o 
 
 
PR 864.898™"""'™"""^"'"^ 
 
.Si 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 CD 
 
 s 
 
 Bi 
 O 
 
 C 
 
 CD 
 
 H 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 0) 
 
 c 
 
 JC 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 '56 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 ■i-> 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 PJ 
 
 .i3 
 
 -d 
 
 (4 
 
 PL, 
 
 CO 
 
 JS 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 u 
 
 p^ 
 
 4-1 
 
 3 
 O 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 a; 
 
 a; 
 
 to 
 
 a S •& 
 
 o . .^ ■? if 
 
 u o D} ^ m 
 
 I 1 ■a a w 
 
 "^ " S ° -2 
 
 b "3 u 2 S «• 
 
 K 6 
 
 H S 
 
 
 * « « I I S !i 
 
 H <! H 
 
 
 W W g o 
 11^ I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jm 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 oj 
 
 o 
 
 
 +J 
 
 "d 
 
 <r 
 
 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 H 
 
 ■♦-> 
 
 
 CO 
 
 <u 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■r^ 
 
 a* 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 •rl 
 
 m 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 hO 
 
 ■d 
 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o^ 
 
 (L- 
 
 q; 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p< 
 
 u 
 
 is 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 O 
 
 -'. CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 CD 
 
 !=! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0? 
 
 o 
 
 o; 
 
 r-\ 
 
 
 a; 
 
 W 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +j 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 -p 
 
 Oj 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 'd 
 PI 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 tH 
 
 ^ 
 
 a" 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 Qi 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 <v 
 
 ,Q 
 
 
 c 
 
 t.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •H 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 s5 
 
 fpv 
 
 
 1?* 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0? 
 
 ;^ 
 
 c6 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Si 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 
 <1> 
 
 CO 
 
 6 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 •r1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 P' 
 
 
 ps 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 ,o 
 
 Sh 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 +J 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 O 
 
 
 !>j 
 
 
 
 4J 
 
 Ti 
 
 ca 
 
 =H 
 
 V= 
 
 
 '■H 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 O 
 
 =H 
 
 
 
 >j 
 
 
 
 'rH 
 
 -d 
 
 c 
 
 5h 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 -^ 
 
 a- 
 
 
 
 <r 
 
 CO 
 
 C 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 f:i 
 
 cd 
 
 ,Q 
 
 tH 
 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 
 Sm 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 o 
 
 
 •r-! 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 +J 
 
 
 
 
 rO 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 Ph 
 
 0! 
 
 
 
 
 
 C) 
 
 
 >< 
 
 fl 
 
 -)J 
 
 
 4J 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 >; 
 
 
 
 "H 
 
 rt 
 
 a? 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 3 
 
 ■JJ 
 
 4-> 
 
 n 
 
 J-. 
 
 
 
 
 a? 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 -d 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,£2 
 
 
 -p 
 
 o 
 
 
 f: 
 
 S 
 
 -M 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 ?? 
 
 
 
 •rH 
 
 DO 
 
 
 03 
 
 cd 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 rii 
 
 +j 
 
 ■ 
 
 s 
 
 •<-i 
 
 
 
 
 nd 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 •H 
 
 t:" 
 
 
 u: 
 
 &0 
 
 a" 
 
 
 
 
 
 'C! 
 
 pi 
 
 G? 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 fl 
 
 -d 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 0," 
 
 •1—? 
 
 -H 
 
 
 << 
 
 
 •H 
 
 •H 
 
 pi 
 
 +J 
 
 
 
 
 
 S-, 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 'O 
 
 rH 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 ra 
 
 a- 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 
 4J 
 
 cri 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 •ri 
 
 > 
 
 Sm 
 
 a; 
 
 « 
 
 
 s 
 
 QJ 
 
 ri 
 
 a! 
 
 
 #* 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ,Q 
 
 > 
 
 ■d 
 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 •r-! 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 K) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 •'^' , 
 
 a 
 
 ■r-i 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a- 
 
 
 •I-* 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 Hi. 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 a3 
 
 '" 
 
 
 >-. 
 
 -, -M 
 
 GQ - 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 P< 
 
 to 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 O 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 
 JL, 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 'H 
 
 a' 
 
 4J 
 
 
 3 
 
 tH 
 
 2j 
 
 >H 
 
 
 cc) 
 
 
 •rl 
 
 c^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o: 
 
 
 ■5 
 
 
 M 
 
 a? 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 '2 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 cd 
 
 -d 
 
 rH . 
 
 TD 
 
 
 
 c6 
 
 I 
 
 a' 
 
 ^d 
 
 P- 
 
 
 H 
 
 a> 
 
 ■>, 
 
 I f:; 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 rH 
 
 C\J 
 
 CO 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ■■d 
 
 C/2 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 p3 
 
 c3 
 
 in 
 
 
 >i 
 
 p; 
 
 
 
 
 *H 
 
 
 >5 
 
 c^. 
 
 
 
 C\! 
 
 
 .Kl 
 
 QJ 
 
 (1> 
 
 +J 
 
 
 rH 
 
 I 
 
 ta 
 
 H 
 
 a' 
 
 «s 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-t 
 
 
 rH 
 •H 
 
 • • 
 
 GJ 
 
 xi 
 
 
 
 C\3 
 
 
 
 +J 
 
 00 
 
 
 fe 
 
 •r-i 
 
 ,i4 
 
 f! 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 aJ 
 
 O 
 
 «H 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 E^ 
 
 cd 
 
 ^H 
 
 r-l 
 
 6D 
 
 
 F=q 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 rfi 
 
 
 <a 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 PI 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 •IH 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 BQ 
 
 'H 
 
 
 •H 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 -P 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 a 
 
 c; 
 
 a" 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 DO 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 Ch 
 
 t>^ 
 
 •H 
 
 p 
 
 •r1 
 
 
 X 
 
 •ri 
 
 pi 
 
 
 <1> 
 
 
 rH 
 
 h" 
 
 
 
 Sh 
 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 rQ: 
 
 
 ci) 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 -D 
 
 a; 
 
 cd 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 cd^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 cs5 
 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 rQ 
 
 0} 
 
 rH 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 Oi 
 
 ps 
 
 ■iH 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 o» 
 
 •r< 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 -H 
 
 
 «H 
 
 CO 
 
 1> 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 rQ 
 
 ft 
 
 H 
 
 
 o 
 
 •H 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ^ 
 
The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013276872 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «t-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t>J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 EH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 %. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -JJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 a- 
 
 
 
 
 ctS 
 
 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «t 
 
 !-. 
 
 
 
 
 5U 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4r 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 P' 
 
 
 
 
 r-T 
 
 
 
 
 a< 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 (?; 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 '■"i 
 
 
 P 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 -tJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 'H 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 « 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 i"^ 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 CO --• 
 
 
 
 c> 
 
 • 
 
 A 
 
 
 ■r!^ 
 
 •r^ 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
 1—^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 4-> 
 
 5s 
 
 -d 
 
 rH 
 •r1 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 fl. 
 
 Jh 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 5h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r-K 
 
 
 
 ;.;■ 
 
 
 ps 
 
 
 
 •H 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Q> 
 
 
 
 ■=s 
 
 <H 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 &< 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 <s 
 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 1-( 
 
 « 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 1-3 
 
 5^- 
 
 
 o 
 
 , « 
 
 • • 
 
 < 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 Oi 
 
 fi 
 
 < 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 o 
 
 e 
 
 V ( 
 
 CO 
 
 1—1 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 p; 
 
 
 
 Cil '.« 
 
 
 v^ 
 
 fH 
 
 •d 
 
 e 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 rC! 
 
 
 H 
 
 •- 
 
 t=^^ 
 
 CO 
 
 4-3 
 
 • 
 
 i — 1 
 
 
 * 
 
 a 
 
 =H 
 
 © 
 
 rHI 
 
 •rH 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ■•■' l=-H 
 
 • 
 
 g 
 
 
 r*-i 
 
 
 o:: 
 
 
 +3 
 
 « 
 
 e: 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ♦ 
 
 v.! 
 
 »:--» 
 
 
 #-. 
 
 r< 
 
 P. 
 
 e 
 
 -fj 
 
 
 4J 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 O "^ 
 
 o 
 
 •J J 
 
 I 
 
 en 
 
 
 0- 
 
 
 ?H 
 
 <^ 
 
 !> 
 
 c 
 
 q; 
 
 P^ 
 
 N 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 e 
 
 
 +-> 
 
 I 
 
 03 
 
 < <H 
 
 << 
 
 •-5 
 
 • 
 
 
 . +J cc 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 f-1 
 
 tN 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 .El 
 4-> 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ■r-f 
 
 6.0 
 
 fen 
 
 •1 t 
 
 g 
 
 CO 
 fa3 
 
 0) 
 
 S 
 
 (-H 
 
 » 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 tH 
 
 <; 
 
 
 
 (27 
 
 (=— ) 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 a- 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 '-■V 
 
 
 •) 
 
 T-) 
 
 -=:; 
 
 Sm 
 
 ■tM 
 
 P' 
 
 
 fl 
 
 P5 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 <E 
 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 
 'z':-^ Cu «T•^ 
 
 Jh 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 
 KjI 
 
 
 +i 
 
 •a= 
 
 +J 
 
 C 
 
 Cs 
 
 ^! 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 <lj 
 
 {> 
 
 B 
 
 <p 
 
 Jh 
 
 1— : 
 
 r 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 rd 
 
 * 
 
 CO 
 
 9* 
 
 
 F~f 
 
 
 ,=-.. r-H 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 j^ 
 
 C? 
 
 iH 
 
 r— 1 
 
 ■H 
 
 -M) 
 
 CO 
 
 t> 
 
 f^ 
 
 <* 
 
 •l-H 
 
 ra 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ?i| 
 
 4J 
 
 bo 
 
 •H 
 
 r-\ 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 !-t 
 
 lU 
 
 j:i 
 
 5-1 
 
 pi 
 
 
 s 
 
 •r< 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — ; 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 
 >> 
 
 M. 
 
 
 fi 
 
 K 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 & o 
 
 J— i 
 
 cq 
 
 
 ft; 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 ^ 
 
 (""X 
 
 o: 
 
 •r ^ 
 
 H 
 
 #-4 
 
 +J 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■c; 
 
 c- 
 
 03 
 
 » • 
 
 c; 
 
 K 
 
 5H 
 
 •i-f 
 
 
 <r 
 
 -i-< 
 
 5 
 
 
 05 'c! 
 
 pi 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 S 
 
 1=^ 
 
 K 
 
 -'-^ 
 
 4J 
 
 ;i^' 
 
 
 CD 
 
 1 — ( 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 a; 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 Dj 
 
 r 
 
 to 
 
 cs5 
 
 rr. 
 
 :_, 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 K 
 
 QJ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^- 
 
 Q) 
 
 ^~ t^ 5h 
 
 CO ^ 03 
 
 .a ^ 
 
 i=! O O 
 
 o cG ;zi 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 •- 
 
 C 
 
 •r4 
 
 a: 
 
 i-* 
 
 
 S 
 
 o: 
 
 
 tt? 
 
 Jh 
 
 ^ 
 
 R 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 •H 
 
 
 '60 
 
 <u 
 
 +J 
 
 i-q 
 
 03 
 
 
 E 
 
 T3 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CS 
 
 
 O 
 
 Si 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 u 
 
 0.' 
 
 O 
 
 
 ta 
 
 ^— 1 
 
 B. 
 
 
 •i-H 
 
 k3 
 
 T3 
 
 e 
 
 0? 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 ■cJ 
 
 s3 
 
 ir! 
 
 I— i 
 
 f — ; 
 
 U 
 
 •1 1 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 cd 
 
 Gj 
 
 
 .. ( 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 
 •xi 
 
 rH 
 
 P! 
 
 r:=^i 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 CO o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^< 
 
 c- 
 
 Ui 
 
 o 
 
 r-i 
 
 VL' 
 
 S-. 
 
 ■a' 
 
 'A 
 
 -<-> 
 
 ^- 1 
 
 c- 
 
 t:* 
 
 u. 
 
 nj 
 
 H 
 
 00 
 
 
 C 
 
 — 1 
 
 05 
 
 
 "O 
 
 "D 
 
 iH 
 
 tH H "C! 
 
 g; 
 
 
 
 ra 
 
 «! 
 
 P^ 
 
 cS 
 
 o 
 
 iS 
 
 'O 
 
 C" 
 
 !> 
 
 
 Cj 
 
 
 h^ 
 
 u 
 
 c> 
 
 ■rt 
 
 CD- 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 sJ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 a? 
 
 ,EJ 
 
 m 
 
 rCi 
 
 
 fe: 
 
 .o 
 
 ■■o 
 
 c 
 
 i-t 
 
 •rH 
 
 rH 
 
 
 «5 
 
 1 
 
 tH 
 
 fl 
 
 e 
 
 
 O 
 
 'Cr- 
 
 <P 
 
 T-l 
 
 «s 
 
 •H 
 
 03 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 ■H 
 
 O 
 
 <i> 
 
 t> 
 
 !>5 
 
 
 J=5 
 
 OJ 
 
 Q 
 
 J^ 
 
 t-rS 
 
 Sh 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 
 fi, 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 (—1 
 
 V, 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1-t 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 !S 
 
 a" 
 
 
 o> 
 
 cS 
 
 o; 
 
 
 c3 
 5h 
 
 
 © 
 
 
 •r-i 
 4-! 
 
 g 
 
 
 a> 
 
 ^• 
 
 a;. 
 
 o 
 
 5H 
 
 E= 
 
 a? 
 ft 
 
 C" 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 05 
 
 1=5 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 is 
 
 
 •F-! 
 
 
 Hh 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 • 
 in 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 « 
 00 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 « 
 £0 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURES 
 
 SYLLABUS 
 
 COURSE OP SIX LECTURES 
 
 THE MODERN ENGLISH NOVEL 
 
 1. Sir Walter Scott: Romanticism. 4. George Eliot: Bealigm; The Psy- 
 
 2. Charles Dickens : Idealism. chological Novel. 
 
 3. William Makepeace Thacke- '■ '^t'^Tobfem'&over""""""^ 
 
 ray: Realism; The Novel of 
 
 Manners ^' ■'^°*'*''* I'Onis Stevenson: Roman- 
 ticism. 
 
 FREDERICK HENRY SYKES, M. A:, PH. D. 
 
 Staff Lectuebe m English Liteeatueb of thb Ambeican 
 Society foe the Extension of Univeesity Teaching 
 
 Series li. No. 4. Prlee, SO Cents. 
 
 Copyright, 1901, by 
 
 The American Society for the Extension of Dnlver^ty Teaching 
 
 111 South Fifteenth Street, Philadelphia, Fa. 
 
 P 
 
/{.t03S3f 
 
 The Class. — At tlie close of each lecture a class will be held for 
 questions and further discussion. All are urged to attend it and to 
 take an active part. The subjects discussed -will ordinarily be those 
 arising from the lecture of the same evening. In centres in which no 
 Students' Association (see below) has been formed, the class will 
 afford opportunity for the lecturer to comment on the papers sub- 
 mitted to him. 
 
 The Weekly Papers. — Every student has the privilege of writing 
 and sending to the lecturer each week, while the course is in progress, 
 a paper treating any theme from the lists given at the end of each 
 part of the syllabus. The paper should have at the head of the first 
 sheet the name of the writer and the name of the centre. Papers 
 may be addressed to the lecturer, University Extension, iii South 
 Fifteenth street, Philadelphia. 
 
 The Students' Association. — Every lecture centre will be greatly 
 helped in its work by the formation of a club or other body of students 
 and readers desirous of getting the stimulus that working in common 
 affords. This Students' Association will have its own organization and 
 arrange its regular programme, if possible, both before and after as 
 well as during the lecture course. The lecturer will always lend his 
 help in drawing up programmes, and, when the meeting falls on the 
 day of the lecture, will endeavor to attend and take part. Much of 
 the best work of Extension is being done through the Students' 
 Associations. 
 
 The Examination. — ^Those students who have followed the course 
 throughout will be admitted at the close of the lectures to an exami- 
 nation under the direction of the lecturer. Each person who passes 
 the examination successfully will receive from the American Society 
 for the Extension of University Teaching a certificate in testimony 
 thereof 
 
I. Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 "But still the burden of thy minstrelsy 
 
 Was Knighthood's dauntless deed, and Beauty's matchless eye." 
 
 — Scott, Lady of the Lake. 
 
 "The big bow-wow strain I can do myself, like any now going, but the exquisite 
 touch which renders ordinary commonplace things and characters interesting, from 
 the truth of the description and the sentiment, is denied to me." 
 
 Biographical Details. — Sir Walter Scott was bom in Edinburgh, 
 August 15, 1771, son of Walter Scott, a writer to the signet (attorney), 
 and of Anne Rutherford, — "of ancient Border families on both sides." 
 Of infirm health in chUdhood, Scott was given out-of-door life on his 
 grandfather's sheep-farm at Sandy-Knowe, and amused by endless 
 stories of Border life told him by his mother and his aunt. He went to 
 the High School of Edinburgh (1778-1781) where he won reputation 
 as a story-teller. Some months at Kelso familiarized him with roman- 
 tic scenery. At Kelso he read Percy's Reliques of Ancient English 
 Poetry, through which romance got firm hold of him. He attended 
 Edinburgh University (1783-1785) where he devoted himself chiefly 
 to history and romantic literature. He studied law (1786-1792) and 
 was called to the bar. Scott was an active member of clubs and literary 
 societies. He threw himself into the study of German literature, then 
 the fashion, and published translations of Biirger's ballads (1796) and 
 Goethe's Goetz von Berlichingen (1799). Twice a year for seven years 
 (1792-1798) he explored Liddesdale in search of picturesque scenery, 
 romantic life, and old-time ballads. This resulted in a collection of 
 old ballads published in 1802-3, Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. In 
 1805 he developed his ballad literature into metrical romance in The 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel. Its wonderful popularity induced Scott to 
 write a series of similar romantic tales in verse — Marmion, 1808; The 
 Lady of the Lake, 1810; Rokeby and The Bridal of Triermain, 1813; The 
 Lord of the Isles, 1815; Harold the Dauntless, 1817. In 1814 he com- 
 pleted and published anonymously his first novel, Waverley, or 'Tis 
 Sixty Years Since. This began the "Waverley Novels" by which 
 Scott has shown himself "out and away the king of the romantics." 
 These novels comprise Waverley (1814), Guy Mannering (1815), The 
 Antiquary, Black Dwarf, Old Mortality (1816), Rob Roy, Heart of Mid- 
 lothian (1818), Legend of Montrose, Bride of Lammermoor (1819), Ivan- 
 hoe, Monastery, The Abbot (1820), Kenilworth (1821), The Pirate, For- 
 tunes of Nigel, Peveril of the Peak (1822), Quentin Durward (1823), St. 
 Ronan's Well, RedgauntUt (1824), The Betrothed, The Talisman (1825), 
 Woodstock (1826), The Highland Widow, The Two Drovers, The Sur- 
 
 (3) 
 
geon's Daughter (1827), Si. Valentine's Day or The Fair Maid of Perth 
 (1828), Anne of Geierstein (1829), Count Robert of Paris, Castle Dan- 
 gerous (1832). 
 
 In 1797 Scott married Charlotte Mary Carpenter; they lived in win- 
 ter in Edinburgh and in summer in the country at Lasswade. In 1799 
 Scott was made Sheriff-depute of Selkirkshire, and about 1805 removed 
 to Ashestiel on the Tweed. He became a partner of Ballantyne the 
 printer, and acted as clerk of the quarter-sessions. The success of his 
 poems gave Scott opportunity to indulge a dream of founding an estate 
 and family. In 1812 he removed to "Abbotsford" (near Melrose) 
 which after twelve years' building cost him £76,000. In 1820 Scott 
 was made a baronet. In 1826 the firm of Ballantyne and Co. failed, 
 leaving Scott liable for £117,000. He set about a manful, heroic effort 
 to pay the debt. In two years he earned £40,000, but the strain was 
 too great; his health failed. He went to the Mediterranean in 1831 
 and returned home to die on September 21, 1832. He was buried in 
 Dryburgh Abbey. 
 
 The authoritative biography of Scott is Lockhart's Memoirs of the 
 Life of Scott, which, together with Scott's Journal and Letters, gives 
 a full and faithful record of Scott's life and nature. Briefer accounts 
 are the shorter Lockhart (" Chandos' " series), the articles on Scott in 
 the Dictionary of National Biography and Encyclopedia Britannica. 
 Palgrave, also, has a memoir prefatory to the " Globe " edition of Scott's 
 poems. Biography and literary estimates are to be found in Hutton's 
 Scott ("EngUsh Men of Letters" series) and Yonge's Scott ("Great 
 Writers" series). 
 
 Lecture Outline. 
 
 The Novel in General. The relation of the Novel to life. Aristotle's 
 judgment on poetrj' is tnje of fiction generally ("Poetry is a more 
 philosophical and a more excellent thing than history, for poetry is 
 chiefly conversant about general truth, history about particular"). 
 The various forms and methods of fiction — romanticism, idealism, 
 realism — are all valid forms of art, responding to permanent elements 
 in human nature. 
 
 The Romantic Novel. Romance is founded in wonder — in interest 
 in the strange, the remote, the dangerous, the mysterious. The ele- 
 ments of romance are largely elements of primitive life and primitive 
 instincts. Our sub-conscious life is the stronghold of those interests 
 and passions and virtues that are the enduring stuff out of which 
 romance is built. For the study of the romantic novel the supreme 
 example is Sir Walter Scott. Mr. Howells' adverse judgment of Scott 
 results from misconception. 
 
Scott's Preparation as a Romantic Novelist. Scott had the birth and 
 breeding of the romantic temperament — of ancient Border families on 
 both sides. He came at the end of the primitive clan-life of the High- 
 land. The scenes of his childhood at Edinburgh, Sandy-Knowe, Kelso, 
 were all romantic. As a child, he was nourished by legends, stories, 
 romantic scenery, collections of ballads and romances. His poetry was 
 all romantic preparation for his novels. Compare one of Scott's metri- 
 cal romances and one of the Waverley Novels — there is the same choice 
 and handling of background, character, incident, the same intrigue, 
 the same final rounding-up. The novels are distinguished by an im- 
 pression of life infinitely richer and broader than the poems and by an 
 added vein of realism. 
 
 The Waverley Novels. General considerations. The action is the 
 love story — but the action gets its dignity and breadth by the com- 
 plications of family feud, political differences, or differences of social 
 rank. Scott adopted the conventional hero and heroine, and showed 
 no genius in depicting passion. His greatness lies in depicting the 
 world of action to which the love story gives coherence. Scott's genius 
 serves to display scenes of stirring romantic incident, chivalrous deeds 
 and knightly courtesy amidst the great incidents of history. The his- 
 torical cast of the Waverley Novels — the reason for this : romance 
 loves the glamour and the halo, hence the inclination of the romantic 
 novel to the past. The distribution of the Waverley Novels in point 
 of time. Scott's greatest work deals with Scottish life of the eight- 
 eenth and seventeenth centuries. Scott showed his genius in the 
 romantic background of the stories — castle, abbey (" Gothic romance ") ; 
 he was the first to use landscape — mountain and seacoast — effectively 
 in the novel. Instances of romantic background in Waverley, 
 Bride of Lammermoor and The Pirate. Scott's genius is marked, too, 
 in the romantic introduction of his characters — illustrations. Scott's 
 genius lies also in incident — his handling of duels and battles, pursuit 
 and escape; his especial delight was to present what in Quentin Dur- 
 wardhe calls "mountain chivalry," the dignity, grace, courage, loyalty 
 of the poor gentleman. Scott's greatest power in characterization 
 lies, not with his "heroes" and "heroines," but with his older men of 
 action — Rob Roy, Dugald Dalgetty, Dandie Dinmont, Balfour of 
 Burley; also his wilder creatures of superstition, etc., like Meg Mer- 
 rihes and Elspeth of the Craigbumfoot; also in shrewd merchants 
 like BaiUie Jarvie, kindly pedants like Dominie Sampson and Monk- 
 bams, Jacobite lairds like Bradwardine, "canny" serving-men like 
 Andrew Fairservice. Handling the life of fishing villages, manor- 
 houses and inns, Scott, for his truth, became almost a novelist of 
 manners. 
 
6 
 
 Scott as Artist. Scott was a great but a very careless and imperfect 
 artist. His stories are not perfect in structure — "I never could lay 
 down a plan — or, having laid it down, I never could adhere to it." 
 Lacking in the perfect evolution of plot, Scott has to untie knots in 
 tedious explanation. In the rounding-up of the stories, "the happy 
 endings " of the idealist, Scott was conventional. Great art does not 
 end well; of. Shakspere's romantic tragedies. In mere language Scott 
 has nothing of the distinction of the great master of style. Scott is, 
 nevertheless, the Scottish Shakspere. He is like Shakspere in the 
 activity of his characters, the movement of his incident, in mastery 
 of the great motives of life, in power to fill the dusty stages of history 
 with their living drama. What Shakspere did for the play, Scott did 
 for the novel; he extended its scope and established its dignity. As a 
 literary form he brought it near its ultimate destiny as the great artistic 
 expression of modem life. 
 
 Illustrations. The lantern photographs will show the chief scenes 
 of Scott's life and work in Edinburgh, Lasswade, Abbotsford, etc., and 
 include a large series of portraits and statues. 
 
 Critical Studies. Critical studies of Scott are very numerous. The 
 student could well begin with Carlyle's essay Sir Walter Scott, in his 
 Miscellaneous Essays. Then read Leslie Stephen's essay in Hours in a 
 Library, Taine's account of Scott in his English Literature (IV, I) and 
 Cross's in the Development of the English Novel (pp. 126-167). See 
 also Bagehot's Literary Studies, II, and Stevenson's Memories and 
 Portraits. More detailed, but on the whole less effective, criticism is 
 given in Hutton's Scott ("English Men of Letters") and Yonge's Scott 
 ("Great Writers" series). See also the usual treatises on the novel — 
 Lanier, Simons, Raleigh. For a fuller list consult the bibliography 
 concluding Yonge's Scott. 
 
 Student Work. 
 
 The following are representative novels: **Waverley, The Antiquary, 
 **Old Mortality, Rob Roy, **Ivanhoe, Quentin Durward, The Talisman. 
 The University Extension examination will confine questions to books 
 marked **. 
 
 Essays and Studies. (1) The romantic elements in Scott's blood, 
 training, and environment. (2) The romantic elements in Scott's Lady 
 of the Lake compared with the romantic elements in Scott's Waverley. 
 (Consider scene, action, incident, character.) (3) The essential char- 
 acteristics of a romantic novel. (4) Discuss the romantic opening of 
 a novel (consider various of Scott's openings). (5) Scott's use of land- 
 scape. (6) Scott's handling of romantic incident. (7) The romantic 
 heroine in Scott — Rose Bradwardine (Waverley), Isabella Wardour 
 
{ArUiguary), Diana Vemon (Rob Roy). (8) The romantic hero in Scott 
 ( Waverley, Lo vel, Francis Osbaldistone) . (9) Meg Merrilies (Guy Man- 
 nering) and Elspeth (Antiquary). (10) Elements of realism in Scott. 
 (11) Scott as historian in the novel ("All these pictures of a distant age 
 are false, costumes, scenery, externals alone are exact; actions, speech, 
 sentmients, all the rest is civilized, embellished, arranged in modem 
 guise. " — Taine). (12) Can an historical novel be a great novel? (Dis- 
 cuss the help and hindrance of history as respects Waverley, Fortunes 
 of Nigel, Ivanhoe.) (13) Scott as a humourist. (14) Scott's style as a 
 writer of English. (15) Jane Austen's burlesque of romance (North- 
 anger Abbey). (16) What is the conflict of romanticism and realism? 
 Are they at all reconcilable? 
 
 Criticaii Comments. 
 " You find every where in Walter Scott a remarkable security and 
 thoroughness in his delineation, which proceeds from his comprehensive 
 knowledge of the real world, obtained by lifelong studies and obser- 
 vations, and a daily discussion of the most important relations. Then 
 come his great talent and his comprehensive nature . . . All is 
 great — material, import, characters, execution." — Goethe, Conver- 
 sations. 
 
 "I am a bad hand at depicting a hero, properly so called, and have 
 an unfortunate propensity for the dubious characters of Borderers, 
 buccaneers. Highland robbers, and all others of a Robin-Hood descrip- 
 tion . . My rogue always, in despite of me, turns out my hero." — 
 Scott, in Lockhart's Life of Scott. 
 
 "He has given to Scotland a citizenship of literature — I mean to the 
 whole of Scotland : scenery, monuments, houses, cottages, characters of 
 every age and condition, from the baron to the fisherman, from the 
 advocate to the beggar, from the lady to the fishwife . . . By this 
 fundamental honesty and this broad humanity, he was the Homer of 
 modem citizen life." — Taine, English Literature, IV, i. 
 
 "The truth is, our best definition of Scott were perhaps even this, 
 that he was, if no great man, then something much pleasanter to be, — a 
 robust, thoroughly healthy, and withal very prosperous and victorious 
 man. An eminently well-conditioned man, healthy in body, healthy 
 in soul; we will call him one of the healthiest of men." — Carlyle, 
 Essay on Scott. 
 
n. Charles Dickens. 
 
 " I wished to show in little Oliver the principle of good surriving through every 
 adverse circumstance, and triumphing at last 
 
 " It appeared tome that to draw a knot of such associates In crime as really do 
 exist; t» paint them In all their deformity, in all their wretchedness, in all the 
 squalid poverty of their lives; to show them as they really are ... it apireared 
 to me to do this was to attempt a something which was greatly needed, and which 
 would be a service to mankind."— Charles Dickens, Preface to Oliver Twist. 
 
 " It It . . . should induce one reader to think better of his fellow men, and to 
 look upon the brighter and more kindly side of human nature he would indeed be 
 proud.— Preface to Piclewick Papers. 
 
 BloGKAPHiCAL Details. — Charles Dickens was born February 7, 
 1812, at 387, Mile End Terrace, Portsea, Portsmouth. He was the son 
 of John Dickens, clerk in the navy pay-ofSce and Elizabeth Barrow, 
 daughter of a naval lieutenant. In 1814 his family removed to London 
 and in 1816 to Chatham, where Dickens remained for five years during 
 the most impressionable period of his childhood. He went to school to 
 the Eev. William Giles. He was devoted to books rather than to play, 
 especially to the novels of Smollett. In the winter of 1822 the family 
 removed to London, to 16, Bayham Street, Camden Town, then to 4, 
 Gower Street. Meanwhile certain characteristics of Dickens's father that 
 made him prototype to Micawber brought him to bankruptcy and the 
 King's Bench Prison. Dickens became a wretched drudge in a blacking 
 Sctory. By 1824 the cixoumstauoes of the family had improved and 
 Dickens went to school for two years at the "Wellington House 
 Academy, " Hampstead Eoad. In 1827 he became a clerk in an attorney's 
 ofSce. He learnt shorthand, reported in Doctors' Commons and the 
 House of Commons, and — not without a strong inclination for the stage 
 — gradually made his way through journalism to literature. A Dinner 
 at Poplar Walk, in The Monthly Magazine, was his first publication. In 
 1834 he began signing his sketches "Boz," and in 1836 these were 
 collected and published in book form as Sketches by Boz, with illustrations 
 by Crnikshank. On April 2, 1836, Dickens married Catharine Hogarth, 
 daughter of the editor of Hie Morning Chronicle. They lived at No. 15, 
 Fumival's Inn (now demolished), removing in March, 1837, to 48, 
 Doughty Street. Meanwhile Dickens was issuing the monthly parts or 
 Pickwick Papers (April, 1836, to November, 1837), which began with a 
 sale of 400 copies and required 40,000 for the fifteenth number. Oliver 
 Twist (January, 1837, to March, 1838) and Nicholas Nickleby (April, 1838, to 
 October, 1839) assured Dickens of his preeminence with the general 
 public. From 1839 to 1851 Dickens's home was No. 1, Devonshire 
 Terrace, Regent's Park, where he wrote Master Bwmphrey's Clock, 1840-1 
 (comprising Old Curiosity Shop and Barnaby Budge), Martin Chuzzlewit 
 (January, 1843, to July, 1844), Domhey and Son (October, 1846, 
 
 (8) 
 
9 
 
 to April, 1848), &nd David Copperfield (May, 1849, to November, 
 1850). In 1842 Dickens visited America and recorded his impressions, 
 for the most part anfavourable, in American Notes. In 1844 he visited 
 Italy (see Pictures from Italy, 1846). His popular Christmas books were 
 composed from 1843, comprising A Christmas Carol, 1843, Tlie Chimes, 
 1845, The Cricket on the Hearth, 1846, etc. In 1846 Dickens took part in 
 the founding of The Daily News, of which he was the first editor, having 
 as his successor his friend and biographer John Forster. In 1849 Dickens 
 founded a weekly paper Household Words, continued later as AU the Year 
 Bound. In 1861 he removed to Tavistock House (now demolished), 
 Tavistock Square. This was his home for ten years during the publica- 
 tion ot Bleak House (1852-3), Hard 2Vmes,(1854), UtOe Dorrit {1855-7), 
 and 3%e Tale of Two Cities (1859). In March, 1856, Dickens bought Gadshill 
 Place, a few miles from the scenes of his childhood in Rochester and 
 Chatham, and after 1860 lived there permanently. In 1858 he began 
 his public readings, which were extraordinarily successful but which 
 ultimately killed him. In 1867 he revisited the United States. His 
 last works were Great Expectations (December, 1860, to August, 1861) 
 and Our Mutual Friend (May, 1864, to November, 1865). Edwin Drood 
 was unfinished when Dickens was stricken with apoplexy. He died 
 June 9, 1870, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 The following are the chief biographical works: John Forster, The Life 
 of Charles Dickens; Mary Dickens, CAartes Dickens, by his Eldest Daughter; 
 E. Langton, The Childhood and Youth of Charles Dickens; F. Marzials, 
 Life of Charles Dickens (" Great Writers " series); A. W. Ward, Dickens 
 ("English Men of Letters " series) ; L. Stephen, article in the Dictionary 
 of National Biography. 
 
 Dickens's works were chiefly published by Chapman and Hall, who 
 continue to issue the authoritative editions. 
 
 Lbctuke. 
 
 General Aspects. Dickens's universal acceptance. The reaction from 
 romance in Scott and his school to partial realism in Pickwick Papers. 
 Significance of Pickwick in the transition to the realistic novel. 
 
 Characlerisfiea of Dickens^ s Personality. His faculty of observation; 
 illustrations from his biography; hia scanty schooling; his love of streets; 
 his work as a reporter. His mimetic faculty, — liking for the stage, actors, 
 and impersonation — only an accident prevented him from becoming an 
 actor; his sensitive temperament; his untiring energy; his humanitarian 
 spirit. Carlyle's estimate of him — "The good, the gentle, the high- 
 gifted, ever friendly, noble Dickens — every inch of him an honest man." 
 His humour and zest of life — ^from a literary point of view his predominant 
 characteristic; his exuberant spirits, broad humour, love of Smollett, 
 
10 
 
 IHekens's Characteristics as a Novelist. The basis of his work is realism 
 — observation; illustrations of his minute, surface observation; Chaucer's 
 method of external characterization compared with Dickens's. Tet 
 Dickens is not rightly classed as a realist; characters like FeoksniS, 
 Gradgrind, Podsnap are exaggerations of the one idea which constitutes 
 their personality; Dickens is not painting realities but presenting ideals 
 — the guiding method of his work is idealism. His characterization 
 considered, — his exaggeration of detail — significant gesture or mode of 
 speech; his use of contrasts; his ideals of goodness, of whim, humour, 
 frenzy; illustrations from his early work in 2%e Sketches hy Boz and from 
 Nicholas Nicldeby and Martin Chuzzlemt. The advantages of Dickens's 
 method — his characters are simple, immediately effective, easily humour- 
 ous; his method explains the fecundity of his creative power — more than 
 fifteen hundred characters in his works. The limitations of his method — 
 his characters are never fdll-bodied, are always exaggerated and often 
 degenerate to caricature; he is not, however, as some assert, merely a 
 caricaturist. Dickens's treatment of incident has the same method as his 
 characterization: incident is used as illustration and expansion of charac- 
 teristic; illustrations from Pickwick and Great Expectations. Dickens's 
 professedly realistic work like Oliver Twist has idealistic elements. His 
 idealism governs his pathetic scenes, as well as his scenes of the 
 grotesque and horrible; his pathos is less esteemed to-day than formerly. 
 Dickens's treatment of plot: — the simple peripatetic plot of his early 
 works, the complicated plot of the later; idealism in the endings, poetic 
 justice. Dickens's humanitarian spirit; his moulding of plot to suit a 
 purpose — attack on the poor-law, bad schools, bad prisons, government 
 routine; his vast beneficent influence. Dickens's humour is his supreme 
 literary quality; the forms of his humour not all original — stage types, 
 character-names, mispronunciations, antique jokes — Dickens absorbs 
 these and sublimates them. His power in burlesque, in the 'lumour of the 
 crowd. The explanation of his method in humourous scene and charac- 
 ter — a grotesque imagination playing upon a well-known phrase or idea. 
 Dickens's work was to transform the commonplace — to illuminate in the 
 light of a wonderful imagination the humourous, the kindly, the fantastic 
 side of familiar things — ^the mirror he held up to nature has convex and 
 concave surfaces — the world he created was a world on stilts, animated 
 by his own energy, moving at the impulse of his grotesque imagination. 
 
 Illustrations. The lantern photographs will show the scenes ol 
 Dickens's childhood in Chatham and Rochester, his homes in London and 
 Gadshill Place, illustrations of his characters, and portraits. 
 
 Critical Studies. For a detailed list of Dickens's works and writings 
 about them, see Anderson's bibliography appended to Marzials's Dickens in 
 the •' Great Writers " series. Shepherd's Bibliography of Dickens and F. 
 
11 
 
 G. Kitten's Dickensiana and The Novels of Charles Dickens deal chiefly 
 with the Tvorks. The following are the hest or the most easily available 
 books andartioles: Frank Marzials's Charles Dickens ("Great Writers " 
 series); A. W. Ward, Charles Dickens ("English Men of Letters" series); 
 George Gissing,* Charles Dic&ens(" Victorian Era" series); W. Bagehot, 
 Literary Studies; A. H. Stanley, Sermon (1870); W. S. Lilly, Four English 
 Humourists; W. Sargent, North American Beeiem, vol. Ixxvii (1853), 
 p. 409; B. Jerrold, Oomhill, vol. vk, p. 129; Macmillan's, vol. xxii 
 (1870), p. 236; F. Harrison, Forum, vol. xviii, p. 543 (reprinted in Studies 
 in Early Victorian Literature); A. TroUope, 8t. Paul's, vol. vi (1870), 
 p. 370; G. W. Putman, Atlaniic, vol. xxvi (1870), pp. 476, 591; G. H. 
 Lewes, Fortnightly, vol. xvii (1872), p. 141; W. M. Thackeray, Fraser, 
 vol. XXV, p. 342; M. Morris, Fortnightly, vol. xxxviii, p. 762; F. Dickens, 
 ComhiU, vol. li, p. 32. See also Taine, English Literature, vol. iv. 
 
 Student Woek. 
 
 The following novels are representative of Dickens's work: **. Pick- 
 wick Papers, Nicholas Nickleby, **Martin ChuzzlewU, **David Copperfleld. 
 The University Extension examination will limit questions to works 
 marked **- Study Cross's Development of the English Novel and the mean- 
 ing of romanticism, realism, idealism, caricature as literary terms. 
 
 Essays and Studies. The following offer suggestions for study, reading, 
 or papers for the lecturer: (1) Describe Dickens's life and experience 
 so far as they led him to literature in the publication of Sketches by Boz. 
 (2) What characteristics of Dickens's genius are marked in Sketches by 
 Boz? (3) Define plot. Show the nature of the plot in Pickwick Papers 
 as contrasted with the plot of Bleak Bouse. Which is better? (4) What 
 characteristics are there in Dickens's treatment of (a) character and (b) 
 incident, in. Pickwick Papers? (5) Define idealism. Illustrate idealism 
 from Dickens's work. Is Dickens's idealism valid ? (6) Discuss Dickens's 
 realism with especial reference to Oliver Twist. (7) Dickens's pathos, with 
 especial reference to Old Curiosity Shop and Dombey and Son. (8)C!ompare 
 Dickens's Pecksniff and MoHere's TartufEe. (9) Characterize Dickens's 
 children (especially in Oliver Twist, Old Curiosity Shop, Dombey and Son, 
 David Copperfield. Comparison may he made with George Eliot and 
 George Meredith). (10) Dickens's men (as examples — Nicholas Nick- 
 leby, Tom Pinch, Micawber, Pickwick). (11) Dickens's women (as 
 examples — Dora Copperfield, Agnes Wickham, Mrs. Nickleby, Betsy 
 Trotwood, Sairy Gamp). (12) What adverse criticisms of Dickens's art 
 aremadeat the present time? (13) Discussion: How far does Dickens's 
 strength lie in (a) plot, (b) characterization, (c) incident, (d) dialogue, . 
 (e) humour, (f) pathos. (14) Show Dickens's relation to Smollett and 
 the picaresque novel in general. 
 
12 
 
 Ceitical Comments. 
 
 "He is pethaps more distinctly than any other author of the time, a 
 doss writer, the historian and representative of one circle in the many 
 ranks of our social scale." — Blackwood's, vol. Ixxvii, p. 451 (April, 1855). 
 
 "His abstract andeistanding is so far inferior to his picturesque 
 imagination as to give even his best vrorks the sense of jar and incom- 
 pleteness which is not characteristic of the clear and cultured under- 
 standing." — Walter Bagehot, Literary Studies, \i, p. 193. 
 
 "I confess I marvel at the fascination which he once had for me. I 
 stand aghast at the inane insignificance of most of his personages, at the 
 vapid vulgarity of most of his incidents, at the consummate crudity of 
 much of his thought, at the intolerable ineptness of much of his diction. 
 . . . He seems to me one of the least artistic of vmters." — W. F. 
 Lilly, Four English Sumonrists, p. 13. 
 
 ' ' I may quarrel with Mr. Dickens's art a thousand and a thousand times ; 
 I delight and wonder at his genius. . . . 'Thankfully I take my share 
 of the feast of love and kindness which this gentle and generous and 
 charitable soul has contributed to the happiness of the world." — W. M. 
 Thackeray, Charity and Sunwrn: 
 
 " An impassioned painter of crude and dazzling pictures, a lyric prose- 
 writer, all powerful in provoking laughter or tears, plunged into fantas- 
 tic invention, painful sensibility, vehement buffoonery; and by the bold- 
 ness of his style, the excess of his emotions, the grotesque familiarity of 
 his caricatures, he has displayed all the forces and weaknesses of an 
 artist, all the audacities, all the successes, and all the oddities of the 
 imagination." — Taine, History of English Literature. 
 
 " If literary fame could be safely measured by popularity with the 
 half-educated, Dickens must claim the highest position among English 
 novelists. . . . The criticism of more severe critics consists chiefly 
 in the assertion that his merits are such as suit the half-educated. They 
 admit his fun to be irresistible; his pathos, they say, though it shows 
 boundless vivacity, implies little real depth or tenderness of feeling, 
 and his amazing powers of observation were out of proportion to his 
 powers of reflection. The social and political views, which he constantly 
 inculcates, imply a deliberate preference of spontaneous instinct to gen- 
 uine reasoned conviction; his style is clear, vigorous, and often felicitous, 
 but mannered and more forcible than delicate; he writes too clearly for 
 readers who cannot take a joke till it has been well hanmiered into their 
 heads; his vivid perception of external oddities passed into something 
 like hallucination; and in his later books the constant strain to produce 
 effects only legitimate when spontaneous becomes painful. His books 
 are therefore inimitable caricatures of contemporary ' humours ' rather 
 than the masterpieces of a great observer of human nature." — Leslie 
 Stephen, Dictionary of National Biography, vol. xv, p. 30. 
 
m. William Makepeace Thackeray. 
 
 " Yes, this is Vakity Fair ; not a moral place certainly; nor a merry one, though 
 Tery noisy. ... 
 
 " Vauitas Vanltatum ! Which of us is happy in this world ? Which of us has his 
 desire ? or, having It, is satisfied ? Come, children, let us shut up the box and the 
 puppets.'.'— W. M. Thackeray, Vanity Fair. 
 
 " If this kind of composition . . , fail in art . . . it at least has the advan- 
 tage of a certain truth and honesty ... I ask you to believe that this person 
 writing strives to tell the truth. If there is not that, there is nothing."— Preface to 
 ^^ndennis. 
 
 " Come wealth or want, come good or ill, 
 Let young and old accept their part. 
 And bow before the Awful Will, 
 
 And bear it with an honest heart. 
 Who misses, or who wins the prize. 
 
 Go, lose or conquer as you can. 
 But if you fail, or if you rise. 
 Be each, pray God, a gentleman." — The End qffhe Hay. 
 
 BlOGEAPHlCAL Details. William Makepeace Thackeray was born in 
 Calcntta, July 18, 1811, the only child of Richmond Thackeray, of the 
 India Civil Service, and Anne Beoher. After his father's death Thack- 
 eray -was sent to England ( 1817) where he went to school, first in Hamp- 
 shire, then in Chisvnok, then to the Charterhonse (1832-1828). His life 
 in "Greyfriars" (see Pendennis) was on the whole unhappy, and gave no 
 promise of scholarship, though some, towards the end of his schooldays, 
 of humour in verse. On leaving school he went to his mother, who had 
 married Major Henry Smyth ("Colonel Newcome") and settled at 
 Larkbeare, near Ottery St. Mary, Devon. In February, 1829, he went 
 up to the University of Cambridge, and entered Trinity College, remain- 
 ing till Easter of 1830. His college interests were confined to his friends, 
 such as Fitzgerald, Milnes, Spedding, Tennyson; his private authors, 
 chiefly Horace, Fielding, Shelley; and his essays and comic contributions 
 to an undergraduate journal, The Snob. Inheriting a fortune, Thack- 
 eray was able to travel — in the long vacation of 1829 to Paris, in 1830 to 
 Weimar, where he met Goethe and became devoted to the works of Schil- 
 ler. In 1831 he took up for a few brief months the study of law in the 
 Middle Temple. By 1834 his high living, a bank failure, and the purchase 
 of an unsuccessful literary journal had dissipated Thackeray's fortune, 
 and compelled him to seek a means of livelihood. He went to Paris to 
 study art. His first book, a collection of satirical drawings, Flore et 
 Ziphifr, appeared in 1836. On the founding of the Constitutional, Thack- 
 eray became its Paris correspondent, and married on his prospects, in 
 1836, Isabella Shawe, daughter of Colonel Shawe of Donerail. Eeturned 
 to England Thackeray did reviews for the Times and in 1838 began to 
 publish his " Yellowplnsh " papers in Fraser's. The Paris Sketch Sock, 
 
 1840, The History of Saitmel litmarsh and the Great Hoggarty Diamond 
 
 1841, Ihe Irish Sketch Book, 1843, and various contributions to Pa»cA,were 
 the preliminary studies to his novels. Thackeray's home life was ended 
 about 1840 by his wife's loss of health and reason; he became a familiar 
 
 (13) 
 
14 
 
 figure in the London olubs— Garrick, Eeform, Athenseum, etc., and 
 travelled in Ireland and in the East as far as Cairo. His first novel, The 
 Lack of Barry Lyndon was published in Fraser's in 1844. The Snohs of 
 England and Prize Novelists caught public attention, but the first great 
 success was Vanity Fair, issued 1847-48. Then came Pendennis, 1848- 
 50, English Humourists, 1851, Henry Esmond, 1852. The winter of 1852-3 
 was spent in America, where Thackeray lectured, from Boston to 
 Savannah, on English Humourists. The next two years were marked by 
 visits to Switzerland, Eome, and the composition of The Newcomes, pub- 
 lished 1855. Then came (1855-6) a second lecture tour in America, 
 Thackeray's course being The Pour Georges. In 1857 Thackeray stood 
 unsuccessfully for Oxford as the Liberal candidate. The Virginians 
 appeared 1857-1859. In 1860 the Oornhill Magazine was founded, with 
 Thackeray as editor, a position he held until ill health overcame him in 
 
 1862. His later works were first published in ComhUl — Lovell the Wid- 
 ower, 1860, The Adventures of Philip, 1861-3, Dennis Duval (unfinished) 
 and Tlie Bound-About Papers. Thackeray's London home was from 1846 
 to 1853 at 13, Young Street, from 1853 to 1861 at 36, Onslow Square, 
 and from 1861 at No. 2, Palace Green, Kensington, where on December 24, 
 
 1863, he died. He was buried in Kensal Green cemetery, London. 
 Brief sketches of Thackeray's life are: Leslie Stephen, Dictionary of 
 
 National Biography and W. H. Pollock, Encyclopasdia Britannica. The 
 biographical facts concerning each particular work are furnished by 
 Thackeray's daughter, Mrs. Bichmond Bitchie, in the "Biographical 
 Edition '' of Thackeray's works (Harpers). Short studies of his life and 
 work are contained in[Merivale and Marzial's Thackeray ("Great 
 Writers" series), and TroUope's Thackeray ("English Men of Letters" 
 series), and T. G. Lewis Melville's £i/« of (Thackeray (two vols. ). Cer- 
 tain aspects are treated in W. W. Hunter's The Thackerays in India; 
 Thaekerayana; Eyre Crowe's Thackeray's Haunts and Homes and With 
 Thackeray in Arnica; Thackeray's Letters; W. B. Eeed's Havd Jmme- 
 mor; J. E. Cooke's An Hour with Thackeray, Appleton's, vol. vii, p. 248 
 (1879). 
 
 Lectuee. 
 
 Thackeray's Relation to Bomanticism, and Bealism. Comparison of 
 Dickens and Thackeray is inevitable, — " My books are a protest against 
 him — if the one set are right, the other must be false" (Thackeray); 
 Dickens's idealism and partial realism, Thackeray's thoroughgoing real- 
 ism. Thackeray resumes English realism, taking up the work of the 
 eighteenth century realists, more particularly Fielding. "What is Real- 
 ism ? A definition ofEered : Realism is the artistic representation of life 
 'mited by the actual and the realized. 
 
15 
 
 Ihackeray's Personality. The question of the personal factor in the 
 lealist considered. Thackeray's temperament, training, experience: — as a 
 hoy in the Charterhouse, as a student in Trinity CJoUege, Cambridge, and 
 of the Middle Temple, London. Loss of fortune; devotion to art, the 
 artist's life, Paris. Thackeray seen in his personal relations; — deep home 
 aSeotion, bereavement, club life; testimony of those who knew him — 
 Fitzgerald, Carlyle, Locker-Lampson. The nature of the humourist 
 considered in Goldsmith, Addison, Lamb, showing the union of sensi- 
 bility and intellectual discrimination, which marks Thackeray. 
 
 The BeaUstic Beaction. Thackeray's reaction from romanticism — 
 Sebeeca and Bowena, Barry Lyndon; realism the inevitable result, "The 
 actual and realized ' ' in social life at the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury — the protesting forces, Carlyle, Newman, Clough, Euskin. Thack- 
 eray broadly considered, belongs to this group. His Yellowplxish Papers 
 and Snob Papers are his first protest of sincerity at social shams and hypoc- 
 risies. They show his study of social life and prepared the way for his 
 novel of manners. Vanity Fair, his masterpiece in realism — a novel of 
 manners; its realism, pessimism, cynicism considered; the contrast of 
 society and private life. Action, characterization, style under realism. 
 
 Positive Aspects of 7%aekeray's Bealism. English realism and French 
 realism contrasted — the positive side of Thackeray's work in his later 
 novels. Pendennis is Thackeray's effort " to depict to his utmost power a 
 Man . . . the passions to feel, and the manliness to overcome them " (pre- 
 face to Pendennis). The Neweomes as depicting a gentleman. Thackeray's 
 women — Becky Sharp and Beatrix Esmond, Amelia Sedley, Laura Pen- 
 dennis, Ethel Newoome. His power in enhancing the clever and wicked. 
 His historical novels — Henry Esmond, The Virginians. 
 
 Thackeray^s Method and Style. . Thackeray's attitude towards his art 
 and work; his urbanity, his condescension. His method in composition 
 — "to take two or three of his chief characters, and then to write right 
 away from time to time . . . with only a general knowledge of the course 
 he would be taking a few chapters later.'' Conversational narrative. 
 The author's participation in the story to offer comment, sermon, moral 
 — a lay preacher. Contrast the impassiveness and objectivity of pure 
 realism. His novels in construction show organic growth rather than 
 imposed plot or plan; they are epic rather than dramatic in scope; they 
 are effective in mass rather than in specific scenes, in sensibility rather 
 than vigorous life. Thackeray's style is eminently fitted to his subject 
 and treatment — its social tone, its self-control, its reserve, its ease, even 
 garrulonsness. Its classic tone drawn fi:om the eighteenth century 
 essayists. The truth and perfection of his work vrithin these limitations. 
 
 JUustrations. The illustrations to this lecture embrace photographic 
 views of the Charterhouse, Trinity College, Cambridge, the Temple, 
 
16, 
 
 London; Thackeray's lodgings and homes in London; reproductions of 
 his drawings; representations of him in paintings and busts. 
 
 Critical Studies. A bibliography of Thackeray criticism up till 1891 is 
 contained in the appendix to Merivale and Marzials's* Thackeray in the 
 " Great Writers " series. Subsequent magazine articles are indicated in 
 Poole's Index of Periodical Literature. In addition to criticism contained 
 in the volumes of biography already mentioned, the following are recom- 
 mended readings: Dr. John Brown, Thackeray: Sis Literary Career; P. 
 Bayne, Essays in Biography and Criticism; W. Bagehot, Literary Studies, 
 vol. ii, p. 106; Bayard Taylor, Critical Essays; Andrew Lang, Letters to 
 Dead Authors; Frederic Harrison, Studies in Early Victorian Literature; 
 "W. S. Lilly, Four English Swmourists; and the usual manuals of English 
 literature, especially Taine, History of English Literature, vol. iv. 
 
 Student Wobk. 
 
 The following novels best represent Thackeray: — ** Vanity Pair, ** The 
 Neweomes, ** Henry Esmand. Pendennis may be added for its biographi- 
 cal value, and Thackeray's burlesques {Rebecca and Bowena, etc.) and 
 parodies {Prize Novelists) and ballads {Bouillabaisse, The Cane-bottomed 
 Chair, etc.) should not be omitted for the fuller view of Thackeray's 
 spirit and work. The University Extension examination will be con- 
 fined to the books marked **. 
 
 Essays and Studies. The following offer suggestions of reading and study : 
 — ( 1 ) In what way did the circumstances of Thackeray's life fit him to be a 
 novelist of manners? (2) What were the bohemian elements in Thacke- 
 ray'snature? {See Paris Sketch Book and elsewhere.) (3) HowisThaok- 
 eray's attitude towards society indicated in the Yellomplush Papers? (4) 
 What is Thackeray's conception and criticism of snobs? (See The Book 
 of Snobs.) (5) How is Thackeray's attitude towards contemporary fic- 
 tion shown in Prize Novelists and. Barry Lyndon? (6) Criticize Thack- 
 eray'sideaot societyas ' Vanity Fair. ' (7) " His artistic genius worked 
 with more free and consummate zest when he painted the dark and the 
 foul" (Frederic Harrison). Discuss with reference to Vanity Fair and 
 The Neweomes. (8) Estimate the following characters of Vanity Fair — 
 (a) Eawdou Crawley, (b) George Osborne, (c) William Dobbin, (d) 
 Amelia Sedley, (e) Becky Sharp. (9) Why should Vanity Fair he csl]ed 
 a novel of manners ? (10) Compare Jane Austen with Thackeray as a 
 novelist of manners. (Use Emma or Pride and Prejudice in illustration. ) 
 (11) What elements of autobiography are there in Pendennis? (12) 
 Compare Pendennis and Tom Jones as respects each author's endeavour 
 "todepict to his utmost power a Man." (13) What essential difference 
 of spirit characterizes the author's treatment of Henry Esmond as com- 
 pared with his earlier work ? (14) How far has Thackeray been snocesa 
 
17 
 
 M as an historical novelist in Henry Esmond ? (15) Discuss Laura Bell 
 Lady Castlewood, Ethel Newcome, considering how far Thackeray suc- 
 ceeds in making his heroine interesting. (16) "A gentleman came &om 
 his pen by the gift of nature" (E. L. Stevenson). Illustrate from 
 Thackeray's books. (17) Show how Thackeray's realism governed his 
 treatment of (a) character, (b) plot, (c) style. (18) What are the char- 
 acteristics of Thackeray's style? Compare it with that of the eighteenth 
 century essayists. (19) Discuss which is Thackeray's masterpiece. (20) 
 Discuss Thackeray's philosophy of life. 
 
 Critical Comments. 
 
 "The first social regenerator of our day — the very masterof that work- 
 ing corps who would restore to rectitude the warped system of things." 
 — Charlotte Bronte, Dedication of the second edition of Jane Eyre. 
 
 "He had many fine qualities; no guile or malice against any mortal; 
 a big mass of a soul, but not strong in proportion ; a beautiful vein of 
 genius lay struggling about him." — Thomas Carlyle to E. M. Milnes. 
 
 "Of the four great English tale-tellers whose dynasties have set or 
 risen vnthin my memory — Miss Edgeworth, Scott, Dickens, and Thack- 
 eray — I find myself greatly at pause in conjecturing, however dimly, 
 what essential good has been effected by them, though all had the best 
 intentions. Of the essential mischief done by them there is unhappily 
 no doubt whatever. Miss Edgeworth made her morality so impertinent 
 that, since her time, it has only been with fear and trembling than any 
 good novelist has ventured to show the slightest bias in favour of the Ten 
 Commandments. Scott made romance so ridiculous, that since his day, 
 one can't help fancying helmets were always paste-board, and horses were 
 always hobby. Dickens made everybody laugh, or cry, so that they 
 could not go about their business till they had got their faces in wrinldes; 
 and Thackeray settled like a meat-fly on whatever one had for dinner, 
 and made one sick of it.''— John Euskin, Fors Clavigera. 
 
 " Mr. Thackeray thought too much of social inequalities. They belonged 
 to that common, plain, perceptible world which filled his mind, and 
 which left him at times, and at casual moments, no room for a purely 
 intellectual and just estimate of men as they really are in themselves, 
 apart from social perfection. — W. Bagehot, Literary Studies, vol. i. p. 143. 
 
 " Thackeray's English, from thefirst page of his first volume to the last 
 page of his twenty-sixth volume, is natural, scholarly, pure, incisive, and 
 yet gra<jefully modulated— the language of an English gentleman of cul- 
 ture, wit, knowledge of the world, and consummate ease and self-possess- 
 ion. It is the directand trenchant language of Swift: but more graceful, 
 more flexible, more courteous." — Frederic Harrison, Studies in Early 
 Victorian Literature, p. 113. 
 
IV. George Eliot. 
 
 " I think sesthetic teaching is the highest of all teaching, because it deals with life 
 in its highest complexity."— George Eliot, from a Letter, August 15, 1866. 
 
 " My function is that of the xsthelic, not the doctrinal teacher— the rousing of the 
 nobler emotions, which make mankind desire the social right, not the prescription 
 of special measures. - lb.. Letter, July 18, 1878." 
 
 " This is life to come, 
 Which martyred men have made more glorious 
 For us who strive to follow. May I reach 
 That purest heaven, be to other souls 
 The cup of strength in some great agony, 
 Enkindle generous ardour, feed pure love. 
 Beget the smiles that have no cruelty, 
 Be the sweet presence of a good diffused. 
 And in diSUsion even more intense. 
 So shall I join the choir invisible. 
 Whose music is the gladness of the world." 
 
 —George Eliot, from " Oh, May 1 Join the Choir Invisible." 
 
 BiOQEAPHicAL DETAILS. — " George Eliot," known also as Mary Ann 
 Evans, Mrs. G. H. Levres, and Mrs. J. W. Cross, was born November 22, 
 1819, at " Arbury Farm," parish of Chilvers Coton, Warwickshire. Her 
 father was Robert Evans, agent of Francis Newdigate for his estates at 
 Kirk Hallam, Derbyshire, and Arbury. Her mother was Christiana 
 Pearson. In March, 1820, Robert Evans removed to " Griff House, " also 
 on the Arbury estate, the home of Miss Evans for twenty-one years. 
 Her education began in the usual boarding-school way — at Miss Lathom's, 
 Attleborough, near Grifif, at Miss Wallington's, Nuneaton, and at Miss 
 Franklin's, Coventry. She was distinguished at school for awkwardness 
 and shyness, as well as for proficiency in music and composition and a 
 passion for reading. Her favourite books as a child were .^sop's Fables, 
 Scott's Wavefdey, Lamb's Essays, Defoe's History of tile Devil, The Pilgrim's 
 Progress, Easselas. When she gave up school she continued to study, 
 under private teachers, music, French, German, Italian, Greek, and 
 Latin, and later added for a time Hebrew. The death of her mother in 
 1836 and the marriage of an elder sister threw into her hands the man- 
 agement of the household, and she devoted herself to the kitchen and the 
 dairy as assiduously as to her books. Marked by intellectual power, Miss 
 Evans was equally marked by a religious spirit. She was devoted to 
 prayer-meetings, charitable clubs, "seeking to be sanctified wholly." 
 Her first published work was a religious poem, in TJie Christian Observer, 
 January, 1840. The removal of her father to Foleshill Eoad, Coventry, 
 in March, 1841, brought Miss Evans into the company of the Brays, who 
 had at their home of "Eosehill" a small circle of intellectual people 
 
 (18) 
 
19 
 
 inclined to free religious thought. The connection told on Miss Evans, 
 who gave up her evangelical faith, and undertook and accomplished the 
 tianslation of Strauss's destructive Life of Jesus. Her father's death in 
 1849 released Miss Evans from the narrow provincial life at Coventry and 
 enabled her to visit the Continent. She spent some months in Geneva 
 and returned to England, going first to "EosehUl," then to London, 
 where, in September, 1851, she undertook the work of assistant-editor of 
 The Westminster Beview. Her two years' connection with the Bemew gave 
 her the acquaintance of a celebrated group of writers, most of whom were 
 imbued vidth Positivist philosophy — John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, 
 George Henry Lewes, Harriet Martineau. Her acquaintance with Lewes, 
 begun in 1851, ended in their union in July, 1854. A legal union was 
 not possible for them according to English law, and while their lives were 
 both strengthened and blessed by mutual devotion Mrs. Lewes for years 
 suffered social neglect and even opprobinm. The Leweses went to 
 Weimar and Berlin, and in March, 1855, returned to England, set- 
 tling in Bichmond. In Bichmond, under the suggestions of her 
 husband, Mrs. Lewes wrote Amos Barton, published in Blaek- 
 wood'a Magazine, 1857. Mr. OilfWa Love-story and Janet's Re- 
 pentance rapidly followed. The three stories were then published in a 
 volume. Scenes of Clerical Life, 1858. Adam Bede appeared February, 
 1859. From this time the new novelist, " George Eliot, " was an acknowl- 
 edged leader in English fiction. Tlie Mill on the Floss was published in 
 1859-60 ; Silas Mamer, 1860 ; Bomola, 1862-63 ; Felix Holt, 1866 ; 2%e 
 Spanish Gypsy, 1868 ; Middlemarch, 1871-72 ; Daniel Deronda, 1876 ; Theo- 
 phrastus Such, 1878. The Leweses removed to " Holly Lodge, " Wands- 
 worth, in 1859, made brief visits to Florence for the sake of Bomola in 1860 
 andl861, and in 1863 removed to "The Priory," 21, North Bank, Begent's 
 Park, London. Their Sunday receptions in that home brought together 
 the chief intellects of their time. In 1876 they bought a country home, 
 " The Heights," Witley, near Godalming, Surrey. Mr. Lewes died 
 November 28, 1878. On May 6, 1880, Mrs. Lewes married her devoted 
 friend, John Walter Cross. After a visit to the Continent and Witley, 
 they settled in 4 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea — a brief home. On December 
 22, 1880, Mrs. Cross died. Her grave is in Highgate Cemetery, London. 
 
 The authoritative biography of George Eliot is George Eliot's Life as 
 Belated in Her Letters and Journals, arranged and edited by her husband, 
 J. W. Cross (New York : Harpers). The best brief statement is that of 
 Leslie Stephen in The Dictionary of National Biography. The following 
 monographs are valuable: Oscar Browning's * George Eliot, in "Great 
 Writers" series (London : Walter Scott); Mathilde Blind's George Eliot, 
 in the "Famous Women " series (London : Allen; Boston : Boberts). 
 
20 
 
 Lectuee. 
 
 lAfe. Birth and breeding in Warwickshire, " the heart of England.'' 
 Descent from lower middle-class people. Her home — " Arhury Farm,'' 
 ' ' Grifi House, ' ' the Foleshill Eoad house, Coventry. Education in board- 
 ing schools and under private tutors. Housekeeping. The unfolding of her 
 mind — intellectual and religious interests— of. Maggie Tulliver, Dorothea 
 Brooke. Intercourse with the Brays — effect on her faith. Death of 
 Eohert Evans. Travel on the Continent, — Geneva. Life in London. The 
 Westminster Bemew and its set. The Positivist philosophy. Her union 
 with Lewes. 
 
 Beview of her Novels. First period — characterized by the material drawn 
 from her early experience, by advance from the tale to the novel, from 
 simple characters to subtle and intellectual characters. The period in- 
 cludes Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam Bede, Mill on the Floss, and closes 
 with Silas Mamer. Second period — characterized by material consciously 
 sought outside her own experience, by the blending into the novel of 
 some great movement, some great principle, — Bomola, Felix Salt, Middle- 
 march, Daniel Deronda. 
 
 Her Art. Eealism — scenic background, action, character. The material 
 of her plot is conduct. The handling of the material is analytic. The 
 analytic method defined, — " the unfolding of the inner germs of action, 
 the spreading out before the eye those complicated activities of imagina- 
 tion and desire, impulse and counter-impulse, which are conduct in pro- 
 cess of becoming " (Sully). Comparison with Shakspere, Browning, 
 Balzac. George Eliot's method illustrated in Maggie Tulliver, Dorothea 
 Brooke, Gwendolen Harleth. The adjunct character creating the tragic 
 situation of the heroine — Tom Tulliver, Casaubon, Grandcourt. The 
 situation reversed — Lydgate and Eosamond Vincy. The minor characters 
 — wealth of creative power. George Eliot's relation to Dickens. The 
 shrewd married woman — Mrs. Hackit, Mrs. Poyser, Mrs. Cadwallader. 
 The busy housekeeper — the Dodsons.Mrs. Bede, Mrs. Holt. The workman 
 — Adam Bede, Caleb Garth, Mr. TuUiver, Silas Mamer, Felix Holt. 
 Clergymen — Amos Barton, Mr. Tryan, Mr. Irwiue, Mr. Lyon, Mr. Fare- 
 brother. Social scenes in "The Eed Lion,'' "The Eainbow." The pre- 
 sentation of the life of a community in Middlemarch. 
 
 Estimate of her Work. DifSculties of the analytic novel — intellectu- 
 ality; over-seriousness, even gloom; disproportion of action and analysis; 
 the natural formlessness of the action and consequent need of dramatic 
 moments — George Eliot's resort to melodrama. The abiding truth 
 and interest of her work in the psychological novel. 
 
 Illustrations. The lantern illustrations include George Eliot's homes — 
 ' 'Arbury Farm, " " Griff House, "the Foleshill Eoad house, "The Heights, " 
 
21 
 
 Witley, 4 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea ; scenes in 'Warwickshire and Derbyshire 
 and Florence ; portraits of George Eliot and her circle. 
 
 Critical Studies. Full references to studies of George Eliot's work are 
 given in Anderson's bibliography, appended to Browning's George Eliot 
 in the " Great Writers " series, and in L. M. Hodgkins's Ouide to the 
 Study of Nineteenth Century. In addition to criticism in the biographical 
 works mentioned above, the following are notable : EichardHoltHutton, 
 Essays, vol. ii, and Modem Guides of English Thought ; Edward Dowden, 
 Studies in Literature; James Sully, in Mind, vol. vi (1881), p. 378 ; F.W. 
 H. Myers, Essays, vol. ii ; G. W. Cooke, George Eliot : a Critical Study ; 
 Frederic Harrison, The Clwice of Books and Other Literary Pieces ; Henry 
 James, Partial Portraits; W. L. Lilly, Pour English Humourists; Mrs. Lynn 
 Linton, George Eliot, in Woman Novelists of Victoria's Beign ; W. L. Cross, 
 *The Development of the English Novel (Maomillan). There are valuable 
 French comments in the critical writings of Edmond Scherer, James Dar- 
 mesteter and others. 
 
 Student Work. 
 
 Chmce of Readings. The Sad Fortunes of the Reverend Amos Barton (in 
 Scenes of Clerical lAfe) ; **Adam Bede ; **llie Mill on the Floss ; Silas Mar- 
 ner ; **Middlemareh. 
 
 The University Extension examination on George Eliot will be confined 
 to books marked **. The study of these works should be directed to the 
 characters, their relations and grouping, the action in relation to the 
 characters, the author's psychological, analytic method. 
 
 Essays and Studies. The following subjects are suggested as topics of 
 discussion in the class or as themes of papers for study meetings. (1) Indi- 
 cate George Eliot's chronological place among modern writers of fiction. 
 (2) What was there in Scenes of Clerical Life to mark George Eliot dis- 
 tinctly as a new writer in fiction? (3) Show Hetty Sorrel's relation to 
 the other characters of .4dam Bede and to the general plot. (4) Is the 
 ending (Bks. vi, vii) of The Mill on the Floss in harmony with the earlier 
 parts? (5) How does George Eliot develop in Middlemarch the purpose 
 expressed in the Prelude to that novel ? (6) Point out in what cases and 
 in what ways the awakening of a soul is the theme of George Eliot's 
 novels. (7) The nature and extent of landscape background in George 
 Eliot. (8) What characters in George Eliot are drawn from life ? Who are 
 their originals ? (9) What is realism? Was George Eliot a realist ? (10) 
 Discuss George Eliot' s success in the portraiture of men. ( 11 ) How far was 
 George Eliot a Positivist ? How far does her Positivism afiect her novels ? 
 (12) In what relation does George Eliot's fiction stand to the movement 
 of democracy? (13) What points of resemblance are there between 
 George Eliot and Dickens ? ( 14) Contrast George Eliot and Jane Austen 
 
22 
 
 as regards material, action, and style. (15) Compare and contrast George 
 Eliot and George Sand. (16) Compare George Eliot and Balzac. 
 (l7) Compare Kingsley's Hypatia and George Eliot's Bomola as historical 
 novels. (18) Compare George Eliot and George Meredith. 
 
 Cbitical Comments. 
 
 ' ' George Eliot gave prose-fiction a substance which it had never had 
 before among any people." — W. L. Cross, The Development of the English 
 Novel, p. 250. 
 
 "With a mental equipment of the first order, her principal instrument 
 was art. And so she played a double part — as the most philosophic artist, 
 or the most artistic philosopher." — Frederic Harrison, Choice of Books, 
 etc., p. 215. 
 
 ' ' Underlying all her art there is the same vigorous teaching of the 
 inexorable laws which govern the life of men. The teaching that not 
 liberty but duty is the condition of existence; the teaching of the incal- 
 culable effect of hereditary transmission, with the solemn responsibilities 
 it involves; the teaching of the inherent sadness and imperfection 
 in human nature, which render resignation the first virtue of man." — 
 Mathilde Blind, George Eliot, p. 8. 
 
 "Hardly after Silas do we find anything, except in patches and 
 episodes, that is really ' genial ' in George Eliot's work. Felix Holt and 
 Middlemarch are elaborate studies of what seemed to the author to be 
 modern characters and society, — studies of immense efiEortand erudition 
 not unenlightened by humour, but on the whole dead. Bomola is an 
 attempt — still more Herculean, and still more against the grain — to 
 resuscitate the past. As for Daniel Deronda, it is a kind of nightmare." 
 — George Saintsbury, Corrected Impressions, p. 166. 
 
 " Which of George Eliot's novels do we rank the highest ? . . . 
 There is a gradual progression from first to last, . . . during her 
 twenty-five years of literary production she was ever conceiving deeper 
 views of the problem of life, and was filled with a stronger sense of the 
 resjKjnsibilities of her mission. She strove more and more to grasp the 
 difficulties of complex characters ... to express not only their 
 appearance and their manners, but the very inmost secrets and battles of 
 their hearts. " — Oscar Browning, George Eliot, p. 164. 
 
V. Thomas Hardy. 
 
 " All I endeaTOUT to do ia to be an impression of a scene as it strikes me."— Book- 
 man (London), vol. il, p. 6 (April, 1892). 
 
 " A chronicler of moods and deeds." '—Jude, The Preface. 
 
 " like former productions of this pen, Jvde the Obscwre is simply an endeavour to 
 give shape and coherence to a series of seemings, or personal impressions, the ques- 
 tion of their consistency or their discordance, of their permanence or their trans- 
 Itoriness, being regarded as not of the first moment."— Jude, ib. 
 
 BiOGEAPHicAL Dbtails. — Mr. Thomas Hardy was born in Higher 
 Bockhampton, near Dorohester, Dorset, on June 2, 1840. He vras the 
 son of a faxm labourer. At the age of seventeen he was articled to 
 a Dorchester architect. At twenty he went to London, where he 
 worked for some years tinder Sir Arthur Bloomfield as an ecclesiastical 
 architect. During part of this period he studied in King's College. In 
 1863 he won the prize medal of the Institute of British Architects and 
 the Tito prize for architectural design. Mr. Hardy scribbled as a boy, 
 and in 1865 began authorship by the publication in Chambers^ Journal of 
 Sow I Built Myself a House. In 1871 he published Desperate Remedies, 
 •his first novel. Fronx 1868 to 1872 he gradually relinquished architecture 
 for literature. Prom 1872, the date of Under the Greenwood Tree, his 
 work was writing, and architecture became only a recreation. In 1874 
 Ije married Emma, daughter of J. Gifford and niece of Archdeacon Gif- 
 f ord. He made his home in Dorsetshire, ultimately in the house he had 
 built known as ' ' Max Gate, ' ' Dorohester. His works subsequent to 1872 
 are: Far from the Madding Crowd, 1874; The Hand of Ethdberta, 1876; 
 The Return of the Native, 1878; The Trumpet Major, 1880; A Laodicean, 
 1881; Two on a lower, 1882; The Mayor of Casterbridge, 1886; The Wood- 
 landers, 1886-87; Wessex Tales, 1888; A Group of Noble Dames, 1891; Tess 
 of the D'JJrbervittes and The Well-Beloved, 1892; Life's Little Ironies, 1894; 
 Jude the Obscure, 1896 (begun in Harper's, Nov., 1894, as Hearts Insurgent). 
 
 Biographical material concerning Mr. Hardy is scanty — what little is 
 public is contained in Annie Macdonell's Thomas flortiy (" Contemporary 
 Writers" series), Frederick Dolman's interview (in the Young Man, 
 March, 1894), and the usual books concerning contemporaries. 
 
 Mr. Hardy's works are published in uniform series by Harper and Bros. 
 (68., $1.50). There are numerous cheap editions of many of the novels; 
 the 6d. editions of Far from the Madding Crowd and Tess are noteworthy. 
 
 Lectueb. 
 Recent Tendencies of Fiction. The common tendency of recent liter- 
 atnre to find its material in all serious aspects of life: the novel of pur- 
 pose, the problem novel. Mr. Hardy's imirartance as a representative of 
 recent tendencies in fiction. 
 
 His Early Work Reviewed. The uncertainty of his method at the out- 
 set— X>esperate Remedies. His handling of the love story of a middle-class 
 
 life Pair of Blue Eyes, A Laodicean, Two on a Tower; source of the plot, 
 
 (23) 
 
24 
 
 woman's indecision; Hardy's feilure with characters of refinement and 
 intelligence; poverty of his early style. 
 
 The Wessex Tales. Mr. Hardy's real held is the rustic life of "Wes- 
 sex'': Under the Greenwood Tree, Farfrmn the Madding Crowd, Tlie Return 
 of the Native, The Mayor of Casterhridge, The Wbodlanders. The growth 
 of Mr. Hardy's art toward harmony of scene and character; his growing 
 recognition of the worth of peasant character and peasant life as material 
 of fiction; his effective realism in nature and country scenes; the doubtful 
 psychology of his foreground characters; the truth and interest of the 
 psychology of characters like Gabriel Oak, Giles Winterboume, Marty 
 South; the co- working of landscape and story; deepening seriousness of 
 Mr. Hardy's view of life — life's inconsistencies, ironies, accidents; his 
 pessimism and determinism. 
 
 The Problem Novel. The modern interest in the problem novel 
 explained from the influence of science and sociology and the need for 
 firesh and important material of fiction. Brief consideration from this 
 point of view of Tolstoi, Ibsen, Zola, Mrs. Humphry Ward. The Prob- 
 lem Novel defined : it modifies plot to illustrate disputed questions of 
 society as it is; its themes are marriage and divorce, religion and free 
 thought, individualism and socialism, sphere of woman, heredity, depop- 
 ulation, race. Teas considered; a tragic drama involving many ques- 
 tions — Providence and fate, nature and convention, real and conventional 
 purity, equality of man and woman in the social question. The superb 
 treatment of the story — a masterpiece. Jude the Obscure considered; it 
 represents in part the aims of the school of Zola; Zola's "experimental 
 novel"; comparison and contrast of L'Assomnwir und Jude. The mar- 
 riage question in Jude — the theme legitimate, the treatment inadequate 
 and ignoble. The limits of realism. 
 
 Estimate of Mf. Hardy^a Work. The key to Mr. Hardy's art lies in 
 situation rather than character; his special interest is in complicated and 
 extraordinary relations of men and women; his characters fail in genial, 
 wholesome life (cf. The Well-Beloved). Consideration of his estimate of 
 himself as " a chronicler of moods and deeds ' ' ; his handling of senti- 
 mental characters contrasted with Mr. Meredith's; his representation of 
 woman as the weaker vessel; the merit of his accessory characters of rural 
 life. His style considered— the earlier style uneven, at times bad. His 
 best work is in his narrative descriptions, which furnish a moving back- 
 ground of nature, full of poetic suggestion, upon which is woven the 
 action of his stories. Summary of the characteristics of fiction in the 
 Victorian era. 
 
 Illustrations. The lantern illustrations represent the scenes of Mr. 
 Hardy's life and works: Dorchester (Casterhridge), Weymouth (Bud- 
 mouth), Wool and neighbourhood (for scenes of Tess), etc., and portraits of 
 Mr. Hardy. 
 
25 
 
 Critical Studies. A bibliography of Thomas Hardy, by John Lane, is 
 contained in Johnson's Art of Thomas Hardy (see below). For criticism 
 see Thomas Hardy, by Annie Macdonell (New York: Dodd, Mead), and 
 The Art of Thomas Hardy, by Lionel Johnson (London: Matthews, and 
 New York: Dodd, Mead). The following are the most important crit- 
 ical articles: Thomas Hardy's Novels, Westminster Eemew, n. s., vol. Ixiii, 
 p. 334 (April, 1883) ; J. M. Barrie, Thomas Hardy, the Historian of Wessex, 
 Contemporary Bemew, vol. Ivi, p. 57 (July, 1889); Professor Minto, Tht 
 Work of Tlumias Hardy, Bookman (London), vol. i, p. 99 (December, 
 1891); J. N. Robinson, A Study of Mr. Thomas Hardy, Westminster Bemeiv, 
 vol. 137, p. 153 (February, 1892); D. F. Hannigan, The Latest Develop- 
 ment of English Fiction, Westminster Meview, vol. 138, p. 655 (December, 
 1882) ; Andrew Lang, Literature and the Drama, The New Beview, vol. vi, 
 p. 243 (February, 1892) ; H. "W. Preston, Thomas Hardy, Centwy, vol. 
 xxiv, p. 353 (July, 1893); E. Y. Tyrrell, on Judethe Ohscwre, Fortnightly 
 Bemew, vol. 65, p. 857 (June, 1896) ; articles on Thomas Hardy's country: 
 Bookman (London), vol. i, p. 26 (October, 1891); Temple Bar, vol. oviii, 
 p. 150 (Jlay, 1896) ; Nation, vol. 55, pp. 184, 200 (September 8, 15, 1892). 
 
 Student "Wobk. 
 
 The following are representative novels: **Far from the Madding 
 Crowd, The Beturn of the Native, The Woodlanders, **Tess of the D' Urher- 
 villes. The University Extension examination will confine questions on 
 Thomas Hardy to the books marked **. 
 
 Essays and Studies. The following will afford suggestions for readings, 
 discussions, and brief papers for the lecturer: (1) The sub-title of Under 
 the Greenwood Tree is "A Rural Painting of the Dutch School." Explain 
 and illustrate the suitability of this description. (2) What is there in 
 Under the Greenwood Tree that makes it fall short of a perfect idyll? 
 (3) Compare Far from the Madding Crowd with Adam Bede to illustrate 
 how Hardy's novel of country life differs from George Eliot's. (4) Point 
 out Mr. Hardy's weakness in characterization, construction, style, using 
 A Pair of Blue Eyes or A Laodicean in illustration. (5) Analyze the 
 characters of Far from the Madding Crowd and show the part each takes 
 in the action — (a) Bathsheba Everdene, (b) Francis Troy, (o) Gabriel 
 Oak, (d) Farmer Boldwood. (6) Show the character and value of the 
 rural background in Far from the Madding Crowd. (7) Suggest alter- 
 ations in plot and treatment that seem necessary in The Woodlanders. 
 (8) Compare Hardy and George Sand as vraiters of idylls. (Use Sand's 
 MareauDiable in illustration. ) (9) What does Problem Novel mean? 
 Is the Problem Novel a true form of art? (10) Illustrate the meaning 
 of Problem Novel from the works of Mrs. Humphry Ward. (11) Illus- 
 trate the meaning of Problem Drama from the works of Ibsen. 
 (12) Enumerate the problems implicit in Tess. (13) Analyze the char- 
 
26 
 
 acter of leas. (14) Analyze the character of Angel Clare (compare 
 Knight in A Pair of Blue Eyes). (15) Show the part played by Fate, 
 Chance, Accident in 'less. (16) Discuss the use of nature background in 
 Tess. (17) Is the thesis, " Tess, a Pure Woman," successfully maintained 
 by the author. (18) Compare the treatment of the marriage question in 
 Meredith's Lmd Ormont and his Aminta and in Hardy's Jude. (19) Crit- 
 icise the theory of fiction that results in such novels as Jude. (20) Draw 
 a map of Mr. Hardy's " Wessex '' and assign his stories to their respect- 
 ive localities. (21) Classify Mr. Hardy as a novelist according to his 
 
 method or methods. 
 
 Ceitical Comments. 
 
 "Among English novelists of to-day he is the only realist to be con- 
 sidered, so far as life in country parts is concerned." — J. M. Barrie, Con- 
 temporary Beview, vol. Ivii, p. 57. 
 
 " His novels are not written tor a purpose, to prove the truth of some- 
 thing, but with the prejudice that it is a proven truth. " — Lionel John- 
 son, The Art of Thomas Hardy. 
 
 ' ' In picturesqueuess, in humour, in characterization, above all in artistic 
 perfection of workmanship, the love story of Bathsheba Everdene [_Far 
 from the Madding Crowd'] was immensely superior[to"any thing ever accom- 
 plished by that lofty-minded moral essayist, who mistook her way into 
 story-telling [George Eliot].'' — Sir George Douglas, in The Boohman 
 (London), vol. xii, p. 12 (April, 1897). 
 
 ' ' The most obvious [limitation] is the absolute fixity with which every 
 character, even the most apparently sinuous, presents itself to Mr. Hardy. 
 There is no flexibility, no capacity for development. As the mania now, 
 so he always was, so he always will be. ' ' — Westminster Beview, vol. Ixiii, 
 p. 334 (Ap., 1883). 
 
 "Mr. Hardy is a pundit!in affairs of the heart. Beneath the skin of 
 the story-teller there is a psychologist. He studies Jeeling and conduct, 
 affections and passions, as a naturalist and with the. naturalist's delight 
 in what is sftange and abnormal, out of the way, or in the way, but not 
 generally observed. He always lias his anxious problem in man or 
 woman's conduct to solve, and he delights in solutions which are para- 
 doxical, but true to the fixed laws of human nature. He does not find 
 affairs of the heart the simple things they are to the ordinary mind. 
 Complicated and trying situations attract him, and romantically conven- 
 tional solutions are too easy to satisfy his intelligence." — Professor 
 Minto, in The Bookman, December, 1891, p. 100. 
 
 "Mr. Meredith'svigorous optimism and his suggestion of endless vistas 
 of social progress contrast curiously vnth Blr. Hardy's Jiarping on jhe age 
 of^ the earth,^ Druidicaljiijus, _aad JheJronj^t_a_cruel_ .natiiie^ — L. E. 
 Gates, in Chap-Book Essays, p. 84. 
 
VI. Robert Louis Stevenson. 
 
 " Those He approves that ply the trade, 
 That rock the child, that wed the maid, 
 That with weak virtues, weaker hands. 
 Sow gladness on the peopled lands. 
 And still with laughter, song, and shout 
 Spin the great wheel ol earth ahout." 
 
 —Robert Louis Stevenson, from Out Lady of the Snows. 
 
 BioOBAPHicAL Details. — Robert Lewis Balfotu Stevenson, son and 
 grandson of Scottish engineers, was born on the thirteenth of November, 
 1850, at 8, Hovrard Place, Edinburgh. His father was Thomas Steven- 
 son, engineer to the Board of Northern Lights; his mother, Margaret 
 Isabella, daughter of James Balfour, minister of the parish of Colinton, 
 in Mid-Lothian (see The Manse). In 1853, Stevenson's parents moved to 
 1, Inverleith Terrace, and in 1857 to 17, Heriot Row, their home till the 
 father's death in 1887. Their summer home was Swanston Cottage, in 
 the Pentland Hills. 
 
 Stevenson &om childhood had infirm health, and his attendance at 
 school and college was frequently interrupted by visits to health-resorts, 
 tours with his father, and trips to the Continent. He was a pupil in 
 various preparatory schools and entered the University of Edinburgh in 
 his seventeenth year. He had always a passion for story-telling, reading, 
 and writing. At the age of six he had dictated a history of Moses, at 
 nine an account of travels in Perth; while at school he edited a magazine 
 and vrrote a drama. Deacon Brodie ; and at the age of sixteen he published 
 in pamphlet form The Peniland Sising of 1666. At the university Ste- 
 venson was as neglectful of the curriculum as he was eager in his own 
 pursuits. He had. been intended for a civil engineer, but in 1871 he left 
 his father's oflSce and studied for the bar. His law studies were inter- 
 rupted by illness and a winter sojourn (1873-74) at the Riviera, but he 
 passed the final examination creditably and was called to the bar in 1875. 
 He never practiced law. During his studentship in law Stevenson began 
 to publish his essays {Roods in the Portfolio, 1873; Ordered South in Mac- 
 millan's, 1874). He took no pleasure in Edinburgh society, though he 
 had a large circle of intimate friends, including W. E. Henley, Sidney 
 Colvin, Professor Clifibrd, Andrew Lang, Edmund Gosse. In 1875 
 Stevenson made the first of several visits to Fontainebleauand its painter 
 settlements. The three years following were years of great productive- 
 ness. He contributed to various magazines most of the essays contained 
 in Virginihus Puerisque and Familiar Studies of Men and Books, also his 
 first short stories, among others Will o' the Mill. His canoe trip in Bel- 
 gium and France, in the spring of 1876, resulted in An Inland Voyage ; 
 and his walking trip in the autumn of that year, through the Cevennea 
 
 (27) 
 
28 
 
 Mountains, was described in Travels with a Donkey. The Inland Voyage, 
 his first book, came out in 1878. It was closely followed by The New 
 Arabian Nights, Picturesque Notes on Edinburgh, Travels with a Donkey in 
 the Cevennes. Various plays were planned in collaboration with Mr. Hen- 
 ley. In the suiamer of 1879 Stevenson met in France Mrs. Fanny Van de 
 Grift Osbourne and her daughter and son. He followed them to California 
 (see The Amateur Emigrant) and lived for eight months in Monterey and 
 San Francisco. In the spring of 1880 he married Mrs. Osbonme, who 
 had meantime obtained a divorce from her husband. With Mrs. Steven- 
 son's yonng son they went to live at a deserted mining station in the 
 Callfomia Coast Eange (see The Silverado Squatters). Stevenson and 
 his wife returned to Scotland in 1880. His life for the next seven 
 years was made up of journeys in search of health. He summered 
 for the most part in Scotland and wintered on the Continent, at Davos 
 and in the south of France. In 1881 he applied unsuccessfully for a 
 vacant professorship of History and Constitutional Law in the University 
 of Edinburgh. Stevenson's first popular success was Treasure Island, pub- 
 lished serially in Young Folks' Paper in 1882. Next came The Treasure of 
 Franchard, and Black Arrow succeeded Treasure Island in Young Folks.' 
 Then followed more essays, the romance of Prince Otto, the Child's Garden 
 of Verses, 1885, and the plays. Beau Austin and Admiral Guinea, in which 
 Henley collaborated. From 1885 to 1887 Stevenson lived at Bourne- 
 mouth, in "Skerryvore," the home presented him by his father. The 
 works of these years are More New Arabian Nights (with Mrs. Stevenson), 
 the play Bobert Macaire (vrith Mr. Henley), Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde 
 a popular success, and Kidnapped. On the death of Thomas Stevenson, 
 in May, 1887, Stevenson with his mother and his family sailed for New 
 York. They spent the winter at Saranac Lake, in the Adirondacks, 
 where Stevenson wrote Ticonderoga, twelve essays for Scribner's, began 
 The Master of Ballantrae, and finished, with Mr. Lloyd Osbourne, The 
 Wrong Box. In the spring of 1888 Mr. McClure, the American pub- 
 lisher, offered Stevenson ;^2,000 to cruise in the South Seas and write a 
 series of descriptive letters for his magazine. In June the family started 
 on a six months' cruise. They visited many islands and stayed six 
 months at Honolulu. A second cruise brought them to the Samoan 
 Islands, where Stevenson bought an estate, called "Vailima." They then 
 went on to Sydney. The personal familiarity thus acquired with life 
 among the Pacific Islands suggested many new tales to Stevenson: The 
 Wrecker, The Island Nights' Entertainment, and I%e Ebb-Tide (with Mr. 
 Lloyd Osbourne). In April, 1890, began the third cruise which ended in 
 September at "Vailima." Settled here Stevenson entangled himself 
 in the troublesome politics of the Samoan Islands {%ee Footnote to History, 
 1892). His home correspondence with Sidney Colvin is included in 
 
29 
 
 Vailima Letters. Catriona, the sequel to Kidnapped, was published in 
 1893, in which year Weir of Sermiston and St. Ives were planned and in 
 part written. Stevenson died suddenly December 4, 1894, and was 
 buried on the summit of Mount Vaea, overlooking his island home. 
 
 The authoritative life of Stevenson (Scribner's) is by Mr. Graham 
 Balfour. The best short account is Colvin'a article on Stevenson in the 
 Dictionary of National Biography. No introduction to Stevenson's life is 
 80 charming as that afforded by the biographical papers in his Memories 
 and Portraits, the poems of The Child's Garden of Verses and Underwoods, 
 and his Letters (edited by Sidney Colvin. New York: Scribner's). 
 
 The following are the noteworthy biographical books and essays: 
 Boiert Louis Stevenson, by L. Cope Cornford (Edinburgh: Blackwood; 
 New York: Dodd, Mead); Eobcri Louis Stevenson's Edinburgh Days, 
 by E. Blantyre Simpson (London : Hodder and Stoughton) ; Boiert Louis 
 Stevenson, by MargaretMoyes Black (Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson, and 
 Ferrier); The Home and Early Haunts of Bobert Louis Stevenson, by Marga- 
 ret Armour (Edinburgh: W. H. White and Co. ); Becollections of B. L. S., 
 Andrew Lang, in the North American Bemew, vol. clx, p. 185, February, 
 1895; Some Becollections of B. L. 8., by H. B. Baildon, in Temple Bar, 
 vol. civ, p. 325, March, 1895; Personal Memories of B. L. S. , by Edmund 
 Gosse, in the Century, vol. 1, p. 447, July, 1895; Mr. Stevenson's Home 
 Lifeat Vailima, by Lloyd Osboume, in ^ScriJner's, vol. xviii, p. 459,Ootober, 
 1895; Vailima Table-Talk, by Mrs. Isobel Strong, Scribner's, vol. xix, p. 
 531, p. 737, May, June, 1896; B. L. S., by Two of his Cousins, iatheEnglish 
 Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxi, p. 121, May, 1899; B. L. S., by H. B. 
 Baildon, in Englische Studien, vol. xxv, 2, p. 218 (also in 2he Living Age, 
 ser. 7, vol. iii, p. 671, June 10, 1899). 
 
 Stevenson's works are published in England by Chatto and Windus, 
 Cassells, and other firms; in the United States by Charles Scribner's Sons 
 (published price, about $1.25 per volume). There are various cheap re- 
 prints of all the earlier works. 
 
 Lkciure. 
 
 Youth and Formative Influences. Environment — born a Scot, ' ' the hap- 
 piest lot on earth;" reared in contact with city and country life — 
 Edinburgh, Colinton, among the Pentlands at Swanston Cottage ; and 
 
 the Scottish coasts. Heredity— Stevenson's inheritance of his father's 
 conversational powers and love of nature, and of the literary and preach- 
 ing bent of the Balfonrs through his mother. Other influences — his 
 nurse, Alison Cunningham, her romantic stories; Skelt's Juvenile Drama. 
 The record of Stevenson's imaginative childhood in The Child's Garden of 
 
 Verses. The romance and picturesqueness of Edinburgh; Sir Walter 
 
30 
 
 Scott. Stevenson's dislike of Edinburgh society and ol college studies in 
 the University; his talent for friendship, his predilection for freedom, 
 nature, adventure. 
 
 37(6 Essayist : Style. Stevenson's incessant practice in writing — ' ' I was 
 always busy on my private end, which was to learn to write. " His ceaseless 
 studies in style after Hazlitt, Lamb, Sir Thomas Browne, Defoe, Haw- 
 thorne, Montaigne. Characteristics of Stevenson's style, its ease, grace, 
 clearness; its pregnant epithets, clever allusions, and suggestive figures; 
 the poet' s vision of nature ; subtle wit and genial humour ; mastery of melo- 
 dious measures; mastery of spirited dialogue and spirited narrative. As 
 an essayist Stevenson reaches perfection in the personal conversational 
 style in the school of Addison and Charles Lamb. 
 
 The Essayist : View of Life. Stevenson's romantic temperament, — zest 
 for life, for lite in the world, for "crowded life," for illusions and enthu- 
 siasms — " to travel hopefdlly is a better thing than to arrive." The duty 
 of happiness, of out-of-door life, of seeing the world, the duty of courage. 
 Stevenson's spirit as revealed in the poems of Underwoods and his letters. 
 
 The Novelist. Versatility of Stevenson's powers in fiction: — novels of 
 incident — picturesque romance, historical and lyric romance, detective 
 story, story of intrigue, romance of the squalid picturesque; novels of 
 character — love story, novel of manners, character novel, problem novel. 
 Essentially a romantic novelist, Stevenson grew in power as a novelist 
 of character. Illustrations of his idea of romance, which he called "the 
 poetry of circumstance" (see Memories and Portraits). A study of his pic- 
 turesque romance in Treasure Island, of his squalid picturesque in Ebi- 
 Tide. His historical romance; Scott is Stevenson's master, but Scott 
 modified by Dumas; The Black Arrow as an illustration. The Puckish 
 element in Stevenson; the irony of New Arabian Nights. Stevenson's 
 management of incident perfect, yet his evolutionary power in the whole 
 story weak; illustrations from Kidnapped and The Master of Ballantrae. 
 His novels of character considered. Eich variety of characters created — 
 the pirates of Treasure Island, the members of the fated house of Ballantrae, 
 Alan Breck Stewart, the finest embodiment of the Jacobite Highlander 
 (compare Fergus Mclvor). Stevenson's women, — the simple romantic 
 type in Flora Gilchrist, Catriona; more complex, Mrs. Henry Durie, 
 Barbara Grant, more real, the elder Kirstie Elliott. 
 
 The characteristics of the great novel — balance of incident and char- 
 acter, narrative and dramatic dialogue. Stevenson's progress to perfection . 
 In Weir of Sermislon is a tragic oonfiict, dramatically portrayed, growing 
 out of conflict of character. Its promise of perfection ; its incompleteness. 
 Stevenson's death as he reaches the mastery of the novel. Sequiem. 
 
 Illustrations. The illustrations embrace the homes and scenes of 
 Stevenson's life in Edinburgh, Colinton, Swanston, the Fentlands, on the 
 
31 
 
 Continent, in Samoa; portraits of himBelf and his circle; views of places 
 entering into his workB. 
 
 Oritical Studies. In addition to the criticism in the biographical -works 
 mentioned above, the chief essays on Stevenson's work are : Sophia Kirk, 
 Atlantic Monthly, vol. Ls, p. 747, December, 1887 ; Henry James, Century, 
 vol. XXXV, p. 869, April, 1888 ; Joseph Jacobs, Athensmm, December 22, 
 1894 ; Saturday Seview, December 22, 1894 ; Quarterly Beview, vol. clxxx. 
 p. 324, April, 1895 ; Edinburgh Bemew, vol. 182, 1895 ; Marcel Schwob, 
 The New Beview, vol. xii, p. 153, February, 1895 ; M. G. van Eennselaer, 
 Century, vol. li, p. 123, November, 1895 ; Walter Ealeigh, Bobert Louis 
 Stevenson (London : Arnold) ; Lord Eosebery, Appreciations and Addresses 
 (London and New York : John Lane), J. A. McCnlloch, Westminster 
 Beview, vol. xlxix, p. 631, June, 1898 ; Henry James, North American 
 Beview, vol. clxx, p. 61; William Wallace, Scottish Beview, vol. xxxv, p. 13, 
 January, 1900 ; G. W. T. Ormond, North American Bedew, vol. clxxi, p. 
 348, September, 1900 ; James Oliphant, Victorian Novelists (London : 
 Blackie and Sons). 
 
 Student Woek. 
 
 The following are representative readings : Essays, Virginibus 
 Puerisgue ; Travels, ** Inland Voyage; Novels, ** Treamre Island, ** Dr. 
 JekyU and Mr. Hyde, The Master of Ballantrae, Kidnapped, Gatriona, 
 ** Weir of Sermiston ; Poems, Child's Garden of Verses ; Letters. 
 
 Students reading for University Extension examinations will find the 
 question confined to the books marked **. 
 
 Essays and Studies. The following themes are suggestions for study 
 and for papers for the lecturer: — (1) Show how far Stevenson's works 
 grew out of his environment and travels. (2) Stevenson called himself 
 "a fiddling hedonist." Discuss. (3) Compare Stevenson as an essayist 
 with Addison and Charles Lamb. (4) Compare Travels with a Donkey 
 vfith Sterne's Sentimental Journey. (5) Analyze Stevenson's style, setting 
 forth its special merits. (6) Eeport Stevenson's views of romance (see 
 Memories and Portraits). (7) Illustrate the application of his theory of 
 romance by reference to The Pavilion on the Links (in Merry Men). (8) 
 Compare Scott's Waverleg with Stevenson's Master of Ballantrae, with 
 respect to use of historical material, handling of plot, characteriza- 
 tion. (9) Establish the superiority of one of Stevenson's novels over the 
 others. (10) Is Prince Otto a failure or a success? (11) "Dr. JekyU 
 became a classic from the day it was published. It stands beside the 
 Pilgrim's Progress and QuUiver's Travels as one of the three great allego- 
 ries in English.'' — Joseph Jacobs. Discuss. (12) What other treatments 
 are there in literature of the problem of the dual nature of man, treated 
 in Dr. Jekyllt (13) Discuss Stevenson's plot-structure and his manage- 
 ment of episode. (14) Estimate Stevenson's influence on later novelists. 
 
32 
 
 (15) Compare the Child's Garden of Verses ytith Blake's Songs of Innocence 
 and Wordsworth's poems of childhood. (16) What are Stevenson's 
 claims to be considered a poet ? 
 
 Ceitical Comments. 
 
 " Tusitala," teller of tales— Samoan name of Stevenson. 
 
 " He was the laureate of the joy of life, of the lite here and now. He 
 courted Life like the gallant he was what time he himself was walking 
 hand in hand with Death. That joyous acceptance of life as it is, was the 
 predominant note in Stevenson, and was the chief artistic lesson he has 
 left to his age.'' — Joseph Jacobs, Aihenseum, December 22, 1894. 
 
 " The Child's Garden, commemorates . . . the picturing, personi- 
 fying, dramatizing, faculty of infancy, the view of life from the level of 
 the nursery-fender. The volume is a wonder, for the extraordinary vivid- 
 ness with which it reproduces early impressions; a child might have 
 writtenitif a child could see childhood from the outside. . . . It is 
 his own childhood he delights in, and not the personal presence of little 
 darlings." — Henry James, Century, vol. xxxv, p. 871. 
 
 " In the full tide of realism and of analysis Mr. Stevenson stands for 
 the romantic spirit, and has constituted himself the defender of bygone 
 faiths, the champion and reviver, by precept and practice, of the much 
 abused story for its own sake." — Sophia Kirk, Atlantic Monthly, vol. Ix, 
 p. 747. 
 
 " To read him is to be forever setting out on a fresh journey, along a 
 white beckoning road, on a blithe spring morning. Anything may hap- 
 pen or nothing; the air is full of the gaiety of possible chances." — Satur- 
 day Bemew, December 22, 1894. 
 
 " He founded or at least refounded the plein air school. The moment 
 was ripe and the man had come. The world was getting tired of analy- 
 sis and introspection."— Joseph Jacobs, Afhenmum, December 22, 1894. 
 
 " Before all things he is a writer with a style — a model with a com- 
 plexity of curious and picturesque garments. It is by the cut and color 
 of this rich and becoming frippery — I use the term endearingly as a 
 painter might — that he arrests the eye and solicits the brush. . . There 
 is something almost impertinent in the way as I have noticed in which 
 Mr. Stevenson achieves his best effects without the aid of the ladies." — 
 Henry James, Century, vol. xxxv. 
 
 " I have known no man in whom the poet's heart and imagination 
 were combined with such a brilliant strain of humour and such an 
 unsleeping alertness and adroitness of the critical intelligence. . . . 
 Belonging to the race of Scott and Dumas, of the romantic novelists and 
 creators, Stevenson belonged no less to that of Montaigne and the liter- 
 ary egoists." — Sidney Colvin, Preface to Vailima Letters, 1895.