor amabimur amaberis, amabere amabimini amabitur amabimtur Perfect I have been loved or I was loved amatUB sum ^ amati sumus amatus es amati estis amatuB est amati sunt Plupeefect I had been loved amatus eram i amati eramus amatus eras amati eratis amatus erat amati erant Future Perfect I shall have been loved amatus ero ^ amatus eris amatus erit amati erimus amati eritis amati enuit 1 Fui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. : amatus fui for ama- tus sum. So fueram, fuerSs, etc., for eram, etc. : also fuero, etc., for er5, etc. FIRST CONJUOAftOlfr 85 Subjunctive Present May I he loved, let him be loved SINGULAR amer ameris, amere ametur PLnKAL amemur amemini amentur Imperfect I should be loved, he would be loved amarer amaremur amareris, amarere amaremini amaretur amarentur Perfect / may have been loved, he may have been loved amatus sim ^ amatus sis amatus sit amati sTmus amati sitds amaH sint Pluperfect I should have been loved, he icauld have been loved amatus essem ' amatus esses amatus esset amati essemus amati essetis amaS essent Pres. amare Fut. amator amStor be thou loved thou shalt be loved he shall be loved Impebative amamini amantor be ye loved they shall be loved Pres. amaii Perf. amatumesse^ Fut. amatum iii Infinitive to be loved to have been loved to be about to be loved Participle Ferf. amatus having been loved Ger.2 amandus to be loved, deserving to be loved 1 Puerim, fueris, etc., are sometimes used for sim, sis, etc. So also fuissem, fuisses, etc., for essem, esses, etc. : rarely fuisse for esse. ' Ger. — Gerondiye ; see 200, 4. m MORPHOLOGY SECOND CONJUGATION! E-VERBS 209. Stems and Principal Parts of Moneo. Vekb Stem, mon ; Present Stem, inone moneo 210. Active Voice. SINGULAR moneo mones monet PRINCIPAL parts monere monul — Moneo, I advise. Indicative Mood Present Tense I advise monitum PLURAL monemuB monetis monent Imperfect I was advising, or I advised monebam monebas monebat monebo monebis monebit Future I shall advise monebamus monebatia monebant mouebimus monebitis monebunt Perfect I have advised, or / advised monui monuiniua monuiati monuistia monuit monuerunt, monuere Pluperfect / had Advised monueram monueramua monueraa monueratia monuerat monuerant Future Perfect I shall have advised monuero monueria monuerit monuerimuB monueritia monuerint SECOlfD CONJUGATION 87 Subjunctive Present May I advise, let him advise SINGULAR moneam moneys moneat PLURAL moneamus moneatis moneant Imperfect / should advise, he would advise monerem moneres moneret moneremus moneretis monerent Perfect I may have advised, he may have advised monuenm monuens monuerit monuenmua monueritis monuerint Pluperfect I should have advised, he would have advised monmssem monuisses monuisset monuissemua monuissetis monuissent Pres. mone Put. moneto moneto Imperative advise thou thou shalt advise he shall advise monete monetote monentd advise. ye ye shall advise they shall advise Infinitive Pres. monere to advise Perf. monuisse to have advised Put. moniturum esse to be about to advise Gerund Gen. monendi of advising Dat. monendo for advising Ace. monendum advising Abl. monendo by advising , Participle Pres. monens advising Put. monituruB about to advise Supine Ace. monitum to advise Abl. monitu to advise, be advised 88 MORPHOLOGY SECOND CONJUGATION! E-VERBS 211. Passive Voice. — Moneor, / am advised. Verb Stem, mon ; Present Stem, mone Indicative Mood Present Tense I am advised moneor moneris inonetur Imperfect I was advised monebar monebaris, monebare monebatur Future I shall be advised monSbor moneberis, monebere monebitur PLURAL monemur monemim tnonentur monebamur monebamini monebantur monebimur monebimini monebuntur Perfect I have been advised, I was advised monitus sum ^ monituB es monitus est monitus eram ' monitus eras monitus erat Pluperfect I had been advised moniti sumus moniti estis moniti sunt moniti eramus moniti eratis moniti erant Future Perfect I shall have been advised monitus ero ' monitus eris monitns exit moniti erimus moniti eritis moniti erunt 1 See 208, footnotes. SECOND CONJUGATION 89 Subjunctive Present May I be advised, let him be advised SINGULAR inenear moneaiis, moneare moneatur PLURAL moneamuT moneSmlni moneantur Imperfect I should be advised, he would be advised monerer monSrSria, monerere moneretur moneremur moneremliu monerentur Perfect I may have been advised, he may have been advised monitus sim ^ monitus sTs monitus sit moniti simuB moniti sitis moniti sint Pluperfect I should have been advised, he would have been advised monitus esaem ^ monitus esses monitus esset moniti essemus moniti essetis moniti essent Imperative Pres. monere be thou advised Fat. monetor thou shalt be advised monetor he shall be advised monSmini be ye advised monentor they shall be advised Infinitive Pres. moneri to be advised Perf. monitum esse • to have been advised Ger. monitum iri to be about to be advised Participle Perf. monitus having J)een advised Ger. monendus to be advised, deserv- ing to be advised 1 See 208, footnotes. 90 MORPHOLOGY THIRD CONJUGATION i CONSONANT VERBS 212. Stems and Principal Parts of Reg5. Vekb Stem, reg; Present Stem, rege, rego* PRINCIPAL PARTS rego regere rexi-' 213. Active Voice. — Eego, JmZe. 'i Indicative Mood rSctiim ° Present Tense I rule SINGULAR PLURAL reg5 regimus regis regltis regit regunt Imperfect I was ruling, or / ruled, regebam regebamus regebas regebatia regebat regebant Future I shall rule regam regemuB reges regStis reget regent Perfect I have ruled, or I ruled rexi reximus rexisti rexistis rexit rexerunt, rexere Pluperfect / had ruled rSzeram rexeramuB rgxeras rexeratis rexerat rgxerant Future Perfect / shall have ruled rexero rexerlmus . rexeris rexeritis rgxerit rexerint 1 The characteristic of this conjugation is the thematic vowel which connects the stem and the ending. It originally had the form of e or o, but in classical Latin itgenerally appears as i or u, as in *reget, regit ; »regont, regunt. — 2 Eexi, from *rec-sl, from *reg-si ; see 61 . Reo-tum, from *reg-tum ; see 56, 1. THIRD CONJUGATION n Subjunctive Present May I rule, let him rule SINaCLAS PLURAL regam regamus regSs regatis regat regant Imperfect I should mle, he would rule regerem regeremus regeres regeretis regeret regerent Perfect / may have ruled, he may have ruled rezenm rexeris iSzeiit rexeiunus rexeiitis rexerint Pldpkrfeot I should have ruled, he liiould have ruled TSxissem lexisses rSxisset rexissemus rexissetis rexissent Fres. rege rule thou Fat. regito thou shall rule regito he shall rule Imperative regite regitote regunto rule ye ye shall rule they shall rule Infinitive Pres. regere to rule Perf. rexisse to have ruled Fut. recturom esse to be about to rule Participle Pres. regens ruling Fut. rectunis about to rule Gerund Supine Gen. regendi of ruling Dat. regendo for ruling Ace. -legeudum ruling Aco. rectum to rule Abl. regendo by ruling Abl. r6ctu to rule, be ruled 92 MORPHOLOGY THIRD CONJUGATION; CONSONANT VERBS 214. Passive Voice. — Eegor, / am ruled. Verb Stem, reg ; Pkesent Stem, rege, rego Indicative Mood Present Tense / am ruled SINGULAR PLURAL regor regimur regeris regimini regitur reguntur Imperfect I was ruled regebar regebamur regebaris, regebare regebamini regSbatur regebantur Future I shall be ruled regar regemur regeris, regere regemini regetvir regentur Perfect I have been ruled, or Iwa. ruled rectus sum i recti sumus rectus es recti estis rectus est recti sunt Pluperfect I had been ruled rectus eram ^ recti eramus rectus eras recti eratis rectus erat recti erant Future Perfect I shall have been ruled rectus er5 ' rectus eris rectus erit recti enmus recti eritis recti erunt 1 See SOS, footnotes. THIRD CONJUGATION 93 Subjunctive Present May I be ruled, let him be ruled SINGULAR regar regaiis, regare regatur PLURAL regamur regamim regantur Imperfect I should be ruled, he would be ruled regeremur regeremim regerentur regerer regereris, regerere regeretur Perfect I may have been ruled, he may have been ruled rSctus sim ^ rectus SIS rectus sit recti simus recQ sitis recH sint Pluperfect I should have been ruled, he loould have been ruled rectus essem i recti essemus rectus esses recti essetis rectus esset recti essent Imperative Pres. regere be thou ruled Put. regitor thou shall be ruled regitor he shall be ruled regimini be ye ruled reguntor they shall be ruled Infinitive Pres. regi to be ruled Perf. rectum esse ' to hai-e been ruled Put. rectum iii to be about to be ruled Participle Perf. rectus having been ruled ^ Ger. regendus to be iiUed, deserving to be ruled 1 Bec-tus from *reg-tus; see 55, 1. 94 MORPHOLOGY FOURTH CONJUGATION : 1-VERBS 215. Stems and Principal Parts of Audio. Vbbb Stem and Present Stem, audi PRINCIPAL PARTS audio audire audivi auditum 216. Active Voice. - — Audio, I hear. Indicative Mood Present Tense I hear SINGULAR PLURAL audio audimuB audis auditiB audit audiunt Imperfect I was hearing, or 7 heard audiebam audiebamuB audiebas audiebatiB audiebat audiebant Future I shall hear audiam audiemuB audies audietia audiet audient Perfect I have heard, or I heard audm audivimuB audiviati audlviatis audivit audlverunt, audlvere Pluperfect I had heard audiveram audlveramus audiveras audiveratis audiverat audiverant Future Perfect I shall have heard audivero audiverimus audiveriB audiveritis audlyerit audlverint FOURTH CONJUGATION 95 Subjunctive Pkesent May I hear, let him hear SINGULAR PLURAL audiam audiamus audias audiatis aadiat audiant Imperfect I should hear, he would hear audlrem audlremiis audires audiretis audiret audirent Perfect / may have heard, he may have heard audlverim audiveris audiverit audiverimus audiveritis audlverint Pluperfect" I should have heard, he loould have heard audmssem attdlvisses audmsset audlvissemuB audivissetis audivisaent Pres. audi hear thou Put. audito thou shall hear audits he shall hear Imperative audite auditote audiunto hear ye ye shall hear they shall hear Infinitive Pres. audire to hear Perf. audiTisse to have heard Put. auditurum esse to be about to hear Gerund Gen. audiendl of hearing Dat. audiendo for hearing Ace. dtn^dendvaa hearing Abl. audiendS by hearing Participle Pres. audiens hearing Put. auditurus about to hear Supine Ace. auditom Abl. audits to hear - to hear, be heard 96 MORPHOLOGY FOURTH CONJUGATION! I-VERBS 217. Passive Voice. — Audior, I am heard. Verb Stem and Present Stem, audi Ijstdicative Mood Present Tense SINGULAR / am heard PLURAL audior audimur audiris audunini " auditur audiuntur Imperfect I was heard audiebar audiebamur audiebaria, audiebare audiSbamiuT audiebatur audiebantur FnxuRE I shall be heard audiar audiemur audieris, audiere audiemini audietur audientur Perfect I have been heard or I was heard audituB sum > audit! sumuB auditus es audit! estis auditus est audit! Bunt Pluperfect I had been heard audituB eram ^ audit! eramua audituB eras audit! eratis auditus erat audit! erant Future Perfect I shall have been heard auditus ero ^ auditus eris auditus erit audit! erimus audit! eritis audit! erunt 1 See 208,1 footnotes. FOUSTH CONJUGATION 97 Subjunctive Pkesent May I he heard, let him be heard SINGULAR ' PLURAL audiar audiamur audlSris, audiare audiamini audiatuT audiantur andirer audireris, audirere audiretur Imperfect / should be heard, he loould be heard audiremur audiremini audirentur Perfect / may have been heard, he may have been heard audltus Sim auditua sis audituB sit auditi simus auditi sitis audlti sint Pluperfect I should have been heard, he wottld have been heard auditus essem audltus esses audltus esset audit! essemus auditi essetis auditi essent Pres. audire be thou heard Fut. auditor thou shall be heard auditor he shall be heard Imperative audunini be ye heard audluntor they shall be heard Infinitive Pres. audui to be heard Perf. auditum esse to have been heard Fut. auditum ui to be about to be heard HARK. LAX. gram. — 8 Participle Perf. auditus having been heard Ger. audiendus to be heard, deserv- ing to be heard 98. MORPHOLOGY COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS 218. Active Voice : Present System.' Indicative Mood am -5 mon -eo reg -o aud -io -es -is -is Present Tense -at -et -it -it -amus -emus -imus -imus -atis -etis -itis -itis -ant -ent -unt -iunt am -a moa -e reg -e aud-i-e am -a J mon -e j reg j aud -1 ) -bam -bo -am -bas -bis -es Impekfect -bat Future -bit -et -bamus -bimus -emus -batis -bitis -etis -bant -bunt -ent am mon -e reg aud -i am -a ' mon -e aud -e -1 -es -as Subjunctive Present -et -at Impekfect -ret -emus -amus -etis -atis -ent -ant -fetis -rent Present singular plural am -a am -a mon -e mon-e reg -e aud -i reg -1 aud-i -te Imperative Future SINGULAR am -a mon-e reg.-i aud-i -to -t6 am -a mon-e reg -i aud -i -tote am -an mon-en reg--un aud -iun . -to Present Infinitive Present Participle am -a mon -e reg -e aud -1 am -ans mon-ens reg -ens aud -iens Gerund. am -an mon-en reg -en aud -ien -di 1 For tlie Present System, see 233. VMSBS 99 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS 219. Passive Voice : Present System. Indicative Mood Pkesent Tense am mon reg aud -e -1 . -or am -a mon-e reg -e aud -i . -tur -mur ■ -mini am -a mon -e reg -e aud-i-e 51 am mon -e reg } aud -1 ( -bar -bor -ar -baris 1 am -a mon-e reg -i aud -i Imperfect -batur -bamur -bamini FnTCKE am -an mon-en reg -un aud -iun am -er mon -e reg aud -1 J -ar am -a ' mon -e reg -e _ -beris -bltur -blmur -bimini -eris -etur -emur Subjunctive Peesent -emini -eris -etur -emur -emini -aris -atur -amur Imperfect -amini -rerisi -retur -remur -remini -tur -bantut -buntur -entur , -entur -antur -rentur aud Present SINOtTLAR PLURAL Imperative Future SINGULAR am -a am -a mon -e reg -e aud -i . -re mon-e reg -i aud-i am -a mon-e reg -i aud-i -tor -tor am -an mon-en reg -un aud -iun . -tor" Present Infinitive am -a mon-e aud -i reg -1 Gerundive am -an mon-en aud -ien reg -en -dus 1 In the second person singular of the passive, except in the Present Indicative, the ending re is often used instead of ria : amaba-ris or amaba-re. 100 MORPHOLOGY amav monu rex audiv COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS 220. Active Voice: i. Perfect System.' Indicative Mood Perfect Tense it -imus amav monu rex audJv . amav monu rex audiv , -isti Pluperfect -eras -erat -erar Future Perfect -ens -erit -istis -erunt, -ere -eratis -erant -eritis -erint amav monu rex audiv amav monu rex audiv -erim Subjunctive Perfect -eris -erit -erimus -eritis -efint Pluperfect -issem -isses -isset -issemus -issetis -issent amav monu rex audiv Perfect Infinitive 2. Participial System Future Infinitive Future Participle ama moni rec audi -turum esse -turns Supine -turn -tu 1 For the Perfect System, see 234, and for the Participial System, 236. VERBS 101 221. ama mon-i rec audi ama mon-i rec audi ama mon-i rec audi COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS Passive Voice : Participial System. Indicative Mood Perfect Tense -tus sum -tuses -tus est -ti' sumus -ti estis -ti sunt Pluperfect -tus eram -tus eras -tus erat -ti eramus -ti eratis -ti erant Fdtdre Perfect -tus ero -tus eris -tus erlt -ti erimus -ti eritis -ti erunt ama inon-i rec audi ama mon-i rec audi Subjunctive Perfect -tus sim -tus sis -tus sit -ti simus -ti sitis -ti sint Pluperfect -tus essem -tus esses -tus esset -ti essemus -ti essetis -ti essent Perfect ama I mon-i [ rec j audi j -turn esse Infinitive Perfect Participle Fdtdre -tum iri ama mon-i rec audi , -tus 2 ' In the plural, tus becomes ti : ama-ti sumus, etc. 2 From the comparative view presented in 21 8 -221 , it will be seen that the four conjugations differ from each other only in the formation of the Principal Parts and in the endings of the Present System. See also 201, footnote. 102 MORPHOLOGY DEPONENT VEKBS 222. Deponent Verbs have in general the forms of the passive voice, with the signification of the active. But 1. They have also in the active the Future Infinitive, the Participles, Gerund, and Supine. 2. The Gerundive has the passive signification ; sometimes, also, the Perfect Participle : hortaudus, to be exhorted; ezpertus, tried,. 3. The Future Infinitive has the active form. 223. Deponent verbs are found in each of the four conjugar tions. Their principal parts are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, and Perfect Indicative : I. Hortor hortari hortatus sum to exhort • II. Vereor verSrI veritus sum to fear III. Loquor loqui lootitus sum to speak IV. Blandior blandiri blanditus sum to flatter I II III IV Pres. hortor, I exhort vereor, I fear loquor, I speak blandior, I flatter hortaris, etc. vereris, etc. loqueris, etc. blandlrls, etc. Imp. hortabar verebar loquebar blandiebar Fut. hortabor verebor loquar blandiar Perf. hortatus sum veritus sum locutus sum blanditus sum Plup. hortatus eram veritus eram lociitus eram blanditus eram F. P. hortatus ero veritus ero lociitus ero blanditus ero Subjunctive Mood Pres. horter verear loquar blandiar Imp. hortarer vererer loquerer blandirer Perf. hortatus sim veritus sim locutus sim blanditus sim Plup. hortatus essem veritus essem lociitus essem blanditus essejn Imperative Pres. hortare verere loquere blandire Fut. hortator verStor loquitor blanditor Infinitive Pres. hortari vereri loqui blandiri Perf. hortatum esse veritum esse loctitum esse blandltum esse Fut. hortaturum esse verltiirum esse lociitilrum esse blandltiirutn esse I-VESBS, THIRD CONJUGATION 103 Pres. hortSns Fut. hortaturus Perf. hortatus Ger. hortandus hortandi, etc. hortatum hortattt Pakticiple vergns loqugns veriturus locutums veritus locutus verendus loquendus Gerund verendl, etc. loquendl, etc. Supine Teritum locutum veritu locntu blandiens blanditUTus blandltus blandiendus blandiendl, etc. blandltum blanditu SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS 224. Semi-Deponent Verbs have active forms in the Present system and passive forms in the Perfect system : audeo audere ausus sum to dare gaudeo gaudere gavisus sum tp rejoice soleo solere solitus sum to be wont fido fidere fisus sum to trust '-\. The Perfect Participles of a few Intransitive verbs have the active meaning, but they are generally used as adjectives : adultus, having^ grown up, adult, from adolescere, to grow up cautus, taking care, cautious, " cavere, to take care cenatus, having dined, " cenare, to dine placitus, pleasing', " placere, to please pransus, having breakfasted, " prandere, to breakfast 2. Devertor, to turn aside, and reverter, to return, have active forms in the Perfect system, borrowed from deverto and reverto. I-VEEBS OP THE THIRD CONJUGATION 225. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form the Present Indicative in io, like verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. They are inflected with the endings of the Fourth whenever those endings have two successive vowels. These verbs are : 1. Capio, to take; cupio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to dig; fugiS, to flee; iacio, to throw; pario, to bear; quatio, to shake; rapio, to seize; sapio, to be wise; wiLh their compounds. 104 MORPHOLOGY 2. The compounds of the obsolete verbs lacio, to entice, and specio,' to look; allicio, elicio, illicio, pelliciS, etc.; aspicio, conspicio, etc. 3. The Deponent Verbs gradior, to go ; moiior, to die ; patior, to suffer; see 222. 226. Stems and Principal Parts of Capio. Verb Stem, cap; Present Stem, capi''' capio PRINCIPAL PARTS capers cepi captum 227. Active Voice. — Capio, / take. Indicative Mood Present Tense singular plural capis capit capimus capitis capiunt Imperfect capie-bam -bas -bat capie-bamus -batis -bant Future -es -et capi-emus -6tis -ent Perfect -isli -it cep-imus -istis -erunt, or -6re Pluperfect -ras -rat cepe-ramus -ratis -rant Future Perfect -rit cepe-rimus -ritis -rint capio capi-am cep-i c6pe-ram cepe-ro -ris Subjunctive Present capi-am -as -at capi-amus -atis -ant Imperfect cape-rem -res -ret cape-rginus -rgtis -rent Perfect c6pe-rim -ris -rit cepe-rimus -ritis -rint Pluperfect cSpis-sem -sgs -set cepis-semus -sStis -sent 1 Specie occurs, but it is exceedingly rare. 2 Remember that i becomes e when final, and also before r from s : •capi, cape ; *capise, capere ; see 26, 1 and 2. I-VKRHS, THIRD CONJUGATION 106 Imperative SINGULAR PLDRAL Pres. cape caplte Fut. capito capito te capito capiunto Infinitive Participle Pres. capere Pres. capiens Perf. c6pisse Fut. captumm esse Fut. capturus Gerund Supine Gen. capiendl Dat. capiendo Ace. capieudum Ace. captum Abl. capiendo Abl. captti 228. Passive Voice. — Capior, / am taken. Indicative Mood Present Tense capior capi-ar captus sum es captus eram eras captus ero eris PLCRAL capimini capiuntur SINGULAR caperis capitur capimur Imperfect capie-bar -baris -batur capie-bamur -bamini -bantur Future -eris -etur capl-eraur -emini -entur Perfect est capti sumus estis snnt Pluperfect erat capti eramus eratis erant Future Perfect erit capti erimus eritis erunt Subjunctive Present capi-ar -aris -atur capl-amur Imperfect cape-rer -reris -retur cape-remur -antur -rgmini -rentur 106 MORPHOLOGY captus sim captus essem Perfect sit capti simus Pluperfect esset captI essemus sitis sint essetis essent Pres. capere Fut. capitor capitor Inpinitivi: Pres. capi Perf. captum esse Put. captum M Impekative capimini capimrtor Participle Perf. captus " Put. capiendus 229. Deponent verbs in ior of the Third Conjugation, like other de- ponent verbs, have in the active voice the Future Infinitive, the Parti- ciples, Gerund, and Supine, but lack the Future Infinitive of the passive form. They are otherwise inflected precisely like the passive of capior : patior pati passus sum to suffer VEEBAL INFLECTIONS 230. The principal parts are regularly formed in the four con- jugations with the following endings : CONJ. I. II. in. IV. In a few verbs : In most verbs : In consonant stems : In u-stems : o are avi atum amo amare amavl amatum to love eo ere eyi etum deleo delere delevi deletum to destroy eo ere ui itum moneo mon6re monul monitum to advise : 5 ere si turn carpo carpere carpsi oarptum to pluck - uo uere ui utum acuo acuere acui acutum to sharpen io ire ivi itum audio audire audivi auditum to hear Note. — For a full treatment of tlie formation of the principal parts of verbs,, see Classification of "Verbs, 257-.289. VERBAL INFLECTIONS 107 ; 231. Compounds of verbs with dissyllabic Supines or Perfect Parti- ciples 1 generally change the stem vowel in forming the principal parts.'' 1. When the simple verb has the stem vowel e, which becomes e, both in the Perfect and in the Participle, the compound generally changes e to i, but retains e : rego regere rexl rgotum to rule di-rigo di-iigere dl-rexl di-rectum to direct 2. When the simple verb has the stem vowel e, which remains un- changed both in the Perfect and in the Participle, the compound gener- ally retains e in the Participle, but changes it to i in the other parts : teneO tenere tgnui tentum to hold dS-tineo de-tinere de-tinui de-tentum to detain 3. When the simple verb has the stem vowel a, which becomes e in the Perfect, the compound generally retains e in the Perfect, but changes a to e in the Participle and to i in the other parts : capio capere cepi captum to take ao-cipio ao-cipere ac-cepi ac-oeptum to accept 4. When the simple verb has the stem vowel a throughout, the com- pounds generally change a to e in the Participle and to i in the other parts : rapio rapere rapui raptum to seize di-ripio di-ripere di-ripui dl-reptum to tear asunder Note. — For Reduplication In compounds, see 251, 4 ; other peculiarities of compounds will be noticed under the separate conjugations. 232. All the forms of the regular verb arrange themselves in three distinct groups or systems. 233. The Present System, with the Present Infinitive as its basis, comprises : 1. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative — Active and Passive. 2. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive — Active and Passive. 3. The Imperative — Active and Passive. 4. The Present Infinitive — Active and Passive. 5. The Present Participle. 6. The Gerund and the Gerundive. 1 The term Participle here used of one of the principal parts of the verb des- ignates the form in tum or sum, which is the basis of the Participial or Supine System; see 235. 2 This change took place at a very early date, in accordance with phonetic laws, under the influence of the initial accent of that period. 108 MORPHOLOGY Note. — These parts are all formed from the Present stem, found in the Present Infinitive Active by dropping the ending re : amare, present stem ama ; monere, mone ; regere, rege, with ablaut form rego ; audire, audi. 234. The Perfect System, with the Perfect Indicative Active as its basis, comprises in the active voice : 1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative. 2. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. 3. The Perfect Infinitive. Note. — These parts are all formed from the Perfect stem, found in the Perfect Indicative Active, by dropping i : amavi, perfect stem amav ; monui, monu. 235. The Participial System, with the neuter of the Perfect Parti- ciple or the Supine as its basis, comprises : 1. The Future Active and the Perfect Passive Participle, the former of which with esse forms the Future Active Infinitive, while the latter with the proper parts of the auxiliary sum forms in the passive those tenses which in the active belong to the Perfect system. These Participles are both formed from the verb stem, the Future by adding turus, which some- times becomes surus, and the Perfect by adding tus, which sometimes becomes sus. 2. The Supine in turn and tii, the former of which with iri forms the Future Infinitive Passive. The Supine is formed from the verb stem by adding the endings turn, tii, which sometimes become sum, su. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS 236. The Active Periphrastic Conjugation, formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the verb sum, is used of actions which are imminent, or about to take place : Amatilrus sum, / am about to love. Indicative Mood Pres. amaturus sum / am about to love Imp. amaturus eram I was about to love Fut. amaturus ero I shall be about to love Perf. amaturus ful I have been, or was, about to love Plup. amaturus fueram I had been about to love F. P. amaturus fuer5 I shall have been about to love PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 109 Subjunctive Pres. amattirus sim May I be about to love Imp. amaturas essem I should be about to love Perf. amatums fuerim I may have been about to love Hup. amatums fuissem I should have been about to love Infinitive Pres. amaturum esse to be about to love Perf. amaturum fuisse to have been about to love 237. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation, formed by combining the Gerundive with sum, is used of actions which are necessary, or which ought to take place : Amandus sum, / am to he loved, deserve to be, or ought to he loved. Indicative Mood Pres. amandus sum / am to be loved, I must be loved Imp. amandus eram I was to be loved, deserved to be, etc. Put. amandus er5 I shall deserve to be loved Perf. amandus fui I have deserved to be loved Plup. amandus fueram I had deserved to be loved P.P. amandus fuero I shall have deserved to be loved Subjunctive Pres. amandus sim May I deserve to be loved Imp. amandus essem / should deserve to be loved Perf. amandus fuerim I may have deserved to be loved Plup. amandus fuissem I should have deserved to be loved Infinitive Pres. amandum esse to deserve to be loved Perf. amandum fuisse to have deserved to be loved PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION 238. Perfects in avi and evi and the tenses derived from them sometimes drop ve or vi before r or s ^ : amavisti amasti delevisti dglesti amavisse amasse delevisse delesse amaverim amarim deleverira delerim amaverS amarO delevero dSlSr5 1 According to another theory they drop v, and then the following vowel, e or i,- diSappears by contraction with the preceding vowel, a or e. 110 MORPHOLOGY 1. Perfects in ovi from nosco, and from the compounds of moveo, together with the tenses derived from them, may also drop v^, ot vi, before r or s^: nsvisti nosti noveris nor!s commovissem commossem 2. Perfects in ivi atid the tenses derived from them sometimes drop vi before s, and they may drop v in any situation except before the ending ere : audivisti audlsti audlvi audi! audlvisse audisse audiverunt audierunt 3. Certain short forms from Perfects in si and xi, common in poetry, are probably an independent formation of an early date : scrlpsti = scripsisti dixti = dixisti scripstis = seripsistis dixem = dixissem 239. The ending ere for erunt in the Perfect is common in Livy and the poets, but rare in Caesar and Cicero. In poetry erunt occurs. 240. Re for ris in the ending of the second person of the passive is rare in the Present Indicative, but common in the other tenses. 241. Die, due, fac, and fer, for dice, duce, face, and fere, are the Im- peratives of dioo, duco, facio, and fer5, to say, lead, make, and hear. 1. Dice, duce, and face occur in poetry. 2. Compounds generally follow the usage of the simple verbs, but the com- pounds of facio with prepositions retain the final e : con-ficio, con-fice. 3. Scio, I know, lacks the present imperative, and uses the future in its stead. 242. Future and Perfect Infinitives often omit the auxiliary,; esse : amaturum, for amatiirum esse ; amatum, for amatum esse, 243. TTndus and undi, for endus and.endi, occur as the endings of the Gerundive and Gerund of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, espe- cially after i : f aciundus, from facio, to make ; dicundus, from dico, to say. 244. Ancient and Rare Forms. — Various other forms, belonging in the main to the earlier Latin, occur in the poets, even of the classical periodj'and occasionally also in prose, to impart to the style an air of antiquity or solemnity. Thus, forms in — 1 See 838, footnote. J FORMATION OF STEMS 111 1. ibam for iebam, in the Imperfect Indicative of the Fourth Conjugation : scibam for sciebam. See Imperfect of eo, to go, 297. 2. ibo, ibor, for iam, iar, in the Future of the Fourth Conjugation : aer- vibo for serviam ; opperibor for opperiar. See Future of eo, 297. 3. im for am or em, in the Present Subjunctive : edim, edis, etc., for edam, edas, etc. ; duim (from duo, for db) for dem. In slm, velim, nolim, malim (295) , im is the common ending. 4. asso, esso, and so, in the Future Perfect, and assim, essim, and aim, in the Perfect Subjunctive of the First, Second, and Third Conjugations : faxo (facso) = fecerS; fazim = fecerim; ausim = ausus sim (from audeo). Rate examples are : levaaso = levavero ; prohibeaao = prohibuero ; capso = cgperS. 5. mino for tor, in the Future Imperative, Passive, and Deponent : arbi- tramino for arbitrator. 6. ier for i, in the Present Passive Infinitive: amarier for amari: vi- deiier for videri. FORMATION OF STEMS 245. The Verb Stem, whicli is the basis of the entire conjugar tiou, consists of that part of the verb which is common to all the forms of both voices. The Special Stems are either identical with this stem or formed from it. I. Present Stem 246. The Present Stem, found in the Present Infinitive Active by dropping re, is generally the same as the verb stem in the Pirst and in the Pourth Conjugation, and sometimes in the Second. Thus, ama, dele, and audi are both Present stems and verb stems. 247. The Present stem, when not the same as the verb stem, is formed from it by one of the following methods : 1. By adding the Thematic Vowel, originally e, o, usually written Ve- in Latin this vowel generally takes the form i, u ^ : rego, Stem, reg; Present Stem, reg Vo ; rege becomes regi in regi-s, and rego becomes regu in regu-nt. 2. By adding n with the thematic vowel: cernS, Stem, cer; Present Stem, cer-n'/o! to perceive temno, " tern; " " tem-n'/o! to despise 1 For this phonetic change, see 25, 1, 27, 1. 112 MORPHOLOGY 3. By inserting n and adding the thematic vowel : frango, Stem, frag; Present Stem, frangVo J to break 4. By adding t with the thematic vowel : plecto, Stem, plec; Present Stem, plec-t Vo i to braid 5. By adding so with the thematic vowel : quiesco, Stem, quie ; Present Stem, quie-sc Vo > '" ''**' 6. By prefixing to the stem its initial consonant with i, and adding the thematic vowel : gign-ere ; Stem, gen ; Present Stem, gi-gn-'/o ^ ; to beget 7. By adding a, e, I, or i to the stem ^ : dom-are Stem, dom Present S vid-ere " vid aper-Ire aper cap-ere cap dom-a to tame vid-e to see aper-i to uncover cap-i to take II. Perfect Stem 248. Vowel stems, except those in u, generally form the Per- fect stem by adding v ^ : ama-re ama-vi Stem, am5 Perfect St^m, amav to love dele-re dele-vi ' ' del§ " " delev to destroy audl-re audi-vi " audi " " audiv to hear 1. In verbs in uo, the Perfect stem is the same as the verb stem : aeu-ere acu-i Stem, acu Perfect Stem, acu to sharpen 249. Many stems in 1, m, n, r, and a few others, together with most of the verbs of the second conjugation, form the Perfect stem by adding u': Perfect Stem, alu to nourish " " fremu to rage " " tenu to hold " " seru to connect " " docu to teach 1 In the reduplicated forms gigne, gigno, the root gen takes the weak form gn. 2 In the first person of the Present Indicative active, the suffixes are ao, eo, lo, and lo. 3 Perfects in vi and ui were not inherited, hut are new formations. Perfects in vl are of uncertain origin, hut they may have heen formed on the analogy of such Perfects as favi, lavi, fovi, movi, vovi, iuvl, in which v belongs to the verb stem. The ending ui is probably only a modification of vi. al-ere al-ui Stem, al frem-ere frem-ui " frea ten-ere ten-ui " ten ser-ere ser-ul " ser doc-ere doc-ui " doo PERFECT STEM 113 250. Most mute stems form the Perfect stem by adding s ' : carp-ere cari)-si Stem, carp Perfect Stem, carps to pluck reg-ere r6xi = *r6g-sl " reg ■' " rex=*regs to rule 251. Reduplication. — A few consonant stems form the Perfect stem by reduplication, which consists in prefixing the initial con- sonant of the stem with the following vowel or with e : tend-ere te-tend-i Stem, tend Perfect Stem, te-tend to stretch pose-ere po-p5so-i " pose " " po-posc to demand curr-ere cu-curr-i " curr " " cu-curr to run can-ere ce-cin-i " can " " ce-cin to sing 1. The vowel of the reduplication was originally e. In Latin it is assimi- lated to the vowel of the stem when that vowel is i, o, or u, as in didic-i, po-posc-i, cu-curr-i, but it is retained as e in all other situations. 2. After the reduplication, a of the stem is weakened to i in open syllables, as in can-ere, ce-ci-m, but in closed syllables it is weakened to e, as in fall-ere, fe-fel-li ; see 24, 1 and 2. Ae is weakened to i, as in caed-ere, ce-ci-di ; see 32, 2. 3. In verbs beginning with sp or st, the reduplication retains both con- sonants, but the stem drops s : spond-ere, spo-pond-i, to promise ; sta-re, Bte-t-i, to stand. 4. Compounds generally drop the reduplication, but the compounds of dare,'-' to give; discere, to learn ; poscere, to demand, and stare, to stand, retain it : te-tendi, contend! ; but de-di, circum-de-di ; ste-ti, circum- ste-ti. 252. A few consonant stems form the Perfect stem by length- ening the stem vowel : em-ere em-i Stem, em Perfect Stem, em ag-ere eg-i' " ag " leg-ere leg-i " leg " vid-ere vid-I " vid " 1. A few verbs retain the stem unchanged : vert-ere vert-i Stem, vert Perfect Stem, vert vis-ere vis-I " vis " 1 The Perfect in si is in its origin an inherited s-Aorist which has become one of the regular forms of the Latin Perfect. It corresponds to the s-Aorist of the Greek, Sanskrit, and other kindred tongues. 2 The compounds of dare which are of the Third Conjugation change e into 1 in the reduplication : ad-de-re, ad-dl-di, for *ad-de-di, to add. 3 Observe that a in ag-ere and i in its compounds, as in ata-ig-ere, ab-eg-i, are not only lengthened, but also changed to e. HARK. LAT. GRAM. 9 em to buy Sg to drive leg to read vid to see vert to turn via to visit 114 MORPHOLOGY PAETICIPIAL SYSTEM 263. The Participial System has no common stem, but it is represented in the Principal Parts of the verb by the neuter of the Perfect Participle, or by the Supine, each of which is formed by adding turn to the verb stem : amar-re ama-tum to love doc-ere doc-tum to teach can-ere can-turn to sing audi-re audi-tum to hear 1. In steins in d and t, the union of d-t and of t-t in the Supine and Participle produces, according to phonetic law, ss, regularly reduced to s after long syllables : laed-ere *laed-tum lae-sum to hurt vert-ere *vert-tum ver-sum to turn 2. A few stems, chiefly those in 1 and r, following the analogy of stems in d and t, add -sum in forming the Supine or Participle : fal-lere ^ fal-sum to deceive curr-ere cur-sum ^ to run VERBAL ENDINGS 254. The Endings which are appended to the verb stem in the formation of the various parts of the finite verb distinguish the different Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. I. Personal Endings 255. The personal endings, some of which appear to have been formed from ancient pronominal stems, distinguish Voice, Num- ber, and Person. They are in general as follows : Person Active Passive Meaning Sing. First m, 6 r, or I Second s ris thou, you Third t tur he, she, it Plur. First mus mur we Second tis minis you Third nt ntur they ' 1 The BBCond 1 for n belongs to the present stem, not to the verb stem. * The second r for s disappears before s. s Mini was not originally a personal ending, but the plural of a Passive Parti- MOOD AND TENSE SIGNS 115 1. These are the regular personal endings in the Indicative and Subjunc- tive Moods, except the Perfect Indicative active, which has special endings, as seen in fui : SINGULAR PLURAL First Person fu-i fu-i-mus ^ Second " fu-is-ti fu-ia-tis Third' " fu-i-t fu-eru-nt or fu-er-e 2. The Imperative Mood has the following personal endings : Active Passive SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. Second Person — te re mini* Fut. to tote tor — Third " to nto tor ntor II. Mood and Tense Signs 256. The Mood and Tense Signs include that part of the several verbal forms which stands betvreen the verb stem and the personal endings : s-i-mus, s-i-tis ; ama-ba-mus, ama-bi-tis, audi- vi-mus, audi-vera-mus. 1 . The Subjunctive has a long vowel before the personal endings, as in s-i-mus, s-i-tis, mone-a-mus, but this vowel is shortened before final m and t, and in the Perfect generally before mus and tis : audi-am, audi-at, amaver-imus, amaver-itis. 2. The Indicative has no special mood sign, and the Imperative is dis- tinguished by the personal endings. 3. The Future in the Third and Fourth Conjugations is in origin a Sub- junctive, but it has assumed the force of the Future Indicative. ciple, not otherwise used in Latin, but seen in the Greek (/ievot). AmUznini, originally amamini estis, means you are loved, as amati estis means you have been loved. ^ These peculiar endings have been produced by the union of two tenses originally distinctvthe. Perfect ani the s-Aorist, both of which are preserved in the Greek and the Sanskrit. Pui-t and fui-mus are regular Perfect formations with the ordinary personal endings of the Latin verb, but fu-i has the ending i of uncertain origin, though it may have been derived from the Personal ending of the Middle Voice. Fu-is-ti, fu-is-tis, and fu-er-unt are s-Aorist formations, but fu-is-ti preserves in ti a modified form of the original personal ending of the Perfect.. ■ ■ .,- 2 The ending mini is probably, in origin an old infinitive which has assumed the forop of an Imperative, like the corresponding form in Homeric Greek. If so, it is to be distinguished from the same form used in other moods. 116 MORPHOLOGY CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS First Conjugation 257. Principal Parts in o, are, avi, atum : amo amare amavi amatura to love So all regular verbs of this conjugation. 1. Deponent verbs of this conjugation form their principal parts as follows : hortor hortarl hortatus sum to exhort 2. The following verbs have both regular and irregular forms: ap-plic-6^ -are applioavi applicui applicatum applicitum to join e-nec-o ^ -are eneoavl enecui enecatum enectum to kill fric-5 -are — fricul fricatum frictum to rub pot-o -are potavi — potatum potum to drink 258. Principal Parts in o, are, ui, itum, turn : domo domare domul domitum to tame So cubs, to recline in-crepo, to rebuke veto, to forbid seco secare secijl sectum to cut 1. Mico,' to glitter, and tono, to thunder, lack the Participial System. 2. Sono,° aonare, sonuT, to sound, has the Future Participle sonaturus. 259. Principal Parts in o, are, i, turn : Perfect with Reduplication or Lengthened Stem Vowel do dare dedi datum to give statum to stand latum * to assist lavatum, lautu.n to wash 1. In the inflection of do, dare, the characteristic a is short' except in the forms das, da, dans. 1 So ex-plioo and im-plico, but denominatives In pllco are regular, as du- plies, to double. '^ The simple nec5 is regular. 8 But di-mioo is regular, and re-son5 has Perfect re-sonavi. 4 luvo has Fut. Fart, luvaturus ; in compounds laturus. 5 This short vowel is explained by the fact that do, dare, is formed directly from the root do, weak form da, without the suffix which gave rise to a in other verbs of this conjugation ; das, da, dans follow the analogy of other verbs in 5, are. sto stare steti luvo iuvare lUVl lavo lavare lavi CLASSIFICATION OF VKRBS 11? 2. Dissyllabic compounds of do are of the Tliird Conjugation : ad-do, addere, addidi, additum, to add. 3. Compounds of sto, stare, generally lack the participial system, and dissyllabic compounds have stiti in the Perfect. Disto and ezsto have only the Present System. Second Conjugation 260. Principal Parts in eo, ere, evi, etum : dSleO delSre So com-pleO, to fill ^ Note aboleO abolere and oieO ciere dslevi deletum fleS, to weep abolSvi abolitum civi citum '■= 261. Principal Parts in eo, ere, m, itum : monitum nocitum moneS monSre noceS nocere habeo habere So ad-hibeo, to apply co-erce5,* to check placed, to please Note cale5 calere So careo, to be without pareo, to obey 1. Many verbs lack the Participial System : monui nocul habui habitum de-beo,' to owe ex-erceO,* to train taceo, to be silent calui calitCLrus doles, to grieve vales, to be strong to destroy neo, to spin to destroy to arotise to advise to hurt to have prae-beo,' to offer mereo, to earn terreo, to terrify to be wai-m iaceo, to lie arcu! — to keep off arul — to be dry So egeO, to need emineO, to stand forth Qoreo, to bloom lateo, to be hid niteo, to shine palleo, to be pale pateo, to be open splendeo, to shine studeo, to desire times, to fear torpeo, to be dull vireo, to be green 2. Some verbs, derived chiefly from adjectives, have only the Present System, in general use : aveo, to desire frigeS, to be cold hebeo, to be dull immineS, to threaten maereo, to mourn polleo, to be strong arceO arcere areo arere egeS, to need horreS, to shudder oleo. to smell sileo. to be silent stupes, to be amazed vigeo , to thrive 1 So other compounds of the obsolete pleo : ex-pleo, im-pleo, etc. 2 Compounds are of the Fourth Conjugation. 8 De-beo is from de-habe5, prae-beo from praehabeo. * Compounds of arceS ; see 1 below. 118 MORPHOLOGY 262. Principal Parts in eo, ere, ui, turn, sum : doceo docere docul doctum to teach misceo mlscere misoui mixtum to mix torreo torrere torrul tostum to roast censeo censere censui censum to assess Note teneo tenere tenul — to hold So abs-tineo, con-tineo, per-tineo, and sua-tineo, but note detineo detinere detinul detentam to detain So dis-tineo, to keep apart ob-tineo, to occupy re-tineo, to retain 263. Principal Parts in eo, ere, si, tiun, or siun ; augeS augere auxi' auctum to increase indulgeo indulgere indulsi indultum to indulge torqueo torquere torsi tortum to twist ardeo ardere arsi arsum to burn haereo haerere liaesi^ haesum to stick iubeo lubere iussi iussum to order maneO manere man si mansum to remain mulceS mulcere mulsi mulsuin to soothe mulgeS mulgere mulsl mulsum to milk rideo ridere risi risum to laugh suadeo suadere suasi suasum to advise tergeS tergere tarsi tersum to wipe off alge5 algere alsl — to be cold fulgeS fulgere fulsi — to shine urgeo urgere ursi — to press Iticeo lucere luxi — to shine lugeo lugSre liixi — to mourn 264. Principal Parts in eo, ere, i, turn : Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel caveo cavere cavi cautuna to take heed So faveo favere foveO fovere moveo, to move Note pave5 pavere favi fautum fovi fotum voveo, to vow pavl — to favor to cherish to be terrified 1 Observe that auxi is from *aug-sT. 2 The stem of haereo Is haes. The Present adds e and changes s to r be- tween vowels. In haesi, s standing for ss is not changed. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 119 265. Principal Parts in eo, ere, i, sum : 1. Perfect with Reduplication inordeo mordere mo-mordi morsum spondeS spondere spo-pondii sponsum to bite to promise So tondeo , tondere to-tondi tonsum to shear pendeo pendere pe-pendi — to hang 2. Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel sedeo sedgre sedl sessum ^ to sit video videre vidi visum to see 3. Perfect WITH Unchanged Stem prandeo prandere prandi pransum ' to breakfast strideo strldere strldi — to creak 266. Deponent Verbs liceor liceri licitus sum to bid pol-liceor poUiceri pollicitus sum to promise 1 mereor, to deserve ; misereor, to pity ; vereor, to fear reor reri ratus sum to think fateor faterl fassus sum* to confess medeor mederl — to Ileal tueor tueri — to protect 267. Semi-Deponent Verbs, — Deponent in the Perfect audeo audere ausus sum to dare gaudeo gaudere gavTsus sum to rejoice soled solere solitus sum to be accustomed Third Conjugation Stem in a Consonant 268. Principal Parts in o, ere, si, turn : ' carpo carpere carpsi carptum So de-cerpo, to pluck off ex-cerpo, to choose out to pluck sculps, to carve 1 For reduplication in compounds, see 251, 4 ; re-spondeo, re-spondere, re-spondi, re-sponsum, to reply. 2 So circum-sedeo and super-sedeo. Other compoiiDds thus : ob-sldeo, ob- sidere, ob-sedl, ob-sessum, but some compounds lack the Participial System. s See 224, 1. * But con-flteor, c5n-flteri, con-fessus sum ; so pro-flteor. s For phonetic changes, see 51-56. 120 MORPHOLOGY nubo nubere nups! nuptum to marry scribe scrlbere scripsi scrlptum to write gero gerere gessi gestum 1 to carry ur5 urere USSl ustum 1 to burn dico dicere dixl2 dictum to say duco ducere duxl ductum to lead af-fllg5 affllgere afflixi afflictum to strike down cingo cingere cinxi 2 cinctum to gird flngo fingere finxi fictum to mould pingo pingere pinxl pictum to paint iungo iungere iunxi ilinctum to join dl-ligo diligere dilexi dilectum 3 to love neg-lego neglegere neglexi neglSctum to neglect rego regere rexi rectum to rule tego tegere texi tectum to cover coquo coquere coxl coctum to cook ex-stmgu5 exstinguere exstlnxi exstlnctum * to extinguish traho trahere traxi tractum to draw veho vehere vexl vectum to carry vivo vivere vixl vJotum to live como comere compsi ^ cSmptum 5 to arrange So dem5, to take away prom5, to bring forth sCimS, to take Note oon-temno contemnere contemps ;i contemptum to despise 269. Principal Parts in 6, ere, si, sum : cedo cedere cessi cessum to give place claudo claudere clausi clausum to close So con-cludo, to enclose ex-cludo, to exclude e-vado,8 to go out plaudo, to applaud ex-plodo, to hoot off divide, to divide laedo,' to hurt ludo, to play ' rads, to shave rodo, to gnaw trudo, to thrust fleets flectere flexi flexum to bend So peoto, to comb pleoto, to braid mitto mittere misi missum to send premo premere press! pressum to press 1 The stem of ger5 is ges, and that of iiro is Qs. 2 Observe that in these and the following Perfects in xi, the tense ending is si, and that s of this ending unites with the final mute of the stem and forms x : *dic-si, dixi; »cing-si, ciuxi; see 81. 3 So de-llgo and e-ligo ; intel-lego like rLeg-lego. For leg5, see 270, 2. * So other compounds of stlnguo, which is rare and defective. 5 A euphonic p is here developed between m and s, and between m and t (82, 6). 8 So other compounds of vado, which is rare and defective. ' Compounds of laedo have i for ae, as in il-lido. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 121 figO figere merge mergere spargO spargere fixi fixum mersi mersum spars! sparsum to fasten to sink to scatter 270. Principal Parts in o, ere, x, turn : 1. Perfect with Reddplication ab-do abdere ab-di-di abditum i to put away So ad-do, to add to ore-do, to believe v6n-d6, to sell pangs pangere ( pe-pigi "Ipegi panctum pactum ■ to make fast im-ping6 impingere impggl impactum to hurl against pungo pimgere pu-pugi piinctum to prick tango taiigere te-tigi 2 taotum to touch tend5 tendere te-tendi2 tentum to stretch sist5 sis tare sti-ti statum to place cpn-sists consistere constiti — to take a stand bibO bibere bi-bis — to drink cano canere ce-cini ■• — to sin^ disco dlscere di-dici 5 — to learn Note toUo toUere sus-tull 8 sub-latum to raise 2. Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel ago agere egi actum to drive per-ag5 peragere peregi peractum " to finish ab-igo abigere abegi abactum to drive away cogo cOgere coegi coactum to collect emo emere gml em-p-tum * to buy ad-imd adimere ademi ademptum to take away frangO frangere fregi fractum to break per-fringo perfringere perfregi perfractum to shatter ic6 icere Ici ictum to strike lego legere legi leotum to read per-leg6 perlegere perlegl perlectum to read through col-ligO colligere collSgi coUectum to collect 1 So all dissyllabic compounds of do ; see 259, 2. ^ Compounds lose the reduplication ; see 251, 4. ' Bibo is in form reduplicated, both in the Present and in the Perfect. * Most compounds of can5 have ui in the Perfect ; see 272, 1. ^Reduplication dl; stem, originally dltc, became die, as seen in di-dlc-i. 6 The Perfect of toUo was originally te-tuli (261, 4). ' So circum-ago : most compounds like ab-igo. Cogo is for co-ago. s So co-emo. For como, demo, prSmo, and silmo, see 268 ; other com- pounds like ad-imo. 122 MORPHOLOGT For di-lig5 and neg-lego, see 268. re-linquo relinquere reliqui rellctumi rumpo rum pare rupi ruptum vinco Tincere vici viotum solv5 vdlvo 3. Perfect with Unchanged Stem solvere solvl soiatum^ vol vera volvi volutum ^ to leave - to burst to conquer to loose to roll 271. Principal Parts in o, ere, i, sum: 1. Perfect with Eeduflication cado cadere ce-cidi casum to fall. ■ in-eido incldere incidis incasum * to fall into caed5 caedere ce-cidi caesum to cut in-oido iucidere incidis incisvim to cut into pendo pendere pe-pendi pensum to weigh tundo tundere tu-tudi tunsum, tusum to beat^ con-tundo contundere contudi ? contusum , to crush fallo fallere fa-felli falsum to deceive pello pellera pa-puli pulsum to drive re-pello rapellere rappuli rapulsum to drive back curro currere cu-curri ^ cursum to run parco parcere pa-perci parsum to spare poscO pSsoera po-posci — to demand de-p6sco deposoere de-po-pSsei^ — to demand 2. Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel ado edere edi esum to eat funds fundere fiidi fusum to pour 3. Perfeci ' WITH Unchanged Stem ac-cends accendere acoandi aocensum ' to kindle de-fendo defendere defendi def ensum ' to defend de-scendo descendare descendi desoensum' to descend ax-cudo axcudere excudi exousum to forge finds findare fid! flssum to split 1 The simple verb is liuquo, linquere, liqui, — , to leave. 2 Formed from soluo and volu5, like statutum from status. ' Observe that these compounds lose the reduplication. ^ Some compounds of cado lack the Participial System. 6 Ex-curro and prae-curro generally retain the reduplication. ' Observe that de-posco retains the rednnlication : see 281, 4. ' So other compounds of the obsolete cando, fendo, and of scandS. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 123 scindo soindere scidi scissum to rend mando mandere mandi mansum to chew pa,Tido pandere pandi passum to unfold pos-sido possidere possedi possessum to seize pre-hendo' prehendere prehendl prehensum to grasp verto vertere verti versum to turn 6-verro everrere everri eversum to sweep out per-cell5 percellere perouli ^ perculsum to beat down vello vellere vein vulsum to pluck visS visere visi visum to visit Here belongs the semi-deponent verb fido fidere fisus sum to trust 272. Principal Parts in o, ere, ui, itum : gIgnS gignere genui* genitum to beget ln-cumb6 incumbere incubui incubitum* to lean upon molo molere molui molitum to grind vom5 vomere vomui vomitum to vomit Note p5n5 ponere posui. positum to place 1. The following verbs lack the Participial System: concino concinere concinul — to sing together fremo fremere fremui — to roar gemS gemere gemul — to groan tremo tremere tremui — to tremble strepO strepere strepul — to rattle 273. Principal Parts in o, ere, ui, lum : aid alere alui altum^ to nourish colo colere colui cultum to cultivate in-col6 incolere kicolul — to inhaiiit con-ser5 conserere conserui consertum to connect consuls cOnsulere cdnsului consultum to consult OCClllS occulere occulul occultum to hide texo texere texul textum to weave 1 Often written prendo, prendere, etc. 2 Originally the simple verb was doubtless reduplicated. 8 The stem is gen in gen-uT, but gn in gi-gn-o; the Present is reduplicated. * So other compounds of cumb5. 5 So most compounds of cano ; see 270, 1. e Or alitum. 124 MORPHOLOGY 1. Note the following : meto metere messui i messum to reap necto nectere nexul nexum to bind 2. Some verbs from consonant stems have only the Present' Sys general use. ango angere to trouble hisc5 hiscere to gape claudo olaudere to be lame lambo lambere to lave . fatisco fatiscere to gape temno temnere to despise furo furere to rave vado vadere to go gllsco gllscere to swell vergo vergere to incline 274. A iew consonant stems form the Present in io and the other Principal Parts like other consonant stems : capio capere cepi captum ac-cipio aecipere acoepi acceptum cupio cupere cuplvi'' cupitum^ faoio facere feci factum Passive irregular: fio, fieri, factus sum ; see 296. fio, satis-facio, satis-fio. cOn-ficio conficere confecl confectum to accomplish Passive regular : con-ficior, confici, confectua sum. So all compounds of facio with prepositions ; other compounds like cale-facio. to take to accept to desire to make So cale-facio, cale- fodio fodere fodi fossum to dig fugio fugere fugi fugitilrus to flee ef-fugio effugere effugi — to flee away iaciS iacere ieci iactum to throw ab-icio ' abicere ^ abieci abiectum to throw away pariO parere peperi partum to bring forth quatio quatere — quassum to shake con-cutiO concutere ooncussi concussum to shake rapio rapere rapui raptum to seize sapio sapere sapivi 2 — to savor of 1. Here belong the compounds of the obsolete verbs lacio, to entice, and specie, to look : al-licio allicere allexi allectum to entice So il-licio and pel-licio, to decoy, but e-licio thus : e-licio elicere glioui elicitum to draw out con-spicio conspicere cSnspexi conspectum to behold 1 The Perfect in sui seems to be a double formation : 2 Observe that tliese three forms are from i-stems. sui = si + ui. s See 68, 6. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 125 Stem in a Vowel 275. Principal Parts in uo, uere, m, utiun : So exuo exuere exui exutum to put off induo induere indui indiitum to put on statuo statuere statul statutuin to place tribuo tribuere tribui tributum to impart So nearly all verbs in u6, but note the following : ru5 mere rui rutuin 1 to fall dl-ru5 diruere dirai dirutum to destroy fluo fluere fluxp fluxum to flow strao struere strOxi-^ structum to build The following verbs lack the Pai-ticipial System : acuo acuere acul — to sharpen arguo arguere argui — to accuse ab-nuo abnuere abnul — to refuse con-gruo congruere congrui — to agree luo, to wash raetuo, to fear re-spuO , to spurn 276. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form their Present system from consonant stems, but their Perfect and Participial systems from vowel stems after the analogy of other conju- gations : sterno stemere stravi stratum to spread out pro-stemO prosternere prostravi prostratum to overthrow dg-cerno decernere dgorevi decretum to decide se-cerno secernere secrevi sgcretum to separate sperno spernere sprevi spretum to spurn arcesso arcessere arcessivi arcessitum to summon capesso capessere capessivl capessltum to seize lacesso lacessere lacessivi lacessitum to provoke peto petere petivl' petitum to seek quaerO quaerere quaesivi quaesltum to seek con-quiro conquirere conqulsivi conquisitum to collect rudo rudere rudlvi — to bray ter5 terere trivl tritum to ruh 1 Future Participle ruitQrus. 2 Fluxi from *flug-si ; struxi follows the analogy of fluxi. ' Sometimes petli. 126 MORPHOLOGY 1. Note the peculiarities ill the following verbs : facesso facessere facessi facessTtum to perform lino linere levl litum to smear serO serere sevi satum to sow con-sero conserere consevi consitum to plant sino sinere sivl situm to permit de-sino desinere desii 1 desitum to desist incesso incessere incessivi — to attack Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs 277. Verbs in sco are called Inceptive or Inchoative verbs because most of them denote the Beginning of an Action. They are of three varieties : 1. Primitive Inceptives, formed directly from roots or from lost verbs, generally without inceptive meaning. 2. Verbal Inceptives, formed from other verbs, generally with inceptive meaning. 3. Denominative Inceptives, formed from nouns and adjectives, chiefly from adjectives. 278. Primitive Inceptives ; Perfect in vi, or in i with Eedupli- cation. pasco pasoere pavl pastum to feed cresco crescere crevi cretum to grow quiesco quiescere quievi quietum to rest nosoo noscere novi notum to conie to know ignosco 2 Ignoscere ignovl ignotum to pardqfi cognosco ^ cognoscere cognovi cognitum to ascertain ' disco discere didici — to learn ' poso5 poscere poposcl — to demand 279. Many Verbal Inceptives have only the Present System in general use, but some take the Perfect of their Primitives when- ever the occasion requires it. ■ aresc6 arescere arul ^ ; ; to become dry from: areS — to become warm " oaleo calesoo arescere calescere arm calui ' Here v is dropped, desii from desivi. 2 Ignosco is compounded, of in, meaning not, and gnoscQ, the full form ol Dosco wliicb has lost its initial g. Cognosco is compounded of 00 and gnoscS. CLASSIflOATION OF VERBS 127 flSrgsoS flSrSscere flSru!' — ardesc5 ardescere arsi ■' — ab-olesc5 abol6scere abolevi — 1. A very few Verbal Inceptives have cipial System : ad-olesc-o -ere adolevi adultum ex-oleso-5 -ere exolevi exoletum ol)-solesc-6 -ere obsolevi obsoletum in-veterasc-o -ere inveteravi inveteratum con-cupiso-o -ere concuplvi concupitum scisc-B -ere scivi scitum to begin to bloom from floreo to take Jire " ardeo to disappear ■" abToleo also certain forms of the Parti- to grow up from ad, oleo to go out of use " ex, oleo 1 to go out of use " ob, soleo to grow old " invetero to desire " con.cupio to enact " sols 280. Many Denominative Inceptives have only the Present System, but some have the Perfect in ui: orebresc-6 -ere crebrui — to grow frequent from creber dureso-5 -ere durui — to grow hard " durus e-vanesc-5 -ere evanul — to disappear " e, vamis maturesc-5 -ere maturul — to ripen " maturus ob-mutesc-5 -ere obmutui — to grow dumb " ob.mutus ob-surdgsc-0 -ere Obsurdui — to grow deaf " ob.surdus Deponent Verbs 281. Deponent Verbs with the Perfect in tus sum: fruor frul fructus sum 2 to enjoy per-fruor perfrui- perfructus sum to enjoy fully fungor fungi functus sum to perform queror querl questus sum to complain loquor loqul locutus sum to speak sequor sequl seoutus sum to follow per-sequor persequi ■ persecutus sum^ to pursue Note morior mori mortuus sum * to die also liquor liqui — to-melt ringor ringt — to growl 282. Deponent Verbs with the Perfect in sus sum gradior gradi gressus sum to walk in-gredior ingredl Ingressus sum to go into 1 Or from ex, soleo, like ob-soleo from ob, soleo. » Fut. Part, fniitflrus. * So other compounds of sequor. * The Future Participle of morior is mortturus. 128 MORPHOLOGY labor law lapsus sum to slip patlor pati passus sum to suffer per-petior perpeti perpessus sum to endure utor titl usus sum to use nitor niti nisus sum, nixus sum to strive am-plector amplecti amplexus sum to embrace Note re-vertor, revert! ; Perfect, reverti, rarely reversus sum, to return. 283. Deponent Verbs with Inceptive Forms : apisoor apisci — to reach ad-ipiscor adipisci adeptus sum to acquire com-miniscor comminisci commentus sum to devise re-mlniscor reminiscl — to remember ex-pergiscor expergisci experrectus sum to awake nancisoor nancisoi nanctus (nactus) sum to obtain nascor nasci natus sum to be born ob-livlsoor oblivlsci oblitus sum to forget paciscor pacisci pactus sum to covenant pro-fiolscor profiolsci profectus sum to set out ulcisoor ulcisci ultus sum to avenge Irasoor Irasci — to be angry vescor vesci — to eat 1. Note the following Semi-Deponent verb: fido fidere fisus sum to trust Fourth Conjugation 284. Principal Parts in io, ire, ivi, itum : audio audire audSvi auditum to hear 1. All regular verbs of this conjugation form their Principal Parts like audio, but note the following : sepelio sepelire sepelivl sepultum^ to bury sitio sitire sitlvi — to thirst vagis vagire vaglvl — to cry 2. V is often lost in the Perfect : audii for audivi ; see 238, 2. 285. Principal Parts in io, ire, ui, turn : amicio aperis amicire aperire amicui ^ aperui amlctum apertum to wrap about to open 1 With irregular formation. ' Xlie Perfect is rare and late. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 129 operl5 opeiire operui opertum to cover salio salire salul, salil — to leap de-silio dgsilire dssilul, dgsilii — to leap down 286. Principal Parts in io, ire, si, turn or sum : faroiS farcire farsi fartum i to fill re-feroiO refercire refers! refertum to stuff fulciS fulcire fulsl fultum to prop up hauriS haurire hausl^ haustuQi ' to draw saepis saepire saepsi saeptum to hedge in sancio sancire sanxi sanctum to ratify sarcio sarcire sarsi sartum to patch vinciS vincire ' vlnxl vinctum to bind raucio rauoire (rausl*) rausum to be hoarse sentiS sentire sens! sensum to feel 287. Principal Parts in io, ire, i, turn : 1. Perfect Originally Reduplicated com-perio comperire comperl^ compertum to learn re-perio reperire re-p-perl repertum to find out 2. Perfect with Lekgthened Stem Vowel venlo venire vgni ventum to come ad-veni5 advenire advgni adventum to arrive in-venis inyenlre inveni inventum to find out 288. A few verbs of this conjugation have only the present system in general use. The following are the most important : 1. Desideratives, but esurio, to desire to eat, has the Future Participle esuTituruB. 2. Also balbiitid, to stammer ineptio, to trifle feris, to strike sagio, to discern gannio, to bark superbio, to be haughty ^ C disappears between r and s, 1 and s, r and t, 1 and t ; see 58,1. 3 Hausi is simplified from baus-si ; the stem is haus ; baurio from hausid. ' Fut. Part, hausilrus. * This verb is exceedingly rare and the Perfect without good authority. 5 The reduplicated form of the simple veib was pe-peri. We find a trace of the reduplication in the first p in re-p-peri, from re-pe-peri. HARK. LAT. gram. 10 130 MORPHOLOGY Deponent Verbs 289. All regular Deponent Verbs of this conjugation form their Principal Parts as follows : blandior tlandlri blanditus sum 1. The following are somewhat irregular : to flatter ex-perior experiri expertus sum to try op-perior opperiri oppertus sum to await oriori orlrl ortus sum to rise ad-orior adoriri adortus sum to assail as-sentior assentiri assensus sum to assent metior metlri mensus sum to measure ordior Srdiri orsus sum to begin Irregular Verba 290. A few verbs which have special irregularities are called by way of preeminence Irregular or Anomalous Verbs. They are sum, edo, fero, volo, fio, eo, queo, and their compounds. 1. The inflection of sum has already been given (205). Most of its com- pounds — ab-Bum, ad-sum, de-sum, ob-sum, prae-sum, etc. — are inflected, in the same way, but ab-sum has a-fui, a-futurus, and a Present Participle ab-sens, absent. Prae-sum has a Present Participle prae-sens, present. Pos-sum and pro-sum require special treatment. 291. Possum posse potui to be able Indicative SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. possum, potes, potest possumus, potestis, possunt Imp. poteram^ poteramus Put. poterO poterimus ' Perf. potui potuimus Plup. potueram potueramus • P. P. potuero potuerimus 1 In the Present Indicative and Imperative orior is inflected as a verb of the Third Conjugation : orlor, oreris, oritur, etc. ; orere ; in the Imperfect Sub- junctive, it has both orerer, orerSris, etc., and orirer, orireris, etc. So all compounds of orior, except ad-orlor, which has only forms of the Fourth Conjugation. ^ Inflected regularly through the different persons : poteram, poteras, pot- erat, etc. So in the other tenses : potui, potuisti, etc. 8 Poterunt, third person plural, but poterint also occurs. IRREGULAR VERBS 131 Subjunctive Pres. possim, possis, possit Imp. possem Perf. potuerim Flup. potuissem Infinitive Pres. posse Perf. potuisse possimus, possltis, possint possemus potuerimus potuissemus Participle Pres. potens {as an adjective) 1. Possum forms its present system from a compound of pot (for potis, pote), able, and sum. Pot-sum becomes possum by assimilation, and pot- esse and pot-essem are shortened to posse and possem.' 2. The parts of possum are sometimes used separately, and then potis, pote is indeclinable : potis sum, I am able ; potis sumus, we are able, etc. 3. Possum derives its Perfect, potui, and its Present Participle, potens, from the verb potere, which has otherwise disappeared from the language. 4. In rare instances passive forms occur in early Latin, as potestur = potest, poteratuT = poterat, used with Passive Infinitives. 292. Pro-sum prod-esse pro-fui to profit Pro-sum is compounded of pro, prod, for, and sum. It retains d from prod, when the simple verb begins with e, but otherwise it is inflected like sum : pro-sum, prod-es, pr6d-est, pro-sumus, prod-estis, pro-sunt, etc. 293. Edo edere edi esum to eat In certain parts of the present system this verb has both regular and irregular forms, as follows : Active Voice Indicative fedo edis edit edimus editis edunt I es est estis Pres. Imp, Subjunctive federem ederes ederet ederemus >. 6ssem gsset essemus ederetis ederent gssetis essent 1 But the full forms also occur : pot-esse, pot-essem, etc. ; also pot-lsse and pot-issent. 132 MORPHOLOGY Impekative les rut. {^^'^ Usto edite este editote estote edunto Pres. edere Infinitive Passive Voice Indicative esse Pres.{«'l''^ ederis editur edimur estur Subjunctive edimini eduntur Imp. {^'^^'•^'^ edereris edei'Stur edergmur essetur edereminl ederentur 1. In all the otlier tenses this verb has the regular inflection, but forms in im for am occur in the Present Subjunctive : edim, edis, edit, etc., for edam, edas, edat, etc. 2. Observe that the shorter forms have e in the root syllable, but that otherwise they are like the corresponding forms of the verb, sum. They are the favorite forms in classical Latin. 3. Compounds are conjugated like the simple verb, but note com-edo com-edere com-Bdi ^ com-esum or com-estum to eat up 294. Fero ferre tuli latum. to bear Active Voice Indicative SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. fero, fers. fert ferimus, fertis,i ferunt Imp. f erebam ^ ferebamus Fut. feram ferSmus Perf. tuli tulimus Plup. tuleram tuleramus F. P. tuler5 tulerimus 1 Per-s, fer-t, fer-tis, like es-t, es-tis, are formed without the thematic vowel. 2 Inflect the several tenses in full : f erebam, ferebas, etc. IRREGULAR VERBS 133 Subjunctive Pres. feram feramus Imp. ferrem ferremus i Perf. tulerim tulerimus Plup. tulissem Imperative tulissemus Pres. fer ferte Perf. ferts fertste ferto ferunto Infinitive Pakticiple Pres. f erre i Pres. ferens Perf. tulisse Put. laturum esse Put. laturus GrEEUND Supine Gen. ferendl Dat. ferenda Ace. ferendum Ace. latum Abl. ferendS Abl. Passive Voice latu feror ferri latus sum to be home Indicative SINGDLAR PLURAL Pres. feror, ferris, fertur ferimur, ferimini, feruntur Imp. ferebar ferebamur Put. ferar feremur Perf. latus sum latl sumus Plup. latus erain lati eramus F. P. latus ero Subjunctive lati erimus Pres. ferar feramur Imp. ferrer ferremur Perf. latus sim lati slums Plup. latus essem lati essemus 1 Fer-rem, fer-res, etc., from fer-sem, fer-ses, etc., like es-sem, es-ses, etc. ; and fer-re from fer-se like es-se, are formed without the thematic vowel. Several other forms have the same peculiarity. 134 Pres. ferre Put. fertor fertor MORPHOLOGY Impekative ferimini feruntor Infinitive Pres. ferri Perf. latum esse Put. latum iri Pakticiple Perf. latus Ger. ferendus 1. Fero is inflected from two independent stems, fer seen in fer-o and tel, tol in tuI-T, witli tlie ablaut form tl seen in tl-a-tum, the original form of latum. 2. Compounds of fero are conjugated like the simple verb, but in a few of them the preposition suffers a euphonic change : ad au, ab^ con dis, dl^ ex, e' in Ob re sub ad-fero au-fero con-fero dif-fero ef-fero In-fero of-fero re-fero suf-fero ad-ferre au-ferre con-ferre dif-ferre ef-ferre in-ferre of-ferre re-ferre suf-ferre at-tuli abs-tull con-tuli dis-tull ex-tuli in-tul! ob-tuli re-t-tuli sus-tull al-latum ab-latum col-latum di-latum e-latum il-latum ob-latum re-latum sub -latum to carry to to carry away to bring together to carry apart to carry out to carry into to bring before to carry hack to suffer Note. — In form sus-tuli and sub-latum belong to the verb suf-fero, to undertake, to bear, suffer, and they sometimes have this meaning ; but they also supply the Perfect and the Perfect Participle of toUo, to take up, raise. 295. Vols velle volui to be ivilling Kolo nolle nolui to be unwilling Malo malle malui Indicative to prefer Pres. vols nolo UlSilo vis non vis mavis vult nOn vult mavult 1 Au and ab are two separate prepositions, but with the same general mean- ing; dis and di are two forms of one and the same preposition; so also are ex and e. IRREGULAR VERBS 135 Tolumus nOlumus malum us vultis non vultis mavultis volunt nolunt malunt Imp. volebam nSlebam malebam rut. volam nolam malam Perf. volui nolui malul Hup. volueram nolueram malueram r. P. voluero nSluero Subjunctive maluero Pres. Telimi nOlim malim Imp. vellem" nollem mallem Perf. voluerim nSluerim maluerim Plup. voluissem noluissem maluissem Imperative Pres. nSU nolite Put. nolito nolitote nolito nolunto Infinitive !. velle nolle malle :. voluisse noluisse Participle maluisse 1. volens ndlens 1. The stem of volo is vel, vol, in which o is weakened to n in vult. VTb is from a separate stem, vi. 2. Nolo is from ne-volo ; malo supplanted an earlier formation, ma- volo, from magis-volo. 3. Other forms occur, especially in early Latin, of volo : volt, voltjs ; sis, siiltis, for si vis, si vultis ; of Dolo : ne-vis, ne-volt ; non velim, non vellem ; of malo : ma-volo, ma-volam, ma-velim, ma-vellem. 1 Vellm is inflected like sim, and vellem like essem. 2 Vellem Is from vel-sem, like es-sem ; velle from vel-se, like es-se. Here s is assimilated to the preceding 1. 136 MORPHOLOGY 296. The regular verb facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, has the following irregular Passive : Fio, fieri, factus sum, to become, he n Indicative SINGULAR PLUKAL Pres. fio, fis, fit fiunt Imp. flebam fiebamus Fut. fiam fiemus Perf. factus sum facti sumus Plup. factus eram facti erdmus F. P. factus ero Subjunctive facti erimus Pres. flam fiamus Imp. fierem fieremus Perf. factus sim facti simus Plup. factus essem Impekative facti essemus Pres. fi fite Infinitive Pakticiplb Pres. fieri Perf. factum esse Perf. factus Put. factum Irl Ger. faciendus 1. The first and second persons plural of the Present Indicative are not found. 2. The Imperative forms E and fite belong to early and late Latin. A rare Infinitive, fiere, occurs in early Latin. 3. Por the compounds of facio and fio, see 274. 4. Moreover, a few isolated forms of compounds of fio, with prepositions, occur as follows : Indicative confit, conflunt defit, defiunt, defiet inflt, influnt Subjunctive cSnfiat, confieret dgflat interfiat Infinitive confierl to be done defieri to be wanting he begins, they begin interfieri to be destroyed IRREGULAR VERBS 137 297. E6 ire itum to go Indicative SINGULAR PLURAL Pres. eo is it imus itis eunt Imp. Ibam ibas ibat ibam us ibatis ibant Fut. ibo Ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt Perf. il isti iit iimus Istis ierunt Plup. ieram ieras ierat ieramus ieratis ierant F. P. iero ierls ierit Subjunctive ierimus ieritis ierint Pres. eam eas eat eamus eatis eant Imp. Irem Ires iret iremus iretis irent Perf. ierim ierls ierit ierimus ieritis ierint Plup. issem isses isset issemus Issetis Issent Infinitive Participle Pres. Ire Pres. iens Gen. euntis Perf. Isse Fut. iturum ( 3sse Fut. iturus ' Gerund Supine Gen. eundi Dat. eundo Ace. eundum Aoo. itum Abl. eundo Imperative Abl. itu Pres. I ite Fut. its its itote eunto 1. Bo is a verb of the Fourth Conjugation, but it forms the Supine from the weak stem i, and is irregular in several parts of the present system. In the perfect system the regular classical forms are ii, ieram, iero, etc., as given in the paradigm, but the forms with v, as ivi, iveram, ivero, etc., occur in early and late Latin. 2. Observe that ii is regularly contracted into i before s, as Tssem, but the uncontracted ii is found in rare instances. 3. The stem of eo is the root ei, weak form i. Ei becomes e before a, o, and u, as in eam, eamus, eo, eunt, but in other situations it becomes i, 138 MORPHOLOGY shortened to i before a vowel or final t, as in is, Tmus, itis ; iimus, iero, it. The weak stem is seen in i-tum and i-turus. 4. As an intransitive verb eo has no regular passive voice, but certain passive forms are used impersonally: itur, there is going; itum est, they have gone ; but In, the Passive Infinitive, is used ap an auxiliary in the Future Infinitive Passive of the regular conjugation : amatum iri, etc. 5. Compounds of eo have the short form in the Perfect System and are conjugated as follows : ab-eo abire abii abitum to go away ex-eo exire exil exitum to go out Note. — A few compounds occasionally have a future in iet, for ibit. 6. Transitive Compounds of eo may be used in the passive voice, as ad-eo, adire, to approach ; Passive ad-eor, adiris, adltur, etc. Passive forms are somewhat rare. 7. Ambio (from ambi-eo), ambire, ambivT, ambltum, to solicit, is in- flected as a regular verb of the Fourth Conjugation, like audio, though ambibam for ambiebam occurs. 298. Queo, quire, quivi, quil, to he able, and ne-queo, nequire, nequivi, ne-quii, not to he able, are inflected like eo, but they are used chiefly in early writers. 1. The forms most frequently used by the best writers are non queo, n5n queam, non queat, nOn queant, non quire ; nequeunt, nequeamus, nequeant, nequlbas, nequlbat, nequibant, nequisti, nequiit, nequiere, nequierat, nequi- erant, nequlrem, nequiret, nequire. Defective Verbs 299. The following verbs lack the Present System : CoepI, Memini, Odi, I have begun I remember Indicative I hate Perf. eoepi memini 5di Plup. ooeperam memineram Oderam r. P. coeper5 meminerO Subjunctive Sdero Perf. coeperim meminerim oderim Plup. coepissem meminissem Odissem DEFECTIVE VERBS 139 Impekative Sing, memento Plur. mementSte Infinitive Perf. coepisse meminisse Odisse Fut. coepturum esse Participle osurum esse Perf. coeptus 5susi Fut. coepturus osurus 1. With Passive Infinitives, coepT generally takes the passive form: coeptus sum, eram, etc. Coeptus is passive in sense. 2. Memini and odi are Present in sense ; hence in the Pluperfect and Future Perfect they have the sense of the Imperfect and Future. Novi, I Tcnoio, Perfect of nosco, to learn, and consuevi, I am wont, Perfect of con- suesco, to accustom one's self, are also present in sense. 300. The three following verbs are used chiefly in certain parts of the Present System. Aio, I say, I say yes : ' Indicative Pres. aio ais' ait — — aiunt Imp. aiebam * aiebas aiebat aiebamus aiebatis aiebant Perf. ait — Subjunctive Pres. aias aiat — Imperative Pres. ai (rare) Participle Pres. aiens aiant 1 Osus is active in sense, hating, but is rare, except in compounds. 2 In this verb a and 1 do not form a diphthoug ; before a vowel 1 is a consonant ; see 18, 2. 3 The interrogative form ais-ne is often shortened to ain. * Albam, aibas, etc., occur. 140 MORPHOLOGY Inquam, I say, is used in connection witli direct quotations and is inserted after one or more of the words quoted. inquimus inquitis ' inquiunt Indie. Pres. inquam inquis inquit " Imp. — — inquiebat i " Fut. — inquies inquiet " Perf. inquil inqulsti inquit Imper. Pres. inque Fut. inquito Pari, to speak Indie. Pres. — — fatur " Fut. fabor — fabitur " Perf. — — fatus est Plup. f atus eram — fatus erat Imper. Pres. fare Infin. Pres. fari Part. Pres. fans — fanti Past fatus Ger. fandus Gerund, Gen. fandl Abl. fando — fantur fati sunt fantem fante Supine, Abl. fatii 1. Far! is used cliiefly in poetry. Tlie compounds have a few forms not found in the simple verb, as af-famur, af-famini, af-fabar, etc. 301. Certain verbs have only a few special forms. 1. Imperative and Infinitive. have havete haveto havgre ^ hail, to be well salve salvete * salveto salvere hail, to be leell cedo cette give me, tell me apage away with you Other forms : ovat ovans he rejoices, rejoicing quaeso quaesumus I entreat, we entreat Impersonal Verbs 302. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English impersonal verbs with it: licet, it is lawful ; oportet, it is proper. They are conjugated like 1 Inquitis is rare. luqulbat for inquiebat occurs. 2 Also written ave, avete ; aveto, avere. ' The Future salvebis is also used for the Imperative. IMPERSONAL VERBS 141 other verbs, but are used only in the third person singular of the Indicar tive and Subjunctive, and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive. 1. The subject, when expressed, is generally an Infinitive or a clause: hoc fieri opoitet, that this should be done is proper. 2. The following verbs are generally impersonal ninxit plult ningit pluit tonat decet licet miseret i oportet paenitet i piget pudet refert taedet ningere pluere tonare deoere licere miserere oportere paenitSre pigere pudSre referre taedere tonavit deouit licuit, licitum est miserltum est oportuit paenitult piguit puduit, puditura est rettulit taeduit, taesuin est it snows it rains it thunders it is becoming it is lawful it excites pity it is proper it causes regret it puts to shame it concerns it disgusts 3. Participles are generally wanting, but a few occur, though with a some- what modified sense : From licet : licens, free ; licitus, allowed. From paenitet : paeaiteas, penitent ; paenitendus, to 6e repentetJ o/. From pudet: pudens, modest; pudendus, shameful. 4. Gerunds are generally wanting, but occur in rare instances: paeni- tendum, pudendo. 5. A few verbs, generally personal, admit the impersonal construction in certain senses : accedit, it is added constat, it is agreed contingit, it happens evenit, it happens patet, it is plain accidit, it happens praestat, it is better delectat, it delights interest, it interests placet, it pleases apparet, it is clear restat, it remains dolet, it grieves iuvat, it delights 6. In the Passive Voice intransitive verbs can be used only impersonally. The participle is then neuter : mihi creditur, it is credited to me, I am be- lieved ; creditum est, it was believed ; curritur, there is running, people run ; pugnatur, it is fought, they, we, etc., fight; vivitur, we, you, they live. 7. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (237) is often used impersonally. The participle is then neuter : mihi Bcribendum est, / must write. 1 Me miseret, I pity ; me paenitet, I repent. 142 MORPHOLOGY PARTICLES 303. The Latin has four parts of speech, sometimes called Particles : the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. ADVERBS 304. The Adverb is the part of speech which is used to qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs: celeriter currere, to run swiftly; tam celer, so swift; tarn celeriter, so swiftly. 305. Adverbs may be divided into three general classes : 1. Adverbs which were originally the case forms of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns. 2. Adverbs formed by means of suffixes no longer used in the regular declensions. 3. Adverbs formed by the union of prepositions with case forms. 306. Many adverbs were originally Accusatives, both in form and in meaning. 1. Accusatives of Nouns : vicem, in turn ; partim, partly. 2. Here perhaps may be mentioned adverbs in tim and aim, probably formed originally from verbal nouns no longer in use: statim, steadily;''- raptim, hastily; contemptim, contemptuously ; Jflrtim, stealthily. These adverbs are sometimes explained as Accusatives, and sometimes as Instru- mental cases. 3. Accusatives of Adjectives and Pronouns : multum, multa, much ; ceterum, cetera, as to the rest; verum, truly; facile, easily; saepius, oftener ; bif arlam = bifariam partem, in two parts; alias = alias vic6s, otherwise ; tam, so much ; quam, as much. 307. Many adverbs were originally Ablatives.^ 1. Ablatives of Nouns : forte, by chance ; ivue, rightly ; nvxaexo, exactly ; sponte, willingly. 1 Thus statim may be formed from statis, which is no longer in use, because supplanted by statio. Subsequently it seems to have been associated with the verb sta-re, and perhaps some adverbs in tlm were formed from verbs by analogy. But some adverbs in tim and slm are formed from adjectives : slngu- latim, one by one. In time, doubtless, these endings came to be regarded simply as adverbial suffixes, and were used in forming new adverbs. 2 The term Ablative, as applied in Latin, includes not only the Ablative proper, but all forms originally Instrumental, and such Locatives as are not easily recog- nized. ADVERBS 143 2. Ablatives of Adjectives and Participles: deztra, on the right; extra, on the outside; raro, rarely; docte, learnedly; doctissime, most learn- edly; mazime, especially ; auspicato, after taking the auspices; consults, after deliberating. 3. Ablatives of Pronouns: ea, there, in that way; hac, here, in this xoay ; eadem, in the same way. 4. A few Pronominal Adverbs denote direction toward a place: eo, to that place; hoc, hiic, to this place; illo, illo-c, to that place; isto, isto-c, to your place. These adverbs are explained as Instrumental Ablatives. 5. Here may be mentioned a few adverbs in im, in-c : illim, illin-c, from that place; interim, meanwhile; often with de: in-de, thence; proin-de, hence. These adverbs may be Instrumental Ablatives. 308. Some Adverbs were originally Locatives, denoting the Place or Time in which anything is done. 1. Locatives of Nouns and Adjectives in i or e : heri, yesterday ; temper!, in time ; vesperi, in the evening ; peregri, or peregre, in a foreign land. 2. Locatives of Pronouns: hio,i here; illic, istic, there; i\A, there; ubl, where ; sic, in this way, thus. 309. Adverbs in tus and ter.^ — Adverbs are also formed by means of the endings tus and ter, which are no longer used as case endings in the regular declensions : fundi-tus, from the foundation ; radici-tus, from the roots, utterly ; divini-tus, J^ rfjuine appointment, dioinety ; forti-tet,braDely ; pruden-ter, prudently. 1. The stem vowel before tus and ter becomes 1, and consonant stems assume i, but ti is lost by dissimilation (56) before ter: priiden-ti-ter, priiden-ter. 310. Some adverbs are formed by the union of case forms with prepositions, even with prepositions with which they are not otherwise used: ad-modum, to the full measure, fully; ez-templo, immediately; ant-ea, before, before that; inter-ea, in the meantime; post-ea, afterward; tantis-per, for so long a time. 1. A very few adverbs are simply adverbial phrases or clauses whose words have become united in writing, as scilicet, from scire licet, certainly ; lit. it is permitted to know ; videlicet, from videre licet, clearly; forsitan, from fors sit an, perhaps. 311. Comparison. — Most adverbs are derived from adjectives, and are dependent upon them for their comparison. The comparative Is the 1 Here the Locative ending is i : hi-o, illi-c. " Seen also in in-tus, within; in-ter, in the midst; sub-tus, sub-ter, below. 144 MORPHOLOGY Accusative neuter singular of the adjective, and the superlative changes the ending us of the adjective into e : * altus altlor altissimus lofty alts altius altissime loftily 1. When the adjective is compared with magis and mazime, the adverb is compared in the same way : egregius magis egregius maxime egregius excellent egregie magis egregie maxime egregie excellently 2. When the adjective is irregular, the adverb has the same irregularity : bonus melior optimus good bene melius optime well 3. When the adjective is defective, the adverb is generally defective : — dSterior deterrimus worse — deterius deterrime worse novus — novissimus new nove — novissime newly 4. A fevT adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared : diu diutius diutissime for a long time saepe saepius saepissime often satis satius — sufficiently nuper — nuperrirae recently 5. Most adverbs not derived from adjectives, as also those from adjectives incapable of comparison (160), are not compared: hic, here; nunc, now; vulgariter, commonly. 0. Superlatives in 6 or um are used in a few adverbs : primo, primum, potissimum. PREPOSITIONS 312. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows the i-elations of objects to each other : in Italia esse, to he in Italy ; ante me, before mei 1. Prepositions were originally adverbs.^ 2. For Prepositions and their uses, see 420, 490. 3. For the form and meaning of Prepositions in Composition, see 374. 313. Inseparable Prepositions, so called because they are used only in composition, are the following : 1 See 307, 2. 3 But many adverbs, it will be remembered, arfe in origin case forms. CONJUNCTIONS 1^5 ambi, amb, around, about in, not, un- sgd, se, aside, apart au, away, from por, toward, forth ve, not, without dis, di, ast()id?r red, re, hack 1. For the form and meaning of the Inseparable Prepositions in Compo- sition, see 375. CONJUNCTIONS 314. Conjunctions are mere connectives. They are either Coordinate or Subordinate. 1. Coordinate Conjunctions connect similar constructions : Labor voluptas-que.i labor and pleasure. Carthaginem cepit ac i diruit, he took and destroyed Carthage. 2. Subordinate Conjunctions connect subordinate with principal con- structions : Haec dumi coUiguut, efiugit, while they collected these things, he escaped. Note. — For the use of subordinate conjunctions, see 868, 574. 315. Coordinate Conjunctions comprise : 1. Copulative Conjunctions, denoting Union : Ft, que, atque,^ ac, and; etiam, quoque, also; neque, nee, and not; neque . . . neque, nee . . . nee, neque . . . nee, neither . . . nor. 2. Disjunctive Conjunctions, denoting Separation : Aut,' vel, ve, sive (seu), or; aut . . . aut, vel . . vel, either . . . or; sive . . . sive, either . . . or. Note. — Here belong interrogative particles in double or disjunctive ques- tions : utrum . . . an, whether . . . or; an, or; annon, necne, or not; see 380. 3. Adversative Conjunctions, denoting Opposition : Sed,* autem, vgrum, vero, in truth, but; at, but, on the contrary ; atqui, rather; ceterum, but still, moreover;^ tamen, yet. 1 Here que connects two Nominatives, ac two Indicatives, which are entirely coordinate, but dum connects the subordinate clause, haec . . . collig'unt, with the principal clause, effuglt, he escaped while they collected these things. 2 Copulative conjunctions are et and que with their compounds: et-iam, at- que, quo-que, ne-que. Ac is a shortened form of at-que ; nee of ne-que. ' Disjunctives are aut, vel, and ve with their compounds. Vel is the Impera- tive of volo, lit. choose. * Conjunctions, like adverbs, consist largely of case forms, chiefly from pro- nominal stems, especially from the stems of qui, quae, quod. * Lit. as to the rest. HARK. LAT. GUAM. 11 146 MORPHOLOGY 4. Illative Conjunctions, denoting Inference : Ergo, igitur, Inde, proinde, itaque, hence, therefore. 5. Causal Conjunctions, denoting Cause: Nam, namque, eniui, etenim, /on^ 316. Subordinate Conjunctions comprise : 1. Temporal Conjunctions, denoting Time : Quand5, quom,^ cum, when ; ut, ubi, as, when ; cum primum, ut primam, ubi primum, simul, simulao, simul ao, simul atque, simul-atque, as soon as; dum, donee, quoad, qaa,mdm, while, until, as long as; antequam, priusquam, before; posteaquam, after. 2. Comparative Conjunctions, denoting Comparison : Ut, uti, sicut, as, so as ; velut, just as ; praeut, prout, according as, in comparison with ; quam, as ; tanquam, quasi', ut si, velut si, as if. 3. Conditional Conjunctions, denoting Condition : Si,' if; si non, nisi, ni, if not ; sin, but if; si quidem or si-quidem, if indeed; si modo, dum, modo, dummodo, if only, provided. 4. Adversative and Concessive Conjunctions, denoting Opposition and Concession : Quamquam, licet,* cum, although ; etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, even if; quam- vis,* quantumvis, quantumlibet,* however much, although; ut, grant that; ne, grant that not. 5. Final Conjunctions, denoting Purpose or End : Ut, iiti, that, in order that; ne, neve (neu), that not; qu5, that; quOmi- nus,' quin, that not. 6. Consecutive Conjunctions, denoting Consequence or Result : Ut, so that ; ut non, so that not. 1 Bat most causal conjunctions are subordinate ; see 316, 7. ~ 2 Quom, tlie original form from' -which cum was developed, occurs in early Latin, as in Plautus. Cum is the approved form in classical Latin. ' ' Probably a Locative. ■ > * Licet is strictly a verb, meaning it is permitted; vis, you wish, in quam-vis and quantum-vis, as much as you wish, and libet,' it pleases, in quantum-libet, ■as much as it pleases, are also verbs. fi Quotninus = quo-minus, by which less ; quin = qul-ne, by which not, origi- nally interrogative, how not ? > ■ '. \ ,■ ■ ' ' INTERJECTIONS 147 7. Causal Conjunctions, denoting Cause : Quia, quod, quoniam,i quando, because, inasmuch as; cum (quom), since ; quandSquidem, si quidem or siqmdein,^ utpote, since indeed. 8. Interrogative Conjunctions, in dependent or indirect questions : ' Ne, nonne, num, utrum, an, whether; an non, neone, or not. INTERJECTIONS 317. Interjections are certain particles used as expressions of feeling or as mere marks of address.* They may express 1. Astonishment: 5, hem, ehem, attat, bahae. 2. Joy: io, euhoe, euge, eia, o, papae. 3. Sorrow : vae, ei, heu, eheu, ohe, ah, au, pro. 4. Disgust: aha, phy, apage. 5. CalUng: heus, o, eho, ehodum. 6. Praise: eu, euge, eia, heia. o»;o PART III. — ETYMOLOGY 318. Words in our family of languages were originally formed by the union of primitive elements called Roots. 319. In the formation of words in an inflected language, we distinguish Inflection, Derivation, and Composition ; but inflection and derivation are both the result of original composition. The suffixes of inflection and derivation are the worn and mutilated remains of original members of compound words. 1 From quom-lam, wheii now. 2 Lit. if indeed. ' These are sometimes classed as adverbs. In some of their uses they are plainly conjanctions, while in other cases they approach closely to the nature of adverbs. As a matter of convenience they may be called Interrogative Particles ; see 378. * Some interjections seem to be the simple and natural utterance of feeling, and accordingly do not appear to have been built up, like other words, from roots and stems, but to be themselves specimens of the unorganized elements of human speech. Others, however, are either inflected forms, as age, come, apage, be- gone, or mutilated sentences or clauses : mehercules, mehercule, etc., = me Hercules iuvet, may Hercules protect me ; medius fldius, may the true Ood help me. 148 ETYMOLOGY INFLECTION AND DERIVATION 320. Inflection forms Cases, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons by adding appropriate suffixes to stems : reg-is, reg-em, reg-es, reg-ibus ; start, sta-nt, starmus, sta-tis. 1. In Latin, a stem which cannot be resolved into more prim- itive elements is also a root. Thus sta, the stem of sta-mus, is a root. Moreover, most roots have a strong form and a weak form. Thus sta in sta-s, sta-mus, sta-tis is the strong form, and sta in sta-tim, sta-tus is the weak form of the same root. 321. Derivation forms new stems by adding formative suffixes to other stems or to roots. Thus from the root sta, it forms the stem sta-bili by adding the suffix bili, and from this again it forms the new stem sta-bili-tat by adding the suffix tat. 322. Etymologically words may be divided into groups, each group being derived from one common root. Some of these groups are very large. Thus from the two forms of the single root sta, sta, to stand, are derived 1. All the forms which make up the conjugation of the verb sto, stare, steti, statum, to stand. 2. All the forms of the verb sisto, sistere, stiti, statum, to place. 3. Many other forms, including nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 323. Stems, the basis of all inflection, may be divided into three classes, as follows: 1. Root Stems, identical with roots. 2. Primary Stems, formed either from roots or from the stems of verbs by means of suffixes. 3. Secondary Stems, formed from primary stems by means of suffixes. 324. Words formed by inflection are called 1. Root "Words or Primitive Words, if formed from root stems : due-is, of a leader, root stem due ; es-tis, you are, root stem es. 2. Primary Derivatives, if formed from primary stems: fac-tO-rum, of deeds, from primary stem fac-to, from the root fao, seen in the verb fac-io. 3. Secondary Derivatives, if formed from secondary stems : sta-bili-tat-is, of stead-fast-ness, from the secondary stem sta-bili-tat, from the primary stem Bta-bili, from the weak root sta. INFLECTION AND DERIVATION 149 325. In the language inherited by the Eomans, roots, stems, and suffixes sometimes appear with varying quantity, and even with different vowels in different words : 1. With varying quantity : root reg in reg-ere, but reg in rSx ; leg in leg-ere, but leg in lex. 2. Witli different vowels, with or without varying quantity : root teg in teg-ere, but tog in tog-a ; da in da-mus, da-tus, but do in do-num. 326. These inherited vowel variations in some languages form a somewhat regular gradation, while in the Latin they have mostly disappeared, as kindred forms have been assimilated to each other. 1. In classical Latin the sufBx ter, tor, in its several forms, tr ter ter tor t5r in pa-tr-is pa-ter cra-ter vio-tor vic-tor-is is the best illustration of this vowel gradation, called also Ablaut. 2. This sufBx is an illustration of what is called the E-Series of vowel gradation or ablaut, though the forms ter and tor were not inherited, but were shortened by the Latin from ter and tor. The form tr, in which the vowel has disappeared, is said to have weak grade and is called a weak form, while ter, ter, tor, tor are said to have strong grade and are called strong forms. Moreover, ter and tor are sometimes distinguished from ter and tor as the stronger or extended forms. 3. In the examples given above (825) the roots reg, reg ; leg, leg ; teg, tog, all belong to the E-Series, but the root which appears as da in da-mus, da-tus, and as do in do-num, belongs to the O-Series. iMED L BOOT WORDS — FORMED FROM ROOTS BY INFLECTION 327. The following are examples of Eoot Words : 1. From Roots of the Weak Grade ok Weak Form Root duo : due-is, , of a leader duc-e duc-ibus da : da- re, to give da/-mus da-tis s: s-um. I am s-umus s-Itis 2. From Roots of THE Strong Grade or Strong Form Root es: es-se. to be es-t es-tis sta: stSnS, you stand sta-mus sta-tis reg : rSg-is, of the king reg-e r6g-ibus 160 ETYMOLOGY II. PRIMARY DERIVATIVES 328. From the stems of verbs are formed Participles and Verbal Adjectives and Nouns with the folio-wing suffixes : Nom. ns tus, a, um tus turns, a, um ndus, a, um Stem nt, nti to, ta tu turo, tura ndo, nda 1. With the suffix ns are formed Present Participles, Verbal Adjec- tives, and Verbal Nouns : ama-ns, ama-nt-is, loving ; innoce-ns, inno- cent; adulesce-ns, o youth. 2. With the suffix tus, a, um, sometimes sua, a, lun, are formed Perfect Participles, Verbal Adjectives, and Verbal Nouns: ama-tus, loved; al-tus, tall, from al-ere, to nourish; lega-tus, envoy, from lega-re, to commission; fos-sa (from fod-ta), trench, from fod-ere, to dig. Note 1. — The suffix tus, a, um is also used in forming Secondary Deriva- tives ; see 343. No IE 2. —The suffix nus, a, um is sometimes used in the sense of tus, a, van : ple-nus, full, from ple-re, to fill ; do-num, gift, from do, da-re, to give. 3. With the suffix tus, stem tu, are formed Supines and other Verbal Nouns : ama-tum, ama-tu ; audi-tus, act of hearing, from audi-re ; ezer- citus, training, army, trained men, from exerce-re, to train. Note. — For the use of a-tus in forming Secondary Derivatives, see 344. 4. With the suffix turus, a, um are formed Future Active Participles, and Verbal Nouns in tiira : ama-tHrus ; cul-tiira, a cultivating, from col-ere, to cultivate; sorip-tflra, writing, written document, from scrib-ere, to write. 5. With the suffix ndus, a, um, are formed Gerundives, Gerunds, and Gerundive Adjectives in undus, bundus, and cundus with the general meaning of participles, though they often denote a permanent characteristic : ama-ndus, ama-ndi, ama-ndo ; sec-undus, following, from sequ-I, to fol- low; vita-bundus, avoiding, from vita^re, to avoid; fS-cundus, eloquent, from fa-ri, to speak. Note. — The suffix dus has nearly the same meaning as undus, bun-dus, and cun-dus : timi-dus, timid, from time- re, to fear. 329. Important Verbal Adjectives denoting Capability, Adap- tation, generally passive but sometimes active, are formed with the suffixes ills and bills, stems, ill and bili : fac-ilis. facile, easy. from fac-ere, to make ut-ilis. useful. " ut-i. to use ama^-bilis, lovable, " ama^re. to love lauda-bilis , praiseworthy, " lauda-re, to praise PRIMARY DERIVATIVES 151 1. With these suffixes adjectives are often derived from Perfect Par- ticiples : duct-ilis, miss-ilis, umbrat-ilis, vis-i-bilis, ductile, from duct-us, ' led, drawn out capable of being sent, " miss-us, sent living in the shade, " umbrat-us, shaded visible, " vis-Us, seen 2. Some of these adjectives occasionally become nouns : miss-ile, a mis- sile, from mitt-ere, to send. 3. From such examples as duc-t-ilis, mis-s-ilis, and umbr-at-ilis seem to have been derived the suffixes tills, silis, and atUis, used in forming adjectives from nouns ; see 352. 4. The stems ill and bill of ills and bills are derived from the stems vilo and bulo of ulus and bulum ; see 331, 1, 335. 330. Verbal Adjectives with the general meaning of participles are formed with the suf&xes Nom. Stem ac, aci aud-ax, daring. from aud-gre, to dare loqu-ax. loquacious. loqu-I, to talk med-icus, healing, medical. med-erl. to heal am-icus, loving, friendly. am-are, to love cad-ucus, falling, frail. cad-ere. to fall exim-ius, select, choice. exim-ere, to select out 1. These suffixes are comparatively rare, except ax, which is a reduced form of 3cus. It often denotes a faulty inclination. The suffixes a-cus, i-cus, i-cus, and u-cus are only different forms of a single su£3x, produced by adding cus, to the stem-vowels a, i, i, and u. 2. A few of these adjectives sometimes become nouns : med-icus, a physi- cian ; am-icus, a friend. 331. Verbal Adjectives having in general a meaning kindred to that of participles are formed with the suffixes Nom. ulus uus vus ivus Stem ulo uo vo ivo; crgd-ulus, credulous. from crgd-ere, to believe noc-uus, hurtful. " noc-Ere, to hurt ar-vus, plowed " ar-are, to plow cad-Ivus, falling. " cad-ere, to fall 152 ETYMOLOGY 1. The suiBx ulus generally denotes a faulty tendency. In verbal adjec- tives it often becomes ilis : ag-ilis, agile ; see 329 ; uus, vus, and i-vus are only different forms of a single suffix. 2. The suffix ivus is often added to the stem of Perfect Participles, appar- ently making a new suffix, t-ivus : cap-t-ivus, captive, from cap-ere, cap-to, cap-t, to take ; ac-t-Ivus, active, from ag-ere, ac-to, ao-t, to act. 3. A few of these adjectives sometimes become nouns : ar-vum, plowed land, from ar-are, to plow ; cap-t-ivus, a captive. i. The suffix Ivus, t-ivus is also used in forming secondary derivatives ; see 350. Verbal Nouns 332. Verbal nouns partake largely of the meaning of the verbs from which they are derived. They may be classified as follows : 1. Verbal nouns denoting Action or its Result; see 333. 2. Verbal nouns denoting the Agent or Doer of an action ; see 334. 3. Verbal nouns denoting the Means or Instrument of an action ; see 335. Action or Its Result 333. Verbal nouns denoting Action in the abstract, but often becoming concrete, are formed with the siifiixes Nom. i6> tio or us es ies ium Stem ion tion or OS, es es, i ie io: leg-io, a levying, leg 'ion. men levied. from leg-ere, to levy audl-tio, a hearing, a report. audl-re. to hear vI-sio,2 a seeing, a si ■ght. vid-ere. to see tim-or. fear. tim-ere. to fear gen-US, birth. gen in gign. -ere, to bear frigus. cold. frig-ere, to be cold sgdes, seat, sed-ere. to sit fac-ies. face, fac-ere. to make gaud-ium. , joy, gaud-ere, to rejoice 1. Most of these suffixes generally designate the action or state denoted by the verb, but es, ies, and ium sometimes designate the result of the action or the means employed: aedific-ium, edifice, from aedifio-are, to build ; niib-es, cloud, from niib-ere, to veil. 1 The suffix 15 is compounded ot i and on ; tio of ti and on. 2 Vi-sio is from vid-tio ; see 58, 1. PRIMARY DERIVATIVES 153 2. Here belongs the Latin Infinitive in ere, whicli is the Locative of a verbal noun, like genus, gen-eris, gen-ere. Observe that the Ablative end- ing ere, which includes the Locative meaning, is the same as that of the Infinitive. 3. For the suflBxes tus and tiira, see 338, 3 and 4. Agent or Doer 334. Verbal nouns denoting the Agent or Doer of an action are formed from the stems of verbs or from roots with the suffixes Nom. Stem tor tor ter, masculine ter, tr tr-ix, feminine tr-ic : from vena-ri, " guberna^re, " audl-re, " tond-ere, to hunt to steer, direct to hear to clip, shave vgna-tor, hun-ter,^ i venar-tr-Ix, hun-tr-ess,^ i gubema-tor, direc-tor, ) gubernar-tr-ix, direc-tr-ess, t audi-tor, hearer, ton-sor," barber, i tons-trix, female barber, i 1. The few nouns in Latin formed with the sufBxes ter, tr, which, like tor, originally denoted the Agent, have become Names of Kindred : pa-ter, pa-tr-is, father ; ma-ter, ma-tr-is, mother ; fra-ter, fra-tr-is, brother. 2. The suflfix tr in pa-tr-is, ter in pa-ter, tor in vic-tor, and tor in vic-tor-is, are only different forms of the same suffix. For vowel gradation or ablaut, as illustrated in these forms, see 21, 326, 1. 3. The feminine suffix trix for tr-ics is an extension of tr, the weak form of tor, by the addition of io-s, of which i is the inherited feminine suffix and B the Nominative suffix. 4. The suffix tor, though originally a primary suiBx, is sometimes used to form denominatives : via-tor, a traveler, from via, a way ; sen-a-tor, a senator, from sen-ex, an old man. 5. The suffix tor, sor, is often extended to tor-ius, sor-ius by the addi- tion of ius ; see 360, 2. 6. A few nouns in a, 6 (Gen. on-is), us, and ulus have a meaning kindred to that of Agent or Doer : scrib-a, a writer, from scrib-ere, to write ; err-6, err-6n-is, a wanderer, from err-are, to loander; coqu-us, a cook, from ooqu-ere, to cook; leg-ulus, a collector, from leg-ere, to collect. 1 Observe that ter and tor in hun-ter and direc-tor are used, as in Latin, to denote the agent or doer, and that in the feminine forms hun-tr-ess and direc-tr-ess they both take the weak form tr, as in the Latin vena-tr-ix. 2 Ton-sor is for tond-tor, dt changed to s, but tons-trix is for tond-trix, dt changed to st before r; see 52, 1. 154 ETYMOLOGY Means and Instrument 335. Nouns denoting the Means or Instrument of an action, sometimes its Place or Result, are formed with the suffixes trum ulmn s-trum 1 ula clum brum ara-trum, plow, ros-trum, heak, mon-s-trum,! prodigy, peri-clum,3| trial, test, peril, peri-culum, > indu-cula, tunic, simula-orum, image, teg-ulum, teg-ula, delu-brum, shrine, dola^bra, ax, mattock, sta-bulum, stall, farbula, story, tale, culum bra from ara-re, " rod-ere, " mon-ere, cula bulum obsolete peri-re, indu-ere, simulacra, ' I covering, tile, roof, " teg-ere, delu-ere, dola-re, sta-re, fa-rl, crum bula:2 to plow to gnaw to admonish to try, test to clothe with to represent to cover to cleanse to heio, cut to stand to speak, tell 336. Many verbal nouns denoting the Means of an action, or its involuntary Subject or Object, and sometimes the Act itself or its Result, are formed with the suffixes men mentum mo (stem mon) monium monia: flu-men, stream,''' from flu-ere, to flow ag-men, army on the march,''' " ag-ere, to lead orna-mentum, ornament. " orna^re, to adorn doou-mentum,* documentary proof. " doc-ere, to teach ser-mo, ser-mon is, connected discourse, " ser-ere, to connect ali-m5nia,'5 "1 ali-m5nium, J nourishment. " ale-re,!" to nourish 1 The suffix B-trum may have derived its s from such words as ca^s-trum, ra-s-trum, and ro-s-trum, in which s belongs to the root or stem. 2 Cula, ula, bra, and bula differ from the corresponding forms in um only in gender ; clum, culum, and crum are only different forms of a single suffix, as are also brum and bulum. ' In Latin the form culum has almost entirely displaced the older form clum. 4 Flii-men, stream, that which flows ; ag-men, army on the march, that- which is led. ' The u in doeu-mentum, the 1 in ali-monia, and the e in ale-re are only differ- ent forms of the thematic vowel. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES 155 1. But the suffixes monium and monia, though originally used only in forming verbal nouns, were subsequently employed with great freedom in forming nouns from adjectives, or other nouns ; see 344, 345. 2. In early Latin men was a favorite suffix for the formation of verbal nouns, but it was subsequently extended to men-turn by the addition of turn ; mon, the strong-grade form of men, was also extended to mon-ia and mon-ium, by adding ia and ium. 337. A few verbal nouns are formed with the suffixes d-6 1 g-6 stems d-on d-in g-on g-in : torpe-do, numbness, from torpS-re, to he numb cupi-dp, desire, " cupi in cupl-vi, I desired YOiSr-go, . whirlpool, " vora-re, to swallow up ori-go, a beginning, " ori-rl, to rise, begin 338. Nouns having a great variety of meaning, as Action, its Result or Place, Means or Instrument, etc., are formed from the stems of verbs or from roots with the simple sufl&xes a us, um us stems a o u: fug-a, a fleeing, flight, from fug in fug-ere, to flee tog-a, gown, toga, " tog, teg, in teg-ere, to cover lad-US, game, play. ' ' liid in liid-ere. to play iug-um. yoke. " iug in iung-ere. to join together ac-us, needle. " ao in ac-uere. to sharpen 1. For nouns in a and us denoting the Agent or Doer, see 334, 6. III. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES — NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 339. Secondary derivatives, nouns and adjectives, may be classi- fied as follows : 1. Diminutives; see 340. 2. Patronymics, or Names of Descent ; see 342. 3. Designations of Place; see 343. 4. Nouns denoting Office, Condition, or Characteristic ; see 344. 5. Adjectives denoting Fullness or Supply ; see 346. 6. Adjectives denoting Matei'ial ; see 347. 7. Adjectives denoting Characteristic or Possession ; see 348. 1 The suffix do may have derived its d from words like cardo in which d belongs to the root. 156 ETYMOLOGY Diminutives — Nouns and Adjectives 340. Diminutives of Nouns and Adjectives are generally formed with the following suffixes : lus, la, lum ulus, ula, uliun cuius, cula, culum filio-lus, filio-la, atrio-lum, hortu-lus, oppidu-lum, reg-ulus, capit-ulum, flos-culus, die-cula, niunus-culum, ageUus.i libel-lus, vil-lum,2 aureo-lus, a, um, somewhat golden, longu-lus, a, um, rather long, pauper-culus, a, um, rather poor, longius-culus, a, um,^ rather too long, little son. from fllius. son little daughter, filia, daughter small hall, atrium, hall small garden, liortus, garden small town. oppidum. town petty king. rex. king small head, caput, head small flower. flos. flower little day, little while. dies, day small present. munus. present small field, ager, field small book. liber, book a little wine. vinum. wine misel-lus, a, um, somewhat unfortunate, aureus, golden longus, long pauper, poor longius, too long miser, unfoHunate 1. Lus, la, lum are appended to a- and o-stems ; ulus, ula, ulum to dental and guttural stems ; cuius, cula, culum to e-, i-, and u-stems and to liquid and s-stems ; see examples. 2. Before lus, la, lum, the stem vowels a and o take the form of o after e or i, and the form of u in other situations : fQio-lus, filio-la, bortu-lus. 3. Before cuius, cula, culimi, stems in u change u into i, and stems in on change o into u: versi-culus, a little verse; homun-culus, a small man. Like nouns in on, a few other words form diminutives in un-culus, un-cula, though probably from an old stem In on : av-unculus, maternal uncle, from avus, grandfather. 4. In Latin the diminutive sufBx was originally lus, la, lum, from which was developed the form u-lus, u-la, u-lum by including as a part of the sufSx the u in such words as hortu-lus, oppid-u-lum, where it represents the 1 Agel-lus is from agr(o)-lo-s, which became agr-lo-s, ager-lo-s, and finally agel-lus. 2 Vil-lum is from vin{o)-lo-m, which became vin-lom and then vil-lum. 8 The suffix cu-lus is often thus attached to the neuter of comparatives. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES • 157 stem vowel of the primitive ; cu-lus was produced by adding the diminutive lus to the suffix CO : co-lus, cu-lus. 5. A few diminutives are formed with the suffixes io, c-io : '■ pus-io, piis- ion-is, a little hoy, from pusus, boy; homun-cio, homun-oion-is, a little man., from homo, man. 341. Diminutive nouns in their true and proper signification represent objects simply as small, but they are often so used as to take on secondary meanings. Thus they sometimes become 1. Terms of Endearment. Thus Gliola may mean either little daughter or my dear little daughter. 2. Expressions of Sympathy or Eegard. Thus bomunculus may mean either a small man or a poor unhappy man. 3. Expressions of Contempt. Thus canTcula may mean either a small dog or a contemptible little cur. Patronymics 342. The Latin Patronymics, or Names of Descent, were bor- rowed from the Greek. The common patronymic ending was developed for metrical reasons in two forms, as follows: Nom. ides lades, masculine is ias, feminine Stem Ida iada id iad Tantal-ides, son or descendant of Tantal-us Thest-iades, son or descendant of Thest-ius Laert-lades, son of Laert-es, viz. Ulysses Tantal-ls, daughter or descendant of Tantal-us Thest-las, daughter or descendant of Thest-ius 1. In these examples observe that ides and is are used after a short sylla- ble and lades and ias after a long syllable. 2. By the union of ides with a preceding vowel was developed the ending ides : Thes-ides, son or descendant of Thes-eus. 3. By the loss of 1 in lades was formed the ending ades : Aeue-ades, son or descendant of Aene-as. 4. Nouns in eus generally form feminine patronymics in eis or ine ; nouns in us sometimes form them in Ine, and nouns in ius in lone : Ner-eis or Wer-ine, daughter of Ner-eus; NeptHn-Ine, daughter or descendant of Neptune; Acris-ione, daughter of Acris-ius. 1 The suiHx ci-o is compounded of the two diminutive suffixes 00 and io, a formation quite analogous to that of cu-lus. 158 ETYMOLOGY 343. Designations of Place, wliere trees and plants flourisli, are often formed with the suffixes turn and e-tum : from virgul-a, bush " salio-s (os = x), willow " pin-US, pine tree " ros-a, rose bush virgul-tum, salic-tum, pin-e-tum, ros-e-tum, thicket, thicket of willows, pine forest, garden of roses, 1. The sufBx turn is tlie neuter of the participial sufBx tus applied to nouns ; see 328, 2 ; thus virgul-tum is the neuter of the adjective virgul-tus, used as a substantive ; e-tum is another form of the same suffix. The e was probably developed in such words as ol-e-tum, an olive garden, from ol-e-re, from which it derives its e. Thus ros-e-tum means literally a place furnished with roses. 344. Derivatives denoting Office, Condition, or Characteristic are formed from nouns with the suffixes Nom. ium monium tas tus tudo atus Stem io monio tat tut tudin atu : magister-iijin;!, office of master, from magister, master jtesti-monium, testimony. testi-s. witness patr-iTnionium,i paternal estate, patr-is. of a father civi-tas. citizenship, civi-s. citizen auctor-i-taSji authority. auctor. author servi-tus,2 servitude, servu-s. servant servi-tado,^ servitude, servu-s, servant consul-atus consulship. consul, consul 1. Derivatives in ium, tiis, and atus sometimes become collective nouns : collegium, a body of colleagues, from coUega, a colleague; iuventiis, youth, young persons; sen-atus, senate, an assembly of old men. Many derivatives in tas are abstract nouns ; see 345. 2. The final vowel of the stem disappears before ium but assumes the form of i before the other suffixes. Consonant stems sometimes assume 1 in imitation of vowel stems. 3. The suffixes ium, tas, and tus were all inherited ; tudo is closely related to tus ; a-tus is the ending of nouns in tus derived from S-verbs, as seen in om-a-tus. For monium, see 336, 2. 4. The endings ago and igo occur in a few words : vir-ago, a masculine maiden, from vir ; rob-igo, rust, from rob-us, red. 1 Observe that patr-i-monium and auct5r-i-tas assume i in imitation of test-i-monium and civ-i-tas in which the i belongs to the stem. 2 Observe that the stem vowel o of serv-us becomes i in serv-i-tus and serv-l-tudo. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES 159 345. Many Abstract Nouns are formed from adjectives, and a few from nouns, with the suffixes ia ies tia ties tas tud5 monia : audac-ia, boldness, from audax, bold sapient-ia, wisdom, sapiens, wise victor-ia, victory. victor. conqueror barbar-ia, -i baibar-ies, J barbarism, barbar-us, foreign, barbai-ous amici-tia, friendship, amiou-s. friendly, friend moUi-tia, ■ moUi-ties, ," softness. molli-s, soft boni-tas, goodness, bonu-s, good Uber-tas, freedom, liber. free pie-tas, filial piety. pie in piu-s. dutiful, pious firmi-tas, " firmi-tudo, . firmness. firmu-s. steadfast, firm acri-monia, sharpness, acri-s. sJiarp 1. Tlie suffixes ia, ie-s, were inherited ; t-ia, t-ies were formed by adding ia, ies to t-stems, as sapient-ia, sapien-tia. 2. The stem vowel o disappears before ia, ies ; is changed to i before tia, ties, and generally before the other suffixes, but it sometimes disappears, as in liber-tas ; after i it retains its ablaut form e, as in pie-tas. Adjectives from the Stems of Nouns 346. Fullness. — Adjectives denoting Fullness, Abundance, or Supply are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes osus lens anim-dsus, ann-osus, fructu-osus, pesti-lens, "i pesti-lentus, j vino-lentus, vi-o-lens, i Vi-o-lentus, / mc-u-lentus, 'iiis-tus, al-Srtus, turr-I-tus, corn-u-tus, lentus tus a-tuB i-tus ii-tus : full of courage, from anim-us, full of years, fruitful, pestilential, full of wine, impetuous, full of light, just, winged, turreted, horned. anim-us. courage ann-us. year fructu-s, fruit pesti-s, pest vinu-m. wine vi-s. force luc in lux. light ius. right al-a. wing turr-is. turret cdrn-u. horn 160 ETYMOLOGY 1. The suffix OBUS is one of the most important in the Latin language ; tlie number of adjectives formed with it has been esliiiiated to amount to eight hundred. 2. The suffix osus becomes i-osus by assuming i from some word like stud-i-osus, studious, and it becomes u-osus by assuming u from some word like friict-u-6sus, fruitful. 3. The suffixes tus, a-tus, i-tus, and u-tus are the regular participial endings here applied to the formation of adjectives from nouns. 347. Material. — Adjectives designating the material of which anything is made are generally formed with the suffixes eus nus n-eua i ac-eus IC-IUS : aur-eus, of gold, golden. from aur-um,^ gold argent-eus, of silver. (( argent-um. silver fagi-nus, 1 fagi-neus, / of beech, ieechen, (( fag-US,'' a beech tree ros-eus, -i ros-ac-eus, J made of roses, (( ros-a. a rose strament-ic-ius , made of straw, K slrament-um, a straw 1. Most of these suffixes sometimes take on a more general meaning and denote characteristic or possession ; patei-naa, paternal ; ver-nus, of spring, vernal; virgin-eus, maidenly. 348. Characteristic. — Adjectives meaning in general belonging to, relating to, derived from, and the like, are formed from nouns with a great variety of suffixes. The following examples illus- trate the meaning and use of one class of these suffixes, viz. : alls elis His ulis aris arius : vlt-alis. of life, vital. from vlt-a, life mort-alis, mortal. mors, mort-is. death fid-elis, faithful. iid-es, faith, trust patru-elis, of an uncle. patru-us. uncle civ-llis, civil. civ-ls. citizen vir-ilis. manly. vir, man curr-iilis. of a chariot, curule. curr-us. a chariot salttt-aris. healthful. saliit-is. good health statu-arius. pertaining to statues 1 statu-a. statue ' The compound suffix n-eus is formed by adding eus to no, the stem of nus; ac-eus by adding eus to ao, the stem ot ax, and ic ius by adding ius = eus to ioo, the stem of Icus; see 350. 2 Observe that the stem vowel is dropped before a vowel, but changed to 1 before a consonant. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES 161 1. These several suffixes are only different varieties of lis ; the long vowels have been assumed from the stems to which the suffix has been added. Thus the a in vita-Iis may be the stem vowel a of vita, but in mort-alis it belongs to the suffix ; the e in fide-lis is the stem vowel of fid-es, but in patru-elis it belongs to the suffix. 2. By dissimilation alls becomes aris after 1, as in salut-aiis ; arius is an extension of ails. 3. Adjectives formed with these suffixes often become nouns, especially those in arius, arium, alls, and De : statu-arius, a statuary ; libr-arium. a bookcase, from liber, a book; mort-alis, a mortal, a human being ; ov-ile, a sheepfold, from ov-is, a sheep. 349. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suflB-xes nus a-nus e-nus er-nus t-er-nus ur-nus in the formation of adjectives : of spring, vernal, of a city, of the earth, earthy, of the sea, marine, prophetical, of maple, of this day, of a father, paternal of yesterday, of ivory, by night, nightly. i-nus t-ur-nus from ver, " urb-s, ' ' terr-a, " mar-e, " vate-s, vati-s, " aoer, ' ' hodi-e, " pater, ' ' her-I for hes-i " ebur, " nox, noct-is, " diil, spring city the earth the sea prophet maple this day, to-day father yesterday ivory night a long time ci-nus is from co-nus ; it adds ver-nus, urb-anus, terr-enus, mar-inus, vati-cinus, acer-nus, hodi-emus, pater-nus, hes-ternus, ebur-nus, noct-ur-nus, diti-turnus, 1. The basis of all these suffixes is nus ; nus to CO, the stem of ous ; see 350 ; er-nus and ter-nus follow the analogy of such words as ac-er-nus and pa-ter-nus, while ur-nus aud t-ur-nus follow eb-ur-nus and noc-t-ur-nus. 2. The suffix cinus is sometimes extended to cinius : vati-cinius, prophetic. 3. Many adjectives formed with these suffixes sometimes become nouns, and some words thus formed are always nouns in classical Latin : insul- anus, an islander, from Insul-a ; urb-anus, a citizen, from urb-s ; reg-ina, a queen, from rex, reg-is ; medic-ina, medicine, from medi-cus, a physician. 4. Here may be mentioned the kindred suffixes onus, ona, unus, una : patr-onus, patron, from pater ; matr-ona, matron, from mater ; trib-iJnus, head of a tribe, tribune, from tribus, a tribe; fort-iina, from fore, chance. HABK. LAT. GRAM. 12 162 ETYMOLOGY 350. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suffixes CUB i-cus t-icus ivus t-ivus ius cius i-cius i-cius ti-cius in the formation of adjectives : civi-cus, of a citizen, froir 1 civi-s, citizen bell-icus, of war, military, bell-um, war cena-ticus, relating to dinner, cena, dinner fest-ivus, pleasing, fest-us, festive tempes-tlvus, timely. tempus, tempes, time reg-ius, kingly, royal, rex, reg-is, king Ora-tor-ius, of an orator. 5ra-tor, orator cen-sor-ius, of a censor. cen-sor, censor soda,li-oiiis, of a companion. sodali-s, companion patr-i-cius, patrician. pater, father nov-i-oius, new, inexperienced, nov-us. new dedi-tl-cius, surrendered. dedi-tus. given up 1. For ivus and t-ivns, see 331 and 331, 2. 2. The other suffixes are only different forms and combinations of cub and iuB, both of which are in common use in liindred languages ; t-icus and t-i-cius obtain the t from participial stems ; cius is an extension of cua ; ius added to verbal nouns in tor and sor gives rise to the compound suffix, tor-iuB, sor-iuB, whicli may be applied directly to verb stems. Thus ora- tor-ius is derived from the verb ora-re through the verbal noun, ora-tor ; see 334, 5. 3. A few adjectives formed with these suffixes sometimes become nouns, and a few words thus formed are always used as nouns in classical Latin : rus-ticuB, countryman, peasant, from rus, the country ; patr-i-cius, patri- cian, from pater, father ; reg-ia, royal palace, from rex, king ; audi-tor-ium, audience-room, from audi-tor, hearer. 351. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suffixes ter tris es-ter in the formation of adjectives : paliis-ter, eques-ter, ■> eques-tris, J camp-ester, silv-estris, castr-ensls. CB-tris marshy. from paliis. max'sh of a horseman. " eques. horseman of a level field, level, " camp-US, level field of a forest, wooded. " silv-a. forest of or in the camp, " castr-a, camp SECONDARY DERIVATIVES 163 1. A few words formed from these suffixes are uniformly used as nouns, while a few others are occasionally so used : palus-tria, marshy places, from palas, marsh ; eques-ter, knight, from eques, horseman. 2. The endings ter, tris, es-ter, and es-tris are different forms of the same suffix ; the development of es-ter and es-tris from ter and tris is seen by comparing eques-ter and eques-tiis, in which es belongs to the stem, with camp-ester and silv-estris, in which it is a part of the sufBx ; ensis is from *ent-ti-s, in which t-t becomes s. 352. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suffixes ilis s-ilis 1 t-ilis 1 at-ilis 1 ti-muB i-ti-mus in the formation of adjectives : hum-ilis, low, lowly. from hum-US, the earth, ground dap-s-ilis. sumptuous, dap-s, feast aqua-tilis, living in water. aqua, ■water sax-at-ilis, living among rocks. sax-um. rock op-timus. richest, best, op-is. of wealth, help mari-timus. maritime. mare for mari, sea 16g-i-timus, lawful. lex, leg-is. law 353. Adj ectives from proper names generally end in anus, ianus, inus as, aeus, eus Lus, iacus, icus ensis, iensis : SuU-anus, of Sulla, from Sulla, Sulla Marl-anus, of Marius, Marius, Marius Ciceron- ianus Ciceronian, Cicero, Cicero Lat-inus, Latin, Latium, Latium Fiden-as, of Fidenae, Fidenae, Fidenae Smyrn-aeus, Smyrnean, Smyrna, Smyrna Pythagor-6us, Pythagorean, Pythagoras, Pythagoras Corinth-ius, Corinthian, Corinthus, Corinth Corinth-iacus, Corinthian, Corinthus, Corinth Britann-icus, British, Britannus, a Briton Cann-ensis, of Cannae, Cannae, Cannae Athen-iensis, Athenian, Athenae, Athens 1. Anus and ianus are the endings generally used in derivatives from Names of Persons ; but others also occur. 2. Many adjectives from names of places become Patrial Nouns in the plural and designate the citizens of those places : Rom-ani, the Bomans, from R5m-a ; Lat-iiu, the Latins, from Lat-ium. 1 On these suffixes, see 329, 3. 164 ETYMOLOGY 354. The names of the Roman Gentes or Clans always ended in ius, masculine, and ia, feminine : Aemil-ins, Aemil-ia App-ius, App-ia Cass-ius, Cass-ia Cornel-ius, Cornel-ia Fab-ius, Fab-ia lul-ius, lul-ia 1. Tliese forms in ius and ia are often used as adjectives : circus Flami- nius, the Flaminian circus; via Appia, the Appian way. 2. Many of the names of tlie Roman gentes were derived from common nouns or from adjectives: Virgin-ius, Virgin-ia, from virgo, maiden; Claud-ius, Claud-ia, from claud-us, lame. 3. The name of the gens to whioli a Roman citizen belonged formed one of the three names which he regularly bore : the first, or praenomen, desig- nating the individual ; the second, or nomen, the gens ; and the third, or cognomen, the family. Thus Publius Cornelius Scipio was Publius of the Scipio family of the Cornelian gens. 4. Many Roman family names, cognomina, like the English surnames Smith, Carpenter, and Green, are derived from common nouns or adjec- tives: Cornicen, Horn-bloioer ; Figulus, Potter; Capit-o, Big-head; Lupus, Wolf; Taurus, Hull; Niger, Black. 5. Some personal names, praenomina, are also derived from common nouns or adjectives : Aulus, Flute ; Marcus, Hammer ; Quintus, Fifth. 6. In writing, personal names are generally represented by abbreviations : A. = Aulus M. = Marcus S. (Sex.) = Sextus Ap. = Appius M'. = Manius Ser. = Servius C. = Gaius^ Mam. = Mamercus Sp. = Spurlus Cn. = Gnaeusi N. = Numerius T. = Titus D. = Decimus P. = Publius Ti. (Tib.) = Tiberius L. = Lilcius Q (Qu. ) = Quintus 7. Sometimes an agnomen or surname was added to the three regular names. Thus Scipio received the surname Africanus from his victories in Africa: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. 8. An adopted son took the full name of his adoptive father, and an agnomen in anus formed from the name of his own gens. Thus Octavius, when adopted by Caesar, became Gains liilius Caesar Octavianus. After- ward the title of Augustus was conferred upon him, making bis full name Gaius lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus. 9. Women were generally known by the name of their gens. Thus the daughter of Julius Caesar was simply lulia ; of Cornelius Scipio, Cornelia. Two daughters in any family of the Cornelian gens would be known as Cornelia and Cornelia Secunda or Minor. 1 On the use of C for G, see 5, 1 and 3. DEtilVATlON OF VERBS 165 Adjectives from Adverbs and Prepositions 355. A few adjectives are formed from adverbs and preposi tions with the following suf&xes : nus a-neus arius er-nus ter-uus ter-nus, three-fold, from ter, extr-aneus, 1 , . , , , ^ _ ^ - . > from witliout, external, " extr-a, extr-anus, J hodi-ernus, of this day, " liodi-e, hes-ternus, of yesterday, diu-turnus, i diu-tinus, / tur-nus ti-nuB three times on the outside this day, to-day herl for hes-i, yesterday Am, a long tim6 DERIVATION AND HISTORY OF LATIN VERBS 356. The oldest Latin verbs were all inherited from the parent speech. They comprise three classes : I. Root Verbs, in which the bare root is the present stem. II. Thematic Verbs, in which the present stem ends in the thematic vowel. III. Verbs whose present stem is formed with the suflix; io. I. — Root Verbs 357. In Root Verbs personal endings are added directly to the bare root, which forms the present stem. This is the most primitive form of verbal inflection known in our family of languages, and has almost dis- appeared from the Latin. Only a few isolated forms of irregular verbs remain, of which the following are the most important : 1. From the root es, to be : es = es-s, es-t, es-tis, es-te, es-to, es-tote. 2. From the root ed, es, to eat : e-s = ed-s, es-t, es-tis, es-te, es-to, es-tote. 3. From the root i, to go : i-s, i-t, i-mus, i-tis, i-te, i, i-to, T-t5te. 4. From the root fer, to bear: fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer-te, fer, fer-to, fer-tote, with a few passive forms. 5. From the root vel, vol, to wish : vol-t, vul-t, vol-tls, vul-tis. 6. From the root do, da, to give : do, da-s = d5-s, da-t, da-mus, da-tis, da-nt, da, da-te, da- to, da-tote. Note. — Many forms from these roots are thematic, as s-u-m, s-u-mus, B-u-nt, etc. 166 ETYMOLOGY II. — Thematlo Verbs 358. The Present Stem ends in the thematic vowel, which was orig- inally e or o, but in Latin it generally takes the form of i or u. The personal endings are added to this vowel. This class includes most verbs of the Third Conjugation: reg-e-re, to rule; reg-i-t, reg-i-mus, reg-i-tis, reg-u-nt. III. — Verbs formed -with the suffiz io 359. This class includes four sub-divisions : 1. A group of A- Verbs, in which the present stem ends in o, from a-io, in the first person singular of the Present tense and in a in the other persons : hiare, to gape; present stem, hi-o, hi-a: hi-6,i hi-a-mus, hi-a-tis \a,Ya,v6, to wash ; " " lav-o, lav-a; lav-o, lav-a^mus, lav-a-tis 2. A group of E- Verbs, in which the present stem ends in eo, from e-io or e-io, in the first person singular of the Present tense and in e in the other persons : favSre, io/awor; present stem, fav-eo, fav-e: fav-eo,^ fav-e-mus, fav-g-tls videre, «o .sec ; " " vid-eo, vid-e : vid-eo, vid-e-mus, vid-e-tis NoTis 1. — A few verbs formed with the suffix e-io are causative in mean- ing : mon-eo, mon-e-re, to cause to remember, from the root men, remem- ber ; noo-eo, noc-e-re, to cause to suffer, from nee, death, ruin. NoTic 2. — In Causative verbs, the root vowel e takes its ablaut form o ; see 326, 3. Hence the root men becomes mon in mon-eo ; nee becomes noc in noc-eo. 3. A group of I-Verbs, in which the present stem ends in io, from i-io, ill the first person singular of the Present tense, in iu in the third person plural, and in i in the other persons : venire, to come ; pres. stem ven-io, ven-iu, ven-I : ven-i5, ven-I-mus, ven-iu-nt Note. — ^In a few verbs in io, the thematic vowel takes the place of i: capere, to take : cap-io, cap-i-mus, cap-i-tis, cap-iu-nt. 4. probably a very few TJ- Verbs, in which the present stem ends in o, from io, in the first person singular of the Present tense and in the thematic vowel in the other persons ; suere, to sew, su-5, su-i-mus, su-i-tis, su-u-nt 1 Observe that the first person singular of the Present has o, but that its stem has o. DERIVATION OF VERBS 167 Note. — The four groups of inherited verbs just mentioned — viz. a group of a-verbs, or verbs of the First Conjugation, a group of e-verbs, or verbs of the Second Conjugation, a group of i- verbs, or verbs of the Fourth Con- jugation, and a very few u-verbs of the Third Conjugation — served the Romans for all time as models for the formation of new verbs from the stems of nouns and adjectives. Thus all the Latin verbs were either in- herited by the Komans or made by them on inherited models. THE FORMATION OF VERBS FROM THE STEMS OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 360. A-Verbs are generally formed from a-stems, but sometimes from other vowel stems and even from consonant stems, especially from n- and s-stems : ciir-o, -a-re, to care for, from ciir-a, care lacrim-5, -a-re, to shed tears, " lacrim-a. tear numer-8. -a-re, to yiumber, " numer-us. number lev-o, -a-re, to lighten. " lev-is. light aestu-o, -a-re, to rage, " aestu-s. a raging nomin-o, -a-re, to name. " nomen. name oner-6, -a-re, to burden. " onus, oner-is, burden 361. B-Verbs are generally formed from o-stems,^ rarely from consonant stems : alb-e5. -e-re, to be white. from alb-US, white claud-eo. -e-re. to be lame, " claud-us. lame flor-eo. -e-re. to flower. " flos, flor-is. flower Itic-eo, -e-re. to be light. " lux, luc-is. light 1. E- Verbs are generally intransitive ; indeed, from the same stem are sometimes formed an a- Verb with a transitive meaning and an e-Verb with an intransitive meaning : to be white, \ to make white, f to be bright, to make bright. alb-eo, -e-re, alb-o, -a-re, clar-eo, -e-re, clar-5, -a^re, from alb-ns, I " clar-us. white bright 362. I- Verbs are generally formed from i-stems ; but sometimes from o-stems, u-stems and consonant stems : fin-io, fin-i-re, to finish, from fin-is, end len-io, len-i-re, to make gentle, " len-is, gentle 1 Remember that o-stems have an ablaut form in e. 168 ETYMOLOGY serv-io, serv-I-re, to serve, from serv-us, servant gest-io, gest-i-re, to gesture, " gest-us, gesture custod-io, custod-i-re, to guard, " custos, guard 363. U-Verbs are formed from u-stems : met-uo, met-u-ere, to fear, from met-us, fear stat-uo, stat-u-ere, to place, " stat-us, position, place 364. Frequentatives, or Intensives, denote Eepeated, Continued, or Intense Action. They are of the First Conjugation, and are formed from verb stems or roots with the following suffixes : to so its tito Bito cap-to, to snatch, from cap-ere, to take da-to. to give frequently, ' ' da-re, to give cur-so, to run about, " cur-rere, to run ag-il6, to move violently, ' ' ag-ere, to move, drive sorip-tito,i to write often, " scrib-ere, to write cur-sito, to run hither and thither, ' ' cur-rere, to run 1. Frequentatives were originally denominatives formed from the parti- ciple in tus or sub, but ito became an independent suiBx and was added to the stems of verbs, regardless of the form of the participle ; hence ag-ito, not ac-to. The extension of to or so by ito gives the compound suffix tito or sito, but some verbs formed with these suffixes may be explained as de- rivatives from other frequentatives. Thus cant-ito may be formed from cant-5, a frequentative from can-o ; curs-ito from curs-o from cur-ro. 2. A few Intensives of the Third Conjugation, denoting Eager rather than Repeated action, end in esso, rarely isso : fac-esso, to do or perform eagerly, from fac-ere, tn do, perform; incip-isso, to begin eagerly, from incip-ere, to begin. 365. Inceptives, or Inchoatives, denote the Beginning of the action. They are regularly formed from the present stem of verbs by adding sco : gela-sco, to begin to freeze, from gela-re, to freeze cale-sco, to begin to be warm, " cale-re, to be warm vire-scS, to grow green, " vire-re, to be green obdorml-sco, to fall asleep, " obdorml-re, to sleep 1. The endings asco, esco, and isco, including the stem vowel of the primitive, finally became independent suffixes, and were added to the stems of verbs and apparently to the stems of nouns without regard to the char- 1 Remember that before t, g becomes c and to becomes p ; see 55, 1. COMPOSITION OF WORDS 169 acter of the stem vowel : trem-esoo, trem-isco, to begin to tremble, from trem-ere, to tremble; puer-asco, to reach boyhood, from puer, a boy. 366. Desideratives, denoting a Desire to perform the action, end in tvirio or surio : emp-turio,i to desire to purchase, from em-ere, to purchase scrip-turio, to desire to write, " scrlb-eve, to write e-suri5,^ to desire to eat. " ed-ere, to eat 367. Diminutives, denoting a feeble action, end. in illo : cant-ill-o, -are, to sing feebly, from cant-are, to sing conscrlb-ill-o, -are, to scribble, " conscrib-ere, to write 1. Diminutives in illo are probably formed from verb stems through diminutive verbal nouns. ) 368. Denominatives are also formed with the suffixes ico and igo : to heal, from medic-us, physician ■ ': to be lame, " claud-us, lame to be an oarsman, " remex, oarsman to make gentle, " mit-is, gentle 1. Observe that in medic-or the letters ic belong to the stem of medic-us, while in claud-ico they have become a part of the sufBx ico ; also that in remig-o the letters ig belong to the stem of remex, while in mit-igo they have become a part of the suffix igo. medic-or, medic-arl, claud-ico, claud-icare, remig-6, remig-are, mlt-igo, , miHgare, COMPOSITION OF WORDS 369. Many compound words are formed by uniting two or more stems and adding the suffixes of inflection when needed. The stem vowel of the first member of the compound generally disappears be- fore a Towel and generally takes the form of i before a consonant ■ magn-animus, grand-aevus, omni-potens, comi-cen, capri-cornus, from magno-animo-s, " grandi-aevo-s, " omni-potent-s, " cornu-oen, ' ' capro-cornu-s, magnanimous, of great age, omnipotent, trumpeter, capri-corn, o disappears i disappears i retained u changed to i o changed to i rj 1 Bm-p-turio ; p is generally thus developed between m and t ; see 53, 5. 2 E-surio, from *ed-turio, from ed, the strong form of the root of ed-o ; for euphonic changes, see 53, 1. 170 ETYMOLOGY 1. Consonant stems generally assume i before another consonant, as, honor-i-iicuB, honorable. 2. The ending of the second member is sometimes slightly changed, espe- cially in compound adjectives, which regularly pass into the I-Declension : multi-form-is, with many forms. 3. Compounds in ex,' dex, fex, cen, cida, and cola deserve notice : rem-ex, oarsman; iu-dex, judge; arti-fex, artist; corni-cen, cornet- player; homi-cida, man-slayer ; agri-cola, tiller of the soil. i. Note also compound adjectives in ceps,^ fer, ger, dicus, ficus, and voluB : parti-ceps, taking part ; auri-fer, hearing gold ; armi-ger, carrying arms, armor-bearer ; fati-dicus, prophesying; miri-ficus, causing wonder; bene-volus, well-wishing. 370. Compound words are also formed by prefixing an inde- clinable particle to an inflected word with wbich it could not be used separately in the same sense : Im-memor, un-mindful ; in-somnis, sleep-less; inter-regnum, an inter- regnum, the interval between two reigns; per-nox, lasting all night; per- facilis, very easy ; ad-esse, to be present ; e-discere, to learn thoroughly. 371. Compound words are also formed by uniting two or more words which already sustain to each other some syntactical relation : Duo-decim, twelve; Mars-piter, father Mars; postrT-die, on the fol- lowing day ; quot-annis, yearly, on all years; magu-opere = magno opere, greatly ; de-nu6 = de novo, a-new. 1. In these examples observe that words, not stems, are united : duo and decern ; Mars and pater. 2. Compounds formed by the union of two or more words are sometimes called Syntactic Compounds. Many such were formed by the Romans during the classical period. 372. Compound Nouns and Adjectives may be divided according to their meaning into three classes : 1. Determinative Compounds, in which the second part is qualified by the first: inter-rex, interrex; bene-volus, well-wishing ; per-magnus, very great; in-^gnus, unworthy. 1 Ex (ig-is), dex (die-is), fex (fic-is), cen, cid-a, and col-a are derived from the verbal roots seen in ag'-ere, to drive; dic-ere, to tell; fac-ere, to make; can-era, to sing, play ; caed-ere, to slay, and col-ere, to cultivate. 2 Oep-s, fer, ger, dic-us, flc-us, and vol-us are from the roots of cap-ere, to take; fer-re, to bear; ger-ere, to carry; dic-ere, to tell; fac-ere, to make, and vol-o, vel-le, to wish. COMPOUND VERBS 171 2. Objective Compounds, in which the second part is limited by the first as object: prin-oeps, taking the first place; belli-ger, waging war; homi- cida, one who slays a man ; agri-cola, one who tills the field. 3. Possessive Compounds, generally best rendered by supplying having or possessing: aeni-pes, hailing bronze feet;^ celeri-pes, swift-footed; aii-pes, wing-footed, having icings for feet; magn-animus, having a great sotil. 373. Compound Verbs. — Verbs in general are compounded only with prepositions, originally adverbs : ^ Ab-Ire, to go away ;^ ez-ire, to go out;" prod-ire, to go forth; con- vooare, to call together ; de-cidere, to fall off; prae-dicere, to foretell. 1 . But a few compounds of facio and fi5 contain a verbal form in e or e : cale-facere, to make warm; cale-fieii, to become warm; consue-facere, to accustom. 2. Verbs are often united with other words in writing without strictly forming compounds: satis facere or satis-facere, to satisfy, do enough for ; aniirmm advertere or anim-advertere, to notice, turn the mind to. 3. Verbs in fico, like the following, are probably best explained as de- nominatives : * aedi-ficare, to build, from aedifex ; ampli-ficare, to enlarge, from amplificus. 4. Verbs compounded with prepositions often undergo certain vowel changes in accordance with phonetic law; see 231. 374. Prepositions in Composition. — The following facts in regard to the Form and Meaning of prepositions in composition are added for reference : 1. A, ab, abs. Form : a before m and v,, and before f in the verb sum ; abs before c, q, t, and, with the loss of b, also before p ; ab in other situations. Meaning: away, off: a-mittere, to send away ; abs-condere, to hide away; ab-esse, to be away; a-fui, I have been away ; abs-portSre, as-portare, to carry off; in adjectives, generally negative : a-mens, mthout mind, frantic ; ab-aimilis, un-like. 2. Ad. Form : generally unchanged, but d is assimilated before c, gen- erally before p and t, and sometimes before g, 1, r, and s, and generally dropped before gn, so, sp, and st. Meaning : to, toward, to one's self; on, 1 Observe the force of the compound. Aenus pes means a brazen foot, but aeni-pes means having brazen feet. 2 The words thus formed are strictly compounds of verbs with adverbs. * Observe in these examples the strict adverbial use of the particles ab, ex, etc., away, out, etc. Prepositions, on the other hand, always denote relations, and are auxiliary to the case endings ; see 312. * In some of these the primitive is not found in actual use. 172 ETYMOLOGY at, near, in addition: ad-ducere, to lead to; ac-cipere, to receive; id- gerere or ag-gerere, to carry to; a-spicere, to look at; ad-discere, to learn in addition. 3. Ante, rorm: unchanged except in anti-clpare, to take before, and sometimes in composition with stare. Meaning : before, in preference to : ante-currere, to run before; ante-habere, to prefer. 4. Circum. Form : sometimes circu in composition with eo, ire. Mean- ing: round, about: circum-mittere, to send round; circmn-ire or cirou- ire, to go round. 5. Com, con, co. Form: com before b, m, p, and in com-edere, to eat up ; m assimilated before r and sometimes before 1 ; co before vowels, except in com-edere, before h, gn, and sometimes before n ; con in other situations. Meaning : together, loith, in various senses : com-bibere, to drink together; co-ire, to go together; con-loqui, col-loqui, to talk with or together; completely, thoroughly : cou-citare, to rouse thoroughly; con- densus, very dense. 6. B, ex. Form : ex before vowels and before c, h, p, q, s, t, and with assimilation before f ; e before the other consonants. Meaning : out, forth, w&hout, free from: ex-ire, to go out or forth; ex-sanguis, without blood; thoroughly, completely, successfully: ex-urere, to burn up; ef-ficere, to do successfully ; e-durus, very hard. 7. In. Form . n is generally assimilated before m, often before r and sometimes before 1, generally changed to m before b and p, otherwise un- changed. Meaning: in, into, on, at, against: in-colere, to dwell in; in- ridere or ir-ridere, to laugh at ; im-pugnare, to fight against. 8. Inter. Form: unchanged, except in intel-legere, to understand. Meaning : between, together, sometimes involving interruption or ruin : inter-venire, ^o come between ; inter-dicere, to forbid, inter-dict ; inter- ire, to perish. _ 9., 6b, obs. • Form: generally ob, but b is assimilated before c, t, g, and p and dropped in o-mittere, to omit ; obs in obs-olescere, to grow old, and with' the loss of b in os-tendere, to display. Meaning : before, in the way, against: of-ferre, to bring before; ob-stare, to stand in the way; op-PU6°are, to fight against; down, completely : oc-cidere, to cut down. 10. Per. Form: generally unchanged, but sometimes r is assimilated befpre 1 and dropped before i consonant in compounds of iiirere, as periurere, peierere, to swear falsely. Meaning: through, thoroughly; sometimes with the idea of breaking through, disregarding: per-Iegere or pel-legere, to read through; per-dlscere, to learn thoroughly; per- fidus, perfidious, breaking faith. .11. Post. Form : generally unchanged. M.e.&nmg: after, behind : ■poat- habere, to place after, esteem less. 12. Prod, pro. Form : generally pro, but prod, the original form, is PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION 173 retained in a few words before vowels. Meaning : forth, forward, before, for: prod-ire, to go forth; ptocurrere, to run forward; pro-pugnare, to fight in front of, to fight for; pro-hibere, to hold aloof, to prohibit. 13. Sub, subs. Form : generally sub, but b is assimilated before c, f, g, and p, and often before m and r. B is dropped before sp ; subs, short- ened to sus or su, occurs in a few words. Meaning : xinder, down, from under, in place of, secretly, somewhat, slightly : sub-ire, to go under; sub- diicere, to draw from under, withdraw ; su-spicere, to look up ; sus-cipere, to undertake ; sub-stituere, to substitute; sub-ripere, to take away secretly ; sub-diificilis, somewhat difficult. 14. Trans. Form: generally unchanged, but tran is the usual form before s, and tra is often used before d, i consonant, 1, m, and n. Meaning: across, through, completely: trans-currere, to run across; tran- silire, to leap across ; tra-diicere, to lead across ; trans-igere, to transact, finish. 375. The following inseparable Particles occur in composition: 1. Ambi. Form : generally amb before vowels and am before conso- nants, but an is used before c, q, and f. Meaning: around, round, on both sides, in two directions: amb-ire, to go round; amb-igere, to act in two ways, to hesitate; am-putare, to cut round or off; an-quirere, to search round. 2. Au : away, from: au-fugere, to fl.ee away. 3. Dis, di. Form: dis before p, q, t, before s followed by a vowel, and sometimes before i consonant, but s is assimilated before f and changed to r before a vowel ; di in most other situations. Meaning : apart, asunder, between, sometimes negative and sometimes intensive : dis-tinere, to hold apart; dif-fugere, to flee asunder; dir-imere, to take in pieces, destroy; difficilis, dif-ficult, not easy ; di-laudare, to praise highly. 4. In. Form : n dropped before gn ; otherwise like the preposition in. Meaning: not, un- : i-gnoscere, not to know, to pardon; im-memor, un-mindful; in-imicus, un-friendly. 5. For. Form: r assimilated before 1 and s. Meaning: forth, before, near: pol-liceri, to hold forth, promise; pos-sidere, to sit near, possess; por-rigere, to hold forth, to offer. 6. Red, re. Form : red before vowels, before h and in red-dere ; re in other situations. Meaning: back, again, in return, sometimes not, un-: red-ire, to go back; re-ficere, to repair, to make again; re-signare, to unseal. 7. Sed, se : generally se ; apart, aside : se-cedere, to go apart, se-cede ; sed-itio, a going apart, sedition. 8. Ve : not, without ; ve-sanus, not sane ; ve-cors, without heart, senseless. 174 SYNTAX PART IV. — SYNTAX SYNTAX OF SENTENCES I. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 376. Syntax treats of tlie construction of sentences. 377. A sentence is a word, or a combination of words, express- ing either a single thought or two or more thoughts. 1. A simple sentence expresses a single thought : Romulus urhem condidit, Romulus founded the city. 2. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences : Ego reges eieci, vas tyrannos introducitis, I have banished kings, you introduce tyrants. 3. A Declarative Sentence has the form of an assertion : MiltiadSs acciisatus est, Miltiades was accused. i. An Interrogative Sentence has the form of a question : Quis non paupertatem extimescit, who does not fear poverty ? 5. An Imperative Sentence has the form of a command or entreaty : Libera rem puhlicam metu, free the republic from fear. 6. An Exclamatory Sentence has the form of an exclamation : Rellquit quos viros, what men he has left .' 378. Simple Interrogative sentences are generally introduced by an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or by an inter- rogative particle, ne, non-ne, or num : ne asking for information ; nonne generally implying an afSrmative answer, and num a nega- tive answer : Quis doctior Aristotele fuit, who was more learned than Aristotle ? Quid tandem te impedit, what, pray, hinders you 1 Hora quota est, what time is it ? Ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? Estisne vos legatl missi, were you sent as ambassadors ? Nonne nOhilitari volunt, do they not wish to be renowned ? Num igitur peccamus, are we then at fault ? 1. But questions in Latin, as in English, sometimes dispense with the in- terrogative word, especially in impassioned discourse : SYNTAX OF SENTENCES 175 Ego nan poter5, shall I not he able ? Vis recte. vivere, do you wish to live J 2. The particle ne is regularly appended to the emphatic word of the sen- tence ; appended to non it forms nou-ne. It is, however, sometimes added to other interrogative words without afiecting their meaning, as in utrum-ne, quanta-ne, etc. 3. An emphatic tandem, meaning indeed, pray, then, is often found in interrogative sentences, as in the second example. 4. Nam appended to an interrogative also adds emphasis, as in ubinam in the fourth example. 5. For two interrogatives in the same clause, and for an interrogative with tantus, see 511, 3 and 4. 379. Answers. — In replying to a question of fact the Latin usually repeats some emphatic word, or its equivalent, often with prorsus, vero, and the like, or, if negative, with non : Nempe negas, do you indeed deny? Prorsus neg5, certainly I deny; c. Tusc. 5, 5. Possumusne esse tiiti, can we be safe ? Non possumus, we can not ; C. Ph. 12, 12. Tuam vestem detraxit tibl, did he strip your garment from you? Factum, he did, lit. done = it was done ; T. Eun. 707. 1. Sometimes the simple particle is used — affirmatively, sane, etiam, ita, vero, certe, etc. ; negatively, non, minime, etc. ; Visne sermon! demus operam sedentes, do you wish us to (that we should) attend to the conversation sitting? Sane quidem, yes indeed; C. Leg. 2,1. Vgnitne, has he come? Non, no ; PI. Ps. 1067. 380. Double or Disjunctive Questions offer a choice or alterna^ tive. The first clause generally has utrum or ne, or it omits the particle ; the second generally has an, as follows : utrum, an, ' ne, an, whether, or — , an, Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, is that your fault of ours? Eomamne venio, an hie maneam, am I going to Borne or am I to remain here? Haec vera, an falsa sunt, are these things true or false? 1. A negative in the second clause gives an non, very rarely nec-ne : Isne est quem quaero, an non, is he the one whom I seek or not? T. Ph. 852. Sunt haec tua verba, necne, are these your words, or not? C. Tusc. 3, is. 2. In poetry and later prose the first clause may haye utrmn-ne, or utrum . . . ne, and the second an : 176 SYNTAX , Utrumne persequemur-otium, an, etc., shall we enjoy our leisitre, or, etc. ? Utrum praedioemne, an taceam, shall I make it known, or be silent? 3. By the omission of the first clause, the second sometimes stands alone with an in the sense of, or, and sometimes an is used to introduce inter- rogative sentences which do not seem to involve an ellipsis : Quid ais, what do you say? An venit Pamphilus, or has Pamphilus comef 4. By the omission of the second clause, the first sometimes stands alone ^with utrum : Utrum hoc helium non est, is not this war? c. Ph. 8, 2, 7. 5. One or two rare forms occur in poetry, as ne . . . ne, in Vergil, and . . . ne, once in Horace : lustitiaene prius mirer belline, should I more admire your regard for jus- tice or your martial deeds? v. 11, 126. Maiora minorane fama, are they supe- rior or inferior to their fame? I-l. E. l, 11. 6. Disjunctive, or Compound Questions, are sometimes extended to three or more members. Indeed Cicero, Pro Domo, 22, 57, has a question of this kind with eight members. II. ELEMENTS or SIMPLE SENTENCES 381. The Simple Sentence, alike in its most simple and in its most expanded form, consists of two distinct parts, expressed or implied, and of only two : 1. The Subject, or that of which it speaks. 2. The Predicate, or that which is said of the subject. 382. The Simple or unmodified Subject may be a noun, a pro- noun, expressed or implied, or some word or words used as a noun ; and the Simple or unmodified Predicate may be either a verb alone or a suitable verb, generally sum, with a Predicate Noun or a Predicate Adjective : ,j Cluilius moritur, Gluilius dies. Ego scribo, I write. Vicimus, we have con- quered. Dolere malum est, to suffer is an evil. Vita cara est, life is dear. 1.. In these examples observe that the subjects are Cluilius, ego, the pronoun implied in vici-mus, the Infinitive dolere used as a noun, and vita. These subjects are all in the Nominative, according to 387. 2. Observe that the predicates are moritur, scribo, vicimus, malum est and cara est. Malum, thus used, is called a Predicate Noun, and cara a Predicate Adjective. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES 177 383. The Complex Subject consists of the simple subject with one or more modifiers, generally an adjective, a noun in apposition; or a Genitive: Albanus rSx moritur, the Alban king dies. Cluilius rex moritur, Clnilius the king dies. Periitiles Xenophontis libii sunt, the books of Xenophon are very useful. 1. Observe that the complex subjects are Albanus rex, Cluilius rex, and Xenophontis libri. 2. In distinction from a, predicate noun, or a predicate adjective, any noun or adjective used simply as a modiiier of the subject, or of any otlier noun, is called an Attributive Noun or Adjective. 3. A noun or pronoun, used to describe or identify another noun or pro- noun denoting the same person lOr thing, is said to be in Apposition with it and is called an Appositive : Cluilius rex, Cluilius the king. Appositives therefore form one variety of attributive nouns. 384. The Complex Predicate consists of the simple predicate with its modifiers. These may be objective modifiers, adverbial modifiers, or both : Gloria virtutem sequitur, glory follows merit. Sapientes felloiter vivunt, the wise live happily. In his castrls Cluilius moritur, in this camp Cluilius dies. Pons iter paene hostibus dedit, the bridge well-nigh offered a passage to the enemy. 1. Here observe that the modifier in the first example is the object virtu- tem, in the second the adverb feliciter, in the third the adverbial expres- sion in Ms castria, and in the fourth the direct object iter, the indirect object hostibus, and the adverb paene. 2. All nouns may be modified like the subject ; see 383. 3. All adjectives may be modified by adverbs, and some adjectives may be modified by certain oblique oases : Satis humilis est, he is sufficiently humble. Semper avidi laudis fuistis; you have always been desirous of praise. Habetis ducem memorem vestrj, you have a leader mindful of you. III. ELEMENTS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES 385. A Compound Sentence may consist of two or more inde- pendent sentences, combined without any change of form^: Sol ruit etmontes umbrantur, the sun hastens to its setting and the moun- tains are shaded. Audendum est aliquid, aut omnia patienda, so,methingi must be risked, or everything miist be endured. . , ., J HARK. LAT. GRAM. — 13 178 SYNTAX 386. A Compound Sentence may consist of two or more sen- tences so combined that one of them retains its independent form while the others are made subordinate to it : Priusquam incipias, cOnsulto opus est, iefore you begin, there is need of deliberation. 1. In sentences of this kind the part wlaioh makes complete sense, — con- sults opus est, there is need of deliberation, — is called the Principal or Independent Clause ; and the part which is dependent upon it, — prius- quam incipias, before you begin, — is called the Dependent or Subordinate Clause. 2. The subordinate clause may be the subject or the predicate of the compound sentence or the modifier either of the subject or of the predi- cate : Quid dies ferat,i incertum est, what a day will bring forth is uncertain. Exitus fuit orationis, sibi nullam cum his amicitiam esse posse,i the close of his oration was that he could have no friendship with them. Ego, qui tg confirms,' ipse me nOn possum, / who encourage you am unable to encour- age myself. Zenonem, cum Athenls essem,i audiebam, / heard Zeno when I was at Athens. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT SUBJECT NOMINATIVE 387. Rule. — The subject of a Finite Verb is put in the Nominative : Romulus regnavit, Romulus reigned. Gloria virtiitem sequitur, glory follows merit. Ignoro quid agas, / do not know how you are. Ego reges eieci, vos tyrannos introdiicitis, / have banished kings, you introduce tyrants; Ad Her. 4, 68. 1. A Pronominal Subject is seldom expressed, as it is implied in the ending of the verb, as in the third example, but it may be expressed for emphasis or contrast, as in the last example. 2. For the different forms of the subject, see 382. 3. The subject of an Infinitive is put in the Accusative ; see 416. 1 In the first example, the clause quid dies ferat is the subject ; in the second, sibi . . . posse is the predicate ; in the third, qui . . confirmo, a modifier of the subject ; and in the fourth, cum . . . essem, a modifier of the predicate. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT 179 AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT 388. Rule. — A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person: Romulus urbem condidit, Romulus founded the city. Castor et Pollux ex equis pugnare visi sunt, Castor and Pollux were seen to fight on horse- back ; c. N. D. 2, 2. Sciibam ad te, / shall write to you. 1. Participles in compound tenses also agree with the subject in gender according to 394, 1, as in the second example. 2. For the pronominal subject implied in the verb, as in the last exam- ple, see 387, 1. 3. A General or Indefinite subject is often denoted by impersonal passive forms and by certain persons of the active, as the first and third person plural Indicative and Subjunctive and the second person singular Subjunctive, dlcimus, loe (people) say ; diount, they say ; dicas, you (any one) may say : Ad vesperum pugnatum est, they fought till evening. Quae volumus, credimus, we believe ichat we wish. Agere quod agas considerate decet, you should do considerately whatever you do; C. Off i, 27. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it can be readily supplied, espe- cially est and sunt in proverbs and brief sayings : Omnia praeclara rara, all excellent things are rare ; C. Am. 21. Quot homi- nes, tot sententiae, as many opinions as men; T. Ph. 464. Ecce tuae litterae, lo, your letter; c. Att. 13, 16. 5. Dico and facio are often omitted in short sentences and clauses : Pauca de me, a few words in regard to myself; c. N. d. s, 2. Quid opus est plirra, what need of (saying) more f C. Sen. i, 8. Quae cum dixisset, Cotta finem, having thus spoken (when he had tihus spoken), Cotta closed (made an end) ; C. N. D. 8, 40. 6. Facio is often omitted in Livy after nihil aliud (amplius, minus, etc.) quam, nothing other (more, less, etc.) than, merely; nihil praeterquam, nothing except, merely : Nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum, they merely stood pre- pared for battle; l. 34, 46. 7. Certain brief forms of expression very often dispense with the verb: quid, what ? quid enim, what indeed ? quid ergo, what then ? qtiid quod, what of the fact that? ne pliira, not to say more; quid hoc ad m6, what is this to me f nihil ad rem, nothing to the subject. 180 SYNTAX 389. Synesis. — Sometimes, especially in poetry and in Livy, the predicate is construed according to the real meaning of tlie subject without regard to grammatical gender or number. Thus 1. With collective nouns, iuveiitus, multitudo, pars, and the like. These, though singular in form, are often plural in sense : luventus ruit certantque, the youth rush forth and contend; V. 2, 68. Multitudo abeunt, the multitude depart; L. 24, 8. Magna pars abeunt, a large part withdraios ; s. 60, 8. Note. — In the first example, observe that the former of the two verbs is in the singular and the latter in the plural, not an uncommon construction with collective nouns. 2. With ttiilia, often masculine in sense : Sex milia pedltum more Maoedonum armati fuere, six thousand of the infantry were armed in the manner of Macedonians ; L. 37, 40. 3. With quisque, uterque, alius . . . alium, alter . . . alterum, and the like : Uterque e5rum exeroitum educunt, each of them leads out his army; Caes. 0. 3, 30. Alius alium domos suas invitant, they invite each other to their homes; s. 60, 8. 4. With a singular subject accompanied by an Ablative with cum : Dux cum prlnoipibus capiuntur, the leader with his chiefs is taken ; L. 21, 60. 5. With partim . . . partim in the sense of pars . . . pars : Bonorum partim necessaria sunt, partim non neoessaria, of good things some are necessary, others are not necessary ; 0. Part. 24, 86. 6. Occasionally in poetry with a neuter pronoun or adjective limited by a Partitive Genitive : Quid hue tantum hominum (= tot homines) inoedunt, why are so many men coming this way 9 Pi. Poen. 619. 390. The verb agrees, not with its subject, but with the Predi- cate Noun, or with a noun after quam, nisi, etc., when that noun is nearer than the subject and when the subject is an Infinitive or a clause : Non omnis error stultitia dioenda est, not every error should be called folly ; C. Div. 2, 48. Pueri Troianum dicitnr agmen, the boys are called the Trojan band; Y. 5, 602. Nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita est, nothing but peace was sought ; o. Off. l, 23. Contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae, to be content with onfi's own is the greatest wealth; C. Parad. o, o. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT 181 391. The verb often agrees, not witli its subject; but with an Appositive, regularly when the appositive is oppidum : Corintlius, Graeciae lumen, exstlnctum est, Corinth, the light of Greece, was extinguished; c. Man. 5, ii. Volsinii, oppidum TuscOrum, concrematum est, Volsinii, a town of the Tuscans, was burned. 392. With two or more subjects, the verb may agree either with one subject and be understood with the others, or with all the subjects conjointly : Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam. Homer and Hesiod lived before the founding of Borne; c. Tnsc. i, i, s. Aut mores spectarl aut fortuna solet, either character or fortune is wont to be regarded. Pompeius, Lentulus, Scipio perierunt, Pompey, Lentulus, and Scipio perished. Ego et Cicero valemus, Cicero and I are well ; c. Fam. w, 5. Tu et Tullia valetis, you and Tullia are well. Pater mihl et mater mortui sunt, my father and mother are dead; t. Eun. 5iT. Labor voluptasque inter se sunt iuncta, labor and pleasure are joined together; L. 5, 4. 1. The verb generally agrees with one subject and is understood with the others, when it stands before the subjects or between them, as in the first example, and when the subjects represent inanimate objects, as in the second example. 2. A verb agreeing conjointly with subjects differing in Person, takes the first person rather than the second and the second rather than the third, as in the fourth and fifth examples. 3. A participle in a compound tense, agreeing conjointly with subjects dif- fering in Gender, is masculine if the subjects denote persons, otherwise gen- erally neuter, as in the sixth and seventh examples. 4. Two Subjects as a Unit. — Two singular subjects forming in sense a Unit or Whole admit a singular verb : Cui senatus populusque RSmanus praemia dedit, to whom the senate and Soman people (i.e. the state as a unit) gave rewards; C. Balb. 4, lo. Sed tempus necessitasque postulat, but the time and necessity (i.e. the crisis) demand; C. Off. 1,28, 81. 5. With Aut or Neque. — When subjects connected by aut, vel, neque, nee, sive, or seu are of the same person, the verb generally agrees with the nearest subject, but when they difier in person, the verb is generally plural : Aut Briitus aut Cassius iiidioavit, either Brutus or Oassius judged. Haec neque ego neque til fgcimus, neither you nor I have done these things ; T. Ad. 108. 182- SYNTAX APPOSITIVES AND PBEDICATE NOUNS 393. Rule. — A noun used as an Appositive or as a Predi- cate of another noun denoting the same person or thing agrees with it in Case : Appositives. — Cluilius rex moritur, Cluilius the king dies. Saguntum, foederatam civitatem, expugiiavit, he took Saguntum, an allied town. The- mistoclcs veiil ad te, /, Themistocles, have come to you; N. 2, 9. Venus, reglna Cnidi, Venus, the queen of Cnidus; H. l, 80. Predicates. — Usus magister est, experience is a teacher ; o. E. Post. 4, 9. Vita magistra est, life is an instructress; c. Eoso. A. 27, 76. Exstitisti tu vindex nostrae libertatis, you have appeared as the defender of our liberty. Servius rex est declaratus, Servius was declared king. 1. An appositive or a predicate noun with different forms for different genders must agree in gender as well as in case ; as Cluilius rex, Venus r§gTna, usus magister, vita magistra, above. 2. An appositive or a predicate noun may agree with a pronoun, whether expressed or only implied in the ending of a verb. Thus Themistocles above agrees with a pronoun implied in veni, while vindez agrees with tu ex- 3. Clauses. — A noun or pronoun may be an appositive or predicate of a clause, or a clause an appositive or predicate of a noun or pronoun : Ceterum, id quod non timSbant, prope libertas amissa est, hut liberty was almost lost, that which they did not fear ; l. 2, 3. Faoinus est vincire civem RomJnum, to bind a Soman citizen is a crime. Oraculum datum erat vic- trlces Athenas fore, an oracle had been given that Athens would be victori- ous; 0. Tqsc. 1, 28. 4. Partitive Apposition. — The parts may be appositives or predicates of the whole, or the whole may be an appositive or predicate of the parts : Duo rSges, ille bells, hie pace, civitatem auxgrunt, tioo kings advanced the interests of the state, the former by war, the latter by peace; L. i, 21. Ptole- maeus et Cleopatra, rgggs AegyptI, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, rulers of Egypt ; cf. L. 87, 8. Nautius et Fiirius consules erant, Nautius and Furius were con- suls; L. 2, 89. 6. Predicate Apposition. — Appositives sometimes have nearly the force of subordinate clauses : Aedem Saliltis dictator dedicavit, he dedicated the temple of Salus when (he was) dictator; L. 10, 1, 9. 6. Possessives admit a Genitive in apposition with the Genitive implied in them : AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 183 Ad tuam ipslus amicitiam, to your own friendship. NSmen meum absentis, my name in my absence. 7. Locatives admit appositives in the Locative Ablative, with or without a preposition : Albae constiterunt in urbe opportuna, they halted at Alba, a convenient city; 0. Ph. 4, 2. Corlnthi, Achaiae urbe, at Corinth, a city of Achaia; T. H. 2, 1. 8. Predicate nouns are most frequent with sum and a few intransitive verbs, evado, ezsisto, appareo, and the like, and with passive verbs of Appointing, Making, Naming, Regarding, and the like. 9. Predicate nouns are used, not only with finite verbs, but also with Infinitives and participles, and sometimes without verb or participle : Orestem se esse dixit, he said that he was Orestes. Dgclaratus rex Numa, Numa having been declared king. Caninio consule, Caninius being consul. 10. In the poets, predicate nouns are used with verbs of a great variety of signification .- Rexque paterque audisti, you have been called both king and father (have heard yourself so called) ; h. e. i, t, 87. Ego quae divom incedo reglna., / who walk as queen of the gods; v. l, 46. 11. The Dative of the object for which (433), prS with the Ablative, and loco or nomero (or in numerS) with the Genitive, are often kindred in force to predicate nouns : Malo est hominibus avaritia, avarice is an evil to men (is to men for an evil). Sicilia nobis pro aerario fuit, Sicily was a treasury (for a treasury) for us. Deorum numerS eos ducunt, they consider them as gods (in the num- ber of). 12. For the Predicate Accusative, see 410, 1. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 394. Rule. — Adjectives, whether Attributive or Predi- cate, agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case : Fortiina caeca est, Fortune is blind. Verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt, true friendships are enduring. Usus magister est optimus, Experience is the best teacher. Haec aurea vasa, these golden ve. citra, ,' on this side penes. ■ in power of ultra. beyond per. through versus. towards 3. The following four prepositions are used either with the Accusa- tive or with the Ablative ; in, into, in subter, beneath, under, towards sub, under super, above, about, beyond in and sub with the Accusative after verbs of motion ; subter and super generally with the Accusative : Hannibal exeroitum in Ttaliam duxit, Hannibal led an army into Italy ; N. 23, 3. Sub monteni succSdunt, they approached towards the mountain. Subter muros hostium aveliitur, he is borne under the walls of the enemy. Super Numidiam esse, to be beyond Numidia ; &. 19, 5. Note. — For the Ablative with these four prepositions, see 490, 3. ACCUSATIVE 199 4. Prepositions were originally adverbs (312, 1) and many of them are still used as adverbs in classical authors : Ad milibns quattuor, about four thousand. Legio iuxta constiterat, the legion had taken a stand near by. Prope a Sicilia, not far (near) from Sicily. Supra, infra mundos esse, that there are worlds above and below. 5. Conversely, several words which are generally adverbs, sometinies become prepositions and are used with the Accusative: propius, nearer; proxime, nearest; pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; clam', clanoulum, without the knowledge of; usque, as far as, even to: Propius periculum, nearer to danger; L. 2i, i, 2. Quam proxime Italiam, as near as possible to Italy ; C. Ph. lo, ll. Pridie eum diem, the day before that day; o. Att. ii, 2S. Postridie ludos, the day after the games; c. Att. 16. 4. Clam patrera, without father's knowledge; t. Hec. 396. Usque pedes, even to the feet; Curt. 8, 9. Note. —For the rare use of the Ablative after clam, see 490, 4. Accusative in Ezclamatious 421. Rule. — The Accusative, either with or without an interjection, may be used in Exclamations : Heu me miseruni, Ah me unhappy'^; C. Ph. 7, 4. Me miserum, me miser- able^; C. Att. 9, 6. O fallacem spem, O deceptive hope. Pro deorum fidem, in the name of the gods.^ 1. An adjective or a Genitive generally accompanies this Accusative, as in the examples. 2. Instead of the Accusative, the Vocative may be used when an Address as well as an exclamation is intended : Infelix Dido, unhappy Dido. 3. The Nominative may be used when the exclamation approaches the form of a statement : En dextra fidesque, lo the right hand and the plighted faith; v, 4, 597. Ecce tuae litterae, lo your letter ; c. Att. is, 16, i. 4. The Ethical Dative is used in exclamations after ei, vae, ecce, and a few other interjections ; see 432 : Ei mih!, quid faciam, woe to me, what shall Idof T. Ad. 789. 1 See Milton, Paradise Lost, IV. 73. 2 Some of the Accusatives found in exclamations are readily explained as the object of omitted verbs, while others may be the survival of rude unfinished sentences from a primitive age. 200 SYNTAX DATIVE 422. The Dative is used as follows : 1. As Indirect Object— General Use ; see 424. 2. With Special Verbs ; see 426 3. With Certain Compound Verbs ; see 429. 4. As Possessor I see 430. 5. As Apparent Agent; see 431. 6. As Ethical Dative ; see 432. 7. As Indirect Object and Predicate ; see 433. 8. With Adjectives ; see 434. 9. With Special Nouns and Adverbs ; see 436. Indirect Object 423. The Indirect Object designates the Person To or Tor Whom, or the Thing To or For Which, anything is or is done. Dative with Verbs ■ 424. Rule. — The Indirect Object of an action is put in the Dative. It may be used either alone or in connection with the Direct Object : Mundus Deo paret, the world is subject to God. Tibi seris, tibi metes, for yourself you sow, for yourself you will reap. Ego Caesari supplicabo, I shall supplicate Caesar. Pecuniae serviunt, they are slaves to money. Vita vobis data est, life has been granted to you; c. Ph. u, 12. Militibus signum dedit, he gave the signal to the soldiers. Tib! gratias agimus, tve give you thanks. Natura hominem conciliat homini, nature reconciles man to man. Leges civitatibus suis soripserunt, they wrote laws for their states ; C. Leg. 2, 6. 1. The Indirect Object generally designates a Person, or something Per- sonified, as in the examples. 2. The Dative of the Indirect Object must be distinguished from the Accusative, with or without a preposition, denoting the Limit of Motion, and from the Ablative with pro, meaning for, in defense of, in behalf of. Compare the following examples : Patriam nSbis reddidistis, you have restored our country to us. Missi legatl Athenas sunt, envoys were sent to Athens. Convenit dimicare pr5 patria, it is seemly to fight for one''s country. DATIVE 201 3. The force of the Dative is often found only by attending to the strict literal meaning of the verb : nubo, to marry (strictly, to veil one's self, as the bride for the bridegroom); medeor, to cure (to administer a remedy to): Venus niipsit Vulcano, Venus married Vulcan; c. n. d. s, 23. 425. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be 1. The Dative of Influence, generally designating the Person To Whom, sometimes the Thing To Which, something is or is done: Civitatibus libertatem reddidit, he restored liberty to the states. Here belong most of the examples under the rule. 2. The Dative of Interest,^ designating the Person For Whom some- thing is done : Non nobis solum nati sumus, we were not born for ourselves alone. Non sSlum nobis divites esse volumus, sed liberis, we wish to be rich, not for our- selves alone, but for our children; c. Off. 8, 15. 3. The Dative of Purpose or End, designating the Object or End For Which something is or is done : ReceptuI cecinit, he gave the signal for a retreat; cf. l. 34, 39. Non scholae sed vltae discimus, we learn, not for the school, but for life; Sen. Ep. 105. 4. The Dative of Relation, designating the Person In Relation To Whom, or In Reference To Whom, something is or is done : Tu illl pater es, you are a father to him ; T. Ad. 126. Tridui iter expeditis erat, it was a journey of three days for light-armed soldiers ; L. 9, 9. Est urbe egressis tumulus, there is a mound as you go out of the city (to those having [= who have] gone out of the city); v. 2, 712. Note. — A Dative is sometimes thus added to the predicate when the English idiom would lead us to expect a Genitive depending on a noun : Sese Caesari ad pedes proiecenint, they threw themselves at the feet of Caesar; Caes. i, 31. Urbl fundamenta iecl, / laid the foundations of (for) the city ; L. 1, 12. Mihl horror membra quatit, a shudder shakes my limbs; V. 3, 29. 426. With Special Verbs. — The Dative of the Indirect Object is used with many verbs which require special mention. Thus, 1. With verbs meaning to please or displease, command or obey, serve or resist, benefit or injure, favor or oppose, ti-ust or distrust, and the like : I Observe that the Dative of Influence is very closely connected with the verb, and is, in fact, essential to the completeness of the sentence ; while the Dative of Interest and the Dative of Piirpise are merely added to sentences which would be complete without them. Thus Divites esse volumus is complete in itself. 202 SYNTAX Ego numquam niihl plaoul, I have never pleased myself; C. Or. 2, 4, 16. Cru- delitas ei displicebat, cruelty was displeasing to him. Imperat aut servit pecunia cuique, money rules (commands) or serves every one; H. E. l, 10, 47. DeO oboediunt maria, the seas obey God. Noq licet iiocere alterl, it is not lawful to injure another. Omnes nobilitati favemus, we all regard nobility with favor. Diffidebant Servilio, they were distrusting Servilius. Note 1. — A few verbs of this class take the Accusative : laedo, rego, etc. Note 2. — Here may be mentioned the use of the Dative with facio and dico accompanied by satis, bene, or male : Mill! numquam satis facio, / never satisfy myself; c. Fam. 1,1. Di tibi bene faciant, may the gods bless you; t. Ad. 917. Male dicebat tibI, he slandered you ; c. Detot. 12, 83. Note 3. — For fido and confido with the Ablative, see 476, 3. 2. With verbs meaning to indulge, aid, spare, pardon, believe, persuade, flatter, threaten, envy, be angry, and the like : Indulgebat sibi, he indulged himself. Niilllus pepercit vitae, he spared the life of no one. Caesar Ignovit omnibus, Caesar pardoned all. Mih! crSde, believe me. Facile Nerviis persuadet, he easily persuades the Nenii. Huic imperio minitabantur, they were threatening this government. Probus invidet nemini, the upright man envies no one. Note. — Some verbs of this class take the Accusative : delecto, iuvo, etc. 3. The Impersonal Passive of verbs which take only an Indirect Object in the active retains the Dative : Ne mihi noceant, that they may not injure me ; C. C. 8, 12. MihJ nihil nocSri potest, no injury can be done to me ; c. c. s, 12. 4. Some verbs admit either the Accusative or the Dative, but with a difference of meaning : Hunc tu oaveto, be on your guard against this one; H. s. 1, 4, 85. Foedus rggi cavet, the treaty provides for the king; c. Agr 2, 22. Deum consuluit, he consulted the god. Vobis consulite, consult (take measures) for yourselves. Perfldiam timemus, we fear perfidy. Legionibus timebat, he was fearing for his legions. Quis me volt, who wishes me ? T. And. 872. Tibi bene vols, I wish you well; T. Heaut. 969. Note. — Cavere aliquem, to ward off some one; cavere alicui, to care for some one; cupere aliquid, to desire something; cupere alicui, to wish one well; prospicere, providere aliquid, to foresee; prospicere, etc., alicui, to provide for; temperare aliquid, to govern, direct; tempe- rare alicui, (of things) to restrain, (of persons) to spare. DATIVE 203 5. With scribo, to virile, and mitto, to send, the Pei-son may be denoted either by the Dative or by the Accusative with ad, but with nuntio, to announce, the person is generally denoted by the Dative : LabienS scribit, he writes to Labienus. Scribam ad te, I shall write to you. Ea res hostibus nuutialur, this fact is announced to the enemy. Note. — Dare litteras alicui generally means to deliver a letter to some one, especially to a carrier or messenger, but dare litteras ad aliquem means to address or send a letter to some one : Litteras ad te numquam habul oui darem, I have never had any one by whom to send (lit. to whom I might deliver) a letter to you ; c. Fam. 12, 19. 6. A few verbs admit the Dative of the Person and the Accusative of the Thing, or the Accusative of the Person and the Ablative of the Thing : Praedam mllitibus donat, he gives the booty to the soldiers ; Caes. 7, 11. Atticus AtheniensSs frumento donavit, Atticus presented the Athenians with grain ; of. N. 25, 2. 7. Interdico takes the Dative of the Person and generally the Ablative of the Thing, sometimes with de, but the Accusative also occurs : Onmi Gallia Romanis interdlxit, he forbade the Bomans all Gaul. 427. A Dative rendered fro7)i or with sometimes occurs where our idiom would lead us to expect the Ablative, as with verbs of Differing, Dissenting, Eepelling, Taking Away, etc., and some- times with facio, misceo, etc. Sibt dissentire, to dissent from himself. SibI discrepantes, disagreeing with themselves. Populus non adimit el llbertatera, the people do not take from him his civil rights; c. Caec. 34,99. Quid huic homiui facias, what are you to do with (to) this man f c. Caeo. 11, 31. 428. Dative in Poetry. — In the poets and in the late pros^ writers, the Dative is used much more freely than in classical prose. Thus it occurs with more or less frequency with the fol- lowing classes of verbs : 1. With verbs denoting Motion or Direction — for the Accusative with ad or in : Multos demittimus Oreo, we send many down to Orcus ; V. 2, 398. It clamor caelo, the shout goes to heaven ; V. 5, 451. 2. With verbs denoting Separation or Difference — instead of the Ablative with ab or de, or the Accusative with inter : 204 SYNTAX Solstitium pecori def endite, keep off the heat from the flock ; V. Ec. T, 4T. Scurrae dlstabit amicus, a friend will differ from a jester; H. E. 1, is. Serta capiti delapsa, garlands fallen from his head ; v. Ec. 6, 16. 3. With verbs denoting Union, Comparison, Contention, and the like — instead of the Ablative with cum, or the Accusative with inter : Fletum cruori miscuit, she mingled her tears with his blood; o. M. 4, 140. Concurrere hosti, to meet the enemy ; 0. M. 12, B95. Solus tibi certat, he alone contends with you; v. Ec. 5, 8. Placltone pugnabis amorl, will you contend with acceptable love f V. 4, 88. 4. In still other instances, especially in expressions of Place : Haeret later! arundo, the arrow sticks in her side ; v. 4, 78. Ardet apex capiti, the helmet gleams upon his head; V. lo, 270. 429. Datives with Compounds. — The Dative is used with many verbs compounded with ad ante con de in inter Ob post prae pro sub super: Omnibus perlculis adfuit, he was present in all dangers Gloriam potentiae antep5nunt, they prefer glory to power. Parva magnis conferuntur, small things are compared with (to) great. Hoc Caesari defuit, this failed (was wanting to) Caesar. Bellum populo Komano indlxit, he declared war against the Boman people. Interfuit pugiiae, he participated in the battle. Homines hominibus et prosunt et obsunt, men both benefit and injure men. Libertati opes postferebant, they sacrificed wealth to liberty. EquitatuI Dumnorix praeerat, Dumnorix commanded the cavalry. Aetas succedit aetati, age succeeds age. Neque superesse rei publicae volo, nor do I wish to survive the republic. 1. Transitive verbs thus compounded take both the Accusative and the Dative, as in the second and fifth examples, and in the passive they retain the Dative, as in the third example. 2. Compounds of other prepositions, especially of ab, ex, and oiroum, sometimes admit the Dative ; while several of the compounds specified under the rule admit the Ablative with or without a preposition : SibI llbertatem abiudicat, he condemns himself to the loss of liberty; of. C. Gaec. 84. Hunc mihi timOrem gripe, take away from (for) me this fear; 0. C. 1, 7. Homines labSre assuStl, men habituated to (familiarized with) labor; C. Or. 8, 15. Dicta cum factis composuit, he compared words with deeds ; 8. 48. 3. Motion, Direction. — Compounds expressing mere motion or direction generally take the Accusative with or without a preposition : DATIVE 205 llei'Sditatem adlre, to enter on an inheritance. Consulatus ad omne peri- culum opponitur, the consulship is exposed to every danger. 4. Several compounds admit either the Accusative or the Dative without any special difference of meaning : Tuscus ager Romano adiacet, the Tuscan territory borders on the Boman ; L. 2, 49, 9. Mare illud adiacent, they are near that sea ; N. 13, 2. Quibus timor incesserat, whom fear had seized; s. c. si. Timor patres incessit, fear seized the fathers; L. i, it. 5. Some of these compounds admit the Dative in poetry, though in classical prose the Accusative or Ablative, with or without a preposition, is more common : Contendis Hom6ro,i you contend with Homer; Prop. 1,7, 8. Animis' illa^ here nostris, inspire (descend into) our souls; v. 3, 89. 6. Instead of the compounds of ad, ante, etc., the poets sometimes use the simple verbs with the Dative : Qui haeserat Euaudro, who had joined himself to Evander ; Y. lo, 180. 430. The Dative of the Possessor is used with the verb siun : Est mihl domi pater, / have (there is to me) a father at home. Sex filii nobis sunt, we have six sons. Fontl nomen Arethusa est, the name of the (to the) fountain is Arethusa ; cf. C. Ver. 4, 58. 1. The Dative of the name, as well as of the possessor, is common in expressions of naming : Scipioni Africano cognomen fuit, Scipio had the surname Africanus; cf. 8. 5, 4. Here Africano, instead of being in apposition with cognomen, is put by attraction in apposition with Scipiom. 2. By a Greek idiom, volens, cupiens, or invitus sometimes accom- panies the Dative-of the Possessor : Quibus bellum volentibus erat, who liked the war (to whom wishing the war was) ; Tac. Agr. 18. IfSl,. The Dative of the Apparent Agent is used with the Gre- rundive and with the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation: Dicenda Musis proelia, battles to be sung by the muses; H. 4, 9, 21. Suum cuique incommodum ferendum est, every one has his own trouble to bear; 0. Off. 8, 6, 30. 1 Prose construction, cum Homero and in animos. 206 SYNTAX 1. Instead of the Dative of the Apparent Agent, the Ablative with a or ab is sometimes used : Quibus est a vobisi consulendum, for whom measures must he taken by you ; C. Man. 2. 2. The Dative of the Apparent Agent is sometimes used with the com- pound tenses of Passive Verbs : Mih! consilium captum iam diu est, I have a plan long since formed; C. Fam. 5, 19. 3. Habeo with the Perfect Participle has the same force as est mih! with the Participle: Peciinias collocatas habent, they have moneys invested ; c. Man. 7, 18. Equi- tatum coaotum habebat, he had collected his cavalry or had his cavalry col- lected ; Caes. 1,16. Note. —The Dative with the Gerundive, whether alone or in the Peri- phrastic Conjugation, designates the person who has the work to do ; while with the compound tenses of passive verbs it designates the person who has the work already done. 4. The Eeal Agent, with passive verbs, in classical prose is denoted by the Ablative with a or ab ^ ; see 468. 5. The Dative is used with the tenses for incomplete action, to designate the person who is at once Agent and Indirect Object, the person by whom and for (to) whom the action is performed : Honesta bonis viris quaeruiitur, honorable things are sought by good men ; C. Off. 8, 9. 6. In the poets, the Dative is often used for the Ablative, with a or ab, to designate simply the agent of the action : Neque cernitur uUi, nor is he seen by any one; v. l, 440. Nulla tua- rum audita mihl sorOrum, no one of your sisters has been heard by me; v. l, 236. Eegnata arva SaturnS quondam, lands formerly ruled by Saturn ; v. 6, 793. 1 Here a vobis is necessary to distinguish the Agent from the Indirect Object, quibus ; but the Ablative with a or ab is sometimes used when this necessity does not exist. 2 The Dative with the Gerundive is best explained as the Dative ol Possessor or of the Indirect Object. Thus, suum culque incommodum est means every one has his trouble (cuique, Dative of Possessor) and suum cuique incom- modum ferendum est, every one has his trouble to bear. So, too, mihi con- silium est, I have u plan; mihi consilium captum e9t, / have a plan (already) formed. DATIVE 207 432. The Ethical Dative, denoting the person to whom the thought is of special interest, is often introduced into the Latin sentence ^ in the form of a personal pronoun : At tibi venit ad me, but lo, he comes to me ; c. Fam. 9. 2. Quo mihl abis, whither are you going, prayf v. 5, 162. Quid mihl Celsus agit, what is my Gelsus doing ? Quid vobis vultis, what do you wish or mean ? Ei mihl, quid faciam, woe to me, what shall I do? T. Ad. 789. Tw^o Datives 433. Rule. — Two Datives, the Object To Which and the Object or End For Which, are used with a few verbs, either alone or in connection with the Direct Object: Vobis honori estis, you are an honor (for an honor) to yourselves.; cf. C. Or. 1, 8, 84. Est mihl niagnae ciirae, ;( is of (for) great interest to me ; 0. Fin. S, 2, 8. Odio sum Romanis, / am an object of hatred to the Romans; L. 85, 19, 6. Id raihi est cordi, this is pleasing (for my heart) to me; C. Am. 4, 15. Venit Atticis auxilio, he came to the assistance of the Athenians; N. 8, 3, i. Hoc illi tribuebatur ignaviae, this was imputed to him as cowardice ; 0. Fam. 2, 16, s. Quinque cohortes castris praesidio reliuquit, he leaves five cohorts for the defense of the camp ; Caes. 7, 60. Pericles agros suos dono rei piiblicae dedit, Pericles gave his lands to the republic as a present ; lust. 8, 7. 1. The Dative of the object or end is a Predicate Dative. Thus in the first example the predicate is honori estis ; see Predicate Nominative (393) and Predicate Accusative (410, 1). 2. The verbs which take two Datives are Intransitive verbs signifying to be, become, go, and the like : sum, fio, etc., and Transitive verbs signifying to give, send, leave, impute, regard, choose, and the like : do, douo, duco, habeo, mitto, relinquo, tribuo, verto, etc. The latter take in the active two Datives with an Accusative ; but in the passive two Datives only, as the direct object of the active becomes the subject of the passive ; see 404, 2. 3. One of the Datives is often omitted, or its place supplied by a Predicate Nominative : Naves niillo tisui fuerunt, the ships were of no use ; Caes. C. 2, 7, i. Tu illl pater es, you are a father to him ; T. Ad. 126. 1 Compare the following from Shakespeare : ' He plucked me ope his doublet aud offered them his throat to cut' (Julius Caesar, Act I., Scene II.). 'He pres- ently steps me a little higher ' (Henry IV., Part I., Act IV., Scene III.). 208 SYNTAX 4. With audiens two Datives sometimes occur, dicto dependent upon audiens, and a personal Dative dependent upon dicto audiens, and some- times dicto oboediens is used like dicto audiens : Nobis diets audientes sunt, thetj are obedient to us; 0. Ver. 5,82. Magistro dicto oboediens, obedient to his master; pi. b.ic. 439. Dative with Adjectives 434. Rule. — Many adjectives take the Dative as the In- direct Object of the quality denoted by them: Id militibus fuit iiicundum, this was agreeable to the soldiers. Milii dif- ficile est dicere, it is difficult for me to speak. Atticus amicissimus Biuto, Atticus most friendly to Brutus. Canis similis lupo, a dog similar to a wolf. Proximus sum egoraet raihf, 1 am nearest of kin to 7nyself. Locus castris idoneus, a place suitable for the camp. Id causae est alienum, this is foreign to the case. Universae Graeciae utile, useful for all Greece. Inutiles sunt bello, they are useless for war. 1. The Indirect Object of an Adjective, like the Indirect Object of a Verb, generally answers the question to or for whom ? or to or for what ? See ex- amples. 2. Adjectives which take the Dative are chiefly those meaning agreeable, dear, easy, faithful, friendly, like, near, necessary, suitable, useful, together with others of a similar or opposite meaning, i and with verbals in ilia and biliB. 3. Idem, like adjectives of hkeness, admits the Dative : Non idem illls censere, not to think the same as they ; cf. C. Fam. 9, 6. Idem facit Occident!, he does the same as lie who kills ; h. a. p. 467. 435. Other constructions sometimes occur where the learner would expect the Dative : 1. The Accusative with a Preposition : in, erga, adversus, with adjec- tives signifying friendly, hostile, etc., and ad, to denote the Object or End For Which, with adjectives signifying useful, suitable, inclined, etc. -. Perindulgens in patrem, very kind to his father ; C. Off. 8, 81. Multas ad rSs periitUes, very useful for many things; 0. Sen. 17. 1 Such are accommodatus, aequalis, alienus, amicus, inimious, aptus, canis, faoilis, difficilis, fidelis, infidelis, finitimus, gratus, Idoneus, iflcundus, iniiieHndus, molestus, necessarius, notus, ignotus, noxius, par, dispar, perniciOsus, propinquus, proprius, salutaris, similis, dissimilis, diversus, vicinus, etc. GENITirE 209 2. The Accusative with propior, prozimus ' : Propior montem, nearer the mountain. Proximus mare, nearest the sea. 3. The Ablative with or without a Prepositiou : Humani nil a me alienum puto, I consider nothing human foreign to me ; T. Heaut. 77. Homlne alienissimum, most foreign to or from man; u. oir, i, is. 4. The Genitive with adjectives meaning like, unlike, belonging to, char- acteristic of, and a few others'' : CyrI similis esse voluit, he wished to be like Cyrus; c. Brut. 8i. Popull Eemani est propria Ubertas, liberty is characteristic of the Soman people; C. Ph. 6, 7, 19. Note. — With similis Plautus and Terence use only the Genitive ; Ovid, Horace, and Vergil generally the Dative ; Cicero generally the Dative of persons and either the Genitive or Dative of things. Dative with Nouns and Adverbs 436. Rule. — The Dative is used with a few special nouns and adverbs derived from primitives which take the Dative : liistitia est obtemperatio legibus, Justice is obedience to the laics; 0. Leg. 1, 15. Opulento homini servitiis diira est, serving a rich man is hard; PI. Amph. 166. Congruenter natiirae vivere, to live in accord with nature; c. Fin. 3, 7. Proxime hostium castils, nearest to the camp of the enemy; Caes. C. 1, 72. 1. The Dative occurs with a few nouns and adverbs not thus derived : TribiiDioia potestas, miinlmentum Ubertati, tribunician power, a defense for liberty ; cf. L. s, S7. 2. For tlie Dative of (Jerundives with OfSclal Names, see 627, 2. GENITIVE 437. The Genitive in its ordinary use corresponds to the Eng- lish possessive, or the objective with of, and expresses various adjective relations. Indeed, many Genitives and adjectives are so entirely synonymous that they are often used the one for the other. Thus belli iSs and bellicum iiis, the right of war, are often equivalent expressions. 1 Like the Accusative after propius and proximo ; see 420, 5. ' As similis, dissimilis, assimilis, consimilis, par, dispar ; adfiuis ; proprius, sacer ; contrarius, insuetus, superstes, etc. HARK. LAT. GRAM. 15 210 SYNTAX 1. The Genitive is used chiefly to qualify or limit nouns and adjectives, but it is also sometimes used with verbs and adverbs, especially with those in which the substantive idea is prominent. 438. The Genitive is used as follows : 1. As Attributive and Predicate Genitive, — General use; see 439. 2. As Subjective and Objective Genitive ; see 440. 3. As Partitive Genitive ; see 441. 4. In Special Constructions ; see 445. 5. As Predicate Genitive of Price and Value ; see 448. 6. As Predicate Genitive with Refert and Interest ; see 449. 7. As Objective Genitive with Adjectives ; see 450. 8. As Objective Genitive with Verbs ; see 454-468. Genitive -with Nouns 439. Rule. — A noun used as an Attributive or Predicate of another noun denoting a different person or thing is put in the Genitive : Attributive Genitives. — Xenophontis libri, the books of Xenophon. Propter metum poenae, on account of fear of punishment. Vir consilii magni, a man of great prudence. Herodotus, pater historiae, Herodotus, the father of history. Kstitia est regina virtiitum, Justice is the queen of virtues. Predicate Genitives. — Omnia hostium erant, all things were in the pos- session of (were of) the enemy; L. 6, 40, 17. liidicis est veram sequi, to follow the truth is the duty of a judge. Magni erunt mihf tuae litterae, your letters will be of great value to me ; C. Fam. 15, 15, 4. 1. For a noun predicated of another noun denoting the same person or thing, see 393. 2. For the Predicate Dative, see 433, 1. 3. A Predicate Genitive is often nearly or quite equivalent to a Predicate Adjective (382, 2) : hominis est = humanum est, it is the mark of a man, is human; stulti est = stultum est, it is foolish. The Genitive is the regular construction in adjectives of one ending: sapientis est, it is the part of a wise man, is wise. 4. The Predicate Genitive of personal pronouns is not in good use, but its place is supplied by possessives in agreement with the subject — an illus- tration of the close relationship between predicate Genitives and predicate adjectives. Compare the following examples : OENITIVE 211 Est tuum VidSre quid agatur, it is your duty (yours) to see what is being done ; c. Mur. as, 88. Est cSnsulis videre quid agatur, it is the duty of (is of) the consul to see what is being done ; C. Mur. 2, 4. 5. The Predicate Genitive is sometimes supplied by a Genitive depending on a noun or adjective, meaning mark, duty, part, business, characteris- tic, etc.: Id viri est ofBcium, this is the part of a man; in c. Tuso. 2, 21. Est pro- prium stultitiae, aliorum vitia cernere, it is characteristic of folly to perceive the faults of others ; C. Tuso. 8, 80. Attributive Genitive 440. The Attributive Genitive may be 1. A Subjective Grenitive, designating the Subject or Agent of an action and the Author or Possessor of anything : In sermone hominum, in the conversation of men. Deorum immortalium cHra, by the care of the immortal gods. LamentatiSnem matrum perhor- resco, I shudder at the lamentation of mothers. Xenophontis libri, the books of Xenophon. Note 1. — That this Genitive really represents the subject of the action is readily seen if we express the implied action in the form of a sentence : the conversation of men, men converse; the lamentation of mothers, mothers lament. Note 2. — Possessives are regularly used for the subjective Genitive of personal pronouns : mea domus, my house ; nostra patria, our country. 2. An Objective Genitive, designating the Object towards -which the action or feeling is directed : Mens amor gloriae, my love of glory. Crescit amor nummi, the love of money increases. Tui sul memoria delectatur, he is delighted with your recollection of him; C. Att. is, i, 8. Note 1. — For the objective Genitive, the Accusative with in, erga, or adversus is sometimes used : odium patris in fllium, the father^s hatred against his son ; odium erga Romanos, hatred of or towards the Romans. Note 2. — The Possessive occurs, though rarely, for the objective Genitive of personal pronouns: neque neglegentia tua neque odio tuo, neither from disregard of you nor from hatred of you ; T. Ph. lOie. 3. A Descriptive Genitive, or Genitive of Characteristic, designating character or quality, including value, price, size, weight, age, etc. It is generally accompanied by an adjective or some other modifier : 212 SYNTAX Vir magnae auctoritatis, a man of great influence. MItis ingenil iuvenis, a youth of mild disposition. Vestis magni pretil, a garment of great value. Corona parvi ponderis, a crown of small weight. Exsilium decern annorum, an exile of ten years. , Note 1. — For the Predicate Genitive of Price, see 448. Note 2. — For the Ablative of Characteristic, see 473, 2. 4. A Defining or Appositional Genitive, having the general force of an appositive (393) : Virtus continentiae, the virtue of self-control. Tellas Ausoniae, the land of Ausonia. NSraen carendi, (fte woj-i? wiani (of wanting); C. Tusc. 1, 86. Vox voluptatis, the word pleasure ; c. Fin. 2, 2, 6. 5. A Partitive Genitive, designating the whole of which a part is taken : Pars fluminis RhenI, a part of the river Bhine. Quis vestrum, which of you ? Omnium sapientissimus, the wisest of all men. Nihil boni, nihil mali, nothing (of) good, nothing bad; 0. Am. 4. Note, — The Partitive Genitive, though generally a noun or pronoun, may be an adjective used substantively in the Genitive singular of the Second Declension, as bom, mail. Adjectives of the Third Declension, on the con- trary, regularly agree with the partitive word, but in rare instances they are attracted into the Genitive by another Partitive Genitive : Quicquam, non dioo civllis, sed hamani, anything, I do not say civil, but human ; L. 5. 8. 441. The Partitive Genitive is common with nouns and pro- nouns used partitively : Maxima pars hominum, most men (the largest part of). MagiiS cum pon- dere auri, lotfft a large quantity of gold. Montes auri poUicens, promising mountains of gold. Unus quisque nostrum, every one of us. Consulum alter, one of the consuls. Aliquid consilii, any wisdom (anything of wisdom). Id temporis, that (of) time. 442. The Partitive Genitive is also common with numerals ^ and adjectives used substantively, especially with comparatives and _^ superlatives : MlUe misit militum, he sent a thousand soldiers. Quattuor milia equitum, four thousand (of) cavalry. Horum omnium fortissimi, the bravest of all these. Prior hSrum in proelio ceoidit, the former of these fell in battle; TS. 21, 1, 2. Aetatis extremum, the end of life ; S. 90, l. 1 For the construction of unus, see 444, I. GENITIVE 213 1. Pronouns and Adjectives, except neuters, when used with the Partitive Genitive usually take the gender of the Genitive, but Predicate Superlatives, when tlius used, generally agree with the subject : Quls eOrum nSn Sgregius, who of them is not eminent ? Sapientum octavus, the eighth of the wise men ; n. s. 3, 8, 29(i. Indus est omnium fltimi- num maximus, the Indus is the largest of all rivers ; C. N. D. 2, 52. Here observe that quis and octavus take the gender of the Genitive, but that the superlative maximus agrees with the subject. 2. In the best prose, words meaning the whole do not admit the Partitive Genitive, but poets and late writers disregard the rule : OmnSs omnium ordinum homines, all men of all ranks. Cuncta terrarum, all lands; H. 2, i, 23. Macedonum omnes, all the Macedonians; cf. L. si, 45, 7. Observe that in the first example, the adjectives are used regularly in agreement with their nouns, while in the last two they are used substan- tively and take the Partitive Genitive, though the partitive idea has entirely disappeared and the construction is partitive only in form. 3. In the best prose the Partitive Genitive is rarely used after any adjec- tives except comparatives and superlatives, but in the poets and late writers the use of this Genitive is greatly extended : Sancte deorum, thou holy god; v. 4, 5T6. Dierum festos, festal days; H. S. 2, 2, 60. Strata viarum = stratae viae, the paved streets; v. 1, 422. Ad multum diel, till late in the day ; Liv. 22, 45. 4. With Nouns, quisque, each, every, and uterque, each, both, generally agree as adjectives, but with Pronouns they are generally used substantively and take the Partitive Genitive, though in the case of uterque, agreement is hot uncommon : Quisque imperator, evei-y commander. Uterque exercitus, each army. Quis- que eorum de quaque re, each one of them in regard to every thing ; Ones. 4, 5. Utrlque nostrum gratum, acceptable to each of us; C. Am, 4, 16. His utrisque persuaserant, they had persuaded both of these ; Caes. 2, 16. 5. The Neuter of Pronouns and Adjectives witli the Partitive Genitive is sometimes used of Persons : Quicquid erat patrum, whatever (of) senators there loere ; L. 2, 85. Deorum quicquid rSgit terras, whatever gods rule the world; H. Ep. 5, 1. Quid hue tantum hominum incedunt, why are so many men (so much of men) coming this way ? pi. Poen. 619. 443. The Partitive Genitive is also used with a few Adverbs, especially with Adverbs of Quantity, Degree, and Place : 214 SrNfAX Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, enough of eloquence, of wisdom too little; S. c. 5, 4. LQcis habent nimis, they have too much, light; O. F. 6, 115. Maxime omnium nobilium Graecis litterls studuit, of all the nobles he most devoted himself to Greek letters; 0. Brut. 20, 78. Ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? C. C. i, 4, 9. 444. Instead of the Partitive Genitive, tlie Accusative with ante, inter, or apud, or the Ablative with ex, de, or in, is often used, especially when the Wliole is denoted by a cardinal number, or by a noun in the singular : Thales sapientissimus in septem f uit, Thales was the wisest of the seven ; 0. Leg. 2, 11, 26. Quis ex tanta multittidine, %i}ho. of so great a multitude? Ante alios puloherrimus omnes, most beautiful of all (before all others). Apud HelvStios ditissimus, the richest among the Helvetii. 1. In the best prose, unus is generally followed by the Ablative with ex or de, but sometimes by the Partitive Genitive : unus ex aummis viria, one of the greatest of heroes ; unus de multis, one of the multitude ; iinuB eorum pontium, one of those bridges. Genitive in Special Constructions 445. The word upon which the Attributive Genitive depends is often omitted : 1. Especially when it has been expressed with a preceding Genitive. Then the second Genitive is sometimes attracted into the case appropriate for the governing word : CSnferre vltam Treboni cum Dolabellae, to compare the life of Trebonius with that of Dolabella; 0. Ph. 11,4,9. Natiira hominis beluis antecedit, the nature of man surpasses (that of) the brutes ; of. C. Off. l, 80. 2. When it can be readily supplied, especially aedes, or templum after a preposition, as ad, ante, a, or ab : Habitabat rgx ad lovis, the king resided near the temple of Jupiter; L. 1, 41. Hannibal annorum novem, Hannibal, (a boy) nine years of age ; L. 21, 1. Aberant bidui (viam) , they were two days'' journey distant ; c. Att. 5. 16. 446. Observe also the following constraotions : 1. The Genitive of a Proper Name seems to depend directly on an- other proper noun in many cases in which we supply the word Son, daughter, husband, wife, or slave : GENITIVE 215 Hasdrubal Gisconis, Oisco^s Hasdrubal, i.e., Hasdrubal, Gisco^s son; L. 28, 12. Hectoris Andromache, Hector's Andromache, i.e., Hector's wife; T. 3,819. Hiiius video Byrriam, / see his Byrria, i.e., his slave Byrria; T. And. 857. 2. Two Genitives are sometimes used with the same noun, one sub- jective, the other objective or descriptive. To these a third Genitive is occasionally added : Helvetiorum iniuriae populi RomanI, the torongs done by the Helvetii to the Moman people ; cf. Caes. i, so. Memml odium potentiae nobilitatis, Memmius's hatred of the power of the nobility ; of. s. 80. 3. A Genitive sometimes accompanies a Possessive, especially the G«nitive of ipse, solus, unus, or omnis : Ad tuam ipslus amicitiam, to your own friendship ; c. Ver. 3, 4, 7. Mea unius opera, 6^ my aid alone ; C. Pis. 8, e. Tuum studium adulescentis, your devotion as a young man ; 0. Fam. 15, 18. 4. The Genitive is used with instar meaning likeness, image, but generally used in the sense of, as large as, of the size of, equal to : Instar montis equum aedificant, they construct a horse of the size of a mountain; v. 2, is. Plato instar est omnium, Plato is worth them all; C. Brut. 51, 191. 5. The Genitive is used with pridie, postridie, ergo, and tenus, nouns in origin, and as such governing the Genitive; pridie and postri- die are Locatives : Pridie gius diei, on the day before that day ; Caes. l, 47. Postridie eius di6i, on the day after that day. Virttltis ergo, on the ground of merit. Urbium Corcyrae tenus, as far as the cities of Corcyra ; L. 26, 24. Predicate Genitive ' 447. The Predicate Genitive is generally Subjective or De- scriptive, rarely Partitive. "V^Tien used with transitive verbs, it is of course combined with the Direct Object. It is most common with sum and facio, but it also occurs with verbs of Seeming, Regarding, Valuing, etc. : Est imperatoris superare, to conquer is the business of a commander; Caes. C. 1, 72. Oram Romanae dicionis fecit, he brought the coast under (made the coast of) Soman rule; L. 21, 60. Pies nobilium fontium, you will become (one) of the noble fountains; H. 8, 13. 216 SYNTAX 1. Aequi, bom, and reliqui occur as Predicate Genitives in such expres- sions as aequi facere, aequi bonique iacere, bonl consulere, to take in good part, and reliqui facere, to leave : Aequi bonique facio, / take it in good part; T, Heaut. 788. Milites nihil reUquI victis fecere, the soldiers left nothing to the vanquished; 8. c. ii. 2. For the general use of the Predicate Genitive, see also 439. Predicate Genitive of Price and Value 448. The Predicate Genitive of Price and Value is used with sum and with verbs of Valuing; especially with aestimo, facio, and puts : Parvi pretii est, he is of small value. Magnl ernnt mihl tuae litterae, your letters will be of great value to me. Patrem tuum pltirimi feci, / prized your father most highly (made of the greatest value); c. Att. 16, 16, d. Ea magni aestimantur, those things are highly valued. Honores magm putare, to deem honors of great value. N5n flocci faciunt, they care not a straw (lock of wool) ; PI. Trin. 211. Non habeo nauci Marsum, / do not regard Marsus of the least account; c. Div. l, 58. HCLius non faciam, / shall nut care that (a snap) for it; T. Add. 168. 1. The Genitive of Price or Value is generally an adjective, as magni, parvi, tanti, quanti ; pliiris, minoris ; mazimi, plurimi, minimi, but pretii is sometimes expressed as in the lirst example. Nihili and a few other Genitives occur, chiefly in familiar discourse. 2. With aestimo the price and value are denoted either by the Genitive or by the Ablative : SI prata magnS aestimant ; quanti est aestinianda virtiis, if they value meadows at a high price, at what price ought virtue to he valued ? u. Farad. 6, 3, 51. 3. In expressions of price and value, pendo, common in early Latin, is exceedingly rare in the classical period : Quae parvi pendunt, which they regard of little value ; t, Hec. 518. Ea v6s parvi pendebatis,! those things you deemed of little importance ; s. o. 52, 9. 4. Tanti, quanti, pluris, and minoris are used as Genitives of Price even with verbs of Buying and Selling, though with these verbs price is generally expressed by the Ablative : Canius emit tanti quanti Pythius voluit, Canius purchased them (the gar- dens) at as high a price as Pythius wished ; of. C. Off. 8, u, 59. Vendo meum non pluris, quam c6terl, fortasse minoris, I sell mine (my grain) no higher 1 An illustration of Sallust's fondness for archaic constructions. GENITIVE 217 than the others, perhaps lower. QuantI emptae, purchased at what price ? Parvo, at a low price; ll. 8. 2, 8, 156. Vendidit hic auro patriara, he sold his country for gold ; v. 6. 631. 5. For the Ablative of Price, see 478. Predicate Genitive -with Reiert and Interest 449. The Construction of refert and interest is as follows : 1. The Person or Thing' interested is denoted by the Genitive, but instead of the Genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun, the Ablative feminine of the Possessive is regularly used : Neque refert cuiusquam, nor does it concern any one ; Tnc. An. 4, 38. Quid Milonis intererat, how was it the interest of Milo 9 C. Mil. IS, 34. Interest omnium, it is the interest of all. Saliitis communis interest, it concerns the public welfare. Tua et mea interest, it is your interest and mine ; C. Fam. 16, 4, 4. Note. — In a few oases the person is denoted by the Dative or by the Accusative with ad ; chiefly with refert, which often omits the person : Die quid referat intra natiirae fines viventi, tell what difference it makes to one living in accord with nature ; h. s. i, l, 49. Quid id ad me refert, how does that concern me 9 Pi. Pers. 4, 3, 44. 2. The Subject of Importance, or that which involves the interest, is expressed by an Iniinitive, or clause, or by a neuter pronoun : Interest omnium recte faoere, to do right is the interest of all ; c. Fin. 2, 22, 72. Non refert quam multos libros habeas, it matters not how many books you have ; cf. Sen. E. 5, 4. Quid tua id refert, how does that concern you 9 3. The Degree of Interest is expressed by an adverb, an adverbial Accusative, or a Genitive of Value : Vestra hoc maxime interest, this especially interests you ; C. Sui. 26, 79. Theodori nihil interest, it does not all interest Theodorus. lUud mea magni interest, that greatly interests me ; C. Att. il, 22. 4. The Object or End for which it is important is expressed by the Accusative with ad, rarely by the Dative : Magni ad honorem nostrum interest, for our honor it is of great im- portance; C. Fam. 16, 1, 1. « Note. — The most plausible explanation hitherto given of this construction is that the Genitive with refert depends upon re, the Ablative of res contained in the verb, that the Possessive, mea, tua, etc., agrees with the Ablative re, and that interest, a later word, simply follows the analogy of refert. 1 A thing is rarely so used unless personified. 218 SYNTAX Genitive -with Adjectives 450. Rule. ■^- Many adjectives take an Objective Genitive to complete their meaning : Avidi laudis fuistis, you have been very desirous of praise. Cupidus es gloi-iae, you are fond of glory. Prudens rei mllitaris erat, he was skilled in military science; N, 9, l, 2. Habetis ducem meinoreni vestri, obJifcum sui, you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself; C. 0. 4, 9, 19. Pleua Graecia poetarum f uit, Greece was full of poets. Gallia hominuni fertilis fuit, Gaul was fruitful in men. Homo amantissiraus patriae, a man very fond of his country. luvewtus belli patieiis, youth capable of enduring the hardships oftvar; s. C. 7. 1. This Genitive corresponds to tlie Objective Genitive with nouns. Com- pare the following : cupidus gloriae, desirous of glory ; propter gloriae cupiditatem, on account of the desire of glory. 2. For the Genitive with dignus and iudignus, see 481, 1. 451. This Objective Genitive is used, 1. With Adjectives denoting Desire, Knowledge, Skill, Recollection, and the like, with their contraries : sapientiae studiosus, studious (stu- dent) of wisdom; peritus belli, skilled in war; conscius coniurationis, cognizant of the conspiracy; insuetus navigandi, unacquainted with nai'i- gation : Quis est omnium tarn Ignarus rerum, who is so ignorant of all things ? OmnSs immemorem beneflcii oderunt, all hate him who is unmindful of a favor; 0. Off. 2, 18, 63. Note. — Certus with the Genitive in the best prose occurs only in the phrase certiorem facere, to inform, which takes either the Genitive or the Ablative with de, though Caesar admits only the latter construction : Certiorem me sui consilii fecit, he informed me of his plan ; C. Att. 9, 2, s. His de rebus certior factus, having been informed of these things. 2. With Adjectives denoting Participation, Characteristic, Guilt, Full- ness, Mastery, etc., with their contraries : rationis particeps, endowed with (sharing) reason; rationis ezpers, destitute of reason; manifestus rerum capitalium, convicted of capital crimes: Erat Italia plena Graecarum artium, Italy was full of Grecian arts; C. Arch. 8, 5. Viri propria est fortitude, fortitude is characteristic of a true man. Mel potens sum, I am master of myself. Omnes virtiltis compotes beati sunt, all (who are) possessed of virtue are happy; o. Tusc. 5, 18, 89. ttMlTIYE 219 Note 1. — A few adjectives, as similis, dissimilis ; alienus, commums ; contrariuB and superstes admit eitliei- the Genitive or tlie Dative ; see 435, 4 : Canis similis lupo, a dog similar to a wolf; C. N. D. i, ss, 97. Cyri similis esse voluit, he wished to be like Cyrus; C. Brut, si, 282. Note 2. — Conscius may take an Objective Genitive in connection witli the Dative of a personal or reflexive pronoun : Mens sibi cSnsoia recti, a mind conscious (to itself) of rectitude. 3. With Present Participles used as Adjectives : Est amans sul virMis, virtue is fond of itself; c. Am. 26, 9S. Vir amantissi- mus rei piiblicae, a man very fond of the republic. Virttis efficiens est voluptatis, virtue is productive of pleasure ; cf. c. Off. 8, ss. Appetentes gloriae fuistis, you have been desirous of glory. Note. — Observe the difference in meaning between a participle with an objective Genitive and the same participle with a direct object. Amans patriae, fond of his country, represents the affection as permanent and constant ; whereas the participial construction, amans patriam, loving his country, designates a particular instance or act. 452. In poetry and in late prose, especially in Tacitus, the Genitive is used : 1. With Verbals in az and with Adjectives of almost every variety of meaning, simply to define their application : rugax ambitionis eram, / was inclined to shun ambition ; o. Tr. 4, lo. Tenax propositi, steadfast of purpose ; H. 8, 8. Aevi matiirus, mature in age ; v. 6, 73. Seri studiorum, late in studies; H. s. i, lo. Aeger animi,i afflicted in spirit; L. i, 68. Fid6ns animi, confident in spirit; v. 2, 61. 2. With a few Adjectives to denote Separation, or Cause, like the Ablative : Liber labomm, nleased from his labors; H. A. P. 212. Integer vltae scele- risque piirus, of upright life and innocent of crime; 11. 1, 22. N5tus animi paterni, distinguished for paternal affection ; n. 2, 2. 453. Adjectives which usually take the Genitive sometimes admit other constructions. Compare the following examples: 1. Genitive, or Accusative with ad or in ; AvidI laudis fuistis, you have been very desii-ous of praise ; 0. Man. s, 7. Avidi ad piignam, eager for battle ; L. 7, 23. Avidus in novas res, eager for new things; cf. L. 22, 21. 1 Probably a Locative in origin, as animis, not animonim, is used in similar instances in the plural. 220 SYNTAX 2. Genitive, Dative, or Accusative with ad : Homines Insueti laboris, men unaccustomed to labor; Caes. T, so. Insuetus moribus Romanis, unaccustumed to Moman manners; cf. L. 28, 18. Insuetus ad piignam, unaccustomed to battle; L. 31, 35. 3. Genitive, Dative, or Ablative witli de or in : Conscius coniarationis, cognizant of the conspiracy ; 8. c. ST. Huic Jltcinori conscius, aware of this crime; 0. Gael. 21,52. lis de rebus conscius, aware of these things ; cf. c. Att. 2, 24. 4. Genitive, Accusative with ad, or Ablative with or without in : Pradens rel militaris, skilled in military science; N. 9, l. Prudens ad cOn- silia, wise for counsel ; C. Font. 15, S3. Prudens in iure olvili, learned in civil law ; c. Am. 2. 5. The Genitive, or the Ablative : Mare refertum praedonum, a sea full of pirates ; C. Eab. P. 8, 20. Domus ref erta vasis Corinthils, a house full of Corinthian vases ; c. Rose. A. 46, 133. Genitive -with Verbs 454. Rule. — Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting — memini, reminiscor, and obiiviscor — regularly take the Objec- tive Genitive when used of Persons, but either the Genitive or the Accusative when used of Things : Vivorum memini nee Epiciiri licet oblivisci, I remember the living and it is not allowable to forget Epicurus ; C. Fin. 5, 1. Oblitus sum mel, I have forgotten myself; T. Eun. 306. Animus meminit praeteritorum, the soul rememhers the past ; C. Div. 1, 30. Beneficia meminerunt, ihey remember favors ; c. Plane. 33. Reniinisci virtiitis Helvetiorum, to remember the valor of the Helvetii; ct. Caes. 1, 13. Kas (res) reminisci, to remember those things ; C. Sen. 21, 78. Veteris contumeliae ohlivisoi, to forget the ancient disgrace; Caes. 1, 14. Totatn causam oblitus est, he forgot the whole case ; C. Brut. 60, 217. 1. Observe that memini, reminiscor, and obiiviscor admit a double construction. As transitive verbs they may take the Accusative, but by virtue of their signification, to be mindful of, to be forgetful of, they may take the Genitive ; reminiscitur = memor est ; obliviscitur = immemor est. The close relationship between the Genitive with these verbs and the Genitive with adjectives is readily seen in the following examples : Memores virtutis tuae, mindful of your valor ; C. Fam. 1,7,2. ReminiscerS- tur virtutis Helvetiorum, that he should remember the valor of the Helvetii; Caes. 1,18. GENITIVE 221 2. The Accusative may be used of a person remembered by a contemporary or by an eyewitness : Cinnam memini, I remember Cinna ; C. Ph. 6, 6. 3. Memiiu, I make mention of, may take the Ablative with de : MeminisU de exsulibus, you make mention of the exiles; 0. Ph. 2, 86. 4. Venit mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem = reminlscor, generally takes the Genitive, but sometimes the Nominative, though in Cicero only res, or a neuter pronoun or adjective : Venit mihl Platonis in mentem, the recollection of Plato comes to my mind ; C. Fin. 5, 1. Non venit in mentem piigna, does not the battle occur to your mind ? L. 8, 5. Ea tibI in mentem veniunt, those things occur to your mind ; C. Att. 15, ll. 455. Recorder, I recall, when used of Persons, takes the Abla- tive with de, but when used of Things, it almost always takes th£ Accusative, rarely the Genitive : Recordare de ceteris, bethink yourself of the others; C. Sull. 2, 5. Ut tri- umphSs recordentur, so that they may recall triumphs ; G. Sen. 6, IS. Flagi- tiorum suorum recordabitur, he will recall his base deeds; C. Pis. 6, 12. Accusative and Genitive 456. Rule. — Verbs of Reminding, Admonishing, and verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, Acquitting, take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing, Crime, Charge, etc.: Ipse te veteris amicitiae commonefecit, he himself reminded you of your old friendship ; cf. Ad. Her. 4, 24, 83. Mearum me miseriarum commones, you remind me of my misfortunes. Eum tii acciisas avavitiae, do you accuse him of avarice f C. Flac. 88, 88. Acciisatus est pi'oditionis, he was accused of treason. Levitatis plerosque convincunt, they convict most men nf fickleness. Ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condemnarent, so thai they condemned a most innocent man on a capital charge ; C. Or. 1, 54, 233. Iiidex absolvit in- iiiriarum eum, the judge acquitted him on a charge of assault. 1. Instead of the Genitive of the Thing, Crime, etc., the Ablative with de or the Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is often used. This is the common construction with moueo and its compounds : De quo vos admonui, of which I have reminded you ; c. Man. 15, 45. Ulud mg admonSs, you admonish me of that; C. Att. 9, 9, 2. SI id nOn me accusas, if yoii do not accuse me of that; Pi. Trin. 96. 222 SYNTAX 2. With verbs of Accusing, etc., the Genitive with nomine, crimine, iudicio, or some similar word is sometimes used. This may be the original construction, and if so, it is a sufficient explanation of the Geni- tive with these verbs.' Compare the following examples : Ne quern innooentem iudicio capitis arcessas, that you should not arraign an innocent man on a capital charge ; c. Off. 2, 14, 61. Iniuilcum fratris capitis arcessit, he arraigned his brother'' s enemy on a capital charge ; Ad Her. 1, 11, is. Note. — Latin verbs of Accusing, when they mean simply to find fault with, to complain of, take the Accusative of the crime, or fault, as in English • Inertiam aoousas adulescentium, you complain of the indolence of the young men ; 0. Or. 53, 246. 3. With verbs of Condemning, the Penalty is generally expressed by the Ablative, with or without de, or by the Accusative with a preposi- tion, usually ad. The Ablative is regularly used when the penalty is a fine of a definite sum of money : Pecunia multatus est, he was condemned to pay a fine in mo^iey ; N. 1, 7, 6. Si ilium morte multassem, if I had condemned him to death. Tertia parte agri damnati, condeiUned to forfeit a third of their land. MultSs ad bestias condemnavit, he condemned many to the wild beasts; Suet. Cai. 27. 4. Notice the following special expressions : de maiestate or maiestatis damnare, to condemn for high treason ; de vi damnare, to condemn for assault; de pecuniia repetundis postulare, to prosecute for extortion; inter sicarios damnare, to convict of homicide; voti damnatus, con- demned to fulfill a vow = having obtained a wish ; ad metalla condemna- tus, condemned to the mines. Grenitive with Verbs of Feeling 457. Rule. — Misereor and miseresco take the Objective Genitive ; miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive^ of the Object which produces the feeling : 1 Observe, however, that the use of the Genitive with these verbs in Latin ac- cords entirely with the English idiom ; as, he was accused of treason. 2 The Genitive with some of these verbs of feeling doubtless follows the an- alogy of other constructions, in which the Genitive depends on a noun or adjec- tive, expressed or understood, but with others it seems to depend directly on the substantive idea suggested by the verbs themselves. Thus taedet readily sug- gests its exact equivalent taedium capit. Indeed, Seneca's taedium eum Vitae capit, in which vitae depends upon taedium, is equivalent to eum vitae taedet. GENITIVE 223 Miseremini sociorum, have pity on our allies; 0. Ver. i, 2S, 72. Arcadii miserescite regis, pily the Arcadian king; v. s, 673. Eoiuin nos miseret, we pity them (pity for, or of them moves us); c. Mil. 34, 92. Nostvi nosmet paenitet, we are dissatisfied with ourselves; T. Ph. 172. Fratris me piget, / am grieved at my brother. Me stultitiae meae pudet, / am ashamed of my folly. Me civitatis uiorum taedet, I am tired of the manners of the state. 1. Miseresco belongs to poetry. 2. Miseror and commiseror, I pity, deplore, take the Accusative in the best prose : Miserantur communem Galliae fortunam, tliey deplore the common fortune of Gaul ; Caes. 7, 1, 5. 3. Tlie impersonal verbs miseret, paenitet, etc., sometimes admit an im- personal subject, as an Infinitive or clause, rarely a neuter pronoun or nihil : Neque me vixisse paenitet, nor am I sorry to have lived; (;. Sen. 23, 84. Non te haec pudent, do not these things put you to shame ? T. Ad. 754. 4. Fudet sometimes takes the Genitive of the person in whose presence one has a feeling of shame or unworthiness : Me tui pudet, lam ashamed in your presence ; T. Ad. ess. 5. Like miseret are sometimes used miserescit, commiserescit, and miseretur ; like taedet, pertaesum est and, in early Latin, distaedet and a few other rare words. In Suetonius pertaesus occurs with the Accusative. Genitive -with Special Verbs 458. In certain Special Constructions, largely colloquial, or poetical in their origin,^ many verbs by analogy occasionally ad- mit the Genitive, or if transitive, the Accusative and Genitive : 1. Some verbs denoting Desire, Emotion, or Feeling, like adjectives and verbs of the same general meaning and construction : Cupiunt tui, they desire you; pi. Mil. 968. Ne tul quidem testimonil veri- tus, regarding not even your testimony; 0. Att. S, 4. Ego amral^ pendeo, I am uncertain in mind; cf. c. Leg. 1, s. Discrucior animl,^ 7 am troubled in spirit. Desipiebam mentis, / loas out of my senses. 2. Some Verbs of Plenty and Want, as compleo, impleo, egeo, indigeo, like adjectives of the same general meaning (451, 2): 1 Greek influence may also be recognized in some of them, a Animi in such instances is probably a Locative in origin, as anlmis, not animonun, is used in the same way in the plural. 224 SYNTAX Virtus exercitationis indiget, virtue requires exercise; of. c. Fin. 8, 15. Egeo consilii, / need counsel; C. Att. T, 23. Me oomplevit formidinis, he has filled me with fear ; Pi. Men. 90l. 3. Some verbs denoting Mastery or Participation, — potior, adipi- scor, regno, — like adjectives of similar meaning (451, 2) ; Partis Siciliae potitus est, he became master of a part of Sicily ; N. lo, 5. ESgnavit populorum, he was king of the peoples; H. 3, 80. 4. In the poets, a few verbs which usually take the Ablative of Separation or Cause admit the Genitive : Me laborum levas, you relieve me of my labors; pi. Rud. 247. AbstinetS iraruni, abstain from quarrels; H. 3, 27, 09. Desine querellaruni, desist from your lamentations. Mirarl belli laborum, to wonder at warlike achievements. Damn! infeoti promittere, to become responsible for pos- sible damage; of. c. Top. 4, 22. Note. — The Genitive in Exclamations, in imitation of the Greek, occurs in three or four isolated examples in the Latin poets, but it is not found in Terence, Vergil, or Horace : O mihi nuntii beati, the glad tidings to me ; Catul. 9, 5. ABLATIVE 459. The Latin Ablative performs the duties of three cases originally distinct : I. Ablative Proper, denoting the relation From : II. Instrumental, denoting the relation With, By : III. Locative, denoting the relation In, At. Note. — This threefold nature of the Latin Ablative gives us a basis for a general classification, at once scientific and practical, although in the course of- the development of the language so many new applications of these origi- nal elements were made that it is sometimes impossible to determine with certainty to which of them a given construction owes its origin. I. Ablative Proper 460. — The Ablative Proper includes : 1. Ablative of Separation ; see 461. 2. Ablative of Source, including Agency, Parentage, etc. ; see 467. 3. Ablative of Comparison ; see 471. ABLATIVE 225 Ablative of Sepakation 461. Rule. — The Ablative of Separation is generally used with a preposition — a, ab, de, or ex — when it represents a person or is used with a verb compounded with ab, de, dis, se, or ex : Legiones abducis a Bruto, you alienate the legions from Brulus; C. PL. 10, 8, 6. Caedem a vobis depellebam, / was warding off slaughter from you. Plebs a patribus secessit, the common people seceded from the patricians. De foro disoessimus, we withdrew from the forum. Caesav copias suas e castris eduxit, Caesar led his forces out of the camp ; Caes. l, .w. Ex oppido fugit, he fled out of the town. 462. Rule. — The Ablative of Separation is generally used without a preposition when it is the name of a town or is used after a verb meaning to relieve, free, deprive, need, or he without : Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus fled from Corinth ; C. Tasc. 5, 37. Roma acoeperam litteras, / had received a letter from Rome. Qui Narbone reditus, what a return from Narho ! c. Ph. 2, 30, 76. Leva me hoc onere, relieve me from this burden ; c. Fam. 3, 12, 8. Magno me metu liberabis, you will free me from great fear. Murus defensoribus iiudatus est, the wall was stripped of its defenders; Caes. 2, 6. Non ege5 medicina, / do not need a remedy. Vacare culpa magnum est s5lacium, to be free from fault is a great comfort ; C. Fam. 7, 8, 4. 1. With the Ablative of Separation, the preposition is more freely used when the separation is local and literal than when it is figurative : de foro, from the forum. ; ex oppido, out of the town ; but metu liberare, to free from fear; vacare culpa, to be free from fault. 2. The preposition is sometimes used with names of towns, especially for emphasis or contrast, regularly after longe : LongS ab Athenis esse, to be far from Athens; Pi. Pers. I5i. 3. The preposition is generally used when the vicinity, rather than the town itself, is meant : Discessit a Brundisio, he departed from Brundisium (i.e. from the port); Caes. C. 3, 24. 4. Many Names of Islands and the Ablatives domo, humS, and rure, are used like names of towns : HAKK. LAT. ORAM. — 16 226 SYNTAX Lemno adyenio Athenas, from Lemnos I come to Athens ; Pi. True. 91. Cum donio profugisset, when he had fled, from home ; c. Brut. 89, soe. Vide5 rtire redeuntem senem, / see the old man returning from the country. Vix oculOs attollit humo, she hardly raises her eyes from the ground. Ablative of Sepakation with Special Vbebs 463. With moveo, cedo, and pello in special expressions the Ablative of Separation is used without a preposition : Loco ille motus est, he vms dislodged from his position ; 0. 0. 2, l. Eundem vidi cedentem Italia, I saw the same man leaving Italy ; C. Ph. lo, 4, 8. Civem pellere possessionibus conatus est, he attempted to drive a citizen from his possessions ; C. Mil. 27, 74. 464. With many verbs the Ablative of Separation is used, some- times with and sometimes without a preposition. De provinoia decessit, he withdrew from the province ; 0. Ver. 2, 20, 48. Deoedens provinoia, withdrawing from the province ; C. lAg. 1, 2. Expellet ex patria, will he banish them from the country? Me patria expulerat, he had driven me from the country. 1. Note also the expressions ab oppidis prohibere, to keep from the towns ; suis finibus prohibere, to keep out of their territory ; depellere a vobis, de provinoia, to drive away from you, from the province; tota Sioilia depellere, to drive from the whole of Sicily. 2. Arceo generally takes the Ablative with a preposition, but at variance vfith general usage it sometimes omits the preposition when used in a purely local sense : Til hunc a tuis templls arcebis, you will keep him from your temples; c. 0. 1. 13, 83. Te illls aedibus arcSbit, he will keep you from this abode; C. Ph. 2, 40, 104. 3. Interdico regularly takes the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing : Gallia Romanis interdixit, he forbade the Somans the use of Oaul; of. Caes. 1,46. 465. With adjectives meaning free from, destitute of, the Abla- tive of Separation is used sometimes with and sometimes without a preposition : Haec loca ab arbitris libera sunt, these places are free from spectators; of. 0. Att. 15, 16. Animus liber cilra, a mind free from care ; o. Fin. 15, 49. ABLATIVE 227 1. Notice also the following expressions: nudus a propinqois, desti- tute of relatives; nudus praesidio, destitute of defense; vacuus ab defensoiibus, without defenders; gladius vagina vacuus, a sword with- out a sheath. 2. Ezpers generally takes the Genitive, but sometimes the Ablative : Omnis erudltiSnis expers fuit, he was destitute of all learning; cf. c. Or. 2, i. Omnes fortunis expertgs sumus, we are all destitute of fortunes; s. c. 38. 3. Some adjectives with this meaning take the Genitive ; see 451, 2. 466. In the poets and late writers the Ablative of Separation, even in a purely local sense, is often used without a preposition : Colmnbae caelo venere volantes, the doves came flying from the heavens ; V. 6, 190. Non poterit vero distinguere falsum, he will not be able to distin- guish the false from the true ; H. E. l, lo, 29. Cecidere caelo lapides, stones fell from the heavens ; L. i, 3i. 1. Notice also the following expressions from Vergil and Horace : Lycia missus, sent from Lycia ; cadere nubibus, to fall from the clouds ; car- oeribus missus, sent forth from, the harriers ; labens equo, falling from his horse. Ablative op Source 467. Rule. — The Ablative cf Source, including Agency, Parentage, and Material, generally takes a preposition, — a, ab, de, e, or ez : Source in General. — Ab his sermo oritur, with (from) these the conver- sation begins; C. Am. l, 5. Hoc audivi de patre meo, this I have heard from my father. Appellata est ex viro virtUs, virtue was named from vir, a man. Ex invidia laboravit, he suffered from unpopularity ; c. Clu. 7i, 202. Agency. — Ab his amatur, by these he is loved. Mons a Labieno tene- tur, the mountain is held by Labienus ; Caes. 1, 22. Parenjtage or Ancestry. — Ex me natus es, you are my son. Oriundi ab Bahims, 'descended from the Sabines; L. 1, 27. Material. — Erat ex fraude factus, he was made of fraud. Pocula ex auro, cups of gold ; c. Yer. 4, 26, 62. 468. The Ablative of the Independent Agent, or the Author of au action, takes the preposition a or ab : Rex. ah suis appellatur, he is called king by his own men. N5n est con- sentaneum vincI a voluptate, it is not meet to be overcome by pleasure. 228 SYNTAX 1. "When anything is personified and treated as the agent of an action, the Ablative with a or ab may be used as in the second example above. 2. The Ablative without a preposition may be used of a person, regarded not as the author of the action, but as the means by which it is effected ; Cornua Numidls firmat, he strengthens the wings with Numidians. 3. The Accusative with per may be used of the person through whom, through whose agency or help, the action is effected : Ab Oppianico perFabricios factus, made hy Oppianicus through the agency of the Fabricii; cf. 0. Clu. 23, 62. Note. ■ — ■ Compare these three kindred constructions for the names of persons : ab Oppiamc5, hy Oppianicus, the author of the action ; per Fabricios, through the Fabricii, i.e. through their agency or help; and Numidls, with Numidians, used as the means of the action. 469. The Ablative of Parentage and Ancestry is generally used 1. With a or ab, in designating Kemote Ancestry: Belgae sunt orti ab Germanis, the Belgians originated from the Germans; cf. Caos. 2, 4. Oriundl ex Etruscis, descended from the Etruscans. 2. Without a preposition with the verb nascor and a few Perfect Participles, as natus, prognatus, ortus, and in poetry and late prose, with editus, genitus, aatus, etc. : SI parentibus nati sint humilibus, if they have been born of humble parents; 0. Am. 19, 70. Nobili genere nati sunt, they were born of a noble race; c. ver. 5, 7o, 180. Regis nepos, filia ortus, the grandson of the king, born of his daughter ; L. i, 32, i. Edite regibus, thou descendant of kings; H, 1, 1. Dis genite, thou descendant of gods; v. 9, 642. Satae Pelia, the daughters of Pelias ; o. M. 7, 322. 470. The Ablative of Material generally takes e or ex, and is used with verbs or participles, and sometimes with nouns : Erat ex fraude f actus, he was made of fraud. Homo ex animo constat et corpore, man consists of a soul and a body ; cf. 0. N. D. l, 85. Vas ex-*na gemma, a vase from a single gem ; C. Ver. 4, 27, 62. 1. The Ablative of Material is often used without a preposition in poetry, and sometimes even in prose : Aere cav8 clipeus, a hollow shield of bronze ; of. v. 8, 286. PIctas abiete puppgs, painted sterns of fir. C5nstat tota SratiO membris, the whole dis- course is made up of members. ABLATirJB 229 Ablative with Comparatives 471. Rule. — Comparatives without quam are followed by the Ablative: ^ihil est virtute^ amabilius, nothing is more lovely than virtue, o. Am. 8. Nihil habet iucundius vita,i he considers nothing more agreeable than life. Araioitia, qua nihil melius habemns, friendship, than which we have nothing better. Nihil lacrima citius arescit, nothing dries sooner than a tear. 1. Comparatives with quam are followed by the Nominative or by the case of the corresponding noun before them : Melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria, better is a sure peace than a hoped-for victory ; L. so, 30. Neminem aequiorem reperiet quam me, he will find no one more just than (he vrill find) me. Equum meliorem habet quam tuns est, he has a better horse than yours is; c. inv. i, 3i, 52. 2. Alter quam the second of the two nouns compared is sometimes omitted : Themistocli nSmen quam Solonis est illiistrius, the name of Themistocles is more illustrious than that of Solon; of. c. Off. l, 22, 75. 3. The Ablative is used chiefly in negative sentences. It is freely used for quam with a Nominative or Accusative, regularly so for quam with the Nominative or Accusative of a relative pronoun, as in the third example under the rule. In other cases quam is retained in the best prose, though sometimes omitted in poetry. 4. After plus, minus, amplius, or longius, in expressions of number and quantity, quam is often omitted without influence upon the construc- tion ; sometimes also after maior, minor, etc. ; Tecum pliis annum vixit, he lived with you more than a year; C. Quinc. 12, 4i. Minus duo milia efitigerunt, less than two thousand escaped; L. 24, 16. Non amplius novem annos natus, not more than nine years old; at. N. 28, 2, 3. 5. Instead of an Ablative after a comparative, a preposition with its case — as ante, prae, praeter, or supra — is sometimes used, especially in poetry : Ante alios immanior, more monstrous than (before) the others ; v. i, 84T. 6. In poetry and in conversational prose, alius, involving a comparison, other than, is sometimes used with the Ablative, but in the best prose its regular construction is alius ac or atque, alius quam, or alius nisi : 1 This Ablative furnishes the standard of comparison — that from which one starts. Thus, if virtue is taken as the standard of what Is lovely, nothing is more so. Virtute = quam virtus ; vita, = quam vitara (habet). 230 SYNTAX Putare alium sapiente bonoque beatum, to consider any other than the wise and good happy ; cf. H. E. i, 16, 20. Nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita est, nothing but peace was sought; cf. 0. Off. 1, 23, so. 7. Quam pro denotes that the two objects compared are out of proportion to each other : Minor caedes quam pro tanta victoria fuit, the slaughter was small in com- parison with the victory ; L. 10, 14, 21. 8. Note the following special uses of the Ablative : plus aequo, more than is fair; plus iiisto, more than is proper: Celerius omnI opinione venit, he came sooner than any one expected; cf. Caes. 2, 3. Id spe omnium serius fuit, this was later than all hoped it would be; L. 2, 8. 9. In rare instances, mostly poetical, a few verbs and adverbs involving comparison — as malo, praesto, aeque, adaeque — admit the Ablative : NuUos his mallem ludos spectasse, no games would I prefer to have seen rather than these ; H. s. 2, s, 79. Me aeque fortunatus, equally fortunate with me; Pi. Cure. 141. 10. With comparatives the Measure of Difference — the amount by which one thing surpasses another — is denoted by the Ablative (479) : Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia, Ireland smaller by one-half than Britain. II. Instrumental Ablative 472. The Instrumental Ablative includes 1. Ablative of Association ; see 473. 2. Ablative of Cause ; see 475. 3. Ablative of Means ; see 476 and 477. 4. Ablative of Price ; see 478. 5. Ablative of Difference ; see 479. 6. Ablative of Specification ; see 480. Ablative of Association 473. Rule. — The Ablative of Association is used 1. To denote Accompaniment, or Association in a strict sense. It then takes the preposition cum : Cum patre habitabat, she loas living with her father. Cum his armis eruptionem fecerunt, with these arms they made a sally; Caes. 2, 83. ABLATIVE 231 2. To denote Characteristic or Quality. It is then modi- fied by an adjective or by a Genitive : Flumen ripis praeruptis, a stream with precipitous banks; Caes. 6, 7. Summa virtute adulescens, a youth of the highest worth. Cato singulari fuit industria, Cato was a man of remarkable industry ; N. 24, 3. Note 1. — The Ablative of Characteristic and the Genitive of Character- istic supplement each other. The Genitive is generally used to designate per- manent characteristics, as Kind, Size, Weight, Value, and the like. In other CEises the Ablative is generally used. Note 2. — The Ablative of Cliaraoteristic may be either Attributive, as in the first two examples, or Predicative, as in the last example. 3. To denote Manner or Attendant Circumstance.^ It then talies tlie preposition cum, or is modified by an adjec- tive or by a Genitive : Cum silentio audit! sunt, tliey were heard in silence. Templum magna clira ciistodiunt, they guard the temple with great care. Epulabatur more Persai'um, he feasted in the style of the Persians. Cato summa cum gloria vixit, Cato lived with the highest glory ; 0. Vir. 5, 70, ISO. Note. — The Ablative of Manner often takes cum, even when modified by an adjective, as in the last example. 474. The Ablative of Association is used without cum in a few special instances, as follows: 1. A few Ablatives, perhaps involving the idea of Means: arte, according to art, skillfully ; clamore, with a shout; consilio, on purpose; ordine, in an orderly way : Nemo solitus via dioere, no one accustomed to speak properly ; of. c. Brut. 12, 46. Aut vj aut fraude fit, it is done either by violence or by fraud; cf. c. Off. I, 1.3, 41. Note. — The Accusative with per sometimes denotes Manner: per vim, violently; pei inmdem, fraudulently ; per ludum, sportively. 2. The Ablative of Association is sometimes used without cum, after verbs meaning to minqle or to join together, as confundo, iuugo, misceo, and their compounds ; also whenever the idea of means is involved, especially in military operations: 1 Note the close connection between these three uses ot the Ablative — theiivst designating an attendant person or thing, the second an attendant quality, the tliird an attendant circumstance. 232 SYNTAX Siculis oonfunditur undls, it mingles with the Sicilian waters; V. 8, 696. Improbitas scelere iilnota, depravity joined with crime; c. Or. 2, 68, 237. Gravi- tate mixtus lepos, pleasantry united with dignity; c. E. P. 2, l. IngentI exer- citu profectus, having set out with a large army ; L. 7, 9. Note 1. — In military language the Ablative of Association takes cum, if without modifiers or modified only by a numeral, otherwise it is used with- out cum : cum exercitii, but ingenti ezercitu. Note 2. — Instead of the Ablative of Association, the Pative is sometimes used with verbs denoting Union or Contention : Sapientia iiincta eloquentiae, loisdom united to eloquence; cf. C. Or. 3, 85, 142. Solus tibt certat, he alone competes with you; V. E. 6, 8. 3. A special use of the Ablative of Association is seen with facio, Ho, and sum in such expressions as the following : Quid hoc homine facias, what will you do with this man ? C. Ver. 2, 16. Quid te futurum est, what will become of you ? C. Ver. 2, 64, 155. Note. — The Ablative with de occurs in nearly the same sense : Sed de fratre quid fiet, but what will become of my brother 9 T. Ad. 996. Ablative of Cause 475. Rule. — The Ablative of Cause, designating the Cause, Ground, or Reason for an action, is used without a preposition : ^ GubernatSris ars utilitate laudatur, the pilot's art is praised because of its usefulness; c. Fin. i, 13. Quisque gloria diicitur, erer^ one is influenced by glory. Liixuria civitas laborabat, the state was suffering from luxury. Niniio gaudio desipiebam, / was wild with (from) excessive joy. Regni cupiditate inductus coniiirationem fecit, influenced by the desire of ruling, he formed a conspiracy. Timore perterriti ad Rhenum contenderunt, moved by fear, they hastened towards the Rhine. Aeger erat vulneribus, he was ill in consequence of his wounds ; N. i, 7, 5. 1. When the cause is fear, anger, hatred, etc., it is often combined with a Perfect Participle, as in the fifth and sixth examples. 2. Causa and gratia, as Ablatives of Cause, are regularly limited by the Genitive or by a possessive or interrogative pronoun : 1 The Ablative o£ Cause seems to have been developed in part from the Instru- mental case and in part from the true Ablative. ABLATIVE 233 Quern honSris gratia nomine, whom I name as a mark of honor ; C. Rose. A. 2, 6. Vestra hoc causa volebam, / desired this on your account; c. Or. i, 35, 164. Qua gratia iussi, for what purpose did I give the order ? T. Eun. 99. 3. Examine the following specimens of the Ablative of Cause, more com- monly limited by an adjective or Genitive, consuetudiue, iiire, lege, sen- teutia, and Ablatives in u from verbal nouns : consuetiidine su5, in accordance with his own custom; mea sententia, according to or in my opinion; aliorum hortatii, at the request of others; hortatu suo, at his own request; popuU iussu, at the bidding of the people. i. Instead of the Ablative of Cause, the Ablative with a, ab, de, e, ex, is sometimes used to emphasize the idea of Source, from which Cause was so readily developed, as ex consuetiidine sua, in accordance with their custom ; ex sententia tua, in accordance with your wish : Mare a s5le colliicet, the sea gleams with the light of the sun (from the sun). Ex vulneribus periere, they perished of their wounds. 5. The Ablative with prae in classical Latin generally denotes a Hin- drance or an Obstacle : Non prae lacrimls possum scribere, I cannot write on account of my tears. Ablative of Mbaits 476. Rule. — The Instrument and Means of an action are denoted by the Ablative without a preposition : Ipse sua manii fecit, he did it Mmaelfwith his own hand. Cornibus tauri se tiitantur, bulls defend themselves with their horns. Sol omnia liice coUiis- trat, the sun illumines all things with its light. Terra vestita floribus, the earth covered with Jicwers. Lacte atque pecore vivunt, they live upon milk and flesh; Caes. 4, 1. Aurelia via profectus est, he went hy the Aurelian mad; c. C. 2, 4. Porta Capena Romam ingressus, having entered Rome by the Porta Capena ; L. 26, 10. 1. The Ablative of Means is used not only with verbs, but also with a few adjectives, as contentus, praeditus, and fretus : Domo sua regia contentus non fult, he was not satisfied with his royal palace; C. Ver. 6, si, so. Homo summ5 ingenio praeditus, a man endowed with the highest abilities. Neque hiimanls consiliis frgtus, nor depending upon human counsels ; C. c. 2, is. 2. Adficio with the Ablative of Means forms a very common circum- locution: honore adficere = bonorare, to honor; cniciatu adficere, to torture : 234 SYNTAX Omnes laetitia adficit, he gladdens all ; Coos. 5, 48. Adficitur beneficio, lie is benefited; C. Agr. i, 4. 3. This Ablative is used with fido, coniidd, nitor, iunitor, assuesco, asBuefacio, etc: Nemo forttinae stabilitate confidit, no one trusts the stability of fortune ; cf. 0. Tusc. 5, 14, 40. Salus veritate nititur, safety rests upon truth. Nullo ofBcio assugfaoti, trained to (familiar with) no duty; Ones. 4, l. Sese castris tene- bant, they kept themselves in camp; Caes. 8, 24. Marium teoto reoeperunt, they received Marius into their houses. i. The following Ablatives deserve notice : Quadraginta hostiis sacrificare, to make a sacrifice vrith forty victims; L. 41, 17. Facere vitula, to make a sacrifice with a calf; v. E. 8, 77. Pidi- bus oanere, to play upon the lyre; C. Tusc. i, 2, 4. Pila IMere, to play ball (with the ball) ; H. S. 1, 5, 49. Ablative of Means — Special Uses 477. Rule. — I. The Ablative of Means is used with utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vesoor, and their compounds : Pliirimis rebus fruimur atque utimur, we enjoy and use very many things ; C. N. D. 2, 60, 152. Fungitur ofBcio senatoris, he is discharging the duty of a senator. Magna erat praeda potitiis, he had obtained great booty. Lacte et carne vescebaiitur, they lived (fed) on milk and flesh; N. 89, 7. 1. These deponent verbs are all survivals of the middle voice, and accord- ingly contain the direct object in themselves, while the Ablative is the means by which the action is effected ; thus utor, / use, I serve myself by means of; fruor, I enjoy, I delight myself with, etc. Originally transitive, they are occa- sionally so used In classical authors : Uteris operam meam, you shall have (use) my assistance ; pi. Poen. 1088. 2. Utor admits two Ablatives of the same person or thing : Facill me iitetur patre, he will find me an indulgent father ; t. Heaut. 217. 3. Potior admits the Genitive : Partis Siciliae potitus est, he became master of a part of Sicily ; N. lo, 6. II. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs of Abound- ing and Filling and with adjectives of Fullness : abundo, redundo, adfluo, etc. ; compleo, ezpleo, impleo, onero, etc. ; onustus, refertus, plenus, etc. : ABLATIVE 235 Villa abundat lacte, caseo, melle, the villa abounds in milk, cheese, and honey; c. Sen. 16, 56. Deus bonis explevit mundum, God has filled the world with blessings; C. Uriv. 3, 5. Naves onerant auvo, they load the ships with gold. Naves frumento onustae, ships loaded with grain. Urbs referta copiis, a city filled with supplies ; C. Att. 7, 13. 1. Compleo and impleo take either the Accusative and Genitive or the Accusative and Ablative : Me complevit formidinis, he filled me with fear; pi. Men. 901. Italiam ve- strls colonis complere voluistis, you wished to fill Italy with your colonists. 2. Most adjectives of Fullness occasionally admit the Genitive. With ple- nus this is the regular construction in the best prose. In Cicero ref ertus takes the Genitive vf hen used of persons, but the Ablative when used of things : Erat Italia plSna Graecarum artium, Italy was full of Grecian arts; C. Arch. 8, 6. Domus referta vasls Corinthils, a house full of Corinthian vases; C. Rose. A. 46, 183. Mare refertum praedonum, a sea full of pirates; c. Eab. P. 8, ao. III. The Ablative of Means is used with opus and usus, often in connection with the Dative of the person : Militi iiummis ducentls usus est, the soldier needs two hundred sestei-ces ;'^ PI. Bac. 706. Auctoritate tua nobis opus est, we need your influence. Con- sulto opus est, there is need of deliberation ; S. C. l. Note. — With opus est, rarely with jisus est, the thing needed may be denoted by the Nominative, or an Infinitive ; rarely by the Genitive,* a su- pine, or an ut-clause : " Dux nobis opus est, we need a leader; C. Fam. 2, 6, 4. Opus est te valere, it is necessary that you be well ; C. Fam. 16, 14. Temporis opus est, there is need of time; cf. L. 22, 61. Ita dictii opus est, it is necessary to say so ; T. Heaut. 941. Mihl opus est ut lavem, it is necessary for me to bathe ; Pi. True. 82S. Ablative of Price and Value 478. Rule. — Price and Value are denoted by the Abla- tive, if expressed definitely or by means of Nouns, but by the Genitive or Ablative, if expressed indefinitely by means of Adjectives : Auro viri vitam vendidit, for gold she sold her husband's life; C. Inv. l, 50, 94. Fanum peciiHia grandl venditum est, the temple was sold for much 1 Lit. there is to the soldier a use for or with two hundred sesterces. * First in Ijvy. ' In Plautus and late prose. 236 SYNTAX money. Multo sanguine Poenis victoria stetit, the victory cost the Cartha- ginians (stood to them at) much blood; L. 23, SO. Lis aestimatur centum talentis, the fine is fixed at a hundred talents. Venalis decern milibus, for sale at ten thousand (sesterces) ; C. Gael. 7, 17. Prata magno aestimant, they value meadows highly. Quanti est aesti- inanda virtus, how highly should virtue he valued? Quem pltirimi fecerat, whom he had esteemed most highly ; N. 18, 2. Venire quam pliirimo, to be sold at as high a price as possible. Emit, be purchased ? Quanti, for how much? Ylginti minis, for ticenty minae ; T. Eun. 984. 1. The Ablative of Price is used with verbs of Buying, Selling, Hiring, Letting ; of Costing ; of Being Cheap or Dear, as emo, vendo, veneo ; conduco, loco ; sto, consto, liceor, and with a few adjectives of kin- dred meaning, as venalis, for sale; carus, dear; vilis, cheap; see ex- amples. With these words only five Genitives of Price are 'used: tanti, tanti-dem, quanti, pliiris, and minoris. 2. With verbs of Valuing the following Genitives are used, parvl, magni, permagni, tanti, tanti-dem, quanti, pluris, plurimi, minoris, minimi, etc. 3. Instead of the Ablative of Price, adverbs are sometimes used, as bene emere, to buy well (i.e. at a low price); bene vendere, to sell well (i.e. at a high price). 4. Exchanging. — With verbs of Exchanging — miito, commiito, etc. — the thing received is generally treated as the price, as with verbs of selling, but, in poetry and late prose, the thing given is often treated as the price, as with verbs of buying : Victor pace bellum mutavit, the victor exchanged war for peace ; s. c. 58, \5. Cvlt valle permtitem Sablna divitias, why should I exchange the Sabine vale for riches 1 H. 3, 1, 47. 5. But with verbs of Exchanging, the thing given is sometimes designated by the Ablative with cum or pro : Cum patriae caritate gloriam commutare, to exchange love of country for glory ; cf. c. Sest. 16,87. 6. For a fuller treatment of the Genitive of Price, see 448. Ablative of Difference 479. Rule. — The Measure of Difference is denoted by the Ablative. It is used 1. With Comparatives and Superlatives : Uno die longiorem mensem faciunt, they make the month one day longer (longer by one day) ; c. Ver. 2, 52, 129. Sol multls partibus maior est quam ABLATIVE 237 terra, the sun is very much (by many parts) larger than the earth; of. c. N. D. 2, S6, 92. Tanto longior anfractus, a circuitous route so much longer. Con- spectus multo iucuiidissimus, a sight by far the most pleasing. 2. With verbs and other words implying Comparison : Multo mihi piaestat, it is much better for me; c. Sest. 69, 146. Virtutem omnibus rebus multo anteponunt, they much prefer excellence to everything else ; cf. c. Fin. 4, 18, 51. 3. To denote Intervals of Time or Space : Homerus annis multis fuit ante Bomulum, Homer lived (was) many years before (before by many years) Romulus; C. Brut. 10, 40. Paucis die- bus post mortem Africani, a few days after the death of Africanus; c. Am. 1. Milibus passuum sex a Caesavis castris eonsedit, he encamped at the distance of six miles from Caesar's camp; Caes. l, 48. Ablative of Specification 480. Rule. — A Noun, Adjective, or Verb may take an Ablative to define its application : Agesilaus nomine, non potestate, fuit rex, Agesilaus was king in name, not in power; N. 21, i. Fuit claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot. Hi lingua, institiitis, legibus inter se difierunt, those differ from each other in language, institutions, and laws ; Caes. 1, 1. 1. Natu and Supines in u are often used as Ablatives of Specification : Minimus natu omnium, the youngest of all. Difficile dictu est, it is diffl- cult to tell (in the telling). 2. The Ablative of Specification is often used with verbs of Measuring and Judging, to show in reference to what the statement is true : Magnos homines virtiite metimur, non fortuna, we m,easure great men by (in reference to) their merit, not their success; N. 18, l. Benevolentiam non ardore amoris, sed constantia iudicemus, let us judge of good will, not by the glow of affection, but by its constancy. 3. The Ablative of Specification, in a strict sense, shows in what respect or particular anything is true, and, in a somewhat freer sense, in regard to what, in reference to what, it is true. 4. For the Accusative of Specification, see 416. 481. To the Ablative of Specification may be referred the Ablative with dignus and indignus : Dignl sunt amicitia, they are worthy nf friendship ; c. Am, 21, 79. Te honore indlgnissimmn iudicat, he judges you most unworthy of honor; C. Vat. 16, 89. 238 SYNTAX 1. In rare instances, mostly poetical, dignus and indignus occur with the Genitive : Dignissimum tuae virtutis, most worthy of your high character ; cf. C. Att. 8, 15, A. Magnoruin haud umquam indignus avorum, never wiviorthy of my great sires; V. 12, 049. 2. Dignor, as a passive verb meaning to be deemed worthy, takes the Abla- tive ; but as a deponent verb meaning to deem worthy, used only in poetry and late prose, it takes the Accusative and Ablative : Honore dlgnantur, they are deemed worthy of honor ; o. inv. 2, 58, 161. Haud tali me dignor honore, not of such honor do I deem myself worthy ; V. 1, 885. III. Locative and Locative Ablative 482. The Locative and the Locative Ablative in a measure supplement each other. They include 1. Ablative of Place, generally with the preposition in; see 483. 2. Locative in Names of Towns ; see 483. 3. Ablative of Time ; see 486. 4. Ablative Absolute ; see 489. Ablative of Place 483. Rule. — The Place In Which anything is done is denoted generally by the Locative Ablative with the prepo- sition in, but in names of Towns by the Locative : Caesar duas legiones in Gallia conscripsit, Caesar enrolled two legions in Gaul. In oppido obsidebantur, they were besieged in the town. Exerci- tum in hibernis collocavit, he placed the army in winter quarters. Romae supplicatio redditur, at Rome a thanksgiving is appointed; Caes. T, 90. Alesiae obsidebantur, they were besieged at Alesia. Dionysius Co- rinthi pueros docebat, Dionysius taught boys at Corinth. Carthagine reges creabantur, al Carthage kings were elected; N. 28, 7. Aristides Athenis fuit, Aristides was at Athens. 1. In the names of Towns, instead of the Locative, the Ablative is used, with or without a preposition, when qualified by an adjective or adjective pronoun, and sometimes when not thus modified : In Illyrico, in ipsa Alexandres, in Illyria, in Alexandria itself; C. Att. 11, 16. Longa dominari Alba, to hold sway at Alba Longa; V. 6, 760. In monte Albano LavInioque,i on the Alhan mount and at Lavinium; L. 5, 52, 8. 1 Here LaviniS is probably assimilated to the case of monte Albano. ABLATIVE 239 2. When oppido or urbe accompanies the name of the town in ex- pressions of Place, if without a modifier, it takes the preposition in and is followed by the Ablative of the name ; but if with a modifier, it follows the name, and is used either with or without the preposition : In oppidS Citio est mortuus, he died in the town Citiuni; N. 5, 3. Albae constiterunt, in urbe opportuna, they halted at Alba, a convenient city; C. Ph. 4, 2, 6. Corinthi, Achaiae urbe, at Corinth, a city of Achaia ; Tac. H. 2, 1. 484. Like Names of Towns are used 1. Many Names of Islands and Peninsulas : ConSn Cypri vixit, Conon lived in Cyprus; N. 12, 3. Miltiades domum ChersonesI habuit, Miltiades had a house in the Chersonesus. 2. The Locatives domi, riirl, humi, militiae, belli, and a few others found in poets and late writei's : Et domi et militiae consilium praestabant, they showed their wisdom at home and abroad; c. Or. 3, 33, 184. Ruri agere vitam c5nstituit, he decided to spend his life in the country. Romae et domi tuae vivere, to live at Borne: and in your house. Deprehensus domi Caesaris, caught in the house of Caesar; cf. c. Att. i, 12. Tamquam alienae domi, as if in the house of another. Truncum reliquit harenae, he left the body in the sand; v. 12, 3S2. Note 1.^ — ^Domi may be modified by a possessive, a Genitive, or alienus, as in the examples ; when any other modifier is required, the Ablative with in is generally used : In privata domS furtum, a theft in a private house ; c. c. s, 7, IT. Note 2. — Instead of domi with its modifier, apud with an Accusative of the person may be used : apud me = domi meae, at my house : Apud tS fuit, he was at your house. Fuisti apud Laecam, you were at the house of Laeca ; 0. c. 1, 4. 485. The Locative Ablative is often used without a preposition : 1. When the idea of place is figurative ratlier than literal : Me5 iiidicid stare malo, I prefer to abide by my oxun judgment ; 0. Att. 12,21. PrSmissTs manere (poetical), to abide by promises ; v. 2, ico. Nova pectore versat consilia, she devises (turns over) new plans in her breast. Pendemus animis, we are perplexed in mind ; C. Tusc. 1 , 40, 96. 2. The Locative Ablative qualified by totus, and the Ablatives terra and mari, especially in terra manque, are regularly used without the prepo- sition ; loco and locis are generally so used ; occasionally other Ablatives, especially when qualified by adjectives : 240' SYNTAX Manat tota urbe rumor, the report spreads through the whole city; L. 2, 49, i. Nationibus terra marique imperare, to rule nations on land and sea; C. Man. 19, 51). Eodem loco nati sunt, they were born in the same situation; 0. Eosc. A. 51, 149. Eeliquls oppidi partibus, in the remaining parts of the town. 3. In poetry and late prose, the Locative Ablative is freely used withoi(t the preposition : Luols habitamus opaols, we dwell in shady groves; V. 6, 678. Popi^lus laetum theatris ter crepuit sonum, the people^ made the joyful applause tlprice resound in the theater ; H. 2, 17, 25. 4. By a difference of idiom, the Latin sometimes uses the Ablative with a, ab, e, or ex, where the English would lead us to expect the Locative Abla- tive, but in such cases the Latin calls attention to the place from which the action proceeds : a or ab deztra, on the right (from the right) : Has ab utroque latere protegebat, these he protected on botji sides; Caes. C. 1, 25. Continentur una ex parte Eheno, altera ex parte, monte lura, they are shut in by the Bhine on one side, by mount Jura on another; Caes. 1, 2. Ex equls pugnare visi sunt, they were seen to fight on horseback; 0. N. D. 2, 2, 6. 5. Instead of the Locative Ablative, especially in plural names Of tribes and peoples, the Accusative with apud or inter may be used : Civitas magna inter Belgas auctoritate, a state of great influence among the Belgae ; Caes. 2, 15. Note. — The Accusative with apud, meaning in the works of, is the reg- ular form in citing authors : lUe apud Terentium, that well-known character in the works of Terence; 0. Fin. 5, 10, 28. Ablative of Time 486. Rule. — The Time At or In Which an action takes place is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition : Solis occasii suas copias Aviovistus rediixit, at sunset Ariovistus led back his forces; Caes. l, 50. Posters die liioe prima niovet castra, on the following day at dawn he moves his camp. Bellum ineunte vere susoepit, he entered upon the war in the beginning of spring. 1. The Ablative of Time is found in the names of Games, Festivals, Offices, and in almost any words that may be used to denote time : Llberalibus litteras accepi tuas, I received your letter on the festival of Liber; 0. Fam. 12, 25, 1. C5nsulatu devenimus in medium certamen, in my consulship I became involved in the midst of the strife ; C. Or. i, i. ABLATIVE 241 487. The Time Within Which an action takes place is denoted by the Ablative with or without in, sometimes with de : Ter in anno audire nuntium, to hear the tidings three times in the course of the year; 0. Rose. a. 46, 132. In diebus proximis decern, within the next ten days. Nemo hisannis viginli rei publicae fuit hostis, there has been no enemy of the republic within these twenty years. De tenia vigilia castra movet, in the third watch he moves his camp; cf. Ones. c. i, 63. 1. The Ablative with in is often used to call attention to the Circum- stances of the Time or the Condition of Affairs : In perlculosissimS rel pQblicae tempore, in a most perilous condition of the republic. In tall tempore, at such a time (i.e. under such circumstances). 2. The Accusative with inter or intra, like the Ablative with in, may be used of the Time Within Which ; the Accusative with ad or in, of an Ap- pointed Time, and with ad or sub, of an Approaching Time : Haec inter oenam dictavi, / dictated this during the dinner. Filium intra paucSs digs amisit, within a few days he lost his son. Omnia ad diem facta sunt, all things were done on the appointed day ; Caes. 2, 5. Ad cenam homi- nem invitavit in posterum diem, he invited the man to dinner for the next day. Sub vesperum exTre, to go out towards evening. 488. The Interval between two events may be variously ex- pressed : 1. By the Accusative or Ablative with ante or post : Classis post dies paucos venit, after a few days the fleet arrived. Paucos ante dies, a few days before. Homerus annis multis fuit ante Romulum, Homer lived many years before Romulus ; C. Brut. lO, 40. Pausis ante diebus nSluit, he declined a few days before. Panels post annis, a few years after. 2. By the Accusative or Ablative with ante quam, post quam, or post, generally with an ordinal numeral : Post diem tertium quam dixerat, three days after he had spoken ; c. Mil. 16, 44. Anno ipso ante quam natus est Ennius, in the very year before Ennius was born. Nono anno post quam in Hispaniam venerat, in the ninth year after he had come into Spain ; s. 22, 4, 2. 3. By the Ablative of a relative and its antecedent : Mors Roscii quadriduS quo is occisus est niintiatur, the death of Roscius is announced four days after he was killed; C. Rose. A. 86, 104. Note 1. — Pridie quam means on the day before, and postridie quam, on the day after or a day later : Postridie v6nit, quam exspectaram, he came a day later than I had expected; C. Fam. 16, 14. HARK. LAT. GRAM. 17 242 SYNTAX Note 2. — The question how long ago? may be answered by the Aecusa^ tive with abhinc : Abhinc annos trecentos fuit, he lived three hundred years ago; C. Div. 2, 57, lis. Note 3. — In rare instances the Ablative with abhinc is used like the Abla^ tive with ante : Abhinc diebus triginta, thirty days before ; o. Ver. 2, 52, 1S5. Ablative Absolute^ 489. Rule. — A noun with a participle, an adjective, or another noun, may be put in the Ablative to add to the predicate an Attendant Circumstance : Servio regnante viguerunt, they flourished in the reign of Servius (Ser- vius reigning) .'^ Consules, regibus exactis, creati sunt, after the banish- ment of the kings,' consuls were elected; L. 4, 4, 2. Caesar equitatii praemisso subsequebatur, Caesar having sent forward his cavalry followed. Hoc dicit, me audiente, he says this in my hearing. Legatos discedeve, nisi miini- tis castris, vetuerat, he had forbidden his lieutenants to depart, unless the camp was fortified ; Caes. 2, 20. Caelo sereno obsciirata lux aat,'^ tohile the sky was clear, the sun (the light) was obscured; L. 8T, 4, 4. L. Pisone, Aulo Gabinio consulibus, in the consulship of L. Piso and Aulus Gabinius. 1. The Ablative Absolute, much more common than the English Nomina- tive Absolute, generally expresses the Time, Cause, or some Attendant Cir- cumstance of the action. It is generally best rendered by a noun with a preposition — in, during, after, by, with, through, etc.; by an active par- ticiple with its object ; or by a clause with when, while, because, if, though, etc. ; see examples above. 2. A conjunction, as nisi, tamquam, etc., sometimes accompanies the Ablative, as in the fifth example. 3. The Ablative in this construction generally refers to some person or thing not otherwise mentioned in the clause to which it belongs, but excep- tions occur : Obsidibus imperatis, hos Aeduls tradit, having demanded hostages, he de- livers them to the Aedui; Caes. 6, 4. 1 This Ablative is called Absolute, because it is not directly dependent for Its construction upon any other word in the sentence. In classical Latin it ex- presses both Instrumental and Locative relations. 2 Or, while Servius was reigning, or, while Servius was king. ' Or, after the kings were banished. * The construction by which a noun and an adjective, or two nouns, may be in the Ablative Absolute is peculiar to the Latin. In the corresponding construction in Sanskrit, Greek, and English, the present participle of the verb, to be, is used. ABLATIVE 243 4. In the Ablative Absolute, Perfect Participles of deponent verbs are generally found only in tlie poets and late writers. With an object they are first found in Sallust : Sulla omnia poUioito, as Stilla promised everything; s. 108, 7. 5. Two participles, or a participle and a predicate noun or adjective, are occasionally combined with a noun in the Ablative Absolute : Agro capts ex liostibus diviso, lohen the land taken from the enemy had been divided; L. i,46. Hasdrubale imperatore suffecto, when Hasdruhal suc- ceeded as commander; n, 2s, 3. 6. An Infinitive or Clause may be in the Ablative Absolute with a neuter participle or adjective : Alexander, audita Dareum movisse, pergit, Alexander having heard that Darius had withdrawn, advances; Curt, s, is. Multi, incerto quid vltarent, interierunt, many, uncertain lohat they should avoid, perished; L. 2S, 3G. 7. A Participle or an Adjective may stand alone in the Ablative Absolute : Multum certato.i pervicit, he conquered after a hard struggle; Tac. An. 11, 10. 8. Quisque or ipse in the Nominative may accompany the Ablative Absolute : Causa ipse pro sS dicta damnatur,^ having himself advocated his own cause, he is condemned ; L. 4, 44, lo. Exercitus, raultis sibi quisque imperium petentibus, dllabitur,'-' while many seek the command, each for himself, the army goes to pieces ; S. 13, 3. 9. Absente nobis, in my presence, in which nobis is used for me, is an instance of Synesis : Quid absente nobis turbatumst (= turbatum est), what is the disturbance in my absence? T. Eun. 649. Ablative with Prepositions 490. Rule. — The Ablative may take a preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended : Matlirat ab urbe proficiscl, he hastens to set out from the city. Ab his amatur, by these he is loved. Statua ex aere facta, a statue made of bronze. 1 Here the participle is used impersonally, it having been much contested. 2 In the first example ipse may be explained as belonging to the subject of damnatur, but in the second quisque has no grammatical connection with any other word in the sentence. A plausible view of the construction is that sibi quisque, which in certain connections has become almost a stereotyped formula, has been brought over unchanged into the Ablative Absolute from the clause which it represents. 244 SYMTAX Coram frequentissimo conventu, in the presence of the crowded assembly. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, it is sweet and seemly to die for one's country. Tauro tenus regnare iussus est, he was bidden to limit his realm by Mount Taurus (to reign as lav as Taurus) ; of. 0. Deiot. 18, 86. 1. Note the force of the prepositions in the following expressions: ab urbe, from the city; ex urbe, out of the city; in urbe, in the city; cum urbe, with the city ; pro urbe, before the city or ire behalf of the city. 2. The following ten prepositions are used with the Ablative only : a, ab, abs, , from, by e, ex. out of, from absque, without prae. before, in comparison with coram. in the presence of pro. before, for cum. with sine. without de, down from, from tenus. as far as Note 1. — A and e are used only before consonants, aband ex before either vowels or consonants. Abs is antiquated, except before te. NoTJE 2. — Cum, when used with a Personal or a Relative Pronoun, is generally appended to it. Note 3. — Tenus follows its case. Being in origin the Accusative of a noun, it often takes the Genitive ; see 446, 5. 3. The following four prepositions are used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative : in, into, in subter, beneath, under, towards sub, under, towards super, above, about, beyond In and sub with the Accusative after verbs of motion ; with the Ablative after verbs of rest. Subter and super generally with the Accusative ; sub- ter with the Ablative rare and mostly poetical ; super with the Ablative meaning concerning, of, on, used of a subject of discourse : Hannibal exercitum in Italiam duxit, Hannibal led an army into Italy. Quam diu in Italia fuit, as loncj as he was in Italy. Milites sub montem suc- iedunt, the soldiers approach towards the mountain. Sub pellibus hiemare, to winter in camp (under skins). Subter murum hostium avehitur, he is borne under the wall of the enemy. Subter densa testudine, under a compact testudo. Aquila super carpentum volitans, an eagle flying above the carnage. Hao super re scribam, I shall write on this subject. 4. A few words, generally adverbs, sometimes become prepositions, and are used with the Ablative, as intus, palam, procul, simul (poetic), and rarely clam : Tali intus templo, within such a temple ; V. 7, 192. Palam populo, in the presence of the people; L. 6, 14. Procul dubio, without doubt or far from doubtful; L. 89, 40. Simul his, with these; H. s. l, 10, 86. Clam vobis, with- out your knowledge ; Caes. c. 2, 82. SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND SPACE 245 Summary of Constructions of Place and Space 491. I. The Names of Places are generally put 1. In the Accusative with ad ov in to denote the Place to or into Which : Exevcitum in Italiam duxit, he led an army into Italy. 2. In the Ablative with ab, de, or ex to denote the Place from Which : Ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out from the city. 3. In the Locative Ablative with in to denote the Place at or in Which : Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy. In oppido obsidebantur, they mere besieged in the town. II. The Names of Towns and words which follow their analogy are put 1. In the Accusative to denote the Place to Which : Legati Athenas missi sunt, ambassadors icere sent to Athens. Ego rus ibo, / shall go into the country. 2. In the Ablative to denote the Place from Which : Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus fled from Corinth. Platonem Athenis arcessivit, he summoned Plato from Athens. Cum domo profii- gisset, when he had fled from home. 3. In the Locative to denote the Place at or in Which : Romae et domi tuae vivere, to live at Rome and in your house. Cypri vixit, he Hoed in Cyprus. III. The common constructions of Space are as follows : 1. Extent of Space is denoted by the Accusative : Agger altus pedes octoginta, a mound eighty feet high. 2. Measure of Difference is denoted by the Ablative : Sol multis partibus maior est quam terra, the sun is very much larger than the earth. 3. Distance, when regarded as Extent of Space, is denoted by the Accusative, but when regarded as Measure of Difference, by the Abla- tive: Septingenta mllia passuum ambulare, to walk seven hundred miles. Milibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit, he encamped at the dis- tance of six miles from Caesar's camp. 246 SYNTAX USE OF ADJECTIVES. 492. Adjectives in Latin correspond in their general use to adjectives in English. 1. In Latin, as in English, an adjective may qualify the complex idea formed by a noun with one or more other modifiers : duae legiones novae, ^ two new legions; naves longae veteres, old war vessels; columna anrea BOlida, a column of solid gold ; oneraria navis maxima, a very large ship of burden. Note. — In general no connective is used when adjectives are comhined as in these examples; hut if the first adjective is multi, the connective is usually inserted, though it is sometimes omitted, especially when one of the adjectives follows the noun: multae bonaeque^ artes, many good arts; multa et praeclara^ facinora, maiiy illustrious deeds; multae liberae civitates, many free states, many republics; multa bella gravia, many severe wars. 493. Prolepsis, or Anticipation. — An adjective or a participle is sometimes applied to a noun, especially in poetry, to denote the result of the action expressed by the verb : Submersas' obrue puppes, overwhelm and sink the ships (overwhelm the sunken ships) ; V. 1, 69. Soiita latentia condunt, they conceal their (hidden) shields ; v. 8, 237. 494. Adjectives and Participles are often used Substantively in the plural. Thus : 1. Masculine Adjectives and Participles are used of persons ; Neuter Adjectives, chiefly in the Nominative and Accusative, are used of things : fortes, divites, pauperes, the brave, the rich, the poor; multi, pauci, omnes, many, few, all ; nostri, vestri, sui, our friends, your friends, their friends; spectantes, audientes, discentes, spectators, hearers, learners; bona, utilia, futura, good things, useful things, future events ; mea, nostra, omnia, my things, our things, all things. 495. Adjectives and Participles are occasionally used Substan- tively in the singular. Thus : 1 Here duae modifies not simply legiones, but legiones novae ; so veteres qualifies naves longae, loar vessels. ^ Lit. many and good; many and illustrious. 3 Observe that submersas gives the result of the action denoted by obrue, and is not applicable to puppes until that action is performed ; latentia liliewise gives the result of condunt. USE OF ADJECTIVES 247 1. In the masculine in a collective sense, especially as a predicate Geni- tive after eat, etc., and when accompanied by a pronoun: Romanus = Romani, the Roman, the Romans; bonus, the good man, the good; sapi- entis est, it is the m,ark of a wise man or of wise men — it is wise ; hio doctus, dootus qmdam, this learned man, a certain learned man; hic Romanus, Romanus quidam, this Roman, a certain Roman. 2. In the neuter in the Nominative and Accusative, in the Partitive Geni- tive, and in the Accusative or Ablative with a preposition : bonum, a good thing, a blessing; malum, an evil thing, an evil; nihil bom, nothing (of the) good; nihil humani, nothing human; in futiirum, for the future; in praesenti, at present. 3. Conversely a few substantives are sometimes used as adjectives, espe- cially verbal nouns in tor and trix : victor ezercitus, victrices Athenae, a victorious army, victorious Athens; homo gladiator, servus homo, o gladiator, a servant ; populus late rex, a people ruling far and wide. 4. For the use of adjectives with the force of qualifying Genitives, see 437. 496. Equivalent to a Clause. — Adjectives, like nouns in predi- cate apposition, are sometimes equivalent to clauses : Alterum vivum amavi, alterum non odi mortuum, the one I loved while he was alive, the other I do not hate noio that he is dead; 0. Off. 8, 18. Ab homine numquam sobrio, from a man loho is never sober; C. Ph. 2, sa. 497. Adjectives and Adverbs. — Adjectives are sometimes used where oui- idiom requires adverbs or adverbial expressions: Socrates yenenum laetus hausit, Socrates cheerfully drank the poison; Sen. Prov. 8. Quod invitus facio, which I do unioillingly ; C. Rose. A. 42, 128. Castris se pavidus tenebat, he timidly kept himself in camp; L. 8. 26. In amore est totus, he is wholly in love. Erat ille Romae frequens, he was frequently at Rome. Senatus frequens convenit, the senate assembles in large numbers ; c. Fam. lo, 12, 8. 1. The adjectives chiefly thus used are those expressive of Joy, Knowledge, and their opposites, — laetus, libens, invitus, tristis, sciens, insciens, prudeuB, imprudens, etc. ; also nuUus, solus, totus, ilnus, propior, prozimus, etc. 2. A few adjectives of Time and Place are sometimes used in the same way, though chiefly in the poets : Vespertinus pete tectum, at evening seek your abode; H, E. l, 6, 20. Domesticus otior, I idle about the house ; H. s. l, 6, 127. 3. Note the following special uses of such adjectives as prior, prunuB, princeps, postremus, ultimus, etc. : 248 SYNTAX Est primus rogatus sententiam, he was the first to be asked his opinion ; L. ST, 14. Princeps in proelium Ibat, he was the first to go into battle ; L. 31, 4. 4. Certain adjectives, as primus, medius, ultimus, summus, etc., may designate a part of an object; as prima nox, the first part of the night; summus mona, the top of the mountain. 5. In rare instances, adverbs seem to supply the place of adjectives : Rectissime sunt omnia, all things are perfectly right ; 0. Fam. 9, 9. Nunc hominum mores, the character of the men of the present day ; Pi. Pers. 886. 6. Numeral adverbs often occur with titles of office : Eegulus consul iterum, Begulus when consul for the second time; cf. C. Off. 3, 26, 99. 498. Comparatives and Superlatives. — Latin Comparatives and Superlatives are generally best rendered by the corresponding English forms, but comparatives may sometimes be rendered by somewhat, unusually, too, i.e. more than usual, or more than is proper, while superlatives are sometimes best rendered by very : Ego miserior sum quam til, 7 am more unhappy than you. Senecttis est loquacior, old age is somewhat loquacious. Gratissimae mihl tuae litterae fuerunt, yotir letter was very acceptable to me. Quam maximus numerus, the largest possible number. Unus omnium doctissimus, without exception, the most learned of all. Quantam maximam vastitatem potest ostendit, he exhibits the greatest possible desolation (as great as the greatest he can); L. 22, 8. 1. Certain superlatives are common as titles of honor: clarissimus, nobilissimus, and summus — especially applicable to men of consular or senatorial rank ; fortissimus, honestissimus, illustrissimus, and splendi- dissimus — especially applicable to those of the equestrian order : Pompeius, vir fortissimus et clarissimus, Pompey, a man most brave and illustrious ; c. I. Ver. is, 44. Equites Romani, honestissimi viri, the Soman knights, most honorable men; c. o. l, 8, 21. 499. Comparatives after Quam. — When an object is said to possess one quality in a higher degree than another, the two adjectives thus used may be connected by magis quam, the usual method in Cicero, or both may be put in the comparative : Praeclarum magis est quam difficile, it is more admirable than difficult, or a^dmirable rather than difficult; c. q. Fr. i, i, ii. DltiOrSs quam fortiorgs, more wealthy than brave; L. 89, 1. USE OF PRONOUNS 249 1. In a similar manner, two Adverbs may be connected by magis quam, or both may be put in the comparative : Magis audacter quam parate, with more courage than preparation ; o. Brut. 68, 241. Bellum fortius quam fslicius gerere, to wage war with more valor than success. 2. The form with magis, both in adjectives and in adverbs, may some- times be best rendered rather than : Ars magis magna quam difficilis, an art extensive rather than difficult 3. In the later Latin, the positive sometimes follows quam, even when the regular comparative precedes, and sometimes two positives are used : Vehementius quam caut6 appetere, to seek more eagerly than cautiously; cf. Tac. Agr. 4. Clari quam vetusti, illustrious rather than ancient. 4. For the use of comparatives before quam pro, see 471, 7. USE or PRONOUNS 500. Personal Pronouns. — The Nominative of Personal Pro- nouns is used only for emphasis or contrast : Natiiram si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature, we shall never go astray. Ego reges eiecl, vos tyrannos introdUoitis, I have banished kings, you introduce tyrants ; Ad Hor. 4, 68. 1. With quidem, the pronoun is usually expressed, but not with equi- dem: Facis amice tu quidem, you act indeed in a friendly manner. Non dubi- tabam equidem, / did not doubt indeed. 2. A writer sometimes speaks of himself in the plural, using nos for ego, noster for meus, and the plural verb for the singular : Vides nos multa conarl, you see that I attempt many things ; c. Orator, so, 105. Et nostra lectitas, and you often read my writings ; c. Orator, so, 105. Librum ad te misimus, I have sent the book to you; 0. Sen. l, s. 3. In Plautus and in Horace, noster, our friend, occurs in the sense of ego : Til me alienabis numquam quin noster siem, you shall never make me to be any other than myself; pi. Amph. 899. Subiectior in diem invidiae noster, lam daily more exposei, to unpopularity ; H. 8. 2, 6. 4. Mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri are generally used as Objective Genitives; nostrum and vestrum, as Partitive Genitives — though with 250 SYNTAX omnium, and in certain special expressions, nostrum and vestrum are used as Possessive Genitives : Habetis ducem memorem vestrl, oblltum sui, you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself; c. c. 4, 9. Uni cuique vestrum, to every one of you; C. Ph. 6, 1. Communis parens omnium nostrum, the common mother of us all; C. C. 1, 7. Quantus consensus vestrum, how great unanimity on your part (of you); C. Ph. 5, i. 5. A Personal Pronoun witli ab, ad, or apud may designate the Eesi- dence or Abode o£ a person : Quisnam a nobis egreditur foras, who is coming out of our house ? T. Heaut. 661. VenI ad me, I came to my house; o. Att. 16, to. Ruri apud se est, he is at his residence in the country; at. c. Or. l, 49, 214. 501. Possessives, when not emphatic, are seldom expressed if they can be supplied from the context : In eo studi5 aetatem consumpsT, I have sp^nt my life in this pursuit. Sic oculos, sic ille maniis ferebat, thtis he moved his eyes, thus his hands. Mea domus tibi patet, miM clausa est, my house is open to you, closed to me; O. Eoso. A. so, 145. 1. Possessives sometimes mean appropriate, proper, favorable, propitious, as alienuB sometimes means unsuitable, unfavorable : Ego anno meo c5nsul factus sum, I was made consul in my own proper year (i.e. on reacliing the legal age) ; of. c. Brut. 94, 828. Perunt sua flamina classem, favoring winds bear the fleet ; v. 6, 832. Alien5 loco proelium cbm- mittunt, they engage in battle in an unfavorable situation; Caes. l, 16. 2. Remember that the Possessive is regularly used for the Subjective Genitive of personal pronouns, and sometimes, though rarely, for the Objective Genitive; see 440, 2, Note 2: Tua sui memoria delectatur, he is delighted with your recollection of him; C. Att. 13, 1, 3. Neque odio id fecit tuo, nor did he do it from hatred of you; T. Ph. 1016. 3. For the possessive in combination vyith a Genitive, see 446, 3. 502. Reflexive Use of Pronouns. — The Personal and Possessive Pronouns may be used reflexively ; sui and suus are regularly so used : Me ipse consolor, I comfort myself; o. Am. 3, lo. Ipse se quisque diligit, every one loves himself. Anteposuit suam saltitem meae, he preferred his own safety to mine. USE OF PRONOUNS 251 1. Reciprocal Use of Pronouns. — The reoiprocal relation which objects often sustain to each other may be variously expressed, as by inter nos, inter vos, and inter Be, each other, one another, together; by the reflexive sui with ipsi ; by alius alium or alter alterum ; and by repeating the noun in an oblique case : PuerS amant inter se, the boys love one another. Milites sib! ipsi sunt im- pedlmento, the soldiers are a hindrance to one another. Alius alium domos suSs invitant, they invite one another to their homes. Homines hominibus utiles esse possunt, men can be useful to men (i.e. to one another). 503. In simple sentences and in principal clauses, sui and suus generally refer to the subject : Per se quisque sibi carus est, every one is by his own nature (per se, through or of himself) dear to himself; C. Am. 21, SO. Caesar copias suas divisit, Caesar divided his forces. 1. As aui and suus generally refer to the subject, the demonstratives is, ille, etc., are generally used to refer to other words in the sentence : Deum agnosois ex operibus eius, you recognize God by (from) his works. 2. Synesis. — When the subject of the verb is not the real agent of the action, aui and suus may refer to that agent : A Caesare invitor sibI ut sim legatus, I am invited by Caesar (real agent) to be lieutenant to him ; o, Att. 2, 18. 3. With such indefinite and impersonal expressions as the following, BUI and suus refer to some indefinite person conceived as the author of the action : Deforme est de sS praedicare,' Jo boast of one's self is unseemly; C. Off. l, 38, 13T. Perventum ad suSs erat,i they had come to their fnends; L. 83, 8. 4. Suus, meaning his own, their own, fitting, etc., especially with quis- que, and the plural of suus, meaning his friends, their friends, their pos- sessions, etc., are used with great freedom, often referring to oblique cases : liistitia sunm cuique distribuit. Justice gives to every one his due (his own) ; C. N. D. 3, 15. Su5 cuique iudiciS est utendum, every one must use his oron judgment; C. n. d. 3, l. Conserva tuis suos, for the sake of your friends, spare their friends; 0. Lig. ll, 33. 504. In Subordinate Clauses expressing the Thought, Wish, or Purpose of the principal clause, as in the Infinitive clause, final 1 Here observe that the reflexives se and suos refer to the indefinite agents of the action expressed by praedlcare and perventum erat. 252 SYNTAX clause, indirect questions, and the like, sui and suus generally refer to the subject of the principal clause ; in all other subordi- nate clauses, they generally refer to the subject of their own clause, and are called Direct Eefiexives : Sentit animus se vi sua moverl, the soul perceives that it is moved by its oron power; 0. Tusc. l, 28, 55. Ubii orant ut sibi parcat, the JJhii ask him to spare them. Pervestigat quid sui cives cogitent, he tries to ascertain what his fellow-citizens think. Neminem cSgnovi poetam, qui sibI non optimus videretur, / have known no poet who did not seem to himself to be the best ; 0. Tusc. 5, 22, 68. 1. After verbs of Advising, Exhorting, etc., sui and suus generally refer to the Subordinate Subject, as the person in whose interest the advice is given : Nervios hortatur ne sui liberandl occasionem dimittant, he exhorts the Nervii not to lose the opportunity of freeing themselves ; Caes. 5, 3S. 2. Two Reflexives. — Sometimes a clause has one reflexive referring to the Principal subject, and another referring to the Subordinate subject : Eespondit neminem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse, he replied that no one had fought with him without (his) destruction ; Caes. 1, 86. 3. When the Reflexive refers to the Subordinate subject, the Demon- strative or Determinative refers to the Principal subject : Persuadent Tulingis uti oppidis suls exustis tina cum iis proficiscantur, they persuaded the Tulingi that, having burned their towns, they should depart with them ; Caes. l, 5, 4. 4. Reflexives are sometimes used with participles, referring to the agent of the action implied in them : Hunc rex excepit diffidentemque ^ rebus suis c5nfirmavit, the king received him and encouraged him when he had lost confidence in his own strength ; 0. Man. 9, 23. 5. Reflexives are sometimes used idiomatically with a few prepositions, especially with per, propter, cum, in : Valetiidinem ipsam propter sg expetemus, xoe shall seek health for itself; C. Fin. 5, 17. Caesar Fabium cum sua^ legione remittit, Caesar sends back Fabius with (having) his legion; Caes. 5, 58. 1 Observe that if an equivalent subordinate clause be substituted for the parti- ciple dlffidentem, as in the translation, the reflexive would be entirely in order, and would refer to the subject of its own clause. 2 Observe that cum legione sua is equivalent to legionem suam ha- bentem, in which the use of the reflexive is the same as that described above under number 4. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 25S DEMONSTKATIVE PRONOUNS 505. Hie, iste, ille, are often called, respectively, demonstratives of the first, second, and third persons, as hie designates that which is near the speaker ; iste, that vt^hich is near the person addressed ; and ille, that which is remote from both : lovem, custodem huius urbis, Jupiter the guardian of this (our) city. Muta istam mentem, change that purpose of yours. 1115s quos videre non pos- sumus neglpgis, you disregard those whom we can not see. 1. Hic designates an object conceived as near, and ille as remote, whether in space, time, or thought : Non antlquo illo more, sed hoc nostrQ eruditus, educated not in the manner of the olden times, but in this our modern way ; 0. Brut. 85, 1S2. 506. Former and Latter. — In reference to two objects previously mentioned, 1. Hio generally follows ille and refers to the latter object, while ille refers to the former : Acerbos inimicos . . . eos amicSs . . . lUi verum saepe dicunt, hi nuraquam, hitter enemies . . . those friends . . . the former often speak the truth, the latter never ; cf. C. Am. 24, 90. 2. Hio refers to the former object when that object is conceived of as near in thought, either because of its importance or because of its close connection with the subject under discussion. It may then stand either before or after ille : Melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria ; haec in tua, ilia in deorum manu est, sure peace is better than hoped-for victory ; the former is in your own hand, the latter in that of the gods; L. so, so. Senex . . . adulescens . . . ille vult diu vivere, hic diu vixit, the aged man . . . the young man . . . the latter wishes to live a long time; the former has lived a long time; C. Sen. 19, 68. 507. Other Uses of Demonstratives. — Hic and ille are often used of what belongs to the immediate context : Haec quae scribo et ilia quae antea questus sum, these things which I am writing and those of which I before complained ; s. 24, 9. His verbis epistulam nusit, he sent a letter in these (the following) words; N. 2, 9, l. 1. Hic et ille, ille aut ille, etc., this and that, that or that, are sometimes used in the sense one or two, one or another : Hoc signum et illud, this statue and that, one or two statues. • 254 SYNTAX 2. Hie, as a demonstrative of the first person, is sometimes, especially in poetry, equivalent to meus or noster ; and hie homo, rarely hie alone, to ego : Supra hanc memoriam, before our time (this memory); Caes. 6, 19. Hie homost (homo est) omnium hominum praecipuos, this man (myself) is the most favored of all men; Pi. Trin. iiiB. Huno hominem velles si tradere, if you were willing to introduce me (this man); h. 8. l, 9, 47. 3. late, as a demonstrative of the second person, is often applied to an opponent, or to a defendant in a court of justice ; accordingly the idea of Disrespect or Contempt seems at times to be associated with it, though not strictly contained in the pronoun itself : Quae est ista praetura, what sort of praetorship is that of yours f C. Ver. 3, 18, 46. Animi est ista moUitia, non virtus, that is an effeminate spirit, not valor. 4. lUe is often used of what is well known, famous, and in that sense it is sometimes in apposition with a Personal pronoun : Magnus ille Alexander, that famous Alexander the Great; C. Arch. 10, 24. lUe ego liber, ille ferox tacui, /, that unrestrained, that fearless one, was silent. 5. nie is sometimes nearly or quite redundant, especially with quidem : ApoUonius ille quidem suo consilio, sed etiam me auctSre est profectus, Apollonius set out of his own free will indeed, but also with my advice; C. Fam. 18, 16. Qui venit, multum ille et terrls iactatus et alto, who came, after having been much tossed about on land and sea ; v. l, l. 6. A demonstrative is sometimes equivalent to a Genitive or to a prepo- sition with its case : hie amor = amor huius rei, the love of this ; baee eura = cura de hoe, care concerning this: Ea formidine multi mortales ESmanIs dediti obsides, from the fear of these things many were delivered as hostages to the Romans ; 8. 54, 6. 7. Adverbs derived from demonstratives share the distinctive meanings of the pronouns themselves : HIc plus mail est, quam illlc bonl, there is more of evil here than of good there ; T. And. 720. DETEKMINATIVE PRONOUNS 508. Is and idem refer to preceding nouns, or are the ante- cedents of relatives : Dionysius aufugit ; is est in provincia tua, Dionysius has fled ; he is in your province. Homines id quod volunt crSdunt, men believe that which they DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS 255 desire. F6cit Idem quod fecerat Coriolauus, he did the same thing which Coriolanus had done. 1 . The pronoun is is often understood before the relative or a Genitive : Sunt qui censeant, there are those who think. Flebat uterque, pater de Elii morte, de patris filius, each wept, the father over the impending death of the son, the son over (that) of the father; c. Ver. i, so. 2. Is with a conjunction is often used for emphasis, like the English and that too, and that indeed : Unam rem explicabo, eamque maximam, one thing I will explain, and that too a very important one. Audire Cratippum, idque Athenis, to hear Cra- tippus, and that too at Athens; cf. c, Off. i, i. 3. Idem is sometimes best rendered also, at the same time, both, yet: Qui fortis est, Idem est fidens, he who is brave, is also confident. Cum optimam nattiram del dicat esse, negat Idem, etc., though he says that the nature of God is most excellent, he yet denies, etc.; c. n. D. i, 48, 121. Rex Anius, rex idem hominum Phoebique sacerdSs, King Anius, both king of men and priest of Apollo ; V. 8, so. 4. Is . . . qui means he . . . who, such . . . as, such . . . that : Tu es is qui me ornasti, you are the man (he) loho has honored me. Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat, the Soman race is such t?iat it knows not how to rest when vanquished; L. 9, 8. 5. Idem . . . qui means the same . . . who, (he same . . . as ; idem . . . ao or atque, idem . . . et or que, idem . . . ut, idem . . . cum vyith the Ablative, the same . . . as: Animus te erga Idem est ac fuit, the feeling toward you is the same as it was; T. Heaut. 2C5. Eodem mecum patre genitus est, he is the son of the same father as I (with me); Tac. A. 15, 2. 509. Ipse adds emphasis, generally rendered self: Quod ipse Caesar cognoverat, which Caesar himself had ascertained. Ipse pater fulmina molltur, the father himself (Jupiter) hurls the thunderbolts. Ipse dixit'; ipse autem erat Pythagoras, he himself said it; but he was Pythagoras. 1. Ipse belongs to the emphatic word, whether subject or object, but with a preference for the subject when no special emphasis rests on the object : 1 Applied to Pythagoras by his disciples. Ipse is often thus used of a superior, as of a master, teacher, etc. 256 SYNTAX Me ipse consOlor, I myself (not another) comfort myself. Ipse se quisque diligit, every one loves himself. Se ipse ' interfecit, he himself killed himself. Se ipsumi interfecit, he killed himself (not another). 2. Ipse is sometimes accompanied by secum, with himself, alone, or by pej: se, by himself, unaided, in and of himself, etc. ; Aliud genitor secum ipse volutat, the father himself is pondering with himself another plan. "Virtus est per se ipsa laudabilis, viHue itself is praise- worthy in and of itself. 3. Ipse is often best rendered by very : Sum profectus ipso ills die, / set out on that very day. 4. With numerals, ipse means just so many, just; so also in nunc ipsum, just at this time ; turn ipsum, just at that time : Triginta dies erant ipsi, it was just thirty days. Nunc ipsum sine te esse non possum, just at this time I cannot be without you ; C. Att. 12, 16. 5. Ipse, in the Genitive, with a possessive, means own, one's own : Contentus nostra ipsorum amicitia, satisfied with our own friendship; 0. Fam. 6, 16. 6. Ipse, in subordinate clauses, sometimes refers to the principal subject with the force of an emphatic sm or suus : Legatos misit qui ipsi vltam peterent, he sent messengers to beg life for himself. 7. Ipse quoque and et ipse ^ are often best rendered also, likewise, even he : Ipsi quoque vultis, you also wish it. Alius AchillSs natus et ipse dea, another Achilles likewise (himself also) born of a goddess; V. 6, 89. 8. For the use of the Nominative ipse in connection with the Ablative Absolute, see 489, 8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 510. The relative is often used where the English idiom requires a demonstrative or personal pronoun, sometimes even at the begin- ning of a sentence : Periitiles Xenophontis libri sunt ; qu5s legite studiSse, the books of Xeno- phon are very useful ; read them attentively ; C. Sen. 17, 59. Qui cum equitatii 1 In the example with ipse, the emphasis is on the subject, he himself killed ; in the example with ipsum, the emphasis is on the object, killed himself. 2 Et ipse, not in Caesar, rare in Cicero, is found in poetSj in Livy, and in late writers. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 257 Helvetiorum proelium committunt, they engage in battle with the cavalry of the Helvetii; Caes. l, 15, 2. Quae cum ita sint, since these things are so; C. Mur. 1. 2. 1. Relatives and Demonstratives are often correlatives to each other: hio . . . qui, iste . . . qui, etc. These combinations generally retain the ordinary force of the separate words : Quam quisque norit artem,i in hac se exerceat, let every one practice (exercise himself in) the ai-t which he understands. Istum^ quem quaeris, ego sum, / am that person whom you seek; Pi. Cure. 419. 2. In Two Successive Clauses, the relative may be expressed in both, or it may be expressed in the first, and omitted in the second, when the case of the two relatives is the same ; or, finally, it may be expressed in the first, and followed by a demonstrative in the second: Nos qni sermon! non interfuissemus et quibus Cotta sententias tradidisset, we who had not been present at the conversation, and to whom Cotta had reported the opinions; O. Or. 3, 4, 16. Dumnorigl, qui principatum obtinebat ac plebi acceptus erat,^ persuadet, he persuades Dumnorix, who held the chief authority, and who was a favorite of the common people (acceptable to); Caea. 1, 3, 5. Quae nec haberemus neo iis iiteremur, which we should neither have nor use; c. Off. 2, a, 12. 3. Several relatives may stand in successive clauses : In mundo deus inest aliquis, qui regat, qui gubernet, qui cursQs astrorum conservet, there is a God in the world, who rules, who governs, who preserves the courses of the stars ; c. N. D. 1, 20, 52. 4. Relative with Adjective. — Adjectives belonging in sense to the antecedent, especially Comparatives, Superlatives, and Numerals, some- times stand in the relative clause in agreement with the relative : Vasa, quae pulcherrima viderat, the most beautiful vessels rohich he had seen (which the most beautiful he had seen) . De servis suls, quem habuit fldelissimum, misit, he sent the most faithful of the servants which he had. 5. When both antecedent and relative depend on the same preposition, and the two clauses have the same predicate, the preposition may be omitted before the relative : Incidit in eandem invidiam, quam* pater suus, he incurred (fell into) the same unpopularity as his father; N. 5, s. 1 Observe that the relative clause contains the antecedent artem. 2 Istiim attracted into the case of the relative, see 399, 5. ' Observe that, if the relative had been expressed, it would have been in the same case as qui in the first clause. 4 Observe that quam depends on the preposition in understood. HARK. LAT. GKAM. 18 258 SYNTAX 6. Relative clauses in Latin, with or without antecedents, are sometimes equivalent to nouns, adjectives, or participles in English, as, ii qui audiuht, those who hear, hearers ; homines qui nunc sunt, men of the present gen- eration, our contemporaries; ii, quos supra dizi, the above-mentioned persons : Politus lis artibus, quas qui tenent, eruditi appellantur, accomplished in those arts whose possessors are called learned; c. Fin. l, 7, 26. 7. Qui dicituT, qui vocatur, or the corresponding active, quern dicunt, quem vocant, etc., are often used in the sense of so called, the so-called, what they or you call, etc. . Vestra, quae dicitur, vita mors est, your so-called (your which is called) life is death. Lex ista, quam vocas, non est lex, that law, as you call it, is not a law ; o. Dom. 19, 60. 8. A Relative Clause is sometimes equivalent to the Ablative with pro. Quae tua priidentia est = qua es prudentia = pro tua prudentia means such is your prudence, or in accordance with your prudence : Spero, quae tua prudentia est, te valere, / hope you are well, such is your .prudence (which is, etc.); C. Att. 0, 9, l. 9. The neuter quod, used as an adverbial Accusative, often stands at the beginning of a sentence or clause, especially before si, ni, nisi, etsi, and sometimes before quia, quoniam, utinam, etc., to indicate a close connec- tion with what precedes. In translating, it is sometimes best omitted, and sometimes best rendered by now, in fact, but, and : Quod si forte ceciderlnt, bttt if, perchance, they should fall; c. Am. 15, 58. Quod SI ego resclvissem id prius, now, if I had learned this sooner ; T. And. 258. 10. The neuter quicquid, of the general relative, accompanied by an adjective, a participle, or a Genitive, may be used of persons : Matres et quicquid tecum invalidum est delige, select the mothers and whatever feeble persons there are with you; V. 6, 715. 11. The Relative Adverbs qu5, ubi, and unde are sometimes used of persons. Instead of relative pronouns with prepositions : Apud eos quo se contulit, among those to whom he betook himself. Is unde te audisse dicis, he from whom you say that you heard it ; c. Or. 2,70, 285. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 511. The Interrogatives quis and quid are generally used as substantives, who'? what person? what? what thing? Qui and quod are generally used as adjectives, what? of what kind, sort, or character? INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 259 Quis clarior Themistocle, xoho more illustrious than Themistocles? Quis ego sum, toho am I? Quid ego dico, what am I saying ? Qui locus est, quod tempus, lohat place is there? what time? Ill qua urbe viviraus, in what sort of a city are we living ? 1. This distinction between quis and qui, quid and quod, was almost or quite unknown in early Latin, and it is not always observed even by Cicero : Quis homo ts rapit, what man is seizing you ? Pi. Eud. 870. Quis rex umquam fuit, lohat king loas there ever ? 0. Div. 1, 43, 95. 2. Which of two is generally expressed by uter. Wliich one of a larger number is expressed by quis : Quaeritur, ex duobus, uter dignior ; ex pluribus, quis dignissimus ; of two, we ask, which is the more worthy; of a larger number, who is the most worthy ; Quint. 7, 4, 21. 3. Two Interrogatives sometimes occur in the same clause : Quis quem fraudavit, who defrauded, and whom did he defraud (who defrauded whom)? o. Rose. o. 7, 21. 4. Tantus sometimes accompanies the Interrogative Pronoun : Qui tantus fuit labor, what so great labor was there ? c. Dom. ii, 27. 5. Quid, why ? how is that ? is often used adverbially, or stands appar- ently unconnected : quid enim, why then ? what then ? what indeed ? quid ita, why so ? quid quod, what of the fact that ? quid si, wliat if ? Loquere, quid venisti, say, why have you come ? Quid ? nonne responde- bis, what ? loill you not reply ? Quid quod delectantur, what of the fact that they are delighted ? C. Fin. 5, 19, 62. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 512. Quis, ali-quis, quis-piam, and qui-dam may be conveniently grouped together. Of these, quis, an;/ one, is the most indefinite, and quidam, a certain one, the least indefinite, vs^liile aliquis and quispiam, some one, not distinguished from each other in meaning, are less indefinite than quis, but more so than quidam : SI qua civitas fecisset aliquid eius modi, if any state had done anything of this kind. Num quid vis aliud, do you wish anything else ? Ponere iube- bam, de quo quis audire vellet, I asked any one to name the subject about which he (any one) might wish to hear; C. Tusc. l, 4, 7. Forsitan aliquis eius modi quippiam fecerit, perhaps some one may have done something of the kind. Est aliquod niimen, there is a divinity. Accurrit quidam, notus mihl nomine tantum, a certain one runs up, knoion to me only by name ; ll. s. l, 9, s. 260 SYNTAX 1. Quis as a substantive, and qui as an adjective, are used cliiefly after si, nisi, ne, num, and in Relative clauses ; see the first three examples above. They sometimes stand in the relative clause, even when logically they seem to belong to the antecedent clause, as in the third example. 2. Most of the forms of aliquis may be used either as nouns or as adjec- tives, but aliquid is a noun, and aliquod an adjective. Aliquis and aliqui sometimes mean some person or thing of importance, note, or value : Aude aliquid, si vis esse aliquis, dare something, if you wish to he any- body; lav. 1, 73. 3. Aliquis seems at times to mean many a one : Dixerat aliquis sententiam, many a one had expressed his opinion; Caes. C. 1, 2. 4. Aliquis is sometimes used with numerals to denote an approximate number, chiefly in familiar Latin : Aliquos viginti dies, some twenty days. 5. Quidam, with an adjective, is sometimes used to qualify or soften the statement : Est gloria solida quaedam res, glory is a somewhat substantial thing. 6. Quidam with quasi has the force of a certain, a kind of, as it were : Quasi quaedam Socratioa medicina, a kind of Socratic medicine, as it were. 7. Nescio quia and nescio qui often supply the place of indefinite pro- nouns, especially in poetry : Hie nescio quis loquitur, here some one (I know not who) speaks. 513. Quis-quam, any one luhatever, is more general in its mean- ing than the simple quis, any one. This pronoun and the pronom- inal adjective iillus are used chiefly in negative and conditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences, implying a negative : Neque me quisquam ibi agnovit, and no one whatever recognized me there ; 0, Tusc. 5, 86, 104. Num censes uUum animal sine corde esse posse, do you think that any animal can be without a heart ? 1. Nemo is the negative of quisquam, and like quisquam is generally used as a noun, though with the designations of persons it may be used as an adjective : Aut nemo aut Cats sapiens fuit, eitherno one or Cato was wise. Neminem cognovl poetam, / have known no poet ; 0. Tusc. b, 22. 2. NuUus, the negative of iillus, is generally used as an adjective, though it regularly supplies the Genitive and Ablative of nemo : GENERAL INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 261 Nulla aptior persona, no more suitable person. Neminem laesit ; nulllus aurls violavit, he has injured no one; he has sJiocked no one's eai-s; c. Mur. 40, 87. 3. NuUus and nihil ai-e sometimes used for an emphatic non : Philotlmus nuUus venit, Philotimus did not come ; C. Att. ll, 24. GENERAL INDEFINITE PRONOUNS . 514. Quivis and quDibet mean, any one you wish, any one you please, any one whatever; quisque, evei-y one, each one: QuIvIs heres pecuniam potult auferre, any heir whatever might take the money. Quidlibet faciat, let him do lohat he likes. Quod quisque dixit, what every one said. 515. Quisque is very freely used in Latin, but chiefly as follows : 1. After Reflexive, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns : Ipse se quisque dlllgit, every one loves himself. Defendat quod quisque sentit, let eiiery one defend his convictions (what he thinks). Interest quos quisque audiat, it makes a difference whom each one hears; C. Brut. 58, 2io. 2. After Superlatives and Ordinals, where it is generally best rendered by all , evert/ ; with primus by very, possible : Epiciireos doctissimus quisque contemnit, all the most learned despise the Epicureans. Quinto quoque ann5, every four years (every fifth year). Primo quoque tempore, at the earliest possible opportunity, the very first. 3. After unus, as in iinus quisque, every one, every person : Ego novi et unus quisque vestrum, I know and every one of you knows. 4. Observe that in all these examples, quisque follows the word -with which it is associated. This is the usual order, but the reflexive often fol- lows in poetry, and sometimes even in classical prose : Quod est cuiusque maxime suum, wtoft is especially one's own; C. Off. l,si. 5. Ut quisque . . . ita with the superlative in both clauses is often best rendered, the more . . . the more: TJt quisque sibJ plurimum conftdit, ita maxime excellit, the more confidence one has in one's self, the more one excels; C. Am. 9, 80. 6. Quotus quisque means, hoio rarely one, how few: Quotus quisque disertus est, how rarely is one eloquent, or how few are eloquent ? C. Plane. 25, 62. 262 SYNTAX PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 516. AUus means another, other; alter, the one, the other (of two), the second, a second. They are often repeated : alius . . . aUus, one . . . another; alii . . . alii, some . . . others; alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other; alteri . . . alteri, the one party . . . the other: Aliud est maie dicere, aliud acousare, it is one thing to revile, another to accuse. Alii gloriae serviunt, alii peoiiniae, some are slaves to glory, others to money. Altera (filia) occlsa, altera capta est, one daughter VMS slain, the other captured ; Caes. 1, 53. Hamilcar, Mars alter, Hamilcar, a second Mars ; L. 21, 10, 8. Alteri dimioant, alteri timent, one party fights, the other fears. 1. Alius and alter repeated in different cases, or combined with alias or aliter, form various idiomatic expressions, which, if judged by the English standard, would seem to be elliptical : Alius alium domos suas invltant, they invite one another to their homes; S. 66, 8. Aliter alii vivunt, some live in one way, others in another; 0. ad Brut. 1, 1.3. nil alias aliud sentiimt, they entertain one opinion at one time, another at another; 0. Or. 2, 7. 2. The derivative adverbs, alias and aliter, are sometimes repeated as correlatives, alias . . alias, at one time . . . at another time, aliter . . . aliter, in one way . . . in another way : Alias beatus est, alias miser, at one time he is happy, at another, unhappy; cf. C. Fin. 2, 27, 87. 3. After alius, aliter, and the like, atque, ac, and et often mean than, and nisi, than or except : ■ Non alius essem atque nunc sum, I would not be other than lam; 0. Pam. 1, 9, 21. Nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita videtur, nothing except (other than) peace seems to have been sought; of. c. Off. i, 23, so. 4. Uterque means both, each of two. In the plural it generally means both, each of tvio parties, but sometimes both, each of two persons or things; regularly so with nouns which are plural in form but singular in sense : Uterque, mater et pater, domi erant, both, mother and father, were at home. Utrique victoriam criideliter exercSbant, both parties made u, cruel use of victory. E castris utrlsque, out of both camps. 5. Uterque standing in two different cases may mean one . . the other or one another : each . . . the other : Cum uterque utrique esset in conspectii, since they were in sight of one another ; Caes. 7, 85. VOICES, NUMBERS, AND PEBSONS 263 SYNTAX OF VERBS USE OF VOICES, NUMBERS, AND PERSONS 517. The Voices in Latin correspond in their general meaning and use to the Active and Passive Voices in English, but orig- inally the Passive Voice had a reflexive meaning, like the Greek Middle, and was equivalent to the Active with a reflexive pro- noun, a meaning which is still retained in a few verbs, especially in poetry : Lavantnr in fluminibus, they bathe (wash themselves) in the rivers ; Caes. 4, i. Came vesoebantur, theij lived upon (fed themselves with) flesh ; S. S9. Galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet; V. 2, 892. Capita velamur, we veil our heads; V. 3, 545. 518. Passive Construction. — With transitive verbs, a thought may at the pleasure of the writer be expressed either actively or passively : Deus mundum aedificavit, God made (built) the world. A deo mundus aedificatus est, the toorld was made by God. 1. Intransitive verbs have regularly only the active voice, but they are sometimes used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive : Curritur ad praetorium, they run to the praetorinm (there is running) ; C. Ver. 6, 85, 92. Mihi cum iis vivendum est quos vici, / must live loith those whom I have conquered ; 0. 0. 8, 12. 2. Some verbs, otherwise intransitive, occasionally form a personal passive in poetry : Ego cur, adquirere pauca si possum, invideor, why am I envied if I am able to add a few words ? H. A. p. 55. Nunc tertia vivitur aetas, / am now living in the third age (the third age is being lived) ; o. M. 12, 188. 3. Deponent Verbs have in general the forms of the Passive Voice with the meaning of the Active, or Middle. They have, however, certain forms of the Active ; see 222 : Hoc mirabar, I wondered at this. Plurimis rebus fruimur, we enjoy (de- light ourselves with) many things. 4. Eor Semi-Deponent Verbs, see 224. 264 SYNTAX PERSON AND NUMBER 519. In Latin an individual is regularly addressed in the singular, but the writer, or speaker, often refers to himself in the plural ; see 500, 2 : Sic raro scribis, you write so seldom. De ceteris saepe dicemus, I shall often speak of the other things; c. Sen. 1, 3. 1. For the Use of Voice, Number, and Person in Designating a General or Indefinite Subject, you, we, people in general, see 388, 3. DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE THREE FINITE MOODS 520. The Indicative Mood, alike in present, past, and future time, represents the action of the verb as an actual fact : Gloria virtiitem sequitur, glory follows merit. Quoniam de genere belli dixi, nunc de magnitudine dicam, since I have spoken of the character of the war, I shall now speak of its magnitude. 521. The Subjunctive Mood represents the action of the verb, as Possible, as Desired, or as Willed : Eorsitan quaeratis, perhaps you may inquire ; 0. Koac. A. '2,- 5. Valeant cives mei, may my fellow citizens be well. Suum quisque noscat ingenium, let every one learn to know his own character; o. Off. i, 3i, 114. 522. The Imperative Mood, like the Subjunctive, represents the action as willed or desired, but it is used almost exclu- sively in Commands and Prohibitions. Accordingly, in these the Imperative and Subjunctive supplement each other ; see 660 : Valetadinem tuam cura, take care of your health. Salils populi suprema lex esto, the safety of the people shall be (let it be) the supreme law; 0. Leg. 3, 8. Noli imitari malos medicos, do not imitate incompetent physi- cians; 0. Fam. 4, 5, 5. USE OF THE INDICATIVE 523. Rule. — The Indicative is used in treating of facts: Eomulus septem et triginta regnavit annos, Romulus reigned thirty- seven years. Nonne nobilitarl volunt, do they not wish to he renowned f Si haec civifas est, if this is a state. USM OF THE INDICATIVE 265 1. The Indioalive thus treats of facts, not only in the form of statements, as m the firat example, but also in the form of questions, as in the second, and of conditions or assumptions, as in the third. 524. The Indicative, though more common in Principal Clauses, is also used in Subordinate Clauses, but only in treating of Facts. Thus 1. In Relative Clauses : Homines id, quod volunt, credunt, men believe that which they wish. For the Subjunctive in Relative Clauses, see 589. 2. In Conditional Clauses : Si haec olvitas est, if this is a state. For the Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences, see 573. 3. In Adversative and Concessive Clauses : Quamquam festinas, non est mora longa, although you are in haste, the delay is not long. For the Subjunctive in Adversative and Concessive Clauses, see 686. 4. In Causal Clauses : Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, since a thanksgiving has been decreed. For the Subjunctive in Causal Clauses, see 598. 5. In Temporal Clauses : Cum quiescunt, probant, while they are silent, they approve. For the Subjunctive in Temporal Clauses, see 600. 525. Special Uses. — Notice the following special uses of the In- dicative, apparently somewhat at variance with the English idiom : 1. In expressions of Duty, Propriety, Ability, and the like; hence in the Periphrastic Conjugations, especially in conditional sentences : Eum contumeliis onerasti, quem oolere debebas,! you have loaded with insults one whom you ought to have revered; c. Phil. 2, ss. Non suscipi bellum oportuit,' «7je war should not have been undertaken ; L. 5, 4. Multos possum! bonos viros nominare, I might name (I am able to name) many good men; c. Tuso. 2, 19. Relicturi agros erant,i nisi litteras misisset, tJiey 1 In these examples, the peculiarity in the use of the Indicative is only apparent. Here, as elsewhere, it deals only with facts. Thus, quem colere debebas, whom it was yoxir duty, in fact, to revere ; oportuit, it was actually proper that the war should not be undertaken ; possum, / am able, etc.; rellottiri erant, they were about to leave, or on the point of leaving. 266 SYNTAX would have left their lands if he had not sent a letter; 0. Ver. 8, 62. Haeo oondicis non aocipienda fuit, this condition should not have been accepted. 2. The Indicative of the verb sum is often used with longum, aequum, aequius, difScile, iustum, melius, par, utilius, etc., in such expressions as longum est, it would he tedious ; melius erat, it would have been better : Longum est omnia enumerare proelia, it would be tedious (It is a long task) to enumerate all the battles; N. 23, 5. Melius fuerat, promissum non esse servatum, it would have been better (it had been better) that the promise should not have been kept; 0. Off. 3, 25. 3. Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, made general by being doubled, or by assuming the suffix cumque, and the Conjunctions aive . . . sive, take the Indicative : Quisquis est, is est sapiens, whoever he may be (is), he is wise; C. Tusc. 4,n. Hoc ultlmum, utcumque initum est, proelium fuit, this, however it may have been begun, was the last battle; h. ; c, 6. Veniet tempus, sive retractabis, sive properabis, the time will com.e whether you may be reluctant or in haste; C. Tusc. 1, 31, 76. 4. The Historical Tenses of the Indicative, particularly the Pluperfect, are sometimes used for effect, to represent, as an actual fact, something which is shown by the context never to have become fully so : Viceraraus, nisi recepisset Antonium, we should have (we had) conquered, had he not received Antony. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 526. The Latin, like the English, distinguishes three periods of time, Present, Past, and Future: lego, / am reading; legebam, I was reading; legam, I shall be reading. 627. In each of the three periods of time, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented in three different ways. It may be Incomplete, Completed, or Indefinite. An action is said to be Indefinite vsrhen it is vievs^ed in its simple occurrence with- out reference to duration or completion. 528. The Latin has special forms for Incomplete and Com- pleted action, but it has no special forms for Indefinite action, as is shown in the following : 529. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE Table of Tenses 267 Time Action Incomplete Completed Indefinite Present . / Pres. lego, l / am reading Perf. legi, I have read Pres. lego, I read Past . . j Imperf. legebam, I I was reading Pluperf. legeram, I had read Hist. perf. legi, / read Future f Put. legam, I I shall be reading Put. perf. legero, I shall ham read Put. legam, I shall read 1. In this table, observe that Indefinite action for Present and Future time is denoted by the Present and Future tenses, and for Past time by the Historical Perfect. Note. — Observe that the Present and Future may denote either Incomplete action, lam reading, I shall be reading, or Indefinite action, I read, I shall read; and the Perfect, either Completed action in Present time, I have read, or Indefinite action in Past time, / read. 530. All the tenses for Incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and Future, may denote an attempted or intended action : Virtatem accendit, he tries to kindle their valor. Sedabant tumultus, they were trying to quell the seditions. Exponam consilium, / shall attempt to explain my plan. 531. In the Periphrastic Conjugation, the tenses of the verb sum preserve their usual force, and the meaning of any periphrastic form is readily obtained by combining the proper meaning of the participle with that of the tense. Thus the Present of the Active Periphrastic Conjuga- tion denotes a present intention, or an action about to take place, and the Perfect, a past intention, or an action which was about to take place ; the Present of tlie Passive Periphriustic denotes a present necessity or duty, and the Perfect, a past necessity : Bellum scripturus sum, / am about to write the history of the irar. Quid futurum fuit, what would have been (was about to be) the result? Ea faci- enda sunt, those things ought to be (must be) done. Haec condicio non accipienda fuit, this condition should not have been (was not one that ought to be) accepted; C. Att. 8, 8, 8. 268 SYNTAX I. Present Indicative 532. The Present Indicative represents the action of the verb as taking place at the present time. It is used 1. Of actions and events which are actually taking place at the present time: Ego et Cicero valemus, Cicero and I are well. 2. Of actions and events which belong to all time, as, for instance, of general truths and customs : Nihil est virtiite amabiliiis, nothing is more lovely than virtue ; c. Am. 8, 28. Fortes fortiina adiuvat, fortune helps the brave ; T. Ph. 20S. 3. Of past actions and events which the writer, transferring himseK to the past, represents as taking place before his eyes. It is then called the Historical Present, and is generally best rendered by a past tense, as the Historical Present is much more common in Latin than in English ; Duas ibt legiSnes conscribit, he there enrolled two legions. Caes. l, lo. Vallo moenia oircumdat, he surrounded the city with a rampart. 533. Special Uses. — 1. The Prefsent is often used of a present action which has been going on for some time, especially after iam diii, iam diiduin, etc. : Iam diu Ignore quid agas, / have not known for a long time how you are; 0. Pam. ^, 9. 2. The Present is sometimes used of an action really Future, espe- cially in animated discourse and in conditions : Quam prendimus arcem, what stronghold do we seize, or are we to seize? V. 2, 3^2. Si vincimus, omnia ttita erunt, if we conquer, all things will be well; 8.0.58,9. 3. The Present in Latin, as in English, may be used of authors whose works are extant : Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates as discussing ; o. N. D. l, 12, 81. 4. With dum, while, the Historical Present is generally used, but with dum meaning as long as, each tense has its usual force : Dum haec geruntur, Caesarl nuntiatum est, while these things were taking place, it was announced to Caesar; Caes. l, 40. Vlxit, dum vixit, bene, he lived well as long as he lived; T. Heo. 461. TISNSJES OF THE INDICATIVE 269 II. Imperfect Indicative 534. The Imperfect Indicative represents the action as taking place in past time. It is used 1. Of actions going on at the time of other past actions : An tu eras consul, cum mea domus ardebat, or were you consul when my house was burning ? c. Pis. il, 26. 2. In lively descriptions of scenes, or events : Ante oppidum planities patebat, hefore the toion extended a plain. Ful- gentes gladios videbant, they saw the gleaming swords; c. Tusc. 2, 24, 59. 3. Of Customary or Repeated actions and events, often best rendered was wont, etc. : Epnlabatur more Persarum, he was wont to banquet in the Persian style. 535. Special Uses. — 1. The Imperfect is often used of a past action ■which had been going on for some time, especially with iam, iam diu, iam dudum, etc.^ : Domicilium R5mae multos iam annos habebat, he had already for many years had his residence at Some ; of. C. Arch. 4, 7. 2. The Latin sometimes uses the Imperfect, where the English idiom requires the Present ^ : rastum animantibus natura eum, qui cuique aptus erat, comparavit, nature has prepared for animals that food which is adapted to each. 3. For the Imperfect of an Attempted Action, see 530. 4. For the Imperfect in letters, see 539, 1. 5. For tbe Descriptive Imperfect in Narration, see 538, 2. III. Future Indicative 536. The Future Indicative represents the action as one which will take place in future time : Scribam ad te, / shall write to you. Numquam aberrabimus, we shall never go astray. 1 Observe that the peculiarities of the Present reappear in the Imperfect. This arises from the fact that these two tenses are precisely alike in representing the action in Its progress, and that they differ only in time. The one views the action in the present, the other transfers it to the past. 2 This occurs occasionally in the statement of general truths and in the descrip- tion of natural scenes, but in such eases the truth, or the scene, is viewed not from the present, as iu English, but from the past. 270 SYNTAX 1. The Future, like the Present, is sometimes used of General Truths and Customs : Naturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow (shall follow) nature, we shall never go astray. 2. In Latin, as in English, the Future Indicative sometimes has the force of an Imperative : Curabls et scribes, you will take care and write. IV. Perfect Indicative 537. The Perfect Indicative performs the duties of two tenses, originally distinct. 1. As the Present Perfect or Perfect Definite, it repi'esents the action as at present completed, and is rendered by our Perfect with have : De genere belli dixl, I have spoken of the character of the war. 2. As the Historical Perfect or Perfect Indefinite, corresponding to the Greek Aorist, it represents the action simply as an historical fact : Aoousatus est proditlonis, he was accused of treason. 538. Special Uses. — 1. The Perfect is sometimes used to contrast the past with the present, implying that what has been or was true in the past is not true at present. This is especially common with compound Passive forms with fui : Habuit, non habet, he had, hut he has not; o. Tusc. l, 80. Fuit Ilium, Ilium has been, or was; v. 2, 325. Bis lanus clausus fuit, Janus has been twice closed; h. i, 19. 2. In Animated Narrative the Perfect usually narrates the leading events, and the Imperfect describes the attendant circumstances : Cultum mtitavit, veste Medica utebatur, epulabatur more Persarum, he changed his mode of life, used the Median dress, and feasted in the Persian style; N. 4, 8, i. 3. Conjunctions meaning as soon as, after, — ubi, simul atque, post- quam, posteaquam, etc., — when used of past actions, are generally followed by the Perfect or by the Historical Present. The Pluperfect is sometimes used, especially to denote the Result of a Completed action : Ubi certiores faoti sunt, as soon as they were informed; Caes. l, 1. Simul atque introductus est, as soon as he was introduced. Posteaquam in Formiano sum, as soon as I am in my Formian villa. Simul atque in oppidum yenerat, as soon as he had come into a town; C. Ver. 4, 21, 47. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 271 4. Many Latin Perfects may denote either a completed action or the Present Result of that action. Thus cognovi may mean either 1 have learned or I know; consuevi, I have accustomed myself or / am wont; doctus sum, I have been taught or I am learned. In this and similar cases the Participle practically becomes an Adjective. In a few of these verbs the second meaning has mostly supplanted the first, so that the Per- fect seems to have the time of the Present, the Pluperfect that of the Imperfect, and tlie Future Perfect that of the Future : Novl omnem rem, / know the whole thing. Meminit praeteritorum, he remembers the past.'^ Memineram Paullum, / remembered Faullus. Fuit doctus ex discipllna Stoicorum, he was instructed in (out of) the learning of the Stoics ; C. Brut. 25, 94. 5. The Perfect is sometimes used of General Truths, Repeated Actions, and Customs. It is then called the Gnomic Perfect'^ ; and if it is used in a Subordinate clause, the Present is generally retained in the Principal clause, though in Poetry and Late Prose the Perfect sometimes occurs : Pecuniam nemo sapiens concuplvit, no loise man too eagerly desires (has desired) money; S. C. ll, s. Omnia sunt incerta, cum a iiire discessum est, all things are uncertain, whenever one departs from the right; 0. Fam. 9, 16. Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit iitile dulci, he loins (has won) every vote who combines the useful with the agreeable; ii. a. p. 348. 6. The Perfect with paene, prope, may often be rendered by might, would, or by the Pluperfect Indicative : Brutum n6n minus amo, paene dixi, quam te, / love Brutus not less, I might almost say, than I love you ; o. Att. 6, 20. 7. For the Perfect in letters, see 539, 1. V. Pluperfect Indicative 539. The Pluperfect Indicative represents the action as com- pleted at the time of some other past action, either already mentioned or to be mentioned in a subsequent clause: Pyrrhi temporibus iam Apollo versiis facere desierat, in the time of Pyr- rhus, Apollo had already ceased to make verses. Copias quas pro oppido coUocaverat, in oppidum recipit, he received into the town the forces which he had stationed in front of the town. 1 Literally has recalled, and so remembers, as the result of the act. The Latin presents the completed act ; the English, the result. 2 This use of the Latin Perfect corresponds to the Gnomic Aorist in Greek. 272 SYNTAX 1. In letters the writer often adapts the tense to the time of the reader, using the Imperfect or Perfect of present actions and events, and the Pluperfect of those which are past. This change — which is by no means uniformly made, but is subject to the pleasure of the writer ■ — is most common near the beginning and the end of letters : Nihil habebam quod sorlberem ; ad tuas omnes resorlpseram pridie, / have (had) nothing to write; I replied to all your letters yesterday; o. Att. 9, lo. Pridie Idus haec scrips! ; eo die apud Pomponium eram cenaturus,i / write this on the day before the Ides; I am going to dine to-day with Pomponius; C. Q. Fr. 2, 8, T. Note. — Observe that the adverbs and the adverbial expressions are also adapted to the time of the reader. Hen, yesterday, becomes to the reader pridie, the day before, i.e. the day before the writing of the latter. In the same, way hodie, to-day, this day, becomes to the reader eo die, that day. 2. The Pluperfect after cum, si, etc., is often used of Repeated Actions, General Truths, and Customs : Cum quaepiam cohors impetum fecerat, hostes refugiebant, whenever any cohort made (had made) an attack, the enemy retreated ; Caes. 5, 85. 3. The Pluperfect may state what had been true at some previous past time, implying that it was no longer true at the time of the writer. This is especially common with compound Passive forms with fueram : Pons, qui fuerat interruptus, paene erat refectus,^ the bridge which had been broken down was (had been) almost repaired. i. For the special use of the Pluperfect in general, see 525, 4. 5. For the Pluperfect of Special verbs, see 538, 4. VI. Future Perfect Indicative 540. The Future Perfect Indicative represents the action as one which will be completed at some future time : Romam cum venerS, quae perspexero, scrlbam ad te, when I reach (shall have reached) Rome, I shall write you what I have (shall have) ascertained; C. Q. Fr. 8, 7. Ut sementem fecerls, ita metes, as you sow (shall have made the sowing), so shall you reap; c. Or. 2, 65, 261. Plura scrlbam, si plus otil habu- ero, I shall write more if I have (shall have had) more leisure ; o. Fam. lo, 28. 1 The Imperfect of the Periphrastic Conjugation is sometimes thus used of future events which are expected to happen before tlie receipt of the letter. Events which will be future to the reader as well as to the writer must be expressed by the Future. 2 Observe that it was no longer a broken (interruptus) bridge, as it had been repaired (refectus). TISNSES OF THE SUBJUMCTIVE 273 1. The Future Perfect is sometimes used to denote tlie Complete Accom- plishment of the work : Ego meum officium praestltero, / shall discharge (shall have discharged) my duty ; Caes. 4, 25. 2. The examples here given of the Future Perfect, together with those of the Future under 536, illustrate the fact that the Latin is very exact in expressing future time and completed action, while the English, in subordi- nate clauses, and especially in conditional clauses, often disregards both. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 541. The four tenses of the Subjunctive perform the duties of the six tenses of the Indicative, and are, accordingly, used as follows : 1. They have in general the same temporal meaning as the corre- sponding tenses of the Indicative : Sunt qui dicant, there are some who say; S. C. 19. Fuere qui crederent, there were some who believed; S. c^lT. Oblitus es quid dixerim, you have forgotten what I said; C. N. D. 2, i, 2. Caesari cum id nuntiatum esset, when this had been announced to Caesar; Caes. l, T. 2. In addition to this general use, these four tenses supply the place of the Future and of the Future Perfect, the Present and the Imperfect supplying the place of the Future ; the Perfect and the Pluperfect, that of the Future Perfect, but chiefly in subordinate clauses denoting relative time, though the Present, even in principal clauses, often embraces both present and future time : . Erit tempus cum desideres, the time will come when you will desire ; 0. Mil. 26, 69. Loqugbantur, etiam cum vellet Caesar, sese non esse piignattiros, they were saying that they would not fight even when Caesar should wish it ; Caes. C. 1, 72. Egestatem suam se latilrum putat, si hac suspicione liberatus sit, he thinks he will bear his poverty if he shall have been freed from this suspicion ; C. Kosc. A. 44. Dicebam, simul ac timere desisses, similem te futu- rum tui, / was saying that as soon as you should cease (shall have ceased) to fear, you would be like yourself; c. Phil. 2, 35. Note 1. —But the place of the Future may be supplied by the Present and Imperfect of the active Periphrastic Conjugation, and is generally so supplied when the idea of future time is emphatic ; see Table of Subjunctive Tenses, 544. Note 2. — In the passive, the place of the Future Perfect is sometimes supplied by ftiturus sim and futurus essem with the Perfect Participle : HARK. LAT. GKAM. 19 274 SYNTAX Non dubito quin confecta lam res futura sit, / do not doubt that the thing will have been already accomplished ; c. Fam. 6, 12, 3. 3. By a transfer of tenses, the Imperfect Subjunctive, in Conditional Sentences and in expressions of Wish, refers to Present time, and the Pluperfect to Past time : Plura scriberem, si possem, / would write more (i.e. now) if I were able (but I am not) ; C. Att. 8, 16, 3. Si voluisset, dimicasset, if he Jia^ wished, he would have fought ; N. 23, 8, 8. DISTINCTION BETWEEN ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TIME. 542. The time of an action is said to be Absolute when it has no reference to the time of any other action, but it is said to be Relative when it indicates the Temporal Relation that the action sustains to some other action. Thus, in independent clauses, the Present, Perfect, and Future express absolute time, but in dependent clauses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, and sometimes other tenses, express relative time : Hasdrubal turn, cum haec gerebantur, apud Syphaoem erat, Sasdriibal, at the time when these things were taking place, loas with Syphax; L. 29, 81. Here gerebantur denotes relative time, action going on at the time of erat, — Contemporaneous Action. CopiSs quas pro oppido coUocaverat, in oppldum receplt, he received into the town the forces which he had stationed before it ; Caes. 7, 71. Here coUocaverat denotes relative time, action completed at the time of recepit, — Prior Action. Cuplo scire ubi sis hiematurus, I desire to know where you will spend the winter; C. Fam. 7, 9. Here sis hiematurus denotes relative time, action about to take place, but still future at the time of cupiS, — Subsequent Action. 543. In Dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive gen- erally denote relative time, and they may represent the action of the verb as going on at the time of the principal verb. Contempo- raneous action ; as completed at that time. Prior action ; or, as about to take place^ Subsequent action. Moreover, they conform to the following rule for THJSrSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 275 SEQUENCE OF TENSES Rule. — Principal tenses depend on Principal tenses, and Historical on Historical : Qualis sit animus, animus nescit, the soul knows not what the soul is ; c. Tusc. 1, 22, 58. Quaeramus quae vitia fuerint, let us inquire what the faults were ; c. Eoso. A. 14, 41. Kogavit essentne fusi hostes, he asked whether the enemy had been routed; C. Fin. 2, 80, 97. 544. Table or Subjunctive Tenses Independent Dependent Clause Clause Contemporaneous Action Prior Action Subsequent Action PRINCIPAL TENSES Quaero Quaeram Quaesiero I ask I shall ask I shall have asked quid facias what you are doing quid feceris what you have done quid facias quid factiirus sis ■ what you will do HISTORICAL TENSES Quaerebam QuaesivT Quaesieram I was asking I asked I had asked quid facerSs what you were doing quid fecisses what you had done ' quid faceres quid facturuB esses what you would do 545. In this table, observe : I. That the Subjunctive dependent on a Principal Tense is put : 1. In the Present, to denote Incomplete, or Contemporaneous, action. 2. In the Perfect, to denote Completed, or Prior, action, and 3. In the Present, either of the simple, or the periphrastic, form, to denote Future, or Subsequent, action : 276 SYNTAX Quaeritur our dissentiant, the question is asked why they disagree. Nemo erit qui censeat, there will be no one who will think. Non dubitari debet, quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae, it ought not to be doubted that there were poets before Homer; c. Brut, 18. Quid dies ferat inoertum est, what a day loill bring forth is uncertain. Incertum est, quam longa vita f utara sit, it is un- certain how long life will continue ; C. Ver. i, 08. II. That the Subjunctive dependent on an Historical Tense is put 1. Ill the Imperfect, to denote Incomplete, or Contemporaneous, action. 2. In tlie Pluperfect, to denote Completed, or Prior, action ; and 3. In the Imperfect, either of the simple, or of the periphrastic form, to denote Future, or Subsequent, action : Quaeslvit, salvusne esset clipeus, he asked whether his shield was safe; 0. Fin. 2, 80, 91. Cum tridui viam processisset, niintiatum est ei, when he had advanced a three days' journey, it was announced to him. Timebam ne evenirent ea, I feared that those things would happen. Incertum erat quo missurl classem forent, it was uncertain whither they would send the fleet ; L. 80, 2. PECULIARITIES IN THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES 546. In the sequence of tenses the Perfect Indicative, the His- torical Present, the Present used-of authors, and the Historical Infinitive are generally Historical tenses, though sometimes used as Principal tenses : Quoniam quae subsidia haberes exposuI,i since I have shown what aids you have; Q. o. Pet. Cons. 4, is. Oblitus es quid dixerim, you have forgotten what I said; o. N. D. 2, i, 2. Persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he per- suaded Casticus to seize the government ; Oacs. l, 3. Ubil orant ut sibi parcat, the Ubii implored him to spare them ; Caes. 6, 9. 547. The Imperfect Subjunctive, even when it refers to present time, as in conditional sentences, is generally treated as an Historical tense: Si probarem, quae ille diceret, if I approved what he says; 0. Fin. i, 8, 27. 1. In the sequence of tenses the Perfect Subjunctive is generally a Princi- pal tense, but in relation to another Subjunctive depending upon it it is gener- ally Historical : Quaeramus quae vitia fuerint, quare is patri displicSret, let us inquire what were the faults by which he displeased his father ; o. Eosc. A. M, 41. 1 Observe that exposui and persuadet are treated as historical tenses, while oblitus es and orant are treated as principal tenses. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 277 Note. — Here fuerint is a principal tense in relation to quaeramus, but in relation to displiceret it is liistorical. 548. The Perfect Infinitive is generally treated as an Historical tense, but the Present and the Future Infinitive, the Present and the Future Participle, as also Gerunds and Supines, share the tense of the verb on which they depend, as they express only relative time : Satis docuisse videor, hominis natura quanto anteiret animantes, I thinh I have sufficiently shown how much the nature of man surpasses (that of) the other animals; C. N. D. 2, 6i, 158. Spero f(3rei ut coiitingat, I hope it will happen; C. Tusc. 1,84. Non speraverat fore ut ad se deficerent, he had not hoped that they would revolt to him ; L. 28, 44. MIserunt Delphos consultum quidnam facerent, they sent to Delphi to ask what they should do ; n. 2, 2. 549. Clauses containing a General Truth usually conform to the law for the sequence of tenses, at variance with the English idiom : Quanta conscientiae vis esset, ostendit, he showed how great is the power of conscience ; 0. C. 3, 5, 11. 550. In clauses denoting Result, or Consequence, the Subjunctive tenses have the ordinary temporal force of the corresponding tenses of the Indicative : Atticus ita vlxit, ut Atheniensihus esset carissimus, he so lived that he was very dear to the Athenians ; N. 25, 2. Adeo excellebat Aristides absti- nentia, ut lustus sit appellatus, Aristides so excelled in self-control, that he has been called the Just ; n. s, 1. 1. Observe the temporal force of these Subjunctives : esset, was, result continuing in past time, the usual force of the Imperfect ; sit appellatus, has been called, the usual force of the Present Perfect. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 551. The Latin Subjunctive performs tlie duties of two moods originally distinct, the Subjunctive and the Optative. It com- prises three varieties ^ : 1 Literally, / hope it will be that it may happe7i. Here fore shares the tense of spero, and is accordingly followed by the Present, contingat ; but below it shares the tense of speraverat, and is followed by the Imperfect, deficerent. 2 The three varieties of the Latin Subjunctive were all inherited from the mother tongue — the Potential and the Optative from the original Optative, and the Volitive from the original Subjunctive. 278 SYNTAX I. Subjunctiye of Possibility, or Potential Subjunctive, which represents the action as Possible ; see 552. II. Subjunctive of Desire, or Optative Subjunctive, which repre- sents the action as Desired ; see 558. III. Subjunctive of Will, or Volitive Subjunctive, which repre- sents the action as Willed ; see 559. Potential Subjunctive 552. Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is used to repre- sent the action, not as real, but as Possible or Conditional. The negative is non : Forsitan quaeratis, pexhaps you may inquire ; C. Eoso. A. 2. Forsitan aliquis quippiam fecerit, perhaps some one may have done something; c. Ver. 2, 82, 78. Ita laudem invenias, thus you (any one) may or will win praise ; T. And. 65. Ubi socordiae te tradideris, nequiquam deos implores, when you have given yourself up to sloth, you will implore the gods in vain; s. c. 52, 29. Eum facile vitare possis, you may easily avoid him ; C. Ver. l, 15, 39. Hoc sine uUa dubitatione confirinaverim, this I should assert without any hesitation; 0. Brut. 6, 25. 553. In these examples observe that the Potential Subjunctive in its widest application includes two varieties : 1. The Potential Subjunctive in a strict sense is comparatively rare. 2. The Conditional Subjunctive represents the action as dependent on a condition, expressed or implied, but the condition is often so very vague and so fully implied in the mood itself, as in the last two examples, that there is no need of supplying it, even in thought, but when it is expressed, the two clauses form a regular conditional sentence ; see 672, 573. 554. On the use of Tenses, observe : 1. That the Present may be used of Incomplete actions either in Present or Puture. time : quispiam dicat, some one may say, now or at any time ; see also 541, a. 2. That the Perfect may be used of Completed actions either in Present time, as in the second example, or in Future time, as in the last example. When used of Future time, it may be compared with the special use of the Future Perfect described in 640, 1. Like that it fixes the attention on the Completion or the Result of the action, and like that it is used especially in earnest and impassioned discourse. 3. That the Imperfect is sometimes used in its original meaning as a Past tense : turn diceres, you would then have said, and sometimes in its later OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 279 transferred meaning to represent the statement as contrary to fact : diceres, you would say. The latter is its regular meaning in conditional sentences ; see 579. 555. In simple sentences, the Potential Subjunctive is most common in the third person singular with an indefinite subject, as aliquis, qtiispiam, as in the second example under the rule, and in the second person singular of the Imperfect, used of an indefinite you, meaning one, any one : Diceres, you, any one, would say, or would have said Scires, you, any one would know, or would have known CrSderes, putares, you would have believed, would have thought Cemeres, videres, yoii loould have perceived, would have seen Gangs vgnaticSs diceres, hunting dogs you would have called them; o. Ver. 4, 18, 81. Maesti, credergs victos, redeunt in castra, sad, vanquished you would have thought them, they returned to camp ; L. 2, 43. 556. In the language of Politeness and Modesty, the Potential Sub- junctive is often used in the first person of the Present and Imperfect of verbs of Wishing, as velim, / should wish ; nolim, / should be unwill- ing; malim, / should prefer; vellem, / should wish, or should have wished; noUem, / should be unwilling, or should have been unwilling; mallem, / should prefer, or should have preferred: Si quid habes certius, velim scire, if you have any tidings, I should like to know it; C. Att. 4, lO. Ego te salvom vellem, I should wish you safe; PI. Pseud. 809. NoUem factum, I should not have wished it done ; T. Ad. 165. 1. For the Subjunctive, with or without ut, dependent upon velim, or vellem, see 558, 4 ; 565. 557. Potential Questions. — The Potential Subjunctive is used in questions to ask, not what is, but what is likely to be, what may be, would be, or should be : Quis dubitet, ivho would doubt, or who doubts 9 Cm ego non laeter, why should I not rejoice ? Cur Cornelium non defenderem, mhy should I not Jiave defended Cornelius ? o. Vnt. 2, 5. Optative Subjunctive 558. Rule. — The Optative Subjunctive is used to express pure Desire without any idea of authority, as in prayers and wishes. The negative is ne : 280 SYNTAX Sint incolumes, sint floventes, sint beati, may they he safe, may they he prosperous, may they he happy ; 0. Mil. 34, 93. Stet haec urbs praeclara, may this illustrious city stand secure. Id sit quod spero, may that which I hope take place. lUud utinam iie scriberem, would that I were not writing this; C. Fam. 5, 17, 3. Utinam omnes servare potuisset, woidd that he had heen able to save all ; c. Ph. s, 14, 39. 1. Force of Tenses. — The Present implies that the wish may be fulfilled, as in the first three examples ; the Imperfect and Pluperfect that it cannot be fulfilled, as in the last two examples. Note. — In rare instances in early and familiar Latin the Perfect is used to emphasize the Completion of the action, as in 654, 2 : Utinam haec muta facta sit, may she be (have been made) dumb ; T. And. 463. 2. Utinam is regularly used, with rare exceptions in poetry, with the Imperfect and Pluperfect, and sometimes with the Present. 3. The first person of the Optative Subjunctive is often found in earnest and solemn affirmations : Ne sim salvus, si aliter scrlbo ac sentio, may I not be safe, if I write other- wise than as I think; v. Att. 16, 13. SoUicitat, ita vivam, me, as I live, it troubles me^ ; 0. Fam. 16, 20. 4. Wishes may also be introduced by velim and vellem : Velim verum sit, / wish it may be true ; c. Att. 15, 4. Velim mihl Ignoscas, / wish you would pardon me ; 0. Fam. 13, 75. Vellem verum fuisset, I wish it had been true ^ ; 0. Att. 15, 4. 5. In early Latin, wishes are sometimes introduced by ut and in poetry sometimes, though rarely, by si, or si : XJt ilium di perdant, tuould that the gods would destroy him; T. Eun. 802. SI nunc se aureus ramus ostendat, would that (if) the golden branch would show itself; V. 6, 187. mihi praeteritos referat si luppiter annos, if Jupiter would restore to me my past years ; v. 8, 660. Subjunctive of Will, or Volitive Subjunctive 559. Rule. — The Volitive Subjunctive is used to repre- sent the action, not as real but as Willed. The negative is 1 Here ita vivam means, may I so live, i.e. may I live only in case this state- ment, BoUicltat, it troubles me, is true. 2 Here velim and sit were originally independent Subjunctives, meaning I should wish, may it be true, the first Subjunctive being potential and the second optative, but subsequently the two verbs became so closely united in thought that sit became practically the object of velim, I should wish (what ?) that it may be true. Vellem fuisset has had the same history. SUBJUNCTIVE OF WILL, OR YOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281 ne. This Subjunctive covers a wide range of feeling and comprises the following varieties : 1. The Hortative Subjunctive, used in Exhortations, but only in the first person plural of the Present tense : Amemus patriam, consulamus bonis, let us love our country, let us con- sult/or the good; 0. Sest. 68, 148. Ne difficilia optemus, let us not desire diffi- cult things. 2. The Imperative or Jussive Subjunctive, used chiefly in the third person and generally best rendered by let; but see 560: Desinant insidiari domi suae consul!, let them cease to lie in wait for the consul in his own house ; C. 0. l, 13. 3. The Concessive Subjunctive, used in Admissions and Con- cessions : Sit ista res magna, admit that that is (let that be) an important matter. Ne sit summum malum dolor, grant that pain may not he the greatest evil; c. Tuso. 2, 6, 14. Age, sit ita factum, well, admit that it took place thus; C. Mil. 19, 49. 4. The Deliberative Subjunctive, used in Deliberative or Doubt- ing Questions, implying that the speaker is in doubt in regard to the proper course to be pursued and that he desires to be directed : Quid agam, iiidjces, what am I to do, judges f Quid agerem, indices, what loas I to do, judges ? C. Sest. 19, 43. Quo me vertam, whither am I to turn f Eloquar an sileam, am I to speaJc, or he silent ? Rogem te ut venias ? non rogem, am I to ask you to come f am I not to ask you f 0. Fam. 14, 4, s. Note. — The negative ne, which always implies a negative wish, is not used in deliberative questions, as they ask affirmatively what the wish of the hearer is. The negative non sometimes occurs, but it always limits some particular word and never implies a negative wish : rogem te, is it your wish that I should ask you ? non rogem te, is it your wish that I should not ask you ? 5. Repudiating Questions. — The Subjunctive with or without ut is also used in questions which express Surprise or Impatience, especially common in Early Latin : Ausculta, quaeso, listen, I pray. Ego auscultera tibi, am I to listen to youf PI. Mil. 496. Te ut iilla res frangat, how is anything to subdue you? C. C. 1, 9. 282 SYNTAX Note. — Deliberative and Repudiating questions may be readily distin- guished from the Potential questions considered under 657. The latter never represent the speaker as in any doubt or perplexity. They are mostly rhetorical questions, used for rhetorical effect in place of assertions, as quia dubitet, who would doubt f equivalent to nemo dubitet, or nemo dubitat. 6. The Subjunctive is occasionally used to state what should have been or ought to have been . Potius diceret, he should have said rather. Restitisses, mortem' prlgnans oppetisses, you should have resisted, should have met death in battle; C. 8est. 20, 54, 45. 7. Note the follovfing use of the Subjunctive with nedum, do not think, not to say, much less : Satrapa numquam sufterre siimptus queat, nedum til possis, a satrap would not be able to bear the expense, much less would you be able (do not think that you would) ; T. Heaut. 452. Nee potuerunt, nedum possimus, and they were not able, much less should we be able ; C. Clu. 85, 95. IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 560. Rule. — In commands the Subjunctive and Impera- tive supplement each other, the Imperative being used in the second person and the Subjunctive in the third : Libera rem piiblicam metu, free the republic from fear; 0. C. l, 8. Per- gite, ut facitis, go on, as you are now doing. Suum quisque noscat ingenium, let every one know his own character. Secernent se a bonis, let them separate themselves from the good ; C. C. l, 13. 1. The second person of the Present Subjunctive may be used of an indefinite you, meaning one, any one, and in early Latin and in the poets, even of a definite person : Isto bono iltare, dum adsit, use that blessing of yours, while it is with you ; 0. Sen. 10, 38. Apud nos hodie cenes, dine with us to-day; Pi. Most. 1129. 2. The Future Imperative may be used in the sense of the Present, if the latter is wanting, as scito, scitote, memento, mementote, etc. : Mementote hos esse pertimescendos, remember that these are to be feared. 3. An Imperative may supply the place of a Conditional clause : Lacesse, iam videbis furentem, provoke him- (if you provoke him), you will at once see him frantic. SUBJUNCTIVS AMD iMPERATIVB 283 4. In Commands involving future rather than present action, and in Laws, Orders, Precepts, etc., the Future Imperative is used : Rem penditete, you shall consider the subject. Cras petito, dabitur, ask to-moiTow, it shall be granted. Salus popull suprema lex esto, the safety of the people shall be the supreme law ; c. Leg. 8. s. Note. — The place of the Future Imperative is sometimes supplied by the Future Indicative : Quod optimum videbitur, faoies, do (you will do) ichat shall seem best. 561. Prohibitive Sentences. — In ordinary Prohibitive Sentences the following forms occur : 1. Noll and nolite with the Infinitive. This is the approved form in classical prose : Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest, do not desire that which cannot be done ; 0. Ph. T, 8, 25. 2. Cavi, cavi ne, fac ne, or ne with the Subjunctive. These forms are common in early Latin, but rare in classical prose. The Perfect seems to emphasize the Completion or the Result of the action : Cave ignoscas, do not pardon, beware of pardoning. Fac ne quid aliud cures, do not attend to anything else. Ne conferas culpam in me, do not throw the blame on me ; T. Eun. 883. Isto bono utare, dum adsit ; cum absit, ne requiras, use your blessing while it is with you ; when it is gone, do not long for it; C. Sen. lo, 88. locum ne sis aspernatus, do not demise (be not having despised) the jest; c. Q. Fr. 2, lo, 5. Note. — In prohibitions in Cicero, ne with the present Subjunctive is used only of general or indefinite subjects, as in the fourtli example, and ne with the Perfect Subjunctive with a definite subject, as in the fifth example, is exceedingly rare. 3. In Prohibitive Laws and Ordinances the Future Imperative is used : Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepellto, neve urito, thou shall not bury nor burn a dead body in the city; in c. Leg. 2, 28. 4. Negative in Prohibitive Sentences. — The negative, when not con- tained in the auxiliary verb noli, or oavS, is regularly ne ; with a connective, ne-ve, or ne-que. Neve, or not, is the regular connective in classical prose between Prohibitive clauses ; neque, and not, admissible in prose to connect a Prohibitive clause with an affirmative command, is freely used in poetry between any two Imperative clauses, whether affirmative or negative : 284 SYNTAX Ne sepellto neve tirito, do not bury nor burn. Habe tuum negotium neo existima, manage your own business and do not consider^; 0. Att. 12,22,8. Ne cape nee te oivilibus insere bellls, do not take arms and do not involve yourself in civil wars ; O. M. 3, 116. SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 562. 1. The meaning of the Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses is either precisely the same as in Principal Clauses, or is a natural develop- ment from that meaning. The following examples show the process by which an Affirmative Subjunctive Clause may pass from the Independent to the Dependent construction : Independent. — Verum sit,'^ may it be true. Velim ; verum sit,^ I should wish it ; may it be true. Dependent. — Velim verum sit, I should wish (what?) that it may be true; c. Att. IB, 4, 4. Independent. — Velim ; beatus sTs, I should loish it; may you be happy. Dependent. — Velim ut beatus sis, I should wish (what ?) that you may be happy ; 0. Att. lo, 16, l. Note. — These two examples illustrate the two ways in which Affirmative Subjunctive Clauses may be connected with the Principal Clause ; first, without any connective whatever, as in velim verum sit ; and, second, with the connective ut, as in velim ut beatus sis. With most verbs the second is the usual method. 2. The following examples show the process by which a Negative Subjunctive Clause may pass from the Independent to the Dependent construction : Independent. — Cura ; ne quid TuUiae desit, see to it ; let nothing be wanting to Tullia. Dependent. — Cura ne quid Tulliae desit, see that nothing may be wanting to Tullia; c. Att. li, 3, 3. Independent. — Praedicit ; ne legatos dimittant, he gives the order: "let them not release the envoys." Dependent. — Praedicit ut ne legatos dimittant, he gives the order that they shall not release the envoys ; cf. N. 2, 7, 8. 1 Observe that this use ol neque, nee, and not, after an affirmative clause corresponds exactly to our \xse of ' and not ' in the same situation : " and do not consider." 2 Verum sit, may it be true, is an Independent Subjunctive of Desire in these two examples, but in velim verum sit it lias become dependent upon velim, of which it is now the object, though it still continues to be a Subjunctive of Desire. SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 285 Note. — These two examples illustrate the two ways in which Negative Subjunctive Clauses may be connected with the Principal Clause: first, without any connective whatever, as in ciira ne quid Tulliae desit, as ne belongs to the negative clause itself ; and, second, with the connective ut, as in praedicit ut ne legates dimittant. The former is the usual method. 563. A clause containing an Optative or Volitive Subjunctive, when dependent, may become, 1. A Substantive Clause, generally used as the Object of the Prin- cipal verb : Velim ut beatus sis, I should wish that you may be happy. 2. An adverbial Clause, used to denote the Purpose or Intention of the action, often called a Final Clause : Oportet esse ut vivas, it is proper to eat in order that you may live. VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 564. Rule. — The Subjunctive, generally with ut or ne, may be used in Substantive Clauses which involve Purpose: I. In Substantive Clauses used as the Objects of Verbs : Scribas ad me velim, / wish that you luould ivrite to me; 0. Att. 5, 2, 3. Grant ut sibi parcat, they ask that he would pardon them. Suis imperavit ne quod telum reicerent, he enjoined upon his men that they should not hurl back any weapon ; Caes. l, 46, 2. II. In Substantive Clauses used as Subjects or Predicates : In epistula scriptum erat, ut omnia pararet,' that he was to make all preparations had been written in the letter; C. Att. 1.3, 45, l. Est lex amici- tiae, ut idem aralci velint, it is a law of friendship, that friends should have the same wish ; C. Piano. 2, 5. Altera est res ut res geras magnas, the other thing is that you should perform great deeds; C. Oir. 1, 20, 66. 1. Subject Clauses sometimes take the Subjunctive without ut, regularly with licet and oportet, and generally with necesse est : Sis licet fellx,2 you may be happy (it is allowed); li. 3, 27, is. Te oportet virtiis trahat, virtue ought to attract you; 0. E. P. 6, 23. Causam habeat, necesse est, it is necessary that it should have a cause ; 0. Div. 2, 28. 1 The Subjunctive Clause, ut pararet, is the subject of scriptum erat. 2 Sis felix, originally independent of licet, may you be happy. So, too, virtus trahat, independent of oportet, let virtue attract. 286 SYNTAX III. In Substantive Clauses used as Appositives to Nouns or Pronouns : Fecit pacein his condioionibus, ne qui adficerentur exsilio,^ he made peace on these terms, that none should be punished with exile ; N. 8, 3. Id agunt, lit viri boni esse videantur/ they strive for this, that they may appear to be good men ; C. Off. 1, 13. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES USED AS THE OBJECTS OF VERBS 565. Verbs meaning to Desire, Wish, Ask, Command, Persuade, Determine, Decree, and the like, generally take the Subjunctive in Object Clauses : Velim ut tibi amicus sit, I wish him to be (that he may be) a friend to you ; C. Att. 10, 16. Te hortor ut orationes meas legas, / exhort you to read my orations; C. Off. 1,1,3. Oro ut homines conserves incolumes, I ask that you would keep the men unharmed. Decrevit senatus, ut Opimius videret, the senate decreed that Opimius should see to it. Huio persuadet uti ad hostes transeat, he persuaded him to go over to the enemy. Praedlxit ut ne legatos dimitterent, he charged them not to release the delegates; n. 2, 7, 8. Hoc te rogo, ne demittas animum, neve te obrui sinas, / ask you not to be discouraged, and not to permit yourself to be overcome ; 0. Qu. Fr. 1, l, 4. 1. For the negative connective between Subjunctive Clauses, see 561, 4. 2. The regular constructions with volo, malo, and n516 are the Infinitive, with or without a Subject-Accusative, and the Subjunctive without ut, though volo and malo sometimes take ut : Verum audire non vult, he does not wish to hear the truth. Mihl crSdas velim, I wish you to believe me. Id ut facias veUm, I wish you to do this. 3. lubeo and veto regularly take the Accusative and the Infinitive in the Active, with the Personal Constructions in the Passive ; see 611, 1 : Helvetios oppida restituere lussit, he ordered the Helvetii to rebuild their towns. Ab opere legatos discedere vetuerat, he had forbidden the lieutenants to leave (depart from) the work. lubentur soribere exercitum, they are ordered to enroll an army. 4. Verbs meaning to direct, urge, etc., and the Imperatives fao and facito often take the Subjunctive without ut, and cave sometimes takes the Subj unctive without ne : 1 The clause ne . . . exsill5, originally a Volitive Subjunctive, is an Appositlve to condioionibus and ut . . . videantur, an Appositive to id. SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 287 Labieno mandat Belgas adeat, he directs Labienus to visit the Belgae ; cf. Caes. 3, 11, % Fac plang sciam, let me know fully (make that I may know); C. Fam. T, 16. CavS existimes, ieware of supposing; c. ram. 9, 24. 5. Verbs meaning to delermine, decide, etc., — statuo, constituo, decerno, etc., — generally take the Subjunctive when a new subject is introduced, otherwise the Infinitive (614) : Senatus decrSvit, darent operam eonsules, the senate decreed that the con- suls should attend to it; s. 0.29, 2. Ehenum transire decreverat, he had decided to cross the Bhine ;' Caes. 4, 17. 6. Several other verbs of this class admit either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive, but generally with some difference of meaning: PersuadebS tibi ut maneas, / shall persuade you to remain. Persua^ d§b5 tibI hoc verum esse, I shall convince you that this is true. Moneo ut maneas, I advise you to remain. Moneo te hoc verum esse, I remind you that this is true. 566. Verbs meaning to Make, Obtain, Hinder, and the like, generally take tlie Subjunctive in Object Clauses : Fac ut te ipsum eustodias, make sure that you protect yourself; c. Fam. 9, 14, 8. Effecit ut imperator mitteretur, he caused a commander to be sent. Ne mihi noeeant, vestrum est providere, it is your duty to see to it that they may not injure me ; c. c. 8, 12. Dil prohibeant ut hoc praesidium existlmetur, the gods forbid that this should be regarded as a defense; C. Eosc. A. 52, loi. 1. Ut with the Subjunctive sometimes forms with facio and ago, rarely with est, a circumlocution : Invitus facio ut recorder, / unwillingly recall (I do unwillingly that I recall); C. Vat. 9, 21. Invitus feci ut Plaminlnum e senatu eicerem, / reluc- tantly expelled Flamininus from the senate; C. Sen. 12, 42. 2. Some verbs of this class which generally take the Subjunctive, admit the Infinitive, with or without a Subject, but with a somewhat different meaning : Cura ut valeas, take care to be in good health; c. Att. 11, 8. Nihil quod te putem scire curare, nothing which I think you would care to know ; c. Fam. 9, 10. 567. Verbs meaning to Fear generally take the Subjunctive in Object Clauses : Timeo ut labSres sustineas, I fear that you will not endure the labors; C. Fam. 14, 2. Timeo ne eveniant ea, I fear that those things may happen; cf. G. Fam. 6, 21. 288 SYNTAX 1. The following examples show the process by which a Subjunctive clause becomes dependent upon a verb of Fearing. They also show why ut must be rendered thai not, and ne that or lest : Timeo ; ne eveniant ea, I fear ; may those things not happen. Timeo ne eveniant ea, I fear that, or lest, those things may happen = I fear, may they not happen ; negative desire, hence ne. Timeo; veniaut ea, I fear ; may those things happen. Timeo ut veniant ea, I fear that those things may not happen = I fear, may those things happen ; affirmative desire, hence ut. 2. After verbs of Fearing, ne non is sometimes used in the sense of ut, regularly so after a negative clause : Non vereor ne hoc iudici non probem, Ida not fear that I may not make this acceptable to the judge; c. Ver. 4, 88, 82. 3. Verbs of Fearing admit the Infinitive as in English : Vereor laudare praesentem, I fear (hesitate) to praise you in your presence. 4. Various expressions, nearly or quite equivalent to verbs of Fear- ing, are also followed by the Subjunctive ; as, timor est ; metus, ciira, periculum est ; periculosum est ; anxius, pavidus sum ; in metu, in periculo sum ; cura, timor incedit ; pavor capit, etc. : Num est periculum ne quis putet turpe esse, is there any fear that any one may think it to be disgraceful 9 Oiat. 42, 145. Pavor ceperat milites ne morti- ferum esset vulnus, fear that the wound might he mortal had seized the soldiers. Ne quod bellum orlretur, anxius erat, he was fearful that some war might arise. Sunt in metu, ne afficiantur poena, they are in fear that they may be visited with punishment ; o. Fin. 2, 16, 53. VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF PURPOSE — FINAL CLAUSES 568. Rule. — The Subjunctive is used with ut, ne, quo, quo minus, quominus, to denote the Purpose of the action : Romani ab aratro abdiixerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset, the Romans took Cincinnatus from the plow that he might be dictator : C. Fin. 2,4, 12. Legibus idcirco servimus ut liberi esse possimus, we are servants of the laws for this reason, that we may be able to be free ; 0. OIu. 68, 146. Claudi ciiriam iubet, ne quis egredi possit, he orders the senate house to be closed thai no one may be able to come out. Medico aliquid dandum est, quo sit studiosior, something ought to be given to the physician, that (by this means) he may be more attentive. Neque te deterreo quo minus SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 289 id disputes, and I am not trying to deter you from discussing (that you may less discuss) that point; c. Att. ll, 8, l. 1. The following examples show the process by which the Volitive Subjunctive may become the Subjunctive of Purpose : Independent Volitive. — Ne quid res publica detriment! capiat,^ let the republic suffer no harm. Dependent Volitive = Purpose. — Dent operam consulSs ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat.i let the consuls give heed that (in order that) the republic may suffer no hai-m. Independent. — Vincat,' let him conquer. Contendit ; vincat, he is striving ; let him conquer. Dependent. — Contendit ut vincat,i he strives that he may conquer. 2. Object Clauses and Final Clauses. — Object clauses and Final clauses, as they are both developed from tlie Volitive Subjunctive, are sometimes difficult to distinguish. An Object clause, however, is always the gram- matical object of a verb, while a Final clause is never thus used. 3. Conjunctions introducing Final clauses sometimes liave correlatives in the Principal clause, as ideo, idciroo, eo, etc., as in the second example. 4. Subjunctive clauses with ut or ne are sometimes inserted paren- thetically in sentences : Amic5s parare, optimam vitae, ut ita dicam, supellectilem, to secure friends, the best treasure, so to speak, of life; c. Am. 15. 5. A clause of purpose may take ut non when the negative belongs, not to the entire clause, but to some particular word : Suas copias produxit, ut, si vellet Ariovistus, etc. , ei potestas non deesset (non deesset = adesset), he led out his forces that, if Ariovistus toished, etc., he might not lack the opportunity ; Caes. l, 48, 3. Ut plura non dicam, not to say more, or to say no more ; C. Man. 15, 44. 6. The negative connective between Subjunctive Clauses, whether Substantive or Final, is regularly neve, or neu, but sometimes ueque : Legem tulit, ne quis accusaretur, neve multaretur, he proposed a laio that no one should be accused or punished; N. 8, 3. Nmic ut ea praetermittam, neque eos appellem, quid lucrl fiat cognoscite, now, to omit those things, and not to call upon those persons, learn lohat the profit is ; c. Ver. s, 48, lis. 1 Observe that the negative clause ne quid . . . capiat becomes negative Purpose without any change whatever, and that the aflSrmative vincat be- comes affirmative Purpose without change, though ut is used to connect it with contendit. HAKK. LAT. GRAM. 20 290 SYNTAX 7. Quo, hy which, that, sometimes introduces Final Clauses, chiefly with comparatives, as in the fourth example. Quo minus is simply quo with the comparative minus. 8. Quo minus, by which the less, that thus the less, that not, is generally used with verbs of Hindering, Opposing, Refusing, — deterreo, impe- dio, obsto, prohibeo, recuse, etc., — and it always takes the Subjunc- tive. It originally denoted Purpose, but it often introduces Substantive Clauses : Non recusavit quo minus poenam sublret, he did not refuse to submit (that he might not submit) to punishment ; N. 15, 8. Non deterret sapientem mors, quo minus rel publicae consulat, death does not deter a wise man from delib- erating for the republic ; o. Tusc. 1, 88, 91. Per eum stetit, quo minus dimica- retur, it was due to his influence (stood through him) that the battle was not fought; Caea. C. 1, 41, 8. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 569. Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is used in Subor- dinate clauses, whatever the connective, to represent the action as Possible or Conditional, rather than real : Nemo est qui non liberos suos beatos esse cupiat, there is no one who would not wish his children to be happy ; 0. Inv. 1, 80, 48. Quoniam civitati coiisulere non possent, since they would not he able to consult for the state. Ubi periclum facias, whenever you (any one) may make the trial; Pi. Bac. 68. 1. A clause containing a Potential Subjunctive, when made depend- ent, often becomes an Adverbial clause denoting the Result of the action : Ita vixit ut offenderet neminem, he so lived that he would offend no one, or that he offended no one ; 0. Plane. 16, 4i. ' 2. The following example shows the process by which the Potential Subjunctive may become the Subjunctive of Result : Independent Potential. — Probitatem in hoste etiam diligamus, we should love goodness even in an enemy. Dependent Potential = Result. — Tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste etiam diligamus, so great is the power of goodness that we should love it even in an enemy, or that we love it even in an enemy/ Note. — The strict meaning of the Potential Subjunctive dBigamus is precisely the same both in the Independent and in the Dependent form, viz. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF RESULT 291 we should love; but from this primary meaning was developed by way of inference a secondary meaning, we love, as we very naturally assume that what one would love as a matter of coitrse, one may love as a matter of fact. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF RESULT — CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES 570, Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is used with ut, or ut nou, to denote the Result of the action : Tale est ut possit ivire laudari, it is such that it may be justly praised ; 0. Fin. 2, i-t. Tanta tenipestas ooorta est, ut ntilla navis cursuui tenere posset, so great a tempest arose that no vessel would be able, or was able, to hold its course; Caes. 4, 28. Nemo adeo ferus est, ut non mitescere possit, no one is so fierce that he may not become gentle; H. E. l, l, 89. Atticus ita visit, ut Atheniensibus esset carissimus, Atticus so lived that he teas (would be) very dear to the Athenians ; N. 25, 2. 1. The Potential Subjunctive occurs with quam, with or without ut : Indulgebat sibi llberalius, quam ut invidiam posset effugere, he indulged himself too freely to be able (more freely that so as to be able) to escape unpopularity; N. 12, 8. Iraponebat amplius quam ferre possent, he imposed more than they would be able, or were able, to bear; c. \ er. 4, S4, 76. 2. After tantum abest ut, denoting Result, a second ut-clause of Result sometimes occurs : Philosophia, tantum abest ut laudetur, ut etlam vltuperetur, so far is it from the truth (so much is wanting) that philosophy is praised that it is even censured ; c. Tnsc 5, 2, 6. 3. Ita . . . ut non introduces the Subjunctive of Result, but ita . . . ut ne, so that not, on condition that tiot, introduces the Subjunctive of Purpose : Singulis consulatur, sed ita ut ea res n6 obslt rei publicae, let the interests of individuals be consulted, but only on condition that this does not harm the republic; 0. Off. 2, 2i, 72. 4. Ne with the Subjunctive, denoting the wish or purpose of the writer, is sometimes found in clauses of Result : Ex quo efBcitur, non ut voluptas rie sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum, from which it follows, not (I wish you to understand) that pleasure is not pleasure, but that pleasure is not the highest good; c. Fin. a, 8, 24. 292 SYNTAX POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 571. Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is often used with ut and ut non in Substantive Clauses ^ as follows : 1. In Subject clauses, with, certain Impersonal verbs meaning it happens, it follows, etc., — accidit, accedit, evenit, fit, efficitur, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, etc. : Potest fieri ut f allar, it may be that I am deceived ; C. Fam. 13, 73, 2. Fit ut quisque deleotetur, the result is (it comes to pass) that every one is delighted. Accidit ut esset luna plena, it happened that the moon was full. Ad senectutem accedebat ut caecus esset, to age was added the fact that he was blind ; c. Sen. 6, 16. Evenit ut rtivi essemus, it happened that we were in the country. Spero fore ut contingat id nobis, I hope that this will fall to our lot; C. Tasc. 1, 84. 2. In Subject clauses with predicate nouns and adjectives : Mos est ut iiolint, it is their custom to be unwilling ; C. Brut. 21, 64. Fuit meum officiuni ut facerem, it was my duty to do it. Verum est ut bonos boui diligant, it is true that the good love the good. Quid tam incredibile quam ut eques Ronianus triumpharet, what so incredible as that a Roman knight should triumph ? C. Man. 21, 62. 3. In Object clauses depending upon facio, efBcio, etc., of the action of irrational forces ; Sol efficit, ut omnia floreant, the sun causes all things to bloom (that all things may bloom) ; 0. N. D. 2, is, 41. Splendor vester facit ut peccare sine periculo non possitis, your conspicuous position causes this result, that you cannot err without peril ; 0. Vei-. 1, 8, 22. 4. In clauses in Apposition with nouns or pronouns : Est hoc vitiuui ijt invidia gloriae comes est, there is this fault, that envy is the companion of glory ; K". 12, 3. Id est proprium olvitatis ut sit libera, 1 The Subjunctive, in some of these substantive clauses, was developed directly from the independent Potential Subjunctive, as in the first example : independent, potest fieri ; fallar, it may be ; I may be deceived ; dependent, potest fieri ut fallar, it may be that I am deceived. In some other examples, it was developed through the clause of result, as in the second example. If this is interpreted to mean, it is done in such a way that every one is delighted, then ut . . . deleotetur is a clause of result, but, if it is interpreted as in the text, it becomes a substan- tive clause. In some instances, however, substantive clauses, apparently with the Potential Subjunctive, have not been developed in either of these two ways, but formed by analogy, alter the general type of substantive clauses. MOODS m CONDITIONAL SENTENCSS 293 it is characteristic of a state to be free. Soli hoe contingit sapient! ut nihil facial invitus, this happens only to the wise man, that he does nothing unwill- ingly; C. Farad. 5, 1, 34. MOODS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE 572. Eveiy Conditional Sentence consists of two distinct parts expressed or understood, tlie Condition or Protasis, and the Con- clusion or Apodosis : Si negem, mentiar, if I should deny it, I should speak falsely. Here ai negem is the condition or protasis and mentiar, the conclusion or apodosis. 573. Conditional sentences naturally arrange themselves in three distinct classes with well-defined forms and meanings, as follows : Class I. — Indicative in both clauses ; Condition assumed as Real : Negat quis, nego, some one denies (= if some one), / deny ; T. Eun. 251. Si quis negat, nego, if some one denies, I deny. Class II. — Subjunctive, Present or Perfect, in both clauses ; Condi- tion assumed as Possible : Eoges me, nihil fortasse respondeam, ask me, I may perhaps make no reply ; 0. n. d. l, 21, S7. Si roges me, nihil fortasse respondeam, if you should ask me, I should perhaps make no reply. Class III. — Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect, in both clauses; Condition assumed as Contrary to Fact : Tu magnam partem, sineret dolor, haberes, you vjould have had a large share, had grief permitted ; v. 6, 30. Tti magnam partem, si sineret dolor, haberes, you would have had a large share, if grief Jiad permitted. Note. — From these examples it is manifest that a conditional particle, as SI, if, although regularly used, is not an esi3ential part of a conditional sentence, and that it originally had no influence upon the mood in either clause, as the mood in each of these examples without si is the same as in the corresponding example with si. Originally the two clauses, the condi- tion and the conclusion, were independent of each other, and the mood in each was determined by the ordinary principles which regulate the use of moods in independent sentences ; see 523, 551. 294 SYNTAX CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CLASS I Indicative in Both Clauses 574. Rule. — The Indicative in Conditional Sentences with SI, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Real : Si haec ci vitas est, civis sum, if this is a state, I am a citizen. Si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt, if we conquer, all tilings will he safe for us. Plura scribam, si plus otii habuero, / shall write more if I shall have (had) more leisure. Si fecerls id, magnam habebo gratiam; .si non fecei'is, ignoscam, if you will do this, I shall have great gratitude ; if you do not do it (shall not have done it), I shall pardon you ; 0. Fam. 5, 19. Si licuit, pecuniam recte abstulit filius, if it was lawful, the son took the money right- fully. Sin certe eveniet, nulla fortuna est, but if it will surely happen, there is no uncertainty whatever ; C. Div. 2, 7, 18. Mirum, ni domist ( = domi est), strange if he is not at home ; T. And. 598. 1. Force of the Indicative in Conditional Clauses. — The Indicative in conditional clauses assumes the supposed case as a fact, hut it does not necessarily imply that the supposition is in accord with the Actual iFact, although it is often used when such is the case, especially with si quidem, which often means since : Antlquissimum est genus poetarum, si quidem i Homerus fuit ante Eomam conditam, the class of poets is very ancient, since (if indeed) Homer lived before the founding of Home; cf. Tuso. i, i, 3. 2. The Time may be Present, Past, or Future, and it is often the same in both clauses, but various combinations of tenses occur ; see examples. 3. The use of the Future Perfect in both clauses illustrates the fondness of the Latin for the forms for completed action : Is helium confecerit qui Antonium oppresserit, he who shall crush Antony, will bring this war to a close ; C. Fam. 11, 12. 4. In general the Latin language makes no distinction between Particular and General Conditions ; but see 578. Force of Conditional Particles 575. The Condition is generally introduced, when affirmative, by si or sin, with or without other particles, as si quidem, si modo, sin autem ; when negative, by nisi, ni, si non : 1 Si quidem, lit. if indeed, if as it is admitted = since. MOODS IN- CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 295 Si haec civitas est, civis sum ; si non, exsul sum, if this is a state, lam a citizen; if not, lam an exile; of. c. ram. 7, 3, 5. 1. The force of al, probably a Locative case, is more clearly seen when it is used as the correlative of sic and ita, so, thus, as in the following examples : Sic scribes allquid, si vacabis, so or if you shall have leisure, so you will write something ; C. Att. 12, 88. Ita senecttis honesta est, si ius retinet, so or if old age retains its right, so it is honorable; C. Sen. u, 88. Note. — Sic is a compound of si and ce, seen in hi-ce ; sic = si-ce. Si . . . SIC means so . . so. Compare the corresponding use of so in English : " So truth be in the field, we do injuriously to misdoubt her strength" (MUton). 2. Nisi and si non are often used vrithout any perceptible difference of meaning ; but strictly nisi, if not, \7ith the emphasis on if, means unless, and introduces a negative condition, as a qualification or an exception, while a non, if not, with the emphasis on noJ, -limits the negative to some particular word: Parvl foris sunt arma, nisi est consilium domi, arms are of little value abroad, unless there is wisdom at home ; cf. C. Off. l, 22, to. Si tibt non graves sumus, refer ad ilia te, if we are not troublesome to you, return to those topics ; c. Or. 8, 86, 147. Here observe that non belongs to graves. 3. SI non, from the nature of its meaning with its emphatic non, is used chiefly in contrasts : Si illud non licet, saltem hoc licebit, if that is not lawful, this surely will be; T. Eun. 689. 4. Si minus, sin minus, sin aliter, are sometimes used in the sense of si non, especially when the verb is omitted : SI minus potentem, at probatam tamen et iustam, if not powerful, at least approved and just; c. Fam. 2, 6, s. Sin minus poterit, negabit, but if he shall not be able, he will deny; C. inv. 2, 29, 88. 5. Sin and sin autem, but if, are generally used in contrasting clauses, whether affirmative or negative : Si statim navigas . . . ; sin te confirmare vis, if you sail at once . . . ; but if you wish to recover your health ; c. Fam. 16, 1. 6. Nisi or ni, generally if not, unless, is sometimes best rendered but or except : Nescio, nisi hoc video, I know not, but I observe this; C. Eosc. A. 85, 99. 7. Nisi si means except if, unless perhaps, unless : Nisi si quis ad mg scripsit, unless perhaps some one has written to me ; C. Fam. 14, 2. 296 SYNTAX 8. The condition is sometimes ironical, especially with nisi forte and nisi vero : Nisi forte id dubium est, unless perchance, this is doubtful ; C. Ver. l, 89, loo. 9. A condition is sometimes implied in a participle, In an ablative abso- lute, or even in the oblique case of a noun : Non potestis, voluptate omnia derigentes, retinere virtiitem, you can not retain your manhood, if you arrange all things with reference to pleasure ; c. Fin. 2, 22, 71. Recte facto, exigua laus proponitur, if the work is well done, small praise is offered; c. Agr. 2, 2, 5. Nemo sine spe se offerret ad mortem, no one without a hope ( = if he had not a hope) would expose himself to death; c. Tusc. l, 16, 32. 10. Eor Conditional Sentences in the Indirect Discourse, see 646. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CLASS II Subjunctive, Present or Perfect in Both Clauses 576. Rule. — The Present or Perfect Subjunctive in Con- ditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Possible : Dies deficiat, si velim causam defendere, the day loould fail me, if I should wish to defend the cause; 0. Tusc. 5, 35, 102. Haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne iiiipetraie debeat, if your country should speak thus with you, ought she not to obtain her request f C. C. 1, 8. Si quid te fugerit, ego pei'ierim, if anything should escape you, I should be ruined ; T. Ileaut. 316. 1. The time denoted by these tenses, the Present and the Perfect, is either Present or Future, and the difference between the two is that the former regards the action in its progress, the latter in its completion ; but tlie Perfect is rare, especially in the conclusion. / 2. In early Latin the Present Subjunctive is often used in conditions con- trary to fact : Magis id dicas, si solas quod ego scio, you would say this the more, if you knew what I know ; pi. Mil. 1429. Til si hie sis, aliter sentias, if you were in my place, you would think differently ; T. And. 310. Present Subjunctive in Conditional Clauses 577. Conditional Sentences with the Present Subjunctive in the condition exhibit the three following varieties : 1. The first variety has the Present Subjunctive in both clauses. This is the regular form in Plautus, and the prevailing form in classical Latiu : MOODS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 297 Quod facile patiar, si tuo commodo fieri possit, which I can easily bear, if it can be for your advantage; 0. Att. 2, 17, s. 2. The second variety has the Present Subjunctive in the Condition and the Present Indicative in the Conclusion. This form, somewhat rare in Plautus, became the prevailing form in the rhetorical works of Cicero, and finally the regular form in Tacitus and other late writers. These changes illustrate the gradual extension in principal clauses of the In- dicative in constructions once occupied by the Potential Subjunctive: Si accusetm-, non habet defeusionem, if he should be accused, he has no defense; C. inv, i, is, is. Intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, I wish to enter the camp of the enemy, if I may be able. 3. The third variety has the Present Subjunctive in the Condition and the Future Indicative in the Conclusion. This combination is readily explained from the close relationship between the Present Sub- junctive and the Future Indicative, both in etymology and in meaning, but it was not a favorite form in the classical period : Nee, si cupias, licebit, nor if you should desire it, will it be allowed; C. Ver. 2, C9, 16T. 578. General Conditions. — Conditional sentences which contain General Truths or Repeated Actions usually take the following forms : 1. Any required tense of the Indicative in the condition with the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the conclusion : Parvi foris sunt arma, nisi est consilium domi, arms are of little value abroad unless there is wisdom at home ; 0. Off. i, 22, 76. Si quod erat grande vas inventum, laeti adferebant, if any large vessel had been found, they gladly brought it to him ; c. Ver. 4, 21, 47. 2. The Present or Perfect Subjunctive, generally in the second person used of an indefinite you — one, any one, in the condition, with the Present Indicative in the conclusion : Memoria minuitur nisi earn exerceas, the memory is impaired if you do not (if one does not) exercise it; C. Sen. 7, 21. Nulla est excusatio peccati, si amici causa peccaveris, it is no excuse for a fault, that (if) you may have committed it for the sake of a friend ; c. Am. 11, 37. Note 1. — In Livy and late writers the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunc- tive are sometimes used. Solitary examples also occur in Cicero and Caesar : Si apud principes baud satis prSspere esset piignatum, referebantur, if among the principes the battle had not been sufficiently successful, they were led back ; L. 8, 8, 11. 298 SYNTAX Note 2. — Observe that all the Indicative forms given in this section for General Conditions are also used in Particular Conditions. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CLASS III Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect in Both Clauses 579. Rule. — The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the sup- posed case as Contrary to Fact : Sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, wisdom would not be sought (as it is) if it accomplished nothing; o. Fin. l, 18, 42. Si optima tenere possenms, haud sane consilio egeremus, if we were able to secure the highest good, we should not indeed require counsel. Si Voluisset, propius Tibevi dimicasset, if he had wished, he would have fought nearer the Tiber. Num- quam abisset, nisi sibi viam nmnivisset, he would never have gone, if he ■ had not prepared for himself a way; C. Tusc. 1, U, 82. 1 . Herejthe Imperfect generally relates to Present time and the Pluperfect to Past time, as in the examples ; but sometimes ±he Imperfect retains its original .signification as a past tense of continued action,! especially when it " is accompanied by a word denoting past time : Neque tantum laudis Nestorl tribuisset Homerus, nisi tum esset honos gloquentiae, Homer would not have awarded so great praise to Nestor, if there were then no honor for eloquence ; c. Brut, lo, 40. DEVIATIONS PROM THE REGULAR FORMS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 580. Certain deviations from the regular form of the conclusion are admissible from the following facts : 1. The conclusion is often an independent clause, especially in the first class of conditional sentences, and as such it may take any form 1 The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive alike seem to have been capable originally of representing a condition either as Possible or as Impossible, but by a shifting of tenses which began before the time of Plautus, the Imperfect gradu- ally assumed the latter function for present time, thus relinquishing, in con- ditional sentences, its original force as a past tense, though traces of this original meaning are seen even in the classical period. Moreover, the use of the Present Subjunctive in early Latin in conditions contrary to fact is only an illustration of its original use. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 299 admissible in such clauses, as that of a Statement, a Wish, or a Command. 2. Certain equivalent expressions may be substituted for the regular Subjunctive. 581. The Indicative in the Condition may be accompanied by the Imperative or Subjunctive in the Conclusion, regarded as an Independent Clause : Si quid peccavi, Ignosce, if I have done anything wrong, pardon me; o. Att. 8, 15, 4. Quid timeam, si beatus futurus sum, what should I fear, if I am going to 6e happy ? SI quid habes certius, velim scire, if yoti have any tidings, I should like to know it; c. Att. 4, lo. 1. The Subjunctive in the condition may be accompanied by the Indica- tive in the conclusign to emphasize a fact, especially with a condition intro- duced by nisi, or ni : Certamen aderat, ni Fabius rem expedisset, a contest was at hand, but Fabius (if Fabius had not) adjusted the affair; L.8, i. Nee veni, nisi fata locum dedissent, and I should not have come, if the fates had not assigned the place; V. ll, 112. 582. The Indicative of the Periphrastic C onjugations^ denoting that the action is About to take place or Ought to take place, has almost the same meaning as the ordinary Subjunctive forms of the same verb. Accordingly periphrastic forms in the conclusion of conditional 'sentences are generally in the Indicative (525, 1) : Quid, si hostes veniant, facturi estis, xohat will yoxi do, if the enemy should come ? L. s, 52. Si quaeratur, iudicandum est, if inquiry should be made, a decision must be given ; C. Top. 23, S7. Relicturl agros eraut, nisi litteras misisset, they would have left (were about to leave, but did not) their lands, if he had not sent a letter., SI verum respondere ve lles, haec erant dlcenda,! if you had wished to answer truly, this should have been said. 1. The close relationship in meaning between the periphrastic forms in iirus sum and the ordinary Subjunctive forms is illustrated by the following examples : Quae Caesar numquam fecisset, ea nunc profermitur, those things which Caesar xoould never have done are now reported as his ; c. Att. 14, is, 6. Quae 1 Observe that the Indicative of this Passive Periphrastic Coujugation, this should have been said, has precisely the same force as the Subjunctive in such sentences as the following : Mortem pugnans oppetisses, you should have met death iti battle; c. Sest !(»,is. 300 sWtaS: ille facturus non fuit, ea flunt, those things which he would not have done (was not about to do) are now done; c. Att. 14, 14, 2. 2. When tlie Perfect or Imperfect of the Periphrastic Indicative in the conclusion of a conditional sentence is brought into a construction which requires the Subjunctive, the Perfect is generally used irrespective of the tense of the principal verb : Adeo inopia est coactus ut, nisi timuisset, Galliam repetitiirus fuerit,i he was so pressed by want that, if he had not feared, he would have returned to Gaul ; L. 22, 32. 583. The Historical tenses of verbs denoting Ability, as pos- sum, and of those denoting Duty, Propriety, Necessity, as debeo and the like, are often in the Indicative in the conclusion of con- ditional sentences, on account of their close relationship in meaning to the Subjunctive (525, 1) : Delerl exercitus potuit, si persecuti victores essent, the army might have been destroyed if the victors had pursued ; L. 82, 12. Quem, si uUa in te pietas esset, colere debebas, whom you ought to have honored, if there was any filial affection in you ; 0. Ph. 2, 88, 99. Quae si dubia essent, tamen omnes bonos rei piiblicae subvenire deoebat, even if these things were doubtful, still it would behoove all good men to aid the republic; s. 85, 48. 1. But these verbs often take the Subjunctive in accordance with the general rule, especially in Cicero : Quid faoere potuissem, nisi turn consul fuissem, what should I have been able to accomplish, if Ihad not then been consul? c. k. p. 1, G, 10. 2. The Perfect Tense in the conclusion of a conditional sentence is regu- larly in the Indicative when accompanied by paene or prope (538, 6) : Pons iter paene hostibus dedit, nl iLnus vir fuisset, the bridge would have furnished (almost furnished) a passage to the enemy, had there not been one man; L. 2, 10. 3. The historical tenses of the verb esse with predicate adjectives (as aequius, melius, rectius, satius; iiistum, rectum, par, etc.) are gener- ally in the Indicative in the conclusion of conditional sentences ; see 625, 2 : Si ita putasset, optabilius Milonl fuit dare iugulum Clodio, if he had so thought, it would have been preferable for Milo to offer his neck to Clodius; C. Mil. 11, 81. 1 Here repetitiirus fuerit is the Subjunctive of Result ; but it is in the Per- fect, because, if it were not dependent, the Perfect Indicative would have been used. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 301 4. In a few other oases also, a conclusion of one form of the conditional sentence is sometimes combined with a condition of a different form : SI tibi umquam sum visus fortis, certe me in ilia causa admlratus esses, if I have ever seemed to you to be brave, you would certainly have admired me in that trial ; c. Att. i, 16. Id neque, si fatum fuerat, effugisset, nor would he have escaped this if it had been fated ; C. Div. 2, 8, 20. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 584. Rule. — Conditional Clauses of Comparison, intro- duced by ac sT, ut SI, quam si, quasi, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, velut si, as if, than if, take the Subjunctive : Tu similiter facis, ac si me roges, you are doing nearly the same thing, as if you should ask me ; C. N. D. s, 3, 8. In eadem sunt iniiistitia, ut si in suam rem aliena coiivertant, they are involved in the same injustice, as if they should appropriate another's possessions to their own use ; C. Off. l, 14, 42. Tam te dlligit quam si vixerit tecum, he loves you as much as- if he had lived with you; C. Fam. 16, 5, i. Quasi nihil umquam audierim, as if I had never heard anything. Sic iacent, tamquam sine anim5 siiit, they lie as if they were without mind. Criidelitatem, velut si adesset, horrebant, they shuddered at his cruelty, as if he were present; cf. Caes. l, 82. 1. In all these sentences the principal clause is entirely independent of the conditional clause. 2. In the conditional clause the Present or Imperfect is used for Present time, and the Perfect or Pluperfect for Past time. 3. The Present and Perfect may be used in conditions contrary to fact — a survival of the ancient usage as seen in Plautus and Terence. 4. Ceu and sicuti are sometimes used like ac si, ut sT, etc. : Ceu cetera niisquam bella forent, as if they were nowhere any other battles; T. 2, 438. Sicuti audiri possent, as if they could be heard; S. 60, 4. 5. Clauses of Comparison, which are not conditional, are treated as Inde- pendent clauses. They are generally introduced by such correlatives as ita or SIC . . . ut, thus or so .. . as; tam . . . quam, so or as .. . as ; talis . . . qualis, such . . . as; tantus . . . quantus, so great . . . as: Ut sementem fecerls, ita metes, as you sow, so sliall you reap , c. Or. 2, 6S, 261. Nihil est tam populare quam bonitas, nothing is so popular as goodness. Tam diii requigscS quam diii ad tS scribe, / am comforted so long as I am uiriting to you ; C. Att. 9, 4. l. Talem amicum volunt, quales ipsi esse nSu possunt, they wish their friend to be such as they themselves can not be. 302 SYNTAX CONDITIONAL ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES 585. Rule. — Etsi and etiam si, when they mean although, introduce Adversative clauses and take the Indicative, but M^hen they mean even if they introduce Conditional clauses, and accordingly take the same construction as si : Etsi ab hoste ea dicebantur, tamen non neglegeiida existiinabant, although this was said hy the enemy, still they did not think that it should be disregarded ; Oaes. 5, 28. Etiam si multi mecum oontendent, tamen omnes superabo, although many will enter the contest with me, yet I shall surpass them all ; C. Fam. 6, 6, 4. Stultitia, etsi adepta est quod concupivit, iiumquam se satis conseciitam putat, folly, even if it has obtained what it desired, neoer thinks that it has obtained enough. Etiam si oppetenda mors esset, domi mallem, even if death ought to be met, I should prefer to meet it at home ; 0. Fam. 4, 7, 4. 1. An Adversative clause may represent the action as possible rather than actual, and thus may take the Potential Subjunctive : Etsi nihil laabeat in se gloria, tamen virtiitem sequitur, although glory may have nothing in itself, yet it follows virtue; c. Tuso. l, 45, 109. 2. Clauses with etsi and etiam si form a connecting link between Con- ditional clauses on the one hand and Concessive clauses on the other, as they partake of the characteristics of both. 3. Eor etsi, and yet, introducing an independent clause, see 586, 4. MOODS IN ADVERSATIVE AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 586. Rule. — I. Clauses introduced by quamquam and tametsi contain admitted facts, and accordingly take the Indicative : Quamquam excellebat abstinentia, tamen exsilio multatus est, although he was distinguished for integrity, yet he was punished with exile ; N. 8, 1. Quamquam festinas, non est mora longa, although you are in haste, the delay is not long. Tametsi ab duce deserebantur, tamen spem saliitis in virttite ponebant, although they were deserted by their leader, they still placed their hope of safety in their valor ; Caos. 5, 84. 1. But clauses with quamquam and tametsi admit the Potential Sub- junctive when the thought requires that mood (569) : Quamquam alii dicant, although others may say ; 0. Fin. 8, 21, 70. ADVERSATIVE AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 303 2. In poetry and late prose, quamquam often takes tlie Subjunctive, regularly in Juvenal and generally in Tacitus : Quamquam plerique ad senectam pervenlrent, although very many reached old age ; Tae. a. s, 55. II. Clauses introduced by licet, quamvTs, ut, or ne are Concessive, and accordingly take the Concessive Subjunctive (559, 3). Licet irrldeat, pliis apud me tamen ratio valebit, although he may deride, yet reason will avail more with me ; C. Parad. 1, 1, 8. Non tu possis, quamvis excellas, you would not be able, although you may be eminent. Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas, although the strength may fail (let strength fail), still the will is to be commended. Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, though pain may not be the greatest evil, it is cer- tainly an evil; C. Tuso. 2, 5, 14. 1. The Subjunctive after licet and quamvis is the Concessive Subjunc- tive. It was originally independent of these particles. Thus, licet, irtideat, it is allowed, let him deride; quamvis ezcellas, be as eminent as you wish (quam-vis = quam, as, and vis, you wish). 2. Quamvis takes the Subjunctive in the best prose ; generally also in Nepos and Livy, but in the poets and late writers it often admits the In- dicative : Erat dignitate r6gia, quamvis carebat nomine, he loas of royal dignity, though he loas without the name; n. 1, 2, 3. PoUio amat nostram, quamvis est riistica, Musam, Pollio loves my muse, although it is rustic; V. E. 3, 84. 3. The Subjunctive with ut and ne in concessive clauses is practically an independent Concessive Subjunctive. Thus, ne sit . . . dolor, let not pain be the greatest evil (grant that it is not), an entirely independent clause; so, too, ut desint \m:es, let strength fail, or grant that strength fails, also an independent clause which has assumed ut as the affirmative to corre- spond to ne in the negative clause. 4. Quamquam and et», meaning yet, but yet, and yet, often introduce independent clauses : Quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak ? EtsI consilium rectum esse scio, and yet I know that the plan is right. 5. Ut . . . sic, or ut . . . ita, though ... yet (as ... so), involving com- parison, rather tftan concession, does not require the Subjunctive : Ut a proeliis quietem habuerant, ita non cessaverant ab opere, though (ae) tltey Tiad had rest from battles, yet (so) they had not ceased from work. 304 SYNTAX 6. QuamviB, meaning as you wish, as much as you wish, however much, may accompany licet with the Subjunctive : Quamvis enumeres multos licet, though you may count up as many as you wish ; 0. Leg. 8, 10, 24. MOODS WITH Dum, Modo, Dummodo 587. Rule. — The Jussive Subjunctive is used vi^ith dum, modo, modo ut, and dummodo, meaning if only^ provided, in conditional clauses of desire : Dum res maneant, verba fingant, let them manufacture words, if only the facts remain. Manent iugenia, modo permaneat industria, mental powers remain if only industry continues ; C. Sen. T, 22. Modo ut haec nobis loca teiiere liceat, if only it is permitted us to occupy these places. Dum ne tibi videar, non laboro, provided I do not seem so to you, I do not care ; C. Att. 8, 11, B. 3. Dummodo necontinuum sit, provided this be not continuous. MOODS WITH Quod, Quia, Quoniam, Quandoi 588. Rule. — Causal Clauses with quod, quia, quoniam, quando, generally take I. The Indicative to assign a reason positively, on one's own authority : Delectatus sum tuis litteris, quod te intellexi iam posse rldere, / have been delighted with your letter, because I have learned from it that now you can laugh ; C. Fnm, 9, 20, l. Quia nattira miitarl non potest, because nature can not be changed. Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, celebratote illos dies, since a thanksgiving has been decreed, celebrate those days. Quando pauperiem horres, since you shudder at poverty ; H. s. 2, 5, 9. II. The Subjunctive to assign a reason doubtfully, or on another's authority^: Aristides nonne expulsus est patria, quod iiistus esset, wa.t not Aristides banished because (on the alleged ground that) he was just f c. Tusc. 5, 36, 105. 1 Quod and quia are in origin relative pronouns. Quoniam = quom lam, when now. 2 Observe that causal clauses with the Indicative state a fact, and at the same time present that lact as a reason or cause, hut that causal clauses with the Sub- junctive simply assign a reason. Thus quod Iiistus esset does not state that Aristides was just, but simply indicates the alleged ground of his banishment. MOODS IN CAUSAL CLAUSES 305 Reprehendis me, quia defendam, you reprove me because (on the ground that) / defend 1dm. Quoniam civitati consulere noii possent, since they could not consult for the state. 1. Sometimes by a special construction the Subjunctive of a verb of Saying or Thinking is used, while the verb -which introduces the reason on another's authority is put in the Infinitive : Dies pr5rogatur, quod tabulas ohsignatas diceret (= obslgnatae essent), the time is extended on the ground that the documents were signed, as lie said; C. Vur. 1, 88, 98. Legatis acousantibus, quod pecunias cepisse arguerent, as the ambassadors accused him on the ground that he had received moneys, as they claimed; C. Fin. it, 24. 2. Non quod,'non quo, non quin, non quia, also quam quod, etc., are used with the Subjunctive to denote an alleged reason, in distinction from the true reason : Non quod susoenserem, sed quod suppudebat, not because I loas angry, but because I was ashamed; C. Fam. 9, 1, 3. Non quo haberem quod scrlbe- rem, not because (that) I had anything to write ; C. Att. 7, 15, 1. Non quIn rectum esset, sed quia, etc., not because it was not right, but because, etc. Note. — In such clauses the Indicative is sometimes used to call attention to the facts in the case : Non quod multis debeo, sed quia, etc., not because I am indebted to many (as I really am), but because, etc.; c. Plane. 82, 78. 3. The quod clause was originally a substantive clause used as Ap- positive. Subject, or Object : Hoc praestamus feris quod colloquimur inter nos, roe are superior to the brutes in this tliat we converse together; 0. Or. 1, s, 32. Praetereo quod hanc sibi domum delegit, / pass over the fact that she chose for herself this home. Hue acoedebat quod exercitum luxuriose habuerat, to this was added the fact that he had kept the army in luxury ; s. c. 11, 5. Note. — Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the beginning of sentences to announce the subject of discourse : Quod me Agamemnonem aemularl putas, falleris, as to the fact that you think that I emulate Agamemnon, you are in error; N. 15, 5, 6. 4. From the Substantive clause was developed the Causal clause, as follows : Propter hanc causam quod me adiuverunt, for this reason, that they aided me, or because they aided me ; C. Ver. 8, 4C, 109. Dolebam quod socium laboris aniiseram, I was grieving over the fact that I had lost the companion HARK. I.AT. GRAM. 21 306 SYNTAX of my labor, or because I had lost the companion of my labor. TibI ago gratias quod me molestia liberasti, / thank you because you have freed me from annoyance ; C.Fam. 13, 62. Note. — Observe that in the first example the quod clause may be either an Appositive to causam or a Causal clause, that in the second it may be either the Direct object of dolebam or a Causal clause, i.e. in these exam- ples we see the Causal clause in the actual process of development, while in the third example we have a fully developed Causal clause. In the time of. Plautus the Causal meaning of quod was just beginning to make its appear- ance, while that of quia was already fully developed. 5. Quia had the same development as quod : Doles quia doles, I grieve over the fact that you grieve, or because you grieve. 6. Quoniam and quando were originally temporal particles meaning when now, when, and are so used in Plautus, but the causal meaning was early developed in both. INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE IN RELATIVE CLAUSES 589. Rule. — Clauses introduced by the relative qui, or by Relative Adverbs, ubi, unde, quo, etc., take I. The Indicative, when they simply state or assume facts, with- out any accessory notion of Purpose, Result, Concession, or Cause : Ego qui te confivmo, ipse me non possum, / who encourage you am not able to encourage myself; C. Fam. 14, 4, 5. Civitates propinquae his locis, ubI bellum gesserat, states near to those places where he had been carrying on war. Athenienses, unde leges ortae putantur, the Athenians, from whom laws are supposed to have been derived. Ciimis, quo se contu- lerat, at Cumae, to which he had betaken himself. Note. — So especially with General Relatives : Quisquis est, is est sapiens, whoever he is, he is wise. II. The Subjunctive in all other cases : Missi sunt delecti, qui Thermopylas oocuparent, picked men were sent to take possession (that they might take possession) of Thermopylae; N. 2, 8, 1. Domura, ubI habitaret, legerat, he had selected a house where he might dwell (that he might dwell in it) ; c. Ph, 2, 25, C2. Quae tam firma civitaa est, quae non odiis possit everti, what state is so firmly established that it cannot be ruined by dissensions ? MOODS IN RELATIVE CLAUSES 307 590. The Volitive Subjunctive is used in Relative clauses, to denote Purpose, as in ut clauses (568) : Certumst (certum est) hominem oonloqui, qui possim videri huic fortis, a mg ut abstineat manum, / am deteiinined to address the man face to face, that I may appear to him brave, that he may keep his hands off from me; Pi. Amph. 839. Legatos Romam, qui auxilium petereut, misere, they sent am- bassadors to Rome to ask aid (that they might ask aid). Locum petit, unde hostem invadat, he seeks a position from which he may (that from it he may) attack the enemy; L. 4, 27, s. 1. In the first example, observe that the Relative clause, qui possim . . . fortis, and the ut clause, are equivalent expressions of Purpose. In the Independent form, they would read : possim videri huic fortis, let me be able to appear to him brave; a me abstineat manum, let him keep his hands off from me. 591. The Potential Subjunctive is used in Relative clauses : 1. To characterize Indefinite or General antecedents, especially Gen- eral Negatives : Nemo est orator qui DemosthenI se similem nolit esse, there is no orator who would be unwilling to be like Demosthenes ; c. Opt. G. 2, 6. Quis est qui hoc dioere audeat, who is there who mould dare to say this ? Note 1. — Observe that, in these relative clauses, the Subjunctive is purely Potential, and that it has precisely the same force as in the follovfing inde- pendent sentence : Quis hoc dicere audeat, who would dare to say this ? Note 2. — The Indicative is freely used in relative clauses after indefi- nite antecedents, in poetry, especially in Plautus and Terence, and in late prose. Even in the best writers it is often used when the Fact is to be made prominent : Sunt quos iuvat, there are those whom it delights ; H. l, l, 8. Permulta sunt, quae dici possunt, there are many things lohich may be said ; C. Rose. A. S3, 94. 2. To denote the Natural Result of an Action or Quality : Non is sum qui his delecter, / am not one loho would be delighted with these things, or such a one as to be delighted; o. Harus. 9, 18. Non tii is es quem nihil delectet, you are not one whom nothing would please. Neque quisquam fuit, ubi nostrum iiis obtineremus, there was no one with whom (where) we could obtain our right; c. Quinct. 9, 84. 3. In Restrictive clauses with quod, as quod sciam, as far as I (may) know; quod meminerim, as far as I can remember; quod iuvet, as far as it may be of service^ etc. : 308 SYNTAX Non ego te, quod sciam, umquam ante hunc diem vidi, as far as I know, I have never seen you before this day ; Pi. Men. 500. Ita homo, quod iuvet, curiosus, a man, painstaking, so far as it may be of service; c. Fam. 8, l, l, 4. In clauses with quod, or with a relative particle, cur, quare, etc., in certain idiomatic expressions. Thus, after est, there is reason; non est, nihil est, there is no reason; nulla causa est, there is no reason; nou habeo, nihil habeo, I haoe no reason; quid est, what reason is there? etc. : Est quod gaudeas, there is reason why you should rejoice (there is that as to which you may rejoice) ; PI. Trin. 310. Nihil haheo, quod acciisem senectutem, I have no reason to complain of old age; C. Sen. 5, IS. Tibi causa nulla est oUr vells,^ you have no reason why you should wish. 5. After iinus, solus, and the like : Sapientia est iina quae maestitiam pellat, wisdom is the only thing which dispels (may dispel) sadness; C. Fin. l, is, 43. Soli centum erant qui creari patres possent, there were only one hundred who could be made senators. 6. After Comparatives with quam : Damna maiora sunt quam quae (ut ea) aestimarl possint, the losses are too great to be estimated (greater than so that they can be estimated); L. 3, 73. Note. — For the Infinitive after comparatives with quam, see 643, 2. 7. After dignus, indignus, idoneus, and aptus : Hunc Caesar idoneum iadioaverat quem mitteret, Caesar had judged him a suitable person to send (whom he might send); Caea. C. 8, 10, 2. Fabulae dignae quae legantur, plays worth reading (which may or should be read). Note. — For the Infinitive with these words, see 608, 4, and note 1. 593. The Subjunctive, originally Potential, is used in Relative clauses to denote Cause or Reason ; vis veritatis, quae se defendat, the power of truth, that it (which) can defend itself; O. Am. 26, 03. fortunate adulescfins, qui tuae virtiitis Home- rum praeoonem inveneris, fortunate youth, in having obtained (who may have obtained) Homer as the herald of your valor ; c. Arch, lo, 24. Nee facillime agnosoitur, quippe qui blandiatur, he is not very easily detected, as he is likely to flatter. Maritimae res, ut quae celerem motum haberent, maritime affairs, as they involve prompt movement (as things which would have, etc.). Non prooul aberat, utpote qui sequeretur, he was not far away, as lie was pur- suing (as one who might be pursuing); s. c. 57, 4. 1 Observe that the mood in ciir veils would be precisely the same in an independent sentence. It is Potential, not Deliberative. MOODS IN CLAUSES WITH QUIN 309 1. Quippe, ut, and utpote sometimes accompany the relative in Causal clauses, as in the last three examples. They emphasize the causal relation. 2. In Plautus and Terence, causal clauses with qui and quippe qui admit either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. The latter mood emphasizes the causal relation and is used especially with ut qui : Quem rogem, qui hie neminem alium videam, whom am I to ask, since I can see no other one here 9 Ut qui me tibi esse conservom velint, since they (as those who) would wish me to be your fMow-seroant ; Pi. capt. 248. 3. Causal clauses with qui admit the Indicative in all writers, when the statement is viewed as a fact rather than as a cause : Habeo senectuti gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, / cherish gratitude to old age, which has increased my love of conversation ; C. Sen. 14, 46. 4. In Sallust quippe qui regularly takes the Indicative : Quippe qui regnum animo iam invaserat, since in thought he had already seised the kingdom ; s. 20, 6. 593. The Subjunctive, originally Jussive, is used 1. In those Relative clauses which are equivalent to Conditional clauses with the Subjunctive (573): Haec qui (= siquis) videat, nonne cogatur confiteri, etc., if any one should see these things, would he not be compelled to admit, etc. ? c. N. i). 2, 4, 12. Qui videret, urbem captam diceret, if any one saw it, he would say that the city was taken ; c. Ver. 4, 28, 52. 2. In those Relative clauses which are equivalent to Concessive clauses with the Subjunctive (586, II.) : Absolvite eum, qui se fateatur pecanias cepisse, acquit him, although he confesses (let him confess) that he has accepted money ; u. Vtr. s, 95, 221. Ego- met qui leviter Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies Athenis sum commoratus, although I had pursued Greek studies only superficially, yet I remained in Athens several days; at. c. Or. 1, is, S2. MOODS WITH Quin 594. Rule. — I. Quin in direct questions and commands takes the ordinary construction of independent sentences: Quin conscendimus equos, ti'hy do we not mount our horses t L. 1, 57, 7. Quin taces, why are you not silent f Quin iino verbo die, nay, say in a single word; T. And. 45. 310 SYNTAX II. Quin in subordinate clauses takes the Subjunctive: ^ Nee dubitari debet, quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae, nor ought it to he doubted that there were poets before Homer; 0. Brut. 18, 71. Neque recusare, quin armis contendant, and that they do not refuse to contend in arms. Nem5 est tarn foi-tis, quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so brave, as not to be disturbed by the suddenness of the event ; Oaes, 6, 39, 3. 1. In number I., observe that the use of quin in commands is developed from its use in questions. Tlius, quin taces, why are you not silent ? implies a reproof which readily passes into a Command, as quin tace, nay, be silent. 2. In number II. , the quin clause in the first example is developed from the interrogative quin = qui-ne, meaning why not? Quin . . . poetae, why may there not have been poets before Homer? The mood is Potential. In the next example, qmn is used in the sense of quo minus and thus intro- duces a clause of Purpose ; see 568. In the last example, quin is equivalent to qui non and introduces a clause of Characteristic and accordingly takes the Potential Subjunctive. 595. Quin is used after Negatives and Interrogatives implying a Negative. Thus : 1. After negative expressions implying Doubt, Uncertainty, Distance, Omission, and the like, as non dubito, n5u dubium est, nihil abest, nihil or non praetermitto, etc. : Non dubitat quin sit Troia peritura, he does not doubt that Troy will fall ; C. Sen. 10, 81. Non erat dubium, quin plurimum possent, there was no doubt that they had very great power; Caes. l, s. Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus, nothing is wanting to make me (that I should be) most unhappy. Nullum Intermlsl diem, quin aliquid ad te litterarum darem, / have allowed no day to pass without sending (but that I sent) a letter to you. 2. After verbs of Hindering, Preventing, Refusing, and the lilte, to denote Purpose, lilce qu5 minus and ne after the same verhs : Quin loquar haec, numquam me potest deterrere, you can never deter me from saying this ; Pi. Amph. 559. Retinerl non potuerant quin tela cSicerent, they could not be restrained from hurling their weapons ; Caes. l, 47, 2. 3. After facere non possum, fieri non potest, etc., in Object and Subject clauses : 1 Quin in subordinate clauses seems to represent two separate words : an inter- rogative quin = qui-ne, why not, from which was developed a negative relative, meaning by which not = quominus ; and a relative quin = qui non, quae n5n, quod non, who not. MOODS IN CLAUSES WITH CUM 311 Faoer.e non possum, quin oottidis litteras ad te mittam, / cannot hut send (cannot help sending) a letter to you daily ; of. c. Att. 12, 27. EfEioI n5n potest quin eSs oderim, it cannot be brought about that I should not hate them. 4. After nemo, nuUus, nihil, quis, and the like, in the sense of qui non, quae non, ut non : Nemo est, quin maKt, there is no one who woitld not prefer ; of. C. Fam. 6, 1, 1. Nemo est quin audierit, there is no one who has not heard. NflUa fuit civitas quiu Caesarl pareret, there was no state which was not subject to Caesar. Quis est quin cernat, who is there who does not (would not) perceive? C. Acad. 2, 7, 20. 5. After various verbs with numquam and in Interrogative clauses with umquam : Numquam tam male est Sioulis, quin aliquid facets dicant, it is never so bad with the Sicilians that they cannot say something witty ; C. Ver. 4, 48, 95. Quis umquam templum illud adspexit quin avaritiae tuae testis esset, who ever looked upon that temple without being a witness of your avarice 9 6. A pronoun, is or id, referring to the subject of the principal clause, is sometimes expressed after quin : Quis venit quin is de avaritia tua commoneretur, who came without being reminded (but that he was reminded) of your avance ? 0. Vor. 1, 59, 164. 596. Special Verbs. — Certain verbs vrhich take quin with more or less frequency also admit other constructions. Thus : 1. Non dubito admits either a quin clause or a dependent question : Nollte dubitare, quin liuic credatis omnia, do not hesitate to intrust every- thing to him ; C. Man. 23, 68. Non dubito quid nobis agendum putes, / do not doubt what you thinJc we ought to do ; 0. Att. 10, 1, 2. 2. A few verbs of Hindering and Opposing, especially deterreo and impedio, take the Subjunctive with ne, quin, or quo minus : Hos multitudinem deterrere ne friimentum conferant, that these deter the multitude from bringing the grain together; Oaes. :, n, 2. Quin loquar haec, numquam me potes dgterrere, you can never deter me from saying this. Non deterret sapientem mors quo minus rei pilblicae consulat, death does not deter a wise man from deliberating for the republic; 0. Tusc. 1, 38, 91. CLAUSES WITH Cum 597. The particle cum, like the relative from which it is derived, is very extensively used in subordinate constructions, as in Causal, Concessive, and Temporal clauses. 312 SYNTAX SUBJXJNCTIVE WITH Cum IN CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 598. Rule. — In writers of the best period, Causal and Concessive clauses with cum take the Subjunctive : Cum vita sine amicis metus plena sit, ratio monet amicitias comparare, since life without friends is (would be) full of fear, reason adnises us to establish friendships; 0. Fin. l, 20, 60. Quae cum ita sint, pevge, since these things are so, proceed. Quippe cum eos diliganius, since in truth we love them; C. Am. s, 23. Utpote cum sine febri laborassem, since indeed I had been without fever in my illness. Cum praesertim vos alium miseritis, especially since you have sent another; C. Man. 5, 12. Phooion f uit paupev, cum divitissimus esse posset, Phocion was a poor man, although he might have been very rich; of. N. 19, 1, 2. Socrates, cum facile posset educi e custodia, noluit, Socrates, though he could easily have escaped from prison, was unwilling to do so ; of. 0. Tusc. 1, 29, 71. Gum multa sint in philosophia utilia, although there are many useful things in philosophy. 1. Observe that the causal relation is emphasized by the addition of quippe and utpote to cum, precisely as it is by the addition of these particles to qui; see 692, 1. Praesertim added to cum, as in the fifth example, has a similar force. 599. Indicative in Causal and Concessive Clauses with Cum. — The Indicative in Causal clauses with cum is the regular construction in Plautus and Terence ; and it is used in all writers when the statement is viewed as an actual fact, especially after laudo, gaudeo, gratulor, and the like : Quom optume feoisti, since you have done excellently ; Pi. Capt. 428. Quom hoc non possum, since I have not this power. Cum dS tuis factis conque- runtur, since they complain of your deeds ; C. Ver. 2, 64, 166. Gratulor tibi, cum tantum vales, I congratulate you on the fact that you have so great influence. 1. Concessive clauses with cum sometimes take the Indicative to em- phasize the fact rather than the concession : Cum tabulas emunt, tamen divitias suas vincere nequeunt, though they purchase paintings, they are yet unable to exhaust their wealth; 8. c. 20, 12. 2. Ut . . . sic and ut . . . ita, though . . . yet (aa . . . so), involving Comparison, rather than Concession, generally take the Indicative : Ut a proelils quietem habuerant, ita non cessaverant ab opere, though (as) they had had rest from battles, yet (so) they had not ceased from work. MOODS IN CLAUSES WITH CUM 313 MOODS IN TEMPORAL CLAUSES 'WITH Cum 600. Rule. — Temporal clauses with cum, meaning when, while, after, take I. The Indicative in the Present, Perfect, and Future Tenses : Libros, cum est otium, legere soleo, / am wont to read books when I have leisure ; C. Or. 2, u, 59. Turn cum urbem condidit, at the time when he founded the city. Cum Caesav in Galliam venit, when Caesar came into Gaul. Cum homines cupiditatibus imperabunt, when men shall govern their desires. I. Cum Inversum. — Here belong clauses with cum inversum, i.e. with cum in the sense of et tiun, and then. Tliis is an inverted construction by which the leading thought is put in the Temporal clause which generally takes the Historical Present or Perfect, often with repente, subito, or some similar word, whUe the Principal clause generally takes the Imperfect or Pluperfect with vix, nondum, iam, etc. : Vix ille hoc dixerat, cum iste pronuntiat, etc., scarcely had he said this when (and then) that man proclaimed, etc. ; c. Vn- 2, 33, 93. Dies nondum decem interoesserant, cum alter filius necatur, ten days had not yet inter- vened when (and then) the other son was put to death. II. The Subjunctive in the Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses : Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter, / often heard Zeno when I was at Athens; 0. N. D. l, 21, 59. Cum dimicaret, occisus est, tohen he engaged in battle, he was ,«/«/)) ; N. 21, 8, 2. Fuisti saepe, cum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum, you were often in the schools of the philosophers, when you were at Athens. Caesari cum id nuntiatum esset, matiirat ab urbe proficisci, when Mw had been announce'! to Caesar, he has- tened to set out from the city. Cum tridui viam processisset, niintiatum est ei, etc., when he had gone a three days' journey, it was announced to him, etc. 1. It will be found on an examination of these and similar examples that temporal clauses introduced by cum with the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive name, or describe, the occasion on which the action of the principal verb is performed. Thus presence in Athens was the essential condition on which alone one could hear Zeno, and in the fourth example the announcement made to Caesar was the actual cause of his hasty departure from the city. These clauses therefore sustain a close relationship to causal clauses with cum, and probably take the Subjunctive after the analogy of those clauses. They are used chiefly in historical narration, in which the causal relation of events is often manifest. 314 SYNTAX 2. The Subjunctive of the second person singular, used of an indefinite you, meaning any one, may he used in any tense : Difficile est taoere, cum doleas, it is difficult to he quiet when you are suffering ; 0. Suil. lo, 81. Cum quosdam audires, when you heard certain per- sons ; C. Brut. 86, 184. 601. Indicative. — The Indicative in the Imperfect and Plu- perfect in Temporal clauses with cum is the regular construction in Plautus and Terence, but it is exceedingly rare -^ in the classical period. It is used, however, in temporal clauses, which logically are nearly or quite independent of the principal clause. Thus 1. After cum = et turn, as often in cum interim, cum interea, when in the meantime = and or but in the meantime ; cum etiata tum, and even then ; cum nondum, hauddum, and not yet : Caedebatur virgis, cum interea nuUus gemitus audiebatur, he loas beaten with rods, but in the meantime no groan was heard; c. Ver. 5, 62, 162. Mul- tum diel processerat, cum etiam turn eventus in incerto erat, a large part of the day had passed, and even then the result was uncertain. 2. After such correlative expressions as tum . . . cum, then . . . when; eo or illo tempore or die . . . cum, on that time or day . . . when, and kindred expressions : Senatus tum, cum florebat imperium, deorevit, the senate decreed at that time when its power was at its height; o. Div. l, 41, 92. Eo tempore paruit, cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at that time when it was necessary to Note. — So in the dating of letters : Cum haec scribebam, sperabam,^ when I wrote this, I hoped; c. Fam. 3, 18. 3. After cum, meaning from the time when, since, during which, in such expressions as the following ; NOndum centum et decern anni sunt cum lata est lex, it is not yet a hundred and ten years since the law was proposed; c. Off. 2, 21, 75. Permultl anni iam erant, cum nulla certamina fuerant, it was already many years during which there had been no contests. 1 Caesar, De Bells Gallico, has upwards of two hundred instances of the Im- perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive in temporal clauses with cum, and only one Imperfect and one Pluperfect Indicative. Nepos also has upwards of two hun- dred Subjunctives in these clauses, but only one Imperfect and one Pluperfect Indicative. 2 Remember that the tense is here adapted to the time of the reader, while to the writer the time is present. TEMPORAL CLAUSES 315 4. More commonly after cum, meaning as often as, whenever, in clauses denoting Repeated Action or General Truth, though the Subjunctive is often used : Haec renovabam, cum llcebat, / was wont to renew my acquaintance with these subjects lohenever an opportunity offered; 0. Acad. P. i, 3, il. Cum rosam viderat, tunc incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, he thought that spring icas beginning ; c. Ver. 5, lo, 27. Erat, cum de lure civill disputaretm', argumentorum copia, whenever the discussion teas about the civil laie, there loas an abundance of arguments. Note. — Memini cum, / remember when, generally takes the Indicative ; audio cum, video cum, and animadverto cum generally the Subjunctive : Memini, cum mihi desipere videbare, / remember when you seemed to me to be iinioise ; 0. Fam. 7, 2S, l. Soleo audire Rosciuni, cum dicat, / am acctis- tomed to hear Hoscius say (when he says); c. Or. ], 2S, 129. Ego ex iis saepe audivi, cum dicerent, etc., I have often heard them say (from them when they said) ; C. Or. 2, 87, 165. TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Postquam, Ubi, Ut, ETC. 602. Rule. — Temporal Clauses, introduced by tlie parti- cles, postquam, postea quam, after, — pridie quam, postridie quam, 071 the day before, on the day after; ubi, ut, simul, simul atque, when, as, as soon as, — state facts, and accord- ingly take the Indicative, generally the Perfect, or the Historical Present : Postquam omnes Belgarum copias ad se venire vidit, castra posuit, after he saw that all the forces of the Belgae were coming against him, he pitched his camp ; Caes. 2, 5, 4. Pridie quam tii coactus es confiteri, etc., on the day before you were compelled lo admit, etc. ; 0. Ver. 5, 30, 7T. Ubi de eius adventii certiores facti sunt, when they were informed of his approach. Id ut audivit, as sooti as he heard this. Simul in arido constiterunt, as soon as they stood on dry land. Postquam vident, after they saw. 1. The Pluperfect is used to denote the result of a Completed action, and to mark the interval between two events : Postea quam bis consul fuerat, after he had been ticice consul ; C. Diy. c. 21, 69. Aimis sex postquam voverat, six years after he had made the voxo; L. 42, 10. 2. The Pluperfect is also used to denote Repeated or Customary action : 316 SYNTAX Ut quisque venei-at, haec visere solebat, every one, as he came, was , wont to visit these objects; C. Ver. 4, 3, 5. Note 1. — Other tenses of tte Indicative are comparatively rare, though the Present and Imperfect are sometimes used to denote Incomplete action : Postquam aurum hahes, 7iow that you have the gold; PI. True. 919. Post- quam nox aderat, when night was approaching ; S. 53, 7. Note 2. — In a few passages, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are found after postquam and postea quam : Postea quam silmptuosa fieri fiinera coepissent, Solonis lege sublata sunt, after funerals had begun to be expensive, they were abolished by Solon's law; C. Leg. 2, 25, 64. 3. In Livy and the late historians, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are often us^d in temporal clauses to denote Repeated action and General truth, and sometimes even in earlier writers : Id ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat, when he had said this, he was wont to hurl a spear; L. 1, 82, 13. Ut quisque veniret, as each one arrived; L. 2, 83. 4. In any temporal clause, the Subjunctive may be used in the second person singular to denote an indefinite subject, you, one, any one : Ubt perlclum facias, when you make the trial ; pi. Bac. 63. UM revenisses domum, when you (any one) had returned home. Priusquam incipias, con- sults opus est, before you begin, there is need of deliberation ; 8. C. l, 6. TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Dum, Donee, AND Quoad 603. Rule. — I. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning as long as, take the Indicative : Hoc feci, dum licuit, I did this as long as it was allowed ; 0. Ph. 8, 18, 33. I-Iaeo civitas, dum erit, laetabitur, this state will rejoice as long as it shall exist. Donee eris sospes, as long as you shall be prosperous. Quoad potuit, restitit, he resisted as long as he could ; Oaes. 4, 12, 6. II. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take : 1. The Indicative, Present, Perfect, or Future Perfect, when the action is viewed as an actual fact : Delibera hoc, dum ego redeo, consider this until I return; T. Ad. 196. Donee perfecero hoc, until I shall have accomplished this. Quoad renuntiSr tum est, until it was actually announced; N. 15, 9, 3. TEMPORAL CLAUSES 317 2. The Subjunctive, Present or Imperfect, when the action is viewed as something desired, proposed, or conceived : Differant, dum defervescat ira, let them defer it until their anger cools, or shall cool; C. Tusc. 4, 86, 78. Exspectas dum dicat, you are waiting until he speaks (i.e. that he may speak). Donee consilio patres firmaret, until he strengthened the senators by his counsel. Ea continebis quoad te videam, you will keep them until I see you ; c. Att. 18, 21, 4. 604. Special Constructions of dum and donee. — Note the following : 1. Dum, meaning while, as distinguislied from as long as, generally takes the Historical Present Indicative (533, 4), but in the poets and in the historians it sometimes take.s the Imperfect Subjunctive : Dum ea geruntur, Caesari ntintiatum est, lohile those things were taking place, it was announced to Caesar. Dum ea gererentur, bellum concitur, while those things were taking place, war was begun; L. lo, 18. 2. Donee belongs chiefly to poetry and late prose. It is not found in Caesar or SaUust, and only four times in Cicero. In Livy donee, meaning while, is found with the Imperfect Subjunctive of a repeated action, and with the meaning until it is found with the Pluperfect Sub- junctive. In Tacitus, when it means until, it generally takes the Subjunctive, whatever the tense: Nihil trepidabant, donee continent! velut ponte agerentur, they did not fear at all while they were driven on a continuous bridge, as it loere ; L. 21,2s. Rhenus servat violentiam curstis, donee Oeeano misceatur, the Bhine pre- serves the rapidity of its current until it mingles with the ocean ; Tac. a. 2, 6, 3. TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Antequam AND Priusquam 605. Rule. — I. In Temporal clauses with antequam and priusquam the Present and Perfect are put in the Indicative when the action is viewed as an Actual Fact, and in the Subjunctive when the action is viewed as something De- sired, Proposed, or Conceived : Antequam ad sententiam redeo, de me pauca dicara, before I resume asking your opinions, I shall say a few words in regard to myself; C.C. 4,10,20. Nee prius respexi quam venimus, nor did I look back until we arriveil. Priusquam incipias, consults opus est, before you begin, there is need of deliberation; s, c. 1, 6. Non prius duces dimittunt, quam sit concessnni, etc., they did not let the leaders go, until it was granted, etc. ; Caes. 8, is, 7. 318 SYNTAX II. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put in the Sub- junctive : ^ Pervenit, priusquam Pompeius sentire posset, lie arrived hefore Pornpey could become aware of his approach ; Oaes. C. 3, 67, 4. Paucis ante diebus quam Syracusae caperentur, a few days before Syracuse loas taken; L.25, 81, 12. Antequam de uieo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedonian! porrexi," ie/ore they were able (liad been able) to hear of my approach, I went straight into Macedonia; C. Plane. 41, 9S. 1. When the Principal clause is negative, and contains an historical tense, the Temporal clause generally takes the Perfect Indicative, as in the second example under the rule, rarely the Imperfect, Indicative or Sub- junctive : Nec, antequam vires deerant, expugnati sunt, nor were they captured until their strength failed; L. 23, 80, 4, Non prius egressus est quam rgx eum in fidem reciperet, he did not withdraw until the king took him under his pro- tection ; N. 2, 8, 4. 2. The Future Indicative is exceedingly rare, and is found only in Plautus and Cato : Priusquam istam pugnam pugnabo, hefore I fight that battle ; Pi. Pseud. 524. 3. The Pluperfect Subjunctive is very rare; see the third example under II. INFINITIVE. — SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 606. The Infinitive is a verbal noun with special characteris- tics. Like verbs, it has voice and tense, takes adverbial modifiers, and governs oblique cases. 607. Rule. — Infinitive. — Many verbs admit the Infinitive to complete or qualify their meaning : Cupio videre, qui id audeat dicere, / desire to see who will dare to say this ; 0. Phil, 5, 2, 6. Proelio supersedere statuit, he decided to avoid (abstain from) a battle; Oaes. 2, 8. Desino quaerere, I forbear to inquire. Latine loqui didicerat, he had learned to speak Latin ; 8. loi, 6. Quid facers cogitas, what do you intend to do f Dubitas aibire, do you hesitate to de- part? Persium non ctiro legere, / do not care to read Persius. Debes hoc rescribere, you ought to write this in reply. 1 The Suhjunctive in the Imperfect and Pluperfect is sometimes best explained like the Subjunctive alter Dum, and sometimes like the Subjunctive of the historical tenses after cum ; see 600, II. ORIGm AND EARLY USE OF THE INFINITIVE 319 1. The Infinitive is used especially with transitive verbs meaning to dare, desire, determine; to begin, continue, end; to knoio, learn; to intend, pre- pare; to hesitate, not to care, refuse; to owe, be under obligations, etc. Note. — -After these verbs the Infinitive is the object of the action, like the Accusative with a transitive verb, but with some of them the Subjunc- tive is sometimes used ; see 566, 568, etc. 2. The Infinitive Is also used with Intransitive verbs meaning to be able, to be toont, be accustomed, etc.: Mortem eftugere nemo potest, no one is able to escape death. Kilri esse soleo, I am wont to be in the country. ORIGIN, EARLY USE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFINITIVE 608. Originally the Latin Infinitive appears to have been made up of Dative and Locative forms of a verbal noun. Indeed, in early Latin and in the poets, rarely in classical prose, it is used in special constructions with nearly the same force as the Dative of Purpose or End (425, 3). It is thus used : 1. With many Intransitive verbs, especially with those which denote Motion, eo, abeo, venio : Dla abiit aedem visere Minervae, she has gone to see the temple of Minerva ; PI. Bac. 900. Ibit aurum arcessere, he will go to get the gold. Non populare penates venimus, loe have not come to lay waste your homes; V. l, 527. 2. With Transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative : Pecus egit altos visere montgs,' he drove his herd to visit the lofty moun- tains; H. 1, 2, 7. Quid habes dicere, what have you to say 9 Dederat comam diflundere ventis,i she had given her hair to the winds to scatter; V. l, 319. 3. Sometimes, chiefly in poetry and late prose, with verbs which usually take the Subjunctive : Gentem hortor amare focos, I exhort the race to love their homes; v. 8, 188. CunctI suaserunt Italiam petere, all advised to seek Italy ; V. 8, 868. 4. With a few adjectives : Est paratus and! re, he is prepared to hear; 0. inv. l, 16, 23. Avidi com- mittere pugnam, eager to engage in battle ; o. m. .5, 75. Fons rivo dare nomen idSneus, a fountain worthy to give its name to the river; H. E. 1, 16, 12. 1 In these examples with transitive verbs, observe that the Accusative and In- finitive correspond to the Accusative and Dative under 424, and that the Accusa- tive, Dative, and Infinitive correspond to the Accusative and two Datives under 433. 320 SYNTAX Note 1. — With adjectives, and participles used as adjectives, the Infini- tive, rare in prose, is freely used in poetry in a variety of constructions : Cantare peritus, skilled to sing, or in singing ; V. Ec. 10, 82. Piger scri- hendi ferre laborem, reluctant to bear the labor of writing ; H. 8. l, 4, 12. Erat dignus amarl, he loas worthy to be loved. Certa morl, determined to die. Vitulus niveus videri, a calf snow-white to view ; H. 4, 2, 59. Note 2. — The Infinitive also occurs, especially in poetry, with verbal nouns and with such expressions as copia est, tempus est : Cupldo Stygios innare laciis, a desire to sail upon the Stygian lakes; v. 6. 133. Quibus moUiter.vivere copia erat, who had the means for living at ease ; s. c. n, 6. Tempus est maiora conari, it is time to attempt greater things ; L. 6, 18, 18. 609. Infinitive as Object or Subject. — From this early use of the Infinitive to denote the Object or End of the Motion, or Action, expressed by the verb, was gradually developed its use as a Gen- eral Modifier of the verb and as the Direct Object of the action : Eximus liidos visere,i toe have come out to see the sports ; pi. Gas. 865. Mor- tem effugere nemo potest, no one is able to escape death. Magna negotia volunt agere,! they wish to perform great deeds. Scythis bellum inferred deorevit, he decided to wage war against the Scythians; N. l, 3, 1. 1. From the use of the Infinitive as the direct object of the action was developed its use as the Subject of the verb : Decreverunt non dare signum, they decided not to give the signal. Decre- tum est noil dare signum, it was decided not to give the signal. 2. The Infinitive sometimes occurs with Prepositions : Multum interest inter dare et accipere, there is a great difference between giving and receiving ; Sen. Ben. 5, 10, 1. 610. Historical Infinitive. — In lively descriptions, the Present Infinitive, like the Historical Present, is sometimes used for the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. It is then called the Historical Infinitive, and, like a finite verb, has its subject in the Nominative : Catilina in prima acie versari, omnia providere, multum ipse pugnare, saepe hostem ferire, Catiline was active in the front line, he attended to every- thing, fought much in person, and often smote down the enemy ; s. c. 60, 4. 1 Visere illustrate.? this early -use of the Infinitive, but agere is the direct object of volunt and inferre of deorevit. USE OF THE INFINITIVE 321 1. The Historical Infinitive sometimes denotes customary or repeated action : Omnia in peius ruere ao retro referri, all things change rapidly for the worse, and are borne backwards; v. G. i, 199. 2. Remember that the subject of an Infinitive, when not historical, is put in the Accusative, and that it was originally developed from the direct object of the principal verb (414, 415): Regem tradunt se abdidisse, they relate that the king concealed himself. Note. —In this example, regem is the subject of abdidisse, but origi- nally It was the direct object of tradunt. 3. An Infinitive and its subject, with their modifiers, form what is called an Infinitive clause, in distinction from the simple Infinitive. Thus, in the example just given, regem se abdidisse is an Infinitive clause. 611. Passive Construction. — When a Transitive verb, wMch tias an Accusative and an Infinitive depending upon it, becomes Passive, it may admit one or both of the following constructions : 1. The Personal construction, in which the noun or pronoun which is the object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. Thus, regem tradunt se abdidisse, if made to take the personal construction in the passive, becomes rex se abdidisse traditur, the king is said to have concealed himself. 2. The Impersonal construction, in which the verb is used imperson- ally, and the rest of the sentences unchanged, becomes the impersonal subject. Thus, regem tradunt se abdidisse, if made to take the imper- sonal construction in the passive, becomes regem se abdidisse traditur, it is said that the king concealed himself. Note 1. — A few verbs admit eitlier the personal or the impersonal con- struction, as ^cor, iHdicor, niintior, putor, and trador. Note 2. — A few verbs generally take the personal construction, as iu- beor, vetor, and videor ; also, arguor, audior, cognoscor, existimor, intellegor, invenior, prohibeor, reperior, etc. Note 3. — A few verbs generally take the impersonal construction, as adfertur, confitendum est, creditur, fatendum est, proditur, etc. 612. A Predicate Noun, or a Predicate Adjective, after an Infinitive, or a Participle in a compound tense of an Infinitive, agrees with the noun or pronoun of which it is predicated, according to the general rules of agreement (393, 394). It is thus put : HABK. LAT. GRAM. — 22 322 SYNTAX 1. In the Nominative, when it is predicated of the principal subject : Socrates parens philosopMae dici potest, Socrates can be called the father of philosophy ; 0. Fin. 2, l. 2. In the Accusative, when predicated of the subject of the Infinitive, expressed or understood : Ego mg Phldiam esse mallem, I should prefer to be Phidias; o. Brut. 73, 257. Contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae, to be content with one's own is very great wealth; c. Parad. 6, 8, 5i. Note 1, — In the compound forms of the Infinitive, esse is often omitted, especially in the future : Flumen neque liostes transituros existimabat, nor did he think that the enemy would cross the river ; Caes. 6, 7, 5. Note 2. — As a rare exception in early Latin, the participle in the Future Active Infinitive occurs with the ending urum regardless of the gender of the subject : Altero te occisurum ait, altero vilioum, with one (sword) she says that she will kill you, with the other the bailiff; pi. Cas. 693. 3. Generally in the Dative, but sometimes in the Accusative, when predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Dative : Patricio tribuno plebis fieri non licSbat, it was not lawful for a patrician to be made tribune of the people ; 0. Har, 21, 44. Ei oonsulem fieri licet, it is lawful for him to be made consul ; Caes. 0. 8, l, l. INFINITIVE CLAUSE AS OBJECT 613. The Accusative and an Infinitive, or an Infinitive with a Subject Accusative, is used as the Object of a great variety of verbs, especially of verbs of Perceiving, Thinking, and Declaring : Sentimus nlvem esse albam, we perceive that snow is white. Nemo umquam proditorl credendum putavit, no one ever thought that ice ought to trust a traitor. Simonidem primum ferunt artem memoriae protullsse, they say that Simonides was the first to make known the art of memory ; 0. Or. 2, so, 351. 1. Verbs of Perceiving and Thinking include audio, video, sentio ; cogito, puts, ezTstimo, credo, spero ; intellego, scio, etc. 2. Verbs of Declaring are dico, narro, nuntio, doceo, ostendo, pro- mitto, etc. 3. Expressions equivalent to verbs of perceiving and of declaring — as f ama fert, report says ; testis sum, I am a witness, I testify ; consciuB USE OF THE INFINITIVE 323 mihi sum, I am conscious, I know — also admit au Accusative with an Infinitive : NuUam inihl relatam esse gratiam, tu es testis, you are a witness that no grateful return lias been made to me; C. Fam. 5, 5, 2. 4. Verbs of Perceiving genei-ally take the Accusative with a Present Participle when the object is to be represented as actually seen, heard, etc., while engaged in a given act: CatSnem vidi in bibliotheca sedentem, J saw Catu sitting in the library ; 0. Fin. 8, 2, 7. Videt sequentgs, ilnum baud procul ab sese abesse, he sees them following, one not far from himself; L. l, 25, 8. 5. Note the following constructions with audio : Socratem audis dicentem, I hear Socrates say ; C. Fin. 2, 28, 90. Soleo audire Roscium, cum dicat, / am wont to hear Eoseius say; c. Or. i, 2S, 129. Saepe ex socero meo audlvi, cum is diceret, / have often heard (from) my father-in-law say; c. Or. 2, 6, 22. 6. Subjects Compared. — When two subjects with the same predicate are compared, and the Accusative with the Infinitive is used in the first clause, the Infinitive may be understood in the second : Platonem ferunt sensisse idem quod Pythagoram, they say that Plato held the same opinion as Pythagoras ; c. Tusc. J, 17, 39. 7. Predicates Compared. — When two predicates with the same subject are compared, and the Accusative with the Infinitive is used in the firet clause, the Accusative may be understood in the second, or the second clause may take the Subjunctive with or without ut : Nnm putatis dixisse eum minacius quam facturam fuisse, do you thinlc that he spoke more threateningly than he would have acted 9 c. Pii. 6, 8, 21, Audeo dicere ipsos potius oultores agrorum fore quam ut coli prohibeant, I dare say that they loill themselves become tillers of the fields rather than prevent them from being tilled; L. 2, 84. 614. An Infinitive Clause is also used as the Object of verbs of Wishing, Desiring, Commanding, and their opposites,' and of verbs of Emotion and Feeling ' : Te tua frui virtute cupimus, we desire that you should enjoy your virtue; C. Brut. 97, 331. Pontem iubet rescindl, he orders the bridge to be broken down. Lex eum necari vetuit, the law forbade that he should be put to death. Gaudeo id te mihl suadere, / rejoice that you give me this advice. Minims miramur te laetaii, we do not wonder at all that you were pleased. 1 As cupio, opto, volo, nolo, malo, etc. ; patlor, sino, impero, iubeo ; prohibeo, veto, etc. ; gaudeo, doleo, miror, queror, aegre fero, etc. 324 SYNTAX 1. Several verts involving a Wish or a Command admit the Subjunctive, with or without ut or ne, when a new subject is introduced : Volo ut mihl respondeas, I wish you would answer me ; c. Vat. 6, 14. Quid vis faoiam, what do you wish me to do f Suis imperavit ne quod telum in hostes reioerent, he commanded his men not to hurl any weapon bach upon the enemy. 2. Volo, nolo, malo, and cupio also admit the simple Infinitive when no new subject is introduced : Verum audire non vult, he does not wish to hear the truth. Servire quam piignare mavult, he prefers to serve rather than to fight. Scire cupio quid reprehendas, I desire to know what you criticise. 3. On the construction of volo, n51o, and malo, see also 566, 2. 4. Verbs of Emotion and Feeling sometimes take a clause with quod, that or because, and sometimes with cum, in nearly the same sense : Gaudeo quod te interpellavl, I rejoice that (because) I have interrupted you. Dolebam quod sooium amiseram, / was grieving because I had lost a companion. TibI gratias ago, cum tantum litterae meae potuerunt, / thank you that my letter had so great influence ; c. Fam. 13, 24, 2. INFINITIVE OR INFINITIVE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT 615. An Infinitive, or an Infinitive Clause, is often used as the Subject of a verb : Infinitive. — Diligi iucnndum est, to be loved is pleasant. Non est mentiri meum, to tell a falsehood is not my way. Pecoare licet nemini, to transgress is lawful for reo one. Facere fortia Romanum est, to do brave deeds is Boman. Vacare culpa magnum est solacium, to he free from fault is a great comfort. Carum esse iucundum est, to be held dear is delightful; C. Fin. 1, 16, 68. Infinitive Clause. — Caesari nuntiatum est equites accSdere, it was an- nounced to Caesar that the cavalry was approaching ; Caes. l, 46. Facinus est vincire civem Romanum ; scelus, verberare, to bind a Boman citizen is an outrage; to scourge him, a crime. Omnibus expedit, salvam esse rem publicam, it is important for all that the republic should be safe. 1. When the subject is an Infinitive or an Infinitive clause, the predicate is either a noun or adjective with the verb sum, or a verb used impersonally, as in the examples above. 2. An Infinitive, or an Infinitive clause, may be the subject of another Infinitive : Intellegi necesse est esse deos, it is necessary that it be understood that there are gods ; c. ir. d. i, IT, u. TBN'SES OF THE INFINITIVE 325 3. The Infinitive sometimes has a demonstrative or a possessive in agree- ment with it : Quibusdam hoc displioet philosophari, this philosophizing displeases some persons; c. Fin. l, l. Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis, to live is itself ignoble for us; cf. C. Att. IS, 28, 2. Tuom conferto amare semper, always consider your loving (your love affairs) ; Pi. Cure. 2S. 616. Special Constructions. — An Infinitive Clause is some- times used 1. As a Predicate : Exitus fuit orationis sibi nuUam cum his amicitiam esse posse, the close of his oration loas that he could have no friendship with these ; Caes. 4, 8. Note. — Occasionally an Infinitive without a Subject is so used : Docto homini vivere est cogitare, to a learned man to live is to think; C. Tusc. 5, S8, 111. 2. As an Appositive : Oraculum erat datum victrlces Athenas fore, an oracle had heen given that Athens would be victorious. Hoc admlratus sum, mentionem te hereditatum ausum esse facere, / wondered at this, that you dared to make mention of the inheritances ; C. Ph. 2, 16, 4>. 3. In Exclamations : Te sic vexari, that you should be thus troubled ! Mene incepto desistere victam, am I vanquished to abandon my undertaking ? v. l, 37. 4. In the Ablative Absolute : Alexander, audits Dareum movisse, pergit, Alexander, having heard that Darius had withdrawn (that Darius had withdrawn having been heard) ad- vanced; Curt. 5, 18, 1. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 617. The three tenses of the Infinitive, the Present, Perfect, and Future, represent the time of the action respectively as present, past, or future, relatively to that of the principal verb. Accordingly the Present denotes that the action is contempora- neous with that of the principal verb, the Perfect, that it is prior to it, and the Future, that it is subsequent to it. 618. The Present Infinitive denotes Contemporaneous Action: Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest, do not wish that which cannot be accomplished. Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be 326 SYNTAX good rather than to seem good. Quousque dices pacem velle te, how long will you say that you desire peace ? 1. The Present Infinitive, like the Present Indicative (633, 2), is some- times used of actions really future : Cras argentum dare se dixit, he said that he would give the silver on the morrow ; T. Ph. 6, 3i. 2. After the past tenses of debeo, oportet, possum, and the like, the Present Infinitive is generally used vrhere our idiom would lead us to expect the Perfect ; sometimes also after memini, and the like ; regularly in recall- ing what we have ourselves experienced : Liheros tuos erudire debuisti, you ought to have educated your children; 0. Ver. 3, 69, 161. Non suscipi helium oportuit, the war should not have been undertaken. Consul esse potui, / might have been consul. Me Athenis audire memini, I remember to have heard at Athens; o. Leg. i, 20, 68. 619. The Future Infinitive denotes Subsequent Action : Amicitiae nostrae memoriam spero sempiternam fore, I hope that the recollection of our friendship will be eternal; 0. Am. 4, 15. Se eversiirum civitateni minabatur, he threatened that he would overthrow the state. Pollicitus ils sum me omnia esse factarum, I promised them that I would do everything. Galliae sese potiri posse sperant, * they hope to he able to get possession of Gaul. 1. After spero, iiiro, minor, and poUiceor the Future Infinitive is generally used, as in the examples just given, though the Present and Perfect also occur. Moreover the Present, posse, is freely used with these verbs, as in the last example. 2. Instead of the regular Future Infinitive, the Periphrastic form, futu- rum esse ut, or fore ut, with the Subjunctive, generally Present or Imper- fect, is sometimes used : Spero fore ut contingat id nobis, I hope (it will come to pass) that this will fall to our lot; c. Tusc. 1, 34, 82. N5n speraverat Hannibal, fore ut ad se defioerent, Hannibal had not hoped that they would revolt to him; L. 28, 44. 3. This periphrastic form is somewhat rare, though it is the only form admissible in either voice in verbs which want the Supine and the Participle in turus. 4. In Passive and Deponent verbs, fore with the Perfect Participle is sometimes used with the force of a Future Perfect, to denote completed action in future time: Possum dicere me satis ademptum fore, I can say that I shall have ob- tained enough; 0. Sui. 9, 27 Debellatum mox fore rebantur, they thought that the war would soon be (have been) brought to a close ; L. 23, is, 6. GERUNDIVES AND GERUNDS 327 620. The Perfect Infinitive denotes Prior Action : Platonem ferunt didicisse Pythagorea omnia, they say that Plato learned all the doctrines of Pythagoras ; c. Tusc. l, 17, 89. Coiiscius mihi eram, nihil a mg commissum esse, I was conscious to myself that no offense had been committed by me. 1. The Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used where our idiom requires the Present, but it generally calls attention to the completion of the action. In the active voice this construction is rare except in the poets and in Livy, but in the passive it is quite freely used with verbs of wishing, especially with volo, even by the best writers : Quos pulverem Olympicum coUegisse iuvat, whom it delights to collect (to have collected) the Olympic dust^ ; H. l, i, 3. Vesanum tetigisse timent poetam, they fear to touch the mad poet. Quibus lex consultum esse vult, whose interests the law requires us to consult; C. Div. 0. 6, 21. Note. — In this construction ease is very often omitted : lUos monitos volo, I wish them admonished; 0. 0. 2, 12, 27. Nollem factum, I should not wish it done ; T. Ad. 165. 2. The Perfect Passive Infinitive, like the Perfect Passive Indicative, sometimes denotes the result of the action. Thus doctum esse may mean either to have been instructed, or to be a learned man. In the best prose, esse is used if the result belongs to the present time ; fuisse, if it belongs to past time ; but subsequently this distinction between the Infinitive with esse and the Infinitive with fuiase gradually disappeared : Populum alloquitur sopitum fuisse regem ictu, she addressed the people, saying that the king had been stunned by the blow; L. i, 41, 5. GERUNDIVES AND GERUNDS 621. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective or participle, which is used in several special constructions. With the verb, sum, it forms the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation, denoting Duty or Necessity. This conjugation may be either Personal or Impersonal. 1. The Periphrastic Conjugation of Transitive verbs generally takes the personal construction : Occultae inimicitiae timendae sunt, concealed hostilities are to be feared. Caesari omnia erant agenda ; acies Snstruenda, milites cohortandi, signum 1 Beferring to the chariot races at the Olympic Games, 328 SYNTAX dandum, Caesar had every thing to do (every thing was to be done); to form the line, exhort the soldiers, give the signal ; Goes. 2, 20, i. 2. The Passive Periphrastic conjugation of Intransitive verbs always takes the impersonal construction, and may govern' the same case as the other forms of the verbs : Resistendum seneotuti est ; pugnandum contra senectutem, we must resist old age; we must fight against old age; C. Sen. 11, S5. Aut rei publioae mihl, aut mei obllviscendum est, I 7nust forget either the republic or myself; of. L. 8, 7, 16. 3. Sometimes in Plautus and Lucretius, rai-ely in later writers, the Passive Periphrastic conjugation of transitive verbs takes the imper- sonal construction and admits the Accusative : MI hao noctu agitandumst vigilias, I must keep watch this night; PI. Tiin. 869. Poenas timendumst, we must fear punishment. Viam quam nobis ingrediendum est, a journey upon which we must enter. 622. The Gerundive is sometimes used as a Predicate Accusar tive to denote the Purpose of the action, chiefly after verbs of Giving, Delivering, Sending, Permitting, Undertaking, Caring for, etc., — do, trado, mitto, suscipio, euro, etc. : Praeda diripienda data est, the booty was given up to be plundered; L. 22, 52, 5. Hos Aeduis custsdiendos tradit, these he delivered to the Aedui to guard. Caesar pontem faciendum curat, Caesar has a bridge made. 623. The Gerundive in direct agreement with a noun in an oblique case forms with that noun what is called the Gerundive construction : Consilia urbis delendae, plans for destroying the city (of the city to be de- stroyed). Locum oppido condendo ceperunt, they selected a place for found- ing a town. Ferrum, rem ad colendos agros necessariam, iron, a thing necessary in (to or for) cultivating the land. In amicis eligendis, in select- ing friends (in friends to be selected). 1. This construction is confined to transitive verbs, including a few verbs originally transitive, though not thus used in classical prose, as utor, fruor, fungor, and potior, etc. : Ad haeo utenda, for using these things ; T. Heaut. 183. Ad suum munus fungendum, for discharging his duty. Spes potiendorum castrorum, the hope of getting possession of the camp. GERUNDIVES AND GERUNDS 329 624. The Neuter of the Gerundive, used impersonally, forms the Gerund, a verbal noun which shares so largely the character of a verb that it governs oblique cases and takes adverbial modifiers : Sum cupidus te audiendl, / am desirous of hearing you ; o. Or. 2, 4, 16. Ars Vivendi, the art of living. Ad bene beateque vivendum, for living well and happily ; u. Fam. 6, 1, s. USE OF CASES IN THE GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION AND IN GERUNDS 625. All the oblique cases — the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative — occur both in the Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds, and in general they conform to the ordinary rules for the use of cases. 626. Genitive. — The Genitive in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds is used with nouns and adjectives : Gerundive. — Inita sunt consilia urbis delendae, plans have been formed for destroying the city; c. Mur. S7, 80. Platonis studiosus audiendi, desirous of hearing Plato. Gerund. — Sapientia ars Vivendi putanda est, wisdom should be regarded as the art of living. lus vocandl senatum, the right of summoning the senate. Artem vera ac falsa dliiidicandl, the art of distinguishing true things from false; o. Or. 2, as, 157. 1. In Transitive verbs the Gerundive construction is preferred, as in the first and second examples, though the Gerund is often used as in the fourth and fifth -examples, but with neuter pronouns and adjectives the Gerund is regularly used ; thus artem vera diiiidicandi, not artem veronmi dliiidi- candonim, because verorum may mean of true men. 2. In Intransitive verbs the Gerund is the regular construction, as in the third example. 3. In the Gerundive construction with the pronouns mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri, the Gerundive ends in di, as these pronouns were originally pos- sessives in the Genitive singular masculine : Sul purgandl causa, for the sake of excusing themselves ; Caes. 4, 18, 5. CSpia placandi tul (feminine), an opportunity of appeasing you. Vestri adhortandi causa, for the purpose of exhorting you. 4. In rare instances the Genitive of the Gerund occurs with another Geni- tive depending upon the same noun : 330 srjsTTAX Lllcisi tuendi copia, the privilege of hehoUing the light; of. Pi. Capt. 1008. Reiciendi iudicum i potestas, the power of challenging the judges ; ai. C. Ver. 2, 81, TT. 5. The Genitive in tlie Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds sometimes denotes Purpose or Tendency : Imperium conservandae libertatis fuerat, the government had aimed at the preservation of liberty (liad been of liberty to be preserved) ; S. c. 6, 7. Vereor te laudare ne id adsentandi facere existumes, I fear to praise you, lest you should think that I do it for the purpose of flattei-y. Proficiscitur cogno- soendae antlqultatis, he sets out for the purpose of studying antiquity. Note. — Libertatis, in the first example, is in origin a Predicate Genitive after fuerat, and the Genitive in the other examples follows the same analogy. 627. Dative. — The Dative is rare both in Gerundive construc- tions and in Gerunds, but it occurs with a few verbs and adjectives which regularly govern the Dative : Numa sacerd5tibus oreandls animum adiecit, Numa turned his mind to the appointment of the priests. Cum solvendo non essent, since they were not able to pay. Tempora demetendis fructibus acoommodata, seasons suitable for gathering fruits; 0. Sen, 19, 70. Sunt aouendis puerorum ingenlis n6n inutiles lusus, games are useful (not useless) for sharpening the intellects of boys; Quint. 1, 8, 11. 1. The Dative of the Gerund with a direct object occurs only in Plautus. 2. The Dative in these constructions often denotes Purpose, or the End for which anything is done, and is sometimes used after certain official names, as decemviri, tiivimvdri, comitia, etc. : Ea tuendae Syriae parantur, these preparations are made for the purpose of guarding Syria; Tac. An. 15, 4. Comitia consulibus rogandis habuit, he held the comitia for the election of consuls ; C. Mt. 1, 17, 83. Deoemviros legibus soribendis creavimus, we have appointed decemvirs to prepare laws; l. 4, 4, 8. 628. Accusative. — The Accusative in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds ^ is used with a few prepositions, generally with ad : Haeo res Caesari difficultatem ad consilium capiendum adferebat, this fact presented a difficulty to Caesar in the way of forming his plans; Caes. 7, lo. 1 Here lucis, though apparently limiting tuendi, probably depends upon copia, and iudicum probably depends upon potestas. 2 The use of the Accusative of the Gerund with a direct object is without classical authority. GERUNDIVES AND QERUNDS 331 Ad audiendum parati sumus, ice are prepared to hear. Inter ludendum, during play. In rem putlicam conservandam, on the preservation of the republic. 629. Ablative. — The Ablative of Separation and Source in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds generally takes a preposition, — a, ab, de, e, or ex : A pecuniis capiendis homines absterrere, to deter men from accepting bribes ; c. Xn. 2, 58, 142. Deterrere a scribendo, to deter from writing. De nostro amico placando, in regard to appeasing our friend. 1. The Ablative of the Gerundive construction occurs also with pro, and in late writers with one or two other prepositions : Pro omnibus gentibus conservandls, for the sake of preserving all races; C. Off. 3, 5, 25. 2. The Ablative of the Gerundive construction occurs after a comparative in the following sentence : NttUum officium referenda gratia magis neoessarium est, no duty is more necessary than that of returning a favor; 0. Off. 1, 15, 4T. 630. The Instrumental Ablative in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds is generally used without a preposition: Loquendl elegantia augetur legendis oratorlbus, elegance of speech is pro- moted by reading the orators ; C. Or. 3, 10, 89. Caesar dando, sublevando, ignoscendo gloriam adeptus est, Caesar obtained glory by giving, aiding, and pardoning. Saliltem hominibus dando, by giving safety to men. Fortia facta memorando, by recounting brave deeds. 1. The Gerundive seems at times, especially in the poets, to lose its dis- tinctive force and to be nearly equivalent to a present or perfect participle : Triginta magnos volvendis mensibus (characteristic) orbis, thirty great circles of revolving months; Y. 1, 269. 631. The Locative Ablative generally takes the preposition in, but it is sometimes used without it, especially in the poets : Brutus in liberanda patria est interfeetus, Brutus was slain in freeing his country. Virtutes cernuntur in agendo, virtues are seen in action. In aml- cis eligendls negligentes, careless in choosing friends. In suum cuique tribu- end5, in giving to every one his due; c. Brut. 21, 85. 1. After prepositions the Ablative of a Gerund with a direct object, as in the last example, is exceedingly rare. 332 SYNTAX SUPINES 632. The Supine, like the Gerund, is a verbal noun. It has a form in um, an Accusative, and a form in u, generally an Abla- tive, though perhaps sometimes a Dative. 1. The Supine in um governs the same case as the verb : Legatos mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send ambassadors to ask aid. Supines in um 633. Rule. — The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion to express purpose : Ad Caesarem congratulafcum oonvenerunt, they name to Caesar to con- gratulate him. Mittit rogatum vasa, he sends to ask for the vases. Legati venerunt res repetitum, deputies came to demand restitution ; L. 8, 25, 6. 1. The Supine in um is sometimes used after verbs which do not directly- express motion : Daturne ilia Pamphilo hodie nuptum, is she given in marriage to-day to Famphilus ? t. And. sol. Lacedaemonios senera sessum recepisse, that the Lacedaemonians welcomed the old man to a seat; o. Sen.is, 68. 2. The Supine in um with the verb eo is equivalent to the forms of the Active Periphrastic conjugation, and may often be rendered literally : Bonos omnes perditum eunt, they are going to destroy all the good; cf. s. 0. 52, 12. 3. The Supine in um with irl, the Infinitive Passive of eo, forms, it will be remembered (335, 2), the Future Passive Infinitive : Briitum visum iri a me puto, / think that Brutus will be seen by me. 634. The Supine in um is not very common, though it occursi in a large number of verbs,' but Purpose may be denoted by various other constructions : 1. By the Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quo minus ; see 568. 2. By the Subjunctive in Relative clauses; see 590. 3. By Gerundives or Gerunds; see 622, 626, 5. 4. By Future Participles ; see 638, 3. 1- According to Draeger, II., p. 829, the Supine in um is found in one hundred and seventy-nine verbs, and also forms an element in the Future Infinitive Passive of fifty-seven verbs. USE OF PARTICIPLES 333 Supines in ii 635. Rule. — The Supine in s is generally used as an Ablative ; sometimes perhaps as a Dative : Quid est tarn iuoundum auditu, what is so agreeable to hear (in hear- ing)? c. Or. 1, 8, 31. De genere mortis difficile dictu est, it is difficult to speak of the kind of death ; C. Am. 3, 12. Sed ita dictu opus est, but it is necessary to say this (so, thus). Iirfredibile memoratu est, it is incredible to relate. Pudet dictu, it is a shame to tell ; Tao. Agr. 8-2. 1. The Supine in ii is used witli adjectives, as facilis, diificiUs ; credi- bilis, incredibilis ; iiicundus, iniUcundus ; mirabilis, teriibilis, etc. ; with fas, nefas, opus, and In early or late Latin, with two or three verbs. 2. The Supine in vi is comparatively rare.i The most common examples are auditu, aditu, cognitu, dictii, factu ; intellectu, inventu, memoratii, natu, relatu, scitii, tactu, tractatii, victii, visQ. 3. It is probable that the Supine in ii contained originally the forms both of the Dative and of the Ablative, and that such forms as memoratm are illustrations of the former : Istaeo lepida sunt memoratni, these things are fine to relate; pi. Bac. 62. 4. It is generally assumed that the second Supine never takes an object, but it may take the Ablative with a preposition, as in the second example, or an adverb, as in the third. PARTICIPLES 636. The Participle is a verbal adjective which governs the same cases as the verb to which it belongs : Animus se non videns alia cernit, the mind, though it does not see itself (not seeing itseU), discerns other things; C. Tusc. i, 27, 67. 1. Kemember that participles are sometimes used as substantives (494) : Consilio condentium urbes, in accordance with the policy of the founders of (those who found) cities. Nihil difficile amanti puto, I think nothing difficult for a lover. 2. Participles used as substantives sometimes retain the adverbial modi- fiers which belong to them as participles, and sometimes assume adjective modifiers which belong to them as substantives : 1 According to Draeger, II., p. 833, on the authority of E. L. Richter, De Supinis Latinae Linguae, the second Supine is found in one hundred and nine verbs, and is used with one hundred and sixty-two different adjectives. 334 SYNTAX Non tarn praemia sequi recte faotorum quam ipsa reote facta, not to seek the rewards of good deeds so much as good deeds themselves ; C. Mil. 35, 96. Factum praeclarum atque divinum, an excellent and divine deed ; 0. Ph. 2, 44, 114. 3. A participle witli a negative is often best rendered by a participial noun with the preposition without : Voluptates non erubescens persequitur, he pursues pleasures without blushing ; c. N. D. i, 40, in. Natura dedit iisiiram vitae, nillla praestitiita die, nature has given the loan of life without fixing the day for payment. 4. Tlie Perfect Participle is often best rendered by a participial or verbal noun with of: Homerus fuit ante Romam conditam, Homer lived before the founding of Rome (before Rome founded); 0. Tasc. i, i, 3. Proditae patriae crimen, the charge of having betrayed the country. 637. Participles are sometimes equivalent to Qualifying Eelar tive clauses : Omngs aliud agentes, aliud simulantes, improbi, all who do one thing and pretend another are dishonest. 638. Participles are sometimes equivalent to Adverbial clauses. 1. Participles sometimes denote Time, Cause, Manner, Means: Plato soribens est mortuus, Plato died while writing ; C. Sen. 5, 13. Fortis- sime pUgnans interficitur, he is slain while bravely fighting. Reniintiant, se perfidiam veritos revertisse, they report that they returned because they feared perfidy. Romani gratulantes Horatium acoipiunt, the Momans receive Ho- ratius with congratulations (congratulating). Sol oriens diem conficit, the sun by its rising causes the day ; c. n. d. 2, 40, 102. 2. Participles sometimes denote Condition, or Concession : Reluctante natilra, inritus labor est, if nature opposes, effort is vain. Ista iam diu exspectans, non audeo tamen flagitare, though I have been long expecting your treatise, yet I do not dare to ask for it ; C. Ac. 1, l, 3. 3. Participles sometimes denote Purpose, the Future in Livy and late writers, the Gerundive even in the best authors (622) : Rediit, belli oasum tentatiirus, he returned to try (about to try) the for- tune of war ; L. 42, 62. Dedit mihl epistulam legendam tuam, he gave me your letter to read. 639. Participles are sometimes used in Latin where principal clauses would be required in English : Classem devictam cepit, he conquered and took the fleet (took the fleet conquered) ; N. 6, 2, 8. TENSES OF PARTICIPLES 335 1. Perfect Participles sometimes repeat the action of tlie preceding verb, or give its result : Exercitum fundit, fusum persequitur, he routs the army and pursues it routed; L. l, 10,4. 640. The Tenses of Participles, Present, Perfect, and Future, represent the time, respectively, as Present, Past, and Future relatively to that of the principal verb. Thus, in relation to the principal action, the Present represents contemporaneous action, the Perfect, prior action, and the Future, subsequent action : Mendaci hominl ne verum qiiidem dioenti credere solemus, we are not wont to believe a liar even when he speaks the truth; of. c. Div. 2, Tl, 146. Uva mattirata dulcescit, the grape, when it has been ripened (prior action), be- comes sioeet. Bona semper placittira laudat, he praises blessings that will always please (subsequent action). 1. The Perfect Participle in deponent and passive verbs is sometimes used of present time, and sometimes in passive verbs it loses in a great degree its force as a tense and is best rendered by a verbal noun : Isdem ducibus usus Numidas mlttit, employing the same persons as guides he sends the Numidians; Caes. 2, 7, 1. Incensas perfert navis, he reports the firing of the ships (ships on fire) ; v. 5, 665. 2. The Perfect Participle with habeo has nearly the same force as the corresponding English Perfect with have: Equitatum coactum habebat, he had collected the cavalry (had the cavalry- collected) ; Caes. 1, 15, 1. 3. Perfect Participles are often used as predicate adjectives to denote the Result of the action : Id parati sunt facere, they are prepared to do this; C. Quinct. 2,«. 4. The want of a Perfect Active Participle is sometimes supplied by a Temporal Clause, and sometimes by a Perfect Passive Participle in the Ablative Absolute : Postquam in TrevirOs venit, Rhenum transire constituit, having arrived among the Treviri, he decided to cross the Shine ; Caes. 6, 9, 1. Equitatu praemisso subsequebatur, having sent forward his cavalry, he followed. 5. The want of a Present Passive Participle is generally supplied by a Temporal clause : Cum a Catone laudabar, reprehend! me a ceteris facile patiebar, being praised by Cato, I cheerfully bore being (to be) censured by the others; C. Orator, 13, 41. 336 SYNTAX INDIRECT DISCOURSE — OR ATIO OBLIQUA 641. Direct and Indirect Discourse. — When a writer or speaker expresses thoughts in the original words of the author, he is said to use the Direct Discourse, Oratio Recta ; but when he expresses thoughts, whether his own, or those of another, in any other form, he is said to use the Indirect Discourse, Oratio Obllqua. The Indirect Discourse regularly depends upon a verb of Saying, Thinking, Perceiving, etc. : Direct. — Plato in Italiam venlt, Plato came into Italy. Indirect with ferunt. — Platonem feruiit in Italiam venisse, they say that Plato came into Italy- Direct. — Utilis est scientia, knowledge is useful. Indirect with arbitror. — Utilem arbitror esse scientiam, I think that knowledge is useful. 1. Words quoted without change belong to the Direct Discourse : Direct. — Duuraviros secundum legem faclo, I appoint duumvirs according to law. Direct with inquit. — Rex " duumviros " inquit " secundum legem facio," the king said, ^^ I appoint duumvirs according to law." MOODS AND TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE Moods in Principal Clauses 642. Rule. — The principal clauses of the Direct Dis- course, on becoming Indirect, take the Infinitive with the Subject Accusative Avhen Declarative, and the Subjunctive when Interrogative or Imperative : Dico classem magnam superatam esse atque depressam,' I say that a large fleet was conquered and sunk. Caesar respondit se id facturum, Caesar replied that he would do it. Cato mirari se aiebat, Calo was wont to say that he wondered. Hippias gloriatus est anulum se sua maim eon- fecisse,l Hippias boasted that he had made the ring with his own hands; 0. Or. 8, 33, 127. 1 In Direct Discourse these examples would read (1) classls magna superata est atcLue depressa, (2) id faciam, (3) miror, (4) anulum mea ruauu con- feci. Observe that the pronominal subjects implied in faciam, miror, and confeci are expressed with the Infinitive : se tactiirum, mirari se, se con- tecisse. But the subject is sometimes omitted when it can be readily supplied. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 337 Ad postulata Caesaris pauca respondit ; quid sibi vellet ? cur in suas possessiones veniret,^ to the demands of Caesar he replied briefly: what did he (Caesar) wish f why did he come into his possessions ? Caes. 1, 44, T. Responderunt ; cur sui quicquam esse imperii trans Rhenum postula- ret,i they replied; why did he demand that anything beyond the Rhine should be under his swayf Postulavit eadem, ne Aeduis bellum inferret, obsides redderet,^ he made the same demands, that he should not make war upon the Aedui, and that he should return the hostages. Scribit Labieno cum legione veniat,'' he writes to Labienus to come (that he should come) with his legion; Caes. 6, 46, 4. 1. The verb on which the Infinitive depends is often omitted, or only implied in some preceding verb or expression, especially after the Sub- junctive of Purpose : Pythia praecepit ut Miltiadem imperatSrem sibl sumerent; incepta pro- spera futiira, Pythia ordered that they should take Miltiades as their commander (telling them), that their efforts would be successful; N. l, l, 3. 2. Rhetorical Questions — vfhich are questions only in form, as they are used for rhetorical effect in place of declarative sentences — take the Infini- tive. Here belong most questions which in the direct form have the verb in the first or in the third person : Respondit, num memoriam deponere posse,' he replied, could he lay aside the recollection ? Caes. l, 14, s. Docebant a Caesare conventura subsidia; quid esse levius, etc., they showed that assistance would come from Caesar; what was more inconsiderate, etc.? 3. Deliberative and Potential Questions generally retain the Subjunctive from the Direct Discourse : In spem venerat, se sine piigna rem conficere posse ; ciir fortiinam perlcli- taretur,* he had hoped (had come into the hope) to be able to accomplish the work without a battle ; why should he try fortune ? Caes. c. i, 72, l. 4. In the Indirect Discourse, affirmative commands, except after verbs of wishing and asking, generally take the Subjunctive without ut, but negative commands take the Subjunctive with ne ; see examples. 1 In Direct Discourse these examples would read (1) quid tlbi vis? cur in meas possessiones venis? and (2) cur tui quicquam esse imperii ois Bhenum postulas? 2 In Direct Discourse, (1) noli Aeduis bellum inferre, obsides redde, and (2) cum legione veni. 8 Direct Discourse, (1) num memoriam deponere possum ? = memoriam deponere non possum, (2) quid est levius? = nihil est levius. 4 Direct Discourse, cQr fortunam pericllter? HAKK. LAT. GRAM. — 23 338 SYNTAX 5. After iubeo and veto, commands are regularly expressed by the Accusative with the Infinitive, but occasionally by the Subjunctive with or without ut or ne, especially in poetry : Naves aedificari iubet, he orders vessels to be built. Castra munirl vetuit, he forbade the camp to be fortified. lubeto ut certet Amyntas, bid Amyntas be my rival ; v. E. 5, 15. Moods in Subordinate Clauses 643. Rule. — The subordinate clauses of the Direct Dis- course, on becoming Indirect, take the Subjunctive : Dico classem magnam quae ad Italiam raperetur, superatam esse,^ / say that a large fleet, which was hurrying toward Italy, was conquered; 0. Man. s, 21. Caesar respondit, se id quod in Nerviis fecisset, factiirum,^ Caesar replied that he would do that which he had done in the case of the Nervii. Hippias gloriatus est anulum quem haberet se sua manu con- fecisse,^ Hippias boasted that he had made with his own hands the ring which he wore. 1. Clauses introduced by relative pronouns, or by relative adverbs — as ubi, unde, quare, etc. — sometimes have the force of independent clauses, and accordingly take the Infinitive with subject Accusative : Ad eum defertur, esse oivem Romanum qui quereretur, quem ( = et eum) adservatum esse, it was reported to him that there was a Roman citizen who made a complaint, and that he had been placed under guard; c. Ver. 5, 62, ico. Demonstrabitur, ne si iiidicio quidem ilia damnata esset potuisse hunc ipsum de ilia supplicium sumere ; quare esse indignum, it will be shown that not even if she had, been condemned by a court of justice would he have been able to inflict punishment upon her; that therefore it was a disgraceful act. 2. Clauses introduced by certain conjunctions, as ut, quam, quam- quam, quia, and cum, sometimes take the Infinitive with subject Accusative, especially in Livy and Tacitus : Num putatis, dixisse eum minacius quam factiirum fuisse, do you think that he spoke more threateningly than he would have act''S9 o. Ph. 5, 8, 21. Dicit se moenibus incliisos tenere eos, quia per agros vagarl, he says that he keeps them shut up within the walls, because they would wander through the fields. Cum interim legem tantam vim habere, when in the mean time the law has such force; h. 4, 6I, 4. 1 Direct, olassis magna quae ad italiam rapiebatur superata est. 2 Direct, faclam id quod in Nerviis feci. 8 Direct, anulum quem habeo mea manu confeci. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 339 3. Parenthetical and explanatory clauses introduced into the Indirect Discourse, without strictly forming a part of it, take the Indicative : Referunt silvam esse, quae appellatur Bacenis, they report that there is a forest which is called Bacenis ; Caes, 6, lo, 5. Condrusos, qui German! ap- pellantur, arbitrarl ad XL milia, that they estimated the Condrusi, who are called Germans, at forty thousand. 4. Sometimes clauses which are not parenthetical, especially relative and temporal clauses, take the Indicative to emphasize the fact stated : Certior factus est ex ea parte vicl, quam Gallls conoesserat, omnes disces- sisse, he was informed that all had withdrawn from that part of the village which he had assigned to the Gauls ; Caes. 3, 2. 644. Tenses in the Indirect Discourse generally conform to the ordinary rules for the use of tenses in the Subjunctive and Infinitive ; but notice the following special points : 1. The Present and Perfect may be used even after an historical tense, to impart a more lively effect to the narrative : Caesar respondit, si obsides sibi dentur, sese cum ils pacem esse facturum, Caesar replied that if hostages should be given to him, he would makepeace with them ; Caes. l, u, 6. Exitus f uit orationis, neque uUos vacare agros, qui dari possint, the close of the speech was that there were not any lands unoc- cupied which could be given. 2. The Future Perfect in a subordinate clause of the dii-ect discourse is changed in the indirect into the Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and into the Pluperfect Subjunctive after an histoiical tense : Cum trigeminis agunt reggs, ut pro sua patria dimicent; ibi iinperium fore, unde victoria fuerit, the kings arrange with the triplet-brothers that they shall fight for their country; that the sovereignty shall he on the side which shall win the victory (whence the victory shall have been) ; L. i, 24, 2. PRONOUNS AND PERSONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 645. In passing from the Direct Discourse to the Indirect, pronouns of the first and second persons are generally changed to pronouns^ of the third person, and the first and second persons of verbs are generally changed to the third person : Hippias gloriatus est, pallium quo amiotus esset, se sua manu i conf ecisse, Hippias boasted that he had made with his own hands the cloak which he wore 1 Direct, ego mea maua. Ego becomes so, andinea becomes sua. 340 SYNTAX (In which he was clad). Eespondit si ohsides ab iis sihli dentur, sSsS cum lis pacem esse facturum, he replied that if hostages should be given to him by them, he would make peace with them. 1. Thus (1) ego is changed to sui, sibi, etc., or to ipse; meus and noster to suus ; (2) tfi to is or Ule, sometimes to sui, etc., tuus and vester to suus, or to the Genitive of is ; and (3) hie and iste generally to ille, hut hie is sometimes retained. But the pronoun of the first person may of course be used in reference to the reporter or author, and the pro- noun of the second person in reference to the person addressed : MIror te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you do not lorite anything to me ; C. Att. 8, 12, B. 1. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 646. Conditional sentences of the First and of the Second Form in the Indirect Discourse take the Subjunctive in the Condition and the Infinitive in the Conclusion: Respondit si quid Caesar se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere,^ he replied that if Caesar wished anything of him, he ought to come to him; Caes. l, 34, 2. Id si fieret, intellegebat magno cum periculo futQrum,^ he understood that if this should be done, it would be attended with great danger ; Caes. i, lo, 2. 1. The Future Infinitive is the regular construction in the Conclusion of the second form, as in the last example. 2. The Conclusion takes the Subjunctive when it is Imperative or Inter- rogative, and when it is brought into such connection as to require that mood, as when it is the purpose or result of some other action :^ Scribit Lahieno, si rel pUblicae commodo facere posset, cum legiOne veniat, he wrote to Labienus to come with his legion, if he could do so con- sistently with the interests of the republic; Caes. 5, 46, 4. Caesar suas cSpias prodaxit, ut si vellet Ariovistus proelio contendere, el potestas n5n deesset, Caesar led out his forces in order that, if Ariovistus ivished to fight, he might have the opportunity ; Caes. 1, 4S, 8. 647. Conditional Sentences of the Third Form in the Indirect Discourse depending on a verb of Saying, Thinking, etc., retain the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive unchanged in the Con- dition, regardless of the Tense of the Principal verb, but in the 1 Direct, a vobis mihi . . ego vobiscum. Vobis becomes iis, votalsoum becomes cum lis, mlhi becomes sibi, and ego, sese. 2 Direct, si quid Caesar me vult ilium ad me venire oportet. 8 Direct, id si fiat or fiet, magno cum periculo sit or erit. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 341 Conclusion they take the Periphrastic Infinitive, the Present in urum esse when the condition belongs to present time, and the Perfect in arum fuisse when it belongs to past time: Respondit, si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad eum venturum fuisse, he replied that, if he needed anything from Caesar, he would have come to him; Caes. 1, 84, 2. Clamitabat, neque aliter Carnutes consilium fuisse captures, neque Eburones, si ills adesset, ad castra ventiiros esse, he cried out that otherwise the Carnutes would not have conceived the purpose, nor would the Eburones he coming to our camp ; Oaes. 5, 29, 2. 1. The conclusion of this form of the conditional sentence in the In- direct Discourse corresponds to the Periphrastic Indicative in the Direct Discourse. Thus, in the first example, the conclusion in the Direct Dis- course would be ad te venturus fui. Hence we have here the simple change from the Periphrastic Indicative to the Periphrastic Infinitive. For the close relationship in meaning between the Periphrastic Indicative and the regular Subjunctive, see 583, 1. 2. In the conclusion of conditional sentences of the third form the circum- locution, futiiruin esse ut or fore ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive for present time, and futunun fuisse ut vfith the Imperfect Subjunctive for past time, is used in the passive voice and sometimes in the active : Nisi nQntii essent allati, exlstimabant futiirum fuisse ut oppidum amitte- retur, they thought, that the town would have been lost, if tidings had not been brought; cf. Caes. c. s, loi, 8. 3. Remember that in the conclusion of conditional sentences of the third form, certain special verbs (583) generally take the ordinary forms of the historical tenses of the Indicative. In the Indirect Discourse the Perfect Infinitive of course takes the place of tliis Indicative, and in deponent and passive verbs it sometimes occurs where we expect the circumlocution : Platonem existimo, si voluisset, gravissime potuisse dicere, I think that Plato could have spoken most forcibly, if he had wished; C. Off. l, i, 4. Re- spondit, si populus Romanus aliciiius inivlriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse difficile cavere, he replied that if the Roman people had been conscious of any wrong doing, it would not have been difficult for them to be on their guard. Nemo mihi persuadebit, multos viros tanta esse conatos, nisi cernerent, etc., no one will persuade me that many men would have attempted so great things, unless they perceived, etc.; C. Sen. 23, 82. 648. Conditional Sentences of the Third Porm depending on verbs which require the Subjunctive admit the following con- structions : 342 SYNTAX I. If the condition relates to present time, the entire sentence remains unchanged : Honestum tale est, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, sua tamen pulchritudine esset laudablle, honor is such that, even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be praiseworthy because of its own beauty; of. C. Fin. 2, 15, 49. II. If the condition relates to past time, the condition remains un- changed, but the conclusion, though unchanged in the passive, takes one of the following forms in the active : 1. If it is an indirect question, the Perfect or Pluperfect of the Periphrastic Conjugation is used, the tense being determined by the general law for the sequence of tenses: Die quidnam facturus fuerls si censor fuisses, say what you would have done, if you had been censor; L. 9, 83. 2. If it is not an indirect question, the Perfect Subjunctive of the Periphrastic Conjugation is generally used: Quis dubitat, quin, si Saguntinis tulissemus opem, totum in Hispaniam aversuri bellum fuerimus, who doubts that if we had carried aid to the Sagutitines, we should have transferred the entire war to Spain ? L. 81, T. 3. But verbs denoting Ability, Duty, etc., possum, oportet, etc., generally take the Perfect Subjunctive of the regular conjugation: Haud dubium fuit, quin, nisi ea mora intervenisset, castra cap! potuerint, there was no doubt that the camp could have been taken, if that delay had not occurred ; L. 24, 42. INDIRECT CLAUSES 649. Indirect Discourse in its widest application includes, not only reported speeches, but all indirect clauses. I. Subordinate Clauses containing statements made on the authority of any other person than that of the speaker, or on the authority of the speaker at any other time than that when the statements are reported, regularly take the Subjunctive : Laudat Africanum quod fuerit abstinens,' he praised Africanus because he was temperate ; C. Off. 2, 22, 76. Hospitem inclamavit quod mihl fidem habSre noluisset, he rebuked the stranger because he had been unwilling to put confidence in me. Privatim petere coeperunt, quoniam clvitati consulere nSn 1 Quod , . . at>stinens, on the ground that, etc., the reason in the mind of the eulogist, not of tlie historian. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 343 possent,! they began to present their personal petitions, since they could not act for the state. Libros quos frater suus rellquisset,^ mihl donavit, he gave me the books which his brother had left; o. am. 2, l, 12. II. Indirect Questions are subordinate interrogative clauses and accordingly take the Subjunctive : Epamlnondas quaeslvit salvusne esset clipeiis,' Epaminondas inquired whether his shield was safe ; at. 0. Fin. 2, so, 97. Qualis sit animus, animus nescit, what the nature of the soul may be, the soul knows not. Quaeritur, cur doctls- simi homines dissentiant, the question is asked why the most learned men disagree. Mlror cur me accuses, / wonder why you accuse me. Ut te oblectes scire uupio, I wish to know how you amuse yourself. 1. Tlie Subjuuctive is put in the periphrastic form in the indirect ques- tion when it represents a periphrastic form in the direct question : Cupio scire ubi sis hiematurus, I desire to knoio where you are going to spend the winter. 2. In indirect questions ne and num are used without any perceptible difference of meaning : Quaesivit, salvusne esset cUpeus, he asked whether his shield was safe; C. Fin. 2, 80, 9T. Num quid veUem, rogavit, he asked whether I wished any- thing ; C. Att. 6, 8, 6. 3. Si is sometimes best rendered, to see whether, to see if, to try if, etc. In this sense it generally takes the Subjunctive, but it also occurs with the Indicative, especially in the poets : Tg adeunt, si quid vis, they come to you to see if you wish anything ; c. Fam. 3, 9, 2. Inspice, Si possum donata reponere laetus, see whether I can cheerfully return your gifts. i. An Accusative, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of the question, is sometimes, especially in poetry, inserted as the direct object of the principal verb : Quis tuum patrem, quis esset, audivit, loho ever heard who your father loas (heard of your father who he was) ? c. Deiot. 11, 30. NostI Marcellum, quam tardus sit, you know how sloio Marcellus is. Non me pernosti, qualis sim, you do not know what sort of a person I am; T. ADd. 503. 1 Quoniam . . non possent, since they could not, as they thought. 2 Quos . . . reliquisset, which he said his brother had left. s Here no question is directly asked ; we are simply told that Epaminondas asked a question, but this statement involves the question, salvusne est cUpeus, is my shield safef 344 SYNTAX 5. A Personal Passive construction, corresponding to this form of the active, is sometimes used, although indirect questions are in general either the objects of active verbs or the subjects of impersonal passive verbs : Perspiciuntur quam sint leves,i it is seen (they are seen) how inconstant they are ; C. Am. 17, 68. 6. Often in early Latin, as in Plautus and Terence, and sometimes in the poets and in late writers, the Indicative is used in indirect questions, or at least in questions which would take the indirect form in the best prose : Loquere tu, quid puero faotumst, tell what has been done with the boy; PI. True. 787. Quin tu die, quid est quod mS veils, nay, tell what it is, that you wish of me ; T. And. 45. 650. Indirect Double Questions are generally introduced by the same interrogative particles as those which are direct (380). 1. They generally take in the first member utrum, or ne, and in the second an, sometimes anne, in the sense of or, and necne, or an non iu the sense of or not : DifScile diotii est, utrum timuerint, an dilexerint, it is difficult to say whether they feared or loved. Quaeritur, sintne dl necne sint, the question is asked whether or not there are gods; c. N. D. l, 22, 61. 2. But they often omit the particle in the first member, and take in the second an, or ne in the sense of or, and necne, or an non, in the sense of or not : VIvat an mortuus sit, quis curat, loho cares whether he is living or dead ? c. Ph. 18, 16, 88. Filius neposne fuerit parum liquet, whether he was the son or the grandson is not at all clear. Sapientia beatos efficiat necne, quaestio est, whether or not wisdom makes men happy is a question. 3. Other forms of indirect double questions, as those with ne . . . ne, an . . . an, etc., and those without any interrogative particles, are rare or poetic : Qui teneant, hominesne feraene, quaerere constituit, he determined to as- certain who inhabit them, whether men or beasts; V. i, 808. Velit, nolit, scire difficile est, it is difficult to find out whether he wishes it or does not loish it. 4. An, in the sense of whether not, implying an affirmative, is used after expressions of doubt and uncertainty: dubito an, nescio an, baud scio an, / doubt whether not, I know not whether not = I am inclined to think ■ dubium est an, incertum est an, it is uncertain whether not = it is probable : 1 Observe that the passive construction corresponds to the active perspici- unt, eo8 quam sint leves, they perceive them, how inconstant they are, a form entirely analogous to nosti Marcellum, quam tardus sit, given above. INDIRECT CLAUSES 345 Dubite an TlirasyMlum primum omnium ponam, I doubt whether I should not place Thrasybulus first of all (i.e. I am inclined to think I should). Haud scio an omnium praestantissimus, I am inclined to think the most dis- tinguished of all ; C. N. D. 2, 4, 11. 651. Indirect Questions must be carefully distinguished 1. From clauses introduced by relative pronouns or relative adverbs. These always have an antecedent expressed or understood, and are never, as a whole, the subject or object of a verb, while indirect questions are generally so used : Relative. — Ego quod sentio loquar, I shall say what (that which) / think. Interrogative. — Dicam quid intellegam, I shall state what I understand. 2. From clauses introduced by nescio quis = quidam, some one, nescio quo modo = quodam modo, in some loai/, mlrum quantum, wonderfully much, wonderfully, etc. These take the Indicative : Hie nescio quis loquitur, here some one (I know not who) speaks. Id mlrum quantum profuit, this profited, it is wonderful how much (i.e. it won- derfully profited). Mire quam delectat, how wonderfully it delights. 652. Clauses closely dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a Subjunctive are virtually Indirect clauses, and as such they gen- erally take the Subjunctive : Quam helium fuit confiterl nescire quod uesoires, what a fine thing it was to admit not to knoio what you did not know ; c. n. d. l, 30, S4. Eeoordatione nostrae amicitiae sic fruor ut beate vixisse videar quia cum Scipione vixerim, I so enjoy the recollection of our friendship that I seem to have lived happily because I have lived with Scipio. Vereor ne, dum minuere velim laborem, augeam, I fear that while I wish to diminish the labor, I shall increase it; c. Leg. 1, 4. 13. Cum timidius ageret quam consuesset, since he acted more timidly than had been his custom; Caes. C. l, 19. 3. 1. In clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a Subjunctive, the Subjunctive is used, when the dependent clauses are essential to the general thought of the sentence, as in the examples just given, but the Indicative is used when the clauses are in a measure parenthetical, and when they give special prominence to the fact stated, and often when they are introduced by dum, especially in the poets and historians : Mllites misit, ut eos qui filgerant persequerentur, he sent soldiers to pursue those who had fled (i.e. the fugitives); Caes. 5, lo, l. Tanta vis probitatis est, ut earn vel in eis quSs numquam vidimus, diligamus, so great is the power of integrity that we love it even in those whom we have never seen. Petam a 346 SYNTAX Tobis ut me, dum de his disputs iudioiis, audiatis, / shall ask of you that you hear me lohile I discuss these decisions; c. ciu. 32, S9. 653. The directions already- given for converting the Direct Discourse, Oratio Recta, into the Indirect, Oratio Obliqua, are further illustrated in the following passages from Caesar : Direct Discourse, Transii Rhenum non mea sponte sed rogatus et arcessitus a Gallis ; non sine magna spe magnisque prae- mils domum propinquosque reliqui ; sedes habeo in Gallia ab ipsis con- cessas, obsides ipsorum voluntate datos ; stipendium capio iiire belli, quod victores victis imponere con- suerunt. Non ego Gallis sed Galli mihi bellum intulerunt. Ego prius in Galliam veni quam populus Romanus. Numquam ante hoc tempus exercitus popull Roman! Galliae provinciae fines egressus est. Quid tibi vis ? Cur in meas possessiones venls ? Eo milil minus dubitationis datur quod eas res quas vos, legati Hel- vetii, commemorastis memoria teneo, atque eo gravius fero quo minus merits populi RSmani acci- derunt. Quod si veteris contumeliae obli- vlscl volo, num etiam recentium iniuriarum, quod me invito iter per provinciam per vim temptastis, quod Aeduos, quod Allobrogas vexastis, memoriam deponere possum ? Cum haec ita sint, tamen si ob- sides a vobis mibi dabuntur uti ea quae pollicemini faotilros intelle- gam, vobiscum pacem faciam. Indirect Discourse. Ariovistus respondit : Transisse Rhenum non sua sponte sed rogatum et arcessitum a Gallis ; non sine magna spe mag- nisque praemiis domum propin- quosque reliquisse ; sedes habere in Gallia ab ipsis concessas, obsides ipsorum voluntate datos ; stipendium capere iure belli quod victores victis imponere consuerint. Non sese Gallis sed Gallos sibi bellum intu- lisse. Se prius in Galliam veniase quam populum Romanum. Num- quam ante hoc tempus exercitum populi RomanI Galliae provinciae fines egressum. Quid sibi vellet ? Ciir in suas possessiones vemret? Oaes. B. G. 1, 44. Caesar ita respondit : Eo sibi minus, dubitationis dari quod eas res quas legati Helvetii commemorassent memoria teneret atque eo gravius ferre quo minus merits populi Roman! accidisseut. Quod si veteris contumeliae obli- vlscl vellet, num etiam recentium iniariarum, quod eo invits iter per prSvinciam per vim temptassent, quod Aeduos, quod Allobrogas vexassent, memoriam deponere posse ? Cura ea ita sint, tamen si obsides ab ils sibi dentur, utI ea quae polliceantur facturSs intellegat, sese cum iis pacem esse factiiruin ; Caes. 1, 14. USE OF ADVERBS 347 USE OF PARTICLES USE OF ADVERBS 654. Rule. — Adverbs qualify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs : Sapientes semper feliciter vivunt, the wise always live happily. Res hand sane difficilis, a thing not so very difficult. Note 1. — For Adverbs with nouns used adjectively, see 495, 3; for Adverbs In place of adjectives, see 497, 4 ; for Adverbs with participles used substantively, see 636, 2. Note 2. — Sic and ita mean so, thus. Ita has also a limiting sense, as In ita . . . SI, so . . . if, only ...if. Adeo means to such a degree or result; tarn, tantopere, so much. Tarn is used mostly with adjectives and adverbs, and tantopere with verbs. 655. The common negative particles are non, ne, baud. 1. Non is the usual negative ; ne is used with the Optative and Volitive Subjunctive and with the Imperative, and baud, in baud scio an and with adjectives and adverbs: baud mirabile, not wonderful; baud aliter, not otherwise. Ne non after vide is often best rendered whether. 656. Two negatives are generally equivalent to an affirmative, as in English : Aperte adillantem nemo non videt, every one recognizes the open flatterer. Neo hoc ille non vidit, he saw this (nor did he not see this). 1. Non before a general negative gives it the force of an indefinite afBrmative, but after such negative the force of a general affirmative : non ngmo, some one non nihil, sometJiing non numquam, sometimes nemo non, every one nihil non, everything numquam non, always 2. After a general negative, ne . . . quidem gives emphasis to the nega- tion, and neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve, and the like, repeat the negation distributively : Numquam Scipionem ne minima quidem re offend!, never have I displeased Scipio even in the smallest thing ; 0. Am, 2T, los. Nem5 umquam neque poeta neque orator, qui quemquam meliorem quam se arbitraretur, no one was ever either a poet or an orator who thought any one better than himself; C. Att. 14, 20, 2. 3. Non modo (or solum) non, sed ne . . . quidem means not only not, but not even, and non modo (solum), sed ne . . . quidem, has the same 348 SYNTAX meaning when the verb standing in the second clause belongs also to the first: Ego non inodo tibi non Irascor, sed ne reprehends quidem factum tuuni, / not only am not angry with you, hut I do not even censure your act. Adsentalio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem digna est, flattery is not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man; o. Am. 24, 89. 4. Neque or nee is generally used instead of et non : Neque me quisquam cognovit, and no one recognized me. 5. Instead of et with a negative pronoun or adverb, neque or neo with the corresponding affirmative is generally used : for et niillus, neque ullus ; for et nemo, neque quisquam ; for et numquam, neque umquam : Nee ametur ab uUo, and may he be loved by no one. Note. — Eor the use of Prepositions, see 430, 490. USE OF COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 657. Copulative Conjunctions (315) meaning and, also, and not, unite similar constructions : Castor et PoUiix, Castor and Pollux. Etiam atque etiam, again and again. Senatns populusque, the senate and people. Veni Athenas neque me quis- quam agnovit, I went to Athens, and no one recognized me; C. Tusc. 5, S6, 104. 1. Et simply connects ; que implies a more intimate relationship ; atque and ac generally give prominence to what follows. Neque and nee have the force of et non. Et and etiam sometimes mean even. Note. — Atque and ac generally mean as, than, after adjectives and adverbs of likeness and unlikeness : talis ae, sj(c7i as ; aeque ae, equally as; aliter atque, otherwise than. See also 508, 5. 2. Que is an enclitic, and ae is used only before consonants. 3. Etiam, quoque, adeo, and the like, are sometimes associated with et, atque, ac, and que, and sometimes even supply their place. Quoque fol- lows the word which it connects : is quoque, he also. Etiam, also, further, even, often adds a new circumstance. 4. Copulatives are sometimes used as correlatives: et . . . et, que . . . que, et . . . que, que . . . et, que . . . atque, neque (neo) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor; neque (neo) . . . et (que), not . . . but (and); et . . . neque (nee) , and not : Et praeterita meminit et praesentibus potitur, he both remembers the past and possesses the present; 0. Fin. 1,19, 62. Mendacium neque dicebat neque pati poterat, he neither uttered a falsehood, nor was he able to endure one. USE OF COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 349 Note 1. — Modo . . . modo, cum . . . turn, turn . . . turn, now . . . now, not only . . . but also, have the force of copulative correlatives. Non modo (solum or tantum) . . . sed (verum) etiam, sometimes have the same meaning ; see 656, 3. Note 2. — A series may begin with primum or primo, may be continued by deinde followed by turn, postea, praeterea, or some similar word, and may close with denique or postremo.' Delude may be repeated several times between primimi and denique or postremo.'- 5. Between two words the copulative is generally expressed, though it is omitted between the names of consuls : L. Domitio, Ap. Claudio oonsulibus, in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius. 6. Asyndeton. — Between several ww-ds the copulative is in general either repeated or omitted altogether. A union of coordinate words without the connective is called Asyndeton : Stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia, folly, rashness, and injustice ; cf. C. rin. *s, 11, 39. Cernimus, audimus, gustamus, olfaoimus, tangimus, we see, hear, taste, smell, and touch ; C. Div. 2, s, 9. Note. — Que may be used with the last member of a series even when the conjunction is omitted between the other words: aegritudines, irae libidinesque, griefs, hatreds, and passions. 658. Disjunctive Conjunctions (315, 2) meaning or, either . . . or, offer a choice between two objects : TibI ego, aut tu mihl servus es, I am servant to you or you to me ; Pi. Bac. 162. SIve retractabis sive properabis, whether you shall be reluctant or in haste. 1. Aut denotes a stronger antithesis than vel, and is used when one alter- native excludes the other : aut verum aut falsum, either true or false. 2. Vel, or vel potius, or rather, and vel etiam, or even, are used to correct or strengthen a statement : Post obitum vel potius excessum Romuli, after the death or rather de- parture of Momulus; C. R. P. 2, 12, 52. 659. Adversative Conjunctions (315, 3) denote Opposition or Contrast : Cupio me esse clementem, sed me inertiae condemno, / wish to be mild, but I condemn myself for inaction; c. c. i. 2, *. Quod autem laudabile est, honestum est, but what is laudable is honorable. 1. Sed and verum generally mark a direct opposition ; autem and vero only a transition ; at emphasizes the opposition ; atqul often introduces an objection; ceterum means but still, as to the rest; tamen, yet. 1 For examples, see C. Fam. 15, 14; Div. 2, 56. 2 C. Inv. 2, 49, has a series of ten members in which primum introduces the first member, postremo the last, and deinde each of the other eight. 350 SYNTAX 2. Autem and vero are postpositive, i.e. they are'placed after one or more words in their clauses. 660. Illative Conjunctions (315, 4) denote Inference: Nihil ohstat ; ergo omnia prospere, igitur beate, there is no opposition, therefore all things are moving prosperously, therefore happily; C.Tusc. 5, 18,53. 1. Igitur is generally postpositive : hie igitur, this one therefore. 661. Causal Conjunctions (315, 5) denote Cause : Nemo enim maeret su5 incommode, for no one mourns over his own mis- fortune ; 0. Tusc. 1, 18, 30. 1. Euim is postpositive ; etenim and namque are stronger than enim and nam. Note. — The use of Subordinate Conjunctions has been illustrated in the discussion of Moods in Subordinate Clauses. RULES OF SYNTAX 662. For convenience of reference, the principal Rules of Syntax are here introduced in a body. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT 1. The subject of a Finite Verb is put in the Nominative (387). 2. A Finite Verb agrees w^ith its Subject in Number and Per- son (388). 3. A noun used as an Appositive or as a Predicate of another noun denoting the same person or thing agrees vrith it in Case * (393). 4. Adjectives, w^hether Attributive or Predicate, agree v?ith their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (394). 6. Pronouns agree vv^ith their antecedents in Gender, Num- ber, and Person (396). VOCATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE 6. The name of the person or thing addressed is put in the Vocative (402). 7. The Direct Object of an action is put in the Accusative (404). RULES OF SYNTAX 351 8. Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Eegarding, Showing, and the like, admit Two Accusatives of the Same Person or Thing (410). 9. Some verbs of Asking, Demanding, Teaching, and Conceal- ing admit two Accusatives, — one of the Person and one of the Thing (411). 10. Many transitive verbs admit both an Accusative and an Infinitive (414). 11. Subject of Infinitive. ^- The Infinitive sometimes takes an Accusative as its subject (415), 12. Accusative of Specification. — In poetry, rarely in prose, a verb or an adjective may take an Accusative to Define its Appli- cation (416). 13. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (417). 14. The Place towards which the motion is directed as its End or Limit is generally denoted by the Accusative with ad or in, but in the names of Towns by the Accusative alone (418). 15. The Accusative may take a Preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended (420). 16. The Accusative, either with or without an interjection, may be used in Exclamations (421). DATIVE 17. The Indirect Object of an action is put in the Dative. It may be used either alone or in connection with the Direct Object (424). 18. Two Datives — the Object To Which and the Object or End For Which — are used with a fe«' verbs, either alone or in con- nection with the Direct Object (433). 19. Many adjectives take the Dative as the Indirect Object of the quality denoted by them (434). 20. The Dative is used with a few special nouns and adverbs derived from primitives which take the Dative (436). GENITIVE 21. A noun used as an Attributive or Predicate of another noun denoting a different person or thing is put in the Genitive (439). 352 STNTAX 22. Many adjectives take an Objective Genitive to complete their meaning (450). 23. Verbs of Kemembering and Forgetting — memini, remini- scor, and obliviscor — regularly take the Objective Genitive when used of Persons, but either the Genitive or the Accusative when used of Things (454). 24. Verbs of Reminding, Admonishing, and Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, Acquitting, take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing, Crime, Charge, etc. (456). 25. Misereor and miseresco take the Objective Genitive ; mise- ret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Object which produces the feeling (457). ABLATIVE I. Ablative Proper 26. The Ablative of Separation is generally used with a prepo- sition — a, ab, de, or ex — when it represents a person or is used with a verb compounded with ab, de, dis, se, or ex (461). 27. The Ablative of Separation is generally used without a preposition when it is the name of a town, or is used after a verb meaning to relieve, free, deprive, need, or he without (462). 28. The Ablative of Source, including Agency, Parentage, and Material, generally takes a preposition, — a, ab, de, e, or ex (467). 29. Comparatives without quam are followed by the Ablative (471). II. Instrumental Ablative 30. The Ablative of Association is used (473) : (1) To denote Accompaniment, or Association in a strict sense. It then takes the preposition cum. (2) To denote Characteristic or Quality. It is then modified by an adjective or by a Genitive. (3) To denote Manner or Attendant Circumstance. It then takes the preposition cum, or is modified by an adjective or by a Genitive. 31. The Ablative of Cause, designating the Cause, Ground, or Eeason for an action, is used without a preposition (475). RULES OF SYNTAX 353 32. The Instrument and Means of an action are denoted by the Ablative without a preposition (476). 33. Means. — Special Uses. — (1) The Ablative of Means is used with utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their com- pounds (477). (2) The Ablative of Means is used with verbs of Abounding ■ and Filling, and with adjectives of Fullness ; abundo, redundo, adfluo, etc. ; compleo, ezpleo, impleo, onero, etc. ; onustus, refertus, plenus, etc. (3) The Ablative of Means is used with opus and iisus, often in connection with the Dative of the person. 34. Price and Value are denoted by the Ablative, if expressed definitely or by means of Nouns, but by the Genitive or Ablative, if expressed indefinitely by means of Adjectives (478). 35. The Measure of Difference is denoted by the Ablative. It is used (479) : (1) With Comparatives and Superlatives. (2) With verbs and other words implying Comparison. (3) To denote Intervals of Time or Space. 36. Ablative of Specification. — A Noun, Adjective, or "Verb may take an Ablative to define its application (480). m. Locative and Locative Ablative 37. The Place In Which anything is done is denoted generally by the Locative Ablative with the preposition in, but in names of Towns by the Locative (483). 38. The Time At or In Which an action takes place is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition (486). 39. Ablative Absolute. — A noun with a participle, an adjective, or another noun, may be put in the Ablative to add to the predi- cate an Attendant Circumstance (489). 40. The Ablative may take a preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended (490) . USE OF THE INDICATIVE 41. The Indicative is used in treating of facts (523). HAKK. LAT. GRAM. — 24 354 SYNTAX SEQUENCE OF TENSES 42. Principal Tenses depend on ifrincipal Tenses, and Histor- ical on Historical (543). SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 43. The Potential Subjunctive is used to represent the action, not as real, but as Possible or Conditional. The negative is non (552). 44. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express pure Desire without any idea of authority, as in prayers and wishes. The negative is ni (558). 45. The Volitive Subjunctive is used to represent the action, not as real, but as Willed. The negative is ni. This Subjunc- tive covers a wide range of feeling and comprises the following varieties (559): (1) The Hortative Subjunctive, used in Exhortations, but only in the first person plural of the Present tense. (2) The Imperative or Jussive Subjunctive, used chiefly in the third person, and generally best rendered by let; but see 560. (3) The Concessive Subjunctive, used in Admissions and Con- cessions. (4) The Deliberative Subjunctive, used in Deliberative or Doubting Questions, implying that the speaker is in doubt in regard to the proper course to be pursued, and that he desires to be directed. IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 46. In commands the Subjunctive and Imperative supplement each, other, the Imperative being used in the second person and the Subjunctive in the third (560). SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 47. Substantive Clauses. — The Subjunctive, generally with ut or ne, may be used in Substantive Clauses which involve Purpose. Thus (564): RULES OF SYNTAX 355 (1) In Substantive Clauses used as the Objects of Verbs. (2) In Substantive Clauses used as Subjects or Predicates. (3) In Substantive Clauses used as Appositives to Nouns or Pronouns. 48. Final Clauses. — The Subjunctive is used with ut, ne, quo, quo minus, quominus, to denote the Purpose of the action (568). 49. The Potential Subjunctive is used in Subordinate clauses, whatever the connective, to represent the action as Possible or Conditional, rather thau real (569). 60. Consecutive Clauses. — The Potential Subjunctive is used with ut, or ut non, to denote the Eesult of the action (570). 51. Substantive Clauses. — The Potential Subjunctive is often used with ut and ut non in Substantive Clauses as follows (571) : (1) In Subject clauses, with certain Impersonal verbs meaning it Jiappens, it follows, etc., — accidit, accedit, evenit, fit, efBcitur, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, etc. (2) In Subject clauses with Predicate nouns and adjectives. (3) In Object clauses depending upon faci5, efBcio, etc., of the action of irrational forces. (4) In clauses in Apposition with nouns or pronouns. CONDITIONAL, CONCESSIVE, AND CAUSAL CLAUSES 62. The Indicative in Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Eeal (574). 53. The Present or Perfect Subjunctive in Conditional Sen- tences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Possible (576). 54. The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Contrary to Fact (579). 65. Conditional Clauses of Comparison, introduced by ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, taniquam, tamquam si, velut, velut si, as if, than if, take the Subjunctive (584). 56. Etsi and etiam si, when they mean although, introduce Adversative clauses and take the Indicative, but when they mean 356 SYNTAX even if, they introduce Conditional clauses, and accordingly take the same construction as si (585). 57. (1) Clauses introduced by quamquam and tametsi contain admitted facts, and accordingly take the Indicative (586). (2) Clauses introduced by licet, quam-vis, ut, or ne, are Con- cessive, and accordingly take the Concessive Subjunctive; see 559, 3. 58. The Jussive Subjunctive is used with dum, modo, modo ut, and dummodo, meaning if only, provided, in conditional clauses of desire (587). 59. Causal Clauses with quod, quia, quoniam, quando, generally take (588) : (1) The Indicative to assign a reason positively, on one's own authority. (2) The Subjunctive to assign a reason doubtfully, or on another's authority. RELATIVE CLAUSES AND QUIN CLAUSES 60. Clauses introduced by the Relative qui, or by Relative Adverbs, ubi, unde, quo, etc., take (589) : (1) The Indicative, when they simply state or assume facts, without any accessory notion of Purpose, Result, Concession, or Cause. (2) The Subjunctive in all other cases. 61. (1) Quin in direct questions and commands takes the ordinary construction of independent sentences (594). (2) Quin in Subordinate Clauses takes the Subjunctive. CUM CLAUSES, TEMPORAL CLAUSES 62. In writers of the best period. Causal and Concessive Clauses with cum take the Subjunctive (598). 63. Temporal Clauses introduced by cum, meaning when, while, after, take (600) : (1) The Indicative in the Present, Perfect, and Future Tenses. (2) The Subjunctive in the Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses. RULt:S OF SYNTAX 357 64. Temporal Clauses introduced by the particles postquam, postea quam, after, pridie quam, postridie quam, on the day before, on the day after; ubi, ut, simul, simul atque, when, as, as soon as, state facts, and accordingly take the Indicative, generally the Per- fect, or the Historical Present (602). 65. I. Temporal clauses with dum, douec, and quoad, meaning as long as, take the Indicative (603). II. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take: (1) The Indicative, Present, Perfect, or Future Perfect, when the action is viewed as an Actual Fact. (2) The Subjunctive, Present or Imperfect, when the action is viewed as something Desired, Proposed, or Conceived. 66. (1) In Temporal clauses with autequam and priusquain the Present and Perfect are put in the Indicative when the action is viewed as an Actual Fact, and in the Subjunctive when the action is viewed as something Desired, Proposed, or Conceived (605). (2) The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put in the Subjunctive. INFINITIVE AND SUPINE 67. Infinitive. — Many verbs admit the Infinitive to complete or qualify their meaning (607). 68. The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion to express Purpose (633). 69. The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative, some- times perhaps as a Dative (635). MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 70. Principal Clauses. — The Principal clauses of the Direct Discourse on becoming Indirect take the Infinitive with the Sub- ject Accusative when Declarative, and the Subjunctive when Interrogative or Imperative (642). 71. Subordinate Clauses. — The Subordinate clauses of the Di- rect discourse on becoming Indirect take the Subjunctive (643). ADVERBS 72. Adverbs qualify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs (654). 368 SYNTAX ARRANGEMENT OF 'WORDS AND CLAUSES 663. The Latin allows great variety in the arrangement of the different parts of the sentence, thus affording peculiar facili- ties both for securing proper emphasis and for imparting to its periods that harmonious flow which characterizes the Latin classics. But with all this freedom and variety, there are certain general laws of arrangement which it will be useful to notice. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SIMPLE SENTENCE General Rules 664. The Subject followed by its modifiers occupies the first place in the sentence, and the Predicate preceded by its modifiers the last place : Sol oriens et oocidens diem nootemque conficit, tlie sun by its rising and setting makes day and night. Soipio Afrioanus Carthaginem Numantiamque delevit, Scipio Africanus destroyed Carthage and Numantia; c, c. 4, lo, 21. 1. The Modifiers of the Subject either follow it or are grouped around it. Substantive modifiers generally follow it, while Adjective modifiers may stand either before or after it ; see 671, 1-5 : Cluilius rex moritur, Cluilius the king dies. Verae amicltiae semplternae sunt, true friendships are enduring. Homines industril in Asia negotiantur, active men are engaged in business in Asia. 2. In the arrangement of the modifiers of the Predicate the place directly before the verb is generally occupied by the Direct object, or by an Adverb which directly qualifies the action : Eortiter bellum gesserat, he had waged war valiantly; Flao. 89, 98. Rem publioam felicissime gesserunt, they administered the republic most success- fully ; Caos. c. T, 7. 3. In the arrangement of Objects the Indirect object generally stands before the Direct : Dareus Scythis bellum inferre decrevit, Darius decided to make war upon the Scythians. 4. Expressions of Place, Time, or Means generally stand before the other modifiers of the verb, often even before the subject: Athenienses loc5 idoneo castra fecerunt, the Athenians pitched their camp in a suitable place. Proximo die Caesar 5 castris utrlsque copias suas eduxit, ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 359 the next day Caesar led out his forces from both his camps; Caes. l, 60. Marius commeatu naves onerat, Marius loads his vessels with supplies. 665. Emphasis and the relative importance of different parts of the sentence often cause a departure from the Grammatical arrangement just described. Thus, 1. Any word, except the subject, may be made emphatic by being placed at the beginning of the sentence : CatSnem quis nostiorum oratorum legit, who among our orators reads Catot C. Biut. 17, 66. Numitori Remus deditur, Bemus is delivered to Numitor. 2. Any word, except the predicate, may be made emphatic by being placed at the end of the sentence : Nobis non satisfacit ipse Demosthenes, even Demosthenes does not satisfy us ; cf. C. Or. 29, 104. 3. In any phrase within a sentence the emphatic word stands first : MiM uni conservatae rei piiblicae gratulationem decrevistis, to me alone you have decreed a thanksgiving for having preserved the republic; c. c.4, lo, 20. 4. Two words naturally connected, as a noun and its adjective, or a noun aud its limiting Genitive, are sometimes made emphatic by sepa- ration : Obiurgationes non numquam incidunt necessariae, sometimes necessary reproofs occur; c. Off. i, 8S, 136. Note. — A word is sometimes made emphatic by being placed between the parts of a compound or periphrastic tense : Consuetude imitanda medicorum est, the custom of physicians should be imitated; C. Off. l, 24, ss. 666. Two groups of words may be made prominent and em- phatic either by Anaphora or by Chiasmus. 1. Anaphora. — Here the order of words in the second gi-oup is identi- cal with that in the first : Me cuncta Italia, me universa civitas consulem declaravit, me all Italy, me the whole state proclaimed consul ; c. ris. i, s. 2. Chiasmus. — Here the order of words in the first group is reversed in the second : Fragile corpus animus sempitemus movet, the imperishable soul moves the perishable body; c. R. P. 6, 24. Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, enough eloquence, but little toisdom. 360 SYNTAX 667. Kindred Words. — Different forms of the same word, or different words of the same derivation, are generally placed near each other. Ad senem senex de senectute sorlpsi, /, an old man, wrote to an old, man about old age; 0. Am. l. 668. A word which has a common relation to two other words connected 'by conjunctions, is placed 1. Generally before or after both : Graecis et litteris et dootoribus, hy means of Greek literature and Greek teachers; c. Tusc. 1, 1. Et belli et paois artibus, by the arts both of war and of peace; l. l, 21. Note. — But a Genitive, or an adjective, following two nouns, more fre- quently qualifies only the latter : Percunctatio ac denantiatio belli, the inquiry and the declaration of war. 2. Sometimes directly after the first, before the conjunction : Honoris certamen et glSriae, a struggle for honor and glory ; C. Am. lo. 669. Moreover, the context often has some share in determining the arrangement of words in the sentence. Thus, 1. A word or phrase closely related to some part of the preceding sentence generally stands at or near the beginning of its own sentence : In his castrls Albanus rex moritur, in this camp the Alban king dies. Note. — In his caBtrTs refers back to castra in the preceding sentence. 2. A word or phrase closely related to some part of the following sentence stands at or near the end of its sentence : Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit Orgetorix, among the Helvetii by far the highest of the nobles was Orgetorix. Is coniiirationem nobilitatis fecit, he formed a conspiracy of the nobles. 670. Euphony and Rhythm. — The best Latin writers in the arrange- ment of words regard sound as well as meaning. They aim at variety in the length, sound, and ending of successive words and pay special atten- tion to the manner in which the sentence closes. A word of two or more syllables with a clear and full sound is generally selected for this place : Publius Africanus, Carthagine deleta, Sioulorum urbes signis monumen- tisque pulcherrirais exornavit, Publius Africanus, having destroyed Carthage, adorned the cities of the Sicilians with the most beautiful statues and monu- ments; C. Yer. 2, 2, 3. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 361 Special Rules 671. The Substantive Modifiers of a Noun generally follow it, but Adjective Modifiers may stand either before or after it : Pausanias in aedem Minervae confugit, Pausanias fled into the temple of Minerea; N. 4, 5, 2. Usus magister est optimus, experience is the best teacher. Tuscus ager Romans adiacet, the Tuscan territory borders on the Roman. 1. Modifiers, when emphatic, generally stand before the noun : Catonis orationes, Cato's orations; Xenophontis librl, Xenophon''s books. 2. In a few expressions, the Genitive has a definite position before its noun and in a few others a definite position after it : Magister equitum, the master of the horse; tribQnus plebis, tribune of the people; tribunus militum, tribune of the soldiers, etc.; senattis auctoritas, the authority of the senate ; senatiis consultum, a decree of the senate. 3. In certain expressions the Adjective regularly follows: Civis Eomanus, a Roman citizen; populus Romanus, the Roman people; pontifex maximus, the chief priest ; di immortales, the immortal gods ; genus htimanum, the human race; ius civile, civil law, etc. 4. When a noun is modified by an Adjective and a Genitive, the usual order is Adjective — Genitive — Noun : Omnes Graeciae civitates, all the states of Greece. 5. An Adjective is often separated from its noun by a monosyllabic preposition and sometimes by two or more words : Magno cum periculo, with great peril; maxima post hominum memoriam classis, the largest fleet in the memory of man ; N. 2, 5. 672. Modifiers of Adjectives. — Adverbial modifiers generally stand before adjectives wMle Objective modifiers more commonly follow them : Exspectatio valde magna, a very great expectation. Appetentes gloriae atque avidi laudis, eager for glory and desiro^is of praise. 673. The Modifiers of verbs generally stand before them (664) : Mors propter brevitatem vitae numquam longe abest, death is never far distant in consequence of the shortness of life ; cf. C. Tusc. i, 38, 9i. Note. — When the verb stands at the beginning of the sentence the modi- fiers of course follow it and may be separated from it . Silent leges inter arma, laws are silent in war; C. Mil. 4, 10. 362 SYNTAX 674. Modifiers of adverbs generally stand before them, but a Dative depending on an adverb usually follows it : lUud valde graviter tulerunt, they bore this with great displeasure. Coa- gruenter naturae vivit, he lives in harmony with nature. 675. Pronouns. — Possessives generally follow the nouns to which they belong, but other pronominal adjectives generally precede their nouns, Demonstratives and Interrogatives regularly : C5pias suas divlsit, he divided his forces. Gustos huius urbis, the guardian of this city. In qua urbe vivimus, in what sort of a city are we living ? 1. lUe in the sense of well-known usually follows its noun, if not accom- panied by an adjective : Medea ilia, that well-known Medea, but Magnus ille Alexander, that famous Alexander the Great. 2. Pronouns are often grouped together, especially quisque with suus or sui; Per se quisque sib! carus est, every one is by his own nature dear to him- self; C. Am. 21, 80. 676. Prepositions generally stand directly before their cases, but tenus and versus follow their cases : Tauro tenus, as far as Taurus. Narbonem versus, towards Narbo. 1. The preposition frequently follows the relative, sometimes other pro- nouns, and sometimes even nouns, especially in poetry : Italiam contra, over against Italy ; quibus de, in regard to which ; hunc post, after him. See also 175, 7 ; 182, 2. 2. Genitives, adverbs, and a few other words sometimes stand between the preposition and its case. In adjurations per is usually separated from its case : Ad earum rerum facultatem, to a sripply of those things. Ad bene beate- que vivendum, fdr living well and happily. Per ego has lacrimas te oro, I implore you by these tears; V. 4, 314. 677. Conjunctions and Relatives, when they introduce clauses, gen- erally stand at the beginning of such clauses : but autem, enim, quidem, quoque, vero, and generally igitur, follow some other word : SI haec civitas est, if this is a state. li qui audiunt, those who hear. Ipse autem omnia videbat, but he himself saw everything. See also 659, 2, and 660, 1. 1. Conjunctions and relatives may follow emphatic words : Id ut audivit, as he heard this. Troiae qui primus ab oris venit, who came first from the shores of Troy ; V. l, l. ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES 363 2. Que, ve, ne, introducing a clause or phrase, are generally appended to the first word ; but if that word is a preposition, they are often appended to the next word : In forOque, and in the forum. Inter nosque, and among us. 678. Non, when it qualifies some single word, stands directly before that word ; but when it is particularly emphatic, or qualifies the entire clause, it sometimes stands at the beginning of the clause, and sometimes befoi-e the finite verb or before the auxiliary of a compSund tense : HomS non probatissimus, a man by no means the most approved. Non fuit Juppiter metuendus, Jupiter was not to be feared. Peciinia soluta non est, the money has not been paid. 1. In general, in negative claiises the negative word, whether particle, verb, or noun, is made prominent : Nulla videbatur aptior persona, there seemed to be no more fitting char- acter. Nihil est melius, nothing is better. 679. Inquam, sometimes aio, introducing a quotation, follows one or more of the words quoted : Nihil habeo, inquit, quod acciisem seneotatem, I have nothing, said he, of which to accuse old age; C. Sbd. 5, is. 680. The Vocative rarely stands at the beginning of a sentence. It usually follows an emphatic word : Vos, Quirites, in vestra tScta discedite, you, Romans, retire to your homes. AERANGEMENT OF CLAUSES 681. Clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (315, 1) fol- low each other in the natural order of the thought, as in English : Sol ruit et montes umbrantur, the sun hastens to its setting, and the moun- tains are shaded. Gyges a niills videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat, Oyges loas seen by no one, but he himself saw all things. 682. A clause used as the Subject of a compound sentence (386, 2) generally stands at the Beginning of the sentence, and a clause used as the Predicate at the End : Quid dies ferat incertum est, what a day may bring forth is uncertain. Exitus fuit oratiSnis, sibi nuUam cum his amicitiam esse, the close of the oration was, that he had no friendship with these men. 364 SYNTAX 1. This arrangement is the same as that of the simple sentence ; see 664. 2. Emphasis and euphony often have the same effect on the arrangement of clauses as on the arrangement of words ; see 665, 670. 683. Clauses used as the Subordinate Elements of compound sentences admit three different arrangements. 1. They are generally inserted within the principal clause, like the subordinate elements of a simple sentence : Ariovistus, ex equis ut coUoquerentur, postulavit, Ariovistus demanded that they should converse on horseback; Caes. i, 48. Libenter homines id quod volunt credunt, men viillingly believe that which they wish ; Caes. s, 18, 6. 2. They are often placed before the principal clause : Cum quiescunt, probant, ivJiile they are quiet, they approve. Qualis sit animus, animus nescit, the soul knows not what the soul is. Note. — This arrangement is generally used when the subordinate clause either refers back to the preceding sentence, or is preparatory to the thought of the principal clause. Hence Causal, Temporal, Conditional, and Conces- sive clauses often precede the principal clause, and in sentences composed of correlative clauses with is . . . qui, talis . . . qualis, tantus . . . quantus, turn . . . ctun, ita . . . ut, etc., the relative member, i.e. the clause with qui, qualis, quantus, cum, ut, etc., generally precedes. 3. They sometimes follow the principal clause : Enititur ut vincat, he strives that he may conquer. Sol efficit ut omnia floreant, the sun causes all things to bloom. Note. — This arrangement is generally used when the subordinate clause is either intimately connected in thought with the following sentence, or ex- planatory of the principal clause. Hence, clauses of Purpose and Result generally follow the principal clause, as in the examples. 684. When either the subject or the object is the same both in the Principal and in the Subordinate clause, it usually stands at or near the beginning of the sentence and is followed by the subordinate clause : Hostes ubi primum nostrSs equites conspexSrunt, celeriter nostros pertur- baverunt, the enemy, as soon as they saw our cavalry, quickly put our men to rout ; Caes. 4, 12. Ilia ut potui tuli, those things I endured as (well as) I could. 1. When the object of the principal clause is the same as the subject of the subordinate clause, it usually stands at the beginning of the sentence : v5s moneo ut fort! anirao sitis, I counsel you to be of a courageous spirit. LATIN PERIODS 365 685. Latin Periods. — A carefully elaborated Latin sentence con- sisting of one or more subordinate clauses inserted in the princi- pal clause, or placed before it, and so combined with it and with each other as to make one complete organic whole, is a Latin Period : Ut quod turpe est, id quamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nulls modo potest ; sic quod honestum non est, id utile ut sit effici non potest, as that which is base, although it may be concealed, can in no way be made honor- able, so that which is not honorable can not by any possibility be made useful ; 0. Oflf. 8, 19, 78. Ut saepe hominSs aegri morbo gravi, cum aestu febrique iactantur, si aquam gelidam biberunt, primo relevari videntur, deinde multo gravius vehementiusque adflictantur, sic hie morbus qui est in re publica, relevatus istius poena, vehementius vivis reliquis ingravescet, as men ill with a severe disease if they take cold water when they are tossed with heat and fever, often seem at first to be relieved but afterwards are much more grievously and vio- lently distressed, so this disease which is in the republic, though alleviated by the punishment of this one, loill gain greater strength while the rest are alive; c. c. i, is, 8i. Note 1. — The examples under 683, 1, and the first example under 684, are also short and simple illustrations of the periodic structure, so popular with Latin writers. Note 2. — For further illustration of the Latin Period, see Cicero's Tliird Oration against Catiline, 12, sed quoniam . . . providere ; the Oration for the Poet Archias, 1, quod si haeo . . . debemus ; also Livy, 1, 6, Nu- mitor inter primum tumultum . . . ostendit. PART v. — PROSODY 686. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification. QUANTITY 687. A syllable is long if it contains a diphthong or a long vowel, or is the result of contraction : haec, dico, ml. 1. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel : praeaciituB. 366 PROSODY 688. A syllable is long if its vowel is followed in the same word by a double consonant, or any two consonants except a mute and a liquid^: dux, servus, sunt. 1. A syllable is also long before two consonants, even if only one of them belongs to that word ; and in the thesis (725) of a foot it is generally long before a double consonant or two single consonants at the beginning of the following word. Note 1. — The aspirate h never affects the quantity of a syllable. Note 2. — In the early poets a short final syllable ending in s often re- mains short before a word beginning with a consonant; sometimes, also, short final syllables ending in other consonants remain short in that situation. 2. A syllable is long before i consonant, except in the compounds of iugum. Even in the compounds of iacio with monosyllabic prepositions the first syllable is long, although i consonant is suppressed in writing; abicio, adicio. 3. In the early poets many syllables, long by position in the Augustan poets, are sometimes short, as the first syllable of ecce, ille, immo, nempe, omnis, qtiippe. Note. — In Greek words a syllable with a vowel before a mute and- a nasal is sometimes short ; cycnus, Tecmessa. 689. A syllable is short if its vowel is followed in the same word by another vowel, by a diphthong, or by the aspirate h: dies, viae, nihil. But a few exceptions occur. 1. For a before another vowel, see 79, "3, and note proper names in aius : aulai, Gaius. 2. For e or S before a vowel, see 134 : diei, fidei, rSi, spiT, and note eheu and Rhea. 3. Eor i or i before a vowel, see 93, 4, 179, and 296 : flam, fiebam, but fieri ; illius, totius, but alterius. Note also dius, Diana. Note. — In Greek words, vowels are often long before vowels because long in the original : Medea, aer, Aeneas, Troes. 690. A syllable is common in quantity if its vowel, naturally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid : agri, patris. 1 Here the syllable is long by nature if the vowel is long, but long only by position if the vowel is short. For the hidden quantity of vowels before two consonants or a double consonant, see 749. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES 367 1. A syllable ending in a mute in the first part of a compound before a liquid at the beginning of the second part is long ; ab-mmpo, ob-rogo. 2. In Plautus and Terence a syllable, not in a compound, is short before a mute and a liquid 11 its vowel is short. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES 691. Monosyllables are generally long: da, si, do, dos, pes, sia, bos, par, sol. But note the following exceptions : 1. Enclitics; que, ve, ne, ce, te, pse, pte. 2. Monosyllables in b, d, 1, m, t ; ab, ad, fel, sum, et ; except sal, sol. 3. An, bis, cis, cor, es, fao, ier, in, is, nee, os, per, ter, quis, vir, vas, and hic and hoc in the Nominative and Accusative. 692. In words of more than one syllable 1. The final vowels i, o, and u are long; a, e, and y, short: audi, servo, fruotii ; via, mare, misy. 2. Final syllables in c are long ; in d, 1, m, n, r, t, short : Uluc ; illud, consul, amem, carmen, amor, caput. Note. — Donee and lien are exceptions ; also final syllables in n and r in many Greek words. 3. The final syllables as, es, and os are long ; is, us, ys, short : amas, nubes, servos ; avis, bonus, chlamys. Note 1. — Plautus retains the original quantity of many final syllables usually short in the Augustan age. Thus the endings a, e, al, ar, or, Is, us, at, et. It, often stand in place of the later endings a, e, al, ar, or, is, us, at, et, it. Some of these are retained by Terence, and occasionally by the Augustan poets. Note 2. — Plautus and Terence often shorten final syllables after an accented short syllable : ama, dedl, domi, viro, pedes. Note 3. — In Plautus and Terence the doubling of a letter does not neces- sarily aflect the quantity of the syllable : 11 in ille, mm in immo. 693. I final, usually long, is short in nisi, quasi ; common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short or common in a few Greek words. 694. O final, usually long, is short in duo, ego, eho, cedo, cito, ilico, mode and its compounds, and sometimes in nouns of the Third Declension and in verbs, though rarely in the best poets. 368 PROSODY 695. A final, usually short, is long 1. In the Ablative : meusa, bona, ilia. 2. In the Vocative o£ Greek nouns in as : Aenea, Palla. 3. In certain numerals : triginta, quadraginta, etc. 4. In verbs and particles : ama, cura ; circa, iuxta, antea, frustra ; except ita, quia, heia, and puta used adverbially. 696. B final, usually short, is long 1. In the First and Fifth Declensions, and in Greeli plurals of the Third Declension : epitome ; die ; tempe. Hence in hodie, pridie, postridie, quare. 2. In the singular Imperative Active of the Second Conjugation : mone, doce. But e is sometimes short in cavi, vide, etc., and in the comic poets many dissyllabic Imperatives with a short penult shorten the ultimate : as habe, iube, mane, move, tace, tene, etc. 3. In fere, ferme, She, and in adverbs from adjectives of the Second Declension : docte, recte ; except bene, male, and sometimes in the early poets mazume, probe, temere. 697. As final, usually long, is short in a few forms, chieflly Greek : anas, Areas, lampas ; Arcadas, heroas. 698. Es final, usually long, is short 1. In the Nominative singular of the Third Declension with short increment (708) in the Genitive : miles, sometimes miles in Plautus, obses, interpres ; except abies, aries, paries, Ceres, and compounds of pes, as bipes. 2. In penes and the compounds of es, as ades, potes. 3. In a few Greek forms : Arcades, Troades, Hippomanes. 699. Os final, usually long, is short in compos, impos, ezos, and a few Greek' words : Delos, melos. 700. Is final, usually short, is long 1. In plural cases : mensis, vobis. Hence foris, gratis, ingratis. 2. In Nominatives of the Third Declension, increasing long in the Geni- tive: Quiris, Salamis. 3. In the singular Present Indicative Active of the Fourth Conjugation : audiB. 4. In the singular Present Subjunctive Active : possis, velis, nolis. 5. Sometimes in the singular of the Future Perfect and of the Perfect Subjunctive: amaveris, docueris. 6. In early Latin sometimes in pulvis, cinis, and sanguis. Note. — Mavis, qui^s, and utervis retain the quantity of vis. QUANTITY IN INCREMENTS 369 701. XTb final, usually short, is long (1) in Nominatives of the Third Declension increasing long in the Genitive : virtiis, telliis, hut palus occurs in Horace ; (2) in the Fourth Declension, in the Genitive singular, and in the plural : fructiis ; and (3) generally in Greek words ending long in the original : Panthiis, tripus. QUANTITY IN INCREMENTS 702. A word is said to increase in declension, when it has in any case more syllables than in the Nominative singular, and to have as- many increments of declension as it has additional syllables : sermo, sermo- uis, sermonibus.i 703. A verb is said to increase in conjugation, when it has in any part more syllables than in the second person singular of the Present Indicative Active, and to have as many increments of conjugation as it has additional -syllables : amas, amatis, amabatis.^ 704. If there is but one increment, it is uniformly the penult ; if there are more than one, they are the penult with the requisite number of syl- lables before it. The increment nearest the beginning of the word is called the First increment, and those following this are called succes- sively the Second, Third, and Fourth increments.' Increments of Declension 705. In the Increments of Declension, a and o are long ; e, i, u, and y, short : ■* aetas, aetatibus ; sermo, sermonis ; puer, puerorum ; miles, militis ; fulgur, fulguris ; chlamys, chlamydis. Note. — The quantity in the increments of Greek nouns is best learned from the dictionary. It is usually that of the original Greek. 706. A, usually long in the increments of declension, is short in the first increment (1) of masculines in al and ar : Hannibal, Hannibalis ; Caesar, Caesaris; (2) of nouns in s preceded by a consonant: daps, dapis ; Arabs, Arabis ; and (3) of lar, nectar, par ; mas, vas ; sal, faz, and a few other words. 1 Sermonis, having one syllable more than sermo, has one increment, while sermonibus has two increments. 2 Amatis has one increment, amabatls two. ' In ser-mon-i-bus, the first increment is mon, the second i ; and in moij-u- e-ra-mus, the first is u, the second e, the third ra. * Y occurs only in Greek words, and is long in the increments of nouns in yn. HAKK. LAT. GRAM. — 25 370 PROSODY 707. O, usually long in the increments of declension, is short in the first increment (1) of neuters in the Third Declension: aequor, aequoris ; tempus, temporis ; (2) of nouns in s preceded hy a consonant: (ops), opis ; and (3) of arbor, bos, lepus ; compos, impos, memor, immemor. 708. E, usually short in the increments of declension, is long in the first increment (1) of the Fifth Declension : die!, dierum, rebus ; but note fidei, rSi, spil ; and (2) of ver, lieres, locuples, merces, quies, inquies, requies, plebs, lez, res. 709. I, usually short in the increments of declension, is long in the first increment (1) of words in is: radix, radicis ; and (2) of dis, lis, vis, Quiris, Samnis. 710. TT, usually short in the increments of declension, is long in the first increment (1) of nouns in us: ius, iuris ; salQs, salHtis ; paliis, paliidis; and (2) of fur, (irux), friigis, liix. Increments of Conjugation 711. In the Increments of Conjugation (703) a, e, and o are long ; i and u short : amamus, amemus, amatote ; regimus, sumus. 1. A, usually long in the increments of conjugation, is short in the first increment of the verb do, dare: dabam, circumdabam. 2. E, usually long in the increments of conjugation, is generally short before r : amaveram, amavero; regere, regeris ; see also 218-231. 3. I, usually short in the increments of conjugation, is generally long, except before a vowel, in the first increment of the Fourth Conjugation and of those verbs of the Third Conjugation which follow the analogy of the fourth : audire, audivi, auditum ; cupivi, cupiverat, cupitus. ' 4. Note also (1) simus, sitis ; velimus, velitis ; nolite, nolito, noli- tote ; (2) the different persons of ibam, ib5, from eo ; and (3) the endings rimus and ritis of the Future Perfect and Perfect Subjunctive : amaveri- muB, amavetitis. 5. TT, usually short in the increments of conjugation, is long in the parti- cipial system : volHtum, voliitiirus, amatHrus. QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVE ENDINGS 712. Note the quantity of the following derivative endings: 1. abrum, acrum, atmm : flabrum, simulacrum, aratrum. 2. edo, ido, tudo ; ago, igo, iigo : dulcgdo, cupido, solitiido ; vorago, orlgo, aeriigo. QUANTITY OF STEM SYLLABLES 371 3. ela, lie ; alls, elis, ulis : querela, ovile ; raortalis, fldelis, ourulis. 4. anus, enus, inus, onus, unus ; ana, ena, ona, una : urbanus, egenus, marinus, patronus, tribunus ; membrana, habena, an- nona, lacuna. 5. aris, osus ; avus, ivus, tivus : salutaris, animosus ; octavus, aestivus, tempestivus. 6. atus, etus, itus, otus, utus. alatus, facetus, turritus, aegrotus, cornutus. 7. em, ini, onl — in Distributives: septeni, quini, octonl. 8. ades, iades, ides — in Patronymics: Aeneades, Laertiades, Tantalides. 9. olus, ola, olum ; ulus, ula, ulum ; cuius, cula, ciUum — in Di- minutives : f iliolus, filiola, atriolum ; hortulus, virgula, oppidulum ; flosculus, particula, munusculum. QUANTITY OF STEM SYLLABLES 713. All simple rerbs in 15 of the Third Conjugation have the stem syllable ' short : capio, cuplo, facio, fodio, fugio. 714. Most verbs vifhich form the Perfect in ui, except inceptives, have the stem syllable short : domo, seco, habeo, moneo, alo, colo. 715. Dissyllabic Perfects, Supines, and Perfect Participles generally have the first syllable long, unless short by position : iuvo, iiivi, lutum ; foveo, fovl, fotum. 1. Eight I'erfects and ten Supines or Perfect Participles have the first syllable short : Bibi, dedi, fidi, liqui,^ scidi, steli, stiti, tull ; citum, datum, itum, litum, quitum, ratura, rutum, satum, siturn, statum. 716. Trisyllabic Reduplicated Perfects generally have the first two syllables short unless the second is long by position : cado, cecidi ; cano, cecini; ourro, ouourri; but note caedo, cecidi. 1 That is, the syllable preceding the characteristic. 2 Liiqui from liqueo : llnquo has liqui. 372 PROSODY 717. In general, inflected forms retain tlie quantity of stem syllables unchanged unless affected by position: avis, avem; nubes, nubium; levis, levissimus. 718. Derivatives generally retain the quantity of the stem syllables of their primitives : bonus, bonitas ; animus, animosus ; civis, civicvia. 1. But remember that many roots have a strong form and a weak form (320, 1): dioo dico odium odi dux, ducis duco rego rex, regis fides fido sedeS sedes homo htimanus tego tegula lego lex, legis voco vox, vocis 719. Compounds generally retain the quantity of their elements; ante-fero, de-diico, pro-duco ; but note deiero (de, iuro). 1. Pro is generally shortened before f followed by a vowel : Protanus, profarl, proficiscor, profiteer, profugio, profugus, profundus ; but note prof ero and profioio. Note. — Pro is shortened in procella, procul, and in a few other words. 2. At the end of a verbal stem compounded with facio or fio, e is gener- ally short: calefacio, calefio, labefacio, patefacio. 3. I Is usually long in the first part of the compounds of dies : meiidies, pridie, postridie, cottidie, triduum. 4. Hodie, quasi, quoque, and siquidem have the first syllable short. VERSIFICATION GENERAL VIEW OE THE SUBJECT 720. Latin Versification is based upon Quantity. Syllables are combined into certain metrical groups called Peet, and feet, singly or in pairs, are combined into Verses.^ 1 Modern versification is based upon Accent. An Enghsh verse is a regular combination of Accented and Unaccented syllables, but a Latin verse is a similar combination of Long and Sliort syllables. The rhythmic accent, or ictus (724), in Latin depends entirely upon quantity. Compare the following lines : Teir me I not', in I mourn'-ful I num'-bers, Life' is I but' an I emp'-ty I dream'. Trii'-di- I tur' di- I es' di- I §'. At' fl- I des' et I in'-ge- I ni'. Observe that in the English lines the accent, or ictus, falls upon the same syllables as in prose, while in the Latin it falls uniformly upon long syllables. GENERAL VIEW OF VERSIFICATION 373 1. In quantity or time the unit of measure, called a Time or Mora, is a short syllable indicated either by a curve w or by an eighth note in music, is. A long. syllable has in general twice the value of a short syllable, and is indicated either by the sign _, or by a quarter note in music, L 2. Triseme. — A long syllable is sometimes prolonged so as to have -the value of three short syllables, indicated by the sign i_, or J . 3. Tetraseme. — A long syllable is sometimes prolonged so as to have the value of four short syllables, indicated by i__i, or I. 4. A long syllable is sometimes shortened so as to have approximately the value of a short syllable, and is marked by the sign > ; and tv?o short syllables sometimes seem to have approximately the value of one, and are marked , Syllables thus used are said to have Irrational time. 5. The final syllable of a verse, often" called syllaba anceps (doiibtful syllable), may generally be either long or short at the pleasure of the poet. 721. The feet of most frequent occurrence in the best Latin poets are 1. Feet of Fohb Times ob Fock Morae Dactyl one long and two short ^ \j Spondee two long syllables ^ * «/ J Trochee 1 Iambus Tribrach Note 1. - 2. Feet of Three Times ok Three Morae one long and one short one short and one long three short syllables Anapaest \y w bonitas Proceleusmatic w w <^ w calefacit Bacchius ^j dolores Cretic ^ mllites Diiambus w k^ amoenitas vj ;.^ legis w j^j parens www /.v dominus he following : Ditrochee w w civitatis Greater Ionic w w sententia Lesser Ionic WW _ adulescSns Choriambus WW — impatiens ^ Note 2. — A Dipody is a group of two feet ; a Tripody, of three ; a Tetrapody, of four ; etc. A Trihemimeris is a group of three half feet, i.e. a foot and a half ; a Penthemimeris, of two and a half ; a Hephthe- mimeris, of three and a half ; etc. 1 Sometimes called Choree. 2 Most feet of four syllables are only compounds of dissyllabic feet. Thus the Diiambus is a double Iambus ; the Ditrochee, a double Trochee ; the Choriambus, a Trochee (Choree) and an Iambus. 374 PROSODY 722. Metrical Equivalents. — A long syllable may be resolved into two short syllables, as equivalent to it in quantity, or two short syllables may be contracted into a long syllable. The forms thus produced are metrical equivalents of the original feet. Note. — Thus the dactyl becomes a spondee by contracting the two short syllables into one long syllable ; the spondee becomes a dactyl by resolving the second syllable, or an anapaest by resolving the first. Accordingly, the dactyl, the spondee, and the anapaest are metrical equivalents. In like manner the iambus, the trochee, and the tribrach are metrical equivalents. 723. In certain kinds of verse admitting irrational time (720, 4), spondees, dactyls, and anapaests are shortened so that they have approximately the time of a trochee or of an iambus, and thus become metrical equivalents of each of these feet. 1. A spondee used for a trochee is called an Irrational Trochee, and is marked — >. 2. A spondee used for an iambus is called an Irrational Iambus, and is marked > — . 3. A dactyl used for a trochee is called a Cyclic Dactyl, and is marked — w w or \_/^' 4. An anapaest used for an iambus is called a Cyclic Anapaest, and is marked ^ ^j— or ww _• 724. Ictus, or Rhythmic Accent. — As in the pronunciation of a word one or more syllables receive a special stress of voice called accent, so in the pronunciation of a metrical foot one or more syllables have a special prominence called Rhythmic Accent, or Ictus. 1. Feet consisting of both long and short syllables have the ictus uni- formly on the long syllables, unless used as equivalents for other feet. 2. Equivalents take the ictus of the feet for which they are used. Note 1. — Thus the spondee, when used for the dactyl, takes the ictus of the dactyl, i.e. on the first syllable ; but when used for the anapaest, it takes the ictus of the anapaest, i.e. on the last syllable. Note 2. — When two short syllables of an equivalent take the place of a long syllable in the thesis, the ictus is marked upon the first of these sylla- bles. Thus a tribrach used for an iambus is marked www. 726. Thesis and Arsis. — In every foot the syllable which has the ictus is called the Thesis {putting down), and the rest of the foot is called the Arsis (raising).^ 1 Greek writers on versification originally used the terms Spo-is and SeVis of raising and putting down the foot in marching or in beating time. Thus the GENERAL VIEW OF VERSIFICATION 375 726. Khythmic Series. — A group of feet forming a single rhythmic unit by the predominance of one ictus over the rest is called a Rhythmic Series, or Colon. 1, A Rhythmic Series may consist of two, three, four, five, or six feet, but never of more than six. 727. Verses. — A verse consists of a single rhythmic series, or of a group of two or three series so united as to form one distinct and separate whole, usually written as a single line of poetry. It has one characteristic or fundamental foot, which determines the ictus for the whole verse. Note 1. — Thus every dactylic verse has the ictus on the first syllable of each foot, because the Dactyl has the ictus on that syllable. Note 2. — A verse consisting of a single rhythmic series is called Mono- colon ; of two, Dicolon ; of three, Tricolon. Note 3. — Two verses sometime unite and form a compound verse (746). 728. Caesura or Caesural Pause. — Most Latin verses are divided metrically into two nearly equal parts, each of which forms a rhythmic series. The pause, however slight, which separates these parts is called 1. A Caesura,! or a Caesural Pause, when it occurs within a foot (736). 2. A Diaeresis, when it occurs at the end of a foot (736, 2 and 3). Note 1. — Some verses consist of three parts thus separated by caesura or diaeresis. Note 2. — The term caesura is often made to include both the Caesura proper and the Diaeresis. The chief pause in the line is often termed the Principal Caesura or simply the Caesura. 729. The full metrical name of a verse consists of three parts. The first designates the characteristic foot, the second gives the number of feet or measures, and the third shows whether the verse is complete or incomplete. Thus 1. A Dactylic Hexameter Acatalectic is a dactylic verse of six feet (Hexameter), all of which are complete (Acatalectic). Thesis was the accented part of the foot, and the Arsis the unaccented part. The Romans, however, applied the terms to raising and lowering the voice in reading. Thus Arsis came to mean the accented part of the foot, and Thesis the unaccented part. But most scholars at present deem it advisable to restore the terms to their original meaning, though some still prefer to use them in the sense in which the Roman grammarians employed them. 1 Caesura (from caedo, to cut) means a cutting; it cuts or divides the foot and the verse into parts. 376 PROSODY 2. A Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic is a trochaic verse of two measures (Dimeter), the last of which is incomplete (Catalectic). Note 1. — A verse with a Dactyl as its characteristic foot is called Dac- tylic ; with a Trochee, Trochaic ; with an Iambus, Iambic ; etc. Note 2. — A verse consisting of one measure is called Monometer ; of two, Dimeter ; of three. Trimeter ; of four, Tetrameter ; of five. Pentameter ; of six. Hexameter. Note 3. — A verse which closes with a Complete measure is called Acata- leotic ; with an Incomplete measure, Catalectic ; with an excess of syllables, Hypermetrical. Note 4. — The term Acatalectic is often omitted, as a verse may be assumed to be complete unless the opposite is stated. Note 5. — A Catalectic verse is said to be Catalectic in syllabam, in disyl- labum, in trisyllabum, according as the incomplete foot has one, two, or three syllables. Note 6. — Verses are sometimes briefly designated by the number of feet or measures which they contain. Thus, Hexameter (verse of six measures) sometimes designates the Dactylic Hexameter Acatalectic, and Senarius (verse of six feet), the Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic. 3. In reading catalectic verses, a pause is introduced in place of the laclting syllable or syllables. 4. A Pause or Rest equal to a short syllable is marked /\ ; a Pause equal to a long syllable is marlced a- 730. Verses and stanzas are often designated by names derived from celebrated poets. Thus Alcaic is derived from Alcaeus; Archilochian, from Archiloohus; Sapphic, from Sappho; Glyconic from Grlycon, etc. Note. — Verses sometimes receive a name from the kind of subjects to which they are applied : as Heroic, applied to heroic subjects ; Paroemiac, to proverbs, etc. 731. A Stanza or Strophe is a con)bination of two or more verses into one metrical whole ; see 747, 1, 2, etc. Note. — A stanza of two lines or verses is called a Distich ; of three, a Tristich ; of four, a Tetrastich. 732. Rhythmical Reading. — In reading Latin verse care must be taken to preserve the words unbroken, to show the quantity of the sylla- bles, and to mark the poetical ictus. 733. Figures of Prosody. — The ancient poets sometimes allowed themselves, in the use of letters and syllables, certain liberties generally termed Figures of Prosody. GENERAL VIEW OF VERSIFICATION 377 1. Elision. — A final vowel, a final diphthong, or a final m with the preceding vowel, is generally elided i before a word beginning with a vowel or with h : MOnstr"™ horrend""" inform' ingens. Verg. Note 1. — Final e in the interrogative ne is sometimes dropped before a consonant : Pyrrhin' connubia servas ? Verg. Note 2. — In the early poets, final s before a consonant is often so far suppressed that it fails to make position with the following consonant: ex omnibus rebus. Note 3. — The elision of a final m with the preceding vowel is sometimes called Ecthlipsis or Synaloepha. Note 4. — The elision of a final vowel or diphthong is sometimes called Synaloepha, or, if at the end of a line, Synapheia. 2. Hiatus. — A final vowel or diphthong is sometimes retained before a word beginning with a vowel, especially in the thesis of a foot. It is regularly retained in the interjections 6, heu, and pro. Note. — In the arsis, and in early Latin even in the thesis, a final long vowel or diphthong is sometimes shortened before a short vowel instead of being elided ; see Verg. Aen. 3, 211 ; 6, 507. 3. Synizesis. — Two syllables are sometimes contracted into one : delude, iidem, usdem. Note 1. — In the different parts of desum, ee is generally pronounced as one syllable : deesse, deest, deerat, etc . ; so ei in the verb anteeo : an- teire, autelrem. Note 2. — I and u before vowels are sometimes used as consonants with the sound of y and -w. Thus ariete becomes aryete ; tenues becomes tenwes. Note 3. — In Plautus and Terence, Synizesis is used with great freedom. Note 4. — The contraction of two syllables into one is sometimes called Synaeresis. 4. Dialysis. — In poetry, two syllables usually contracted into one are sometimes kept distinct : aurai for aurae, soluendus for solvendus. Note 1. — Dialysis properly means the Resolution of one syllable into two, but the Latin poets seldom, if ever, actually make two syllables out of one. The examples generally explained by^dialysis are only ancient forms, used for effect or convenience. » Note 2. — Dialysis is sometimes called Diaeresis. 1 That is, partially suppressed. In reading, it should be lightly and indistinctly sounded, and blended with the following syllable, as in English poetry: " Th= eternal years of God are hers." 378 PROSODY 5. Diastole. — A syllable usually short is sometimes long, especially in the thesis of a foot : Frlamides for Priamides. 6. Systole. — A syllable usually long is sometimes short : tulerunt for tulerunt. 7. Syncope. — An entire foot is sometimes occupied by a single long syllable ; see 720, 3. Note. — In reading syncopated verses, the long syllable must of course be allowed to occupy the time of an entire foot. VARIETIES or VERSE Dactylic Hexameter 734. All Dactylic Verses consist of Dactyls and their metrical equivalents, Spondees. The ictus is on the first syllable of every foot. 735. The Dactylic Hexameter ' consists of six feet. The first four are either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth a Dactyl, and the sixth a Spondee (720, 5).^ The scheme is,^ Z. vTw I _d WW I j1 WW I ^ WW I Z. w w I _d w .* > Quadrupe- 1 dante pu- | trem soni- 1 tu quatit | ungula | campum. Terg. Arma vi- | rumque oa- I no Tro- | iae qui | primus ab | oris. Verg. Infan- | dum re- | gina iu- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. Verg. lUi^ in- I ter se- | se mag- | na vl | braoohia | tollunt. Verg.6 1 This is at once the most important and the most ancient of all the Greek and Roman meters. The most beautiful and finished Latin Hexameters are found in the works of Vergil and Ovid. '^ The Dactylic Hexameter in Latin is here treated as Acatalectic, as the Latin poets seem to have regarded the last foot as a genuine Spondee, thus making the measure complete. Some authorities, however, treat the verse as Gatalectic, and mark the last foot _d w A ■ 8 In this scheme tlie sign ' marks the ictus (724), and ww denotes that the original Dactyl, marked w w , may become by contraction a Spondee, marked , i.e. that a Spondee may be used for a Dactyl (723) . * Expressed in musical characters, this scale is as follows : J J^ I J J~3 I i d^ \ 4 IZ \ 4 JZ \ J J 's4\4d4\4dd\4SS The notation 4 m 4 means that, instead of the original measure 4 4 4, the equivalent 4 t may be used. 6 The final 3 of illl is elided ; see 733, 1. " With these lines of Vergil compare the following Hexameters from the Evan- geline of Longfellow : VARIETIES OF VERSE 379 1. The scheme of dactylic hexameters admits sixteen varieties, produced by varying the relative number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spondees. 2. Effect of Dactyls. — Dactyls produce a rapid movement, and are adapted to lively subjects. Spondees produce a slow movement, and are adapted to grave subjects. But the best effect is produced in successive lines by variety in the number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spondees. 3. Spondaic Line. — The Hexameter sometimes takes a Spondee in the fifth place. It is then called Spondaic, and generally has a Dactyl as its fourth foot : Cara de- | um subo- | I6s mag- | num lovis | incre- | mentum. Verg. Note. — In Vergil, spondaic lines are used much more sparingly than in the earlier poetB,^ and generally end in words of three or four syllables, as in incrementum above. 736. Caesura, or Caesural Pause. — The favorite caesural pause of the Hexameter is after the thesis or in the arsis of the third foot ^ : Arma- | ti ten- | dunt ; || it | clamor et | agmine | facto. Verg. Infan- | dum, re- | gina, || iu- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. Verg. Note. — In the first line the caesural pause, marked ||, is after tendunt, after the thesis of the third foot ; and in the second line, after regma, in the arsis of the third foot. A caesura after the thesis of a foot is termed a Mas- culine caesura, while a caesura in the middle of the arsis is termed a Feminine caesura.' 1. The Caesural Pause is sometimes in the fourth foot, and then an addi- tional pause is often introduced in the second : Credide- | rim ; || ver | illud e- | rat, || ver | magnus Hr- 1 gebat. Verg. 2. Bucolic Diaeresis. — A pause called the Bucolic Diaeresis, because origi- nally used in the pastoral poetry of the Greeks, sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot : This is the forest primeval ; but where are the hearts that beneath it Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman ? 1 A single poem of Catullus, about half as long as a book of the Aeneid, con- tains more spondaic lines than all the works of Vergil. 2 That is, the first rhythmic series ends at this point. This pause is always at the end of a word, and may be so very slight as in most eases not to interfere with the sense, even if no mark of punctuation is required ; but the best verses are so constructed that the caesural pause coincides with a pause in the sense. s The Masculine Caesura is also called the Strong or the Syllabic Caesura; the Feminine, the Weak or the Trochaic Caesura. Caesuras are often named from the place which they occupy in the line. Thus a caesura after the thesis of the second foot is called Trihemimeral ; after the thesis of the third, Penthemimeral ; after the thesis of the fourth, Hephthemimeral. 380 PROSODY Ingen- 1 tern cae- 1 lo soni- ] turn dedit ; || inde se- I cutus. Verg. Note. — The Bucolic Diaeresis, or Caesurn, though often employed by Juvenal, was in general avoided by the best Latin poets, even in treating pastoral subjects. Vergil, even in his Bucolics, uses it very sparingly. 3. A diaeresis at the end of the third foot vfithout any proper oaesural pause is regarded as a blemish in the verse : Pulveru- I lentus e- | quis f urit ; || omnes | arma re- | quirunt. Verg. 4. The ending of a vrord within a foot always produces a caesura. A line may therefore have several caesuras, but generally only one of these is marked by any perceptible pause : Arma vi- 1 rumque ca- 1 no, || Tro- 1 iae qui | primus ab | Oris. Verg. Note. — Here there is a caesura in every foot except the last, but only one of these — that after cano, in the third foot — has the caesural pause. 5. The caesura, with or without the pause, is an important feature in every hexameter. A line without it is prosaic in the extreme ; ROmae | moenia | terruit 1 impiger | Hannibal | armis. Enn. Note 1. — The Penthemimeral caesura has great power to impart melody to the verse, but the best effect is produced when it is aided by other caesu- ras, as in 4 above. Note 2. — A happy effect is often produced by combining the Hephthe- mimeral caesura with the Trihemimeral : Inde to- I ro || pater | Aene- | as || sic | orsus ab | alto. Verg. 737. The ictus often fails upon unaccented syllables, especially in the third foot, but in the fifth and sixth feet it generally falls upon accented syllables; see examples under 735. 738. The last word of the hexameter is generally either a dissyllable or a trisyllable. Note 1. — Two monosyllables at the end of a line are not particularly objectionable, and sometimes even produce a happy effect : Praecipi- | tant cu- | rae, || tur- 1 bataque | funere | mens est. Verg. Note 2. — In Vergil, twenty-one lines, apparently • hypermetrical (729, note 3), are supposed to elide a iinal vowel or a final em or tun before the initial vowel of the next line ; see Aen. 1, 332; Geor. 1, 295. VARIETIES OF VERSE 381 Other Dactylic Verses 739. Dactylic Pentameter.' — The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two Dactylic Trimeters — the first syncopated or catalectic, the second cata- lectic — separated by a diaeresis. The Spondee may take the place of the Dactyl in the first part, but not in the second : ^OT> I j1 WW 1 j1 A II jIww I j1 WW I 6 A, or .^C7T:5|j1C7w|i_j1|^ww|^ww|6a'' Admoni- | tu coe- | pi || fortior | esse tu- 1 o. Ovid. 1. Elegiac Distich. — The Elegiac Distich consists of the Hexameter followed by the Pentameter : Semise- 1 pulta vi- | rum || cur- | vis feri- | untur a- I ratris Ossa, ru- | ino- j sas ]| occulit j herba do- | mils. Ovid. Note. — Elegiac composition should be characterized by grace and ele- gance. Both members of the distich should be constructed in accordance with the most rigid rules of meter, and" the sense should be complete at the end of the couplet. Ovid and TibuUus furnish us the best specimens of this style of composition. 2. The Dactylic Tetrameter is identical' with the last four feet of the hexameter : Ibimus I o soci- 1 i, comi- | tesque. Hor. Note. — In compound verses, as in the Greater Archilochian, the tetram- eter in composition with other meters has a Dactyl in the fourth place ; see 746, 10. 3. The Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic, also known as the Lesser Archilo- chian, is identical with the second half of the dactylic pentameter : Arbori- 1 busque co- | mae. Hor. 1 The name Pentameter is founded on the ancient division ot the line into five ■ feet; the first and second being Dactyls or Spondees, the third a Spondee, the fourth and fifth Anapaests. 2 In musical characters : ' ' ' ' W 4 d 4\4 d 4\<^ 4 4 4\4 4 4\ 4 1, 4 4 4\4 4 • 4 1 Thus in reading Pentameters, a pause may be introduced after the long syllable in the third foot, or that foot may be lengthened so as to fill the measure ; see 729, 3. 382 PROSODY Trochaic Verse 740. The Trochaic Dipody, the unit of measure in trochaic verse, consists of two trochees, the second of which is sometimes irrational (720, 4), i.e. it sometimes has the form of a Spondee with the time of a Trochee. The first foot has a heavier ictus than the second : ^ w ^ S or J ^^ J / Note 1. — By the ordinary law of equivalents a Tribrach 6 w w may take the place of the Trochee ^ w, and an apparent Anapaest •0 \j> the place of the Irrational Trochee Z.>.' In proper names a cyclic Dactyl ~\j kj or Z- WW ('i'23, 3) may occur in either foot. Note 2. — In Dactylic verse the unit of measure is a foot, but in Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses it Is a Dipody, or pair of feet. Note 3. — A syllable called Anacrusis {upward beat) is sometimes pre- fixed to a trochaic verse. It is separated from the following measure by the mark • . 741. The Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic consists of two Trochaic Dipo- dies with the last foot incomplete. In Horace it admits no equivalents, and has the following scheme : ji w _ w 1 Z. w w Aula divi- 1 tern manet. Hor, Note. — A Trochaic Tripody occurs in the Greater Archilochian ; see 746, 10. 1. The Alcaic Enneasyllabic verse which forms the third line in the Alcaic stanza is a Trochaic Dimeter with Anacrusis : Pu- ; er quis ex au- 1 la capillls. Hor. 2. The Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic, or Septenarius, consists of four Trochaic Dipodies with the last toot incomplete. There is a diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot, and in the best poets the incomplete dipody admits no equivalents: Cras amet qui | numqu"™ amavit || quiqu^ amavit | eras amet. Pervig. Yen. 1 Thus in the second foot of a trochaic dipody the poet may use a Trochee, a Tribrach, a Spondee, or an Anapaest; but the Spondee and the Anapaest are pronounced in the same time, approximately, as the Trochee or the Tribrach. * Only the leading ictns of each dipody is here marked. VARIETIES OF VERSE 383 Note 1. — This is simply the union of two Trochaic Dimeters, the first aoatalectic and tlie second catalectic, separated by diaeresis.^ Note 2. — In Latin this verse is used chiefly in comedy, and accordingly admits great license in the use of feet. In Plautus and Terence the tribrach 6 w w is admitted in any foot except the last, and the irrational trochee Z. >, cyclic dactyl ~\j ^ or /. ^^, and the apparent anapaest 6 w > may occur in any foot except the last two. Plautus admits the proceleus- matic 6 vj v/w in the first foot. Later writers, as Varro, Seneca, and the author of Pervigilium Veneris, conform much more strictly to the normal scheme. 3. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic, or Octonarius, consists of four complete Trochaic Dipodies, with a diaeresis at the end of the second dipody : Ipse summis | saxis fixus || asperis g- | vlsoeratus. Enn. Note. — This verse in Latin is used chiefly in the early comedy, where it admits great license in the use of feet. In Plautus and Terence the tri- brach, irrational trochee, cyclic dactyl, and apparent anapaest may occur in any foot except the last, and any of them, except the cyclic dactyl, may occur in the last foot. Iambic Verse 742. The Iambic Dipody, the measure of Iambic verse, consists of two iambi, the first of which has a heavier ictus than the second and is sometimes irrational (720, 4) : <>^kjZ. or J** J / J 743. 1. The Iambic Trimeter, also called Senarius, consists of three Iambic Dipodies. The caesura is usually in the third foot, but may be in. the fourth : ^ , i > , i > ^ a Quid obsera- | tis || auribus | fundis preces ? Hor. Has inter epu- | las || ut iuvat | pastas oves. Hor.s 1 Compare the corresponding English measure, in which the two parts appear as separate lines: y^^^^, ^f ^^^^^ ^^^ I ^,j. remind us We' can make our | lives' sublime, And', departing, | leave' behind us Foot'prints on the | sands' of time. 2 This same scheme, divided thus, 5:Z.O_5l ^kj 5|Z.w Ai represents Trochaic Trimeter Catalectic with Anacrusis Thus all iambic verses may be treated as trochaic verses with Anacrusis. 8 Compare the English Alexandrine, the last line of the Spenserian stanza: When Phoe'bns lifts I his head' out of I the win'ter's wave. 384 PROSODY Note 1. — In Proper Names a Cyclic Anapaest is admissible in any foot except the last, but must be in a single word. Note 2. — In Horace tlje only feet freely admitted are the lambuS and the Spondee; their equivalents, the tribrach, the dactyl, and the anapaest, are used very sparingly. Note 3. — In Comedy great liberty is taken, and the tribrach w w wi irrational iambus >^, apparent dactyl > 6 w, cyclic anapaest <^ ^j— or WW Z., and proceleusmatio ^w w w are admitted in any foot except the last. Note i, — The Choliambus is a variety of Iambic Trimeter vfith a Tro- chee in the sixth foot ' : Miser Catul- 1 le desinas | ineptire. Catul. 2. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectie occurs in Horace with the following scheme : Vocatus at- 1 que non voca- | tus audit. Hor. Note. — The Dactyl and the Anapaest are not admissible; the Tribrach occurs only in the second foot. 3. The Iambic Dimeter consists of two Iambic Dipodies : 5^w I 6Z.WW Queruntur in | silvis aves. Hor. Ast ego viois- | sim risers. Hor. Note 1. — Horace admits the Dactyl only in the first foot, the Tribrach only in the second, the Anapaest not at all. Note 2. — The Iambic Dimeter is sometimes catalectie. 4. The Iambic Tetrameter consists of four Iambic Dipodies. It belongs chiefly to comedy : Quantum intellex- 1 i modo senis 1| sententiam | d§ nQptiis. Ter. Note 1. — The Iambic Tetrameter is sometimes catalectie: Quot commodas | res attuli ? || quot autem ade- | mi cflras. Ter. Note 2. — Plautus and Terence admit the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter (743, note 3). 1 Choliambus, or Scazon, means lame or limping Iambus, and is ao called from its limping movement. It is also explained as a Trochaic Trimeter Acatalectio with Anacrusis, and with syncope (733, 7) in the fifth foot. The example here given may be represented thus : w:Z.w_wlZ.O \j \ \£ O. VARIETIES OF VERSE 385 Ionic Verse 744. The Ionic Verse in Horace consists entii'ely of Lesser Ionics. It may be either Trimeter or Dimeter : \J \J ^ \ \J \J ^ |ww_^ \J \J ~ I ww^ Neque pugno | neque segni | pede victus ; Catus \Afim. \ per apertum. Hor. Note 1. — In this verse the last syllable is not common, but is often long only by position. Thus ua in victus is long before o in catus. Note 2. — The Ionic Tetrameter Catalectic, also called Sotadean Verse, occurs chiefly In comedy. It consists in general of Greater Ionics, but in Martial it has a Ditrochee as the third foot : Has cum gemi- | na compede { dedicat ca- 1 tenas. Mart. Logaoedic Verse 745. Logaoedic ' Verse is a special variety of Trochaic Verse. The Ii'rational Trochee /. >, the Cyclic Dactyl -^ v../ or _/ ^^^, and the Synco- pated Trochee i_ (733,7) are freely admitted. It has an apparently light ictus.'' The following varieties of Logaoedic verses appear in Horace : 1. The Adonic : A^v^l^w or J"; J"! J / Montis i- | mago. Hur Note. — Some scholars regard the Adonic as atripody with the following scheme : — w w | 1£ | ji A • 2. The Aristophanic or the First Pherecratic ' : A^ w I Z w I Z ^ or J^ /I J ^''i J / Cur neque | mill- 1 taris. Hor. 1 From \6yos, prose, and ooi5^, song, applied to verses which resemble prose. 2 The free use of long syllables in the Arsis causes the poetical ictus on the Thesis to appear less prominent 8 Pherecratic, Glyconic, and Asclepiadean verses may be explained as Chori- Pherecratic ^i^wji-|w-i.|wA First Glyconic Z.wwZ|--'.^l>-'i. Asclepiadean Z>|Zww-^|j^v-''-'-i|>-'^ BAttK. LAT. GRAM. — 26 386 PROSODY Note 1. — The scheme of the Aristophanic is sometimes written thus: ^ w I ^ w I |/ I ^ A. Note 2. — Pherecratic is the technical term applied to the regular Logaoe- dic Tripody. It is called the First or Second Pherecratic, according as its Dactyl occupies the first or the second place in the verse. In each form it may be Acataleotic or Catalectic : First. -^ w I ^ w I Z. w or catalectic —\j \j \ ^^ \ C_/\ Second. ^ > | — ^ w | Z. o or catalectic Z. > | —\j <-/ I .^ A In Logaoedic verse the term Basis or Base, marked x , is sometimes applied to the foot or feet which precede the Cyclic Dactyl. Thus, in the Second Pherecratic, the first foot > is the base. 3. The Second Glyconic ^ Catalectic : ^>|A.w|^w|6A or J,^| ^ri/lj^^lj'' Donee | gratus e- | ram ti- | bi. Hor. Note 1. — Glyconic is the technical term applied to the regular Logaoedic Tetrapody. It is called the First, Second, or Third Glyconic, according as its dactyl occupies the first, second, or third place in the verse. In each form it may be either acataleotic or catalectic. Note 2. — -The Second Glyconic sometimes has Syncope in the tliird foot. 4. The Lesser Asclepiadeaii ^ consists of a syncopated Second Phere- cratic and a catalectic First Pherecratic : ^> I A^w I L_||4^v./,IZw I 6 A Maeoe- | nas ata | vis |! edite | regi- | bus. Hor. 5. The Greater Asclepiadean consists of a syncopated Second Phere- cratic, a syncopated Adonic, and a catalectic First Pherecratic : / > I 4vw I L_ II <.w I 1_ I A.W I ./ w I 6 A Seu plu- I res hie- | mes, || seu tribu- | it || luppiter | ulti- | mam. Hor. 6. The Lesser Sapphic is a logaoedic pentapody with the dactyl in the third foot : , , jLkj I jL> I A/w I Zw I Zw Namque | mS sil- | va lupus | in Sa- | bina. Hor. 7. The Gi'eater Sapphic consists of two Glyconics, — a Third and a catalectic First, — with Syncope in each : Zw|Z>|A.w|l_||A..w|Zw|i_|:^A Inter | aequa^ | les equi- | tat, || Gallica | nee lu- | pa^ | tis. Hor. I See p. 385, footnote 3. VARIETIES OF VERSE 387 8. The Lesser Alcaic is a logaoedic Tetrapody with dactyls in the first two feet : ^ ^ — w \j \ — w w 1 _£, w I -il o Purpure- | o vari- | us co- 1 lore. Hor. 9. The Greater Alcaic is a catalectic logaoedic Pentapody with ana- crusis and with the dactyl in the third foot : Vi- • dSs ut I alta ] stet nive | candi- | dum. Hor. 10. The Greater Archilochian consists of a Dactylic Tetrameter (739, 2) followed by a Trochaic Tripody. The first three feet are either dactyls or spondees ; the fourth, a dactyl ; and the last three, trochees : — Ky\j I — y^TO I — UTj ] ^ \yKJ \\ — \j \ ^kj \ ^\j Vitae I summa bre- | vis spem | nos vetat, || inco- | hare | longam. Hor. Note 1. — This verse may be explained either as Logaoedic or as Com- pound. With the first explanation, the Dactyls are cyclic and the Spondees have irrational time ; with the second explanation, the first member of the verse has the Dactyl as its characteristic foot aiad the second member the Trochee ; see 727, note 3. Note 2. — The Phalaecean, not found in Horace, is a Logaoedic Pentap- ody, with the dactyl in the second foot : 6d 1 Ay^ I ^w I ^^ I Zw Non est | vivere, | sed va- | lere | vita. Mart. Note 3. — The Second Priapean, not found in Horace, consists of a syn- copated Second Glyconic and a catalectic Second with Syncope : Quercus | arida | rusti- | ca || confor- 1 mata se | cu- | rl. Catul. Compound Meters 746. The following compound meters occur in Horace : 1. The lambelegus consists of an Iambic Dimeter and a catalectic Dactylic Trimeter : Eeducet in | sedem vice. |{ Nunc et A- 1 chaemeni- | o. Kote. ^ This verse occurs only in the thirteenth epode of Horace, where it is sometimes treated as two verses. 388 PROSODY ;2. The Elegiambus consists of a catalectic Dactylic Trimeter and an Iambic Dimeter : Scribere version- | los, || amore per- | cussum gravi. NoTE..^This verse occurs only in the eleventh epode of Horace, where it is sometimes treated as two verses. VERSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL LATIN POETS 747. Vergil and Juvenal use the Dactylic Hexameter ; Ovid, the Hexameter in his Metamorphoses, and the Elegiac Distich in his Epis- tles and other works ; Horace, the Hexameter in his Epistles and Satires, and a variety of lyric meters in his Odes and Epodes, as follows : 1. Alcaic Stanza, Tetrastich. — First and second lines, Greater Alcaics (745, 9) ; third, Trochaic Dimeter with Anacrusis (741, 1) ; fourth. Lesser Alcaic (745, 8). Found in thirty-seven Odes: L 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; IL 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; IIL 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29 ; IV. 4, 9, 14, 15. 2. Sapphic Stanza, Tetrastich. — The first three lines, Lesser Sapphics (745, 6); the fourth, Adonic (745, 1). Found in twenty-six Odes : I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38 ; 11. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16 ; III. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; IV. 2, 6, 11 ; and in Secular Hymn. Note. — The last foot of the third line is generally a spondee. 3. Greater Sapphic Stanza, Distich. — First line. First Glyconic, Cata- lectic with Syncope in the third foot (733, 7); second line, Greater Sapphic (745, 7). Found in Ode I. 8. 4. First Asclepiadean Stanza, Distich. — First line, Second Glyconic Catalectic (745, 3) ; second. Lesser Asclepiadean (745, 4). Found in twelve Odes : I. 3, 13, 19, 36 ; IIL 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; IV. 1, 3. 5. Second Asclepiadean Stanza, Tetrastich. — The first three lines, Lesser Asclepiadeans (745, 4) ; the fourtli, Second Glyconic Catalectic (745, 3). Found in nine Odes: I. 6, 15, 24, 33; II. 12; III. 10, 16; IV. 5, 12. 6. Third Asclepiadean Stanza, Tetrastich. — The first two lines, Lesser Asclepiadeans (745, 4) ; the third. Second Glyconic Catalectic with Syn- cope in the third foot (745, 3, note 2) ; the fourth. Second Glyconic Cata- lectic (745, 3). Found in seven Odes : I. 5, 14, 21, 23 ; III. 7, 13 ; IV. 13. 7. The Lesser Asclepiadean Meter is found in three Odes : I. 1 ; III. 30 ; IV. 8. VERSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL LATIN POETS ' 389 8. The Greater Asolepiadeaii Meter is found in three Odes : I. 11, 18; IV. 10. 9. Alcmanian Stanza, Distich. — First line. Dactylic Hexameter (735); second, Dactylic Tetrameter (739, 2). Found in Odes: I. 7, 28 ; and in Epode 12. 10. First Archilochian Stanza, Distich. — First line. Dactylic Hexam- eter; second. Lesser Archilochian (739, 3). Found in Ode IV^. 7. 11. Second Archilochian Stanza, Distich. — First line. Hexameter; second, lambelsgus (746, 1). Found in Epode 13. 12. Third Archilochian Stanza, Distich. — First line, Iambic Trimeter; second, Elegiambus (746, 2). Found in Epode 11. 13. Fourth Archilochian Stanza, Distich. — First line, Greater Archilo- chian (745, 10); second. Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (743, 2). Found in Ode I. 4. Note. — The second line is sometimes read with syncope, as follows : 6 i — w 6| w w|l_|;=!;A 14. Trochaic Stanza, Distich. — First line, Trochaic Dimeter Cata- lectic (741) ; second, Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (743, 2). Found in Ode II. 18. 15. Iambic Stanza, Distich. — First line. Iambic Trimeter; second. Iambic Dimeter. Found in the first ten Epodes. 16. First Pythiambic Stanza, Distich. — First line. Dactylic Hexam- eter; second, Iambic Dimeter (743, 3). Found in Epodes 14 and 15. 17. Second Pythiambic Stanza, Distich. — First line, Dactylic Hexam- eter; second, Iambic Trimeter. Found in Epode 16. 18. Iambic Trimeter is found in Epode 17. 19. The Ionic Stanza is found in Ode III. 12. It consists of ten Lesser Ionic feet, variously arranged by editors. It is perhaps best treated as two Dimeters followed by two Trimeters. Early Latin Rhythms 748. 1. Certain religious formulas, caimina, which have been preserved among the earliest remains of the Latin language, are believed to show a rhythmical structure mainly accentual. Each rhythmic series appeare to contain four theses. An arsis is often suppressed, and in that case a thesis is protracted to compensate for the omission. An example of these carmina is'Cato, De Re Riistica, 132: luppit^r Dapali's | qudd tibl fieri | opdrtet in ddmo | familia mea | culignam vini dipi, etc. Note. — These carmina are chiefly prayers, imprecations, and sacred son^. 390 PROSODY Saturnian Verse 2. The Saturnian verse is employed in some of the earliest remains of Latin literature, but its nature is still in dispute. According to one theory- it is purely accentual, with trochaic rhythm. The verse is divided into two halves by a diaeresis. The first half verse has three theses ; the second usually three, but sometimes only two, and in the latter case it is usually preceded by an anacrusis : Ddbunt indium Metelli || Naevio poltae. Prim" incedit Cereris || Proserpina piier. Naevius. Note 1. — In the early specimens of this meter hiatus is common, but in the later literary Saturaians it occurs cliiefiy at the diaeresis. Note 2. — There is usually one unaccented syllable between every two ac- cented syllables, but in the literary Saturnians there are regularly two unac- cented syllables between the second and third theses. 3. According to the quantitative theory held by some scholars, the Saturnian is a trochaic verse of six feet, with anacrusis. Each thesis may be a long syllable or two §horts ; each arsis may be a long syllable, two shorts, or a single short. A short final syllable is often lengthened under the ictus, and an arsis is frequently suppressed : Dabiint malum Metelli || Xa^vio poltae. Noctu Troiad exibant || cdpitibus opdrtis ; Naeviaa. Note 1. — The principal pause is usually after the fourth arsis, but sometimes after the third thesis. Hiatus is common, but, in strictly constructed Satarnians, occurs chiefly at the end of the first rhythmic series. Note 2. — There are many modified forms of both the accentual and quanti- tative theories of the Saturnian, APPENDIX HIDDEN QUANTITY 749. On the natural quantity ^ of vowels before two consonants or a double oonsonajit, observe I. That vowels are long before ns, nf, gn,^ and before the inceptive endings sco and scor : Conscius, consul, iuscribo, insula, amans, audigns ; confero, conficio, in- fellx, Infero ; benignus, magnus, magna, regnum ; gelasco, floresco, silescS, concupiseo, scisco ; adiplscor. 1 It is often difficult, and sometimes absolutely impossible, to determine the natural quantity of vowels before two consonants, but the subject has of late received special attention from ortboepists. An attempt has been made in this article to collect the most important results of these labors. The chief sources of information upon this subject are (1) ancient inscriptions, (2) Greek transcriptions of Latin words, (3) the testimony of ancient grammarians, (4) the modern lan- guages, (5) the comic poets, and (6) etymology. Valuable information on the subject of hidden quantity wiU be found in the following works : Stolz, Fr., Lautlehre und Stammbildungslehre, historische Grammatik der latei- nischeu Sprache, Erste Band. Leipzig, 1895. BRtJGMA*fN, K., Grundriss der vergleiehenden Grammatik. Strassburg, 1888-93. OsTHOFF, H., Zur Geschichte des Perfects im Indogermanischen. Strassburg, 1884. Marx, A., Ansspraehe der lateinischen Vokale in positionslangen Silben. 2te Auflage, Berlin, 1889. Skelmann, E., Die Ansspraehe des Latein. Heilbronu, 1885. Christiansen, J., De Apicibus et I longis. Husumensen, 1889. RoEKSTER, W., Bestimmung der lateinischen Quantitat aus dem Romanischen. Bheinisches Museum, XXXIII. Frankfurt am Main. Grober, G., Vulgarlateinische Substrate romanischer Worter, AreUSv fiir la- teinische Lexikographie und Grammatik ; I- VI. Leipzig. EoRTiNG, G., Lateiuisch-romanisches Worterbuch. Paderborn, 1891. LnJBSAT, W. M., The Latin Language. Oxford, 1894. *On the direct testimony of Priscian, confirmed by inscriptions, all vowels are feiig before the endings gnus, gna, gnum ; and in view of the very large num- ber of words, simple and compound, primitive and derivative, which have these 391 392 APPENDIX Note 1. — Some scholars think that vowels are also long before gm, as they are known to be long in segmen, segmentum, pigmentum, etc. Note 2. — Some think that vowels before aco, scor are long only when they represent long vowels in the primitives. II. That all vowels which represent diphthongs or are the result of contraction are long : Existimo, amasso, audlssem, malle, mallem, nolle, nollem, uUus, niillus ; horsum (*ho-vorsum), istorsum (*isto-vorsum), quorsum (*quo-vorsiim) , riir- sus (*re-vorsus) , sursum (*sub-vorsum). III. That the long vowels of primitives are retained in derivatives : Cras-tinus, fas-tus, flos-oulus, ias-tus, ius-titia, matri-monium, os-,culum, palus-ter, ras-trum, ros-trum, rQs-ticns. IV. That compounds retain the long vowels of their merabei's : De-duxi, de-reotus, ex-actus, di-stinguo, fratri-cida, matri-clda, ven-do, introrsum (*intro-vorsum), prorsus, prorsum (*pro-vorsus, *pro-vorsum). V. That vowels are long in the ending of the Nominative singular of nouns and adjectives which increase long in the Genitive : Lex, lux, pax, plebs, rex, vox. VI. In verbs the long stem vowel of the Present is retained in all the principal parts : ardeo ardere arsi arsum como comere compsi comptum figs figere fixl fixum nubo niibere nupsi nuptum pasoo pascere pavl pastum scribo sorlbere scrlpsi scrlptum. siimo sumere sumpsi sumptum vivo vivere vixl victum 1. Note the ) Eollowing exceptions : dlc5 dicere dixi dictum duco ducere duxi ductum cedo cedere cessi ceasum uro urere ussi ustum endings, and also in view of the fact that still other words are known to have long vowels before gn, I concur in the view of those eminent orthoepists who think it safe to treat all vowels as long before gn. The practical advantage of uniformity in the treatment of vowels in this situation is too obvious to need remark. HIDDEN QUANTITY 393 VII. In the following verbs the short stem vowel of the Present is lengthened in the Perfect and in the Supine or Perfect Participle : ago agere egl actum cingO oingere cinxi cinctum de-linquo delinquere deliqui delictum i di-stinguo distinguere dlstinxl distinctum^ emo emere emi emptum fingo fingere finxl fictum frango frangere fregi fractum fruor frul fructus sum fungor fungi functus sum iunge iungere iunxi iunctum lego legere leg! lectum neglego neglegere neglexl neglectum pingO pingere pinxi pictum rego regere rexi rectum sancio sancire sanxl sanctum struo struere struxi structum tego tegere text tectum tingo, tinguo tingere tlnxi tinctum traho trahere traxi tractum UDgO ungere unxl unotum 1. Note the long vowel in the Supine or Perfect Participle of the fol- lowing verbs : pango pangere pepigi pactum pungo pungere pupugi punctum tango tangere tetigl tactum VIII. Long vowels, with hidden quantity are found in the following words and in their derivatives: A Arginussae Bovillae ciccus crlbrum actutum athla bovillus Clncius crispus Africus athletes bustum clatri Crispinus Alcestis atrium Buthrotum Clytemnestra cruata Alecto axilla Cnossus crustum aliptes C coniuDx cucuUus Amazon B candelabrum c5nti6 custos anguilla bardus catella corolla Aquillius Bedriaeum catillus crabro D aratrum bestia cetra crastinus deliibrum ardelio bilibris chirurgus Cressa deunx ardeo bimestris cicatrix Cressius dextans 1 So also re-liuauo. a So ex-stlnguo and re -stingfuo. 394 APPENDIX Diespiter infestus misceO Permessus rostrum discribo informis Mostellaria Phoenissa Eoxane dispicio inlustris miicro pictor ructo distinguo instillo miisculus pigmentum Tusticus dJsto instinctus (lis) muscus pistor distringo involiicrum miistela pistrinum S dodrans lolcus plebs Sarsina dolabra E iuglans iurgo N Narnia plectrum plostellum sceptrum segmen ilistus narro PoUio segmentum ebrlus lustinus nasturtium Polymestor semestris euormis iQxta nefastus posca semiincia epidictious nondum pragmaticus septunx esoa fsculentus L labrum(6asin) lamua lardum nongenti nonne Praxiteles prendo seseenti Sesostris Esqailiae Etruscus Norba norma primordium princeps sesqui sestertius exordium Lars niillus priscus Sestius exostra Larva nundinae pristinus Sestos F faviUa festus firm us flabrum forma fructus (us) frustra frustum furtum fustis latrina nuntio procinctus(iis) simulacrum latro lavabrum lavaerum niintius nflptiae niisquam procrastino Procriistes profestus sinciput sistrum sSbrius lemna lemaiscus niitrio nutrix promiscuus promptus (lis) Socrates solstitium Lemnos lentiscus libra lictor lubricus liictus (lis) O Oenotria oUa orca orchestra prosperus prostibulum Piiblicola piJblicus Publius pulviUus sospes Sospita stilla structor sublustris suillus G lustrum (expi- ordior piirgo piistnla siimptus (us) geographia ation) ordo surculus georgicus liistrD orno Q Sfltrium glossarium liixus (lis) oscen glossema liixuria oscito quartus T gryps Lyciirgus osculum quinctilis tactus (lis) osculor quinciinx Tartessus H M Ostia quinquatriis taxillus Herculaneum Manlius ostium quinque Tecmessa hibiscum Marcellus oyillns quindecira tectum hillae Marcus Oxus quintus Telmessus hircus Mars Quintilianus Temnos hirsiitus Marsi P theatrum hirtus Martialis palimpsestas E Thressa Hispellum maxilla paluster rastrum tracts hornus maxim us pastillus reapse tristis Hymi'ttus meroennarius pastor rectus MetrodOrus pastus (us) rixa U, I metropolis paxillus rixor QUus ientaculum mille pegrna roscidus iilna lUyria milvus periclitot Resoius uncia, FIGURES OF SPEECH 395 unctio ustrina vasto vend5 victus (us) undecim usurpd vastus veruus villa urtica Vectis vestibulum ^^ll^m uspiam V vegrandis vestigium viiiiiemia fisquam vallum Volabrum Vestim ■Mpsanius usque vasculum Veuatrum vexillum \iseiis IX. That vowels are generally short before nt and nd : Amant, amantis, monent, monentis, priidentis, prudentia, araandus, mon- endus, regendus. Note 1. — A few exceptions will be found in the list given above; see VIII. Note 2. — Greek words also furnish a few exceptions. X. That all vowels are to be treated as short unless there are good reasons for believing them to be long. FIGURES OF SPEECH 750. The principal Figures of Etymology are 1. Aphaeresis, the taking of one or more lettei-s from the beginning of a word. 2. Syncope, the taking of one or more letters from the middle of a word. 3. Apocope, the taking of one or more letters from the end of a word. 4. Epenthesis, the insertion of one or more letters in a word. 5. Metathesis, the transposition of letters. 6. See also Figures of Prosody, 733. 751. The principal Figures of Syntax are 1. Ellipsis, the omission of one or more words of a sentence : Habitabat ad lovis (sc. templum), he dioelt near the temple of Jupiter; Liv. 1, 41. Note 1. — Aposiopesis is an ellipsis which for rhetorical effect leaves the sentence unfinished : Quos ego . . . sett motSs praestat componere fluctiis, lehom I . . . btU it is better to calm the troubled leaves ; v. i, 135. Note 2. — For Asyndeton, see 657, 6. 2. Brachylogy, a concise and abridged form of expression : Nostri Graecg nescivmt nee Graeci Latine, our people do iio< know Greek, and the Greeks (do) not (know) Latin; C. Tusc. 5, 40, lie. 396 APPENDIX Note. — Zeugma employs a word in two or more connections, though strictly applicable only in one : Duces pictasque exure carinas, slay the leaders and hum the painted ships; V. 7, 431. 3. Pleonasm is a full, redundant, or emphatic form of expression : Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent, there were two ways by which ways they might depart; Caes. l, 6. Note 1. — Hendiadys is the use of two nouns with a conjunction, instead of a noun with an adjective and a genitive : Qualem pateris libamus et auro (= pateris aureis), such as we offer from golden bowls; V. G. 2, 192. Note 2. —For Anaphora, see 666, 1. 4. Enallage is the substitution of one part of speech for another, ot of one grammatical form for another : Populus late rex ( = regnans) , a people of extensive sway (ruling exten- sively); V. 1, 21. Serus (sero) in caelum redeas, may you return late to heaven ; H. l, 2, 46. Note. — For Prolepsis or Anticipation, see 493 ; for Synesis, see 389 ; and for Attraction, see 396, 2 ; 399, 5. 5. Hyperbaton is a transposition of words or clauses : Viget et vivit animus, the soul is vigorous and alive; 0. Dlv. 1, 30, 63. Note. — For Chiasmus, see 666, 2. 752. Figures of Rhetoric comprise several varieties. The following are the most important : 1. A Simile is a direct comparison : Imago par levibus ventis volucrlque simillima somno, the image, like the swift winds, and very like a fleeting dream; V. 6, 701. 2. Metaphor is an implied comparison, and assigns to one object the appropriate name, epithet, or action of another : Bel pUblicae naufragium, the shipwreck of the republic ; 0. Bast. 6, 16. Note. — Allegory is an extended metaphor, or a series of metaphors. For an example, see Horace, Ode I., 14 : 6 navis . . . occupa portum, etc. 3. Metonymy is the use of one name for another naturally suggested by it: Furit Vuleanus (ignis), the fire (Vulcan) rages; X' 6, 662. , ROMAN LITERATURE 397 4. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part ; of the special for the general, or of the general for the special : Stalls male Ada carinis (navibus), a station unsafe for ships; v. 2, as. 5. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite : Quid ais, bone (male) custSs provinoiae, what sayest thou, good guardian of the province ? C. Ver. 6, 6, 12. 6.- Climax (ladder) is a steady ascent or advance in interest: Afrloano industria virtutem, virtus gloriam, glSria aemulos comparavit, industry procured excellence for Africanus, excellence glory, glory rivals; Ad Her. 4, 25. 7. Hyperbole is an exaggeration : "Ventis et fulminis ocior alls, sioifter than the winds and the wings of the lightning ; V. 5, 319. 8. Litotes denies something instead of affirming the opposite : Non ignara mall, not unacquainted (= far too well acquainted) viith mis- fortune ; V. 1, 63(1. . 9. Personification or Frosopopeia represents inanimate objects as living beings : Te patria odit ac metuit, your country hates and fears you; C. C. 1, 7, 17. 10. Apostrophe is an address to inanimate objects or to absent persons : "Vos, Albani tumuli, vos imploro, / implore you, ye Alban hills; C. Mil. 81. 11. Euphemism is the use of mild or agreeable language on unpleas- ant subjects : SI quid mihi humanitus accidisset, if anything common to the lot of man shotild befall me (i.e. if I should die); C. Ph. 1, 4, 10. 12. Oxymoron is an apparent contradiction : Absentes adsunt et egentes abundant, the absent are present and the needy have an abundance ; c. Am. 7, 23. ROMAN LITERATURE 753. The history of Roman literature begins with Livius .\ndronicus, a writer of plays. It embraces about eight centuries, fiom 250 B.C. to 550 A.D., and it may be conveniently divided into five periods. The following are a few representative writers of these periods : 398 APPENDIX 1. Early Latin 'Writers Plautus Enuius Cato 2. Writers of the Ciceronian Age Terence Cicero Caesar Lucretius Catullus Sallust 3. Writers of the Augustan Age Nepos Vergil Horace Ovid TibuUus Propertius 4. Writers of the Silver Age Livy Seneca Curtius Two Plinifs Quintilian Tacitus Suetonius Persius Lucan Juvenal 5. Late Latin Writers Martial TertuUian Lactantius Ausonius Claudian Eutropius Macrobius Bo6thius PrisGian ROMAN CALENDAR 754. The Julian Calendar of the Romans is the basis of our own, and is identical with it in the number of months in the year and in the num- ber of days in the months, but it has the following peculiarities ; I. The days are not numbered from the beginning of the month, as with us, but from three different points in the month : 1. From the Calends, the first of each month. 2. From the Nones, the fifth — but the seventh in March, May, July, and October. 3. From the Ides, the thirteenth — but the fifteenth in March, May, July, and October. II. From these three points the days are numbered, not forward, but backward. Note. — Hence, after the Ides of each month, the days are numbered from the Calends of the following month. III. In numbering backward from each of these points, the day before each is denoted by pridie Kalendas, Nonas, etc. ; the second before each by die tertio (not secundo) ante Kalendas, etc. ; the third, by die quarto, etc. ; and so on through the month. 1. In dates the name of the month is added in the form of an adjective in agreement with Kalendas, Nonas, etc. ; as die quarto ante Nonas lanua- ROMAN CAl&NDAR 3dd ri^B, often shortened to quarto ante Nonas Ian. or IV. ante Nonas Ian., or without ante, as IV. Nonas Ian., the second of January. 2. Ante diem is common, instead of die . . . ante ; as ante diem quar turn Nonas Ian. for die quarto ante Nonas Ian. 3. The expressions ante diem Kal., etc., pridie Kal., etc., are often used as indeclinable nouns with a preposition ; as ex ante diem V. Idiis Oct., from the 11th of Oct ; ad pridie Nonas Maias, till the 6th of . 755. Calendar foe the Year Days of the Month March, May, July, January, August, April, June mber ^'"""'y- Octoher December September, Nove 1 KALENDia.l Kalendis. Kalendis. Kalendis. 2 VI, Nonas.' IV. Nonas. IV. Not as. IV. Nonas. 3 V. III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Noniis. Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas. 5 III. NonTs. NoNia. NonTs. 6 Pridie Nonas. VIII. Idas. VIII. Id IS. VIII. Idas. 7 NONfS. VII. VII. VII. 8 VIII. Idas. ■ VI. VI. VI. 9 VII. V. V. V. 10 VI. IV. IV. IV. 11 V. III. _ " III. HI. 12 IV. Pridie Idiis. Pndie Idiis. Pridie Idiis. IS III. Idibus. iDIBtTS. iDIBUS. 14 PridiK idus. XIX. Kalend.^ XVIII. Kal( nd." XVI. Kalend.' 15 iDIBUB. XVIII. " XVII. XV. 16 XVII. Kalend.' XVII. " XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. 20 XIII. XIII. XII. X. 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI. XI. X. VIII. 23 X. X. IX. VII. 24 IX. IX. VIII. VI. 25 VIII. VIII. VII. V. (VI.) » 26 VII. " VII. VI. IV. (V.) 27 VI. VI. V. III. (IV.) 23 V. " V. IV. Prid. Kal. (III. Kal.) 29 IV. " IV. III. (Prid. Kal.) 80 III. III. Pridie Kalend . 81 Pridie Kalend. Pridie Kalend. 1 To the Calends, Nones, etc., the name of the month must of course be added. Before Nonas, Idiis, etc., ante is sometimes used and sometimes omitted (754, III. 1). 2 The Calends of the following month are of course meant ; the 16th of March, for instance, is XVII. Kalendis Apriles. 8 The inclosed forms apply to leap year. 400 APPENDIX Note 1. — The table will furnish the learner with the English expression for any Latin date, or the Latin expression for any English date. Note 2. — In leap year the 24th and the 25th of February are both called the sixth before the Calends of March, — VI. Kal. Mart. The days before the 24th are numbered as if the month contained only twenty-eight days, but the days after the 25th are numbered regularly for a month of twenty- nine days, — v., IV., III. Kal. Mart., and pridie Kal. Mart. 756. The Roman day, from sunrise to sunset, and the night, from sunset to sunrise, were each divided into twelve hours. 1. The night was also divided into four watches of three Roman hours each. 2. The hour, being uniformly one twelfth of the day or of the night, of course varied in length with the length of the day or night at different seasons of the year. ROMAN MONEY 757. The principal Roman coins were the as, of copper; the sester- tius, quinarius, denarius, of silver; and the aureus, of gold. Their value in the Augustan period may be approximately given as follows : As 2 cents Sestertius .... 4 " ', Quinarius 8 " DSnarius 16 " Aureus $5.00 1. The as contained originally a pound of copper, but it was dimin- ished, from time to time, till at last it contained only one twenty-fourth of a pound. 2. In all sums of money the common unit of computation was the sester- tius, also called nummus. Note 1. — The units, tens, and hundreds are denoted by sestertii with the proper cardinals ; viginti sestertii, 20 sesterces. Note 2. — One thousand sesterces are denoted by mille sestertii or mille sestertium. Note 3. — In sums less than 1 ,000,000 sesterces, the thousands are denoted either by milia sestertium (genitive plural) or by sestertia : duo milia sestertium or bina sestertia. Note 4. — In sums containing one or more millions of sesterces, sester- tium with the value of 100,000 sesterces is used with the proper numeral adverb, decies, vicies, etc.: decies sestertium, 1,000,000 (10 x 100,000) sesterces. ABBREVIATIONS IN CLASSICAL AUTHORS 401 758. Various abbreviations occur in classical authors : A. D. = ante diem. Aed. = aedilis. A. U. C. = ann5 urbis conditae. Cos. = consul. Coss. = cSnsules. D. = divus. T>. D. = dono dedit. Des. = dgslgnatus. D. M. = dils manibus. D. S. = de suo. D. S. P. P. = de sua pe- cunia posuit. Eq. Rom. = eques Ro- manus. F. = fdius. F. C. = faciendum cura^ vit. Id. = Idas. Imp. = imperator. K. (Kal.) = Kalendae. Leg. = legatus. Non. = Nonae. 0. M. = optimus maxi- mus. P. C. = patrgs conscrlptl. Pont. Max. = pontifex maximus. P. R. = populus Roma- nus. Pr. = praetor. Praef. = praefectus. Proc. = proconsul. Q. B. F. F. Q. S. = quod bonum, felix, faustura- que sit. Quir. = Quirltes. Resp. or R. P. = rSs pu- bllca. S. = senatus. S. C. = senatus consul- turn. S. I). P. = salutem dicit plurimam. S. P. Q. R. = senatus populusque Romanus. Tr. PI. = tribunus ple- bis. HARK. LAT. GRAM. -27 INDEX OF VERBS [References are to sections] ab-d5, dare, didi, ditum, 270, 1. ab-eo, ire, ii, Itum, 297, 5. ab-iciO, icere, ieci, iectum, 274. ab-igo, igere, egi, actum, 270, 2. ab-uuo, ere, nui, — , 275, 2. aboleo, ere, evi, abolitum, 260. abolesco, ere, olevi, — , 279. ab-ripio, ere, ui, reptum, see rapio. abs-con-do, dere, didi, ditum, see ab-do. ab-sum, ab-esse, Wui, a-futurus, 290, 1. ac-cendo, ere, cendi, eensum, 271, 3. ac-cido, ere, eidi, — , see cado. ac-ciDo, — like con-cino. ac-cipio, cipere, cepi, ceptum, 274. ac-cumbo, ere, cubui, cubitum, 272. acuo, ere, ui, — , 275, 2. ad-dd, dere, didi, ditum, see ab-do. ad-fari, 300, 3, 1. ad-fero, ferre, at-tuli, al-latnm, 294, 2. ad-fligo, ere, flixi, flictum, 2tiB. ad-hibeo, ere, ui, itum, 261. ad-imo, ere, emi, emptum, 270, 2. ad-ipiseor, ipisci, eptus sum, 283. ad-olesco, ere, olevi, ultum, 279, 1. ad-orior, oriri, ortus sum, 289. ad-sto, a-sto, stare, stiti, — , 259, ■^. ad-sum, esse, fui, — , 290, 1. ad-veuio, ire, veni, ventum, 287, 2. ag-gredior, like in-gredior. a-gnosco, like c8-gnosc5. ag5, ore, egi, actum, 270, 2. Bio, def., 300. algeo, ere, alsi, — , 263. al-licio, ere, lexi, Iectum, 225, 2; 274, 1. alo, ere, alui, alitum, altum, 273. amb-io, ire, ivi, itum, 297, 7. amicio, ire, ui, tum, 285. amO, 206. amplector, i, amplexus sum, 282. ango, ere, — , 273, 2. aperio, ire, ui, tum, 285. apiscor, apisci, — , 283. ap-pareo, ere, ui, iturns, see pareo. ap-pelo, ere, ivi, itum, see peto. ap-plico, are, avi, ui, atum, itum, 257, 2. ap-pono, ere, posui, positum, see pons. arceo, ere, arcui, 261, 1. arcesso, ere, ivi, itum, 276. ardeo, ere, ausi, arsum, 2(;3. ardesco, ere, arsi, — , 279. areo, ere, arui, — , 261, 1. aresco, ere, arui, — , 279. argno, ere, argui, — , 275, 2. ar-ripio, ere, ui, tum, see rapio. a-scendo, like de-scendo. a-spergo, ere, spersi, spersum, see spargO. a-spicio, like con-spicio. as-sentior, iri, sensus sum, 289, 1. as-sideo, like ob-sideo. at-tingo, ere, tigi, tSxitum, see tango. audeo, ere, ausus sum, 267. audio, 215 ; 284. au-fero, ferre, abs-tnli, ab-latum, 294, 2. augeo, ere, auxi, auctum, 263. are, def., 301, 1. aveo, ere, — , — , 261, 2. B balbutio, ire, — , — , 288, 2. bibo, ere, bibi, — , 270, 1. blandior, iri, itus sum, 223 ; 289. cad5, ere, cecidi, casum, 271, 1. caedo, ere, cecidi, caesum, 271, 1. 403 404 INDEX OF VERBS caleo, ere, calui, caliturus, 2H1. calesco, ere, calui, — , 279. cano, ere, cecini, — , 270, 1. capesso, ere, ivl, Itum, 27(). capio, ere, cepi, captum, 223, 1; 226. careo, ere, ui, iturus, 2()1. carpo, ere, carpsi, carptum, 268. caveo, ere, cavi, caiUum, 264. cedo, ere, cessi, cessum, 269. cede, de/., 30], 1. censeo, ere, censuT, censum, 262. cerno, ere, crevi, oretura, 276. cieo, ere, civi, citum, 260. cingo, ere, cinxi, cinctnm, 268. circum-ago, like per-ago. claudo, ere, clausT, clausum, 269. claudo, ere, — , — (to be lame), 273, 2. co-erao, like ad-imo. coepi, def., 299. co-erceo, ere, ui, itum, 261. co-gnosco, ere, gnovi, gnitum, 278. cogO, ere, coegi, coactum, 270, 2. col-lido, like il-lido. col-ligo, ere, legi, lectum, 270, 2. col-Iuoeo, ere, luxi, — , see luceo. colo, ere, colui, cultum, 273. com-edo, ere, edi, esum, estum, 293, 3. como, ere, compsi, oomptum, 268. com-miniscor, i, commentus sum, 283. com-moveo, ere, movi, motum, see moveo. com-perio, ire, peri, pertum, 287, 1. oom-plector, like amplector. com-pleo, ere, plevi, pletum, 260. com-primo, ere, pressi, pressum, see premO. com-pungo, ere, punxi, punctum, see pungo. con-cido, ere, cidi, see cado. con-cido, like in-cido. con-cino, ere, cinui, — , 272, 1. con-cludo, ere, clusi, clusum, 269. con-cupisco, ere, cupivi, cupitum, 279, 1. con-cutio, ere, cussi, cussum, 274. con-do, like ab-do. c6n-fercio, like re-fercio. con-fero, ferre, tuli, col-latum, 294, 2. cOn-ficio, ere, feci, fectum, 274. con-fit, def., 296, 4. con-fiteor, fiteri, fessus sum, 266. c5n-fring6, like per-fring5. con-gruo, ere, grui, — , 275, 2. con-quiro, ere, quisivi, quisitum, 276. con-sero, ere, ui, turn, 273. ooii-sisto, ere, stiti, — , 270, 1. oon-spicio, ere, spexi, spectum, 274, 1. cou-stituo, ere, stitui, stitutum, see status, con-sto, stare, stiti, — , 259, 3. consuesco, ere, consuevi, — , 299, 2. consuls, ere, sului, sultum, 273. con-temno, ere, tempsi, temptum, see temno. con-texo, ere, ui, turn, see tex5. con-tingo, ere, tigi, tactum, see tango, con-tundo, ere, tudi, tusum, 271, 1. coquo, ere, coxi, coctum, 268. crebresoo, ere, ci'ebui, — , 280. credo, ere, credidi, creditum, 270, 1. crepo, are, ui, Itum, 258. cresco, ere, crevi, cretum, 278. cubo, are, cubui, cubitum, 258. cudo, ere, cudi, cusum, 271, 3. cupio, ere, cupivi, cupitum, 274. curro, ere, cuourri, cursum, 271, 1. D debeo, ere, ui, itum, 261. de-cerno, ere, crevi, cretum, 276. de-cerpo, ere, cerpsi, cerptum, 268. decet, impers., 302, 2. de-do, like ab-do. de-feudo, ere, feudi, tensum, 271, 3. de-fit, def., 296, 4. dego, ere, degi, — , see ago. delectat, impers., 302, 5. deleo, ere, evi, etum, 230; 260. de-ligo, like col-ligo. demo, ere, dempsi, demptum, 268. de-p5sco, ere, poposci, — , 271, 1. de-scend5, ere, scendi, scensura, 271, 3. de-sllio, ire, silui, silii, — , 285. de-sina, ere, desii, desitum, 276, 1. de-sum, esse, fui, futiirus, 290, 1. de-tendo, ere, tendi, tentum, see tendO. de-tineo, ere, tinui, tentum, 262. de-vertor, i, versus sum, verti, 224, 2; 271, 3. dico, ere, dixi, dictum, 268. dif-fero, ferre, distulT, dilatum, 294, 2. diligo, ere, dilexi, dilectum, 268. di-raico, are, avi, atum, 258, 1. di-ru6, ere, rui, rutum, 275, 1. discs, ere, didici, — , 270, 1 ; 278. dls-sides, like ob-sideo. INDEX OF VERBS 405 di-stinguO, like ex-stiagUQ. di-st5, stare, — , — , 259, 3. divide, ere, visi, visum, 269. do, dare, dedi, datum, 259. doceO, ere, docui, doctum, 262. doled, ere, dolui, doliturus, 261. dolet, impers., 302, 5. domo, are, domui, domitum, 258. duco, ere, duxi, ductum, 268. duplico, are, avi, atum, 257, 2. duresco, ere, durui, — , 280. E edo, ere, edi, esum, 271, 2; 293. ef-fugio, ere, fugi, — , 274. egeo, ere, egui, — , 261, 1. e-licio, ere, lieui, licitum, 274, 1. e-Iigo, like di-ligo. emineo, ere, eminui, — , 261, 1. emo, ere, emi, emptum, 270, 2. e-neco, are, avi, ui, atum, tum, 257, 2. eo, ire, ii, itum, 297. esurio, ire, — , esuriturus, 288, 1. e-vado, ere, vasi, vasum, 269. evanesce, ere, evanui, — , 280. e-verro, ere, everri, eversum, 271, 3. ex-elude, ere, clusi, clusum, 269. ex-cude, ere, cudi, cusum, 271, 3. ex-curre, ere, eucurri, eursum, 271, 1. ex-ee, ire, exii, exitum, 297, 5. ex-erceo, ere, ui, itum, 261. ex-olesc6, ere, olevi, oletum, 279, 1. expergiscor, i, experrectus sum, 283. ex-perior, iri, pertus sum, 283. ex-pleo, ere, evi, etum, 260. ex-plic5, are, avi, ni, atum, itum, 257. ex-plode, ere, plOsi, plesum, 269. ex-stinguo, ere, stinxi, stinctum, 268. ex-sto, stare, — , — , 2'iH, 3. ex-tende, ere, tendi, tectum, see tendo. exuO, ere, exui, exutum, 275. facesse, ere. i, itum, 276, 1. facie, ere, feci, factum, 274. falle, ere, fefelli, falsum, 271, 1. farcie, ire, farsi, fartum, 286. fari, */., 300. fateor, eri, f assns sum , 266. fatisce, ere. — , — , 273, 2. favee, ere, favi, fautum, 264. ferie, ire, — , — , 288, 2. fere, ferre, tuli, latum, 294. fide, ere, fisus sum, 224; 271, 3; 283. fige, ere, fixi, fixum, 269. findo, ere, fidi, fissum, 271, 3. finge, ere, finxi, fictum, 268. fio, fieri, f actus sum, 274; 296. fleeto, ere, flexi, fiexum, 269. flee, ere, evi, etum, 260. floreo, ere, ui, — , 261, 1. tteresce, ere, florui, — , 279. fluo, ere, fluxi, fluxum, 275, 1. fodio, ere, fodi, fossum, 274. forem, def., 205, 2. foveo, ere, fovi, fetum, 264. frange, ere, fregi, fractum, 270, 2. freme, ere, fremui, — , 272, 1. frico, are, ui, atum, tum, 257, 2. frigee, ere, — , — , 261, 2. fruor, frui, fructus sum, 281. fugle, ere, fugi, fngitum, 274. fulcio, ire, fulsi, fultum, 286. fulgee, ere, fulsi, — , 263. fundo, ere, fudi, fusum, 271, 2. lungor, fungi, functus sum, 281. furo, ere, — , — , 273, 2. G gannie, ire, — , — , 288, 2. gaudeo, ere, gavisus sum, 2'24 ; 267. genio, ere, gemui, — , 272, 1. gero, ere, gessi, gestum, 268. gigne, ere, genui, geuitum, 272. glisce, ere, — , — , 273, 2. gradior, gradi, gressus sum, 225, 3 ; 282, habee, ere, ui, itum, 261. haei-ee, ere, haesi, haesum, 2(!3. haurie, ire, faausi, haustum, 286. have, def., 301, 1. hebee, ere, — , — , 261, 2. hisco. ere, — , — , 273, 2. horree, ere, horrui, — , 261, 1. hortor, ari, hortatus sum, 223. ice, ere, ici, ictum, 270, 2. ignescO, ere, ignevi, ignetum, 278. il-licie, ere, lexi, lectum, 274, 1. 406 INDEX OF VERBS il-lido, ere, lisi, lisum, see laedo. im-mineo, ere, — , — , 261, 2. im-pingo, ere, pegi, pactum, 270, 1. im-pleo, like com-pleo. im-plico, are, Svi, ui, atum, itum, 259, 1 in-cendo, like ac-cendo. incesso, ere, incessivi, — , 276, 1. in-cido, ere, cidi, casum, 271, 1. in-cido, ere, cidi, cisum, 271, 1. in-colo, ere, colui, — , 273. in-crepo, are, ui, itum, turn, 258. in-eresco, ere, crevi, cretum, see creseo. in-cumbo, ere, cubui, cubitum, 272. in-cutio, like cou-cutio. ind-igeo, ere, igui, — , see egeo. in-do, like ab-do. indulgeo, ere, dulsi, dultura, 263. induo, ere, indui, indutum, 275. ineptio, ire, — , — , 288, 2. in-fero, ferre, tuli, illatum, 294, 2. infit, def., 296, 4. in-gredior, gredi, gressus sum, 282. in-olesco, like abolesco. inquam, def., 300. in-sideo, like ob-sideo. in-spicio, like con-spicio. in-sto, are, stiti, — , see sto. intel-lego, like neglego. interest, iinpers., 302, 5. in-venio, ire, veni, ventum, 287, 2. in-veterasco, ere, ravi, ratum, 279, 1. irascor, i, — , 283. ir-ruo, ere, rui, — , 275, 1. I CONSONANT iaceo, ere, iacui, iaciturus, 261. iacio, ere, ieci, iactum, 225, 1 ; 274. iubeo, ere, iussi, iussum, 263. iungo, ere, iuuxi, iflnctum, 268. iuvo, are, iuvi, iiitum, 259; 302, 5. labor, i, lapsus sum, 282. lacesso, ere, ivi, itum, 276. laedo, ere, laesi, laesum, 269. lambo, ere, — , — , 273, 2. lateo, ere, latui, — , 261, 1. lavo, are, lavi, lavatum, lautum, 259. lego, ere, legi, lectum, 270, 2. liceor, eri, licitus sum, 266. licet, impers., 302, 2. lino, ere, levi, litum, 276. linquo, ere, liqm, — ,p. 122, footnote 1. liquor, i, — , 281. loquor, i, lociitus sum, 223; 281. luceo, ere, luxi, — , 263. ludo, ere, liisi, lusum, 269. llgeo, ere, luxi, — , 263. luo, ere, lui, — , 275, 2. M maereo, ere, — , — , 261, 2. malo, malle, maluT, — ■, 295. mando, ere, mandi, mansum, 271, 3. maneo, ere, mansi, mansum, 263. maturesco, ere, matiirui, — , 280. medeor, eri, — , 266. memini, def, 299. mereo, ere, ui, itum, 561. mereor, eri, meritus sum, 266. mergo, ere, mersi, mersum, 269. metier, iri, mensus sum, 289, 1. meto, ere, messui, messum, 273, 1. metuo, ere, metui, — , 275, 2. mico, are, micui, — , 258, 1. misoeo, ere, miscui, mixtum, 262. misereor, eri, miseritus sum, 266. miseret, impers., 302, 2. mitto, ere, misi, missum, 269. molo, ere, molui, molitum, 272. moneo, 209. mordeo, ere, momordi, morsum, 265. morior, i, mortuus sum, 225, 3; 281. raoveo, ere, movi, motum, 264. mulceo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 263. mulgeo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 263. N nanciscor, i, nauctus (nactus) sum, 283. nascor, i, natus sum, 283. , necto, ere, nexui, nexum, 273, 1. neg-lego, ere, lexi, lectum, 268. ne-queo, quire, quivi, quii, — , 298. ningit, ere, ninxit, impers., 302, 2. niteo, ere, ui, — , 261, 1. nitor, i, nisus, nixus sum, 282. noceO, ere, nocui, nocitum, 261. nolo, nolle, nolui, — , 295. nosco, ere, novi, notum, 278; 299, 2. nuba, ere, nSpsi, nuptum, 268. ob-do, like ab-do. obliviscor, i, oblitus sum, 288. INDEX OF VERBS 407 ob-mutesc6,ere, mutui, — , 280. ob-sideo, ere, sedi, sessum, 'JUS, 2. ob-solesco, ere, solevi, soletum, 279, 1. ob-sto, are, stiti, — , see sto. ob-surdeaco, ere, surduT, — , 280. ob-tine5, ere, tinui, tentum, 262. oc-cido, like iu-cido. oc-cido, like in-cido. oc-cino, like con-cino. oc-cipio, like ac-cipio. occulo, ere, ui, turn, 273. odi, def., 299. of-fendo, like defends. of-fero, ferre, obtuli, oblatum, 294, 2. oleo, ere, olui, — , 261, 1. operio, ire, ui, turn, 285. oportet, impers., 802, 2. op-perior, iri, pertus sum, 289, 1. ordior, iri, orsus sum, 289, 1. orior, iri, ortus sum, 289, 1. os-tendo, like de-tendo. paciscor, i, pactus sum, 283. paenitet, impers., 302, 2. palleo, ere, pallui, — , 261, 1. pando, ere, paudi, passum, 271, 3. pango, ere, pepigi, pegi, panetum, pac- tum, 270, 1. parco, ere, peperci, parsum, 271, 1. pareo, ere, parui, paritum, 261. pario, ere, peperi, partum, 225, 1 ; 274. partior, iri, partitus sum, 288. pasco, ere, pavi, pastum, 278. pateo, ere, patui, — , 261, 1. patior, i, passus sum, 225, 3; 282. paveo, ere, pavi, — , 264. pecto, ere, pexi, pexum, 269. pel-lieio, ere, lexi, lectum, 274, 1. pello, ere, pepuli, pulsum, 271, 1. pendeo, ere, pependi, pensum, 265. pendo, ere, pependi, pensum, 271, 1. per-ago, ere, egi, actum, 270, 2. per-cello, ere, culi, culsum, 271, 3. per-censeo, ere, censui, censum, 262. per-do, like ab-d5. per-fringo, ere, fregi, fractum, 270, 2. pergo, ere, .perrexi, perrectum, see rego. per-lego, ere, legi, lectum, 270, 2. per-petior, i, pessus sum, 282. per-sto, are, stiti, — , 259. per-tineO, ere, tiuui, — , 262. peto, ere, ivi, ii, petitum, 276. piget, impers., 302, 2. pingo, ere, pinxi, pictum, 268. placeo, ere, ui, itum, 261 ; 302, 5. plaudo, ere, plausi, plausum, 269. plecto, ere, plexi, plectum, 269. pluo, ere, plui, — , 302, 2. polleo, ere, — , — , 261, 2. polliceor, eri, pollicitus sum, 266. pono, ere, posui, positum, 272. poscO, ere, poposci, — , 271, 1 ; 278. pos-sideo, like ob-sideo. pos-sido, ere, possedi, possessum, 271, 3. possum, posse, potui, — , 291. poto, are, avi, atum, potum, 257, 2. prae-beo, ere, ui, itum, 261. prae-cino, — , — , like con-cino. prae-curro, ere, cucurri, cursum, 271, 1. prae-sideo, like ob-sideo. prae-sto, are, stiti, — , 302, 5 ; see sto. prae-sum, esse, fui, — , 290, 1. prandeo, ere, i, prausum, 265, 3. prehendo, preiido, ere, i, prebensum, prensum, 271, 3. premo, ere, pressi, pressum, 269. prod-igo, ere, egi, actum, 270, 2. pro-do, like ab-do. proficiscor, i, profectus sum, 283. pro-fiteor, eri, fessus sum, 266. promo, ere, prompsi, promptum, 268. pro-sterno, ere, stravi, stratum, 276. pro-sum, prodesse, prolui, — , 292. pro-tendo, like de-tendo. pudet, impers., 302, 2. pungo, ere, pupugi, punctum, 270, 1. quaero, ere, quaesivi, quaesitum, 276. quaeso, def., 301, 2. quatio, ere, — , quassum, 274. queo, ire, quivi, quii, — , 298. queror, i, questus sum, 281. quiesco, ere, quievi, quietum, 278. R rado, ere, rasi, rasum, 269. rapio, ere, rapui, raptum, 274. raucio, ire (rausi), rausum, 286. re-ccnseo, Uke per-censeo. re-cido, ere, reccidi, recasiirus, see cado. re-cido, like in-cido. 408 INDEX OF VERBS red-arguo, ere, argui, — , 275, 2. red-do, lilce ab-do. re-fell6, ere, telli, falsum, see fallo. re-fercio, ire, fersi, fertum, 286. re-fero, ferre, rettuli, relatum, 294, 2. refert, impers., 302, 2. rego, ere, rexi, rectum, 212 ; 268. re-linquo, ere, liqui, lictum, 270, 2. re-mimscor, i, — , 283. reor, reri, ratus sum, 266. re-pello, ere, repulT, repulsum, 271, 1. re-peria, ire, repperi, repertum, 287. re-sono, are, avi, aturus, 258, 2. re-spergo, ere, spersi, spersum, 269. re-spondeo, ere,spondi, sponsum, 265, 1. re-spuo, ere, spui, — , 275, 2. re-tendo, ere, tendl, tentum, 270, 1. re-tineo, ere, tinui, tentum, 262. re-vertor, i, versus sum, verti, 224, 2 ; 271,3. rideo, ere, risi, risura, 263. ringor, T, — , 281. rodo, ere, rosi, rosum, 269. rudo, ere, rudlvi, — , 276. rump5, ere, rupi, ruptum, 270, 2. ruo, ere, rui, rutum, ruiturus, 275, 1. saepio. Ire, saepsi, saeptum, 286. sagio, ire, — , — , 288, 2. salio, ire, salui, salii, — , 285. salve, def., 301, 1. sancio, ire, sanxi, sanctum, 286. sapio, ere, sapivi, — , 225, 1 ; 274. sarcio, ire, sarsi, sartum, 286. scindo, ere, scidi, scissum, 271, 3. scisco, ere, scivi, scitum, 279, 1. scribo, ere, scrips!, scriptum, 268. sculpo, ere, sculpsi, sculptum, 268. seco, are, secui, sectum, 258. se-ceriio, ere, crevi, cretum, 276. sedeo, ere, sedi, sessum, 265, 2. se-ligo, like col-ligo. seutio, ire, sensi, sensum, 286. sepeliO, ire, ivi, sepultum, 284, 1. sequor, i, secutus sum, 281. sero, ere, sevi, satum, 276, 1. sero, ere, (ui) , tum, see c5n-sero. sileO, ere, silui, — , 261, 1. sino, ere, sivi, situm, 276, 1. sisto, ere, stiti, statum, 270, 1. sitio, ire, ivi, — , 284, 1. soleo, ere, solitus sum, 224; 267. solvo, ere, solvi, solutum, 270, 3. sono, are, sonui, sonaturus, 258, 2. sparge, ere, sparsi, sparsum, 269. sperno, ere, sprevi, spretum, 276. splendeo, ere, ui, — , 261, 1. spondeo, ere, spopondi, sponsum, 265. status, ere, statui, statutum, 275. sterno, ere, stravi, stratum, 276. sto, are, steti, statum, 259. strepo, ere, strepui, — , 272, 1. strides, ere, stridi, — , 265, 3. struo, ere, struxi, structum, 275, 1. studeS, ere, ui, — , 261, 1. stupes, ere, stupui, — , 261, 1. suadeS, ere, suasi, suasum, 263. sub-ds, like ab-ds. sub-igS, like ab-igS. sub-silio, like de-silio. suc-ceds, ere, cessi, cessum, see cedo. suc-cends, like accendo. suc-cido, ere, cidi, — , see cadS. suc-cids, like in-cido. suf-fero, terre, sustuli, sublatum, 294, 2. suf-ficis, like con-ficis. suf-fodio, ere, fsdi, fossum, see fodiS. sug-gers, ere, gessi, gestum, see gero. sum, esse, fui, futurus, 205. sums, ere, sumpsi, sumptum, 268. superbiS, ire, — , — , 288, 2. super-iacis, ere, ieci, iectum, see iacio. supplies, are, avi, atum, 257, 2. sup-pSno, ere, posui, positum, see pSno. surgo (sur-rigS) , ere, surrexi, surrcctum, see rego. sus-censeS, like per-censeo. taceS, ere, tacui, tacitum, 261. taedet, impers., 302, 2. tangS, ere, tetigi, tactum, 270, 1. tego, ere, texi, tectum, 268. temnS, ere, — , — , 273, 2. tends, ere, tetendi, tentum, 270, 1. teneo, ere, tenui, — , 262. tergeS, ere, tersi, tersum, 263. tero, ere, trivi, tritum, 276. terreS, ere, ui, itum, 261. texo, ere, texui, textum, 273. times, ere, timui, — , 261, 1. tolls, ere, sustuli, sublatum, 270, 1. tondeS, ere, totoudi, tonsiuu, 265. INDEX OF VERBS 409 tono, are, tonui, — , 258, 2 ; 302, 2. torqueo, ere, torsi, tortum, 263. torreo, ere, torrui, tostum, 262. tra-do, like ab-do. traho, ere, traxi, tractum, 268. tremo, ere, tremui, — , 272, 1. tribuo, ere, tribul, tribfltura, 275. trudo, ere, trusi, trusum, 269. tueor, eri, — , 266. tundo, ere, tutudi, tunsum, tusam, 271, 1. U ulciscor, i, ultus sum, 283. urgeo, ere, ursi, — , 263. uro, ere, ussi, ustum, 268. utor, i, usus sam, 282. vado, ere, — , — , 273, 2. valeo, ere, valui, valiturus, 261. veho, ere, vexi, vectum, 268. vello, ere, vellJ, vulsum, 271, 3. vends, ere, vendidi, venditum, 270, 1. ven-eo, ire, ii, itum, 297, 5. venio, ire, veni, ventum, 287, 2. vereor, eri, veritus sum, 223; 266. vergo, ere, — , — , 273, 2. verro, ere, verri, versum, 271, 3. verto, ere, verti, versum, 271, 3. vets, are, vetui, vetitum, 258. video, ere, vidi, visum, 267, 2. vigeS, ere, vigui, — , 261, 1. vincio, ire, vinxi, vinotum, 286. vines, ere, vici, victum, 270, 2. vireo, ere, virui, — , 261, 1. visS, ere, visi, visum, 271, 3. vivo, ere, vixi, victum, 268. vols, velle, volui, — , 295. volvS, ere, volvi, volutum, 270, 3. vomo, ere, vomui, vomitum, 272. voveS, ere, vSvi, votum, 264. GENERAL INDEX Note. — The numbers refer to sections unless p. (= page) is added. Adjs. = adjectives ; advs. = adverbs ; appos. = appositive or apposition ; comp. = com- poand or composition ; compar. = comparative or comparison ; compds. = compounds; condit. = condition or conditional ; conj. = conjugation; conjunc. = conjunction; constr. = construction ; f f. = and the following ; gen. = genitive; gend. = gender ; ger. = gerund ; indir. disc. = indirect discourse ; instrum. = instrumental ; loc. = locative ; pred. = predicate ; preps. = prepositions ; prons. = pronouns; qualit. = qualitative ; Quant. = quantity ; seq. = sequence ; subj. = subject or subjunctive ; 'w. = with. A, a, sound ; qualitative changes of, 24 ; a shortened, 39, 3; 84, 2. A in nom., ace, and voc. plur., 75, 2. A-nouns, Decl. I., 78 ; a-verbs, 201 ; 206 ff . ; nouns in a, Decl. III., 97, 6; 110, 5; gend., 122. Derivatives in a, 334, 6 ; 338 ; a in compd. verbs changed to e or i, 231. Conj. of a-verbs, 359, 1 ; 300. A-final, quant, of, 692, 1 ; 695 ; a in increm. of _decl., 705; 706; of conj., 711 and 1. A, ab, abs, in compds., 374, 1 ; in compds. w. dat., 429, 2; w. abl. of separation, 461 ; of source, 467 ; 475, 4; of agent, 468; w. abl., 490, 1, 2; w. gerund and gerundive, 629. Abbreviations, 354, 6 ; 758. Abhinc, denoting interval, 488, 3, n. 2 and 3. Abies, es in, 698, 1. Ability, verbs of, in apodosis, 583; in indir. disc, 648, II. 3. Ablative, Decl. I., 78, 7; 80,2; a in, 695; Decl. II., 84, 1; Decl. III., 107, 6; in 1-stems, 102; 125 ff.; 128, 1, 2; Decl. rV., 131, 2 ; p. 49, footnote 3. Ablative, translation of, 78 and footnote 3 ; syntax of, 459 ft. Abl. w. loc. , 393, 7; w. comp. verbs, 429, 2; w. adjs., 435, 3; w. refert, 449, 1; w. de w memini, 454, 3 ; w. verbs of accusing, 456, 1 ; w. verbs of condemning, 456, 3, 4. Abl. of separation, 461 ff . ; of source, 467 ff. ; w. compar., 471 ; instrum. abl., 472 ; of association, 473 ff . ; of cause, 475 ; of means, 476 ff. ; of price, 478 ; of difference, 479 ; of specification , 480 ; loc. abl., 483; of time, 417, 2; 486 ff.; abl. abs., 489 ; w. preps., 4ii0 ; w. advs., 490,4; infin. in abl. abs., C16, 4; abl. of gerund and gerundive, 629 ff. ; of supine, 635. Ablatives as adverbs, 307. Ablaut, 21 ; 326, 1. Abode denoted by pers. pron. w. prep., 500, 5. Abounding, abl. w. verbs of, 477, II. -abrum, a in, 712, 1. Abs, see a, ab. Absente, constr., 489, 9. Absolute abl., 489. Absolute and rela- tive time, 542 ff. Absque w. abl., 490, 2. Abstlneo, constr., 458, 4. Abstract nouns, 62, 2 ; plur., 138, 2 ; from adjs., 345. -abus in Decl. I., 80, 2. Ac, 315, 1 ; 657, 1 ; meaning as, 508, 5 ; than, 516, 3. Ac si w. subj. in condit., 584. Acatalectic, 729, n. 3 and 4. Accedit, constr., 571, 1. 411 412 GENERAL INDEX Accent, original, 19; rhythmic, 724. Acceutuation, 16 ff. Accidit, constr., 571, 1. Accingo, constr., 407. Accompaniment, abl. of, 473; 474. Accusative, Decl. I., 78, 7 ; Decl. II., 83, 5; 8i); Decl. III., 9B fe. ; in i-stems, 102, 2, 3; eis = es, is, 107, 6; Decl. IV., 131. Accusative, syntax of, 403 ff. Direct obj., 404; with special verbs, 405; w. comp. verbs, 406 ; w. verbs of clothing, etc., 407; w. verbal adjs. and nouns, 408; cognate, 409; two aces., 410 ff. ; predicate, 410, 1, 3; as obj., w. infin., 414; subj. of infin., 415; 010, 2; of specification, 416; adverbial, time and space, 417 ; of limit, 418 ff. ; poet. dat. for, 419, 4 ; w. preps., 420 ; in exclama- tions, 421 ; w. propior, proximus, 435, 2; pred. ace, gerundive as, 622; ace. of gerund and gerundive, 628; of supine, 633; 634. Accusatives as adverbs, 306. Accusing, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Acer, decl., 126. -aceus, adjs. in, 347. Acies, 134, 2; 141, 1. Acquitting, constr. w. verbs of, 456. -acrum, a in, 712, 1. Action, repeated, in temp, clauses, 602, 2 and 3. Active voice, 191. Act. and pass, constr., 518. Acus, decl., 131, 2; gend., 132. -ad, old abl. ending, 79, 4. Ad in compds., 370; 374, 2; w. two aces., 412, 1; w. dat., 429. Ad w. ace, 418, 4; 420, 2; after adjs., 435, 1; w. refert and interest, 449, 1, n. and 4 ; to denote time, 487, 2; designating abode, 500, 5 ; w. gerund and gerun- dive, 628. Adaeque w. abl., 471, 9. Adeo, 654, N. 2 ; 657, 3. -ades, a in, 712, 8. Adfertur, constr., 611, 2, n. 3. AdflciS w. abl., 476, 2. Adiaceo w. ace. or dat., 429, 4. Adipiscor w. gen., 458, 3. Adjectives, morphology, 63 ; 90 ff. ; Decl. I. and II., 90 ff. ; irregular, 93 ; Decl. in., 125 ff. ; indecl., 137, 3; defective, 144; heteroolites, 146; comparison of, 149 ff., without compar., 160 ; numeral. 162 ff. ; demon., 178, 8; relat., 182, 4 interrog., 184, 6; pronominal, 188 516 ; verbal, 200 ; derivative, 328 ff . attributive, 383, 2. Agreement, 394 w. clause, 394, 4; n«ut. adj. as sub- stantive, 394, 5 and 6; w. one noun for another, 394, 8 ; w. two or more nouns, 395; verbal, w. ace, 408; w. dat., 434; w. gen., 442 ; in abl. abs., 489, 7. Use, 492 ff . ; as substantives, 494 ; 495 ; w. force of clauses, 496 ; of adverbs, 497. Adj. separated from noun for em- phasis, 665, 4; adj. modifiers, position of, 671; position of modifiers of adj., 672; of adj. w. gen., 671, 4. Admodum, 310. Admonishing, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Adonic verse, 745, 1, 5. Adulescens, compar., 158. Adulter, decl., 80, 3. Advenio, constr., 418, 3. Adverbial compar., 159; adv. ace, 416, 2; adv. clauses, 563, 2; 569, 1; adv. modifiers, position, 672; 673. Adverbs, 304_ff.; numeral, 171; relative, p. 72, footnote 3. Comparison, 311. Adverbs w. nouns, 497, 4, 5 ; w. dat., 436 ; w. gen., 443 ; for abl. of price, 478, 3. Adverbs as preps., 490, 4. Adverbs from demon, prons., force of, 507, 7. Use of adverbs, 654 ff. Position of modifiers of adverb, 674; adv. be- tween prep, and case, 676, 2. B in adverbs, 696, 3. Adversative conjuncs., 315, 3; 659. Ad- versative clauses of condit., 585. Adversum, ad versus, w. ace, 420,2; w. adjs., 435, 1. Ae, sound of, 11. Aedes, sing, and plur., 140; omitted, 445, 2. Aeneas, decl., 81. Aeque, w. abl., 471, 9. AequI facere, 447, 1. Aestimo w. gen. of value, 448 ; w. abl., 44S, 2. Aetas, decl., 97. -aeus, adjs. in, 353. Age, expressions of, 417, 4. Agent, dat. of, 431 ; abl. of, 431, 1, 4; 467 ; 468. GENERAL INDEX 413 Ager, decl., 85. Agnomen, 354, 7 and 8. Ago, vowel long in perf. and supine, 749, VII.; ago ut, 5(i(i, 1. -ago, nouns in, 344, 4 ; a iu, 712, 2. Agreeable, dat. w. adjs. meauing, 434, 2. Agreement of verbs, 388 ; syuesis, 38U ; w. pred. nouns, 390 ; w. appos., 391 ; w. compd. subj., 392. Of nouns, 393; w. clause, 393, 3. Of adjs., 394; w. clause, 394, 4 ; synesis, 394, 7 ; w. one noun for another, 394, 8 ; w. two or more nouns, 395 ; w. part, gen., 442, 1. Of prons., 396; synesis, 397; w. two or more antecedents, 398 ; attraction, 399, _ 5 ; w. clause as antecedent, 399, 6. Ah, aha, interj., 317. Ai, diphthong, qualit. changes of, 32 ; ai, 79, 3. Aiding, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Alo, position, 679. -aius in proper names, a in, 689, 1. -51 final shortened, 39, 2 and 5 ; some- times long in Plautus, 692, 3, N. 1 ; -al, nouns in, 103; quant, of increm., 706. Alacer, compar., 157, 2. ^ Albus, without compar., 160. Alcaic verse, 730; 745, 8 and 9; Alcaic stanza, 747, 1. Alcmanian stanza, 747, 9. -alia, names of festivals in, 145, 2, N. Alias, use, 516, 1 and 2. Alienus, w. dat. and gen., 451, 2, N. 1. Aliquantus, 189. Aliqui, use, 512, 2. Allquis, 187, 1 ; use, 512. Aliquot, 189. -alls, adjs. in, 348; a in, 712, 3. Aliter, use, 516, 1, 2, and 3. Alius, decl., 93, 2; use, 188; 516; w. plur. verb, 389, 3; w. abl., 471, 6. Allegory, 752, 2, N. Alphabet, Latin, 5. Letters of, indecl., 137, 1. Alter, decl., 93 ; use, 188 ; 516 ; w. plur. verb, 389, 3. Alteruter, decl., 93, 7. Alvus, gend., 87, 3. Amans, decl., 128. Ambl, amb, 313 ; 375 ; in corapds. , 375, 1 . Ambo, decl., 166, 2. Amicus, decl., 83. Amnis, decl., 102, 4. Amplius without quam, 471, 4. An, 315, 2, N. ; 316, 8 ; 380, 3 ; in indir. quest., 650, 1-4. -ana, a in, 712, 4. Anacrusis, 740, N. 3. Anapaest, 721, 2, N. 1 ; cyclic, 723, 4. Anaphora, 666, 1. Ancient forms of prons., 176, 6; of verbs, 244. Ancile, decl., 145, 2, n. Androge5s, decl., 89. -aneus, adjs. in, 355. Animadverto, w. cum, generally w. subj., GOl, 4, N. Animal, decl., 103. Animi, constr., 458, 1, and footnote 2. Anne, in indir. quest., 650, 1. Annou, 315, 2, N. ; 650, 1 and 2. Answers, 379. Ante in corapds., 374, 3; w. dat., 429. Ante w. ace, 420, 2; w. compar., 471, 5 ; in expressions of time, 488. Antea, 310; a in, 695, 4. Antecedent, 396; two or more, 398; omitted, 399 ; attracted, 399, 5; clause as antecedent, 399, 6. General or indef . antecedent, w. relat. clause, 591 and N.2. Anteeo, synizesis in, 733, 3, n. 1. Antequam, 316, 1; iu temp, clauses, 605. Anticipation, prolepsis, 493. -anus, adjs. in, 349 ; 353 ; agnomen in, 354,8; ain, 712, 4. Apage, interj., 317, 4. Aphaeresis, 760,- 1. Apis, gen. plur., 102, 5. Apocope, 750, 3. Apodosis, 572. Aposiopesis, 751, 1, n. 1. Apostrophe, 752, 10. Apparent agent, 431. Appendix, 749 ff. Apposition, partitive, 393, 4; clauses in, 393, 3. Appositional gen., 440, 4. Appositive, 383, 3; agreement of verb with, 391 ; case, 393 ; gend., 393, 1. Clause as appos., 393, 3; 564, HI. Gen. in appos. w. possess., 303, 6. In- fin. as appos., 616, 2. Aptus qui w. subj., 591, 7. Apud w. ace, 120, 2 1 designating 414 GENKRAL INDEX abode, 484, 2, w. 2; for loc. abl., 485, , 5; in citations, 485, 5, n. -ar final shortened, 39, 2 and 5 ; some- times long in Plautus, 692, 3, n. 1 ; -ar, nouns in, 103; gend., 122; 123; quant, of increm., 706. Arar, decl., 102,3, N. Arbor, quant, of increm., 707. Arceo, constr., 464, 2. Archilocliian verse, 730 ; 745, 10 ; stanza, 747, 10-13. Arcus, decl., 131, 2. Arenae, loc, 484, 2. Arguor, constr., 611, 2, N. 2. Aries; es in, 698, 1. -aris, adjs. in, 348 ; a in, 712, 5. Aristophanic verse, 745, 2. -arlum, nouns in; 348, 3. -arius, adj. in, 348; 355. Arrangement of words and phrases, 663 if. ; gen. rules, 664 fe. ; effect of emphasis, 665 ; anaphora, 666, 1 ; chi- asmus, 666, 2; kindred words, 667; words w. common relation, 668 ; effect of context, 669 ; euphony and rhythm, 670 ; special rules, 671 ff. ; modifiers of nouns, 671; of adjs., 672; of verbs, 673; adverbs, 674; prons., 675; preps., 676; conjuncs. and relats., 677 ; non, 678; inquam, aio, 679; voc, 680; clauses, 681 ff . ; as subj. or pred., 682 ; subord. elements, 683; subj. or obj. common to prin. and subord. clause, 684 ; periods, 685. Arsis, 725. Article, 78, 6. Artu8, decl., 131, 2. Arx, decl., 105. -as in gen. of Decl. I., 79, 2; nouns in, Decl. I., 81 ; Decl. III., 97 ; gend., 115 ; 117. Adjs. in, 353. as, as, final, _ quant, of, 692, 3 ; 697. As, 757, and 1. Asolepiadean verse, 745, 4 and 5 ; stanza, 747, 4-6. Asking, constr. w. verbs of, 411 ; verbs of, w. subj., 565. Asper, decl., 92, 3. -assim in perf. subj., 244, 4. Assimilation of vowels, 31 ; of conso- nants, 53 ff. ; partial, 55. -asBO in fut. perf., 244, 4. Association, abl. of, 473; 474. Assuesco, assuefacio, w. abl., 476, 3. Asyndeton, 657, 6. -at, neut. stems in, 97, 6 ; 110, 5 ; -at final in Plautus, 692, 3, N. 1. At, 315, 3 ; 659, 1. Atat, interj., 317, 1. -atilis, adjs. in, 352. Atque, 315, 1 ; 657, 1 ; meaning as, 508, 5 ; than, 516, 3. Que . . . atque, 657, 4. Atqui, 315, 3 ; 659, 1. -atrum, a in, 712, 1. Attempted action, how expressed, 530. Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 473, 3. Attraction of adjs., 394, 9; of prons., 396, 2 ; 399, 5 ; of anteced., 399, 5. Attributive noun or adj., 383, 2; gen., 439 ff. -atus, derivatives In, 344; 346; 5. in, 712, 6. Au, interj., 317,3. Au, sound, 11; qualit. changes of, 35; insep. prep., 313; in compds., 375, 2. Audax, decl., 128. Audiens w. two dats., 433, 4. Audio w. cum, 601, 4, N. ; constr., 613, 5 ; audior, constr., 611, 2, N. 2. Augustan Age, writers of, 753, 3. Aureus, 757. Aurls, decl., 102. Ausim = ausus sim, 244, 4. Aut, 315, 2; 392, 5; 658, 1. Aut . . . aut, 658, 1. Autem, 315, 3 ; 659, 1 and 2 ; position, 677. Authors, Latin, 753. Auxillum, sing, and plur., 140. Avidus, constr., 453, 1 ; w. infin., 608, 4. Avis, decl., 102, i. -avus, a in, 712, 5. -ax, gend., of nouns in, 120, 1; deriva- tives in, 330; verbals in, w. gen., 452, 1. B B, sound before s and t, 12, 4 ; changed to p, 55, 1 ; to m, 55, 4 ; quant, of monosyl. in, 691, 2. Babae, interj., 317, 1. Bacchius, 721, 2, N. 1. Becoming, two dats. w. verbs of, 433,2. Beginning, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Beginning of sentence emphatic, 665, 1. GENERAL INDEX 415 Being, two data. w. verbs of, 433, 2. Being angry, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Being without, constr. w. verbs of, 462. Being cheap or dear, abl. w. verbs of, 478, 1. Being able, wont, accustomed, infin. w. verbs of, 607, 2. Believing, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Belli, loc, 484, 2. Belonging to, gen. w. adjs. meaning, 435, 4. Bene, compared, 311, 2 ; w. dat., 426, 1. N. 2 ; e final in, 696, 3. Benefiting, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. -ber, decl. of names of months in, 102, 6. Bibi, i in penult, 715, 1. -bills, derivatives in, 329; w. dat., 434, 2 ; compar., 157, 1. Bis in compounding numbers, 163, 1 ; i in, 691,3. Boni facere, consulere, 447, 1. Bonus, dee!., 78 ; 83 ; 91 ; compar., 154. Bos, decl., 107 ; quant, of increm., 707. -bra, -brum, verbal nouns in, 335. Brachylogy, 751, 2. Bucolic diaeresis, 736, 2. -bula, -bulum, verbal nouns in, 335. -bundus, derivatives in, 328, 5. Burls, decl., 102, 2. Buying, gen. w. verbs of, 448, 4 ; abl., 478, i. O = e, 5, 3; sound, 12; dropped, 58, 1. Nouns in, gend. of, 122. Quant, of final syllables in, 692, II. Caelum, decl., 147, 3. Caesura, caesnral pause, 728 ; in hexair , 736. Galcar, decl., 103. Calendar, Roman, 754 ft. Calends, 754, 1., 1. Calling, verbs of, w. two aces., 410. Cams, decl., 102, 5. Capso = cepero, 244, 4. Caput, decl., 97. Carbasus, decl., 147, 2. Career, sing, and plur., 140. Caring/or, gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Cardinal numbers, 162 ff. ; decl., 166 S. Carmen, decl., 100. Caro, decl., 106, 6. Cartbaero, decl., 108. Cases, morphology of, 73 ff. ; cases alike, 75 ; case endings, 74, 3 ; in Decl. I., 78, 7; Decl. II., 83, 5; Decl. 111., 102, 103, 107,4; Decl. IV., 131; Decl. V., 134,6; irreg. case endings, Decl. 1., 79; 80; Decl. II., 84 ; Decl. III., lOT, 6; Decl. IV., 131,3; Decl. v., 134, 2 and 3; case sufiixes, 74, 1 ; in Decl. 111., 96 ; 98. Cases, Syntax of, 400 ff.; general view, 400 ; nom., 401 ; voc, 402 ; ace, 403 ff. ; dat., 422 ff. ; gen., 437 ff. ; abl., 459 ff . ; cases w. preps., 420, 490. Castrum, sing, and plur., 140. Catalectic, 729, N. 3 and 5. Causa, constr., 475, 2. Causal conjuncs., 315, 5 ; 316, 7 ; 661. Causal clauses, 588 ; relat., 592 ; w. cum, 597 ; 598; position, 683, 2, N. Cause, gen. w. adjs. denoting, 452, 2 ; abl. of, 475 ; relat. clauses of, 592 ; ex- pressed by participle, 638, 1. Caveo, w. ace. or dat., 426, 4, y. ; Cavl. cave lie, w. subj., 561, 2; 562, 4. E in cave, 696, 2. -ce appended, 178, 3 and 6 j quant., 691, 1. Cecidl, i in penult, 716. Cedo, o in, 694. Cedo, w. abl., 463 ; e in cessl , cessum. 749, VI., 1. Celer, decl., 126, 2. Celo, constr., 411, 2 and 3. Celtiber, decl., 86, 3. -can, compds. in, 369, 3. -caps, compds. in, 369, 4. Ceres, es in, 698, 1. Carte in answers, 379, i. Certus w. gen. or abl., 451, 1, N. ; w. infin., 608, 4, N. 1. Cetera, def., 144. Ceterum, 306, 3; 315, 3; 659, 1. Ceu w. subj. in condit., 584, 4. Ch, sound, 12. Changes in consonants, 51 ff. Characteristic, derivatives denoting, 344; 348. Characteristic, stem characteristic, of nouns, 76; of verbs, 201. Gen. of characteristic, 440, 3 ; abl. of, 473, 2 ; rel. clause of, 591, 1; clause of w. quin, 594, II., 2. Characteristic of, gen. w. adjs. mean- ing, 435,4; 451,2. 416 GENERAL INDEX Chiasmus, 666, 2. Choliambus, 743, 1, n. 4. Choosing, verbs of, w. two aces., 410; w. two dats,, 433, 2. Choree, 721, footnote. Choriambus, 721, 2, N. 1. Ciceronian Age, writers of, 753, 2. -cida, compds. in, 369, 3. Clng-o, constr., 107 ; i in perf. and p. part., 749, VII. -Glnus, -cinius, adjs. in, 349, 2. -cio, diminutives in, 340, 5. Circa w. ace., 420, 2 ; i, in, 695, 4. Circiter w. ace, 420, 2. Circum in compds., 374, 4 ; compds. w. ■ ace, 406; w. two aces., 413; w. dat., 429, 2. Circum w. ace, 420, 2. Circumstance, attendant, abl. of, 473, 3. Cis w. ace., 420, 2. ; 1 in, 691, 3. Citerior, corapar., 155, 1. Cities, plur. in names of, 139, 2. Clto, o in, 694. Citra w. ace, 420, 2. Citum, 1 in, 715, 1. CIvis, decl., 102, 4. Clam, Clanculum, w. ace, 420, 5; clam, w. abl., 490, 4. Clans, Roman, how designated, 354. Classification of letters, 7 ; of verbs, 257 ff. Classis, decl., 102, 4. Clauses, as nouns, gender, 70; prin. and subord., .386, 1; as appositives or predicates, 393, 3; in abl. abs., 489, 6. Substantive clauses, 564 ; as object, 564, I.; 565 ff. ; 671, 3; as subject or predicate, 564, II.; 571, 1 and 2; as appos., 564, III. ; 571, 4. Restrictive clauses w. quod, 591, 3; conditional clauses, 584 ; 585 ; 687 ; adversative, 685; concess. , 686 ; causal, 588; clauses w. cum, 697 ft. ; temp, clauses, 600 ft. ; infin. clauses, 610, 3 ; as obj., 613 ff. ; as subject, 615; relat. clause supplied by particip., 637; prin. clause, 639; prin., in indir. disc, 642; subord., 643; indir., 649. Arrang. of clauses, 681 ff. Clavis, decl., 102, 3. Cliens, decl., 106, 2. Climax, 752, 6. Close vowels, 7, 3. Clothing, constr. w. verbs of, 407. -clum, -culum, -cula, verbal nouns in, 336. Cognate ace, 409. Cognomen, 354, 3 and 4. Cognoscor, constr., 611, 2, N. 2. Cogo, constr., 418, 3. Coins, Roman, 757. -cola, compds. in, 369, 3. Collecting, constr. w. verbs of, 418, 3. Collective nouns, 62, 2 ; w. plural verbs, 389, 1. CoUooo, constr., 418, 3. Colon, 726. Colus, decl., 133, 2. Com, con, co, in compds., 374, 6; w. dat., 429. Coming together, constr. w. verbs of, 418, 3. Comltlum, sing, and plur., 140. Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1; subj. w. verbs of, 565; 614, 1; infin. w. verbs of, 614. Commands, subj. and imperat. in, 559, 2 ; 660 ff.; fut. Imperat. in, 560, 4; in indir. discourse, 642, 4 and 5. Commlseresclt, constr., 457, 5. Commlseror, constr., 467, 2. Common nouns, 62, 2. Common sylla- bles, 14, 3 ; 690. Communis w. dat., or gen., 461, 2, N. 1. Commuto, constr., 478, 4. Compar. conjuncs., 316, 2; compar. de- gree, 149 ; decl. of, 127 ; wanting, 156 ; formed by magls, 159; compar. w. gen., 442; w. abl., 471; 479, 1; w. quam, 471, 1; 499; w. rel., 510, 4. Meaning of comparatives, 498. Comparative view of conjugations, 218 ff. Comparison of adjs., 149 flf. ; termina- tional, 160 ff. ; adverbial, 150; 169; endings, 161 ft. ; irregular, 152 ft. ; de- fective, 155 ff. Comparison of advs., 311. Comparison, condit. clauses of, 584. Dat. w. verbs of comparison, 428,3; abl., 479, 2. Compleo, constr., 458, 2; 477, II., 1. Compmres, decl., 127, 4; defective, 144. Compos, OS in, 699; quant, of increm., 707. Composition of words, 319; 369 ft ; preps, in, 374 ; 375. GENERAL INDEX ill Compound words, how formed, 309 ff. : pronunciation, 13, 3; syntactic com- pounds, 371, 2; compd. nouns and adjs., 372; verbs, 373; quant, in, 749, IV. Compd. sentences, 377, 2 ; ele- ments, 385 ff. ; compd. verbs w. ace, 406; w. two aces., 413; w. dat., 429. Comp. meters, 74G. Conatus, conatum, decl., 145, 5. Concealing, verbs of, w. two aces., 411. Concession expressed by partioip., 638, 2. Concessive conjuncs., 316, 4; concess. subj., 559, 3; concess. clauses, 586; concess. subj. w. relat., 593, 2 ; w. oura, 597 ; 598 ff. ; position of, 683, 2, N. Condemning, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Condition, derivatives denoting, 344. Condit. expressed by imperat., 560, 3; by particip., 575, 9; 638, 2. Conditional conjuncs., 316, 3. Condit. sentences, 572 ff. ; three classes, 573 ff. ; condit. assumed as real, 573 ; 574 ; as possible, 573 ; 576 ; as contrary to fact, 573 ; 579 ; general, 578 ; deviations from reg. forms, 580 ff . ; condit. clauses ofcomparison,584; condit. adversative clauses, 585 ; relat. clauses, 593, 1 ; in indir. disc, 646 ff. ; position, 683, 2, N. Confido w. aW:; 476, 3. Confltendum est, constr., 611, 2, N. 3. Confundo w. abl., 474, 2. Conjugation of verbs, 201 ff. ; of sum, 205. First conj., 206 ff., 257 ff.; second, 209 ff. ; 260 ff. ; third, 212 ff. ; 268 ff. ; fourth, 215 ff. ; 284 ff. i- verbs of conj. III., 225 ff.; periphrastic, 236 ff. ; peculiarities in, 238 ff. Irreg. verbs, 290 ff. ; defect., 299 ff.; impers., 302. Comparative view, 218 ff. Increm. of conj., 703 ff. ; quant, of, 711 ff. Conjunctions, 314 ff. ; coordinate, 315 ; 657 ; subordinate, 316 ; omitted, 657, 6 ; position in sentence, 677. Conscius w. gen. and dat., 4.')1, 2, n. 2 ; 453, 3. Conscius mihl sum w. in- fin., 613, 3. Consecutive conjuncs., 316, 6. Consonant stems in nouns, 95 ff. ; con- sonant verbs, 212 ff. Consonants, classes of , 7 ; 8 ; 44 ff . ; double, 7, n. ; sounds, 12; assimila- tion, 53 ff. ; partial assim., 55; dis- similation, 56 ; consonants lost, 57 ff . HARK. LAT. GRAM. 28 Constltuo, constr.,, 418, 3; 565, 5. Consul, decl., 99. Consulo, constr., 411, 2; boni con- sulere, 447, 1. Contendo w. dat., 429, 5. Contention, dat. w. verbs of, 428, 3. Contentus w. abl., 476, 1. Context, effect of, on position, 669. Continuing, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Contra w. ace, 420, 2. Contraction of vowels, 42 ff. ; quant, of syllables in contraction, 687 ; 749, II. Contraho, constr., 418, 3. Contrarius w. gen. or dat., 451, 2, N. 1. Couvenio, constr., 418, 3. Convicting, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Convoco, constr., 418, 3. Coordinate conjs., 314, 1; 315; 657 ff. Copia, sing, and plur., 140. Copia est w. infin., 608, 4, N. 2. Copulative conjuncs., 315, 1; 657; omit- ted, 657. 6. Cor, defect., 141, 2 ; o in, 691, 3. Coram w. abl., 490, 2. Cornu, decl., 131. Corpus, decl., 101. Correlative prons., 189. Cos, defect., 141,2. Costing, abl. w. verbs of, 478, 1. Cottidie,loc., 134,2, N. Cotys, decl., 110. Countries, gend. of names of, 69; constr., 419,3. Credibilis w. supine, 635, 1. Credltur, constr.. Oil, 2, N. 3. Cretic, 721, 2, N. 1. Crimine, constr., 456, 2. -crum, verbal nouns in, 335. Cubile, decl., 103. Cuias, possess, pron., 176, 4. Cuius, a, um, possess, interrog., 176, 3. -cula, -culum, verbal nouns in, 335. -cuius, -cula, -culum, diminutives in, 340; u in, 712, 9. Cum, prep., appended, 175, 7; 182,2; com in compds., 374, 5. Cum w. abl., 490, 2; of accompaniment, 473, 1 ; of manner, 473, 3 ; w. reflex, prons., 504, 5 ; w. idem, 508, 5. Cum (quom), 316, 1 and 7; w. plup. indie, 539, 2; clauses w., 597 ff. ; causal and concess., 598; 599; tem- poral, 600; cum Inversum, 600, I., 418 GENERAL INDEX 1; cum w. infin., 643, 2. Turn . . . cum, 601, 2 ; cum . . . tum, 657, 4, N. 1. Cuncti w. part, gen., 442, 2. -cundus, derivatives in, 328, 5. Cupiens w. dat. of possessor, 430, 2. Cuplo w. ace, or dat., 426, 4, N. Curo, constr., 566, 2; w. gerundive, 622. -cus, derivatives in, 330, 1 ; 350. Cyclic dactyl, 723, 3 ; anapaest, 723, 4. D D for original t, 62, 2: assimilated, 53, 1 and 2 ; 54, 1 ; lost, 58, 4 ; 59, 1 ; in old abl.,'79, 4; 84, 1; 107, 6; in pro- nouns, 175, 6 ; 179. Quant, of monosyl. in, 691, 2 ; of final syllables in, 692, 2. Dactyl, 721, 1; cyclic, 723, 3; effect of dactyls, 735, 2. Dactylic verse, 729, 1 ; 734 ; hexameter, 731 ff . ; pentameter, 739 ; tetrameter, 739, 2 ; trimeter, 739, 3. Damma, gend., 78, 5. Damno, constr., 456, 4. Dapis, defect., 142. Daring, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Dative, Decl. I., 80, 2; Decl. III., 107, 2 and 6; 110, 5 and 9; Decl. IV., 131, 2 and 4; Decl. V., 134, 2 and 4; dat. wanting, 141 ff. Dative, Syntax of, 422 ff. ; dat. for ace, 419, 4; in exclam., 421,4; w. verbs, 424 ff. ; in poetry, 428; w. compds., 429 ; of possessor, 430 ; of agent, 431 ; ethical, 432; two dats., 433; w. adjs., 434; w. nouns and adverbs, 436; w. refert and interest, 449, 1, n. ; pred. noun, or adj. in, 612, 3 ; of gerund and gerundive, 627 ; of supine, 035, 3. Days of month, how numbered, 754; Roman day, divisions of, 756. De in compds. w. dat., 429 ; de w. abl., 490, 2 ; to denote time, 487 ; w. gerund and gerundive, 629; w. abl., for gen., 444. Dea, decl., 80, 2. Dear, dat. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 2. Debeo in conclusion, 583 ; w. pres. in- fin., 618, 2. Decerns, constr., 565, 5. Deciding, constr. w. verbs of, 565, 6. Declarative sentence, 377, 3; in indir. disc, 642. Declaring, constr. w. verbs of, 613. Declension, 74 ; first, 78 ff. ; second, 82 ff . ; third, 94 ff. ; fourth, 131 ff . ; fifth, 134 ff. ; of numerals, 166. E in Decl. I. and v., 696, 1. Increm. of decl., 702 ff. ; quant, in, 705 ff . Decreeing, subj. w. verbs of, 565. Dedoceo, constr., 411, 2. Defective nouns, 138 ff. Def. compari- son, 155 ff. Def. verbs, 299. Defining gen., 440, 4. Deiero (iuro), e in penult, 719. Deinde in series, 657, 4, n. 2. Delecto, constr., 426, 2, N. Deliberative subj., 559, 4. Delib. ques- tions, 642, 3. De-linquo, i in perf. and p. part., 749, VII. Delivering, gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Delos, decl., 89; OS in, 699. Demanding, constr. w. verbs of, 411, 4. Demonstrative prons., 177 ff. ; agree- ment, 394, 1; in agreement w. infin., 615, 3. Demon, adverbs, 507, 7. Posi- tion of demon., 675. Denarius, 757. Denique in series, 657, 4, n. 2. Denominatives, 334, 4; denom. verbs, 368; denom. inceptives, 277, 3; 280. Dentals, 7 ; 8, 1 ; 46. Dental stems, Decl. ill., 97. Depello, constr., 464, 1. Dependent clauses, 386, 1. Deponent verbs, 192, 2; 222 ff. ; prin. parts of, 257, 1 ; 266 ; 281 ff . ; 283 ; 289 ; use, 518, 3; 619, 4. Depriving, constr. w. verbs of, 462. Derivation of words, 319 ff. Derivatives, primary, 324, 2 ; 328 ff. ; secondary, 324, 3; 339 ff.; quant, in, 712 ; 718 ; 749, III. Descent, names of, 342. Descriptive gen., 440, 3; as pred. gen., 447. Desideratives, 288; 366. DesinS, constr., 458, 4. Desire, subj. of, 551, II.; 558. Desiring, gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 1; w. verbs of, 458, 1 ; subj. w. verbs of, 565 ; infin. w. verbs of, 607, 1 ; 614. Despero, constr., 405, 1, n. GENERAL INDEX 419 Destitute of, constr. w. adjs. meaning, 465. Desum, synizesis in, 733, 3, N. 1. Deterior, compar., 155, 1. Deterius, adv., 311, 3. Determinative prons., 180; use, 508 ff. Determinat. compds., 372, 1. Determining, subj. w. verbs of, 565; subj., or infin., 565, 5 ; infin., 607, 1. Deterreo, constr., 568, 8 ; 596, 2. Deus, decl., 83, 9. -dex, compds. in, 369, 3. Dexter, decl., 92, 3; compar., 152, 2. Di, dis, insep. prep., 313 ; 375, 3. Diaeresis, 728, 2; 733, 4, N. 2; bucolic, 736,2. Dialysis, 733, 4. Diana, i in, 689, 3. Diastole, 733, 5. Die for dice, 211 and 1. Dioo omitted, 388, 5; w. dat., 426, 1, N. 2 ; i in dictum, 749, VI., 1. Dicolon, 728, 2, n. 1. Dicor, constr., 611, N. 1. Dicto audiens, oboediens, 433, 4. -dicus, compds. in, 369, 4 ; compar., 153. Dido, decl., 110, 3. Dies, decl., 131 ; gend., 135 ; i in compds. of, 719, 3. Difference, abl. of, 479. Differing, dat. w. verbs of, 427 ; 428, 2. Difticllis, compar., 152, 3; w. dat., 434, 2 and footnote 1 ; w. supine, 635, 1. Dignor, constr., 481, 2. Dignus, w. abl., 481; w. gen., 481, 1; w. infin.^ 608, 4, N. 1. Dignus qui w. subj., 591, 7. Diiambus, 721, 2, N. 1. Dimeter, 729, N. 2 ; trocbaic, 741 ; iambic, 743, 6 ; Ionic, 744. Diminutives, 340; signif., 341; dimin. verbs, 367. Diphthongs, 9 ; 11 ; inherited, 20 ; qualit. changes in, 32 ff. ; quant, of syllab. w. diph., 687 ; final diph. elided, 733, 1 ; shortened in hiatus, 733, 2, n. Dipody, 721, 2, n. 2; trochaic, 740; iambic, 742. Direct object, 404 ff. Direct disc, 641 ; changed to indir., 653. Directing, constr., w. verbs of, 565, 4. Direction, how expressed, 428, 1 ; comp. verbs denoting, constr. of, 429, 3. Dis, quant, of increm., 709. Dis, di, insep. prep., 313; 375, 3. Discourse, dir. and indir., 641 ff. ; moods and tenses in indir., 642 ff.; dir. changed to indir., 653. Disjunctive conjuncs., 315, 2; 668. Dis- junctive questions, 380. Displeasing, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Dissenting, dat. w. verbs of, 427. Dissimilation of"consonants, 56. Dissimllls, compar., 152, 3; constr., 434, 2 and footnote; 435, 4 and foot- note 2; 451, 2, N. 1. Distance, abl. of, 417, 3; expressions of, w. quin, 595, 1. Distich, 731, N. ; elegiac, 739, 1. Di-stinguo, i in stem of perf. and p. part., 749, VII. Distributives, 162 ff.; use of, 164; decl., 109. Distrusting, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Ditrochee, 721, 2, n. 1. Dili, compared, 311, 4. Dius, i in, 689, 3. Diuturnus, compar., 157, 2. Diversus, compar., 156. -do, decl. of nouns in, 100, 2. Verbal nouns in do, 337. Do, constr., 426, 5, n.; w. two dats., 433, 2; w. gerundive, 622; a in in- crem., 711, 1 ; e in dedi, a in datum, 715, 1. Dare litteras, 426, 5, N. Doceo, constr., 411, 2 and 3. Doleo, w. ace, 405, 1, N. Domus, geud., 133, 1 ; constr., 419, 1 ; domo, 462, 4; domi, 484, 2. D5nec, 316, 1; In temp, clauses, 603; 604, 2 ; e in, 692, 2, N. Dono, constr., 426, 6 ; w. two dats., 433, 2. Double consonant, 7, n. ; length of syl- lable before, 688. Double questions, 380; indirect, 650. Quant, before doubled cons., 692, 3, N. 3. Doubt, expressions of, w. quin, 595, 1. Dropping of vowels, 40; consonants, 57 ff. Dt changed to st, ss, s, 52, 1 ; 253, 1. Dual number, p. 64, footnote 1. Dubito, dubium est, constr., 595, 1; 5