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Cornell University Library 
 SD 536.K77 
 
 Guidebook for the identification of wood 
 
 3 1924 002 988 388 
 
Ui30. RI^l Issued Oetob«r U, 1917. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 FOREST SERVICE 
 
 HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester 
 
 GUIDEBOOK 
 
 FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS 
 
 USED FOR TIES AND TIMBERS 
 
 BT 
 
 ARTHUR KOEHLER 
 
 XXPERT IN WOOD IDENTIFICATION 
 
 FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OITIOE 
 
 1917 
 
FOREST SERVICE, 
 
 HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. 
 ALBERT F. POTTER, Associate Forester. 
 
 BRANCH OF RESEARCH. 
 
 Eablb H. Clapp, Assistant Forester, in charge. 
 
 Forest Products Laboratory. 
 
 Caelile p. Winslow, Director. 
 Ovid M. Bxjtler, Assistant Director. 
 
 SECTION OP TIMBER PHYSICS. 
 
 H. D. TiEMANN, in charge. 
 Arthur Eoehler. 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002988388 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate I. 
 
 
 
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Misc. RL— 1 Issued October 15, 1917. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 FOREST SERVICE 
 
 HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester 
 
 GUIDEBOOK 
 
 FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS 
 
 USED FOR TIES AND TIMBERS 
 
 BY 
 
 ARTHUR KOEHLEE 
 
 EXPERT IN WOOD IDENTIFICATION 
 
 FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE 
 
 1917, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction 3 
 
 A brief discussion of wood structure 4 
 
 Annual rings 4 
 
 Structure of hardwoods 5 
 
 Pores - 5 
 
 Wood fibers 6 
 
 Wood parenchyma cells 6 
 
 Medullary rays. 6 
 
 Structure of conifers 7 
 
 Tracheids , 7 
 
 Resiu ducts 7 
 
 Wood pajrenchjrma or resin cells 8 
 
 Medullary rays 8 
 
 Sapwood and heartwood 9 
 
 Bark 10 
 
 Pith 10 
 
 Physical properties useful in identifying woods 11 
 
 Color 11 
 
 Odor 11 
 
 Taste , 12 
 
 Weight ; 12 
 
 How to proceed in identifying wood 13 
 
 The distribution maps aid in identification 15 
 
 How to use the keys 17 
 
 Key for the identification of woods without the aid of a hand lens » 19 
 
 Hardwoods 19 
 
 Conifers 23 
 
 Key for the identification of woods wilh the aid of a hand lens 27 
 
 Hardwoods 27 
 
 Conifers 35 
 
 Description of hardwoods 36 
 
 Description of conifers 59 
 
 Appendix 73 
 
 A method of distinguishing long'eaf fr .m shortleaf and loblolly pine ties . 73 
 2 
 
GUIDEBOOK FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF 
 WOODS USED FOR TIES AND TIMBERS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The purpose of this guidebook is to point out the differences which 
 are of practical value in the identification of the various species of 
 native woods Tised for ties and timbers. It is intended .primarily for 
 inspectors; but since it includes most of our commercial species, it 
 wlU, no doubt, be serviceable to others. 
 
 The identification of wood by general appearance requires long 
 experience and is a method difficult or impossible to describe to an 
 inexperienced man. Furthermore, with the growing use of wood 
 preservatives and the closer utilization of our forest resources the 
 nimiber of species used for ties is increasing, and inspectors are called 
 upon to be familiar with a larger number of woods. Experienced 
 inspectors may be able to determine the kind of wood in most of the 
 ties they commonly handle by the color and general character of the 
 wood; but in case of doubt as to the species it is necessary to look 
 for more specific distinctions. 
 
 The structure of wood offers the most rehable means for its identi- 
 fication, though odor, taste, weight, and hardness may be helpful. 
 A detailed study of wood structure requires the use of a high-power 
 microscope, which is impracticable for field work, such as the inspec- 
 tion of ties. However, by observing such characteristics of woods 
 as can be seen with the naked eye, or, better yet, with a hand lens, 
 a very satisfactory scheme of identification can be worked out. 
 
 Two keys which provide systematic aid in identifying wood are 
 included in this guide. The keys are followed by a more detailed 
 description of the woods, together with photomicrographs ^ of the 
 cross sections of the woods magnified 15 diameters and maps show- 
 ing the range of each species described. Before using the keys or 
 consulting the descriptions of the woods, however, it is necessary 
 to understand the common terms used when speaking of the structure 
 of wood. The following explanation of these terms is confined to 
 such details as will assist in recognizing the elements, or cells, in the 
 illustrations, and later in the wood itself.^ 
 
 1 The photomicrographs are made by light passing through thin sections of wood. By this method the 
 cells can be shown more clearly than by photographing the end of a piece of wood by reflected light. 
 
 2 For a detailed discussion of wood structure see Division of Forestry Bulletin 10, "Timber." It may be 
 obtained! from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, for 10 
 cents; stamps not accepted. 
 
 3 
 
IDENTIFICATION" OF "WOODS. 
 
 A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF WOOD STRUCTURE. 
 
 Wood is composed of cells similar to those of a honeycomb, but 
 the "wood cells are very much smaller, they vary more in size and 
 shape, and are, "with the exception of true vessels, closed at both ends. 
 The relative size and arrangement of the cells is fairly constant in 
 the "wood of each species but varies in different species, and forms a 
 rehable means of distinguishing one wood froni another. 
 
 ANNUAL RINGS. 
 
 Each year a tree adds just beneath the bark a layer of wood on 
 the outside of that previously formed. In trees grown in a temper- 
 ate climate the cells formed at the beginning of each year's growth 
 
 are larger than those formed later in the 
 season. This difference in the size of the 
 cells makes a sharp contrast between the 
 last wood formed during a season and the 
 first wood formed the next spring, thus 
 producing a definite boundary for each 
 year's growth. On a transverse surface 
 these well-defined layers of wood appear 
 as concentric bands, known as annual 
 rings. 
 
 The soft, open wood formed in the 
 spring is known as the springwood and 
 the harder and denser wood formed later 
 in the season is known as the summerwood. 
 (See Plate I.) In some woods (classed 
 as diffuse-porous woods), such as birch, 
 maple, and gum, the distmction between 
 springwood and summerwood is not clear. 
 Sonae species, such as the red oaks, cot- 
 ton wood, willow, catalpa, and loblolly 
 pine, usually have wido annual rings, and others, such as the white 
 oaks, sugar maple, arborvitse, and longleaf pine, habitually have 
 narrow rings; but it is not ad"dsable to place too much emphasis 
 on the width of the rings in identifying wood. Rate of growth, which 
 determines the "width of the rings, is largely dependent in any species 
 upon the soil, cHmate, and forest in which it grows. 
 
 Wood can be cut in three distinct planes with respect to the annual 
 rings. The end surface of a piece of wood shows a cross section of 
 the annual layers of growth. This is also known as the transverse 
 surface.. (See fig. 1.) It shows the size and arrangement of the 
 cells better than any other surface. The illustrations of various 
 species in the back of this handbook are all reproductions of 
 photographs of cross sections.' When wood is cut lengthwise 
 
 Fig. 1.— a block of wood showing, Tr, 
 tranverse, or end surface; R, radial, 
 or "quartered" surface; Ta, tangen- 
 tial, or "bastard" surface. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 5 
 
 through the center or pith of the tree, the surfaces exposed are 
 
 kno-wii as the radial, or "quartered," surfaces. A longitudinal 
 
 surface which does not pass through the center is known as the 
 
 tangential, or "bastard," surface. Plain sawed lumber is tangen- 
 
 tially cut. Teclonically, a tangential surface is at right angles to 
 
 the radius. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF HARDWOODS. 
 
 PORES. 
 
 Pores are hoUow tubes composed of comparatively large cells with 
 open ends, set one above the other. Technically they are known as 
 vessels. Pores are confined almost entirely to the hardwoods,^ or 
 woods from broad-leaved trees. For this reason the hardwoods are 
 also called porous woods. In the conifers the ceUs are aU closed at 
 the ends, and do not form vessels. For this reason, the conifers 
 are classed as nonporous- woods. (See Plate I and plates in the back 
 of this guidebook.) 
 
 In coarse-textured or so-caUed "open-grain" ^ woods, such as oak, 
 ash, and walnut, some of the pores are plainly visible to the unaided 
 eye; but in finer-textured woods, such as beech, maple, and bass- 
 wood, they are visible only with a good hand lens. 
 
 In some hardwoods the pores are comparatively large at the 
 beginning of each annual ring, and decrease in size more or less 
 abruptly toward the smnmerwood, thus forming a distinct porous 
 ring in the springwood. Such woods are classed as ring-porous 
 woods. Oak, chestnut, ash, and elm are examples of this class. In 
 other hardwoods the pores are of practically uniform size throughout 
 the annual ring, or decrease shghtly toward the outer portion of the 
 smnmerwood. Such woods are known as diffuse-porous woods. 
 Birch, gum, poplar, and maple are examples of this class. The 
 pores in the summerwood of ring-porous woods are arranged in 
 various ways. These variations are described in the keys and aid 
 in classifying the woods according to structure. 
 
 Tyloses. — The pores of some woods, except those in the outer 
 sapwood, are filled with a frothhke growth called tyloses. These are 
 
 1 Tho terms hardwoods and softwoods or conifers are not exactly correct designations for the two large 
 classes of woods; for some soKalled softwoods are harder than some so-called hardwoods, and some so-called 
 conifers do not bear cones. Other designations, such as porous and nonporous woods, woods from deciduous 
 and woods from evergreen trees, woods from broad-leaved trees and woods from trees with needle or scale- 
 like leaves, are also inexact because exceptions are found In both classes. The botanical terms angiosperms 
 (meaning seeds inclosed in an ovary) for hardwoods, including palmlike trees, and gymnosperms (meaning 
 seeds not inclosed in an ovary) for softwoods or conifers are correct but are not in common usage. To obviate 
 the use of the word softwoods in distinction from hardwoods and yet use simple terms understood by all, 
 the words hardwoods and conifers will be used in this publication to designate the two large classes of woods. 
 
 2 " Texture" is used in preference to "grain ''to indicate the size of the pores in hardwoods, or the tracheids 
 in conifers, as fine-textured and coarse-textured. Woods in which there is a decided difference in the 
 density of the springwood and sunmierwaod are said to have an uneven texture; others, in which the density 
 is more uniform, are said to have an even texture. "Grain" is used with respect to the direction of the 
 fibers, as straight grain, cross or interlocked grain, and bird's-eye grain; it does not refer to the width of the 
 annual rings, nor to the size of the pores or tracheids. 
 
6 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 formed by ingrowths from the neighboring cells (parenchyma), and 
 fill the pores more or less hke so many toy balloons crowded into 
 an air shaft. (See the oak cube ia Plate I.) Tyloses are especially 
 abimdant in black locust, osage orange, mulberry, and the white- 
 oak group. 
 
 WOOD FIBERS. 
 
 Most of the denser, harder part of hardwoods is composed of very 
 narrow, comparatively long, thick-walled cells known as wood fibers. 
 As a rule, these fibers are too small to be separately distinguished 
 with a hand lens, and their arrangement is rarely used for identifica- 
 tion purposes.. The conifers have no true wood fibers. (See 
 Tracheids, p. 7.) 
 
 WOOD PARENCHYMA CELLS. 
 
 Wood parenchyma cells are cdniparatively short, usually thin- 
 waUed cells too small to be seen individually without a compound 
 microscope. Collectively, they may be recognized on the cross 
 section by the light-colored tissue they form. In some hardwoods the 
 parenchjrma cells are so scattered that they are not noticeable; for 
 example, ia cottonwood, ehn, and maple. In hickory and per- 
 simmon they form fine light- colored tangential lines. In some 
 species the parenchyma surrounds the pores causing a "halo" to 
 appear around them, as in sassafras and black ash. Ia white and 
 green ash the parenchyma surroimds the pores and projects in 
 tangential lines. In yellow poplar and the magnolias the parenchyma 
 is confined to a narrow layer on the outer portion of each annual ring. 
 
 Pith flecks are abnormal groups of parenchyma cells appearing on 
 the end surface of some woods as small discolored spots, and as 
 darkened streaks on the longitudinal surface. They are caused by 
 larvse of insects burrowing ia the young wood under the bark, the 
 passages being later filled up by parenchyma cells. Pith flecks are 
 very abimdant in river birch (the illustration in PI. XVII, fig. 2, shows 
 one pith fleck at the lower edge) and are also found in cottonwood, 
 cherry, red and silver maple, basswood, and a few other species. The 
 presence or absence of pith flecks should not be relied upon too 
 much in identifying woods. However, if a piece of birch is found to 
 contain nimierous pith flecks, it is a good indication that the specimen 
 is not sweet or yellow birch. If the flecks are found abundantly in 
 a piece of maple, it indicates that the specimen is not sugar maple. 
 
 MEDULLARY RAYS. 
 
 MeduUary rays, also known as pith rays or rays, are narrow bands of 
 cells extending radially in a tree, from the bark inward at right angles 
 to the grain. (See Plate I.) Some of the rays in the oaks are com- 
 
 I For a detailed discussion of the cause and occiu'rence of pith flecks, see Forest Service Circular 215, 
 "Pith-ray Flecks in Wood." This may be obtained I'rom the Superintendent of Documents, Government 
 Printing OfBce, Washington, D. C, for 6 cents; stamps not accepted. 
 
IDENTinCAnON OF "WOODS. 7 
 
 paratively wide and conspicuous, giving the beautiful "silver grain" 
 to quartered oak. They are also very plain in sycamore, beech, 
 maple, and cherry. In some woods they are so fine that they are 
 inconspicuous on the radial surface and not visible on the end 
 surface without a lens. Cottonwood, buckeye, chestnut, and cotton 
 gum ortupelo are woods of this class. The width of the medullary rays 
 is often an important aid in distinguishing one wood from another. 
 
 In some woods the rays are arranged in tiers or stories one above 
 the other, appearing on the tangential surface as very fine bands 
 running across the grain. Moistening the surface brings out these 
 bands more clearly in some woods. This arrangement of the rays is 
 known as storied rays. It is characteristic of buckeye and serves to 
 distinguish it from other light woods, and also of persimmon, which 
 can thereby easily be distinguished from hickory, which it resembles. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF CONIFERS. 
 
 Conifers differ in structure from hardwoods in the absence of pores 
 and true wood fibers, the radial arrangement of the fibrous cells 
 (tracheids), and the presence of resin ducts or resin cells in some 
 groups. (See Plate I.) 
 
 TRACHEIDS. 
 
 Most of the wood of the conifers is made up of tracheids, which are 
 elongated cells that take the place of both the pores and the wood 
 fibers of hardwoods. The tracheids are narrower in cross section 
 than most pores and wider than most wood fibers of the hardwoods. 
 With a good hand lens, a smoothly cut end surface, and good light, 
 the tracheids can be seen in most coniferous woods. They are 
 practically uniform in tangential diameter and are arranged in 
 definite radial rows. In the outer part of each aimual ring the 
 tracheids become somewhat flattened radially and thicker walled, 
 producing a harder and darker band of summerwood. In the hard 
 pines, larches, and Douglas fir, the summerwood is very conspicuous 
 and because of its density adds greatly to the strength of the wood. 
 
 RESIN DUCTS. 
 
 The woods of the pines, spruces, larches, or tamaracks, and 
 Douglas fir contain resin dupts, which are more or less continuous 
 passages extending parallel ' to the grain, vertically, and, within 
 certain medullary rays at right angles to the grain, horizontally in a 
 tree. The vertical resin ducts may be seen with a lens, and in some 
 of the pines usually without a lens, on a smoothly cut end surface, 
 where they appear as darker or lighter colored specks or small pores. 
 They should not be confused with the pores or vessels of hardwoods, 
 which are much more numerous and serve an entirely different 
 purpose. The horizontal resin ducts are smaller than the verti(;al 
 
8 IDEXTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 ducts and are not easily seen witli a hand lens. (See Medullary 
 Rays, below.) 
 
 Pitch pockets, resin streaks, and exudations of resin on an end sur- 
 face are a positive indication of the presence of resin ducts, and do not 
 occur in hemlock, cedar, cypress, redwood, and the true firs.^ The 
 absence of such accumulations of resin, however, does not necessarily 
 mean the absence of resin ducts in the wood. Resin will not exude, 
 as a rule, on cuts made after the wood is seasoned, but warming 
 pieces of pine, Douglas fir, tamarack, and spruce in an oven wiU 
 usually cause enough resin to exude on the ends to form specks, 
 thereby indicating the presence of resin ducts. This is especially 
 true of the pines and Douglas fir. On a longitudinal surface exposed 
 to the air for some time the resin ducts often appear as brownish 
 lines. This is especially characteristic of the pines. 
 
 Western hemlock, redwood, and some of the true firs occasionally 
 develop abnormal vertical resin ducts in places where the tree has 
 been injured. In such cases the ducts usually are in tangential rows 
 from one-eighth to an inch or more in length. (See illustration of 
 white fir, PI. XXVIII, fig. 2.) 
 
 WOOD PAEENCHYMA OR KESIN CELLS. 
 
 Wood parenchyma in conifers is scarce. It forms a layer of one or 
 two cells around the resin ducts, but is inconspicuous and not used in 
 making identifications without a high-power microscope. 
 
 In cypress and redwood, parenchyma cells (usually referred to as 
 resin cells), containing a brownish gum, are scattered throughout the 
 annual rings. (See illustrations of cj'press, PI. XXX, fig. 2, and of 
 redwood, PI. XXX, fig. 1.) In redwood they are not easily noticed 
 because of the dark color of the wood ; in cypress they are often con- 
 spicuous, especially on longitudinal surfaces, where they appear as 
 dark lines or bands. Resin cells are also found in the cedars, but 
 usually they are more scattered. 
 
 MEDULLARY RAYS. 
 
 The rays in conifers are very narrow, excepting those containing 
 horizontal resin ducts, which are slightly wider. These wi^er rays 
 are termed fusiform rays and are found only in the pines, spruces, 
 larches, and Douglas fir. (See illustrations of western yellow pine, 
 PI. XXIII, fig. 2, and Engelmann spruce, PI. XXVI, fig. 1, and Plate 
 I.) The fusiform rays occasionally help to determine the presence 
 of resin ducts, especially in the spruces and larches, in which the ver- 
 tical resin ducts are sometimes not easily found. On the radial 
 surface the horizontal resin ducts may often be recognized as brown- 
 ish lines, especially in the pines. 
 
 1 Resinous scars may appear locally in these woods, because of injuries inflicted on the growing tissues 
 of the tree. 
 
IDENTIFICAnOK OF \rOODS. 
 
 SAPWOOD AND HEARTWOOD. 
 
 The end surface of a log usually shows an outer lighter colored 
 region, the sapwood, and an inner darker core, the heartwood. AU 
 young wood is light-colored; but as the tree becomes older the inner 
 part becomes infiltrated with gums, resins, and other materials the 
 exact nature of which has not been determined, which color the wood 
 to a greater or less degree. 
 
 In some woods the heartwood is very dark, and in others there is 
 Uttle difference in color between the sapwood and heartwood. The 
 spruces, true firs (not Douglas firj, hemlock. Port Oriord cedar, and 
 buckeye belong to the latter class. In lodgepole pine, pinon, cotton- 
 wood, beech (white heart), cotton gum, sycamore, hackberry, and 
 basswood, the heartwood is only slightly darker than the sapwood. 
 The sapwood is often not white but is slightly tinged with the same 
 color that is found in the heart wood. In black locust, honey locust, 
 coffeetree, mulberry, and osage orange the sapwood is pale yellowish. 
 The bark sometimes discolors the sapwood by leaching after the tree 
 is cut. Sap stain imparts a bluish color to the sapwood, especially 
 in the pines, hackberry, sugarberry, and red gum. 
 
 Douglas fir and west«m larch occasionally contain zones of light- 
 colored wood inside the heartwood. These zones are known as 
 internal sapwood. They have been found to take preservative 
 treatment as well as the outer sapwood. 
 
 The width of the sapwood varies with the age and vigor of the 
 tree, the distance from the stump, and the species. Young and 
 vigorous trees have wider sapwood than mature trees, although more 
 annual rings are usually present in the sapwood of old trees because 
 of thair slower growth in diameter. The sapwood decreases in width 
 from the sttunp to the top and often varies in different directions 
 from the center, so that an annual ring may be sapwood in one part 
 of a tree and heartwood in another. 
 
 Certain species normally have very narrow sapwood and others 
 ver\' widesapwood, and this feature often is useful in identifying woods. 
 
 Speries writh very narrow sapwood, 
 usually less than 1 inch wide: 
 Blqck locust. 
 <)sage orange. 
 Red mulberry. 
 Hardy catalpa. 
 iSassai'ras. 
 Coffeetree. 
 Slippery elm. 
 Black ash. 
 Butternut. 
 Black cherry. 
 Western larch. 
 
 Arborvitae (Northern white cedar). 
 Western red cedar. 
 Pinon. 
 
 Species with very wide sapwood: 
 Loblolly pine. 
 Beech (white-heart;. 
 White ash. 
 Green ash. 
 Hackberry. 
 Persimmon. 
 Hickory. 
 Maple. 
 Basswood. 
 
10 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 BARK. 
 
 Occasionally ties have part of the bark left on them, and this is a 
 very valuable aid in identification. The bark varies considerably 
 in appearance from the butt of a tree to the top and in different sizes 
 of the same species. Therefore, it is difficult to describe the bark 
 for each species. Careful observations, however, as to the character 
 of the surface, color, and thickness of barks will go a long way in 
 helping to identify ties. Some trees have fibrous or stringy barks, 
 a few have a papery bark, others have a tight, rather smooth bark, 
 but most trees have a ridged and furrowed bark separating into 
 scales. Many trees have the bark smooth at the top, but rough on 
 the rest of the trunk. 
 
 Trees with stringy outer bark: 
 
 Arborvitae (Northern white cedar). 
 White cedar. 
 
 Trees with rather smooth bark: 
 White birch. 
 Yellow birch. 
 
 Western red cedar. i Svcamore. 
 
 Port Orford cedar. 
 Bald cj-press. 
 Redwood. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Aspen. 
 
 The true firs (Abies), except on very 
 large trunks. 
 
 The bark of all true firs (Abies) has numerous blisters of resin on 
 the surface, thereby distinguishing them from the spruces and, in 
 fact, aU other trees. There are occasional resin blisters on the bark 
 of 3'oun? trees of Engelmann spruce and Douglas fir, but they are 
 not so mmierous and conspicuous as in the true firs. Douglas fir 
 and white fir (Abies concolor) have whitish layers in the bark, while 
 the other firs (with a possible exception of alpine fir (Abies lasio- 
 carpa)) have thin dark layers in the bark similar to those in hemlock 
 bark. Lodgepole pine has httle pockets of resin in the bark, which 
 give it a "pocked" appearance when the bark scales off and distin- 
 guishes it from Engelmann spruce. 
 
 Part of the inner bark is often present on ties and helps to identify 
 a species. It is well known that the inner bark of shppery elm 
 becomes mucilaginous or slimy when chewed. The inner bark of 
 sweet birch, and of yeUow birch to a less extent, has a distinct winter- 
 green flavor, and that of black walnut and of butternut is exceedingly 
 bitter. Some tie inspectors distinguish white oak from red oak ties 
 by the more fibrous inner bark of the white oak. Yellow oak has a 
 yellowish inner bark which distinguishes it from all other oaks used 
 for ties. 
 
 PITH. 
 
 The pith is a small core iii the structural center of the stem. It is 
 usuall}^ of a darker color than the surrounding wood, but exceptions 
 may be found. The pith is always very soft, being readily indented 
 with the finger nail or pencil point. It varies in size from a core 
 
IDEKTIFICATIOX OF WOODS. 11 
 
 barely visible in cross sections to over one-fourth of an inch in diam- 
 eter. It is valuable in distinguishing longleaf pine from shortleaf 
 and loblolly pine (see Appendix, p. 73). The wood of the coffee- 
 tree is very similar in appearance to that of honey locust, but the 
 coffeetree has a much larger pith than the honey locust. The pith 
 of catalpa is usually distinctly three-cornered; in black ash, the wood 
 of which resembles catalpa, the pith is round. 
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES USEFUL IN IDENTIFYING WOODS. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 The color of wood is useful in the identification of species, but 
 miust not be rehed on entirely, for it is variable in the same species, 
 and in different species it often differs only in shade. Slight varia- 
 tions in color can not be satisfactorily expressed in writing, but com- 
 parison with known samples will often reveal the identity of a speci- 
 men. Most woods turn darker on exposiire to air, therefore compari- 
 sons should always be made on freshly cut longitudinal surfaces. 
 
 Some woods can be identified at once by their color. The small, 
 black heartwood of persimmon, resembling ebony, to which it is 
 closely related, is found in no other native species. The chocolate 
 brown color of black walnut; the lustrous red-brown of cherry; the 
 dingy, reddish brown of red gum; the bright reddish hue of most 
 Douglas fir; the uniform creamy yellow color of buckeye, are usually 
 enough to distinguish these species. 
 
 Osage orange and black locust are much alike in structiire, strength, 
 durability, and color, although the former usually has more of a 
 golden-brownish tinge. These two woods can readily be distinguished 
 by the fact that osage orange gives off a yellowish color if wrapped in 
 a wet rag or placed on a soaked blotter, while black locust gives off 
 practically no color under the same conditions. 
 
 Preservatives, paint, or decay may, of course, so alter the appear- 
 ance of wood that its natural color can not be determined. 
 
 Color is more or less an indication of durability. It is well known 
 
 that the darker woods like redwood, juniper, black walnut, osage 
 
 orange, and black locust, are more durable than such hght-colored 
 
 woods as Cottonwood, maple, ash, beech, white fir, and spruce. Those 
 
 cedars which have no very dark heartwood are an exception, and 
 
 their durabihty is ascribed to certain resins and oils which the wood 
 
 contains. 
 
 ODOR. 
 
 Many woods give off a characteristic odor when they are worked. 
 Therefore, in order to determine the odor of wood, it should be whittled 
 or, better yet, sawed and the sawdust held to the nostrils. The odor is 
 more pronounced in the heartwood than in the sapwood. It is even 
 more difficult to describe odor than color, so that authentic samples 
 for comparison are of far greater value than pages of writing. 
 
12 IDENTIFICATION" OF WOODS. 
 
 Most of the pines have a distinct resinous odor. The cedars have 
 an agreeable odor which reminds one of shingles; Port Orford cedar 
 has a strong spicy odor, very noticeable when the wood is worked. 
 Cypress has a mild rancid odor, which will always help one who is 
 famihar with it to identify this wood no matter what the color or 
 weight may be. Alpine fir has a rank odor when dry which distin- 
 guishes it from all other firs. Among the hardwoods, sassafras is 
 easily recognized by its characteristic fragrance. Some oaks have 
 a soured odor before they are dry. The odor of cottonwood is 
 
 sUghtly disagreeable. 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 Taste is closely associated with odor but sometimes can more 
 easily be recognized. Port Orford cedar has a spicy taste. Cypress 
 and redwood have practically no taste, and through this character- 
 istic can be distinguished from arborvitse and western red cedar, 
 which have a somewhat bitter taste. Sassafras wood tastes like the 
 extract made from its roots and bark. 
 
 WEIGHT 
 
 Wood varies considerably in weight, the variation depending on 
 the species, the conditions under which the wood is grown, the part of 
 the tree from which it is taken, and the amount of moisture it contains. 
 In speaking of the weight of wood, it should be specified whether 
 green, air-seasoned, kiln-dried, or oven-dried wood is meant, and 
 whether the weight is based on the volume when green or after 
 shrinkage has begun. After ties have seasoned for a year or more 
 and the greater part of the moisture has evaporated, the weight may 
 serve to a certain extent to identify the wood. 
 
 The following classification is used in indicating the relative weight 
 of each species described in this guidebook. Since the weight of each 
 species of wood is variable, this classification will be found more 
 descriptive, because it is comparative, than the giving of simply the 
 average weight of each species : 
 
 Very light Up to 19 poimds per cubic foot. 
 
 Light 19 pounds to 22 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Moderately light 22 pounds to 26 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Moderately heavy 26 pounds to 31 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Heavy 31 pounds to 37 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Very heavy 37 pounds to 45 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 Very, very heavy 45 or more pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 In each case the oven-dry weight based on the green voliune is 
 meant. In practice, allowance must be made for the moisture con- 
 tained in the wood, which in ties may add from 15 to 60 per cent to the 
 oven-dry weight. The volume when green may be obtained from 
 green or resoaked specimens, and the oven-dry weight by drying the 
 same specimens m an oven at 212° F. till they cease to lose weight. 
 
rDENTIFICATIOK OF WOODS. IS 
 
 HOW TO PROCEED IN IDENTIFYING WOOD. 
 
 Certain striking physical properties or peculiarities of structure will 
 serve to identify some woods on casual inspection; but when this is 
 not possible, a systematic scheme which points out essential differ- 
 ences in species or groups of woods must be followed. Such a scheme 
 is commonly known as a key. 
 
 Two keys (beginning on pages 19 and 27, respectively) have been 
 prepared, by means of which woods can be "traced down" and their 
 identity determined. The first key is based on such details of the 
 structure as may be seen with the naked eye, supplemented by dif- 
 ferences in color, odor, weight, etc. In the second key such additional 
 differences in the structure of wood as may be seen with a hand lens 
 have been added. Obviously, the second key wiU involve less chance 
 of error in identifying woods than the first key because more differ- 
 ences have been introduced. Therefore, inspectors are urged to 
 become familiar with wood as seen under a hand lens. The photo- 
 graphs of cross sections of wood magnified 
 15 diameters which are inserted in the back 
 of this guidebook together with careful 
 observation of samples of wood correctly 
 named wiU be found iavaluable aids in 'ii^Ss 
 recognizing the finer disttactions between ^ „ . "^\ ... ,, 
 
 *' . => . . Fig. 2.— a good type of hand lens. 
 
 the species. Specknens used for compari- 
 son should be taken from the main body of a tree and not from limbs 
 or stumps, for the structure in these parts is often shghtly different 
 from that in the tnmk. 
 
 Wood which is to be observed for its structure should be cut 
 smoothly across the grain with a very sharp Jcnife. An inspector 
 should provide himself, therefore, with a knife of good quahty, one 
 that will hold its edge well. Sandpapering or otherwise pohshing 
 the surface of wood will obliterate the character of the structm-e 
 rather than make it more distinct. 
 
 He should also provide himself with a good hand lens, or pocket 
 magnifier. Figure 2 is an illustration of a good type. A fairly good 
 lens can be obtained for 11 and an excellent one for $3.50. Cheap 
 lenses give low magnification, poor definition, and must be held 
 closer to the object, thus shutting out the light to a greater extent 
 than is necessary with a better quality lens of the same magnifying 
 power. The magnifying power of the lens should be about. 12 or 15 
 diameters, or from 144 to 225 times in area. 
 
 To get the best results with a lens it should be placed close to the 
 eye and then the object brought up toward the lens till it is clearly 
 visible. Care must be taken that the object examined is well Olmni- 
 nated. One inexperienced in the use of a hand lens is very apt so to 
 
14 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 15 
 
 shade the surface of the wood with his hand, head, or hat that the 
 structure can not be seen distiactly. In order to steady the hands it 
 is best to rest the hand holding the lens on the object to be examined 
 or on the other hand holdiag the object. 
 
 O" o o o O 
 
 OoQoQ ooo°c5^(r) 
 
 
 O°oO°0O°03 060' 
 
 OqOO Od" O 
 
 Fig. 3. — A ring-porous wood with radial 
 arrangement of pores in the summer- 
 wood. 
 
 Fig. 4.— a ring-porous wood with wavy, 
 tangential arrangement of pores la the 
 summerwood. 
 
 The area which is cut smoothly for observation need not be large 
 (about one-half inch square), but should contaia annual rings of 
 average width, preferably not near the center. In very narrow or 
 very wide rings the characteristic structure of the wood is somewhat 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 e 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 e° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 e 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 O9 
 
 e 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 
 o'to 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 Fig. 6.— A ring-porou3 wood without 
 definite arrangement of pores in the 
 summerwood. 
 
 " 
 
 
 s — ' 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 a ° 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 6 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 ° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "•^oo 
 
 e. 
 
 • " • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 
 • 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 Fig. 6.— a diffuse-porous wood. 
 
 modified and does not serve so weU for identification purposes. 
 Shghtly moistening the surface often brings out the features to better 
 advantage. 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION MAPS AID IN IDENTIFICATION. 
 
 The keys can often be simplified by eliminating aU those species 
 that an inspector is sure he wiU not have occasion to inspect in 
 a given locality. The regions in which the species herein described 
 grow are indicated by lines on maps 1 to 11, inclusive.' The 
 
 1 These maps were prepared by Mr. W. H. Lamb and Miss G. E. Wharton, of the Section of Forest Dis- 
 tribution, Forest Service. 
 
16 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Map 2. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 17 
 
 arrows indicate on which side of the line the species is found. If the 
 origin of a piece of wood is known, reference to the maps will often 
 make it clear that it could not be a particular species which it other- 
 wise resembles. For instance, western red cedar and arborvitse are 
 very similar in structure and physical properties but they grow in 
 widely separated regions. 
 
 HOW TO USE THE KEYS. 
 
 It wUl be noticed that the first differences brought out in the keys 
 are based on the presence or absence of visible pores whether observed 
 without a lens as in the first key or with a lens as in the second key. 
 By this means woods can be grouped into two distinct classes, which 
 could not be done so satisfactorily if the main distinctions were based 
 on color, weight, odor, or other physical properties. Further divis- 
 ions are made according to structure or physical properties, whichever 
 shows the more easily observed and reliable differences. 
 
 Let us take, for example, a piece of wood presenting structural 
 features similar to those in the illustration in Plate XIV, figure 1 . If 
 we are without a hand lens and examine the smoothly cut end surface 
 with the naked eye, we find that no pores are visible. This at 
 once throws it into the secohd group of the first key, "II. Pores not 
 visible," page 23. On further examining the end surface we see the 
 meduUary rays very plainly; in fact, they are "comparatively broad 
 and conspicuous." This makes it evident that the wood belongs to 
 group A imder II, and is either sycamore or beech. We notice the 
 rays are "not crowded" and there is a "distinct denser and darker 
 band of summerwood present." The wood is identified as beech. 
 
 If we use a hand lens and the second key, we must class the wood 
 under the first group, "I. Wood with pores," page 27, because pores 
 can be seen with the aid of a lens. The annual rings do not con- 
 tain a definite ring of large pores on the springwood; therefore, it 
 would be classed as "B, Diffuse-porous," page 31. On examining 
 the rays we find that the widest ones are fully two times as wide as 
 the largest pores. (This distinction is more definite than that in 
 the first key, which states that they are "comparatively broad and 
 conspicuous.") Again we come to the alternative that it is either 
 sycamore or beech. If we look carefully with a lens, we find that 
 only part of the rays are broad, the others are much narrower than 
 the pores. (This distinction also is more definite than "rays not 
 crowded" as in the first key.) The wood is again identified as 
 beech and the inspector has reason to feel more confident that his 
 identification is correct because of the finer distinctions brought out 
 with a hand lens. 
 
 The inspector will find the hand lens especially valuable in distin- 
 guishing between the red oaks and the white oaks. 
 96625°— 17 2 
 
18 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Map 3, 
 
IDENTlFICATIOl^ OP WOODS. 19 
 
 It will be noticed that some woods are mentioned more than 
 once in the keys. This arrangement has been found necessary 
 whenever the characteristics of a species place it close to the Hne 
 of demarcation between two groups. In such cases, because of 
 the variability of wood structure and because of the personal inter- 
 pretation that may be given to the keys, the wood may reasonably 
 be classed under either one of the groups under which it occurs in 
 the keys. It is therefore placed in both in order to facilitate 
 identification. 
 
 KEY FOR THE IDENTinCATION OF WOODS WITHOUT THE 
 AID OF A HAND LENS.' 
 
 HARDWOODS. 
 
 I. Pores visible. 
 
 A. Ring-porous; that is, the pores at the beglnniiig of each annual ring are comparatively large, 
 forming a distinct porous ring, and decrease in sfte more or less abruptly toward the summer- 
 wood. See figures 3, 4, and 5. (This feature is often more distinct in the outer sapwood where 
 the pores are more open.) 
 
 1. Summerwood figured with wavy or branched radial bands. See figure 3. 
 
 AA. Many rays broad and conspicuous. Woodheavy to very heavy.. The OAKS, p. 36. 
 
 (a) Wood without reddish tinge. The large pores mostly closed up (exception, 
 
 ohestnutoak) The WHITE-OAK GEOUP, p. 37. 
 
 (b> Wood with reddish tinge, especially near knots. The large pores mostly open 
 
 (exception, black jack oak) The RED-OAK GROUP, p. 39. 
 
 BB. Rays not noticeable. Color grayish brown. Wood moderately light. 
 
 * CHESTNUT, p. 41. 
 
 2. Summerwood figured with short or long wavy tangential lines or bands, in^some woods 
 
 more pronounced toward the outer part of the annual ring. See figure 4. 
 A A . The heartwood not distinctly darker than the sapwood (the sapwood may be darker 
 than the heartwood on account of sap stain). The wavy tangential bands con- 
 spicuous throughout the summerwood. Color yellowish or greenish-gray 
 
 Wood moderately heavy HACKBERRY, p. 43. 
 
 SUGAEBERRY, p. 43. 
 BB . The heartwood distinctly darker than the sapwood. 
 
 (a)-Wood with spicy odor and taste; moderately heavy. Heartwood silvery 
 brown SASSAFRAS, p. 47. 
 
 (b) Wood without spicy odor or taste. 
 
 (aa) Heartwood bright cherry red to reddish brown. Pores in springwood 
 all open and very distinct. Sapwood narrow. Wood very heavy. 
 (a3) Pith large, usually over 0.2 and often about 0.3 inch in diameter. 
 
 COFFEETREE, p. 46. 
 (b3) Pith small, usually under 0.15 and often less than 0.1 inch in 
 
 diameter HONEY LOCUST, p. 45. 
 
 (bb) Heartwood russet to golden brown. Pores entirely closed up except 
 
 in outer sapwood. Sapwood very narrow. 
 
 (a3) Wood from very heavy to very, very heavy and exceedingly hard. 
 
 Tangential bands confined to, or more pronounced in, the outer 
 
 portion of the annual ring. Rays barely distinct. 
 
 (a4) Heartwood golden brown with reddish brown streaks; 
 
 yellowish color imparted in a few minutes to a wet rag or 
 
 blotter , OSAGE ORANGE, p. 43. 
 
 (b4) Heartwood russet brown without reddish brown streaks; 
 color not readily imparted to a wet rag or blotter. 
 
 BLACK LOCUST, p. 44. 
 
 (b3) Wood lighter but still classed as heavy and hard. Tangential 
 
 bands uniformly distributed throughout the summerwood. 
 
 Rays very distinct RED MULBERRY, p. 44. 
 
 1 Unless it is otherwise directed, all observations as to structure should be made on the end surface of 
 rings of average width, cut smoothly with a very sharp knife; and all observations as to color should be 
 made on a freshly cut longltudtoal surface of the heartwood. 
 
20 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 21 
 
 (cc) Heartwood grayish brown. Tangential bands sliort and confined 
 mostly to the outer portion of the summerwood (inconspicuous in 
 black ash). 
 (a3) Sapwood narrow, rarely over three-fourths inch wide. 
 
 (a4) Annual rings mostly wide, especially within the first few 
 inches from the center. Pores containing glistening 
 tyloses. Pith usually three-sided. Wood moderately 
 
 light HAEDY CATALPA, p. 45. 
 
 (b4) Annual rings mostly narrow, even near the center. Pores 
 
 partly filled with tyloses, not glistening. Pith usually 
 
 round. Wood moderately heavy. . .BLACK ASH, p. 47. 
 
 (b3) SapwoodoveraninchjUSuallyseveralincheswide. Woodheavy 
 
 and hard WHITE ASH, p. 46. 
 
 GREEN ASH, p. 47. 
 (dd) Heartwood brown with reddish tinge. Tangential bands long and 
 very conspicuous throughout the summerwood. 
 (a3) Sapwood very narrow. The porous ring of springwood from 2 to 
 4 pores wide. Inner bark slimy when chewed. Wood mod- 
 erately heavy SLIPPERY ELM, p. 42. 
 
 (b3) Sapwood moderately wide, the porous ring of springwood only 
 one pore wide except in very wide rings. 
 
 (a4) Wood heavy. Pores in springwood inconspicuous because 
 comparatively small, not close together, and plugged 
 
 with tyloses CORK ELM, p. 42. 
 
 (b4) Wood moderately heavy. Pores in springwood fairly con- 
 spicuous because larger than in rock elm, close together 
 
 and open WHITE ELM, p. 41. 
 
 3. Summerwood not figured with radial or tangential bands distinctly visible without a lens 
 (fine tangential lines may be seen in hickory and persimmon with a band lens). See 
 figure 5. 
 AA. Sapwood wide, over 2 inches. 
 
 (a) Heartwood black, or brownish black (usually very small). Tangential sur- 
 
 face marked with fine bands which run across the gram and are due to the 
 storied arrangement of the rays. Wood very, very heavy. 
 
 PERSIMMON, p. 48. 
 
 (b) Heartwood reddish brown. Tangential surface not marked with fine cross 
 
 bands. Wood very heavy The HICKORIES, p. 48. 
 
 BB. Sapwood narrow, rarely over three-fourths inch wide. Heartwood grayish brown. 
 
 Wood moderately heavy BLACK ASH, p . 47 . 
 
 B. Diffuse-porous; thatis,noringoflargeporesisforinedat thebeginningof each annualring. See 
 figure 0. 
 
 1. Individual pores plainly visible. 
 
 AA. Tangential surface marked with fine bands which run across the grata and are due 
 to the storied arrangement of the rays. Heartwood black, or brownish black 
 (usually very small). Sapwood wide. Wood very, very heavy and hard. 
 
 PERSIMMON, p. 48. 
 
 BB. Tangential surface not marked with fine cross bands. 
 
 (a) Heartwood reddish brown. Sapwood wide. Wood heavy. 
 
 WATER HICKORY, p. 49. 
 
 (b) Heartwood chocolate brown. Sapwood from moderate in width to narrow. 
 
 Wood heavy and hard BLACK WALNUT, p. 62. 
 
 (c) Heartwood light chestnut brown. Sapwood narrow. Wood moderately 
 
 lightandsoft .^ BUTTERNUT, p. 63. 
 
 2. Individual pores barely visible under conditions of good Ught and a very smoothly cut end 
 
 surface. 
 A.\. Pores not crowded. Heartwood reddish brown. Woodheavy. 
 
 (a) Irmer bark with wintergreen flavor. Pith flecks very rare. 
 
 YELLOW BIRCH, p. 53. 
 SWEET BIRCH, p. 64. 
 
 (b) Inner bark without wintergreen flavor. Pith flecks usuaUy abundant. 
 
 RIVER BIRCH, p. 64. 
 BB. Porescrowded. Heartwood grayish. Woodllght COTTONWOOD, p. 55. 
 
22 
 
 IDENTIFICATIOIT OF WOOPS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ■>--J^^-\S»^r\ 1, Sugar Maple {Acer 
 
 mccharum^ 
 
 ss 
 
 ^y\ 
 
 
 
 V. ^ 
 
 •^\^- ^ ^2. Silver Maple {Acer 
 
 saccha-nnum) . 
 
 ( 
 
 S\. 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 y^ -^ 3. Red Maplo (Acer rw 
 
 iriim). 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •? 4. White Elm ([/imus 
 
 imcricana) . 
 
 J-' 
 
 
 
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 . S 5. Cork Elm ( Wmw« r 
 
 icemosa). 
 
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 s.^^ 6. Slippery Elm ( XJlmu 
 
 s pubescena) . 
 
 
 ba^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 7. Red Mulberry {Mor 
 
 us rubra). 
 
 
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 •c«t.c 
 
 JJO-L.. 
 
 
 
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 Map 5. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 23 
 
 n. Pores not visible. 
 
 A. Rays comparatively broad and conspicuous. Color in various shades of light reddish brown. 
 
 1. The rays crowded. No denser and darker band of summerwood noticeable. Wood usually 
 
 lock-grained; moderately heavy SYCAMOEE, p. 50. 
 
 2. The rays not crowded. A distinct, denser, and darker band of summerwood present. 
 
 Wood usually fairly straight-grained; heavy BEECH, p. 50. 
 
 B. Rays not conspicuous but distinctly visible. 
 
 1. Heartwood deep, rich, reddish brown. Sapwood narrow, usually less than one inch wide. 
 
 Annual rings clearly defined. Rays very distinct. Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 BLACK CHERRY, p. 62. 
 
 2. Heartwood dingy, reddish brown, often with darker streaks. Sapwood moderately wide, 
 
 usually over 1 inch. Annual rings not clearly defined. Rays relatively not very dis- 
 tinct. Wood moderately heavy RED GUM p. 55. 
 
 3. Heartwood light reddish brown. Sapwood wide. Aimual rings clearly defined by a thin, 
 
 darker reddish brown layer. Rays very distinct. 
 AA. Wood heavy and hard; difficult to cut across the grain. Pith flecks very rare. 
 
 SUGAR MAPLE, p. 51. 
 BB. Wood lighter and softer, rather easy to cut across the grain. Pith flecks often 
 
 abundant SILVER MAPLE, p. 61. 
 
 RED MAPLE, p. 52. 
 
 4. Heartwood light yellowish brown with ^greenish tinge. Sapwood usuaRy over 1 inch 
 
 wide. Annual rings clearly defined. Rays fairly distinct. Wood moderately light. 
 
 YELLOW POPLAR, p. 67. 
 
 5. Heartwood creamy brown with occasiorial darker streaks. Sapwood wide and not sharply 
 
 defined from the heartwood. Rays fairly distinct. Woodlight ...BASSWOOD, p. 58. 
 
 C. Rays not distinctly visible. 
 
 1. Aimual rings not clearly divided into a band of soft spriogwood and denser and darker band 
 
 of summerwood and, therefore, not conspicuous. 
 AA. The heartwood distinctly darker than the sapwood. 
 
 (a) Heartwood reddish brown. Wood straight-grained; heavy. 
 
 (aa) Inner bark with wintergreen flavor. Pith flecks rare. 
 
 YELLOW BIRCH, p. 53. 
 SWEET BIRCH, p. 54. 
 (bb)Inner bark without wintergreen flavor. Pith flecks usually abund- 
 ant RIVER BIRCH, p. 64. 
 
 (b) Heartwood grayish brown. 
 
 (aa) Wood cross-grained; moderately heavy. 
 
 BLACK GUM, p. 66. 
 COTTON GUM (Tupelo), p. 57. 
 
 (bb) Wood fairly straight-grained; light COTTONWOOD, p. 65. 
 
 A.A. The heartwood not distinctly darker than the sapwood. 
 ' (a) Wood odorless and tasteless; light and soft. Color yellowish. 
 
 YELLOW BUCKEYE, p. 69. 
 OHIO BUCKEYE, p. 69. 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 
 (b) Wood with spicy odor and taste; moderately light in weight. Color pale 
 
 brown PORT ORFORD CEDAR, p. 68. 
 
 (c) Wood with resinous odor; heavy to very heavy. Color creamy brown. 
 
 PINON (PINE), p. 61. 
 
 2. Annual rings clearly divided into a band of soft springwood and a denser and darker band 
 
 of summerwood. Although the summerwood may not be pronounced, yet the aimual 
 rings are always clearly defined by it. 
 A A. The heartwood distinctly darker than the sapwood . 
 
 (a) Wood "pitchy," as indicated by the resinous odor and by exudations of resin 
 
 at the ends, especially from the sapwood, although on cuts made after the 
 
 wood is seasoned the resin does not come out unless the wood is heated. 
 
 (aa) Heartwood creamy or orange-bro\Tn to reddish brown. Resin ducts 
 
 abundant, visible as minute openings or, more often, as darker or 
 
 lighter colored specks, or as brownish lines on longitudinal surfaces. 
 
 Sapwood widely variable in width The PINES, p. 59. 
 
 (a3) The summerwood inconspicuous and not much harder than the 
 
 springwood The SOFT PINES.' 
 
 (a4) Wood soft and moderately light; straight-grained. An- 
 nual rings of moderate width. Heartwood light reddish 
 
 brown WESTERN WHITE PINE, p. 60. 
 
 LIMBER PINE, p. 61. 
 
24 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 25 
 
 (b4) Wood hard and moderately heavy to very heavy, often 
 
 cross-gramed. Annual rings narrow. 
 
 (a5) Heartwood reddish brown. Tangential surface has 
 
 numerous slight depressions which give it a dimpled 
 
 appearance especially noticeable on split surfaces. 
 
 BRISTLE-CONE PINE, p. 61. 
 
 (bS) Heartwood creamy brown. Tangential surface not 
 
 dimpled. Wood sometimes very heavy. _ 
 
 PINON (PINE), p. 61. 
 (b3) The summerwood conspicuously darker and harder than the 
 springwood. (This feature is not so noticeable in the sapwood 
 of old trees as in the heartwood.) 
 
 _ The HARD PINES: 
 (a5) Wood moderately light. 
 
 WESTER NSPE CIES : 
 (a6) The sapwood usually less than 2 inches wide 
 (mostly about 1 inch). Tangential surface 
 has numerous slight depressions which give 
 it a dimpled appearance, especially notice- 
 able on split surfaces. Openings of resin 
 ducts not visible without a l^ns. 
 
 LODGBPOLE PINE, p. 62. 
 
 (b6) The sapwood usually over 2i inches wide 
 
 (mostly over 3. inches). Tangential surfaces 
 
 rarely dimpled. Openings of resin ducts 
 
 often visible without a lens. 
 
 WESTERN YELLOW PINE, p. 62. 
 (b5) Wood moderately heavy to very heavy. Heartwood 
 orange brown to reddish brown. 
 
 EA S TEE N SPE CIES: 
 
 NORWAY PINE, p. 63. 
 PITCH PINE, p. 64. 
 SHORTLEAF PINE, p. 64. 
 LOBLOLLY PINE, p. &». 
 POND PINE, p. 65. 
 LONGLEAF PINE, p. 65. 
 SLASH PINE, p. 65. 
 (See discussion of the pines, page 69. For distinguishing 
 longleaf from loblolly and shortleaf pine, see Appendix, 
 p. 73.) 
 (bb) Heartwood orange-reddish to red. Resin ducts not abundant, occa- 
 sionally visible as whitish specks In the summerwood. Sapwood 
 usually over 1 inch wide. Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 DOUGLAS FIR, p. 66. 
 (cc) Heartwood russet brown. Resin ducts not abundant; usually not 
 visible without a lens. Sapwood usually less than 1 inch wide. 
 Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 (a3) Aimual rings narrow WESTERN LARCH, p. 67. 
 
 (b3) Annual rings moderately wide TAMARACK, p. 67. 
 
 (b) Wood not "pitchy" or resinous, although resin may exude from the bark, 
 (aa) Heartwood deep reddish brown; without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Aimual rings regular in width and outline. Sapwood over 1 inch 
 
 wide. Wood moderately hght REDWOOD, p. 70. 
 
 (bb) Heartwood light brown to dark, dingy brown, with or without reddish 
 tinge. Odor characteristic but not resinous or "pitchy." 
 ■(a3) Odor somewhat rancid; heartwood tasteless. Annual rings 
 mostly irregular in width and outline. Sapwood usually over 
 1 Inch wide. Color highly variable from pale brown with or 
 without reddish tinge to blackish brown. Weight variable 
 from moderately light to heavy. Longitudinal surfaces feel 
 
 and appear waxy BALD CYPRESS, p. 71. 
 
 (b3) Odor aromatic (like cedar shingles); heartwood slightly bitter in 
 taste. Annual rings narrow but regular in width. Sapwood 
 rarely over 1 inch wide. Wood very light In weight. Longi- 
 tudinal surfaces not appearing waxy. 
 (a4) Heartwood brown with reddish tinge. 
 
 WESTERN RED CEDAE, p. 71. 
 (b4) Heartwood brown, rarely with reddish tinge. 
 
 ARBORVIT.ffi (NOETHEEN WHITE CEDAE), p. 72. 
 
26 
 
 IDKNTIFICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 Map 7. 
 \ 
 
idektipicahon of woods. 27 
 
 BB. The heartwood not distinctly darker than the sapwood. 
 
 (a) "Wood resinous, as indicated by the odor or exudations of resin at the ends, 
 
 especially from the sapwood. 
 
 (aa) Tangential surface has numerous slight depressions which give it a 
 dimpled appearance, especially noticeable on split surfaces. The 
 heartwood sometimes sUghtly darker than the sapwood. Wood 
 moderately heavy LODGEPOLE. PINE, p. 62. 
 
 (bb) Tangential surface not dimpled. 
 
 (a3) Color pale brown, almost white. Annual rings mostly moder- 
 ately wide. "Woodlight in weight-ENGELMANN SPRUCE, p. 65. 
 (b3) Color creamy brown. Annual rings mostly narrow. Wood 
 heavy to very heavy PINON (PINE), p. 61. 
 
 (b) Wood not resinous. 
 
 (aa) Odor and taste spicy. Color pale brown. Wood moderately light. 
 
 POET OEFORD CEDAR, p. 68. 
 (bb) Odor and taste not spicy, although a characteristic odor may be notice- 
 able. 
 (a3) Wood whitish, at least in the springwood; the summerwood may 
 be dark reddish brown, especially in pieces of rapid growth, 
 in which case there is a decided contrast between springwood 
 and summerwood. 
 (a4) Freshly cut surface of dry wood has a mild, rank odor. 
 Little contrast between springwood and summerwood. 
 Growth rings of moderate width. Wood Ught. 
 
 ALPINE FIE, p. 69. 
 (b4) Freshly cut surface of dry wood does not have a rank odor; 
 decided contrast between springwood and summer- 
 wood. Growth rings fairly wide. Wood moderately light, 
 (ao) Outer bark contains whitish layers. 
 
 WHITE FIE, p. 68. 
 (b5) Outer bark contaios thin, very dark reddish brown 
 
 layers GEAND FIE, p. 69. , 
 
 (b3) Wood has reddish hue, the springwood as well as the sunmier- 
 wood being colored. Moderately light to moderately heavy. 
 Fresh pieces have a sour odor. 
 (a4) Wood coarse and splintery, often cup-shaken. 
 
 EASTEEN HEMLOCK, p. 69. 
 
 (b4) Wood not very coarse or splintery, usually not cup-shaken. 
 
 WESTEEN HEMLOCK, p. 70. 
 
 KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS WITH THE AID 
 
 OF A HAND LENS.» 
 
 HARDWOODS. 
 
 I. Wood with pores. The pores are conspicuously larger than the surrounding cells, although in some 
 species they are not visible without magnification. Neither the pores nor other cells are in continu- 
 ous radial rows. 
 A. Eing-porous; that is, the pores at the beginning of each annual ring are comparatively large, 
 forming a distinct porous ring, and decrease in size more or less obTuptly toward the summer- 
 wood. See figures 3, 4, and 5. 
 
 1. Summerwood figured with wavy or branched radial hands. The bands visible without a 
 lens on a smoothly cut surface. See figure 3. 
 AA. Many rays very broad and conspicuous. Wood heavy to very heavy. 
 
 The OAKS, p. 36. 
 
 (a) Pores in the summerwood very small and so numerous as to be exceedingly 
 
 difficult to count under a lens; pores in the springwood usually densely 
 plugged with tyloses. Heartwood brown without reddish tinge. 
 
 The WHITE-OAK GEOUP, p. 37. 
 
 (b) Pores in the summerwood larger, distinctly visible with (sometimes without) 
 
 a hand lens and not so numerous but that they can readily be counted 
 imder a lens; pores in springwood mostly open, tyloses not abundant. Heart- 
 wood brown, with reddish tinge especially in vicinity of knots. 
 
 The EED-OAK GEOUP, p. 39. 
 
 • Unless it is otherwise directed, all observations as to structure should be made on the end surface of 
 rings of average width cut smoothly with a very sharp knife; and all observations as to color should be 
 made on a freshly cut longitudinal surface of the heartwood. 
 
28 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 Map 8. 
 
rDENTIFICATlON OP WOODS. 29 
 
 BB. All rays very fine and inconspicuous. Color grayish brown. Wood moderately 
 
 Ught - CHESTNUT, p. 41. 
 
 Summerwood figured witli long or short wavy tangential bands which include the pores. 
 The bands visible without a lens on a smoothly cut end surface. See figure 4. 
 AA. Careful examination with a hand lens shows the pores of the summerwood to be 
 joined in more or less continuous bands, and the bands to be evenly distributed 
 throughout the summerwood. 
 
 (a) Sapwood moderate in width or narrow, mostly less than 3 inches; heartwood 
 
 distinct, light to deep reddish brown. Rays not distinct without a lens. 
 
 The ELMS: 
 (aa) Large pores in the springwood usually in one row except in very wide 
 rings. 
 (a3) Rows of pores in the springwood conspicuous because the pores 
 are large enough to be plainly visible without a lens; they are 
 mostly open, containing only a few tyloses; and they are fairly 
 close together. Sapwood from 1 to 3 inches wide. Wood mod- 
 erately heavy; fairly easy to cut WHITE ELM, p. 41. 
 
 (b3) Rows of pores in the springwood inconspicuous because the pores 
 are small, being barely visible without a lens; they are mostly 
 closed with tyloses, especially in the heartwood; and they 
 are often somewhat separated. Sapwood from % of an 
 inch to IH inches wide. Wood heavy and difficult to 
 
 cut CORK ELM, p. 42 
 
 (bb) Large pores in springwood in several rows; mostly open, containing 
 few tyloses. Sapwood usually less than 1 inch wijie, often only 
 4 inch wide. Woo'd moderately heavy. Inner bark mucilaginous 
 when chewed SLIPPERY ELM, p. 42. 
 
 (b) Sapwood wide, over 3 inches, heartwood indistinct, yellowish or greenish 
 
 gray. Pores in springwood mostly open, in several rows except in occasional 
 narrow rings where they may form only one row. Rays distinct without a 
 
 lens. Wood moderately heavy HACKBERRY, p. 43. 
 
 SUGARBERRY, p. 43. 
 BB. Careful examination with a hand lens shows the ppres of the summerwood to be 
 joined in more or less interrupted bands or in rounded groups of from 3 to 20 
 (especially in mulberry and eoffleetree), the groups so arranged as to form tan- 
 gential bands. In either case the bands are more pronounced in the outer por- 
 tion of tbe summerwood than in the middle of the annual ring, where the pores 
 are often isolated or in rounded groups. 
 
 (a) Large pores in the spriagwood containing numeroiis tyloses. Sapwood nar- 
 
 row, usually less than 1 inch wide. 
 
 (aa) Wood very, very heavy and exceedingly hard to cut across the grain. 
 
 Rays not very distinct without a lens. 
 
 (a3) Heartwood golden brown with reddish brown streaks: coloring. 
 
 matterreadilysolublein cold water-. OSAGE ORANGE, p. 43. 
 
 (b3) Heartwood russet brown; coloring matter not readily soluble in 
 
 cold water , BLACK LOCUST, p. 44. 
 
 (bb) Wood heavy, but lighter than the above and fairly easy to cut across 
 the grain. Color russet brown. Rays very distinct without a lens. 
 
 RED MULBERRY, p. 44. 
 (cc) Wood moderately light and easy to cut across the grain. Color grayish 
 brown. Rays not distinct without a lens. 
 
 HARDY CATALPA, p. 45. 
 
 (b) Large pores in the springwood open, containing no tyloses but occasionally a 
 
 bright-red gum. Heartwood cherry-red to reddish brown. Wood very 
 
 (aa) Pores in the outer portion of the summerwood mostly joined into 
 bands, the indlvidiial pores of which are not distinctly visible with 
 a lens magnifying 15 diameters. Rays mostly very distinct. Pith 
 small, usually under 0.15 inch. Sapwood from J of an inch to 2 inches 
 wide on ties HONEY LOCUST, p. 45. 
 
 (bb) Pores in the outer portion of the summerwood only occasionally joined 
 into bands, the individual pores being distinctly visible with an 
 ordinary hand lens. Rays of uniform width, inconspicuous. Pith 
 large, usually over 0.2 inch. Sapwood from J inch to 1 inch wide 
 on ties COFFEETREE, p. 46. 
 
30 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 5S.».&' 
 So"- 
 
 
 t?|§ 
 
 d v^ 5 (9 u o 
 
IDEISTTIFICATION OF WOODS. 31 
 
 CC. Careful examination with a hand lens shows the pores of the summerwood to be 
 isolated or in radial rows of 2 or 3, but surrounded by parenchyma in such a man- 
 ner as to appear in wavy tangential bands usually more distinct without a lens 
 than with a lens. 
 
 (a) Parenchyma projecting tangentially from the pores in comparatively long 
 
 lines often joining pores widely separated. Sapwood several inches wide; 
 heartwood grayish brown, occasionally with reddish tinge. Wood heavy 
 
 and hard : WHITE ASH, p. 46. 
 
 GREEN ASH, p. 47. 
 
 (b) Parenchyma not projecting tangentially from tjie pores or only slightly so. 
 
 Sapwood less than 1 inch wide; heartwood silvery brown. Wood moder- 
 ■ ately heavy. 
 (aa) Rays fine but distinct without a lens; wood has a spicy odor and taste. 
 
 SASSAFRAS p. 47. 
 
 (bb) Rays not visible without a lens; wood does not have a spicy odor and 
 
 taste BLACK ASH, p. 47. 
 
 3. Summerwood figured with numerous fine, light-colored tangential lines (parenchyma) 
 
 which do not embrace the pores. Pores in the summerwood not much smaller than those 
 
 in the springwood, usually visible without a lens. (Water hickory and persimmon are 
 
 also classed as diSuse-porous woods.) Wood very heavy to very, very heavy. 
 
 AA. Lines of parenchyma inconspicuous even under a lens. Rays in tiers, appearing 
 
 on tangential surface as fine bands running across the grain. Heartwood black, 
 
 or brownish black PERSIMMON, p. 48. 
 
 BB. Lines of parenchyma conspicuous under a lens, barely visible without a lens. Rays 
 on tangential sturface not in tiers; heartwood reddish brown. 
 
 Th^ HICKORIES, p. 48. 
 
 4. Summerwood not figured with radial or tangential bands. Pores in summerwood very 
 
 small, not visible without a lens, isloated, or in radial rows of two or three. Sapwood 
 very narrow, heartwood silvery or grayish brown. Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 BLACK ASH, p. 47. 
 te. Diffuse-porous; that is, the pores are of about imiform size and evenly distributed throughout 
 the annual ring, or if they are slightly larger and more numerous in the springwood, they 
 gradually decrease in size and number toward the outer edge of the ring. See figure 6. 
 
 1. Rays comparatively broad and conspicuous, the widest ones fully two times as wide as the 
 
 largest pores, appearing on the radial surface as distinct "flakes" or "silver grain" similar 
 to quartered oak^ but finer. Color in various shades of light reddish brown. 
 AA. Practically all rays broad. Pores crowded, decreasing little, if any, in size at ex- 
 treme outer edge of the annual ring. Wood usually lock-grained, moderately 
 
 heavy SYCAMORE, p. 50. 
 
 BB. Only part of the rays broad, the others narrower than the largest pores. Pores 
 crowded in the springwood, decreasing in size and number toward the outer edge 
 of the annual ring, thereby giving rise to a harderand darker band of summer- 
 wood. Wood usually fairly straight-grained; heavy BEECH, p. 50. 
 
 2. Rays narrower, but very distinct without a lens, the widest ones of about the same width as 
 
 the largest pores. 
 AA. Color light brown with reddish tinge. Springwood and summerwood of uniform 
 density. Sapwood wide. 
 
 (a) Wood heavy, diflicult to cut across the grain. Only part of the rays broad, 
 
 the others very fine, scarcely visible with a lens. Pith flecks rarely present. 
 
 SUGAR MAPLE, p. 51. 
 
 (b) Wood moderately heavy, fairly easy to cut across the grain. Practically 
 
 all the rays broad but not so broad as in sugar maple, therefore not so promi- 
 nent but giving the appearance of being more numerous. Pith flecks com- 
 mon. * SILVER MAPLE, p. 5L 
 
 RED MAPLE, p. 52. 
 BB. Color deep reddish brown. Springwood slightly more porous than summerwood. 
 Sapwood naiTOW. Pith flecks common. Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 BLACK CHERRY, p. 52. 
 
 3. Rays comparatively fine, narrower than the largest pores. 
 
 AA. Pores visible without a lens. 
 
 (a) Pores comparatively large and conspicuous without a lens, decreasing in size 
 toward the outer limit of each annual ring; not crowded. Eine tangential 
 lines of parenchyma often visible between the pores. 
 
 (aa) Sapwood wide, usually over 3 inches in ties. (Pores often in a more or 
 less well-defined zone in the springwood, therefore also classed as 
 ring-porous woods.) 
 
 (a3) Hegrtwood black or brownish black, Rays in tiers, appearing 
 on the tangential surface as fine bands running across the grain. 
 
 Wood very, very heavy PERSIMMON, p. 48. 
 
 (b3) Heartwood reddish brown. Rays not in tiers. Wood heavy. 
 
 WATER HICKORY, p. 49, 
 
32 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 in Ut l» K- 
 -^ (Vj K> »» • 
 
 5 "Q % 
 S p. r» 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 33 
 
 (bb) Sapwood narrow, mostly under 2 inches in ties; white or discolored; 
 heartwood brown. 
 (a3) Wood heavy and hard. Heartwood chocolate brown. 
 
 BLACK WALNUT, p. 52. 
 (b3) Wood moderately light and soft. Heartwood light chestnut 
 
 brown '. BUTTERNUT, p. 53. 
 
 (b) Pores smaller, but on careful examination still clearly visible without a lens, 
 at least in the springwood. 
 
 (aa) Pores not crowded, decreasing little, if any, in size toward the outer 
 ,1 limit of the annual ring. Rays distinct under a lens. Heart- 
 
 wood pale to moderately deep reddish brown. Wood heavy. 
 Ca3) Pith flecks rare. Inner barb has a wintergreen flavor. 
 
 YELLOW BIRCH, p. 53. 
 SWEET BIRCH, p. 54. 
 (b3) Pith flecks abundant. Inner bark does not have a wintergreen 
 
 flavor RIVER BIRCH, p. 54. 
 
 (bb) Pores crowded, decreasing somewhat in size and number toward the 
 outer limit of each annual ring. Rays very fine, barely visible with 
 a lens. Pith flecks occasionally present but not abundant. Wood 
 light and soft. Color white to light grayish brown. 
 
 COTTONWOOD, p. 55. 
 BB. Pores not visible without a lens. 
 
 (a) Pores appearing comparatively large and conspicuous under a lens. 
 
 (aa) Pores not crowded, decreasing little, if any, in size toward the outer 
 limit of the annual ring. Rays distinct under a lens. Heartwood 
 pale to moderately deep reddish brown. Wood heavy. 
 (a3) Pith flecks rare. Inner bark has a wintergreen flavor. 
 
 YELLOW BIRCH, p. 53.. 
 
 SWEET BIRCH, p. 54. ' 
 
 (b3) Pith flecks abundant. Inner bark does not have a wintergreen 
 
 flavor. RIVER BIRCH, p. 54. 
 
 (bb) Pores crowded, decreasing somewhat in size and number toward the 
 
 outer limit of each annual ring. Rays very fine, barely visible with 
 
 a lens. Pith flecks occasionally present but not abundant. Wood 
 
 light and soft. Color white to light grayish brown. 
 
 COTTONWOOD, p. 65. 
 
 (b) Pores appearing comparatively small under a lens. 
 
 (aa) Heartwood pale reddish brown. Rays very distinct without a lens. 
 Pores not very crowded. Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 SILVER MAPLE, p. 51. 
 RED MAPLE, p. S2. 
 (bb) Heartwood dingy, reddish brown. Rays relatively not very distinct 
 without a lens. Pores crowded. Wood moderately heavy. 
 
 RED GUM, p. 55. 
 (cc) Heartwooibrownish gray. Rays not distinct without a lens. Wood 
 moderately heavy. 
 (a3) Pores very small, only occasionally in radial rows of from 3 to 6. 
 
 :^LACK GUM, p. 56. 
 (b3) Pores slightly larger, often in radial rows of from 3 to 6. (These 
 distinctions between black gum and cottongum can be applied 
 only by comparison with a piece of wood known to be one spe- 
 cies or the other COTTON GUM (Tupelo), p. 57, 
 
 (dd) Heartwood yellowish brown with greenish tinge. Rays distinct with- 
 
 outalens. Wood moderately light. . . YELLOW POPLAR, p. 57. 
 
 (ee) Heartwood creamy brown. Rays distinct without a lens; not in tiers. 
 
 Wood light BASSWOOD, p. 58. 
 
 (fl) Heartwood creamy white. Pores very minute. Rays very fine 
 barely distinct with a lens; arranged in tiers, producing very fine 
 bands running across the tangential surface. Wood light. 
 
 YELLOW BUCKEYE, p. 59. 
 OHIO BUCKEYE, p. 59, 
 96625°— 17 3 
 
34 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 35 
 
 CONIFERS. 
 
 Wood without pores. The cells (tracheids) very small, barely visible with a lens; practically tmlform 
 in size, except in the summerwood, where they are narrower radially; and arranged in definite radial 
 rows. Rays very fine. 
 
 A. Resin ducts present but often not distinct without a lens. (Exudations of resin over the end 
 
 surface is a positive indication of the presence of resin ducts.) 
 
 1. Resin ducts numerous; scattered singly; conspicuous imder a lens a&d usually visible with- 
 
 out a lens as minute openings, or more often as darker or lighter colored specks, or as brown- 
 ish lines on longitudinal surfaces The PINES, p. 59. 
 
 AA. Summerwood inconspicuous and not perceptibly harder than the spring wood. 
 
 The SOFT PIN£S: 
 
 (a) Wood soft and moderately light; straight-grained. Annual rings of moderate 
 
 width. Heartwood light reddish brown. 
 
 WESTERN WHITE PINE, p. CO. 
 LIMBER PINE, p. 61. 
 
 (b) Wood hard and moderately heavy to very heavy; often cross-grained. Annual 
 
 rings narrow. 
 
 (aa) Heartwood reddish brown. Tangential surface has numerous slight 
 depressions which give it a dimpled appearance, especially noticeable 
 
 on split surfaces BRISTLE-CONE PINE, p. 61. 
 
 (bb) Heartwood creamy brown. Tangential surface not dimpled. Wood 
 
 sometimes very heavy PINON (PINE), p. 61. 
 
 BB. The summerwood conspicuously darker and harder than the springwood. (This 
 feature is not so noticeable in the sapwood of old trees as in the heartwood, where 
 the annual rings are wider) The HARD PINES: 
 
 (a) Wood moderately light WESTERN SPECIES: 
 
 (aa) The sapwood usually less than 2 inches wide (mostly about 1 inch). 
 Tangential surface has numerous slight depressions which give it a 
 dimpled appearance, especially noticeable on split surfaces. Resin 
 ducts small, not visible withoutalens.-LODGEPOLE PINE, p. 62. 
 
 (bb) The sapwood usually over 2J inches wide (mostly over 3 inches). 
 Tangential surface rarely dimpled. Resin ducts comparatively large, 
 usually visible without a lens. 
 
 WESTERN YELLOW PINE> p. 62. 
 
 (b) Wood moderately heavy to very heavy. Heartwood orange-brown to reddish 
 
 brown EASTERN SPECIES: 
 
 NORWAY PINE, p. 63. 
 PITCH PINE, p. 64. 
 SHORTLEAF PINE, p. 64. 
 LOBLOLLY PINE, p. 64. 
 POND PINE, p. 65. 
 , LONGLEAF PINE, p. 65. 
 SLASH PINE, p. 65. 
 See discussion of the pines, p. 59. (For distinguishing longleaf from loblolly and 
 shortleaf pine, see Appendix, p. 73.) 
 
 2. Resin ducts not numerous; scattered singly or in tangential groups of from 2 to 20; not 
 
 visible without a lens, or appearing as whitish specks in the summerwood. 
 AA. The heartwood of the same color as the sapwood, or slightly darker, usually not 
 
 clearly defined. Wood light ENGELMANN SPRUCE, p. 65. 
 
 BB. The heartwood decidedly darker than the sapwood. Wood moderately heavy, 
 (a) Heartwood orange-reddish to red. Sapwood over one inch wide. 
 
 DOUGLAS FIR, p. 66. 
 Cb) Heartwood russet brown. Sapwood usually less than one inch wide, 
 
 (aa) Annual rings narrow WESTERN LARCH, p. 67. 
 
 (bb) Annual rings moderately wide TAMARACK, p. 67. 
 
 B. Resin ducts normally absent. 
 
 1. The heartwood of about the same color as the sapwood, distinction not clear. 
 
 A A. Wood has a spicy odor and taste; moderately light. Summerwood inconspicuous. 
 
 Color pale brown PORT ORFORD CEDAR, p. 68. 
 
 BB. Wood does not have a spicy odor or taste, although other characteristic odor may 
 be present. 
 
 (a) Wood whitish, at least in the springwood; the summerwood may be dark 
 
 reddish brown, especially in pieces of rapid growth, and in that case forms 
 
 a decided contrast between the springwood and summerwood. 
 
 (aa) Freshly cut surface of dry wood has a rank odor. Little contrast 
 
 between springwood and summerwood. Rings of moderare width. 
 
 Woodhght ALPINE FIR, p. 69. 
 
36 IDENTIFICATIOISr OF WOODS. 
 
 (bb) Freshly cut surface of dry wood does not liave a rank odor. Decided 
 contrast between springwood and summerwood. Rings usually' 
 fairly wide. Wood moderately light. 
 
 (a3) Outer bark containing whitish layers WHITE FIE, p. P8. 
 
 (b3) Outer bark containing thin, very dark reddish-brown layers. 
 
 GEAND FIE, p. 69. 
 (b) Wood has a reddish hue, even the springwood has a pale reddish color; thus 
 'J making the contrast between the springwood and summerwood less pro- 
 nounced; odor somewhat sour in ftesh wood. Wood moderately light to 
 moderately heavy, 
 (aa) Wood coarse and splintery, often cup-shaken. Abnormalresin passages 
 
 not present EASTEEN HEMLOCK, p. 69. 
 
 (bb) Wood not very coarse or splintery, usually not subject to cup-shake. 
 Abnormal resin passages occasionally present in tangential rows in 
 the outer portion of the summerwood. 
 
 WESTERN HEMLOCK, p. 70. 
 2. The heartwood distinctly darker than the sapwood. 
 
 AA. Heartwood deep'reddish brown. Annual rings regular in width and outline. 
 Sapwood over 1 inch wide. Wood odorless and tasteless; moderately light. 
 
 REDWOOD, p. 70. 
 BB. Heartwood light brown to dingy brown with or withojt reddish tinge. Odor 
 distinct when fresh surfaces are exposed. 
 
 (a) Odor somewhat rancid; heartwood tasteless. Annual rings mostly irregular ■ 
 
 in width and outline. Sapwood usually over 1 inch wide. Color highly 
 variable from pale brown with or without reddish tinge to blackish brown. 
 Weight variable from moderately light to heavy. Longitudinal surfaces feel 
 and appear waxy BALD CYPEESS, p. 71. 
 
 (b) OdoraromaticChkecedar shingles); heartwood slightly bitter in taste. Annual 
 
 rings narrow but regular in width. Sapwood rarely over 1 inch wide. Wood 
 very light in weight. Longitudinal surfaces not appearing waxy, 
 (aa) Heartwood brown with reddish tinge. 
 
 WESTEEN RED CEDAR, p. 71. 
 (bb) Heartwood brown, rarely with reddish tinge. 
 
 ARBORVITjE (Northekn WiiriE Cedae), p. 72. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HARDWOODS. 
 THE OAKS. 
 
 Nearly half of the ties used in this country are oak. There are 
 about 68 species of oak native to the United States, but some are 
 too scrubby to be of any commercial use and others are used only 
 locally. About^O different species are used for ties to a commercial 
 extent. No effort is made, however, to market each species under 
 its own name. The oaks used for ties are commonly divided into 
 two groups, the white oaks and the red oaks, but rarely is any classi- 
 fication as to species attempted. The white oaks are more durable 
 than the red oaks. In strength far more variation has been found 
 in individual pieces of the same species than in averages of different 
 species or even in averages of the two groups. 
 
 The woods of the species belonging to each group are so much 
 alike that, with few exceptions, they are not readily distinguishable. 
 However, the wood structure of the two groups is distinctly different 
 and indicates clearly whether a piece of oak belongs to the red-oak 
 group or to the white-oak group. An inspector can usually determine 
 the group to which a tie belongs by the color and general appearance 
 of the grain, but in case of doubt tho character of the pores in the 
 summerwood forms the only definite means of classification. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP "WOODS. 37 
 
 HOW TO DISTrNGUISH WOODS OF THE WHITE-OAK GROUP FROM WOODS OF THE 
 
 KED-OAK GROUP. 
 
 Cut smoothly with a sharp knife a small area about one-fourth to 
 one-half inch square on the end surface of the oak wood in question. 
 The area should be so selected as to include rings of average width. 
 Examine the surface with a hand lens and note especially the small 
 pores in the summerwood. If, these pores appear very distinct and 
 are not too numerous to be counted, the specimen belongs to the red- 
 oak group. See illustration of red oak, PI. V, fig. 1 ; black oak, PI. IV, 
 fig. 1 ; pin oak, PI. IV, fig. 2 ; and willow oak, PI. V, fig.l. If the pores 
 are very small and somewhat indistinct even under a lens and so nu- 
 merous as to make it exceedingly difficult to count them, the specimen 
 belongs to the white-oak group. See illustration of white oak, PI. 
 II, fig. 1; chestnut oak, PI. II, fig. 2, and post oak, PI. Ill, fig. 1. 
 
 The large pores in the springwood of the white oaks are usually 
 densely plugged with tyloses, and those of the red oaks are more 
 open; but this feature is not so reliable for classification as the 
 character of the pores in the summerwood. 
 
 THE WHITE-OAK GROUP. 
 
 The following features are characteristic of the wood of all species 
 of the white-oak group : 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, large and easily visible to the unaided eye, forming a 
 porous ring one or two rows, and in broad rings three rows, of pores wide. The pores 
 decrease in size more or less abruptly toward the summerwood, where they are grouped 
 in V-shapdd radial bands. In the summerwood they are somewhat angular and so 
 small and numerous that it is exceedingly difficult to count them even with the aid 
 of a good hand lens. 
 
 The large pores in the springwood are usually plumed with tyloses (see Plate I), 
 except in the outer portion of the sapwood. In chestnut oak the pores are more open, 
 in this respect resembUng those in the red oaks. 
 
 Rays. — Some of the rays are very broad and conspicuous and from one-half inch to 
 4 inches high (i. e., measured with the grain), while others are so fine as to be barely 
 visible with a lens. The broad rays appear as conspicuous streaks where the bark 
 has been removed. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Plainly visible with a lens as light-colored tangential lines and also 
 as a lighter colored area surrounding the pores of the summerwood. 
 
 Annval rings. — Mostly from moderately wide to narrow; occasionally wide. 
 
 Sapwood. — From 1 to several inches in thickness, often discolored by tannin and 
 other material leached out of the bark. 
 
 Heart-wood. — Grayish brown, usually without reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy but varies considerably in weight. It is 
 usually straight-grained and checks easily on drying. When dry the wood is without 
 characteristic odor and taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Because of the broad rays the woods of the white-oak group are not easily confused 
 with any other woods excepting those of the red-oak group. For a method of dis- 
 tinguishing these two groups see above and study the illustrations in Plates II, III 
 IV, and V. 
 
 Some of the southern white oaks grow rapidly and have wide annual rings, so that 
 they appear different on the end surface from those of slower growth. In examining 
 the summerwood pores of such oaks an effort should be made to locate annual rings 
 of modera*^^ TO^t^ whir-h mn oftRn be found near the bark. 
 
38 IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 WHITE OAK. 
 
 Qiiercus alba Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 The true white oak is the most important tree of the white-oak group. Throughout 
 its range it is known as white oak, although in Arkansas it is also named stave oak 
 because it is cut in large quantities for tight cooperage. 
 OeograpMc Distribution. ' i 
 
 See map, page 14. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Since no reliable method has yet been found for distinguishing tnie white-oak ties 
 from post oak, swamp white oak, cow oak, and others of the white oak group, all these 
 species are described collectively on page 37. 
 
 CHESTNUT OAK. 
 
 Quercus prinus Linn. 
 Other names. 
 
 Rock chestnut oak; rock oak; tanbark oak. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 14. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 (See white-oak group, p. 37.) 
 
 Chestnut oak differs from the other white oaks in not having the pores in the heart 
 wood densely plugged with tyloses. Occasional closed or partly closed pores may be 
 found, but in general the pores are more open, as in the red oaks. 
 
 Discoloration of the sapwood due to, the tannin being leached out of the bark is 
 common in chestnut oak, but is not always reliable for identification. 
 
 POST OAK. 
 
 Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sargent. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Iron oak; box white oak; white oak. The name post oak is deriyed from the abund- 
 ant use of this species for posts in the northern portion of its range where the tree is 
 comparatively small. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 14. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 (See white-oak group, p. 37.) 
 
 No reliable means of readily distinguishing this wood from all other white oaks is 
 known. 
 
 OTHER WHITE OAKS USED FOR TIES AND TIMBERS. 
 
 Cow OAK {Quercus michauxii Nutt.), also known as basket oak, swamp white oak 
 (Del., Ala.), and swamp chestnut oak (Fla.). For geographic distribution, see map, 
 page 16. 
 
 OvERcup OAK {Quercus lyraln Walt.), also known as swamp post oak, water white 
 oak, and swamp white oak (Tex.). For geographic distribution, see map, page 16. 
 
 Bub oak {Quercus macrocarpa Michx.), also known as mossycup oak, overcup 
 oak, blue oak, scrub oak, overcup white oak (Vt.), and mossycup white oak (Minn.). 
 For geographic distribution, see map, page 14. 
 
 Swamp white oak {Quercus platanoides (Lam.) Sudworth) or swamp ^ak. For 
 geographic distribution, see map, page 16. 
 
 Chinquapin oak {Quercus acuminata (Michx.) Houba), also known as chestnut 
 oak, yellow oak, shrub oak, dwarf chestnut oak, shrub oak (Nebr), white oak (Tenn.), 
 and rock oak (Ark.). For geographic distribution, see map, page 16. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 39 
 
 THE RED-OAK GROUP. 
 
 The following features are characteristic of the wood of all species 
 of the red-oak group : 
 
 Pares. — In the springwood, large and easily visible without a lens, forming a porous 
 ring from two to three rows, or in very wide rings, four rows of pores wide. They 
 decrease in size more or less abruptly or in wide rings somewhat, gradually, toward 
 the summerwood, where they are grouped in radial bands often branching or widen- 
 ing toward the outer limit of the annual ring. The pores in the summerwood are well 
 rounded and very distinqt under a lens and occasionally barely visible even without 
 a lens. They are not too numerous or crowded to be easily counted with the aid of a 
 magnifying glass. 
 
 The large pores in the springwood are open for the most part, although occasionally 
 tyloses are present in the pores, notably in blackjack, in which they are almost as 
 abundant as in the white-oak group. 
 
 Rays. — Some of the rays are very broad and conspicuous; others are so fine as to be 
 barely visible with a lens and are easily overlooked. The large rays range from 
 one-fourth to one inch, or occasionally more, in height (i. e., measured with the grain), 
 averaging somewhat less than in the white oaks. They appear as conspicuous darker 
 streaks where the bark has been removed. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Plainly visible as light-colored tangential lines in the summerwood 
 and as a lighter area surrounding the smaller pores. 
 
 Annual rings. — ^Mostly from moderate in width to wide. 
 
 Sapwood. — Highly variable in thickness, from 1 to 3 inches. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Mostly brown with reddish tinge, especially in the vicinity of knots. 
 Exceptional pieces resembling white oak in color may be found. 
 
 Physical properties. ^-The wood of the various species of the red-oak group is heavy, 
 but varies considerably in weight, the variation depending more on the conditions 
 under which the tree grew than on the species. It is usually straight-grained and is 
 subject to considerable checking in seasoning. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The red oaks refeemble the white oaks in being heavy and in having broad rays, but 
 the characteristic reddish tinge and open pores of the red-oak woods are usually 
 sufficiently pronounced to distinguish them from the woods of the white-oak group. 
 In case of doubt as to which group a piece of oak belongs to, examine the pores in the 
 summerwood as directed on page 37. 
 
 RED OAK. 
 
 Quercus rubra Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 The true red oak, like the true white oak, is rarely known by any other name. 
 Occasionally it is called black oak or Spanish oak. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 18. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Red-oak wood can not be distinguished from most of the other oaks belonging to the 
 
 same group. 
 
 YELLOW OAK. ' 
 
 Quercus velutina Lam. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Black oak; quercitron oak; tanbark oak (111.); yellow-barked oak (Minn.); spotted 
 oak (Mo.); dyer's oak (Tex.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 18. 
 
40 IDENTIPICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 D isting wishing Characteristics . 
 
 The yellowish inner bark, part of which may nearly always be found on ties even 
 when peeled, is sufficient to distinguish yellow oak from all other oaks. Yellow-oak 
 ties or timbers sawed or hewn on all sides can not be distinguished from other red oaks. 
 
 PIN OAK. 
 
 Quercus palustris Muenchh. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Swamp Spanish oak; water oak; water Spanish oak (Ark.). Pin oak is so called 
 because of the numerous small branches scattered along the trunk, appearing like so 
 many pins promiscuously inserted. These branches leave their corresponding " pin " 
 knots in the wood, thus suggesting another origin of the common name. 
 Oeographic Distribution . 
 
 See map, page 18, 
 Distinguishing Characteristics . 
 
 The numerous knots in pin-oak ties afford a rough but not absolutely reliable means 
 of identification; for any oak that might accidentally have numerous, small knots 
 would be classed as pin oak by this method. No more accurate means of identifying 
 the species by means of the wood alone is known, however. 
 
 WILLOW OAK. 
 
 Quereus phellos Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Peach oak; water oak. The willow oak belongs to a group of nonevergreen oaks 
 with narrow leaves that are not cut or notched at the edges, known collectively as 
 willow oaks. The other important species are shingle oak and laurel oak. 
 Oeographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 18. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 The willow oaks belong to the red-oak group. They can not be identified indi- 
 vidually by the wood alone . 
 
 OTHER RED OAKS USED FOR TIES AND TIMBERS. 
 
 Black jack (Quercus marilandica Muenchh.), also known as jack oak, iron oak, black 
 oak, barren oak, and scrub oak (S. C). This species has the distinction of belonging to 
 the red-oak group and yet having the pores densely plugged with tyloses as is the case in 
 the wood of the white-oak group . This feature usually is distinct enough to distinguish 
 the black jack from the other common red oaks, and the pores in the summerwood will 
 distinguish it from the white-oak group . For geographic distribution , see map , page 18 . 
 
 Spanish oak (Quercus digitata Marsh.) Sudworth), also known as red oak and 
 Spanish water oak. For geographic distribution, see map, page 18. 
 
 Texan oak (Quereus texana Buckl.), also known as red oak, spotted oak, and Spanish 
 oak. A species often not distinguished from the true red oak (Quemis rubra) by 
 woodsmen. For geographic distribution, see map, page 18. 
 
 Scarlet oak (Quercus cocoinea Muenchh.), also known as red oak, black oak, and 
 Spanish oak, and not easily distinguished from the true red oak even in the forest. 
 For geographic description, see map, page 16. 
 
 Turkey oak (Quercus catesbsei Michx.), also known as scrub oak, barren scrub oak, 
 forkedleaf (S.C.), and black jack (S.O.). For geographic distribution, see map, page 16. 
 
 Water oak (Quercus nigra Linn.), also known as spotted oak, duck oak, possum 
 oak, and punk oak. For Geographic distribution, see map, page 16. 
 
 Laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia Michx.), also known as swamp laurel oak, Darling- 
 ton oak (S. C), willow oak, and water oak (Ga.). For geographic distribution, see 
 map, page 18. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 41 
 
 Shingle oak (Quercus imbricaria Michx.), also known as jack oak (111.), water oak 
 (N, C), and laurel oak. For geographic distribution, see map, page 18. 
 
 CHESTNUT. 
 
 Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Excepting Indian names, chestnut is not known by any other name. 
 Geographic Distribution . 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, large and distinct, forming a broad porous ring; in the 
 summerwood, very small and numerous, arranged in irregular branched radial bands. 
 The large pores are almost entirely plugged with tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — All very fine, barely distinct with a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Scattered among the pores, not distinct. 
 
 Annual rings. — Mostly moderate in width, but highly variable. 
 
 Sapwood. — ^Very narrow, rarely over one-half inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Grayish brown. 
 
 Physical propreties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, has no pro- 
 nounced odor, but has a mild astringent taste when chewed. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Chestnut is not easily confused with any other species. The radial bands of pores 
 are found in no other wood used for ties, except the oaks, which, however, are easily 
 identified by their greater weight and broad rays. Black ash resembles chestnut, 
 but the pores in black ash summerwood are few and isolated and never arranged in 
 radial bands. 
 
 WHITE ELM. 
 
 TJhnus americana Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 American elm; water elm; swamp elm, rock elm (hard grades)'. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 22. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pcyres. — In the springwood moderately large, forming a porous ring consisting of one 
 row, or, in very wide annual rings, of two or more rows of pores. Throughout the 
 summerwood the pores are very small and numerous and connected into more or less 
 continuous wavy tangential bands. The large pores are mostly open and rarely 
 contain tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — Fine, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, moderate in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Mostly between 1 and 3 inches wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Brownish, usually with reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately heavy, tough, straight-grained, or 
 somewhat cross-grained, and without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Hard grades of white elm are difiicult to distinguish from cork elm, but it will be 
 found that the large pores of the springwood are less conspicuous in the cork elm. 
 Compare illustrations. Slippery elm has thinner sapwood and more porous spring- 
 wood than white elm, and the inner bark becomes mucilaginous when chewed. 
 
 The elms are closely related to the hackberries; both have the conspicuous wavy 
 tangential lines of pores in the summerwood, but hackberry has the wider sapwood, 
 paler heartwood with slight greenish tinge, and more distinct rays. 
 
42 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 CORK ELM. 
 
 TJlmus racemosa Thomas. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Rock elm; hickory elm; corkbark elm; corky white elm. ' 
 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 22. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Larger in the springwood than in the summerwood,,but not conspicuoua 
 because they are comparatively small and are not close together; barely visible without 
 a lens, and usually forming only one row. They are mostly closed with tyloses. 
 Throughout the summerwood they are small and numerous and are arranged in more 
 or less continuous, wavy, tangential bands. 
 
 Rays. — Kne, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. ' 
 
 Annual rings. — Fairly distinct, moderate in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Three-fourths of an inch to IJ inches wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Light brown, often tinged with red. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is heavy, very tough, mostly cross-grained, and 
 without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Cork elm can be distinguished from the other commercial elms by its greater weight 
 and inconspicuous rows of pores in the springwood. 
 
 The wood of the southern Wing Elm ( TJlmus alata Michx.) resembles that of the 
 northern cork elm very closely, but is usually more lock-grained 
 
 SLIPPERY ELM. 
 
 TJlmus pubescens Walt. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Red elm; rock elm (Tenn.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 22. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, large, forming, a porous ring from 2 to 4 pores wide; 
 throughout the summerwood, very small and numerous and arranged in more or less 
 continuous wavy tangential bands. The large pores are mostly open, and contain 
 few tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — Pine, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Bistinct, mostly moderate in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, mostly less_ than one-half inch wide, rarely over an inch. 
 
 Heartwood. — Brown, with shades of red. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is moderately heavy, fairly straight-grained, tough, 
 practically tasteless, and has a slight odor resembling the taste of the bark. The 
 inner bark when chewed becomes highly mucilaginous. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Slippery elm can most easily be distinguished from similar woods by the mucilagi- 
 nous character of the inner bark whenever this is present. The other elms have 
 wider sapwood and less porous springwood. Hackberry resembles slippery elm very 
 much in structure, but has very wide sapwood, pale heartwood with a greenish tinge, 
 and distinct rays. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 43 
 
 HACKBERRY. 
 
 Celtis occidentalw Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Sugarberry; nettle-tree; hack-tree (Minn.); bastard elm (N. J.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, large, forming a porous ring two or more (one in narrow 
 annual rings) pores wide. In the summerwood, small and numerous, arranged in 
 more or less continuous wa,vyi tangential bands. In the heartwood the large pores 
 are partly closed with tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — ^Fairly distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, irregular in width and outline. 
 
 Sapwood. — Wide, usually over 3 inches, often blued with sap stain. 
 
 Heartwood. — Not always distinctly defined; yellowish or greenish gray. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is moderately heavy, fairly straight-grained, and 
 without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Hackberry resembles elm in structiu-e; but the wide sapwood, greenish yellow tinge 
 in the heartwood, and wider rays in the hackberry are sufficient to distinguish it from 
 the elm. 
 
 The wood of Sitgaeberrt (Celtis mississippiensis, Bosc.) resembles hackberry 
 wood very much and often is sold under that name. It grows from southern Illinois 
 and Indiana southward to Florida and Texas. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE. 
 
 Toxylon pomiferum Raf . 
 Other Names. 
 
 Boisd'arc; mock orange; hedge-plant; yellowwood (Tenn.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. This species is planted considerably for hedges outside of its 
 nattu-al range. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. ^ 
 
 Pores. — Large in the springwood, forming a lighter colored ring; not distinct indi- 
 vidually, because they are densely plugged with tyloses, except in the outer annual 
 ring or two of the sapwood . In the summerwood the pores are very small and grouped 
 in short, wavy, tangential bands. 
 
 Rays. — Fine, barely visible without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not distinguishable with a hand lens from the fine pores of the sum- 
 merwood. 
 
 Annvxil rings. — Distinct, irregular in width and outline. 
 
 Sapwood. — Very narrow, usually less than one-half inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Freshly cut surfaces are golden yellow to golden brown with reddish 
 brown streaks, turning darker on exposure to the air. Color easily soluble in water. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is very heavy, exceedingly hard, somewhat cross- 
 grained, and without charactferistic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Osage orange resembles black locust so much in structure, color," and weight that 
 it is exceedingly difficult at times to distinguish the two. The coloring matter in 
 osage orange is highly soluble, however, and a wet rag or blotter applied to the surface 
 of the wood will be stained yellow in less than 10 minutes; practically no color is re- 
 
44 IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 moved from black locust by this method . Fresh surfaces of osage orange are yellowish 
 or golden brown; on black locust they are more of a russet brown. Osage orange ties 
 contain numerous pin knots, which are scarce in black locust. 
 
 BLACK LOCUST. 
 
 Robinia pseudacacia Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 Yellow locust; false acacia; pea-flower locust; green locust; post locust. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. This species is planted abundantly outside of its natural range. „ 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, comparatively large but densely plugged with tyloses 
 which cause them to appear to the unaided eye as a light-colored band rather than as a 
 porous ring (under a lens it can be seen that this band is 2 or 3 rows of pores wide). 
 In the summerwood, very small; in the outer portion of the summerwood, grouped 
 in short, wavy tangential bands. 
 
 Rays. — Not visible or barely visible without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable around the larger pores with an ordinary hand lens, 
 and not distinguishable from the finer pores of the outer summerwood. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, variable in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, rarely over one-half inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Golden brown, sometimes with a tinge of green. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is very, very heavy and exceedingly hard. It is 
 mostly straight-grained and without distinct characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The wood of black locust is easily confused with that of osage orange, being similar 
 in weight, structure, color, and other properties. The locust has a russet brown 
 color, while fresh surfaces of osage orange are more of a yellowish or golden brown, often 
 with reddish brown streaks. The color of the osage orange is readily soluble in water, 
 and pieces of the wood placed on a wet rag soon color the cloth yellow; but practically 
 no color can be extracted with cold water from black locust. Rather large worm- 
 holes may be found in a large proportion of locust ties. These holes are caused by a 
 grub or larva, known as the locust borer, which does not attack the osage orange. 
 
 RED MULBERRY. 
 
 Moras rubra Linn. 
 Other Name. 
 
 Black mulberry. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 22. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Large in the springwood, forming a porous ring from 2 to 5 pores wide; in 
 the summerwood, small, in irregular groups of from 3 to 10 pores, the groups usually 
 arranged so as to form wavy, tangential bands visible without a lens. 
 
 The large pores in the springwood aro densely plugged with glistening tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — Fairly conspicuous without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not distinctly noticeable with a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, usually moderate in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — ^About one-half inch wide; yellowish. 
 
 Heartwood. — Freshly cut surfaces yellowish brown, becoming russet brown on 
 exposure to air. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy, fairly straight-grained, and without char- 
 acteristic odor or taste. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 45 
 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Red mulberry ia not easily confused with other woods. The yellowish brown 
 color of freshly exposed surfaces together with the narrow sapwood, distinct rays^and 
 glistening tyloses is sufficient to distinguish it from all other native species. 
 
 HARDY CATALPA. 
 
 Catalpa speciosa Warder. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Western catalpa; cigartree; Indian bean. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. The catalpa is planted in many States outside of its natural 
 range. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, large and distinct, forming a broad porous ring; in the 
 middle of the annual ring, smaller, but usually visible without a lens, isolated, or in 
 groups of from two to five, or more often in slightly wavy, tangential lines; in the outer 
 part of the summerwood, very small and always in wavy, tangential lines. The larger 
 pores are more or less plugged with glistening tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable around the larger pores and not distinguishable from 
 the very small pores of the outer summerwood. 
 
 Annual rings. — Usually wide; but narrow-ringed specimens may also be found. 
 
 Sapwood, — Very narrow, rarely over one-half inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Grayish brown, occasionally with a lavender tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, and without 
 pronounced taste or odor. Sometimes it has a slight odor resembling kerosene. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Sassafras and black ash resemble catalpa in color and somewhat in structure. Sassa- 
 fras can easily be identified by its spicy odor; black ash is considerably heavier than 
 catalpa and has comparatively few pores in the summerwood. In catalpa the pith 
 usually is three sided and in black ash round. 
 
 The wood of the Common Catalpa {Catalpa catalpa (Linn.) Karst.) resembles that 
 of the hardy catalpa so closely that the two can not readily be distinguished. The 
 common catalpa is supposed to be indigenous only to southwestern Georgia, western 
 Florida, central Alabama, and Mississippi, but it is widely cultivated and natiuralized 
 elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 HONEY LOCUST. 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos Linn. 
 Other Navies. 
 
 Thorny locust; honey shucks; sweet locust; three-thomed acacia. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Coiriparatively large in the spriugwood; conspicuous without a lens, form- 
 ing a wide porous ring which occupies about one-half the total width of moderately 
 wide annual rings. In the outer portion of the summetwood, very small, openings 
 not clearly visible with an ordinary lens; joined in short, wavy, lighter-colored, tan- 
 gential bands, distinct to the unaided eye. The large pores in the springwood are 
 not closed with tyloses but occasionally contain a bright reddish gum. 
 
 Rays. — ^Mostly very distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable around the larger pores and not readily distinguish- 
 able from the small pores in the summerwood. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; irregular in width and outline. 
 
46 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Sapwood.— From tliree-fourths of an inch to 2 inches wide on tie material. 
 
 Eeartwood. — Bright cherry red to reddish brown . 
 
 Physical properties.— The wood is very heavy, fairly straight grained, and without 
 characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 On account of the similarity in the color and general structure of the wood of the 
 honey locust and the coffeetree, the two are often confused in the market. The 
 coffeetree, however, has a narrower sapwood and a much larger pith. The pith in 
 honey locust is usually less than 0.15 inch in diameter; in coffeetree it usually is over 
 0.2 inch in diameter. The pores in the outer summerwood of the coffeetree are some- 
 what larger (the openings being plainly visible with a good lens), and are more often 
 in rounded groups which are not joined in tangential bands. The rays in coffeetree 
 wood are less distinct to the unaided eye than those in honey locust. Scattered, 
 small pin knots, due to the thorns which grow on the trunks, are found in honey locust, 
 but never in coffeetree. 
 
 COFFEETREE. 
 
 GymnocladiiS dioicus (Linn.) Koch. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Kentucky coffeetree; coffee nut; coffee-bean tree. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics: 
 
 Pores. — In the springwood, large and distinct, forming a porous ring from 2 to 5 
 pores wide; in the summerwood, small, but the opening still visible with a good lens; 
 arranged in rounded groups of from 4 to 20 or more, the groups occasionally joined in 
 tangential bands in the extreme outer portion of the annual rings. The large pores 
 are not plugged with tyloses, but occasionally contain an orange-reddish gum. 
 
 Rays. — Visible without a lens, but not conspicuous. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable with a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, highly variable in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, usually less than one-half inch wide, but occasionally as much 
 as 1 inch. 
 
 Heartwood. — Bright cherry red to reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood has about the same weight and properties as that of 
 the honey locust. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The wood of the coffeetree is not easily confused with any wood except that of 
 honey locust, which has practically the same color and almost the same structure. 
 For distinguishing these two woods, see keys or distinctions made under the heading 
 Honey Locust. 
 
 WHITE ASH. 
 
 Fraxinus americana Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 American ash; cane ash. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Po?-c«.— Comparatively large in the springwood, forming a porous ring 2 or 3 or, in 
 wide rings, 4 pores wide; in the summerwood, very small, appearing to the unaided 
 eye as white specks, not numerous, scattered singly or by twos. The larger pores, 
 excepting those of the outer sapwood, contain numerous tyloses. 
 
 Rays.— Yery fine, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 PorencTij/jna.— Distinct as a light-colored area around the pores of the summerwood, 
 often projecting tangentially and connecting pores somewhat separated, thereby 
 
IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 47 
 
 forming wavy, tangential lines visible without a lens, especially in the outer part of 
 wide annual rings. 
 
 Annual rings. — Very distinct, mostly moderately wide. 
 
 Sapwood. — Several inches wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Grayish brown, sometimes with a reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is highly variable in weight, and some surprisingly 
 light pieces are occasionally found ; it averages about 34 pounds per cubic foot oven- 
 dry based on green volume.. It is straight-grained and without characteristic odor 
 or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 About 18 different species of ash are known in this country; but white, green, and 
 black ash form about 98 per cent of the commercial cut. Most of the ash ties or tim- 
 bers are either white or green ash, black ash being used comparatively Httle for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The wood of Green Ash {Framnus laneeolata Borkh.) resembles white ash very 
 much. The rings in the green ash average wider than those in white ash, but this 
 feature can not be relied on for identification of species. The tangential lines of 
 parenchyma connecting the pores in the summerwood are longer and more numerous 
 in green ash than in white ash. Commercially, no distinction is generally made 
 between the two species. For geographic distribution see map, page 30. 
 
 Black Ash {Fraxinus nigra Marsh.), also known as hoop ash, differs from green 
 and white ash in being of lighter weight (about 29 pounds per cubic foot oven-dry 
 based on green volume), in having darker heartwood, and in having comparatively 
 narrow sapwood, rarely over an inch and usually about one-half inch wide. Projec- 
 tions of parenchyma from the pores of the summerwood are rare, and for this reason the 
 tangential bands so plain in the summerwood of green ash are somewhat obscure in 
 black ash. For geographic distribution see map, page 30. 
 
 Chestnut, catalpa, and sassafras resemble the ashes, especially black ash. In 
 chestnut the pores in the summerwood are numerous and in radial bands; in catalpa 
 and sassafras they are also nimierous hut in tangential bands; while in the ashes they 
 are few and scattering, usually surrounded by parenchyma in such a way as to appear 
 in tangential bands in the outer portion of the summerwood. Sassafras can readily be 
 distinguished from the ashes by its spicy odor or taste. 
 
 SASSAFRAS. 
 
 Sassafras sassafras (Linn.) Karst. 
 Other Name. 
 
 Saxifrax. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map; page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — The large pores in the springwood form a broad ring from three to five or 
 even seven pores wide; in the summerwood the pores are very small (not visible 
 without a lens), mostly isolated or in radial rows of two or three, and not crowded. 
 The large pores contain numerous tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — Fine, but distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Noticeable as a narrow lighter-colored area around the pores of the 
 summerwood, in the outer portion often extending a little tangentially from the pores 
 and appearing to connect them in wavy, tangential lines. 
 
 Anmtal rings. — ^Very distinct, moderate in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, rarely over one-half inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — A light silvery brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately heavy and straight-grained and has a 
 spicy odor and taste. 
 
48 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Sassafras wood resembles the wood of the ashes, especially black ash, and of catalpa 
 in color and structxire, although the sapwood is much narrower than that of the white 
 and green ash. The spicy odor and taste, however, are sufficient, except when the 
 wood has been treated with a preservative, to distinguish it from all other native woods 
 
 used for ties. 
 
 PERSIMMON. 
 
 Diospyros virginiana Liim. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Date plum; possumwood (Fla.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pares. — Comparatively large, especially in the springwood, decreasing in size, 
 somewhat abruptly or gradually (then classed as diffuse-porous) toward the summer- 
 wood; easily visible without a lens except in the outer portion of the annual ring; 
 not crowded; occasionally in rows of from two to five. Tyloses absent. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine even under a lens. On the tangential surface they appear in tiers 
 or stories producing very fine bands nmning across the grain and visible with the 
 naked eye. 
 
 ParenchymM. — Visible with a lens as numerous very fine, light-colored, irregular, 
 tangential lines no wider than the rays. 
 
 Annual rings. — ^Marked by a row of larger pores at the beginning of each year's 
 growth, but not conspicuous because the pores are not numerous and decrease in size 
 more or less gradually toward the outer portion of each ring. 
 
 Sapwood. — ^Wide, from 2 to 4 or 5 inches; white when fresh, but sometimes stained 
 a grayish brown when exposed to the air for some time. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Jet black or blackish brown, irregular in outline and usually very 
 small. 
 
 Physical- properties. — -The wood is from very heavy to very, very heavy, straight or 
 wavy-grained, and without charcteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Persimmon can not be mistaken for any other wood when the black heart is present. 
 Pieces of sapwood resemble hickory sapwood in weight and in having comparatively 
 large pores and fine Unes of parenchyma, but can be distinguished by the fine hori- 
 zontal bands on the tangential surface, which are due to the storied arrangement of 
 the rays. 
 
 THE HICKORIES. 
 
 Comparatively few hickory ties are used, but occasionally some are 
 sold with other hardwoods. Eight species of hickory are of commer- 
 cial importance and several other species of minor value have been 
 named by botanists. According to the leaves, twigs, and fruit the 
 species can be divided into two groups, the true hickories, and the 
 pecan hickories. No method has as yet been determined for identi- 
 fying each species of the wood alone, except water hickory, which, 
 has a distinct structure; and often it is impossible without the aid of 
 a compound microscope even to determine to which group a piece 
 of hickory belongs. 
 
 The following features are characteristic of all the hickories except 
 the water hickory. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 49 
 
 Pores. — Plainly visible with the unaided eye in the springwood, forn^ng a ring 1 . 
 to 2 or 3 pores wide; decreasing in size somewhat gradually toward the summerwood, 
 in which they are smaller but still occasionally visible without a lens. In the sum- 
 merwood, not numerous, isolated or in radial groups of two or three. 
 
 Most of the larger pores, except those in the outer sapwood, are filled with tyloses. 
 
 Rays. — Rather fine, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma.— In numerous fine, light-colored, tangential hnes not' widening out 
 and encircling the pores as in ash, but usually extending between the pores or passing 
 around them on one side; very plain under a lens and sometimes visible without a 
 lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Clearly defined; highly variable in width. 
 
 Sapwood. — From 1 to 2 and occasionally as much as 3 inches wide on ties. 
 
 Heartwood. — Brown to reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood of the hickories is very heavy and exceedingly 
 hard and tough. It has no characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The hickories can be distinguished from other ring-porous woods by the numer- 
 ous fine, light-colored, tangential lines of parenchyma and the presence of few 
 pores in the summerwood. Persimmon is somewhat similar to hickory in these 
 respects; but in the persimmon the tangential lines are much the finer; and the 
 medullary rays are in horizontal rows plainly noticeable on the tangential surfaces as 
 very fine bands across the grain. 
 
 The following species may occasionally be cut for ties: 
 
 TRUE HICKORIES. 
 
 Shagbaek (Hickory) (Bieoria ovata (Mill.) Britton), also named shellbark, scaly- 
 bark, and upland hickory (111.). For geographic distribution see map, page 26. 
 
 Shellbark (Hickory) {Hicoria ladniosa (Michx. f.) Sargent), also known as 
 shellbark, western shellbark, thick shellbark, bottom shellbark (111.), kingnut, 
 yellow-twig hickory, and big-fruited shellbark. For geographic distribution see map, 
 page 26. 
 
 Pignut (Hickory), or Black Hickory {Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton), also known 
 as switch-top hickory and tight-bark hickory. For geographic distribution see map, 
 page 26. 
 
 MocKBRNUT (Hickory) {Hicoria alba (Linn.) Britton), also known as whiteheart 
 hickory, big-bud hickory, white hickory, and hognut. For geographic distribution 
 see map, page 26. 
 
 PECAN HICKORIES. 
 
 BiTTERNUT (Hickory) {Hicoria mmimo (Marsh.) Britton), often named pignut, also 
 swamp hickory, pig hickory, bitter hickory, and willow hickory. For geographic 
 distribution, see map, page 28. 
 
 Pecan (Hickory) {Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britton). For geographic distribution, 
 see map, page 28. 
 
 Nutmeg Hickory {Hicoria myristicceformis (Michx. f.) Britton), also kno'wn as 
 bitter waternut. - For geographic distribution, see map, page 28. 
 
 Water Hickory {Hicoria aquatica (Michx. f .) Britton), also known as bitter pecan, 
 swamp hickory, and water bitternut. For geographic distribution, see map, page 28. 
 
 Water hickory differs from the other hickories in having less clearly defined annual 
 rings, and in the large pores being more scattered, thus approaching diffuse-porous 
 woods in structure. See illustration. The fine, light-colored lines of parenchyma 
 characteristic of the hickories are very distinct in this species. The color of the 
 heartwood is about the same as in the other hickories, but the wood is somewhat 
 lighter in weight. 
 
 96625°— 17 4 
 
50 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 SYCAMOHE. 
 
 Platanus occidentalis Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Button-wood; buttonball-tree; plane-tree; water beech (Del.)- 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — ^Very small, not visible without a lens or indistinctly visible in vigorous 
 growth; crowded a;nd of about uniform size throughout the annual ring except in the 
 extreme outer portion, in which they are smaller and less numerous and produce a 
 narrow, lighter colored band. 
 
 Rays. — Practically all comparatively broad and conspicuous; many over twice as 
 wide as the largest pores; appearing on a radial surface as reddish brown "flakes," or 
 "silver grain" similar to quartered oak, but finer. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable even with a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, defined by a lighter colored band at outer limit of each; 
 not differentiated into distinct springwood and summerwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — One and one-half to 3 inches wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Light to moderately dark shades of reddish brown, sometimes not 
 clearly defined from sapwood. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is moderately heavy, lock-grained, and without 
 characteristic odor or taste. Cup shake, especially in butt logs, is a common defect. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Sycamore is not easily confused with other woods. Its numerous conspicuous 
 medullary rays and interlocked grain make it easily recognizable. It resembles 
 beech somewhat, but can be distinguished from it by the rays, only a small propor- 
 tion of which are broad in beech. Beech also has a distinct darker and denser band of 
 summerwood. 
 
 BEECH. 
 
 Fagus atropunicea (Marsh.) Sudworth. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Only one species of beech is native to the United States; but because of the varia- 
 bility in the color of the heartwood the darker grades have been designated as red- 
 heart beech and the lighter grades as white-heart beech. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — ^Very small, not visible without a lens; crowded in the springwood but 
 gradually decreasing in size and number toward the outer portion of the annual ring, 
 forming a harder and darker band of summerwood. 
 
 Rays. — About 1 in from 10 to 20 of the rays seen on a smooth end surface is conspicu- 
 ously broad and distinct without a lens. These large rays appear on the radial sur- 
 face as small reddish brown "flakes" or "silver grain." The large rays are fully two 
 times as wide as the largest pores, but the -others are much narrower than the pores, 
 and not visible without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Very fine, irregular, light-colored, tangential lines may be seen with 
 a lens in some specimens, but usually they are not distinct. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct but not very conspicuous; defined By the sharp contrast 
 between the harder and darker band of summ'erwood and the succeeding lighter 
 colored and more porous springwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Variable in thickpess from 2 to 5 inches. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Variable from reddish brown to almost white with a reddish tinge and 
 then not clearly defined from the sapwood. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 51 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy, fairly straight-gr?,ined, and without char- 
 acteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Sycamore and maple resemble beech but can be distinguished from it as follows: 
 In sycamore practically all the rays are broad and conspicuous, and the outer portion 
 of each annual ring is lighter colored. In maple the rays are all narrower than the 
 larger ones in beech, although they are still plainly visible without a lens, and there 
 is practically no distinction between springwood and summerwood. 
 
 SUGAR MAPLE. 
 
 Acer saccharum Marsh. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Hard maple; rock maple; sugar-tree; black maple. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 22. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Small, not visible with the unaided eye; round, nearly always isolated, 
 rarely in radial rows of two or three; practically uniform in size throughout the growth 
 ring; not crowded. 
 
 Rays. — Two kinds; some very distinct without a lens, fully as wide as thelargest 
 pores, except near the center of a tree, and conspicuous on a radial cut as small, 
 reddish brown "flakes;" others very fine, barely visible with a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Not very distinct; defined by a reddish brown line. Pith flecks 
 rarely present. 
 
 Sapwood. — Several inches wide; white with slight reddish brown tinge. 
 
 Eeartwood. — Light reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is heavy, diflicult to cut across the grain, straight- 
 grained (occasionally it has a wavy or bird's-eye grain) and without characteristic 
 odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The soft maples (silver maple and red maple) resemble the sugar maple, but the 
 wood of the sugar maple is usually distinctly heavier and harder. The rays in the 
 soft maples are of more uniform width and not so large as the broadest ones in the 
 sugar maple. The birches and beech resemble maple somewhat. However, in birch 
 the rays are not distinct without a lens, while the pores usually axe; and in beech the 
 widest rays are much wider than the largest pores. 
 
 SILVER MAPLE. 
 
 Acer saccharinum Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Soft maple; white maple; river maple; water maple; swamp maple. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 22. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Not visible without a lens; evenly scattered throughout the annual rings; 
 mostly isolated but occasionally in radial rows of from two to four; not crowded. 
 
 Rays. — Visible without a lens except near the center of the tree, practically all of 
 about uniform width, but usually not so large as the largest pores, not so conspicuous 
 on the radial surface as in the sugar maple. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not visible. 
 
 Annual rings. — Not very distinct; defined by a fine, darker line. Pith flecks 
 usually abundant, although they may be absent in some pieces. 
 
 Sapwood, — ^Wide; white. 
 
52 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Light reddisli brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately heavy, straight-grained, easily cut 
 across the grain, and without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Silver maple can usually be distinguished from sugar maple by its lighter weight 
 and abundant pith flecks. Or by examining the end surfaces with a lens, it will be 
 found that in silver maple all the rays are practically of the same width, while in sugar 
 maple some are conspicuously wide and others very narrow. Silver maple also 
 resembles the river birch, but in the river birch the rays are narrower (not visible 
 without a lens) and the pores larger (usually visible without a lens). 
 
 Red Maple {Acer rubrum Linn.) is also classed as soft maple and resembles silver 
 maple very much, although the wood averages slightly heavier and Btronger. Both 
 grow practically in the same region. See map, page 22. 
 
 BLACK CHERRY. 
 
 Prunus serotina Ehrh. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Wild cherry; rum cherry. - 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Small, not visible with the unaided eye, evenly distributed or gradually 
 decreasing in size and number toward the end of each annual ring; isolated or in 
 irregular groups of from two to four; numerous, occupying one-third, or slightly more, 
 of the space between the rays. 
 
 Rays. — ^Very distinct on end and radial surfaces; as wide or almost as wide as the 
 largest pores. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual ririgs. — Fairly distinct; defined by an abrupt difference in the size of the 
 pores in the summerwood and succeeding springwood; much more pronounced in 
 some samples than in others. Pith flecks occasionally present but inconspicuous 
 because the color is the same as that of the siirrounding wood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, usually less than 1 inch. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Reddish brown in varying shades from moderately dark to very dark. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately heavy, fairly straight-grained, and 
 without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Other woods are rarely confused with cherry. The reddish brown color and very 
 distinct rays serve to distinguish black cherry from all other native commercial woods. 
 
 BLACK WALNUT. 
 
 Juglans nigra Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Unlike most of our native trees, black walnut is known throughout the country by 
 only one name. Occasionally it is named merely "walnut" for convenience, but 
 this is not considered a distinct name. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Comparatively large and easily visible with the naked eye, especially in 
 the springwood, and gradually decreasingin size toward the outer portion of each annual 
 ring. (Although at first sight some pieces may give the impression of being ring- 
 porous, they are not classed as such because the large pores in the beginning of each 
 annual ring do not form a definite zone beyond which they decrease abruptly in size.) 
 Tyloses present, but not filling the pore? '^nmrilptely. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 53 
 
 Rays. — ^Very fine and inconspicuous, not distinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Present in the form of several lighter colored, irregular, tangential 
 lines readily visible in the sapwood but obscure in the heartwood. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; marked by an abrupt difference in the size of the pores 
 in the summerwood and succeeding springwood, and by a fine, light-colored line. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, mostly less than 1 inch wide, but occasionally up to 3 inches; 
 white, or discolored to yellowish or purplish brown. 
 
 Heartwood. — Rich chocolate brown with lustrous surface. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy, straight-grained, and practically tasteless, 
 but has a slight characteristic odor, especially when worked. Although the wood is 
 not very dense, it will readily turn the edge of the woodworking tools because of the 
 numerous crystals of mineral matter imbedded in the cells. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The color and the large pores of black walnut readily distingniflh it from other 
 woods. Butternut resembles it most closely but is lighter in color and considerably 
 lighter in weight. 
 
 BUTTERNUT. 
 
 Juglans cinerea Liim. 
 Other Names. 
 
 White walnut; walnut. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Comparatively large and easily visible with the naked eye, especially in 
 the springwood; gradually decreasing in size toward the outer portion of each annual 
 ring; not crowded; occasionally in radial rows of from two to six. (On account of 
 the difference in size of the pores of the summerwood and the succeeding springwood, 
 some pieces approximate ring-porous woods in appearance but are not classed as such 
 because the large pores in the beginning of each annual ring do not form a definite 
 zone beyond which the pores abruptly decrease in size.) Tyloses are present, but 
 do not appear to plug the pores completely. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine and inconspicuous; indistinct without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — ^Visible as fine, tangential lines when the surface is smoothed with a 
 very sharp knife; sometimes not distinct. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; marked by abrupt difference in the size of the pores in 
 the summerwood and the succeeding springwood ; usually widex than in black walnut. 
 
 Sapwood.— Narrow, rarely over 1 inch wide; white to light brown. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Light chestnut brown with occasional reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, and without 
 characteristic odor or taste. It cuts easily and does not readily turn th« edge of a 
 blade as does black walnut. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The plainly visible pores, which gradually decrease in size toward the outer edge 
 of each annual ring, and the light chestnut brown color distinguish butternut from 
 other woods. It is lighter in color and considerably lighter in weight than black 
 walnut, to which it is closely related. 
 
 YELLOW BIRCH. 
 
 Betula lutea Michx. f. 
 Other Nanus. 
 
 Gray birch; silver birch; swamp birch (Minn.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 24. 
 
54 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Usually not distinct to the unaided eye; clearly visible, however, in some 
 pieces; not crowded, occupying less than one-third of the total area between the 
 rays except in very narrow rings; occasionally in radial rows of from two to four. 
 Tyloses absent. 
 
 Rays. — ^Fine, not distinctly visible without a lens; appearing on the radial surface 
 as very fine reddish brown "flakes." 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Not distinct to the unaided eye except in specimens showing 
 rapid growth; defined by a fine line and a slight decrease in the size of the pores 
 at the end of each year's growth. Pith flecks usually absent. 
 
 yS'apwoo^.— Several inches in width, but extremely variable in different pieces. 
 
 Eeartwood. — Reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy, straight-grained, and without character- 
 istic odor or taste. The inner bark has a mild wintergreen flavor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 River birch resembles yellow birch somewhat, but usually has abundant pith 
 flecks. The maples also resemble the birches, but have smaller pores and wider 
 rays. Neither the river birch nor the maples have the wintergreen flavor in the 
 inner bark characteristic of the sweet and yellow birches. 
 
 Sweet Bihch (Betula lenta Linn.), also known as cherry birch and black birch, 
 is often associated with yellow birch but is not so plentiful. The wood resembles 
 yellow birch so closely that is it difficult to distinguish between the two. The inner 
 bark has a decided wintergreen flavor, which is more pronounced than in yellow 
 birch. The outer bark of yellow birch is yellowish gray and readily separates into 
 thin, papery layers; of sweet birch it is reddish brown and not papery. For geo- 
 graphic distribution see map, page 24. 
 
 Paper Birch {Betula papyri/era Marsh.) of the Northern States, also known as 
 white birch and canoe birch, is used for ties only locally. In general, it has the 
 same structure as the other birches, except that the pores are smaller and can not 
 be seen without a lens. Pith flecks are common but may be absent. The wood is 
 lighter and softer than that of yellow or sweet birch. The sapwood is comparatively 
 wide and almost white. The outer bark separates readily into white papery layers. 
 For geographic distribution see map, page 24. 
 
 RIVER BIRCH. 
 
 Betula nigra Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Red birch; water birch; black birch. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 24. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — ^Usually visible with the unaided eye, although not always distinct; slightly 
 smaller in the extreme outer portion of the annual ring; not crowded, although more 
 numerous than in sweet or yellow birch and often occupying more than one-third 
 of the total area between the rays; isolated, or in rows of from two to four. Tyloses 
 absent. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine, not visible without a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Indistinct without a lens except by careful observation; defined 
 by a fine line and in some cases by a slight decrease in the size of the pores at the 
 end of each year's growth. Pithflecl-s abundant. 
 
 Sapwood.— Wide, faintly reddish brown; transition to heartwood gradual. 
 
 Eeartwood. — Reddish brown. 
 
IDENTIPICATlOlir 01* WOODS. 55 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy, straight-grained, and without character- 
 istic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 River birch can be distinguished from the sweet and yellow birches by its abundant 
 pith flecks and lack of wintergreen flavor in the inner bark. It may be confused 
 with the soft maples, which also have many pith flecks and are only slightly lighter 
 in weight; but the rays in the soft maples are more conspicuous and the pores are 
 much smaller. The outer bark of the river birch is light reddish brown and readily 
 separates into small crumpled flakes, but not into papery layers, as does that of the 
 yellow and paper birches. 
 
 COTTONWOOD. 
 
 Populus deltoides Marsh. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Poplar (in the Northern States); cotton-tree; whitewood. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Usually visible with the imaided eye, especially in the springwood; 
 decreasing slightly in size toward the outer portion of each annual ring; very numer- 
 ous, occupying nearly one-half of the total area betweeil the rays except in very 
 wide rings; scattered singly, or often in radial rows of from two to fotir. 
 
 Rays. — Invisible without a lens and barely distinct with a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct but not conspicuous; defined by a alight difference in 
 the size of the pores of the summerwood and of the succeeding springwood. Pith 
 flecks occasionally present, but not conspicuous. 
 
 Sapwood. — Not clearly defined, and passing more or less gradually into the heart- 
 wood. _ 
 
 Heartwood. — Grayish white to light grayish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is light and fairly straight-grained (occasionally 
 cross-grained). It is practically tasteless, but has a characteristic disagreeable odor 
 when moist. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Cottonwood may be confused with other light woods Uke tupelo, yellow poplar, 
 basswood, and buckeye. It can be distinguished from these by the fact that the 
 pores in its springwood are larger, being usually visible without a lens. 
 
 This description of the common cottonwood also applies to the Black Cottonwood 
 (Populus trichocarpa Torr. and Gr.), or balm, found west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 See map, page 20. 
 
 The Swamp Cottonwood (Populus heterophylla Linn.), found in the' Atlantic and 
 Gulf coast region and the Mississippi Valley, is practically identical in structure 
 with the common cottonwood, but it has a slightly darker heartwood. 
 
 Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) and Laegetooth Aspen (Populus grandi- 
 dentata Michx.) are closely related to the cottonwoods. The wood of these species 
 resembles cottonwood very much, but is of a finer texture, the pores being smaller 
 and not visible without a lens. 
 
 RED GUM. 
 
 Liquidambar styradjlva Linn. 
 OtJier Names. 
 
 Sweet gum; liquidambar; gum-tree; star-leaved gum; alligator-wood (N. J.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 See map, page 30. 
 
5g IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores.— Very small, not visible without a lens; uniform in size and evenly dis- 
 tributed throughout each annual ring; crowded, occupying from one-half to two-thirds 
 of the space between the rays; occasionally joined in short radial rows of from two to 
 five, but more often in rows with narrow spaces between the pores. 
 
 iJays.— Fairly distinct without a lens; comparatively numerous. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings.— ^^iot distinct even with a lense, defined by a lighter colored line. 
 
 Sapwood.—Yaiiable, from 1 to 5 inches, in width; white, with reddish tinge or 
 blued by sap stain. 
 
 Heartwood. — In varying shades of reddish brown, with darker streaks in some 
 pieces. 
 
 Physical properties.— 1h.B wood is moderately heavy, somewhat lock-grained, and 
 without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The dark reddish brown heartwood of red gum is so characteristic that it usually 
 serves to distinguish the species from all other woods used for ties. 
 
 Cherry also has a dark, reddish brown heartwood, but it is usually darker, more 
 lustrous, and has more distinct rays. 
 
 BLACK GUM. 
 
 Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. 
 Oth^r Names. 
 
 Sour gum; pepperidge; tupelo; gum; tupelo gum (Fla.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 24. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — ^Very small, not visible without a lens; not diminishing in size or number 
 toward the outer portion of the annual ring except in very wide rings; mostly solitary, 
 especially in dense pieces, but occasionally in radial rows of from two to five ; crowded 
 in lighter pieces, but in heavier pieces occupying less than one-third of the total 
 area between the rays. 
 
 Rays. — Usually not distinct to the unaided eye but distinct with a lens; not con- 
 spicuous on the radial surface, being small and of the same color as the siirrounding 
 wood. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual Rings. — Indistinct, even under a lens; defined by a fine line and occasion- 
 ally by a slight decrease in the size of the pores at the extreme outer edge of the ring. 
 
 Sapwood. — Varying from one to several inches in width, and passing more or less 
 gradually' into the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — Brownish gray in color. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately heavy to heavy, very lock-grained, 
 which makes it exceedingly difficult to split, and without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Cotton gum, or tupelo, can not be easily distinguished from black gum, although it 
 averages somewhat lighter in weight. The pores are slightly larger in tupelo and 
 more often in radial rows, but this difference can be observed only by comparing 
 woods of the two species. The brownish gray color, together with the interlocked 
 grain, readily distinguishes black gum from most other woods. 
 
 The Water Gum {Nyssa hifl.ora Walt.) of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts also resembles 
 black gum so much that the two can not be easily distinguished. For geographic 
 distriliution, see map, page 24. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 57 
 
 COTTON GUM (TUPELO). 
 
 Nyssa aquatica Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Large tupelo; bay poplar; sour gum; wild olive tree (La.); swamp tupelo. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 24. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Not visible without a lens, uniformly distributed throughout the annual 
 rings or slightly less numerous in the outer part; often in radial rows of from three to 
 six, noticeable especially in the less porous pieces; widely variable in numbers, from 
 moderately abundant to crowded. (In light grades the cavities of the wood fibers 
 between the larger pores can also be seen with a lens, but they are always smaller than 
 the true pores.) 
 
 Rays. — ^Very fine even under a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Not noticeable. 
 
 Anrnial rings. — Not distinct even under a lens; defined by a light-colored line, and 
 in wide rings by a slight decrease in the number and size of the pores at the end of 
 each year's growth. 
 
 Sapwood. — Several inches wide, passing more or less gradually into the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — Pale brownish gray. 
 
 Physical properties. — Wood moderately heavy, usually lighter and softer in the butt 
 log than near the top, lock-grained, and without characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Heavier grades of cotton gum are difficult to distinguish from black gum. Al&ough 
 the pores are slightly larger in cotton gum and more often in radial rows, this difference 
 can be noticed only by comparing samples of the two species. 
 
 Cotton gum may be confused with cottonwood; but the interlocked grain and smaller 
 pores found in cotton gum help to distinguish it from cottonwood, which usually is 
 fairly straight grained and has pores large enough to be seen without a lens. 
 
 YELLOW POPLAR. 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera Linn. 
 Other Nam£s. 
 
 Tulip poplar; poplar; whitewood (second growth containing much white sapwood); 
 white poplar; blue poplar; hickory poplar. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — Not visible without a lens; uniformly distributed throughout the annual 
 ring; isolated or occasionally in short radial rows of from two to five, rarely joined 
 tangentially except where the pores are crowded; usually numerous, occupying over 
 half of the area between the rays, but in comparatively dense pieces occupying a little 
 over one-third of the area between rays, and in such pieces rarely in rows. 
 
 Rays. — Distinct without a lens, fairly conspicuous under a lens. 
 
 Parenchyma. — Confined to a narrow light-colored layer on the outer portion of- the 
 annual rings. 
 
 Annual rings. — Defined by a distinct light-colored line. 
 
 Sapwood. — From one to several inches in width. 
 
 Heartwood. — Light to moderately dark yellowish brown with a greenish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, and without 
 characteristic odor or taste. 
 
58 IDENTIFICATION' OF WOOI>S. 
 
 Similiar Woods. 
 
 Yellow poplar can usually be distinguished from other woods by its greenish tinge, 
 although in this respect it resembles cucumber, from which it can not always be dis- 
 tinguished without a compound microscope. 
 
 CucuMBEK-TREB (Magnolia acuminata Linn.), also known as mountain magnolia, is 
 occassionally used for ties. Itisrelated to yellowpoplar,whichitre8embles very much, 
 although the yellow poplar averages lighter in weight. This difference in weight is 
 not sufficient to be used for identification purposes; for the heavier grades of yellow 
 poplar weigh more per cubic foot than the lighter grades of cucumber. The rays are 
 slightly less conspicuous in cucumber-tree, but this feature can be observed only 
 by comparing pieces of wood of the two species. In Sweet Maq-nolia, or sweet 
 bay (Magnolia glauca Linn.), the rays are more conspicuous than in cucumber-tree 
 or even yellow poplar, although in other respects the sweet magnolia wood resembles 
 these species closely. 
 
 Cucumber-tree is found in about the same region as yellow poplar, except that it 
 does not extend into Florida and the southeastern half of Georgia, South Carolina, 
 North Carolina, and Virginia. 
 
 Sweet magnolia is found approximately in the territory southeast of a curve drawn 
 from New York through central Kentucky to Galveston, Tex., excepting southern 
 Florida. 
 
 BASSWOOD. 
 
 Tilia americana Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Linden; linn; bass; limetree; whitewood; beetree. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Pores. — -Very small but distinctly visible with a lens; decreasing gradually in 
 number and size toward the outer portion of each annual ring; numerous, occupying 
 from one-third to one-half of the total area between the rays, except in very wide rings; 
 isolated or in elongated or rounded groups of from two to eight, the groups extending 
 radially, diagonally, or tangentially within the annual ring. 
 
 Rays. — -Fairly distinct to the unaided eye; conspicuous under a lens; slightly nar- 
 rower than the pores. 
 
 Parenchyma. — ^Usually not noticeable with a hand lens but occasionally visible as 
 very fine tangential lines. 
 
 Annual rings. — Fairly distinct; defined by a slight but abrupt difference in the 
 size of the pores of the summerwood and succeeding springwood. Pith flecks are occa- 
 sionally present but are of about the same color as the surrounding wood and therefore 
 not conspicuous. 
 
 Sapwood. — Creamy white, up to several inches in width, passing more or less gradu- 
 ally into the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — €reamy brown in color, with occasional brownish-black longitudinal 
 streaks. 
 
 Physical properties.— The wood is Ught, soft, straight-grained, and tasteless, but has a 
 sUght characteristic odor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Other light woods, such as yellow poplar, cottonwood, buckeye, and cotton gum are 
 occasionally confused with basswood; but the soft and almost white character of the 
 wood and the irregular arrangement of the pores in diagonal and even tangential 
 groups, together with the very distinct rays imder a lens, help to distinguish it from 
 these somewhat similar woods. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 59 
 
 YELLOW BUCKEYE. 
 
 MsculiLS octandra Marsh. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Large buckeye; big buckeye; sweet buckeye. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Chatacteristics. 
 
 Pores.— Very small, uniform in size and evenly distributed througKout the annual 
 ring; isolated, or occasionally in short radial rows of from two to five; numerous, 
 occupying from one-third to fully one-half of the area between the rays. 
 
 Rays. — ^Very fine, even under a lens; arranged in tiers producing very fine bands 
 running across the tangential surface. These bands are" visible without a lens, but 
 are not pronounced near the center of the tree. 
 
 Parenchyma. — ^Not noticeable. 
 
 Annual rings. — Not always distinct; defined by light-colored lines., 
 
 Sapwood. — ^Not clearly defined from the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — Creamy white or yellowish in color ; occasionally discolored to a grayish 
 brown at the center. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is light, soft, straight-grained, and without charac- 
 teristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Yellow buckeye resembles baaswood very much; but under a lens the rays in the 
 latter are much more qonspicuous, and the fine lines across the tangential surface 
 of buckeye distinguish it from basswood and other light woods. 
 
 Ohio Buckbtb {Mesculus glabra Willd.), also known as fetid buckeye, stinking 
 buckeye, and American horse chestnut, is very much like the yellow buckeye in 
 appearance and properties, and grows in practically the same region. The fine lines 
 across the tangential surface are not so pronounced in this species, although they are 
 noticeable, especially on a moistened surface several inches from the center. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF CONIFERS. 
 THE PINES. 
 
 About 36 species of pines are native to tlie United States, but 
 only 13 are used for ties in commercial quantities, although others 
 may be used locally. Pine ties are rarely mistaken for any other 
 wood, nor are other species easily confused with pine. 
 
 The wood of the pines contains more or less pitch which usually 
 exudes from cuts made before it is seasoned. The resinous odor 
 and the presence of resin ducts (see p. 7) are also characteristic of 
 the pines. The resin ducts can be seen plainly with a hand lens, 
 and often without a lens, on a smoothly cut end surface. They are 
 also found in Douglas fir, spruce, and larch or tamarack, but in these 
 woods they are not so distinct and numerous as in the pines. Nor- 
 mally, resin ducts are not found in the wood of any other conifers. 
 
 The heartwood of the pines is usually orange to reddish brown. 
 In pinon and lodgepole pine the difference in the color of the heart- 
 wood and the sapwood is not pronounced. 
 
60 IDEXTTFICATIOX OF WOODS. 
 
 The pines are easily divided by the character of the leaves and the 
 structure of the wood into two groups, the soft pines and the hard, 
 yellow, or pitch pines. 
 
 In the soft pines there is little contrast between the springwood 
 and stunmerwood; in the hard piues there is a decided difference, 
 the siunmerwood being considerably harder and darker, although 
 in the narrow annual rings of the sapwood of old trees, the contrast 
 is act so marked as ia wider rings. The wood of the heavier species 
 of '^e soft pines, however, weighs more per cubic foot tban tbat 
 of ^e lighter hard pines. 
 
 Two hard pines, lodgepole and western yellow, furnish abimdant 
 tie material in the Western States. In the East at least seven difiFer- 
 ent species of hard pines are used for ties, but so far no means of 
 distinguishing absolutely between all of them without a high-power 
 microscope has been found. Each species varies in weight, width 
 of annual rings, percentage of summerwood, and thickness of sap- 
 wood, so that no sharp distinction can be made on these bases. The 
 foUowiiig figures give the average weight in pounds per cubic foot 
 oven-dry based on green volume, for each species: Norway, 28; 
 pitch, 29; shortleaf , 31 ; lobloUy, 31; pond, 31; longleaf, 34; slash, 
 36. However, heavy grades of Norway pine weigh more than light 
 grades of lobloUy, and some shortleaf pine is heavier than the average 
 longleaf. The annual rings and the sapwood of Norway and lobloUy 
 pine average wider than those of longleaf, but in individual pieces 
 the reverse may be true. 
 
 For means of distinguishing longleaf fnjm loblolly and shortleaf 
 pine ties and timbers which contain the pith see Appendix, page 73. 
 
 Numerous tests made at the Forest Products Laboratory have 
 shown that density, as indicated by the number of rings per inch 
 and the proportion of summerwood, is a far better indication of 
 strength than species. 
 
 It is a weU-established fact that untreated ties with wide sapwood 
 are less durable than those with narrow sapwood. This feature can 
 be judged irrespective of species. 
 
 WESTERN WHITE PIXE. 
 
 PinuB monlioola Dougl. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Idaho white pine; silver pine; finger-cone pine; mountain pine; soft pine; vhite 
 pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; the openings are plainly viable with a lens and, under 
 favorable conditions, even without a lens. The ducts are scattered promiscuously 
 throughout the annual ring. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 61 
 
 Rays. — ^Mostly very fine, some (containing horizontal resin ducts) slightly ■wider 
 and more conspicuous under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, moderate in width, the soft springwood passing, very 
 gradually into the sKghtly harder and darker siumnerwood, which does not offer 
 appreciably more resistance in cutting than the springwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — ^Mostly from 1 to 2 inches in width, occasionally 3 inches. *• 
 
 Eeartwood. — Cream to hght reddish brown. *^ 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately hght, straight-grained, and practi- 
 cally tasteless, but has a slight, yet distinct, resinous odor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The wood of the eastern White Pine (Finns strobus Linn.) resembles that of the 
 western white pine so much that the two can not be distinguished, and the above 
 description may be applied to both species. The eastern white pine, however, is 
 rarely cut into ties. 
 
 Limber pine averages sUghtly heavier in weight, but light grades are easily con- 
 fused with the western white pine. The yellow pines have more pronounced sum- 
 merwood, and therefore have more uneven texture; and the spruces differ iu not 
 having a distinctly darker heartwood. 
 
 LIMBER PINE. 
 
 IHnus flexilis James. 
 Other Names. 
 
 White pine; Bocky Mountain white pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; occasionally easily detected by slight exudations of resin; 
 evenly distributed or confined to summerwood, if the summerwood is wide. 
 
 Rays. — Mostly very fine; a few (those with horizontal resin ducts) shghtly wider 
 and more conspicuous under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Mostly narrow, occasionally moderately wide; the summerwood 
 may be thick in wide rings, but in contrast to the simimerwood of the hard pines it 
 is not dense enough to be much more difficult to cut than the springwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Highly variable, from one-fourth inch to 3 inches in width. 
 
 Eeartwood. — Reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is somewhat heavier and harder than that of the 
 other white pines and, as a rule, contains more knots, because it comes from short- 
 bodied timber. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The hght grades of limber pine resemble the western white pine, from which they 
 are not readily distinguished. 
 
 Bristle-cone Pine {Pinus aristata Engelm.)is found at high elevations from cen- 
 tral Colorado to eastern California and extends southward into northern Arizona and 
 New Mexico. The wood resembles closely that of the hmber pine in weight, grain, 
 narrowness of rings, and abundance of knots; but the tangential surface of bristle- 
 cone pine shows numerous slight depressions, especially on spUt surfaces, giving the 
 wood a dimpled appearance similar to that of lodgepole pine. 
 
 PINON (PINE). 
 
 Pinus edulis Engelm. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Nut pine; New Mexican pinon. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 
62 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present, scattered throughout the annual ring; openings not visible 
 without a lens, and appearing as tiny specks to the unaided eye. ' 
 
 Rays. — Mostly very fine, a few (those containing horizontal resin ducts) slightly 
 wid€r and more conspicuous imder a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — ^Mostly very narrow, not always distinct even with a hand lens. 
 
 Sapwood. — From one-half inch to li inches wide; boundary between sapwood and 
 heartwood not clearly defined. 
 
 Heartwood. — Creamy brown, occasionally with a sKght reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The pinon is the heaviest of the soft ,pine group, some pieces 
 weighing over 40 pounds per cubic foot oven-dry. It is somewhat cross-grained, very 
 knotty, and difficult to split. The wood is practically odorless and tasteless. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The pale, creamy brown color and the absence of dense bands of summerwood alter- 
 nating with soft bands of springwood distinguish pinon from the yellow pines, with 
 which it might otherwise be confused on account of its weight. The other pines 
 belonging to the soft-pine group are lighter in weight, softer, and have more of a 
 reddish brown color. 
 
 LODGEPOLE PINE. 
 
 Pinus contorta Loud. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Scrub pine; bird's-eye pine; tamarack; sand pine (Oreg.). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducti. — Present; fairly munerous; not distinctly visible without a lens, but 
 often indicated by exudations of resin. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine, except occasional ones (containing horizontal resin ducts) which 
 are quite distinct under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; moderately wide at the center, but soon becoming narrow; 
 summerwood well defined as a darker but narrow band, usually not noticeably hard 
 in cutting across the grain. 
 
 Sapwood. — Mostly about an inch wide, rarely up to 2J inches. 
 
 Heartwood. — Only slightly darker than the sapwood and often not clearly defined. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is one of the lightest of the yeUow pines, averaging 
 about 24 pounds per cubic foot, oven-dry, based on green volume. It is usually 
 straight-grained but contains numerous knots near the center. The wood is practi- 
 cally tasteless, but has a resinous odor when fresh. 
 
 On the surface under the bark or on split tangential surfaces numerous slight inden- 
 tations may be seen, which give the surface a dimpled or "bird's-eye" appearance. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Western yellow pine resembles lodgepole somewhat, but has darker and more dis- 
 tinct heartwood, wider sapwood, larger resin ducts, and only rarely does the tangen- 
 tial surface show the slight indentations so characteristic of lodgepole pine. Bristle- 
 cone pine shows the same indentations, but has a distinct reddish brown heartwood 
 and usually very narrow annual rings even near the center. Engelmann spruce also 
 resembles lodgepole pine in general appearance but is entirely without the "bird's- 
 eye" grain. 
 
 WESTERN YELLOW PINE. 
 
 Pinvs ponderosa Laws. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Bull pine (young vigorous trees); big pine; red pine; pitch pine; western pine; 
 white pine (lumber). 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS, 63 
 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; comparatively large, the opening usually distinctly visible 
 without a lens; confined to the outer half of the annual ring. 
 
 Rays. — Mostly very fine, a few (containing the horizontal resin ducts) are wider and 
 more distinct under a lens. 
 
 Anniuil rings. — Moderately wide in the heartwood, but very narrow in the outer 
 sapwood of old trees; the summerwood conspicuous in wide rings but reduced in nar- 
 row rings to a thin layer not distinct without a lens. (The sapwood of western yellow 
 pine approximates white pine in appearance.) 
 
 Sapwood. — Clearly defined, averaging from 2J to 4 inches in width. 
 
 Heartwood. — Light reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is one of the lightest of the yellow pines, averaging 
 about 24 pounds per cubic foot air-dry. It is straight-grained and tasteless, but has 
 a slight resinous odor. Occasional trees (especially in,the Southwest) show numerous 
 slight depressions on the tangential surface of the wood, giving it a dimpled or " bird's- 
 eye" appearance. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Pieces of western yellow pine with the "bird's-eye" grain resemble lodgepole; but 
 western yellow pine has darker heartwood, wider sapwood, and more distinct resin 
 ducts. Lodgepole pine does not attain as large size as the western yellow pine; there- 
 fore, the annual rings in lodgepole are usually very narrow (from 20 to 30 per inch) 
 beyond the fourth or fifth inch from the center, while in western yellow pine they 
 usually continue wider (from 5 to 20 per inch) until beyond the seventh or eighth 
 inch from the center. Exceptions, however, are found and identification can not be 
 based on the width of the rings alone. 
 
 The distinct bands of summerwood, particularly noticeable in the heartwood, dis- 
 tinguish western yellow pine from the white pines; and its light weight and compar- 
 atively large resin ducts help to distinguish it from the eastern yellow pines. 
 
 NORWAY PINE. 
 
 Pinus resinosa Ait. 
 Other Name. 
 
 Red pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; mostly in outer half of annual ring, but occasionally in 
 inner half; openings not visible without a lens. 
 
 Rays. — Mostly very fine, occasional ones (containing horizontal resin ducts) wider 
 and more distinct with the aid of a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — ^Fairly wide; the summerwood distinct as a narrow, harder, and 
 darker band, bu:t not offering much resistence to cutting across the grain, except in 
 very wide rings. 
 
 Sapwood. — ^Prom 2 to 4 inches in width. 
 
 Heartwood. — In various shades of reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is the lightest of the hard pines east of the Missis- 
 sippi River, averaging about 28 pounds per cubic foot, oven-dry, based on green 
 volume. It is usually straight-grained and is practically tasteless, but has a slight 
 resinous odor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Norway pine resembles the lighter grades of the southern ^llow pines to such an 
 extent that it is difficult to find any features to distinguish these species. Since 
 
64 IDENTIFICATION OP WOODS. 
 
 Norway pine is found only in the Northern States and Canada, its origin is usually 
 enough to identify it, although in New York, Pennsylvania, and the southern New 
 England States it grows in mixture with pitch pine {Pinus rigida Mill.), from which 
 the wood is not easily distinguished, although pitch pine is harder, more resinous, 
 and contains more knots. 
 
 Norway pine is unique in that its cell structure is such that it can easily be distin- 
 guished from all other native pines with the aid of a compound microscope. 
 
 SHORTLEAF PINE. 
 
 Pinus echinata Mill. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Yellow pine; spruce pine; bull pine; oldfield pine; rosemary pine (N. C); North 
 Carolina yellow pine; slash pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; scattered throughout the annual rings; comparatively 
 small, openings rarely visible without a lens. 
 
 Medullary rays.— Mostly very fine, although some (containing horizontal resin 
 ducts) are wider and more distinct under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct, moderately wide to narrow, the summerwood conspicuous 
 as a narrow, harder, and darker band. 
 
 Sapwood. — Mostly from 2 to 4 inches in width in ties. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Yellowish to orange-brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately heavy to heavy, straight-grained, 
 and easily split. It is practically tasteless, but has a slight resinous odor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Shortleaf pine averages between longleaf and loblolly in width of rings and thick- 
 ness of sapwood. Prom pitch pine it can not easily be distinguished after it is cut 
 into ties or other material. For a method of distinguishing between shortleaf and 
 longleaf pine, see Appendix, page 73. 
 
 Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida Mill.), also known as hard pine, yellow pine, black pine, 
 and black' Norway pine, is found from southeastern Canada southward in the 
 Atlantic and Appalachian region to central Georgia. The wood resembles that of 
 shortleaf pine and weighs approximately the same. 
 
 LOBLOLLY PINE. 
 
 Pinus tseda Linn. 
 Other Nam£s. 
 
 Oldfield pine; slash pine; bull pine; bastard pine; swamp pine; rosemary pine; 
 torch pine; shortleaf pine; sap pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; scattered throughout the annual ring; openings rarely 
 visible without a lens. 
 
 Medullary rays.— Mostly very fine, but occasionally some (containing horizontal 
 resin ducts) slightly wider and more distinct under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; mostly wide even at 6 inches or niore from the center, 
 but occasionally narrow and then producing what is known as "rosemary pine ; 
 the summerwood variable from moderately hard in very wide rings to very hard aad 
 dense in rings of moderate width. 
 
 Sapwood. — Mostly frpm 3 to 5 inches in width in ties. 
 
 Heartwood. — Yellowish to orange-brown. 
 
IDENTIFICATION 01" WOODS. 65 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is highly variable in weight, but averages about 31 
 pounds per cubic foot, oven-dry, based on green volume. It is straight-grained, 
 easily split, and has a resinous odor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The other southern pines commonly have narrower rings and thinner sapwood than 
 loblolly pine, but exceptions are often found, so that these featiu-es can not be used for 
 identification. For distinguishing loblolly and longleaf pine see Appendix, page 73. 
 
 Pond Pine {Pinus serotina Miohx.), also known as marsh pine, meadow pine, lob- 
 lolly pine, spruce pine, bastard pine, and bull pine, is found in low places ("ponds") 
 along the Atlantic coast from southeastern Virginia to central Alabama, not including 
 the lower half of the Florida Peninsula. When cut into ties or timbers it is marketed 
 as either longleaf or shortleaf pine. No definite distinction between the wood of 
 pond pine and that of the other southern pines has yet been found. 
 
 LONGLEAF PINE. 
 
 Pinus palustris Mill. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Southern yellow pine; yellow pine; turpentine pine; rosemary pine; hard pine; 
 Georgia pine; fat pine; southern pitch pine; heart pine; longstraw pine; pitch pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 32. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; numerous; scattered throughout the annual ring; compara- 
 tively large, the openings often visible to the unaided eye. 
 
 Rays. — Mostly very narrow, a few (those containing horizontal resin ducts) wider and 
 more distinct under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Very distinct; mostly narrow, especially several inches from the 
 center ; often irregular in width ; the summerwood comparatively wide ; often occupying 
 one-lialt the annual ring. 
 
 Sapwood. — Mostly between 1 and 2 inches in width in ties, occasionally more or less. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Yellowish to orange-brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is heavy and hard, straight-grained, and has a dis- 
 tinct resinous odor. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Although the annual rings and sapwood in longleaf pine average narrower than in 
 the other southern pines, these features are more or less variable and can not be relied 
 upon for identification. 
 
 For a method of distinguishing longleaf from loblolly and shortleaf pines see Appen- 
 dix, page 73. 
 
 Slash pine (Pinus heterophylla (Ell.) Sudworth), also known as swamp pine, Cuban 
 pine, and bastard pine, is found only in the coast region from southern South Carolina 
 to Louisiana (St. Tammany and Washington Parishes), including practically all of 
 Florida. It resembles longleaf pine in being dense and hard, but on the average it 
 has wider sapwood and wider and more irregular annual rings. 
 
 ENGELMANN SPRUCE. 
 
 Picea engelmanni Engelm. 
 Other Names. 
 
 White spruce; mountain spruce (Mont.); balsam (Utah). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; comparatively few; mostly isolated, less frequently two adja- 
 cent, and occasionally many in a tangential row; inconspicuous, easily overlooked, 
 96625°— 17 5 
 
66 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 often visible only as white specks in the summerwood, their presence also indicated 
 by occasional wider medullary rays which contain the horizontal resin ducts. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine, except as indicated above. 
 
 Annual rings. — ^Moderate in width; summerwood narrow, not much denser or darker 
 than the springwood; transition from springwood to summerwood gradual. 
 
 Sapwood. — Not distinctly defined, but noticeable on green timbers because of its 
 higher moisture content; variable from three-fourths of an inch to 2 inches in width, 
 
 JJeartwood. — Pale yellowish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is light and straight-grained. It has no character- 
 istic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Engelmann spruce is easily confused with Alpine fir, white fir, and lodgepole pine, 
 which also have almost white heartwood. In the true firs, however, resin ducts are 
 normally absent. Lodgepole pine has a dimpled surface under the bark or when 
 split tangentially, a feature not found in Engelmann spruce. 
 
 The White Spruce (Picea canadensis .(Mill.) B. S. P.) found in the Lake States, New 
 England States, and Appalachian Mountains, and the Red Spruce (Picea rubens 
 Sargent) found in the New England States and Appalachian Mountains have prac- 
 tically the same structure as the Engelmann spruce, although the wood is slightly 
 heavier and stronger, but they are rarely used for ties or timbers. 
 
 DOUGLAS FIR. 
 
 Pseudotsuga tarifolia (Lam.) Britton. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Douglas spruce; red fir; yellow fir; fir; Oregon pine; spruce (Mont.); red pine; Puget 
 Sound pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; small and inconspicuous; occasionally visible without a 
 lens as elongated whitish specks, especially in the summerwood; the openings not 
 visible without a lens; often in tangential rows of from 2 to 20 or more. 
 
 Rays. — ^Mostly very fine, a few (containing horizontal resin ducts) slightly wider 
 and more conspicuous under a lens. 
 
 Annual rings. — Very distinct; variable from narrow to wide; summerwood always 
 conspicuous as a denser and darker band but variable from very narrow in slow growth 
 to wide and hard in trees of rapid growth. 
 
 Sapwood. — About 1 inch wide in Rocky Mountain forms, and several inches wide in 
 Pacific coast forms, 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Mostly orange-reddish to red, the springwood as well as the summer- 
 wood being colored; sometimes yellowish in old Pacific coast trees. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is variable in weight, from moderately heavy to 
 heavy, fairly straight grained, and practically tasteless, but has a distinct odor when 
 fresh. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Douglas fir is not one of the true firs {Abies), of wliich balsam fir, alpine fir, white 
 fir, and noble fir are representatives. It differs from these in being heavier and 
 stronger, in having a distinct and darker heartwood, and in containing resin ducts. 
 Neither is it a spruce (Picea) nor a pine (Pinus), although the names ' ' Douglas spruce " 
 and "Oregon pine'' are applied to it. 
 
 The wood resembles that of the larch and hard pines, although a distinct reddish 
 hue is characteristic of Douglas fir only. The larch has a russet-brown heartwood 
 and comparatively narrow sapwood. The hard pines have a yellowish or orange- 
 brown heartwood and usually irregular growth rings. The resin ducts in larch are 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 67 
 
 also often grouped and inconspicuous, like those in Douglaa fir, but in the pines they 
 
 are larger and more numerous and not in groups. v 
 
 If parts of the bark are present, the thin whitish layers alternating with wider, 
 
 dark reddish-brown layers form an excellent means of identification; for none of the 
 
 other species with which Douglas fir might be confused have developed these lighter 
 
 colored layers. 
 
 WESTERN LARCH. 
 
 Larix occidentalis Nutt. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Tamarack; hackmatack. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; not numerous; scattered singly or in short tangential rows; 
 inconspicuous even with a lens; their presence also indicated by occasional wider 
 medullary rays, which contain the horizontal resin ducts. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine, except as stated above; distinct on radial -surface because darker. 
 
 Annual rings. — Mostly very narrow, but the sunmierwood always distinct as a denser 
 band. 
 
 Sapwood. — Narrow, mostly from one-half to three-fourths of an inch, rarely over 1 
 inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Russet to reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is moderately heavy, relatively narrow-ringed, and 
 not slivery. It has no characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Western larch shows more resemblance to Douglas fir than to any other wood with 
 which it is associated. However, it has a distinctly brownish heartwpod and narrow 
 sapwood as contrasted with the redcui.1: or yellowish heartwood and wider sapwood 
 of Douglas fir. The hard pines have much wider sapwood and are more resinous. 
 
 The eastern larch or tamarack has wider rings with wider summerwood, and is more 
 slivery. On account of the difference in the geographic distribution of these two. 
 species it is rarely necessary to distinguish between them. 
 
 TAMARACK. 
 
 Larix laridna (Du Roi) Koch. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Larch; eastern larch; hackmatack; juniper (Maine, New Brunswick, to Hudson 
 Bay). 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Present; not numerous; scattered singly, or several in a tangential 
 row; inconspicuous, easily overlooked even with a lens; their presence also indicated 
 by occasional wider medullary rays, which contain the horizontal ducts. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine except as stated above. 
 
 Anmuil rings. — Moderately -wide, the stimmerwood conspicuous as a dense hard 
 band. 
 
 Sapwood. — ^Mostly less than an inch wide. 
 
 Heartwood. — Yellowish brown to russet brown without reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is heavy, coarse, and slivery. It has no distinct 
 odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Since the tamarack is found only east of the prairies, there is little possibility of its 
 being confused with the western larch and Douglas fir, which it resembles. It is also 
 similar to hemlock in being coarse and splinterv. but the tamarack lacks the reddish 
 
68 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 hue of hemlock, and has a decided contrast between heartwood and sapwood. The 
 hard pines have wider sapwood and are more resinous, as is indicated by the odor or 
 abundant exudations of resin. On carefully comparing the woods under a lens it 
 will be found that hemlock has no resin ducts, and that in the pines the resin ducts 
 are more distinct and numerous than in tamarack. 
 
 PORT ORFORD CEDAR. 
 
 ' Chamsscyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Pari. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Lawson cypress; Oregon cedar; white cedar; ginger pine. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin fllucis.— Absent. 
 
 Rays. — ^Very narrow; uniform in width; inconspicuous. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct but not prominent; moderate in width; the summerwood 
 only slightly denser than the springwood. 
 
 ;Sapil)00£f. -^Narrow, from 1 to 3 inches in width; not always clearly distinguishable 
 from the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — Pale brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — ^The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, and easily 
 worked. It has a pronounced spicy odor and taste, which readily distinguish it from 
 other species. The summerwood is not dense and hard as in many coniferous woods; 
 therefore it has an unusually uniform structure, which makes it desirable for a great 
 many purposes. This fact and its local distribution make the amount available for 
 ties comparatively small. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Port Orford Cedar resembles the other cedars somewhat, but the light-colored 
 heartwood and characteristic spicy odor afford an easy means of identification. 
 
 WHITE FIR. 
 
 Abies concolor (Gord.) Parry. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Balsam fir; balsam; white balsam; silver fir. 
 Geogrifphic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 Distinguishing Clmracteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Normally absent; occasionally present in the outer summerwood in 
 the form of tangential rows, from one-eighth of an inch to an inch or more in length. 
 (Plate XXVIII, fig. 2, shows a row of abnormal resin ducts.) 
 
 Rays. — Very fine and of uniform width. 
 
 Annual rings. — Mostly moderately wide, showing fairly rapid growth; the compara- 
 tiyely wide and almost white springwood passes gradually into the narrow, darker, 
 and harder summerwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Not distinguishable from the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — White or with a reddish brown tinge due to darker bands of summer- 
 wood. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, and without 
 characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 White fir resembles alpine fir, but the alpine fir usually has narrower rings and a 
 distinct disagreeable odor. It is lighter in color, especially in the springwood, than 
 the iioble fir and hemlocks. It can not be distinguished from grand fir, unlesa a por- 
 
IDElirTIFICAG?ION OP WOODS. 69 
 
 tion of th.e bark half an inch or more in thickness is present. White fir has narrow 
 white layers in the outer bark; while grand flr, noble fir, and the hemlocks have thin 
 very dark brown, layers in the outer bark. Alpine fir has too thin a bark on tie material 
 to have developed these layers. 
 
 Alpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.), also known as balsam, white fir, 
 mountain balsam, and downy-cone fir grows throughout the high mountain slopes from 
 Arizona to Montana and Idaho, westward through northern Oregon, and northward to 
 Alaska. The wood is the Ughtest of the western firs and, being almost white in color, 
 closely resembles that of the white fir; but the annual rings are usually narrower, 
 though trees with rings of moderate width are occasionally found. The sunmierwood 
 is not very pronounced and does not offer appreciably more resistance in cutting across 
 the grain than the springwood . The wood has a mild but distinct rank odor, noticeable 
 especially when fresh cuts are made on dry wood. Except for this odor, it would often 
 be impossible to distinguish alpine fir from some of the other firs, particularly white fir. 
 
 GRAND FIR. 
 
 Abies grandis Lindl. 
 Other Names. 
 
 White fir; lowland fir; silver fir; yellow fir; great California fir. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Absent, or occasionally present in the form of tangential rows of from 
 one-eighth of an inch to over an inch long. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine and of uniform size. 
 
 AnnvM rings. — Usually fairly wide, showing rapid growth; the springwood, soft and 
 almost white, passing gradually into the narrow but conspicuously darker and harder 
 Bummerwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Not distinguishable from the heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — White, with a reddish brown tinge, which is more pronounced in pieces 
 of slow growth. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, and without 
 characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Grand fir is not easily distinguished froni the other firs except alpine flr, which has 
 a disagreeable odor when cut. On the average, grand fir has a more nearly white 
 springwood and wider rings than the noble fir, but specimens showing narrow rings 
 may also be found. 
 
 Noble Fir {Abies nobilis Lindl.), also known as red fir, larch, bigtree, feather-cone 
 red fir, and bracted red fir, is foimd only in Oregon and Washington. It has the same 
 general characteristics as the other firs. The wood has somewhat of a reddish tinge, 
 which is due to the pale reddish springwood and the slow growth, which brings the 
 darker bands of summerwood close together. It thus resembles western hemlock, from 
 which it is not easily distinguished without a compound microscope. Specimens of 
 rapid growth resemble normal grand fir very closely. The wood is moderately light, 
 straight-grained, and without distinct odor or taste. 
 
 EASTERN HEMLOCK. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis (Linn.) Carr. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Hemlock spruce ; spruce pine, 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 
70 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — ^Absent. 
 
 Rays. — Very fine and of uniform width throughout. 
 
 Annualrings. — Narrow to moderately wide; the springwood soft and with a reddish 
 hue and passing gradually into the narrow, harder, and darker summerwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Usually not distinct from the heartwood, occasionally slightly lighter in 
 color. 
 
 Heartwood. — Pale brovm with a reddish hue. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained or twisted, and 
 practically tasteless and odorless or with a sour odor when fresh: Cup shake is a 
 common defect. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Hemlock is similar to the spruces and true firs in that the heartwood is not distinctly 
 darker than the sapwood. Spruce, however, is lighter in color, weighs less, is not so 
 slivery, and has resin ducts. The resin ducts can be seen only under a lens, but are 
 often indicated by exudations of resin. Most of the firs also are of a lighter color than 
 hemlock, especially in the springwood of each annual ring, and not so splintery. Noble 
 fir, however, resembles hemlock so much in weight, color, and general appearance that 
 they can not be distinguished easily without a compound microscope. 
 
 Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sargent), also known as Alaska fir, 
 Alaska pine, and gray fir, has the same general structiu'e as the eastern hemlock; but 
 the wood is less splintery, and usually free from cup shake. Abnormal resin passages 
 are often present, forming tangential rows in the outer portion of the summerwood. 
 This feature is also found in some of the true firs but not in the eastern hemlock. For 
 geographic distribution see map, page 34. 
 
 REDWOOD. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endl. 
 Other Name. 
 
 Sequoia. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 20. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin duets. — Normally absent, present only as result of injury and then in a tangen- 
 tial line at point of injury only. 
 
 Rays. — Narrow; uniform in width; easily visible with a lens because lighter colored 
 than the' surrounding wood. 
 
 Annual rings. — Moderate and regular in width; very distinct because of the summer- 
 wood, which is more pronounced than in the cedars. The dark specks in the illus- 
 tration in Plate XXX, fig. 1, are cells containing resin ("resin cells") which are 
 numerous in this species but, on account of the dark color of the wood, are not easily 
 seen on the end surface. On split surfaces the resin cells are often quite distinct 
 under a lens, appearing as dark lines running with the grain. 
 
 Saptoood. — One to several inches in width; almost white. 
 
 Heartwood. — Uniform deep reddish brown. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is moderately light, straight-grained, rarely wavy- 
 grained, and splits easily. It has no characteristic odor or taste. 
 Similar Woods. ' 
 
 Redwood is not easily confused with any other wood. In color it somewhat re- 
 sembles the junipers and dark grades of western red cedar. The junipers are much 
 finer textui'ed, have a distinct agreeable odor, and are rarely used for ties. The 
 cedars have an aromatic odor and bitter taste. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 71 
 
 BALD CYPEESS. 
 
 Taxodium distichum (Linn.) Eich, 
 Other Names. 
 
 Cypress; swamp cypress; wlutecypTesa; yellow cypress; ted cypress; black cypress; 
 southern cypress. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Absent. 
 
 Rays. — ^Uniformly narrow. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; usually irregular in width, and outline; the summerwood 
 very noticeable as a dense, dark band, or inconspicuous in lighter grades. The dark 
 specks in the illustration in PI. XXX, fig. 2, are cells containing resin ("resin cells "). 
 They are abundant in this species and can be seen with a hand lens, especially in 
 light-colored grades. The resin cells are usually arranged in irregular tangential 
 bands. On a split surface they are very distinct under a lens, appearing as dark lines 
 running with the grain. 
 
 Sapwood. — Usually over an inch in width, passing more or less gradually into the 
 heartwood. 
 
 Heartwood. — ^Highly variable in color from pale brown to blackish brown, sometimes 
 with a reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood varies in weight from moderately light to heavy, 
 and averages about 26 pounds per cubic foot oven-dry. It is usually straight-grained 
 and easily split. The odor is characteristic and may be described as rancid, although 
 one must become fa,miliar with it to be able to recognize it. The longitudinal surfaces 
 feel distinctly greasy, or waxy, especially in the darker grades. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 Cypress varies as much as any of our native woods in color and weight and therefore 
 is often difficult to identify by these features. It resembles the cedars more than 
 other woods, but the odor is entirely different. Cypress is practically tasteless, while 
 the heartwood of the cedars is distinctly spicy or bitter. Only one species of bald 
 cypress is found in the United States; but several grades, such as "white," "yellow," 
 "red," and "black cypress," are known on the market, the grades being based on color 
 and weight. Certain species (Cupressus sp.) in the western part of the United States ■ 
 are also known as cyprbss, but they are of minor commercial importance and are not 
 closely related to the southern bald cypress. 
 
 WESTEEN EED CEDAE. 
 
 Thuja plicata Don. 
 Other Names. 
 
 Canoe cedar; arborvitse; giant arborvitse; shingle wood; gigantic cedar; Pacific red 
 cedar. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 30. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — Absent. 
 
 Rays. — Very narrow and inconspicuous; uniform in width. 
 
 Annual rings. — Distinct; moderately narrow; with a thin but dense band of 
 simimerwood. 
 
 Sapwood. — Fron one-fourth inch to 1 inch in width. 
 
 Heartwood. — Brown, usually with a reddish hue. 
 
 Physical properties. — The wood is light, straight-grained, and easily split. It has 
 a distinct odor characteristic of cedar shingles, and the heartwood has a spicy bitter 
 
72 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 taste. The -wood is not resinous, although globules of resin may exude from the bark. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The western red cedar resembles most closely the arborvitee; but since the two 
 grow in regions widely separated they are not easily confused. The arborvitse is of 
 slower growth and has a plain light brown color usually without reddish tinge. Dark 
 grades resemble redwood, but the redwood is without characteristic odor or taste. 
 
 AEBORVITJi; (NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR). 
 
 Thuja ocddentalis Linn. 
 Other Names. 
 
 White cedar; cedar. 
 Geographic Distribution. 
 
 See map, page 34. 
 Distinguishing Characteristics. 
 
 Resin ducts. — ^Absent. 
 
 Rays. — All very narrow and inconspicuous. 
 
 Annual rings. — Narrow but indistinct; the summerwood thin and not noticeable 
 on cutting with a knife. 
 
 Sapwood.—'Na.rrow; not over 1 inch in width except in some second-growth trees. 
 
 Heartwood. — Light brown, rarely with a reddish tinge. 
 
 Physical properties.— The Wood is very light, straight grained, soft, and eas'ly spht. 
 It has the characteristic odor of the familiar cedar shingles, and the heartwood is 
 somewhat bitter or spicy to the taste. The wood is not resinous, but globules of resin 
 sometimes exude from the bark. 
 Similar Woods. 
 
 The arborvitse resembles the western red cedar, but usually has narrower rings and 
 is of a plain brown color without the reddish hue found in the western species. 
 Cypress has a more dingy color and a rancid odor which in no way resembles the 
 pleasant odor of the cedar. 
 
 WpiTE Cedar (Chamxcyparis thyoides (L.) B. S. P.), also known as swamp cedar and 
 juniper, grows along the coast from Maine to northern Florida and westward to 
 Mississippi. It resembles arborvitse, but has more of a pinkish hue, a spicy odor, 
 and, as a rule, wider annual rings. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 \ METHOD OF DISTINGUISHING LONGLEAF FROM SHORTLEAF AND 
 LOBLOLLY PINE TIES OR TIMBERS. 
 
 The pith, which is the small darker and softer core at the structural 
 center of the tree trunk, averages larger m longieaf than in shortleaf 
 or loblolly pme. See figure 7. 
 
 In longieaf pine the pith measures over 0.10 inch in diameter; in 
 the other two species it is smaller (usually about the size of the lead 
 in a lead pencil), except in pieces of vigorous growth, in which it may 
 be as large as in longieaf. 
 
 The vigor of a tree at the time the pith was formed is indicated by 
 the diameter of the second annual ring from outside to outside (which, 
 of course, includes the first ring also). 
 
 Therefore, when the pith in lobloUy and shortleaf is over 0.10 inch 
 in diameter the diameter of the second annual ring is comparatively 
 large; in fact, it is larger than in longieaf having the same sized pith. 
 
 A. B. c. 
 
 Fig. 7.— a, longieaf; B, loblolly; C, shorlleat pine of moderate growth; showing pith (the dark core In the 
 center) and diameter of second annual ring, D. AH natural size. 
 
 This is shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 8), in which are 
 marked the points where the horizontal lines indicating the diameter 
 of the pith intersect the vertical lines indicating the diameter of the 
 second annual ring of numerous specimens. The line AB is so 
 drawn as to separate the points representing longieaf specimens from 
 the points representing lobloUy and shortleaf specimens. 
 
 HOW TO USE THE PITH AND SECOND ANNUAL RING FOR IDENTIFICATION. 
 
 1. With a sharp knife carefully smooth the end surface of the pith 
 and surroimding wood. 
 
 2. If the pith or second annual ring is not clear, moisten the 
 smoothed surface. 
 
 3. If knots arc present near the pith, satisfactory measurements 
 can not be made, and the other end of the timber should be inspected. 
 
 73 
 
74 
 
 IDENTIFICATION OF WOODS. 
 
 4. If the pith is about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead 
 pencil or smaller, the specimen is not longleaf, and no further meas- 
 urement is necessary. See lobloUy and shortleaf specimens, figure 7. 
 
 5. If the pith is plainly over 0.10 inch in diameter and the growtli 
 rings surrounding it very narrow, the specimen is longleaf or in rare 
 instances slash or pond pine. See longleaf specimen in figure 7. 
 
 6. If indoubt as to thespecies,carefullymeasure the average diameter 
 of the pith, not includuig small projections, using a rule graduated in 
 twenty-fifths or fiftieths of an inch. A reading glass or low-power hand 
 lens is helpful but not essential in makmg these measurements. 
 
 7. Measure the diameter of the second annual ring in tenths of an 
 inch. The first and second annual rings are usually very distinct, 
 but in some pieces the first annual ring is rather faint, and care must 
 
 
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 loblolly, and shortleaf pine. 
 
 be taken not to mistake the third annual ring for the second. Some- 
 times false rings are present, but these can be recognized by the fact 
 that they usually are not prominent aU the way around, and their 
 outer limit is not defined by a sharp line. 
 
 8. On the diagram (fig. 8) find the point where the vertical line 
 which indicates the diameter of the pith intersects the horizontal 
 line which indicates the diameter of the second annual ring. 
 
 9. If the pomt of intersection faUs above the line AB, the tie is 
 longleaf, or in rare instances it may be slash or pond pine; if it 
 falls below the line, the tie is not longleaf but may be shortleaf, lob- 
 loUy, or some of the other minor southern pines. 
 
 10. If the point of intersection falls close to the line AB make 
 measurements on the other end of the timber. ' 
 
BSTOEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES. 
 
 Abies ooncolor 68 
 
 Abies grandis 69 
 
 Abies lasiocarpa 69 
 
 Abies nobilis 69 
 
 Acer rubrum 62 
 
 Acer saccbarinum 51 
 
 Acer saccharum 51 
 
 Aesculus glabra.. ; 59 
 
 Aesculus octandra 59 
 
 Eetula lenta 64 
 
 Betula lutea 53 
 
 Betula nigra 64 
 
 Betula papyrifera 54 
 
 Castanea dentata 41 
 
 Catalpa catalpa 45 
 
 Catalpa speciosa 45 
 
 Celtis mississippiensis 43 
 
 Celtis occidentalis 43 
 
 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 68 
 
 Chamaecyparis tliyoides 71 
 
 Cupressus sp 71 
 
 Diospyros virgiiuana 48 
 
 Fagus atropanicea SO 
 
 Fraxinus americana 46 
 
 Fraxinus lanceolata 47 
 
 Fraxinus nigra 47 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos .^. 45 
 
 Gymnocladus dioicus 46 
 
 Hicoria alba 49 
 
 Hicoria aquatica 49 
 
 Hicoria glabra 49 
 
 Hicoria laciniosa 49 
 
 Hicoria minima 49 
 
 Hicoria myristieaeformis 49 
 
 Hicoria ovata ; 49 
 
 Hicoria pecan 49 
 
 Juglans cinerea 53 
 
 Juglans nigra 52 
 
 Larix laricina 67 
 
 Larix occidentalis C7 
 
 Liquidambar styraciflua 65 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera 67 
 
 Magnolia acuminata 58 
 
 Magnolia glauca 68 
 
 Morus rubra 44 
 
 Nyssa aquatica r - 67 
 
 Nyssabiflora 56 
 
 Nyssa sylvatica 66 
 
 Picea canadensis 06 
 
 Picea engelmannl 65 
 
 Picea rubens 66 
 
 Pinus aristata 61 
 
 Finns contorta 62 
 
 Finns ecbinata 64 
 
 Pinus ednUs 61 
 
 Pinus flexilis 61 
 
 Pinus heterophylla 65 
 
 Pinus monticola .' 60 
 
 Pinus palustris 65 
 
 Finns ponderosa 62 
 
 Pinus resinosa 63 
 
 Pinus rigida 64 
 
 Finns serotina 65 
 
 Pinus strobus 61 
 
 Pinus taeda 64 
 
 Platanus occidentalis 60 
 
 Populus deltoides 65 . 
 
 Fopulus grandidentata 65 
 
 Populus heterophylla 65 
 
 Populus tremuloides 65 
 
 Populus trichocarpa 55 
 
 Prunus serotina 52 
 
 Fseudotsuga taxifolia 66 
 
 Quercus acuminata 38 
 
 Quercus alba 38 
 
 Quercus catesbaei 40 
 
 Quercus coccrnea 40 
 
 Quercus digitata 40 
 
 Quercus imbricaria 41 
 
 Quercus laurifolia 40 
 
 Quercus lyrata 38 
 
 Quercus macrocarpa 38 
 
 Quercus marilandica 40 
 
 Quercus micliauxii 38 
 
 Quercus minor 38 
 
 Quercus nigra 40 
 
 Quercus palustris 40 
 
 Quercus phellos 40 
 
 Quercus platarioides 38 
 
 Quercus prinus 38 
 
 Quercus rubra 39 
 
 Quercus texana 40 
 
 Quercus velutina 39 
 
 Roblnia pseudacacia 44 
 
 Sassafras sassalras 47 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens 70 
 
 Taxodlum distichum 71 
 
 Thuja occidentalis 71 
 
 Thuja plicata 71 
 
 Tilia americana 68 
 
 Toxylon pomiferum 43 
 
 Tsuga canadensis 69 
 
 Tsuga heterophylla 70 
 
 Ulmus alata 42 
 
 Ulmus americana 41 
 
 Ulmus pubescens 42 
 
 Ulmus racemosa 42 
 
 75 
 
INDEX TO COMMON NAMES. 
 
 IStandard names in CAPITALS; other names in small type.] 
 
 Page; 
 
 Acacia, false (BLACK LOCUST) « 
 
 Acacia, tluree-thorned(HONEYLOCUST).. 45 
 
 Alligator-wood (RED GUM) 55 
 
 Arborvitae (NOETHEB.N WHITE 
 
 CEDAE) 25,36,72 
 
 Arborvitse (WESTERN RED CEDAE). . . . 71 
 Arborvitse, giant (WESTERN RED CE- 
 DAR) 71 
 
 ASH, American (WHITE ASH) 46 
 
 ASH, BLACK 21,31,47 
 
 Asli, cane (WHITE ASH) 46 
 
 ASH, GREEN..' 21,31,47 
 
 ASH, WHITE 21,31,46 
 
 ASPEN, LARGETOOTH 55 
 
 ASPEN , 55 
 
 Balm (BLACK COTTONWOOD) 55 
 
 Balsam (ALPINE FIR) 69 
 
 Balsam (ENGELMANN SPRUCE) 65 
 
 Balsam (WHITE FIR) 68 
 
 Balsam, mountain (ALPINE FIR) 69 
 
 Balsam, white (WHITE FIR) 68 
 
 Bass (BASSWOOD) 58 
 
 BASSWOOD 23,33,58 
 
 Bay, sweet (SWEET MAGNOLIA) 58 
 
 BEECH 23,31,50 
 
 Beech, water (SYCAMORE) 50 
 
 Beetree (BASSWOOD) 68 
 
 Bigtree (NOBLE FIE) 69 
 
 Birch, black (RIVER BIECn) 54 
 
 Birch, black (SWEET BIRCH) 54 
 
 Birch, canoe (PAPER BIRCH) 54 
 
 Birch, cherry (SWEET BIECH) 54 
 
 Birch, gray (YELLOW BIRCH) 53 
 
 BIRCH, PAPER 54 
 
 Birch, red (EIVEE BIECH) 54 
 
 BIRCH, RIVER 21,23,33,54 
 
 Birch, silver (YELLOW BIRCH) 53 
 
 Birch, swam]>(YELLOW BIECH) 53 
 
 BIRCH, SWEET 21,23,33,54 
 
 Birch,,water (RIVER BIRCH) 54 
 
 Birch, white (PAPER BIRCH) 54 
 
 BIECH, YELLOW :.... 21,23,33,53 
 
 BITTERNUT (HICKORY) 
 
 Bitternut, water (WATER HICKORY). . . . 49 
 
 BLACK JACK 40 
 
 Black jack (TURKEY OAK) 40 
 
 Bois d'Arc (OSAGE OEANGE) 43 
 
 Buckeye, big (YELLOW BUCKEYE) 59 
 
 Buckeye, letid (OHIO BUCKEYE) 59 
 
 Buckeye, large (YELLOW BUCKEYE)... 59 
 
 BUCKEYE, OHIO 23,33,59 
 
 Buckeye, stinking (OHIO BUCKEYE).... 59 
 Buckeye, sweet (YELLOW BUCKEYE).. 59 
 
 BUCKEYE, YELLOW 23,33,59 
 
 BUTTERNUT 21,33,53 
 
 76 
 
 Buttonball-tree (SYCAMORE) 
 
 Button-wood (SYCAMOEE) 
 
 CATALPA, COMMON... 
 
 CATALPA, HAEDY 21, 
 
 Catalpa, western (HAEDY CATALPA).... 
 
 Cedar, canoe (WESTBEN EED CEDAE).. 
 
 Cedar, gigantic (WESTERN EED CEDAE) 
 
 Cedar, northern wlute(AEBORVITjE).. 25, 
 
 Cedar, Oregon (PORT ORFOED CEDAE). 
 
 Cedar, Paoiflc red (WESTEEN RED CE- 
 DAR) 
 
 CEDAE, POET ORPORD 23,27, 
 
 Cedar, swamp (WHITE CEDAR) 
 
 CEDAE, WESTERN RED 25, 
 
 Cedar, white (AEBOEVITiE) 
 
 CEDAE, WHITE 
 
 Cedar, white (POET ORFORD CEDAR).. 
 
 CHERRY, BLACK 23, 
 
 Cherry, rum (BLACK CHERRY) 
 
 Cherry, wild (BLACK CHERRY) 
 
 CHESTNUT 19, 
 
 Cigartree (HARDY CATALPA) 
 
 Coffee-bean tree (COFFEE TREE) 
 
 Coffee nut (COFFEE TREE) 
 
 COFFEE TREE 19, 
 
 Coffee tree, Kentucky (COFFEE TEEE)... 
 
 Cotton tree (COTTONWOOD) 
 
 COTTONWOOD 21,23, 
 
 COTTONWOOD, BLACK 
 
 COTTONWOOD, SWAMP 
 
 CUCUMBEE TEEE 
 
 Cypress (BALD CYPRESS) 
 
 CYPRESS (Western species) 
 
 CYPRESS, BALD 25, 
 
 Cypress, black (BALD CYPRESS) 
 
 Cypress, Lawson (PORT ORFOED CE- 
 DAR) 
 
 Cj-press, red (BALD CYPRESS) 
 
 Cypress, southern (BALD CYPRESS) 
 
 Cypress, swamp (BALD CYPRESS) 
 
 Cypress, white (BALD CYPRESS) 
 
 Cypress, yellow (B.VLD CYPRESS) 
 
 Date plum (PERSIMMON) 
 
 Elm, American (WHITE ELM) 
 
 Elm, bastard (HACKBEEEY) 
 
 ELM, COEK 21; 
 
 Elm, cork-bark (CORK ELM) 
 
 Elm, corky white (CORK ELM) 
 
 Elm, hickory (CORE ELM) 
 
 Elm, red (SLIPPERY ELM) 
 
 Elm, rock (COEK ELM) 
 
 Ehn, rock(SLIPPEEYELM)....!!!..^y ! 
 Elm, rock (WHITE ELM) . . 
 
 ELM, SLIPPEEY '.....[.... -n 
 
 Elm, swamp (WHITE ELM).....!.!.!....' 
 
 50 
 50 
 45 
 
 29,45 
 45 
 71 
 71 
 
 36,72 
 
 71 
 
 35,68 
 72 
 
 36,71 
 72 
 72 
 68 
 
 31,52 
 52 
 52 
 
 29,41 
 45 
 4G 
 46 
 
 29,40 
 46 
 55 
 
 33,55 
 55 
 65 
 68 
 71 
 71 
 
 36,71 
 71 
 
 71 
 71 
 71 
 71 
 71 
 48 
 41 
 43 
 
 29,42 
 42 
 42 
 42 
 42 
 42 
 42 
 41 
 
 29,42 
 41 
 
INDEX TO COMMON NAMES. 
 
 77 
 
 Page. 
 
 Elm, water (WHITE ELM) 41 
 
 ELM, WHITE 21,29,41 
 
 ELM, WING 42 
 
 rir(DOUGLAS EIR) 60 
 
 Fir, Alaska (WESTERN HEMLOCK) 70 
 
 FIB, ALPINE 27,35,09 
 
 Fir, talsam (WHITE FIE) 08 
 
 Fir, tracted red (NOBLE FIE) 69 
 
 FIR, DOUGLAS 25,35,00 
 
 Fir, downy-cone (ALPINE FIR) 09 
 
 Fir, feather-cone red (NOBLE FIR) 69 
 
 FIR, GRAND 27,36,09 
 
 Fir, gray (WESTERN HEMLOCK) 70 
 
 Fir, great California (GRAND FIE) 69 
 
 Fir, lowland (GEAND FIE) 69 
 
 FIE, NOBLE 69 
 
 Fir, red (DOUGLAS FIE) 60 
 
 Fir, red (NOBLE FIR) 69 
 
 Fir, silver (GEAND FIE) 69 
 
 Fir, silver (WHITE FIR) 68 
 
 FIR, WHITE 27,36,68 
 
 Fir, white (ALPINE FIR) 69 
 
 Fir, white (GRAND FIR). 69 
 
 Fir, yellow (DOUGLAS FIR) 66 
 
 Fir, yellow (GRAND FIE) 09 
 
 Forked-leaf (TURKEY OAK) 40 
 
 Guni(BLACK GUM) 50 
 
 GUM, BLACK 23,33,50 
 
 GUM, COTTON 23,33,57 
 
 GUM, BED 23,33,55 
 
 Gum, sour (BLACK GUM) 66 
 
 Gum, sour (COTTON GUM) 57 
 
 Gum, star-leaved (EED GUM) 55 
 
 Gum, sweet (RED GUM) 55 
 
 Gum, tupelo (BLACK GUM) 50 
 
 G UM, WATEE 56 
 
 Gumtree(RED GUM) 55 
 
 HACKBERRY 19,29,43 
 
 Hackmatack (TAMARACK) 67 
 
 Hackmatack (WESTERN LARCH) 67 
 
 Hack tree (HACKBERRY) 43 
 
 Hedge plant (OSAGE ORANGE) 43 
 
 HEMLOCK, EASTERN 27,36,69 
 
 HEMLOCK, WESTERN 27,36,70 
 
 HICKORIES, PECAN 49 
 
 HICKORIES, THE 2r,31,48 
 
 HICKORIES, TRUE 49 
 
 Hickory, big-bud (MOCKERNUT (HICK- 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 Hickory, bitter (BITTERNUT iHICK- 
 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 Hickory, black (PIGNUT (HICKORY) ) . . . 49 
 
 HICKORY, NUTMEG 49 
 
 Hijkory, pig (BITTEENUT (HICKORY) ) 49 
 Hickory, swamp (BITTERNUT (HICK- 
 ORY) ) '. 49 
 
 Hickory, swamp (WATER HICKORY) ... 49 
 Hickory, switch-top (PIGNUT (HICK- 
 ORY) ) 49 
 
 Hickory, tight-bark (PIGNUT (HICK- 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 Hickory, upland (8HAGBARK (HICK- 
 ORY) ) 49 
 
 Hickory, yellow - twig (SHELLBAEK 
 
 (HICKORY)) 49 
 
 HICKORY, WATEE 21,31,49 
 
 Page. 
 Hickory, white (MOCKERNUT (HICK- 
 
 - ORY)) 49 
 
 Hickory, whiteheart (MOCKERNUT 
 
 (HICKORY)) 49 
 
 Hickory, willow (BITTERNUT (HICK- 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 Hognut (MOCKERNUT (HICKOEY) ) . . . 49 
 
 Honey shucks (HONEY LOCUST) _ 45 
 
 Horsechestnut, American (OHIO BUCK- 
 EYE) 59 
 
 Indian bean (HAEDY CATALPA) 45 
 
 Juniper (WHITE CEDAR) 72 
 
 Juniper (TAMARACK) 07 
 
 Kingnut (SHELLBARK (HICKORY) )... . 49 
 
 Larch (NOBLE FIR) 09 
 
 Larch (TAMARACK) 07 
 
 Larch, eastern (TAMARACK) 07 
 
 LARCH, WESTERN 25, 35, 07 
 
 Limetreo (BASSWOOD) 58 - 
 
 Limi (BASSWOOD) 68 
 
 Lladen (BASSWOOD) 58 
 
 Liquidamber (EED GUM) 55 
 
 LOCUST, BLACK 19,29,44 
 
 Locust, green (BLACK LOCUST) 44 
 
 LOCUST, HONEY 19, 29, 45 
 
 Locust, pea-flower (BLACK LOCUST) 44 
 
 Locust, post (BLACK LOCUST) 44 
 
 Locust, thorny (HONEY LOCUST) 45 
 
 Locust, sweet (HONEY LOCUST) 45 
 
 Locust, yellow (BLACK LOCUST) 44 
 
 Magnolia, mountain (CUCUMBEE-TREE). 58 
 
 MAGNOLIA, SWEET SJ 
 
 Maple, black (SUGAR MAPLE) 51 
 
 Maple, hard (SUGAE MAPLE) 61 
 
 MAPLE, BED 23,31,33,52 
 
 Maple, river (SILVER MAPLE) 51 
 
 Maple, rock (SUGAE MAPLE) 51 
 
 MAPLE, SILVER 23, 31, 33, 51 
 
 Maple, soft (SILVER MAPLE) 51 
 
 MAPLE, SUGAE £3,31,61 
 
 Maple, swamp (SILVER MAPLE) 51 
 
 Maple, water (SILVER MAPLE) 61 
 
 Maple, white (SILVER MAPLE) 51 
 
 MOCKERNUT (HICKORY) 49 
 
 Mulberry, black (RED MULBERRY) 44 
 
 MULBERRY, RED 19,20,44 
 
 Nettle-tree (HACKBERRY) 43 . 
 
 Oak, barren (BLACK JACK) 40 
 
 Oak, barren scrub (TURKEY OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, basket (COW OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, black (YELLOW OAK 39 
 
 Oak, black (BLACK JACK) 40 
 
 Oak, black (RED OAK) 39 
 
 Oak, black (SCARLET OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, blue (BUB OAK) 33 
 
 Oak, box white (POST OAK) 33 
 
 OAK, BUR 38 
 
 OAK, CHESTNUT ; 38 
 
 Oak, chestnut (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, CHINQUAPIN 33 
 
 OAK, COW 38 
 
 Oak, Darlington (LAUREL OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, duck (WATER OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, dwarlchestnut (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, dyer's (YELLOW OAK) 39 
 
 Oak, iron (BLACK JACK) 40 
 
78 
 
 INDEX TO COMMON" NAMES. 
 
 Oak, iron (POST OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, jack (BLACK JACK) *0 
 
 Oak, jack (SHINGLE OAK) 40 
 
 OAK, LAUREL ■lO 
 
 Oak, laurel (SHINGLE OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, mossy cup (BXJE OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, mossy cup white (BUR OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, OVERCUP 38 
 
 Oak, overoup (BUR OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, overcup white (BUR OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, peach (WILLOW OAK) 40 
 
 OAK, PIN 40 
 
 Oak, possum (WATER OAK) 40 
 
 OAK, POST 38 
 
 Oak, punk (WATER OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, quercitron (YELLOW OAK) 39 
 
 OAK, RED 39 
 
 OAK, RED (OAK) GROUP 19,27,39 
 
 Oak, red (SCARLET OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, red (SPANISH OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, red (TEXAN OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, rock (CHESTNUT OAK) 3S 
 
 Oak, rock (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, rock chestnut (CHESTNUT OAK).. . . 38 
 
 OAK, SCARLET 40 
 
 Oak, scrub (BLACK JACK) 40 
 
 Oak, scrub (BUR OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, scrub (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, scrub (TURKEY OAK) 40 
 
 OAK, SHINGLE 40 
 
 Oak, shrub (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, SPANISH 40 
 
 Oak, Spanish (RED OAK) 39 
 
 Oak, Spanish (SCARLET OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, Spanish (TEXAN OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, Spanish water (SPANISH OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, spotted (YELLOW OAK) 39 
 
 Oak, spotted (TEXAN OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, spotted (WATER OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, stave (WHITE OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, swamp (SWAMP WHITE OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, swamp-chestnut (COW OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, swamp laurel (LAUREL OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, swamp post (OVERCUP OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, swamp Spanish (PIN OAK) 40 
 
 OAK, SWAMP WHITE 38 
 
 Oak, swamp white (CO W OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, swamp white (OVERCUP OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, tanbark (YELLOW OAK) 39 
 
 Oak, tanbark (CHESTNUT OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, TEXAN 40 
 
 OAK, TURKEY 40 
 
 OAK, WATER 40 
 
 Oak, water (LAUREL OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, water (PIN OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, water (SHINGLE OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, water (WILLOW OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, water Spanish (PIN OAK) 40 
 
 Oak, water white (OVERCUP OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, WHITE 3S 
 
 Oak, white (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, WHITE (OAK) GROUP 19,27,37 
 
 Oak, white (POST OAK) 38 
 
 OAK, WILLOW 40 
 
 Oak, willow (LAUREL OAK) 40 
 
 OAK, YELLOW 39 
 
 Page. 
 
 Oak, yellow (CHINQUAPIN OAK) 38 
 
 Oak, yellow-barked (YELLOW OAK) 39 
 
 OAKS, THE 19,27,37 
 
 Orange, mock pSAGB ORANGE) 43 
 
 Olivetree, wild (COTTON GUM) 57 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE 19,29,43 
 
 PECAN (HICKORY) 49 
 
 Pecan, bitter (WATER HICKORY) 49 
 
 Pepperidge (BLACK GUM) 60 
 
 PERSIMMON 21,31,48 
 
 Pignut (BITTERNUT (HICKORY) ) 49 
 
 PIGNUT (HICKORY) 49 
 
 Pine, Alaska (WESTERN HEMLOCK). . . . 70 
 
 Pine, bastard (SLASH PINE) . : 05 
 
 Pine, bastard (LOBLOLLY PINE) 04 
 
 Pine, bastard (POND PINE) 05 
 
 Pine, big (WESTERN YELLOW PINE) . . 02 
 Pine, bird's-eye (LODGEPOLE PINE).... 62 
 
 -Pine, black (PITCH PINE) C4 
 
 Pine, black Norway (PITCH PINE) 64 
 
 PINE, BRISTLE-CONE _. 25,35,61 
 
 Pine, bull (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
 PINE, BRISTLE-CONE 25,35,61 
 
 Pine, bull (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, bull (POND PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, bull (SHORTLEAF PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, bull (WESTERN YELLOW PINE) . 62 
 
 Pine, Cuban (SLASH PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, fat (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, flnger-cone (WESTERN WHITE 
 
 PINE) 60 
 
 Pine, Georgia (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, ginger (PORT ORFORD CEDAR).. . 68 
 
 Pine, hard (LONGLEAF PINE) . . . : 65 
 
 Pine, hard (PITCH PINE) M 
 
 Pine, heart (LONGLB.'tF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, Idaho white (WESTERN WHITE 
 
 PINE) 60 
 
 PINE, LIMBER 23,35,61 
 
 PINE, LOBLOLLY 25,35,64 
 
 Pine, loblolly (POND PINE) 65 
 
 PINE, LODGEPOLE M,27,35,62 
 
 PINE, LONGLEAF 25,35,65 
 
 Pine, longstraw (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, marsh (POND PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, ineadow (POND PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, mountain (WESTERN WHITE 
 
 PINE) 60 
 
 Piuc, North Carolina yellow (SHORTLEAF 
 
 PINE) 64 
 
 PINE, NORWAY 25,35,63 
 
 Pine, nut (PlSON (PINE)) 61 
 
 Pine, oldfleld (LOBLOLLY PINE) 6i 
 
 Pine, oldfield (SHORTLEAF PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, Oregon (DOUGLAS FIR) 66 
 
 PINE, PITCH..". 25,35,64 
 
 Pine, pitch (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, pitch (WESTERN YELLOW PINE) 62 
 
 PINE, POND 25,35,65 
 
 Pine, Puget Sound (DOUGLAS FIR) 66 
 
 Pine, red (DOUGLAS FIR) 66 
 
 Pine, red (NORWAY PINE) 63 
 
 Pine, red (WESTERN YELLOW PINE) . 62 
 Pine, Rocky Mountain white (LIMBER 
 
 PINE) 61 
 
 Pine, rosemary (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
INDEX TO COMMON NAMES. 
 
 79 
 
 Page. 
 
 Pine, rosemary (LONGLE AF PINE) 65 
 
 Piiie,roseinary (SHORTLEAF PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, sand (LODGEPOLE PINE) 62 
 
 Pine, sap (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, scrab (LODGEPOLE PINE) 62 
 
 PINE, SHORTLEAF 25,35,64 
 
 Pine, shortleaf (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, silver ("WESTERN WHITE PINE). 60 
 
 PINE, SLASH 26,35,65 
 
 Pine, slash (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, slash (SHORTLEAF PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, soft (WESTERN WHITE PINE) ... 60 
 Pine, southern pitch (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 Pine, southern yellow (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, spruce (EASTERN HEMLOCK) 69 
 
 Pine, spruce (POND PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, spruce (SHORTLEAF PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, swamp (SLASH PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, swamp (LOBLOLLY PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, torch (LOBLOLLY PINE) 61 
 
 Pine, turpentine (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, western (WESTERN YELLOW 
 
 PINE) 62 
 
 PINE, WESTERN WHITE 23,35,60 
 
 PDSfE, WESTERN YELLOW 25,35,62 
 
 PINFE, WHITE 61 
 
 Pine, white (LIMBER PINE) 61 
 
 Pine, white (WESTERN WHITE PINE). 60 
 Pine, white (WESTERN YELLOW PINE) 62 
 
 Pine, yellow (LONGLEAF PINE) 65 
 
 Pine, yellow (PITCH PINE) 64 
 
 Pine, yellow (SHORTLEAF PINE) 64 
 
 PINES, THE 23,35,59 
 
 PINON (PINE) 23,25,27,35,61 
 
 Pinon, New Mexican (PINON (PINE)). . . . 61 
 
 Plane-tree (SYCAMORE) 50 
 
 Poplar (COTTONWOOD) 65 
 
 Poplar (YELLOW PO PLAR) 57 
 
 Poplar, bay (COTTON GUM) 57 
 
 Poplar, blue (YELLOW POPLAR) 57 
 
 Poplar, hickory (YELLOW POPLAR) 57 
 
 Poplar, tulip (YELLOW POPLAR) 67 
 
 Poplar, white (YELLOW POPLAR) 57 
 
 poplar; YELLOW 23,33,57 
 
 Possumwood (PERSIMMON) 48 
 
 REDWOOD 25,36,70 
 
 Page. 
 
 SASSAFRAS 19,31,47 
 
 Saxilrax (SASSAFRAS) 47 
 
 Scalybark (SHAGBARK (HICKORY)). . . . 49 
 
 Sequoia (REDWOOD) 70 
 
 SHAGBARK (HICKORY) 49 
 
 Shellbark (SHAGBARK (HICKORY)). . . . 49 
 
 SHELLBARK (HICKORY) 49 
 
 Shellbark (SHELLBARK (HICKORY)). . . 49 
 SheUbark, big-lruited (SHELLBARK 
 
 (HICKORY)) 49 
 
 Shellbark, bottom (SHELLBARK (HICK- 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 SheUbark, thick (SHELLBARK (HICK- 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 Shellbark, western (SHELLBARK (HICK- 
 ORY)) 49 
 
 Shinglewood (WESTERN RED CEDAR). 71 
 
 Spruce (DOUGLAS FIR) 66 
 
 Spruce, Douglas (DOUGLAS FIR) 66 
 
 SPRUCE, ENGELMANN 27,35, 65 
 
 Spruce, hemlock (EASTERN HEMLOCK) . 69 
 Spruce, mountain (ENGELMANN 
 
 SPRUCE) 05 
 
 SPRUCE, RED 66 
 
 SPRUCE, WHITE 66 
 
 Spruce, white(ENGELMANNSPRUCE).. 65 
 
 SUGARBERRY 19,29,43 
 
 Sugarberry (HACKBEKRY) « 
 
 Sugar-tree (SUGAR MAPLE) 51 
 
 SYCAMORE 23,31,50 
 
 TAMARACK 25,35,67 
 
 Tamarack (LODGEPOLE PINE) 62 
 
 Tamarack (WESTERN LARCH) 67 
 
 Tupelo (COTTON GUM) 23,33,57 
 
 Tupelo (BLACK GUM) 66 
 
 Tupelo, large (COTTON GUM) 57 
 
 Tupelo, swamp (COTTON GUM) 67 
 
 Wahmt (BUTTERNUT) 63 
 
 WALNUT, BLACK 21,33,52 
 
 Walnut, white (BUTTERNUT) 53 
 
 Watemut, bitter (NUTMEG HICKORY). . 49 
 
 WhltewoQd (BASSWOOD) - 63 
 
 Whitewood (COTTONWOOD) 65 
 
 Whitewood (YELLOW POPLAR) 57 
 
 Yellowwood (OSAGE ORANGE) 43 
 
 o 
 
Forest Service, U 5. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 Fig. 1 .—White Oak. 
 Cross section matjnified 15 diameters. 
 
 ■ ■ <';y - • HI" .'>, :, V ' '. • -if'r.- 
 
 
 >> 
 
 1 
 < 
 
 
 1*-.. ,.M. 
 
 m 
 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
 r'2'^ 'iii'' 
 
 
 IKttJ 
 
 LAl£& 
 
 
 itf^i%7"^y w 
 
 La 
 
 Fig. 2.— Chestnut Oak. 
 Crosri section magnilied 15 diameters. 
 
/ice, U S Dept. of Agriculture,' Identification of Woods 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Post Oak. 
 Cross section maguitied 1.' diamotcrrj 
 
 Fig. 2.— Red Oak. 
 Cross secliuLi mui^nitied l.j diameters 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 Fig. 1 .—Yellow Oak. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Pin Oak. 
 Cross section magniQed W diametei-s. 
 
Forest Service, U. S Ceot o' Ay- cj'tj-e. ld = r-^ca* or o' 7/oods. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Willow Oak. 
 Cross section maoTiifled 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Chestnut. 
 Cross section nagTiilied 1.1 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate VI. 
 
 Fi2. 1 -—White Elm. 
 Cross section magnilied 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Cork Elm. 
 Cross section magnilied 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate VII. 
 
 FiQ. 1 .—Slippery Elm. 
 Cross sectloa magnified 13 diameters. 
 
 Uf 
 
 ■flff^^L 
 
 ^iST^'M^n^^ 
 
 
 RJt'^i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ■■■■iSKjHl 
 
 A'* 
 
 
 m 
 
 wr 
 
 
 
 
 ^^li 
 
 W^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^^ ■ j?**w^ 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 2.— Hackberry. 
 
 Cross yecliou laa.i^iiiiied l.j diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate VIM. 
 
 'i^ms 
 
 
 ife^/«|^' 
 
 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Osage Orange. 
 
 Cross section maguilied 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Black Locust. 
 Cross section masnilied l.j diameters. 
 
Forest Service. U, S, Dept, of Agricullure. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate iX. 
 
 ^^^ag 
 
 ffl^ 
 
 ^M^^^^^H 
 
 mmm 
 
 ^^^^^^^s 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 ^M 
 
 m 
 
 ,:-^S^^«^wi^'^^w 
 
 iiHi 
 
 ylmptikr^^i'^.^!;: 
 
 
 Fig. 1 .— Red Mulberry. 
 Cross section magnified l.j diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Hardy Catalpa. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Identification of Woods, 
 
 Plate X. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Honey Locust. 
 Cross section maijuilied 15 diamotera. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Coffeetree. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XI. 
 
 Fig. 1.— White Ash. 
 Cross section magnified 13 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Sassafras. 
 CroMS section mai;nified lo diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XII. 
 
 
 fHflfflfff 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^HMml^n^i 
 
 
 ^^^^^^E?y 
 
 
 ^^^^Ps^^^K^^^si^^l'i^^^ii 
 
 JSHB^S^^3^S'^^^ 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^r'^^^^^K 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 
 ^^s 
 
 ^^^^^^^^'^^^I^^P 
 
 ^R'S^S 
 
 
 ^S^^^^^^^^mS^^^^^ 
 
 
 H^^^^S 
 
 
 a^Kafflgfes^^S fS^S'aJlS 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Persimmon. 
 Cross section macnifiecl 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Shagbark (Hickory). 
 Cross section magnifiea l-j diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XIU. 
 
 Fig. 1 .—Water Hickory. 
 Cross section masniQcd 15 diameters. 
 
 ^^P^W^I %^ : ^^ 
 
 
 ifl^H 
 
 ^^^P| 
 
 &^^^«t"tfi ^^(Sf 
 
 
 MMIS 
 
 ^fflKI^M 
 
 
 
 w%a«ai«i 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kl^™ ' J IjM! **G^w 
 
 
 [^ 
 
 
 
 rT ''■^^^M^»Sf^^i^^^**LJ 1 
 
 
 l^^^ffjI'Si 
 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "11 ; 
 
 
 
 ^ffi^Ji 
 
 0* 
 
 r 
 
 WW ^^ISiw 
 
 mW^xMii^L^^ 
 
 
 V ■ 
 
 mm nwnm 
 
 
 E'l^^rBnaB 
 
 iEM'-V¥'^^» 
 
 S^f*^^ Iff^f'^^ 
 
 
 
 MU 
 
 ■ 
 
 Few/ ?{%^Ca oaL J* 
 
 ^^^^1 
 
 
 
 '•"■'■':'■■■•:•. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 ^;;vV.;|.:;. ^; ■ ; 
 
 I • 
 
 ..;iv,;i. ...-?. 
 
 Lii^ 
 
 
 i,/^.:'^ 
 
 Fig. 2.— Sycamore. 
 Cross section magnified l."i diameters 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of ^ 
 
 riculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XIV. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Beech. 
 
 Cross section magnified 15 diametors. 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Sugar Maple. 
 Cross sectiou maguilied 15 diameters 
 
Forest Service, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. Irientification of Woorfs. 
 
 Plate XV. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Silver Maple. 
 Cross section ma;initied l.j diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Black Cherry. 
 Cross section may-nilied l.j diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XVI. 
 
 
 
 ^ffS^/Tf^^^w^M^^^S^^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 hChJIw 
 
 
 
 si' 
 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 n 
 
 ^B 
 
 
 
 
 Jhr/l 
 
 ^H^P 
 
 
 
 
 |K 
 
 
 
 »^%MP^# 
 
 
 'fir€ 
 
 
 
 ^^!g^^~'-*L^^CT^ ^ hS W¥kt i%cl 
 
 •^»^ 
 
 
 
 Bi 
 
 E3ji*'^^^^H 
 
 
 l^^fe^^ln^B 
 
 
 
 Fig. 1.— Black Walnut. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Butternut. 
 Cross section magnified l.j diameters. 
 
ro.-est Service, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XVII. 
 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Yellow Birch. 
 Cross section magnilied 15 (iiameter:i 
 
 Fig. 2.— River Birch. 
 
 Cross section magmlicd 15 diamotei's. 
 
 (Note pith [leek at lower edge.) 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. Identification of Woods, 
 
 Plate XVIII. 
 
 Fig. 1 .—Cottonwood. 
 Cross section maguiljed 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Red Gum. 
 Cross section magnitied l.j diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 
 
 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Black Gum. 
 Cross section masnlfled 13 diameters. 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Cotton Gum (Tupelo). 
 Cross section maguilied l.j diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identificatior, of Wood.. 
 
 Plate XX. 
 
 Fig. 1 .—Yellow Poplar. 
 Cross section maynifled l.j diumetors. 
 
 
 
 WM 
 
 
 W 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
 S« 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 M^K^^ffl 
 
 
 ^M 
 
 
 ^^^^^ffi 
 
 ^^^^^^^pc^^^^'f^^^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 '^^w 
 
 Ei'litfUim'Si 
 
 1 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 w^^^^^wffiul^ffiw^^^^^'*!^^ i^^tf jt^^5* f^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ~^fjw^j^-^rcT7^^^ J^mMH 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 2.— Basswood. 
 Crosii sectiun maguiiied 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Depl. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XXI. 
 
 FiQ. 1,— Yellow Buckeye. 
 Cross section ma^^nilied 15 diameters. 
 
 
 Fig. 2.— Western White Pine. 
 
 Cross Bcotiun mngniliud 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S, Dept of Agriculture. Identification of V 
 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Limber Pine. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
 
 ^BI^^B 
 
 ^^H^^» 
 
 IH^iK 
 
 
 mm ' f ^I^R 
 
 ^^^H|i''- ' fl 'Im inp 
 
 ^fijESiJ^H 
 
 "ll 
 
 Mw 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 fl 
 
 1 '^fl^^^^^isi ^ 
 
 t - -^ i ^^^^^^^ 
 
 ^ [^ ^ ^f*'-^''' ^^1 
 
 !• :! 
 
 '"^^ 1 11 
 
 lil^B 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 
 |;JP;^ 
 
 'liwWipff^H 
 
 ^^^^^S 
 
 
 i'f ^if|V;fli#]^H 
 
 
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 t ip p •( " 11 • ri w 'Yj1«i»ij£ JCT ' ? IS^^S 
 
 
 tft ' 1| 1 M '• 1 
 
 if' ^f ' W wi flraKiffl^B 
 
 iTfT: 
 
 Mi^^H 
 
 S»F i&SH^^H 
 
 ( ^1 1 
 
 1 n J. ^^i 
 
 «i ^'3- !g .^ ^O^f^^^f' CCu^^^ 
 
 Ti 
 
 OT^B 
 
 liiL iiiBLi 
 
 ^9 
 
 pil^ii 
 
 
 n "I^^^E 
 
 ^^»^H 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^^"wk "^ '^^^^ 1 
 
 
 ^^m 
 
 Fig. 2.— Pinon (Pine). 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Ssrvice, U. S. Dept, o1 Agriculture, Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XXV. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Loblolly Pine. 
 CroKS section inagnilied 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Longleaf Pine. 
 Cross sectioQ maguilied Ij diametei-s. 
 
Forest Sereice U S Dept of Agr ulturo Ident f cat on of Woodb 
 
 Plate XXVI. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Engelmann Spruce. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diametei's. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Douglas Fir. 
 Cross section magoiljed l.j diametcis 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XXVII. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Western Larch. 
 Cross section magnifled 15 diameters. 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Tamarack. 
 Cross section magnifled 15 diameters. 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 WSdffSK} 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Port Orford Cedar. 
 Cross section magnifled l.j diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— White Fir. 
 
 Cross section magnified 1.5 diameters. 
 
 (Note row of al^normal resin ducts in lower portion.) 
 
Forest Service, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XXIX. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Grand Fir. 
 Cross sGCtion magnitied 13 diameters 
 
 Fig. 2.— Eastern Hemlock. 
 Cross secliuu magnilied 15 diameters. 
 
Fofest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Identification of Woods. 
 
 Plate XXX. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Redwood. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Bald Cypress. 
 Cross section magnified l.T diameters 
 
Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Identification of Woods, 
 
 Plate XXXI, 
 
 
 J Ni t > I f ■! I 
 
 I 'I 
 
 
 ,•-1' • 1 
 
 '^W 11 
 
 \ "' -i-'tj 
 
 lly- 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Western Red Cedar. 
 Cross section magnified 15 diameters. 
 
 "vfi"""" ' "w^ i »"i«i' i }j1 ' ; "Miii i ' ';i )'' i |i'ii i^ i iHJ4| i i« iii j«))^ ,^H^ 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Arborvit/e (Northern White Cedar). 
 Cross seotioa ma.i^uilied 15 dlamolers. 
 
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 "^^^^^^ 
 
 '-^.f.a