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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 FROM THE 
 
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 1891 
 
Cornell University Library 
 TS 650.B91 
 
 Practical alloying; a compendium of alloy 
 
 3 1924 004 623 629 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004623629 
 
PRACTICAL 
 ALLOYING 
 
 A Compendium of alloys and 
 processes for brass founders, 
 metal workers and engineers. 
 
 By John F. Buchanan 
 Author of 
 
 Brass Founders' Alloys 
 
 and 
 
 Foundry Nomenclature 
 
 Published by 
 
 The Penton Publishing Co. 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
Copyright in the United States 
 and 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, 
 1910 
 The Penton Publishing Co. 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Metal Refining — Ancient and Modern 1 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 History and Peculiarities of Alloys 14 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 The Properties of Alloys 85 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 Some Difficulties of Alloying 41 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 Methods of Making Alloys 52 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 Color of Alloys 65 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 The Notation of Alloys 73 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 Standard Alloys 80 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Foundry Mixtures 118 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 White Metals 133 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 Solders, Novelty Metals, etc 138 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 Fluxes for Alloys 150 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 Gates and Risers for Alloys 163 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 About Crucibles I''''* 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Testing Alloys ^^^ 
 
 Tables, etc ^^* 
 
 Index ^'^ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE progress made in the production of alloys within the 
 last two decades has been phenomenal. There is no end 
 to the invention of new alloys, and the number of varia- 
 tions in the composition of alloys that have long ago 
 passed the experimental stages, is simply overwhelming. 
 Out of the multitudinous mixtures advocated and employed in the 
 practical and constructive arts, it is no easy matter to select, or 
 even to classify the metals of importance. 
 
 The "battle of the bronzes" has been going on for at least 
 thirty years, and the honors have fallen to phosphor bronze, alum- 
 inum bronze and manganese bronze at different periods. In 
 other branches of the metal industry similar progress is being 
 recorded. New alloys are being introduced or new additions are 
 being made to old alloys, and new records are being made in alloy 
 practice. It is needless to add that new difficulties are also pre- 
 senting themselves, and these are the things that make effort 
 worth while. 
 
 This book professes to be no more than a handy guide to the 
 practical alloys and processes. The bulk of the matter origi- 
 nally appeared in ''The Foundry" and other trade magazines, 
 and judging by the number of inquiries addressed to me on many 
 of the subjects treated, the reappearance of the articles in book 
 form should be hailed with interest. 
 
 J. F. Buchanan. 
 
PRACTICAL ALLOYING 
 
 METAL REFINING— ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 
 TO the average individual, the universe is a mass of organic 
 and inorganic substances regulated by the inscrutable 
 laws of an all-wise Providence ; to the philosopher, it is 
 simply "harmonious matter;" but to the student of ap- 
 plied sciences it presents an inexhaustible array of forces and 
 elements, which lend themselves to analytic and synthetic observa- 
 tion. Thus, in the view of the scientist, the spectroscope and 
 the balance may be said to prove all things, while the blowpipe 
 and the melting pot enable him to hold fast that which is good. 
 It is the province of science to investigate. The chemist and the 
 physicist have to determine the nature and limits of all the ma- 
 terial things in their ultimate relations. We may take pride, 
 therefore, in the long and ever-increasing list of elementary sub- 
 stances compiled by the noble army of workers who have en- 
 deavored to unravel for us the mysteries of earth and space. The 
 ancients supposed fire, air, earth and water to be the fundamental 
 constituents of the universe, and these compounds are still known 
 in literature as "the elements." Modern science, however, de- 
 fines the simple or elementary bodies as "those substances which 
 do not admit of analysis." Up to the present time over seventy 
 such substances have been isolated. They are recognized as 
 metallic and non-metallic bodies, but the metals are an over- 
 whelming majority. Midway between the metals and non- 
 metals four elements — sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic and silicon — 
 designated metalloids, occur. The distinction between a metal 
 and a metalloid is a purely artificial one, based on physical rather 
 than chemical standards. The metals are characterized by the 
 
2 Practical Alloying 
 
 possession, in varying degrees, of a wide range of properties, as 
 ductility, malleability, fusibility, metallic lustre, sonorousness and 
 thermal and electrical conductivities. The useful metals are elec- 
 tro-positive, and with few exceptions, they readily combine with 
 electro-negative bodies, such as oxygen, sulphur, chlorine, etc. 
 Consequently, the largest bulk of the metals in the earth exist in 
 the mineral state, as ores, requiring a separation of the compon- 
 ents before they can be put to any practical use. It is with 
 metals as with everything else in nature — the useful members 
 exist in greater abundance than do those of more superficial 
 qualities. 
 
 Antiquity of the softer metals. — Copper, lead, tin, iron, gold, 
 silver and mercury appear to have been known from a remote 
 antiquity. They are mentioned in Holy Writ and there is every 
 reason to believe that they were applied in many ways by the 
 Egyptians, Persians, Hindoos and Chinese, in the earlier epochs 
 of human history. Obviously, the crude methods employed by 
 the ancients for the reduction of the metals greatly restricted 
 their application. Their rude furnaces would reduce only the 
 richest ores in small quantities and very imperfectly. The early 
 history of metallurgy is somewhat obscure. Egypt — the birth- 
 place of astrology, alchemy and the liberal arts, and the first of 
 old world empires — is known historically and by exploration, as 
 the home of many manufacturing processes, indicating a compre- 
 hensive knowledge of refractory materials, especially earths and 
 metals. The Egyptian potters and refiners have been the models 
 for artists, in form and color, down the generations. Prehistoric 
 metal workers were undoubtedly engaged in fashioning such 
 metals as are known to exist in the free or native condition. The 
 seven elements already mentioned, with possibly a copper cala- 
 mine compound, sometimes called golden-copper or native brass, 
 comprised the stock-in-trade of the metal workers up to the be- 
 ginning of the Christian era. Sacred and profane histories and 
 the ancient mythologies contain many references to the metals 
 and metal workers of that early period, so that Tubal Cain, Vul- 
 can and the Cyclops, are names typical of metal workers unto this 
 day. Exactly how much knowledge of metallurgic processes the 
 early artificers possessed it would be difficult to surmise ; but their 
 
Metal Refining — Ancient and Modern 3 
 
 skill in handicrafting metals for architectural and decorative pur- 
 poses is beyond dispute. The Bible has made us familiar with 
 some of the early metal refining processes, products and appli- 
 ances, and it is there we trace the Genesis of metallurgy. 
 
 The fire, the pure metal, and the dross are always related as 
 cause and effect. Gold is mentioned as being refined with silver, 
 which sounds like the first alloy on record, and Job says : "Surely 
 there is a place for gold where they fine it ;" and again, "Iron is 
 taken out of the earth and brass is molten out of the stone." 
 Here let me explain that the word "refining" is applied, in tech- 
 nical circles, only to the later stages of the metal extraction pro- 
 cesses, indicating the separation of impurities from metallic 
 compounds ; but it has an older and more comprehensive signific- 
 ance, making it embrace all the operations of reducing as well 
 as purifying and alloying metals; and in order to avoid tedious 
 distinctions, I take the liberty of using the term in its widest 
 application. 
 
 Metal refining and alloying an ancient art. — Practical alloy- 
 ing, or the art of refining metals and alloys of metals, is an 
 ancient pursuit which has led to many important discoveries; it 
 has also been greatly instrumental in furthering the progress of 
 mechanical science. It is always interesting and instructive to 
 trace the arts and inventions to their origins. A new idea may 
 cause a sectional uneasiness, but an old one never loses its power 
 to guide and uplift the activities of the race. When the world 
 was young and the children of men had leisure to dream, the 
 interpreter of visions was a power in the land; magic became a 
 fine art and astrology the first science — music and hieroglyphics 
 following in natural sequence. Husbandry was the essential oc- 
 cupation of mankind until he learned that he could not live by 
 bread alone. Worship made calls on his better nature, and these 
 were answered, mistakenly, but sincerely, in the graven images 
 of the semi-barbarous peoples. Even Israel, the chosen race, 
 lapsed into idolatry. Thus, Aaron's golden calf became the 
 forerunner of frequent failures as well as the first recorded work 
 in metal founding. Such a beginning was befitting this industry, 
 for there are many misguided workers engaged in founding met- 
 als, even now. Did not Jeremiah establish his reputation as a 
 
Practical Alloying 
 
 prophet when he said: "Every founder is confounded by the 
 graven image."* Incidentally, the destruction of this golden calf 
 sheds some light on the manner of reducing metals in those early 
 days. Moses "took the calf and burnt it in the fire, and ground 
 it to powder, and strewed it upon the water." These processes 
 are characteristic of some ancient methods of gold refining, and 
 the granulation of metals by strewing them upon water is still 
 practiced in the manufacture of hard solders and shot metal, as 
 well as in some of the modern methods of extracting metals from 
 the earthly matter with which they are generally associated. 
 
 In all ages, it has been the aim of the metal refiner to bring 
 out and enlarge the useful qualities of the metals, and the pro- 
 gress of metallurgic processes in recent times demonstrates the 
 desirability of having the practical arts based upon scientific 
 principles. We have learned that the chemical properties of 
 most metals are such that only their salts are found in nature ; but 
 the ancient refiner, with his four "elements" and many empirical 
 laws, made slow advances and few discoveries in the working of 
 metals. Up to the time of Pliny, or the beginning of the Qiris- 
 tian era, the metals were reduced, smelted and mixed with 
 scarcely any definite application of chemical knowledge and with 
 little or no effort to get rid of impurities, excepting, perhaps, in 
 the case of the precious metals — gold and silver. Casting oper- 
 ations were necessarily restricted. Alloys other than the natural 
 product of the ordinary smelting operations were practically un- 
 known. A few mechanical processes, as the calcination and 
 cupellation of metals, served for the separation of the noble and 
 ignoble elements ; and the proper use of fluxes had not yet been 
 discovered. In the middle ages, the alchemists were fired with 
 the hallucination of making gold. They formed into leagues; 
 worked in secret upon some mystical formula; adopted signs, 
 zodiacal and religious; and aimed, at different periods, to dis- 
 cover, first, an alkahest, or universal solvent; second, the phil- 
 osopher's stone — a substance for transmuting base metals into 
 gold; and third, the elixir of life — a liquor supposed to have the 
 power of prolonging man's existence. 
 
 ♦Jeremiah 10:14. 
 
Metal Refining — Ancient and Modem 
 
 Work of the alchemists. — These dreams of the alchemists — 
 like the dream of perpetual motion — are still unfulfilled, but 
 Utopia is always in the future, and every new discovery seems to 
 stir up hope in the prophetic truth of human imaginings. Scien- 
 tific, like other history, repeats itself. Men pursue old fancies 
 and discover new forces by the way. Recent researches seem 
 to be overturning laws which scientists of former periods were at 
 great pains to determine. Thus, with the advent of radium, 
 Dalton's atomic theory is said to be in danger, the law of the 
 permanence of matter is in a precarious position, and if it be true, 
 that uranium and other metals develop radio-activity, the greatest 
 dream of the alchemists — ^the transmutation of metals is likely 
 to materialize. 
 
 The desire for gold is much older than King Midas. The 
 mystics and magicians of the early Egyptian and Persian civil- 
 izations indulged in transmutation theories. It took centuries of 
 alchemical research to undeceive the later schools about the gold- 
 in-ever3rthing craze. The disappearance of the Magi and the 
 fall of the Roman Empire opened up the way for the development 
 of systematic chemistry and the introduction of the new indus- 
 trialism. Our increased knowledge of the cosmos has been of 
 infinitely greater value than the mere discovery of an alkahest; 
 nevertheless, we are indebted to the alchemists, and to the minute- 
 ness of their searchings for the philosopher's stone, for the dis- 
 covery of many invaluable processes and startling phenomena in 
 the realms of chemistry and physics, and also for introducing to 
 us that group of interesting bodies, termed the metallic alloys. 
 
 Chemistry and metallurgy are so intimately related that they 
 require collateral study ; they are allied as theory and practice in 
 metal refining processes. Chemical science may be said to lay 
 down the law, and be the theoretical basis of metallurgic oper- 
 ations, while metallurgy, viewed as a manufacturing art, and by 
 right of its historical precedence, may be considered as the prac- 
 tical foundation of chemistry. Art and empiricism have always 
 preceded science and dogma. Astrology preceded astronomy. 
 Alchemy preceded chemistry, and the ancient metal refining proc- 
 esses paved the way for the more complete metallurgy of today. 
 
 Chemistry and metallurgy. — Passing from the ancient to the 
 
Practical Alloying 
 
 modern aspects of metal refining, we are confronted with the 
 immensity of the subject. A brief summary of the processes 
 involved in the reduction and refining of one of the metals would 
 require a book — and a more gifted writer. Having regard, then, 
 to the scope of this work, we must be content with a general 
 survey of the vast field, focusing the simple principles and the 
 more important methods of smelting and alloying metals, down 
 to our own times. 
 
 Ores may be described as chemical compcands of metallic 
 and non-metallic elements, from which the metals are generally 
 obtained "by promoting a change in the chemical equilibrium." 
 The nature of the operations by which metals are extracted from 
 their ores depends on the chemical affinities of the metals to be 
 extracted. 
 
 Nature works by a system of laws and affinities; and, in 
 treating metals, the best results have been obtained by imitating 
 the processes by which metallic compounds are built up or dis- 
 sociated in nature. Of necessity, the metallurgist is forced to 
 observe the chemical reactions following upon the elaborate proc- 
 esses involved in the separation of gangue or earthy matter from 
 the purely metallic constituents of an ore. The ores from which 
 most of the metals are obtained, occur in such great variety of 
 combination and in such diverse conditions, that no general sys- 
 tem of treatment could be devised for the reduction of any one 
 class. Metallic oxides, sulphides, carbonates and silicates con- 
 stitute the majority of the minerals yielding the useful metals. 
 
 The value of an ore depends upon the metals it contains and 
 upon its susceptibility to metallurgic treatment. Very often the 
 presence of the precious metals influences the choice of a refining 
 process and necessitates more careful handling and more ex- 
 haustive treatment of the ores. But the metallic content is not 
 always the most important consideration in the treatment of an 
 ore. Some ores contain sufficient suitable fluxing material to 
 reduce the metallic contents in the form of coarse metal ; others 
 lack this excellent property and have to be fed with artificial 
 fluxes. In recent years, many low grade ores, which could not 
 be economically reduced in former times, have, owing to the more 
 exhaustive and economical reactions of modern metallurgy, and 
 
Metal Reftning — Ancient and Modern 
 
 the manufacture of practical by-products from the materials of 
 reduction, been increased in value beyond their intrinsic worth. 
 
 Metallic combinations. — Metals may exist in any of the three 
 states of matter, solid, liquid or gaseous, the condition varying 
 with and being nearly always determined by the temperature. 
 The possibilities in the way of metallic combinations are infinite, 
 Metals combine with each other and with other elements in 
 nature, producing compounds the decomposition of which de- 
 mands a close observance of chemical and physical laws, as well 
 as an intimate acquaintance with the mechanical processes of 
 refining. The association of different elements and the chemical 
 conditions binding them together can only be broken up by the 
 application of suitable chemical reagents. Heat is the principal 
 agency by which the cohesive force of materials is diminished, 
 and it is because the application of heat promotes the operation 
 of the laws of chemical energy that the metallurgist is so strongly 
 addicted to the agency of fire. 
 
 Treatment of ores. — The treatment of the ores for obtaining 
 the metals is mechanical and chemical. The mechanical treat- 
 ment is preliminary to the roasting and reduction processes and 
 consists in crushing, washing and classifyirig the ores accord- 
 ing to their richness and the nature of the gangue. The pro- 
 cess is known as concentration and its action is based upon the 
 diflferent specific gravities of the substances which are associated 
 in the ore, advantage being taken of the diflferent speeds at which 
 -their particles will subside in a column of water. Ores which- 
 are mineralized in large masses, or crystals, are adapted for 
 coarse concentration; on the contrary, ores which contain the- 
 valuable mineral in a finely divided state must be crushed finer inj 
 order to liberate the finer particles. 
 
 The degree of fineness to which an ore should be crushed 
 depends on the nature of the mineralized ingredients. The solvent 
 action of water eliminates worthless substances, diminishes the 
 labor of dressing and leaves the metalliferous contents in a con- 
 centrated form. Many ores of lead, zinc, copper and iron are 
 prepared for heat treatment, or chemical processes, by the coarse 
 method of concentration, but the ores of silver, gold and tin 
 usually require more careful dressing and fine concentration. 
 
8 Practical Alloying 
 
 When the chemical nature of the ore is known, it is generally- 
 easy to arrange conditions which will assist in the reduction of 
 the metal. It is thus the concentrates obtained from the mills 
 are prepared for the further processes of roasting and smelting, 
 or, if the precious metals are involved, chlorination, cyanidation 
 and amalgamation. 
 
 The local facilities and the chemical susceptibilities of the 
 concentrates, determine the smelting process most likely to be 
 successful. In most smelting operations, the reduction is effected 
 by the abstraction of oxygen from some oxidized compound of a 
 metal, or, as it is technically termed, deoxidation. On the other 
 hand, oxidation is frequently important in metallurgical proc- 
 esses, as it is a means by which substances that are readily oxi- 
 dized may be separated from others which are less readily 
 oxidized. 
 
 Many ores contain substances which generate volatile com- 
 binations under the influence of heat and air. This process is 
 technically known as roasting ; it removes volatile impurities and 
 is generally preliminary to the fusion or smelting operations by 
 which the reduction of the metals contained in the ores is accom- 
 plished. 
 
 Some ores and alloys are separated by the process of liqua- 
 tion, i. e., by taking advantage of the difference in fusibility of 
 the components. For example, when an ore is exposed to a 
 gentle heat sufficient only to melt the most fusible constituent of 
 the mass, it is separated from the unmelted residue, or in the 
 case of alloys, if the elements do not enter into chemical union, 
 there is always a tendency for them to separate out according to 
 their densities and in relation to their fusible properties. 
 
 The solvent action of certain liquids frequently affords 
 convenient means of separating metals from the earthy matter 
 enveloping them, consequently many of the ores are treated with 
 acid or other liquids previous to the precipitation and reduction 
 of the metals contained therein. 
 
 It would be difficult to go into the details of metal manu- 
 facture since the operations vary with the nature of the ores and 
 
Metal Refining — Ancient and Modern 
 
 the value of the metals which they contain. Prof. Roberts- 
 Austen, in his "Introduction to Metallurgy," has given a general 
 summary of the methods of extracting and reducing metals from 
 the ores, under the following heads : 
 
 1. — ^Liquation. 
 
 3. — Distillation and sublimation. 
 
 3. — By the reduction of metallic oxides at high temperatures 
 as (3 Pb O + C = 2 Pb + CO^). 
 
 4. — By the decomposition of metallic sulphides by means of 
 iron at a high temperature, as seen in the equation. (Pb S + Fe 
 ==Pb + FeS). 
 
 5. — By cupellation, which is probably the oldest method of 
 extracting metals from their ores. When lead is molten it 
 oxidizes rapidly, forming litharge, which has the property of dis- 
 solving other metallic oxides and combining with them into a 
 slag. 
 
 6. — By amalgamation, i. e., by taking advantage of the 
 powerful solvent properties of mercury. 
 
 7. — By electrolysis. 
 
 8. — By crystallization, as in Pattison's method of extracting 
 silver. 
 
 9. — By the wet process — dissolving in acids and precipitat- 
 ing ; or forming compounds which can be acted upon by suitable 
 reagents. 
 
 This by no means exhausts the list of methods by which 
 metals may be extracted ; there are many auxiliary processes and 
 combination methods which could only be dealt with by describing 
 the complete metallurgy of the metals. 
 
 This is especially true as regards the recovery of the "noble" 
 metals. Metal refiners have such a wide range of methods to 
 select from that it is sometimes a hard matter to decide which is 
 the best treatment for a particular ore. The fact is, many good 
 mines have failed to pay dividends because t-he economies of the 
 extraction processes did not receive proper attention. 
 
 Whatever method of decomposing the mineral may be 
 adopted, wet or dry, all the labors of metallurgical processes are 
 directed to the same end, to reduce the substance to the metallic 
 condition and to separate impurities from the metals recovered. 
 
10 Practical Alloying 
 
 Every new reaction or change of the chemical relations of the 
 material, contributing to its decomposition, may be turned to ac- 
 count for the recovery of the metal, or for the manufacture of 
 some commercial product. Hence the increase in the number of 
 metallurgic processes, and the adoption of combination methods 
 giving better control of the commercial values. 
 
 Treatment of complex ores. — Perhaps the most prominent 
 feature of modern metallurgy is the thoroughness with which 
 the various elements contained in the ores, or in the resulting 
 metals, are marshalled and utilized. In these days, the methods 
 of isolating and purifying the metals are better understood, the 
 complex ores can be more fully treated, and the results regulated 
 with more precision than ever before. There are few negligible 
 quantities contained in the ores nowadays. The metallurgic 
 methods are so comprehensive, and the chemical reactions so well 
 controlled, that the real value of the various ores is not to be 
 gaged by the proportions of the metals they contain. There is 
 no doubt that the metal refining industry, or, to be precise, applied 
 metallurgy, is undergoing a revolution. More is being taken 
 out of the ores now than was possible a few years back; the 
 quality of the metals produced is superior, the grades are more 
 uniform, and the cost of production is being steadily reduced. 
 
 To illustrate this point I quote this paragraph from a current 
 newspaper: "Broken Hill ores, which hitherto have only been 
 treated for the silver and lead content, are now to be worked for 
 zinc and sulphur also." Thus, from the residue of an older 
 metallurgical process, a new industry is to be created ; and by the 
 additional profit from zinc (16 per cent), which was formerly 
 ignored, and the manufacture of sulphuric acid, increased pros- 
 perity, in this instance, is assured. 
 
 Yet another example of remarkable development made in 
 recent years is the smelting of concentrator slimes, which were 
 practically refuse. By a simple process of sintering, or kiln 
 roasting, and then smelting, thousands of tons are being con- 
 verted into marketable metals — and profit ! 
 
 As illustrating a modern process designed to economize the 
 products of ores containing precious metals combined with vola- 
 tile metals and elements, take Dr. Hoepfuerer's method of recov- 
 
Metal Refining — Ancient and Modern 11 
 
 ering zinc from argentiferous blends in which the percentage of 
 iron is too large to permit the ordinary distillation method being 
 used. "The ores are at first roasted with common salt, resulting 
 in the production of zinc chloride and sodium sulphate. These 
 two soluble salts are then leached out, and the latter separated 
 from the former by crystallization in the cold. The zinc chloride 
 is then treated electrolytically, using carbon anodes, and for 
 cathodes, a revolving plate of zinc. The chlorine as it escapes 
 is absorbed by lime, making it a marketable product. The prec- 
 ious metals remain in the leached residues in the tanks." If 
 rich enough, these may be sent direct to the smelter ; if not, they 
 would require concentration. 
 
 This example is typical of the modern improvements and 
 economies effected by studying the properties and capabilities of 
 the associated minerals, ores, fluxes and fuels, and the obvious 
 advantage of employing electricity for the reduction and separa- 
 tion of the metals. 
 
 Electrical reduction of ores. — The selling price of a metal 
 depends largely upon the readiness with which it is reduced from 
 its ores. Only a few metals are reduced to the metallic state 
 from their compounds by heat alone. Assistance has tO' be 
 rendered by reducing agents. In modern metallurgy, the electric 
 current promises to become one of the most important of such 
 agents, as its action is direct and readily applied. The problem 
 is to separate the metal from the non-metal with which it is in 
 combination. The current does this with no intermediate steps. 
 Thus, common salt fuses at a red heat, and if a current is passed 
 through the molten mass between carbon electrodes, the metal 
 sodium is liberated at one end and the gas chlorine at the other. 
 Great technical diflSculties have been met in the application of this 
 simple method, but they have now, to a large extent, been over- 
 come. An older plan is to heat the ore with carbon, which, for 
 example, takes away the oxygen of a metallic oxide to form the 
 gaseous carbon dioxide, which escapes. Hydrogen reduces oxides 
 in a similar way, water being formed. Another plan of reduc- 
 tion is to use another metal, particularly aluminum, which is able 
 to replace it in the compound, and so set it free. With aluminum, 
 great evolution of heat takes place, sufficient to melt the reduced 
 
13 Practical Alloying 
 
 metal. This is the basis of a well-known process for hard solder- 
 ing steel rails, and so forth. In a like way, sodium was formerly 
 largely used in the reduction of the rarer metals, which greatly 
 increased their cost; but now electric practice is replacing it. A 
 very important case of reduction is that by potassium cyanide, 
 which takes the oxygen of an oxide to form a cyanate. More 
 and more, however, the current is coming into play. Thus, 
 formerly, the production of phosphorus implied the treatment of 
 bone-ash, or natural phosphates, with sulphuric acid, but recent 
 improvements in the electric furnace have made it possible to 
 smelt either, mixed with charcoal, for the direct production of the 
 €lement. The advantage here lies in the enormously high tem- 
 perature of the electric furnace. To sum up, the modern methods 
 of producing metals for the market are characterized by : 
 
 First, the systematic observance of chemical principles. 
 
 Second, the adoption on a large scale of laboratory methods. 
 
 Third, economy of power and material. 
 
 Fourth, the introduction of electricity as a means of decom- 
 posing metallic compounds. 
 
 Electro-technology has made enormous strides in the last 
 <iecade. Electrolysis and the electric furnace have added many 
 interesting products to the metal worker's storehouse. The 
 former has solved the problem of producing pure metals on a 
 commercial basis, while the latter has rendered possible the 
 reduction and union of many refractory metals which formerly 
 were not feasible. The progress made in the manufacture of 
 self -hardening steels since the adoption of the electric furnace for 
 the commercial reduction of chromium, tungsten and other 
 hardly fusible metals, affords a striking proof of the improve- 
 ments effected. 
 
 But besides furnishing power for the engineer, heat for the 
 metallurgist, attraction for the chemist, light for the world and 
 "vitality for weak men" — as the electropathist puts it — electricity 
 has many other uses awaiting development. Dr. Borchers says 
 "there is no metal incapable of being reduced by electrically 
 heated carbon," i. e., the electric arc. Electricity has long been 
 known to be a potent factor in the decomposition of metallic 
 substances, but metallurgists are only beginning to take advantage 
 
Metal Refining — Ancient and Modern IZ 
 
 of the fact. Electro-conductivity has been proposed as a means 
 of testing the purity of the metals ; indeed, this has already been 
 accomplished with copper and aluminum. So it is only a matter 
 of time till a standard of conductivity is tabulated for all the 
 metals in a state of purity. We shall then have established a 
 cheap test of the purity of metals. 
 
 Other proposals connected with the electrolysis of dissolved 
 or fused metals, or metallic compounds, are also meeting with 
 practical application, but this is hardly the place for a statement 
 of electro-chemical theories. Certain it is that electricity has 
 proved an economical power in metallurgy. It can be made to 
 subdue the elements to the last atom. It may be said to fulfill 
 the functions of the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone in 
 one act, and now that modern scientists have wedded this spark- 
 ing Vesta to the strenuous Vulcan, we may expect a numerous 
 and gifted oifspring. A well-known London humorist deplores 
 the abolition of London fog by means of electricity! He says: 
 "Electricians must learn sooner or later that not everything 
 which can be done by electricity ought to be done." Metallurg- 
 ists must learn this, too, and no doubt many of the old-fashioned 
 metal refiners, who have not yet acquired the electric habit, will 
 agree with the sentiment even if they fail to recognize the 
 humor. The changes which have taken place in the general 
 treatment of ores, even in the preliminary dressing and mechan- 
 ical processes, would astonish the most informed refiner of a 
 previous generation, for just as the introduction of the hot blast 
 in the early days of iron and steel development created new con- 
 ditions of working iron ores, so the later improvements in 
 mechanical appliances and the newer applications of chemical and 
 electrical principles have advanced and extended the operations 
 and productions along the whole range of the metals. 
 
II 
 
 HISTORY AND PECULIARITIES OF ALLOYS 
 
 THE story of the alloys forms an important chapter in the 
 history of our planet. They are closely identified with the 
 struggles of mankind to gain the mastery in empire, and 
 in the arts and industries. It is worthy of note, that the 
 supremacy of the nations, in successive epochs, has depended as 
 much upon engineering, or the skill of the metal workers, as upon 
 what is called the "force of arms." Even in our own times, the 
 Superior mechanism of a modem rifle has altered the poUtical 
 Arrangement of the map ; and in times of peace the most favored 
 nation has generally been the most up-to-date, industrially. The 
 ascendant nations have ever been in the van of scientific enlight- 
 enment and achievement. Warfare, which was once a matter of 
 big battalions, is now a question of mobility and big batteries. 
 Engines of war have always had some influence in adjusting the 
 •positions of the powers, and in many of the revolutionary period! , 
 armaments have been accounted more than troops. All of which 
 shows that a knowledge of mechanics and the control of metals 
 are of some importance in deciding the destinies of the nations. 
 Alloys have undoubtedly played a prominent part in the advance- 
 ment of civilization. Historically, they are co-eval with the 
 creation — the mention of brass in Genesis leads to this inference. 
 If we are to credit the early records, brass was first made in the 
 bowels of the earth. It was a prehistoric discovery of nature. 
 That brass was known to the ancients is beyond dispute. Mines 
 containing ores from which this yellow metal was produced, were 
 held in high esteem, but it is doubtful if the early metal workers 
 had any definite knowledge enabling them to control the product. 
 
History and Peculiarities of Alloys 15 
 
 It is no uncommon thing for the natural excellencies of a mine, 
 or its ores, to create a world-wide reputation for the metals they 
 yield. "Veille Montagne" zinc, "Lowmoor" iron, "Banca" tin 
 and "Lake" copper are modern examples of such fame. But not 
 to lose sight of the historical view of our alloys, we must stretch 
 back to mark the transition from the neolithic or new Stone Age, 
 to the Bronze Age. What we term the Bronze Age, started early 
 and continued late in the world's history, and even unto this day 
 bronze shares the honors with steel and iron in constructive and 
 ornamental metal work. Brass and bronze are often confounded 
 by people who ought to know better. They are two distinct alloys 
 — the former being composed of copper and zinc, and the latter 
 being a mixture of copper and tin — ^and there are decided con- 
 trasts in their characteristic properties. 
 
 Bronze in the world's history. — The world's history might 
 easily be written in chapters on bronze, the opening numbers of 
 which may be roughly summarized thus : 
 
 Chapter I. — Palaeolithic man, worn with the worries of the 
 Stone Age and grumbling at the necessity for renewing the cut- 
 ting edge of his uncouth implements, expressed in the hearing 
 of his grandson a longing for more enduring tools. The boy, 
 eager to acquit himself, after long and adventurous search, 
 brought forth, triumphant, from a fissure in the Great Rock, a 
 nugget, which, for want of a better name, was afterwards called 
 Aurichalcum, i. e., golden copper). And thus originated the first 
 artificer in metals ! 
 
 Chapter II. — The artificers grew and multiplied, and the 
 harvests being sooner garnered with the improved appliances, 
 they waxed thoughtful, but no less industrious. Bending their 
 minds to those things most worthy of worship, they adorned 
 the temples, made god-like images and warlike weapons, raised 
 monuments to their heroes and generally behaved themselves in a 
 manner becoming the fortunate scions of the ever memorable 
 and almost everlasting Bronze Age. 
 
 Chapter III. — In the Middle Ages, the church being all- 
 powerful and desiring to proclaim the fact for all time, inspired 
 the now skillful bronze founders to invent some striking vessel 
 which would yet speak when her ministers were dead. The bell- 
 
16 Practical Alloying 
 
 founding feats of these patriarchs are beyond us today, and we 
 have evidences in many parts of the world that they were no 
 fool molders anyhow! 
 
 Chapter IV. — When the so-called civilization of the Western 
 nations created that lust for empire, which still threatens to 
 engulf us, those docile workers, now called brass founders, were 
 requisitioned to produce an engine which would send the super- 
 fluous savages occupying the desirable places of the earth, into 
 "Kingdom Come." With characteristic ingenuity, befitting such 
 highly developed craftsmen, they compounded a metal able to 
 withstand the shock! Gun-metal, as you are aware, is used to 
 this day — sometimes sucessfully. It has a name which is uni- 
 versally admired and for that the public pay ungrudgingly the 
 highest price. Some day an enthusiast from the ranks of the 
 "Brassies," with a quicker imagination than I, may be inspired 
 to write up more fully the historical side of brass founding. 
 Meanwhile, we must get back to the more practical aspects of the 
 subject. 
 
 Deiinition of bronze. — The word bronze is of comparatively 
 modern origin, being similar to the Italian bronzo, which is in 
 all probability derived from bruno, signifying the brown color 
 of the metal. While some of the ancient bronzes compare favor- 
 ably with the later products of the metal industry, they invariably 
 contain traces (sometimes even considerable percentages) of 
 lead, nickel, silver, iron, and gold. It is inferred from many ex- 
 amples of these early bronzes, that the ancients had not acquired 
 the modern art of separating the individual metals — copper and 
 tin — from the ores. The early smelters produced the bronzes by 
 a judicious mixture of the ores, and were probably unaware of 
 the impurities locked up in them. Ores are occasionally alloys, 
 or combinations of the metals, and doubtless the earliest alloys 
 used were reduced direct from the ores by the simple application 
 of heat. The systematic study of the alloys was not begun until 
 the latter half of the eighteenth century, but methods of tinning 
 and gilding metals and the use of amalgams were known to the 
 Romans. Bronze casting was also an important industry with 
 them. Statues were erected in such numbers that they finally be- 
 came a by-word. 
 
History and Peculiarities of Alloys 17 
 
 According to Pliny, four varieties of Corinthian copper were 
 made, all four being alloys of gold, silver and copper. The 
 white variety contained an excess of silver, the red had an excess 
 of gold. The third was a mixture of the three metals in equal 
 proportions, and the fourth variety, hepatizon, derived its name 
 jrom its having a liver color. It is a remarkable fact that metalt 
 seldom attain to their fullest usefulness in a state of purity. 
 However desirable pure metals may be for some manufactures, 
 as dyes, drugs, or alloys of the precious metals, it is generally 
 recognized that but little can be done with a metal until it has 
 been combined with some other element. 
 
 It would seem to be a law in nature that none of the ele- 
 ments reach their greatest usefulness until they have been united 
 with some other substance by mutual affinity. Water (H2O), 
 air (O i + N 4 ), salt (NaCl), and many other substances 
 which minister to the support of life may be cited as compounds 
 typical of the chemical energy which permeates the natural world. 
 Nowhere is this power of attraction and chemical union more 
 evident than in the mineral kingdom. The earth is full of com- 
 pound substances ; and with all the accumulated science and tech- 
 nical insight of modern philosophy, the last word has not been 
 said on the condition and constitution of matter. And there are 
 marvels in metals, just as truly as there are wonders in chemistry. 
 In the sixteenth century, the "Gnomes" of Paracelsus, — sprites 
 said to preside over the inner parts of the earth and to reveal its 
 treasures — were invented as a foil to the inquisitive. Later, the 
 "phlogiston" of the Alchemists furnished a convenient reason for 
 chemical changes in the metals. 
 
 Unexplained problems. — In the whirligig of time many such 
 visionary, extravagant theories have been dissolved, but so far 
 as alloys are concerned, there still remains a bewildering host of 
 problems which cannot be explained by any available scientific 
 rules. We have to acknowledge the existence of several allo- 
 tropic conditions of metals and alloys which defy explanation. 
 An alloy of platinum and iridium shows the remarkable property 
 of being attacked by acids to which the pure metals are entirely 
 indifferent. 
 
18 Practical Allaying 
 
 It has not yet been demonstrated how the famous Mitis 
 castings made from a mixture of wrought iron, cast iron and alu- 
 minum bronze, revert from the fibrous condition, back to their 
 original strength and structure; or how two soft metals like tin 
 and copper unite to form a flinty compound like bell metal or spec- 
 ulum; or how two malleable metals like gold and lead lose that 
 property, immediately a trace of the alloy is introduced; or how 
 two stable metals like nickel and aluminum, in certain admix- 
 tures, crumble into powder a few hours after they have been 
 combined; or how aluminum should exert such a powerful in- 
 fluence on the color of gold as to produce the remarkable white 
 colored alloy (gold 90, aluminum 10) discovered by the late Prof. 
 Roberts-Austen. Many other phenomena bearing on the rela- 
 tions of the metals entering into combination as alloys, could be 
 instanced. From recent experiments, M. Guillimane has shown 
 that a ferro-nickel alloy, containing 35 per cent nickel, is almost 
 as insensible to the action of a magnet as copper, notwithstanding 
 the fact that iron and nickel are two of the substances most 
 readily attracted by a magnet. 
 
 A still more singular property appears in the discovery that 
 the magnetic properties of the constituents may be conferred on 
 the alloy by subjecting it to great and rapid cooling. Thus, we 
 have an alloy, which, at ordinary temperatures is non-magnetic, 
 but which becomes magnetic when cooled further. Advantage 
 has been taken of this unique property of ferro-nickel alloys in 
 the construction of some new scientific instruments and electrical 
 appliances. But we must not make too much of the novelties 
 presented by some alloys ; the practical points of alloying are of 
 more importance than the enumeration of metallic curiosities. 
 The ordinary definition of an alloy teaches that it is a compound 
 of metals obtained by fusion. 
 
 Definition of alloy. — The alchemical usage of the verb alloy, 
 meant, to temper one metal with another, the alloy always being 
 the inferior metal, as copper in gold, or silver. This rendering 
 still clings to us. Sterling silver is an alloy of 935 parts, by 
 weight, of silver, combined with 75 parts of copper. In the 
 language of the assaying office, the copper in this example is 
 termed the alloy; but in a technical sense the metal resulting from 
 
History and Peculiarities of Alloys 19 
 
 the combination of these proportions of silver and copper, in a 
 liquid condition, is the alloy proper. Again, in brass foundry 
 practice, the metals which are added to the molten copper to 
 make an alloy — as lead and zinc in cock metal, or tin and zinc 
 in gun metal mixtures, are termed the composition; but an ana- 
 lyst would state the composition by the percentage of all the con- 
 stituents contained in the alloy. Jewelers sometimes employ 
 zinc in gold alloys ; it is generally used in the form of brass and 
 is known by them as composition. Other examples of the misuse 
 of the word alloy, are the well known trade terms, hardening, 
 temper, etc. It is evident we begin to need a new definition of 
 an alloy. The final product derived from the mutual solubility, 
 or the fusion of two or more metals, is generally regarded as a 
 perfect alloy. But some years ago the union of a metal with a 
 non-metal was not recognized in that way. Cast iron has only 
 recently been brought under this category, and many of the mod- 
 em alloys now manufactured as commercial specialties, do not 
 come under the old description of perfect alloys. It has also been 
 customary to regard all mixtures containing mercury as amal- 
 gams; but there are at least two alloys with a fair content of 
 mercury, which cannot be so classed, namely, Dronier's malleable 
 bronze, and Kingston's anti-friction metal. So that it would 
 seem wiser to allow that the union of a metal with any other 
 elements should be treated as an alloy, so long as the solidified 
 mixture retains the essential characteristics of a metal. From 
 a technical standpoint, the commercial value of the metals enter- 
 ing into an alloy should not be taken into account at all. The 
 fineness of gold is a relative term which might be as well ex- 
 pressed by hardness, or any other quality. 
 
 The importance of an alloy is not regulated by the price of its 
 components as some erroneously imagine. The things that mat- 
 ter are its chemical and physical properties and its suitability 
 for the duty laid upon it. The presence of metalloids has a very 
 decided influence on the structure, strength and solidity of metals 
 and alloys. Sometimes it is a good influence, but not infrequent- 
 ly it is for evil. The worker in alloys is therefore compelled to 
 be more careful in his manipulations than the worker in metals 
 which are not alloys. Besides being more difficult to tool and 
 
so Practical Alloying 
 
 less fit for wear and tear, unalloyed metals are, as a rule, not so 
 well adapted for castings. Copper, nickel, and aluminum are 
 very tenacious metals in the form of rolled sheets, rods, or tubes ; 
 but if the same metals are reduced to the molten condition and 
 poured into molds, the castings are generally disappointing, both 
 in respect of solidity and tenacity. Heated to fusion, these 
 metals absorb oxygen, and in cooling down to the solid condition 
 they retain more or less of the dissolved gas, which produces a 
 honeycombed structure. 
 
 To overcome this defect, and to enable the founder to pro- 
 cure homogeneous castings with these metals, Messrs. Cowles 
 have advocated the addition of a small percentage of silicon in 
 the case of copper; Dr. Flietman advised the use of magnesium 
 with nickel ; and in the case of aluminum. Dr. Richards has 
 recommended an addition of zinc or copper. Comparatively few 
 castings are made from unmixed metals nowadays. The prin- 
 ciples of alloying are found to be so convenient and so advan- 
 tageous, that with the exception of electrical appliances, better 
 results may be achieved, and better mechanical properties may be 
 imparted to the castings, if the mutual solubility of metals is 
 regarded in the preparation of the metal to be cast. 
 
 The art of alloying metals involves many principles, requir- 
 ing much care and intelligence to attain the qualities desired in 
 the finished product. Alloying has reference to the chemical 
 relations of the metals and the methods of preparing and com- 
 bining them ; but, with the exception of some few dual alloys, as 
 alloys of copper-tin, copper-zinc, lead-tin, silver-copper, alum- 
 inum-copper, etc., our knowledge of the effects of combining 
 metals is far from being complete. Systematic researches have 
 been confined chiefly to the copper alloys. Indeed, copper 
 occupies much the same position in the industrial arena that gold 
 has in the commercial world. It can be manipulated in more 
 ways and with less uncertainty than any of the other metals. 
 This is due to the wide range of properties copper is able to im- 
 part to, or receive from other metals. The changes effected by 
 alloying metals are generally more marked if there is considerable 
 difference in the characteristics of the metals used. The alloy- 
 ing of metals has generally a tendency to promote fusibility, 
 
History and Peculiarities of Alloys 21 
 
 fluidity and hardness ; and for the purposes of castings, the 
 homogeneity of a metal is nearly always improved by the addi- 
 tion of some other element. Color is also an important feature 
 in alloys, but the coloring power of metals is more variable in 
 alloys than in some other compounds employed for dyes and pig- 
 ments. Ledebur arranges the useful metals in the following 
 order: Tin, nickel, aluminum, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, 
 lead, platinum, silver, gold. He says : "Each metal in this series 
 has a greater decolorizing action than the metal following it. 
 Thus the colors of the last members are concealed by compara- 
 tively small amounts of the first members." The alloy used for 
 nickel coinage affords a good example. This alloy is composed 
 of copper 75 parts, and nickel, 25 parts ; the comparatively small 
 quantity of nickel is, however, sufficient to completely hide the 
 red color of the copper. But the color study of alloys has been 
 pushed into the background by the more pressing need for purely 
 mechanical effects, and variations in the physical properties of the 
 metals are of first importance to engineers. 
 
 Combinations of metals. — The nature of alloys has always 
 been a matter of considerable controversy. Some of the metals 
 combine in certain definite equivalents, termed atomic propor- 
 tions, to form chemical compounds. Alloys of this description 
 seem to possess superior qualities, and to be more stable than 
 those produced by the haphazard admixture of metals in a liquid 
 condition. Several metals may be dissolved in one another in 
 all proportions, to form homogeneous alloys, while others refuse 
 to be combined in any proportions which would qualify them tO' 
 be classed amongst the useful alloys. When a mere mechanical 
 mixture of metals is formed in an alloy, distinct crystals occur 
 with one metal, between which the other is visible. Whereas, 
 when an alloy is formed by the chemical combination of the 
 metals, no such irregularities appear, and in some cases, the 
 original equivalents cannot be destroyed by remelting. So that 
 when two metals unite to form a chemical compound, we have a 
 new substance with properties entirely different from the proper- 
 ties of either of the elements which formed it, and because of the 
 affinity or chemical attraction of the elements, it requires some 
 superior power to separate the particles of this new combination. 
 
2% Practical Alloying 
 
 It would be interesting to know if those metals which adhere well 
 in electro-plating processes are, in any special sense, fitted to form 
 true alloys. Electroplaters are aware that nickel adheres well 
 to platinum, tin adheres well to copper, zinc adheres well to iron, 
 gold adheres well to silver, mecury adheres well to tin. Is this 
 due to chemical affinity, or does electricity contribute to the 
 reciprocity ? 
 
 Again, some metals combine very readily with certain metal- 
 loids, as iron with carbon; copper with silicon; nickel with 
 arsenic ; aluminum with phosphorus ; lead with oxygen, etc. ; but 
 by the introduction of a third element the chemical relationship 
 of these combinations is disturbed. The inference to be drawn 
 is that the union of a metal with a metalloid, even when they 
 form a chemical compound, is more sensitive than a chemical 
 compound of two metals. As a rule, a small addition of a third 
 element in a simple alloy of two metals, helps to form a bond of 
 union between them. For example, copper and iron combine 
 with difficulty, but copper, zinc and iron produce many homo- 
 geneous alloys of great tenacity. Again, nickel and aluminum 
 make an unstable combination, but nickel, copper and aluminum 
 give a series of remarkably tough and permanent alloys. Mer- 
 cury and iron have no affinity for each other, but if tin is inter- 
 mixed with these metals, an amalgam may readily be formed. 
 
 The behavior of an' alloy cannot be deduced from the 
 behavior of the components, neither does the apparent solution of 
 one metal in another give any guarantee of homogeneous metal. 
 It sometimes happens that certain proportions of the constituents 
 in an alloy combine chemically, while others exist in a state of 
 mixture or solution. The solidified mixture in such examples 
 presents a mixed appearance in the fracture ; this is due to the 
 different densities, fusibilities or chemical properties of the alloy- 
 ing metals. Wherever there is a tendency to this condition, it 
 may generally be aggravated by the slow cooling of the metal, 
 or by raising the temperature of the molten alloy in excess of the 
 heat required to render it fluid enough for castings. 
 
 The character of many alloys is greatly modified by remelt- 
 ing. Alloys containing tin or aluminum generally show an 
 
History and Peculiarities of Alloys 33 
 
 increase of these metals after frequent fusions ; bells cast from 
 metal which has been repeatedly remelted, acquire a disagreeable 
 tone because of the formation and solution of oxides in the molten 
 alloy; and alloys containing volatile metals, as zinc, arsenic, 
 antimony, etc., may be rendered practically worthless by pro- 
 longed melting. The presence of impurities in the metals used 
 for making alloys is also a source of trouble ; very small quantities 
 of some elements seem to have far reaching effects on the prop- 
 erties of alloys. 
 
 Dual alloys. — Naturally, the characteristics of dual alloys 
 are easier maintained than combinations of three or more metals. 
 Some of the most important alloys in the industrial arts, are 
 unsophisticated combinations of two metals: Brass (Cu-j-Zn), 
 bronze (Cu + Sn), nickel-silver (Cu-f-Ni), aluminum-bronze 
 (Cu + Al), plumbers' solder (Pb-f-Sn), and standard gold 
 (Au -\- Cu), and silver (Ag + Cu), are all dual alloys. Various 
 additions have been made to these alloys with a view to improv- 
 ing their mechanical properties, modifying their appearance, or 
 reducing their cost, but the essential qualities of the alloy, in each 
 case, can only be brought out by suitable proportions of the two 
 metals indicated, being incorporated in the manufacture. Com- 
 plex alloys are on the increase ; and subtle combinations are being 
 devised to meet the wants of engineering and architecture. The 
 alloys of the future will therefore require closer adherence to 
 chemical principles, a better knowledge of the behavior of liquid 
 metals, and some more scientific method of reduction than the 
 open or reverberatory furnace. Delicate combinations demand 
 delicate handling. This applies to alloys in particular, as they 
 nearly always contain elements with weak affinities and are prone 
 to oxidize, volatilize and deteriorate in the heat. 
 
 This work, as I said at the beginning, was started with the 
 object of throwing a few side-lights on the practical alloys and 
 processes of brass founding. They may have been only dim, 
 uncertain glimmerings, but brass founding being a dark subject, 
 the smallest ray may be an illumination in itself. It has been my 
 aim to show : 
 
 First, that the discovery of bronze opened up the field for 
 metal castings. 
 
24 Practical Alloying 
 
 Second, that no castings have attained to the eminence of the 
 bronze castings. 
 
 Third, in order to become successful brass founders you 
 should honor the traditions of the trade, the chief one being 
 "Take care of the metals, the molds will take care of themselves," 
 and be imbued with t^e belief that radium may come and steel 
 may go, but bronze will continue forever. 
 
Ill 
 
 THE PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS 
 
 THE properties which contribute to the general usefulness 
 of metals are hardness, tenacity, elasticity, malleability, 
 ductility, density, fusibility, expansion by heat, resist- 
 ance to corrosion and conductivity for heat and electric- 
 ity. These properties always show some variation from the mean 
 when two or more of the metals are combined to make an alloy. 
 In view of the great uncertainty as to the chemical condition and 
 behavior of fused metals with one another, it would be impossible 
 to lay down propositions covering the general results of alloying. 
 Every new alloy is an experiment, because the manner in which a 
 metal affects or is affected by metals with which it may be mixed, 
 cannot be exhibited in advance. For the most part, the chemical 
 properties of the metals are latent and the physical properties 
 of the alloys depend upon the chemical conditions. 
 
 Reasons for alloying metals. — Nearly all of the elements 
 exist in a state of combination in nature, but for the uses of 
 engineering it is necessary to separate and recombine the metals 
 to produce alloys giving constructional advantages. The princi- 
 pal objects of alloying metals are : 
 
 To increase desirable qualities, as strength, hardness, tough- 
 ness, or elasticity. 
 
 To lower the melting point. 
 
 To modify the color or structure. 
 
 To facilitate the production of sound castings. 
 
 To resist corrosion. 
 
 To economize materials. 
 
26 Practical Alloying 
 
 Hence, there is a growing tendency to group alloys by their 
 predominant physical properties, as high-tension alloys, fusible 
 metals, decorative alloys, deoxidized metals, non-corrosive alloys, 
 and light alloys and anti-friction metals. 
 
 Of the seventy-odd elements which have been isolated by 
 the chemists, only some twenty possess properties of value in the 
 production of commercial alloys. These are: Copper, zinc, tin, 
 lead, antimony, aluminum, nickel, bismuth, cadmium, magnesium, 
 iron, manganese, chromium, gold, silver, platinum, arsenic, phos- 
 phorus, silicon, mercury. 
 
 Carbon is an essential element in cast iron and steel and its 
 alloys, but the conditions and efifects of carbon in these metals 
 and the use of the rare metals molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, 
 etc., in the manufacture of special steels, are outside the scope 
 of this work which purports to treat of the non-ferrous alloys in 
 general use for castings. Besides, carbon is inert at the lower 
 temperatures required for alloys in general. The great majority 
 of the useful alloys are combinations of two or three metals, and 
 the order in which the metals are stated above is approximately 
 the order of their usefulness from the viewpoint of the foundry- 
 man and the engineer. 
 
 Two classes of alloys. — The alloys of a given metal may be 
 divided into two classes : Those in which the metal is the chief 
 constituent, and those in which it is present as a necessary con- 
 stituent. For example. Tier's argent is an aluminum-silver alloy 
 which is harder and easier worked and engraved than most other 
 silver alloys. It consists of aluminum two parts and silver one 
 part. On the other hand, aluminum bronze is an alloy of the 
 second class, showing copper 90 to 97 parts and aluminum 3 to 10 
 parts. But for the present we are more concerned with the phys- 
 ical properties of alloys than with their composition. 
 
 Hardness. — The property which is most generally conferred 
 by alloying one metal with another is hardness. The hardness 
 
The Properties of Alloys 27 
 
 of an alloy is very much affected by the rate of cooling as well 
 as by the presence of impurities in the metals, but the relative 
 hardness of the alloying metals gives no clue to the hardness or 
 the fracture of the alloy. The following figures give the relative 
 degrees of hardness for some metals and their alloys : Lead 7, tin 
 13, zinc 70, aluminum 89, copper 106, antimony 160, antimonial 
 lead 12, babbitt 18, brass 164, hard bronze 244, phosphor bronze 
 253* 
 
 Mechanical treatment, such as rolling, hammering, etc., 
 hardens metals by changing the molecular condition, but when 
 such metals are remelted they assume the normal hardness and 
 structure on solidification. Nickel and manganese are the hardest 
 metals entering into ordinary alloys; but some comparatively 
 soft metals have remarkable hardening powers, such as zinc 
 in aluminum alloys, tin in copper alloys, or lead in gold alloys. 
 The metalloids, arsenic, silicon and phosphorus, are also powerful 
 hardeners. By combination in certain proportions with silicon, 
 the hardness of steel is imparted to copper. With a greater or 
 smaller quantity "of silicon the properties of the alloy vary, the 
 high silicon-copper being a capital deoxidizing agent, while the 
 low silicon alloys possess great elasticity and power of resistance 
 to heat, and they conduct electricity better than any other alloys. 
 
 Another splendid example of the hardening effect of one 
 element on another is seen in the modern alloy, "Meteorite," or 
 phosphorus-aluminum, the phosphorus content not exceeding four 
 per cent. In this case, as in most others, the increased hardness 
 is not the only beneficial effect procured ; better casting and work- 
 ing qualities accrue, and, speaking generally, crystallization is 
 modified, the tensile strength is improved, sonorousness is in- 
 creased, and a closer grain in the metal gives it a finer luster. 
 
 ♦These figures refer to Baur's drill test for hardness and show 
 the revolutions required to bore one-half inch of metal, using a 
 ^-inch twist drill, the pressure on the drill being 160 pounds, and 
 running at 350 revolutions per minute. 
 
28 Practical Alloying 
 
 Fusibility. — Another general result of alloying metals is to 
 render them more fusible. With very few exceptions, the melt- 
 ing points of alloys are below the mean of the metals used; 
 sometimes they are even more fusible than the most fusible com- 
 ponent, as for example. Wood's alloy, or any of the so-called fusi- 
 ble alloys containing bismuth. The influence of heat on metals 
 and alloys is a most interesting study. The extreme tempera- 
 tures necessary in modern industries have developed a new field 
 of metallurgy which promises to reveal many dark things con- 
 cerning the resistance of refractories and the chemistry of high 
 temperatures. None of the metals can resist heat or chemical 
 action. The electric furnace is producing today many substances 
 which offer enormous advantages over the products available 
 at ordinary furnace temperatures. The immediate effects of 
 heat upon metals and alloys vary considerably. Besides the dif- 
 ference in the degrees of heat necessary to reduce them, the met- 
 als show considerable difference in their behavior in the heat and 
 cooling down to ordinary temperatures. Some of them soften, or 
 become pasty before actual fusion occurs^ others pass directly 
 from the solid to the fluid state and vice versa, while one, arsenic, 
 passes^ when heated, directly from the solid to the gaseous state 
 without becoming liquid. It can only be liquified under pressure. 
 All metals are volatile to a greater or less extent but the critical 
 degree of heat at which some of them, as manganese, platinum 
 and chromium, vaporize, is beyond the power of the ordinary 
 furnace. 
 
 Whenever there is a chemical union of the elements in an 
 alloy, heat is liberated. Generally there is a marked increase in 
 the temperature and also in the fluidity of the metal. The reac- 
 tion of metals which melt at very high temperatures is not 
 so easily controlled, therefore it is customary to make alloys 
 requiring high temperatures by some intermediate process, say 
 by reducing the oxides in the presence of some other substance 
 
The Properties of Alloys 29 
 
 possessing affinity for oxygen. Similarly, for the union of 
 metals which volatilize readily, as zinc or antimony, with metals 
 requiring high temperatures for their fusion, as iron, or nickel, 
 the direct method of mixing is always unsatisfactory. Fortun- 
 ately, the chemical affinity of the metals admits of correct com- 
 binations being made at temperatures slightly higher than are 
 necessary to melt the less refractory metals. Thus, iron may 
 be alloyed at the temperature of molten zinc. Copper may be 
 dissolved in molten tin. Nickel is easily reduced in a bath of 
 copper and platinum is attacked immediately when it is heated 
 in contact with lead, or one of the metalloids, phosphorus, silicon 
 or arsenic. These examples prove the common rule that alloys 
 are more fusible than the fusibilities of the several metals would 
 lead one to expect. 
 
 To sum up, heat has a tendency to destroy cohesion ; within 
 certain limits it causes expansion proportional to the degree of 
 heat; it lowers the tensile strength of most alloys and it affects 
 the mechanical properties of different metals in different ways 
 as evidenced by the various methods of working them in forging, 
 welding, tempering, rolling, drawing, stamping, spinning, solder- 
 ing and casting. Further, the action of gases on molten metals 
 interferes with their molecular arrangement and hinders the for- 
 mation of homogeneous alloys. At high temperatures the gases 
 are more active and the metals are more easily permeated by 
 them; it is always a wise precaution, therefore, to alloy the 
 metals at as low heats as practicable. The alloy may afterwards 
 be raised to the proper heat for casting, with better prospects 
 of retaining the exact proportions and characteristics desired. 
 
 Density. — ^The majority of the useful metals are between 
 seven and eight times heavier than an equal bulk of water. 
 Density, or specific gravity, is used as a term of comparison 
 expressing the relative weights of equal volumes of different sub- 
 
30 Practical Alloying 
 
 stances, and the metals are generally compared to the space 
 occupied by 1 c. c. of water at degrees Cent. No body is per- 
 fectly dense so as to have no interstices, or be destitute of pores, 
 but the density of metallic substances may be considerably in- 
 creased by mechanical treatment. The specific gravity of an 
 alloy is sometimes greater and sometimes less than the mean of 
 its components. When the density is increased, contraction has 
 occurred, and chemical combination has probably taken place; 
 but when the density is lessened, it shows that there has been a 
 separation of the particles in the process of alloying, conditioning 
 the expansion of volume. With the exception of bismuth, all 
 metals are denser in the solid than the liquid state. As a rule, 
 alloys are heavier than their calculated specific gravity, but a 
 curious exception is the alloy containing aluminum, 18.87 per 
 cent and antimony, 81.13 .per cent. Its theoretical specific gravity 
 is 5.225, which is the density it would have if its components 
 combined with no contraction or expansion of volume. Its true 
 specific gravity is 4.218. This shows a large expansion of volume 
 during alloying which is clearly illustrated by the following fig- 
 ures: 7.07 cubic centimeters of aluminum alloying with 12.07 
 cubic centimeters of antimony, produce 23.71 cubic centimeters 
 of alloy. This alloy is also an exception in the matter of fusi- 
 bility. Antimony and aluminum both melt in the region of 600 
 degrees Cent., yet the alloy does not melt below 1,080 degrees 
 Cent. 
 
 Working properties. — At this point we notice some of the 
 working qualities of the metals and alloys. The leading charac- 
 teristics of the metals are malleability, ductility and tenacity. The 
 usefulness of metals and alloys depends to a great extent upon 
 their classification, high or low, under these three headings. Of 
 course, for castings, tenacity is always the most important prop- 
 erty ; cohesion is the first desideratum in cast pieces and a high 
 tensile strength combined with toughness and elasticity ranks the 
 metal or alloy well up in the list of useful structural materials. 
 
The Properties of Alloys 
 
 31 
 
 The relative strengths and the toughness of some important 
 copper alloys are graphically depicted in Fig. 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXTENSION 
 
 IN PERCENTAGE 
 
 OF 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 TESTED 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 ao 30 
 
 
 
 nn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
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 KA 
 
 NC 
 
 Al 
 
 <E 
 
 5E 
 
 E 
 
 IR 
 
 OK 
 
 ZE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
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 >E 
 
 LTA 
 
 M 
 
 ET 
 
 VL 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 10 
 
 S! 
 
 >H 
 
 >H 
 
 
 3R 
 
 OI 
 
 IZ 
 
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 _ 
 
 EXTENSION IN INCHES 
 
 Fig. 1 — Relative strengths of copper alloys 
 
 When metals are mixed together to form alloys, changes, 
 occur in the structure and physical properties of the product. 
 Indeed, the modified properties of alloys are often of greater prac- 
 
32 Practical Alloying 
 
 tical value than the independent use of the simple metals. The 
 properties of alloys are widely different from the ratios of the 
 combining metals. Copper and lead are both highly malleable, 
 but the alloy known as pot metal is not ; copper and tin are com- 
 paratively soft, yet the alloys, bell metal and speculum, are harder 
 than steel. The fluidity of zinc, melted in the presence of iron, 
 is diminished, but its malleability is increased. Alloys of copper 
 and zinc are more ductile than copper; alloys of aluminum and 
 tin are less ductile than aluminum. From these examples it 
 may be judged that the relative properties of the metals do not 
 continue in their alloys. Further, given the properties of a def- 
 inite alloy, the effects of introducing even a trace of a foreign 
 substance into it could not be foretold by any reasoning from 
 analogy. 
 
 As a rule, metals of similar character unite to form compara- 
 tively weak alloys, and only where the constituent metals show 
 great dissimilarity in properties do we get alloys that are united 
 by the strong bonds of chemical affinity. 
 
 Fracture. — ^The workability of metals and alloys depends 
 largely upon their structure. Brittle metals show a feeble 
 resistance to dynamic tests and they must be sparingly used in 
 alloys that require to have good mechanical properties. Com- 
 binations of antimony and bismuth, bismuth and zinc, or anti- 
 mony and zinc, are on that account useless in the arts. 
 
 The mechanical value of structure in metals may be illus- 
 trated by the changes produced by increasing the content of a 
 given metal in an alloy, zinc in copper for example. Beginning 
 with pure copper we have the highly malleable and ductile quali- 
 ties shown in the silky and finely fibrous fracture of the metal. 
 By adding zinc up to 40 per cent, the metal assumes different 
 structures at various stages. With 10 per cent zinc, the fracture 
 is coarsely crystalline ; with 20 per cent it is finely fibrous ; at 30 
 
The Properties of Alloys 33 
 
 per cent it is granular and it becomes more finely granular with 
 additional increments up to 42 per cent. Meanwhile the tensile 
 strength of the metal has steadily risen from 27,800 pounds to 
 51,000 pounds per square inch. Beyond the 40 per cent limit, 
 ductility, extensibility and strength decrease and at zinc 60 per 
 cent, the fracture is vitreous conchoidal, with a tensile strength of 
 only 3,727 pounds per square inch. Metallic fractures have been 
 classified as: 
 
 Crystalline. — Metals presenting this appearance are weak, as 
 rupture occurs by the separation of adherent facets; examples: 
 antimony, zinc, bismuth. 
 
 Granular. — This fracture resembles sandstone. The high 
 tension alloys of modem times are all finely granular. The prin- 
 cipal features of this structure are homogeneity, cohesion and 
 flowing power. 
 
 Fibrous. — The strongest and most readily worked of all 
 metallic structures. Wrought iron is a good example of this 
 fracture. 
 
 Conchoidal. — Metals possessing this fracture are hard, highly 
 elastic and brittle, example, bell metal. 
 
 Columnar. — ^This appearance is presented by some metals 
 when they are broken hot. The metal has a tendency to separate 
 in long fingers across the thickness of the ingot ; example, tin. 
 
 It is a common occurrence to find two or even three kinds of 
 fracture in a single specimen of an alloy like yellow brass, or 
 German silver ; usually the granular and the fibrous, and the gran- 
 ular and finely crystalline structures are associated with each 
 other. 
 
 Of course it is the aim of the founder to produce a metal 
 of uniform structure, but metallography has revealed the fact that 
 alloys, even when they are apparently homogeneous, present com- 
 pound structures, and in many cases the direction in which the 
 
34 Practical Alloying 
 
 different forms merge and settle contributes to their efficiency. 
 Generally, the more rapidly a metal is cooled from the molten 
 state the more regular the fracture when it is broken cold, the 
 reason being that there is less time for impurities and segregating 
 elements to gravitate towards the surface or the center of the 
 mass. We do not recommend judging the value of metals, 
 especially alloys, by the fracture. It is well known that different 
 treatments impart different properties to metals having the same 
 composition. Fractures vary with the temperature and the man- 
 ner in which the rupture has been produced. An ingot of yellow 
 brass, broken between supports at 60 degrees Fahr., will present 
 a granular appearance, while the same ingot, broken at 600 de- 
 grees Fahr., exhibits a fibrous fracture, as No. 6, Fig. 2. Another 
 example of a hot break is No. 2, the columnar structure, procured 
 by heating an ingot of plumbers' soft solder and striking it sharply 
 with a mallet. No. 3 is an aluminum-zinc alloy and the fracture 
 is somewhat crystalline. The bronzes afford the best examples of 
 granular fracture. No. 5, Fig. 2, and No. 7, Fig. 3, are manganese 
 bronze and phosphor bronze, respectively. As showing the typ- 
 ical fractures of copper-tin alloys with increasing proportions of 
 tin. No. 8, Fig. 3, coarsely granular, is a sample of the standard 
 gun metal (9. and 1 alloy) ; No. 4, Fig. 2, is a hard railway gun 
 metal (7 and 1 alloy), and No. 1, Fig. 2, is a speculum alloy {2 
 and 1) used as a hardening for babbitt metals. This fracture is 
 highly conchoidal and the metal is brittle as glass and harder than 
 steel. The tests which are sometimes made by gripping the metal 
 on trial in a vise, and observing the angle through which it bends, 
 or the number of blows required to break it, can only give the 
 roughest idea of its capabilities. To get the true history and con- 
 stitution of the metal, a closer examination and more accurate 
 measurements are necessary. 
 
 The two factors which determine the condition of alloys are 
 their chemical composition and their physical structure. Chemis- 
 try reveals the former and metallography, the science which has 
 lately shed so much light on the microstructure of metals, inter- 
 prets the condition and the limitations of the latter. 
 
Fig. 2 — Fractures of alloys 
 
 Fig. 3 — Fractures of alloys 
 
The Properties of Alloys 35 
 
 Conductivity. — ^All metals are good conductors of heat and 
 electricity. Their relative conducting powers according to Mat- 
 thieson, Franz and Weidmann, are given in Table I. 
 
 Electrical conductivity is greatly diminished by a rise in 
 temperature as well as by impurities in the metal. Alloys, as a 
 rule, are very poor conductors and on this account the metals 
 which occupy the lower positions in the following table are best 
 suited for resistance coils, etc. The Cowles company prepares 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Rei,ative Conductivity Of Metai<s 
 
 For 
 
 For Heat Electricity 
 
 Silver 1,000 1,000 
 
 Copper 748 941 
 
 Gold 348 730 
 
 Aluminum , 511 
 
 Zinc 266 
 
 Platinum 94 166 
 
 Iron 101 155 
 
 Nickel 120 
 
 Tin 154 114 
 
 Lead 79 76 
 
 Bismuth 18 11 
 
 a white alloy containing copper 67.5, zinc 13, manganese 18, alumi- 
 num 1.20 and silicon 0.5, the electrical resistance of which is 
 about 48 times that of copper and 37 times that of the standard 
 German silver, considerably greater than that of any other mate- 
 rial known which is capable of being drawn into strong, tough 
 wire. 
 
 The resistance of alloys is not affected by changes in the 
 temperature to the same extent as the pure metals ; on the other 
 hand, the purity of the metals, silver, copper, aluminum, etc., may 
 be tested, and impurities detected by the diminished transmission 
 of electric force. This is the latest tell-tale for adulterations or 
 impurities in new metals. Owing to the presence of oxides, or 
 to the fact of their" being melted in contact with the fuel, cast 
 metals, copper or aluminum, have not the high conductivity of 
 electrol)7tically or chemically prepared metals. 
 
 Peculiar properties of alloys. — ^Alloys generally have prop- 
 erties differing in kind and degree from their constituents. Some 
 metals alloy freely in all proportions and present few difficulties 
 
36 Practical Alloying 
 
 in working, such as, silver and copper, copper and zinc, tin and 
 lead. Others like lead and aluminum, or zinc and lead, cool out 
 in layers. One cannot calculate the physical properties of an 
 alloy from the physical qualities of the respective metals ; small 
 additions sometimes effect enormous changes. Alloys of brittle 
 metals are always brittle, but the other qualities of metals do not 
 continue in the same manner. The fracture is an index of the 
 condition of an alloy at the time of rupture, but the same alloy 
 when remelted, may be unworkable, and when it is again ruptured 
 the structure may be totally different owing to heat treatment. 
 
 Alloys at critical temperatures. — A series of experiments 
 conducted by Percy Longmuir, and embodied in a paper presented 
 at the American Foundrymen's Association convention, in 1905, 
 showed the remarkable variations in the properties of alloys, due 
 to casting temperature. The behavior of the alloys was observed 
 at certain critical temperatures and the results were summarized 
 as follows: 
 
 *High casting temperatures, Fig. 4, favor a large, ill-devel- 
 oped type of crystallization, giving a characteristically loose type 
 of structure. Fair casting heats. Fig. 5, favor a distinct but yet 
 interlocked structure, and the crystal junctions are not so marked 
 as is the case with the lower temperatures. Low casting temper- 
 atures, Fig. 6, give a most pronounced type of crystallization and 
 the crystal junctions are very sharply defined, apparently forming 
 routes along which fracture readily travels. 
 
 High casting temperatures give a loose structure. 
 
 Fair casting temperatures give an interlocked structure. 
 
 Low casting temperatures give a sharp structure. 
 
 The behavior of castings possessing these types of structure 
 under steam or water test is as follows : Loose structures allow 
 steam or water under pressure to ooze through the minute inter- 
 stices of adjacent crystals. Interlocked structure effectually 
 prevents any percolation of this kind, and the castings are there- 
 fore tight within all pressures up to their limit of deformation. 
 Sharp structures familiar to castings poured at a low heat will, 
 if the crystal junctions favor, and they generally do, offer micro- 
 scopical routes of penetration similar to those of high tempera- 
 ture castings. 
 
 *From the Proceedings of American Foundrymen's Association, 1905 
 
Fig. 4 — Muiitz metal poured at the Fig. 
 "high" temperature 
 
 ( MaRnifie<l '2t>n diains. ) 
 
 -Muntz uietal poured at the 
 "fair" temperature 
 (Atagnified ^^'10 dianis.) 
 
 
 Fig. (5 — Muntz metal poured at the 
 "low" temperature 
 (Magnified Still diams.) 
 
The Properties of Alloys 
 
 37 
 
 The accompanying tables reveal some of the remarkable ef- 
 fects produced by slight variations in the casting temperature of 
 typical alloys. 
 
 A type of high quality steam metal in British practice is 
 formed of copper 88 per cent, tin 10 per cent and zinc 3 per cent, 
 and the results shown in Table II. are characteristic of many ex- 
 periments on this type of alloy. 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Casting 
 temperature, 
 degrees Cent. 
 
 Maximum 
 
 stress, tons per 
 
 square incli 
 
 Elongation, 
 
 per cent in 
 
 z inches 
 
 
 eu u 
 
 e S 
 
 
 Reduction 
 of area, 
 per cent 
 
 87.5 
 
 10.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 1173° 
 
 1069° 
 
 965° 
 
 8.37 
 14.83 
 11.01 
 
 5.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 4.23 
 
 16.71 
 
 6.36 
 
 A usual specification for castings of the foregoing alloy is a 
 tensile strength of 14 tons per square inch, an elongation of not 
 less than 7^ per cent on 3 inches, whilst steam fittings must pass 
 a water test of 1,700 pounds. Evidently the first and third castings 
 . would hopelessly fail to meet such a specification ; yet the three 
 were poured from one 60-pound crucible, and the second one is 
 separated from the first and third by the narrow time margin of 
 only two minutes on either side. 
 
 Table III. embodies results obtained from copper-zinc alloys. 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 
 Analysis 
 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 stress tons per 
 
 square inch 
 
 Elongation, 
 
 per cent in 
 
 2 inches 
 
 
 Alloy 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Casting 
 temperature, 
 degrees Cent. 
 
 Reduction 
 
 of area 
 
 per cent 
 
 Red 
 Brass 
 
 89.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 1308 
 
 1073 
 
 , 1058 
 
 6.85 
 
 12.64 
 
 5.67 
 
 13.2 
 
 26.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 12.65 
 
 30.28 
 
 6.64 
 
 YeUow 
 Brass 
 
 73.0 
 
 26.0 
 
 1182 
 
 1020 
 
 850 
 
 11.48 
 
 12.71 
 
 7.44 
 
 37.7 
 43.0 
 15.0 
 
 31.40 
 35.66 
 15.25 
 
 Muntz 
 Metal 
 
 58.6 
 
 40.5 
 
 1038 
 
 973 
 
 ( 943 
 
 12.45 
 18.88 
 16.28 
 
 6.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.60 
 16.10 
 14.81 
 
 The results obtained from the red brass alloy which is largely 
 used as a brazing metal are of special moment, and it will be 
 noted that a fall of 235 per cent in casting temperature doubles 
 the mechanical properties, while a comparatively slight further 
 
38 Practical Alloying 
 
 fall results in a very considerable lowering of these properties. 
 The yellow brass results follow the same order, but here the 
 fair casting heat appears to extend over a wider range, for the 
 two first results are not greatly different. The third one, how- 
 ever, speaks very powerfully as to the influence of a low casting 
 temperature. The susceptibility of a high zinc alloy to variations 
 in casting temperature is well shown in the Muntz metal results. 
 Each of the foregoing alloys being constant in composition and 
 every condition save that of casting temperature being identical, 
 it necessarily follows that variations in mechanical properties are 
 determined solely by variations of initial temperature. 
 
 The crystalline structure of metals was discussed by Mr. 
 Longmuir as follows : 
 
 Crystallization begins in a number of centers and proceeds 
 until the areas meet. This granular structure of pure metals 
 seems to be quite universal. The crystalline elements in a grain 
 are all ranged in the same direction or have the same orientation 
 but the elements of two adjacent grains have different orienta- 
 tion. The result of this is that when light is thrown obliquely on 
 the surface of a pure metal, it appears to consist of light and 
 dark grains, but these are all of the same kind, as may be proved , 
 by rotating a specimen, when the dark grains become light and 
 the light ones become dark. 
 
 Some metals, as soon as cast, are fibrous and uncrystalline, 
 but become brittle and crystalline when heated and cooled, or 
 hammered, or worked in any way. A high casting temperature 
 conduces to the formation of large cystals with most alloys, hence 
 it is desirable to pour the molten metal at a moderate or fair 
 temperature, and make provision for cooling the castings as 
 quickly as possible. This applies very particularly to anti-fric- 
 tion metals. 
 
 From the Cantor lectures by Dr. T. Kirke Rose, published in 
 the Journal of Society of Arts, Nov. 15, 1901, we take the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Eutectic alloys. — Eutectic alloys have a number of charac- 
 teristics in common. They have a lower melting point than that 
 of any mixture containing their constituents in different propor- 
 tions, and these constituents may be either elements or chemical 
 compounds ; and they consist, not of a single solid solution, but 
 of a mixture of two solid solutions. These two solutions sepa- 
 rate from each other only at the very moment of solidification of 
 a single solution, and consequently the crystalline particles are 
 
The Properties of Alloys 39 
 
 very small, and the structure minute. The separation of the 
 eutectic may be effected by allowing a mixture to solidify partly, 
 and then pouring or squeezing out the melted portion. 
 
 The characteristic appearance under high magnifications is 
 that of alternate bands of light and dark material. For example, 
 the eutectic of iron and carbon is composed of curved bands of 
 hard cementite standing out in relief, and of soft ferrite forming 
 furrows between them. Mr. Stead, points out, however, that 
 the eutectics present themselves under many other forms. The 
 eutectic of silver and lead isolated by Savile Shaw is found to 
 consist of straight bands. Sometimes the bands are broken up 
 into dots, the cellular structure, as in the case of the eutectic of 
 phosphorus and iron containing 10.3 per cent phosphorus and 
 89.8 per cent iron. When rapidly cooled, certain eutectics as- 
 sume a spherulitic structure, as in the alloy of lead and antimony, 
 containing 87.3 per cent lead and 13.7 per cent antimony. The 
 two constituents begin to solidify from nuclei, and grow out- 
 wards from these, yielding a mass with an appearance resem- 
 bling that of certain minerals. 
 
 When cooled slowly, some eutectics assume geometric crys- 
 talline forms, which break up internally into the usually banded 
 structure as in the triple alloy, containing 80 per cent lead, 16 per 
 cent antimony, and 5 per cent tin. The eutectic alloy of anti- 
 mony and copper, Fig. 7, by the different orientation of the alter- 
 nate hard and soft plates in adjacent masses, also shows signs of 
 the formation of large crystalline grains. 
 
 Mr. Stead thinks it probable that the geometric forms are 
 determined by the crystalline habit of the hard constituent, and 
 further research is needed to determine whether there is any 
 disposition on the part of the homogeneous liquid solution ta 
 crystallize as a whole, a disposition which is instantly modified as 
 solidification takes place, and the solution breaks up into two. 
 solid solutions. 
 
 There is, at any rate, no essential reason apparent why the- 
 structure of eutectics should be so exceedingly fine ground. Per- 
 haps by heating eutectics to a little below their melting points for 
 long periods of time, the constituents may be more completely 
 separated, and studied with greater convenience. 
 
 The study of alloys with the aid of the microscope has made 
 rapid advances in recent years. Fig. 8, is an anti-friction alloy 
 containing 83.3 per cent of tin, 11.1 per cent of antimony and 
 5.5 per cent of copper. The load is carried by the hard grains 
 which have a low coefficient of friction and are not easily sub- 
 ject to the accidents known as hot-box and cutting when there is 
 
40 Practical Alloying 
 
 an abrupt and very great increase in the coefficient of friction. 
 When an axle is placed in a new bearing, however, contact be- 
 tween the two takes place only in a small number of points, and 
 if both axle and bearing are hard and unyielding, heating rapidly 
 ensues. To avoid this and to allow for irregular wear, and also 
 for irregularities of adjustment in erecting a shaft carried by 
 several bearings, the matrix of the anti-friction alloy must be 
 soft and plastic so as to mold itself to the axle during the run- 
 ning, and yet must be strong enough to carry the load without 
 permanent distortion. 
 
 It is well to add that Behrens and Baucke* do not agree 
 with Charpy. They find the star-like crystals are too brittle to 
 stand much pressure and crumble badly. If, however, the metal 
 is cast at a proper temperature, the fragments worn off are 
 largely spheroids in shape, consisting of worn cubes of the anti- 
 mony-tin alloy, and these mixing with the oil form a ball ciishion, 
 so that a rolling instead of a sliding friction is set up. 
 
 Surfaces of fusibility. — Lead and antimony form alloys 
 suitable for the bearings of axles, but in general binary alloys 
 are not suitable, and ternary, or even more complex mixtures 
 are employed. In studying these, M. Charpy showed that just 
 as the constitution of binary alloys can be deduced from their 
 curves of fusibility, so that of ternary alloys can be ascertained 
 by the construction of surfaces of fusibility. 
 
 Thus, in Fig. 9, the points. A, B, C, are the apices of an 
 equilateral triangle, and any point, M, inside the triangle corre- 
 sponds to a particular ternary alloy, the distances from the three 
 sides, the sum of which is constant, representing the proportions 
 of the three metals. If, now, a line is raised from the point, M, 
 perpendicular to the plane of the triangle, and its height made 
 proportional to the temperature of fusion of the alloy, and the 
 same procedure is followed for all points inside the triangle, sur- 
 faces of fusibility are traced out resembling that shown in Fig. 
 10. 
 
 *MetaHographist, January, 1900, page 4. 
 
I'io-. 7- 
 
 -Eutcctic alloys of antimony 
 and copper 
 
 Fig. 8 — Alloys of tin, antimony and 
 copper, polished and etched 
 
 B c 
 
 I'^ig. '.) — Constitntion of ternary alloys 
 
 Fig. 10 — Surface of fusiljil- 
 ity of ternary alloys 
 
IV 
 
 SOME DIFFICULTIES OF ALLOYING 
 
 THE difficulties in the way of making alloys are many and 
 real. The common difficulties attending most manufac- 
 turing processes may generally be overcome by diligent 
 application and the observance of well known laws and 
 conditions, but the combining of metals to form alloys cannot 
 always be regulated by the normal behavior of the individual com- 
 ponents. Some knowledge of chemistry and the chemical rela- 
 tions of the elements is absolutely essential to the intelligent 
 handling and treatment of the metals throughout the various 
 stages of manufacture into alloys. But the modern tendency in 
 all manufactures is to reduce the chemistry of the processes 
 to the simplest form so as to make it easy for the unskilled 
 worker to produce correct combinations. In photography, the 
 amateur has at his command a large selection of compressed 
 reagents enabling him to obtain results which for lack of 
 technical knowledge or on account of the expense, he could 
 not otherwise reach. In medicine, too, the physician, by 
 means of tablets is able to relieve his patient of much of that 
 nausea following the use of liquid drugs. And in the metal 
 world the principle of preparing concentrated alloys of metals 
 which, subjected to the ordinary treatment, unite with difficulty, 
 has grown within the last twenty years to be a specialized in- 
 dustry, making it possible for the general founder in alloys to 
 produce economical and reliable combinations of volatile and 
 highly refractory metals. 
 
 Alloying by concentrates. — These "tabloid" alloys, if we may 
 so name them, have been a great boon to foundrymen. We all 
 
43 Practical Alloying 
 
 know the danger and uncertainty attending the direct introduc- 
 tion of phosphorus, mercury, magnesium or aluminum, into molten 
 metals at high temperatures. The brass founder has benefited 
 greatly by this new system of alloying by concentrates. Copper- 
 manganese, ferro-zinc, aluminized-zinc, phosphor-copper, phos- 
 phor-aluminum, phosphor-tin, and silicon-copper, in guaranteed 
 proportions, are easily procurable by the foundryman, and they 
 are quite as convenient as prepared reagents are to the practical 
 chemist. Indeed, practical alloying in its modern aspects may 
 justly be described as a higher branch of practical chemistry, 
 where crucibles and furnaces take the place of beakers and Bun- 
 sen burners, gases and liquid metals act and react, and the result- 
 ing compounds follow unchangeable laws with the same accuracy 
 as we find in laboratory practice. 
 
 The reactions of metals on metals in the molten condition are 
 quite as consistent as the reactions of other substances, but up till 
 now they have not been classified. 
 
 Metallurgists have been too busy grappling with problem? 
 arising out of the physical conditions and relations of the metals 
 to exhibit the chemistry of alloys with anything like fullness. 
 Nevertheless, the subject of metallic reactions is one deserving 
 of the fullest investigation. If foundrymen in their everyday 
 experience have had it demonstrated that the presence of man- 
 ganese tends to precipitate sulphur in cast iron, the presence of 
 aluminum tends to precipitate lead in brass, the presence of 
 antimony tends to precipitate copper in silver alloys, and addi- 
 tional copper tends to precipitate lead in pot metal mixtures, 
 surely an extended list of such reactions would mark the danger 
 line in certain mixtures and help the founder in alloys to a better 
 and more scientific method. 
 
 We can understand then how it is that the method of making 
 an alloy is sometimes rather a vexed question. Recently, much 
 light has been thrown upon the structure of metals, as the follow- 
 ing indicates : 
 
 It has been shown, for example, that iron and other metals 
 may exist in several distinct (allotropic) forms. In general, all 
 crystalline substances have a non-crystalline form, and the phys- 
 
Some DiMculties of Alloying 43 
 
 ical properties of the two are usually very unlike. Tenacity is 
 greatly increased by drawing into wire. In the case of soft 
 iron resistance to stretching is thus increased from 20 to 80 tons 
 per square inch. The resistance of gold when drawn into wire 
 increases from 4J^ to 14 tons. Silver and copper show an even 
 more marked increase. Until recently, the adjective crystalline, 
 suggested hardness and brittleness ; but in the pure ductile metals 
 it has been shown that the crystalline state is actually the soft 
 state. The softness of these metals is in fact due to the instabil- 
 ity of the crystalline formation. The non-crystalline state is the 
 more stable mechanically, and therefore the harder. When a 
 metal is hammered to some extent the crystalline structure is 
 broken down, and thus the hardness is increased. The process, 
 however, is never complete. Even in gold leaf beaten to a 
 thickness of 280,000th of an inch there are still minute crystalline 
 units which escape destruction because they are protected by the 
 harder, non-crystalline portions in which they are imbedded. 
 Hence, hardened metals are always complex mixtures of crystal- 
 line and non-crystalline structures. In the passage from the 
 crystalline to the non-crystalline state there is an intermediate 
 condition in which the molecules appear to have much of the 
 freedom and mobility of the liquid state. If this is suddenly 
 congealed no crystals are formed. The same thing happens in 
 the case of an ordinary liquid when suddenly frozen. A curious 
 evidence of the complex nature of a pure metal due to the pres- 
 ence of distinct allotropes of the element, is the fact that wires 
 of hard and soft pure metal act together like a thermo-electric 
 couple of two distinct metals. Another curious fact is that it is 
 not necessary to melt a hardened metal to get it back into the 
 crystalline form. This is restored at far below the melting point. 
 Thus gold again becomes crystalline if heated to 280 degrees- 
 Cent., while it does not melt much below 1080 degrees Cent. AH 
 that is required is to add just enough kinetic energy to the mole- 
 cules to enable these to overcome their cohesion ; as soon as they 
 can do this, they arrange themselves in the definite form char- 
 acteristic of their crystals. 
 
 In alloying, the chemical qualities of the metals are of the 
 very first importance ; and still the general approach to the prac- 
 tical combination of metals is made by experiment and deductions 
 from physical tests. It is here the difficulties in alloying metals 
 begin. We make utility the supreme test of a metal and all our 
 standard metals are the product of extended experiments. These 
 standards are liable to be displaced by later experiments, and the 
 
44 Practical Alloying 
 
 discovery of new methods of combining the metals. In every 
 case the excellence of the later product might have been attained 
 through a closer study of the chemistry of the alloying metals. 
 
 Alloys in bronze. — ^The improvements in bronze due to the 
 introduction of chemical equivalents of phosphorus, manganese, 
 etc., and the superiority of sterro-metal based on the chemical 
 affinity of zinc and iron, afford striking proofs of the advantages 
 of cheniical as opposed to the mechanical solution and combining 
 of metals. Of course, in ordinary melting practice, there is al- 
 ways a tendency for the metals in an alloy to cool out according 
 to their specific gravities, and if there is much difference in their 
 melting temperatures, the more fusible metal is apt to liquate 
 after the principal alloy has set. Exceptions, be it noted, are 
 metals which enter into chemical union, or metals which may be 
 freely mixed in all proportions showing always the qualities of 
 a true mixture by the predominance of the physical properties of 
 the metal present in excess. Common examples of the latter are : 
 Copper-zinc alloys, aluminum-zinc alloys, lead-tin alloys, and 
 silver-copper alloys. Such metals present few difficulties in work- 
 ing and perfect casting alloys may be obtained by the direct 
 method, i. e., the more infusible metal is melted first and the de- 
 sired proportion of the more fusible metal is dissolved therein. 
 
 Metals which are liable to liquate out of an alloy require to 
 be constantly stirred while liquid and to insure sound castings 
 they should be remelted, cast at a low temperature and cooled as 
 quickly as possible. 
 
 Alloys for castings are only of service when the metals enter- 
 ing into the composition can be made to unite and form homo^ 
 geneous compounds. It follows therefore, that the first aim of 
 the workman in making alloys is to unite the metals in such a 
 way that the finished product will retain all the characteristics of 
 a true metal. Many metallic compounds that we know of are 
 utterly useless for any of the purposes of a metal. That the 
 metals have stronger affinities for the non-metallic elements than 
 for other metals is amply proved by the condition of the majority 
 of the ores from which they are derived. In nature, free metals 
 are the exception. All metals combine with oxygen, sulphur and 
 
Some Difficulties of Alloying 45 
 
 certain radicals in proportions, which to a great extent are deter- 
 mined by the temperature and their environments. 
 
 Oxidation of metals. — Oxidation is the chief hindrance to 
 the perfect union of metals as alloys, and oxides are the bane of 
 metal mixers. As a rule, the activity of oxygen in combination 
 with fused metals increases with the temperature and also with 
 every additional element present in the alloy. Complex alloys are 
 therefore not so easily manipulated as alloys of two, or perhaps 
 three metals. 
 
 The mere surface oxidation of metals is not nearly so harm- 
 ful as the formation of oxides by metallic reactions, some of which 
 have already been noted. 
 
 When the oxides of the constituent metals dissolve in an alloy, 
 or rather, are carried in solution, the resulting metal is always 
 materially decreased in strength, tenacity and homogeneity. The 
 usual precautions against oxidation are not equal to the preven- 
 tion of a certain loss in melting, but by special treatment, alloys 
 may be prepared free from oxides. 
 
 Difficulties of alloying. — The liberal use of suitable fluxes 
 and materials to exclude the access of air is practiced in every 
 brass foundry; and in some cases special precautions are taken 
 to preserve a deoxidizing flame within the furnace. The choice 
 of fluxes for alloys and the part they play in removing impurities 
 and in reviving the fluidity and other properties of the metals, 
 constitutes an important branch of the business of practical alloy- 
 ing, — a branch which demands close reasoning and discernment of 
 the chemistry and the physics of materials. That being so we 
 shall do well to devote a separate chapter to foundry fluxes and 
 their effects. But to return to our difficulties. The shrinkage 
 of alloys and their habits of congealing give the brass founder 
 more pause than the mere reduction and blending of the metals. 
 
 The rate of melting, the temperature of casting and the rate 
 of cooling are three very important factors in determining the 
 density, grain, and soundness of alloys. No metal can be melted 
 without decomposition but the ultimate composition and the phy- 
 sical qualities may be controlled within well known limits. 
 Foundrymen are well aware that some alloys are stronger than 
 
46 Practical Alloying 
 
 others, even when chemical analyses prove them to be identical 
 in composition. This should draw attention to the fact that alloy- 
 are extremely sensitive to heat treatment. The effect of high 
 temperatures on metals of low fusibility is always harmful, favor- 
 ing the absorption of gases, the formation of oxides and in- 
 equality of the properties usually associated therewith. It is a 
 common delusion that the metals in an alloy should be melted hot 
 to ensure a thorough mixture ; it is also a common mistake of 
 some molders to demand hot metal for all kinds of castings. The 
 tyro at mixing alloys frequently blunders because he does not 
 understand the dehcate nature of forces nor the susceptibilities of 
 materials in an atmosphere of 2,000 degrees Fahr., or thereabouts. 
 He regards heat as the influence to which all metals must suc- 
 cumb ; and he does not seem to be aware that many of the metals 
 may be more easily dissolved in, and more safely and perfectly 
 combined with other metals at lower temperatures than the melt- 
 ing point of the most refractory in the series. 
 
 Combustion of the metals is useful in certain refining proc- 
 esses but it is altogether an undesirable incident in alloying. To 
 alloy metals properly one requires to be more than a diligent fire- 
 man. For every alloy there is a proper heat beyond which it 
 should not be raised, and a casting temperature at which the best 
 results are to be obtained. Proper heats and casting tempera- 
 tures will some day be standardized and included in the specifica- 
 tions for standard alloys, but it is never safe to predict finality 
 in the methods of their preparation. 
 
 It is an axiom in the metal trades that the most refractory 
 component in an alloy should be first reduced to form a bath in 
 which the more fusible metals may be dissolved. This custom 
 dies hard, nevertheless it is doomed. The introduction of inter- 
 mediate alloys, as ferro-zinc in delta metal, hardening in babbitt 
 metals, and copper-manganese in manganese bronzes, has changed 
 the general practice of combining metals by their solubilities to 
 the more effective chemical methods of modern times. 
 
 The most widely diflFused metals are not necessarily the most 
 easily reduced or alloyed. Aluminum has always been plentiful 
 but it is only beginning to be a profitable product: iron also is 
 
Some DiMculties of Alloying 47 
 
 plentiful, but it must be used sparingly in alloys. Many of the 
 metals do not make practical combinations by the ordinary 
 methods of alloying, while others are favorably influenced by the 
 introduction of another element. It sometimes happens that the 
 addition of a third element favors the union of two non-combining 
 metals, thus — 
 
 ^"\^ /^ = Delta Metal 
 
 \ / = Romanium 
 
 Cu 
 
 Mg Al 
 
 Zn'^ ^^ Magnalium 
 
 Again, goldsmiths use gold alloyed with copper and silver 
 in preference to the copper hardened or silver hardened metal. 
 The three metals combine to form tough, malleable and ductile 
 alloys of better working qualities than those obtained by using 
 copper or silver alone, as the alloying metal. Copper and lead 
 have a very weak affinity for each other, but alloys of copper and 
 lead are rendered more homogeneous when nickel is added. 
 
 Remelting Alloys. — Fortunately, the difficulties arising from 
 impurities in the metals are lessening and today it is not nearly so 
 needful to remelt alloys made from good brands of the metals. 
 It suffices for most requirements if only a portion is remelted. 
 Of course we have to admit that any treatment of a metal which 
 increases its density usually increases the strength also. But as 
 most metals lose in fluidity every time they are remelted, it is 
 recognized that melting a portion of the new metals with the al- 
 ready mixed alloy is advantageous. Some alloys are less fluid 
 at higher temperatures than they are at a moderate heat above the 
 melting point. Aluminum alloys and anti-friction alloys of zinc, 
 copper arid tin behave in this way ; they are easily overheated and 
 much waste results from careless melting. The microscopical 
 examination of alloys has confirmed the belief that the temperature 
 
48 Practical Alloying 
 
 and melting conditions exert considerable influence on the per- 
 meability of the metals. Metals which appeared to be saturated 
 with some particular alloy have, by changes of temperature and 
 melting methods, been made capable of taking up more of the 
 alloy. The variations in the molecular condition of different 
 specimens of the same alloy, are also largely due to variations 
 with melting practice. We have already said metals are now 
 obtainable in comparatively high conditions of purity, but it is not 
 always easy to keep them so, particularly when their fusibilities 
 are unyielding. 
 
 The higher the temperature at which a metal becomes fluid 
 the more readily does it occlude gases and absorb impurities ; 
 hence the difficulties of alloying increase with the temperature 
 required to reduce and combine the metals. In Cowles' electrical 
 method of producing aluminum bronze, it is assumed that the 
 aluminum and copper unite when both are in the gaseous condi- 
 tion, and by this means "a completeness of union between the 
 constituents of the alloy is obtained, superior to alloys formed in 
 any other way." Here is a method of alloying which awaits 
 development. All metals may be heated until they assume a 
 gaseous condition, but only the records of the patents office reveal 
 to us examples of metallic combinations of this unique order. 
 
 The modern practice in alloying metals which are difficult to 
 unite by direct method is to present one of the metals in a nascent 
 condition. For example, Dr. Goldschmidt's process of alloying 
 tungsten with aluminum for the production of wolframinium is 
 accomplished by adding tungstic oxide to the reducing bath in the 
 manufacture of aluminum. Again, to alloy nickel with aluminum 
 is not an easy matter : rich alloys of the two metals are generally 
 made by adding NiO to a bath of Al. 
 
 Up to the present, we can alloy metals of every class and en- 
 hance such desirable properties as color, strength, sonorousness, 
 flexibility, etc., but not by rule or rotation. Anomalies occur in 
 the practical processes of alloying which demand special treat- 
 ment. 
 
 The properties of the various metals undergo such diverse 
 changes in the heat and they are so easily influenced by the pres- 
 
Some Difficulties of Alloying 49 
 
 ence of minute proportions of other bodies that no hard and fast 
 rules can be given for combining them into alloys. 
 
 Physical characteristics of alloys. — The iron founder has only 
 to study the fluid characteristics of cast iron, and with ordinary 
 skill in molding he should secure good castings. It is different 
 with the founder in alloys, he strikes new features with every 
 change or addition in the metals. Due to long experience, and 
 the mutual affinity of the metals forming the alloy — ^brass may be 
 cast with reasonable prospects of good results in the castings ; 
 but add another element to it — iron, manganese, aluminum, nickel 
 — and the new combination defies the old experience. Gates, 
 ramming, sand, venting, and melting methods all require modifica- 
 tion. 
 
 In short, the physical properties of alloys depend upon their 
 chemical composition and also upon the treatments, thermal and 
 mechanical, which they undergo; so that, to possess the correct 
 formula for an alloy and not to know the correct treatment for 
 the combining metals is like trying to solve a puzzle without the 
 key. 
 
 The chemistry of high temperatures and the reactions of 
 metals are at the root of all the changes and troublesome modifi- 
 cations encountered in practical alloying. When this side of 
 metallurgic endeavor is better delineated and better understood, 
 the practical difficulties of alloying will be greatly minimized, at 
 least, so far as alloying with new metals is concerned. 
 
 Grading by fracture. — Unfortunately there is a growing prac- 
 tice in the various kinds of metal foundries of using mixed metals 
 to produce standard alloys economically. The purchase of these 
 mixed metals or scrap alloys by specification is too ideal for pres- 
 ent day consideration, so grading by fracture and color is adopted. 
 It has been borne in upon iron founders that grading by fracture 
 is a lottery ; by and by the same idea will penetrate to the brass 
 foundries, the type foundries and the so-called metal refineries. 
 It is admitted that some outlet must be found for old metals, but 
 the miscellaneous scrap heaps of the junk dealer grow more 
 treacherous every year ; the values are often fictitious, and nothing 
 short of a remelt and analysis should satisfy anyone desiring to 
 be honest in building up alloys from scrap and mixed metals. 
 
50 Practical Alloying 
 
 I was once called upon to find a use for about four tons of 
 mixed babbitt and anti-friction metals collected by my predeces- 
 sors from ships and engines undergoing repairs. With difficulty 
 I persuaded the management to stand the expense of melting 
 down the lot into ingots. Drillings were taken from each ingot 
 and again the drillings were melted for analysis. This showed : 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Tin 55.69 
 
 Lead 32.04 
 
 Antimony 8. 65 
 
 Copper 1.95 
 
 Iron 0.38 
 
 Zinc 1 . 13 
 
 99.91 
 
 Now it should be evident to anyone acquainted with anti- 
 friction metals that this mixture could only have a limited appli- 
 cation. By the judicious addition of tin, copper and antimony, a 
 good serviceable bearing metal was produced, and the economy 
 was so great in this instance that the firm afterwards adopted 
 the same method of dealing with brass and gun metal scrap and 
 castings left on their hands by customers. They found it paid 
 better to know just exactly what they were putting into the daily 
 mix. In dealing with old metals an analysis gives the like 
 assistance to the metal mixer that a chart gives to the mariner. 
 
 James A. Darling, Philadelphia, Pa., claims to have discovered 
 a process for making alloys of copper and iron which are per- 
 fectly homogeneous. The process consists in melting copper with 
 a mixture of oxide of iron and calcium carbide, which gives, after 
 being properly treated, the above mentioned alloy. Any oxide of 
 iron, either hematite or the black oxide, can be used. A 
 mixture of three parts of oxide of iron and one part of 
 calcium carbide is made, and, if it is desired to obtain a 50 per 
 cent alloy of copper and iron, 18 parts of this mixture should be 
 used to 8 parts of copper. The copper is melted in a crucible and 
 the mixture added, a little at a time, the bath being stirred and 
 the temperature raised gradually. When the operation is com- 
 pleted, the alloy is poured in ingots or any other desired form. 
 
Some Difficulties of Alloying 51 
 
 If an alloy containing as much as 85 per cent of iron is 
 required, the process is reversed, a bath of iron being substituted 
 for the bath of copper, and a mixture of oxide of copper and 
 calcium carbide being added. The inventor claims that, on ac- 
 covmt of the fact that one of the metals is presented to the other 
 in a nascent condition, a perfect union is formed. 
 
 This is an example of making alloys by laboratory methods. 
 For experimental work such methods have their place, but the 
 practical difficulties have still to be met and grappled with by 
 practical means. 
 
V 
 
 METHODS OF MAKING ALLOYS 
 
 THE importance of method in making alloys can hardly be 
 overestimated. Perhaps there is no industry requir- 
 ing more constant vigilance, or more careful revision 
 at the different stages of manufacture, than the 
 production of the metallic alloys. Practical metallurgy is 
 concerned with the smelting, refining, and alloying of the 
 metals; these three processes are frequently interdependent, 
 but the climax is reached in the last named, as the behavior 
 of alloys rarely coincides with the behavior of the component 
 metals. Owing to the many valuable properties which cer- 
 tain proportions of the useful metals impart to each other, the 
 manufacture of alloys and the desire for new combinations is not 
 likely to diminish. The advantages to be gained by alloying 
 metals are not confined to any particular branch of metal working, 
 but as the majority of the useful alloys are handled by the brass 
 founders, and we are at present more intimately concerned with 
 the founding of metals, our survey of the manufacturing methods 
 shall follow the routine of the foundries. The methods of prepar- 
 ing alloys now in vogue have been developed within the last 50 
 years from crude and unreliable forms of procedure into more 
 systematic standards. Nevertheless there is no code of rules for 
 the correct production of alloys. There can be none since the 
 different alloys have to be made, with necessary changes, accord- 
 ing to the nature and characteristics of the metals employed. All 
 the metals possess much the same characteristics but in such 
 widely varying degrees that the treatment meted out to those at 
 
Methods of Making Alloys 53 
 
 one end of the scale, would be altogether unsuitable for those at 
 the other end. The nature of an alloy cannot be determined be- 
 forehand from our knowledge of the metals. 
 
 Metals in the fluid condition obey the laws of fluids. They 
 have a solvent power which generally increases with the temper- 
 ature, but which is not limited by the fusibility of a solid metal in 
 conjunction therewith. When a molten metal has been saturated 
 with another metal, its power of dissolving the latter may be in- 
 creased by the addition of a third constituent. When a solid dis- 
 solves in a liquid there is a change of temperature due to chemical 
 changes effected by the molecular motions of the two bodies. 
 Thus, in making alloys, heat is sometimes absorbed, but in most 
 cases the reaction is exothermal, heat being evolved. Metals 
 which combine with the liberation of heat are in particular well 
 suited for forming alloys. 
 
 Alloys may be prepared mechanically by compressing the 
 f)owders of the metals, and electrically, by depositing the metals 
 by means of a powerful electric current, but the most important 
 method of alloying is by the direct fusion of the metals in a heated 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Most metals are capable of existing in some degree of chem- 
 ical combination with each other, but we know so little of the real 
 nature of chemical affinity that alloys are generally composed 
 experimentally, as mixtures without any special regard to chem- 
 ical principles. As it has already been shown, alloys were made at 
 first quite unconsciously by the early metal refiners. Aurichal- 
 cum, i. e., golden copper, was a product of nature, and the secret 
 of its manufacture could never be mislaid. Brass was originally- 
 manufactured by the cementation of calamine (ZnCOj) and 
 copper, long before the discovery of zinc in the metallic form. 
 The ancient Greeks acquired such proficiency in preparing this 
 alloy that the demand for Corinthian brass was greatly increased. 
 
 Alloying by the Ancients. — But the alchemists were the orig- 
 inators of systematic experiments in the art of alloying; and as 
 they generally dealt with small quantities of the elements they 
 were studying, it was easy for them to fuse the various metals in 
 separate crucibles and bring them together by pouring them into 
 
54 Practical Alloying 
 
 one another. This was the first practical plan adopted by metal- 
 lurgists for the manufacture of alloys ; but as the number of met- 
 als entering into alloys increased, it was found more convenient 
 to make a preliminary combination of two or more of the com- 
 ponents, and to dissolve that in the metal forming the base of the 
 alloy. We have a survival of this method in the manufacture of 
 anti-friction alloys, hardening, in this case, being the name of the 
 preliminary alloy. Bell founders make an alloy of copper and 
 tin in equal proportions, called temper, and this is used to harden 
 the copper, and to avoid remelting the whole of the alloy. Brass 
 founders sometimes prepare a mixing metal to be used in making 
 up alloys to a required standard. Delta metal is prepared by 
 adding zinc which has been saturated with iron, to molten copper ; 
 and phosphor bronze, to be correctly made, requires a preliminary 
 combination of phosphorus and tin, or phosphorus and copper. 
 These are a few examples of the direct fusion methods of making 
 alloys. 
 
 Like many other industries, the manufacture of alloys has 
 been surrounded with a great amount of secrecy. The results of 
 alloying processes have been well advertised, — but the processes 
 themselves — not much. 
 
 It would seem as if the public needed to be impressed with the 
 unique qualities and trade marks of certain alloys — and patent 
 medicines. It is quite true that the exact composition and the 
 mode of preparation are important matters in producing uniform 
 alloys, and while we may by chemical analysis, be able to deter- 
 mine the exact com;iosition of an alloy, it may not be possible, by 
 ordinary methods, to reproduce the physical properties of the 
 original sample. Many celebrated metals owe their inherent 
 virtues to a particular mode of manufacture. Alloys are sensi- 
 tive compounds ; as a rule they are more easily oxidized than their 
 components, and remelting makes a remarkable difference in their 
 physical conditions. Generally, the proportions of the constit- 
 uents are changed thus: Alloys containing aluminum, copper 
 and iron, show an increase when remelted, alloys containing zinc, 
 tin, manganese, phosphorus, antimony and bismuth, show a de- 
 
Methods of Making Alloys 55 
 
 crease when remelted; alloys containing lead remain stationary 
 when remelted. The difficulty of preparing alloys of definite 
 composition is increased when old metals are combined with new 
 to make an alloy. It is quite possible to build up alloys to any 
 specified standard with scrap or remelted metals, provided the 
 average content of the components is known. But it should al- 
 ways be borne in mind that the chemical analysis of an alloy gives 
 no information as to the method of its production, and the prop- 
 erties of an alloy cannot always be reproduced simply by using 
 the published formula. 
 
 The actual capabilities of a metal are seen in the physical 
 tests, and as it is easier to keep to the chemical proportions than 
 to combine the elements in the same physical condition, the best 
 results are obtained by preventing liquidation, oxidation, crystal- 
 lization, or anything that would interfere with the homogeneity of 
 the alloy. In making sound castings from almost any of the 
 alloys, the metal should not be overheated, and as a general rule, 
 it should be poured when it is sufficiently fluid for the work. 
 
 Melting alloys. — Prolonged melting is to be avoided except 
 where the removal of volatile impurities is desirable. Antimony, 
 arsenic, zinc, mercury and bismuth are sometimes removed from 
 alloys by keeping them in a molten state for a prolonged period. 
 Alloys are always more fusible than the mean of their constit- 
 uents, and their physical properties and chemical behavior alter 
 with every fresh addition. Metals with weak affinity generally 
 show the characteristics of the metal present in largest quantity, 
 
 and vice versa. 
 
 It often happens that two competing firms make castings 
 from the same patterns and to the same specification. Both lots 
 analyze within the limits of the specification, but when the cast- 
 ings are put to the physical tests there may be a difference of a 
 ton in the tensile strength or 100 pounds per square inch in 
 hydraulic resistance — all the difference between good and bad 
 castings — in the two lots. This can only be accounted for by the 
 methods of selecting, melting, mixing and casting the metals. It 
 has been understood for a long time now that the presence of a 
 
56 Practical Alloying 
 
 small, nay, almost insignificant quantity of an element may have 
 a far-reaching influence on the properties of a metal or alloy. 
 
 Aluminum cannot be used in the highest quality of steel as it 
 induces crystallization. Magnesium, like aluminum, is a power- 
 ful reducing agent, generating great heat in forming alloys. It 
 is sometimes added to nickel to remove traces of oxide which may 
 be dissolved in the metal, but if any excess of magnesium is used, 
 it does not alloy with the nickel. In the same way, phosphor 
 bronze — an alloy of copper and tin which has been fluxed with 
 phosphorus — generally in the form of copper phosphide or tin 
 phosphide, may lose its best properties and be rendered worthless 
 by a slight excess of phosphorus. Only when the impurities or 
 foreign metals dissolve freely and become incorporated in the 
 alloy, can the founder afiFord to ignore them. In many cases the 
 content of foreign elements is so very small that it cannot be 
 reckoned as a factor in the final alloy, except by showing either 
 better or worse results than the alloys which do not contain them. 
 
 Pertinent points in alloying. — The main points to be con- 
 sidered in manipulating metals for the purpose of making alloys 
 are the fusibility, volatility, fluidity, and chemical affinity of the 
 combining metals in the heat, and the homogeneity of the alloy in 
 the solid condition. Some metals only combine in limited pro- 
 portions. Lead is said to be capable of holding about 2 per cent 
 of zinc ; copper takes up about 8 per cent lead, and zinc is said to 
 be saturated with iron at 5 per cent. Since aluminum has been 
 added to the brass founders' repertory, the difficulties of alloying 
 have been increased. Aluminum plays havoc with any alloy which 
 contains lead, it has great affinity for silica, therefore sprues or 
 scrap with sand adhering must be thoroughly cleaned. If alumi- 
 num gets mixed with soft solders it destroys the adhesive or 
 fluxing properties of the alloy. 
 
 Aluminum as a Hux. — The indiscriminate use of aluminum in 
 alloys has done great injury to the reputation of the metal as a 
 mixer, and hindered the usefulness of the bona Me aluminum 
 alloys, particularly aluminum bronze and aluminum brass. As a 
 deoxidizer, aluminum is a snare and a delusion, for when it comes 
 into contact with the oxide of any other metal, and heat is applied, 
 
Methods of Making Alloys 57 
 
 it displaces the oxygen of the other metal to form oxide of alumi- 
 num (AI2O3) and the last condition of that metal is worse than 
 the first. 
 
 Aluminum brass alloys are correctly made in either of two 
 ways ; first by introducing metallic aluminum into molten brass, 
 or second, by introducing zinc into melted aluminum bronze. Re- 
 peated remeltings of this, or indeed any of the brass alloys are 
 not advisable, unless allowance is made from time to time for loss 
 due to the volatilization of zinc. 
 
 • In these days of concentrated products and short cuts to 
 fortune, it is the easiest thing in the world, (if we can believe the 
 story the ad writer tells) to produce alloys in definite proportions 
 with metals which are known to be difficult to combine. Special 
 alloys are manufactured in a highly condensed form to meet the 
 needs of brass founders and to avoid palpable difficulties in the 
 way of reducing and combining elements of widely different 
 qualities. The introduction of ferro-manganese, ferro-aluminum, 
 ■ ferro-zinc, copper-manganese, silicon-copper, aluminized-zinc and 
 phosphorized copper and tin, as intermediary alloys, has reduced 
 the difficulties in connection with the production of complex al- 
 loys to a minimum. 
 
 Disparity in melting points of metals. — ^A common difficulty 
 in making alloys is the disparity in the fusibilities of the metals. 
 This is generally overcome in foundry practice by fusing the 
 metal with the highest melting point first and then adding the 
 more fusible elements in the solid condition. With brass, bronze 
 and nearly all the copper alloys, this practice commends itself as 
 giving the most economical and satisfactory results. But with 
 volatile metals in conjunction with highly refractory metals, as, 
 Zn+Fe or Sn-|-Pt, advantage is taken of the solvent action of a 
 metal of low fusibility when melted in contact with one of high 
 fusibility. If zinc were introduced into molten iron the loss of 
 zinc would be considerable, the ebullition of the iron would be 
 dangerous and the composition of the alloy would not bear the 
 intended proportions. 
 
 Whereas, when finely divided iron is mixed with molten zinc, 
 a definite proportion of the iron is absorbed and the two metals 
 
^ Practical Alloying 
 
 combine with ease. Again, platinum is so difficult to fuse as to 
 require the aid of the electric arc or the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe ; 
 but if a more fusible metal is reduced to the molten state and small 
 quantities of platinum are gradually added, many useful platinum 
 alloys may be produced. Nickel also is difficult to fuse by itself, 
 but if it is to be alloyed with aluminum or copper as in the German 
 silver alloys, the best practice is to place the metals in the crucible 
 in layers, with powdered charcoal between, and charge in the same 
 manner as brass. 
 
 Very often the temperature and the order in which the metals 
 are introduced to each other in the crucible are matters of impor- 
 tance. Alloys containing copper, lead, zinc and tin, are more 
 readily made to specification if the metals are melted in that order 
 and the metal is raised to the proper heat immediately after the 
 last admixture. 
 
 Alloys of metals which melt below a red heat may be made by 
 simply fusing the metals together, but combinations of volatile 
 and readily oxidizable elements require more careful treatment. 
 Alloys which enter into chemical combination, in atomic propor- 
 tions, as SnCus may be remelted without undergoing any change 
 in the ratio of the constituents. Unfortunately, very few alloys 
 of practical utility can be made in atomic proportions. 
 
 Mr. Parsons, the inventor of manganese bronzes for pro- 
 pellers, claims that the elements in his alloys are combined in 
 atomic proportions. "This renders the alloy much more stable 
 than when not so combined, and if a quantity is passed through an 
 ordinary reverberatory furnace and exposed to the action of an 
 oxidizing flame for a considerable time, no appreciable difference 
 is made in the composition of the alloy." This is an ideal alloy, 
 according to the description, but the real thing has its drawbacks. 
 Like all sluggish metals it gets more sluggish every time it is 
 remelted, and the loss of the combined alloy is considerable. Be- 
 sides, all metals in the molten condition absorb gases, this one 
 included. 
 
 In melting crucible steel, the metal, as soon as it becomes 
 liquid, is said to be clear melted. If poured at this stage the 
 ingot would be honeycombed with blowholes, due to the gaseous 
 
Methods of Making Alloys 59 
 
 condition of the metal. By raising the temperature and adding 
 small quantities of silicon-spiegel or other substances which are 
 either capable of combining with the gases, or of increasing the 
 solvent action of the steel, sound ingots may be obtained. In all 
 the foregoing examples, it should be observed that crucible melt- 
 ing is implied. The fuel should not come in contact with the 
 metals in making alloys. 
 
 Melting anti-friction alloys. — Perhaps no class of alloys have 
 suffered more from careless melting and wrong methods of com- 
 bining the constituents than the white anti-friction alloys. Anti- 
 friction alloys are based on the low coefficients of friction and 
 high atomic volumes of the components, compatible with certain 
 degrees of fusibility, hardness and wearing qualities. Much 
 depends on the physical structure and condition of these alloys for 
 keeping down friction. They should be close-grained and thor- 
 oughly homogeneous. We know that many cheap brands of anti- 
 friction metals are made by melting antimonial lead and small 
 quantities of tin together, and sometimes these compounds are 
 dignified by the name of babbitt metal. Also, it is customary in 
 some quarters, to cast steam fittings from mixtures of scrap 
 brass, scrap copper, and additions of lead or tin to bring them up 
 or down to the standard of the firm making the goods. Scrap 
 has its legitimate use in the making up of alloys but it is not al- 
 ways economical, nor good for building up a reputation. 
 
 There are other methods of preparing alloys than by fusing 
 the metals in a crucible or other furnace, but as they have not 
 reached to any extensive application in the arts, we can afford to 
 pass them by. Nevertheless, there still remains many undevel- 
 oped theories relating to alloys, many phenomena of metals in 
 conditions of contact, in solution and in solid combinations, to 
 stimulate research and give rise to a better understanding of the 
 science of combining the metallic elements. 
 
 Brass foundry melting ratios. — Brass foundry practice relat- 
 ing to the methods of melting and mixing the alloys is a theme 
 deserving the interest of manufacturers and tradesmen alike; 
 nevertheless, statistics and data illustrating the melting ratio of 
 
60 Practical Alloying 
 
 the various alloys, or the methods of dealing with the combining 
 elements in the crucible, furnace, or cupola, are practically non est. 
 
 The melting methods practiced in various foundries are the 
 natural outcome of different and divergent experiences. The iron 
 founder has devised a system of producing fluid iron in the cupola 
 which he considers unapproachable either in economy or in its 
 effect on the ultimate product; that is, the castings. The brass 
 founder has improvised other means of obtaining the same end, 
 while the steel founder has improved on the brass founder's 
 method to suit the conditions most desirable for the making of 
 steel castings. No sane man would for one minute question the 
 purpose of the several methods which have now become tradi- 
 tional. They are based on rational ideas and long experience in 
 the art of reducing respective metals to the proper fluidity 
 required for running into molds and producing perfect castings. 
 
 It is generally acknowledged that the vast amount of inde- 
 pendent thought and experimental research which have been 
 accumulated in determining the melting ratio of cast iron in the 
 cupola, have led to a more economical system of cupola practice, 
 as well as to a better understanding of the materials required to 
 produce fluid metal in the best condition suited to the castings to 
 be made. So much must be granted to the leaders in modern iron 
 foundry practice. 
 
 By a long course of practice, coke has been established as the 
 ideal fuel for melting cast iron in the cupola, and iron foundries 
 have benefited most by the discussion of the merits of fuels, and 
 the economics of melting iron, for the foundry. 
 
 In the brass foundry things are different. Melting records, 
 if they exist, are retained for private use only. Brass founders 
 are the most conservative of foundrymen, they keep tenacious 
 hold of so-called trade secrets to their own detriment, they are 
 biased in favor of obsolete methods, and in many cases they must 
 either be debited with a lack of interest or energy, or else a secret 
 satisfaction with the legacy of their predecessors in the business. 
 No one has yet dared to particularize any one fuel or mixture of 
 fuels as the best for melting brass founders' alloys. It would ap- 
 pear that the ratio of fuel required to melt bronze or brass alloys. 
 
Methods of Making Alloys 61 
 
 or the influence of different fuels on similar metals or alloys, are 
 subjects which have escaped the serious notice of the average 
 brass foundry worker. 
 
 The writer has frequently had occasion to melt the standard 
 bronze (copper 90, tin 10) in crucible furnaces with natural and 
 forced draughts, in reverberatory furnaces, and in the cupola, and 
 his experience has proved that some fuels are better adapted to 
 the respective methods of melting than others. For instance, 
 charcoal is the most convenient and economical fuel for crucible 
 furnaces having natural draught ; coal is the best fuel for the re- 
 verberatory furnace, although the low cost of crude oil has led 
 many manufacturers to consider its application to this class of 
 furnaces; and coke is certainly the fuel best suited for melting 
 in the cupola, the most expensive and uncertain of all the melting 
 methods practised in the brass foundries. 
 
 Quick melting, and the process of collecting molten metal on 
 the hearth, are against economy with alloys melting at from 1300 
 degrees to 1800 degrees Fahr. ; besides, in the cupola, the fuel is 
 in contact with the bronze, and gases and impurities are absorbed 
 by the molten metal from the waste products of combustion. 
 While it has been proved that the conditions of melting in the 
 cupola have direct influence on cast iron, either in removing unde- 
 sirable elements, or in building up the metalloids to a required 
 standard, this quality is a decided hindrance to the successful melt- 
 ing of brass alloys in the cupola. To obtain satisfactory results 
 the pressure of the blast must be lowered and the more fusible 
 metals, tin, lead, zinc, must be mixed in the ladle instead of pass- 
 ing through the cupola to form the alloy. This adds another ob- 
 jection to the practice of melting bronze in the cupola, if the com- 
 position, tin, lead, etc., is added to the molten copper when it is 
 tapped out. The resulting alloy is not so homogeneous as when 
 the metals are melted together, as is done in the reverberatory 
 furnace and in crucibles. 
 
 When we take into account the great variety of alloys in use, 
 their peculiarities, and the high cost of metals, crucibles, and fuel. 
 
62 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 to produce them, we can readily understand how it is that no hard 
 and fast rules have been established in brass foundries. Add to' 
 this the diversity in the character of the work, the lack of uni- 
 formity of methods in foundries producing the same class of work, 
 and the difficulty of securing reliable reports of the amount of 
 fuel used in melting metal, or the relative cost of fuel to metal 
 melted in brass foundries, is at once apparent. For some time I 
 have been taking note of the melting ratio of one alloy (copper 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Mei<ting Ratios 
 
 
 
 
 
 __ . ^ — 
 
 
 
 •o" 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 to 
 
 ■^i 
 
 
 ■^ ^ 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 T^g 
 
 B"S 
 
 
 S § 
 
 Method 
 
 Fuel 
 
 frl 
 
 8 S 
 
 ti a. 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 g^ 
 
 ■rn. 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 di 
 
 3 
 
 ^l 
 
 1. .- 
 
 400 
 
 Crucibles (Natural Draft) 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 318 
 
 0.89 
 
 1.25 
 
 2... 
 
 400 
 
 Crucibles (Natural Draft) 
 
 Purified Coke 
 
 300 
 
 1.22 
 
 1.33 
 
 3... 
 
 400 
 
 Crucibles (Forced Draft) 
 
 Equal to Connellsville Coke 
 
 348 
 
 2.18 
 
 1.12 
 
 4... 
 
 400 
 
 Crucibles (Natural Draft) 
 
 Coal 
 
 325 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.20 
 
 5. .. 
 
 17305 
 
 Cupola 
 
 Equal to Connellsville Coke 
 
 2184 
 
 7.93 
 
 7.91 
 
 6... 
 
 2240 
 
 Reverberatory furnace 
 
 Coal 
 
 1768 
 
 3.57 
 
 1.26 
 
 9, tin 1), and also the influence of different fuels and methods 
 of melting on the same. Table IV is- the result of several 
 observations and a comparison of many interesting points which 
 may be helpful to the brass founder. 
 
 In all experiments ingot copper and tin were used. Where 
 crucible melting was the method employed, 200-pound crucibles 
 were used and about 3 inches of coke space was allowed all around 
 the crucible. The fuel weights given include kindling the furnace 
 and melting the metal for castings. Test bars were made from 
 each sample, the best results being obtained from No. 2. The 
 bars were turned to ^-inch diameter. No. 2 gave a tensile test of 
 19.4 tons per square inch, with an elongation of 16 per cent in 10 
 inches. No. 5 gave 17.6 tons, with 14 per cent elongation ; in this 
 instance the tin was melted in the ladle and the copper was tapped 
 from the cupola on top of that. In another trial, not given in the 
 table, mixed metal was put through the cupola with very inferior 
 
Methods of Making Alloys 63 
 
 results. The loss in melting was 10.14 per cent in a total of 27 
 Gwt., and a test bar similar to those mentioned gave only 14.8 tons 
 tensile strength and 8 per cent elongation. 
 
 Coal is recognized to be the most congenial fuel for crucibles, 
 but coke or charcoal is more convenient and more economical. 
 Oil and gas are both preferable to solid fuels for brass melting 
 in reverberatory furnaces, if it can be shown that the quality of 
 the metal produced is equal to that received by the older methods 
 of melting. The heat is easier controlled, the space required for 
 storage of fuel, is less, a pipe or a tank taking the place of the coke 
 or coal heap, and the price of fuel per 100 pounds of metal melted 
 is so much cheaper that it behooves brass founders who use 
 reverberatory furnaces to inquire into the merits of some of the 
 modem oil or gas furnaces of that description. If an engineer 
 were confronted with a problem of this kind, he would reduce it 
 in a twinkling to a formula. By means of some abstruse equa- 
 tion in algebra, he would prove that as so many heat units are 
 required to melt a metal, the fuel best suited for the purpose is 
 that which produces the required caloric in the quickest time at 
 the lowest cost. But foundrymen know the uses of arithmetic 
 better than to reverse the order of progress when dealing with 
 purely physical phenomena. It is a remarkable fact that, while 
 the metals have been discovered or confirmed in their characteris- 
 tics by scientists, the bulk of the useful alloys have been due to the 
 experiments and researches of scientific nondescripts. Babbitt, 
 Muntz, Dick, Parsons, and many other inventors of alloys, 
 were more deeply interested in the practical results than in the 
 scientific effects of their experiments. The work of the Alloys 
 Research Committee and similar bodies has not been the means of 
 profit that it might, because it failed to consider the influence of 
 fuel on metals in ordinary refining or brass foundry processes. In 
 contrast to this, it may be here pointed out that the progress which 
 has been made in the past decade in electro-metallurgy, has devel- 
 oped kindred sciences, notably metallography and crystallography, 
 to such an extent that we are now beginning to understand the 
 defects of the older systems of reducing metals. Pure metal is 
 easier obtained by electrolytic methods than by any other, simply 
 
64 Practical Alloying 
 
 because there is no contamination in the source of heat or energy 
 in the process of separation or combination. The increased 
 demand and manufacture of pure copper and aluminum is largely 
 ■due to the cheapening of electrical methods for separating the 
 metals from their impurities. The changes which have taken place 
 in metallurgical methods and refining processes indicate the trend 
 towards purity in modern times. And now appears the point of 
 this digression. Of what avail is pure metal melted in contact 
 ■with impure fuel? Electrolytically refined copper should pro- 
 duce superior gun metal castings in the foundry, if melted and 
 alloyed under suitable conditions, but if ordinary care and inferior 
 fuel are used in the process of reduction, the chances are that G. 
 M. B.'s or the common tough copper would give results equally 
 as good. Pure copper absorbs impurities more readily in the fur- 
 nace than impure, because the impurities in the latter, which are 
 the result of environment in the raw state, or chemical affinity in 
 the process of refining, tend to repel the further assimilation of 
 extraneous matter. It becomes evident, therefore, that any at- 
 tempt to reduce the melting ratio in brass foundries to figures 
 must also deal with the final condition of the metal when it has 
 been turned into castings. To sum up, the melting ratio in brass 
 foundries is not a question of economy only; the nature and re- 
 quirements of the work to be cast, and the effects of the fuel on 
 the metal and the crucibles, or furnaces, are important factors in 
 the ultimate cost and utility of brass founders' castings, and it is 
 an open question whether the association of gold, silver, bismuth, 
 arsenic and nickel in the ingot copper of former days was detri- 
 mental to such castings. 
 
VI 
 
 COLOR OF AI.I.OYS 
 
 ON a color basis, the useful metals are divisible into three 
 classes, red, white and yellow. Copper, silver and gold 
 may be taken as representative shades in this metallic 
 tri-color. Contrary to the popular idea, the colors that 
 may be obtained by alloying different metals and metalloids are 
 neither numerous nor well defined. The scale of metallic lusters 
 is limited, and it is less under control than the gamut of musical 
 sounds. Nevertheless, the range of tones, harmonies and colora- 
 tura is governed by similar principles. Light vibrations and sound 
 vibrations give positive results in color and pitch, and artistic ef- 
 fects follow the interchange of relative tints and tones. But owing 
 to this limited, three-fold battery of metals at our disposal, all our 
 decorative castings come out in shades of copper-red, golden-yel- 
 low or silver-white. 
 
 These bright colors lend themselves to beautiful contrasts 
 with hammered black iron, polished woods, stones and building 
 materials generally, so that in architecture, chromatic blends de- 
 light the eye, and castings are almost equal in importance to any 
 of the other decorative media. John Bunyan was right when he 
 fixed upon eye-gate as one of the principal entrances to the human 
 citadel. Color is not only a comforting eye food, it is a stimulant ; 
 it is as graceful as spice to the nostrils or sauce to the palate ; ft 
 encourages the use of ornate expression and dispels dinginess ; it 
 gives the human outlook an optimism that would be sadly missed ; 
 it turns the dull gray matter of life into a garden and blends in 
 kaleidoscopic beauty, form and feeling in line and curve, distance 
 and the eternal verities. Monochromes, monotones and mono- 
 syllables have their uses in the elementary stages of art treatment. 
 
66 Practical Alloying 
 
 but color values, chords and word pictures are on a higher plane. 
 Thus it happens, where the self color of alloys falls short, the ar- 
 tist in metal work has recourse to surface coloring, staining, bronz- 
 ing, inlaying, enameling, damascening, electro-plating, japanning, 
 etching and lacquering for the complemental effects and colors. 
 
 Decoratiz'e processes. — These interesting processes are beyond 
 the scope of this work, but a passing reference might be 
 made to the numerous subtle and permanent decorative results of 
 applying metallic compounds, or of depositing a film of one metal 
 upon the surface of another. The lasting effects of fire gilding 
 and electro-deposition are not to be compared to the temporary 
 exotic decorations which can be put on with a brush and 
 whi h depend upon varnish to fix them. In the one case there is 
 a true deposit or alloy of metals, in the other, only a stain or film 
 of color. Some time ago Mr. Sherard Cowper-Coles described 
 a new process of blending metals which he discovered 
 when conducting some experiments on the annealing of iron, 
 "that metals in a fine state of division, to a temperature 
 several hundred degrees below their melting point, in contact with 
 a solid, metal, volatilize, or give off the vapor that is in the form 
 of a powder, when heated, condenses on the solid metal placed in 
 the powdered metal. 
 
 "This discovery has recently been turned to account for the 
 inlaying and ornamenting of metalUc surfaces, enabling results to 
 be obtained similar to damascening, but with the additional advan- 
 tage that there is no risk of the metals finally separating, as is 
 often the case in damascening. The new process also enables a 
 variety of effects to be obtained and a number of metals to be 
 blended together which has hitherto been impossible, and alloys 
 of many colors and tints to be obtained in the one operation of 
 baking. The thickness and depth to which the metals are to be 
 inlaid and onlaid can be controlled at the will of the operator. 
 
 "The process consists in coating the article with a stopping- 
 off composition, those portions which are to be inlaid being left 
 exposed. The composition is about the consistency of cheese, so 
 that it can readily be cut with a knife ; the design is traced with a 
 sharp edged tool and those portions to be removed are lifted and 
 cleared away. The object thus prepared is placed in an iron box 
 containing the metal which is to be inlaid in a powdered form. If 
 zinc is the metal to be inlaid, zinc dust is the powder that will be 
 employed, which is a product obtained direct from the zinc smelt- 
 
Color of Alloys 67 
 
 ing furnaces. The iron box holding the powdered metal and the 
 objects to be ornamented is then placed in a suitable baking oven 
 and heated to a temperature many degrees below the melting point 
 of zinc, which is 686 degrees Fahr., so that the temperature to 
 which the zinc dust is heated is about 500 degrees Fahr."* 
 
 This is really a burning-in process and the metals blended are 
 definitely alloyed and unalterable. A soft transition from the in- 
 laid metal to the surrounding metal is obtained, also some beauti- 
 ful color effects, the process being applicable to iron, copper, zinc, 
 cobalt, nickel, antimony and aluminum. 
 
 Dissolving metals out of alloys. — Another method of obtain- 
 ing variety in the coloration of metals is to dissolve certain 
 metals, as copper, zinc, aluminum, etc., out of alloys containing 
 them. This may be done with acids, only sweating out a portion 
 of the more fusible metals. Goldsmiths make the changes of 
 color in this way in the manufacture of articles of luxury. The 
 one great drawback to the fixing of color values in metals is the 
 susceptibility of the base metals to atmospheric influences. The 
 metals tarnish quickly, especially in exposed conditions, and so 
 we apply paints and preservatives to check deterioration. Chem- 
 ical bronzes which produce color effects on metals are simply 
 stains due to chemical reactions between the acids and the metals. 
 Such applications of acidulated washes give various shades with 
 alloys which can be fixed by lacquering, japanning or coating with 
 some inert transparent substance. For example, the very antique 
 looking green bronze of the art dealers' wares is obtained by 
 alternate applications of dilute acetic acid and the fumes of am- 
 monia on common brass articles. 
 
 Mechanical color effects. — Peculiar mechanical color effects 
 are sometimes obtained by electro-plating a bar or ingot of soft 
 metal with a film of harder metal and then rolling or pressing the 
 bar or ingot into a sheet or other shape of larger area. By this 
 spreading action the hard surface deposit is broken into irregular 
 forms and a marbleized appearance is produced. Again, metals 
 may have colors- impregnated by firing articles coated with certain 
 pigments in a muffle furnace. Some metals are capable of form- 
 
 *From Journal of the Society of Arts, No. 2793, Vol. LIV, June i, 1906. 
 
68 Practical Alloying 
 
 ing volatile compounds at comparatively low temperatures, espe- 
 cially in the presence of reducing gases, and these volatile com- 
 pounds will penetrate the surface of other metals, giving a char- 
 acteristic stain of a permanent nature. 
 
 Tinning is another method of coloration, although as a rule, 
 articles are tinned with quite another object in view. By dipping 
 the heated article in a bath of molten alloy — many other metals 
 besides tin may be used in this way — exposed parts acquire color 
 from the metal in the bath. 
 
 Colors of alloys. — Coming to alloys for castings, some of the 
 color changes produced by mixing various metals will now be 
 noted. But first let it be understood that such alloys, besides beauty 
 of color, must possess certain stable qualities which will make them 
 suitable for working up and turning into articles of a strong, use- 
 ful character. The color of alloys is modified in greater degree 
 by metals in the following order, according to Ledebur: Tin, 
 nickel, aluminum, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, lead, antimony, 
 platinum, silver, gold. 
 
 Thus an alloy of one part tin and two parts copper is white, 
 but nearly two parts of zinc must be added to one of copper to 
 whiten it and more remarkable still, one part of aluminum has a 
 positive effect on nine parts of gold, this alloy being a compar- 
 atively soft white metal. Common yellow brass is a blend of red 
 and white metals, the strongest alloy in this class being copper 
 63 parts, and zinc St parts, the color being full yellow with a cop- 
 per content varying anywhere between 60 and 75 per cent. The 
 copper color is not thoroughly saturated until zinc reaches 60 per 
 cent, and beyond that quantity the increase of zinc has a decided 
 zincy white effect. 
 
 For dipping brass, the best results are produced with alloys 
 of copper and zinc only, preferably with zinc ranging from 20 
 to 30 per cent. Sometimes tin in small proportions is added, but 
 if more than 1 per cent is used, a greenish hue is given to the 
 yellow of the brass, and if crystallization of the tin occurs, a nasty 
 mottled appearance is given to the work when it is dipped. How- 
 ever, where the work is partly polished, tin adds brilliance. A 
 good mix of this kind contains copper 73.5, zinc 27, tin 0.5. On 
 
Color of Alloys 69 
 
 the other hand, lead, while it facilitates machining, darkens the 
 color, and when the articles are dipped, cloudy streaks betray the 
 trail of the base metal. The effects of other elements foreign to 
 the true copper and zinc dipping mixtures are mostly fatal to the 
 gilt-like beauty of fine yellow brass fresh from the dip or acid 
 bath. By fine yellow brass, an alloy containing not less than 70 
 per cent copper is generally understood. Red brass ranges in 
 copper from 80 to 90 per cent, with 1 per cent of lead in addition, 
 if the work is to be machined. 
 
 Colors of Bronze or Gun Metals. — Bronze or gun metals, the 
 chief constituents of which are copper and tin, have rich, deep 
 hues that may be graded from red and reddish yellow to grayish 
 white, according to the tin content. Tin, from 3 to 9 per cent, 
 gives reddish shades, and increasing this element from 10 to 14 
 per cent, orange and yellow shades appear ; at 18 to 23 per cent 
 a creamy white luster describes the polish of finished parts and a 
 beautiful oxidized silver appearance is given to the rough castings. 
 Very few foundrymen seem to realize the difficulties in controlling 
 shades or intensity of color in consecutive heats of the same alloy. 
 Owing to the volatile and oxidizable nature of the average com- 
 ponents and the varying effects of different temperatures and 
 rates of cooling on the alloys, the color of the castings from two 
 or more heats of a particular alloy do not always match. These 
 mismatches of color are more readily detected in polished work, 
 hence we have another reason for the use of tinted lacquers, 
 namely, to impart a uniform tint to the color of the work. This 
 question of the color of castings is a very important feature in 
 some branches of brass founding, and in the arts. 
 
 Architectural and decorative brass founders are continually 
 confronted with this color problem. When two castings of the 
 same alloy do not match it offends good taste to see them placed 
 side by side on a job. Uniformity of color can only be insured by 
 adhering to the exact composition of the alloy, by using always 
 the same brands of ingot metals, by melting under the same con- 
 ditions, and by casting at the same temperatures. To emphasize 
 the importance of the last mentioned condition, let me cite a case. 
 A casting which had been partly machined developed a flaw. The 
 
70 Practical Alloying 
 
 defective part was burned with the spare metal left over after 
 making the casting and yet, when it was finished, the burned part 
 was distinctly visible, owing to the marked difference in the color 
 at that part. In fact, it had what you might call local color, a 
 very undesirable quality in a casting, however agreeable it may be 
 in novels or art products. The coloring action of some common 
 elements used in alloys is worthy of study. Some of the general 
 effects are indicated, in so far as they affect the copper series. 
 
 Color action of metals in alloys. — ^Lead deepens the color of 
 copper alloys. It is largely''used to assist the copper in red metals 
 and also to give gun metal a more coppery appearance than the 
 actual copper content alone would produce. 
 
 Zinc improves the casting qualities of copper alloys, but has 
 quite the opposite eflfect on the color that lead has. 
 
 Aluminum gives a mottled surface due to crystallization of 
 that element. One per cent added to yellow brass produces a 
 good imitation of pale gold. 
 
 Phosphorus, by closing the grain, allows of a higher polish 
 on all alloys. 
 
 Arsenic has a similar effect, but it is now only used for specu- 
 lum. 
 
 Bismuth and manganese produce rose-tinted effects and 
 improve the luster. Bismuth has a powerful effect on all the white 
 colored metals, giving a warm tone to German silver alloys con- 
 taining zinc, tin or aluminum. 
 
 Antimony has a similar result as regards color, but it is a 
 dangerous element in alloys requiring strength. The cohesive 
 force of antimony is poor. 
 
 Copper added to white alloys gives increased luster, greater 
 ease in tooling and better casting qualities. 
 
 Mercury, about 1 to 1.5 per cent, added to the standard ord- 
 nance bronze, (copper 90, tin 10,) produces a beautiful rose- 
 pink-tinted metal which makes fine contrasts with other gun 
 metal, brass or silveroid castings. Great care must be exercised 
 in adding the mercury to the barely molten tin intended for the 
 bronze mixture. 
 
Color of Alloys 71 
 
 Venus metal, an alloy of equal parts of copper and antimony, 
 is a beautiful violet-colored alloy which polishes well but is too 
 brittle for delicate parts of a design. 
 
 An alloy used for objects of art and which resembles fine gold, 
 consists of copper 92 parts, aluminum 6 parts, gold 2 parts. 
 
 Non-oxidizable alloys generally have nickel as a base and 
 platinum as an ingredient. Two mixtures of this class follow: 
 No. 1 — Nickel 90 parts, tin 9 parts, platinum 1 part. 
 
 No. 2. — Nickel 34 parts, brass 66 parts, platinum 3 parts ; 
 platinum black may be used. 
 
 Owing to its high cost, platinum is not much used for alloys 
 for casting, but manganese is sometimes used as a substitute. 
 
 Alloy for statuary bronze. — An alloy recommended by 
 Brantt for statuary bronzes and objects of art for outdoor posi- 
 tions which admits of simple treatment by washing with pyro- 
 sulphides, chlorides, etc., and becomes coated with a rich black 
 patina capable of being polished, consists of copper 77 parts, tin 
 6 parts, lead 17 parts. This alloy also lends itself to some fine 
 contrasts with silveroid, the tones of these two metals being easily 
 controlled and ranging from the fine gray appearance of matte 
 silver to the velvet black enamel of the genuine patina, with in- 
 termediate shades of gold and burnished silver in relief. 
 
 Niello-silver, an alloy consisting of copper 1 part, bismuth 1 
 part, lead 1 part, and silver 9 parts, and which is filled into the 
 incised lines of metal engraving, acquires a bluish color when a 
 little sulphur is added. 
 
 A cheap imitation silver alloy consists of zinc 76 per cent, 
 copper 17.5 per cent, and nickel 6.5 per cent. The foregoing al- 
 loys are selected with the object of illustrating some of the novel- 
 ties and the limitations of the color scale in metallic productions. 
 
 Japanese pickling solutions. — ^The Japanese art metal work- 
 ers, who understand the coloring of metals better than we do, 
 obtain different colors by employing ores or metals with traces of 
 gold, cobalt, antimony, tin, silver, etc., for the alloys, and using 
 pickling solutions in which they boil the work. Two of these 
 
''2 Practical Alloying 
 
 pickling solutions, given by Prof. Roberts-Austen, contain the 
 following ingredients : 
 
 ,_ ^. No. 1 No. 2 
 
 Verdigris, grains 438 220 
 
 Sulphate of copper, grains 292 540 
 
 Water, gallons 1 i 
 
 Vinegar, drachms 5 
 
 The various colors and tints are the result of differences in the 
 length of immersion and the effects of impurities in the ores or of 
 definite additions to the alloys. As soon as the articles assume 
 the desired shade or density they are dried, heated and lacquered. 
 By making complex alloys containing traces of cobalt, antimony, 
 bismuth and other metals, iridescent colors are obtained. One 
 objection to these surface colorations is that the film may be 
 scratched and the self color of the alloy revealed. 
 
 The striking points regarding the color of alloys may be 
 summed up as follows : 
 
 First. — That all the known metallic alloys are limited in color 
 to shades of red, white and yellow. 
 
 Second. — The alloying of metals for color effects has not 
 received the attention it deserves. We know that certain metals 
 produce sudden color reactions, as in the examples given, where 
 small additions of aluminum in gold, tin in copper, and nickel in 
 copper show radical changes. 
 
 Third. — Alloys are mostly blends as regards color of the met- 
 als, which behave like neutral solutions, the color of the alloy 
 being dominated by the color of the metal present in larger pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Fourth. — Pigments of every hue may be produced from met- 
 allic bases, but the metals are in a state of combination with the 
 metalloids, in equivalents which destroy completely their metallic 
 character and luster. 
 
 Fifth. — ^The discovery of some system of controlling or im- 
 parting color in alloys would be a novel and, unquestionably, a 
 useful achievement, but for casting purposes only self colors are 
 suitable, and if a new color of alloy is to receive notice, it must 
 have a consistent tone and beauty that is more than skin deep. 
 
VII 
 
 THE NOTATION OF ALLOYS 
 
 THE notation in common use for distinguishing the various 
 metallurgic products is, for the most part, a promiscuous 
 growth of popular or local characterizations, private 
 marks and industrial apothegms. The quality of the 
 useful metals, iron, copper, tin, zinc, etc., is generally indicated 
 by the brands or grade numbers of the manufacturers. These 
 markings may be useful in commercial quarters for fixing a basis 
 price in each class, but in the actual founding of metals they are 
 of no practical value. Such marks as "best," "best best," "treble 
 best," "tough" and "G. M. B.'s" (good merchantable brands) are 
 supposed to give the buyer a clue to the quality of metals, but in 
 reality they only indicate the relative qualities of the produc- 
 tions of each individual maker. The "best best" of one maker 
 may be no better than the "besf of another; and the anal- 
 yses of "best selected" copper ingots, "virgin" zinc, or "refined" 
 tin, varies with the mines and the extraction processes from 
 which they are evolved. The marking of metals, then, fixes 
 no standard of quality; the crowns and crosses, the lions and 
 the lambs which are impressed on them, are used for the same 
 reason as "3 stars" are adopted for certain brandies, — for 
 advertising purposes. But something more than a trade mark or 
 ' a market brand is needed to guide the purchaser of alloys ; there- 
 fore, it is becoming the custom to stipulate the percentage of the 
 principal elements contained in modem alloys. For instance, by 
 genuine babbitt metal, an alloy containing not less than 80 per cent 
 of tin is understood, and in brass foundry parlance, yellow metal 
 signifies a copper and zinc alloy in which the proportion of zinc 
 
'''4 Practical Alloying 
 
 does not exceed one-third of the mixture. Vocabularies are made 
 up of names, numerals and nuances; but the vocabulary of the 
 metal trades is notorious for its numerous inappropriate names, 
 meaningless signs and misleading catch-words. The ceremony 
 of bestowing a name upon anything is always regarded as being 
 of great importance. Babies and ships are christened, churches 
 are consecrated, hospitals are dedicated, memorials are erected, 
 patents are granted and territories are claimed and proclaimed 
 only when the initial ceremony of naming has been accomplished. 
 Whatever formalities may take place at these occasions, the gen- 
 eral interest is centered in the name which is bestowed. A name 
 should, as nearly as possible, focus the purport or the properties 
 of the object named. 
 
 There is much to be learned from names, when they are prop- 
 erly applied, but a misnomer is always a snare to the tyro and a 
 worry to the scientist. "What's in a name ?" is as difficult a ques- 
 tion to settle as — "What's without a name?" One cannot give 
 utterance to a thought or single out one thing from every other 
 thing, until he has invested it with a suitable appellation. The 
 metal trade is handicapped by having two sets of terms — the com- 
 mercial and the scientific — to distinguish the goods, and in the 
 matter of alloys, or mixed metals, the long list of oracular, in- 
 formal and arbitrary titles which have been adopted within the 
 last half century, has got beyond the capacity of the average metal 
 worker. The beauty of chemical nomenclature is, that it always 
 supplies accurate information. It is qualitative and quantitative, 
 for it tells the nature of a compound and also the proportions ol 
 its elements ; HjSO^ is a definite substance to the chemist. When 
 he sees the familiar formula, he not only thinks of sulphuric acid, 
 but, instinctively, he makes a mental note of the order and rela- 
 tionship of the constituents. How dififerent is the system by 
 which the metallic alloys are formulated. Granted that the alloys 
 which form true chemical compounds are comparatively few, there 
 is no reason why the components and proportions of even the most 
 intricate alloys should not be graphically stated. 
 
 Chemical notation can only be applied to alloys when the met- 
 als combine in atomic proportions to form chemical compounds, 
 
The Notation of Alloys 75 
 
 and it would be difficult for metallurgists to devise a systematic 
 nomenclature for alloys with anything like the simplicity and com- 
 prehensiveness of the chemical method of designating salts, etc. 
 We long, however, for some more rational method of naming- 
 alloys than the happy-go-lucky system now in vogue. The bewild- 
 ering array of names, which are allowed to be applied to alloys 
 which are the same in substance, is a disgrace to an industry based 
 on scientific principles. Metallurgy is probably the most compre- 
 hensive of applied sciences and the names given to the metals 
 belong to all ages and countries. Whatever name has been chosen 
 for a metal, the Latin form of it has been generally adopted for 
 technical purposes. If metallurgists could devise a similar sys- 
 tem for naming the metallic alloys, they would bring order out of 
 chaos, make it easier to marshal the mixed metals into groups, 
 and less difficult to understand what are the essential elements in 
 any particular class of alloys. 
 
 Confusion of present notation. — ^Uniformity is the life of 
 science, but there is no uniformity in the metallic hurly-burly. 
 Alloys are seldom what they are represented to be. Gun metal 
 for ordnance is obsolete, but the name survives. Phosphor bronze, 
 which was originally an alloy of copper, tin and phosphorus, has 
 been modified and altered beyond recognition as a bronze. Cop- 
 per and lead are frequently the principal components of so-called 
 phosphor bronzes, the phosphide of tin being conspicuous for its 
 scarcity. Platinoid is a high resistance (electrical) alloy, which is- 
 innocent of platinum. Aluminum bronze as it is now made, is 
 not the unique alloy which promised so well some years ago; a 
 pinchbeck variety has supplanted the genuine alloy, but, to avoid 
 confusion, it should be called aluminum brass. It is in reality 
 ordinary brass, containing from 1 to 2 per cent aluminum. Exam- 
 ples of this sort of thing could be multiplied ad libitum. The met- 
 als have been named in all sorts of ways. The alchemists fancied 
 some metals male, others female. Arsenic is derived from the 
 Greek word for male. Some of the metals are named after gods, 
 goddesses and stars, as, Titan-ium, Thor-'mm Mercury, etc.;. 
 others derive their names from the countries in which they were 
 first discovered — Cuprum, (Cypress), Germanium, Gallium, but 
 
■^6 Practical Alloying 
 
 the origin of names for alloys is too obscure for elucidation. 
 Sometimes an alloy is named after its inventor, as Muntz metal; 
 sometimes after the inventor's initial, as Delta, the Greek letter 
 beginning the name of Mr. Dick; sometimes the inventor dis- 
 guises his identity and the nature of the alloy by a latin suffix, as 
 "Partinium;" sometimes by a figurative title, as "Atlas" bronze, 
 "Glacier" metal, etc. But the most common names for alloys have 
 been illustrative of the uses for which they are suited. Such 
 names as, anti-friction metal, steam metal, button metal, type 
 metal, fusible metal, convey to the metal worker a general idea of 
 the properties of the respective alloys. But none of these metals 
 has been standardized and every manufacturer makes them 
 according to his own impression of the requirements. Again, alloys 
 are usually classified according to their densities, or by their most 
 important or predominant constituent, as, copper alloys, aluminum 
 alloys (light and heavy), tin alloys, etc. In many instances the 
 names and the classification are at variance. White metal, for 
 example, may mean a copper alloy containing zinc and nickel, or it 
 many mean a tin or zinc alloy for bearings or patterns. Anti- 
 friction alloys are known to the trade by these amongst many 
 other titles: babbitt metal, bearing metal, fusible metal, patent 
 metal, phytic metal, white metal and anti-attrition metal. Again, 
 take German silver alloys : In addition to the standard composi- 
 tions in use in industrial countries for the manufacture of table- 
 ware and coins, known as German silver and nickel alloys^ respec- 
 tively, the brass founder recognizes a host of other products in 
 the same class, under a grotesque variety of names, as albata, 
 argitan, argusoid, silveroid, silverette, packfong, biddery, etc. 
 
 These examples serve to show how ambiguous the names 
 conferred on alloys may be ; how contradictory, how unnecessary ; 
 but they by no means exhaust the terms descriptive of anti-fric- 
 tion or German silver alloys. The dictionaries and technical and 
 classical literature have been ransacked by makers and adver- 
 tisers of alloys for names for their wares. Hundreds of catchy, 
 high-sounding names have been registered; and there is quite a 
 flood of superfluous appellations to be dispelled before anything 
 
The Notation of Alloys 77 
 
 like a systematic nomenclature, or notation of alloys, can be 
 unfolded. 
 
 Systematic notation. — Chemists formulate chemical com- 
 pounds by the symbols of the elements present and by their atomic 
 relations, the latter being indicated by the numerals attached to 
 the symbols. This system is not suited for the majority of the 
 alloys, because they rarely combine to form true chemical com- 
 pounds, and the complex nature of some allotropic compounds 
 would give rise to irregularities. What practical metallurgists 
 need is a systematic notation for alloys even if they are mechan- 
 ical mixtures, bc^ed on the proportions of the components. This 
 would embrace all possible compounds of elementary substances 
 and include that large and important class of scientifically nonde- 
 script compounds termed the metallic alloys. There is too much 
 mystery about alloys altogether; they are enveloped in scientific 
 fog and manufactured in accordance with the tenets of some 
 secret societies. I submit that there is as much need for an Alloys 
 Act, as there is for a Food and Drugs Act, in our legislative 
 administrations, since human lives are sometimes dependent on 
 the quality of metals. 
 
 The cue to the construction of a notation for alloys is con- 
 tained in the statement already made, namely, that most of the 
 useful alloys do not enter into true chemical combination, but 
 are simply mixtures of metals which have the power of cohesion 
 at ordinary temperatures. 
 
 Atomic formulae can only be used for dual alloys which form 
 perfect compounds, as, for example: AgjCu, or SnCug; but it 
 rarely happens that these chemical alloys of two metals are of 
 any practical value in the arts. Many of the most useful alloys 
 contain three or four elements which are essential to their com- 
 position, therefore a system of linking the symbols and the ratios 
 of the contents is required to explain these complications. To 
 follow the chemical usage and connect figures to the symbols 
 would be confusing and altogether an erroneous proceeding. 
 Such figures would indicate chemical equivalents where they did 
 not exist. To get over the difficulty and for the sake of euphony, 
 the first syllable of the technical name of each metal contained in 
 
78 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 the alloy could be taken to form a composite word which would 
 give a clear and unmistakable intimation of the components. In 
 this way brass would be represented by Cu-Zi, and if the exact 
 amount of each element should be known, the parts could be 
 indicated by figures thus, Cug^Zijj. Further, if the brass con- 
 tained lead, as in cock metal, the formula would become Cu-Zi- 
 Plum, or if it contained tin, as in naval brass, it would be Cu- 
 Zi-Stan ; with aluminum or any of the earthy metals or metal- 
 loids, the first place would be assigned to the least metallic 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 Systematic Notation for Alloys 
 
 Name 
 
 Bell metal 
 
 Gun metal 
 
 Steam metal . . . 
 
 Yellow metal . . 
 German silver . . 
 
 Plumbers' solder 
 Bearing bronze 
 
 Type metal 
 
 Silicon bronze . 
 
 Composition 
 
 Copper 80 parts, tin 20 parts. . 
 
 Copper 88 parts, tin 10 parts, 
 zinc 2 parts 
 
 Copper 86 parts, tin 6 parts, 
 zinc 6 parts, lead 2 parts. .. . 
 
 Copper 70 parts, zinc 30 parts. 
 
 Copper 50 parts, zinc 25 parts, 
 nickel 25 parts 
 
 Lead 2 parts, tin 1 part 
 
 Copper 80 parts, tin 10 parts, 
 lead 9 parts, phosphorus 1 part 
 
 Lead 80 parts, antimony 20 
 parts 
 
 Copper 90 parts, tin 8 parts, sil- 
 icon 2 parts 
 
 Proposed Formula 
 
 Cu-Stan 
 
 (80. 20.) 
 
 Cu-Stan-Zi 
 
 (88. 10. 2.) 
 
 . Cu-Stan-Zi-Plum 
 (86. 6. 6. 2.) 
 
 Cu-Zi 
 
 (70. 30.) 
 
 Cu-Zi-Nick 
 
 (50. 25. 25.) 
 
 Plum-Stan 
 
 (2. 1.) 
 
 Phos-Cu- 
 
 Stan-Plum 
 (1. 80. 10. 9.) 
 
 Plum-Stib 
 
 (80. 20.) 
 
 Sil-Cu-Stan 
 
 (2. 90. 8.) 
 
 element, as, Phos-Cu-Stan (phosphor bronze), Al-Cu-Zi 
 (aluminum brass), etc. This notation may not be based on 
 science, but it would be eminently practical in manufacturing 
 circles. It would become a kind of metallurgic shorthand for 
 alloys and the metal worker could then understand the composi- 
 tion and get a general idea of the properties of the material at a 
 
The Notation of Alloys 79 
 
 glance. Table V gives some examples of standard formulae for 
 comparison. 
 
 There should be a limit to the adulteration of structural 
 alloys ; there is no limit to the adulterations in the so-called gun 
 metals today. Gun metal may consist of any old thing with 
 metallic luster and a reddish yellow skin. A proper notation of 
 the alloy such as I have outlined here would cure this and similar 
 evils and help lift the metal casting trades out of the "mixture 
 muddle." 
 
VIII 
 
 STANDARD ALLOYS 
 
 WHEN standard alloys are mentioned, one naturally 
 thinks of the metals which enter into the currency of 
 the country, the formulae for the gold, silver, copper 
 and nickel coinages. The standards of the mint are 
 based on the exchange values of the metals employed, the alloys 
 being for the most part compounded of two metals, the less valu- 
 able being added in proportions required to cover the cost of man- 
 ufacture and the wear and tear of circulation. Consequently, the 
 coinage alloys are easily adjusted. Not so the standard alloys 
 adapted for the production of castings. The standard metals of 
 the mint or the rolling mill are ill-suited for the severer test of 
 the melting furnace ; as a rule they are too rich for foundry pur- 
 poses. Foundrymen are well aware that it is easier to make more 
 perfect castings from some alloys than from others; and the 
 nearer an alloy approaches the condition of a simple metal the 
 more difficult it is to procure sound castings from it. Imperfec- 
 tions due to occluded gases, oxides, crystallization, shrinkage, etc., 
 must be reduced to a minimum in alloys which are intended for 
 castings more especially when such castings are required for 
 structural or mechanical purposes. Thus it is that dual alloys 
 have gone out of favor in the foundry and the bulk of the modem 
 standard brass founders' alloys are compounded of three or more 
 metals. The monetary value of the metals used for such alloys is 
 of no technical importance ; what does matter is the purity of the 
 metals employed. Electrically deposited metals are, therefore, 
 preferable for alloys which have to conform to specification or to 
 attain a given physical standard. Modern investigations have 
 
Standard Alloys 81 
 
 placed the distinguishing properties of some highly useful alloys 
 on an independent platform, and we recognize them as the best in 
 their class — standard metals giving advantages in strength, cohe- 
 sion and service. Fifty years ago it would have been possible to 
 have classified the more important casting alloys into two groups 
 — brass and bronze alloys, but now we must add at least three 
 distinct series which have taken root in foundry and engineering 
 practice. I refer to the high-tension alloys, the anti-friction 
 alloys and the light (chiefly aluminum) alloys of modern inven- 
 tion. Brass and bronze (copper-zinc and copper-tin alloys) were 
 the forerunners of all the casting alloys, but in these days we 
 have to distinguish between numerous kinds of high and low 
 brass (these expressions refer to the zinc content), white and 
 yellow brass, naval brass, malleable brass, aluminum brass, and 
 many other kinds deriving their names from the introduction of 
 metals foreign to ordinary brass. The same thing applies to tho. 
 intricate and widely varying bronzes of the present day. The 
 term bronze was formerly employed to indicate an alloy, the 
 chief constituents of which were copper and tin, the copper being 
 always predominant, but in recent years almost every combina- 
 tion of metals possessing strength and toughness may be described 
 as bronze. Some notable examples are aluminum bronze, 
 which does not contain tin ; white navy bronze with only two per 
 cent copper, and some of Fontainemoreau's bronzes having 
 neither copper nor tin in their composition. As it would be quite 
 impossible to give here in detail the data relating to all the mixed 
 metals qualified for classification as standard alloys, we shall con- 
 fine our attention to those metals countenanced by engineering 
 bodies, narrowing down the list to such alloys as are suitable for 
 the production of castings in the foundry. While cast iron and 
 cast steel might justly be classed with other standard alloys, it 
 would be inconsistent to discuss these products, considering how 
 thoroughly they have been examined already. 
 
 Foremost among the useful alloys we place brass, the sim- 
 plest and most reliable compound from which castings may be 
 made. Brass, in trade circles, is generally understood to mean 
 an alloy of two-thirds copper and one-third zinc. But in eveiy- 
 
82 
 
 Practiced Allaying 
 
 day foundry practice, brass may, and does contain other elements 
 besides copper and zinc, and the copper content may vary from 
 60 to 88 per cent of the mixture, the 60 per cent standard being 
 known as Muntz metal and the 88 per cent standard being what 
 is termed red brass. Between these two limits practically all the 
 useful casting alloys are to be found. The mechanical qualities 
 and physical properties of the brass alloys vary greatly, and, with 
 the exception of color, none of the characteristics produced by 
 alloying copper and zinc may be deduced from a comparison of 
 the properties of the respective metals. Small variations in the 
 composition and different methods of manufacture sometimes 
 effect great changes. For example, the difference in the tenac- 
 ity of cast brass and cast Delta metal is very marked, as shown 
 in Table VI. 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tensile 
 
 
 Alloy, can 
 
 Composition 
 
 strength, 
 
 tons per 
 
 square inch 
 
 Authority 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Iron 
 
 Lead 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 
 
 Brass 
 
 Fine brass 
 
 Muntz metal 
 
 Delta metal. __ 
 Sterro metal 
 
 2 
 75 
 
 59 
 
 55.10 
 
 55.00 
 
 1 
 25 
 40 
 
 43.47 
 42.36 
 
 'i.08 
 1.77 
 
 a'lo 
 
 "o'io" 
 
 0.83 
 
 12.25 
 
 13.1 
 
 19.0 
 
 23.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 Dr. Anderson 
 
 Mallet 
 
 P. Longmuir 
 
 Roberts-Austen 
 
 Baron Rosthorn 
 
 These examples are selected because they represent a fair 
 average for each particular alloy. Many higher and lower re- 
 sults have been recorded, but in every case the chemical com- 
 bination of iron in a brass alloy results in increased tenacity and 
 hardness. This is probably due to the difference in molecular 
 construction and the greater density of properly made copper- 
 zinc-iron alloys. While brass is essentially a mixture of copper 
 and zinc, within well defined limits, slight additions of other 
 metals are purposely made to facilitate mechanical and manufac- 
 turing processes. Table VII embraces most of the mixtures of 
 practical importance. 
 
Standard Alloys 
 
 83 
 
 s-s 
 
 'S s* 
 
 .s 
 
 a-S- ' 
 
 o 3 
 
 .s 
 
 I a « w u 
 
 
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 Eh g.[Sh 
 
 a 2 
 
 oa" fS S S S «* •« 
 
 II 
 
 O 
 
 •" 1 S. .2 
 ^ .2 - c 
 
 « 1 .1 I- 
 
 
 u g-S-g-S S 
 
 Illicit, i 
 
 GQ 
 
 CO 
 
 lo""£« 
 
 << 
 
 O fl CO 
 
 i-i < 
 
 ^^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 E 
 
 •S o 
 
 13 
 
 •a 
 
 >, S E 
 
 03 n 
 
 •a 
 
 c <» 
 
 cu C t- C 
 
 b ^ ^ u: 
 
 O 'W "W ^" 
 
 u E c ■» 
 
 « S !i 
 
 .S _ — •" .-a 
 
 .fr'o g c -a 
 
 -S " " ^ -a - 
 
 iddM 
 
 ft BO 
 
 SI 
 
 ■s.^ 
 
 
 .s 
 
 in 
 
 rt rt O .-H 
 
 
 .s 
 
 N 
 
 g g 
 
 -MO o <M r» p» \o «j vo ■* o . 
 
 o ■*< 
 
 O in 
 
 o 
 
 !" 
 
 
 
 so 
 
 00 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ( 1 
 1 1 1 
 
 t-H 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 rasa 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 „| 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 bo 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 Fine bras 
 Dipping b 
 MaUeable 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 C E 
 - - S * S g 
 
 &£> 
 
 SS -.' 
 
 ■° E 
 
 I 
 
 .2 .S^^BCB c J3JS 
 
 a 
 
 pa 
 
 
84 Practical Alloying 
 
 Phosphorus is frequently added to brass alloys for the pur- 
 pose of increasing the fluidity. The same object can generally 
 be obtained by remelting about one-third turnings with two- 
 thirds of the alloy, fluxing with sawdust and potash. Aluminum 
 and manganese, alloyed with brass, form two series of metals 
 now classed with high tension bronze. 
 
 German silver alloys. — German silver may be reckoned as 
 nickeliferous brass, copper, zinc and nickel being the essential 
 components. The proportions vary, as under, copper 53 to 60 
 parts, zinc 38 to 33 parts, nickel 8 to 20 parts. 
 
 In order to determine the best proportions for alloys con- 
 taining 8, 10, 13, 16 and 30 per cent respectively of nickel, Hiorns 
 ma:le numerous experiments and finally recommended the fol- 
 
 I. — Copper 63, zinc 30, nickel 8. 
 lowing : 
 
 II. — Copper 60, zinc 30, nickel 10. 
 
 III. — Copper 57, zinc 31, nicked 13. 
 
 IV. — Copper 54, zinc 30, nickel 16. 
 V. — Copper 53, zinc 38, nickel 20. 
 
 Very few of the German silver alloys employed for castings 
 contain more than 30 per cent of nickel, but the better classes of 
 work are generally made by adding one-third nickel to two-thirds 
 ordinary brass (3 and 1 alloy) and lead up to two per cent of the 
 total mixture. The standard metal for electrical resistance is 
 composed of copper 4 part s, zinc 1 pa Tt^ickelJ.jarts. Another 
 alloy of this description calle3'"'''manganin/^ contains cqp_EerL84 
 per^.entj_manganese 13 per cent, nickel 4 per cent. The presence 
 of impurities TiTthese alloys diminfshes their value for electrical 
 purposes. All the German silver alloys are noted for their bril- 
 liant lustre, malleability and hardness. Krupp and other author- 
 ities are agreed that tin is injurious in this alloy, both as to color 
 and malleability, but iron, up to 3 per cent, increases the effects 
 of these properties. In foundry practice, those alloys containing 
 about 30 per cent of zinc and traces of lead and iron, produce the 
 soundest castings, but alloys containing iron are not adapted for 
 articles of art which are to be exposed to the weather, because 
 they acquire a disagreeable color. 
 
Standard Alloys 
 
 85 
 
 Range of bronze alloys. — As previously stated, the bronze 
 alloys are much more comprehensive now than formerly. The 
 bronzes proper (copper-tin series) comprise many metals of in- 
 superable qualities. The wide range of properties obtainable by 
 combining these two metals has no parallel in the metal industries. 
 Of all the useful alloys we could least afford to dispense with 
 this series. Standard bronze alloys ' contain tin in proportions, 
 varying from 1 in 4 to 1 in 12. Three well-lcnown grades take 
 prominence here, gun bronze, which contains copper 89 to 92 
 per cent, tin 8 to 11 per cent; bearing bronze, which contains 
 copper 82 to 88 per cent, tin 12 to 18 per cent, and bell metal, 
 which contains copper 78 to 86 per cent, tin 14 to 22 per cent. 
 The preparation of these alloys is based on the idea of rendering 
 copper stronger, harder, more sonorous and easy to cast. And 
 just as the addition of lead is advantageous in German silver 
 cast work, zinc or phosphorus in small quantities improves some 
 of the bronzes. Hence, many modifications and additions to the 
 original bronze alloys, giving greater strength, resilience, homo- 
 geneity and improved frictional and anti-corrosive qualities, have 
 been adopted in engineering practice. Some examples are given 
 in Table VIII. 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 Modern Bronze Alloys 
 
 Name 
 
 Composition 
 
 Suitable for 
 
 Gun Copper 
 
 Metal 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 I,ead 
 
 Phos- 
 phorus 
 
 1. 
 
 8. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 Nos. 1, 
 No. i. 
 No. 5. 
 No. 6. 
 No. 7. 
 No. 8. 
 No. 9. 
 No. 10. 
 No. 11. 
 
 " 88 10 
 
 " 87 8 
 
 88 11 
 
 86.5 13 
 
 " *87.5 6.25 
 
 " 85 to 95 4 to 10 
 " 84 to 90 6 to 10 
 84 12 
 
 82 14 
 
 80 10 
 
 88 to 92 8 to 12 
 
 2, and 3. Specified by British Admiralty. 
 Specified by French Admiralty. 
 Specified for N. British I/ightliouses. 
 Specified by mining corporations. 
 Specified by American manufacturers. 
 Specified by marine engineers. 
 Specified by Colonial Sugar Co., Sydney. 
 Specified by Pennsylvania Railroad Co. 
 C9. Tl. = Tenacity, 19.3 tons sq. in. 
 
 2 
 
 — — 
 
 
 
 Steam metal 
 
 5 
 
 . — — 
 
 
 
 Propellers, etc. 
 
 1 
 
 — 0.5 
 
 
 
 Lighthouse frames 
 Hydraulic pipes 
 
 6.26 
 
 lto5 — 
 
 
 
 Bolts 
 Chemical pumps 
 
 4 to 8 
 
 2 to 4 — 
 
 
 
 Steam metal 
 
 4 
 
 4 — 
 
 
 
 Bearings 
 Mill brasses 
 
 _ 
 
 9 to 10 0.25 to 
 
 1 
 
 Locomotive brasses 
 
 - 
 
 — 0.25 
 
 to 
 
 0.5 
 
 Deoxodized bronze' 
 
 *Tensile strength 14.7 tons per sq. in. 
 inches (dry sand casting). 
 
 elongation 23 per cent in 10 
 
86 Practical Alloying 
 
 Phosphor bronze. — Bronze of any description is such a 
 variable quantity in these days that it is difficult to fix a limit to 
 the components or the proportions of the components. Phosphor 
 bronze in the early stages of its career was simply an ordnance 
 bronze with the addition of from 0.35 to 1 per cent phosphorus, 
 a decided novelty in the manufacture and character of bronzes 
 at the time of its introduction. 
 
 Experience and experiments have wrought many many 
 changes in the original formula for phosphor bronze — changes 
 not all for the better by any means. We have learned that the 
 very best use we can make of phosphorus in alloying is to use it 
 as a deoxidizer, or as a re-agent which will combine with some of 
 the undesirable or weakening elements in certain alloys. And 
 the less phosphorus there is in the finished metal, the stronger and 
 denser the alloy will be, so that phosphorous is a thing one can 
 easily have too much of when making alloys. For foundry pur- 
 poses the use of phosphor-tin (5 per cent phosphorus) or phos- 
 phor-copper (10 per cent phosphorus) is recommended as the 
 most reliable method of getting phosphorus into ordinary brass 
 founders' alloys. The most prominent characteristic of phos- 
 phorus in alloys is the marvelous amount of fluidity it yields ; its 
 most beneficial effect is probably that it lowers the co-efficient of 
 friction of most metals. Phosphor bronze was the pioneer of 
 the modem bronzes, (high tension alloys and anti-friction and 
 anti-corrosive metals) which have led to the free development of 
 power in machinery and revolutionized the art of engineering 
 within the last thirty years. A common error in foundry prac- 
 tice with phosphor bronze is pouring the metal at too high a 
 temperature. This alloy sets so rapidly that occluded gases, 
 always present in overheated metal, have not sufficient time to 
 escape and the result is usually a porous, or at least a very much 
 weaker casting than would be expected. 
 
 Peculiarities of phosphor bronze. — Phosphor bronze is a 
 peculiar metal to work with. It is readily spoiled by overheating, 
 prolonged or repeated melting or the presence of certain impur- 
 ities. The best results are undoubtedly had with dry sand molds, 
 but with care in manipulating the metal, uniformly good work 
 
Standard Alloys 87 
 
 can be obtained in green sand, provided the castings are not 
 above medium weight. Some 40 years ago the introduction of 
 phosphor bronze as a commercial product initiated several new 
 features in engineering. It soon became a formidable rival to 
 steel for many purposes. Phosphor bronze was the forerunner 
 of the modern non-corrosive, high-tension and anti-friction alloys, 
 and even if it has been in some measure, superseded by later 
 discoveries, the history of its uses and advantages over ordinary 
 bronze would still be full of interest and instruction to the brass 
 founder. 
 
 As the introduction of phosphor matches marked a decided 
 advance on the flint and steel period of human progress, so did 
 phosphor bronze, in its pristine purity, mark an epoch in the 
 progress of the mechanical industries. When phosphor bronze 
 was first introduced into the foundries, the molders did not un- 
 derstand the nature of the alloy and its best qualities were often 
 destroyed through improper treatment. In spite of the very 
 precise instructions issued with the metal, so many flagrant 
 abuses were common in the foundries that the Phosphor Bronze 
 Co., of Great Britain, to protect its products, and insure fair con- 
 ditions for its products, was compelled to adopt a method of sell- 
 ing the metal by contract, in which it stipulated that the contract- 
 ing brass founder should bind himself to use it in a particular way 
 (dry sand molds were preferred and feeders were considered 
 desirable), and to cast it at a particular temperature, the casting 
 heat being judged by the color of the molten metal and the 
 condition of the break. I can remember having one or two 
 secrets in this connection imparted to me when I was an appren- 
 tice. I have learned a few more since then, but I am one who 
 looks upon all trade practices as open secrets. 
 
 Brass founders are conversant with the old style of making 
 phosphor bronze with stick phosphorus, which has been steeped 
 in a solution of copper sulphate, dried and enclosed in a tube and 
 then gingerly inserted into the crucible containing the molten 
 bronze. Very few brass founders are foolish enough to practice 
 this primitive and uncertain method now that phosphor-tin and 
 phosphor-copper, containing any desired percentage of phos- 
 phorus, may be had at reasonable prices. 
 
88 Practical Alloying 
 
 The metalloids are beginning to play an important part in 
 the refining and alloying of brass founders' alloys, but there is 
 still much to be done in the way of experiment and research. 
 Phosphor, silicon and arsenic bronzes are simply modifications of 
 the ancient metal of the bronze age. We have not had the limits 
 of these elements defined, nor a full statement of the properties 
 conferred on metallic bodies by these non-metallic substances. It 
 is expected that the electric furnace will yet solve many enigmas 
 in the reduction of highly refractory or volatile metals, and in 
 the manufacture of alloys. The improvements which have been 
 made already in reducing aluminum and in refining zinc point in 
 that direction. 
 
 The effect of phosphorus on the physical qualities of cast 
 iron has always been thoroughly understood, but it is not gener- 
 ally known that phosphorus increases corrosion as well as 
 induces red-shortness. The properties and peculiarities of phos- 
 phorus when combined with steel, copper, bronze and babbitt 
 metal are not so generally known as they might be. 
 
 Suggestions for melting phosphor bronze. — The following 
 suggestions should help to impress on brass founders and others, 
 the right use of phosphorus in this connection : 
 
 Phosphor bronze is best melted in a crucible. When it is 
 reduced to the molten condition in a brick-lined furnace, the 
 phosphorus attacks the silica in the lining, forming a slag which 
 increases the waste both of metal and furnace lining. 
 
 Phosphor bronze shows a perfectly smooth surface on the 
 ingot, and a characteristic granulation in the fracture. When 
 molten it is easily distinguished by its fluidity, mirror-like sur- 
 face and the continuous break of the fluid metal until it sets. 
 
 Phosphor bronze does not assume a pasty condition just 
 before setting. It passes suddenly from the fluid to the solid con- 
 dition at a certain temperature. Many castings have been cast 
 short owing to the metal being cooled too much and allowing it 
 to freeze to the sides of the ladle while casting. 
 
 Phosphor bronze castings should not be dipped while still 
 hot to blow the cores out. The phosphorus in the alloy renders 
 it red-short. 
 
Standard Alloys 89 
 
 If you wish to see honeycombs all over the castings when 
 they are machined, pour your phosphor bronze hot, into unslicked 
 green sand molds. Many molders do this sort of thing and 
 blame the bronze. The casting cleaner knows whom to blame. 
 
 The best phosphor bronze does not necessarily contain the 
 largest percentage of phosphorus. Phosphorus beyond the 
 quantity required to produce homogeneous metal weakens the 
 castings. 
 
 Phosphorus is a powerful deoxidizer, but an excess may 
 create a worse evil than oxide. The recognized lim'v for cast 
 iron is 1 per cent, for bronze 3 per cent; the less phosphorus 
 there is in the finished metal the greater the resiliency of the 
 bronze. 
 
 In steel 1/30 of one per cent phosphorus would render the 
 metal valueless for edged tools. 
 
 Phosphorus introduced into ordinary bronze increases liqua- 
 tion and the tendency to segregation. 
 
 Phosphorus makes copper hard and more liable to corrosion, 
 but added to bronze — copper and tin alloy — less liable to corro- 
 sion. 
 
 Phosphorus in bronze increases the grip of the patina or 
 surface oxidation, so much sought after in ornamental bronzes. 
 
 Phosphorus, in conjunction with zinc in a gun metal alloy, 
 increases the co-eflScient of friction; in conjunction with lead it 
 reduces friction considerably. Kunzel was the first to deprecate 
 the use of zinc in phosphor bronze. He patented an alloy which 
 is now recognized as a splendid anti-friction metal for locomo- 
 tive and other bearings liable to heat. 
 
 Phosphorus has great affinity for iron and acts to chemically 
 combine brass and iron. This fact is largely taken advantage 
 of by brass refiners to neutralize the bad effect of iron upon 
 brass. For example, in refining borings, ashes or washings, 
 which always contain iron, phosphorus is the agent which is 
 commonly used to get the two metals, brass and iron, to amal- 
 gamate. 
 
 Phosphorus increases fluidity and fusibility and renders 
 
■90 Practical Alloying 
 
 molten metal very limpid. On this account it is often introduced 
 where delicate ornamental castings are required. Sometimes 
 «ven in fine yellow brass work. 
 
 Phosphorus prevents blistering in babbitt metals and im- 
 proves the anti-friction qualities of the metal. 
 
 If you tap a heat of gun metal before it is up to the proper 
 heat, 0.5 per cent phosphorus will help to make it fluid, but it will 
 not do what time and fuel would have done. It is a great mis- 
 take for brass founders to rely upon phosphorus as a cure-all for 
 •dull metal simply because it helps to run the casting. 
 
 Castings in phosphor bronze never suffer from cold-shut. 
 Work your sand accordingly and you will be right. 
 
 When you wish to introduce phosphorus into the metal, 
 don't wrap a piece in paper and make an exhibition of your agil- 
 ity in evading fireworks. A piece of phosphor -copper will do 
 the work much better. 
 
 Gun metal. — Nowadays gun metal is a term of great lati- 
 tude, and it is quite possible to make gun metal, which will 
 satisfy the most urgent demands of engineering, with an admix- 
 ture of zinc and lead. The British Admiralty do not counte- 
 nance the use of lead in gun metal alloys, but America is not so 
 ■conservative, and it has been the common practice there to in- 
 troduce a small proportion of the base metal into gun metal 
 alloys intended for high steam pressures. The wisdom of this 
 procedure was questioned for a long time, but experience has 
 amply proved the fact that it is quite possible to produce with 
 copper, tin, zinc and lead, a close-grained metal, which will cast 
 well, machine easily, and withstand the highest pressures re- 
 quired in modern steam boiler mountings. Stea m metal is J hg 
 characteristic name given to this alloy ; the average mixtures con- 
 tain copper~from 85 to 90 per cent, tin 4 to 8 pe r cent, zin c 4 
 to 6 per cent,~and lead Ito 3 per cent,., a _.typical„^lloy_being, 
 ■copper^7,jtin^6, zinc 5, lead 2. 
 
 Anti-acid metal. — ^Another metal in which lead plays a most 
 important part is known as anti^acid metal. It is well known 
 that nearly all acids, and for that matter, alkalies, too, dissolve 
 or corrode metals and alloys at ordinary temperatures, and with 
 an increase of temperature this corrosive action is generally accel- 
 
Standard Alloys 91 
 
 erated. By many of the newer metallurgical methods the pro- 
 ducts are obtained by the wet process, from solutions of the 
 ores in the presence of acids. The gain in by-products is consid- 
 erable, and the time and outlay required to reduce a given quan- 
 tity of metal is generally less than by the old roasting methods. 
 
 This was brought under my notice in conducting a series of 
 experiments for an Australian copper raining plant. The water 
 ends of pumps and machines through which the concentrated 
 solutions of copper sulphate had to pass were made in the first 
 instance, from a special anti-acid metal composed of copper 63 
 per cent, lead 30 per cent, antimony 7 per cent. This proved a 
 very satisfactory alloy for the purpose, but some of the parts 
 which were subject to friction or stresses, such as the plunger, 
 or the ram, gave out in a short time, and to improve the wearing 
 qualities of these parts, a new alloy was made, containing copper 
 70 per cent, lead 20 per cent, antimony 7 per cent, tin 3 per cent. 
 Even this mixture did not give complete satisfaction, the condi- 
 tions were severe and exacting — ■vibration, continuous working, 
 and heavy load — and after one other trial with a modification of 
 the last alloy, the engineers fell back upon a gun metal containing 
 lead, which has proved useful in bearings and frictional parts of 
 machinery. This mixture consists of copper 85 parts, tin 10 
 parts, lead 5 parts. Absolutely the best^UojUEajLantj-acid cast- 
 ings is antimonial Jead, containing lead, 85 parts, and antimony, 
 15 parts. Pniifers' type metal is in this class, but for machinery, 
 sloWmotion and light loads are essential conditions if this metal 
 is used. 
 
 Iridio-platinum. — There are no products of human skill on 
 which a greater degree of care is expended than the standards 
 of weight and measure in use among the civilized nations of the 
 globe. Two things in particular have to be considered : accuracy 
 and durability. Nature does not furnish any single metal, or 
 mineral, which exactly answers the requirements for a standard 
 of measure or weight that shall be, as nearly as possible, unal- 
 terable. 
 
 The best substance yet produced for this purpose is an alloy 
 of 90 per cent_^f platinum with 10 per _c,eat-of- iridium. This 
 is called iridio-platinum, and is the substance of which the met- 
 
93 Practical Alloying 
 
 ric standards prepared by the International Committee on 
 Weights and Measures is composed. It is hard, is less affected 
 bxheat thanapxjpure metal, is practically non-oxidizable, and can 
 be finely engraved. In fact, the lines on the standard meters are 
 hardly visible to the naked eye, yet they are smooth, sharp, and 
 accurate. 
 
 Aluminum. — In some ways aluminum is a wonderful metal, 
 but foundrymen are chary of using it freely in alloys because of 
 the troubles which frequently follow, such as segregation, por- 
 ousness, cracks, excessive shrinkage, and the difficulty of making 
 satisfactory combinations with some of the other metals in every- 
 day use for castings. There is a limit to the amount which some 
 metals will take up in alloying. 
 
 According to Dr. Richards, aluminum can hold a little over 
 1 per cent of lead in solution, and from personal experience with 
 aluminum bronze (copper and aluminum mixtures), I have been 
 forced to the conclusion that a very small percentage of lead 
 exerts a very injurious influence on the physical properties of 
 this alloy. 
 
 Aluminum for alloys. — ^Similarly, if aluminum is to be in- 
 troduced for any special purpose into ordinary gun metal, yellow 
 brass or German silver alloys, great care must be taken to use 
 metals entirely free from lead, otherwise unreliable castings will 
 result. The castings as taken from the mold may appear to be 
 sound, but when the skin is broken on the lathe, a patchy ap- 
 pearance, due to the segregation of the lead and the formation of 
 oxides in the molten metal, shows up the weakness and irregu- 
 larities of a bad mixture. On this account, all metals containing 
 aluminum should be kept scrupulously apart from the ordinary 
 alloys used in the brass foundry. 
 
 The fact is, with all our modem improvements and cheap- 
 ening processes for the increased production of aluminum, we 
 are not yet familiar with the use of the metal as a mixer, and 
 foundrymen are still seeking for information as to the proper 
 use of it in alloys. 
 
 Zinc and aluminum. — Zinc has been found to be the most 
 natural alloying metal for aluminum. Indeed, the two metals 
 may be combined in any proportions almost as freely as the 
 
Standard Alloys 93 
 
 brass (copper-zinc), alloys, and with casting qualities equally as 
 good. As a general rule, however, alloys of aluminum with an- 
 other metal, binary alloys, are seldom satisfactory for castings, 
 and many mixtures which are serviceable for rolling, hammer- 
 ing, or otherwise working into shape, are utterly useless for 
 foundry purposes. Silver and aluminum, copper and aluminum, 
 and zinc and aluminum are decidedly the best of the binary alloys 
 for castings. 
 
 Nickel-aluminum* alloys. — Nickel aluminum alloys have 
 poor mechanical properties and they are difficult to make. Tin- 
 aluminum alloys are unstable and weak and magnesium-alum- 
 inum, the lightest of all the aluminum alloys, casts badly and 
 is subject to great waste and change on remelting. Where cost 
 is not a factor and fine grain, color^ polish and resistance to cor- 
 rosion^axe-iaipoptimt, the silver-aluminum alloys are by far the 
 best for ornamental castings, statuettes, etc., from 3 to 5 per cent 
 silver being the average proportions. Sometimes 1 per cent of 
 copper is added to reduce the cost, or to insure better wear as in 
 the case of cast dental plates and fine instruments. The atomic 
 weight of silver is exactly four times that of aluminum and their 
 specific gravities are in the same ratio. It is believed that this 
 has some connection with the characteristic improvement in color, 
 grain and resistance to corrosion, which silver-aluminum alloys 
 show. 
 
 Imitation silver. — Many imitation silvers and so-called Ar- 
 gentan alloys are now produced with aluminum as the base. 
 The aluminum content ranges from 88 to 94 per cent and the 
 alloying metals, copper, tin and nickel, are present in equal pro- 
 portions, varying from 2 to 4 per cent. Cowles' "silver bronze" 
 is also a substitute for German silver, but its electrical resistance 
 is about Jorly times greater. Although there is no nickel in the 
 composition, it is more closely allied to the standard German 
 silver alloys than those having aluminum as the base. The mix- 
 ture consists of manganese, 18 parts; aluminum, 1^4 parts; sili- 
 con, % part ; zinc, 13 parts, and copper, 67J^ parts. 
 
 Aluminum bronze. — The very first aluminum alloy to come 
 into prominence was the now famous, but seldom used, aluminum 
 
 *Nickelumen is the name now given to alloys of those two metals. 
 
94 Practical Alloying 
 
 bronze, containing copper 90 to 95 per cent, and aluminum, 5 to 
 10 per cent. This is an ordinary heavy bronze, with the tin re- 
 placed by aluminum. It is a superior alloy to tin bronze, having 
 all the advantages in double the tensile strength, greater resili- 
 ence, more artistic appearance and color, no segregation or hard 
 spots, better resistance to corroding influences, and, owing to the 
 cheapening of aluminum, the cost by weight is now slightly less. 
 This alloy has never had a chance to distinguish itself in engin- 
 eering practice. Brass founders have not treated it fairly. They 
 still persist in varying the formula, and add zinc, tin, lead or 
 some other ingredient to cheapen the product with the result 
 that aluminum bronze has fallen into disrepute, and aluminum 
 brass has been substituted for the bronze for many purposes. 
 To those looking for a first-class bronze, giving strong homo- 
 geneous castings, no better mixture can be recommended than 
 the following: Copper, 90 parts; aluminum, 8 parts, and phos- 
 phor copper, 2 parts. 
 
 Some modifications of this bronze are made by adding tin 
 to the mixture, from 2 to 8 per cent, according to the degree of 
 hardness required. A good mixture for bearings is composed of 
 copper, 95 parts; aluminum, 5 parts, and tin, 8 parts. For a 
 close-grained bronze suitable for machine parts and steam metals, 
 use copper, 90 parts ; phosphor copper, 2 parts ; tin, 4 parts, and 
 aluminum, 4 parts. 
 
 Gun metal alloys. — ^An improved series of gun metal alloys 
 containing aluminum consists of copper, 84 to 88 per cent, tin, 
 6 to 10 per cent, and aluminum, 2 to 6 per cent. The hardest of 
 these mixtures is suitable for bells and equal to cast steel in 
 strength. It must always be borne in mind, however, that metal 
 made simply by mixing aluminum and copper does not acquire 
 its best properties till it has been remelted several times. For 
 all of these aluminum bronze alloys it will be best to make a 
 "hardening," of the copper and aluminum, say 50 parts of each. 
 
 Melt the copper first, and add the aluminum gradually, tak- 
 ing care to keep the metal in a barely molten state. This alloy 
 is very brittle. It is an easy matter, therefore, to add any de- 
 sired quantity of aluminum to the bronze. As molten aluminum 
 alloys oxidize more rapidly than most of the regular casting 
 
Standard Alloys 95 
 
 metals, it is well to cover the metal with carbon, and a plumbago 
 crucible lid kept on while the metal is melting helps to prevent 
 drossing due to the access of air. No flux is necessary. Alumi- 
 num is an earthy metal, and anything that would flux it would 
 act also on the crucible, to the detriment of the metal. Over- 
 heating must be avoided, and when once the metal is ready it 
 must not be held in the fire. 
 
 With these precautions, and ordinary care not to mix metals 
 of a different class with the aluminum bronzes, sound castings 
 are as easily obtained as with ordinary bronze alloys. A spe- 
 cially tough bronze has the following composition: Copper, 87 
 parts; tin, 10 parts; nickel, 1^4 parts; and aluminum, lyi parts. 
 
 Aluminum brass alloys. — Passing to the aluminum brass 
 alloys, we get a big range of metals with splendid casting qual- 
 ities and wonderful strength and toughness. Ordinary yellow 
 brass — copper, 70; zinc, 30 (no lead) — with 2 per cent aluminum 
 added, is transformed to a high tension bronze. This metal may 
 be used for almost every conceivable casting, from the lightest 
 ornament to a ship's propeller wheel. Valves, bearings and fric- 
 tional parts of machines are excepted. 
 
 Aluminum brass is the easiest of the ternary alloys to ma- 
 nipulate. The three metals combine well in proportions ranging 
 as follows: copper, 56 to 80 parts; zinc, 20 to 42 parts; alu- 
 minum, one to six parts. The tenacity of the alloys varies be- 
 tween 40,000 pounds and 90,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Other metals are sometimes added with good effect, notably 
 manganese, between 1 and 2 per cent; iron and phosphorus, 
 about 1 per cent ; tin, 1 to 3 per cent. 
 
 To the brass founder accustomed to the pouring of "high" 
 brass, aluminum brass presents no difficulty, and this may be one 
 of the reasons for its popularity. Due to the comparatively low 
 specific gravity of aluminum, ordinary heavy metals in combina- 
 tion with it are liable to segregate when cooling down to a solid 
 condition and further, the high specific heat, contraction and 
 atomic volume, characteristic of the metal, make it difficult to 
 get serviceable combinations. These are the main drawbacks 
 to the working of the binary alloys, like the copper-aluminum 
 bronzes already dealt with, but with the ternary alloys, such 
 
96 Practical Alloying 
 
 drawbacks, to a large extent, vanish. Nevertheless, each class 
 has its own points of excellence, and whether it be the bronze 
 or the brass that is used, the artistic as well as the useful and 
 economic value of the alloys should be considered. 
 
 Light alloys. — The light alloys of aluminum are more nu- 
 merous and generally speaking, more applicable to the modern 
 craze for light fittings for automobiles, motor boats, scientific 
 apparatus and art metal castings. Classed with the light alloys 
 are several combinations of rare metals, or metals requiring ex- 
 tremely high temperatures for their reduction, as chromium, 
 tungsten, titanium, etc. These are scarcely worth the increased 
 cost and trouble, and certainly they are not necessary for ordi- 
 nary castings. Used with copper and nickel, manganese makes 
 the hardest light alloy of aluminum yet produced. 
 
 Susini alloys. — Susini's alloys contain from 3 to 10 per cent 
 of alloying metals, the latter being zinc, copper, and manganese. 
 He makes the alloy of the three latter separately, melts the re- 
 quired quantity of aluminum and then pours the liquid alloy 
 into it. 
 
 The three alloys he recommends must contain in jpercent- 
 ages: 
 
 [ang3n8Se 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 1 to 3 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 1 to 6 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 8 to 8 
 
 4.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 Good casting alloys for small figures and art designs may 
 be had with tin and nickel combinations, as for example, tin, 7 
 parts, nickel, 3 parts, and aluminum, 90 parts. This alloy is 
 whiter than aluminum and can be more easily soldered and 
 polished and gives very sharp outline and detail in sand castings. 
 
 Nickel alloys.— A stronger series are the ternary alloys of 
 nickel, copper and aluminum, nickelumen alloys, as they are 
 sometimes called, have a great tenacity and a high elastic limit. 
 A typical alloy in this class for rolling contains copper, 3J^ per 
 cent, and nickel Ij^ per cent. For casting purposes the alloying 
 metals may be increased up to 10 per cent with advantage, and 
 for rigid alloys the nickel content may even be increased beyond 
 the copper. 
 
 An excellent substitute for these nickelumen alloys is com- 
 
standard Alloys 97 
 
 posed of aluminum, 91 parts; antimony, 1 part, and phosphor 
 copper, 8 parts. An alloy whose specific gravity is nearly the 
 same as pure aluminum, is composed of aluminum, 96 per cent, 
 antimony, 2 per cent, and phosphorus, 2 per cent. These alloys 
 are not so expensive to make as the nickelumen or magnalium 
 alloys and they answer quite as well for many kinds of castings. 
 
 Magnalium alloys. — ^AU magnalium alloys (aluminum and 
 1 to 10 per cent magnesium), are improved by the addition of 
 zinc, 1 to 20 per cent, and there is better wear in the metal, which 
 is more homogeneous. For rolling, nickel and copper take the 
 place of zinc in some magnalium mixtures. One of these mix- 
 tures shows aluminum, 96 parts, magnesium, 2 parts, nickel, 1 
 part, and copper, 1 part. 
 
 Cheapest aluminum alloys. — ^After all, the cheapest and 
 most reliable of all the aluminum alloys for castings are zinc- 
 aluminum mixtures, with possibly small additions of copper, 
 phosphorus or tin. These alloys are well adapted for pattern 
 metals. They may be melted and cast by the ordinary foundry 
 methods, without the slightest trouble. The average composi- 
 tion shows aluminum 80 to 90 parts ; copper, 1 to 6 parts ; zinc, 
 5 to 20 parts ; phosphorus, 1 to 2 parts, and tin, 1 to 5 parts. A 
 typical alloy in this class is aluminum, 88 parts ; zinc, 10 parts, 
 and phosphor copper, 2 parts. If tin is desired in the mixture, 
 phosphor tin may take the place of all or part of the phosphor 
 copper. 
 
 These alloys cast smoother and with less oxidation than 
 most other aluminum combinations, and the zinc cheapens the 
 product without destroying the desirable qualities. 
 
 Aluminum bell metal. — A special aluminum bell metal alloy, 
 which may also be used for electrical instruments and ornamen- 
 tal wares, consists of the following: Aluminum, 70 to 90 per 
 cent, manganese, 5 to 18 per cent, cadmium, 2 to 12 per cent. 
 This alloy casts well and takes a brilliant polish. 
 
 Was it aluminum f — ^An incident in Roman history, well 
 authenticated, would seem to indicate that aluminum, instead of 
 being new, may be only a re-discovery of an old process. 
 
 It is related by Pliny that during the reign of the Emperor 
 Tiberius, a certain worker in metals appeared at the palace, and 
 
98 Practical Alloying 
 
 showed a beautiful cup made of a brilliant white metal that 
 shone like silver. In presenting it to the Emperor, the artificer 
 purposely dropped it. The goblet was so bruised by the fall 
 that it seemed hopelessly injured, but the workman took his ham- 
 mer, and in the presence of the court speedily repaired the 
 damage. It was evident that the metal was not silver, although 
 almost as brilliant. It was more durable and much lighter. 
 
 The Emperor, so runs the story, questioned the man, and 
 learned that he had extracted the metal from an argillaceous 
 earth — probably the clay known to modern chemists as alumina. 
 Tiberius then asked if anyone besides the worker knew of the 
 process, and received the proud reply that the secret was known 
 only to the speaker and to Jupiter. 
 
 The answer was fatal. The Emperor had reflected that if 
 it was possible to obtain such a metal from so common a sub- 
 stance as clay, the value of gold and silver would be reduced, 
 and he determined to avert such a catastrophe. He caused the 
 workshops of the discoverer to be destroyed, and the luckless 
 artificer himself to be decapitated, so that his secret might perish 
 with him. It is possible that the cruelty of Tiberius deprived the 
 world for centuries of the use of the valuable metal — aluminum. 
 
 Aluminum bronzes. — Aluminum forms some very valuable 
 alloys with copper, which may take the place of ordinary bronze, 
 phosphor bronze, or steel in certain circumstances. The amount of 
 aluminum in the bronzes varies from 2j4 to 10 per cent. The 10 
 per cent bronze is said to be a true alloy ; it does not liquate, and 
 the components remain in the same ratio, however often it may 
 be recast. It is worth noting that the combination of aluminum 
 with metals of higher melting temperatures — copper, iron, nickel 
 — produces exothermic reaction, heat being evolved. The metals 
 thus alloyed are more homogeneous, stronger, less liable to oxi- 
 dization, more fluid and easy to cast. The 7j4 per cent bronze 
 is a good metal for general foundry work, and specially suitable 
 for ship fittings, gears and gongs. Aluminum and its alloys 
 should be carefully separated from the ordinary brass founders' 
 alloys, as the smallest portion in alloys containing lead and in 
 certain combinations of tin and antimony produces segregation 
 and increases the affinity of such alloys for oxygen to such an 
 
Standard Alloys 99 
 
 extent as to make it difficult to obtain sound castings. Many of 
 the difficulties of handling aluminum in the brass foundry would 
 disappear if attention were given to this feature, and the melting 
 practice. All aluminum alloys should be remelted; they should 
 be melted speedily and cast at the lowest temperature compatible 
 with sharp, uniform castings. Experience has taught those ac- 
 customed to handling aluminum bronze alloys the importance 
 of using only the best grades of copper and aluminum, and also 
 the necessity of avoiding, as far as possible, the disturbing in- 
 fluences of a third element. 
 
 Light aluminum alloys. — Most of the so-called aluminum 
 castings being put into motors and electrical machine parts are 
 made from alloys containing copper 4 to 10 per cent, or zinc 8 
 to 30 per cent. Zinc forms a cheap and efficient hardener, and 
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 Aluminum Alloys for Castings 
 
 Aluminum Nickel 
 
 Tin 
 
 Copper 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 
 98.04 
 
 
 0.105 
 
 0.375 
 
 1.442 
 
 0.038 
 
 "Wolframinium'' 
 Analysis by Minet 
 
 96 
 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.64 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 "Partinium" 
 
 97 
 
 1.75 
 
 0.19 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.25 
 Zinc 
 
 0.17 
 Magnesium 
 
 by Dr. Richards 
 "Romanium" 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lto20 
 
 ItolO 
 Phosphorus 
 
 "Magnalium" 
 Murman's patent _ v" 
 Ruebel's patent "' V 
 •"Meteonte" ^ " 
 
 96 to 98 
 
 
 
 
 
 lto2 
 
 1 to 4 
 
 911 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 Tenacity 11 tons, sq. in. 
 
 98 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Extension 5 per cent 
 
 96 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Tough 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Easily tooled 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 Malleable 
 
 84.21 
 
 
 10.23 
 
 5.51 
 
 Si'lVer 
 
 0.09 
 
 Hard, strong 
 
 Mock silver castings 
 
 95 to 98 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 to 5 
 Zinc 
 
 
 Aluminum silver 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 
 Rigid alloy 
 
 in quantities up to 15 per cent, it combines to increase the rigidity 
 and strength of aluminum. Tin, as an alloy with aluminum, 
 seems to develop brittleness. Sheets composed of equal parts of 
 the two metals roll easily when the alloy is newly made, but be- 
 come as brittle as glass in a few days' time. Antimony up to 
 three per cent combines with aluminum to form some useful 
 alloys. The addition of nickel to aluminum produces unstable 
 alloys — an alloy containing 4 per cent nickel crumbling to powder 
 
 ♦Non-corrosive, acid-proof and easily soldered or plated, specific grav- 
 ity, 8.6 to 8.8. 
 
100 Practical Alloying 
 
 in a few hours after it is cast. Here the introduction of a third 
 element is advantageous, tin and copper being suitable for cast- 
 ing alloys. Some examples used for castings are given in Table IX. 
 Aluminum brass. — Aluminum brass is perhaps the most 
 popular of all the aluminum alloys. It is easy to manipulate pro- 
 vided lead and antimony are absent, and castings of great 
 strength and brilliancy may be obtained by simply adding zinc to 
 aluminum bronze, or aluminum to ordinary brass. The average 
 alloys contain copper 55 to 67 per cent, zinc 28 to 48 per cent, 
 aluminum 1 to 3 per cent. An analysis of a propeller blade, 
 made by a leading company, gave the following result : Copper 
 66.95 per cent, zinc 29.60 per cent, aluminum 1.93 per cent, iron 
 0.97 per cent, and lead 0.48 per cent. The tenacity of this speci- 
 men was equal to 60,000 pounds per square inch, and the elon- 
 gation about 16 per cent in 10 inches. 
 
 Manganese bronze propellers. — ^Manganese bronze is recog- 
 nized to be the metal par excellence for ship propellers. Its chief 
 characteristics are, great transverse strength, toughness, hard- 
 ness and fine casting qualities. P. M. Parsons, the inventor of 
 
 ANALYSES OF PARSONS MANGANESE BRONZES 
 
 Sheet metal Ingots for sand casting 
 
 Per Cent Per Cent 
 
 Copper 60.27 Copper .58.11 
 
 Zinc 37.58 Zinc «.8* 
 
 Iron 1.11 Iron 1.30 
 
 Tin 0.75 Tin 0.76 
 
 Manganese 0.10 Aluminum 0.47 
 
 Lead 0.01 Manganese 0.01 
 
 Lead 0.02 
 
 this alloy, introduced a cupro-ferro-manganese into the ordinary 
 brass and bronze alloys and obtained a wonderful increase in the 
 desirable physical properties of the metals, in the case of bronze 
 the tenacity showing an increase of 60 per cent. An alloy, the 
 approximate composition of which is copper 58 per cent, zinc 40 
 per cent, manganese 1 per cent, aluminum 1 per cent, gives, in 
 cast ingots, a tensile strength of 72,000 to 76,000 pounds per 
 square inch, with 20 to 22 per cent elongation. It is stated that a 
 properly designed screw propeller in this metal will come much 
 lighter and give as much as half a knot increase of speed, as 
 compared with an iron or steel propeller, this being due to re- 
 
Standard Alloys 101 
 
 duced scantlings, smoother surface, etc., and the evils of cor- 
 rosion are entirely overcome. Without a doubt manganese bronze 
 is second to none for propeller work. Manganese is a reliable 
 deoxidizer to use in ordinary brass and gun metal alloys ; in some 
 ways it is preferable to phosphorus. The latter induces cold 
 shortness, and the slightest excess is harmful. Manganese, how- 
 ever, may be used freely, from 1 to 6 per cent of cupro-manganese 
 showing increased tensile strength and elongation. 
 
 Anti-Friction metals. — The so-called anti-friction alloys, orig- 
 inally introduced by Isaac Babbitt, have grown to be quite a for- 
 midable class, indispensable to the engineer in these days of high- 
 speeds and heavy loads. These white anti-friction metals are 
 used almost exclusively for bearings, and they have replaced 
 many of the hard bronze bearing alloys formerly used in ma- 
 chinery running at high speed or under great pressure. The in- 
 troduction of new metals and alloys has wrought extensive 
 
 
 
 TABLE X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Commercial Babbitt Metals 
 
 
 Tin 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Lead 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 
 78.66 
 
 11.8 
 
 6 
 
 3.8 
 
 
 
 34.74 
 
 17.1 
 
 44.26 
 
 3.92 
 
 
 Arsenic, trace 
 
 64.7 
 
 
 1 
 
 1.8 
 
 33.35 
 Bismuth 
 
 
 83.86 
 
 9.74 
 
 0.86 
 
 5.50 
 Iron 
 
 0.32 
 
 Iron, trace 
 
 1.26 
 
 20.12 
 
 78.28 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.28 
 
 
 changes and many wonderful improvements in engineering prac- 
 tice. The high tension bronzes already mentioned have raised 
 the capacity and reduced the factors of safety in materials of 
 construction. The modern demand for metals, which shall be 
 light in weight, pretty in appearance, not too expensive and easily 
 worked into shape, has been met by manufacturers and inventors 
 in the later combinations of aluminum, but of all the modern 
 alloys, babbitt metal, under whatever name it may appear, has 
 proved to be the most useful and economical for machine parts 
 in motion. Genuine babbitt metal is composed of tin 86 per 
 cent, antimony 12 per cent, and copper 4 per cent, but numerous 
 alloys laying claim to superior qualities, producing less friction, 
 requiring less lubrication and possessing greater durability, are 
 
102 Practical Alloying 
 
 now on the market. Analyses of five different brands are given 
 in Table X. 
 
 The British admiralty uses alloys in this class ranging in 
 tin from 83 to 85 per cent, antimony 7>4 to 12 per cent, copper 
 5 to 9 per cent. The utility of lead in alloys for bearings is now 
 generally recognized, and these analyses go to show that the 
 manufacturers of anti-friction metals are not slow to take this 
 advantage. Standard alloys, or alloys subject to tests, may only 
 be expected to give satisfaction when the best materials have 
 been fairly treated. This is probably the most important fea- 
 ture in the manufacture of anti-friction alloys. To summarize 
 briefly the merits of the metals used in making these alloys, lead 
 is the ideal metal for reducing friction, antimony is the ideal 
 hardener, zinc is the best wearing material and tin is the best 
 medium for combining all of these qualities. 
 
 The history of the so-called anti-friction alloys reflects 
 the history of modern engineering, in miniature. In the 
 days when the world and all its works went to the tune 
 of "slow and sure," hot journals and squeaking axles were the 
 signals for a halt ; in the present day such untoward happenings 
 are inexcusable. The market is glutted with anti-friction goods 
 — metals, greases, oils, etc., and the plurality of "best anti-fric- 
 tion compounds" in these lines is, to say the least, embarrassing. 
 It has always been an axiom in engineering that rubbing sur- 
 faces should be composed of dissimilar materials, in order to 
 economize power and reduce the wear due to friction. Under 
 the heading of anti-friction alloys we must embrace two great 
 classes of metals, bearing bronzes and the white anti-friction 
 alloys. The latter series is by far the most important to the 
 general engineer, but we will deal first, and somewhat briefly, 
 with the hard bearing bronzes favored by millwrights and locomo- 
 tive makers from the early days of machine construction. "Brass- 
 es," that is, bronze bearings, differ but little in composition from 
 ordinary bronzes, but they are supposed to offer little frictional 
 resistance when in contact with other metals. The best alloys in 
 this group are characterized by hardness and strength; these 
 qualities combined in a metal are found to resist wear, sustdn 
 pressure, and survive shocks. The standard bearing bronzes 
 
Standard Alloys 1Q3 
 
 range in copper from 82 to 88 per cent, tin 12 to 18 per cent. 
 These hard bronzes are still used by many prominent railway 
 companies for axle boxes, truck bushes, slide valves, etc., but the 
 investigations of recent years may truly be said to have disillu- 
 sioned engineers regarding the old popular fallacy, that bearings 
 should be made of the hardest mixture possible. In the early 
 days of locomotive construction, bearings were purposely made 
 of an alloy harder than the steel or iron in the axle, crank shaft 
 or journal. A mixture akin to bell metal — copper 84 per cent, 
 tin 16 per cent,— was termed "Box Metal," and faithfully used 
 to cast axle boxes, because it was found to wear well ; but with 
 the development of high speed, high pressure engines, carrying 
 heavier burdens, the friction increased at such a rate, necessi- 
 tating frequent renewals of expensive forgings, that engineers 
 were compelled to modify the hardness of the bearing alloy. 
 
 Nowadays it is the rule to have the bearing made of softer 
 material than the journal, and the convenience and economy of 
 repairs are found to be considerable. The same principle is 
 applied in various ways in ordinary brass foundry practice, as 
 for example, in casting the plug for a stop cock, or seat for a 
 stop valve, a softer alloy is used than for the cock or valve, so 
 that a longer life is insured, and after the wear of the plug has 
 reached the limit, a new one may be fitted to the same barrel. 
 
 When phosphor bronze was first introduced as a practical 
 alloy some 30 years ago, KUnzel recommended an alloy which 
 has been highly successful for bearings, and the frictional parts, 
 of machines. The alloy referred to consisted of copper, 66j^ 
 to 91J^ per cent; lead, 4 to 15 per cent; tin, 4 to 15 per cent,- 
 phosphorus, }4 to 3 per cent. It is worthy of note that the meart 
 of these figures gives an alloy with proportions almost equiva- 
 lent to the locomotive bearing bronzes in use on many of the 
 largest railway systems at the present time. 
 
 Several years ago the Pennsylvania railroad made an ex- 
 haustive series of tests with various combinations of copper, tin, 
 and lead, in order to determine the best composition which would 
 be suitable for its service, and the conclusions drawn from the 
 experiments were as follows: 
 
104 Practical Alloying 
 
 A simple alloy of copper and tin showed 50 per cent more 
 wear than phosphor bronze. 
 
 The phosphorus plays no part in preventing wear excepting 
 by producing sound castings. 
 
 Wear increases with the content of lead. 
 
 Wear decreases with the diminution of tin. 
 
 Alloys containing more than 15 per cent lead, or less than 
 8 per cent tin, could not be produced because of segregation, 
 but it was believed that if the kad could be still further increased 
 and the tin diminished and still have the resultant alloy homo- 
 geneous, a better metal would result. A very common complaint 
 against hard gun-metal as a bearing alloy is "tin spots," that is, 
 hard patches due to a localized excess of tin in the alloy. From 
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 Bearing Metal Mixtures 
 
 Suited for 
 
 Copper, Tin, 
 per cent per cent 
 
 Lead, 
 per cent 
 
 Phos- Man- 
 phorus ganese 
 copper. Arsenic, copper, 
 per cent per cent per cent 
 
 Bearings 
 Bearings . . . . 
 
 Bearings 
 
 Eccentrics . . 
 Pinions .. .. . 
 Steam cocks 
 
 Bushes 
 
 Slide valves 
 Bearings . . ■ 
 
 85 
 
 11 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 74 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 iz 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 io 
 
 BO 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 0. 
 
 ii> 
 
 
 the examination of the microstructure of bearing metals. Prof. 
 Saveur has come to the conclusion that alloys of copper, tin, 
 and lead, are superior to the hard copper and tin mixtures for 
 friction-reducing qualities and durability. 
 
 A high place among bearing metals has been awarded an 
 alloy containing approximately, copper, 77 per cent, tin, 11 per 
 cent, and lead, 12 per cent. Arsenic bronze, that is, ordinary 
 copper and tin bronze containing about 1 per cent arsenic, has 
 also proved superior to gun metal for bearings. The presence of 
 zinc in bearing bronzes is undesirable ; it increases the coefficient 
 of friction and produces a fibrous condition of the alloy which 
 necessitates careful and regular lubrication. 
 
 A notable bearing metal containing copper, 65 to 75 per 
 cent ; lead, 10 to 30 per cent ; tin, 2 to 8 per cent, is sold under 
 
Standard Alloys 105 
 
 the name of Plastic Bronze. The alloy of copper, 65 per cent; 
 tin, 5 per cent ; lead, 30 per cent, has a compression strength of 
 15,000 pounds per square inch and is used for the driving brasses 
 of locomotives. According to G. H. Clamer, the addition of 
 nickel causes the alloy to set rapidly and acts to hold up the lead. 
 
 In Table XI is given a list of some favorite bearing metal 
 mixtures, compiled from original sources. 
 
 While these alloys still occupy a prominent place in brass 
 foundry practice, the white anti-friction alloys have in great 
 measure superseded them. To Isaac Babbitt, the inventor of 
 the process of "babbitting" and of Babbitt's metal, belongs the 
 honor of being the first to make practical demonstration of the 
 utility of soft white metal alloys for reducing the friction of 
 bearing's and machine parts moving in contact. 
 
 Too much stress cannot be laid upon the fact that the patent 
 for the "Babbitt bearing" preceded the patent for Babbitt's metal, 
 as it was a greater innovation in the engineering practice of the 
 time than the mere compounding of an alloy specially suited for 
 bearings. A new principle in machine design, the interspacing 
 of the bearing surface, was introduced, and it involved consider- 
 able inquiry into the laws of friction. Friction is a factor which 
 has to be reckoned with in mechanics ; it is a great dissipator of 
 energy, and by it heat is produced. 
 
 Friction has been defined as "that force which tends to stop 
 a moving body." The, laws of friction as deduced from the 
 experiments of Coulomb, Rennie, and others, present a complete 
 and surprising contrast with regard to solids and liquids. With 
 the former, friction is (a) proportional to pressure, (b) inde- 
 pendent of area of contact, and (c) not greatly affected by the 
 velocity of rubbing, while the reverse holds good with the latter. 
 The friction of plane surfaces gliding over each other, which is 
 the subject immediately under our observation, is influenced by 
 the nature of the bodies in contact, and varies in the ratio of the 
 weight and pressure of the rubbing parts, and the time and 
 velocity of their motions. The ratio obtained by dividing the en- 
 tire force of friction by the normal pressure is called the coeffi- 
 cient of friction. Or to put it another way, the coefficient of fric- 
 tion is the ratio of the force of friction to the force pressing the 
 
106 Practical Alloying 
 
 bodies together. The following are the average values with 
 smooth surfaces on the several materials mentioned : 
 
 Coefficients of Friction 
 
 Metals on metals, dry 0.16 to 0,2 
 
 Metals on metals, lubricated 0.03 to 0.08 
 
 Metals on wood, dry 0.3 to 0.6 
 
 Iveather on metals, dry 0.6 
 
 Wood on wood, dry 0.3 to 0.6 
 
 Since the introduction of babbitt metals, the coefficients of 
 friction have been considerably lessened. Numerous tests with 
 various first-class babbitt metals have shown the following aver- 
 ages : Coefficient of friction 0.012, with load of 500 pounds per 
 square inch and velocity of rubbing surface 500 feet per minute ; 
 compression on 1 cubic inch with loads of from 5 to 10 tons per 
 square inch, 0.010 to 0.070 ; tensile strength about 8,000 pounds 
 per square inch ; melting point 450 degrees Fahr. 
 
 The white anti-friction metals are now more numerous than 
 the brasses and bronzes which they were originally intended to 
 displace. "Babbitt metal" has about lost its individuality and the 
 term has been applied to many concoctions which Babbitt would 
 have disowned. Things have come to such a pass lately that 
 manufacturers have been compelled to classify alloys containing 
 over 80 per cent tin as Genuine Babbit Metal. 
 
 A brief summary of the qualities sought after in alloys 
 intended for anti-friction purposes may help us to under- 
 stand some of the causes of failure with haphazard 
 methods of mixing or buying. The term anti-friction metal is 
 based on the fact that certain metals offer little frictional re- 
 sistance under a heavy load when in contact with other metals. 
 But it must not be thought that high-pressure capacity is the most 
 important requirement in bearing metals. The speed, lubrica- 
 tion, conditions of running, and other factors are sometimes of 
 greater moment than the mere burden which the bearing may 
 have to carry. However, the characteristics of the white anti- 
 friction metals, as a class, may be summed up thus : 
 
 They produce less friction and require less lubrication than 
 any other class of metals or alloys. 
 
 Within certain limits they sustain great pressure without 
 undue abrasion or compression. They are generally sufficiently 
 
Standard Alloys 107 
 
 soft to adapt themselves to the bearing surface, and they do not 
 readily cut the journal. 
 
 They are comparatively indifferent to the action of sea 
 water, acids, etc. 
 
 They have low melting points and are easily manipulated. 
 
 They have small contraction, and they adhere well to other 
 metals. In addition to the qualities necessary for ordinary anti- 
 friction metal, submerged bearings require to be somewhat neu- 
 tral to galvanic action and must offer a high resistance to elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 With all these questions under consideration it is little won- 
 der that there is great diversity of opinion among engineers re- 
 garding the most desirable elements and proportions for anti- 
 friction metals. The white anti-friction metals may be divided, 
 for convenience in distinguishing them, into four classes : 
 
 Genuine babbitt metals, or those alloys having over 80 per 
 cent tin in their composition. 
 
 Plastic metals, or those best adapted for pasting purposes. 
 
 Anti-friction metals, or those having lead as a base. 
 
 White bronzes, so-called, or those suitable for sand castings, 
 generally having zinc for the base. 
 
 This is by no means the accepted classification of these al- 
 loys, but they are growing so numerous that some such classifica- 
 tion will soon be necessary. 
 
 Babbitfs metal. — Babbitt's metal, according to the formula 
 for which the patent was granted, was a ternary alloy, consisting- 
 of copper, 3.7 per cent, antimony, 7.4 per cent, and tin 88.9 per 
 cent. It was made by the good old-fashioned method of melting 
 a portion of the components separately, producing what is known 
 as "hardening," or "temper," melting the quantity of tin required 
 to complete the alloy and adding in the necessary proportion of 
 hardening. 
 
 The best alloys are still made in this manner, irrespective 
 of the metal used as a base. The phenomenal success of babbitt 
 metal as a friction-reducing substance did much to promote the 
 efficiency of modern machinery, and it was to a great extent in- 
 strumental in developing speed and economy of power. But no 
 alloy made for a special purpose could be expected to possess the 
 
108 Practical Alloying 
 
 same properties under altered conditions, hence the call for modi- 
 fications of Babbitt's formula to meet the views of progressive 
 engineers and to keep pace with the economics of modern en- 
 gineering. Much study has been given to the metals in their 
 relation to friction. 
 
 Some years ago Prof. Goodman made a series of investiga- 
 tions to determine the effect on the frictional resistance of minute 
 additions of other metals, to a lead, tin and antimony alloy. He 
 discovered that by the addition of from 0.03 to 0.25 per cent of 
 bismuth, the alloy acquired an almost incredible increase of anti- 
 frictional qualities, while a similar admixture of aluminum had 
 the reverse effect. Some of the anti-friction metals, though sup- 
 posed to be the same, gave frictional results differing by as much 
 as 100 per cent. Analyses of the samples showed that the prin- 
 cipal constituents were present in about the same proportions, 
 but that there were differences in the amount of impurities 
 present. Very minute quantities of some elements showed a 
 marked effect on the friction — some increasing and others dimin- 
 ishing it — and further investigation proved that those elements 
 
 • , /Atomic Weight\ . ^ ^u t ■ 
 
 of low atomic volume, I r;:: — :— I mcreased the fric- 
 
 VSpecific Gravity/ 
 
 tional resistance, while those of high atomic volume decreased 
 it, provided that they were present in small and definite pro- 
 portions. 
 
 The addition of 0.1 per cent of aluminum, which has an 
 atomic volume of 10.6, produced 30 per cent increase in the 
 frictional resistance, while the addition of bismuth, which has 
 an atomic volume of 21.1, immediately reduced the friction. It 
 would seem, therefore, that some elements, as bismuth, arsenic 
 or phosphorus, have a beneficial influence on anti-friction metals, 
 while other elements, as aluminum, iron or nickel, have a con- 
 trary effect. Table XII enables us to contrast the properties of 
 the metals in relation to friction. 
 
 Assuming that the viscosity of liquids is conducive to fric- 
 tion, and low specific heat combined with fusibility and hardness 
 are desirable qualities in lining metals, we have sufficient reason 
 for considering that those metals which do not run freely, as 
 aluminum, copper, zinc, and those which assume a pasty con- 
 
Standard Alloys 
 
 109 
 
 dition near to the point of solidification, as aluminum and iron, 
 are less suited for reducing friction than metals possessing good 
 flowing power, along with these other qualities. The benefits of 
 
 TABLE XII 
 
 Properties of Metals in Relation to Friction 
 
 Heat con- 
 
 
 
 
 Specific 
 heat 
 
 Atomic 
 
 ductivity 
 
 Hardness 
 
 Viscosity 
 
 Fusibility 
 
 volume 
 
 Copper 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Tin 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Tin 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Copper 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Iron 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Iron 
 
 Iron 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Lead 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Lead 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Iron 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Copper 
 
 Tin 
 
 Lead 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Tin 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 
 Tin 
 
 Lead 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Lead 
 
 Zinc 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 Tin 
 
 Copper 
 Iron 
 
 
 Iron 
 Copper 
 
 arsenic in lead, phosphorus in bronze, bismuth in solders, and 
 mercury in bismuth alloys or fusible metals, in increasing fluidity, 
 and fusibility, are already well known, but the benefits derived 
 by combining metals of high atomic volume and low specific heat 
 and conductivity are not generally understood. 
 
 Taking the metals as arranged in the above table, a g^lance 
 may show that if heat conductivity only had to be considered in 
 selecting metal for anti-friction purposes, bismuth, the lowest 
 conductor of the series, would best meet the requirements; if 
 hardness was the indispensable condition, then antimony would 
 be the ideal metal, and so on through Table XII, reading the 
 columns from left to right. 
 
 The physical structure of metals and their chemical affinities 
 combine to regulate the production of alloys conducive to the 
 lowering of friction. Bismuth, we have seen, possesses many 
 excellent qualities of this kind, but it lacks cohesion, and is there- 
 fore unsuitable as a base for a bearing alloy. Lead makes a good 
 second to bismuth in three of the most desirable properties, heat 
 conductivity, fusibility and atomic volume, and but for its known 
 softness, which causes it to spread and flow under pressure, it 
 would, by itself, make a first-class anti-friction metal. The anti- 
 friction alloys having lead for their base are daily increasing. 
 They are hardened and have their melting points regulated to 
 suit various conditions, by admixtures of copper, antimony, tin, 
 bismuth or arsenic. In the words of an advertisement, "they 
 have a graphite-like surface which is partially self-lubricating." 
 
110 Practical Alloying 
 
 Prof. A. Humboldt Sexton declared at a public lecture in the 
 Technical College, Glasgow, that the extraordinary success of the 
 well-known "Magnolia Metal," was due chiefly to the combina- 
 tion in suitable proportions of the metals — lead, antimony and 
 bismuth. 
 
 Impurities in bearing mixtures. — We have already seen that 
 a very slight amount of impurity in the alloy used for bearings 
 may increase the coefficient of friction and cause untold mischief. 
 As all the commercial metals contain more or less impurities, it 
 becomes manufacturers to guard against those elements which 
 are known to increase friction, as aluminum, iron, nickel, and to 
 be careful that the method of making up the alloys does not add 
 to the content of impurities. Some firms announce that their 
 metals "can be melted in an iron pot and they do not deteriorate 
 by remelting." Such a statement is either an evidence that zinc- 
 or phosphorus are not contained in the alloy (if they were they 
 would attack the iron), or else it contains one of those ingenious 
 phrases put out by advertising experts to sell the goods. 
 
 Crucible melting is acknowledged to give the best results, 
 and if large quantities are required, a furnace with a silicious 
 lining is preferable. Enough has been said to show the need for 
 considering the properties of the metals and the peculiar con- 
 ditions which go to make good anti-friction alloys. 
 
 Compounding anti-friction alloys. — The salient points to be 
 observed in compounding anti-friction alloys are condensed as 
 follows : 
 
 Anti-friction alloys are better and more economically mixed 
 by the "bath" system, or by means of "hardening," than by the 
 direct fusion of the components. 
 
 They should not be heated to redness — ^the proper heat may 
 be judged by inserting a pine stick ; it should smoke or singe, but 
 not burn. 
 
 If the alloys are overheated, antimony and zinc are de- 
 creased by volatilization, and a greater amount of separation of _ 
 other constituents occurs in the process of solidification. 
 
 For all around excellence, genuine babbitt metals are to be 
 commended. 
 
 For a cheap metal to give good wear, alloys with zinc in 
 the base give satisfaction, if properly lubricated. 
 
Imk. 1 1— .MchiiiK lialil)ill metal in a 
 5(ili-p(iiin(l crucible in a pit furnace 
 
 Fis- 1:J— .Metliril (,f handling the :.0o- 
 
 piiund crucible when pnuring 
 
 the metal 
 
 Fig. li! — Cast iron gas furnace and ladle for balibitt metal 
 
Standard Alloys 111 
 
 For a metal requiring little attention at high speeds, alloys 
 having lead in the base are the most suitable. 
 
 Plastic metals should contain little antimony, as that metal 
 forms a grit on the bolt or pasting-iron, and prevents the flow of 
 the alloy. 
 
 Aluminum and nickel are altogether unsuitable elements in 
 anti-friction alloys. 
 
 Beware of alloys whose virtues are advertised in the neg- 
 ative form. 
 
 A metal with a low coefficient of friction runs cooler and re- 
 quires less lubrication than one with a higher coefficient. 
 
 The temperature of fusion is lowered by about one-seventh 
 in ordinary practice ; this is due to the pressure. 
 
 Traces of impurities have not the far-reaching effects in 
 brass alloys that they have in gun metals or anti-friction alloys. 
 
 Arsenic 'tends to crystallize other metals; it also promotes 
 the union of other metals that would otherwise be difficult to 
 mix. 
 
 Phosphorus prevents blistering, promotes fluidity and in- 
 creases hardness. 
 
 Manganese is recommended for hydraulic machinery, or 
 where chemical solutions give rise to corrosion with the ordinary 
 alloys. 
 
 Powdered sal-ammoniac is the best flux for babbitt metals. 
 Sawdust is a good protection for the alloys in the molten 
 state. 
 
 A metal, not an alloy, which takes a high polish is better 
 for linings than one which takes a dull polish. This would indi- 
 cate the need for a close-grained metal. 
 
 Anti- friction alloys are manufactured in three grades or de- . 
 grees of hardness, to suit the varying load, speed and duty of 
 machines. In testing the comparative values of alloys as anti- 
 friction metals, these things should be fairly considered. Often- 
 times destructive tests are made in laboratories, with the object 
 of fusing the metals by abnormal pressures and conditions. The 
 conclusion to be drawn is tltat the metal which sticks or fuses 
 
112 Practical Alloying 
 
 first is the worse anti-friction substance. This is hardly a fair 
 test, as it neglects to consider the duty for which the metal is 
 designed. The only practical test for such metals is the co- 
 efficient of friction in actual working conditions. 
 
 Dual alloys. — The early attempts to produce anti-friction 
 metals were mostly dual alloys, 10 per cent compounds of copper 
 in tin, copper in zinc, antimony in tin, or antimony in lead; but 
 the limitations of these alloys were far from satisfying the gen- 
 eral requirements. Dual alloys, therefore, are an unimportant 
 class, entirely out of favor, except in one or two special cases, 
 as lead and antimony, called antimonial lead, for submerged light 
 bearings or chemical plant, or tin and antimony, for gas plant 
 machinery. An example of the latter used by a large firm of 
 meter manufacturers is composed of tin, 75 per cent, antimony, 
 25 per cent. For light machinery running at ordinary speeds an 
 alloy of lead and arsenic, known as "shot" metal, makes a splen- 
 did anti-friction metal. Table XIII gives a selection of the best 
 
 TABLE XIII 
 Some of the Best Babbitt Alloys 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Antimony, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Bismuth, 
 
 Name. 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 
 8.8 
 
 78.66 
 
 11.8 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Navy bronze No. 1 
 
 8 
 
 83 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 Admiralty special 
 
 1.80 
 
 64.70 
 
 
 i 
 
 33.36 
 
 
 Parsons 
 
 * 
 
 36 
 
 17 
 
 44 
 
 
 , , 
 
 Navy bronze No. 4 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 1 
 
 Plastic metal 
 
 
 18 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 76 
 
 
 White brass No. 1 
 
 8.64 
 
 23.14 
 
 
 
 74.22 
 
 
 White brass No. S 
 
 
 42 
 
 12 
 
 46 
 
 
 , , 
 
 Lining metal 
 
 2.60 
 
 
 16.43 
 
 80.24 
 
 
 0.76 
 
 Universal bearing metal 
 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 Marine bronze 
 
 7.6 
 
 84 
 
 7.5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Motor bronze 
 
 8 
 
 76 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 Locomotive bearings 
 
 alloys derived by analysis or from the formulas of the makers. 
 These alloys are all of proven excellence, and, although they have 
 not been set down in the order of their merit, they have been 
 selected from the very best authorities and practice in the en- 
 gineering world. 
 
 "Babbitt, the man and the metal. — Babbitt, Isaac, American 
 inventor, born Taunton, Mass., July 26, 1799; died May 26, 1862. 
 Served an apprenticeship to the goldsmiths' trade and early be- 
 came interested in the production of alloys. In 1824 he manufac- 
 tured the first britannia ware in the United States. In 1839 he 
 discovered the well known anti-friction metal, for which the 
 
Standard Alloys 113 
 
 Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics Association awarded him a 
 gold medal and congress subsequently voted him a pension of 
 $20,000. 
 
 The insertion of this excerpt from the Encyclopaedia Ameri- 
 cana may serve to describe the man who introduced that most 
 popular alloy of the 19th century — babbitt metal. Many people 
 have hazy notions of Babbitt, babbitt metal and babbitting. 
 
 Babbitting, or the lining or interspacing of bearings with an- 
 ti-friction metal has done more to increase the speed and economy 
 of modern machinery than any other single process or practice 
 in engineering. 
 
 Remember, Babbitt manufactured britannia ware and bri- 
 tannia metal is an alloy of tin hardened by antimony and copper. 
 Babbitt's metal, therefore, was purely and simply a britannia 
 metal, and when he had finished with the making of it, it con- 
 sisted of tin 88.9 per cent, antimony 7.4 per cent and copper 
 3.7 per cent. The figures give us no information about the 
 method of combining the metals and that is the most important 
 thing in the production of alloys intended to undergo mechanical 
 treatment. The improvements in the modern bronzes are as 
 much due to correct methods of combining the metals as to the 
 introduction of new elements. It is recognized nowadays, that 
 the mere melting and mixing of metals together, regardless of 
 their chemical qualities, does not conduce to the highest ex- 
 cellence in the combination. The direct melting of the metals to 
 produce an alloy of more than two metals is a crude process, 
 wrong in principle and generally unsatisfactory in the final result. 
 The use of "hardening," "remelting," "temper" and "fluxes" must 
 be understood in order to get the best results from babbitt metal. 
 Even the order in which the metals are melted and blended is of 
 some importance. The proper course is always to make a "har- 
 dening" for alloys of metals showing disparity in fusibility and 
 specific gravity. Babbitt's "hardening" was made by melting 
 copper 4, then adding gradually tin 12, antimony 8, and finally a 
 further addition of tin 12. To make the "lining" metal 72 parts 
 of tin was melted and the 36 parts of "hardening" dissolved 
 therein, so that the alloy was made at a low temperature — ^prac- 
 ticallv at the heat of melted tin. 
 
114 Practical Alloying 
 
 Overheating anti-friction metals. — Overheating is a fruit- 
 ful cause of dissatisfaction with the wearing and working quali- 
 ties of anti-friction metals. The effect of high temperatures on 
 metals of low fusibility is always harmful, more especially if the 
 metals have a tendency to crystallize. In cooling, the refractory 
 combinations (copper, antimony, tin) set first, leaving the more 
 fusible combinations (tin, antimony, copper) to solidify on the 
 surface. That is why in the directions for using genuine babbitt 
 metal we are told to cast the working face of the bearing down- 
 wards if possible, and to avoid high temperatures and slow cool- 
 ing. The latter conditions produce bigger crystals and a greater 
 separation of the constituents in the alloy weakening its cohesive 
 force and increasing the coefficient of friction. 
 
 The properties which make babbitt metal so valuable are its 
 power of accommodating itself to a hard unyielding surface, its 
 capacity for taking a polish, its power of resisting certain chemi- 
 cal influences, and its low melting point. Genuine babbitt metal 
 will not cut, scratch nor heat the journal, and after being in use 
 for some time, the bearing takes a glittering appearance on the 
 surface. But all that glitters is not babbitt! The variations in 
 the genuine babbitt metal are limited, but the commercial grades 
 sold for babbitt metal are endless and the prices sometimes 
 prove that tin is regarded as a luxury. 
 
 During the years of my apprenticeship Babbitt's patent metal 
 was the only thing available for lining bearings, etc., but in 35 
 years many changes are possible. It was found that babbitt alloj' 
 was greatly improved as a self-lubricating metal for fast running 
 light machines, when a portion of the tin was replaced by lead. 
 Further experience brought out the truth that properly hardened 
 lead was equal to hardened tin as a metal for anti-friction pur- 
 poses. 'Twas then the flood arrived ! 
 
 For some years it rained anti-friction metals. They were 
 registered under all sorts of fancy titles. Beginning at Zero, 
 they worked right through the Glacier-cum-Glyco period into the 
 heart of Greek mythology. By comparisons the staying power of 
 Atlas, the strength of Hercules and the defiance of Ajax were 
 set at nought. The Bull and the Bear were driven Tandem on 
 the market, while the Stone and Rock Bronzes understudied the 
 
Standard Alloys 115 
 
 Parsons. At the sign of the White Ant the Navy casts Anchor 
 and upholds the Crown. There are too many of them ; we shall 
 soon want a standardizing bureau for the anti-friction alloys, — 
 registered and unregistered, equal to babbit, better than babbitt 
 and— Babbitt. 
 
 How to make babbitt metal. — Now, if you should happen 
 to want the best babbitt or anti-friction metal that can be made, 
 make it yourself thus : 
 
 Select the purest metals that can be had and the most suit- 
 able formula for the duty of the alloy ; make a preliminary mix 
 of the refractories in a plumbago crucible and pour it out for 
 "hardening." Melt the metal which forms the basis of the alloy, 
 (it may be tin, lead, or zinc,) and dissolve the hardening therein, 
 at a gentle heat, using sawdust, tallow, or powdered sal-am- 
 moniac for a flux. For making a large quantity in the ordinary 
 brass furnace make a cast iron crucible two inches smaller than 
 the diameter of the furnace ; lower it into the furnace and lute 
 round as shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 13 shows how conveniently such 
 a pot may be handled. The capacity of this one is 500 pounds. 
 A more uniform grain may be had from a good sized melt than is 
 possible with a small lot. One word of caution is needed here. 
 Zinc should not be melted in an iron pot, but if melted in a 
 plumbago crucible it may be poured and mixed with the other 
 components of the alloy already melted in the pot. 
 
 Another very convenient furnace for remelting all kinds of 
 babbitt and anti-friction alloys is shown in Fig. 13. This style 
 of furnace is not recommended for making the alloys unless 
 where "hardening," already prepared by meltfng the refractory 
 metals together, is used ; but it is handy for lining metals which 
 are poured with a hand ladle, and it may be moved about to any 
 place where there is a gas union. 
 
 The utility of babbitt metal is not to be gaged by the number 
 of cents it costs per pound. A cheap babbitt, lead or zinc base, 
 well made, may give better service than a costly mixture which 
 has been carelessly blended. Besides, the commercial grading of 
 metals by number or title is like the private marks of retail mer- 
 chants, unintelligible to the outsider. Generally the grades are 
 for (1) light loads and high speeds, (2) medium loads and 
 
116 Practical Alloying 
 
 moderate speeds, (3) heavy loads and slow or moderate speeds, 
 and (4) heavy loads and high speeds. Such grading is reason- 
 able, for the hardness of the alloys increases with the numbers, 
 and price does not count. The time for selling alloys by analysis 
 is not yet, but "Come it will for a' that." 
 
 To sum up, babbitt metal is essentially a tin alloy, but mod- 
 ern engineering practice and commercial usage favors the con- 
 tinuance of the name to all metals capable of the same duty as 
 babbitt. Hence we get three series of babbitt or anti-friction 
 metals: (1) the tin series, (2) the lead series, (3) the zinc 
 series. Tin is the most polishable of the soft metals, and it 
 alloys readily with any of the useful metals employed for minim- 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 Special Babbitt Mixtures 
 
 For lining Tin, Lead, Zinc, Antimony, Copper, Bismuth, 
 
 per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent 
 
 Dynamos, high speed 88 .. .. 8 S.5 0.6 
 
 Marine engines , 77 17 . . 3 3 
 
 Eccentrics 6 78 . . 15 8 0.25 
 
 Submerged bearings 40 48 . . 10 2 
 
 Main bearings 34 44 . . 16 6 
 
 Slides, thrusts 66 . . 30 8.5 8.6 
 
 Railway trucks 48 . . 66 . . 8 
 
 Axle boxes by analysis 74.88 13.50 1.80 6.66 3.60 
 
 Anti-acid metal by analysis... 78.84 14.75 .. trace 3.70 
 
 Plastic metal 80 10 " . . 1 8 1 
 
 Genuine babbitt (hard) 80 . . . . 10 10 
 
 Genuine babbitt. No. 2 83 . . . . 9 8 
 
 Universal bearing metal 6 78 . . 16 . . 0.26 
 
 Anti-friction castings 24 . . 80 . . 4 
 
 izing the friction of machinery; it has been made the basis of 
 the best anti-friction alloys. Lead is undoubtedly the best anti- 
 friction medium among metals, but it lacks a great deal of stiff- 
 ness to stand up to the work. Copper is the ideal bond for zinc 
 alloys, and zinc is the most expansible and durable of metals. 
 Zinc babbitts cast well, wear well and fit snugly to the bearing. 
 
 Owing to its highly crystalline structure, antimony, the prin- 
 cipal hardening element, should not exceed 20 per cent, as it is 
 apt to separate and rub out of the alloy. Seventeen per cent has 
 been fixed as the limit by an eminent authority. 
 
 There are critical points in many alloys of the common 
 metals. Lead and tin may be united in any proportions, but the 
 hardest alloy of the two metals is obtained when they are present 
 in the ratio of 4 and 6 respectively. 
 
Standara Alloys 117 
 
 The mutual relations of the metals determine the mechanical 
 properties of the alloys. Zinc and antimony are too much alike 
 to be used simultaneously and tin alloys, without copper, are 
 apt to spread under heavy loads. Due to its poor affinity for 
 lead and tin and its low atomic volume, aluminum is not a suit- 
 able metal for anti-friction alloys. Bismuth, on the contrary, is 
 a decided advantage up to about 1.5 per cent. This metal has 
 been freely used in the production of some modern alloys, 
 notably those with low fusibility, low contraction and high 
 atomic volume. In Table XIV are given some special mixtures 
 which have given complete satisfaction for the duty stated. 
 
 Lastly, we have the mixtures of a manufacturer representing 
 four grades as given in Table XV. 
 
 In each case the metals represented by the figures, 7, 17 and 
 6 constitute the "hardening." These are what are termed copper 
 
 TABLE XV 
 
 
 Grades 
 
 No. 1 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 4 
 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 17 
 
 
 Zinc 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 Lead 
 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 Antimony , 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 Copper . . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 hardened alloys, — the copper content being over 5 per cent. This 
 series is worthy the attention of all who are seeking for cheap, 
 serviceable anti-friction metals. The composition of a special 
 manganese babbitt follows : Tin 80 per cent, lead 10 per cent^ 
 antimony 7 per cent and manganese-copper 3 per cent. 
 
 An anti-friction paste, recommended for fans, etc., running- 
 at high speed, follows : Tallow, 6 parts ; plaster of paris, 3 parts ; 
 beeswax, 3 parts ; blue butter, 1 part ; plumbago, 1 part. Melt to- 
 gether and allow to cool before using. 
 
IX 
 
 FOUNDRY MIXTURES 
 
 IN striking contrast to the simplicity and exactness of the 
 formulas specified for standard alloys, the mixtures used 
 in brass foundries generally are variable. The ordinary 
 foundry metals are therefore of unequal properties, and 
 the methods employed in their manufacture are sometimes of 
 doubtful value. Commercialism seems to dominate the brass in- 
 dustry to the prejudice of its products. There is more fictitious 
 valuation permitted with brass founders' alloys than would be 
 tolerated in any other department of the foundry business. Brass 
 has become a name signifying a metal yellow in color. Gun 
 metal is a convenient term for alloys of more coppery appear- 
 ance, and in these days when things are being sold, which, ac- 
 cording to the advertisements "operate to increase the chemical 
 affinity between the different elements of a mixture, and tend to 
 determine the copper or higher colored elements to the surface," 
 any old metal may be converted into respectable, colorable gun 
 metal. All alloys are the outcome of experiment and research, and 
 as improvements in the manufacture of alloys have had to keep 
 pace with other advances in the metal industries, many processes, 
 having no bearing on the intrinsic merits of the metals, have been 
 adopted in general foundry practice. For example, to avoid the 
 loss due to remelting, many excellent gtin metals are made by in- 
 troducing into molten copper, old metals of known proportions, 
 as yellow brass, bell metal, plumbers' solder, etc. 
 
 The art of mixing old metals and producing castings of good 
 uniform grades requires a deal of skill, experience and good 
 judgment. So many things may be overlooked in passing a heap 
 
Foundry Mixtures 
 
 119 
 
 of scrap. Some pieces may appear clean and even in the grain, 
 yet the effect of a very small percentage of either antimony, or 
 aluminum in them would be to ruin the whole mixture for many 
 kinds of castings. Every firm has its own methods of manufac- 
 ture and its own stock-in-trade of mixtures suited for particular 
 
 TABLE XVI 
 
 H. G. M. railway, 
 "Ash" Metal, M. Ingots, axle bars, 
 
 Metal per cent per cent per cent 
 
 Copper 71.60 75.55 82.75 
 
 Tin 5.00 1.45 13.04 
 
 Zinc 5.42 20.80 3.81 
 
 Lead 17.55 2.00 
 
 Antimony 0.40 0.35 
 
 Total 99.97 99.80 99.95 
 
 classes of work. Every foundry foreman, too, has his favorite 
 mixtures and a note book which he prizes more than a whole 
 technical library. 
 
 The need for this note book will be most apparent to those 
 who best understand the delicate and complex nature of certain 
 alloys and the alternative methods of making them. The blend- 
 ing of metals is as much an art as the treating of foods or fabrics, 
 and the recipes in the first mentioned business are equally im- 
 portant. The metal-mixer who is called upon to produce alloys 
 to specification, from old metals, must work up a system of aver- 
 ages. For the purposes of the mixtures in Table XVI, ydlow 
 brass was reckoned to average, copper two-thirds, zinc one-third, 
 
 TABLE XVII 
 
 Standard Alloys From Mixed Metals* 
 
 ■s S 
 
 53 
 20 
 84 
 
 41 
 
 
 11 
 
 pq 
 
 18 28 
 
 20 32 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 Copper 87 
 Copper 88 
 Copper 88 
 
 Tin 8 
 Tin 10 
 Tin 12 
 
 Zinc 5 
 Zinc 2 
 
 Copper 14 Tin 1 Zinc 1 
 Copper 81 Tin 10 Lead 9 
 
 Merchant ship 
 
 H. M. S. "Dido " 
 
 Fire Brigade Hydrant, Edin- 
 burgh 
 
 Trinity Marine Board, Lon- 
 don 
 
 Glasgow Corporation Sewage 
 Plant 
 
 ♦All of these metals stood the physical tests required from the speci- 
 fied alloys, notwithstanding deviations as great as 1.7 per cent from the 
 quantities stated in the specifications. 
 
120 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 bell metal to contain 18 to 20 per cent tin, and the analyses of 
 mixed metals in stock in the foundry where these alloys were 
 made as given in Table XVI, were sufficient guide to attain satis- 
 factory results as shown in Table XVII. 
 
 Numerous examples might be given of ordinary brass found- 
 ers' alloys being made from a collection of old metals but a few 
 will suffice to show how much may be done by studying the char- 
 acteristics and contents of the scrap heap. 
 
 Brazing metal. — Brazing metal may easily be made by add- 
 ing to melted copper from 1 to 3 times its bulk of brass tubes 
 or sheathing. A common practice in making cheap gun metals 
 is to melt a quantity of mixed brass scrap and add an equal 
 quantity of standard gun metal, (Copper 9, tin 1). An excellent 
 
 TABLE XVIII 
 
 Specimen Foundry Mixtures Containing Scrap or Old Metals 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 "rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 Jj 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 p 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 (3 
 
 
 u "2 
 
 I 
 
 < 
 
 ?^ 
 
 fe 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 2% 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cock Metal 
 
 2B 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Red Metal 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Red Metal 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pan Metal 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pan Metal 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Screw Metal 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Screw Metal 
 
 16 
 
 1}4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bolt Metal 
 
 93 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Steam Metal 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steam Metal 
 
 16 
 
 1}4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steam Metal 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 ■30 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Gun Metel 
 
 16 
 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gun Metal 
 
 54 
 
 15 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bell Metal 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Art Metal 
 
 32 
 
 3J4 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 Bush Metal 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bush Metal 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bush Metal 
 
 iO 
 
 
 
 
 10 to 30 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 Bush Metal 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 , , 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 Bush Metal 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Bush Metal 
 
 anti-friction alloy for high speed, low pressure machines results 
 from the following mixture, lead shot, 100 parts, antimony 6 to 
 10 parts. The arsenic in lead shot has a great influence on the 
 anti-friction properties of lead-antimony alloys. 
 
 Another alloy in which lead shot figures is known as "Ajax" 
 bronze— copper 100 parts, tin 12j^ parts, arsenic lead 12j4 parts. 
 
Foundry Mixtures 121 
 
 This is an excellent bearing metal ; it is also well suited for cocks 
 and fittings for chemical plants. 
 
 The most reliable anti-acid metal is made from copper 3 
 parts, antimonial-lead 1 part. Good steam metal may be made 
 by simply adding IS per cent plumbers' fine solder to molten braz- 
 ing metal. This is a convenient way to use up old flanges. Other 
 examples of mixed metals being used for practical combinations 
 will be found in Table XVIII. The quantities are given in round 
 figures, and may be read as pounds, or as parts in ratios suited 
 to the capacity of the crucible or the work to be cast. It is 
 customary in brass foundries to have the composition or alloying 
 metals, fixed in relation to the pound of copper, therefore most 
 of the figures are either multiples or fractions of sixteen, the 
 number of ounces in the pound avoirdupois. 
 
 Many brass founders run away with the notion that the 
 mixture is everything and forget that the melting practice is the 
 most important part in the mixing of metals. Some pride them- 
 selves on possessing certain recipes which they imagine give 
 them advantages over their competitors. Experience is the best 
 guide, and careful attention to details the best recipe, for the 
 blending of metals into alloys. Foundry alloys are mostly regu- 
 lated by the metals available and the prices obtainable for cast- 
 ings. The relative weights of the metals entering into an alloy- 
 are of some importance in the final value of the castings. 
 
 The addition of aluminum in an alloy is sometimes an econ- 
 omy, just as the addition of lead — ^the cheapest adulterant, is 
 frequently made a means of gain. The high or low specific 
 gravity of the alloy makes a difference in the price or the profit.. 
 
 Typical brass founders' alloys. — The general public has an 
 idea that the brass trade is one, at least, in which there can only 
 be a limited amount of trickery. In some quarters, anything hav- 
 ing the color of brass will suit, even if it is mainly zinc ; and in 
 others, a metal having the color and fracture of gun metal is as 
 good as the best. Yellow brass and gun metal are probably the 
 two most prominent alloys on the brass founders' list, but they 
 have ceased to be the typical metals they were in the good old 
 days before brass founders knew more than one way of making 
 them, unless in shops working to standard formulae and require- 
 
1^2 Practical Alloying 
 
 ments, or where specifications and tests are part of the contract. 
 I do not mean to infer by this that the brass founder is degenerat- 
 ing, or that he has lost his cunning in mixing the alloys, but 
 rather that the exigencies of trade, price-cutting and competition, 
 have left him no other possible way out than by a skillful manipu- 
 lation of the metals within the limits of his customers' specifi- 
 cations. The ideal has almost been attained in iron founding; 
 cast ifBn will in all likelihood, soon be bought, mixed, and sold, 
 universally, by desirable chemical standards, and the mechanical 
 tests required will be obtained by methods of melting and cast- 
 ing. Surely if it is a desideratum to seek for exact proportions 
 of the elements in various grades of cast iron, it is none the less 
 necessary in different qualities of brass. It used to be that the 
 quantities of zinc or tin periodically consumed were a sufficient 
 index of the character of the work done in a brass foundry. 
 Nowadays, when the brass refiner is a power in the land, and the 
 
 TABLE XIX 
 
 Specimen Air Furnace Charges, Containing Scrap and Old Metals 
 
 1 
 
 ■5 
 
 p. 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 
 
 01 
 in 
 
 < 
 
 v 
 
 s 
 1 
 
 tn 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Pumps 
 
 ....10 
 .... 4 
 ....10 
 
 so 
 
 10 
 25 
 10 
 24 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 "2 
 
 6 
 
 ie 
 
 '3 
 4 
 
 '2 
 10 
 
 '3 
 
 '9 
 
 22 
 
 '2 
 
 1 
 
 '5 
 4 
 
 Centrifugal pumps 
 Circulating pumps 
 
 Liners 
 
 Propellers 
 
 Tube plates 
 
 .... 5 
 .... 6 
 
 ....16 
 4 
 
 30 pounds phosphor-copper 
 
 added 
 Good red metal 
 
 Stern tubes . . . 
 
 Brasses 
 
 Steam Pipes ... 
 Sluice Valves . . 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 .... 3 
 22 
 
 Sugar mill bearings 
 Mixed borings, 140 pounds 
 Fluxed with 18 pounds old bot- 
 tles 
 
 habit of buying mixed metals, ingot, and scrap, has gp-own to be 
 recognized as a necessary evil, the line cannot be drawn so easily 
 which separates brass and gun metal, or the legitimate use of the 
 cheaper metals in the manufacture of brass founders' alloys. 
 
 Perhaps we cannot better illustrate this point than by giving 
 the reply of a foreman brass molder, who, when asked to pur- 
 chase a recent book dealing with brass founders' alloys, said: 
 
Foundry Mixtures 
 
 133 
 
 "What do I want with a book of mixtures, when all I get to mix 
 is a bar o' lead and a barrel o' sojer's buttons?" Fortunately, 
 this is an extreme case, and the resources of the average brass 
 founder are not confined to such puerile commodities. Never- 
 theless there is a suggestiveness about that "bar o' lead," which 
 will appeal to the engineer or trader handling either marine or 
 jobbing brass castings. It is due to the refiner to say that he has 
 in great measure educated brass founders and opened their eyes 
 to new possibilities in the matter of serviceable alloys, high-ten- 
 sion alloys and alloys containing the base metal. The staple 
 product of the brass refiner in Great Britain is known to the 
 trade as Ash metal. This is a low gp"ade brass containing all 
 
 TABLE XX 
 
 Specimen Foundry Alloys, from New Metals, in Pounds 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 if 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J! 
 
 
 6 
 
 s 
 ■ H 
 
 N 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 2 
 
 Iron 
 Phosp 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 6 
 2H 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Propellers 
 
 80 
 
 8 
 1 
 4 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 
 8 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Pinions 
 
 95 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hydraulic pumps 
 Bearings 
 
 82 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 88 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Slide valves 
 
 88 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gun metal 
 
 17 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 German silver 
 
 28 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 German silver 
 
 45 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aluminum brass 
 
 4 
 
 110 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 Babbitt metal 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Babbitt metal 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Delta metal 
 
 10 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White brass 
 
 80 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gun metal 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 '.'. S 
 
 Navy bronze 
 Art metal 
 
 140 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Phosphor bronze 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Manganese bronze 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 •• 
 
 ■• 
 
 
 Spring metal 
 
 sort of impurities ; it is reduced from skimmings, furnace ashes, 
 buffings, chips and sweepings, and when a sufficient quantity 
 for a heat has been washed it is smelted and tested to see how 
 much lead or zinc it will carry before being run into ingots for 
 the market. Ash metal has really no claim to the name of brass 
 unless for its color, and then it sometimes might with equal jus- 
 
124 Practical Alloying 
 
 tice be termed German silver, and no self-respecting brass founder 
 would ever dream of using it for castings by itself. He generally 
 mixes some other metal with it to give it body, or else he uses it 
 as a cheap reliable adulterant in new metal. To the credit of the 
 refiner it must be said, he makes no professions about his Ash 
 metal other than that it is cheap. The following is an analysis 
 of a regular Ash metal sold in Glasgow in 1900 : Copper 57.08 
 per cent, tin 1.23 per cent, zinc 25.65 per cent, lead 14.12 per 
 cent, antimony 0.42 per cent, iron 0.61 per cent. 
 
 Every well managed foundry has a system of collecting and 
 using its own scrap, borings or surplus metals, for the regular 
 grades. Most difficulty is experienced in connection with "for- 
 eign" scrap, or metals which have to be judged by appearance 
 or by mechanical tests. Alas ! appearances are oftentimes deceiv- 
 ing and even mechanical tests may be misleading as to the blend- 
 
 TABLE XXI 
 Constituents and Range of Basis Elements in Typical Brass Founders 
 
 Alloys 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 Name of alloy. Constituents. Basis metal aTerage 
 
 content 
 
 Brass Copper and zinc Copper .... 80 to 76 
 
 Braziiig metal Copper and zinc Copper .... 80 to 90 
 
 Bronze Copper and tin Copper .... 84 to 94 
 
 Bell metal Copper and tin Copper 78 to 84 
 
 Gun metal Copper, tin and zinc Copper 80 to 90 
 
 Steam metal Copper, tin, zinc and lead Copper 80 to 90 
 
 Cock metal Copper, zinc and lead Copper .... 76 to 90 
 
 Fhospliarus bronze Copper, tin and phosphorus .... Phosphorus 0.25 to 3 
 
 Aluminum bronze Copper and a^luminum Aluminum^ . . 3 to 10 
 
 Aluminum brass Copper, zinc and aluminum .... Aluitiinum' . . 3 to 5 
 
 German silver Copper, zinc and nickel Nickel 16 to 86 
 
 Delta metal Copper, zinc and iron Iron 1 to S 
 
 Manganese bronze Copper, zinc, iron and 'manganese Manganese . . 0.6 to 6 
 
 Silicon bronze Copper, tin and silicon Silicon 0.6 to 3.6 
 
 Hard solder Copper and zinc Copper .... 48 to 66 
 
 Soft solder Tin and lead Tin 60 to76 
 
 Anti-friction metal, grade I. Tin, antimony and copper Tin 80 to 90 
 
 Anti-friction metal, grade II. Zinc, tin and copper Zinc 60 to 80 
 
 Anti-friction metal, grade III Lead, antimony and copper or tin Lead 76 to 83 
 
 Britannia metal Tin and antimony Antimony . . 8 to 10 
 
 Type metal Lead and antimony Antimony ..10 to 30 
 
 Fusible metal Bismuth, lead and tin Bismuth ... 16 to 40 
 
 ing or alloying properties of a metal which behaves decently if 
 taken by itself. In the examples already given, the custom of 
 making alloys from mixed metals is exemplified, but the analyses 
 furnished with these mixed metals made it easy to graduate the 
 components in the finished alloy. This is the exception : the rule 
 
Foundry Mixtures 125 
 
 in most foundries is to take any old metal that comes along and 
 work it in, (lavishly or sparingly, according to quality) with the 
 metals carried in stock. 
 
 Mixtures for chandelier work. — The most modern designs 
 for chandelier work have brass, wrought iron and copper in com- 
 bination. Brass is generally the foundation of the color scheme 
 and many plain and ornamental castings are necessary for the 
 completion of the design. The whole of the work is lacquered 
 when it is finished. For the most part it is left bright but some- 
 times the plain parts are bronzed and relieved at suitable places 
 by burnishing. Castings for the latter are usually made from the 
 ordinary yellow brass, two and one alloy. 
 
 For the finer ornamental work which is to finish bright and 
 be dipped in acids to heighten the effect of ornamentation and 
 color contrasts, only dipping metal, or fine brass alloys may be 
 used. Such alloys range in copper from 70 to 85 per cent and zinc 
 from 15 to 30 per cent. The higher the percentage of copper the 
 deeper the color of the brass, and if a paler color is required than 
 can be had with only copper and zinc in the mixture, from one 
 to three per cent of aluminized zinc may be added to the last 
 named quantities. 
 
 Small additions of any metals having a tendency to harden 
 or close the grain of the alloy will give a higher polish with the 
 burnisher. Nickel, manganese, aluminum, tin, arsenic, phos- 
 phorus, each have this effect, but with the exception of aluminum, 
 not more than 0.5 per cent should be present in the alloy. On 
 the other hand the presence of such impurities as lead, iron or 
 antimony, would be fatal to a brilliant finish in the dip. The 
 main point therefore in making a successful dipping metal is to 
 use only the purest metals that can be had. Remelted zinc will 
 not do for a first-class dipping mixture; it always contains the 
 impurities mentioned. Two first-class mixtures used by Birming- 
 ham (Eng.) founders are : Copper 19 pounds, zinc 6 pounds, and 
 copper 30 pounds, zinc, 12 pounds, tin, }i pound. 
 
 A brass mixture for dipping can only be cheapened by in- 
 creasing the proportion of zinc and a large class of decorative 
 work is run with mixtures containing from 7 to 14 pounds of 
 zinc to every 16 pounds of copper, that is to say, the cheaper dip- 
 
136 Practical Alloying 
 
 ping metals show from 30 to 47 per cent zinc while the finer 
 qualities have only 16 to 28 per cent. 
 
 For variety of color scheme, a beautiful, deep-tinted, golden 
 bronze suitable for turned parts, results from a mixture in the 
 following proportions : Copper 90 per cent, tin 6^ per cent, 
 zinc 2j4 per cent, lead 1 per cent. 
 
 Pale Gold Alloy: Copper 72 per cent, zinc 37 per cent, and 
 aluminum 1 per cent. 
 
 Dips and lacquers. — To blacken aluminum, clean the metal 
 thoroughly with fine emery powder, wash well, and im- 
 merse in — 
 
 Ounces 
 
 Ferrous sulphate 1 
 
 White arsenic 1 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 12 
 
 Dissolve and add — 
 
 Water 12 
 
 When the color is deep enough dry off with fine sawdust and lacquer. 
 
 Lacquers are ordinarily of two kinds : alcohol and products 
 of alcohol. Good alcohol lacquers consist of shellac, and 
 gums of various sorts, to produce colored effects, and are ap- 
 plied by heating the brass. The lacquer most commonly used is 
 made by dissolving 1 ounce of soluble cotton in a quart of 
 amylacetate and thinned with mixture of amylacetate and fusel 
 oil to the consistency desired. 
 
 To produce a brown to black color on brass, dissolve 1 
 pound of plastic carbonate of copper in 2 gallons of strong 
 ammonia. Boil the brasswork in a strong solution of potash, 
 rinse well and dip in the copper solution which should be heated 
 to about 160 degrees Fahr. When the required tint is procured 
 rinse and dry off in warm sawdust, then lacquer. 
 
 Bright Dipping Acid 
 
 Sulphuric acid 2 gallons 
 
 Nitric acid 1 pint 
 
 Muriatic acid 1 pint 
 
 Water 1 pint 
 
 Nitre 12 pounds 
 
 ^umeless Dipping Acid 
 
 Sulphuric acid 10 pounds 
 
 Saltpetre 2 pounds 
 
 Water S pounds 
 
Foundry Mixtures 127 
 
 Pickle For Removing Sand from Brass Castings 
 
 Hydrofluoric acid 1 part 
 
 Water 10 parts 
 
 10 to IS minutes immersion is sufficient. 
 
 Gold Lacquer 
 
 Shellac 1 ounce 
 
 Gum benzine 14 ounce 
 
 Came wood J^ ounce 
 
 (Or Turmeric 1 ounce, Saffron % ounce) 
 
 Alcohol 1 pint 
 
 Digest for a week, shaking frequently, decant and filter for use. 
 
 Silver Lacquer 
 
 Bleached shellac 1 ounce 
 
 Gum Juniper }^ ounce 
 
 Spirits of wine 1 pint 
 
 Green Lacquer for Bronze 
 
 Silver lacquer 1 pint 
 
 Turmeric 4 drachms 
 
 Gamboge 1 drachm 
 
 Chemical Bronze 
 
 Vinegar , 1 pint 
 
 Crocus of suppHment J4 ounce 
 
 Blue stone % ounce 
 
 Marine brass mixtures. — Shipbuilding is perhaps the most 
 important of all the industries creating a demand for alloys. 
 Only the best goods will answer for ocean-going steamers and 
 some typical mixtures for (a) bearings, (b) propeller wheels 
 and (c) other castings used about ships will be considered. In 
 speaking of ocean steamers there is a big choice between the 
 common tramp and the naval cruiser. A rough classification of 
 ocean steamers would divide them into three groups viz. : Ad- 
 miralty ships, mail steamers and cargo boats. As to the first, 
 everything put into them is of the best and the alloys used by 
 the various naval departments may be gleaned from books on 
 standard metals as Thurston's "Materials of Engineering." 
 Obviously the information most sought for relates to steamers 
 carrying passengers and cargo — ^merchantmen. 
 
 Taking the questions in order: (a) includes all moving parts 
 of the ship's machinery. To explain, a ship's propeller is gen- 
 erally keyed on to a shaft, which passes through the stern tube 
 and hangs over the aperture between the stern and the rudder. 
 
128 Practical Alloying 
 
 In some cases an outer bearing is provided on the rudder 
 brace. 
 
 Gun metal liners are either shrunk or cast on to this tail- 
 shaft, which revolves in the tunnel bearings, and projects 
 through the ship into the sea. Mixtures for shaft liners, tunnel 
 and aperture bearings and the stern brushes are given in Table A. 
 
 Lead figures in these mixtures because it helps to counter- 
 act the corrosive action induced by brass and iron in contact in 
 a moist atmosphere or under water. 
 
 As a rule, the stern tube is lined with lignum vitae strips 
 or babbitt lining, and the tunnel bearings are generally cast 
 steel, babbitt lined. A cheap babbitt is best for these parts as 
 they are continually under water. A good mixture is lead, 80 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE A 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yellow 
 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Brass, 
 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 
 74 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Liners, to shrink on shaft 
 
 60 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 Liners, to be cast on shaft 
 
 81 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 Bearings, for aperture bushes 
 
 80 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 For tunnel bearings 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 Glands and bushes for stern tube 
 
 83 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Piston rings, springs, etc. 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Steam metal 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 Bushes, common castings, etc. 
 
 100 
 
 nyi 
 
 — 
 
 nVi 
 
 — 
 
 Bearings 
 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 Valves, cocks, etc. 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Bolts, studs 
 
 84 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 Hydraulic connections 
 
 81 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 — 
 
 Pinions and slides 
 
 88 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Pumps and plungers 
 
 per cent, antimony, 16 per cent, tin, 4 per cent, but a better 
 quality, suitable for almost any part of a ship's machinery, is 
 composed of lead, 44, antimony, 12, tin, 44. 
 
 Coming now to (b) we will consider propeller wheels. 
 Manganese bronze is undoubtedly the finest metal for ship's 
 propellers. It is eminently suited for propeller wheels with 
 portable blades, and the modern practice is to have the boss, or 
 hub made of cast steel and the blades of some high tension alloy 
 like aluminum brass, delta metal or manganese bronze. 
 
Foundry Mixtures 129 
 
 The analyses of two manganese bronze mixtures are given 
 herewith : 
 
 Per cent Per cent 
 
 Copper 68.0 aO.O 
 
 Zinc 42.0 88.0 
 
 Manganese 3.7 0.6 
 
 Aluminum 1.8 
 
 Iron 1.6 
 
 For solid propellers, that is, where the boss and blades 
 are one casting, the best alloy, from a foundry standpoint, is 
 the ordnance gun metal, copper 90, tin 10. This alloy is neu- 
 tral to the iron or steel of the hull and corrosion is therefore 
 slight. 
 
 In making the high-tension alloys previously mentioned, 
 which are all in reality copper-zinc alloys with aluminum, iron 
 or manganese additions, up to about 2 per cent, it is best to fix 
 a standard, say 60 and 40, copper and zinc respectively, and add 
 the strengthening elements in some intermediary form as, 
 aluminized-zinc, ferro-zinc or cupro-manganese. The shrinkage 
 of these alloys is great and with castings showing heavy sec- 
 tions, feeding heads are advisable. 
 
 TABLE B 
 
 Anti- 
 Lead, Zinc, Tin, mony. Copper, 
 per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent 
 
 80 — 12 8. — Metallic packing 
 
 17 — 76 3. 3 Babbitt linings 
 
 4.5 75 18 2,5 — Anti-friction castings, liners, etc 
 
 — 76 18 — 6 Bearings 
 
 12 — 80 — 8 Plastic metal for pasting 
 
 38. — 42 17 3 Metallic packing for shavings 
 
 12 — 70 12 6 Hard metallic packing 
 
 Lastly, we have (c), formulas for other castings used about 
 ships. We shall begin on the bridge and work gradually down 
 to the lower decks. On the bridge we have the telegraph gear, 
 the bell and the binnacle. The inside parts of the telegraph are 
 of most importance; the cams and pinions require a strong gun 
 metal of good wearing quality, copper 88, tin 9, zinc 3, or copper 
 88, tin 6, zinc 6. An excellent composition for telegraph and 
 ship's bells is composed of copper 81, tin 17, zinc 2. On deck 
 the fittings are mostly yellow brass. Copper 63 and zinc 37, 
 with lead up to 3 per cent. 
 
 Rails, stanchions and port lights should be of good naval 
 
130 Practical Alloying 
 
 brass, copper 62, zinc 37 and tin 1, or Tobin bronze, copper 58, 
 zinc 40, tin 1 and lead 1. In the saloon and cabins German silver is 
 economical and effective for brackets, lamps, etc. A good com- 
 position which withstands the action of sea air well is made up of 
 copper 56, zinc 24, nickel 18, lead 2. A cheaper quality, copper 
 54, zinc 30, nickel 16. A substitute alloy is copper 3, zinc 12, 
 aluminum 84, phosphor-tin, 1. 
 
 In the engine room all sorts of alloys are required for 
 pumps, condensers, dynamos, and auxiliary engines. 
 
 Plastic metal and anti-friction metal for linings should also 
 find a place with the engine room stores. Some useful mix- 
 tures are given in Table B. 
 
 Nickel bronze. — A strong non-corrosive bronze suitable for 
 ship's work, for ornamental castings or stampings, which has 
 recently been patented, is made as follows: Make a prelimin- 
 ary alloy of iron 2 parts, copper 2 parts, zinc 1 part, and nickel 
 1 part. This is added to a "high-brass" alloy consisting of copper 
 54 parts, zinc 40 parts. 
 
 Shipbuilders' alloys. — A number of special shipbuilders' 
 alloys are given herewith: 
 
 Manganese Bronze for Propellers, Bolts, Etc. 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Copper 58 
 
 Zinc 38 
 
 Aluminum 1 
 
 Manganese-copper 3 
 
 Manganese Bearing Bronze 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Copper 75 
 
 Tin , 10 
 
 Zinc : . , 4 
 
 Manganese-copper 11 
 
 Phosphor Bronze for Pinions, Brackets, Eccentrics, Etc. 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Copper 86 
 
 Tin 7 
 
 Phosphor-copper 7 
 
 Hard Phosphor Bronze for Piston Rings 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Copper 80 
 
 Tin 12 
 
 Phosphor-copper 8 
 
Foundry Mixtures 131 
 
 Phosphor Bronze for Bearings 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Copper 79 75 
 
 Tin 9 S 
 
 Lead -. 8 18 
 
 Phosphor-copper 4 3 
 
 Nickel Alloys, White, Non-Corrosive, Strong and Free From 
 
 Pinholes 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Copper 63 57 50 
 
 Zinc 20 20 35 
 
 Nickel 17.5 30 15 
 
 Aluminum 0.5 3 0.35 
 
 Delta Metal 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Copper SO 
 
 Manganese-copper 5 
 
 Phosphor-copper 1 
 
 Zinc 43 
 
 Lead 1 
 
 Delta metal. — According to the Delta Metal Co., one of the 
 special qualities of Delta metal which renders it of the greatest 
 value for engineering purposes, lies in the fact that its strength 
 is but Uttle reduced by an elevation of the temperature. With 
 steam at high pressures it is absolutely necessary that the en- 
 gine parts and fittings exposed to the heat should be of a com- 
 position that renders them perfectly safe, even at such pressures 
 as 40 atmospheres (about 600 pounds per square inch) and 
 higher. At a pressure of 40 atmospheres the temperature is over 
 480 degrees Fahr., and, as will be seen by the following tests 
 made by Professor W. C. Unwin, the cast Delta metal had at 
 506 degrees Fahr. lost only about 17j^ per cent of its strength, 
 while at 500 degrees Fahr., brass had lost over 38 per cent. 
 
 Note: — German silver alloys require the very best metals and great 
 care in their manufacture. Melt the copper and nickel together, add the 
 aluminum and finish with the zinc. 
 
132 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 phosphor bronze about 31 per cent, and gun metal about 33 
 per cent : 
 
 Breaking Strain, Tons per Square Inch 
 
 Temperature, degrees 
 
 Delta metal. 
 
 
 Phosphor- 
 
 Gun 
 
 
 Fahrenheit, 
 
 cast 
 
 Brass 
 
 bronze 
 
 metal 
 
 
 Atmospheric 
 
 23.88 
 
 12.46 
 
 16.06 
 
 
 
 210 
 
 ■ > • > 
 
 .... 
 
 * ■ . * 
 
 11.66 
 
 
 270 
 
 
 .... 
 
 iV.ie 
 
 
 
 310 
 
 2V.36 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 3S0 
 
 
 11.83 
 
 18.26 
 
 . .!. 
 
 
 380 
 
 • . > . 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 lV.26 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 • ■ * . 
 
 
 11.06 
 
 
 410 
 
 22.48 
 
 .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 430 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • . • • 
 
 12.41 
 
 .... 
 
 
 440 
 
 .... 
 
 * . . . 
 
 . . • • 
 
 IS.SO 
 
 
 450 
 
 . . • . 
 
 10.40 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 .... 
 
 7.69 
 
 11.10 
 
 7.84 
 
 
 60« 
 
 19.68 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 660 
 
 . • . . 
 
 7.68 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 590 
 
 16.00 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 '8.17 
 
 6.22 
 
 
 616 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 4.83 
 
 
 635 
 
 12.76 
 
 .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 645 
 
 
 
 3.23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alloy for bells. — Special alloy for ship's bells : copper 90 
 parts, tin 10 parts, aluminum 2 parts. This is equal to cast 
 steel in strength. 
 
 Plastic metal. — Richards' plastic metal for pasting: Tin 
 70 parts, antimony 15 parts, lead 10>^ parts, copper 4j^ parts. 
 
 Anti-rust metal. — Bailey's anti-rust gun metal: Copper 
 16 parts, tin 2j4 parts, zinc 1 part. 
 
 Fittings for ships. — ^Yellow bronze for ship's fittings, 
 stanchions, propellers, etc. (Patented) : Copper 60 to 80 parts, 
 zinc 20 to 40 parts, silicon J^ to 4 parts, tin 1 to 2 parts. This 
 alloy may be forged or rolled hot. 
 
 Armor plate. — ^Armor plate, bronze, (Patent Alloy) : Cop- 
 per 85 parts, tin 4 parts, iron 6 parts, common salt 5 parts. 
 
 Damascus metal. — ^Damascus metal for bearings: Copper 
 76.46 per cent, tin 10.52 per cent, lead 12.56 per cent. 
 
 Aluminum alloy for automobile castings. — Aluminum 92 
 parts, zinc 6 parts and phosphor-copper 2 parts. 
 
 White brass, called "lumen bronze," for axle bearings. — Zinc 
 86 parts, copper 10 parts, aluminum 4 parts. 
 
 Plastic Bronze for locomotive bearings. — Copper 65 to 10 
 per cent, lead 23 to 30 per cent, and tin 5 to 7 per cent. 
 
X 
 
 WHITE METALS 
 
 THE copper alloys bulk so largely in the manufacturing 
 world that it is hard to get away from them. Taking 
 the melting temperature of alloys as a means of divi- 
 sion we have now to consider the more fusible, but none 
 the less serviceable alloys, generally classed as white metals. 
 Whereas most of the structural alloys, having a copper basis, 
 melt in the neighborhood of 1,000 degrees Cent., the white 
 metals and alloys require on an average less than one-half that 
 temperature for their fusion. Outside of the ornamental white 
 alloys — German silver, mock platimmi, aluminum silver, and 
 the like — and the white anti-friction alloys, there remains an 
 important series of white colored metals having special casting 
 qualities and high mechanical values. Such alloys as type metal, 
 brittania metal, fusible metal, and solder do not belong 
 properly to the general foundry practice. The best castings in 
 these easily crystallized metals are obtained from chills, but 
 owing to their fluidity, giving sharp impressions, and the ex- 
 pansion due to the presence of antimony or bismuth, they are 
 eminently suited' for mixing into pattern metals for sand mold- 
 ing as well. 
 
 The advantages of metal patterns as against wooden models 
 are so great that their use is warranted for comparatively small 
 lots of castings. Cast iron as a pattern metal is open to objec- 
 tion because of its brittle nature and its tendency to rust ; never- 
 theless it may be freely used provided thin sections are avoided. 
 For small solid patterns (a) zinc-tin and (b) lead-anti- 
 mony mixtures are favored. Usual proportions run (a) zinc 
 
134 Practical Alloying 
 
 30 to 50 parts, tin 50 to 70 parts ; (b) lead 78 to 87 parts, an- 
 timony 13 to 22 parts. 
 
 Solders, or lead-tin alloys are largely used for mounted 
 pieces on molding machines ; a good mixture in this class is lead 
 SO parts, tin 50 parts. These metals have the advantage of 
 being cheap, but if the initial expense of getting up patterns for 
 continuous use is not grudged, some of the tin-antimony alloys, 
 or better still, the hardened aluminum alloys, will give better 
 results as regards stiffness, wear, and conformity to design, be- 
 sides being free from objection on the scores of shrinkage and 
 clogging of the sand. 
 
 Properties for good pattern metals. — ^The properties neces- 
 sary for good pattern metals are fluidity, low contraction, 
 rigidity and strength. For ornamental castings or chased pat- 
 terns, a fluid alloy having the important property of expanding 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE XXII 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pattern 
 
 Metals 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Antimony, 
 
 . Lead, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Bismuth, 
 
 Aluminum, 
 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 No. 1 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 _ 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 17.5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 75 
 
 — 
 
 7.5 
 
 — 
 
 No. 3 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 No. 4 
 
 3 
 
 85 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 No. 6 
 
 — 
 
 90 
 
 — . 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 No. 6 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 7 
 
 66 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 No. 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 9 
 
 8 
 
 87 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 on cooling would give the best results; Nos. 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 
 would answer; No. 6 is a somewhat expensive metal but it is 
 well suited for high class standard patterns; No. 1 will answer 
 for castings requiring a certain malleability; No. 5 will stand a 
 great deal of knocking about, as in rapping a pattern out of the 
 mold; No. 4 is a splendid casting alloy but the contraction 
 must be taken into consideration in making duplicates. The 
 proportions in the above table need not be adhered to so strictly 
 as would be the case with alloys required to undergo physical 
 tests. Many modifications may be suggested by experience and 
 the different requirements of the castings or patterns produced. 
 
White Metals 138 
 
 Aluminum as a pattern metal. — Aluminum has had a great 
 vc^ie, recently as a pattern metal and it has much to recom- 
 mend it. Very serviceable, accurate and conveniently handled 
 patterns and match-plates, which are easily finished, result from 
 the light aluminum alloys generally. Zinc-aluminum is a favorite 
 combination nowadays because of the cheapness and strength of 
 "the product. An alloy of aluminum 75 parts and zinc 25 parts 
 shows tenacity equal to 35,000 pounds per square inch and the 
 cost pro-rata is much below the ordinary brass or white metal 
 mixtures. Alloys of aluminum and tin are somewhat brittle and 
 unstable, but the introduction of tin in aluminum-zinc alloys re- 
 duces the shrinkage and increases the resistance to corrosion. 
 
 Copper up to 10 per cent makes a convenient hardening 
 agent for aluminum, but owing to the known tendency of the 
 alloy to segregate on cooling, it is not advisable to introduce 
 
 TABLE XXIII 
 
 Light Aluminum Alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phos- 
 
 
 
 Man- 
 
 
 
 Aluminum, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 phorus, 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Antimony, 
 
 ganese, 
 
 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 per cent 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 2.6 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 1.5 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 3 
 
 90 
 
 S.6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7.5 
 
 No. 
 
 i 
 
 84 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 S 
 
 84 
 
 12 
 
 2.76 
 
 1.26 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 No. 
 
 7 
 
 77 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 9 
 
 75 
 
 23 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 10 
 
 72 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 No. 
 
 11 
 
 •67 
 
 33 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ~~ 
 
 ~~ 
 
 copper unless in conjunction with some other metal, as z5nc» 
 antimony, nickel, or tin. Some very useful alloys in this class- 
 are obtained by adding from 3 to 10 per cent standard Germatt 
 silver (melted) to the aluminum in the crucible. The 3 per cent 
 alloy, first described by Dr. Richards, contains approximately J4 
 per cent each of nickel and zinc and 2 per cent copper. It gives 
 a tensile strength in castings of 22,000 pounds, per square inch, 
 with 3 to S per cent elongation, and has a fine white color. 
 
 ♦The cheapest of all the light aluminum alloys, sometimes called the 
 Sibley casting alloy. Specific gravity, 3.8. Tenacity 24,000 pounds in 
 sand castings, close-grained but brittle like cast iron. 
 
136 Practical Alloying 
 
 Strong, light metals are in constant demand and other 
 hardeners are being increasingly employed in the production of 
 aluminum alloys and castings. Tungsten, chromium, titanium, 
 silver, magnesium, and manganese have been used with good 
 effects, but the alloys derived from any one of these metals and 
 aluminum are all in the way of being specialties. For the most 
 part such elements are either so expensive or so refractory as 
 to be outside the range of practical foundry operations. The 
 new alloy, "Meteorite" = A1+ P, is easily produced by pul- 
 verizing the requisite quantity (4 to 6 per cent) of phosphor- 
 copper and adding it to the molten aluminum. Similarly, man- 
 ganese may be conveniently introduced in aluminum-copper 
 alloys by using the commercial copper-manganese (30 per cent 
 manganese). 
 
 Aluminum solders. — The soldering of aluminum and its 
 alloys still presents some difficulty. Hiorns recommends that 
 a deposit of copper be made upon the surfaces to be united 
 prior to tinning and joining them together. Dr. Richards advo- 
 cates the alloy invented by his father which contains aluminum 
 1 part, phosphor-tin 1 part, zinc 1 1 parts and tin 29 parts. Num- 
 erous patent aluminum solders and fluxes are on the market, 
 but it must be acknowledged that cleanliness and the preven- 
 tion of oxidation by some such protective coating as that rec- 
 ommended by Hiorns, or by the intervention of some reagent 
 at the critical temperature, does more to insure a satisfactory 
 joint than any supposed virtue in the solder applied. Good 
 results have been obtained with ordinary "fine" solder, and bad 
 results may be had with any of the patent solders. It is a ques- 
 tion of mechanical skill and deftness. 
 
 White brass. — A large number of white alloys of different 
 grades as to color and hardness are used for casting small busts, 
 figures, and ornaments in chills and in sand molds. These 
 alloys are principally used in the manufacture of cheap art 
 bronzes and novelties which are lacquered. The workers em- 
 ployed in casting statuettes in chills acquire great dexterity in 
 handling the latter. As soon as the cast is made and the de- 
 sired thickness of metal is set (sometimes a mere skin of 
 metal), they up-end the mold and drain oi^t the liquid alloy re- 
 
M^hite Metals 137 
 
 maining in the center. This leaves a thin, hollow casting 
 with the outline of the bust, figure or design in perfectly regular 
 proportions. 
 
 Sorel's alloys containing iron are also adapted for casting by 
 this method. For producing zinc-copper alloys containing iron, 
 two good plans may be followed: First, meh equal quantities 
 of zinc and ferro-zinc together and add from 1 to 10 per cent 
 of molten copper; or, second, melt 15 to 20 per cent Delta metal 
 and make up by adding plain zinc. Most of the white brasses 
 comprised in the range of copper 20 to 45, and zinc 45 to 80, 
 are appreciably improved by a further alloy of aluminum, 2 to 
 5 per cent. The metal exhibits a higher degree of homogeneity 
 and it is more durable and less liable to corrosion. Some 
 typical white brass mixtures are given in Table XXIV. 
 
 TABLE XXIV 
 
 White Brass Mixtures 
 
 Zinc, Copper, Tin, Aluminum, T«ad, 
 per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent 
 
 No. 1 68 SS — — — 
 
 No. 8 57 43 — — — 
 
 No. S 66 36 6 2 — 
 
 No. 4 68 24 6 2 — 
 
 No. 6 80 20 — — — 
 
 No. 6 91 8 — — 1 
 
 No. 7 90 S.6 3 — 3.6 
 
 No. 8 88 lo 1 1 — 
 
 No. 9 80 4 16 — — 
 
 No. 10 74 6 20 — — 
 
 No. 11 28 57 16 — — 
 
 No. 12 60 40 6 6 — 
 
 Nos. 1 and 5 are hard, but easily worked ; Nos. 2, 8, and 12 
 are somewhat malleable and can be pressed; No. 11 makes a 
 good white brazing solder; Nos. 3, 4, 6 and 8 are excellent 
 alloys for chill castings; Nos. 9 and 10 are well suited for 
 patterns provided the usual allowance is made for shrinkage; 
 No. 7 is a cheap mixture for ornamental castings. 
 
 A metal having a lustre equal to the best German silver 
 but without nickel consists of copper 50 parts, manganese-cop- 
 per (30 per cent manganese) 40 parts, zinc 14 parts and alum- 
 inum 2 parts. 
 
138 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 TABLE XXV 
 
 Special Mixtures 
 
 Tin Antimony Lead Copper Bismuth 
 
 No. 1. Plastic metal 70 15 10.5 4. 25 .SS 
 
 No. 2. Plastic metal 80 — 12 8 .6 
 
 No. 1. Metallic packing 42 17 38 3 — 
 
 No. 2. Metallic packing 36 8 66 — — 
 
 Tin Nickel Platinum 
 
 No. 1. Bell metal 19 80 1 
 
 No. 2. Bell metal 17 82 1 
 
 Ferro- 
 Copper Zinc Nickel manganese 
 
 No. 1. White bronze 68 21 9 — 
 
 No. 2. White bronze 40 — — 90 
 
 Copper Zinc Iron 
 
 White brass 9 89 3 
 
 Manganese- 
 Aluminum Zinc copper 
 Special pattern metal 90 3 7 
 
 Art metal, — Art metal for casting small figures, plaques, 
 etc: Zinc 90 parts, aluminum 5 parts, antimony 5 parts. This 
 alloy is also an excellent solder for aluminum, fluxed with 
 sal-ammoniac. Another similar mixture consists of zinc 100 
 parts, with rosin 2 parts, nickel 1 part. This may be used for 
 hard soldering aluminum as well as for art castings. 
 
XI 
 
 SOLDERS, NOVELTY METALS, ETC. 
 
 BESIDES the alloys in everyday use for castings and those 
 for manufacturing by rolling and other mechanical pro- 
 cesses, many metals are mixed and prepared for other im- 
 portant purposes, as solders, tempering baths, plastic 
 metals, fusible metals, shot, dental stopping, anodes for electro- 
 plating, metallic shavings and granulates for steam packing and 
 brazing. 
 
 Soldering is the process of uniting two metallic faces by 
 means of a fusible metallic cement. The solders are classed as 
 soft or hard, according to the temperature at which they melt. 
 Soft solders fuse at comparatively low heats; hard solders fuse 
 only at a red heat. In every case the solder must be more 
 fusible than the bodies to be soldered. As a rule the solder 
 approximates in color, composition and properties to that of 
 the metal to be soldered. Sometimes two pieces of the same 
 
 TABLE XXVI 
 
 Soft Solders 
 
 
 Parts 
 
 Melts at 
 degrees 
 
 Suitable for baths for 
 
 Remarlcs 
 
 Tin 
 
 Lead 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 tempering 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 558 
 
 Saws and Springs 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 541 
 
 Watch springs 
 
 
 
 
 511 
 
 Hatchets and planes 
 
 Very coarse 
 
 
 
 482 
 
 Chisels and Knives 
 
 Common solder 
 
 
 
 441 
 
 Razors 
 
 Plumbers' sealed solder 
 
 
 IVi 
 
 412 
 
 Lancets 
 
 Zinc solder 
 
 
 
 370 
 
 
 Tinsmith's solder 
 
 154 
 
 
 334 
 
 
 Lowest melting point of 
 series 
 
 2 
 
 
 340 
 
 
 Fine solder adapted for 
 brass, steel, etc. 
 
 3 
 
 
 356 
 
 
 Fine, hard, tenacious metal 
 
 4 
 
 
 365 
 
 
 Common pewter 
 
 S 
 
 
 378 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 381 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Tinning metal for copper 
 
140 Practical Alloying 
 
 metal are soldered by heating the edges by means of a blow- 
 pipe and kneading them into one. This is termed autogenous 
 soldering, but only those metals that assume a pasty condition 
 before melting, like lead or aluminum are amenable to this 
 process. Soft solders are graded as fine, medium or common, 
 according to the content of tin. The ordinary soft solders con- 
 tain only tin and lead, the proportions being varied to suit the 
 work. Table XXVI gives some of the best examples. 
 
 Soft solders for delicate ornamental pieces require to be 
 more readily fused and more fluid than the alloys given in Table 
 XXVII. Pewterers must employ solders that melt below 300 
 degrees Fahr., hence we find alloys for their work contain bis- 
 muth, cadmium or arsenic in addition. 
 
 Pewter. — Pewter is a tin and lead alloy hardened with 
 small additions of antimony and copper. The best qualities of 
 
 TABLE XXVII 
 
 Pewter, Britannia Metal and Fusible Solder Mixtures 
 
 Tin Antimony Copper Bismuth Lead 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 Plate pewter 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 Best pewter 
 
 75 to 94 
 
 5 to 25 
 
 1 to 9 
 
 1 to 3 
 
 
 Britannia metal 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 29 
 
 Fusible solder 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 Melts at 197° Fahr 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 Melts at 212° Falir 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Melts 284° Falir., very fluid 
 
 pewter are akin to Britannia metal, which is a tableware alloy 
 with some resemblance to silver. 
 
 The examples in Table XXVII are given as typical alloys 
 in each class. The wide range of proportions in britannia metal 
 allows considerable latitude in working the metal by rolling, 
 hammering, stamping, spinning or casting in chills. 
 
 The fusible metals become still more fusible when additions 
 of cadmium or mercury are made. Thus, Wood's alloy con- 
 tains 5 parts bismuth, 2 parts tin, 2 parts cadmium and 4 parts 
 lead, and fuses at 158 degrees Fahr. Another alloy which melts 
 at the same temperature is Lipowitz's. It contains cadmium 
 3 parts, tin 4, bismuth 15, lead 8. The alloys are very use- 
 ful for soldering tin or lead in thin sections, and britannia 
 metal; also for fine castings, impressions of dies where sharp- 
 ness is required, and for soldering in hot water. 
 
Solders, Novelty Metals, etc. 
 
 141 
 
 An alloy for fusible teaspoons is composed of bismuth 8 
 parts, tin 3, lead 5, mercury 1 to 2. By adding 1-16 its weight 
 of mercury to Wood's alloy, a new compound, fusible at the 
 temperature of the human body, is obtained. Casts are some- 
 times taken of small animals with one of these alloys. The 
 animal substances are destroyed by a concentrated solution of 
 caustic potash, and the metal remains. 
 
 Dentists' amalgams. — Alloys, or rather amalgams for fill- 
 ing teeth, should melt in hot water and set hard at about 70 
 degrees Fahr. Dentists' alloys for this purpose usually have mer- 
 cury 74 to 78 parts, cadmium 22 to 26 parts. However, gold 
 amalgams are most in favor for this purpose. 
 
 Before we leave the fusible alloys there is a novelty in 
 amalgams that deserves notice. It is called Mackenzie's amal- 
 
 TABLE XXVIII 
 
 Gold Solders 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 N 
 
 U 
 
 U) 
 
 L) 
 
 For 9 carat gold, according to Oee, the composition 
 
 approximates 
 
 For 14 carat gold, according to Gee, the composition 
 
 approximates 
 
 For 16 carat gold, according to Gee, the composition 
 
 approximates 
 
 For 18 carat gold, according to Gee, the composition 
 
 approximates 
 
 For best solder, the composition approximates _. 
 
 For easy melting solder the composition approxi- 
 
 mates 
 
 For very easy solder the composition approximates. . 
 For dental articles the composition approximates . . . 
 For aluminum blow-pipe solder 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 25 
 
 12 7 3 
 
 554 ll'A 54}4 28-4 
 
 5 1 I 
 
 1 1 
 
 gam. This amalgam, which is solid at ordinary temperatures, 
 becomes liquid by simple friction. It may be prepared as fol- 
 lows: Melt two parts of bismuth and four of lead in separate 
 crucibles, then throw the melted metals into two other crucibles 
 each containing one part of mercury. When cold these alloys are 
 solid, but will melt when rubbed together. 
 
 Hard solders. — Passing now to the hard solders, we come 
 to alloys melting in the proximity of 800 degrees Fahr. and up- 
 ward, and possessing greater variety in color, texture and me- 
 chanical properties. Hard solders are prepared in various 
 
142 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 forms. For the precious metals the alloys are cast into strips, 
 rolled out thin and cut with hand shears, or pressed into suitable 
 pieces, termed "pallions;" but if the surfaces to be joined are 
 inaccessible to these pallions, the solder is filed into dust fine 
 enough for all requirements. 
 
 Hard solders for gold are composed of gold, silver and cop- 
 per in proportions to suit the color, hardness and fusibility of 
 the standard alloys, as shown in Table XXVIII. 
 
 Silver solders. — Silver solders are used for all kinds of 
 metals and alloys ; steel, brass, silver alloys, gold alloys and Ger- 
 man silver alloys. The fine solders contain silver and copper 
 only. Medium solders contain zinc as well. Arsenic and tin 
 are sometimes added to give greater fusibility, and for German 
 silver articles nickel and brass have a place. Zinc is generally 
 introduced in the form of brass, but it is important that the 
 alloy should be free from lead. 
 
 TABLE XXIX 
 
 Silver Solders 
 
 
 Silver Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Brass 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 .. 
 
 
 Ordinary hard solder 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Tenacious, ductile 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Soft, for fine metal 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 O.S 
 
 
 [.5 
 
 
 
 Medium 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0.2S 
 
 
 .75 
 
 
 
 Easy melting 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 '6.25 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 Soft 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Hard 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Common brass silver solder 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Arsenic 0.2S 
 
 'i 
 
 Very easy solder 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 " 0.25 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For steel 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 For cast iron 
 
 IS 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Nickel 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 40 t 
 
 o57 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 
 For German silver 
 
 ir 
 
 
 38 
 
 SO 
 
 12 
 
 
 For steel 
 
 The solders are generally used in the form either of fine 
 spangles, dust, granulates, shavings or pallions, and the com- 
 position is varied to match the color and other characteristics 
 of the work to be joined. The alloys are all white ; Nos. 1 to 
 8, Table XXIX, are for fine silverware or ornamental manu- 
 factures ; Nos. 9 to 11 are for tableware and fine brass articles ; 
 No. 12 is for filigree work. 
 
 Solders for glass and pottery. — No. 1. — Tin 100, zinc 3; 
 cast into thin rods for use; heat the edges and apply. 
 
Solders, Novelty Metals, etc. 143 
 
 No. 2. — Amalgam, 70 per cent mercury ; Make a soft alloy 
 of tin granulate and copper dust with sulphuric acid; add mer- 
 cury, wash out the acid when mixed; when solder is to be used 
 heat and knead in an iron mortar and apply when plastic. 
 
 Fusible hard solder for aluminum alloys. — No. 1. — Nine 
 parts standard phosphor-bronze (no lead), 11 parts tin, 100 parts 
 aluminum. 
 
 No. 2. — Mix 8 parts standard phosphor-bronze (filings), 
 2 parts tin and 8 parts borax. 
 
 No. 3. — Alloy copper 3 parts, aluminum 9 parts, zinc 14 
 parts and granulate; use cyanide of potassium for a flux. 
 
 Soft solders for aluminum and alloys. — No. 1. — Zinc 25, 
 aluminum 6, tin 69; melt zinc and aluminum together and add 
 the tin; flux with Venetian turpentine or tin the work before 
 soldering. 
 
 TABLE XXX 
 Brass Solders 
 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Tin 
 
 SUver 
 
 Suitable for 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 42 
 
 T— 
 
 — 
 
 Copper pipes 
 
 No. 
 
 * 
 
 57 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Brazing metal flanges 
 
 No. 
 
 S 
 
 54 
 
 45 
 
 lto3 
 
 — 
 
 Gun metal 
 
 No. 
 
 4 
 
 S3 
 
 47 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Light flanges 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 .^- 
 
 — 
 
 Brass solder 
 
 No. 
 
 6 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Brass solder, fusible 
 
 No. 
 
 7 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Malleable 
 
 No. 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 Half white, fusible 
 
 No. 
 
 9 
 
 68 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 14 
 
 White, refractory, for steel 
 
 No. 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 52 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 White, refractory, for copper 
 
 No. 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 White, fusible 
 
 No. 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 White, fusible 
 
 No. 2. — If ordinary soft solder is fused with one-half, one- 
 fourth or one-eighth of its weight of zinc amalgam a more or 
 less hard and fusible solder is obtained, which may be used to 
 solder aluminum to itself or to other metals. Zinc amalgam 
 as used for electrical machinery is made by melting two ounces 
 of zinc in a ladle, then removing from the fire and stirring 
 into it five ounces of mercury (previously heated). Stir until 
 cold, then powder it and keep in a tightly corked bottle. 
 
 Hard solders for brass and alloys. — By far the most import- 
 ant series of hard solders are those for copper and brass — 
 braziers' solders. They go under the trade name of spelter 
 solders, so-called because of the high proportions of zinc or 
 
144 Practical Alloying 
 
 spelter in their composition. To make uniform grades of braz- 
 ing solder requires careful melting and mixing of the proper 
 quality of metals, and they should be poured at the proper tem- 
 perature. As a rule a portion of the zinc is mixed in in the form 
 of fine sheet or wire brass. The copper-zinc solders have a 
 bright yellow color ; a tendency to gray or blue is a sure indication 
 of impurities in the metals, such as tin, iron, lead, antimony or 
 phosphorus. Sometimes tin is added to increase the fusibility of 
 the solder. It is always advisable to have the composition of the 
 solder as near to the strength of the metals to be brazed as prac- 
 ticable. Copper, iron, gun metal, and all the brass alloys have 
 different fusibilities and mechanical properties, so that a much 
 stronger joint is made when the solder approaches the qualities 
 of the metal treated. 
 
 To insure perfect soldering, or brazing, cleanliness is a 
 first essential, and in almost every case the solder and the metal 
 to be soldered are covered with a flux to ward off the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere and to assist in the union of the metals. 
 
 Brazing solder is nearly always used in the granulated 
 form, and its manufacture is effected either by pouring the 
 molten alloy from a height, or through a strainer, into water, 
 or by casting it into slabs or ingots and pulverizing it as soon 
 as set. Some manufacturers have machinery for pulverizing 
 the highly heated ingots and the grains pass through screens of 
 several gradations. This gives grains of regular size and a 
 choice of grades for light or heavy work. The discoloration 
 and oxide due to the exposure of the hot metal in the atmos- 
 phere is removed by dipping the granules in a weak pickle and 
 drying off immediately. But coppersmiths place the cast 
 solder before the machine-made article; it seems to stand ham- 
 mering much better, and it takes less borax to flux it, probably 
 because the grains are globular. Fig. 14, No. 3, while the 
 pulverized is like spangles. Fig. 14, No. 1. 
 
 To see the pouring of a heat of brazing solder is to wit- 
 ness one of the most interesting spectacles the brass foundry 
 affords. The metal is granulated by being poured from a height 
 into a tank of clean water. Owing to the high content of zinc 
 
Fia". 14 — Brazine; solders 
 
 Fig. ].) — Method of gramilating 
 l)razing solder 
 
Solders, Novelty Metals, etc. 145 
 
 a glowing incandescence, some blue haze and a great deal of 
 philosophers wool permeates the foundry during this opera- 
 tion. You stand gazing at the thin red line as it falls 
 hot from the crucible into a watery grave — no, that is too 
 poetical — a barrel of water is the actual fact. You admire the 
 courage of the caster perched on some rickety, temporary stag- 
 ing, placed on the top of a drying stove or a pile of molding 
 boxes, when suddenly the illumination ceases, the heat is poured 
 off, and, feeling a choking sensation in the upper regions of 
 the chest, you rush for the door and miss the best part, which 
 is to see the nice, bright, round grains of metal taken from the 
 tank, washed under the tap and dried off ready for use. Fig. 
 15 is an attempt to illustrate the pouring, but it would require 
 a cinematograph to show the effect of the fine stream of molten 
 alloy hitting the water, the rising steam, the whirling smoke, the 
 snow-like ZnO, and the pyrotechnic display. The height from 
 which the metal is poured and the rate of pouring regulates the 
 
 TABLE XXXI 
 
 NON-OxiDIZABLE BrONZES 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phosphor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 tin 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Mercury 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 •8 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 85 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 i 
 
 88 
 
 8 
 
 2.B 
 
 1.6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 8S 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 0.6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 91.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.03 
 
 6.7 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0.07 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 14 
 
 0.75 
 
 27 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 17.25 
 
 1 
 
 12.6 
 
 0.75 
 
 8.6 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 72 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 68 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 "" 
 
 12 
 
 47 
 
 21 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 31 
 
 ^~ 
 
 size of the grains. Twelve feet was the fall in this case. Some- 
 times a plumbago strainer or colander is fixed in a frame im- 
 mediately over the tank ; the metal is poured into this and drops 
 through in regular-sized grains. The only objections to this 
 process are the skulls left in the strainer and the expense. An- 
 other method is to pour the metal upon a cast iron ball barely 
 covered with water in a shallow dish. On striking the ball the 
 
 *Alloys containing mercury, arsenic, antimony or zinc show consider- 
 able loss of those elements by remelting, so that care must be taken not 
 to overheat the alloy or remelt it without adding new metal. 
 
146 Practical Alloying 
 
 metal scatters into small pieces and falls into the water. But 
 the finest and most uniform product of all is obtained by arrang- 
 ing a horizontal pipe in connection with a force pump. The 
 cock on the pipe is opened so that a jet of water is thrown 
 across the tank which is to receive the alloy. Upon this jet of 
 water the molten metal is poured. The force of the water may 
 be regulated so as to give grains of a determined size, within 
 certain limits. Some skill is required in the pouring by all of 
 these methods if uniform grains are desired. The metal must 
 fall in a regular, thin stream, otherwise on emptying the tank, 
 a conglomerate, similar to No. 2, Fig. 14, will result. 
 
 TABLE XXXII 
 
 Miscellaneous Alloys 
 
 Copper Nickel Silver Aluminum Tin 
 
 Rozine for jewelry. No. 1 43 32 25 — — 
 
 Rozine for jewelry, No. S — 40 10 30 80 
 
 Rozine for castings. No. 3 — 3 — 87 10 
 
 Rozine for castings, No. 4 1 3 — 96 — 
 
 Rozine for springs. No. B — — 6 94 — 
 
 New bell metal 87 — — 2 H 
 
 Lead Antimony 
 
 Acid bronze 76 9 5 — 10 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Cobalt bronze 40 — BO 10 — 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Heusler's magnetic alloy 85.5 0.5 ^6 8 — 
 
 Brass to expand by equal heat with Zinc 
 
 iron (BoUand) 79 — 15 — (I 
 
 Nickel Platmum 
 
 Platinum bronze *2 81 22 5 — 
 
 Platinum bronze — W — "•" r~ 
 
 Anti-rust alloy for stop cocks '' "7 In il 
 
 Anti-friction brasses 5 1 80 — 1* 
 
 In no case should the solder be left overnight in the water ; 
 it should be dried off at once to avoid unnecessary oxidation, 
 and for the same reason it should be kept in air-tight tins. 
 Any attempt to pour a second heat into the same water would 
 result unsatisfactorily. The oxides from the first pouring, 
 which gather like a scum on the surface of the water, and the 
 heat of the water itself would be fatal to the best results. The 
 average composition of brazing solders varies between copper, 
 58 to 40 parts, and zinc, 42 to 60 parts, the fusibility of the 
 alloy being in proportion to the amount of zinc present, 1,150 
 degrees Fahr. being approximately the melting point of No. 5, 
 Table XXX. 
 
Solders, Novelty Metals, etc. 147 
 
 For those who prefer to use mixed metals a convenient mix 
 for brass solder is to melt 30 to 40 pounds brass wire or sheet 
 and add to this 10 pounds of virgin zinc. Copper tubes are now 
 manufactured having from 2 to 3 per cent aluminum alloy. The 
 British Admiralty adopted the use of these for steam pipes and 
 copper fittings, because of the relatively high tensile strength 
 and the advantages offered by increased burdens, or the dimi- 
 nution of weight in similar structures. An excellent blow-pipe 
 solder for this class of work is M. Mourey's, which contains 
 tin 6 parts, zinc 3 parts, aluminum 2 parts, copper 1 part, silver 
 (optional) 1 part. 
 
 To solder without heat. — Brass filings 2 ounces, steel 
 filings 2 ounces, fluoric acid J4 ounce; put the filings in the 
 acid, apply the solution to the parts to be soldered. After 
 thoroughly cleaning the parts in contact, dress together. Do 
 not keep the fluoric acid in glass bottles, put it in lead or 
 earthen vessels. 
 
 « 
 
 Novelty metals. — About the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury the introduction, for a set purpose, of the metalloids in 
 metallic alloys, constituted a novelty in practical alloying. Later, 
 when aluminum became a comparatively cheap product, several 
 new series of useful and novel alloys made their appearance, 
 and with the advances of electrical engineering, the conductivity 
 and magnetic power of metals and alloys were put into new 
 relations. The latest novelty to be recorded is the commercial 
 production of some alloys by electro-deposition. There is still 
 ample scope for the invention of new alloys and more scientific 
 methods of making and manipulating them, and it is along these 
 lines that the best work will yet be done. Some metals in alloys 
 suffer from over-popularity such as, aluminum, lead, phosphorus, 
 zinc, etc. Aluminum, because of its low specific gravity; lead, 
 because of the weight and economy of its use in alloys; phos- 
 phorus, because of the fusibility and over-rated refining in- 
 fluence it has on dirty metals, and zinc, because of its cheapness 
 and toughening effect in other metals. The abuse of these 
 metals is well known to those who handle ready-made alloys for 
 the production of castings. 
 
148 Practical Alloying 
 
 Time was when phosphor bronze was held in high esteem, 
 but now, because of the indiscriminate use of phosphorus and 
 lead, it has fallen out of line. Aluminum was all the rage for 
 a while as a mixer, deoxidizer, strengthener and cure-all in iron, 
 steel, copper and alloys, but it was over-exploited in these par- 
 ticular lines, and the true, legitimate uses of the metal are only 
 beginning to be found out. Perhaps the art section of modern 
 industries is responsible for more of the novelty metals than 
 any other branch. 
 
 Metals have always been in use for ornamentation, but the 
 artistic influence of alloys in recent times has tuned up the 
 general style of decorative metal work, and bright chromatic 
 effects are giving place to the solid, old-fashioned, monotonous 
 design of the wrought-iron period. With alloys we can have 
 lightness, cheapness, elegance, strength and variety of color 
 scheme combined in the newest art. 
 
 A new argentan which resembles silver and may be worked 
 like German silver contains copper 70 parts, nickel 20 parts, 
 zinc 5.5 parts and cadmium 4.5 parts. Some cheap alloys, 
 
 TABLE XXXIII 
 
 Magnesium Alloys 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Nickel Magnesium Aluminum 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Strongr 
 
 Soft, rolls well .... 
 
 .... No. 1 1.76 
 . . . . No. 2 0.21 
 
 1.16 1.60 95.45 
 0.3 1.58 94.0 
 
 3.15 
 
 0.72 
 
 fusible, white, close-grained and in every way suitable for cast- 
 ing objects of art are made as follows : Melt three parts of tin in 
 a crucible, heat two parts mercury in a hand ladle and add care- 
 fully to the barely molten tin ; pour out into ingots. Add five per 
 cent of this tin-mercury alloy to the ordinary aluminum-brass 
 mixture — copper 57, zinc 42, aluminum 1. The resulting alloy 
 has a beautiful pale pink color when polished, and it may be 
 used alone or as a hardening composition in white metals. 
 
 Alloys containing mercury. — Though scientifically of inter- 
 est, alloys containing mercury are seldom used in the industries. 
 Even when the difficulties of combining a metal, which is liquid 
 at ordinary temperatures with the refractory metals are over- 
 come, the permanence of the alloy is not easily assured, and in 
 remelting, the mercury content will be considerably reduced. 
 
Solders, Novelty Metals, etc. 149 
 
 One mixture which has the advantages of small shrinkage 
 and high luster consists of one part of the hardening to two parts 
 of zinc. Approximate analysis showed the finished proportions 
 to be : Zinc 81.48, aluminum 0.40, mercury 0.72, tin 1.0, copper 
 16.22. Other non-oxidizable metals containing mercury are 
 given in Table XXXI. 
 
 These alloys vary in color from white to a deep golden hue; 
 Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are aluminum alloys with the luster of silver 
 and considerable hardness and elasticity ; Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 are 
 variations of the ordinary bronze alloys; Nos. 8 and 12 are 
 nickel bronze, hard and sonorous; No. 9 is still white and mal- 
 leable. 
 
 New magnesium alloys are coming into use, and the com- 
 position of two is shown in Table XXXIII. 
 SPECIAL MIXTURES 
 
 Special anti-friction lining metal. — Tin S3, lead 33, copper 3, antimony 
 11; melts at 29S degrees Fahr.; specific gravity, 7.23. 
 
 £. Mar man's improved Magna hum — Aluminum 100 parts, magnesium 
 1 to 10 parts, zinc 1 to 20 parts; the zinc overcomes the difficulty of ob- 
 taining sound castings and the tenacity is not reduced. 
 
 Gtin metal for piston rings and springs. — Copper 83, tin 10, zinc 7; 
 very elastic. 
 
 Cheap white alloy for art castings. — Aluminum 78, zinc 12, copper 8, 
 tin 2; fine luster. 
 
 Red brass for tine ornamental castings. — Copper 82.5, zinc 16.25, bis- 
 muth 1.25. 
 
 Hard solder for bell metal. — Brass 40, copper 10, tin 15. 
 
 Hard white brass. — Tin 67, antimony 11, copper 22. 
 
 Alloy for scientific instruments, named Zisikon. — Aluminum 80 parts, 
 zinc 20 parts. 
 
 Brass, tough alloy, will bend double. — Copper 64, zinc 33, silicon-cop- 
 per 3. 
 
 A new alloy for bearings has been patented by Hans Kreus- 
 ler, Wilmersdorf, Germany. It is said to have a very low co- 
 efficient of friction and consists of cadmium 45, zinc 45, and anti- 
 mony 10. 
 
 Charpy has found the alloy containing 83 per cent tin, 11.6 
 per cent copper and 5.5 per cent antimony to possess the greatest 
 compressive strength. Locomotive bearings are generally filled 
 with metal very close to this composition. 
 
XII 
 
 FLUXES FOR ALLOYS 
 
 FLUXES are the re-agents of the smelter and the proper 
 use of fluxes is of the highest importance in the pro 
 duction of metals from the ores. Most fluxes act both 
 chemically and physically ; they are acid or basic according 
 to the oxygen ratio of flux and gangue. Acid fluxes mostly sili- 
 cates, are employed to act upon basic materials and vice versa. 
 Alkaline fluxes are chiefly used in refining metals. In the 
 foundry, where only refined metals are used, there is not the 
 same scope or necessity for using fluxes. 
 
 Many of the so-called neutral fluxes, act simply as pro- 
 tective coverings to the surface of the metals in the process of 
 melting. Charcoal, coke dust, lamp black and such highly car- 
 bonaceous bodies give excellent protection in the reduction of 
 brass and gun metal alloys. In charging the crucible the very 
 first ingredient should be a handful of charcoal or coke dust; 
 then as the metal melts and rises in the crucible, the surface 
 of the bath is protected from the oxidizing influence of the 
 atmosphere. In this way the true character of the alloy is main- 
 tained, whereas by careless treatment, overheating or pro- 
 longed melting in contact with the fuel and products of com- 
 bustion, the best of metals may be rendered worthless. 
 
 It is worthy of note that metals, which are cast, always 
 show their natural defects in the casting, but metals which 
 undergo mechanical treatment, as rolling, forging, etc., may have 
 similar defects entirely removed or at least remedied by the 
 process. 
 
 All the good work that can be put into a casting should 
 
Fluxes for Alloys 151 
 
 therefore be done before the metal enters the mold. The prep- 
 aration of alloys for casting requires greater precautions than 
 are necessary in the case of simple metal, and the difficulties in- 
 crease with every added component, unless there is chemical 
 affinity to assist in the combination. 
 
 Even with the most careful melting the metals are partially 
 oxidized and gases are occluded or absorbed. To free the metal 
 from these oxide compounds and gases in solution, fluxes capable 
 of re-dissolving the oxides and removing the gases are intro- 
 duced. In some instances it is also desirable to remove foreign 
 metals known to be present in the alloys as impurities. 
 
 To free brass turnings from iron, salt them well, moisten 
 thoroughly, and after a few days wash with running water. Of 
 course, if old metals are used many more impurities are liable 
 to be introduced than with new metals. Scrap brass has al- 
 ways some impurity clinging to it, grease, paint, sand, solder, 
 red lead, cement, etc., and the efifect of these contaminations is 
 to deteriorate the physical properties of the metal. 
 
 A suitable flux may to a large extent remove the dross and 
 counteract the baneful effects of the impurities, but if uni- 
 formity is desired in an alloy as a regular product, scrap metals 
 and their attendant faults and fluxes should be barred. 
 
 Fluxes for alloys. — Following is a list of the most com- 
 mon fluxes for alloys: 
 
 'For brass. — Potassium carbonate; this consists of pearl ashes mixed 
 with damp sawdust. 
 
 For brass. — Potassium sulphate; this consists of sal-enixum mixed 
 with charcoal. 
 
 For brass. — Salt cake ; this consists of crude sodium carbonate 5 parts, 
 silica (white sand) IS parts, coal dust (anthracite) S parts, bone ash 20 
 parts. Mix, cover the surface of the metal, stirring it in before bringing 
 to a heat. 
 
 Gun metals. — Equal parts of crude tartar and nitre burned together. 
 
 Gun metals. — Sodium chloride (common salt) is a useful flux in 
 reverberatories ; it forms a fusible compound with antimony and arsenic, 
 thus removing these undesirable elements from the alloy. 
 
 Gun metals.— mtre, 3 parts, argol 2 parts; recommended by T. D. 
 Bottome. 
 
152 Practical Alloying 
 
 Gun metals. — Silica ; great hardness and ductility may be given to red 
 brass without having recourse to phosphorus, by mixing in with the 
 other metals, two per cent of finely powdered green bottle glass, placing it 
 at the bottom of the crucible ; if the alloy is for parts of machinery and 
 to be tooled add one per cent manganese dioxide (MnOz). The metal 
 is rendered very fluid and close-grained. 
 
 Babbitt metals. — Sal-ammoniac (ammonia chloride) ; this substance is 
 decomposed by the metals at comparatively low temperatures, forming 
 metallic chlorides and liberating free ammonia. 
 
 Babbitt metals. — Tallow or fat of any description and rosin; these 
 substances ignite and liberate gases, which unite with the contained oxy- 
 gen, thus acting as reducing agents on the metallic oxides. 
 
 Brazing metals. — An improved flux consists of boric acid and sodium 
 carbonate in equal parts; this is used instead of borax; it does not in- 
 tumesce like the latter. 
 
 Aluminum alloys. — Benzine, resin, cryolite; fluxes proper are to be 
 avoided with aluminum, especially sodium compounds; they injure the al- 
 loy by dissolving the walls of the crucible and introducing infusible silica 
 and iron compounds; overheating is a prolific cause of trouble with the 
 light alloys. 
 
 Nickel alloys. — Plaster of Paris and nitre equal parts to be stirred 
 in five minutes before casting. 
 
 German silver. — A special flux for German silver consists of silica 
 sand 3 parts, ground marble 5 parts, borax 1 part, salt one-half part; mix 
 with an equal quantity of powdered charcoal. 
 
 Britannia metals. — Stearic acid heated and applied to the mold is a 
 preventive for faintness in fine chilled castings in soft alloys. 
 
 Brass sweepings. — Mr. E. S. Sperry speaks highly of plaster of Paris 
 (CaSO*) as a flux for reducing brass ashes, skimmings, bufiings and 
 grindings. Such finely divided particles are generally productive of more 
 dross than metal if melted in the ordinary way. This is a cheap and 
 thoroughly efficient flux. 
 
 Copper. — The purification of copper has received considerable at- 
 tention ; zinc oxide and charcoal added to molten copper are helpful in 
 producing sound copper castings. These substances are mixed with 
 molasses water to a stiff paste, formed into balls and dried. When the 
 copper is just melted one of the balls is dropped on the surface ; it covers 
 the metal and the zinc in the mass combines with any oxygen present. 
 Silicon-copper is the best deoxidizer for cast copper, but it comes under 
 metallic fluxes. 
 
 Copper alloys.. — The following mixture for improving copper alloys 
 was the subject of a patent: Iron peroxide 33 parts, manganese peroxide 
 1 part, magnesium carbonate one-half part, alum 18 parts, silica Syi parts, 
 borax 4 parts ; mix and stir well into the metal. 
 
 Zinc alloys. — Sal-ammoniac is the best flux and the method of using 
 it is to sprinkle it upon the surface of the metal while it is molten. 
 
 From the foregoing it .may readily be believed that there is 
 no lack of variety of fluxes for alloys, at the same time it can- 
 not be too strongly emphasized that the duty of a flux in foun- 
 dry practice is to purify the metal without entering into com- 
 
Fluxes for Alloys 153 
 
 bination with it. Such a flux is not easily obtained and some of 
 those here given are open to serious objection because of their 
 corrosive action on the linings of ladles and crucibles resulting 
 in the loss of metal in forming slag and in some cases adding 
 new forms of impurity to the metal treated. 
 
 In the refinery, fluxes are essential to liquify and dissolve 
 away refuse matters associated with the metals, and their effect 
 as solvents may generally be stated in the terms of an equation, 
 but in the foundry, where only finished metals are dealt with, 
 oxidation is the one thing to be guarded against. 
 
 In the refinery, fluxes are essential to liquify and dissolve 
 metallic additions has become universal. Much of the excel- 
 lence of our modern alloys is due to small additions of elements, 
 which to some extent form chemical combinations with the mix- 
 ture. We have already admitted that the chief use of a flux in 
 foundry practice is to remove certain faults introduced with 
 scrap metals. Now, it seems that object can be attained, and the 
 alloy improved, by the use of some metallic flux ( ?) , with 
 greater ease and certainty, than by the application of the salts and 
 radicals previously mentioned. 
 
 Tempering metals. — These tempering metals, as they are 
 now called, must be used with judgment. Most of them might 
 be called concentrated alloys. They include the following: 
 
 Phosphor-copper, which contains 10 to 20 per cent phosphorus 
 
 Phosphor-tin. " " 5 per cent phosphorus 
 
 Phosphor-aluminum," " 5 per cent phosphorus 
 
 Maneanese-copper, " " 30 per cent manganese 
 
 Ferro-manganese, " " 25 to 50 per cent manganese 
 
 Ferroaluminum, " " 10 per cent aluminum 
 
 FerrcKzinc, " " 5 per cent zinc 
 
 Aluminized-zinc, " " 2 per cent aluminum and phosphorus 
 
 Silicon-copper, " " 15 per cent silicon 
 
 Arsenic lead, " " 2 per cent arsenic 
 
 Antimonial lead, " " 20 per cent antimony 
 
 Magnalium, " " 2 to 10 per cent manganese and 10 per cent aluminum 
 
 Zinc-aluminum " " 3 to 33 per cent zinc 
 
 The use of these specially prepared, and in most cases, con- 
 centrated alloys, has advanced very rapidly in recent years. 
 Phosphor-copper and phosphor-tin were among the first of the 
 new tempering metals to be used for fluxing or to impart special 
 properties to alloys. The vigorous purifying effect of these 
 phosphides on bronze are well-known and appreciated, but the 
 most important feature in this, as in most of the newer im- 
 
154: Practical Alloying 
 
 provements in alloys, lies in the fact that the structure changes, 
 pointing to a condensation of the alloy, and giving increased 
 density, tenacity and fusibility. 
 
 Phosphorus. — For many years phosphorus was the cure-all 
 of the brass founder. It livened up dull metal by dissolving the 
 copper oxide, which forms so readily in copper alloys; it also 
 increased the utility of lead in brass and gun metals and it was 
 supposed to turn old, inferior metals into castings of just as 
 fine appearance and as good practical value as could be obtained 
 from new metals. 
 
 On this supposition the mistake was often made of adding 
 an excess of phosphorus. It was a fatal mistake. Phosphorus 
 is a weakening element in any alloy if it remains in solution. 
 For this reason only so much as may be necessary to reduce the 
 oxides and remove impurities generally from 0.5 to 1 per cent is 
 desirable to flux brass or gun metal alloys, while as a tempering 
 agent in bronzes the content of phosphorus should in no case 
 exceed 2 per cent. 
 
 Owing to the commercial production of these tempering 
 metals in definite proportions it is an easy matter to combine 
 the exact quantities of the temper desired. 
 
 Aluminum. — Next to phosphorus, aluminum is the most 
 popular flux or tempering metal for casting alloys. For some 
 years past it has been quite the rage. But it also has proved a 
 dangerous element when it has been used indiscriminately. , 
 
 Phosphorus is most beneficial in copper-lead alloys, and 
 least active in copper-zinc alloys ; aluminum on the other hand is 
 positively harmful in copper-lead mixtures and most effective in 
 strengthening copper-zinc alloys. The subject of metallic re- 
 actions is one which deserves the fullest investigation and the 
 active properties of aluminum in metallic combinations are 
 specially interesting. 
 
 I am quite convinced that the writer of the advertisement 
 for a metal concern knew something when he penned this: "It 
 (Al) operates to increase the chemical affinity between the dif- 
 ferent elements of the mixture and tends to determine the cop- 
 per or higher colored elements to the surface." That statement 
 alone did not carry conviction; but my own experience and the 
 
Fluxes for Alloys 155 
 
 knowledge of a process by which a cast iron alloy with 
 copper and aluminum could be made to produce castings having 
 the appearance of brass, led me to the conclusion that aluminum 
 could either precipitate the copper or alloy with the copper, and 
 because of its low specific gravity and high specific heat this 
 copper-aluminum alloy appeared on the surface of the casting. 
 
 The value of aluminum in brass alloys is unquestioned. It 
 increases the tenacity of brass by more than one-third and gives 
 a closer grain and a higher color. It reduces the corrosive 
 power of the atmosphere on brass and it is an economical mixer 
 in quantities from 0.5 to 4 per cent. The best method of com- 
 bining the aluminum is in the form of aluminized-zinc. 
 
 Manganese. — Manganese is another splendid deoxidizer for 
 copper alloys. Metallic manganese is hard to reduce, therefore 
 an alloy of copper and manganese is the best medium for intro- 
 ducing the temper. Usually about two per cent manganese is 
 added to the ordinary alloys. Ferro-manganese, ferro-alumi- 
 num, and ferro-zinc are frequently used in the production of 
 manganese bronzes and sterro metals. 
 
 Certain metals are known to react upon each other in the 
 heat to promote fluidity, as silicon, phosphorus, aluminum, and 
 manganese in copper alloys, hence, the special preparations 
 silicon-copper, etc., have come to be regarded as metallic fluxes 
 in the brass foundry. 
 
 Arsenic. — The element which approaches nearest to the 
 action of a flux is arsenic because it promotes the union of 
 metals that would otherwise be difficult to mix. Arsenic bronze, 
 now used for railway brasses, is a good example. The compo- 
 sitions average : Copper, 80 parts ; tin, 10 parts ; lead, 10 parts ; 
 the arsenic added equals 8 parts. Arsenic is also useful in help- 
 ing to carry a higher percentage of lead in zinc alloys. 
 
 Fluidity of metals. — The fluidity of metals is variable, and 
 as a general rule the fluidity of alloys is greater than that of 
 the individual metals. Zinc or copper melted by themselves are 
 comparatively sluggish, whereas brass, the alloy, is a very fluid 
 metal. Zinc alloyed with antimony is more viscid than plain 
 zinc, while an alloy of copper and antimony is remarkably fluid. 
 Aluminum has better flowing power when barely melted than at 
 
156 Practical Alloying 
 
 higher temperatures, but immediately when it is alloyed with 
 some other metal this characteristic loses force. 
 
 Instances could easily be multiplied showing that small ad- 
 ditions of metals in alloys, — so small as not to class them as 
 alloying metals — have the same purifying effect as have fluxes 
 proper upon ores. Such metallic fluxes have generally sufHcient 
 affinity for oxygen to combine with or else reduce the dissolved 
 oxides in the molten alloy, and the chemical reaction liberates 
 gases, which either raise the temperature by a definite amount 
 of sensible heat, or lower the melting temperature of the alloy. 
 Homogeneous metals result and in many cases the physical 
 properties of the alloys are improved in a degree not other- 
 wise obtainable. 
 
 So long as scrap metals are a part of the mixture, and 
 there is no other practical way of using them, fluxes, whether 
 metallic or neutral, must find a place in foundry practice, to act 
 as cleansers or as aids to the closer union of the components. 
 Very few of the alloys can be melted without decomposition, 
 and no metal is exactly the same physically after it has under- 
 gone heat treatment. Fluxes are therefore essential to modify 
 the defects of every-day melting practice and of all the fluxes 
 in use the metallic preparations are the most convenient, only 
 they must be used with moderation and in their proper spheres 
 of influence. 
 
 Use of metalloids as fluxes. — The metalloids are best 
 adapted for use in conjunction with the following metals and 
 alloys : 
 
 Phosphorus in copper, tin, lead and aluminum. 
 
 Silicon in copper, copper alloys and cast iron. 
 
 Arsenic in lead, anti-friction alloys and copper alloys. 
 
 Manganese is highly beneficial in all copper-zinc alloys, nickel alloys 
 and aluminum alloys. 
 
 Phosphor-tin, about O.S per cent, added to the white anti-friction 
 bronzes will prevent deterioration of the alloy in the heat. 
 
 Copper castings of high electrical efficiency. — Many ex- 
 periments have been made in order to obtain homogeneous cop- 
 per castings with a high electrical efficiency. It is highly im- 
 portant that the conductivity shall be retained as near to that of 
 pure copper as possible, and the metal that is highest in this re- 
 spect will be most in demand, for such castings as are required 
 for electrical machinery. 
 
Fluxes for Alloys 157 
 
 One of the most successful is gained by using Cowles' silicon, 
 aluminum and copper alloy (pulverized) and manganese dioxide 
 mixed in equal quantities. To two ounces of this, add an equal 
 quantity of a flux composed of borax and nitre equal parts ; this 
 is sufficient to refine 100 pounds of copper, and is added five 
 minutes before pouring. A high degree of conductivity is 
 claimed for this metal. 
 
 The following mixture for improving alloys, was also the 
 subject of a patent : Iron peroxide 33 parts, manganese peroxide, 
 1 part, magnesium carbonate yi part, aluminum 18 parts, silicon 
 3j^ parts, sodium-biborate 4 parts. Phosphorus and aluminum 
 both act as reducing agents in combination with other metals, 
 and they are especially active in lowering the fusion-point of 
 metals. 
 
 The addition of a flux is always advantageous. It cleans the 
 metal, keeps it more fluid in the ladle, tends to set free occluded 
 gases, and avoids blow-holes in the casting. Some of the so- 
 called metallic fluxes have additional advantages, as aluminum in 
 steel and iron, producing metal of superior ductility, toughness 
 and softer skin for machining purposes, and taking away the ten- 
 dency to chill at the edges or thinner parts of the castings; or 
 bismuth in anti-friction alloys in reducing friction ; or manganese 
 in copper, making it possible to cast this difficult metal satis- 
 factorily. 
 
 Flux for welding copper. — Boracic acid two parts, phosphate 
 of soda one part ; mix. Heat the copper pieces in a flame or gas 
 jet, where they will not touch charcoal or solid carbon ; strew the 
 powder over the surfaces at a red heat, continue heating to weld- 
 ing point, then hammer. 
 
 Corrosion of metals. — Metals and mortals have their 
 peculiarities and they possess many qualities in common. Both 
 can be classified according to their affinities, grouped into families 
 according to their characteristics, or ranged in line according to 
 color. They have similar attributes, as hardness, conductivity, 
 luster, etc., they are equally susceptible to treatment, and they are 
 subject to many insidious diseases. Up to the present, however, 
 only a few of the metallic diseases have been diagnosed. Metal- 
 
158 Practical Alloying 
 
 lie pathology — to coin a phrase and continue the analogy — ^is still 
 in the chrysalis stage ; it is a modern study about which only the 
 most meager, scrappy information is available. The fact that 
 familiar, every-day terms are still employed to denote or describe 
 the diseases of metals, as fatigue, rust, corrosion, proves the tra- 
 ditional conception of the subject to be uppermost. In engineer- 
 ing circles there is no more hackneyed subject than the corrosion 
 of metals ; it would be difficult, therefore, for me to say anything 
 new thereon. My aim, at present, is to bring under review the 
 relative position of the more useful metals and alloys to corro- 
 sion ; to consider preventives and to describe some experiences I 
 have, had with the plague in the practice of my ordinary vocation 
 — brass founding. 
 
 Corrosion (iLatin, cor — intensive, rosus — ^to gnaw) may 
 briefly be described as the decomposition of metals by the agency 
 of galvanic or chemical action. In the nature of things cor- 
 rosion is a problem for electricians, but, while it may be necessary 
 for me to refer to some general principles, I hope by relying on 
 well-known authorities to avoid discussion on electro-technics. 
 And here let it be emphasized that corrosion must not be con- 
 founded with another very common affection of metals, namely, 
 oxidation. Oxide or rust may form on the surface of a metal 
 and do it little injury, as, for instance, when zinc is exposed to 
 air and moisture a gray film of sub-oxide is formed, which pre- 
 serves the metal from further oxidation, or when monumental 
 bronzes acquire the desirable patina, or colorations due to the 
 production of cuprous-oxide in certain molecular conditions and 
 the beauty of contour or ornamentation is enhanced. Corrosion 
 acts differently. Most of the useful metals have some affinity for 
 oxygen, and are therefore subject to oxidation, but all metals are 
 conductors of electricity and they are therefore liable to corro- 
 sion under certain well-known conditions. 
 
 Contact theory. — The cause of corrosion is popularly ex- 
 plained by the theory of the galvanic current. Two metals in 
 contact with the presence of moisture form a galvanic couple, and 
 the difference of the force of attraction each metal possesses for 
 electricity causes a current which has been called the electromotive 
 force. Electricity is of two kinds, positive and negative, and it 
 
Fluxes for Alloys 159 
 
 has been found that whatever metals are brought into contact 
 with other, they show, when separated, opposite electrification. 
 The following example will show how the two electricities may 
 be separated from each other by the differing forces of attraction 
 of different metals : Let us assume that negative electricity is 
 attracted more strongly by copper and positive electricity more 
 strongly by zinc. As long as the two metals do not touch each 
 other the force of attraction is not called upon to act, as the two 
 electricities are equally distributed over the plates. As soon as 
 the metals touch each other, however, equilibrium between the 
 electricities will be disturbed. At the place of contact two dif- 
 ferent forces are called into action, viz., the force of attraction 
 between the two opposite electricities, and the different forces of 
 attraction of the two metals; and electrical equilibrium is only 
 possible when the resultants of these two forces are equal to 
 each other. That is the contact theory briefly stated. 
 
 Chemical theory. — Let us now consider the chemical 
 theory. When Volta, who was the first to observe that a com- 
 bination of two liquids and a metal produced a galvanic current, 
 made his discovery, it was also found that greater quantities of 
 electricity are generated by the contact of metals and fluids. 
 This is due to the chemical energy of the elements, the liquids 
 being decomposed by the electrical current. Numerous experi- 
 ments have shown that all metals become negatively electrified 
 when in contact with alkaline liquids ; but in contact with acids, 
 different metals behave differently. In the simplest form of gal- 
 vanic battery where zinc and copper plates are immersed in a 
 solution of sulphuric acid, the chemical process is as follows: 
 Zinc in the presence of sulphuric acid decomposes water into its 
 elements, hydrogen and oxygen. The zinc combines with the 
 oxygen to form zinc oxide, which unites with the sulphuric acid 
 to form zinc sulphate, while hydrogen gas escapes at the surface 
 of the copper plate. Negative electricity is produced at the sur- 
 face of the zinc plate and positive electricity at the copper plate, 
 the potential of copper being higher than that of zinc. It is evi- 
 dent that under different conditions the same metals are some- 
 times electro-positive and sometimes electro-negative to each 
 other, and as Prof. Sylvanus Thomson states, "If a metal tends 
 
160 Practical Alloying 
 
 to dissolve into a liquid there will be an electro-motive force 
 acting from the metal towards the liquid and vice versa." 
 
 Galvanic theory. — The theory of galvanic action, in so far 
 as it relates to metals, may be summed up thus : A current of 
 electricity may be generated by two difiEerent metals in contact, 
 by two different metals in the presence of a Hquid, or by a com- 
 bination of two liquids and a metal. Some metals have the prop- 
 erty of being positively electrified in contact with other metals, 
 or when submerged in a liquid, while others in similar circum- 
 stances are negatively electrified, but the polarity of the metals 
 can only be known by experimental electricity or by a com- 
 parison of the relative resistances of the elements. The mechani- 
 cal effect of this motion of the electricities, or current, is the 
 separation of the elements, due to their chemical energy and the 
 difference of electrical potential. 
 
 Let us now consider the practical aspect of the subject. 
 Metals are popularly supposed to be stable bodies. Alas, they 
 perish; they oxidize; they corrode; the unseen, in the form of 
 gas or electricity, attacks them, and they crumble into powder. 
 The universe is a gigantic laboratory for testing- materials. From 
 the recesses of her alchemical storehouse Nature can furnish un- 
 limited re-agents to precipitate the last of the elements. No 
 wonder chemists and philosophers tell us "nothing is permanent 
 but change." Attempts have been made to counteract the eflFects 
 of corrosion, in some cases by neutralizing the electrical poten- 
 tialities of the metal, and in others by re-establishing electrical 
 equilibrium. 
 
 In consequence of the rapid deterioration of iron and steel, 
 hydraulic and mining machine parts and sanitary appliances are 
 preferably made from some material less liable to corrosion. It is 
 unfortunate that iron, the cheapest and most useful and im- 
 portant of all the metals, loses more of its vitality from this cause 
 than any of its rivals. Alloying is said to retard corrosion. Cast 
 iron alloys containing copper and lead have been tried, but with 
 indiflFerent success ; nickel steel stands no better than the ordinary 
 kinds. Certain chemical alloys, as Parsons Manganese bronze 
 and Dick's Delta metal, are said to be immune, but it has been 
 found that while they may show little signs of corrosion them- 
 
Fluxes for Alloys 161 
 
 selves, they afford no protection to other metals Hke iron or steel. 
 This is proved in the case of ships' propellers. Zinc plates and 
 linings are just as necessary to prevent corrosion of the hull and 
 aperture when these alloys are used for casting propellers as 
 when the common brass or gun metals are employed. 
 
 Since the introduction of the electric light on board ship 
 there has been a noticeable increase in the number of broken tail- 
 shafts, pitted liners and corroded apertures. The importance of 
 securing perfect electrical contact in making connections is of 
 more moment on board ship than anywhere else. The loss of a 
 tail-shaft or the bursting of a condenser tube from corrosion 
 may mean a serious loss of life. It is the general practice to in- 
 terpose some inert, non-corrosive substance between metal and 
 liquid bodies to preserve the former from the destructive in- 
 fluence of corrosion. Thus it is customary to preserve the hulls 
 of ships, or constructural iron work of any kind, by a coat of 
 paint, and tinning is a favorite remedy for preserving metals 
 liable to corrosion, but these things only afford temporary protec- 
 tion. There are so many perplexing causes of corrosion that it 
 would be impossible to find a universal remedy. Ships are liable 
 to be attacked inside as well as outside. Oxidation of sulphur 
 from coal, the presence of metals electro-positive to iron and 
 steel, the existence of moist air in the holds, the possibility of a 
 leakage of the electric current from the dynamo, and other similar 
 agents are ever active. Nickel appears to be less readily corroded 
 than most of the other metals. Prof. Ernest Cohen, Amsterdam, 
 recommends nickel drawn tubes for condensers, and he specifies 
 oxide of copper and nickel as being proof against the corrosive 
 action of sea water and atmospheric air. 
 
 An instance came under my notice lately, proving that nickel- 
 plated table ware was superior to silver-plating for wear_ and 
 liability to corrosion. A new mail steamer, was furnished with a 
 fine display of E. P. silverware, but some months afterward a 
 greenish, speckled coating began to appear on the surface. The 
 articles were ordered to be replated, this time with nickel, be- 
 cause it was cheaper, and since then they have been giving 
 satisfaction. 
 
163 Practical Alloying 
 
 Much could be written about the relative merits of the vari- 
 ous metals and alloys as anti-corrosive substances. Dr. Richards 
 says : "Pure aluminum resists corrosion better than almost any 
 of its alloys." The same might be said of every other metal. 
 Impurities accelerate the corrosion of metals, and it is worthy of 
 mention that the laminations in wrought iron plates, or the spongy 
 places in a casting, are more readily corroded than the homogene- 
 ous metal. But oftentimes the casting is blamed for the trouble 
 when some other thing is the cause. Owing to the sulphur 
 used in its preparation, the rubber insertion used in 
 packing valve faces is a fruitful source of corrosion in 
 cast iron steam chests, etc. Pure rubber is costly and the com- 
 mercial article is loaded with adulterants, especially sulphur. 
 When the corrosion is discovered the engineer whines, "We 
 don't get castings like we did 10 or 12 years ago." The fact is 
 engineers are getting better castings, but poorer supplies, with the 
 usual unsatisfactory results. Corrosion is a disease with compli- 
 cations, and the personal equation counts for a great deal in the 
 combat. 
 
 The diseases of metals may be summed up into three distinct 
 classes, according to the nature of the causes which produce them : 
 First, diseases of treatment, embracing metals which have been 
 rendered weak by thermal or mechanical treatment; second, di- 
 seases of composition, arising from the presence of bodies foreign 
 to the metal or alloy; third, diseases of decay, arising from the 
 action of outside causes, either chemical or mechanical, on the 
 metal, and leading to deterioration. 
 
XIII 
 
 GATES AND RISERS FOR ALLOYS 
 
 THE gating of castings reflects the individuality of the 
 tradesman more than any other single operation con- 
 nected with the art of molding. Why ? — Because the gate 
 is the only part of the mold which is made independently. 
 Except in the case of machine-made or repetition molds, no indi- 
 cation of the duty or design of the gates necessary to run the 
 castings ever appears on the pattern. The molder must think 
 this out for himself and as often as he gets a new pattern to 
 v/ork from, the problem of gates and risers presents itself. In 
 the production of castings the making of the mold is not every- 
 thing, the gating is not less important than the ramming, 
 the venting or the binding. Every different class of work re- 
 quires separate consideration. In ornamental castings the gate 
 must not interfere with the design ; for light castings it must be 
 cut to fill the mold uniformly; for heavy castings it should be 
 constructed to avoid wear or scabbing and to feed the parts 
 solidifying last. 
 
 Again, the gate which would be ample and successful for a 
 casting in cast iron would many times bring disappointment if 
 used on a similar casting in gun metal and would certainly fail 
 with cast steel. Whatever metal may be used, the fluid charac- 
 teristics of the metal and its behavior on solidifying, want careful 
 study in order to avoid undue shrinkage, draws, cold shuts, scabs, 
 scale, etc. With alloys this is especially true. They are fickle 
 compounds, and more sensitive to variations of temperature and 
 conditions than the homely cast iron. The primary object of a 
 gate is to fill the mold with clean metal and in cutting the gate, 
 
164 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 the molder naturally selects the line of least resistance for the 
 flow of the metal, unless some other consideration, as machining, 
 or avoiding the use of chaplets, is taken into account. Fig. 16 is 
 
 o^o^o^o^o^o 
 
 Fig. 16 — Improper method of gating 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 17 — Proper method of gating 
 
 a simple illustration of how not to gate a casting. Here we have 
 a spray of washers with square holes. The gates are so led that 
 the metal in passing through the mold, must wear away the sharp 
 corners and the castings will contain minute specks of sand, mak- 
 
 Fig. 18 — Section of a 4-inch brazing 
 metal bend 
 
 ing them unsightly and diiificult to polish. Fig. 17 shows the 
 remedy for this. Fig. 18 is a section of a 4-inch brazing metal 
 bend for distillery coils. These castings are only 5-32 inch 
 thick. 
 
Gates and Risers for Alloys 
 
 165 
 
 They are made from a shell pattern with green sand core. 
 The core iron, made of ^-inch square iron, comes in two halves 
 as shown at /. No chaplets or nails are used; the core iron 
 is rigid when closed and the legs are long enough to balance the 
 core. A pressure of 36 pounds per square inch is applied to the 
 castings and the best results follow from the method of gating 
 
 Fig. 19 — Method of gating 
 
 a cover for an electric 
 
 drill 
 
 Fig. 20 — Method of gating 
 
 when cover is cast 
 
 in aluminum 
 
 shown. Fig. 19 is another example of a light casting, a cover 
 for an electric drill motor. The gate shown is for yellow brass, 
 but sometimes these are cast in aluminum, when a different 
 method is adopted, as shown in Fig. 20. This illustrates 
 the fact that gates should vary with the metals used as well as 
 
 •Av 
 
 Fig. 31 — Skimming gate to insure clean metal 
 
 with the forms of the castings made. The disposition and dimen- 
 sions of gates and risers is not a subject about which one may 
 dogmatize or lay down hard and fast rules. Similar castings 
 may be successfully run by different gates. Take the blank gear 
 wheel, Figs. 24 and 25. Five different gates are shown, any one 
 
166 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 of which may be adopted with success if attention is given to the 
 casting temperature (gun metal is meant) and the condition of 
 the mold. The question of machining often decides the method 
 of pouring. A casting which has to be machined all over is gen- 
 erally cast vertically, or with the smallest area at the top. Fig. 
 24 fulfills the latter condition better than any of the styles seen 
 in Fig. 25, but it is open to objection on account of the gate being 
 placed on the most critical part of the casting, that is, where the 
 teeth are to be cut. The easiest way to make a mold is not 
 always the best for the casting ; much depends on where the im- 
 portant parts are located. Usually, particular parts or machined 
 
 Fig. 22 — Method of gating liners and gun 
 metal rolls 
 surfaces are made to form the under side of the casting as the 
 top side, in horizontal pouring, is always weakest. Fig. 26 
 shows the general practice in marine brass foundries in casting 
 valve seats. The mold is made with the flange uppermost and 
 when it is finished it is turned over and what was the drag in 
 molding becomes the cope in casting. The tiniest speck on the 
 face of this casting would condemn it. Engine brasses supply 
 another example of the same practice. Fig. 27 illustrates one 
 style of gate and Fig. 28 is an alternative gate used with such 
 castings as are molded in three-part flasks. The whole of the 
 
Gates and Risers for Alloys 
 
 167 
 
 gate, Fig. 28, is cut in the cope, except the small leaders repre- 
 sented by dotted lines in Fig 27. 
 
 Casting brass on iron. — The most troublesome job that falls 
 to the lot of the brass founder is to cover a rod of iron, say a 
 pump rod or a shaft, with a liner of gun metal. Fig. 29. To cast 
 a liner on a shaft is a simple enough matter in itself; but to 
 
 Fig. 23 — Method of gating a stair 
 tread 
 
 Fig. 24 — One way of gating 
 a blank gear 
 
 Fig. 25 — Four different methods of 
 gating a blank gear 
 
 Fig. 26 — Usual method of 
 casting valve seats 
 
 obtain it free from blow-holes, cracks or strains is the difficulty 
 with which the brass founder must contend. 
 
 Casting brass onto iron or steel is always a difficult matter 
 to accomplish satisfactorily. The expansion of the metals is 
 different, causing cracks ; the affinity of the metals is weak, the 
 
168 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 iron repelling the brass and creating sponginess ; besides it is well 
 known that iron, when it is heated, emits a gas, which in the 
 case of shaft liners accumulates inside the mold when it is closed 
 and is absorbed by the molten brass when it is poured, producing 
 troublesome blow-holes. The remedies for these evils are first, 
 
 '•J 1 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 D^:^ 
 
 o 
 
 G=^-^ 
 
 Fig. 27-One style of gate pig. 28-Gate for a casting 
 used for casting enmne . . ,, ^ r, , 
 
 brasses "^ '" ^ three-part flask 
 
 not to overheat the iron, a very dull red scarcely perceptible in 
 the shade being all that is required ; second, to provide sufficient 
 risers for carrying off the gases and feeding the casting. PUmp 
 rods, feed screws, eccentrics, and other small gear, are usually 
 lined in vertically cast molds, but with tail shafts running 12 feet 
 and upwards in length, and weighing several tons, this method is 
 impossible. Horizontal pouring may be quite as successful if the 
 precautions already indicated are taken. From Fig. 29 it will 
 
 Fig. 29 — Arrangement of mold for casting brass on iron 
 be seen that a bed plate is leveled to receive the shaft which is 
 supported by iron stools having V-shaped notches on the top. 
 Strips of wood the required thickness of the liners are then tied 
 around the circumference to form the patterns and the molds are 
 rammed up with the shafts in position, the parting being formed 
 at the center. The copes are then removed and the shaft lifted 
 out and placed on supports ready for heating. Great care is 
 necessary in this part of the work as the shaft is liable to warp 
 if it is not properly blocked up. The number of risers strikes the 
 
Gates and Risers for Alloys 
 
 169 
 
 average molder as being abnormal, but these are exceptional cast- 
 ings and if an open, continuous riser could be arranged for, in- 
 stead of a series at short intervals, the results would be even 
 better. Risers are chiefly used to relieve the pressure on the 
 mold, to prevent gas cushions, to collect dirt, to keep open com- 
 munication with the mold as a tell-tale during the cast and to 
 feed heavy internal sections. 
 
 Risers are never used on large bells because the metal, to 
 ring well, should be as dense as possible ; this object can only be 
 
 CAST IRON 
 
 TEETH 
 
 iSOMETIMESl 
 
 CAST 
 
 SOLID PHOSPHOR BRONZE 
 
 Fig. 30 — Method of casting a pinion with a 
 horn gate 
 
 attained by giving the sounding rim all the pressure available. 
 To prevent sullage or dirt entering the mold, what is termed a 
 plug head is used. A dry sand runner basin is made up on top 
 of the mold and a plug made to fit the down-gate by casting a sec- 
 tion from the gate pin in plaster of Paris and inserting a hooked 
 iron therein before the mixture sets. This plug is fixed in the 
 gate, while the head is filled with metal. It is then lifted out by 
 using a rod of iron as a lever and the ladle keeps a constant level 
 of metal in the head until the mold is filled up. The plug head is 
 largely used for statuary and heavy ornamental castings. 
 
 Other forms of gates devised to admit only clean metal to 
 
170 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 the mold are skimming gates, Fig. 21 and core gates, Figs. 31 and 
 32. We have seen then, that the gate varies with the style of 
 casting and with the nature of the metal. For thin, light yellow 
 brass castings as stair treads. Fig. 23, the gates should be shal- 
 low and wide, with a heavy down-runner to make it easy to fill 
 the mold quickly. Another fine example in this class, but of a 
 more ornamental nature, is shown in Fig. 34. This is the re- 
 production of a match-plate for a casting made by the National 
 Cash Register Co. Such castings require skill in pouring the 
 
 Fig. 31 — One style of core 
 gate 
 
 ■;■:■: [ MOLD CAVITY 
 
 ,;.■ •;•.; rXil l?/r^';l MOLD CAV1TV ' liv';.- .'-J; 
 
 ■■W^yJ— |v.:| 
 
 
 Fig. 32— Cross-section of mold showing the Fig- 33— Casting a propeller 
 use of a core gate blade in a vertical 
 
 " position 
 
 metal ; indeed in foundries where much light work is made the 
 pouring is done by a class of men called casters. These men are 
 expert in filling such molds, and wasters due to irregularities in 
 pouring are reduced to a minimum. It may be mentioned here that 
 we have intentionally avoided any reference to the fixing of gates 
 on machine-made molds. That is a special branch of the subject 
 which would be better dealt with by ah expert in machine mold- 
 ing. Great ingenuity is often displayed in arranging the pat- 
 terns for an odd-side, or for spray work in plate molding or 
 machine-molding. The main object is to press as many pieces 
 as possible within the area of the flask, in positions that will give 
 good, clean castings, with gates which will be economical of metal 
 in casting and also of labor in cleaning. 
 
Gates and Risers for Alloys 171 
 
 How to gate castings. — ^A few pointers on gating follow : 
 The flow of metal should not meet with any obstruction on 
 entering the mold. 
 
 As a rule, the mold should be gated at a heavy part. 
 
 The smallest sprue, which will run the casting satisfactorily, 
 is the best for overcoming faults in pouring. 
 
 The drop gate is very useful for thin castings of large area 
 as well as for heavy castings with variable thicknesses. 
 
 In some cases a cleaner and sounder casting can be ob- 
 tained, when the metal enters at or near the bottom. 
 
 Round gate pins give the best results generally. 
 
 Spray gates should make a short connection with the leader 
 and they should always be deeper and wider there than at the 
 mold cavity. 
 
 The pouring basin or head should be so constructed that it 
 can be kept full, otherwise the dirt, which collects on the surface 
 of the metal, will be washed into the mold and result in a de- 
 fective casting. 
 
 Core gates are useful when it is desirable to fill the mold 
 with a gentle stream from the interior. 
 
 On intricate castings the gates must be distributed to insure 
 that the metal shall reach the vital parts in good condition ; at the 
 same time care must be taken to avoid scabs from the metals im- 
 pinging upon weak internal parts. 
 
 In gating phosphor bronze castings, molded in green sand, 
 make a practice of feeding the heavier parts through the nearest 
 lighter section. 
 
 Don't experiment with a new gate if the one regularly in use 
 gives satisfaction, unless it is to economize metal or facilitate 
 molding. 
 
 Heavy castings call for good judgment to decide upon the 
 size and number of gates required. 
 
 Alloys high in zinc, as manganese bronze or Muntz metal, 
 should have heavy plug heads for heavy work. The plug head, 
 which is simply a dry sand head with a plug fitted in the runner, 
 is also used for casting statues made by the cire perdu process. 
 
178 Practical Alloying 
 
 In making up the head for a large mold the runner basin 
 should be central, if possible, so as to give an equal distribution 
 of the metal to the gates. Making up the head is a part of the 
 work, which is apt to be hurriedly done, since it is the last duty 
 in preparing the mold for casting. Carelessness in this part of 
 the work will spoil the casting just as readily as bad molding. 
 The gates illustrated, are only a few selected for their interest 
 to general brass founders. 
 
 Firms adopting a specialty soon find out the most practical 
 means of gating the castings they make. For example, screw 
 propeller blades for ships are recommended to be cast in man- 
 ganese or aluminum bronze. It was found that the horizontal 
 method of pouring such castings in gun metal gave unsatisfactory 
 results with the alloys mentioned. Now, propeller blades in 
 manganese and other bronzes are invariably cast in the vertical 
 position. Fig. 33. This is an ideal style of casting for pouring 
 on end because it is self-feeding and in cooling out it sets from 
 the bottom upwards. Nevertheless, horizontal pouring is neces- 
 sary when gun metal is used. The liquation of the tin in heavy 
 masses of gun metal, would produce a casting with brittle edges 
 and irregular composition in the thicker parts of the blade if it 
 were cast vertically. 
 
 Fig. 35 shows the gate on a church bell; Fig. 32 shows the 
 method of gating liners and gun metal rolls ; Fig. 30 shows the 
 use of the horn gate ; the illustration is a cross-section of a pinion 
 wheel for heavy gears and they would probably weigh from 60 
 to 100 pounds. Dry sand molds are essential for this class of 
 work. The ordinary method of avoiding air holes in such cast- 
 ings is to flow a surplus of metal through the mold. It is believed 
 that the gases rising from the heated iron are, by this means, 
 carried away from the casting. With a sluggish fluid like gun 
 metal, this flushing of the mold is good practice, but with a 
 highly fluid metal like phosphor bronze it would be positive ex- 
 travagance. For this casting I would recommend a good, old- 
 fashioned horn gate; for the larger sizes two gates at opposite 
 points, to be poured with two crucibles, with risers distributed on 
 the cope at regular intervals, say six inches apart all around the 
 circumference. Fig. 30 also shows a cross-section of the rim of a 
 
Fig. 34 — Match-plate for a brass, cash register 
 casting 
 
 Fig. 3.5 — Method of gating a church 
 bell 
 
Ga tes and Risers for Alloys 173 
 
 gear with a horn gate and risers ; i shows a cross-section of the 
 gear when cast blank and 2 when cast with the teeth in it. 
 
 The cast iron center should be of close-grained iron and it 
 would be a decided advantage to have it twice heated before be- 
 ing placed in the mold for casting. Perhaps the most import- 
 ant consideration in such castings is the temperature. The iron 
 should not be raised above a dark cherry hue when first heated. 
 At the time of casting, a dark red heat should be sufficient. 
 
 As regards the casting temperature of alloys, we have still 
 to depend upon rule-of-thumb. I would not advocate hot metal 
 for this job as some do, because the hotter the metal is made, 
 the more active it is to form and absorb gases. The blow-holes 
 complained of are common to all the conditions of casting copper 
 alloys upon iron and it is always possible to minimize them by 
 conducting the gases freely from the mold. 
 
XIV 
 
 ABOUT CRUCIBLES 
 
 THERE is a book entitled, "Crucibles, Their Care and Use," 
 published by the Joseph Dixon Crucible Co., Jersey City, 
 N. J., which should be in the hands of every crucible 
 user and every melter of alloys. The purpose of this 
 book is to inform the user of crucibles as to their nature and 
 characteristics, and to give him suggestions as to their care and 
 handling, which, if followed, will add to their efficiency and 
 greatly prolong their usefulness. 
 
 We must concede that the makers should have learned by 
 this time about all there is to know of the use and abuse of cru- 
 cibles. The graphite crucible is the last word on melting pots. 
 For mixing all sorts of alloys it is an ideal vessel; refractory, 
 flexible, capable of withstanding sudden changes of temperature 
 and strong enough to be handled with freedom, but not with im- 
 punity as some people imagine. If you are going to get the 
 best out of anything, you must give it your respect. The plum- 
 bago crucible is like this, and nearly all of the troubles com- 
 plained about are due to the absence of the last named attention. 
 
 In my experience, crucibles are like men, if you treat them 
 properly you get a fair return. The average life of the crucible 
 depends greatly upon the conditions under which they are 
 worked. The crucible, which is used in one of the modern tilt- 
 ing furnaces, may give 100 per cent more heats than the one 
 used in a pit furnace with a blast connected. A good general 
 average of heats for the various metals melted in a natural 
 draught coke or coal-fired furnace would be for brass, 40 heats ; 
 for gun metal, 35 heats ; for copper, 32 heats ; for German silver, 
 
About Crucibles 175 
 
 18 heats ; for malleable iron, 16 heats ; for steel, 7 heats and for 
 nickel, 4 heats. 
 
 These figures, however, just as they are beyond the attain- 
 ments of some people, would not satisfy the requirements of 
 other and more expert melters who are capable of a melting ratio 
 far more favorable to the use — and by the same token to the 
 maker — of the crucible. 
 
 Causes of premature failure are annealing on the top of the 
 furnace, bad fitting tongs, improper charging of the metals, ram- 
 ming of the fuel, soaking and rough usage. 
 
 Figs. 36, 37, 38 and 39 amply illustrate the troubles to which 
 crucibles are prone. The scalped crucible. Fig. 36, is a sight to 
 make the gods weep. The potter's vessel dashed in pieces by 
 gross carelessness. Let the manufacturer explain, if he can. 
 And he does in this way: "When the crucible comes from the 
 kiln it contains less than one-quarter of one per cent combined 
 moisture. In this connection it is absolutely impossible to scalp 
 it, but the moment it cools off it begins to absorb moisture from 
 the air, and once absorbed it requires a temperature of not less 
 than 250 degrees Fahr. to dispel this moisture. It is also essen- 
 tial that the crucible be kept to this temperature to prevent its 
 absorbing the moisture again." 
 
 So simple! And yet many profess to be astonished when 
 disaster follows neglect. For the proper annealing of crucibles 
 four rules should be observed: 
 
 First — ^The temperature must go above 250 degrees Fahr. 
 
 Second — This temperature should be reached gradually. 
 
 Third — This temperature must be held long enough to expel 
 the moisture in the crucible. Ten hours is given as an approxi- 
 mate time for a No. 200 crucible. 
 
 Fourth — The crucible must go in the melting furnace with a 
 temperature above 250 degrees Fahr. 
 
 After the crucible has been successfully annealed, some 
 melters breath freely and concern themselves no more about it. 
 Now, the crux of the question of crucible longevity lies in giving 
 proper treatment and care to the pots from the time of delivery 
 to the time of doubt, that is, when it reached the condition shown 
 in Fig. 37, and deserves honorable mention for long and faithful 
 
176 Practical Alloying 
 
 service. Alligator cracks is another serious defect, due to hot 
 gases and improper annealing. It matters not if you use oil or 
 solid fuel, all fuels culminate in gas and the products of combus- 
 tion. The moisture in the hot gases condenses on the wall of 
 the crucible, an oxidizing condition develops and alligator cracks 
 are the result. 
 
 Pin holes. Fig. 38, are a more subtle defect. They develop 
 after the crucible has been in use for some time, and it is not so 
 easy to apportion the blame for their appearance. The manu- 
 facturers admit the possibility of an occasional bad pot, but most 
 practical men will appreciate the wide margin which exists be- 
 tween the number of heats obtained by a careful and skillful 
 melter and one who does not bring the same care and intelligence 
 to bear upon his work. Pin holes are probably small fissures de- 
 veloped either during the drying or the annealing of a crucible, 
 and the personal equation seems to enter largely into the disorder. 
 
 The squeezed crucible, Fig. 39, bears witness to the kind of 
 tool in use and the kind of men who use them. 
 
 Two things about crucible economy loom up with im- 
 pressive persistence and vigor: First, moisture is the greatest 
 enemy to the life of a crucible, and second, prolonged melting 
 and intermittent heats are responsible for most of the poor aver- 
 ages in ordinary foundry practice. 
 
 It is just as well to remember that the enemy in the form 
 of moist, hot gases due to imperfect combustion, say when you 
 are holding back the metal to suit the molder, may be getting in 
 some deadly work unknown to you, except by a low average of 
 heats from the crucible. And you can hardly put a bigger strain 
 upon a pot than to leave it out in the open overnight and charge 
 it cold into a fresh fire in the morning. 
 
 As regards the shape and capacity of crucibles, the most 
 popular shape for alloys is the wide-mouthed Scotch pattern. 
 For steel and metals requiring high temperatures, the barrel or 
 olive shape is favored. The actual capacity of the different 
 styles varies with the nature of the metals melted. Crucibles for 
 brass are made in England to hold one pound of molten metal 
 per size unit, and a No. 20 pot will hold 20 pounds of metal. 
 The Scotch shape is proportioned to hold two pounds per number. 
 
Fig. 36 — A scalped crucible 
 
 P'ig. 37 — Crucible showing the cracks 
 
 which begin to form at the top 
 
 when its life is nearly ended 
 
 'i^'^^Si 
 
 |i|BBg|g^^>, ^1^ f =^- 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^^v 
 
 K 
 
 ^ w 
 
 
 ■ ' - n' 
 
 in 
 
 
 Hi ''-* 
 
 ??^^ 
 
 
 .-.^@^'-- 
 
 
 j 
 
 Fig. .3S — Crucible showing pin-holes Fig. 39 — Crucilile squeezed out of 
 from which metal has leaked shape by tongs 
 
 Illustrations from "Crucibles, their care and use." ]>ublished by the .Joseph Dixon 
 Crucible Co., Jersey City, N. J. 
 
About Crucibles 177 
 
 and American shapes have capacities up to three pounds of metal 
 per size number. As the capacity of a crucible is sometimes 
 limited to the amount of light or bulky scrap which it can con- 
 tain in unmelted form, the reason for favoring a wide-mouthed 
 shape for alloys will be quite obvious. 
 
 The question is often asked "Who makes the best crucibles ?" 
 The answer to that is contained in the answer to another ques- 
 tion, "Who takes the best care of his crucibles ?" 
 
 Some uses for old crucibles. — Plumbago crucibles are an im- 
 portant item in brass and steel foundry expenditure, but as the 
 expense is a necessary one, it behooves the practical tradesman 
 to be careful how he uses them. I can answer for my own 
 method as being both safe and economical. Our standard num- 
 ber of heats for melting brass in crucibles is 34. I fancy I hear 
 a snicker go round at the modesty of the figures. Someone is 
 sure to exclaim : "Oh ! we can get 40 heats on an average and we 
 have had '50 not out' on more than one occasion." I believe 
 that, because I too have had the same pleasure. When I say that 
 the standard number of heats with us is 34, I mean to imply 
 that we look upon that number as the minimum we should get 
 with ordinary usage. We melt 17 heats per week from each 
 furnace, and every crucible we put in is expected to wear for a 
 fortnight ; but under no circumstances do we use one for a longer 
 period than 3 weeks. When we have had the use of a crucible 
 for a fortnight continuously, we reckon it has paid for itself, and, 
 if at the end of the third week it is still sound, as often happens, 
 the chances of its giving out within the next day or two are too 
 great to make it worth while risking the loss, danger and annoy- 
 ance which always accompanies a burst, either in the furnace, or 
 out of it. 
 
 Many furnacemen make a practice of sweating the pots by 
 putting them, mouth downwards, back into the furnace every 
 night after the last heat, ostensibly to keep them clean. I find 
 they can be kept clean much easier and with less wear, by paying 
 attention to the inside wall when skimming the dross off the 
 metal, or at the finish of each heat. When the last heat for the 
 day has been cast, it is always better to empty the crucible and 
 turn it upside down behind the furnace it was taken out of. 
 
178 Practical Alloying 
 
 leaving the back half of the furnace uncovered. This allows the 
 crucible to cool out gradually and avoids much of that cracking 
 noise you hear when it is cooled in a draught. 
 
 A new crucible should not require sweating before the 
 twelfth or fifteenth heat and about every ninth heat there- 
 after, but much will depend on the nature and condition of the 
 metals to be melted. With clean ingot metal it is easier to have 
 clean crucibles and increase the average number of meltings. 
 
 The man who gives his pots a nightly sweat gets them thin 
 and fragile in a much shorter period than the non-sweater. That 
 means his crucibles are more liable to squeeze, split or collapse. 
 
 The other extreme is reached by the lazy villain who never 
 sweats the pots at all, but leaves the spare metal to set in their 
 bottoms and wonders why so many pots run with the first charge 
 in the morning. If, through inadvertence, you should at any 
 time have metal set over night in the bottom of a crucible, take 
 my advice and dump it out before you recharge it. Put some 
 borings or other metal in the bottom before placing the nugget 
 back in the crucible ; you can then proceed to melt the metal with 
 confidence. 
 
 I have come to the conclusion that much sweating saps the 
 life of the pot, just as it would the potter were he amenable to 
 the process, and the sweating system is good for neither pots 
 nor people. 
 
 The career of a crucible is oftentimes an instructive lesson. 
 When it has rendered good service and worn itself out as a melt- 
 ing pot it may still be utilized for many purposes undreamt of by 
 the makers. One has only to look around one of the jobbing 
 foundries to realize this. There you may see the crippled-cru- 
 cible-swab-pot, or the plumbago parting sand dish, and if you 
 happen to know in which suburb the manager lives you may 
 tell his house by the sable flower pots in the side passage. 
 There is no great novelty in any of these adaptations and it re- 
 quires no inventive ferment of the average brain to discover 
 many similar uses for faithful old crucibles. The genius, being 
 differently constituted, intuitively finds an entirely new use for 
 any old thing ; he cuts and carves it to his liking. Witness that 
 original idea for a self-skimming ladle. The recipe is as follows : 
 Cut an old crucible in halves longitudinally; when daubing the 
 
About Crucibles 179 
 
 ladle fix one of the pieces inside near the pouring lip, to form 
 a pocket or division. Another good idea is to cut the bowl of one 
 of the larger sized pots, say 5 inches from the bottom, invert, and 
 place on the fire-bars of the furnace, to be used as a stand for 
 the melting pot to sit upon. This arrangement saves fuel and 
 has the advantage of keeping the crucible always at the same 
 height in the furnace. In the same way old bottoms make handy 
 crucible covers for melting steel, or German silver alloys. I do 
 not pretend to know all the ways in which worn out crucibles can 
 be used ; I have seen them used as annealing pots ; also for burn- 
 ing parting sand in ; and when the sight of them has become tire- 
 some, a last charge of skimmings or washings would be packed 
 into one of them and melted over night. In the morning the 
 staunch old friend would get his death blow ; the button of metal 
 would be put on one side, while the remains — well, I shall have 
 more to say about the remains further on. 
 
 Economy is a virtue and I want to instil it by showing that 
 dilapidated crucibles may be put to some more profitable use 
 than the decoration of the foundry dump or truck heap. Even 
 if they are beyond any of the uses already mentioned, they 
 may be ground and mixed in many ways with obvious advan- 
 tage. In some localities hawkers buy up broken crucibles for 
 a few cents per hundred weight; and resell them to the facing 
 mills. It struck me as peculiar that the material in a graphite 
 crucible should realize so little when it was done with for melting 
 purposes, especially when it is taken into consideration that the 
 heat treatment it receives makes no appreciable difference on 
 the incombustible ingredients. When you cut off the glaze from 
 the outside of an old crucible there is practically no difference 
 in the body of the material ; besides if it pays a hawker to collect 
 and resell them to the grinders, why should it not be profitable 
 for the foundryman to grind them himself? Every foundry of 
 any size has a mill and some hair sieves. Let us see what can be 
 made of the stuff anyhow ! "Pugging" is a trade name for the 
 soft fire clay, cement or mortar used for repairing chimneys, fur- 
 naces, etc. The best pugging I know of is ground crucibles 
 mixed with clay wash. The ordinary sand daubing is vastly im- 
 
180 Practical Alloying 
 
 proved by the addition of a shovel full of ground crucibles. Pure 
 plumbago facing does not adhere well to the surface of green 
 sand molds but mixed with ground crucibles and talc up to 20 
 per cent it may be relied upon. Ground crucibles mixed with oil 
 makes a splendid substance for stamping branch cores, or for 
 getting a bearing by making up the space between core and 
 print, or core and core, as the case may be. Steel founders 
 use fire clay in some of their facing sand mixtures but ground 
 crucibles is a good substitute; it also makes a good mixer for 
 core sands, in brass foundries, wherever the ordinary mixtures 
 are liable to burn or fuse. Moisture in a crucible before it under- 
 goes annealing generally results in its being scalped; but when 
 once it has been thoroughly annealed there is not the same risk, 
 if a little moisture gets on the outside of it. 
 
 My reason for making this statement will be explained by 
 what follows: Many years ago I received my first appointment 
 as a foreman brass molder; it was in Edinburgh, Scotland, and 
 there were 14 crucible furnaces in the shop. The first morning 
 I was perplexed to see the two furnacemen brushing the outside 
 of the crucibles with a black looking slurry, before charging them. 
 On the second morning the same maneuvers were gone through 
 so I ventured to ask for an explanation. I was informed that this 
 had been the practice ever since "Mr. James," came back from 
 France, — some 14 months. The mixture consisted of fire clay 
 and our old friend ground crucible, half and half, mixed with 
 water. A new pot was put in for the first day au naturel; after 
 that it got its morning coat of black jack. The result convinced 
 me that "Mr. James" was no friend of the crucible manufac- 
 turer. His method added at least 30 per cent to the average life 
 of a crucible. 
 
 To make a stirrer with black jack, put two strips of 
 wood on a face board, as you would in making clay thick- 
 nesses. Let them be 1^ inches apart and 1>4 inches thick. Pack 
 the space with the mixture, which is improved if moistened with 
 liquid core gum instead of with water; insert a bar of l>4x^- 
 yich iron, raggled for about 16 inches at one end. Slick-off the 
 superfluous mixture, allow it to stiffen, unscrew one of the strips 
 of wood and lift the affair into the stove. In the morning you 
 have a home-made plumbago stirrer. 
 
XV 
 
 TESTING ALLOYS 
 
 THE manufacture of testing machinery has been brought 
 to such a high state of ef35ciency, that many firms mak- 
 ing high class castings for which tests are essential, prefer 
 to install one or two machines and perform all tests in 
 their own workshops. Messrs. W. & L Avery's testing machines 
 are in use in some of the largest engineering laboratories in the 
 world. They have a reputation for being sensitive, accurate 
 and of sound construction. 
 
 Fig. 40 is an illustration of an improved, hydraulic, vertical 
 testing machine, single lever type, for tensile, compressive and 
 transverse tests, capacity up to 150 tons. 
 
 Fig. 41 is a novel impact testing machine which is self-reg- 
 istering, indicating the number of foot-pounds of energy ab- 
 sorbed by the specimen, which is fractured in one blow. The 
 value of testing by impact has been fully demonstrated partic- 
 ularly when any material is required to withstand shock. An- 
 other feature of impact testing is that the fractures made 
 show agreement with the micro-structures, and enable the ex- 
 pert to determine the relative contents of the specimen and its 
 previous thermal treatment. 
 
 All physical tests are comparative, and it is a mistake to 
 rely upon any single test for the capabilities of any material. 
 With alloys, the tensile test is too often the only one. Differ- 
 ent metals call for different tests and comparisons, and if a 
 combination of two or more tests are conducted simultaneously 
 on the same metal, a great deal more of its history can be as- 
 
183 Practical Alloying 
 
 certained, and better work may be done through the application 
 of the knowledge thus gained. 
 
 Tests for various metals. — The recognized tests for cast 
 iron are the transverse, tensile, compression, impact and shrink- 
 age tests. 
 
 For gun metals the principal tests are tensile, torsion and 
 impact. 
 
 For high tension bronzes the principal tests are bending, 
 tensile, torsion and elasticity. 
 
 For anti-friction metals, the principal tests are compression, 
 friction and hardness. 
 
 Whatever the nature of the test, some force is directed 
 upon the material, and calculations based on the amount of 
 work done, are made. This does not show the relation of the 
 test piece to forces outside of the original test, hence the need 
 for combining several tests in one sample of the alloy. All ten- 
 sile tests should be accompanied by a statement of elongation 
 and the reduction of area. The transverse test is chiefly used 
 for cast iron. All friction tests should indicate the method of 
 lubrication, if any. 
 
 Notes on test bars. — A few suggestions regarding test bars 
 are given below: 
 
 It is usual to make two bars for every test. 
 
 Test pieces of large section give lower results comparatively 
 than small sections. 
 
 Increase of density and strength generally follows an in- 
 crease of static pressure in the mold. 
 
 As a rule, test bars should be cast in the vertical position. 
 
 Brass and nickel alloys should have a riser attached. 
 
 Owing to the tendency of tin to segregate, some gun metal 
 — copper and tin — mixtures give better results when the bars are 
 cast in-the horizontal position. 
 
 When a test bar is specified to be cast on a casting, the 
 best results are obtained when the bar is about the same sec- 
 tional area as that part of the casting to which it is connected, 
 and also when it is as far away from the main body of metal as 
 
Fig. 40 — Vertical, hydraulic testing' machine 
 
 Fig. 41 — Impact testing machine 
 
Testing Alloys 183 
 
 possible. This insures a uniform cooling rate, and more truly 
 indicates the character of the casting at that particular part. 
 
 Rounded corners and very gradual changes of section are 
 advisable for all bars that have to undergo tensile, torsional or 
 elasticity tests. 
 
 Test pieces should not be cast on the top part of a casting. 
 They only act as risers, collecting dirt, and are likely to con- 
 tain flaws. 
 
 The principal test should always be the one which most 
 closely resembles the strains that the alloy will have to stand 
 when in actual use. 
 
 All the variations in strains, pressures and speeds that cast- 
 ings are subject to in practical use, cannot be reproduced on a 
 testing machine, but the physical tests taken in conjunction with 
 the microscopical and chemical deductions, afford ample infor- 
 mation for the safe amount of burden that may be imposed on 
 the alloy. 
 
 The casting temperature of alloys is of greater importance 
 than the rate of cooling, although both conditions exert a power- 
 ful influence on the physical properties of the castings. With 
 cast iron, variations in the rate of cooling have more pro- 
 nounced effects than variations in the casting temperature. With 
 alloys, especially of copper, the casting temperature is of par- 
 amount importance. 
 
184 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 PARTICULARS OF ALL THE KNOWN METALS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Electrical 
 
 Heat 
 
 
 
 
 Atomicity 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 conduc- 
 
 conduc- 
 
 Metal 
 
 Symbol 
 
 Color 
 
 new 
 
 Specific 
 
 heat 
 
 tivity 
 
 tivity 
 
 
 
 
 system 
 
 gravity 
 
 at Cent. 
 
 mercury 
 at Cent. 
 
 silver 
 =100 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Al 
 
 Tin-white 
 
 .27 1 
 
 2.66 
 
 .2253 
 
 20.97 
 
 31.33 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Sb 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 120.43 
 
 6.697 
 
 .0523 
 
 2.05 
 
 4.08 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 As 
 
 Steel-grey 
 
 75.01 
 
 5.7Z7 
 
 .083 
 
 2.679 
 
 
 Barium 
 
 Ba 
 
 Ylwsh.-white 
 
 137.43 
 
 3.5-4 
 
 
 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Bi 
 
 White 
 
 208.11 
 
 9.769 
 
 .0305 at 20° .8676 
 
 1.8 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 Cd 
 
 White, blue 
 tinge 
 
 112.3 
 
 8.66-8.8 
 
 .0648 
 
 13.46 
 
 20.06 
 
 Caesium 
 
 Cs 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 132.9 
 
 1.88 
 
 
 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Ca 
 
 Ylwsh.-white 
 
 40 
 
 1.82 
 
 .1686 
 
 12.5 
 
 26.4 
 
 Cerium 
 
 Ce 
 
 Steel-grey 
 
 140 
 
 5.5 
 
 .04479 
 
 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Cr 
 
 Greyish-white 
 
 52.45 
 
 6.8-7.3 
 
 .0998 
 
 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Co 
 
 Steel-grey 
 
 58.8 
 
 8.52-8.95 
 
 .107 
 
 9.685 
 
 17.S 
 
 Copper 
 
 Cu 
 
 Reddish-ylw. 
 
 63 
 
 8.36-8.95 
 
 .0933 
 
 52 to 54 
 
 73.6 
 
 Didymium 
 
 Di+Pr 
 
 White 
 
 142 
 
 6.544 
 
 .04563 
 
 
 
 Erbium 
 
 Er 
 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gallium 
 
 Ga 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 70 
 
 6.96 
 
 .079 
 
 
 
 Germanium 
 
 Ge 
 
 Greyish-white 
 
 72.3 
 
 5.469 
 
 .0737 
 
 
 
 Glucinum* 
 
 Be or Gl 
 
 Steel-colored 
 
 9.08 
 
 2.1 
 
 .4702 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 Au 
 
 Yellow 
 
 196.5 
 
 19.3 
 
 .0316 
 
 43.84 
 
 53.2 
 
 Indium 
 
 In 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 113.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 .05695 
 
 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Ir 
 
 Grey 
 
 192.5 
 
 22.38 
 
 .0323 
 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 Fe 
 
 Greyish-white 
 
 56 
 
 6.95-8.2 
 
 .114 
 
 9.68 
 
 11.9 
 
 Lanthanum 
 
 La 
 
 White 
 
 138.5 
 
 6.163 
 
 .04485 
 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 Pb 
 
 Blue-grey 
 
 206.4 
 
 11.4 
 
 .03065 
 
 4.8 
 
 8.6 
 
 Lithium 
 
 Li 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 7.03 
 
 0.578-0.589 
 
 .9408 
 
 10.69 
 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Mg 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 24.36 
 
 1.75 
 
 20°-51.245 
 
 ° 22.84 
 
 34.8 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Mn 
 
 White-grey 
 
 56.02 
 
 8 
 
 14°-97° 
 
 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Hg 
 
 White 
 
 200 
 
 13.6 
 
 .033 
 
 .1 
 
 S.8 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Mo 
 
 Dull silver 
 
 96. 
 
 8.62 
 
 .0659 
 
 
 
 Neodymium 
 
 Nd 
 
 
 143.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Ni 
 
 White 
 
 58.7 
 
 8.3-8.7 
 
 .10916 
 
 7.374 
 
 
 Niobiumf 
 
 Nb 
 
 Steel-grey 
 
 94 
 
 4.06 
 
 
 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Os 
 
 Blue-white 
 
 190.8 
 
 22.477 
 
 .03113 
 
 
 
 Palladium 
 
 Pd 
 
 White 
 
 106.5 
 
 11.4 
 
 .0582 
 
 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Pt 
 
 White 
 
 194.6 
 
 21.5 
 
 .0314 
 
 8.042 
 Ag=100 
 
 S7.9 
 
 Potassium 
 
 K 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 39.04 
 
 0.875 
 
 .166 
 
 11.23 
 
 46 
 
 Praseodymium Pr 
 
 
 140.5 
 
 
 .0314 
 
 
 
 Rhodium 
 
 Rh 
 
 Bluish-white 
 
 102.7 
 
 12.1 
 
 .06803 
 
 
 
 Rubidium 
 
 Rb 
 
 White 
 
 85.2 
 
 1.52 
 
 
 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 Ru 
 
 White 
 
 101.4 
 
 12.261 
 
 .0611 
 
 
 
 Samarium 
 
 Sm 
 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scandium 
 Silver 
 
 Sc 
 Ag 
 
 White 
 
 44 
 107.66 
 
 10.4-10.7 
 
 .0557 
 
 63.846 
 
 100 
 
 Sodium 
 
 nI 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 22.995 
 
 0.9735 
 
 .2734 
 
 18.3 
 
 36.6 
 
 Strontium 
 
 Sr 
 
 Ylwsh.-white 
 
 87.3 
 
 2.542 
 
 
 
 
 Tantalum 
 Tellurium 
 
 Ta 
 Te 
 
 White shin- 
 ing semi- 
 metal 
 
 183 
 127.49 
 
 10.8 
 6.255 
 
 .0475 
 
 .000777 
 
 Ag at 0° 
 
 = 1 
 
 
 Terbium 
 Thallium 
 
 Tr 
 Tl 
 
 White 
 
 160 
 203.64 
 
 11.88 
 
 .0325 
 
 5.225 
 
 
 Thorium 
 
 Th 
 
 Greyish-white 
 
 232 
 
 11.1-11.23 
 
 .02787 
 
 
 
 Tin 
 
 Sn 
 
 Silver«hite 
 
 119 
 
 7.3 
 
 .0669 
 
 8.726 
 
 15.9 
 
 Titanium 
 
 Ti 
 
 Dark-grey 
 
 47.9 
 
 3.5888 
 
 .1135 
 
 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 W 
 
 Steel-grey 
 
 184.4 
 
 18.77 
 
 .035 
 
 
 
 Uranium 
 
 U 
 
 Silver-white 
 
 240 
 
 18.7 
 
 .0276 
 
 
 
 Vanadium 
 
 V 
 
 Light-grey 
 
 51.4 
 
 6.6 
 
 
 
 
 Ytterbium 
 
 Yb 
 
 
 173 
 89 
 65.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yttrium 
 Zinc 
 
 Y 
 Zn 
 
 Bluish-white 
 
 6.9-7.15 
 
 .0935 
 
 1H.9 
 
 28.1 
 
 Zirconium 
 
 Zr 
 
 Grey 
 
 90.5 
 
 4.15 
 
 .066 
 
 
 
 •Also called beryllium 
 
 tAlso called columbium. 
 
Tables, etc. 
 
 18& 
 
 CONTRACTION OF METALS IN COOLING 
 
 Metal 
 
 Cast iron . . . 
 Gun metal . . 
 Yellow brass . . 
 Copper . . . 
 Zinc and tin . . 
 Lead .... 
 
 In fractions of 
 
 In parts of 
 
 an inch per 
 
 linear dimensions 
 
 foot of linear dimensions 
 
 A 
 
 
 •i 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 i 
 
 ih 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 CONTRACTION OF CASTINGS 
 
 Inch 
 
 Thin brass . . 
 Thick brass . . 
 Gunmetal rods 
 Zinc . . ' . . . 
 Copper .... 
 Bismuth . . . 
 Tin and lead, each 
 Alnminum . . 
 Delta metal . . 
 Manganese bronze 
 
 i 
 
 in 9 inches 
 
 i 
 
 in 10 inches 
 
 i 
 
 in 9 inches 
 
 A 
 
 per foot 
 
 A 
 
 per foot 
 
 A 
 
 per foot 
 
 i 
 
 per foot 
 
 iJ 
 
 per foot 
 
 A 
 
 per foot 
 
 i 
 
 per foot 
 
 When a substance ] ^^^^^ ^^ [ intheactof fusion, the solid 
 
 1 Sink I 
 parts wiir j . > in the liquid. Such substances have their 
 
 I raised ) 
 
 temperature of fusion j , ,y while under pressure. Ex- 
 
 For a rise of 10 degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 degrees Centigrade) — 
 Iron expands about .... mhsu 
 Steel expands about .... tttott 
 Copper expands about .... rtrhni 
 Brass expands about .... ^Arr 
 
186 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 TABLK OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT PER CUBIC INCH, 
 
 SPECIFIC HEAT, LATENT HEAT OF FUSION, 
 
 AND APPROXIMATE MELTING 
 
 POINTS OF METALS 
 
 Specific 
 Name gravity 
 
 Aluminum g.6 
 
 Antimony 6.8 
 
 Bismuth 9.8 
 
 Cadmium 8.86 
 
 Chromium 6.65 
 
 Cobalt 8.7 
 
 Copper 8.9 
 
 Gold 19.33 
 
 Iridium 28.42 
 
 Iron, wrought 7.8 
 
 Lead 11.35 
 
 Magnesium i.;i 
 
 Manganese 7.39 
 
 Mercury 13.59 
 
 Nickel 8.8 
 
 Osmium 23.47 
 
 Palladium 11.4 
 
 Platinum 21.6 
 
 Rhodium 12,10 
 
 Ruthenium 12.26 
 
 Silver 10.53 
 
 Tin 7.3 
 
 Titanium 8.68 
 
 Tungsten 18.77 
 
 Zinc 6.9 
 
 Grams Latent Melting 
 
 per cubic Specific heat of point. Authority for 
 inch heat fusion Cent. melting points 
 
 42.62 
 
 .222 
 
 80 
 
 625 
 
 Roberts-Austin 
 
 111.48 
 
 .051 
 
 16 
 
 432 
 
 Pouillet 
 
 160.66 
 
 .031 
 
 12.4 
 
 368.3 
 
 Rudberg 
 
 141.97 
 
 .055 
 
 13.1 
 
 330.7 
 
 Person 
 
 109.02 
 
 .100 
 
 
 1515 
 
 E. A. Lewis 
 
 142.62 
 
 .107 
 
 68 
 
 1500 
 
 Pictet 
 
 145.90 
 
 .095 
 
 43 
 
 1054 
 
 Violle 
 
 316.89 
 
 .038 
 
 16.3 
 
 1045 
 
 VioIIe 
 
 367.55 
 
 .033 
 
 28 
 
 1960 
 
 Violle 
 
 127.87 
 
 .112 
 
 69 
 
 1600 
 
 Pictet 
 
 186.07 
 
 .032 
 
 6.4 
 
 326.3 
 
 Person 
 
 28.03 
 
 .245 
 
 58 
 
 760 
 
 
 181.15 
 
 .183 
 
 
 1245 
 
 Heraeus 
 
 822.79 
 
 .033 
 
 2.8 
 
 —39.6 
 
 Regnault 
 
 140.98 
 
 .108 
 
 68 
 
 1484 
 
 Bredig 
 
 368.37 
 
 .031 
 
 35 
 
 2600 
 
 Pictet 
 
 186.89 
 
 .059 
 
 36.3 
 
 1687 
 
 Bredig 
 
 352.47 
 
 .032 
 
 27.2 
 
 1780 
 
 Bredig 
 
 198.37 
 
 .058 
 
 63 
 
 2000 
 
 Pictet 
 
 200.99 
 
 .061 
 
 46 
 
 2000+ 
 
 Deville & Debray 
 
 172.62 
 
 .057 
 
 24.7 
 
 961.6 
 
 Bredig 
 
 119.67 
 
 .056 
 
 14.5 
 
 232.7 
 
 Person 
 
 58.69 
 
 .113 
 
 
 3000 
 
 
 307.71 
 
 .035 
 
 • ••. 
 
 1700 
 
 
 113.12 
 
 .096 
 
 22.6 
 
 419 
 
 Bredig 
 
 TABLE SHOWING METALS IN ORDER OF MALLEABILITY, 
 DUCTILITY AND TENACITY 
 
 Malleability 
 
 Ductility 
 
 Tenacity 
 
 Gold 
 
 Gold 
 
 Iron 
 
 Silver 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Copper 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Silver 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Copper 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Silver 
 
 Tin 
 
 Iron 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Copper 
 
 Gold 
 
 Lead 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Iron 
 
 Tin 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Lead 
 
 Lead 
 
Tables, etc. 187 
 
 TABLE OF THE WEIGHT, IN POUNDS, PER FOOT IN 
 
 LENGTH OF GUN METAL. 
 
 Composition: Copper, 9 parts; Tin, 1 part 
 
 Side of the 
 
 square or Square Hexagon Octagon Circle 
 
 diameter 
 
 yi ^ 876 
 
 a 1.967 
 
 I 3.500 
 
 IK 5.467 
 
 m 7.876 
 
 IJi 10.717 
 
 a 14.000 
 
 2J4 16.717 
 
 2J5 81.875 
 
 3}i 26.467 
 
 3 31.500 
 
 sa 36.967 
 
 Syi 48.875 
 
 an 49.217 
 
 4 56.000 
 
 4Ji 63.217 
 
 4J4 70.876 
 
 4J4 78.967 
 
 5 87.500 
 
 554 96.467 
 
 Syi 105.875 
 
 Bii 115.717 
 
 126.000 
 
 6}i 136.717 
 
 ea 147.875 
 
 6Ji 159.467 
 
 7 171.500 
 
 ■JH 183.967 
 
 7jJ 196.876 
 
 7J4 210.217 
 
 g 224.000 
 
 8^ 238.217 
 
 8J4 252.876 
 
 Sii 267.967 
 
 g 283.500 
 
 954 299.467 
 
 gyi 315.875 
 
 9)4 332.717 
 
 10 350.000 
 
 10}4 367.717 
 
 10 J4 385.875 
 
 lOJ^ 402.467 
 
 II 423.500 
 
 lljjj 442.968 
 
 llji 462.876 
 
 11 j4 483.217 
 
 11 604.000 
 
 .766 
 
 .788 
 
 .686 
 
 1.711 
 
 1.648 
 
 1.554 
 
 3.027 
 
 2.915 
 
 2.747 
 
 4.732 
 
 4.553 
 
 4.294 
 
 6.814 
 
 6.559 
 
 6.184 
 
 9.275 
 
 8.988 
 
 8.417 
 
 18.113 
 
 11.662 
 
 10.993 
 
 15.333 
 
 14.749 
 
 12.916 
 
 18.988 
 
 18.207 
 
 17.178 
 
 22.904 
 
 22.032 
 
 20.786 
 
 27.261 
 
 86.882 
 
 24.738 
 
 31.993 
 
 30.778 
 
 29.034 
 
 37.107 
 
 35.693 
 
 34.873 
 
 42.605 
 
 40.971 
 
 38.654 
 
 48.464 
 
 46.616 
 
 43.981 
 
 64.715 
 
 58.689 
 
 49.651 
 
 61.341 
 
 59.003 
 
 65.664 
 
 68.344 
 
 65.740 
 
 68.020 
 
 75.729 
 
 72.845 
 
 68.782 
 
 83.492 
 
 80.307 
 
 75.764 
 
 91.633 
 
 88.140 
 
 83.163 
 
 100.152 
 
 96.337 
 
 90.884 
 
 109.053 
 
 104.895 
 
 98.959 
 
 118.328 
 
 113.816 
 
 107.376 
 
 127.984 
 
 123.111 
 
 116.140 
 
 138.019 
 
 138.758 
 
 125.844 
 
 148.431 
 
 142.775 
 
 134.694 
 
 159.828 
 
 163.153 
 
 144.487 
 
 170.394 
 
 163.898 
 
 154.683 
 
 181.744 
 
 175.010 
 
 165.105 
 
 193.872 
 
 186.483 
 
 175.927 
 
 206.178 
 
 198.320 
 
 187.096 
 
 218.862 
 
 210.641 
 
 198.607 
 
 231.927 
 
 823.090 
 
 210.468 
 
 245.367 
 
 236.019 
 
 828.659 
 
 259.189 
 
 849.318 
 
 235.200 
 
 273.392 
 
 262.969 
 
 248.087 
 
 287.969 
 
 276.993 
 
 861.317 
 
 302.928 
 
 291.382 
 
 274.890 
 
 318.258 
 
 306.131 
 
 288.808 
 
 333.977 
 
 321.247 
 
 303.065 
 
 360.066 
 
 336.724 
 
 317.667 
 
 368.541 
 
 362.572 
 
 332.615 
 
 383.393 
 
 368.781 
 
 347.907 
 
 400.617 
 
 386.350 
 
 363.538 
 
 418.184 
 
 402.290 
 
 879.519 
 
 436.212 
 
 419.587 
 
 395.839 
 
188 
 
 Practical Alloying 
 
 The following table gives the weights of most ordinary metals 
 and alloys : 
 
 Weight per 
 Metal cubic inch, pounds 
 
 Copper 318 
 
 Nickel 318 
 
 Zinc 248 
 
 Aluminum 093 
 
 Lead 410 
 
 Antimony 242 
 
 Tin 264 
 
 Gun metal 315 
 
 Brass 3 
 
 Magnolia 376 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight of 1 
 
 in pounds 
 
 square foot, 1 inch 
 
 per cubic foot 
 
 thick, in pounds 
 
 649 
 
 4« 
 
 618 
 
 46 
 
 429 
 
 3754 
 
 160 
 
 14 
 
 710 
 
 60 
 
 420 
 
 36 
 
 456 
 
 38 
 
 544 
 
 **ii 
 
 520 
 
 43 
 
 650 
 
 64 
 
 The lightness of aluminum is best illustrated by the follow- 
 ing table, comparing it with other metals.* 
 
 Weight 
 
 Specific per cubic ft. 
 
 gravity pounds 
 
 Aluminum 2.56 160 
 
 Antimony 6.72 420 
 
 Zinc 7 437 
 
 Iron 7.23 451 
 
 Tin 7.29 455 
 
 Steel 8 499 
 
 Copper 8.6 637 
 
 Bismuth 9.82 613 
 
 Silver 10.47 654 
 
 Lead 11-36 709 
 
 Mercury 13.60 849 
 
 Gold 18.41 1160 
 
 Platinum 21.53 , 1344 
 
 Volume per lb. 
 weight in 
 cubic feet 
 
 Relative 
 
 Spec. Gr. 
 
 AI = 1 
 
 0.00626 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.00238 
 
 2.625 
 
 0.00229 
 
 2.734 
 
 0.00222 
 
 2.824 
 
 0.00220 
 
 2.848 
 
 0.00200 
 
 3.126 
 
 0.00186 
 
 3.869 
 
 0.00163 
 
 3.838 
 
 0.00153 
 
 4.090 
 
 0.00141 
 
 4.438 
 
 0.00118 
 
 6.313 
 
 0.00087 
 
 7.191 
 
 0.00074 
 
 8.410 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE ALLOYS WHOSE DENSITY IS 
 
 GREATER (+) OR LESS (-) THAN THE 
 
 MEAN OF THEIR CONSTITUENTS 
 
 + Alloys 
 
 - Alloys 
 
 Gold and zinr 
 Gold and tin 
 Gold and bismuth 
 Gold and cobalt 
 Gold and antimony 
 Silver and zinc 
 Silver and bismuth 
 Silver and antimony 
 Copper and zinc 
 Copper and tin 
 Copper and lead 
 Copper and bismuth 
 Lead and antimony 
 Platinum and molybdenum 
 
 Gold and silver 
 Gold and iron 
 Gold and lead 
 Gold and copper 
 OIH and iridium 
 Gold and nickel 
 Silver and copper 
 Iron and bismuth 
 Iron and antimony 
 Iron and lead 
 Tin and lead 
 Tin and antimony 
 Nickel and arsenic 
 Zinc and antimony 
 
 *Glucinuin is lighter than aluminum and equally durable, a better 
 conductor of electricity than copper or even silver, and stronger than 
 iron. Only the expense of production prevents this metal proving of great 
 industrial value. 
 
Tables, etc. 
 
 189 
 
 PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS 
 
 Specific 
 Alloys gravity 
 
 Aluminum bronze (S% Al) . . 7.68 
 
 Brass (tube) (67:33) 8.43 
 
 Brass (cast) (2:1) 8.4 
 
 Naval brass (rod) 
 
 Muntz metal (rolled) 8.405 
 
 Delta metal (rolled) 8.46 
 
 Gun metal (88:12) 8.66 
 
 Phosphor bronze 8.60 
 
 Steel (average) 7.85 
 
 Iron (No. 3 Pig) 7.126 
 
 Iron (No. 1 Pig) (cold blast) 7.137 
 
 Aluminum brass (2% Al) . . . 8.33 
 
 Babbitt's alloy 7.5 
 
 Weight Crushing 
 
 of a Tenacity in force in 
 
 cubic foot pounds per pounds per 
 
 in pounds square inch square inch 
 
 Melting 
 point, 
 degrees 
 Fahr. 
 
 480 
 
 71,680 
 
 526 
 
 26,600 
 
 526 
 
 17,978 
 
 
 60,480 
 
 624 
 
 62,720 
 
 527 
 
 91,800 
 
 534 
 
 36,500 
 
 536.8 
 
 38,208 
 
 489.6 
 
 120,000 
 
 444.6 
 
 Sl;869 
 
 446 
 
 83,257 
 
 
 70,000 
 
 450 
 
 9,000 
 
 10,300 
 
 91,661 
 95,776 
 
 1900 
 
 1800 
 1832 
 
 1850 
 1900 
 1800 
 3250 
 
 16,000 
 
 Dr. J. Ure's rule for calculating the specific gravity of an 
 
 alloy : 
 
 M = 
 
 (W — w) Pp 
 Pw + pW 
 
 M is the mean specific gravity of the alloy, W and w the 
 weights, and P and p the specific gravities of the constituent 
 metals. 
 
 TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF A CASTING FROM THAT OF 
 THE PATTERN 
 
 A pattern weighing 
 
 one pound Will Wcigii When Cast In 
 
 Cast iron Yellow brass Gun metal 
 
 Bay wood 8.8 9.9 10.3 
 
 Beech 8.5 9.5 10. 
 
 Cedar 16.1 18. 18.9 
 
 Cherry 10.7 12. 12.6 
 
 Linden 12. 13.5 14.1 
 
 Mahogany 8.5 9.5 10. 
 
 Maple 9.2 10.3 10.8 
 
 Oak 9.4 10.5 11. 
 
 Pear 10.9 12.2 12.8 
 
 Pine, white 14.7 16.5 17.3 
 
 Pine, yellow 13.1 14.7 15.4 
 
 Whitewood 16.4 18.4 19.3 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Copper Aluminum 
 
 8.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 8.2 
 
 10.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 15.6 
 
 19.2 . 
 
 5.8 
 
 10.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 3.9 
 
 11.6 
 
 14.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 8.2 
 
 10.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 8.9 
 
 11. 
 
 3.2 
 
 9.1 
 
 11.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 10.6 
 
 13. 
 
 8.9 
 
 14.3 
 
 17.5 
 
 5.3 
 
 12.7 
 
 15.6 
 
 4.7 
 
 15.9 
 
 19.5 
 
 5.9 
 
 Allowance must be made for the metal in the pattern. 
 
 Reduction for Round Cores and Core Prints 
 
 Rule.— Multiply the square of the diameter by the length of the core and prints in inches, and 
 the product by 0,014. This will give the weight of the white pine core, to be deducted from the weight 
 of Che pattern. 
 
INDEX 
 
 About crucibles 174 
 
 Acid bronze 146 
 
 Air furnace charges containing scrap 132 
 
 Ajax bronze .' 120 
 
 Alchemists, work of the 5 
 
 Alligator cracks 176 
 
 Alloy, anti-friction 39 
 
 Alloy, definition of 18 
 
 Alloy for bells 132 
 
 Alloy, for fittings for ships 132 
 
 Alloy for nickel coinage 21 
 
 Alloy for scientific instruments 149 
 
 Alloy, imitation silver 71 
 
 Alloy, Lipowitz's 140 
 
 Alloy of copper and iron 50 
 
 Alloy, pale gold 126 
 
 Alloy, standard, electrical resistance 84 
 
 Alloy, statuary bronze 71 
 
 Alloy, Wood's " 140 
 
 Alloying by concentrates 41 
 
 Alloying by the Ancients 53 
 
 Alloying, difficulties of : 45 
 
 Alloying metals, reasons for 25 
 
 Alloying, some difficulties of 41 
 
 Alloys, aluminum brass 67 
 
 Alloys, aluminum, light 99-135 
 
 Alloys, art metal 148 
 
 Alloys at critical temperatures 36 
 
 Alloys, brass, for castings 83 
 
 Alloys, brass founders', typical 121 
 
 Alloys, color action of metals in 70 
 
 Alloys, color of 65-68 
 
 Alloys, confusion of notation 75 
 
 Alloys containing mercury 148 
 
 Alloys, dual 23-112 
 
 Alloys, dissolving metals out of 67 
 
 Alloys, eutectic 38 
 
192 Index 
 
 Alloys, fluxes for 150 
 
 Alloys, gates and risers for 163 
 
 Alloys, German silver 84 
 
 Alloys, hard solders for - I43 
 
 Alloys, history and peculiarities of 14 
 
 Alloys in bronze 44 
 
 Alloys, light 96 
 
 Alloys, magnalium 97 
 
 Alloys, magnesium 148 
 
 Alloys, melting 55 
 
 Alloys, methods of making 52 
 
 Alloys, miscellaneous 146 
 
 Alloys, modern bronze 85 
 
 Alloys, nickel 96 
 
 Alloys, non-oxidizable 71 
 
 Alloys, notation of 73 
 
 Alloys, pattern metal 97 
 
 Alloys, peculiar properties of 35 
 
 Alloys, physical characteristics of 49 
 
 Alloys, properties of 35-189 
 
 Alloys, range of elements in 134 
 
 Alloys, remelting 47-54 
 
 Alloys, shipbuilders' 130 
 
 Alloys, specimen, from new metals 123 
 
 Alloys, standard 80 
 
 Alloys, standard, from mixed metals 119 
 
 Alloys, structure of, affected by casting temperature 36 
 
 Alloys, Susini's 96 
 
 Alloys, systematic notation for 78 
 
 Alloys, tenacity of 189 
 
 Alloys, testing 181 
 
 Alloys, tests of, effects of variations in casting temperatures. , 37 
 
 Alloys, white, for art castings 149 
 
 Alloys, working properties of 30 
 
 Alloys, zinc-aluminuum 97 
 
 Aluminum 56-93-154 
 
 Aluminum alloys for automobile castings 138 
 
 Aluminum alloys for castings 99 
 
 Aluminum alloys, fusible hard solder for 143 
 
 Aluminum alloys, light 99-135 
 
 Aluminum and zinc 03 
 
 Aluminum as a flux 56 
 
 Aluminum as a pattern metal 135 
 
 Aluminum bell metal 97 
 
Index 193 
 
 Aluminum brass 100 
 
 Aluminum brass alloys 57-95 
 
 Aluminum bronze 36-75-93-98 
 
 Aluminum silver 99 
 
 Aluminum, soft solder for 143 
 
 Aluminum solders 136 
 
 Aluminized-zinc 153 
 
 Amalgams, dentists' 141 
 
 Amalgam, Mackenzie's 141 
 
 Amalgam, zinc 143 
 
 Annealing crucibles 175 
 
 Anti-acid metal 90-116-181 
 
 Anti-friction alloy 39 
 
 Anti-friction alloys, compounding 110 
 
 Anti-friction alloys, melting 59 
 
 Anti-friction brasses 146 
 
 Anti-friction lining metal 149 
 
 Anti-friction metals 101 
 
 Anti-friction metals, cheap 117 
 
 Anti-friction metals for use in ships 130 
 
 Anti-friction metals, overheating 114 
 
 Anti-friction metals, Pennsylvania railroad tests 103 
 
 Anti-friction metals, white, classification of 107 
 
 Anti-friction paste 117 
 
 Antimonial lead 91-153 
 
 Antiquity of the softer metals 2 
 
 Anti-rust alloy 146 
 
 Anti-rust metal 132 
 
 Argentan 148 
 
 Argentan alloys 93 
 
 Armor plate bronze 132 
 
 Arsenic 155 
 
 Arsenic bronze 104-155 
 
 Arsenic lead 153 
 
 Art castings, alloy for 83 
 
 Art castings, white alloy for 149 
 
 Art metal alloys 148 
 
 Art metal mixtures 138 
 
 Ash metal 119-123 
 
 Ash metal, analysis of 124 
 
 Aurichalcum 53 
 
 Automobile castings, aluminum alloy for 132 
 
 Babbitt's alloys 112 
 
 Babbitt's hardening , 113 
 
194 Index 
 
 Babbitt's metal 107 
 
 Babbitt metal, commercial 101 
 
 Babbitt metal, genuine 73 
 
 Babbitt metal, how to make '. 115 
 
 Babbitt mixture, special 116 
 
 Babbitt, the man and the metal 112 
 
 Bearing bronze ; 78-85 
 
 Bearings, bronze alloy for 85 
 
 Bearing metal mixtures 104 
 
 Bearing mixtures, impurities in 110 
 
 Bell metal 78-85 
 
 Bell metal, aluminum '. 97 
 
 Bell metal, new 146 
 
 Bells, alloy for 133 
 
 Bismuth 30 
 
 Bismuth in anti-friction metals 109 
 
 Bolts, alloy for 83-85 
 
 Box metal 103 
 
 Brass alloys for castings 83 
 
 Brass, aluminum 100 
 
 Brass, brazing 83 
 
 Brass, casting on iron 167 
 
 Brass, dipping 68-83 
 
 Brass, fine 83 
 
 Brass, fine, tensile strength of 83 
 
 Brass, hard white 149 
 
 Brass, hard solders for 143 
 
 Brass, high 83 
 
 Brass, malleable 83 
 
 Brass, naval • • • 83 
 
 Brass, red 83 
 
 Brass solders 14^ 
 
 Brass, tensile strength of 83 
 
 Brass, tough alloy for bending 149 
 
 Brass, turnery 83 
 
 Brass, white 83-136 
 
 Brass, yellow ^^ 
 
 Brasses, anti-friction 146 
 
 Brasses, engine, gate for 168 
 
 Brasses, locomotive, alloy for 85 
 
 Brasses, mill, alloy for 85 
 
 Brazing brass ^^ 
 
 Brazing metal, how to make 120 
 
 Brazing solder ^^ 
 
 Brazing solder, method of granulating 144 
 
Index 195 
 
 Bright dipping acid 126 
 
 Britannia metal , 140 
 
 Bronze, acid 146 
 
 Bronze alloy for bearings 85 
 
 Bronze alloys 44 
 
 Bronze alloys, modem 85 
 
 -Bronze, aluminum 75-98 
 
 Bronze, armor plate 132 
 
 Bronze, cobalt 146 
 
 Bronze, colors of 69 
 
 Bronze, definition of 16 
 
 Bronze, deoxidized 85 
 
 Bronze, high tension 95 
 
 Bronze in the World's history 15 
 
 Bronzes, non-oxidizable 145 
 
 Bronze, platinum 146 
 
 Carbon 26 
 
 Casting brass on iron 167 
 
 Casting temperatures, affect on structure of alloys 36 
 
 Casting temperatures, affects of variations 37 
 
 Casting, to find weight of from pattern 189 
 
 Castings, aluminum alloys for 99 
 
 Castings, art, alloy for 83 
 
 Casting, brass alloys for 83 
 
 Castings, contraction of ' 185 
 
 Castings, ornamental 83 
 
 Castings, ornamental, red brass for 149 
 
 Chandelier work, mixtures for 125 
 
 Charp/s alloy 149 
 
 Chemical bronze 127 
 
 Chemistry and metallurgy 5 
 
 Cobalt bronze 146 
 
 Coefficients of friction 106 
 
 Color action of metals in alloys 70 
 
 Color effects, mechanical 67 
 
 Color of alloys 65-68 
 
 Color of metals 184 
 
 Color, uniformity of 69 
 
 Colors of bronze 69 
 
 Columnar fracture 33 
 
 Combination of metals 21 
 
 Compounding anti-friction alloys 110 
 
 Conchoidal fracture 33 
 
 Conductivity 35 
 
196 Index 
 
 G}nfusion of notation of alloys 75 
 
 Cupola melting 61 
 
 Core gate 170 
 
 Corinthian copper 17 
 
 Corrosion of metals 157 
 
 Contraction of metals in cooling 185 
 
 Contraction of castings 185 
 
 Copper, Corinthian * 17 
 
 Copper castings, high electrical efficiency 156 
 
 Copper and iron alloy 50 
 
 Copper-zinc alloys, tests of 37 
 
 Cowles' silver bronze 93 
 
 Cracks, alligator 176 
 
 Crucibles 174 
 
 Crucibles, alligator cracks in 176 
 
 Crucibles, capacity and shape of 176 
 
 Crucibles, ground 180 
 
 Crucible, squeezed 176 
 
 Crucible, scalped 175 
 
 Crucibles, proper annealing of 175 
 
 Crucibles, pin-holes in 176 
 
 Crucibles, some uses of old 177 
 
 Crystalline, definition of 43 
 
 Crystalline fracture 33 
 
 Crystallization 38 
 
 Decorative processes 66 
 
 Definition of alloy 18 
 
 Definition of bronze 16 
 
 Delta metal 54-131 
 
 Delta metal, tensile strength of 82 
 
 Damascus metal 132 
 
 Dentists' amalgams 141 
 
 Density 2* 
 
 Deoxodized bronze 85 
 
 Difficulties of alloying *l-45 
 
 Dipping acid, bright 126 
 
 Dipping acid, fumeless 126 
 
 Dipping brass 68-83 
 
 Dip to blacken aluminum 126 
 
 Disparity in melting points of metals 57 
 
 Dissolving metals out of alloys 67 
 
 Dual alloys 23-112 
 
 Ductility, metals in order of 186 
 
 Dynamos, anti-friction metal for 116 
 
Index 197 
 
 Electrical conductivity of metals 184 
 
 Electrical efficiency, copper castings of high 156 
 
 Electrical reduction of ores 11 
 
 Electrical resistance alloy 84 
 
 Electrical resistance, high, white alloy for 34 
 
 Electro-conductivity 13 
 
 Electro-technology 13 
 
 Elements in alloys^ range of 124 
 
 Engine brasses, gate for 168 
 
 Eutectic alloys 38 
 
 Expansion of metals 185 
 
 Farquharson's alloy 83 
 
 Ferro-aluminum 153 
 
 Ferro-manganese 153 
 
 Ferro-nickel 18 
 
 Ferro-zinc 153 
 
 Fibrous fracture 33 
 
 Fine brass 83 
 
 Fittings for ships, alloy for 133 
 
 Flanges, alloy for 83 
 
 Florentine bronzes 83 
 
 Fluidity of metals 155 
 
 Flux, aluminum as a 56 
 
 Flux for welding copper 157 
 
 Fluxes for alloys 150 
 
 Fluxes for aluminum alloys 153 
 
 Fluxes for babbitt metals 153 
 
 Fluxes for brass 151 
 
 Fluxes for brass sweepings 152 
 
 Fluxes for brazing meteals 153 
 
 Fluxes for brittania metals 153 
 
 Fluxes for copper 152 
 
 Fluxes for copper alloys 153 
 
 Fluxes for German silver 153 
 
 Fluxes for gun metals 151 
 
 Fluxes, metallic 153 
 
 Fluxes for nickel alloys 152 
 
 Fluxes for zinc alloys 153 
 
 Fluxes, use of metalloids as 156 
 
 Foundry mixtures 118 
 
 Fracture 32 
 
 Fracture, columnar 33 
 
 Fracture, conchoidal 33 
 
 Fracture, crystalline 33 
 
198 Index 
 
 Fracture, fibrous 33 
 
 Fracture, grading by 49 
 
 Fracture, granular 33 
 
 Fractures 34 
 
 Fractures, metallic, classification of 33 
 
 Friction, coefficients of 106 
 
 Friction, definition of 105 
 
 Fuels for melting brass 63 
 
 Fumeless dipping acid 126 
 
 Fusible solder 140 
 
 Fusibility of alloys 28 
 
 Fusibility, surfaces of 40 
 
 Gate, core 170 
 
 Gate for engine brasses 168 
 
 Gate, skimming 165 
 
 Gates for alloys 163 
 
 Gating a blank gear 167 
 
 Gating a blank gear, four different methods of 167 
 
 Gating a stair tread 167 
 
 Gating brass yalve seats 167 
 
 Gating castings, pointers on 171 
 
 Gating electric drill cover when cast in aluminum 165 
 
 Gating, improper method of 164 
 
 Gating liners and gun metal rolls 166 
 
 Gating, method of, an electric drill cover 165 
 
 Gating, proper method of 164 
 
 Gear blank, method of gating 167 
 
 Genuine babbitt metal 73 
 
 German silver 78 
 
 German silver alloys 84 
 
 Gilding alloys 83 
 
 Glass, solder for 142 
 
 Gold lacquer 127 
 
 Gold solders 141 
 
 Golden copper 53 
 
 Goodman's investigations 108 
 
 Grading by fracture ■IS 
 
 Granular fracture 33 
 
 Green lacquer for bronze 127 
 
 Gun metal 85 
 
 Gun metal alloys 9* 
 
 Gun metal, color of 69 
 
 Gun metal for high steam pressures 90 
 
 Gun metal for piston rings 149 
 
 Gun metal for springs 149 
 
 Gun metal, weight of per foot 187 
 
Index 199 
 
 Hard solders 141 
 
 Hard solder for bell metal 149 
 
 Hard white brass 149 
 
 Hardening S4 
 
 Hardening, Babbitt's 113 
 
 Hardening for gun metal 94 
 
 Hardness 26 
 
 Hardness, relative, of metals 27 
 
 Heat conductivity of metals 184 
 
 Hepatizon 17 
 
 Heusler's magnetic alloy 146 
 
 High brass 83 
 
 High tension bronze 95 
 
 Hinges, alloy for 83 
 
 History and peculiarities of alloys 14 
 
 Horn gate, method of casting a pinion with a 169 
 
 Hydraulic castings, alloy for 88 
 
 Imitation silver 93 
 
 Imitation silver alloy 71 
 
 Impurities in bearing mixtures 110 
 
 Irido-platinum 91 
 
 Iron 84 
 
 Iron and copper alloy 60 
 
 Iron, casting brass on 167 
 
 Japanese pickling solution 71 
 
 Kreusler's alloy for bearings 149 
 
 Kunzel's alloy 1(» 
 
 Lacquer, gold 187 
 
 Lacquer, green, for bronze 127 
 
 Lacquer, silver 12T 
 
 Lacquers 129 
 
 Ladle, self-skimming 178- 
 
 Latent heat of fusion 186- 
 
 Lead, affect on aluminum 98' 
 
 Lead in anti-friction metals 109* 
 
 Light alloys 9fr 
 
 Light aluminum alloys 99» 
 
 Liners, method of gating 16* 
 
 Lining metal, anti-friction 149 
 
 Lipowitz's alloy 140 
 
 Liquation of metals 44 
 
 Locomotive bearings, plastic bronze for 132 
 
 Locomotive brasses, alloy for 86 
 
 Lumen bronze 132 
 
200 Index 
 
 Machine, testing, impact Igl 
 
 Machine, testing, vertical, hydraulic 181 
 
 * Mackenzie's amalgam 141 
 
 Magnalium 99-153 
 
 Magnalium alloys 97 
 
 Magnalium, Murman's improved 149 
 
 Magnesium 5g 
 
 Magnesium alloys 148 
 
 Magnesium-aluminum alloys 93 
 
 Malleable brass 83 
 
 Malleability, metals in order of 186 
 
 Manganese .' 155 
 
 Manganese babbitt metal II7 
 
 Manganese bronze. Parsons' lOo 
 
 Manganese bronze propellers lOo 
 
 Manganese-copper 153 
 
 Manganin 84 
 
 Marine brass mixtures 127-138 
 
 Marine engines, anti-friction metals for 116 
 
 Mechanical color effects 67 
 
 Melting allbj'S 55 
 
 Melting anti-friction alloys 59 
 
 Melting in the cupola 61 
 
 Melting points of metals 186 
 
 Melting points of metals, disparity in 57 
 
 Melting ratios 59-62 
 
 Mercury, alloys containing 148 
 
 Metal refining, ancient and modem 1 
 
 Metallic combinations 7 
 
 Metallic fractures, classification of '. 33 
 
 Metallic fluxes 153 
 
 Metalloids, use of as fluxes ; 156 
 
 Metallurgy and chemistry 5 
 
 Metals, anti-friction 101 
 
 Metals, color of 184 
 
 Metals, combination of 21 
 
 Metals, contraction of in cooling 185 
 
 Metals, corrosion of 157 
 
 • Metals, electrical conductivity of 184 
 
 Metals, expansion of 185 
 
 Metals, fluidity of 155 
 
 Metals, heat conductivity of 184 
 
 Metals, liquation of 44 
 
 Metals, melting points of 186 
 
 Metals, new, specimen mixtures from 123 
 
Index 201 
 
 Metals, novelty 147 
 
 Metals, oxidation of 45 
 
 Metals, particulars of all known 184 
 
 Metals, properties of in relation to friction 109 
 
 Metals, relative conductivity of 35 
 
 Metals, relative hardness of 37 
 
 Metals, specific gravity of 184 
 
 Metals, specific heat of , 186 
 
 Metals, tests for 183 
 
 Metals, weights of 188 
 
 Metals, weight per cubic inch 186 
 
 Metals, working properties of 30 
 
 Meteorite 99-136 
 
 Methods of making alloys 53 
 
 Metric standards, alloy for 93 
 
 Mill brasses, alloy for 85 
 
 Miscellaneous alloys 146 
 
 Mixtures, art metal 138 
 
 Mixtures for propellers 139 
 
 Mixtures, foundry 118 
 
 Mixtures, marine brass 127-138 
 
 Mixtures, scrap in 130 
 
 Mixtures, special 149 
 
 Mixtures, white brass 137 
 
 Mixtures, white metal, special 138 
 
 Mock silver alloy 99 
 
 Mold, arrangement of, for casting brass on iron 168 
 
 Mold, cross-section of showing core gate 170 
 
 Mourey's solder , 147 
 
 Muntz metal, tensile strength of 83 
 
 Murman's improved magnalium 149 
 
 Murtnan's patent 99 
 
 Naval brass 83 
 
 Nickel alloys 96 
 
 Nickel-aluminum alloys 93 
 
 Nickel bronze 130 
 
 Nickel coinage alloy 21 
 
 Nickelumen 93 
 
 Nickel, use of in German silver 84 
 
 Niello-silver 'i'l 
 
 Non-oxidizable alloys '''1 
 
 Non-oxidizable bronzes .* 1*5 
 
 Notation of alloys ''3 
 
 Notation, systematic ''"'' 
 
202 Index ' 
 
 Notes on test bars 182 
 
 Novelty metals 147 
 
 Old metals in foundry mixtures 120 
 
 Ores J 
 
 Ores complex, treatment of 10 
 
 Ores, electrical reduction of 11 
 
 Ore, methods of extracting metals from ft 
 
 Ores, treatment of 7 
 
 Ornamental castings 83 
 
 Overheating anti-friction metals 114 
 
 Oxidation of metals 45 
 
 Pale gold alloy 125 
 
 Panels, alloy for 83 
 
 Parsons' manganese bronze 100 
 
 Partinium 99^ 
 
 Paste, anti-friction 117 
 
 Pattern metal alloys 97 
 
 Pattern metal, aluminum as a 135 
 
 Pattern metal mixtures 134 
 
 Pattern metals, properties of 134 
 
 Peculiar properties of alloys 35 
 
 Pennsylvania railroad tests of anti-friction metals 103 
 
 Pewter 140 
 
 Phosphor-aluminum 153 
 
 Phosphor bronze 86 
 
 Phosphor bronze, peculiarities of 86 
 
 Phosphor bronze, suggestions for melting. 88 
 
 Phosphor-copper 153 
 
 Phosphor-tin 153 
 
 Phosphorus 84-87-88-154 
 
 Phosphorus-aluminum 27 
 
 Physical characteristics of alloys 49 
 
 Pickle for brass castings 127 
 
 Pin-holes in crucibles 176 
 
 Pinion, method of casting with a horn gate 169 
 
 Piston rings, gun metal for 149 
 
 Plastic bronze 105 
 
 Plastic bronze for locomotive bearings 138 
 
 Plastic metal 138 
 
 Platinum bronze 146 
 
 Plug head 169 
 
 Plumbers' solder 78 
 
 Polished brasswork, alloy for 83 
 
 Pottery, solder for 1*2 
 
Index 203 
 
 Propeller blade, casting in a vertical position 170 
 
 Propellers, alloy for 86 
 
 iPropellers, manganese bronze 100 
 
 Propellers, mixtures for 129 
 
 Properties of alloys 25-189 
 
 iPunip rods, alloy for 83 
 
 Pumps, alloy for 83 
 
 Pumps, chemical, alloy for 85 
 
 Ratios, melting 59-62 
 
 Red brass 83 
 
 Red brass for ornamental castings 149' 
 
 Relative conductivity of metals 35 
 
 Remelting alloys 47-54-84 
 
 Risers 169 
 
 Risers for alloys 163 
 
 Rolls, gun metal, method of gating 166 
 
 Romanium 99 
 
 Rozine for castings 146 
 
 Rozine for jewelry 146 
 
 Rozine for springs 146 
 
 Ruebel's patent 99 
 
 Scalped crucible 175 
 
 Scrap in air furnace charges 122 
 
 Scrap in foundry mixtures 120 
 
 Shipbuilders' alloys 130 
 
 Ship fastenings, alloy for 83 
 
 Sibley casting alloy 135 
 
 Silicon bronze 78 
 
 Silicon-copper 183 
 
 Silver-aluminum alloys 93 
 
 Silver bronze, Cowles' 93 
 
 Silver, imitation 93 
 
 Silver lacquer 187 
 
 Silver solders 142 
 
 Silver, sterling I* 
 
 Skimming gate 165 
 
 Slabs for pulverizing, alloy for 83 
 
 Soft solders 139 
 
 Solder, brazing 83 
 
 Solder, brazing, method of granulating 144 
 
 Solder, fusible "0 
 
 Solder, hard, for bell metal 149 
 
 Solder, hard fusible, for aluminum alloys 143 
 
204 Index 
 
 Solder, Mourey's 147 
 
 Solder, soft for aluminum 143 
 
 Solder without heat 147 
 
 Solders, aluminum 136 
 
 Solders, brass 143 
 
 Solders for glass and pottery 143 
 
 Solders, gold 141 
 
 Solders, hard 141 
 
 Solders, hard, for brass and alloys 143 
 
 Solders, silver 143 
 
 Solders, soft 139 
 
 Solders, spelter 143 
 
 Solution, Japanese pickling 71 
 
 Sorel's alloys 137 
 
 Special mixtures 149 
 
 Specific gravity 29 
 
 Specific gravity of metals 184-188 
 
 Specific gravity, rule for calculating 189 
 
 Specific heat of metals 186 
 
 Spelter solders 143 
 
 Spindles, alloy for 83 
 
 Springs, gun metal for 149 
 
 Stair tread, method of gating 167 
 
 Stanchions, alloy for 83 
 
 Standard alloys 80 
 
 Statuary bronze alloy 71 
 
 Steam metal 78-85-90 
 
 Sterling silver 18 
 
 Sterro metal, tensile strength of 83 
 
 Stirrer, plumbago 180 
 
 Sun metal 78 
 
 Surfaces of fusibility 40 
 
 Susini's alloys 96 
 
 Systematic notation 77 
 
 Systematic notation for alloys 78 
 
 Table of alloys whose density is greater or less than the means of 
 
 their constituents 188 
 
 Tables, etc 184 
 
 Tenacity, metals in order of 186 
 
 Tenacity of alloys 189 
 
 Tensile strength of brass 82 
 
 Tensile strength of Delta metal 82 
 
 Tensile strength of fine brass 82 
 
 Tensile strength of Muntz metal 83 
 
Index 205 
 
 Tensile strength of Sterro metal 82 
 
 Test bars, notes on 182 
 
 Testing alloys 181 
 
 Testing machine, impact 181 
 
 Testing machine, vertical hydraulic 181 
 
 Tests for metals 182 
 
 Tier's argent 26 
 
 Tin-aluminum alloys 93 
 
 Taps, alloy for 83 
 
 Treatment of complex ores 10 
 
 Treatment of ores 7 
 
 Turnery brass 83 
 
 Type metal 78 
 
 Uniformity of color of alloys 69 
 
 Unions, alloy for 83 
 
 Universal bearing metal 116 
 
 Valve seats, brass, method of gating 167 
 
 Venus metal 71 
 
 Weight of gun metal per foot 187 
 
 Weight of metals per cubic inch 186 
 
 Weights of metals 188 
 
 White alloy, high electrical resistance 34 
 
 White anti-friction metals, classification of 107 
 
 White brass 83-132-136 
 
 White brass mixtures 137 
 
 White metals 133 
 
 White metal mixtures, special 138 
 
 Wolframinium 99 
 
 Wood's alloy 140 
 
 Working properties of alloys and metals 30 
 
 Work of the Alchemists 5 
 
 Yellow brass 83 
 
 Yellow metal 78 
 
 Zinc-aluminum 153 
 
 Zinc-aluminum alloys ^7 
 
 Zinc amalgam 143 
 
 Zinc and aluminum ^2 
 
 Zinc in bearing bronzes 1"* 
 
 Zisikon 14»